Sk [- THE Cuy BOTANICAL GAZETTE EDITORS: JOHN MERLE COULTER anp CHARLES REID BARNES VOLUME XL JULY—DECEMBER, 1905 WITH SIXTEEN PLATES, ONE MAP, AND ONE HUNDRED AND TWO FIGURES CHICAGO, ILLINOIS PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 1905 Mo. Bot:Garoaen 12068 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Undescribed plants from Guatemala and other Cen- tral American republics. XXVII - = John Donnell Smith The development of root hairs. Contributions from the Hull Botanical Laboratory. LXXIV = plate I and six figures) - - Laetitia Morris Snow A contribution to the life history of A pocynum andro- saemtfolium (with plate IT) © Theodore C. Frye and Eleanor B. Blodgett Contributions from the Rocky Mountain Herbarium. VI - - ete ate, Ree | ve Aven Nelson SS in Pallavicinia. Contributions from e Hull Botanical Laborato ay. LXXV Pai h au IIT and IV) - - Andrew C. Moore Regeneration in plants. I. Contributions from the Hull Botanical meaen es LXXVI (with fourteen figures) - - William B. McCallum On proteolytic enzymes. II - - - Arthur L. Dean Contributions to the es of rhizobia. IV (with three figures) - — Albert Schneider Two conidia-bearing fungi (with dan VD oo A. F. Blakeslee The development of the a chromosomes in pollen mother-cells - - _ D. M. Mottier Relation of transpiration to growth in wheat. Con- tributions from the Hull Botanical Laboratory. LXXVII (with twenty-one figures) - - Burton E. Livingston Rusts on Compositae from Mexico - - -~ -~ J.C. Arthur A morphological study of Ulmus americana. Con- tributions from the Hull Botanical Laboratory. LXXVIII (with plates VII-IX) me Charles H. Shattuck Regeneration in plants. II. Contributions from the Hull Botanical Laboratory. LXXIX (with nine figures) - - - = . William B. McCallum A botanical survey of the Hwee River eT Til (with map and five figures) —- - Forrest B. H. Brown PAGE es 9 161 171 209 241 264 vi CONTENTS [VOLUME xL PAGE The ae coats of Selaginella. Contributions from = e Hull Botanical east LXXX pes me Xand XI) - Florence Lyon 285 Contributions to the biology of rhizobia. V_ - - Albert Schneider 206 Studies of pices in — — twenty-seven figures) - orge J. Peirce and Flora A. Randolph 321 The bogs and bog flora of the Huron River Valley (with sixteen figures) - - Edgar Nelson Transeau 351, 418 Life history of Hypocrea alutacea - - - George F. Atkinson 401 BRIEFER ARTICLES— : The Vienna Congress - - C. R. Barnes 68 Another seed-like characteristic of Slant - Florence Lyon 73 The vitality of seeds - - - - W.J. Beal 140 Some Mexican — of Cracca, Parosela, and Meibomia_~ - - J. N. Rose and Jos. H. Painter 143 A new Krynitzkia = - - - - - - J. M. Greenman 146 Precursory leaf serrations of Ulmus (with two figures) - - . ae ne . Frederick H. Billings 224 The effect of different soils on the ce ae . of the carnation rust - - - John L. Sheldon 225 The physiological constants of plants commonly used in American botanical laboratories. I - Sophia Eckerson 302 Further observations on the structure of the starch grain - - Henry Kraemer 305 Notes on North American willows. I with plates XII and XIII) - - Carleton R. Ball 376 Tolerance of drought by Neapolitan cliff flora (with three figures) - J.Y.-Bergen 449 A new genus of Ophioglossaceae (with one H. L. Lyon 455 CURRENT LITERATURE - .-. ~..-. (+... ~ dy 148 230, 323, 381, 459 For titles of books reviewed see index under | author’s name and Reviews. Papers noticed in ‘‘Notes for Students” are indexed under author’s name and subjects NEWS - - - - - - 80, 160, 240, 320, 399, 479 DATES OF PUBLICATION. No. 1, July 18; No. 2, August 16; No. 3, September 15; No. 4, October 18; No. 5, November 15; No. 6, December 20. VOLUME XI] ERRATA vii OOD te moh aR Ree EL te rad ERRATA. VoLUME XXXIX. 371, line 3 from below, for Nobbes’s read Nobbe’s. 381, line 13, for M/1o0o read m/100 384, line 12 from below, for Theophit read Théophile. 386, line 15, for amabole read ama 410, line 14, for MgGuigan read McGuigan. - 422, line r1, for eedlings read seedlings. . 425, line 18, for Allen read ALLEN. 425, line 8 from below, and P. 426, line 25 for GREGOIRE read GREGOIRE. 426, line 21, should read “There is no regularity in their number in relation to the chromatic segments which are formed later.” 426, lines 20 and 21 from below, and page 427, line 7, for fusion read fission. 427, line 7, from below, for zooglaea read zoogloea. 427, last line, for flagellae read flagella. VOLUME XL. 12, line 6 from below, for were read are. 23, line 13, for cup read cap. 35, line 13, for Wolf’s read Wolff’s. 40, line 3, for curve read curved. 43, Teference 7, to Untersuch add ungen. 44, reference 25, for JANCE read JANSE. 49, line 3 from below for jigs. 1, 2b. read figs. 1, 30. 53, line 17, for h, head read b, beard. 69, line 7, for of read on. 69, line 12, for PEAcK read PENcK. 70, line 9, for direction read directing. 70, line 14 from below, insert comma after algae. 70, line 9 from below, insert insert parenthesis after etc. 71, lines 7 and 19, for imperial read Imperial. 71, line 15, for Systematischen read systematischen. 71, line 20, for seed-control read Seed-control. 71, line 13 from below delete special. 71, line 10 from below, for Commission read commission. 72, line 3, for for read from 72, line 6, delete a before new. 72, line 2 from below, for Commission of read Commission on. 100, line 9 from below, for second in read on. — 103, line 6 from below, and p. ro4, line 1, y for axial read axile. 113, line 2, for on read in. 113, line 4, for infold read unfold. Vili ERRATA [VOLUME xL 113, line rr, delete sentence “Experiments, etc.”” Cf. line 2. 115, line 3, after with insert water. 128, line 3, for biruet read biuret. 152, line 21 from below, for Iosetes reads Isoetes. 156, line 13, insert the word geotropic before response. 157, line 22, for cell read wall. 180, line 7 from below, for former read latter. 236, line 24, after paper read on geotropism. 384, line 10, for Cystisus read Cytisus. 479, for R. C. read R. G. ee ee oe PAL THE No. i BOTANICAL GAZETTE July, I905 Editors: JOHN M. COULTER and CHARLES R. BARNES CONTENTS Undescribed Plants from Guatemala and Other Central American Republics John Donnell Smith The Development of Root Hairs Laetitia Morris Snow A Contribution to the Life History of Apocynum androsaemifolium Theodore C. Frye and Eleanor B. Blodgett _ Contributions from the Rocky Mountain Herbarium Aven Nelson Briefer Articles The Vienna Congress Cc. R. B. Another Seed-like Characteristic of Selaginella Florence Lyon Current Literature News The University of Chicago Press CHICAGO and NEW YORE William Wesley and Son, London slides ne Attachable to any Siecivic FOR SALE d A Collection of about 2,000 SCANDINi PLANTS. For further information all R. WESSEN, 226 Orleans Street, - CHICAGO) New Reflecting = Lantern Lectures on the Calculli For need rojecting on the -— oa in ‘ c natural colors Pe otos, engravings, sketches ae | a prints, flowers, specimens, y mneehaniaal Variations dels and cuts a books. Also shows lantern By OSKAR BOLZA, Ph.D. — zonal so carry a large stock of Lantern Slides to mtte,aitegarry _— Selene Subjects. Of the Department of "Chicago | ntern Slides on Geography University of Chi Lantern Slides on Geology tok Botany La nm SL on Na y. en Lantern Slides on Astronomy and be atomy. ‘ : ad a | son a on ! \merican Histo get $4.00, net, $4. 10, posta : preci perso a ngineering and Architecture, Lantern Slides on Mining. BS Lantern Slides illustrating many other subjects, e ° . f We rent slides at low rates. ites Sages lists, The University of Chicago fe naming particular subject of inter CHICAGO and 156 Fifth Avenue NEW ‘ WILLIAMS, BROWN & an ie : ge acturers of Stereopticons, Microscopes, etc., —_—_—_— t. 24 918 Chestnut St., Phila. | — Methods in Plant Histolog By CHARLES J. CHAMBERLAIN, A.M., PH.D., Instructor in Botany in the University ot Chie = A CONSTANT HELP to Teachers and Students of B CONTAINS DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PREPARING PLANT MATERIAL FOR MICROSCOPIC INVESTIGATION T is based upon a course in botanical micro-technique, and is the first complete man be published on this subject. It is the result of several sacar work big classes in d aa ; at the awa versity. It aims, therefore, to meet the requirements, not say of the s acu who has bes” ance of an instructor in a fully equipped laboratory, but also the ee who must work by 2¥ and with limite apparatus. Fre ee-hand sectioning, the paraffin method, the collodion ig i are gi or making aah preparations as are nee y who wish to S¢ plant kingdom from the alge he xt gp plants. Special attention is p d fic ng ryokinetic figures, because the tudent who masters this akties will find little di ‘ histological laboratory | ‘ie. PP., 8vo, illustrated, cloth, (ze) $1.50; postpaid $1.59 . | For sale by dealers or by the publishers | The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinc UMBER 1 r J VOLUME XL BOTANICAL (GAZETTE JULY, 1905 UNDESCRIBED PLANTS FROM GUATEMALA AND OTHER CENTRAL AMERICAN REPUBLICS. XXVII." JoHN DONNELL SMITH. Porceiia stenopetala Donn. Sm.—Folia maxima obovato-oblonga vel oblonga subcaudato-acuminata basi obtusiuscula vel rotundata supra glabra subtus pubescentia, nervis crebris parallelis subrectis. Pedunculi ex ligno vetere prorumpentes fasciculati vel approximati. Petala linearia multoties longiora quam latiora. Arbor, ramulis petiolis gemmis pedunculis floribus fusco-velutinis. Folia papyracea, juniora obovato-oblonga, provectiora oblonga 26-31°" longa 8-9°™ lata basi saepius rotundata, nervis lateralibus utrinque 15-17, petiolis vix 5™™ longis. Inflorescentia tantum in trunco (de Tuerckheim in schedula) vel in ramis crassis defoliatis obvia, pedunculis 8-15-subaggregatis 1.5-2°™ longis. Sepala deltoidea vix 3™™ longa patentia intus glabra. Petala imbricata aequalia utrinque pubescentia atropurpurea 6-6.5°™ longa 4-5™™ lata acuta. Stamina numerosis- sima cuneato-quadrata. 1™™ longa compressa. Torus hemisphericus. Ovaria 9-12 oblonga 3-4™™ longa inflata sericea, stigmate sessili aia ovulis biseriatis 8-12. Bacca ignota——Ad P. Nicaraguensem Benth. et Hook. staminibus ova- riisque arcte accedens inflorescentia petalisque longe aK Cubilquitz, Depart. Alta Verapaz, Guat., alt. 350™, Mart. 1904, von Tuerck- heim, n. 8496 ex PI. Guat. etc., quas ed. Donn. Sm. Ionidium Thiemei Donn. Sm.—Fruticosum nanum pubescens. Stipulae minutae. Folia alterna ovalia: apice rotunda in petiolum angustata crenulata. Pedunculi singuli foliis breviores uniflori. Petalum inferum sepalis subaequalibus integris altero tanto longius, ~ lamina suborbiculari. Caulis e rhizomate prostrato ascendens 3-6 altus Necaed parce ramosus -/ cum petiolis pedunculisque ferrugineo-pubescens. Folia approximata 23-27"™ oe 17-19™™ lata supra pilis conspersa subtus nervatione is petiolis 1 Continued from Bort. GAZ. 37: 423. 1904. T 2 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [yuLY circa 5" longis, stipulis lineari-lanceolatis 1-2™™ longis persistentibus. Pedun- culi capillacei 12-16™™ longi. Sepala ovato-lanceolata 3™™ longa pubescentia. Petalum inferum 6™™ longum basi gibbosum, lamina unguem oblongam aequante, ceteris oblongis nervosis. Antherae subsessiles in annulum connatae, membrana terminali semiorbiculari. Capsula glabra. San Pedro Sula, Depart. Santa Barbara, Honduras, alt. 4oo™, Jun. 1888, C. Thieme, n. 5628 ex Pl. Guat. etc., quas. ed. Donn. Sm. Rourea Hondurensis Donn. Sm. ($DALBERGIOIDEAE Planch. )— Folia 4-5-juga, foliolis discoloribus marginatis supra glabris subtus pubescentibus obovato- vel elliptico-oblongis apice rotundis vel sub- acuminatis basi rotundis vel acutiusculis, infimis orbiculari-ovalibus. Paniculae folia subaequantes breviter parceque ramosae, pedicellis brevissimis. Capsula castaneo-velutina bis longior quam crassior. Frutex scandens ut videtur, ramis petiolis paniculis ferrugineo-pubescentibus. Petiolus 2-3.5°™ longus, folii rhachi 6-8°™ longa, foliolis subcoriaceis aequilater- alibus ad costam et nervos laterales utrinque 6-9 subtus ferrugineis, terminali obovato-oblongo 4.5-7°" longo 2-3 “= lato brevissime acuminato basi acuto, lateralibus oppositis per paria deorsum decrescentibus 3.5-5°™ longis 1.5—2°™ latis utrinque rotundis vel basi subacutis, infimis 22™™ longis 17™™ latis. Pani- culae singulae aut binae 8-13°™ longae, ramis simplicibus 0.5-1.5°™ longis. Calyx fructiferus glaber partitus pedicellum subaequans, laciniis ovatis 3™™ longis. Capsula valde arcuata 1. 5°™ longa, semine optime ovali quam arillus bis longiore. Flores deficiunt. i ripas rivuli prope Puerto Sierra, Honduras, Jan. 1903, Percy Wilson (n. 240). Machaerium Verapazense Donn. Sm. ($ReticuLata Benth.) — Scandens inerme. Folia petiolo. subdimidio longiora, foliolis 5 rotundo-ovatis vel ovalibus utrinque obtusis supra glabrescentibus subtus puberulis. Racemi solitarii petiolos subaequantes, pedicellis pluri-fasciculatis quam flores parum brevioribus. Stamina mona- delpha. Ovula 2-4. ulis ramosus cum petiolis glabrescens, stipulis aristulato-lanceolatis — Caulis ra longis. “Folia petiolo 3-6°™ longo addito 8-15°™ longa, foliolis papyraceis dis- gi, pedicellis 3~12-nis 4-5™™ longis, floribus violaceis, ut videtur, 6-7™™ } M om™mm ale + + ali maximo 5-6.5°™ longo ~ -1.5°™ longo. Racemi axillares } } 1905] SMITH—PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA 3 culo-denticulatus. Petala subaequilonga unguibus ciliata, vexillo orbiculari extus cano-sericeo. Stamina omnia in vaginam totam fissam usque ad duas partes connata 5™™ longa, antheris versatilibus. Ovarium cano-sericeum clavato- lineare 5™™ longum in stipitem 1™™ longam disco brevi circumdatam attenuatum, dimidio inferiore 2-vel 3-vel plerumque 4-ovulato, dimidio superiore applanato vacuo, stylo decurvo 2™™ longo. Legumen ignotum.—Species ovulis anormalis. Cubilquitz, Depart. Alta Verapaz, Guat., alt. 350™, Jan. 1904, von Tuerck- heim, n. 8508 ex Pl. Guat. etc., quas ed. Donn. Sm. . be . = ; Pithecolobium macrandrium Donn. Sm. ($CHLOROLEUCON Benth.) -—Pinnae 10-17-jugae, foliolis 16-40-jugis. Pedunculi ad axillas ; singuli ad apicem ramulorum racemosi et fasciculati spicis elongatis densissimis parum longiores. Stamina corollam calyce quinquies _ longiorem 5—6-plo superantia usque ad medium connata. Arbuscula 5-metralis, ramulis angulatis uti rhachis foliorum et pedunculi _glabrescentibus fuscis, aculeis stipularibus binis rectis 4-10o™™ longis. Folia _petiolo 3-8°™ longo addito 16-46°™ longa, glandula inter pinnas scutelliformi inter foliola ‘stipitata, pinnis 5-12°™ longis, foliolis subsessilibus 9-18™™ longis praeter costam glabris subtus glaucis. Pedunculi 5-12 longi, spicarum thachi Corolla infundibuliformis 1°™ longa usque ad primam tertiam em lobata, lobis ovatis acutis. Stamina alba indefinita,.antheris eglandu- s. Ovarium sessile pubescens. Legumina (juvenilia tantum gram blonga leviter curvata plana.—Stamina magnitudine ea fere omnium aliaru ecierum superant Calliandram referentia. In silvis ad Cubilquitz, Depart. Alta Verapaz, Guat., alt. 350™, Jul. 1902, Vv. 1904, von Tuerckheim, nn. 8193, 8667 ex Pl. Guat. etc., quas ed. Donn. Sm. Miconia Hondurensis Donn. Sm. (§TamoNEA Naud.)—Fere abra. Folia opaca lucida lanceolato-elliptica contracto-acuminata i acuta integerrima triplinervia, venis transversalibus simplicibus . Calyx subsessilis obconico-oblongus — subintegro dila- tus. Stamina glabra. Ramuli ad apicem versus obtuse tetragoni cum gemmis petiolis peduriculis viter fusco-furfuraceis. Folia subcoriacea in sicco utrinque viridia apice ipso go 3.5-4.5°™ lato, venis schie conspicuis, venulis nips obsoletis subtus sse reticulatis, petiolis canaliculatis 1-1.5°™ longis. Thyrsus terminalis et ubterminalis paniculiformis pedunculo 2.5-4.5°™ longo adjecto folia subaequans axiflorus, pedicellis vix ullis minute bibracteolatis, floribus saepius ternis 5-meris. calyx viridis vix pulverulentus 3.5™™ longus to-costatus, limbo membranaceo € 4 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY undulato 0.5™™ lato. Petala siccitate simul flavicantia et rubescentia extus vix pulverulenta obovato-quadrata 4™™ longa retusa reflexa. Stamina disparia -g™™ longa, antheris filamenta paulo excedentibus falcatis, connectivo infra loculos haud producto basi antice biauriculato et ibidem rubiginoso-glanduloso. Ovarium pauciovulatum, stylo 8-10™™ longo, stigmate capitato. Bacca nondum visa.—M. aureae Naud. proxima. Prope Puerto Sierra, Honduras, Febr. 1993, Percy Wilson (n. 575). Miconia oinochrophylla Donn. Sm. ($SERIATIFLORAE Naud.)— Glabra. Folia lanceolata vellanceolato-elliptica superne subsensim acuminata basi acuta subtus vinicoloria et cretaceo-punctulata adjecto nervulo utroque submarginali 5-nervia margine denticulato setulifera. Thyrsi rami semel 2-3-fidi, floribus sessilibus. Ramuli obtuse tetragoni. ‘Folia in eodem jugo paulo inaequalia 6-25°™ longa medio 5-9 lata, setulis marginalibus rigidis, petiolis 2.5-6°™ longis. Thyrsus terminalis 8-10°™ altus, ramis primariis decussatis praeter infimos trifidos bifidis, secundariis divaricatis, fructiferis 1.5-2.5°™ longis sulcatis pur- purascentibus, bracteolis deltoideis 1™™ longis ciliolatis, floribus secundis 5-meris. Calyx teretiusculus 2.5™™ es ecostatus, ore Liners a Petala late oblonga 3™™ longa asymmetric Antherae lineares 2™™ longae filamenta | aequantes uniporosae. “Ovations apice tantum liberum 5-locu- lare, stylo crassiusculo 3™™ longo. Bacca nigra 4™™ diametiens. Prope Livingston, Depart. Livingston, Guat., Febr. 1905, von Tuerckheim, n. 8684 ex Pl. Guat. etc., quas ed. Donn. Sm HAMELIA PATENS Jacq.,var. coronata Donn. Sm.—Calycis segmenta patentia oblonga 4™™ longa tubum aequantia obtusa ciliata ceterum ~ glabra. Fructus segmentis calycinis paulo auctis persistentibus ~ coronatus. q Folia plerumque quaterna glabrescenfia axillis subtus barbata. Stipulae taceae. Cubilquitz, Depart. Alta Verapaz, Guat., alt. a Aug. 1903, von Tuerck- heim, n. 8532 ex P]. Guat. etc., quas ed. Doss. Sm Hoffmannia calycosa Donn. Sm.—Glabrescens. Folia inter minora lanceolato-elliptica deorsim sensim superne contractius acuminata. Cymae aggregatae petiolo breviores densiflorae, pedun- #* culis pedicellisque brevissimis. Calycis segmenta linearia tubo bis / et ultra longiora patentia. Corolla rotata, segmentis calycem sub- aequantibus. Suffrutex, ramis teretibus, novellis bifariam puberulis. Stipulae triangulares 4 contracto-acuminatae 1™™ longae. Folia nascentia nervis subtus puberula, : ee ee a Pe | TN gh PO tt, rm ee eee nae oT 1905] SMITH—PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA 5 provectiora glabra 9-15°™ longa 3.5-5.5°™ lata, nervis utrinsecus 6-8, petiolis glabrescentibus 8-15™™ longis. Cymae 6-ro™™ longae, pedunculis pedicellisque 1-2™™ Jongis crassiusculis pilosiusculis, floribus tetrameris. Calycis pilosiusculi tubus obpyramidatus 2™™ altus tetragonus, segmenta 4-5™™ longa acuta carinata, sinubus parce glanduligeris. Corollae glabrae segmenta lineari-lanceolata. Stamina ori corollae inserta, antheris subsessilibus segmenta corollina fere aequan- tibus. Ovarium biloculare, stigmatis lobis liberis vix o.5™™ longis. Bacca desideratur Cubilquite: Depart. Alta Verapaz, Guat., alt. 350™, Maj. rg01, von Tuerck- heim, n. 7912 ex Pl. Guat. etc., quas ed. Donn. Sm Hoffmannia lineolata Donn. Sm.—Rami crassi teretes glabres- centes. Folia maxima oblanceolato-elliptica acuminata in petiolum gracilem longe attenuata membranacea utrinque lineolata praeter nervos subtus ferrugineo- ee glabra. Cymae aggregatae petiolo 2-3-plo breviores ped les, pedicellis brevibus. ‘Corolla rotata. Sachin. sinubus corollinis inserta, antheris sessilibus. Frutex, ramis digitum crassis fistulosis. Stipulae deciduae. Folia opposita 24-30°" longa 6-12°™ lata discoloria cystolithis linearibus farcta subtus-passim nigro-punctulata, nervis lateralibus utrinsecus 14-17, petiolis 3-7°™ longis. Cymae 1.5-2.5°™ longae quandoque semel vel bis dichotomae cum floribus 4-meris ferrugineo-puberulae. Calyx 2™™ altus pedicellum subaequans, limbo sinuato-dentato. Corollae tubus cylindricus 2™™ longus, segmenta lineari- oblonga 4™™ longa acuta. Antherae 3™™ longae. Ovarium biloculare, styli antheras paulo superantis lobis connatis 1™™ longis. Fructus globularis rubro- punctatus, seminibus rubellis. Cubilquitz, Depart. Verapaz, Guat., alt. 350", Maj. 1902, von Tuerckheim, n. 8227 ex Pl. Guat. etc., quas ed. Donn. Sm Psychotria pleuropoda Donn. Sm. hae Benth.)—Praeter stipulas bracteas bracteolas ferrugineo-ciliolatas glaberrima. Folia lineari-lanceolata internodiis multoties longiora. Stipulae majus- ‘culae connatae bifidae, laciniis lineari-setaceis. Pedunculus axillaris gracillimus. Cyma pedunculi dimidium subaequans pyramidalis, ramis ramulisque quaternis, floribus confertis. Corollae lobi tubo subaequilongi. Suffrutex metralis dichotomo-ramosus, internodiis 1-3°™ longis. Folia 12-18°™ longa 2-2.5°™ lata utrinque deorsum autem sia attenuata, venulis subobsoletis, petiolis 5-ro™™ longis. Stipulae detec ue in vaginam plus minus connatae 10-13™™ longae, parte inferiore es herbacea laciniis fuscis parum longiore. Pedunculi ex axillis perpaucis orti 7-8°™ longi, fructiferi reflexi. Cymae rami complanati, infimi 1.5°™ longi, pedicellis o.5—1.5™™ 6 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY longis, bracteis bracteolisque minutis, floribus 5-meris glabris. Calyx bracteo- latus campanulatus ultra ovarium productus 2™™ altus, lobis ovatis o.5™™ longis. Corollae tubus cylindricus rectus 3™™ longus, lobis oblongis 2.5-3™™ longis reflexis apice cucullatis. Stamina annulo cano-pubescenti 1™™ infra orem corollae inserta, antheris subsessilibus 1.5™™ longis. Stylus 5™™ longus. Fruc- tus ovalis 5-6™™ longus, pyrenis 4-carinatis facie ventrali haud sulcatis. Cubilquitz, Depart. Alta Verapaz, Guat., alt. 350™, Aug. 1903, von Tuerck- heim, n. 8529 ex Pl. Guat. etc., quas ed. Donn. Sm. Otopappus syncephalus Donn. Sm.— Folia perelongate oblongo- ovata acuminata basi subtruncata vel rotundata subtus setulosa. Paniculae pleistocephalae, capitulis discoideis inter minora 3-6- aggregatis sessilibus. _ Rami validi cum petiolis paniculis capitulis leviter puberulis. Folia crassa subintegra 12-17°™ longa 4.5-6°™ lata supra scabrida subtus setulis scabriuscula, petiolis 1.5-2°™ longis. Paniculae foliis breviores, capitulis 5-6™™ altis et diametientibus 15-20-floris, involucri 3™™ alti bracteis 4-seriatis ovalibus obtusis scariosis, paleis oblongis acuminatis exappendiculatis parce puberulis, corollae 3™™ longae limbo semifido tubum bis superante, acheniis unialatis, pappo paleaceo. —O. robusto Hemsl. proximus. Cubilquitz, Depart. Alta Verapaz, Guat., alt. 350™, Apr. 1904, von Tuerck- heim, n. 8694 ex Pl. Guat. etc., quas ed. Donn. Sm. Echites Cobanensis Donn. Sm.— Folia Lidehl ianaeslate basi rotundata vel retusa subtus incano-tomentosa, nervis lateralibus crebris. Pedicelli graciles, bracteis minutis. Corolla calyce multoties longior, faucibus tubo bis brevioribus paulo latioribus. Antherarum appendiculae obtusae adnatae. Discus lobatus. Folia oe supra uti caulis et racemi fusco-puberula 8-ro°™ longa 1.5°™ lata su acuteque angustata, nervis lateralibus utrinsecus 18-22, petiolis 6-gmm longis. Racemi o-10™ Ane, pesicnie 1.5°™ longis, bracteis subulatis 2™™ longis. Calycis intus b i segmenta ovata 3™™ longa. Corolla 2°™ longa, tubo 16mm longo, faucibus leviter ampliatis. Coban, Depart. Alta Verapaz, Guat., alt. 1400", Aug. 1904, von Tuerck- heim, n. 8709 ex Pl. Guat. etc., quas ed. Deans Sm Echites Rosana Donn. Sm.—Glabra. Folia subsessilia lanceolata cordata subtus albicantia et fusco-reticulata, nervulis basalibus utroque latere binis. Racemi foliis longiores, pedicellis gracilibus bracteas calycemque subaequantibus. Corolla hypocraterimorpha, tubo laciniis calycinis bis fere longiore medio staminifero. Anther- arum appendiculae obtusae adnatae. Disci squamae distinctae. 1905] SMITH—PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA 7 Folia 7-12 longa 1.5-3°™ lata superne sensim acuteque attenuata vel sursum nervulis basalibus brevissimis, petiolis 3-4™™ longis. Racemi 12-16 longi, pedicellis g-11™™ longis, bracteis lineari-lanceolatis. Calyx intus basi glandulosus, laciniis lineari-lanceolatis 7™™ longis. Corolla 2°™ longa, tubo subaequaliter cylindric Buena Vista, woe Santa Rosa, Guat., alt. rooo™, Apr. 1893, Heyde et Lux, n. 4540 ex Pl. Guat., etc., quas ed. Donn. Sm Rhabdadenia macrantha Donn. Sm.—Glaberrima. Folia cori- acea oblonga apice rotunda et cuspidata basi acuta. Pedunculus gracilis biflorus. Calyx pedicello paulo brevior, segmentis oblongis apiculatis. Corolla amplissima, tubo calycem sesquiaequante fauci- bus bis breviore. Antherae acutae dorso superne barbatae. Disci squamae semiconnatae rotundatae. Volubilis ut videtur, internodiis 2-5°™ longis. Folia juniora glaucescentia aetate provectiore nitida 7-9.5°™ longa 3-3.5°™ lata abrupte minuteque cus- pidata, nervis supra impressis subtus tenuibus subarcuatis, venis minute reti- culatis, petiolis 1.5-2°™ longis. Pedunculus ex axilla suprema ortus 3-4.5°™ longus, pedicellis binis ro-14™™ longis, bracteolis minutis triangularibus, floribus glabris. Calycis segmenta eglandulosa 9-10™™ longa 3.5™™ lata obtusa nervata reticulata. Corolla in herbario aurantiacea, tubo cylindrico 18™™ longo ad apicem plaga staminifera cano-hirsuto in fauces 3.5°™ longas sensim ampliata, lobis dolabriformibus 2°™ Jongis. Antherae lanceolato-linearis “s longae, stigmatibus apice penicillatis, membrana reflexa 1.5™™ longa. Folliculi ignoti. —R. biflorae Muell. Arg. affinis Ad ripas rivuli prope Puerto Sierra, Honduras, Jan. 1903, Percy Wilson (n. 244). 5 Marsdenia laxiflora Donn. Sm.—-Glaberrima. Folia subcoriacea nitida lanceolata vel lanceolato-oblonga sensim vel abruptius acumi- nata ad basin obtusam supra pluriglandulosa. Inflorescentia uni- axillaris folia. subaequans laxe cymosa, pedunculo ramis pedicellis filiformibus. Corolla subrotata. Coronae squamae gynostegium aequantes. Suffruticosa volubilis ramosa. Folia 7-12°™ longa 1.5-3.5°™ lata, nervis lateralibus utrinsecus 7-9, petiolis s-1o™™ longis. Cymae flexuosae pauciflorae,. pedunculis 4-6™ longis, ramis 2-4°™ longis, pedicellis 2-4-nis basi minute pluri- __. bracteolatis 1-2°™ longis, floribus totis praeter calycis corollaeque margines ciliolatos glabris. Calyx prope sinus uniglandularis, segmentis ovatis obtusis - 2™™ longis. Corollae tubus 2™™ longus, segmenta leviter obtegentia oblonga > 8 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY 7™m longa obtusa.. Coronae squamae planae membranaceae sejunctae oblongo- ellipticae obtusae ad quartam partem liberae 3™™ longae basi auriculatae. Pollinia erecta ovoidea. Discus stylinus pulvinatus. Folliculi ignoti—Inflores- centia laxissima hanc speciem bene significat. Ad Rio Dolores, Cubilquitz, Depart. Alta Verapaz, Guat., alt. 350™, Aug. 1903, von Tuerckheim, n. 8558" ex Pl. Guat. etc., quas ed. Donn. Sm. . Ipomoea Tuerckheimii (Vatke ined.) Donn. Sm. (§STROPH- 1PoMOEA, Integrifoliae, Hastatae. Peter in Engl. et Prantl Nat. Pflanzenfam. IV. 3° 30.)—Folia longe acuminato-cordiformia, lobis basalibus brevibus rotundatis, sinu acuto, margine subintegro vel sinuato-dentato. Pedunculicymoso-pluriflori. Sepala aequalia dorso tuberculata. Corolla parva, limbo caeruleo. Caulis cum petiolis et foliis novellis pubescens. Folia aetate provectiore praeter marginem glabrescentia 6-8°™ longa 3 .5-4.5°™ lata mucrunculo apiculata usque ad quintam partem bilobata, petiolis 3.5-6°™ longis. Pedunculi 2.5-3°™ longi 2-7-flori. Sepala oblongo-ovata 4.5™™ longa glabra, costa extus tuberculis rubris prominente. Corollae circa 2°™ longae limbus fide cl. repertoris in vivo caeruleus. Capsula ovoidea rem longa breviter cuspidata bilocularis quadri- valvis, seminibus 4 vix pube Coban, Depart. Alta se Guat., alt. 14007, Nov. 1886, von Tuerck- heim, n. 386 ex Pl. Guat. etc., quas ed. Donn. Sm.—Cl. Hallier in Durand et Pitt. Prim. Fl. Cost. Fasc. III. 203 exemplum Tuerckheimianum sub nomine I. Tweediei Hook. incaute ut videtur citavit. Brachistus physocalycius Donn. Sm.—Folia dimorpha, altero lanceolato-oblongo alterum ovale multoties superante. Flores gemini. Calyx subinteger, fructifer valde auctus. Corolla infundibularis quarta parte lobata. Filamenta filiformia antheris longiora. Bacca calyce tota inclusa. Fruticosus. Folia disticha membranacea supra glabra subtus cum ramis petiolisque pubescentia, majore 16-22°" longo 5-6.5°™ lato inaequilaterali sursum subsensim longeque acuminato basi inaequali plus minus acuto, petiolo 0.5-1.5°™ longo, folio minore 1.5-6°™ longo 1-3.5°™ lato utrinque obtusiusculo, petiolo vix ullo. Pedunculi cernui 4-6™™ Jongi. Flores toti glabri 12™™ longi. Calyx campanulatus sub anthesi 3™™ altus mucrunculo denticulatus. Corolla alba e basi paullatim ampliata, lobis ovatis erectis. Stamina 2™™ supra basin corollae affixa, filamentis 3"™ longis basi haud dilatatis, antheris oblongis 2™™ longis. Stylus 9™™ longus. Bacca globosa 7™™ diametiens, seminibus com- planatis suborbicularibus 2™™ diametientibus in utroque loculo circiter 16.— B. oblongijolio Miers proximus differt insigniter calyce augescente Athenaeam simulante ‘ 1905] SMITH-—PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA 9 In ‘silvis udis umbrosis ad Cubilquitz, Depart. Alta Verapaz, Guat., alt. 350™, Oct. 1903, von Tuerckheim, n. 8553 ex Pl. Guat. etc., quas ed. Donn. Sm. Columnea calotricha Donn, Sm. (§STYGNANTHE Benth. et Hook.) —Undique pilosa. Folia leviter disparia oblongo-elliptica utrinque acuta subintegra. Pedunculi petiolis breviores. Calycis segmenta sejuncta spathulato-oblonga. Corolla subclavato-tubulosa calyce 3-plo longior. Disci glandula unica. Fruticulus saprogenus e basi repente ascendens in exemplis suppetentibus 5-16 altus simplex caule petiolis foliis nascentibus floribus crinito-hirsutus, pilis articulatis rubro-tinctis. Folia subtus vinicoloria utrinque pilosa margine ciliata 5-8.5°™ longa 2-3°™ lata, petiolis 11-14™™ longis, internodiis 5-15™™ longis. Flores solitarii 40-42™™ longi, pedunculis 6-8™™ longis. Calycis segmenta subaequalia 13-15™™ longa obtusa. Corolla rubiginosa recta e basi gibbosa paullatim leviterque ampliata faucibus haud constricta ore subobliqua, lobis 4™™ longis inaequilatis. Bacca rubra ovalis 16™™ longa.—C. moestae Poepp. et Endl. proxima differt autem inter alias notas glandula disci solitaria. Cubilquitz, Depart. Alta Verapaz, Guat., alt. 350™, Jul. 1903, vom Tuerck- heim, n. 8542 ex Pl. Guat. etc., quas ed. Donn. Sm Adenocalymna macrocarpum Donn. Sm. ({HANBURYOPHYTON Bur. et K. Sch.)—Glabrum. Folia conjugata, cirrho simplice vel plerumque deficiente, foliolis ellipticis vel oblongo-ellipticis apice subabrupte acuminatis basi acutis penninerviis subtus glandulari- punctulatis. Thyrsi densiflori, rhachide pedunculum altero tanto excedente. Corolla anguste infundibularis. Stamina medium cor- ollae vix attingentia. Capsula linearis perelongata, seminibus latissime alatis, nucleo tenui. Frutex scandens, caule verrucoso ceterum glabro. Foliola 7-11°™ longa ue 5°™ lata coriacea supra sicco saturate viridia subtus pallidiora pallidius ata basi complicata, nervis lateralibus utrinque circiter 5, petiolis 12-16™™ ‘angie petiolulis 8-12™™ longis utrinque incrassatis supra canaliculatis. Thyrsi axillares et terminales bracteis foliaceis 1.5-2°™ longis suffulti glabri, pedunculo- 3-4 longo, rhachide 6-8°™ longa, ramis primariis oppositis 1.5-2°™ longis erecto-patentibus dichasia gerentibus, bracteolis linearibus minutis, pedicellis o.5-1°™ longis. Calyx eglandulosus pulverulentus campanulatus 6™™ altus mucrunculis denticulatus. Corolla flava pulverulenta 6-6.5°™ longa e tubo basilari cylindrico 7-8™™ longo subsensim ampliata ad 6™™ supra basin stamini- gera et ibidem pubescens, lobis inaequalibus 1-1.5°™ longis. Stamina majora 21™™ longa, minora 16™™ longa, staminodio 5™™ longo, antheris divaricatis am linearibus 3™™ longis. Discus pulvinatus 2™™ altus 3™™ latus. Ovari lineare teres 6™™ longum puberulum, stylo 2.5°™ longo, stigmatis lobis iano s 1 Ke) BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY 3™™ longis. Capsula generis adhuc longissima 29-52°™ longa 1.5°™ lata valde compressa eglandularis apice attenuata basi obtusa, valvis crasse coriaceis planis, nervo mediano percursis seminibus biseriatis pro loculo 20-25 alis hyalinis adjectis 4.5-5.5°™ latis 1.5°™ altis, nucleo 1™ diantetiente valde compresso. Tecoluca, Depart. San Vincente, El Salvador, alt. 7o™, Jan. 1893, Shannon, n. 5055 ex Pl. Guat. etc., quas ed. Donn. Sm.—Cubilquitz, Depart. Alta Verapaz, Guat., alt. 350™, ann. 1990, von Tuerckheim, n. 7759 ex Pl. Guat. etc., quas ed. nn. Sm.—Eandem plantam in ditionibus Mexicanis collegit Pringle (n. 3898).— Haec exempla omnia sub Cydista aequinoctiali Miers, var. (Bignonia sarmentosa Bertol.), olim distributa sunt. Cornutia cymosa Donn. Sm.—Ramuliteretes. Folia ampla ovalia vel suborbicularia utrinque rotundata. Cyma dichotoma corymbi- formis ‘latissima. Drupa generis adhuc maxima depresso-globosa, putamine osseo profunde exsculptato lacuna basali bifido. Arbor, coma rotunda (Tonduz in schedula), ramulis petiolis cymae axibus pubescentibus vel glabrescentibus, gemmis ferrugineo-pilosis. Folia 14-27°™ longa 13-20°™ lata utrinque minute strigillosa siccitate bullata, costa nervisque validis, his utrinsecus 7-10 patulis sub margine junctis, venis transversis parallelis, venulis minute reticulatis, petiolis 2.5-4°™ longis. Pedunculus 3-10°™ longus, cyma sexies-decies dichotoma r1o-14%™ alta 16-23° lata laxe floribunda, axibus robustis subangulatis, pedicellis 2-5™™ longis. Calyx fructifer pubescens planiusculus 6-7™™ latus, lobis ovatis. Drupa transversim leviter compressa 8-12™™ longa 10-15™™ lata, putamine sulcato et foveato a basi usque ad medium versus excavato abortu biloculari, seminibus lineari-oblongis. Flores ignoti. In pascuis ad La Palma, Prov. San José, Costa Rica, alt. 1460™, Sept. 1898, Tonduz, n. 7383 ex Pl. Guat. etc., quas ed. Donn. Sm. (n. 12555 herb. nat. Cost.). Trophis macrostachya Donn. Sm.—Folia maxima _ oblongo- elliptica longe tenuiterque caudato-acuminata basi rotunda vel acuta supra medium repando-denticulata vel subintegra. Spicae mas- culinae dichotomae, femininae longissimae, perianthio fructifero sessili vel breviter pedicellato. Arbor, ramulis novellis cum petiolis stipulis spicis pubescentibus. Folia coriacea supra glabra subtus nervis venisque pubescentia 15-22°™ longa 6-9°™ lata, acumine caudiformi 2-3°™ longo, nervis lateralibus utrinsecus 12-14 juxta marginem junctis, petiolis 1-2°™ longis, stipulis ovato-lanceolatis convolutis 5-6™™ longis. Spicae masculinae bis furcatae continuatim densiflorae 5. longae, perianthii segmentis imbricatis 2™™ longis bracteolas et stamina aequan bus. Spicae femininae plerumque binae, floriferae 4-6°™ longae, srilictes 10-13 longae, bracteolis rotundis o.5™™ longis ciliatis, perianthiis floriferis compactis, fructiferis laevibus pubescentibus ovalibus vel ovoideis 8-10™™ longis, pedicellis interdum 1-3™™ longis raro ramosis, fructu apice ipso tantum libero, \ semine 6™™ longo. ; Fae 4 1% ‘ 1905] SMITH—PLANTS FROM CENTRAL AMERICA II In pascuis ad Las Vueltas, C. R., Nov. 1898, Tonduz, n. 81 24 ex Pl. Guat. etc., quas ed. Donn. Sm. (n. 12802 herb. nat. Cost.).—In silvis ad Palmar, Costa Rica, Mart. 1892, Tonduz (n. 6751).—Tufs prope Turrialba, Prov. Cartago, Costa Rica, alt. 620™, Jul. 1897, Pittier (n. 11266).—In silvis ad Tuis, Prov. Cartago, C.R., alt. 650™, Oct. 1897, Tonduz (n. 11357). Sahagunia urophyila Donn. Sm.—Praeter perianthium glabra. Folia integra oblongo-elliptica vel late ovalia caudato-acuminata basi acutiuscula vel rotunda, nervis lateralibus utrinsecus 6-8. Pedunculi feminini solitarii aut gemini. Perianthium fructui pendulo infra apicem adnatum, pericarpio cartilagineo. Folia subcoriacea supra saltem in sicco obscura subtus viridia, nune 1 -30 longa in medio 5.5-8.5°™ lata basi subacuta, nunc 6-8°™ longa 4-5°™ lata basi rotunda, nervis venisque utrinque praesertim subtus manifestis, venulis grosse reticulatis, petiolis 1-1.5°™ longis, stipulis lanceolatis 2-3™™ longis caducis. Pedunculi feminini 3-4™™ longi, fructibus 2-4 capitatis, additis floribus nascenti- bus nonnullis. Perianthium crasso-carnosum fusco-velutinum ovale 12™™ longum collo subintegro apiculatum, fructu subgloboso 6-7™™ diametiente, stylo 3™™ longo, semine infra apicem affixo rufescente scrobiculoso. Flores utriusque sexus deficiunt.—Haec species generis tertia adhuc edita ab S. Mexicana Liebm. glabritie et foliis pro rata latioribus caudatis paucinerviis, ab S. strepitante Fr, Allem. foliis integris pedunculis saepe binis fructibus minoribus inter alia differt. In silvis prope Puerto Sierra, Honduras, Jan. 1903, Percy Wilson (n. 54). s vs Coussapoa oligocephala Donn. Sm.—Folia oblongo- vel subovato- fs elliptica apice obtusiuscula et apiculata basi rotundata et emarginata \discoloria supra glabra subtus arachnoidea. Cyma. brevissime bis -erve dichotoma, capitulis paucis subglabris. Stamen perianthio lobulato bis longius, anthera quadriloculari. Frutex epiphyticus (fide oculatissimi repertoris supra Achras Sapota L. re vera parasiticus), ramulis novellis stipulis petiolis pedunculis cum cyma pilosis. Folia 10-16 longa 4-7 lata, nervis lateralibus utrinsecus 9-11 rectis in margine ipso terminatis, imis e basi extrorsum ramosis, petiolis r.5-2.5°™ longis. Pedun- culi masculini solitarii vel gemini 2-2 .5°™ longi, capitulis 3-5 circa 4™™ diameti- entibus, bracteolis tenuissime spatulatis. Perianthium turbinatum vix 1™™ \_ longum, lobulis brevibus rotundis incrassatis uti bracteolarum apex ad lentem puberulo-punctulatis. Capitula feminina non vidi. Cubilquitz, Depart. Alta Verapaz, Guat., alt. 350™, Apr. 1904, von Tuerck- heim, n. 8659 ex Pl. Guat. etc., quas ed. Donn. Sm. aes BALTIMORE. THE DEVELOPMENT OF ROOT HAIRS. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE HULL BOTANICAL LABORATORY LXXIV LAETITIA MoRRIS SNow. (WITH PLATE I AND SIX FIGURES) INTRODUCTION. EXPERIMENTATION upon the effect of external agents on th development of root hairs is complicated by the fact that whe’ external conditions are varied the internal factors are disturbed b an unknown amount. The varying of only one condition, whi is the essential feature in accurate research, was thus extremel difficult, if not impossible. Therefore, the results to be set forth here are understood to be tentative. The last experimental worl upon the immediate subject is that of ScHwarz (75), to which the reader is referred for most of the earlier literature. Apart from thre or four papers, the references to the causes for the development 0 root hairs are found incorporated, here and ioe in reports on root gestions as to the causes for the production of root hairs, variation: ns in their structure not being considered. LIGHT AND DARKNESS. In view of the fact that in darkness there is generally an inc! in the length of the axial organs and of their component cells p- 64; 37, p- 254), and because authors differ as to the effect of - and darkness upon the development of root hairs, it — to reinvestigate the matter. ScHWARz (75, p. 163) reports no é Went’s (85, p. 8) experiments were not very convincing one or another; DEvaux (10, p. 306) finds that light retards and favors the development of root hairs; PETHYBRIDGE p- 235) reports that light retards the production of hairs u roots of oats and wheat growing in water cultures. The last « ment was repeated several times, but very little difference w I2 1905] SNOW—DEVELOPMENT OF ROOT HAIRS 13 between the jars, the roots showing individual peculiarities of growth under both conditions. In one experiment the general growth in length seemed to be a little less in light, accompanied by a slight increase in the length and thickness of the hairs. In others no difference was noticed. No zonal arrangement was observed, as was mentioned by Devaux (11). According to MAcDouGAL (47, p- 246) the development of hair upon aerial organs in response to light conditions varies greatly, some plants having a tendency to decreased hair production in darkness, and others showing no change.* A. Seedlings. Preliminary experiments showed that the primary roots of seed- lings of Triticum vulgare, Zea Mais, Pisum sativum, Cucurbita Pepo, Vicia sativa, Helianthus annuus, Brassica alba, and Raphanus sativus produced hairs, for a longer or shorter zone, in air or water ‘regardless of the light conditions. This is attributed by ScHWwaRz (75, p. 162) to the abundant food supply, seedlings being in a measure independent of external conditions for their existence. Seeds of wheat, corn, pea, and squash were sprouted upon moist filter paper under illuminated and darkened bell-jars. On plants of the same age the hair zones were measured. No decided difference was found, though the hair zones averaged somewhat longer in dark- ness. The influence of the light was not strong and was probably indirect, through its effect upon growth. An attempt was next made to compare the increase of surface per square millimeter under the two conditions. Seedlings of sun- flower, white mustard, and radish were attached to pine bars by means of filter paper and rubber bands, as described by NEWCOMBE (55, p- 150), and placed in glass jars, one set being illuminated and the other darkened. The measurements were taken in all cases, as nearly as possible in the zone of best average development, near the top of the root. The closeness of the hairs varied in different parts of the root, but the average of the numerous counts was probably not far from fair. The increase (in square millimeters) per square 1 In connection with the experiments here reported, the condition of the hairs on the epicotyl of etiolated and normal seedlings of Helianthus were compared. In the former case the cells were longer and the hairs were not only thus farther separated, but fewer cells produced hairs. 14 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY millimeter was calculated by multiplying the average length by the average width by the average number of hairs per square millimeter by 7. Scrutiny of the results in the sunflower shows that for equally long roots the increase of surface varies, but that there is a slight predominance in the average increase of plants in dark (14.8) over those in light (14.02), and that this is entirely due to the greater average number of hairs per square millimeter (395 as against 373). The individual measurements for white mustard and radish show a like fluctuation of increase, hut this time with a predominance in the average of light over darkness.? This is probably due to the fact that these are small seeds with little reserve food, and soon begin photosynthetic work in the light, while the plants in darkness have no such advantage. No evident difference in the length of hairs was observed in dark and light, as was noted by BENECKE (5, pp. 28, 29) for rhizoids of Lunularia. B. Older roots. Under ordinary conditions corn plants one or two weeks old, with roots growing through the bottom of the pots, did not produce hairs in water, whether illuminated or not. DEvaux (10), on the other hand, found that light favored hair development on the roots of corn two months old growing in water. These plants, however, had been subjected to the rather severe operation of having all the roots cut off to one centimeter from the base, after which they were plunged into water. Upon repeating the experiment it was found that the plants in a day or so became yellow and unhealthy. In light five apparently healthy adventitious roots developed, and produced several isolated patches of hair, usually at the same time on all the roots, generally covered with a film of bacteria. In the darkened jar only three apparently healthy roots and two diseased ones were developed. No hairs or bacteria films appeared, although the odor of the culture betrayed greater decomposition than in the illuminated jar. Too many factors are involved to make the experi- ment, in its present form at least, of much value. ? Thus, mustard showed average increase, dark 41.33, light 44.11; and the radish, dark 29.44, light 32.09. Here also number of hairs, 321 to 344 and 345 to 357, accounts for the increase. iA ata oy 2a OP eh 1 a ens a a 1905] SNOW—DEVELOPMENT OF ROOT HAIRS 15 WENT (85, p, 8) found in aerial roots that light was not favorable to hair production except in very damp air, which makes it appear that with aerial roots in general moisture is of much more importance for hair development than light (PFEFFER 64, p. 130).3 When seedlings of corn were allowed to send their roots through the bottom of the pots into moist chambers, one darkened and one left in diffuse daylight, little difference was observed between them, some roots in light producing more hairs and some less than those in darkness. There seemed a slight tendency for the hair to be thicker in light. Mer (51, p. 584) found variation in the appearance of hairs on the different roots in the same culture, and considers “cette inégalité d’apparition des poils dans un méme milieu est bien propre & montrer que leur développement est étroitement lié a la constitution particulitre de chaque radicelle.”” No zonation such as DEvAUX (11) reports was noted in these cultures. In some cases, wheat, corn, and sunflower produced hairs in irregular zones, which however could not be traced to the effect of light and darkness. Any one of the many causes which may result in irregular growth might have been responsible. Where there is any effect on the development of root hairs produced by light, it appears from the above consideration to be due to the indirect effect upon growth. It does not appear to have the direct retarding influence as found by V6cuHTING in the case of the growth of willows and the develop- ment of new organs (83, pp. 152-162). TEMPERATURE. The effete of high and low temperatures upon growth has been studied by many investigators (64, pt. 2), with the general result that increase of temperature favors growth on account of greater or more rapid absorption. KIRCHNER (29, pp. 353-355) reports growth increased by high temperatures; NEMEC (54a) found longer, thinner cells in warm water than in cold; Popovict (67, pp. 37, 88) states that high temperatures (33° C.) diminish the zone of elonga- tion, while low temperatures, just above the germination minimum, increase it, although the total growth is less. KosaROFF (328) 3 For numerous instances of hair ans on aerial roots touching a support, See the bibliography in WeENT’s paper. 16 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY and KRABBE (33, p. 474) found roots to absorb less water at low temperatures. VAN RYSSELBERGHE (70a) considers that merely the rate of absorption is affected by the impermeability of the proto- plasm. Devaux (11, p. 52) considers temperature to be of great importance in the production of root hairs, but has as yet merely ‘made that preliminary statement. ScHWARz (75, p. 158) reports that optimum temperatures (27-28° C.) do not overcome the inhib- itory effect of water, as the roots grow smooth. A comparison of the increase of surface in the cases of mustard and radish shows that temperature variations of small amount have no appreciable effect. The effect of greater changes was tested with seedlings of wheat and corn. These were placed in water at temperatures of 33-38° C. No hairs appeared on the parts in water, while the parts in air, as the height of the water varied a little, produced a few hairs. Wheat seedlings in warm water, in water at room temperature, and in cold water, grew in all three conditions, and gave the following results: Condition | Temperature | Duration | Result CNG cue 4:5-15.5° © ave 26" Dec. 8-18 | Haired to the tip, long and close (once 22.5) set ~ Medium..... 16.0-29.5° av. 23.7° ec. 8-21 | Hairs not so good, long bare spaces at ti Warn 5... «< 27-0-48.0° av. 34.5° | Dec. 8-14 | Only two lived, smooth Corn seedlings at temperatures of 29-37° (av. 33-4°) produced | no hairs; while control plants at 16-27° (ay. 22.9°) were haired at first, but later the root assumed its usual water type. This experi- — ment was repeated many times with various modifications, and gave the same results. That the smooth condition was due to the growth, rather than to the direct action of the heat upon the epidermal cells, was suggested — by the following experiment. Corn seedlings were fastened in tap _ water of temperature 18-20° C., which was kept flowing in.a very small stream from a rubber tube reaching the bottom of the jar. Under these conditions all the roots grew smooth and straight, omit- ting the seedling zone of hairs. Whether this was from the constant ee ad 2 bea ey * Fe ne ee pe act TEE Ss iain aaa a Hi dle al SS eee 1905] SNOW—DEVELOPMENT OF ROOT HAIRS 17 supply of oxygen or on account of rheotropic stimulation by the rising water currents was not evident (fig. ro).. The experiment was con- tinued by varying the temperatures in the cold jar from 4—26°, giving very short hairs on one healthy root and on portions infested .with bacteria. Once or twice a tuft of hairs was produced when seedlings were changed from cold to warm water, due possibly to retardation (ASKENASY 2, p. 70;. TRUE 80, p. 400), but more probably to the more rapid adjustment and stretching of the epidermal cells in the warm water than of the inner cells. KircH- NER (29, p. 353) found that 4° C. allowed of little or no growth of corn roots, while wheat elongated at o°C., which may partially account for the different hair conditions in the two plants in cold water. Wheat was planted in a pot of garden soil, and the roots allowed to come through the bottom and pass into warm water, of tempera- tures varying from 27-33° C. The roots were smooth at 33°, had scanty and irregular hairs at about 30°, and were more or less hairy at 27°. As this was tried repeatedly with the same result, it seems that for wheat, under these conditions, 30° C. is about the limit of hair production., During a period of high temperature in the room, Elodea roots growing in soil were observed to be straight and smooth instead | of kinky and hairy as is usual. When the temperature fell to the normal point, about 21° C., the roots assumed their usual aspect. In one case measured, the root growing in ground quartz at 27-34° C. elongated 4™™ in five days, and was curved and piliferous. The heat was not able under these conditions to suppress hair develop- ment. Another plant of Elodea growing in a glass cylinder had accumulated a little organic matter in the bottom of the vessel, not 1o.—Corn roots growing in flowing tap water. 18 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY enough to make a layer, and consequently not enough to offer any appreciable resistance to root growth. The roots growing along the bottom in this debris curled and developed hair in some places, but were smooth where they curved up into the water. CONTACT. Concerning the effect of contact upon the production of root hairs authors differ. ScHWARzZ (75, p. 160) offers no explanation for their production in the case of water roots of Nuphar or Elodea entering the substratum, but thinks they are not due to contact, chemical stimulation, or retardation of the growth of the root. On air roots of aroids and orchids dry contact produced no hairs, nor was he able to cause them on Elodea (presumably in water) by con- tact with glass beads or ground glass. In air roots he speaks (p. 120) of the suppression of hair by too close contact. Ewart (14, p. 237) makes the statement that “for the formation of root hairs on the root tendrils (of Vanila) moisture is essential, darkness and contact accelerating, and light and dryness retarding it.” PreFrER (64, p- 156) denies the effect of contact, attributing the hair development to greater moisture near the support. Went (85, p. 8) also thinks that not, contact but moisture and absence of light are the factors. . In the experiments here reported there was a production of hairs on the roots of Elodea not only when the root grew into the mud at the bottom of the aquarium, but also when ground quartz was sub- stituted for the mud, while in every case roots growing freely in the water produced no hairs. Several of these straight, smooth roots were allowed to grow into ground quartz, and the tips were found usually much bent and curved, and in all cases covered with hairs. Sections were made from roots in water, soil, and quartz, and the cells were measured. The averages were: E AV. LENGTH IN MM. OF CELLS MeEpIum Ce Ser ees He ee ees ConDITION Of epidermis Of cortex Wate i 6 8A; 0.104 0.160 Smooth APUME Es «oes anes 0.091 0.110 Hairy Oise a 0.068 ©. 100 Longer hairs 1905] SNOW—DEVELOPMENT OF ROOT HAIRS 19 There seems, therefore, to be a decided shortening of the cells in the substratum. As the mud at the bottom of the aquarium was of closer texture than the quartz, it probably offered greater resist- ance to the growth of the root. If the statement made by HaBeEr- LANDT (22, p. 188) concerning Elodea—‘‘denen die Wurzelhaare in Wasser vollkommen fehlen, wahrend sie beim Eindringen der Wurzeln in Erde sich reichlich einstellen”-—means that the resist- ance of the substratum is instrumental in bringing about the pro- duction of root hairs, these results agree. The possibility of the chemical stimulus of the soil has been mentioned. It does not seem probable that surface contact is a factor in the production of root hairs in soil, for when the earth is saturated the hairs on corn seedlings disappear, and those on wheat seedlings are decreased, although the soil particles are still there. This was stated by SCHWARZ (75, p. 160). In order to test the effect of con- tact with a smooth, solid body upon the epidermal cells of the root, corn seedlings were grown with their roots between glass plates, and in glass tubes open at the end. Where the roots filled the diam- eter of the tubes or the space between the plates, hairs were absent, both in air and water. On the sides not touching the plates hairs appeared nearly to the tip in air, and in the upper portions in water, as they do under ordinary conditions. Thus the contact on two sides of the root has no apparent effect on the hair production on the other two sides. Where the root did not fill the tube, hairs appeared in the usual zone in water and bent against the glass. RETARDATION OF GROWTH. It is of importance when speaking of the effect of growth upon the production of root hairs to indicate the effective stage. When the statement is made that slowing the growth of a root favors the production of root hairs (§1, 52, 11), the retardation may be due either to fewer cell-divisions or to less elongation of the cells. A. Rate of growth in air and water. According to MER (51, 52, 53, p- 1279), retardation of the growth of a root produces or increases hair development. Thus lentil roots (52, pp. 665-6), growing straight and smooth in air, became pilif- erous when their growth was checked by the earth. Also, when 20 BOTANICAL GAZETTE | (juLy these roots and those of corn were papillate in air, passage into water checked their growth, caused curves, and made the hair longer at first, after which the roots grew smooth. Swellings and curves are generally covered with long hair, for which he offers the following explanation: Lorsque les substances plastiques ne sont pas entitrement utilisées par Pextrémité végétative, ainsi que cela arrive quand l’accroissement de cette dernigre est entravé par une cause quelconque, elles se portent sur les éléments voisins et principalement sur les cellules épidermiques dont les parois libres peuvent se développer plus facilement. De 1A des renflements, des radicelles et des poils. SCHWARZ (75, p. 149) does not consider MeEr’s results trust- worthy, and thinks that the checking of growth cannot cause develop- ment of hairs; but on the other hand that hair production goes with optimum growth energy (p. 155). MER repeated his experiments with the same results (51). SacHs (71, p. 410) found that the growth of roots in water is more rapid than in air. SCHWARZ (755 Pp. 154) reports slower growth in water than in air or earth, with a consequent decrease of hairs. Rapidity of growth caused by optimum temperature, however, was not able to overcome the inhibitory effect of water (p. 155). The following quotation is not quite in harmony with his criticism of the explanation offered by Mer: “Am langsten werden die Wurzelhaare im feuchten Raume, und wenn das Wachs- thum der Wurzel durch Nutation u. s. w. besondere Hemmung erleidet.”’ JAR I. ied ele lon HRS. IGrowrn Pre HR. (mm.) S4-BRh Pe wIONS fo. Temp; ConpITION Water | Air Water, Air i eae 32.0 oe ras aa Y * £!88s tube. to be so great that the roots were crushed and broken, producing no hairs on these portions. a 24 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [yuLY C. Wounding. SCHWARZ (75, p. 158) was not able to cause hair formation by cutting off the roots 2-10™™ from the tip, nor by burning the tip with caustic. In my experiments the results were various according to the conditions. If the wound were not of sufficient depth to retard growth, if it were beyond the elongating zone, or if the plants were grown in warm water, no swelling or hairs appeared; -otherwise hairs were produced. Thus in corn seedlings the tips of primary roots were pinched off about 1™™ from the tip. One showed hairs upon the swollen tips; another sent out a tuft of hairs and then grew smooth. In the latter case the wound was not of sufficient depth to more than slightly retard the growth. Of roots cut and burned, several showed hairs, the burned ones curving; several simply stopped growing and produced laterals; while others showed no effect. The cut tips of corn roots growing in air and producing short hairs became slightly swollen in twenty-four hours, and long hairs appeared above the cut. Both in light and darkness hairs were produced above the cut, whether the swelling appeared or not. This may have been due to the appearance of new hairs among the old ones, or to the stimulated growth of some of the old hairs, but more probably to the retardation of the zone in process of formation when the operation was performed. Drvaux (10, p- 308) states — that new hairs‘may appear among the old ones, but appearances : which might be interpreted in that manner might be due to arrested development of some of the hairs. This would be difficult to | decide, unless hairs were actually seen to originate between others (fig. 2). SCHWARZ (75, p. 165) and HABERLANDT (75, P- 1874 state that hairs are always produced in acropetal succession. D. Medium. SACHS (71, p. 410) found that roots of land plants grew more — rapidly in soil than in air or water, and his results have been con- | firmed by WACKER (84, pp. 109-11 5). The latter, however, foun ‘that in slimy soil the growth was retarded more than in water, and the denser the material the slower the growth. PFEFFER (66, p. 320 says the rate of growth is not affected by the density of the medium roots growing as rapidly in fluid clay as in water. These conflicting eas ea ee ee ee Pee ie penis 2 aR eT 1905] SNOW—DEVELOPMENT OF ROOT HAIRS 25 results: are due prema to the different amounts of water in the ‘soils used. Roots of corn grown in grenited quartz, garden soil, and air gave these results: in quartz, av. length 19.5™™, hairs abundant; in soil, -22.3™™, hairs good; in air, 50"™, hairs poor. From these figures it seems that the resistance of the substratum bears direct relation to hair production; but the factor of water supply has undoubtedly an important influence, the quartz being less: compact and therefore | drier than the garden soil. Other experiments showed slower growth in air and quartz than in soil or water. The behavior of roots of Elodea in the substratum has been men- tioned, with the suggestion that retardation due to the soil particles was the principal factor. It will be shown later that a diminution of oxygen supply has a tendency to suppress hair production. There is less oxygen in the substratum than in the freely flowing water above it. It appears, therefore, that retardation, whether from soil resistance or chemical influence, must be the chief factor in producing the kinking and the hairs. Whether the hairs are due to the kinking, or both are due to the retardation of growth, cannot be stated. The production of hairs by retarding growth with glass tubes took place _at times without kinking, though in the majority of cases the two results were associated. SCHWARZ (75, p. 159) considers “‘nutation” (kinking) the most potent factor in the production of root hairs, but it seems as if they might both be referred to unequal retardation of the growth of the root. Measurements of the epidermal cells of roots of Elodea give the following averages in millimeters: ae “Sie smooth ; | Haired WARES ooo ct pol OCTOR ek 4; re ee 0.110 | 0.077 Ee eae 0.128} 0.065 — Here the soil roots:show better hairs than the quartz, and have the shortest cells when hairy. As will be seen later, however, the comparative lengths of cells of different roots can only be taken as supporting not as decisive evidence. Corn seedlings were allowed to send their roots between glass 26 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [yULY plates, on one of which was a layer of paraffin with sections covered with dune sand_and ground quartz. The growth over the paraffin was smooth; the roots running over the sand were wavy, in some places producing hairs; and the one on the quartz kinked with more hairs (jig. 13). One root from the plant growing over quartz Fic. 13.—Corn seedlings growing in water in a glass jar between paraffined glass plates, on which was spread in the center a layer of coarse ground quartz; 0B the right is dune sand; on the left is clean paraffin. wandered into the paraffin section, curled, and developed hairs: This appeared at the same time as the curling of the main root and may have been correlated with it. A second experiment with the — sections horizontal also showed the laterals wavy at the same time that the main root kinked on the quartz. WATER CONTENT. According to several investigators (WIESNER 88, p. 149; PFEFFER 64, p. 100; PALLADIN 59, p. 371; BRENNER 7, p. 435; MacDoucat 1905] SNOW—DEVELOPMENT OF ROOT HAIRS 27 47, p- 64; et al.) the attenuation of the axial members of etiolated plants, where it occurs, is due, in part at least, to a lack or diminu- tion of transpiration. A greater proportion of water in etiolated plants is reported by MacDoucalL (47, p: 64), PALLADIN (60a), JUMELLE (28, p. 386), ef al. Whether turgor is the ‘cause or the result of growth, elongation of a cell is directly connected with its turgescence, greater water content producing greater elongation. Besides instances of etiolation, this is shown by the curling of roots which rest on the surface of water (SACHS 71, pp. 398-9); by the rounding up of filamentous algae (LIVINGSTON 43, Pp. 308; 44, pp. 310-312) and of fungi (RAcIBORSKI 68, p. 111) upon withdrawal of water by osmotic solutions, and by the tendency of cells to stretch radially from loss of water by transpiration (KOHL 31a, p. 297)... The more turgid a cell becomes, therefore, the greater the tendency to stretch in a longitudinal direction. The water content of the root cells may be affected by changing the moisture content of the air, by altering the water content of the soil, or by surrounding them with solutions of higher osmotic pressure. A. Transpiration. It is well known that aerial transpiration favors the ca of hairs upon aerial organs, WoLLNY (89, pp. 418-435) reporting an increased number of piliferous cells by count. On the other hand, some hairy-leaved plants grown in an aquatic habitat become smooth (CosTANTIN 8, p. 40), and many have noted the absence of hairs on roots in water. Experiments to determine the effect of transpi- ration from leaves upon the development of root hairs gave negative results. Roots grown in saturated air at various temperatures showed few or no hairs, and any change that reduced the moisture content favored their development. Control plants showed that the temperatures used could not alone produce the results. : B. Saturated soil. For these experiments corn and wheat were chosen because the former is very sensitive to the inhibitory effect of water, and wheat readily develops hair in that medium. 28 . BOTANICAL GAZETTE ~ (jury | Corn roots grown in garden soil kept moist were found well : covered with hair after seven days. Other pots were submerged | in water for eight days. The uninjured primary roots showed long | bare spaces and the laterals were nearly or entirely bare. One 7 plant was allowed to dry out and the roots again became haired. 3 ‘Wheat was grown in garden soil in pots, one of which was placed — ‘in water and the other watered a little every day. After a week’s4 growth, the plants were found to have abundant hair on the roots passing through the pots into water, only zones of papillae on the roots in saturated soil, but good hairs on those in-the dry pot. The 1 ‘zones May correspond to the drier conditions when the water fell — below the bottom of the pot. In a control experiment’ precautions | | “were taken to obviate the possible effects of a lack of mineral salts in the water on account of the absorptive action of the soil particles. It seems’ therefore that something besides lack of nutrient salts (probably lack of oxygen) must’in this case be the important facto Le. Osmotic solutions. In connection with the experiments with osmotic solutions, cleaned sand was saturated with solutions of lactose, saccharose, and glucos of a concentration which allowed the zone of hairs to form. I lactose and glucose the hairs were much reduced and their presenc in saccharose was extremely doubtful. The effect of solutions upon the growth of plants and plant organs q has been extensively investigated, but many of the results reported _ are of little use on account of a failure on the part of the investigators | q to distinguish the physical effect due to the osmotic action of the — solution, and the chemical effect of the ions (LIVINGSTON 44, 124-7). Many authors (Not. 57a, GERNECK 18, ef al.) thin the characteristics of water roots to be due to the lack of nitrate in the culture. The results of GERNECK and Krassnow (36a), connection with the form and structure of water roots. Mere specu lation on the subject, however, is of little value ; careful physical 1905] SNOW—DEVELOPMENT OF ROOT HAIRS 29 and chemical experimentation is necessary. SCHWARZ (75) pp. 156-7) reports a cessation of hair production. in “concentrated” solutions (15 per cent. CaCl, and KNO, and 10 per cent. nutrient salts), but no distinction is made between the physical and chemical. effects of the solutions. PrTHyBRIDGE (63a, p. 235) found root hairs more or less variable in his cultures of inorganic. salts. The results of my experiments are too incomplete and inconclusive to warrant, detailed publication. Many of the plants died, and often an experiment when repeated did not give exactly the same result as before. , Some factor or factors seem to have escaped observation. A possible variable factor is suggested by the variable results obtained by BENECKE (5, p. 24) with Lunularia buds, when he used different kinds of glass for the vessels. Considering such sources of error my results could only be considered as suggestions for further inves- tigation. Among non-electrolytes, lactose, saccharose, glucose, glycerin, and mannite were used, in normal solutions (1 gram-molecule to 1 liter of water). Dilutions were made from this, sometimes with tap water boiled and cooled in the air and shaken to renew the oxygen content, sometimes with unboiled tap water, sometimes with distilled water, and sometimes with distilled water redistilled from glass. The most convenient methed of experimentation proved to be to nearly fill stender dishes with the solutions and to float upon the surface of the liquid round cakes of paraffin about one-quarter of an inch thick with funnel-shaped holes in which the seeds were firmly wedged. This method avoids pins.and the cakes ina measure. protect the solution from bacteria. They were easily kept clean and could be remelted for each experiment. In ten experiments with lactose (nine with sunflower and one with corn) five showed variable limits (0.2-0.4 N) for hair growth. In 0.5 N solution very little growth of the roots took place, and only once were papillae found under the microscope.. The seedling zone of hairs grew best in water and diminished with increasing concen- tration. : In five experiments with saccharose two sunflowers gave o.5 N, one o.4 N, and one 0.2 N (with boiled tap, water) as the limit for hairs; but the growth was not good. Allowing sunflower roots to 30 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY grow through pots into water and solutions made with tap water, the | o.5 N solution produced the best hairs. Corn roots growing through ~ pots into water and solutions made with redistilled water showed ” hairs for the first three days; then they began to grow smooth, _ probably having become accustomed tothe solution (WIELER 87 © : p- 376), as the strongest solution was the last one in which they ~ became smooth. The pots were then transposed in various ways — to test the effect of change. A transfer from a low concentration to a high one does not seem to be so favorable to hair production as the reverse. The roots seemed to be able to bear higher concentra- _ tions of saccharose than of lactose or glucose (cf. LrvINGSTON 44, | P- 295). In three experiments with glucose in boiled tap water, sunflowers | showed very poor growth, 0.5 N being about the growth limit and 0.1 N the limit for hairs. " In two experiments with glycerin in boiled tap water with sunflow- ers, one showed hair limit in 0.05 N and the second in 0.2 N solu- tion. In the latter case one jar had roots haired nearly to the tip. — In two experiments with mannite, sunflowers showed very poor growth, with o.1 N limit for growth and hairs. 4 The only electrolytes used were the salts of Knop’s solution, and potassium nitrate alone. The modified ‘Knop’s solution “D,”’ used” by Livincston (43, p. 299), was used for two experiments with sunflower seeds.- The best hairs appeared in 0.2 N, where they grew : to the ends of the roots. The limit for growth appeared to be 0.4 N- and the limit for hairs 0.3. N solution. Sunflower roots passing through the bottoms of pots gave very good hairs in 0.1 N solution, — but were not healthy in 0.3N solution. The unmodified Knop’s” ; solution made up with redistilled water was used in various dilutions 0.1 N being made with distilled and also with tap water, 0.2 N a 0.3 N with tap water, while cultures in redistilled water were sl for control. After ten days all but o.3 N showed some hairs, the best appearing in o.2 N. The redistilled water gave the zone of hairs which appear in tap water. In two sets of experiments with potassium nitrate,o.o16N solution gave the best hairs on corn roots. The roots were inclined to be knobby and swollen in the stronger solutions, and the 0.008 N acted 1905] SNOW—DEVELOPMENT OF ROOT HAIRS 31 much as water did. Vicia sativa seemed more sensitive than corn, for in one set of experiments, performed at the same time as the above, 0.016 N solution killed the root tips and 0.008 N gave the best hairs. Sunflower roots. allowed to grow through the bottoms of pots into water and various KNO, solutions made with tap water grew best (in average length of roots) in 0.05 N and 0.1 N, 0.4N entirely stopping the growth of roots. Hairs appeared on all parts of the roots in 0.2 N solution, and more or less on the roots in all the solutions in which the roots grew (fig. 14). H,0 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.1 0.2 03 0.4 Fic. 14.—Seedlings of sunflower growing in a series of KNO; solutions. The ill effects of .distilled water on living protoplasm has been shown by Lyon (46) and Lors (45, p. 67). In my experiments with distilled water the behavior of roots was irregular; sometimes they would grow well, as in one case of Vicia and another of corn; in other cases the primary roots would not grow into it, for example wheat. As a rule, however, distilled water and water redistilled from glass gave less hair than tap water. In one or two experiments with wheat the tips of the roots stopped growing when they entered the water, and laterals were sent out (the longest nearest the tip) and produced some hairs. This peculiar branching was also observed in several cases of corn in distilled water and sunflower roots growing into KNO, solution, and even more markedly in the case of wheat seedlings from which the seeds had been removed, and which were growing in water culture (fig. 3). In this last case the laterals were very long. It seems probable that in each of these instances we have to deal with a problem of nutrition, but how cutting off the supply | of stored food can cause the tip to branch, as it does when the growth _ is checked, is not evident. 7 | 32 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [yoLy FOOD. . The possible effect of the quantity of food in the seed upon the~ development of the zone of hairs in water has been mentioned. — SCHWARZ (75, p. 162) found that if the food were taken away (how he does not state) or used by acceleration of growth by heat, the hair production ceases sooner than usual, the length of the zone depending the food is exhausted and the plants die. In the case of the plants which form the zone, the cessation of hair production may be due te the hydrostatic pressure of the water; to lack of mineral salts, oxygen, or transpiration; or to the stimulating effect of the water upon growt. of the root. Hydrostatic. pressure can hardly be the cause when corn — roots produced hair continuously in dilute solution of presumably the same pressure as tap water. OXYGEN. Although much has’ been written upon the relations of air and oxygen to growth, here as elsewhere little has been done upon root hairs. The statements of V6cHTING, PERSECKE, and SCHWARZ seem 1905] SNOW—DEVELOPMENT OF ROOT HAIRS 33 to be the only available information on the subject. PERSECKE (62a, p. 548) considered the development of root hairs to depend upon the amounts of air and water in the interstices of the soil. WIELER (86, pp. 223-4), SCHAIBLE (74a), ef al., report an increase in the growth of roots as a response to a decreased oxygen pressure. ARKER (1a) found that by passing air through water or soil, or by diminishing the air pressure above the soil or water, the roots grew faster. This he thinks was due not to the greater quantity of oxygen but to its greater mobility. The quantity of oxygen necessary for growth according to WIELER (86, pp. 213-4) is very small and varies with the plant. He found optimum pressure for Vicia Faba to be 5-6 per cent., for Helianthus 3 per cent., a retardation of growth taking place at o.14-6 per cent. according to the to the plant. V6cHTING (82, p. 94) found the roots of potato tubers to cease producing hair when the oxygen pressure fell to 3 per cent. The growth was slow, therefore the absence of hairs could not in this case be attributed to rapid growth of the roots. V6CHTING also found (83, p. 132) in experimenting with willow twigs that there was sufficient oxygen in water to support life, but not enough for the production of new organs, a supply from above the surface being needed for the production of roots and shoots. . WACKER (84, p. 110) considered that Lupinus albus and Vicia Faba died in saturated earth on account of the lack of oxgyen and the presence of harmful disintegration products, and believes land plants not to be able to supply oxygen to the roots by way of the aerial organs. ScHWARZ (75, p. 160) tried to overcome the inimical effects of water upon root hair production by passing oxygen through the culture fluid, but did not succeed in producing hairs, and came to the conclusion that oe factors than lack of oxygen must be considered. In the experiments here reported the oxygen content of the medium proves itself an important factor. Comparing corn and wheat in their ability to produce hair in water, we find that under apparently the same conditions the former grows smooth, while the latter pro- duces long and abundant hairs. We may be dealing with the indi- vidual ability of the two plants to make use of the same amount of oxygen in a dissolved form, or with the individual needs of the plants for oxygen. Besides, one plant may be better able to supply its roots 34 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY with oxygen from the aerial parts than the other. Several experiments | to show the effect of diminished oxygen pressure upon the production of root hairs gave similar results and only one need be reported. : A pot of corn, the roots passing through the bottom, was sealed — into the top of a jar half full of a solution of pyrogallic acid. The | surface of the soil was also covered and sealed with paraffin, leaving a very small hole for watering. Any oxygen entering this hole had to _ pass through the moist soil before it entered the jar, where it would _ be absorbed by the acid. In some cultures this hole was plugged up with paraffin without altering the results of the experiment. Them oxygen pressure started at normal at the sealing and was gradually lowered to a possible zero. By twenty-four hours the roots were growing smooth, while those in the control jar showed good hairs. The growth was slow, consequently the lack of hair was not due to the rapidity of growth. Suppression of hair was the result when the CO, was also absorbed (by KOH), showing that the relative increase of that gas was not the cause of the cessation of hair production. — Wheat roots proved to be very sensitive to the lack of oxygen. Several experiments set up as above, but substituting wheat for corn, did no r give any result because the roots quickly turned brown and died. In one jar, however, several of the roots lived for a day, elongating in that time fromoto4™™, These living roots showed no hair for some distance above the tips. P| The experiment with corn was varied in the following manner, to see if the vapor of the pyrogallic acid had the effect upon the hairs. The pot was sealed in as before, the jar, however, being half full of water, boiled and cooled, covered to prevent as much as possible absorption of oxygen. Air was forced through two jars of pyroga acid, finally passing through the water to wash it of any vapor. apparatus was arranged as shown in fig. 15. The jar was measure previously and equal contents marked. The water at first was at and then the air was passed over slowly, displacing the water to | If the air coming over were entirely free from oxygen, the per cent. in the jar would be half the normal amount. As the rate of passage — would determine in great measure the completeness of the extractio of oxygen, an analysis of the oxygen content was not attempted, aim being more to do away with the acid in the jar, and to get a less 1905] SNOW—DEVELOPMENT OF ROOT .HAIRS 35 complete extraction of oxygen than in former experiments, than to obtain quantitative results. The oxygen pressure was considered approximately one-half, and the roots indicated about the limit of hair production, showing irregular patches and scattered hairs with bare spaces. Repetition of the experiment showed the same condition of hair production. The temperature varied from 20-24°, which was proba- bly not sufficiently high or low to effect hair pro- duction. Willow twigs set up in Wolf’s flasks in the same manner in about half oxygen content, with their —— = = lower ends in water, after Fic. 15.—Diagram showing apparatus for three days showed hairs diminished oxygen pressure; the air passes through two jars of pyrogallic acid solution before entering the experiment jar. on the laterals in both jars. Inseven days there was decidedly less air in the partial pressure jar. Left about two weeks longer, the hairs were better in both jars, appearing better in water than inair. This may be on account of accommodation to lack of oxygen (PFEFFER 64, p. 2), or more probably to an increase in the supply by the green bark and the chlorophyll appearing in the roots. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. Many writers (KRAEMER 34; LEAVITT 40, 41; VAN TIrcGHEM 78; JurL 27a; SAUVAGEAU 72, p. 5 for Naias and possibly for other forms, '73, p. 169) associate short cells with root hairs, in most of the cases mentioned the cells being preformed. From many measure- ments of sections cut from roots grown in these experiments there -appeared to be a relation between the length of the cells and the growth of hairs, but there was no evidence of the preformation of the piliferous cells. No definite length of cell can be given as the limit for hair development, either in general or in a single species; the piliferous cells of one root may be longer than the smooth cells of another root of the same species. But an average derived from many 36 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY measurements of epidermal cells of roots grown under conditions producing hair is likely to be less than a similar average from the roots of the same species grown under conditions unfavorable for hair pro- duction. In the same root the average length of piliferous cells is less — than that of smooth cells. ScHwarz makes the significant statement 7 (75, p. 177) that if in the roots of Elodea and Nuphar the short cells © do not produce hairs, in time the difference in length is lost, thus | indicating that the short cells stretch out if they do not grow into hairs. LEAvITT (41, p. 300) reports the same condition for Nym- — phaea dentata. In Sagittaria Eatoni (LEAVitT 41, p. 292) and Phrag- | mites (KRAEMER 34, p. 22) the difference in size remains when no hairs are formed. The various statements concerning the condi- tion of the root epidermis and the appearance of root hairs in the latter form are far from clear. | From jig. 4 it will be seen that in corn root the origins’ of thell hairs appear quite near the tip of the root, where the cells are isodia- metric (OLIVIER 58, p. 72). The statement that hairs appear in the | zone where the cells have undergone considerable extension (LEAVITT _ 41, p. 274) or are just ceasing to elongate (DEBARY 3, p. 57) does : not seem to be true generally. A probable explanation of the con- — ditions observed by these authors is that the growth energy of the cell, — after elongation has ceased, finds its expression in the rapid growth — of the young papilla, which then takes on the typical appearance of 4 a hair. By marking the roots of a series of corn seedlings growing — ‘ in moist air, hairs visible to the eye were in several instances observed 7 in the zone of elongation. 2 As mentioned above, in the plants studied there was no evidence 4 el ied gees ee een reports in some ieiber of the Gramineae the whole epidermis t¢ to be piliferous. If each cell of the root epidermis is able to produce | : a hair, what prevents such an outgrowth from taking place? are turgescent and orhiok nearly equally. Fig. 5isa ae 1 section from a root of this water type. If, on the other hand, we | 1905] SNOW—DEVELOPMENT OF ROOT HAIRS 37 examine a root grown in air, we find the cells shorter and thicker, but not equally so, the outer ones, in all but a few cases to be con- sidered later, being longer and thinner than those near the central cylinder, showing that the former are stretching more strongly than the latter. Fig. 6 represents a section of such a root, grown in the same experiment as that from which jig. 5 was taken. Tested with KNO, solution, the outer cells of an air root were plasmolyzed in o.2 N, while the inner cells showed no shrinking, thus indicating that the latter had more concentrated cell-sap and less water. In water roots the epidermal cells were plasmolyzed in o.2 N and the cortical cells shrank, but the protoplasm did not leave the walls. PFEFFER (66, p. 301) reports the turgor of the cortex cells of corn roots in air to be greater than that of the epidermis. In the air roots the epi- dermal cells seem to have more water, and to be able to stretch more than the inner ones. This can take place to a certain extent, but the inner cells cannot keep pace with them, but hold back the epi- dermal cells from their full elongation, and the growth energy finds an outlet in the direction of least resistance, i. e. the free outer wall. A similar occurrence is noted when Spirogyra is held in a plaster cast (PFEFFER 66, pp. 240, 385), or when Stichococcus is made fast at the ends (KLERCKER 30, pp. 94-5). This bulging takes place in corn near the tip of the root, while the cells are isodiametric, and nearly the whole wall curves at first (fig. 7), but with the continued stretching of the cell this primary bulge becomes a papilla. The lagging behind of the inner cells of the cortex during the elongation period allows this papilla to become a hair. It seems then that hairs represent the ratio between the capacity of the epidermal cells to elongate and their ability to do so. If the capacity be the greater, the hairs will be produced; if equal to or less than the ability to elongate, no hairs will be developed. This would limit the statement of ScHWARz (75, p- 155)—‘‘bei dem Maximum der Wachsthumsgeschwindigkeit und unter den giinstig- sten Bedingungen bildet die Wurzel die zahlreichsten Haar”—to the epidermal cells. Testing this explanation in the different cases reported here, I suppose first, in the corn roots growing with diminished oxygen supply, that the growth of the epidermal cells is decreased. The 38 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [yULY inner cells on the other hand may obtain oxygen from the aerial parts, and thus with less moisture be able to keep pace with the epidermal cells growing with more moisture and less oxygen. In ordinary air the moisture and the oxygen reach the epidermal cells more abundantly than the inner ones, consequently the numerator of the fraction is increased as well as the denominator decreased, and hairs are devel- oped. Upon the upper side of a corn root growing along the surface of water abundant hairs were developed, while the under side remained smooth. The difference in length between the epidermal cells and those of the cortex on the haired side was 20m, and on the smooth side 64. Kraus’s tables (37, p. 254) dealing with the lengths of epidermal and cortical cells in relation to hair production are not very complete, and it seems useless to attempt to harmonize the results with those here reported. KRABBE (33, Pp. 491) reports the inner cells of pith to be less turgescent than the outer ones when placed in water at 1-2°C, on account of the resistance to the passage of water offered by the proto- plasts. According to VAN RYSSELBERGHE (70, p- 103) the influence of temperature is exhibited not in the total amount of water taken up, but in the rapidity of its passage. In warm water, therefore, the water reaches the inner cells and allows them to elongate sufficiently rapidks to keep pace with the epidermis, which is thus allowed to elongate to its full capacity and shows no hairs. __ In the zone of hairs on seedlings in water cultures the available energy and the temporary retardation of growth (evidenced by the short outer and still shorter inner cells, and by the curling of many roots) combine to produce hairs. Also the presence of food may act as a stimulus to cause the cells to divide rapidly and form a thick _ Toot, whose inner cells do not get sufficient water, or oxygen, or both, to allow them to elongate as rapidly as the outer ones. Later, in the case of corn, the plumule elongates and probably supplies the inner cells with more oxygen. These are therefore better able to elongate, they are carried further from the food supply, is less active, the roots grow more slende inner cells increases, still greater elonga epidermal cells are allowed to stretch to t modation to a decrease of oxygen is m division tion takes place, and the heir full capacity. Accom- entioned by PFEFFER (65, ae oe Bea eae de 1905] SNOW—DEVELOPMENT OF ROOT HAIRS 39 p- 70), and MER (53, p. 1279) speaks of the roots becoming accus- tomed to the medium. . The curving of corn roots in water is, according to Miss BENNETT (6) not aerotropic. BEAUVERIE (4) considers the turning up of water roots to be due to negative hydrotropism, for by using physio- logically dry solutions he was able to get them to grow downward. In an experiment in which a slow stream of tap water was passed into the bottom of a vessel in which the roots of corn seedlings were growing, every one turned down, and grew straight and entirely smooth. The stimulus may have been a rheotropic one, or it may ‘have been the presence of fresh aerated water which caused the omission of the hair zone. An apparent exception to the explanation offered appeared in one root of sunflower grown in 0.5 N saccharose solution, in which the epidermal cells were shorter than the inner ones and still pro- duced hair. Close to the tip, however, the papillae were found on cells shorter than the cortical cells, which makes it seem probable that the epidermal cells on the upper part of this root were shorter than the cortical cells from the start, as is the case with Elodea. In this plant the epidermal cells at the tip are very much shorter than those of the inner cortex, and the difference does not entirely disappear as the root grows older. Consequently there is not the same relation between the epidermal and cortical cells when hair is produced, as there is in corn. Measurements of the cells of roots of Elodea growing in soil, quartz, and water give the following averages in millimeters: Medium ~ Cortex Epidermis Difference Oe yee ea: 0.100 0.068 0,032 Oidrizs, 6253. 0.110 0.077 0.033 WOMET oe 0.160 0.104 0.056 Upon examination of the table the greatest relative length of the inner cortical cells is seen to be in water, and the least in soil, with the hairs in inverse relation, as was the case with corn. On the concave side of curved roots of corn the epidermal cells are shorter than the inner ones and at times show more hairs (jig. 40 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY 8). Here the retarding action of the inner cells upon the epidermis is aided by the compression brought about by the curve. SACHS (71, p. 466) has shown that the average length of cells in a curve is less than in a straight portion of the root. MacDoucat (49, Pp. 352-3) criticises Sacus’ methods and reports the cells on both © convex and concave sides longer than those on the same region of a normal straight root. His statement that the hairs are “abundant on"the regions apical and basal to the region of greatest curvature, but are also wholly absent from the region exhibiting the shortest radius of curvature,” seems to mean that the roots geotropically stimulated elongated at the curve and ceased to produce hair. In’ curving roots of corn growing in water, the epidermal cells appear to be restricted in their elongation, for curving almost invariably causes hair to develop. ScHwarz noted this and called it “nutation”’ (75, p- 159). This term did not seem appropriate, and for want of a better word “kinking” has been used in this paper. Transference from a solution of low osmotic pressure to one of high osmotic pressure appears to withdraw so much water from the epidermal cells that they do not grow into hairs. When the reverse order is followed there is a better chance for the epidermal cells to absorb water and to grow before the inner ones, and in this case some hairs appeared. The problem of the effect of osmotic solutions upon roots is quite different from that relating to filamentous algae and fungi. In the last two cases each cell is bathed in the solution to be tested, while with roots the action of the neighboring cells influences the epidermis, and on account of the thickness of the root the inner ones are not affected just as the outer ones. If a solution could be made which by its osmotic strength or chemical composition would retard the growth of the inner cells and allow the epidermal cells to grow, hairs might be expected. In one or two instances the epidermal cells of roots of sunflower and corn growing in o.-o.2 N solutions seemed to become accustomed to the solution before the inner cells, and thus were able to grow out as hairs while the growth of the deeper cells was still retarded. The retarding effect of diminished food of hair on the internodes of the stem of note by Kraus (38). supply on the production potatoes is reported in a short In experiments with half seeds, one or two pede yeh 2 < 1905] SNOW—DEVELOPMENT OF ROOT HAIRS 41 cases occurred in which the central cylinder was torn apart at regular — intervals by the stretching cortex, the epidermis bearing no hairs. The food supply seemed not enough to give the cells of the central cylinder sufficient strength to retard the stretching of the outer cells. No change in turgor is needed to explain the appearance of root hairs, for according to PFEFFER (647, p. 29) there is no change when growth is accelerated by a rise of temperature or by absence of light, or when growth is retarded by lack of oxygen or (66, p. 296) by pressure. In the first three cases hairs disappeared or were diminished, while in the last they appeared. An interesting relation was noticed between the epidermal and the hypodermal cells of some corn roots. In roots growing in the air and producing hair, the nuclei of the hypodermal cells were usually larger than those of the epidermal or cortical cells (jig. 9). This may indicate that the hypodermal cells were passing food to the outer cells, the starting of the lateral growth thus initiating a movement of material in that direction. SAUVAGEAU (73, Pp. 171) reports small hypodermal cells under the piliferous cells in Zostera. This demand for food by the outer layer would decrease the supply in the central cylinder and may account for the inverse relation between root hairs and lateral roots, noted by LESAGE (42, p. 110), COSTANTIN (9, p. 149), MER (52, p. 666; 53, p. 1278), SACHS (71, p- 589), e¢ al. In Eichhornia the lateral roots extend nearly to the tip, but there are no root hairs. This activity of the central cylinder, contrasted with that of the epidermis, is in harmony with the results of the experiments here reported. In spite of the structural and functional similarity which often exists between root hairs and rhizoids, it does not seem appropriate to consider them together. In the first place, they are not morpho- logically similar, rhizoids being of gametophytic origin and root hairs developing from the sporophyte. The fact that rhizoids arise usually from a rather small gametophyte, all the cells of which retain in large measure their primitive condition, may account for the irritability they display toward geotropic, phototropic, and thigmotropic stimuli. Root hairs, on the other hand, are developed on a highly differentiated organ of a highly differentiated sporophyte, and are not thus sen- Sitive, a difference pointed out by HABERLANDT (22, pp. 194-5)- 42 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [yuLY ' It would be well to limit the term “root hair” to hairs borne by | : morphological roots only. SUMMARY. 1. Light and darkness appeared to have only an indirect effect, through their influence on growth. 2. High temperature with sufficient moisture tended to decrease — hair production by increasing the elongation of the internal cells. 3. The slower the growth in air the better the hair development. _ 4. Retardation of growth by glass tubes, by wounding, or by resistance of the substratum favored hair production. 5- Roots of seedling corn in water first curled and produced hair, possibly because of the retardation of growth by the diminution of a oxygen or its presence in the dissolved state. Later the roots grew straight and smooth, either on account of accommodation to the oxygen supply or because the gas was supplied by the aerial parts. 6. Saturated air with high temperature tended to suppress hair development (cf. 2). 7- Saturated soil tended to suppress hair in corn and wheat, but other factors must be considered when Elodea develops hair in the substratum. . 8. Osmotic solutions gave very irregular results on account of some undiscovered disturbing factor. 9. Less hair was developed in distilled water than in tap water. to. Air deprived of oxygen stopped hair production and retarded growth. 11. Curves and swellings had a favorable effect upon hair develop- — ment, probably because they represent the retardation of the growth of the root. 12. In all these examples of retardation favoring hair develop- ment, not the mere rate of growth, but the differential elongation of the inner and outer cells was of prime importance. Hair produc- tion depends on the ratio between the capacity of the epidermal cells to elongate and their ability to do so. 13. The activity of the epidermis may be in inverse proportion | to the activity of the central cylinder, lateral roots often appearing — when hairs are suppressed, and vice versa. caer. SI) seit ee ee ae 1905] SNOW—DEVELOPMENT OF ROOT HAIRS 43 I am under obligations to Dr. H. C. Cowxes, under whose direc- tion this work was undertaken ; to Dr. B. E. Lrvrncston for repeated suggestions and kindly assistance ; and to Professor C. R. BARNES for his counsel in many of the difficulties that beset me. STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, FARMVILLE, VIRGINIA. 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Gar. 2: pp. 319. 1903. , Symbiotic saprophytism. Ann. Bot. 13:1-47. pls. 1-2. fig. 1. ———., The curvature of roots. Bot. Gaz. 23:307-366. 1897. Mer, E., Des causes diverses de |’étiolement des plantes. Compt. Rend. 95:487-489. 1882. , Nouvelles recherches sur les conditions de développement des poils Hadicaux Ibid. 98:583-586. 1 ———, Recherches expérimentales sur les somdilions de développement des poils Sadi: Ibid. 88:665-668. 1879. » De linfluence des milieux sur la structure des racines. Ibid, 88:1277-1280. 1879. NEMEC, B., Ueber den Einfluss niedriger Temperaturen auf meristematische Gewebe. Saadeies Kgl. Béhm. Gesells. Wiss. Math.- Naturwiss.1 46 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [yULY 54a. ———,, Bot. Centralbl. 86:237. gol. 55- Newcoune, F. C., The rheotropism of roots. Bor. Gaz. 33:177 $q4q. figs. 15. 1902 56. Nixasow, N. H, Beobachtungen iiber den Einfluss der dunkeln Warme- strahlen in Sotinehlieht auf die — den Pflanzen. Bot. Centralbl. PB 3 Se 57. Nott, F., Usher es Etiolement ae Pflanzen. Sitzungsber. Niederrhein. Gesells. -NatuiHellloude: Bonn. 9g pp. 1gor. 574. , Bot. Centralbl. 89: 363-364. 1902. 58. Chsiaien L., Recherches de |’appareil EE Te des racines. Ann. Sci.’ Nat. Bot. VI. 11:5-133. pl. 8. 1880. 59. Pattapix, W., Transpiration als Ursiiche der Forminderung etiolirter Pflanzen. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 8: 364-371. 1890. , Der Wassergehalt in griinen und etiolirten Blattern. Famintzin’s Uebersicht der Leist. Bot. in Russland. 1891: 70-71. , Just’s Bot. Jahresber. 19°:8. 1891. 61. Pavut, H., Beitrage zur bt ai der Laubmoosrhizoiden. Engler’s Bot. Tahoe 32:231-274. figs. 903. 62. PrERSECKE, R., Ueber die ec iesea der Wurzel in Erde und Wasser. : , imaug. -Diss. Leipzig. 1877. 62a. ——, Bot. Zeit. 35:547-550. 188 63- Prmwnpaks G. H., Beitrige zur Kenntniss der Einwirkung der anor- ganischen Salze auf die Entwickelung und den Bau der Pflanzen. Inaug.- — Diss. 95 pp. Géttingen. 1899. 63a. , Bot. Centralbl. 87:235-237. 1901. 64. Previes: W., Physiology of plants (tr. Ewart.). Oxford. 1900-1903. 65. , Studien iiber Symmetrie und specifische Wachsthumsursachen. ~ Arb. Bot. Inst. Wiirzburg 1:77-98- , Druck- und Arbeitsleistung durch wachsende Pflanzen. Abhandl. Math. Physik: Kgl. Sachs. Gesells. Wiss. Leipzig 20:233-474. igs. 14: 66. 1893. 67. Porovict, A. P., Des Einfluss der Vegetationsbedingungen auf die Linge der sidiacasen Zone. Bot. Centralbl. 81:33-40, 87-97. 1900. 68. Racrporskt, M., Ueber den Einfluss dusserer Bedingungen auf die Wachs- — thumsweise des Basidiobolus ranarum. Flora 82:107-132. figs. Il- 1896. 69. Ricuter, J., Ueber Reactionen der Characeen auf dusserer Einfluss. Flora 78:399-423. 1894. 70. RYSSELBERGHE, Fr. vAN, Influence de la température sur la perméabilité du protoplasma. Recueil de |’Inst. Bot. Univ. Bruxelles. 1902. 70a. , Bot. Centralbl. 90:203. 1 71. SACHS, I. Ueber das Wachsthum der ‘Haupt: und Nebenwurzeln. Arb. Bot. Inst. Wiirzburg. 1: 384-474, 585-634. 1874. pe ea ee Re RY See ee a OE a ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee Ree Sere en age eee SNOW—DEVELOPMENT OF ROOT HAIRS 47 SAUVAGEAU, C., Sur la racine du Najas. Jour. Bot. 3:3-11. figs. 7. 1889. , Contribution 4 l’étude du systtme mechanique dans la racine des plantes aquatiques: Les Potomageton. Jbid. 3:61-72. figs. 9. Les Zostera, Cymodocea et Posidonia. Jbid. 3:169-181. figs. 5. 1889. Keimung einiger Pflanzen unter verminderten Luftdruck. Fiinfstiick’s Beitraige Wiss. Bot. 4:93-148. pl. 8. figs. 3. 1g00. , Bot. Centralbl. 82:52-54. 1900 ScHWARZ, Fr., Die Wurzelhaare der Pflanzen. Untersuch. Bot. Inst. Tubingen. 1:135-188. pl. 7. figs. 3. 1883. STAHL, E., Der Sinn der i ycorhizenbildung. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 34:539- 1900. Tuomas, Fr., Be baiea dec piliferum n. sp. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 490. 9- TIEGHEM, Pa VAN, Sur les poils radicaux géminés. Ann. Soc. Nat. Bot. VII. 6:127-128. 1887. TOWNSEND, C. O., The correlation of growth under the influence of injuries. Ann. Bot. 11:509-532. 1897. TRUvE, R. H., On the influence of sudden changes of turgor and temperature on growth. Ann. Bot. 9:365-402. 1895. VeESQUE, J., Sur les causes et sur les limites des variations de structure des végétaux. Ann. Agron. 9:481-510; 10:14-32. 1884. , Bot. Centralbl. 18:259-262. 1884. Vocutinc, H., Ueber: die Keimung der Kartoffelnknollen. Bot. Zeit. 60:87-114. pls. 3-4. 1902. , Organbildung. Wacker, J., Die Beeinflussung des Wachsthums der Wurzeln durch das umgebende Medium. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 32:71-116. 1 Went, F. A. F. C., Ueber Haft- und Nahrwurzeln bei SEE Se und Epiphyten. Anas Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg. 12:2-12. 1894. Wieter, A., Die Beeinflussung des Wachsens durch verminderte Partiar- pressung des Sauerstoffs. Untersuch. Bot. Inst. Tubingen. 1:189-232. fig. 1 | s 26B3. , Plasmolytische Versuche mit unverletzten phanerogamen Pflanzen. Ber. Desiich. Bot. Gesells. 5: 375-380. 1887. Wiesner, J., Recherches sur l’influence de la lumiére et de la chaleur rayonnante sur la transpiration des plantes. Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. VI. 4:145-176. 1877. Wottny, W., Untersuchungen iiber den Einfluss der Luftfeuchtigkeit auf dus Wacheium der Pflanzen. Wollny’s Forsch. Agrikult.-Physik. 20: 397-437. 1897-08. 48 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ruLy EXPLANATION OF PLATE I. Fic. 1. Longitudinal section of a corn root, grown in a glass tube: a, X45; b, two hair-producing cells lapping over the other epidermal cells, X 220. Fic. 2. a, Longitudinal section of a corn root, grown in air; the section shows more than one line of epidermal cells with long and short hairs; X75. b, rounded surface of a living root of corn, grown in redistilled water; the out- lines of the epidermal cells were aes indistinct; the only case observed where the difference in size was so great; X45. Fic. 3. Roots of wheat plants which had been cut from the seeds shortly after sprouting; water culture; 4. Fic. 4. Longitudinal section of a root of corn, grown in air, showing the origin of hairs from the region where the cells are still short; 220. Fic. 5. Longitudinal section of a root of corn grown in water, in the same experiment with the root shown in fig. 6; X45. Fic. 6. Longitudinal section of a root of corn grown in air, in the same experiment with the root shown in fig. 5; 45. Fic. 7. Longitudinal section of a root of corn grown in air, showing the beginning of the hairs; X 220. Fic. 8. Longitudinal section of a corn root curving on the surface of water; X 34- Fic. 9. Longitudinal section of a corn root grown in air, showing one of thes large nuclei of the hypodermal cells; 220. a BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XL PLATE? ou ties YO | oo | fi s tH a CaN eto p SS r\ AN Manel iow yi By Bu cepa! S ie | Hive c iNegeawat BU i carazeer) c WESCOTT | HH its iieseeet plligaeesy = NeSoamaigi ie : 7 jaseeserut ma a oes Co nee EE, ps = ar ee, 8 naa cn i ilk i i | : int ( i ly, il Hat : li | SNOW on ROOT HAIRS | A CONTRIBUTION TO THE LIFE HISTORY OF APOCYNUM ANDROSAEMIFOLIUM. THEODORE C. FRYE and ELEANOR B. BLODGETT. (WITH PLATE I1) It appears that not one of the Apocynaceae, a family of about 1000 species, has ever been studied carefully in reference to the minute morphology of the flower. Considering this in connection with the fact that the family stands near the Asclepiadaceae, with their peculiar pollen and stigma, it was believed that it deserved investigation. Buds and flowers of A pocynum androsaemifolium L. were collected in various stages, and the results of their investigation are herewith described. The order of appearance of the floral whorls is centripetal. The calyx shows no peculiarities other than a ruffling of the epidermis on the abaxial surface near the base, suggesting a mechanism for the folding of the sepals. Each petal of the campanulate corolla has on its inner surface near the base a ridge (jig. 1, r) running from the midrib diagonally outward and toward its base. It is highest at the midrib, and undoubt- edly functions as an aid in compelling cross-pollination. The ridge arises from the more superficial cells of the leaf, and does not affect . the course of the veins. Its meristematic crest forms the cells for its enlargement. The stamens are peculiar in form, adjusting themselves neatly in a ring rather closely applied to the stigmatic head (fig. r,s). At the base of each are two long auriculate appendages (jigs. 1, 2, 3, ap) extending downwards dorsal to the filament. The sporangia are above the insertion of the filament, and do not extend into the appen- dages. The loculi open on their inner surfaces, somewhat laterally, by longitudinal slits, and immediately beneath them is a beard of epidermal hairs extending transversely across the faces of the anthers, forming a ring around the stigmatic head (figs. 1, 2, b). These hairs meet similar ones from a ring around the head, thus preventing pollen from rolling into the base of the flower. 15] 49 Mo. Bot.Garden 1906 5° BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY In the development of the stamen the enlargement of the tip, fore- shadowing the formation of sporogenous tissue, occurs just about the time the carpels appear. The hypodermal layer gives rise to a — primary parietal layer, and another homologizing with what is ordi- narily the primary sporogenous layer (fig. 4). The former divides once; the latter also divides, forming the tapetum and primary ~ sporogenous cells (fig. 5). This has been observed in a few plants — only (r), the tapetum usually arising from the primary parietal layer. The primary sporogenous cells elongate as they do in Asclepias (fig. 6), but divide into a mass of mother cells, thus reinforcing the presumption that in Ascelpias this stage is simply omitted. The pollen is in the mother cell stage when the ovules appear. The rounded mother cells do not always divide simultaneously. Division of the two daughter cells is simultaneous or nearly so (fig. 8), and almost so in all the daughter cells of a sporangium; but not in different — stamens of the same flower. Sometimes one daughter cell fails to divide, and three microspores instead of a tetrad is the result (fig. 9). Occasionally some of the pollen grains near the tip of the sporangium disintegrate after tetrad division, probably serving as nourishment for the others. The whole tapetum also disintegrates soon after tetrad division. The microspores remain in tetrads in maturity, and their arrange- j ment with relation to each other is various. In fact, one can find — all stages grading from the bilateral to the tetrahedral arrangement. Fig. 10 evidently resulted from the spindles in the second division being somewhat at right angles in the same plane, and is like a group- ing found by WILLE (2) in Orchis mascula. Usually the four spores are in the same plane, but their arrangement with regard to each other varies; in fig. 11 four pollen grains meet at a point on each side of the group; in other cases there are four on one side and three on the other; in still others only three meet at a point on either side. The pollen grains in a tetrad are often plainly unequal in size. I the prevailing dicotyl grouping—tetrahedral. Figs. 11, 12, 13 are three members of a series grading from the bilateral to the tetra~ 1905] FRYE & BLODGETT—LIFE HISTORY OF APOCYNUM 51 hedral form, varying only in degree of rotation and in mutual adjust- ment. Both forms may thus occur in the same plant. However, the tetrahedral form is not common; most of the groups are like figs. rr and 12, similar to those found in Typha latifolia (3). A case like Zostera (4), with its long pollen mother cells dividing length- wise, makes it doubtful whether pressure is much of a factor in deter- mining the direction of the spindles. The spindles in the microspore daughter cells of A. androsaemijolium seem to lack definiteness in direction. The formation of the generative and tube nuclei occurs when the ovules are in the sporogenous cell stage. The division is not simultaneous in the same sporangium, nor even in the same tetrad; the division is complete by the time the embryo sac has reached its 8-celled stage. The generative cell is lenticular or fusiform, as in Asclepias. Two spherical male cells are formed about the time the embryo sac is ready for fertilization, and while the pollen is still in the anther. STRASBURGER (5) observed a small and a large nucleus in the pollen of Vinca major, and again found both nuclei in cultures of the pollen tubes. If these were tube and generative nuclei, Vinca differs from A. androsaemijolium in the time of the division of the generative cell. STRASBURGER also observed (5) a tube nucleus and two smaller ones, probably male cells, in Amsonia salicifolia, which seems to indicate that this one agrees with A. androsaemi- jolium in the time of male cell formation. At the base of each petal and alternating with the stamens are five glands resembling those in Asclepias. They originate shortly after the floral parts appear and are said to be nectariferous (6). The two carpels unite at their tips before ovules are formed, and just after sporogenous tissue appears in the stamens. The tips form a rounded lump or head with glandular epidermis over large portions of it, as in the Asclepiadaceae. The ovules are arranged in the same way as in the family just mentioned, and have the same form. The archesporial cell is of hypodermal origin and does not divide to form a primary parietal cell (figs. 15 and 16). A single integument deeply buries the nucellus and primary sporogenous cell. The latter divides into four megaspores, any one of which may become the embyro sac. In fig. 19 the innermost spore becomes the sac; 52 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY in figs. 17 and 78 it is hard to tell which spore will dominate; and in other cases the spore nearest the micropyle functions. The embryo 4 sac passes through the regular stages to the eight-celled stage. Br- _ LINGS (7) figures an embryo sac of Amsonia salicijolia with endosperm : surrounded by an absorbing layer, and states that A pocynum andro- — saemifolium has no such layer, which we confirmed. A section : through the ovules of A. androsaemijolium can hardly be distinguished under the microscope from a similar one of Asclepias, so great is the E | similarity in minute detail. The pollen rolls out of the anthers upon the head, but is pre- 3 vented by the pericephalous beard from reaching the stigma which — is immediately beneath it. An insect having pollen on its proboscis, = reaching after nectar, must insert it between the bases of the anthers, — on account of the ridges on the corolla and the basal appendages — of the stamens. The proboscis in withdrawal naturally slips into — the crevices between the stamens and the head. The sticky, glan- — dular stigma holds some of the pollen, while the pericephalous beard, | acting as a brush, increases the probability of pollen remaining 4 4 ae at the stigma (fig. 1). The head above the beard is glandular and a the pollen sticky; therefore as the proboscis is withdrawn through — the hairs it picks up a load of pollen for the next flower (jig. 4 KUNTH (6) gives a short account of the manner of pollination. The chief facts are the origin of the tapetum from the homologulil of the primary sporogenous layer instead of the primary parietal 4 layer; the gradation between bilateral and tetrahedral microspore — arrangement; the absence of a primary parietal cell in the ovule; the single layer of cells composing the nucellus; and the great similar- | ity in the internal structure of the flowers of Apocynum and Asclepias. STATE UNIVERSITY, a WaSsE. * LITERATURE CITED. p- 37- New Vuk. 3. 2. WILLE, N., Ueber die Entwickelungsgeschichte des Pollenkérner der Angi spermen und das Wachsthum der Membranen durch Intussusception Christiania. 1886. | 3- SCHAFENER, J. H., The development of the stamens and carpels of Tyf latifolia. Bot. Gusette 24:93-102. pls. 4-6. 1897. 1. Courter, J. M., and Cuamsertatn, C. J., Morphology of the Angiosperms. é I PLATE, If BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XL FRYE and BLODGETT on APOCYNUM 1905] FRYE & BLODGETT—LIFE HISTORY OF APOCYNUM > 53 4. ROSENBERG, O., Ueber die Pollenbildung von Zostera. Meddel. Stock- holms Hégsk. Bot. Inst. p. 21. 1gor. : ul .. STRASBURGER, E., Neue Untersuchungen iiber den Befruchtungsvorgang ei den Pidnero gare p- 31. Jena. 1884. 6. Kuntu, P., Handbuch oF Bliithenbiologie 27:70. 1899. 7. BILLINGS, F. H., Beitrige zur Kenntniss der Samenentwickelung. Flora 88: 253-318. Igor. EXPLANATION OF PLATE II. All figures were drawn with a camera lucida unless otherwise stated, and a Leitz 1-12 oil immersion objective was used for all figures requiring high magni- fication. The figures have been reduced to one-half the —— drawings, to which the indicated magnifications apply. 1G. 1. Longitudinal section of the flgwer;- semi-diagramatic: ca, calyx; co, corolla; r, ridge; g, gland;, s, stamen; ap, appendage; sp, sporangium; b, beard; h, head; st, stigma. Fic. 2. Abaxial view of stamen: ap, appendages; without camera lucida. Fic. 3. Lateral view of stamen: ap, appendages; /, head; without camera lucida. - Frc. 4. Longitudinal section of anther showing origin of primary parietal layer. XI Fic. 5. i cuihaliaal section of anther: s, primary sporogenous cells; , ¢, tapetum. X 2650 Fic. 6. Cross ees of anther: ¢, tapetum; s, primary sporogenous cells. X IIIO. Fic. 7. Microspore mother cell before tetrad division. X 3300 Fic. 8. Microspore daughter cells in simultaneous division. 3300. Fic. 9. Three pollen grains from a mother cell. 2250. Fics. 10-13. Various arrangement of pollen grains in tetrads. 2250. Fic. 14. Pollen grain: ¢, tube nucleus; g, generative cell. X 2650. Fic. 15. Section of ovule showing archesporial cell enlarged and functioning as primary sporogenous cell; single integument; nucellus one layer of cells. 2270. Fic. 16. Same as fig. 15; integument closing. 1400. Fic. 17. Four megaspores; first and third diciyeegrating; m, micropylar end. X 3300. Fic. 18. Four megaspores; first two disintegrating; m, micropylar end. X 3300. Fic. 19. Four megaspores and nucellus; first three disintegrating. 3300. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN HERBARIUM. VI. AVEN NELSON. SpHAEROSTIGMA F. & M., Ind. Sem. Hort. Petrop. 2:49. 1835. Since Dr. JouNn K. Smatt published “‘Oenothera and its segre- gates,””* much material has been accumulating illustrative of the various species and tending to confirm the wisdom of the earlier generic limitations which were again revived in that paper. In this group of genera, the species of which seem particularly suscep- tible to differences in environment, we may expect great variation, and therefore naturally differences of opinion as to specific limitations. This has resulted in a rather extended synonomy, which makes studies in the group more than ordinarily difficult. It is not the purpose of the writer to review these genera, but simply to put on record a study of the species of Sphaerostigma, made necessary by the attempt to name some material that came into his hands for examination. This study, in order that it might be the more com- plete, was extended to the collection of the Missouri Botanical Garden.” While listing all the species, there is no necessity for attempting a complete synonomy. SMALL’s paper, cited above, will furnish references to all the important literature on this genus, except that of Lfévertt£.s I give therefore only the first use of the present t Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 23:167. 1896. 2 Acknowledgment is here made of the uniform courtesy and kindness of Director, Dr. WILLL aE ETN in permitting the examination of these valuab specimens—some 200 shee 3 “Monographie du Genre Onothera.” I will not attempt to review this very’ elaborate paper, but since LEVEILLE’s notions of generic limitations are so completely out of harmony with the now accepted ideas of American botanists, nape be per missible to relist the species of the American genus Sphaerostigma. The specim of Sphaerostigma in the Mo. Bot. Garden Herb. were examined by io and his annotations. It is extremely difficult to believe that his grouping of the specimens can stand, esp2cially when one finds that the annotations do not harmonize with final published list, and that the nomenclature of the illustrations in some insta does not coincide with that of the text. 54 1905] NELSON—ROCKY MOUNTAIN PLANTS 55 combination and a reference to what seems.to be the first publication of the species or variety. KEY TO THE SPECIES.* Flowers yellow, sometimes turning red or green. Capsules straight. WMIORM, 5 5 eke perc Coens wane § 1a tb Narrowly: linear: 5445505 5555s ages 2 Capsule more or less curved or contorted. Narrowly linear, cylindrical or nearly so. Curved but not contorted. Capsule beet (less than 2°™). . Capsule long (more than 2°™). : Flowers 1°™ or more in diameter.. 5. 5a 5b 5c Retrictetl os sss ea ee 6. More or less contorted............-- : 7a 7b 7C Broadly linear, more or less 4-angled. Whole plant glabrous.............:. Plant not wholly glabrous. Flowers small (1°™ or less broad). Stems virgate, fructiferous to the base. Stem leaves ovate-triangular... 9. Stem leaves oblong lanceolate IO. Stems branched from the base... 11a. 11b. Flowers large (more than 1°™ ee Leaves canescently pubescen Narrowly oblong or ae CALE a es 12 : 12a. a 5. andinum. : ardinum Hilgardi. « ddinum minutum. jliforme. Nelsonit. chamaenerioides. cam pestre campestre helianthemiflorum. campestre minus. cam pestre mixtum. rejractum. contortum. contortum flexuosum. contortum pubens. contortum Greenei. nitidum. arenicolum. hirtellum. micranthum. micranthum Jonesi. micranthum exjoliatum. bistortum. bistortum Veitchianum, 4The following species are not included in this table: S. angelorum (Wats.), S. plerospermum (Wats.), S. rutilum (Davids.). 56 BOTANICAL GAZETTE lyuny Ovate to orbicular........ Gey 23.- SS pirale. 13a. S. spirale viridescens. 13b. S. spirale clypeatum. Flowers white or rose color. Leaves glabrous or nearly so. Bark of stem shining and shreddy..... 14. 5S. decorticans. Bark of stem green. Capsules evenly distributed.........15. S. tortum. 15a. S. tortum Eastwoodae. Capsules interruptedly crowded...... 16. S. tortuosum. Leaves not glabrous. Viious or tomentose 3.4... 02:23. 2... 17. S. utahense. More or less pubescent but not tomentose. Capsules enlarged at base. Bark glabrous and shreddy.-..... 18. S. Boothii. ‘Bark hirsute, not shreddy.........19. S. Lemmoni. Capsule not noticeably enlarged at base. Branches paniculately branched ata ee Oe ace Sane EP et eae er 20. S. Hitchcockii. Branches simple above........... 21. S. alyssoides. _ ata. S. alyssoides macrophyllum. 1. S. ANDINUM (Nutt.) Walp. Repert. 2:79; Oenothera andit Nutt., T. & G. Fl. N. A. 1:512.—Not often collected but no dou of frequent occurrence from western Wyoming westward and no ward to Nevada and Washington, where it passes into 1a. S. ANDINUM Hilgardi (Greene), n. comb.; Oenothera Hilgar Greene, Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 10:42.—There is no possibility of maintaining this as a distinct species. No differences except a sligh greener hue and somewhat greater size in all of its parts is percep ‘ib These differences may well be due to the moré vigorous gro induced by the greater moisture and higher temperature in the of the variety. ) tb. S. ANDINUM minutum, n. var—A very diminutive related to S. andinum, with minute flowers, obovate petals, unequal stamens (the one set almost rudimentary), calyx tube wanting, and the capsule somewhat clavate, tapering to a cel. Specimens are pencil drawings, showing the above characters, made by Gro. ENGELMANN, and bearing the herbarium name Oenothera minuta. sibly future collections may show this worthy of specific rank. 1905] NELSON—ROCKY MOUNTAIN PLANTS 57 2. S. filiforme, n. sp.—A diminutive annual 3-5°™ high, with filiform stem drooping at summit, and the filiform leaves and capsules more or less secund; ciliate-pubescent throughout; the diminutive flowers yellow; tube of calyx wanting; capsules erect, straight, pubescent, filiform, 1-2°™ long. : Type in herb. Mo. Bot. Gard. from New River (Reese’s River), Utah, May 28, 1889. Collector not known. 3. S. NEtsontr Heller, Muhl. 1:1; S. minor A. Nels., Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 29:130.—Though Léveillé has seen fit to reduce this, a re-examination of the material at hand simply increases my belief in its validity. 4. S. CHAMAENERIODES (Gray) Small, Bull. Torr. Bot. Club aa: 189; Ocnothera chamaenerioides Gray, Pl. Wright 2:58.—This is a strongly marked species that seems never to be confused with any other. 5. S. CAMPESTRE (Greene) Small, Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 23:189; Oenothera dentata Wats., Bot. Cal. 1:216.—Variable as to the curvature of the capsule, which is often greatly flexed. The large- flowered form is most frequently collected and may be known as follows. j 5a. S. CAMPESTRE helianthemiflorum (Lévl.), n. comb.—This is the form of the species which is often distributed as Oenothera dentata grandiflora Wats. See plate in Lévl. Monog. opposite 178. 5b. S. CAMPESTRE MINUS Small, Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 23:1809; Oenothera dentata cruciata Wats., Proc. Am. Acad. 8: 594:—Often distinguishable from the species with difficulty. Its stricter habit, smaller flowers, and more glabrate stems are characters usually mentioned. 5c. S. CAMPESTRE mixtum (Lévl.), n. comb.—T wo specimens in herb. Mo. Bot. Gard. have been designated as forms mixta and permixta by Léveillé, Monog. 180. There seems to be no difference between them except the smaller flowers of the former. Since the former is a much older plant, it may happen that the later blossoms are small. Believing them to be the same, they are here given varietal rank. This variety may be known by the dark green, broadly linear leaves, which are dentate and very numerous, quite crowded and seemingly fascicled upon the short, spreading, or nearly prostrate branches. 58 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [you 6. S. REFRACTUM Wats., Proc. Am. Acad. 1'7:373.—Quite distinct and well-developed specimens are readily recognized. a 7. S. conrortuM (Dougl.) Walp., Repert. 2:78; Oenothera con : torta Dougl., Lehm. in Hook. Fl. Bor. Am. 1:214.—Why Level rejects this and a succession of available names, which he cites as_ synonyms, does not appear in his monograph. He figures a variety of O. bistorta (O. cheiranthijolia) as contorta Dougl., but even if he were right in thus referring the name given by Douc.as, there are : | yet several other available names. It still remains to be proven, Ay however, that S. contortum is not a valid name for Oenothera sige i losacT. & G.- Plots gre. 7a. S. CONTORTUM flexuosum, n. var.—Small, about 12™ high; — branches few, divaricate ascending, usually a pair near the base: leaves linear: flowers yellow; calyx tube obconic: capsule cylindri cal, sessile, linear, 2-3°™ long, variously curved, usually deflexed and again upturned, producing S-shaped forms: seeds smooth. en oe a, eS This was distributed some years since under the herbarium name S. flexw- osum. No. 4060, named as the type, was secured at Point of Rocks, June 16, 1898.. Other specimens are: Nelson, 4698, Granger, Wyo.; Jones, Deep Creek, Utah, June 22, 1891; Genoa (?), Carson Valley, June 17, 1889; Merrill an Wilcox, 602, Pacific Creek, Wyo. 7b. S. conroRTUM PUBENS (Wats.) Small, Bull. Torr. Bot. Club — | 23:189; Odcnothera strigulosa pubens Wats., Proc. Am. Acad 8:594.—Very diverse forms are distributed under this name. The _Ocnothera strigulosa epilobioides Greene, Fl. Francis. 216.—No a mens have been seen by me. 8. S. NitrpuM (Greene) Small, Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 23: 1995 Oenothera nitida Greene, Pitt. 1:70.—Perfectly distinct and not — to be, confused with any other unless it be with S. spirale, the — canescence of which serves at once to separate them. clasping by a subcordate base, 1-2°™ long; root-leaves as 1905] NELSON—ROCKY MOUNTAIN PLANTS 59 oblanceolate and tapering into a slender petiole; all of them hirsute with white spreading hairs: flowers axillary from the base up; calyx tube very short, the lobes lance-oblong, 3-4™™ long; petals broadly ovate-oblong, tridentate at the nearly truncate summit, about twice as long as the calyx-lobes, exceeding the longer stamens and about equalled by the pistil: capsules purplish, small and slender, less than 2°™ long, variously flexed and somewhat angled: seeds small, pale, smooth, usually oblique at base and obliquely pointed at apex. I name as type A. D. E. Elmer’s no. 3192, Monterey, Cal., distributed as S. micranthum. No. 5099, by C. A. Purpus, seems to be the same. 10. S. HIRTELLUM (Greene) Small, Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 23: 190; Oenothera hirtella Greene, Fl. Francis. 215.—LE&VEILLE in his mono- graph reduces this to a form of S. micranthum, but this does not seem to be justified by his specimens. 11. S. MICRANTHUM (Hornem.) Walp. Repert. 2:77; Ocenothera micrantha Hornem. Hort. Hafn.—That LE&vEILLE should take up the much later name O. hirta, and then reduce to this species such distinct forms as S. hirtellum, and S. Nelsonii, seems a little strange. However, he has described a very good variety which may be written 11a. S. MICRANTHUM Jonesi (Lévl.), n. comb.—Taking as the type the first number cited, viz. Hansen’s 543, Amador Co., Cal. 1892, I would name as a close duplicate C. C. Parry’s specimens (in the Missouri Botanical Garden) simply labelled ‘Oenothera. June 1889. Cal.’’ Blanche Trask’s Avalon specimen, cited by LEVEILLE, seems rather to belong with the species itself. It is quite probable that the species as it now stands is an aggregate. 11b. S. MICRANTHUM exfoliatum, n. var.—Branched from the base, the stems stoutish, the bark white, shreddy, and exfoliating in thin sheets, giving the plant the appearance of S. decorticans: pubes- cence of the stems ciliate, that of the leaves and fruits closer and somewhat appressed: capsules sharply angled, contorted. : I cite here the following specimens: C. R. Orcutt, Colorado Desert, April, 1889; C. A. Purpus, no. 5083, Erskine Creek, Cal., 1897. 12. S. Bistortum (Nutt.) Walp., Repert. 2:77. Ocenothera bistorta Nutt., T. & G. Fl. N. A. 1:508. 12a. S. Bistortum Veitchianum (Hook.), n. comb.; Oenothera bistorta Veitchiana Hook., Bot. Mag. pl. 5078—The characters : eae 60 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [yore which were supposed to distinguish this variety sufficiently from S. bistorta and to constitute it a species become less well-defined the larger the series of specimens. Even the greater length of capsule and beak seems to be a variable quantity. 13. S. SPIRALE (Lehm.) Fish. & Mey., Ind. Sem. Hort. Petrop. 2:50; Ocenothera spirale Lehm. in Hook. Fl. Bor. Am. 1:213.— Assuming it to be a fact that this Californian plant is distinct from S. cheiranthijolium of South America, the specific name as given by | LeHMAN in Hooker’s Flora is the next available one. 13a. S. SPIRALE viridescens (Lehm.), n. comb.; Oecenothera viridescens Lehm. in Hook. Fl. Bor. Am. 1:214.—If this be a good — species, it certainly is very difficult to distinguish from the preceding. It was given only varietal rank by Watson in his revision (Proc. — Am. Acad. 8:592), under the name suffrutescens—the woody base and possibly perennial duration, with the somewhat larger flowers, being the characters that he used. But even in these respects the species and the variety seem to grade into one another. 13b. S. SPIRALE Clypeatum (Lévl.), n. comb.; Oenothera cly peala Léveillé, Monog. Oenothera, ae Ditenzaishable by the broad, shield-shaped leaves which are densely canescent, and by the large flowers (often 4°™ across). 14. S. DECORTICANS (H. & A.) Small, Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 23:191; Gaura decorticans H. & A. Bot. Beech. Voy. 343.—SMALL _ | seems to be well within bounds when he assigns priority to the ~ name of Hooker and Arnot. The species, though apparently greatly variable, is so merely before it begins to blossom when qui . small, at which time it is smooth and erect. With age it becom large, more spreading, and roughened with the loosened shining shreddy bark. Warson’s characterization of the seeds as “cellular- pubescent” is a good one. 7 : 15. S. tortum (Lévl.), n. sp.; Oenothera chamaenerioides torla Lévl., Monog. Oenothera, 230; O. alyssoides minutiflora Wats. Pris Am. Acad. 8:591.—Branched from the base and spreadin becoming at length nearly prostrate; leaves glabrous, mostly basal, oblanceolate and tapering into slender petioles: capsules about 2 long, cinereous, variously contorted. L£VEILLE is right in allying this with S. chamaenerioides, but on habit al to say nothing of the fruits, it is entitled to a rank. 1905] NELSON—ROCKY MOUNTAIN PLANTS 61 Following are specimens illustrating: Jones, 5548, Manti, Utah; Nelson, 4691, Granger, Wyo.; Cusick, 2515, Malheur-River, Oregon; Trelease, 4435, Shoshone, Idaho; Nelson, 4707, Green River, Wyo.; Godding, Milford, Utah. 15a. S. TORTUM Eastwoodae, n. var.—Leafy throughout, the leaves oblong-linear: flowers very small: capsule tapering into a slender beak, spirally coiled at base. ; This is probably a good species. Only one specimen is before me: Alice Eastwood, Grand Junction, Colo., May, 1892. 16. 5. ToRTUOSUM A. Nels., Proc. Biolog. Soc. 17:95. 1904; Oenothera gauraeflora caput-medusae Lévl., Monog. Oenothera, 226. —LEVEILLE’s plate shows only a single branch from Lemmon’s specimens. 17. S. UTAHENSE Small, Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 23 :191.—Whitened with a tomentose pubescence, branching from the base upward, 15°™ or more high (the plants in hand are all young): leaves ovate, obovate, or oblanceolate, 2-4°™ long, generally tapering to a short petiole: flowers crowded in terminal somewhat corymbose racemes, white; calyx-tube longer than the lanceolate lobes; petals obovate, 5™™ long, longer than the stamens but surpassed by the pistil: cap- sule linear, less than 2°™ long, more or less contorted. _ The specimens before me were collected by L. N. Goodding at Milford, Utah. As the original description calls for yellow flowers I thought at first Goodding’s specimens were another species, but agreeing in most other respects I am going to assume that “flowers yellow” was a clerical error. 18. S. Bootam (Dougl.) Small, Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 23:191; Oenothera Boothii Dougl., Lehm. in Hook. Fl. Bot. Am. 1:213.— Seemingly seldom collected. ‘Typical specimens by L. F. Henderson, Shoshone Falls, Idaho, July, 1897. Many of the specimens referred to this species Belong to the next. 19. S. Lemmoni, n. sp.—Branched from the base up, 2-3°™ high, stem and branches rather stout, crinkled-hirsute; branches divari- cate-ascending: leaves rather large, variable in size, 2-5°™ long, oblong or broader, mostly acute at apex, lower tapering into petioles, hirsute-ciliate especially beneath: flowers in a crowded terminal short-hirsute raceme, lengthening into a bracteate fruiting spike; calyx tube but slightly enlarged upward, scarcely as long as its narrowly lanceolate lobes; petals broadly obvate or suborbicular, 62 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY about 7™™ long, slightly longer than the calyx lobes and stamens, equalling the style; stamefs similar and equal: capsule slender, tapering to summit, ascending, somewhat bent or contorted, about 2°™ long. This has passed as S. Boothit Dougl. Similar as the descriptions seem, the two plants are quite distinct in appearance. S. Boothit is glabrous and with shreddy bark on the older'stem; it branches mainly near the base, the branches also branching; its flowers are much smaller, and the capsules are shorter and more contorted. The type is J. G. Lemmon, no. 103, eastern flank of Sierra Nevada, Cal. 1875. Two good specimens, both in herb. Mo. Bot. Garden. 20. S. Hitchcockii (Lévl.), n. sp.; Oenothera gauraeflora Hitch- cockii Lévl., Monog. Oenothera, 226.—Softly hirsute or ciliate, branched from the base, 15-25°™ high; branches slender and more or less paniculately branched above: root leaves oblong, irregularly dentate, about 3°™ long, tapering into a petiole one-half as long; stem leaves smaller, bract-like, sessile, broadly linear or lanceolate: flowers crowded in bracteate secund racemes; calyx tube slender, scarcely enlarged at summit, as long as the linear-lanceolate lobes; petals white, obovate, 3-4™™ long, scarcely longer than the calyx. lobes and the stamens; style slender, longer than the petals: cap- sules slender, 12-18™™ long. This very excellent species rests upon two specimens in herb. Mo. Bot. Garden. One bears the data “Simpson Park, July 6th, 1859 (?),” and in pencil “nothing like it known to me;” the other is blank, but both look as if they were from the same collection. 21. S. aLyssorpes (H. & A.) Walp., Repert. 2:78; Oenothera alyssoides H. & A., Bot. Beech. Voy. 340. 21a. S. ALYSSOIDES MACROPHYLLUM Small, Bull. Torr. Bot. Club ' 23:192; Od0nothera alyssoides villosa Wats., Proc. Am. Acad. 8:591. - The following are, so far as the writer knows, still unknown except — from the original specimens and descriptions. So far as one may — judge from descriptions, they are valid and will no doubt again come to light. S. ANGELORUM (Wats. ), Oenothera angelorum Wats., Proc. Am. ; Acad. 24:49. : 1905] NELSON—ROCKY MOUNTAIN PLANTS 63 S. PTEROSPERMUM (Wats.); Oenothera pterosperma Wats., King’s Rep. 112. S. RuTILUM (Davids.); Oenothera rutila Davids., Erythea 2:61. COOPER’S COLORADO COLLECTIONS In the summer of 1904, Mr. WILi1AM S. Cooper, a student in Alma College, Michigan, spent some weeks in Colorado collecting in the vicinity of Estes Park and upon Long’s Peak. He secured over 300 numbers, many of them of great interest. The following I will characterize as new: Oreocarya pulvinata, n. sp.—Cespitose-pulvinate, practically stemless, the small cushions a few centimeters across and about 1°™ high; flowers as well as the leaves involved in the soft villous pubes- cence: leaves crowded, broadly linear, less than 1°™ long: flowers few, glomerate at the summit of the reduced stems (the stems scarcely rise above the matted leaves): calyx-lobes linear, nearly equaling the corolla tube: corolla white; its tube dilated, subspherical, about 2™™ long, the broad throat only partly closed by the conspicuous crests; the lobes of the limb suborbicular, about as long as the tube: - stamens small, included, inserted near the middle of the tube; fila- ment almost wanting: style short, rather thick, equaling the stamens. This species so closely simulates Eritrichium aretioides (before the flower stalks of that species have developed) that one would almost certainly pronounce it an Eritrichium at the first glance. The pubescence and pulvinate habit are similar, but a glance at the flowers does not leave one in doubt very long. e type material, no. 278, is very scanty, but so characteristic a species cannot be ignored.- Collected on Mummy Mts., Estes Park, Aug. 12, 1904, alt: 12-13,000*, Chrysopsis Cooperi, n. sp.—Whitened with soft loose long-villous pubescence throughout: stems low, spreading, more or less decum- bent at base, 10-15°" high, leafy throughout: leaves narrowly oblanceolate, tapering into a margined petiole-like base, from 2-5°™ long, middle and upper stem leaves usually longer than the basal: heads solitary, terminal and axillary; terminal head large, 12-14™™ high and considerably broader, subtended by some foliar bracts which are long-ciliate on the margins; axillary heads reduced down- ward, on successively shorter leafy peduncles, usually only the 2 OF 3 uppermost developing, the others becoming sessile and aborted 64 ' BOTANICAL GAZETTE [yuLy in the axils: involucral bracts narrowly linear, acute, midrib green and the margins scarious: rays 15-25, orange-yellow, ligule 12-15™™ long; disk corollas numerous, with very slender tube which is shorter than the narrowly tubular throat; teeth short, lanceolate, erect: pappus dingy, equaling the corolla: akene short-linear, minutely silky-pubescent. This is probably to be compared with C. alpicola Rydb. and C. Bakeri Greene, but it is far more silky-hirsute than either. It seems to be unique in the axillary heads, which though usually aborted can be detected in the axils nearly down to the base of the stems. Cooper’s no. 50, Long’s Peak, near timber line is the type; August 11, 1904. CHRYSOPSIS ALPICOLA glomerata, n. var.—Closely resembling the species and like it nearly devoid of basal leaves at anthesis: heads several, closely glomerate at the summit of the simple stems. Founded on Cooper’s no. 174, Estes Park, August, 1904. Aster Cordineri, n. sp—Spreading by horizontal rootstocks, dark green and seemingly glabrous to the unaided eye, under a lens minutely but very sparsely scabrous (mostly on the margins of leaves and involucral bracts): stems 3-64™ long, generally simple below, race- mosely short-branched above, decumbent at base and either widely spreading or nearly erect, often puberulent especially upward, very leafy: leaves broadly linear, crowded, spinulose tipped; primary ones — 4-7°™ long, 4-6™™ broad; secondary ones similar but smaller, more or less fascicled in the axils: heads solitary at the ends of the short — leafy axillary racemosely disposed branchlets, rather large: involucre — nearly 1°™ high, somewhat broader than high; bracts erect, glabrate, dark green on the spatulate-linear blade, lighter at base, spinulose tipped: rays 20-30, bluish shading to white: pappus rather coarse — and dingy: akene short-pubescent. A very characteristic species related to A. commutatus. Readily distinguished z pearance and the relatively few large solitary heads. _ racemose, only 3-5°™ long, and those on the stems, — » are assurgent and therefore secund in appearance. Sweetwater, Sept. 5, 1894, astic field assistant; the Aug. 11, 1904. 5 Mr, Cordiner was accidentally killed in 1 he was assisting. I name this plant in m by Mr. George Cordiner, the writer’s first enthusi- emory of a young life of great promise. The first was secured at Myersville, Wyo., on the — second is Cooper’s no. 151 (type) from Estes Park, : 895 by a falling wall at a fire where : aca a eee ia i 1905] NELSON—ROCKY MOUNTAIN PLANTS 65 Crepis alpicola (Rydb.), n. sp.—Caudex short, vertical, semifleshy: leaves glabrous, rosulate on the crown, linear-oblong or oblanceolate, acute at apex, sessile or tapering into a short margined base, entire or saliently toothed or even subruncinate, 3-6°™ long: stems scapose, simple, glabrous, with one or two linear bracts, 10-20°™ high, usually monocephalous: involucre about 14™™ high, dark green, clammy or glandular pubescent; its bracts in 3 or 4 successively shorter rews: ligules 2°™ long: akenes short, fusiform, shorter than the fine white pappus. This is probably C. runcinata alpicola Rydb., Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 24: 299, although the above description does not quite tally with the brief diagnosis of the variety. A reasonable amount of variation will account for any differences. It is to be compared, however, with C. riparia, because of its large heads and the gland-tipped pubescence on the involucre. It is distinct from that species in its small glabrous leaves, its one-flowered stems, its involucre of 3 or 4 rows of bracts, and its short fusiform akenes. Cooper secured it in an alpine meadow (11,000%) on Long’s Peak, Aug. 3, 1904, no. 218. MISCELLANEOUS SPECIES. Gilia exserta, n. sp.—Biennial, 2-34" high: stem single at base but branched from near the base upward; branches mostly sim- ple and moderately divaricate, almost equaling the main stem, minutely pruinose-viscid: leaves 2-5°™ long, somewhat pungent, linear, entire or simply pinnatifid, with few to several linear lobes: flowers in small bracteate cymes forming narrow panicles: calyx membranous, narrowly campanulate, about 4™™ long, merely prui- Nose; its teeth very short, green, triangular-subulate, and minutely pungent: corolla white, purple dotted, 1o-12™™ long, somewhat trumpet-shaped; tube surpassing the calyx; its lobes elliptic-oblong, acute, almost as long as the tube: stamens noticeably exserted; style scarcely so: ovules about 2 in each cell; seeds destitute of mucilage. The type is no. 538, by C. F. Baker, Pagosa Springs, Colo., July 28, 1899. It was distributed on GREENE’s determination as G. multiflora Nutt., which it certainly cannot be. It seems nearer G. stenothyrsa Gray of the section G1xt- RA (Syn. Fl). ~* Amelanchier oreophila, n. sp.—A low scraggy-branched shrub, I-2™ high, growing mostly in close clumps: young leaves, petioles, and twigs more or less lanate-pubescent, some of the pubescence Persisting till maturity, especially on the lower face of the leaves: 66 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY leaves ovate, obovate, or broadly elliptic, rather small, not more than 3-4°™ long even at maturity, incisely small-toothed from the middle to the obtuse or rounded apex, on petioles usually less than half as long as the blade: racemes short and dense: calyx-lobes subulate- triangular, lanate-pubescent on the margins and inner face, the pubescence persisting nearly or quite till maturity: petals spatulately oblanceolate, short (about 8™™): pome globose, purplish black, devel- oping but little pulp, and remaining rather dry and insipid, maturing late (September ?). This is a segregate from A. alnifolia Nutt. I think most collectors must have felt that either A. alnifolia was unusually variable or that some segregation ought to be made. After many years’ observation in the field and the study of a large series of specimens, I am satisfied that two valid species exist and can be readily distinguished. Nuttall’s A. alnifolia is the widely distributed glabrous shrub of the creek banks, moist cafions, and snow slopes. At maturity it is perfectly glabrous and is quite glabrous from the beginning upon the calyx lobes. The leaves are larger, coarsely serrate, often suborbicular or with a tendency to truncateness at base and apex. The petals are much larger (12-15™™ long). The fruits become much larger, are purple, with bloom, juicy and well flavored, are used extensively for sauce and pies, maturing during July or August according to the altitude. A. oreophila is a smaller shrub, scraggy-branched, usually in dense clumps, and occurring in the driest situations (open stony slopes, ridges, and hilltops). It 1s never wholly glabrous, and the fruit is of little if any value. Many other differences are brought out in the characterization. Much of the material dis- tributed from the Rocky Mountains belongs to this species. I may cite the following as at hand. ipa: Sta Serre nee mo = Co., July 6, 1903; ba Me Mii woe OE Ma ee een a ¢ ’ » A. AK. zie, 240, Breckenridge, Aug. 1991; ; €T, 55> 139) and 380, Plants of West Central Colorado, 1901. Wy0o- — oqiaes — 2954, apes May, 1897; 117, 6968, and 6985, Albany i. Point of Rocks. June he a Th 2 he my ile Merrell and Wilcox, 458 4 will probebly cf ae - = : e following are allied, but when better known « eee al es ae ee two other species: Baker’s Plants of Nevada, “e ? 7 N+ summers, specimens from Yamhill, Co., Oregon, _ » 1903. a n. Lee low shrub or more rarely a small eG Used y as ‘Sapa individuals rather than in clumps: ee RC gs rather slender and willow-like, gray except at — P: cf are purplish-black with an inconspicuous beady resin! — 1905] INNELSON—ROCKY MOUNTAIN PLANTS 67 most of the leaves elliptic in outline, incisely serrate, with rather small teeth extending to the middle or sometimes nearly to the base, nearly glabrous above from the beginning, lightly floccose woolly beneath when young as are also the slender petioles: inflorescence few- flowered, quite open in blossom and more so in fruit: calyx somewhat woolly-pubescent, its lobes deltoid-triangular, shorter than the tube, lanate on the inner face: petals narrowly oblanceolate, ig long: mature fruit not known, the half-grown fruit spherical. This will also have to be considered as a segregate from A. alnifolia, from which it differs noticeably in its elliptic leaves, the teeth of which are smaller and sharper and point toward the apex. The woolly pubescence of leaf and flower at once calls attention to this as distinct from the thick-leaved glabrous A. alnifolia. A. elliptica seems to be a species of wet places in the mountain parks and open stream banks. The species is again noticeable because of its few large flowers which are well exsérted from the leaves. It is as handsome a species when compared with A. alnifolia as is A. florida when compared with A. Cusickii. I take as the type L. N. Goodding’s no. 1447, Beaver a Larimer Co., Colo., July 4, 1903. The following also seem to belong here: G. 1036, “Milford, Utah, June 5, 1902; Baker, Earle, and Tracy, no. ‘197; Bob Creck, Colo., June 28, 1808; possibly the following also: Jones, no. 1447, City Creek cafion, Utah, June 5, 1880; Baker’s West Central Colorado Plants, rgot, nos. 47 and 260 (in my set distributed unnamed). THE Rocky Mountain HERBARIUM, LARAMIE, WYOMING BRIEFER ARTICLES. THE VIENNA CONGRESS. THE sECOND International Botanical Congress was held at Vienna, June 11-18, 1905, and was highly successful in every way. There was a large and unusually representative attendance, the list of members con- taining about 600 names. Deducting ladies registered with husbands or relatives, and the considerable number of amateurs from Vienna and the neighborhood, it is certainly safe to say that there were present nearly 400 professional botanists. Of that number nearly one-half would be known by name to any one familiar with botanical literature, and among these were many whose reputation is world-wide. Naturally Austria was most numerously represented, but Germany sent a large contingent, and nearly all the European countries were represented, except perhaps those of the Iberian and the lower Balkan peninsulas. The English were few—a half dozen at most. Sixteen American botanists were present: ARTHUR, ATKINSON, BARNES, BARNHART, BLAKESLEE, Britton (Mr. and Mrs.), Brown, CAMPBELL, CovILLE, DuGGAR, ROBINSON, SHEAR, TRELEASE, UNDERWOOD, and Woops. But American societies were sadly negligent, and many were unrepresented which might have delegated authority to some of the sixteen. The Congress was opened in the Festsaal of the University by WIESNER, with addresses of welcome by the minister of agriculture, speaking for the emperor; by the burgomeister, for the city; and by the rector for the university. BONNET, secretary of the Paris Congress, gave a historical statement of the organization of the present congress, and REINKE (Kiel) delivered an address on Hypothese, Voraussetzungen, Probleme in der In the afternoon the Nomenclature Conference organized in the hall of the Museum in the Botanical Garden by electing as president FLA- HAULT; as vice-presidents RENDLE and Mez; and three secretaries; received the report of the standing committees and of the Rapporteur général (BriQuEt); and adopted rules of procedure. The report of the Commission was presented as a quarto of 160 pages, having the text of the code of 1867 in the first column, the new formal proposals of various bodies in the second, notes by the Rapporteur in the third, and the text 68 [JULY - 1905] BRIEFER ARTICLES 69 recommended by the Commission in the fourth. This texte synoptique was the work of BriguET, whose arduous labors for the past five years thus made possible the revision of the rules of nomenclature by this Con- gress. His untiring industry, unfailing patience, uniform courtesy and impartiality, as well as his linguistic facility won the admiration of all. Afternoon sessions thereafter, from 3:00-7:00 or even later, were devoted to the discussions and actions of the fexte synoptique. Morning sessions and on some days also afternoon sessions, which were held in the lecture-room of the Engineer-Architects Club, were devoted to addresses upon special topics. Thus on Tuesday there were six papers on the development of the European flora since the Tertiary period; two introductory, on the geographical problems by Prack (Vienna) and the botanical problems by ENGLER (Berlin), while ANDERSSON (Stockholm) spoke specially for the Scandinavian peninsula, WEBER (Bremen) for the north German lowlands, DrupE (Dresden) for the mountainous region of central Germany, and Briquet (Geneva) for the alpine reigon. On Thursday the topic was the present position of the doctrine of photosynthesis, Mottscu (Prag) speaking of photosynthesis in chloro- phyllous and Hvueppe (Prag) in chlorophyll-free organisms, Kassow11z (Vienna) giving a short talk on photosynthesis from the standpoint of metabolism. After a brief intermission the general problems of regen- eration were discussed by GoEBEL (Munich), Lopriore (Catania) pre- senting a more special paper on the effects of wounding on regeneration of stems.and roots. In the afternoon there were papers by ARTHUR (Lafayette) on the classification of the Uredinales; by IstvANFF1 (Buda- pest) on the life history of Botrytis cinerea, and by PetrKoFF (Sofia) on the algal flora of Bulgaria. : - On Friday Scorr (Kew) spoke on the fern-like seed plants of the car- boniferous flora; Lotsy (Leiden) on the influence of cytology on tax- Onomy; and HocHREUTINER (Geneva) on the Botanical Garden at Buitenzorg. In the afternoon and on Saturday papers were mostly ecological: Beck (Prag), the significance of the Karstflora upon the development of the central European flora; Drupr (Dresden), suggestions for an agreement. upon the terminology of phytogeographical formations, and terminology used in the cartography of plant formations; W1LLE (Christiania), Schii- beler’s theory as to the changes which plants undergo in acclimatization at higher latitudes; Tanritjerr (St. Petersburg), the Russian steppes; TSCHERMAK (Vienna), the production of new forms by crossing; ADAMO- vic (Belgrade), phytogeography of the Balkan peninsula; PALACKY 70 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [JULY (Prag), genesis of the African flora;- Kurtz (Cordoba), the fossil flora of Argentina; BorsAs (Klausenburg), the stipas of Hungary; Hua (Paris), report on the establishment of a new international organ for the publica- tion of new names; SCHINDLER (Briinn), regulatory processes in the plant body in relation to cultivation. On Wednesday a meeting of the Association Internationale des Botan- istes was held, at which reports of the treasurer and secretary were pre- sented. The most important action taken, by an overwhelming majority, was the direction of the Executive Committee, as soon as the present con- tracts permit, to print all résumés in type of the same size, abandoning the attempted discrimination. The next meeting will be held in Mont- pellier in 1908. The new officers are WETTSTEIN, president; FLAHAULT, vice-president; the present secretary and treasurer were re-elected. he botanical exposition, under the auspices of this Association, occu- outskirts of the city. The horticultural exhibit was open only during the week of the Congress, but the other exhibits remained: for two weeks. There was an historical section, comprising books, atlases, original draw- ings, engravings, portraits, busts, herbarium specimens, instruments, and preparations of historical interest. This portion of the exhibits was limited to Austria, and naturally the most important contributors were the The largest section of the exposition consisted of modern appliances for instruction and research. With many of the instruments demonstra- tions were given daily (10-1 2). In this section were shown living cultures of algae fungi, and bacteria ; photographs of plants and plant-formations, ing of pupils there stands in the foreground of the dis- 093 5 experiments in plant physiology, which tanding of biological processes. Then come 1905] BRIEFER ARTICLES 71 models and preparations for elucidating the anatomical and morphological features. ...:. . ” This exhibit shows clearly how thorough and wise the courses are. The equipment puts to shame all of our high schools and nine-tenths of our colleges. The unique mechanical balances of NEMETz; the living algal cultures of the Biological Station in Vienna; the apparatus and methods of the imperial Seed-control Station in Vienna, and of the Imperial Forestry Station in Mariabrunn; and the display of pure cultures of fungi by the bureau established for this purpose by the Association Internationale des Botanistes (in Utrecht, in charge of Professor F. A. F. C, WENT) deserve special mention. The attempt of the Association to secure an exhibit of separates and works of many writers was practically a failure, only eleven sending papers. As a whole the exhibition was highly interesting and useful. The third meeting of the Freie Vereinigung der Systematischen Botani- ker und Pflanzengeographen also occurred on Wednesday, at which, in addition to a considerable list of papers, there was held a discussion on the introduction of a uniform nomenclature in phytogeography. On Friday the agricultural botanists came together in the imperial Station for seed-control, in the Prater. No papers were read, but discus- sions were held on several.topics, such as: methods of investigating sugar- beet seeds; weighing methods in determinations of germinative capacity; organization in seed-control stations; culture and study of barley; etc. The actions on nomenclature are too extensive to summarize, and only a few of the more important decisions can be mentioned here. The word laws is to disappear, rules and recommendations taking its place. The tules for nomenclature of ‘cellular cryptogams,” 7. e., the Bryophyta and Thallophyta, are remanded to a special commission of specialists, which is to present recommendations to the Congress of 1910, to be held at Brus- sels. In like manner a report on rules for the nomenclature of fossil plants is to be made by a Commission of paleobotanists. The word ordo (order) displaces cohors, recommended by the Commission for a group of families; but the American proposition to substitute phylum for divisio was lost. The date 1753 Linn. Sp. Plant. ed. 1. was adopted by a vote of 150 to 19. A vote on an article permitting laxity in the application of the rule of Priority to generic names, and providing for a list of genera to be main- tained en tous cds, Was 133 yeas, 36 nays. Later, Harms’s list of such genera (400 and over) was adopted by a vote of 118 to 37. This list had been referred to a committee composed of BONNET, Harms, BRITTON, RAIN, and BRIQUET, and was recommended (by a majority) for adoption. 72 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [yuLy Some amusement was caused by the proposal of two corrections by the author while the motion to adopt was pending. a ' The proposition to except some old family names for the rule requiring such names to be derived from an important genus was carried by only I01 to 62. The voting in regard to publication of a new species by plates and exsiccatae was confused, and the article was referred back to the Com; mission for editing. It is intended to exclude as valid publication ™ juture plates without diagnoses, and past plates (without diagnoses) which contain no analytic drawings. Citation in synonymy and accidental men- tion are also declared invalid as publications. It was agreed (184 to 2) to adopt the compromise reported by a conference committee requiring the name of a section or species when transferred to another genus, or the name of a variety when transferred to another species, to be preserved or re-estab- lished; but when the rank is changed the preservation of the name is optional, and if not preserved its later re-establishment is not permissible. This is accompanied by a recommendation to preserve the primitive name whenever possible. The vote on the use of double names (like Linaria Linaria) was unex- pectedly close; 116 against them and 72 in favor. Generic names differ- ing merely by their last syllable and even by one letter will be retained. Only typographic or orthographic corrections may be made in generic names. After January, 1908, diagnoses must be written in Latin; so a close vote, 105 to 88, decided on Friday. A vote to reconsider was made on Saturday but was lost, 125 to 56. The metric system is recommended, t, inch, line, pound, ounce, etc., should be rigorously excluded from scientific language.” Fathoms, knots, and marine miles likewise fall under the ban. Authors are requested to indi- cate clearly the scale of magnification of figures. ‘On the whole the action of the American point of view clature. Our European friends have not types, and the rules relati Congress was conservative from the Typtogams and fossil plants will doubtless be prosecuted with vigor. The Commission of Cryptogams consists of MIcuwta, LIsTER, LAUTERBORN, Gomont, Witte, N ORDSTEDT, WILDEMAN, SAUVAGEAU, » yet marks great progress toward a stable nomen- _ ee eee se Le ee ee ee ee Fa he ee eT ee ee 1905] BRIEFER ARTICLES 73 DeTon1, CHopat, FARLow, ARTHUR, Macnus, SAccaRpDo, PATOUILLARD, JACZEWsKI, MARSHALL-Warp, VUILLEMIN, ATKINSON, BRESADOLA, CLEM-. ENTS, GOLENKIN, Hua, Mam, ZAHLBRUCKNER, SCHIFFNER, STEPHANI, LeviEr, Evans, Carport, BROTHERUS, FLEISCHER, Mrs. BRITTON, SALMON, and a few others whose names could not be secured. Some others could profitably be added to the list. The entertainments, excursions, and visits to various institutions were humerous and attractive. A reception by the emperor was arranged, but the death of Grand Duke Josef on Tuesday estopped that, as well as a reception by the burgomeister at the Rathaus. Various long excursions after the Congress were provided, and all were sufficiently patronized to be undertaken. The Committee of organization and the various local committees are to be congratulated on the success of their arrangements. These quin- quennial international Congresses may now be considered a fixed feature of the botanical world.—C. R. B ANOTHER SEED-LIKE CHARACTERISTIC OF SELAGINELLA. Two sprctes of Selaginella (S. rupestris and S. apus) form embryos in the autumn which may resume growth after a period of rest. I left plants of these two species in a shallow box out of doors during the months of November and December, 1903. They were frozen and thawed several times during that time. In January the box was brought into the labora- tory, the plants watered thoroughly, and allowed to thaw gradually. At the expiration of three or four days, the vegetative parts of the plants indicated a resumption of growth. Upon examining the strobili, young sporophytes were found thrusting roots and cotyledons from the female gametophytes. Selaginella rupestris is the species which displays a reduc- fon in the number of Megaspores, which are retained throughout germina- on, and even until the young sporophyte is well advanced.—FLORENCE Lyon, The U niversity of Chicago. CURRENT LITERATURE. BOOK REVIEWS. North American Flora. SucH is the title of the most extensive systematic work hitherto undertaken in America. It is to contain all plants growing without cultivation in No America, which includes Greenland, Central America, Republic of Panama, and the West Indies, except Trinidad, Tobago, Curacao, and other islands off the northern coast of Venezuela, whose flora is essentially South American. The work is published by the New York Botanical Garden, with Professors L. M- Unperwoop and N. L. Britron as the committee in charge. The names of the advisory committee are ATKINSON, BARNES, CoULTER, CovILLE, GREENE, HALstepD, and TRELEASE. The plans for such a publication have been under consideration for a number of years, and such large cooperation has been secured that there is every assurance of a completed work within a reasonable time. The plan includes the publication of thirty volumes, each to contain four or five parts; and in this way any part of any volume can be published «s soon as it is ready. The volumes are assigned as follows: 1. Mycetozoa, Schizophyta, Diatomaceae; 2 to 10, Fungi; 11 to 16, Algae; 14 and 15, Bryophyta; 16, Pteridophyta and Gymnospermae; 17 to 19, Monocotyledones; 20 to 30, Dicotyledones. he first fascicle has been issued recently,: dated May 22, 1905. Its typo- graphical appearance gives abundant evidence of the great care that has been exercised in the selection of type and the arrangement of material. For example, the order with each species is the name and citation, description, ty distribution, and illustrations. The contents are as follows: Le a description of the order Rosales and a key to its twenty-four families; G. N. NasH presents Podostemonaceae, with five genera and ten species; N. L. Britton and J. N. Rose contribute the Crassulaceae, occupying the bulk of the fascicle, twenty-five genera being recognized (Oliveranthus, Corynephyllum, Cremnophila, — and Tetrorum being new) and 284 species (twenty-nine being new); Sedastrum, . A. RyDBERG presents Penthoraceae, with its single genus and species, and Parnassiaceae, the single genus containing thirteen species, four of which are new. The New York Botanical Garden and American botanists are to be congratu- lated upon the inception of this great work.—J. M. C. * North American Flora. Vol. 22. Part r. Rosales, Joun KUNKEL SMALL. Podostemonaceae, GEORGE VALENTINE NASH. Crassulaceae, NATHANIEL LORD BRITTON, JosEPH NELSON Rose. _ 8vo. pp. 80. New York: The New York Botanical Garden. 1905. Subscription price $1.50 for each part. ; 74 [yore pe locality, K. SMALL gives — Penthoraceae, Parnassiaceae, PER AXEL RYDBERG: — 1905] CURRENT LITERATURE 75 Studies in general physiology. THE APPEARANCE OF LoEB’s Studies in general physiology? should give new impetus to the already active research in regard to the factors which control vital phenomena. No one has emphasized more clearly the essential similarity existing between the protoplasms of the two kingdoms than has this writer, and the present work promises to be of great use to plant as well as to animal physiologists. These two volumes, of the Decennial Series of the University of Chicago, bring together in reprint the list of brilliant contributions which gave to the author his prestige in protoplasmic physiology. They consist of thirty-eight papers, published through various channels and in two languages, between the years 1889 and 1902. These are arranged in the chronological order of their previous publication, beginning with those on tropisms and ending with those on artificial parthenogenesis and on the irritability of muscles. Some of them have been somewhat shortened by the omission of repetitions which are unnecessary in the collected series; those originally published in German have been excellently translated into English by Dr. Martin Fiscuer, and considerable additional light has been thrown upon certain points by appended footnotes bearing the date 1903. The author and the physiological world as well are to be congratulated upon the attractive form of the publication. The volumes are printed upon a good quality of paper, and in type which is easily read. Illustration is by means of very clear figures in the text, and the citations of literature are where they should be, namely at the base of the page on which reference is made. The only cause for regret to be felt by the reader of these volumes comes from the thought of how much more valuable the work might have been had it but taken the form of a treatise on the physiology of protoplasm; for in such a form the author might not only have connected his ideas into a more available whole, but also would have been offered a better opportunity to give to the reader the benefit of his broader view of the suggestions arising therefrom.—B. E. Ltvinc- STON. NOTES FOR STUDENTS. ITEMS OF TAXONOMIC INTEREST are as follows: F. S. Ear.e (Bull. N. Y. Bot. Gard. 3: 289-312. 1905) has published 33 new species of West-American fungi and TQ new species of tropical (mostly Porto Rican) fungi.—J. K. SMALL (idem 419-440), under the title “Additions to the flora of subtropical Florida,” has published new species in Stenophyllus, Limodorum, Quercus (2), Phytolacca, Aeschynomene, Linum (2), Polygala (4), Phyllanthus, Croton, Stillingia, Chamae- shed Gaura, Proserpinaca, Adelia (2), Rhabdadenia, Jacquemontia, Helio- tropium, Lantana, Verbena, Scutellaria, Ruellia, Ernodea, Melanthera, and Carduus—P. A. Rypperc (Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 32:123-140. 1905), in his Ercan * Lors, Jacques, Studies in general physiology. Part I, pp. xiiit423. Part t TL, pp. X1+425-782. Decennial Publications, The University of Chicago 1905. . 76 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ruLy rath paper entitled “Studies on the Rocky Mountain flora,”’ has described new species in Machaeranthera (3), Xylorrhiza, Erigeron (7) Antennaria, Helianthus, Tetraneuris (2), Artemisia (3), Pyrrocoma, Tetradymia, Arnica, Carduus (5), Gaertneria, Crepis (5), Agoseris (5), and Taraxacum.—H. D. Houser (idem 139-140) has described two new species of Convolvulus from the western United States —-M. L. Fernatp and C. H. Knowtton (Rhodora 7:61-67. pl. 60. 1905), in presenting Draba incana and its allies in northeastern America, have described two new species.—C. K. SCHNEIDER (Bull. Herb. Boiss. II. 5:3 35-398 1995) has published a synopsis of the species of Spiraea (Euspiraea), recognizing 57 and describing 8 as new.—G. Linpav (idem 367-374), in his fourth paper on American Acanthaceae, has described a new genus (Diateinacanthus) from Honduras, and also 9 new species.—C. K. SCHNEIDER (idem 391-403, 449-464), in continuing his synopsis of Berberis, includes 53 species, 12 of which are new.— C. DECANDOLLE (idem 417-427) has published an account of the Meliaceae of Costa Rica, recognizing 23 species, 15 of which are described as new.—R. CHODAT (idem 481-506), in continuing his publication of Hassler’s Paraguay collection, has described a new genus (A porosella) and 16 new species of Euphorbiaceae. —A. W. Evans (Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 32:179-192. pl. 5. 1905) has described 3 new liverworts from Florida—Atice Eastwoop (idem 193-218) has described new western species of Clematis, Aquilegia, Myosurus, Horkelia, Astragalus, Vicia (2), Lathyrus, Thermopsis, Rosa, Heuchera, Lithophragma, Jepsonia, Arctostaphylos (2), Cynoglossum, Cryptanthe, Phacelia, Polemonium, Pentste- mon (6), Orthocarpus (4), Castilleia, Antirrhinum (2), Collinsia, Chrysoma (2), Raillardella, Hieracium, and Lessingia.—J. M. C. PROTEID SYNTHESIS in developing peas forms the subject of a paper by ZALESKI.3 In one series of expermients the ripening seeds were cut in halves and kept several days in either a dry atmosphere or one saturated with water. In either case the analyses of the seeds at the beginning and end of the expert ments showed that there was an increase in the proteid content and a correspond> — ing decrease in the content of asparagin, amido-acids, and hexon bases. When whole peas were used for the experiments, the analyses show that in place of the : derivatives. E. proteid synthesis was due to en gen equal that at the beginning of the exper” _ ment. ee __ ZALESKI’s study of the proteid changes in ripening seeds showed that thes¢ 3 ZALESKI, W. Beitrige zur Kenntniss der Eiweissbi i i en. , eissbildung in reifenden Samet Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 23: 126-1 32. 1905. 4 1905] CURRENT LITERATURE 77 organs contained proteolytic enzymes, and in a second paper* he gives the results of his study of the protease in ripening peas. Autodigestion experiments were carried out with freshly ground developing peas, with a powder prepared by drying the tissues at 35-37° C., and with a powder made from ground peas in a manner analogous to ALBERT’s acetone method for making zymase prepara- tions from yeast. Evidence of proteolytic activity was furnished. by analyses showing a diminution of the proteid as the digestions progressed. The enzymes of peas in the earlier stages of development caused a much more active proteolysis than those from the seeds in more advanced stages. This greater vigor of the enzyme of younger tissues is brought out in experiments showing the influence of strong sugar solution and of potassium nitrate. These agents had little effect on the progress of autodigestion with young peas, but caused a noticeable inhi- bition in the tests with older ones. The proteolysis is hurried by the presence of a trace of alkali, but retarded by stronger alkalis and by acids. The optimum temperature lay between 4o and 50° C. The enzyme acted vigorously on Witte peptone.—ArTHuR L. DEan. Miss Tames’ has tested the sensibility to differences of environment of several fluctuating characters in each of several species grown under more and less favorable soil conditions. Of the fifteen characters studied, fourteen agree with as those Presented, and not as an absolute measure of sensibility which would pemit comparison with the sensibility-coefficients for the same characters under other conditions. In the well-fed plants-the coefficients of variability for all the acters of a given species were found to be nearly alike, though the several Species differed markedly from each other in this regard; but in the poorly-fed Ri, the variability of the several characters was very differently affected, being some: : : ~~ times increased sometimes decreased. 4 ZALESKI, W., Zur Kenntniss der proteolytischen enzyme der reifenden Samen. . tsch. Bot. Gesells. 23:133-I4I. 1905. bo Tames, Trxe, On the influence of nutrition on the fluctuating variability of ©) Koninklijke Akad. Wetens. Amsterdam 7:398-411. #V. 1. 1005- 78 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [yuLy Miss Tammes® has also studied the periodicity in the occurrence of super- numerary leaflets in Trifolium pratense quinquefolium DeVries. She finds that there are two concurrent anomalies, namely, a division of the lateral leaflets and a division of the terminal leaflet. The former is much the more frequent and reaches its maximum development below the middle of the primary branches, while the latter reaches its maximum also on the primary stems but on the upper half near the inflorescence. Few supernumerary leaflets occur on branches of second; third, and fourth orders.—G. H. SHULL. - Luxsurc’ has presented some experimental data and a very able discussion to show that our views of the distribution of growth in geotropically stimulated organs, based largely on the experiments of SACHs, are no longer tenable. After applying more approved methods in a reinvestigation of the results obtained by Sacus and Nott especially, he finds it no longer permissible to regard any position as leaving the organ insensible to the geotropic stimulation. The thesis maintained by Nort that the normal vertical position of an organ furnishes it a condition of indifference to geotropic stimulation is regarded by the author ass striking example of the overestimation of the value of curvature reactions as indicators of the perception of stimulation by gravitation. The absence of @ curvature response by no means implies that the stimulus is not perceived. HERING’s results with inverted organs are regarded as rendering a perception in the erect position very probable; the absence of a curve means merely that an asymmetrical growth was not induced. The author advances the theory that se pense Sia by two different but as yet not separately concn foes ie “i ST operation involves an alteration in the bigs: i a, ma . etric stribution of growth, That favorable objects observed is regarded esa ap processes ordinarily combined may be separately sbiGs-dis a orice ck sth . The theory advanced is supported inate ao alge? or which a resumption growth is a prerequisité Wik oa es — % Fi in the Position of normal equilibrium, in uinhtNte Acts dak wnaccl 6 ae is to be distinguished from that in which 1 esis cat sae: that an asymmetrical distribution of gro besacuees 1s not induced.—Raymonp H. Ponp. Correns® has published ten letters written by Grecor MENDEL to CARL — period of MENDEL’s greatest activity in the study of hybrids GELI was the recognized authority on Hieracium hybrids in NDEL wrote him careful accounts of the progress of his experi i NAGELI during the (1866-1873). Na nature, and Mex © TamMeEs. TNE, Ein Bei . ; trag DeVries. Bot. Zeit. 62:21 1-225. 7 Luxsure, geotropistischen i aoa, Untersuchungen iiber den Wachstumsverlauf bei ef egung. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 41 >399-457. 1905. zur Kenntn’ss von Trijotium pratense quinquefolium — 1904. aia ac a a) a Sl ea 1905] CURRENT LITERATURE 79 ments, and also sent him much of his artificially produced hybrid material, par- ticularly of Hieracium. The letters were written with great care, and as they report many hybrids that were not mentioned in MENDEt’s published works, they are an important addition to the literature of hybridization. CORRENS has carefully annotated the letters and added two appendices, in the first of which he discusses the bearing of parthenogenesis upon MENDEL’s results in Hieracium, pointing out that these letters can leave not the slightest doubt that true hybrids were secured, but inferring from the constancy of the hybrid forms in successive generations that there is no reduction division, and that consequently, following STRASBURGER, we should speak of apogamy rather than parthenogenesis in Hier- acium. In the second appendix CorReEns considers the question whether sexual characters are inherited according to MENDEL’s principles, such a possibility having been suggested in one of these letters. After examining the various pos- sible assumptions as to dominance and the purity or the hybrid character of the gametes with respect to sex, he concludes that sex-determinants are fundamentally unlike the ordinary character-units and incapable of being satisfactorily explained by the laws of dominance and the segregation of parental gametes.—G. H. SHULL. LeEwis® has investigated the development of Phytolacca decandra, his main purpose being to follow the origin and fate of the endosperm, with special reference to its behavior during germination. The development of the microsporangium follows the usual course, the tapetal cells perhaps deserving mention in that they sometimes contain six nuclei, the average number being four. In the megasporangium one and sometimes two archesporial cells appear, and a tapetal cell is cut off. The endosperm grows rapidly, ‘‘forming a sac with a great central vacuole.” The nuclei lie free in the cytoplasm of the endosperm and always divide amitotically. The embryo sac finally becomes the extensive cavity char- acteristic of campylotropous ovules. Walls later begin to appear in the micropy- lar endosperm, the cells encroach on the central cavity, and finally the endosperm is completely cellular except for a mass of cytoplasm at the chalazal end of the sac. The embryo in its early stages consists of a well-developed suspensor and a many-celled, undifferentiated, spherical embryo. Starch is observed to accumulate in the perisperm, notably next to the concavity of the curved embryo, which disorganizes the endosperm almost completely. In germination the embryo elongates, and the radicle is pushed through the endosperm cap and the seed coat. The cotyledons continue to elongate until the stem tip is free, and the cells of the thick endosperm cap remain turgid, persisting ‘‘as a thick Ting of tissue clasping the bases of the cotyledons and stopping the opening made in the seed coat at germination.” —J. M. C. PU acres aoe Lewis, I. F., Notes on the development of Phytolacca decandra L. Johns Hop- Kins Univ. Cire. No. 178. pp. 35-43. pls. 3. 1995. NEWS. J. Franxuin Coxtis has been appointed assistant professor of botany at — Brown University. Dr. Kart Fritscw has been appointed professor of systematic botany at : the University of Graz. ; Durinc the last year 59,349 specimens were added to the Herbarium of the 1 New York Botanical Garden. i Proressor Apotr ENGLER will attend the meeting of the British Associa- 4 tion in South Africa, whence he goes to East Africa for further study of the flora. | Dr. RICHARD SADEBECK, professor of botany and director of botanical — museums at Hamburg, and well known for his work on pteridophytes and plant — diseases, died recently at the age of 64 years. J. N. Rose left Washington June 21 for the “cactus fields” of southem Mexico, expecting to be gone about four months. His purpose is to collect is j only herbarium specimens, but also material preserved in formalin and living — plants. i AT THE JUNE Convocation, the University of Chicago conferred the degree of ; Ph.D. upon H. Hassetprinc, the title of the thesis being “Carbon assimilation;” and upon Erorte B. Sons, the title of the thesis being “A morphological study _ of Sargassum filipendula,” | THE BOTANICAL SUBJECTS for the two annual Walker prizes in 1906 are se follows: An experimental field study in ecology, A contribution to a knowledge ~ of the nature of competition in plants, A physiological life history of a single species of plants, and Phylogeny of a group of fossil organisms. 4 P. PorsILp, the Danish botanist logical station on the island of Disco, western’ Greenland, latitude 70°. 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FROST £0. vo 25c. for Cotton, Boston, Mess., U.S.A Sample Pair ALWAYS EASY Every Gentleman Should Wear the Gordon Suspender 50c and $1.00 Ask your retailer forthe Have him procure youa pair from us or we will mail you a pair for 50c or $1.00, according to quality. The “Gordon” slides in the back. The only per- fect sliding web form. 32, 35, 37, and 40 inches. Mention size. GORDON MANUFACTURING CO. Box T. New Rochelle, N. Y. Made in four sizes— THE Moran Park Pisani of the University ot C hicago + whe re to go ? q 12mM0, paper; postpaid, 25 cents + - << # NEW J se | ER SEY | || The University of Chicago Pre # RESORTS ([#/|| chicsce: rei rwot + A Complete Catalogue of Publications Sent on pegs ‘ ‘ —— ‘ are popular, health- F —— 7 ul and reached 4 t : bist by ins $+ | ||| SPECIAL ANNOUNCEMEN $+ @ An invitati hite te me ‘ : pybuck priheny per extended to any Ww ; New Yo heit ¢, NEW JERSEY || || Misiskcversyo ms + White, arefen — ia igency og $ ENTRAL [g/l couenie hetonte $ “THE MODEL ROAD” » | ||| with private barn $3.00 cen uss cud op, ‘ ms out ween ok Bedraor and pri be ee ee @] ont A MBUE Rt = New ork Mereiants and Baiorearer = , 1 ¢ a = ee to C. M sf Buyers and subscribers - to this adverti * + GALLATIN HOTEL a t,t, ot. ot. te. ee rr ge: 5 rt 70 W, 46th Street Now vor Oi >. © a SHH EH pad 4 fan: & Lomb Microscopes are used in the majority of college hl you are having any trouble with the finish n your flo oors, or are not entirely pleased laboratories because they are the : best, optically and mechanics ally. with er appearance, it is certain you have not used LIQUID GRANITE, the finest floor finish and prices to schools. ever introduced Siskin ¢ Gite’po tough that, although the ( h em ical A D Dd rat S wood will dent under a blow, the finish will not ae = : Our stock of ch ] t crack or turn white. This is the highest achieve- cuniblete ine Selected by aly arek . : : +s . est care. is to sup ne yd ment yet attained in a Floor Finish, and is not thé hishest quality T arairetes a6 th likely to be improved upon. lowest cost consistent with Gaality “an : Y ur chemical glassware ane Finished samples of wood and instructive factured in our own factor pamphlet on the care of natural wood floors sent pent of jis a BALOG, a free for the asking, Spocte! apparatus catalogue schools on application. BERRY BROTHERS, Limitea, Varnish Manufacturers, Bausch & Lomb Optical Co. NEWYORK PHILADELPHIA ———GHIGAGO ST. LOUS Rochester, N. Y. BOSTON BALTIMORE CINCINNATI SAN FRANGISCO New York Boston Chicago San Francisco Pactory and Main Office, Frankfurt a/M. Germany ETROIT. Canadian Factory, Wehie. ONTARIO @ a edsememeeeses Sei a eae ea Through Pullman Service to Virginia Big Four C. & O. Route 0, they would have simpli- writing and left a much record of their time. Leaves Chicago 1:00 Pp. m. daily, ee © This Means “Good.”? © 46 4 ~ ONLY ONE NIGHT OUT.’’ ; ‘4s = In an early form of Egyptian writing 3 Res the pletograph above means ‘*GOO & All Meals in Dining Cars 2 Had olents been familiar wish F more nelr art All Big Four Trains stop at Mlinois tee: ntral 63d St. Station, Chicago, in a few minutes’ walk of the cago. Dixon's Am hey She University of Chica ty ys eee OSOZ ‘ON Omr13a7q su0xig [)\ 7 ee ge it y Kova dei n Chicago and Peoria con- €pot at ae enna with fon a &£0,0.&6,, L. & N. and 7 & 0. S. W. Railways Chi a wity Ticket Office ¢ Harrison 4620 ae *Phon eotiige » General Northern Agent, a FORTY. YEARS | of EDUCATION || Garbon Pape in the Piano business 1. We ought to know something about Pianos. FOR Others think so, for we do the largest retail Piano a business in the world. PEN a TW ts fi different makes of Pianos and h sees tse tadividnal Pi fl PENCIL {The prospective purchaser can make compari- W E sons here that would be impossible elsewhere. ‘as PE RIT R en, too, we can meet your views in regard to ; g 0 price, for we have Pianos from $125.00 up. A special lot of No. 1 quality, igh | We sell Pianos on such terms of payment that weight. purple Carbon Papéty no home need be without this necessary and ; oe a. 2.9 XI or 8%x1l artistic acquisition. weiss Ps ; A Good New Piano for Rent PRICES ; -OO0 per Month Prepaid to any part of United States 4 Let us send you our handsome Piano book. It 1 Dozen Sheets, either size . - 9 is free for the asking. Write today. 100 Sheets, either size . . + @ 500 Sheets, either size . +. + 5®) 1000 Sheets, either size . . + 7% S.D. CHILDS & CO: ———_——— STATIONERS———_ 38 ADAMS STREET, CHICAGO 200 Clark Street - CHICAG ee e—“ess A Great Combination for THIS SUMMER’S VACATION The Canadian Rockies the grandest scenery in the world—unapproachable in magnificence and majesty and The Lewis and Clark Centennial Expositi AT PORTLAND, OREGON This will be the popular trip this summer Through Service Between St. Paul and the Pacific Coast Send for handsome booklet « Challenge of the Mountains" ae CANADIAN PACIFIC RY‘: A. C. SHAW General Agent, Passen. : ; ger Department 232 South Clark Street CHIC g Ae ~ od “QUALITY REMEMBERED @* long after price is eo THe Onty Cocoa & CHocoLaTE OF WHICH THIS CAN TRULY BE SAID IS Say that YOURS isa STECK | The ‘‘Old Reliable’? Piano and you will have convinced any competent | | SOLD BY GROCERS & DRUGGISTS EVERYWHERE FF | a critic of the soundness of your judgment. Catalogue No, 10 free Warerooms, Aeolian Hall, 362 Fifth Ave. NEW YORK Se Lud = . DENTACURA —_- ‘ ‘FOLLOW THE FLAG”? WABASH] | Wee Toot! Summer Tours Differs from the ordinary dentifrice in. minimizing Write toda of WABASH rs rgnbey “ated the causes of decay. En- Book—i905, outlining ice dorsed by thousands of very attractive summer vaca- 5 r Dentists. It is deliciously On tr ; Eee eith renee ae flavored, and a delightful adjunct to the den- Wri May peg rm sari a3 eg tal toilet. In convenient tubes. For sale at contemplation. We shall be glad to assist you, drug stores, 25c. per tube. AVOID SUBSTITUTES DENTACURA COMPANY, Newark, N. J., U. 5- A. c.s CR cf] ANE GP, & 7, Agent, 8ST LOUIS, F. A. PALMER, A. G. P, Agent, Le) When you are tired and fagged out, and cannot go to the lakes, the fields and the woods, for new life and strength, use Pabst Extrad the ‘‘Best Tonic,” the concen- trated . goodness of rich, pure malt—the greatest health-build- er science knows. 25c at all druggists, Write for free booklet telling how Pabst Extract is made, and why you ought to have it in your ho Pabst Extract Department, Milwaukee, Wis. CHICAGO & From Any Point of View THE REMINGTON ‘[‘YPEWRITER IS THE BEST INVESTMENT It weer in winder ae aeliahiiy exce of THE CHICAGO & ALTO runs the largest passenger payne n the wor They keep the trains on time Between Chicago, St. Louis, Kansas City and Peoria REMINGTON TYPEWRITER CO. 325-327 Broadway, New York pe nt Dea ptability to a aise ses 0 work ease, speed and convenience ed operation, and economy in service. Geo. J. CHARLTON, a re Agent CHICAGO, Portland and Return: $110.00 $102.00 56.50 pW Ae E $53.50 Saved $49.50 Saved tena nce between the ordinary and the present “Lewis and Clark Cen- St. Loui nia a s f nd trip ween Chicago and Portland and between hee ae rtland o i ° i po. ly important is Ne peg 4 : these lower rates are for HE isd vet ieee deste i bee direct ro and jeunecnund —going one route, al very best of train service via El R Write to-day for a special Lewis and Clark folder. Butingtan OuTe | FS. race by Passenger Traffic Manager, __—— 9 Adams St., Chicago. Practical, Durable and Reliable BOX G.1i. BLOOMSBURG, ¥ PA. =r Preserve You Magazine Have them bound in Cloth or Leather. It will improve — the appearance of your Library at a small expendi- — ani , . The University of ~ PAUL EWI RT ae ae a awell- | F OUNTAIN P EN equipped job bindery and — will be pleased to quote prices + + + © Standard of Perfection; Unconditionally Guaranteed. . . ® Pr - All dealers, or Sees of 100 : The University of Chicago Bee ee Baking. Mfg. Dept. Bindery Chit THE Chirkerting is the DEAN of American Pianos Established in 1823 Manufactured the First Upright in 1 Originated 3 tiga Plate a int in the e now achieved a NEW TRIUMPH n QUARTER GRAND! A grand piano, 5 ft. long, 4 ft. 3in. wide. Remarkable for beauty of design, vaHT, quality ind Sustaining power of vali. SOLD FOR THE PRICE OF AN UPRI Chickering Pianos are made only by Chickering & Sons, Boston, and are sold in Ghicago only by CLAYTON F. SUMMY co. 220 WABASH AVENU CHICKERING, KURTZMANN, MATHUSHEK AND ies PIANOS We Sell all Pianos at Definite Prices of Publishers and Importers of Music :: Dealers in Music of the Better Glass :: We Publish a Number j Desirable Musical Works for School Use :: Send for Descriptive Circulars j THE PHELPS COMPANY 106 STATE STREET DETROIT, U.S.A. ee A Short Cut to Comfort Distance’’ HYLO The “Long (shown in ihe illustration) is sg for the man who Cords can be any 8 length desired. ) lt: ‘tatio welve styles of HYLO lamps, Send 1 ee = booklet “How r Meter,”’ A History of Matrimonial Institutions CHIEFLY IN ENGL AND AND THE UNITED STATES = BF George Elliott Howard Professor — Institutional ace se in the THE U PUBLISHED By NIVE CHICAGO RSITY O PRESS - His sibic ier n every University of N re pased on on the cient of all acces- 1storical, ae fn gan ouches lem inv = ed i opti ar conclus most h falli ene uman of all instit vf 48S of facts nowhere else abate a LUMES IN bugs ete ne Postpaid $10 atten OF CH and 156 Fifth Asc NEY YORK Let us prove what we claim at our expense There is only one way to prove any- ang sat a typewriter, and that is tual test of the iain itself é nat own office. That is what we want. every possible purchase gs a Fox Typewriter to do before he buy Ghee ote we say the Fox Typewriter can oper ig a from 25 to 100 per a ee oe unless we can show by thie ee that i you to reduce the cost of typewriting in your ere ive you a and save you a vast amount of worry about fener When we show you that, you are interested. We have proved this to some of the most peiebirce er. ci n the coun- try. Seventy-five per aires our sales are made under j ust pk sicausuioale If we can prove it to you, you want our machine Remember we prove end is our ex- pense. All you have to d Say you are satenaoelia no matter vik you are. Write us today. Fox J Jeewee Co. 560-570 eae "et. S Genin ok RAPIDS, MICH. Branches and Agencies in Principal Cities. The New Hammond Typewriter a eee For Alf Nations and Tongues and used by All Classes of People. THE BUSINESS MAN - Because the New Hammond is the Best Let Writer, Manifolder and Tabulator. THE SCIENTIFIC MAN - Because the Hammond has a practically unlimit range of service. THE LITERARY MAN - Because the Hammond allows the use of seve ( styles and sizes of type. THE LINGUIST —'..'. Because on one Hammond machine more twenty languages can be written. : THE LADIBG 5%, Because the Hammond has a beautiful Script and others in preparation. a EVERYBODY. ~ Because one Hammond will write anything ina style of type, language, or color of ink, on a size paper in any direction. ie THE HAMMOND TYPEWRITER GOMPANY — OTH STS., AND EasT River NEW YORK, N.! oes ncaaigig: BUFFALO LITHIA WATER No Remedy of Ordinary Merit Could Ever ; Have Received Indorsations from | Men Like These. O.L. Potter, A. M., M.R.C.P., London, Pinte a the Principles and Planes ye ‘Medicine and Clinical enna! in the College we eeeeg and Surgeons, San Francisco. r. Wm. H. Dru nd, raf Medical Jurisprudence, Pony University, Weared, Cana In Bright’s Disease and 2 ay eaiss website: 07 New H ySytus Edson, A.M, M. I d of Phar New York OF, iy an are TESITAEN oara oO as ewe or, Albuminuria City, Examining pina wooce Comittses2 John V. Sho D., LL essor Materia Preenanc Medice and T} hevapaice See wh Philadelphia \ y Dr. George Ben. Johnston, Fi a Va., E-x-President Southern Surgical and Gynecolo ogical Association, Fx-President —— Society of Va., and Professor of Gynecology and Abdominal urgery, Medical College of Va. a a ae ee a ee, Dr. A. Gabriel Pouchet, Pro ofessor of PRCCREPEL and In Stone in the Blad- Materia Medica of the Faculty of Medicine, Pari ’ Renal Calculi, Dr. J. T. LeBlanchard, Prof Montreal Cini SMSNW. U. Jas. M. Crook, A. M., M. D., Professor Clinical Medicine Infl and Clinical Dit New York an Graduate Medical School. ammation Louis C, Horn, M. D., Ph. D., ——— Diseases of Chit- ren a Poranttaleey, Baltimore Univer sity. Dr. J. Allison Hodges, President and Professor Nervous and Biadder Mental Diseases, Casaeetigs College of Medicine, Richmond, Va. bol Dr. Robert Bartholow » Professor Materia In Gout Medica and General hance Br i feo Diaticat College, Phila. Rhe : Dr. I. N. Love, Vew York City, Former pias rg? main on Children, College of Cag pnt and Surgeons, and in Marion Si College is Medicine, St. Lou Hunter McGuire, M. D. Ex-President American Uiie | Acid Medical Aiton Likte Protas i Professor Clinical Sur- gery, esintecis College of Medicine, Reckonoiet, a. Dr. Ale r B. Mott, of New York, Professor of Surgery, Belicoue Hower Medical College, Surgeon Bellevue Hospital. A eg ee Pe ee Soe ee ro ® Pistt telling what these and — other of the sham medical men of the day say of the value of ote treatment of these WATER #8 for ses sent to: at address. sis by the general Drug and Mineral Wat trade. 4 F ater ; ; PROPRIETOR BUFFALO LITHIA SPRINGS, VIRGINIA.: g 1780 Poe rand 1905 Walter Baker & Co.'s Chocolate hin & Cocoa Vep canes th easily di- A new and handsomely fiaguila Recipe ‘Book sent free. Walter Baker & Co. Ltd. Established 1780 HESTER, MASS, 45 cites Awards in Europe and America Kitchens, Bath-rooms and cellact can be kept free from odors and i ease germs by an occasional use of Chloride THE HOUSEHOLD ‘ fou! An odorless, colorless liquid, which destroys # : and Pacsbe-beeating matter. When 2 es ute eee ten Pe of water for household use, it costs less quart. Sold everywhere in quart bottles REPARED ONLY BY HENRY B. PLATT. New York & Monts ING. All great fu Make the bath a assimilate new lite. ATHLETES, to condition of the skin. the pores, promotes function of the body, digestion of the food. WOULD You Out. Wecan not und yourself— but the latt The safest Soap in ex See SUMMER SPORTS TENNIS, GOLFING, AUTOMOBILING, FIS | n, but all necessitate a visit to the es pleasure by using HAND SAPOLIO, a : only soap that removes all Scurf, casts off the constanty) dying outer skin, and gives the inner skin a chancel] keep in good trim, must look well to if To this end, HAND SAPOLIO shou be used in their daily baths. healthy circulation and helps ee from the action of the muscles to # WIN PLACE? Beclean, both in a ertake the former task—that lies W! ef We can aid with HAND SAPOL!O istence, f It liberates the activities ° ith Test it yourself. 5. 84 PI “a =e ery og : Pn eo AN OS; rinse ry We ack — ioatr Write for Catalogue D an , —- SE & SONS PIANO CO., 160 Boylston St., Bost? a AES meres ‘Vol. XL No. 2 THE OTANICAL GAZETTE August, 1905 Seen ee ee es OR ee a a ee ee Editors: JOHN M. COULTER and CHARLES R. BARNES CONTENTS Sporogenesis in Pallavicinia Andrew C. Moore Regeneration in Plants. I William Burnett McCallum On Proteolytic Enzymes Arthur L. Dean Contributions to the Biology of Rhizobia Albert Schneider Briefer Articles The Vitality of Seeds W. J. Beal Some Mexican Species of Cracca, Parosela, and Meibomia J- N. Rose and Jos. H. Painter A New Krynitzkia : J. M. Greenman Current Literature News The University of Chicago-Press CHICAGO and NEW YORK William Wesley and Son, London Any baby will Ne ge be happy after Nee a bath with Pears’ Soap. It is because Pears’ is a healing balm to all scalds and chafing which make baby uncomfortable and peevish. By the continued use of Pears’ Soap the tender a of the infant becomes as smooth and soft as velvet ’ aglow with health and beauty. | The reason is that Pears’ Soap is pure. It com no poisonous or ritating ingredients. It es " impossible for Pears’ Soap to be other than healt Of all Scented Soaps Pears’ Otto of Rose is the best All rights scoured The Botanical Gazette A Monthly Journal Embracing all Departments of Botanical Science Tdited by Jon M. Coutrer and Cuartes R. BARNES, with the Ser of other members of the otanical staft of the University of Chic Vol. XL, No. 2 Issued August 16, 1905 CONTENTS , pe NESIS IN PALLAVICINIA. ConrrreuTions FROM THE chee B WITH PLATES Ill AND Iv). Andrew C. Moor, REGENERATION IN PLANTS. I. Conrtrrsurions FR ULL Sgteotr eg Seeisteny XVI (WITH FOURTEEN FIGURES), Wi ‘liam "Bacett ‘Micotiee 97 ON eet ric ENZYMES. IJ. Arthur L. Dean = et Bee LIONS TO THE BIOLOGY OF RHIZOBIA. qV- VAN Two Coast Ranzoni OF VER ISLAND, B. C.'(WITH THREE FIGURES). Albert Schneider - OTANICAL Freon 135 BRIEFER ARTICLES, - THE VITALITY oF SEEDs. W. J. Beal. 140 Some? are Nake a OF CRACCA, PAROSELA, AND Memowta.. — N. Rose and Jos. j | neg SH? 143 A NEw cae ie M. Casiaan - - - - - = - - - 146 CURRENT a ay veh ala ‘BOOK % - < - < - - 148 E ORIGIN OF SPECIES AND VARIETIFS BY MUTATION. MINOR NOTICES - - $00 2 tered Par kee nag NOTES FOR skins - - - - - - - - eee 5 > EWS - . - - 7 . - - - - - = 160 ~ Communi Ge ceigae for the corescen should be addressed to them at the Universi ty of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. : r u oliow « ors \ e scientific and peyeatl oe with particular care and in citations pra the form shown in the pages of the BoTANICAL GAz ; , Must be o d in advance of public on. Twenty-five separates of origina it covers) will be furnished gratis. Additional copies and covers (if desired) will be te able below shows th pproximate cost of separates consisting of plain text or text with line The actual cost may vary from the figures given, upon = oun work gd Pages into forms, pres see Bor at binding, etc. Separates containing half-tones Sie ewhat more than the $s given, the increase depending upon the number of cu nt of otk required upon them Number of copies 50 | 100 | 150 | 200 r Press, for 4Pagesorless . , $1.30 $1.60 $1.80 $2.00 ewok 8 pages — Pics eS 2.20 2.50 2.80 riess. . -20 4.00 4.65 5.20 — with Plates ( doublons single) ors I.10 1.35 1.60 ttle (pape ie cover) . 1.20 1.60 2.00 2.40 ° SW ‘gumrond should be addressed to The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Ill. eo per year. Single copies 50 cents. Postage prepaid by rabiisliets for all sub- » Canada, Mexico, Cuba, Porto Rico, Panama Can Zone, 55 ge - Philippine Tslands, Guam, Tutuila (Samoa), Shan - os on, 75 cents for postage should be added to the subscripti filed on or before thirty days after the date of publication. ESLEY n, £1 4s per vear Larpeees included), should be remitted to Wr London, Eur a Age » 1896, at the Ses Office at as second-class matter, under Act of Congress, March 3, 1879. Copyright, a Bie the University of Chicago. ption Essex “ Strand, : 4 AN INDISPENSABLE Bol ii ae /) | FOR STUDENTS OF BOTAN Methods in Plant Histi: By alongs Jj. CHAMBERLAIN, Fit 4 f the Department of ae in the New Reflecting Cococrty of Ci i HIS BOOK c i i collecting and pres plant mez terial | for i mic rosce pic "vestigation toa Lantern TC: ete 1 n this subjec ect. iit crete tat i sid e atte r brilliantly projecting on the screen in rn fever Jena ,work eh cnt nec natural colors photos, engraving ude from the University. It aims, therefore, to meet the . colored prints, flowers,
- in ea: RLAIN. vi-+ 160 pp., 8vo, cloth; net, $1.5 Cpl, $1.59. “While it if not so complete in some ways as Zimmer- mann’s work of — students.. The matter is well arranged and jue: et Dr. 2 se -£$at h cereent wird,”— berlain’s book must prove useful in histo- logica al work in Totanial Aatiipaiteien in high schools and colleges.” —Scz ee in Pellia. y CHARLES J. CHAMBER- With three Iithowraphi Shela 18 pp., ia paper; net, 50 pos d, 54 cents. The paper Relations f re Vegetation on the Sand D of Lake Michigan. By Henry C. nape 118 pp., paper; net, 75 en , BRADLEY M. - 34 PPp-, 4to, paper; net, 75 cents; postpaid, 79 cents. as uteery of t angiosperms. By JOHN M. 4 r; net, 25 cents cae ae Ee ZOOLOGY rt wa of Colors and poe Patterns od np eopte it bservatio Development ot of op in Other “Or and of ee By WILLIA OWER, With = eoloren lithographic Soar 40 pp., = paper; net, $1.00; postpaid, $1.05. te Animal Ecology of the Cold Spring Sand ae sh: cpa on the Theory of es ap- nae By CHarLEs B. DAVENPORT. 2pp., ee Paper; net, - Resist postpaid, 55 piel ret Outlines for the Study of _ p38 Poe ey ape Chi ee and the ILLIE. oy cents: postpaid, dd! PPp-, paper; abe ee . is pk BA ACTERIOLOGY 6 f- cation of Streams. Se EpwIn ORDAN. With tw aps. PPp., 4to, a Paper; net, 25 cents; postinana: 27 ‘atk PHYSIOLOGY Studies in General Physiology. By Jacques LorB. In two parts. 830 pp., 8vo, cloth; net, $7.50; postpaid, $7.90. Physical Chemistry in the bea of the Sciences. by eyunpe Bus H. ’r HOFF. ‘Translated by ALEXANDER See xviii + ae pp-, 8vo, cloth ; net, $1.50; postpaid, $1.61. Lucid, terse, concentrated.”"— Knowledge and Scten- tif: 2A ews (Londo n), e volume is an unusually elegant on ich makes a song Sepeal to the boo acre: as par? as - te pe iat ’ —Jour et Bf ges Bam ype ices! Society. This eme eadable book.”—TZechnical 6° Die Tek pe "— Zeitschrift fur physthalische Chemie, A oe —y of are > eg try. HW. »> WA MAR H. Vili a ior a "feos =) te me $1 Psoe Peatbate, $1. NEUROLOGY auiaemegee rept pris By Ir ii + 184 pp., 8vo, cloth; vinc Har- net, $1.75; iti ‘3 85. si bebe hes not know any other book of its size that seems quite omplete and useful,”—/Journal of Apavicen Medical dssoct tation. * As hole, we know of no similar book which will be Pina 4 to the student of neurological technique.”— 2 pe Set Journal of Insanity. ‘As a succinct, but fio Sed comprehensive intro- duction and i fabor. oratory g uide to be her a's the book may be warmly recommen ed.” —Bri The no Structure of the Neurones in the Nervous System of the White Rat. by sacciasiens hates hepe four per se plates. 14 PP» gi paper; , 75 cents; postpaid, 79C¢ ANATOMY A eget ane of the Brains and Spinal Cords of Two Bro others, Dead of Hereditary eries in the Fam pod D e- . Sanger Brown. B WELLYS KER. With aS re ae and oe o, paper; net, $2.00; ‘* The article is es interesting to neurologists and a. pay t sh hows a 2 ofound insight and knowledge vii Maonted ge. A Adeamael it i an elaborate and "well-executed essay.” —Medical Recor The Distribution of Blood-Vessels in the Labyrin A Sinton een rofa a Domes- i Ee E. SHAMBAUGH. With 20 pp., 4to, paper; net, 29 be Fohh sims coed oo Glands of Brunner. By ¢ R. BENSLEY. With five plates. 50 hy Aes oe: per $1.00; ee ae $1.10. “1 __ THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS CHICAGO and 156 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK ANOTHER MONTH GONE ! and the little family in your cheerful home is still unprotected from the trials of financial stress if you should be suddenly taken away. Save them that trial. Save a little money which 108 goes for incidentals, and let it build a barrier wall ge? the attacks of want, when such protection is most neede The PRUDENTIAL can help you build that wall. It is no idle catch pha has inseparably linked the Prudential name with the roc Gibraltar. 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VOLUME XL NUMBER 2 BOTANICAL GAZETTE AUGUST, 1905 SPOROGENESIS IN PALLAVICINIA. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE HULL BOTANICAL LABORATORY. LXXV. Tn ee eR Re Cs fe ae ANDREW C. Moore. oe lO (WITH PLATES III AND Iv) THE presence of a quadripolar spindle in the division of the spore mother cell of Pallavicinia deci piens was announced by FARMER in 1893, and in 1894 he published his detailed studies upon the same plant. The most remarkable feature of these papers is the significance which the author attributes to a quadripolar spindle as a means for the simultaneous distribution of the chromatin to the four daughter cells which become the spores. According to FARMER’s account (5, 6), the structure in question is . developed quite early, before any evidence of approaching division is visible in the nucleus. Later the nucleus becomes lobed, and finally four chromosomes make their appearance. The number is increased by division to eight, which point off in pairs to the four lobes of the Spore mother cell. “A further doubling of the chromosomes occurs, So that four of these bodies . . . . go to form the nucleus in each Spore. The whole process is very much crowded up, the four-rayed. spindle persisting to the end; and even after the exodus of the chromo- Somes, traces of it can still be seen converging to the original center.”’ cc, . Presence of a quadripolar spindle is of itself not surprising, since tripolar, quadripolar, and multipolar spindles have been fre- quently described by various authors; but in every case these struc- represent early stages in the development of the achromatic and later become normal bipolar spindles. The peculiar 81 figure 82 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AUGUST interest attaching to the structure described by FARMER is the reported distribution of the chromatin simultaneously to the four daughter nuclei. If his observations and his interpretation of the spindle are correct, Pallavicinia occupies a unique position among plants and animals. s FARMER (7) sought through a study of other liverworts to throw further light on this subject. He found the quadripolar spindle present in Aneura pinguis, A. multifida, Scapania undulata, Fossom- bronia, and in other types of the Jungermanniales, but in no case did he find it persisting and functioning, as in Pallavicinia, in the simultaneous distribution of the chromatin. In these forms, accord- ing to his interpretation, the ends of the quadripolar spindle fuse in pairs and the distribution of chromatin takes place in the usual manner through two successive mitoses. While not directly con- firming his results on Pallavicinia, Farmer thinks the conditions found in these plants strengthen his position. He regards them as representing transitional stages between the normal type of division and the very unusual type which he reports in Pallavicinia. CAMP- BELL (I) and other authors generally have accepted FARMER’S account. Davis (4) from an investigation of Pellia was led to question Farmer’s conclusions. He regards the quadripolar spindle as. condition of prophase, and believes that it is always followed by two successive mitoses after the usual manner in the spore mother cell, each with a normal bipolar spindle. Farmer (8) is not willing to exclude the four-rayed figure from the spindle apparatus or to employ _ the term spindle in the restricted sense of Davis; but the main fea tures of the discussion are not the questions as to when the achromatic structure becomes a spindle and as to the limitation of this term as 4_ : matter of usage—points upon which authors may readily disagree. The fundamental differences between the views of Davis and FARMER lie in the history of the quadripolar spindle, and the method by which the chromatin in the spore mother cell is distributed to the four : spores. FARMER positively asserts that the quadripolar spindle — retains its form and that the chromatin is distributed Itaneously to the four daughter nuclei. Davis believes that the quadripolar spindle is a condition of prophase which is followed by two successive 1905] MOORE—SPOROGENESIS IN PALLAVICINIA 83 mitoses, each with bipolar spindles, by which the chromatin is dis- tributed in the usual way within the spore mother cell. Apart from the rapidity of the two mitoses and the prominence of a four- _ rayed achromatic figure in the prophase of the first, the latter author holds that there is no essential difference between the processes of sporogenesis in Pallavicinia and in other liverworts and higher plants. Davis (4a) further maintains these opinions in his recent review of the events of nuclear division within the spore mother cell. In view of the unusual character of FARMER’s results and of the fact that doubt has been expressed as to the accuracy of his observa- tions and their interpretation, I have undertaken an investigation of Pallavicinia Lyellii, believing that evidence obtained from the study of another species of the same genus would help in clearing up the disputed points. Some of my results (15) have already been published, and they do not confirm FARMER in his main contention, namely, the simultaneous distribution of the chromatin. Pallavicinia Lyellii is a cosmopolitan species which I have found growing abundantly near Columbia, S. C., and in the vicinity of Woods Holl, Mass. The young sporophytes make their appearance in the early fall and mature about the first of April. The material was fixed in chromo-acetic acid and stained with saffranin and gentian violet alone, or in the triple combination of saffranin, gentian violet, and orange G. Iron-alum haematoxylin was also used after the method of Haidenhain. Upon the whole the last-named stain has given the best results. The fibrillar structures are not so well brought out by it as by the gentian violet, but the chromosomes are much more clearly differentiated. The spherical resting nucleus occupies a central position in the distinctly four lobed spore mother cell. It enlarges considerably Preparatory to division and becomes somewhat angular, extending into the lobes of the spore mother cell. At the period of synapsis the nucleolus is conspicuous for its size and prominence (fig. 1), 43 1s also the confused tangle of chromatic threads. The spore mother cell is not so deeply lobed as Farmer (8) figures for Palla- vicwmia decipiens, and Davis (4) and CHAMBERLAIN (2) for Pellia. ARMER did not observe the spirem of Pallavicinia decipiens. In P. Lyellié it is exceedingly well-developed, and immediately after 84 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AUGUST synapsis is observed as a very definite linin thread in which deeply staining chromatic droplets (jig. 2) occur at intervals. This spirem is loosely wound in many convolutions through the nuclear area and shows no signs of fine anastomosing filaments uniting its parts. The nucleolus is not so conspicuous as in the preceding stages of synapsis. The spirem thread shortens and thickens and the chromatin granules become larger and less numerous (fig. 3). This process continues until the length of the whole thread is not more than that of the circumference of the nucleus, though it does not always occupy — a peripheral position. During the latter part of this shortening process, there is a crumpling of the thread and a crowding together of its chromatin granules. This condition is of comparatively short duration and it is at this point that I observed the first evidence of a double thread (figs. 4 and 5), The thread presently segments into eight chromosomes which lie scattered about in the nucleus in the form of a ring. These eight chromosomes are irregular in shape and frequently show with great clearness that they are not homogeneous masses, but made up of individual parts. I was at first in much doubt as to the number of parts, but subsequent study has convinced me that there are four, and that we are dealing here with tetrads. FARMER (7) shows very clearly by his figures of Fossombronia that he saw a similar arrangement. He says “sometimes four such aggregations could be seen in each chromosome, but the number was not sufficiently constant to afford very secure ground for theorizing.’ Howevel, he expresses the opinion that we have here a double longitudinal — split, in which the chromosomes are already prepared for the two succeeding divisions. : The tetrads are clearly shown in fig. 8. The appearance of several of the eight chromatic Masses suggests very strongly that they are made up of four parts, while the evidence presented by the on¢ — in the center is conclusive. Here there is present the ring form, — and the four elements of the tetrad are quite distinct. Several a7 the forms assumed by the tetrads are illustrated in fig. 10, viz., CTOSSES Ys, Ts, and rings. The fourfold nature of the group is most cleat — in the ring form. In jig. 10a the four daughter chromosomes of the : 1905] MOORE—SPOROGENESIS IN PALLAVICINIA 85 tetrad are shown entirely separated from one another. Fig. 11 illustrates another case where the daughter chromosomes of the tetrad are separated. In this figure the two groups are drawn in correct relative positions, the one showing an almost homogenous mass, the other four daughter chromosomes. The fourfold character of the chromatic masses is most evident immediately after the segmentation of the chromosomes. Very soon they become more compact, and while they continue to show irregularities in outline, up to the meta- phase of mitosis, they are not so evidently composed of four elements. Fig. 9 presents a stage somewhat later than jig. 8. I have not been able to determine the origin of the tetrads with any certainty. Fig. 6 would seem to indicate that the elements of the tetrads are formed previous to the segmentation of the spirem and that these in some way become properly grouped. The large number of chromatic elements, together with the differences in their size and shape in this figure, are no doubt to be correlated with the different degrees to which the aggregations have progressed in the formation of the tetrads. In fig. 7 the number of masses has been reduced, their size is approximately uniform, and the time has almost arrived for the segmentation of the chromosomes. Until the origin of these tetrads can be made out definitely, it would be useless to theorize concerning them. While the foregoing changes take place within the nucleus, the outer form of that body is altered. It becomes strongly lobed, often assuming a tetrahedral form, one angle projecting into each lobe of the spore mother cell. FARMER (7) describes a similar form in several of the Jungermanniales studied by him, and attributes it to a pull by the four centrosomes which he finds in the four lobes of the mother cell. In describing the process for Fossombronia he Says “the nuclear wall is not broken, ‘although it becomes greatly Pulled out beneath each centrosphere, and thus the quadripolar spindle is so far a nuclear distortion.” While the tetrahedral form is perhaps the most usual at this Stage, it is by no means the only one. Frequently there are more than four projections. Such a condition as is illustrated in fig. 12 would require the assumption of more than four centrosomes. In Many cases the lobes of the nucleus are rounded and do not indicate 86 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [Aucusr that they are caused by a pull upon the nuclear membrane (fig. 3). Besides, the membrane in sections can be seen to be wavy, showing that it is not under tension from a dynamic center. The lobing occurs long before fibrillar elements are visible, and if the assumption that fibers are the expression of lines of force be true, then such lines of force do not exist at this time, and hence the irregularities in the shape of the nucleus cannot be attributed to a pull by them. It would seem much more probable that they are due to an amoeboid _ movement of the nucleus. It is well known that the nucleus of — certain cells possesses this power, and observers have noted the phenomenon in living cells. It has also been noted that there is — in a Measure a correspondence between the shape of the nucleus — and that of the cell to which it belongs. When the cell is much — attenuated the nucleus is greatly elongated. In jig. 28 is shown a resting nucleus from an elater of Pallavicinia. Miss MERRIMAN (14) discusses this question in relation to the differentiation of tissues _ from the meristem in the root tips of Allium and attributes to the nucleus the power of amoeboid motion. KorscHELT (12) describes — in the egg of the water beetle Dytiscus a nucleus with pseudopodia~ like processes extending out into a mass of granular food particles: As previously stated, the resting nucleus of the already deeply lobed spore mother cell is spherical. In preparation for division — the great changes which take place in its size and in the charactet of its contents must be connected with great metabolic changes going on within it. The materials necessary for the supply of tis — demand must come from the cytoplasm, which in this case consists Of four masses occupying the four lobes of the spore mother cell, and the reaching out of the nucleus for food might tend to produce a tetrahedral form. Bes 1905] MOORE—SPOROGENESIS IN PALLAVICINIA 87 FARMER does not discuss the origin of the achromatic spindle, evidently regarding that as a matter of minor importance as compared with its later behavior in his account of the simultaneous distribution of the chromatin. The study of the origin and development of the achromatic structure of Pallavicinia Lyellii is attended with consider- able difficulties, owing to the large number of chloroplasts in the cell. However, it seems to conform in general to the type described by Davis (4) for the corresponding phase of Pellia. He finds that kinoplasmic caps form over the lobes of the nucleus and extend down over it, finally forming fibrillae which enter the nuclear area. In my preliminary note (15) I described a similar process for Pallavicinia. I found aggregations of kinoplasm at the angles of the nucleus, and out of this material fibers are formed, which extend down over the protruding portion of the nucleus. FARMER (8) has recognized in one of my figures representing this stage the same structure as his quadripolar spindle. In P. Lyellii this structure is never so prominent as that described by Farmer, but his figures do not distinguish clearly the spindle fibers from the nucleus. My preparations show a decided lobing of the nucleus, but with very slight indications of differentiated fibrillar . protoplasm over the lobes. I find no astral rays and no evidence whatever of the existence of centrospheres or centrosomes. DAvIs (4), CHAMBERLAIN (2), and GrécorrE and WycaAeErts (9) find asters and kinoplasmic caps well developed in other periods of ontog- eny, but do not find them so prominent, if at all; in the spore mother cell. Farmer indeed does not mention the presence of asters’ in Pallavicinia, nor does he figure them. Davis (3) in his investigation of Anthoceros was the first to question the presence of centrosomes in the spore mother cell of liverworts. My studies lead me to hold similar doubts and to believe with him that the spindle fibers in the spore mother cells of liverworts develop independently of centro- somes, so that multipolar stages in spindle formation may be expected, as OsterHout, Morrier, and Jvet established in 1897 in the pteridophytes and spermatophytes. CHAMBERLAIN (2), who studied the germinating spore of Pellia with special reference to the centrosome problem, describes a peculiar structure in the form of a vesicle fitting over the end of the nucleus, usr Be 88 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AUGUST and in this he is confirmed by GREGOIRE and ” ie i This vesicle, which he interprets as a H auischicht, reso = a p fibers and furnishes at least a part of the material for the _ a do not find such a vesicle separate and distinct from the ee ‘membrane, but I find strong evidence that the nuclear — itself becomes resolved into fibers. This view is ie a with the generally accepted theory of the nature of a p ee brane, and the evidence is presented by such pa ~ shown in figs.12-14. In fig.12 we have a nucleus whic a plane shows a number of prominent lobes. A few fibers are a over one lobe, and at several other places the nuclear cavity ved apparently bounded by a weft of fibers. These are either a t from a layer of kinoplasm which closely invests the nucle from the nuclear membrane itself. The fact that the a membrane disappears as these fibers come into view would lend : p to the latter supposition. In jig. 1 3 fibers are shown over one a of a nucleus which is very much elongated, and in jig. 14 _ aa be seen at both ends of a similarly elongated nucleus. In the a : case the nuclear membrane persists in several places, a a merge gradually into the fibrillar condition. The fber a conform to the irregularities of the surface, giving strong indica that they are derived from the nuclear membrane. ee HarPer (10) has shown a close relation between membranes ae ‘fibers in Erysiphe, where, in free spore formation in the ascus, thé fibers which mark out the boundary of the future spore fuse side 5 brane. The nuclear membrane is gener : side to form a plasma mem ally believed to be of kinop achromatic spindle. Evide to the other may be ea Soon after the appe increased, but I have lasmic origin, and so are the fhe ntly then, the transition from t ae sily accomplished. 1905] MOORE—SPOROGENESIS IN PALLAVICINIA 89 At the completion of the achromatic spindle, the chromosomes are found grouped in a ring at the equatorial region of the structure. Figs. § and 9 show the arrangement of the chromosomes at this stage. Fig. 15 gives a side view, slightly oblique, of the chromosomes at metaphase of mitosis. Five chromosomes are in view and the other three are hidden or have been removed by the razor in making the section. I have not been able to make out satisfactorily the details of the separation of the daughter chromosomes. The distribution is effected very quickly, for great numbers of nuclei in metaphase have been observed and a great many in telophase, but very few in anaphase. Little indication is given as to the exact manner in which the separa- tion takes place. A few instances of chromosomes as they are pulled apart are shown in fig. 17. The appearance of the chromosomes indicates beyond doubt that they are plastic bodies subjected toa pull, and that they are being halved; but what real relation this distribution bears to the original tetrads is left in doubt. In fig. 18 we have shown anaphase in which the chromosomes are somewhat scattered upon a very broad spindle. There are five near each pole and one almost half way between. It is evident that the remaining chromosomes are upon another section. During telophase the chromosomes are found arranged in compact rings at the two poles. When one end of a spindle abuts on a dividing wall between two lobes, the ring at that end sometimes lies very close to this wall, partially surrounding it (fig. 19). There is no resting stage between the first and second mitoses. The chromatic elements of the nucleus do not resolve themselves into a reticulum and the chromosomes do not lose their individuality. The rings of chromosomes which have been formed at the telophase of the first division merely alter their positions, so that their planes lie at right angles to one another. It is evident from jig. 20 that the chromosomes come in contact and form a thick spirem, but do not lose their identity. This is the nearest approach to a resting stage I have been able to find, and I believe it is unusual for the reconstruction of the nucleus to proceed even this far. No nuclear membrane is formed at the end of the first mitosis and no cell plate is laid down. In a few instances granules were seen across the equatorial portion 88 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [aveust and in this he is confirmed by GrécorrE and WyGAERTS (9). — This vesicle, which he interprets as a Hautschicht, resolves itself into fibers and furnishes at least a part of the material for the spindle. I do not find such a vesicle separate and distinct from the nuclear ‘membrane, but I find strong evidence that the nuclear membrane itself becomes resolved into fibers. This view is quite compatible with the generally accepted theory of the nature of a plasma mem- brane, and the evidence is presented by such appearances as are shown in figs. 12-14. In fig. 12 we have a nucleus which in one plane shows a number of prominent lobes. A few fibers are visible — over one lobe, and at several other places the nuclear cavity i apparently bounded by a weft of fibers. These are either derived — from a layer of kinoplasm which closely invests the nucleus or from the nuclear membrane itself. The fact that the nuclear membrane disappears as these fibers come into view would lend force — to the latter supposition. In fig. 13 fibers are shown over one lobe of a nucleus which is very much elongated, and in fig. 14 they may be seen at both ends of a similarly elongated nucleus. In the latter case the nuclear membrane persists in several places, seeming t0 — merge gradually into the fibrillar condition. The fibers appear 10 — conform to the irregularities of the surface, giving strong indications — that they are derived from the nuclear membrane. ae HarPER (10) has shown a close relation between membranes and fibers in Erysiphe, where, in free spore formation in the ascus, the fibers which mark out the boundary of the future spore fuse side side to form a plasma membrane. The nuclear membrane is gener ally believed to be of kinoplasmic origin, and so are the fibers of the : achromatic spindle. Evidently then, the transition from the oné to the other may be easily accomplished. 2 Soon after the appearance of the first fibers, the number is greatly increased, but I have not been able to determine the origin of - remainder. The completed spindle is bipolar, and may be pointed (fig. 15) or blunt (fig. 16). The ends may terminate near OF abe distance from the cell wall. It happens frequently that one end extends into a lobe of the spore mother cell, and the other abuts 0? the infolded wall between the two adjacent lobes which stand oppo a it, a producing a very much flattened pole or even a forked ont (fig. 16). see 1905]. MOORE—SPOROGENESIS IN PALLAVICINIA 89 At the completion of the achromatic spindle, the chromosomes are found grouped in a ring at the equatorial region of the structure. Figs. 8 and 9 show the arrangement of the chromosomes at this stage. Fig. 15 gives a side view, slightly oblique, of the chromosomes at metaphase of mitosis. Five chromosomes are in view and the other three are hidden or have been removed by the razor in making the section. I have not been able to make out satisfactorily the details of the separation of the daughter chromosomes. The distribution is effected very quickly, for great numbers of nuclei in metaphase have been observed and a great many in telophase, but very few in anaphase. Little indication is given as to the exact manner in which the separa- tion takes place. A few instances of chromosomes as they are pulled apart are shown in jig. 17. The appearance of the chromosomes indicates beyond doubt that they are plastic bodies subjected toa pull, and that they are being halved; but what real relation this distribution bears to the original tetrads is left in doubt. In fig. 18 we have shown anaphase in which the chromosomes are somewhat scattered upon a very broad spindle. There are five near each pole and one almost half way between. It is evident that the remaining chromosomes are upon another section. During telophase the chromosomes are found arranged in compact rings at the two poles. When one end of a spindle abuts on a dividing wall between two lobes, the ring at that end sometimes lies very close to this wall, partially surrounding it (fig. IQ). There is no resting stage between the first and second mitoses. The chromatic elements of the nucleus do not resolve themselves into .. reticulum and the chromosomes do not lose their individuality. The rings of chromosomes which have been formed at the telophase of first division merely alter their positions, so that their planes lie at right angles to one another. It is evident from fig. 20 that the cae = in contact and form a thick spirem, but do not hie been O88 aie ne - ay nearest approach to a resting stage I ee i... : , Soe eve it 1s unusual for the reconstruction formed at the « cae . this far. No nuclear membrane is pga 2a of the frst mitosis and no cell plate is laid down. ces granules were seen across the equatorial portion oe i go BOTANICAL GAZETTE [aveusr ‘ of the spindle, but the process of forming a wall seems to go no further; : indeed, it very seldom proceeds to this point. That the second mitosis succeeds the first very closely is attested — by the fact that examples of both divisions are frequently found :, in the same capsule. The spore mother cells of a given capsule are in division at the same time, though not exactly in the same phase — of mitosis. Occasionally cells are found which lag considerably : behind or precede the majority in division. Such cases are of great — value in determining stages with certainty. . The spindles for the second mitosis make their appearance very : suddenly, and I have not been able to determine their origin. They — are quite strongly developed, and as a rule are longer and narrower “ than the spindles of the first mitosis. The passage from the meta phase to the telophase is almost as rapid as in the first division, and no additional evidence is afforded as to the manner in which the — chromosomes separate. Fig. 21 illustrates metaphase of the two — spindles, showing a polar and a side view. In this example the poles — of the spindles are sharply pointed. In fig. 22, which represents a0 anaphase, the poles are blunt. The chromosomes pass rapidly to the poles and are grouped at the two ends in rings (igs. 23 and 24). : At this stage the fibers are very prominent in transverse sections of the 1 spindle (jig. 24). ‘ Soon after the chromosomes have passed to the poles, gran make their appearance upon the equatorial region of the spindle (/ 24). These become divided and a cell plate is laid down between them (jig. 25). Meanwhile the nuclear membrane is formed andt chromatic elements pass over into the reticulum characteristic of t resting state. - Finally, the new cell plates unite with the folded walls the lobes and the separation of the spores is complete (/ig. 26). =e contiguous walls split apart and the spores become free. Th next increase in size, becoming almost spherical, and the wall thickens and is finally marked with delicate points (fig. 27). The spores do not germinate in the capsule as do the spo! Pellia. Soon after being shed, they increase greatly in size, stretc the wall, as is clearly shown by the separation of the points Up? surface. After the cell has attained a size several times that 1905] MOORE—SPOROGENESIS IN PALLAVICINIA gI original spore, the first mitosis of the gametophyte generation takes place. I have not been able to contribute much to a knowledge of the behavior of the nucleolus. It stains like the chromosomes most of the time, and when the latter are differentiated it becomes difficult to identify the nucleolus with certainty. During synapsis the nucle- olus is a very large and conspicuous body (fig. r). It is not so large during the later spirem stages, but still quite prominent (figs. 2 and 3). At the time the spirem is ready to segment, the nucleolus shows a slight difference in staining reaction from the chromosomes. With the saffranin and gentian violet combination it takes slightly more gentian violet, and with the iron-alum haematoxylin it stains less intensely than the chromosomes. At this time it shows signs of fragmentation (jigs. 6 and 9g). Various theories regarding the constitution of the nucleolus have been advanced: one that it is achromatic and contributes to the forma- tion of the spindle; another that it is chromatic and contributes to the formation of the chromosomes. WAGER (18) in a recent paper attributes to it important functions in the organization of the chromo- somes and in the transmission of the hereditary substance. Its staining reactions would seem to ally it more closely with the chro- matic elements of the cell. If the nucleolus plays a part in the forma- tion of the achromatic spindle in the first division of Pallavicinia, it certainly does not in the second, since there is no reconstruction of the nucleus and the nucleolus is not reformed. Upon the whole the evidence, though by no means conclusive, indicates that the nucleolus in Pallavicinia may be regarded as contributing to the chromatin. ARMER (6) states that there are four chromosomes in Pallavicinia decipiens. In P. Lyellii I find eight as the reduced number in the spore. The count is very easily made when a polar view is obtained, and the compact form of the chromosomes makes the task an easy one. The chromosomes are in most favorable position for counting when viewed from the poles during metaphase and early telophase, as the figures clearly show (figs. 8, 9, 21, 23): In fig. 23 it will be observed that there are nine chromosomes. in one group. It is possible that the sister group would show only seven. In the same figure, upon the conspicuous spindle which is. 92 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [avcust cut longitudinally it is uncertain to which group the chromosome ~ lying near the middle belongs. F ig. 18 shows that the chromosomes do not always pass simultaneously to the poles, and it is possible that the distribution is not always equal. TI have frequently been able to _ count only seven chromosomes in a group, but such evidence is uncer tain, since there is always the possibility that one has been removed by the razor in making the section. In case the number exceeds. | eight the difficulties are fully as great, since there is always the possi: bility of a tetrad being broken apart. It is true that in such an example the size of the bodies is some check, but still there is great : uncertainty. Also the nucleolus, which as has been stated stains as the chromosomes, is to be reckoned with, if the count is made ata stage when that body is present. However, I believe that while the — number of the chromosomes is normally eight, occasionally a variation” from this number will be met, due no doubt to an unequal distribution — during division. : The number of chromosomes in the sporophyte is undoubtedly : sixteen, though I have not made an actual count. Figs. 29 and 30 — Tepresent the two parts into which a single cell of the seta has been — cut. It will be observed that the spirem is just segmenting into the — elongated chromosomes; two nucleoli are still visible (fig. 29). The count cannot be made with absolute certainty, but the number 5 — approximately sixteen. Fig. 31 shows one section of an early telo- phase from a cell of the seta. There are seven and eight chromo somes at the respective poles. The other section of the same cell shows about the same number of chromosomes in each group, P the masses are too confused to admit of an accurate count. I have observed figures in dividing spermatogenous cells, and here the number of chromosomes is without doubt sixteen. It seems desirable to point out that my final conclusions agre in all essentials with my preliminary paper of 1903, and are in conflict with FARMER’s views in the fundamental feature of his accoult taneous distribution of the chromatin the four daughter nuclei through a quadripolar spindle. It is per : fectly clear from my studies that the chromosomes in Pallavi ims 3 Lyellit are distributed by two successive mitoses, each with well: defined bipolar spindles, and that the chromosomes are organized I ce eS Oost Ee UR Sy Ra Be 1995] MOORE—SPOROGENESIS IN PALLAVICINIA 93 as tetrads just before the first mitosis. The achromatic structure which corresponds to FARMER’s quadripolar spindle appears during the prophase of the first nuclear division, and is followed by clearly defined bipolar spindles of the two successive mitoses with no evidence of accompanying centrosomes. The events of sporogenesis in Palla- vicinia Lyellii present then no fundamental differences from those of other liverworts and higher plants, the chief peculiarity being the rapidity with which the second mitosis follows the first. SUMMARY. 1. The resting nucleus is spherical in shape and centrally situated in the spore mother cell. The spore mother cell is deeply four- lobed at an early period in its history. 2. During synapsis the nucleus, containing a large and conspicuous nucleolus and a contracted chromatic thread, enlarges and becomes irregularly lobed. 3. There is a distinct spirem stage in which a clear cut linin thread bears deeply staining chromatin granules. The thread shortens and thickens and at the same time the granules become larger and less numerous. 4. The first evidence of a double spirem is observed just previous to the segmentation of the thread. 5. The spirem segments into eight tetrads, which may be in the form of rings, Xs, Ys, Ts, or irregular masses. 6. While these changes are taking place within the nucleus, the membrane becomes strongly lobed. Frequently, though not always, the form of the nucleus is tetrahedral, the angles projecting into the - respective lobes of the spore mother cell. 7. There is no direct evidence of centrosomes or centrospheres and the indirect evidence is against their presence. 8. The lobing of the nucleus is due to amoeboid motion in response to nutritive stimuli. 9. The achromatic spindle originates in kinoplasmic caps to which the nuclear membrane contributes material. 10. The distribution of the chromatin is effected through bipolar spindles in two successive mitoses. 11. There is no resting stage between the first and second mitoses. 94 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [aucust 12. The two bipolar spindles of the second mitosis are strongly | developed and stand at right angles to each other. = | 13.. After the second mitosis, cell plates are formed and the nell . pass into a condition of rest in the usual manner. _ 14. The spores do not germinate in the capsule before its rupli as do those of Pellia. 15. The nucleolus is more closely allied to the chromatic than to the achromatic material of the nucleus. 16. The number of chromosomes for the gametophyte is eight and for the sporophyte sixteen. This investigation was conducted under the direction of Professor . BRADLEY M. Davis, to whom I desire to acknowledge my indebt edness for valuable criticism and suggestion; as well as to Professor Joun M. Courter and Dr. Cuartes J. CHAMBERLAIN. SoutH CAROLINA COLLEGE, Columbia, S. C. LITERATURE CITED. _ CampBeLL, D. H., Mosses and ferns. London, 1895. 2. CHAMBERLAIN, C. J., Mitosis in Pellia. Bot. GazETTE 36:29-51- PMS: al 7 I2-I4. 1903. : 3- Davis, B. M., eet ion mother cell of Anthoceros. Bor. GAZETTE 28: 89-108. Pe rs , Nuclear nase on 1 Pellia. Ann. Botany 15:147-180. pls. 10-1 Igor. — 4a. , Studies on the plant cell. American Naturalist 38:727-73?- 1904- 5- Farmer, J. B., On the relations of the nucleus to spore-formation in certail liverworts. Pine Roy. Soc. London 54:478-480. 1893. 6. , Studies in Hepaticae: On Pallavicinia decipiens Mitten. An Botany 8: 35-52. pls. 6-7. 1894. : 7. , On spore formation and — division in the Hepaticae. Ann | Botany 9:469-523. pls. 16-18. : 8. ———,, On the interpretation of sha omdipslas spindle in the Hepatiat. i. Bor. iseer a7: 63-65. 1904. " : 9- GrécorrE, V., and Wycaerts, A., La reconstitution du noyau et la forma tion des sliceucaceied dans les cinéses somatiques. I. Racines de Tril- 2 lium grandiflorum et telophase homeotypique dans la Trillium cernuut. La Cellule 21:7-76. pls. r-2. 1 10. Harper, R. A., Kerntheilung und ivele Zellbildung im Ascus- be Wiss. Bot. 30: arte pls. t1-12. 1897. BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XL PLATE III ho \ w ¢ 7. " ¥ Wien / A 4 PR ce er }) SOY SS) RS y | h pe ; — ar wy tz ce : WY > ( ‘ Oy =) ! F 7 \ bes 7 / Y . a 7 A : Co g' e f=) | oH . eZ \ \ nN) Oe / | ) { ONY ff SW / 12 S 16 bho NY ” MOORE on PALLAVICINIA BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XL PLATE IV MOORE on PALLAVICINIA 1905] MOORE—SPORGGENESIS :-IN PALLAVICINIA 95 11. Juet, H. O., Die Kerntheilung in den Pollenmutterzellen von Hemero- callis julva und die bei denselben auftretenden Unregelmissigkeiten. Jahrb. s. Bot. 30:205-226. pls. 6-8. 1897. aes E., Zur Frage nach dem Ursprung der verschiedenen Zellen- elemente der Insectenovarien. Zool. Anz. 8:581-586, 599-605. 1885. Lawson, A. A., Origin of the cones of the multipolar spindle in Gladiolus. Bor. Gaserte 30:145-153. pl. 12. Ig00. 14. Merriman, M. L., Vegetative cell-division in Allium. Bort. GAZETTE 37:178-207. pls. -11-F3. 1904; Moors, A. C., The mitoses in the spore mother cell of Pallavicinia. Bor. GAZETTE 36: 384-388. figs. 6. 1903. Mortierr, D. M., Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Kerntheilung in den Pollen- mutterzellen einiger Dikotylen und Monokotylen. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. La N Lal > rs 84 al an 7: . V., Ueber Entstehung der ee Spindel bei baukcims Tahu: Wiss. Bot. 30:5-14. pls. 1-2. 1 Wacer, H., The nucleolus and nuclear division in ee root apex of Phase- olus. es Botany 18:29-55. pl. 5. 1904. ca ~JI oe) wn pa 1g eg -& Re = 1 " EXPLANATION OF PLATES III AND IV All figures except jig. 28 were made with a Zeiss 2™™ apochromatic objective and a no. 12 ocular. Fig. 28 was made with the same objective, but with no. 8 ocular. A Bausch and Lomb camera lucida was used for all drawings. In jig. 2 - all the plastids of the cell are shown; in other cases only those immediately sur- rounding the nucleus. Fic. 1. Enlarged nucleus of spore mother cell in early stage of preparation for division; the nucleolus is conspicuous and the appearance and arrangement of the chromatin indicate the condition of synapsis. Fic. 2. Spirem condition, showing linin thread loosely wound with deeply staining chromatic droplets at intervals. Fic. 3. Thicker and shorter spirem; chromatic droplets fewer and larger; lobes of nucleus distinctly rounded. Fic. 4. Spirem further shortened; chromatic droplets crowded together; the thread appears double. Fic. 5. Ends of spirem thread, showing that it is double. : Fic. 6. Aggregation of chromatic droplets just previous to segmentation of chromosomes; probably time of tetrad formation; the nucleolus seems to be fragmenting. Fic. 7. Later stage than fig. 6. Fic. 8. Equatorial plate stage, showing group of eight tetrads. Fic. 9. Equatorial plate stage, later than fig. 8; tetrads not so clearly defined; nucleclus feagmienti ing. 96 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ave Fic. ro. A group of selected tetrads, showing rings, crosses, Ys, and Ts; tetrad resolved into its elements Fic. 11. Neighboring tetrads of an equatorial plate; in one the — character is clear, while in the other it is obscured. y Fic. 12. Prophase of first division; nucleus many-lobed; fibers over ie i largest lobe and at other places on the altars of the nucleus. Fic. 13. Spindle organizing for first division; spindle fibers piominels 0 q one end, approaching bipolar condition. 2 | Fic. 14. Bipolar spindle of first division; nuclear membrane resolving in q “ar fibers. 15. Oblique side view, metaphase of first division; end of 2 Fic. 16. Metaphase of first division, showing one very flat and one forked pol Fic. 17. Dividing chromosomes. Fic. 18. Anaphase of first division, showing chromosomes scattered. Fic. 19. Telophase of first division, showing grouping of chromosomes ; rings at the poles. Fic. 20. Beginning of reconstruction of daughter nuclei at completion of division; the a do not lose their identity and no nuclear membrane is formed. : Fic. 21. Metaphase of second division, showing side view of one spindle polar view of the other; in the side view the poles are seen to be pointed 4 the polar view eight chromosomes appear. Fic. 22. Anaphase of second division, showing blunt poles. Fic. 23. Telophase of second division, showing nine chromosomes in the view of one of the spindles. Fic. 24. Telophase of second division, showing beginning of cell plate spindle and transverse section of fibers in the other. Fic. 25. Formation of cell plate. Fic. 26. Completed spores with resting nuclei and separating wall . Fic. 27. A single spore which has increased in size and has at toed and roughened wall. Fic. 28. Resting nucleus of elater. Fic. 29. Segmenting spirem of cell from seta of sporophytes ie chromosomes FI. 30. Bisaiotes of the same cell, showing seven additional ch making sixteen in all; chromosomes differ in shape from those of ° spore mother cell. Fic. 31. Early telophase of cell from seta; only half of the cell there are eight chromosomes at one end and seven at the other; the né¢ section makes it evident that the total number is sixteen at each en REGENERATION IN PLANTS. I. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE HULL BOTANICAL LABORATORY. LXXVI. WILLIAM BURNETT MCCALLUM. * (WITH FOURTEEN FIGURES) INTRODUCTION. THE term regeneration has come to be used by most botanical writers with a broad and somewhat indefinite application. Its essen- tial feature, however, is the replacement of an organ or structure that has been removed. This is accomplished in a variety of ways. PRANTL (9) first found and later Srmons (11) determined more accu- rately that if the tip of a root be cut off not more than 0.75™™ from the end there is a complete restoration of the part removed, a new tip forming out of the tissues at the cut surface. GOEBEL (3) p- 503) has shown that if the young apex of the frond of Polypodium be cut in two lengthwise, the remaining embryonic tissue on each piece will completely reform the half that has been removed. The same is true of the growing point of a fern prothallium, although the older parts are not replaced. These phenomena are quite homologous with regeneration as it occurs in animals. If we cut off the root tip somewhat farther back, however, a new tip is not organized at the cut surface, but behind it one or perhaps more new root primordia are organized, and these take the place of the main root. Or if we cut off transversely a portion of the thallus of Marchantia or Lunularia (12), the tissues at the cut surface will not develop, but there will arise from apparently mature and differentiated cells back of the cut new outgrowths of thallus which again will complete the plant. If the shoot with all the buds be severed from the root of Tar- axacum, new shoots will arise lower down from the mature tissues . = cortex. Many fleshy roots have this capacity, and if cut into peng of pieces each will organize new primordia and develop j . lf the young stem of Convolvulus, Linaria, and other plants aa cut off just below the cotyledons, there will arise on the sur- 97 98 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [Aucust face of the hypocotyl outgrowths which develop into new shoots. These shoots also arise from mature cells which in the normal course of events remain as permanent tissue. Nor is this power of organ- izing new shoot primordia confined to the stems and roots, but is also possessed by many leaves, as in the well known cases of Begonia, . Bryophyllum, Cardamine pratensis, Tol- miea Menziesii, and many other plants roots. In a few cases, as in Salix, there may exist on the stem primordia already organized, but in the great majority of of the stem of Salix be cut out from the rest and kept moist, there will appear 0 it both roots and shoots, each arising, however, from buds already laid down. In the axils of the leaves of many annué® shoots are very minute bud primordia, which normally do not develop. If the . . | (fig. 1). Many stems, probably the majority, if removed from the root sy _ tem and kept moist will produce new stems these are not present. If a portion Fic. x top of the plant be cut off, these at on form new shoots. In our trees shrubs the buds formed in the leaf axils do not develop until o : following year; but if at any time during the spring the tip fe young shoot be removed, a number of these buds, usually those neal the top, at once develop shoots. | : We have in these cases at least three seemingly diverse phenomeni: (x) the part removed is entirely restored by the growth of the cells immediately at the cut surface; (2) there is no growth of embryomt tissue at the wounded surface, but at a greater or less distance pes It the organization of entirely new primordia which develop organs that replace those removed; (3) the organ removed, e. g., the § . 1s restored by the development of already existing dormant buds Between these no hard and fast lines can be drawn, for they all exhibit intergradations, and between the third case—the development ‘ latent buds—and normal vegetative growth no sharp separation | 905] McCALLUM—REGENERATION IN PLANTS 99 be made, for occasionally in some species, e. g., Salix, the axillary buds on the first year’s growth instead of remaining dormant until the following spring will develop at once into shoots. It will be quite apparent that as regeneration merges so insensibly into ordinary vegetative growth, the necessary limitations as to the use of the term must be entirely artificial. Prerrer (8) restricts the term to those cases where an organ directly replaces that portion of itself that has been removed; all others he would call mere repro- duction. GOEBEL, Kress, MorcAn, Ktsrer, and most other writ- ers on the subject, give it a broader meaning, so as to include the replacement of parts or organs, whether by means of entirely new growths, or from the development of latent buds. The advantage in having some general expression to cover all these phenomena, and the fact mentioned by Morean, that they all accomplish the same result and are probably due to the same cause, make it @ matter of convenience to use the term in its wider application. Fe : A certain amount of confusion has arisen because it has not been kept clear that regeneration is not really different from ordinary vegetative growth. Most plants naturally tend to grow and branch indefinitely, the new members arising usually in definite places, the shoot primordia, for example, in the embryonic parts of the shoot, and the root primordia ordinarily in the younger regions of the root. The fact that this is the general rule has led to an unjustifiably ngid limitation of the origin of new members to specified regions. As a matter of fact, the ability to produce new members is distributed throughout the plant body, and in many even of the higher plants almost any part is able to produce any other vegetative part. Nor is this ability limited to embryonic parts, for in very many plants it 's exercised by the older cells, as in the production of shoots on roots of Taraxacum or on leaves of Begonia. That certain conditions are Necessary to bring this latent ability into activity does not make it in the least different from ordinary vegetative growth, for the latter also is dependent on definite conditions. The whole plant body of mosses and liverworts, and many roots, stems, and leaves of the vascular plants have this capacity, and it Tequires only the proper conditions to become manifest. In spite of the extensive investigations into this question, ranging 100 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AvGust as they have throughout the greater part of the plant kingdom, out knowledge of what these conditions are is very obscure. We know little enough of the external factors concerned and almost nothing at all definite about the internal ones. When a part of the plant body is removed, many factors are secessarily disturbed. The nut: trive conditions may be profoundly altered, as also may be the water relation. The influence of the wound itself may be impor tant, and independent of these the mere absence of the organ may in itself be of fat reaching influence. How far any of these may be responsible for regeneration is nol clear. Various theories have been proposed, but none have as yet been supported by adequate experimental evidence. Intimately associated with this problem of regeneration is that of polarity, for almost invariably the new structures occur in such a manner as to exhibit this remarkable phenomenon (fig. 2), and if we can deter mine the exact cause of the appearance © roots or shoots in an isolated piece of Salis stem, for example, the reason for thet development at certain places only may be apparent. At present we are blocked @ the outset by not knowing, at least undet most circumstances, the stimulus whi incites their development at all. a In conducting some investigations this —_ subject it soon became evident that the bes! Fic. 2 method of attack would be to take all the possible factors and work on them 5] J rately, subjecting each, one at a time, to a more exact physiolog analysis. The effort was made to determine whether the pr cause in any given case of regeneration is a necessary part of | | i : A | | ‘ j . ; ; f° stimulus, by endeavoring to devise conditions under which the rege" ation could be induced to occur in its absence. By this proce off they developed. Though less than a 1905] MCCALLUM—REGENERATION IN PLANTS IOI exclusion the essential factor might be isolated. Experiments were conducted on Phaseolus, Salix, Helianthus, Taraxacum, Tolmiea, and other plants. If the common scarlet runner bean, a variety of Phaseolus mul- tiflorus, be cut off any place along the epicotyl, there arise from within the cotyledons two shoots, which grow vigorously and may attain the size of the normal plants (fig. 3). Sometimes, however, one of these may grow weakly, or even be entirely suppressed. These arise from two minute primordia which are present, one in the axil of each cotyledon. Of the many hundred plants under observation scarcely a case was seen in which these primordia developed without the removal of the shoot, and in every case in which the stem was cut millimeter in length, in three or four days after the stem is removed they appear above the cotyledons, and in a week are often 6°™ long. Growth is then very rapid, and in a month they may be 60 or 70°™ high. In the axils of each of the foliage leaves on the plant there is, as usual, a bud. These under the con- dition of my experiments rarely developed. If the plant be allowed to grow until the second internode is formed, and this be cut off, these dormant buds in the axils of the leaves at its base will at once become active and give rise to two shoots; or if the plant form several internodes and the upper one . be removed, the buds of the nodes below (not necessarily the first one) at once will develop shoots. Here we have one of the most common phenomena in regeneration, namely the removal of a part stimulating to development what would otherwise be dormant primordia. But this same removal or isolation of a part is followed by the growth of organs where their primordia Fic. 3 102 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [avout do not exist; for if the stem of the bean be severed from the root system and kept moist, new roots appear along the stem. Similarly, when many roots and leaves or other parts are cut away, new shoot primordia are organized from cortical or other tissues, and it seems quite probable that the same stimulus which starts the development — of many latent primordia will in many cases where they are absent — incite their origin from already differentiated tissues. What now are the possible factors operating in these cases? The various theories and possibilities suggested fall naturally into — a few general classes: (1) wound stimulus; (2) disturbance in nutri tive relations; (3) changes in water content; (4) accumulation a certain places of definite formative substances; (5) correlation; (6) relative age and degree of maturity of the different parts of a membet; and (7) growth tensions. Each of these will be discussed in connectio with the experiments relating to them. Unless otherwise stated, the plant used was Phaseolus, and it every experiment a sufficient number of plants were used to insure reliability of the result, and check experiments were always carefully ) arranged. Where there was any diversity in the result the exper ment was always repeated. Of the total number of experiment only the more striking ones will be described, and for convenient in the discussion these will be numbered in the order in which thé are presented. | DISTURBANCE IN NUTRITION. When a growing part is removed, a large part of the food : would have been used by it may now be unused in the plant, and may be accessible to other parts. If during the spring the tip shoot of almost any tree be removed, some of the buds which otherwise lie dormant until the next year develop into shoots 6 and 7). Here, and in Onoclea where GOEBEL (2) secu metamorphosis of sporophylls into foliage leaves by the con removal of the former, KLEBS (5) sees an essential factor 7° disturbance occurring in the nutritive conditions. In the axils of cotyledons of Juglans regia there are a number of buds which GOEBEL (4, p. 209) has pointed out, do not develop unless the z= minal bud be removed. This arrest of these buds is due GOBBEP says “to all the available food material being devoted to the deve 1905] MCCALLUM—REGENERATION IN PLANTS 103 opment of one terminal bud.” Many tuber- and bulb-forming plants do not normally produce seeds, but, as in Lilium candidum, Lachenalia luteola, etc., if the bulbs be cut away and prevented from forming, seeds will be produced. “In the normal condition,” Gor- BEL says, “seed formation is hindered because the plastic material which might be used for seeds streams into the bulb.” The inference is that this material, prevented from going to the bulbs, will flow to the seeds. This. conception plays a fundamental part in GOEBEL’s explanation of how the removal of one part may start the development of another. Sacus (10) gives a similar explanation for the development of the cotyledonary buds in Phaseolus, stating that it is due to increase of food resulting from the removal of the main axis. To demon- strate this it must be shown that these lateral buds, though in intimate con- tact with large cotyledons, remain. undeveloped because of lack of food, and further that when the terminal bud is removed they will not develop if the possibility of an increased amount of food is precluded. The attempt is made in the follow- ing experiments to determine this experimentally. The plants used, unless otherwise stated, were seedlings, the epicotyl varying from 1 tog*™ long, with the first pair of leaves not yet fully opened, and the cotyledons still full of food (fig. 4). If an increase of nutritive material in the axial primordia, due to the removal of the parts using this while the source of supply is still active, is the cause of development of these structures, then while removing the central shoot, if we at the same time remove the source of the food, there should be no development of the primordia. Experiment 1.—Twelve plants were used, the epicotyl was cut “Fic. 4 . 104 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AUGUST off about the middle and the cotyledons left intact. The axial buds developed in all (fig. 3). This was repeated later for different pur- poses on scores of plants, and the result was always the same, except that occasionally only one shoot would develop. Experiment 2.—Twelve plants were used, the epicotyl was cut off and one cotyledon was removed. In all cases shoots developed from both axils. Experiment 3.—Seven plants were used, the epicotyl was cut off and both cotyledons were cut off but left in their natural position so as not to introduce other factors, as light, air, or moisture from the soil. All developed shoots from both axils. This was repeated on many plants with similar results. Experiment 4.—Three plants, almost mature, 4o-so%™ high and | with 6-8 internodes, were used. The cotyledons had been used up and had dropped away; the lower part of the stem had become quite hard, almost woody, and hollow. The plants were cut off a few centimeters above the ground, and five of the six primordia developed shoots. © Here as in the other three experiments it is clear that food derived from the cotyledons is no essential part of the stimulus which causes the young buds to develop. In the next three experiments the attempt was made to remove the terminal bud and at the same time diminish the nutritive supply of the other buds even to the point of starvation. oe Experiment 5.—Five plants that had been grown with their roots in tap water were transferred to distilled water. All the cotyledons — Were cut off and also the epicotyl. All five of the plants slowly but completely regenerated. Here all supply of food from the sul stratum, from the cotyledons, and from the leaves is removed. ie this experiment and others a large number of check plants showed that the cutting away of the cotyledons had no effect on the young buds if the primary axis was left intact. a Experiment 6.—Four seeds just germinating were taken, the radicle being 4°™ long, and the young stem with its leaves being: ge between the cotyledons. The cotyledons were forced open and pe cut off, leaving only the small stem and root. The plants were thea Placed with the root in distilled water in the dark, and left for 1"? 1905] MCCALLUM—REGENERATION IN PLANTS . 105 days. Both stem and root elongated rapidly, at the expense of the food in the young plant to start with, so that part, probably most, of the food was used up, and the rest was distributed throughout the now much larger plant. Then the stem was cut off as close as possi- ble to the buds, and two of the plants were placed in the dark and two in the light. All four regenerated slowly. Experiment 7.—Twelve young plants were used as follows: a, two were cut off between the point of attachment of the cotyledons and the buds in their axils, so as to cut away the cotyledons and hypocotyl, leaving epicotyl with apex intact and primordia at the base, and set in a moist chamber; 6, from ten plants the cotyledons were removed and the stem cut off close above the primordia, then the hypocotyl was cut off immediately below the primordia, leaving a small piece of the stem (average 8™™ in length) with the primordia attached; five of these were set in darkness and five in light in a moist chamber, with the base of each piece resting on wet filter paper. In a there was no development of the buds; in 4, of the buds in the dark those on four plants grew to be 1-2°™ long and then died, presumably from starvation; while those in the light developed slowly at first and faster as they formed chlorophyll, finally forming shoots. These experiments show conclusively that when the young shoot is removed the removal also of the food supply does not hinder the development of the buds at the base, and that it occurs when there is not only no increase in the food, but when the primordia and the Surrounding parts are in a condition of starvation. Plants were grown in the most favorable conditions of rich soil, inorganic nutrient solutions, light, and moisture, so that vegetative growth was luxuriant, but only the removal of the apex had any influence in inciting the buds below to growth. The constant factor in every case is the removal of the apex, and neither an increase in food dependent on the removal of the growing shoot, nor any decrease that might occur in the nutri- tive relations constitute an essential part of the stimulus. In Bryophyllum Gorset (3, p. 420) says that the vegetative points serve as “centers of attraction for the constructive materials.” Those on the shoot, according to him, because of their more direct Connections with the conducting system act as stronger attractive centers than those on the leaves. Of the buds on the shoot the 106 3 -- BOTANICAL GAZETTE [avoust terminal one exerts a stronger attraction than the lateral ones. If we cut off the terminal bud the lateral ones develop, and GogBEL (3, p- 418) has shown that if we cut off all the shoot buds those on the leaves develop. His explanation is that the stronger points of attrac tion being no longer active, the ‘building material” is drawn toward the points of “weaker attraction,” i. e., the growing points of the leaves. Such a conception is scarcely in harmony with the principles that control the movement of materials.in plants. Any substance in solution in the plant necessarily follows the general laws of solutions, — and will diffuse toward any point only when there is less of it there than at the place from which it moves. A movement of constructive materials from the leaves or cotyledons only occurs when there is more of it in solution there than elsewhere, and if the flow is directed _ toward the terminal bud it is only because that is the point of least concentration. If at any time there were less in the lateral buds than in the terminal one, it would diffuse into the former. The fact of any food material moving toward the terminal part and past the lateral buds is positive evidence that the terminal bud contains less : of this in solution (and it is only in solution that it would be available). : than the others. There is no evidence for assuming that the food is ‘‘attracted” into certain buds in sufficient quantity to start Lod : and not into others; for until growth starts all will contain an equ — amount, and afterwards, if food continues to move toward tall buds and not toward others it can only be because growth (or some | other cause) keeps the amount in the former constantly less than in the latter. Thus there is no ground for the supposition that the buds t develop in regeneration are any better supplied with food after © start to sprout than before, and that when they do not develop; GOEBEL’s hypothesis implies, it is. because of lack of food. Fre quently they are stored with food and will begin to develop $0 sok as isolated from the parent plant. Starvation, as we know, Wi" cause growth to cease until it is far more severe than it is ever likely to be on any well-nourished plant; and, as MorcAN (7, P- 27) Be pointed out, animals regenerate even while starving to death. Experiment 8.—From young shoots of Salix and Lycium the 1905] McCCALLUM—REGENERATION IN PLANTS 107 minal bud and all the leaves were removed, and the shoots, separated from the parent plants, were placed in the dark. The axillary buds started to develop and continued until all the nourishment in the shoots were exhausted. Roots of Taraxacum were cut into several pieces, and on each piece new shoots arose. We cannot say that each piece was either better or more poorly nourished than before. A Marchantia thallus grown in very weak light and plainly in a™semi-starved? condition regenerated when cut across transversely. It seems clear from the experimental evidence’ that, at“least in the plants mentioned, there need be no increase“in nutritive conditions to occasion regeneration, and we mustjlook”elsewhere for the stimulus. DISTURBANCE IN WATER CONTENT. When the leaves or other transpiring surfaces of a plant are removed, there is often opportunity for a better supply of water in the remaining parts. The profound{influence of water as a factor in growth is too well known to need jemphasis. If the leaves of many trees or shrubs be removed early enough, the axillary buds will develop shoots instead of remaining dormant until the next year. DECANDOLLE (1) attributed this to the “sap” being no longer drawn away from the buds by the leaves. W1esNER (15) thinks that the young buds are hindered from developing”because the water is with- drawn from them by the more actively transpiring leaves. In isolated pieces of Salix stems V6cuTING (1 3), believes that water is the factor that determines the appearance of roots,’ and Kress (5, p. 104) had experimentally proved this to be true in at least some species.. WAK- KER (14) obtained buds on leaves of Bryophyllum by submerging them, and thinks it due to disturbances in the water current. GoE- BEL (3, p. 393) obtained budsonSleaves"of Aneimia rotundijolia by either submerging them or placing them in very moist air; also on uninjured leaves of Cardamine pratensis by keeping the plants in Moist air. KxEps attributes this to the checking of transpiration and consequent abundance of water in the leaf.. By surrounding a Portion of an uninjured stem of Salix by a glass cylinder filled with water, KLEBs (5, p. 104) foundfthat roots develop upon that part. Other plants, especially those whose natural habitat is in wet places, 108 BOTANICAL GAZETTE : [AUcUst possess this ability to produce roots along portions of the stem that are kept wet. Sometimes, as in Veronica anagallis, the root primor- dia are already laid down, but in most plants these are not present. Kies believes that in these cases the development of the roots is due to the increased absorption of water, and holds this factor to be of great importance in other regeneration phenomena. The following experiments will throw light upon this. The question was attacked by two opposite methods: the effect was determined of (1) growing plants without injury or any removal — under such conditions as would increase the water in the plant to the _ highest amount possible; (2) of supplying the other conditions for regeneration and at the same time decreasing the water content of the — plant to the least possible amount compatible with actual existence Experiment 9.—Six plants in pots were placed under bell jats whose inner surfaces were lined with wet filter paper. The plants grew rapidly, but no regeneration occurred. Experiment 10.—The same experiment was repeated with five other plants, with the same result. While this usual method of forming a moist chamber gives an atmosphere that minimizes trans piration, it does not altogether inhibit it. This objection was over come in two ways (experiments 11 and 17). : Experiment 11.—Two plants were set in a large bell jar, and this was set over a vessel of water so that the bottom of the bell jar was just below the surface of the water. This water was heated to am kept at a constant temperature of 33°. The air of the greenhoust a averaged 18-20°, while that in the bell jar was 24°, a good growing temperature for this plant. The air surrounding the plant was thus saturated from a water surface whose temperature was + a higher that the temperature of the plant, which entirely inhibits any evapor™ from the latter. The plants grew rapidly, but the primordia at the base showed no signs of developing. Here the plant is undoublet™ — saturated with water. | Experiment 12.—Attempts were made to prevent transpiration covering the leaves with vaseline, cocoa butter, or soft wax, but in? case was the development of the buds produced. = Experiment 13.—In the moist chambers described the whole pe was in the moist air. Two plants were next arranged, each in a ag : . | 1905] McCCALLUM—REGENERATION IN PLANTS 109 cylinder, so that the lower part of the stem of each plant passed through a rubber stopper inserted in the bottom of the cylinder. Thus the stem and foliage were in the cylinder, the cotyledons were below in the air, and the roots hung down into a nutrient salt solu- tion. The cylinder was lined with wet filter paper and covered at the top. The plants grew rapidly, but the basal primordia did not develop. Experiment 14.—Three other plants were arranged in the same way, except that the cylinders were filled with water instead of moist air. The stems grew rapidly for a few days, then the growth gradually decreased, and finally ceased entirely. No development of the basal buds occurred until growth ceased, when they developed. This was repeated by inverting three plants with their foliage in a large aqua- rium, with the same result. When the shoots were killed by the pro- . longed submergence, however, the basal buds developed shoots. Experiment 15.—All the foliage was cut from five plants, thus removing the transpiration surface, and no development of basal buds followed. All the leaves and also the cotyledons were removed from three other plants, with the same result. Experiment 16.—Five large plants, with six to eight internodes and a large display of foliage were selected. The vegetative tip was removed from each and also the buds in the axils of all the leaves. In four of them the basal buds developed. Here the disturbance in the water content could only have been trifling, for careful deter- mination before and after cutting off the tips showed no appreciable diminution in the amount of transpiration. . Experiment 17.—A second moist chamber that kept the plant saturated was formed in the following way: a glass tube was drawn to a fine end with a capillary opening and through this a fine jet of Water was forced, which struck a small piece of ground glass held obliquely to it and was scattered into a fine mist. In this mist five plants were set, the fine spray continuously settling on every part of the plant, not only. the upper but also the under surface, for it cir- culated freely on the slight air currents always present. Here the plants were covered constantly with a thin layer of water, which com- pletely checked transpiration, but the excellent aeration allowed a healthy growth. All the plants grew rapidly, but there was no development of the buds at the base. IIo BOTANICAL GAZETTE The experiments thus far show that the maximum amount of water in the plant will not induce the basal primordia to develop. The opposite method was then tried, i. e., supplying the other por sible factors in regeneration and at the same time withdrawing water from the plant. Experiment 18.—Eight plants were used, the soil allowed to dry until the leaves wilted, and the stems then cut off a few centimeters _ above the ground. No more water was added and the soil became quite dry. The remaining part of the stems wilted and the cotyledons _ began to shrivel. In spite of this the primordia developed on six of the plants;. on the other two they started but soon withered com — pletely. The six that developed grew very slowly and apparently — . suffered severely from lack of water. Three of them were ‘then 2 watered, and at once recovered turgidity and grew normally. On the other three the young shoots reached an average length of 3% — and then died. Here the buds started to develop with a turgidity much below the normal, and continued slowly against a decreasing — turgescence until the death point was reached. This part of the : experiment was repeated on several occasions and always with the same result. Check plants under the same conditions, but with the stems not removed, showed no development of the buds. The fo lowing more accurate method was then used. | Experiment 19.—To the weak nutrient salt solution in which - plants were frequently grown was added KNO, to make up solutions of the following gram-equivalent proportions: 3, 3, 4, 4 % a %> 19: To each of these were transferred plants whose roots 1° been grown in the usual nutrient salt solution.. In four days | ‘Toots in the 3, 4, and 4 gram-equivalent solutions were ent plasmolyzed and killed, and the stems and leaves wilted. 10 ¢ solution the roots were partially plasmolyzed, though not killed, and the leaves were just flaccid. In the + solution the roots Se ’ quite healthy, and also the shoots, but growth was very slow. ™ the other solutions the plants were vigorous and grew rap! Another set of these solutions was made up, and in each were plants with vigorous roots that had been developed in nutrient solutions, and each stem was cut off. As before, those in the 4 and 4 solutions were killed by. plasmolysis; in the } solution Ee ee ee ee Ne ee ee 1905] MCCALLUM—REGENERATION IN PLANTS III roots at the end of the week were killed, but the stem was still alive, though wilted, and the buds were developing; the cotyledons were much shrunken from loss of water which had been drawn out by the strong solution. The plants lived for several weeks, the young shoots slowly developing, and then died as the solution became stronger through evaporation. In the } solution the development of the buds was slow but normal. In all the others it was quite active. Experiment 20.—The nutrient salt solution mentioned was made up in concentrations which approximate the following: 7.5;, 33,5, #5), Pon oo Tos To's 20 Poy as’ gram-equivalent solution. These concentrations are only approximate, for probably ionization is not complete in any, certainly not in the stronger solutions, and also sufficient KOH was added to make them neutral. As it is only the relative strengths of solution that are required, it was not necessary to determine the actual osmotic pressure. One plant was used for each solution, and as before the roots were in the solution and the cotyledons and the rest of the plant in the air. Each plant was cut off a few centimeters above the cotyledons. In the three strongest solutions the plants were entirely killed, wilting very rapidly. In the Toy gram-equivalent solution, after two weeks the roots were still alive but very much twisted and contorted, and so far as could be seen no growth had occurred in them. The development of the buds was slow but complete. In the next solution below this the growth of the buds was considerably faster, and in all the others it was normal. Similar plants with their shoots and leaves intact were put in the 74% and +4"; solutions and in two days the leaves had wilted down. Experiment 21.—The last experiment was repeated by cutting off hot only the stem but also the cotyledons. The result was the same, hew shoots slowly forming while the water was being withdrawn. The result of these experiments shows (1) that the buds in the axils of the cotyledons will not develop under the influence of maxi- mum turgidity of the cells so long as the upper part is still function- ing, and (2) that if the stem be cut off the buds will develop against 4 partial plasmolysis of the plant. With the shoot intact no change Se the water content will start the buds into activity, so that the stimulus to their development does not need to include any change in the water content of the cells. The factor that is constant in all the cases is the removal of the growing points above. 112 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [avons If Wresner’s conception that checking transpiration and con sequent accumulation of water is the cause of the development oi buds when the leaves are removed is correct, we should expect to find the same development if we occasion an equal accumulation of water without the removal of the leaves. But this does not happen — Experiments were conducted on young shoots of Salix, Populus, Cornus, Ulmus, Solidago, Silphium, and other plants. These need not be described individually, it being sufficient to say that when grown in the moist chambers described above, including the onein which the chamber was filled perpetually with fine spray, the buds showed no tendency to develop. In some cases cuttings were used, and in others plants with roots in soil or in nutrient water cultures. No loss of water was possible anywhere, and every part of the plant capable of taking in water was doing so. On the other hand, as will be discussed later, the buds promptly develop even when very plainly suffering from lack of water, if the tip of the shoot be removed. Roots of Taraxacum with all buds removed were left in rather damp air, but yet allowing a slow evaporation of water from the sub face. While thus slowly drying they all regenerated new buds and shoots. WAKKER obtained buds on leaves of Bryophyllum when submerged, but, as GoEBEL has mentioned, we do not know Wie other factors come into operation in the course of such drastic treat ment. One of the most striking cases of the direct influence of wale 3 in inciting regeneration is that of Cardamine pratense, which, _ GOEBEL (3, p. 425) showed, produces shoots on the leaves while sill intact, when the plant is placed in a moist chamber. Bud primordit in this case are already formed on the leaves, and in their moist sh xc habitat in nature, where vegetative growth is luxuriant, : abundantly, so that here we are probably only dealing with the us™ precocious vegetative growth of this plant. | It is in the case of root production that we get what at first seems to be the most striking examples of the direct influence of wale the origin of new parts. It is well known that many stems ee roots when cut off and placed in water, and KLEBS, a5 mention” above, has shown that in Salix the application of water to local @ ie of the stem, without any wounding, is followed by a copious PP” ance of roots. But even here a closer analysis of the condition 1905} MCCALLUM—REGENERATION IN PLANTS 113 reveal other factors than those which have been considered the most important. Experiments on this connection are to be mentioned. K1EBs (5, p. 109) says that when through wounding or separation roots or shoots either infold themselves or are produced entirely anew, it is because through this separation just those conditions are brought about in the cells which under all other circumstances would start into operation the same ‘building processes;” and this condition in Salix he asserts lies in the necessary accumulation of water in the parts concerned. Experiments in this con- nection are to be mentioned. VOCHTING (13), in his classic experiments on Salix, obtained roots on pieces of stem when placed in moist air, and concluded that the cause of root development was the increased moisture. This assumes that the stems absorbed moisture from the atmosphere, and also that if they had not absorbed this the roots would not have developed. Before we can attribute a result to any factor it is necessary to show (1) that that factor is always present when the result occurs, and (2) that when it is absent the result will not occur. Will roots of Salix, for example, develop on the stem only after “the necessary accumulation of water;” or can we produce them without this, or with even a decrease of water in the parts producing them? The following experiments were to deter- mine this. For convenience, those on Phaseolus will be described first. If the stem of this plant be cut off anywhere and placed in water, roots come out abundantly at the lower end (fig. 5). These arise from the pericycle entirely anew, no root primordia existing anywhere on the stem. Experiment 22.—Entire plants, with roots in soil or water cul- tures, were placed in the three moist chambers described above. ‘hey grew rapidly and no roots formed on the stems. There can be no doubt that the stems were entirely saturated with water. : Fic. 5 II4 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [aucust Experiment 23.—Plants with roots grown in water culture wer placed in water so that the stems were submerged. From several the cuticle and outer part of the cortex was peeled off, so that water would enter freely, and in some the foliage was enclosed in a moist chamber. No roots developed. Experiment 24.—Stems with roots intact were submerged as in he the last experiment, but some of the stems : were slit through the middle longitudi- nally, while from others a slice out of the side the length of the internode and one: third the diameter was taken. Thus free Fic. 6 Fic. 7 ae absorption of water was possible all along the stem, but no 1° developed. If, as will be discussed again, the cut be a transvers® — severing some of the bundles, roots promptly develop just i this; or if the roots be removed new roots form along the stem. Experiment 25.—Stems with roots intact below were surrounded at local regions by water in glass cylinders (fig. 6), and the base was removed so as to allow free absorption. No roots develoP® If, however, as in fig. 7, stems were used from which the ool 1905] MCCALLUM—REGENERATION IN. PLANTS 115 system had been removed, roots promptly came at these watered areas. These experiments show that contact with or the free absorption of water by the stem, or the complete saturation of the stem and whole plant, will not induce root development on the stems when the roots below are intact. On the other hand, the roots may develop when the < [> parts from which they arise not only do not absorb any Ble water, but are actually wilting. From a considerable 7F $<| number only four experiments will be mentioned. CSS Experiment 26.—Plants were cut off near the base and the whole plants placed in damp air, the lower free end of the stem being suspended in the air and not in contact with water. A slow transpiration necessarily occurred and the plants gradually wilted. The lower end of the stem became quite dry, yet from it roots arose. e538 Experiment 27.—Three pieces of internodes were placed in damp. air. They wilted until there was a conspicuous shrink- age, and yet at the basal end. of each roots de- veloped. The weight of the pieces at the begin- ning of the experiment was 8.7%", and eight days later, when roots had just appeared, 7.9%. Experiment 28.—Stems were cut off near the base, and a portion of the upper part of the inter- node was surrounded by water, as shown in jig. 8. The lower part projected downward through a hole in a glass plate and was in the rather dry air of the laboratory; while over all the rest of the plant was placed a bell jar to keep the air / moist so that the plant would not wilt. Roots soon came out from the part of the stem sur- rounded by water. The basal end projecting down into the air became somewhat wilted, especially toward the base Where the end for about 1°™ was completely dried up. In spite of this, roots formed just above this dried portion, and broke through the epidermis but could not continue in the dry air. 116 BOTANICAL GAZETTE Experiment 29.—Stems were cut off and the lower part placec in water. Above the water a deep notch was cut in each stem. Rt developed abundantly at the lower end in the water, and also jut above the notch. The vessels being cut off from the water suppl, the tissues were quite wilted and shrunken. In the dry air the roots did not elongate more than 1-2™™, but if the airs moist they grow vigorously (fig. 9). If, as stated,a portion of the stem is surrounded by water, no roo appear {on this part so long as the roots are below (jig. 6); but if the latter are cut off, appear at the former place as well as at the below from which they were removed. But the out ting off of the root system in this case cannoti ence the amount of water in the stem, unless it be 4 diminish it. Experiment 30.—The plant was fixed as show in fig. 10. Below the cylinder of water su ing thefstem a notch was cut about one-thi way through the stem. This severed the cot with the root, along these bundles, from’ this upwards. Y Roots appeared in the water above, the sideQ directly above the notch, and from bundles ‘severed by it. Here again, if the cum \ of the notch had any effect on the amount of ‘in the part of the stem directly above it, only be to diminish it, yet its effect was to roots there. Experiment 31 (fig. 11).—Both portions @ are in the water, and if there is any difference the better chance of becoming saturated; yet?® produces roots. Experiment 32 (fig. 12).—The apical | inverted in water and. the basal in somewhat air, but allowing considerable evaporation. — roots at all come on the former, but om ! many primordia are formed and break th cortex, and a few grow out into the air. If the air be kept sé or the end surrounded by water, many roots grow out vigol 1905] MCCALLUM—REGENERATION IN PLANTS 117 These experiments all show, at least in the bean, that an increase of water at any point along the stem will not in itself incite the forma- tion of roots, and that root primordia will be organized when the cells there contain much less water than when growing normally. Their subsequent development depends on sufficient external moisture to prevent them from wilting. In Salix, root primordia are laid down early along the stem in the vicinity of the buds. In some species, at least, contact with water, as KtEBs has shown, will incite these to active growth. It does not necessarily follow, however, that this is due to 'the increased absorption of A - Fic. 11 Fic.. 12 water by these cells, as KiEBs maintains. The following experi- ments throw some light on this. Experiment 33.—Three pieces of Salix glaucophylla stem two years old were cut off from plants which were growing in pots in the greenhouse and weighed. The aggregate weight was 27.5". These were placed horizontally in a chamber where the air was just moist. 118 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AvGusr In less than a week roots had appeared on all three near the base, The weight now was found to be 26%, a loss of 1.5%", most of which certainly was water. Another piece at first weighed 10.58; and when the roots coming out on it were 1°™ long the weight was 10.1%, Thus, with the piece as a whole losing water, but with a moist atmos phere outside, roots develop. : Experiment 34.—Two pieces of stem 30° long were fastened with their basal ends connected with the water faucet, so that the water was forced into .them under high pressure. This pressure was sufficient to cause water to ooze slowly from the opposite end of the stem. The air surrounding the stem was that of the laboratory. No roots any where enlarged enough to break through the cortet to the surface. Here a greatly increased amoullt of water in the stem does not start the roots. . Experiment 35.—Stems growing with vigorols roots in water cultures were selected. A fewin above the water a ring of bark 5™™ wide, cutting into the wood, was removed. Just above this for about 1°™ the bark (i. e., all outside of the wood) was plainly drier than at any other point, yet Ce root primordia in this part in a few days enla ge and broke through the cortex and epidermis, gil went no farther; but when one of the pieces ™# : put in moist air they grew out rapidly. Experiment 36.—Five pieces of stem of Salt jragilis, each 30°" long and one and two YP" old, were cut off from larger branches gf™ with roots in water. Two of the pieces bore young leaves, while on the other three the buds had not yet opened. Each epi carefully freed from any water on the surface, was placed inside & dry glass tube as small in diameter as would admit the piece (fg. 13 , Each tube was sealed air tight at each end by a rubber stoppe!® wax. Here there was no possibility of any absorption of mor on the other hand evaporation was constantly going on from the s face of the stems, and the moisture condensed in little droplets Fic. 13 1905) MCCALLUM—REGENERATION IN PLANTS 119 the inside of the tube. The air in the tube under these circumstances must have been saturated with moisture, all of course at the expense of the water in the stem. Within a week three of the stems and a few days later a fourth showed vigorous roots coming out, which grew rapidly and soon were several centimeters long. Here again the stimulus certainly was not any in- creased water in the stems. It seems as though a moist atmosphere outside of the stem can act as a stimulus with- out any increase, in fact even a de- crease, inside. How this could act through the epidermal and outer corky layers is not clear. At first it seemed that the real cause lay in the removal of the piece from all influence of the roots below, but glass tubes similarly placed around portions of longer pieces whose roots were intact and active below resulted in the production of roots just the same. Similar pieces covered with a thin coat of wax to prevent any evaporation showed no signs of root development. In submerged aquatics, where there is no current of water through the plant, but where the absence of a cutinized epidermis allows free diffusion in and out at every point, and where all the cells are constantly saturated, the removal of a part of the stem does not cause any change in the amount of water present. If such plants regenerate it is not due to disturbances in the water content. Experiment 37.—Portions of the stems of the extreme aquatic forms of Proserpinaca palustris and Ranunculus multifidus were severed from the parent plants and left submerged. In all cases New roots were at once organized and grew rapidly at or near the basal end, and at the other end shoots started from the latent buds in the leaf axils (fig. 14). Isolated pieces of roots of Taraxacum, Rumex crispus, and stems of Zamia all organized new shoots while they were still losing moisture. In cases like Salix there is no doubt that contact with water will start the development of roots along the stem, yet these can also be started by other causes while the cells are losing Fic. 14 120 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [aveos water. In the great majority of instances where regeneration oot however, it cannot be due to any disturbance in the amount of water present in the parts concerned. Several leaves of Begonia atl Bryophyllum were kept in the air of the room, but with their petiols in water. The blades quite plainly were not more turgid than thos left on the plants, and not so much so as those on plants grownin Moist air; yet they produced buds while the latter did not. The results of experiments with the other factors mentioned wil be presented i in the second paper of this series. THE UNIVERSITY oF CHICAGO. LITERATURE CITED. I. DiCuavons A. P., Physiologie végétale. 2 vols. Paris. 1832. 2. GOEBEL, K., User kiinstliche Vergriinung der Sporophylle von Onoda Struthiopleris Hoffm. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gessells. 5:66-74.' 1887. a. » Ueber Regeneration im Pflanzenreich. Biol. Centralbl. 22:38 E 397, ete. 1902. 4. , Organography of plants, especially of the archegoniates and spermato ‘byte Part I. pp. 270. figs. 130. Oxford. 5- Kress, G., Willkiirliche Entwickelungsinderungen bei Pflanzen. Pp 6. Kisrer, E., Beobachtungen _iiber Regenerationserscheinunget s Pflanzen. Beih. Bot. Centrabl. 14: 316-326. 1903. See also linea quoted in this paper. — 7- Morean, T. H., Regeneration. pp. 316. New York. 1901. 8. PrErrer, W. » Physiology of plants. Oxford. Vol. II. p. 167. 9. Prantt, K., Untersuchungen iiber die Regenerationen des Vegetalo®’ punktes an Angiospermenwurzeln. Arbeit. Bot. Inst. Wiirzburg 1: etc. 1874, sree J., Physiologische Untersuchungen iiber der Keimung der: €. Gesam. Abhandl. Pflanzen-Physiologie Abh. 25:574-__ Sites S., Untersuchungen iiber die Regenerationen der W iss. Bot. 40: 103-143. 1904. 1 Vocutine, H., Ueber die Regeneration der Marchantieen. Ja. Bot. 16: hs acd: 1885. T3. , ees Organbildung im Pflanzenreich. Bd. I. Bonn. 7 14. » J. H., Onderzoekingen over adventiene Knoppen- “ 1885. Lal Lon . i fects. iaserdank 4 15. WIESNER, J., Der absteigende Wasserstrom und dessen phys Bedeutung, Bot. Zeit. 47: I-9, etc. 1889 ee ee ae ee ON PROTEOLYTIC ENZYMES. II. ARTHUR L. DEAN. SINCE the writing of the previous paper" on the vegetable pro- teolytic enzymes, an article by VERNON? has appeared in which he gives an account of his investigation of the distribution of erepsin in the animal body. Comparative tests were made of glycerin extracts from thirteen different tissues of the cat, eight of the rabbit, eight of the guinea pig, seven of the pigeon, eight of the frog, seven of the eel, six of the lobster, and three of the fresh water mussel. In every case an erepsin was found to be present. ‘The comparison of the activity of the various extracts was effected by means of colorimetric estima- tions of the intensity of the biuret reaction after certain periods of digestion. The tissue extracts from the warm blooded animals were more active than those from the cold blooded animals; the extracts from the invertebrate tissues had a relatively slight action. In the warm blooded animals it is not the intestinal mucous membrane which is richest in erepsin, but the kidney in the cat, rabbit, and pigeon, and the pancreas in the case of the guinea pig. It might be noted that VERNON gives no record of experiments made with the various extracts to determine whether or not they are incapable of digesting the proteids of the tissues in which the enzymes occur. His experiments, being all conducted with Witte peptone solutions, do not conclusively show that the enzymes whose activity Was observed are incapable of acting on any proteids except albu- moses and peptones. : In a former communication evidence was given to show that Phaseolus vulgaris contains in its seeds a fairly active proteolytic enzyme. No action of this protease on the proteids of the seed could be demonstrated. Its power to act on Witte peptone as a whole, and on the albumose fractions separated from it, could be readily shown. Moreover, as germination progressed the cotyledons at all Stages contained this ereptase and at no period of germination could * Dean: Bor. Gazerre 39: 321. 1904. * VERNON: Jour. Physiol. 32: 33- 1904. t 905] 121 122 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AUGUST | any evidence of a tryptic enzyme be obtained. Further studies have been made of this seed enzyme in the hope of throwing light on the processes occurring during germination. - FURTHER EXPERIMENTS WITH THE GERMINATING SEEDS OF PHASEOLUS © VULGARIS The following experiment was carried out to demonstrate the action of the seed ereptase of the bean on the proteoses to be optaine® from phaseolin, the principal globulin of the seed. Phaseolin was prepared according to OsBorNE’s? method from white medium field .| beans, the yield from two kilograms of beans amounting to something 4 over 75°". A small amount of phaselin was also obt-ined by the alcoholic precipitation of a part of the solution from which the phaseo- | lin had separated on dialysis. This albumin gives a marked Adam kiewicz reaction. © mA ‘ain an ereptase solution finely ground beans pele di nzyme solution + 10° phaseolin proteose solution + 9 drops of # . I, using boiled enzyme solution. oe tion in 25°¢ of water. The test zyme 30 ution +ro%¢ Witte peptone solution+9 drops of u asno.§3, using boiled enzyme solution. 2 7th Annual Report of the Conn. Agric. Experin ee 1905] DEAN—PROTEOLYTIC ENZYMES 23 The corked tubes were kept in the incubator for six days. At the expiration of that time each digestion was boiled, acidified with a couple of drops of acetic acid, and filtered. Ten cubic centimeters of each filtrate were removed to a clean tube, and, after the addition of 5° of 10 per cent. sodium hydroxide solution, dilute copper sul- phate solution was added to the maximum biuret reaction. After standing for several minutes the intensity of the biruet reactions was compared. The comparison showed that a marked digestion of both proteose mixtures had taken place, the one from phaseolin being rather more vigorously attacked. The unboiled digestion with Witte pep- tone gave a tryptophan reaction with bromine water, the other unboiled digestion did not. Several trials were made of the digestibility of the acid phaseolin prepared by heating phaseolin for a few minutes with dilute sul- phuric acid. The results obtained indicated that the enzyme of the seed had, at the most, but a feeble action on this body. Various observers have shown that the antiseptics used in enzyme experiments may exert an inhibiting effect on the action of the fer- ment. Vines demonstrated that in papain digestions where sodium fluoride is used the action goes but little beyond the stage where — albumoses and peptones are formed; whereas with other antiseptics, — hydrocyanic acid for example, a marked formation of amido-acids _ = takes place as shown by the production of tryptophan. It might be = argued that the toluol used throughout the experiments with Phase- : lus had an inhibiting action on the enzyme, so that it was unable wo = attack the proteids of the seed and could only act on albumoses and : Peptones. pee two following experiments were Saint: out to settle a that point: ae dons ut I eT hity-kve grams of finely une cotyle from six-day old bean seedlings were extracted for one and a hours with 175°° of water. The extract was ‘filtered nearly 2 through pulp filters and then forced through ae -Pasteur- oe a filter into a sterile flask. Three portions of 25°° each : ted with a sterile pipette into three small sterile flasks. ne no. 1 “pal further was added; to no. 2 was added 0 0.07 * - 124 BOTANICAL GAZETTE (aucust of no. 3 were boiled. The cotton plugs in the flasks were replaced corks. After keeping the three flasks in the incubator _ for forty-one hours, 20°° of tannic acid reagent (7 per cent. tannic acid in 2 per cent. acetic acid) were run into each. After standing a few moments ‘the contents were filtered through dry filters and duplicates of 20°° from each filtrate analyzed for nitrogen by the Kjeldahl method. Analyses of filtrates from no. 1 gave 0.00368" N Analyses of filtrates from no. 2 gave 0.00368" N Analyses of filtrates from no. 3 gave 0.00338" N Experiment II.—Another extract from cotyledons of six-day old seedlings was prepared by treating 28&™ of finely ground tissue with 140°° of cold water for three hours. The extract was filtered as in the previous experiment and 25°° of the filtrate removed into two sterile flasks. The contents of one flask were boiled and both wert corked with sterile corks and kept in the incubator for three days. To test the ereptic activity of the bacteria-free filtrate 15°° wet placed in a test tube with 0.5" of Witte peptone and a little tolual. At the end of the digestion period the fluid in this tube was found to give a strong tryptophan reaction with bromine water, showing that the enzyme had not been held back by filtration through porcelain. ‘The contents of the two flasks were treated as in the previols experiment: ; Analyses of filtrate from unboiled digestion gave 0.00368 N. Analyses of filtrate from boiled digestion gave 0.0030 &” N. The differences between the boiled and unboiled digestions ” these two experiments are so slight as to be within the limits of erro! of the method used and cannot be taken to show any hydrolysis of the proteid in the cotyledon extract. PROTEOLYSIS DURING THE GERMINATION OF PHASEOLUS VULGARIS We have every reason for believing that the germination of the bean is accompanied by a hydrolysis of the proteids therein co” tained, a hydrolysis which our experimental evidence leads us © conclude must be started, at least, by some other agency than a ga cee That proteolysis does accompany germination of t 7 4s shown by the following experiments, where the amounts 1905] DEAN—PROTEOLYTIC ENZYMES 125 coaguable and non-coaguable nitrogen were determined in the seeds. and in the cotyledons of young seedlings. About 75%" of beans were soaked in water and the cotyledons separated from the skins and embryonic plants. The cotyledons after being washed were dried at 60° C. and ground in a hand mill, yielding the preparation A. Another part of the same lot of beans was planted in the greenhouse and allowed to germinate for seven days. At the end of this time the somewhat shrunken cotyledons had been pushed above ground, had begun to turn green, and were separating to allow the plumules to push out. These cotyle- dons were removed from the plants, washed, and dried at 80° C. When dry they were ground in the mill, giving preparation B. Por- tions of both A and B were rubbed to the finest powder possible in the mortar and dried at 100°C. to constant weight. Duplicate portions of 1" each of A and B were then weighed into small beakers, 15°° of water added, and, after bringing to a boil, 2 drops of 10 per cent. acetic acid were stirred in. After allowing the coagulated proteids to settle for a moment or two the contents of each beaker were trans- ferred to a dry washed filter paper in a funnel held in a Kjeldahl digestion flask. The washing of the precipitates and their quantita- tive transfer to the filters was effected by the use of six portions of 5** each of boiling distilled water. After thoroughly draining, the filters with the contained precipitates were transferred to Kjeldahl flasks; the precipitates and filtrates were then analyzed for nitrogen with the following average results: Total nitrogen in A =0.04078m = 4.17 per cent. Total nitrogen in B=0.03968™ 3.96 per cent. Percentage of nitrogen in A as coaguable proteids=9o0.7 per cent. Percentage of nitrogen in B as coaguable proteids=61.4 per cent. Percentage of nitrogen in A as soluble compounds= 9.3 per cent. Pereentage of nitrogen in B as soluble eompounds = 38.6 per cent, : It is worth noting that in the germination of the bean the consump- ton of nitrogenous foods proceeds at practically the same rate as that of the non-nitrogenous materials stored there; as a consequence the Percentages of nitrogen in the cotyledons in the various stages of Sermination are nearly constant. After the cotyledons have become “mptied the percentage of nitrogen changes, since the cell walls of 126 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [aucust the shriveled cotyledons make up so large a percentage of the dry weight. : The experiment described above shows that proteolysis actually does occur as a step in the process of the utilization of the stored proteid. It is of interest in this connection to see if this process occurs when the cotyledons are removed from the young seedlings and kept under sterile conditions. A series of preliminary tests showed that if the cotyledons of germinating beans are treated for twenty minutes with a 0.5 per cent. solution of mercuric chloride and then repeatedly washed with sterile water and kept in sterile tubes they will remain free from bacterial or fungal infection. The pro- cedure kills the peripheral cells of the cotyledons, as shown by the fact that they do not turn green if kept in the light; whereas unsteril- ized cotyledons show a gradual development of chlorophyll under the same conditions of light and moisture. Comparative tests of the sterilized and unsterilized cotyledons showed that both contained ereptase, but that there was a noticeably smaller amount in the ones treated with mercuric chloride. It is probable that the poison not only killed the outer layer of cells, but also destroyed the enzymes contained in them. 3 Three-day old seedlings of Phaseolus were removed from the soil and the cotyledons separated. A quantity of these were washed, dried between 70° and 80° C., and ground in the mill, yielding prep® ration C, Ninety other perfectly sound cotyledons were selected forty-five placed in each of two previously sterilized flasks, and kept covered with 0.5 per cent. mercuric chloride solution for twenty minutes. After pouring off the sublimate solution the cotyledon Were washed five times with sterile water in quantities as great % that of the mercuric chloride solution used. In pouring off the last wash water sufficient was left in the flasks to keep the cotyledons moist. The flasks were closed with sterile corks and kept at room temperature—about 20° C. After three days one flask was opened a 3 ee a re ae LAIST pe eee orn REN pA EE fe RT Mee ie Pa ie and the contained cotyledons dried and ground, giving preparation D. The contents of the flask were judged to be sterile by the absenct - any foreign growth and by the results of a transfer of a drop of the fluid from the bottom of the flask to a sterile agar tube. The second - was kept unopened for five days longer and then the cotyledons m It were treated as the other portion, yielding preparation E. . 1905] DEAN—PROTEOLYTIC ENZYMES 127 Samples of preparations C, D, and E were finely ground, dried to constant weight and estimations of the coaguable and non-coaguable nitrogen were made in the same way as the similar determinations on A and B. Total nitrogen in 18™ of C - - - - - oe a eee Total nitrogen in 12™ of D - - - - - -o 0.0426 Total nitrogen in r2™ of E - oe - - 4. 15s ae ae Percentage of nitrogen in C as coaguable proteids ~~ ee eo Percentage of nitrogen in D as coaguable proteids : ae Percentage of nitrogen in E as coaguable proteids - - - 79.9 Percentage of non-proteid nitrogen in C_~ - - - - - - 18.3 Percentage of non-proteid nitrogen in D - - - #2 oe 12.0 Percentage of non-proteid nitogn in A « . -. - £55 ee These results would indicate that under the conditions of the experiment there is no proteolysis occurring, although, as previously. stated, the cotyledons still contain ereptase. A small increase in Coaguable nitrogen was observed, followed by a rise to about the original amount. There seems to be no evident explanation for these small variations. Two facts may be noted: the oxygen supply to the living cells in the interior of the cotyledons was probably curtailed by the presence of the layers of dead cells on the surface; the correlation of the parts of the organism had been destroyed and the influence of that factor on the metabolic processes is not known. The results tend to emphasize the dependence of proteolysis in this seed upon the normal life of the organs. DISTRIBUTION OF THE PROTEASES IN VARIOUS PARTS OF PLANTS OF PHASEOLUS VULGARIS : A large number of qualitative tests for proteolytic enzymes in Various parts of the plants of Phaseolus were carried out, using the tryptophan reaction as an indication of proteolysis. It scems scarcely necessary to detail the methods and results in every instance. “he €xperiments were conducted in a way anzlogus to those on the cotyledons in the various sta ges of germination, a full description of Which was given in a former paper. In testing for a tryptic enzyme the tissues Were sometimes allowed to autolyze without the addition of any further proteid, but in most cases edestin, phaseolin, or unco- agulated gg albumin was added. In searching for evidence of 128 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [avcust tryptic action the filtrates obtained after coagulating the proteids of the digestion mixture were frequently tested with Millon’s and the biruet reactions, as well as with the tryptophan reaction. The ereptic activity was tested with Witte peptone. The antiseptic used was toluol. Tests were made of the following tissues: 1. The embryonic plants in the seeds (exclusive of the cotyledons). 2. The hypocotyls and plumules from three-day old seedlings; the hypo- cotyls were from 2 to 4™ long. ; . 3. A mixture of the hypocotyls and plumules from six-day old etiolated oe . 4. The roots, stems, and buds of seven-day old seedlings grown in the light were tested separately; the roots were copiously branched and the buds were just opening from between the cotyledons. 5. Whole young plants, exclusive of cotyledons, of ten-day old etiolated seedlings 6. The leaves and buds, and the roots and stems, of eleven-day old seedlings grown in the greenhouse. 7- The leaves and buds, stems, and roots of thirteen-day old etiolated seedlings. 8. The same tissues of fourteen-day old non-etiolated plants. 9. The leaves and the stems of plants twenty-two days old. 10. The leaves and buds, the upper parts of the stems, the stems from the Toot crown to a centimeter above the scars of the cotyledons. ae ‘The roots, stems, and leaves of plants just coming into bloom. 12. The developing seeds and pods In every case a guod tryptophan reaction was obtained when ve tissues were allowed to autolyze in the presence of Witte peptone * no case, with the questionable exception noted below, could evidence of the presence of an enzyme capable of attacking native proteids 2 obtained. The one exception was furnished by the tests conduct on young hypocotyls in which edestin was added to the mixtll oe tissues and water. In this case a very faint tryptopha : Nacton was obtained, sufficient to raise the question of the existen® of a tryptase in these tissues. Accordingly the following or ment was carried out. Ten grams of minced hypocotyls ( 3 long) from four-day old bean seedlings were placed in each oe flasks and 25°° of water added. One flask was heated for se" minutes in the steam sterilizer and then cooled. To each flask Wo added 0.25°" of phaseolin, 0.25°" of phaselin, and 1°° of tol The corked flasks were kept in the incubator for three days: gt 1905] DEAN—PROTEOLYTIC ENZYMES 129 the digestion the contents of each flask were strained through cotton gauze, and 20°° of each fluid precipitated with an equal volume of tannic acid reagent. Duplicates of 15°° each from both filtrates were analyzed for nitrogen. Nitrogen in analyses of filtrates of unboiled digestion =o .00368™ Nitrogen in analyses of filtrates of boiled digestion =0.0035&™ It is therefore evident that no enzyme capable of acting on the native proteids of the bean is present in the young hypocotyls. COMPARATIVE CONTENT OF EREPTASE IN VARIOUS TISSUES OF PHASEOLUS VULGARIS In making any study of the relative quantities of ereptase in dif- ferent tissues it is necessary to have some basis of comparison. Manifestly the dry weight of vegetable tissues is not a very satisfactory standard, since in many cases the cell walls constitute the greater part of the dry weight. The ideal way would be to use the weight of protoplasm as a basis for comparison, but this is out of the ques- tion. The best substitute seemed to be the quantities of the nitro- gen in the tissues. The first measurements of the amount of ereptic — activity in the tissues were carried out in the following manner. Nitrogen determinations were made on the fresh tissues to be tested, and then portions of each tissue, of such a weight that each portion contained 0.028" of nitrogen, were weighed out into small tared flasks. Into each flask 10° of a 10 per cent. Witte peptone solution were measured and the total weight of the digestion made up to 25®™ by the addition of distilled water. After the addition of 1° of toluol to each digestion the flasks were tightly corked and kept in the incubator for twenty-four hours at 41° C., the contents of each flask being shaken twice during that period. At the close of the digestion each mixture was strained through dry cotton gauze, and 20° of each fluid mixed with 20°¢ of tannic acid reagent. .The Precipitates were filtered off on dry filters and the filtrates analyzed for nitrogen in duplicates of 1 5°° each. Minor changes were made .in this procedure in the subsequent series of determination, so that the results obtained thereby were not strictly comparable with the t series; since it was impossible to test the same tissues again the results of the first, and less satisfactory series, are nevertheless given: 130 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [avcust oa s N in 15° of filtrate _ Tissue Percentage of N W — fissue from tannic acid . precipitate Leaves of mature plants........ 0.68 2.9418m 0.02048" sepeweroyamne Pods... 26... sae: 0.39 5.130" 0.0240 “ Developing seeds.............. 0.95 2.105 0.0283 “ From such results as these it is impossible to tell how much of the nitrogen found in the filtrates from the tannic acid precipitation is due to products of the digestion of Witte peptone and how much is non-proteid nitrogen present in the tissues used. Moreover, Witte peptone is not completely precipitable by tannic acid, certain of the very soluble peptones not being thrown. down by that reagent. In remaining estimations of comparative ereptic power two dige> tions were made with each tissue, one a boiled control. As before, the quantity of tissue taken was that which should contain 0.02% of nitrogen. The digestion mixtures were made up to 308” instead of 25%", as this quantity was found to be more convenient. Mois ture determinations were also made on each tissue so that compat sons of the dry weights could be made. The results of this study at given in the accompanying table. The table shows that although the method is not absolutely exact yet fairly good duplicates are obtained in different digestions with € same tissue. The digestion in a number of cases was Vigorous noticeably so with the roots where more than half of the Witte pe? tone in the digestion mixture was hydrolyzed. - It should be said that = roots bore a few small tubercles which were removed so far possible, yet the minute ones remaining may have had some influ- ence on the results. It is suggestive to note that it is not the and cotyledons which contain the most enzyme per unit of nitrog™ ia Tather it is those tissues where active metabolism is occutTing: IS unfortunate that we are unable to use the weight of protoplast as a basis for comparison. The use of the nitrogen content : standard is well] enough between the various active tissues, but whes these are compared with tissues gorged with storage proteids 1 is evident that the Storage tissue contains far less protoplasm a ss weight of nitrogen. The error which the presence of sto Proteids introduces into our comparative results is evident in the cet I3I 19M uUEN i sty} ul $2. . : ansy 3 a tecebouitt "6"9 Aq’uun - “yuo. sad njoo Burpasa ad $' br ureyuoo oO ad oy} jo sana 1 punoy svar mesiaaie Zuvxidnynur £ xo asoyy ul q peureyqo k pasn ouojyded [Burpso908 TM PT, I S 1262" N ae? zfto Pa Stlo'o gor oO gzSo'o Rg) gthif'o o°O trto: zLIo'o Cr = -gSto fe) o°o TI 09600 rs gc'oO toSo'o” o'o zSSo° otzo'o = SobS: zito'o | + oO} gzrIo: o'o ¢ fof 1 : Sy85-0 | e6lo°o rgfo-o edly he the gf10"0 | 66r- PF . obzo' 2 : 90L0° ; =i gz'S ; RNR SOE ase 48 Me) 6OSII‘o antec gSto-o ne fe) bgzr ° 6610°0 “har z 969° 08 E feseeee Ba as ““oRe poxt S ph oll Uo 7) eee Dice 'e 960-0 oe isa lie ae ne OR Sse © Se sa Saas my 9 z’0 its, ttbo-o 1I0'o 9£So - 1I0'o (e) zSb'9 “oO 2 owe ayeujuasuy on) glot‘o $ ° ogto'o IIIO’oO b c ttIo ° Q9gc'oO gzz't 1f‘o oe ed 6 ee <<" oRpIs 2 TULOSSO[Q—SUI9: & wsI160'0 gS10'0 | got ozIo0'o gSo'o | 110 bob:o zg’o |-°*: ttre egg urlulossojq—s 1S ry wazfro'o Boe °o°O L110: zSgo ° ¢ ° 66b OLr*t 1k: “+58 B4S Surwos SABIT fo: ° Izo ° I |rttteeeee u sojq— | ellis i nas as vego'o | St is £S9°0 orS ‘a | oes ie) Pe hea Aep-£ yo ay 81008 2 :payzaau09 wabtgSo'o Reta ° SSh-o he -¢-| eho ’ si tApses Aep-£ Jo sede (e] . tees eees Beri ps caus : PB cage uonsad © | ws66P‘o ieee ie ple jecec eee o. —— EMS A . : - a ' Wa -O Sa prong ao} ta fe. a wd pas uorsed ek ve: - © ew apianec Av "6 2 Spee ad av, uasoxr at ee you oiuue pre -p pa pofioqun eee eg P ¢ jo suo a | ' MIN. | 20} Junoure | } Woy = reed dd I Spaes prAqog paweynaqe | aoSt tN | pa yuhonre ayer anoss | grinds on poyeurunesuy payeynayes) aeny jo | anssty au Jo anssiy ysa uod § Bra. aj | -O ooST Ut N an ace | 20 MAPA hp -}U9I19g pasn anssty, 1905] PP een eee 132 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [avcust of the emptying cotyledons. The cotyledons of ten-day old seedlings contain much more ereptase than those of the three and five-day old ones. The ten-day cotyledons were green, shriveled, and probably contained no proteids except those of the protoplasm. As a conse- quence, the number of cotyledons needed to contain 0.028™ of nitro- gen was far larger, the number of cells used much greater, and the amount of protoplasm probably far in excess of the amount in the digestion with younger cotyledons and ungerminated seeds. It is doubtful if there is any increase of ereptase per cell during the process of germination; if that is the case, the amount of ereptase per unit of protoplasm contained in the seeds and young cotyledons is much more clearly indicated by the results obtained with the exhausted cotyledons than by those obtained with the storage tissues themselves. In many cases it is evident that there is no special quantity of ereptase formed in the germinating seeds for the purpose of digesting the reserve proteids. The unexpected activity of the root tissue is prob- ably connected with some processes, as yet unknown, which occu! there and which are associated with the nitrogenous metabolism of those organs. VERNON obtained just such a suggestive result with the kidneys of several warm blooded animals; it is probable that there are Processes occurring in that organ which are now unknown, but which involve a rapid nitrogenous metabolism. CONCLUSIONS. The results of this study have shown that, as was to be expected, the Proteids of the seeds of Phaseolus vul garis undergo proteolyss during germination as a preliminary to the transportation of the nitrogen and its utilization in the formation of new organs. Thet® _— three ways in which this process might be carried out: by : action of a tryptic enzyme; by the combined action of the protoplas® and of an enzyme which is, by itself, incapable of carrying oe Whole process; or by the action of the protoplasm alone. The resull . a study of the proteolytic enzymes of the resting and germinate ean show that there is no enzyme present which is able to diges the proteids of the seed. There is present, however, an enzyme : the Ai nae: Sroup which is capable of digesting the proteoses result: ng trom the partial hydrolysis of the seed proteids. It may © 105] DEAN—PROTEOLYTIC ENZYMES 133 therefore, that the protoplasm of the cells starts the process of proteid decomposition, and carries it to some stage at which the ereptase takes up the work and completes the process. That the protoplasm has some hand in the process is made evident by the fact that killing the protoplasm is sufficient to stop the proteolysis, although the means taken are those which do not inhibit the action of enzymes. Moreover, when the cells of the cotyledons are placed under abnormal conditions, the hydrolysis of the proteids ceases. It is, of course, possible that the complete hydrolysis is carried out by the protoplasm and that the ereptase has no share in it. There is something to be said for either view. It might be pointed out that the ereptic activity as shown by the tissues of the cotyledons when acting on Witte peptone is quite sufficient to accomplish the ereptic part of the com- plete proteolysis. Moreover, the very fact that an enzyme is present which is capable of doing part of the work of cleavage would lead one to infer that it had some part to play in the process. On the other hand, it has been shown that the cotyledons contain relatively less ereptase than the ordinary vegetative organs, and that there is no increase, or at the most a very slight one, in the enzyme content during germination. The investigation of the other ograns of the plant shows that they all contain the ereptase in somewhat varying quantities, the roots containing the most per unit of nitrogen. There is no evident explanation for these quantitative variations, nor for the function of the enzyme in the metabolism of the cells. We have good reasons for believing that the life of every active cell is intimately bound up with a round of chemical changes of which part consists in a cleavage of the protoplasmic proteids. It is quite conceivable that the means by which the cleavage is effected may Vary in different cells; in some the whole process may be carried out by the protoplasm itself, unassisted by any of its enzymatic tools; other cells the protoplasm may start the process and split off Proteoses from itself which are subsequently attacked by an ereptic €nzyme and broken down to the amido-acids, hexon bases etc.; in still other cases it may be that the complete hydrolysis is carried Out by an enzyme or combination of enzymes. The bridging of the Sap between widely different forms by a series of small variations 134 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [avcust is a characteristic of the morphology of living organisms. That same sort of bridging is no less characteristic of their physiological processes. For example, we find all stages of dependence upon oxygen, from plants which are killed by its absence to those which are killed by its presence. It is not inconceivable that there exists an analogous range of differences in the means which various plants take to accomplish the cleavage of their metabolic proteids. At any rate it has been shown by the researches of various inves tigators that enzymes are present in animal and vegetable tissues of both the tryptic and ereptic type. There has not yet been found a tissue which has been definitely shown to contain no proteolytic enzymes whatever, and which must therefore complete its processes of proteolysis by the activity of its protoplasm. Our knowledge too limited to allow us to say that such tissues do not exist; that point must be left for future investigations. The investigation, of which this is a report, was carried out with the assistance of a grant from the Carnegie Institution of Washington. LABORATORY OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY, SHEFFIELD SCIENTIFIC SCHOOL, YALE UNIVERSITY. | | CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIOLOGY OF RHIZOBIA. IV: TWO COAST RHIZOBIA OF VANCOUVER ISLAND, B. C.? ALBERT SCHNEIDER. (WITH THREE FIGURES) LEcuMINoUs plants are comparatively rare on Vancouver Island. Two species, beach vetch (Lathyrus maritimus Bigel.) and beach clover (Trijolium heterodon Gray), were more carefully examined with regard to root nodule formation and proved rather interesting. Of these two plants, the vetch is by far the more common and more widely distributed. It is creeping, climbing, and spreading in habit, thus being endowed with certain advantages in the struggle for exist- ence. It climbs upon and spreads over the smaller and less fortunate herbs, thus gaining access to the desirable air and sunlight. The beach clover, in common with the majority of clovers, was originally adapted to the sunlit open ground, but the tree vegetation of the island has compelled it to occupy an extreme shore position. In the struggle for existence it has evolved into a hardy persistent plant, clinging tenaciously to the scant soil in the crevices of rocky shore slopes, approaching the high tide mark. During the often prolonged heavy inland winds of the winter months, these plants are thoroughly drenched by the salt waves and salt spray without suffering any inconvenience whatever. In appearance beach clover is not unlike our familiar white clover (T. repens); the plants however are larger, and the flowers are larger and more showy. | The roots of both plants were well supplied with rhizobia-bearing nodules. Sections were made of these and examined microscopically. In the case of beach clover the rhizobia presented the general morpho- logical characteristics of those found in the nodules of red and white Clover (fig. x ). That is, they were of the very characteristic Indian Club form, with very distinct bodies described by some as granules one The work here recorded was done at the Minnesota Seaside Station, session of 1905] 138 136 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [aucust of amylodextrin or degenerate proteids, and which I have elsewhere designated as sporoids. The etiology and function of these bodies still remains to be determined. Some of the rhizobia showed distinct traces of forking (Y-forms), but the majority were of the Indian club form, derived from Y-forms, while a few were of uniform width, f evidently derived from simple unbranched rod forms. () The rhizobia of beach vetch were \ i i x rather remarkable for their branching (fig. 2). They present the general OD aA ne, morphological characteristics of the i cf rhizobia of sweet clover, bur clover, = SS and other vetches. The branching, d \ & however, is more pronounced than m \ \) any other form of this type hitherto Fic. 1.—Rhizobia from the root nodules of beach clover (Tri- jolium heterodon Gray), showing extreme form variation of R. muta- LP bile, due to hyper-nutrition; same organisms with the so-called spo- roids. examined. The branching is dichotomous and may be either unipolar or bipolar. The highly ‘\ refractive sporoids are not present, : a nor have they ever been observed in rhizobia of this type. : _ It is highly probable that these } ' ‘ the root two rhizobia (of beach vetch and Fic. 2.—Rhizobia iro ae beach clover) represent twoextreme nodules of beach vetch ae the natural form types of Rhizobium ™ritimus Bigel.), : ay: muta- : : extreme branching form 0! mutabile(R.leguminosarum Frank). ite, due to hyper-growth. Assuming that the rod forms and simple Y-forms are the original normal types, we have , rhizobia of beach clover (and in other clovers) the ex gr obia of deviation, apparently due to hyper-nutrition; and in the rhaiz0™ in the form 1905] SCH NEIDER—BIOLOGY OF RHIZOBIA 137 beach vetch the extreme branching form, due to hyper-growth. This supposition is strengthened by the study of rhizobia in artificial culture media. Grown in the same culture media the rhizobia of sweet clover and red clover are morphologically identical. Whether they are physiologically identical has not been determined, although this is also probable according to the inoculation experiments of Nose, HIttNerR, and Horres, of Germany, which are supported by the research of Moore of the Department of Agriculture. It is quite apparent that these variations in form are due to the food- supply or nutritional changes, variations in the supply of oxygen and moisture, variations in chemical reaction, temperature, light, and other ecological factors. It is possible by means of special culture media to augment very decidedly the branching in the rhizobia of sweet clover and to induce other morphological variations, as has frequently come under my observation. It should be noted that the so-called sporoids do not appear in the rhizobia in artificial culture media. This is of considerable importance, as it was once believed that these bodies were of sufficient significance to be of specific rank. It would appear from these observations that they are more likely by-products stored within the cell, having perhaps food value, derived from the host plant. If this supposition is correct, the theory that they are etiologically sporoidal in nature is untenable. It seems very probable, and wholly within the range of the possible, that the two extreme form types here described are phylogenetically derived from an original form type similar to, but not necessarily identical with, the form found in Cassia Chamaecrista, Robinia pseudacacia, Trigonella joenum graecum, and Amphicarpaea comosa, which were formerly described as distinct species. From this it does mm follow, of course, that these form types are of necessity varia- tions of one and the same species, although the evidence thus far deduced points in that direction. The presence of the Injectionsfaden was noted (fig. 3), and nothing new regarding their significance was discovered, only I wish to state, by Way of readjustment of what was stated in previous papers, that in all probability these threads are merely a phenomenon dependent "pon the infection of the root cells by the rhizobium. The action of the motile forms in the apical area of the root nodule (formerly 138 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [AucUsT described as a distinct species, R. Frankii) causes the appearance of the threads in a manner already explained. The question of Rhizobia species is not yet settled, and cannot be settled until our information regarding their biology is much more complete. The fact that extensive research work has already been done by a large number of investigators without coming to any conclusion regarding species should serve as a very suggestive lesson Bic. 3-—Portion of longitudinal section of root nodule of beach vetch (Lathyrs atid ccctanged Bigel.) showing Injectionsjiden, more abundant in the apical are, thizobia are not shown; two starch-bearing cells. sil ies hunters. In the case of R. mutabile, the question 1s now arising as to whether it is a microbe (Schizomycete) or a hyphal tun gus, a question which we hope to discuss more fully in some future P ss tae All investigators are agreed that R. mutabile is an organis™ showing extreme polymorphism. It would appear to be an 0 wonderfully adapted to test the De Vriesian theory of mutation as it app lies to low organisms. At this time the only statement ven . = apparently constant natural variations in R. mutabile, as aN" indicated, at once become transformed into “variable or unstable vat 1905] SCHN EIDER—BIOLOGY OF RHIZOBIA 139 ability” in artificial culture media. It would appear that the newer conception of species as based upon the facts of ecology; study of mutation, constant and variable; crossing, artificial and natural, etc., will necessitate a complete ere in our present systems of classification. CALIFORNIA COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, San Francisco BRIEFER ARTICLES. THE VITALITY OF SEEDS. In the autumn of 1879 I began the following experiments, with the view of learning something more in regard to the length of time the seeds of some of our most common plants would remain dormant in the soil and yet germinate when exposed to favorable conditions. I selected fifty freshly grown seeds from each of twenty-three different kinds of plants. Twenty such lots were prepared with the view of testing them at different times in the future. Each lot or set of seeds was well mixed in moderately moist sand, just as it was taken from three feet below the surface, where the land had never been plowed. The seeds of each set were well mixed with the sand and placed in a pint bottle, the bottle being filled and left uncorked, and placed with the mouth slanting downward so that water could not accumulate about the seeds. These bottles were buried on 4 sandy knoll in a row running east and west, and placed fifteen paces north- west from the west end of the big stone set up by the class of 1873. A bowlder stone barely even with the surface soil was set at each end of the row of bottles, which were buried about twenty inches below the surface of the ground. I should make an exception in the case of the acoms, which were placed in the soil near the bottles, and not inside bottles. At the end of five, ten, fifteen, twenty, and now twenty-five years, sets of these seeds were tested for vitality. The names given in the following table were those in use when the seeds were buried. Some of those marked * germinated; none of those marked o germinated. 2 In all the species in the five tests made, eight out of twenty-two failed a germinate; and of the remaining fourteen, some of ten species g¢ often when they had been buried twenty-five years. The acorns buried near the bottles were all dead at the end of two years. I soon began wih experiments with acorns, and in addition planted some black walnuts V the acorns. On a sandy knoll these nuts were buried at various depths in a hole the depth of which was equal to the length of a spade and handle, some of them three feet or more below the surface. After they had re : nearly two years, some of them were examined with the following resus: Some of the walnuts and acorns planted only a few inches beneath ' face had come up the next summer after planting, while those ee avev 140 1905] BRIEFER ARTICLES 141 Names of seeds tested sth year |roth year|rsth year|2oth year/2sth year Amaranthus retroflexus.................- x x x x x Ambrosia artemisiaefolia................- oO o fe) o re) PMTs oe iene oe o x x x x Bromus secalinus....-....-...-+++++e++5 9 fe) oO fe) o apsella Bu SR oor cs eee x oO x x x Erechthites hieracifolia................-. re) oO oO 0 ° NN MNRIINEN 5 oo ios aay es v's oO oO o oO oO ee er x x x 4 = MOMENI Crs ys i veo ees Oo fe) oO oO 0 ee ss fs i se ec x x x o x Beaten votunilifclia................+-.-:. x ° ° x ° MEE CMI eh a x x x = x yi SRESTENS aiag af ceersgrs ie een fe) ° x ° ° Polygonum Hydropiper...............++: ° x x x x Pemtuthee GletSten......... =. seve cs ce es ° x ¥ x x Quercus Oe ae ee ey a ° ° ° ° as se no ches ac nce 60g x ? x x x MN fe ous edi Dee te x x x ° x CI oe ee ce xe ake x < x x x Thuja ee Sane re) ° ) ° ° IE oe eG ke ° ° ro) ° ° PE SATE... : eo es x ? x x ° a depth of about eight inches to two feet or a little over had all decayed. All the walnuts deeply planted had decayed, but some of the acorns planted two or three feet below the surface were still alive, or rather the young plants were alive. They had probably started soon after planting, as the cotyledons were exhausted, their nourishment having been used in devel- oping roots and pushing up an ascending axis. On August 12, 1889, after a part of the nuts had been planted and undisturbed for two months less than four years, I examined them. Eight acorns were found alive, with the roots about like the roots of those dug up two years before. The ascending axis in most cases was slender and crooked, with a delicate white apex. In one case there was no ascending axis, but a solid, fleshy root, apparently alive. In all tests of the seeds buried in bottles, the results have been indefinite and far from satisfactory. I mean by this that I have never felt certain that I had induced all the sound seeds to germinate. I moisten the sand Containing the seeds, and forthwith a goodly number germinate, and then they come slowly straggling along. I dry the soil and wait a few days, and — moistening, in a few days more seeds germinate. Why was I unable to Anduce them to start when treated to various degrees of temperature and moisture for seven months ? We see this important point. It is to the advantage of the plants net to shoot up all of their seeds at one time, but to retain a good portion alive 142 BOTANICAL GAZETTE (oni in the soil to be ready for stocking the earth in successive years. Again, we must consider that it makes very little difference whether all the seeds live over for a time or only a small proportion of those which were pro- duced, as a living seed now and then left is enough to save the stock and produce new crops of seeds. ; The seeds I began testing in August 1894 were kept in trial until | November of that year, when the plates containing the dry sand were set away dry until the next spring, and kept in test for that year until Novem- ber 1895. In this second year some seeds of eight species germinated. In the sets of seeds which were put in condition, as I supposed, t0 germinate in July 1899, after being buried twenty years, some seeds of eighteen species grew during the following four months, when the plates were set away till the next April (1900), at which time the sand was occa- sionally wet. During this period, some seeds of mustard, mallow, shep- herd’s purse, and chickweed germinated. is e In September 1882 I selected of the second crop of red clover five plants : within a few feet of each other, which seemed much alike. The 0 fifty good heads of each, containing 1260-1820 seeds, were shelled, and ever since, till tested, they have been kept, each lot by itself, in a two ounce bottle well corked. Fora portion of the time they were € : the light; for some years they have been kept in a dark closet. Neatly twelve years after collection, fifty seeds of each lot were tested for vitality, with the following results: Of no. r 2 : “ - 24 germinated Ofno.2 - E 2 Of no. 3 Boe = +. 34 « Of no. , - - - 25 ss Of no. 5 a 2 e fs ° 6“ 2 ; Two weeks later another test of fifty seeds each was made: t Of no. r s . YD - 3s germinated Jp ae Ber ce ee . = 10 Of no, 3 - - i ~ 32 ae Of ho.4 .: “a 21 ss ‘ Of no. 5 Poe Cg ' : This is an average for both tests of 33.8 per cent. The pee oo percentage of these lots of seeds perhaps May be a a or by the presence of weevil in a few seeds; by difference in the - Seeds, or the Stage of maturity; by individual peculiarities of the : Plants. By some means, since testing, the bottle no. 4, containing seeds, has been lost. 1905] BRIEFER ARTICLES 143 On November 16, 1904, over twenty-two years from collecting, I began tests of 100 seeds of numbers 1, 2, 3, 5, with the following results: Of no. 1 - - - © germinated Of no. 2° - - - - * Of no. 3 - - - See - . Ofno.5 - I ** possibly a second one —W. J. BEAL, Agricultural College, Michigan. SOME MEXICAN SPECIES OF CRACCA, PAROSELA, AND MEIBOMIA. (WITH PLATE V) : THE genus name Cracca of Linnaeus (1753) has of late years been Testored in place of the Tephrosia of PERsoon (1807), which is clearly a synonym, as has been well pointed out by Mr. E. G. BAKER.' Dalea, although first proposed by Lrynagus in 1737, was reduced by him in 1753 to Psoralea. It was not restored until after PATRICK BROWNE in 1756 had published his Dalea, and therefore the next available name, Parosela, must be used. The Meibomia of ADANSON (1763) has properly been taken up in place of Desmodium (Desvaux, 1813), which must be treated as a synonym, though there is some ground for regarding the two names as representing different genera. n examination of these three genera by Mr. RosE in connection with his Studies of Mexican plants has shown that they are greatly in need of Tevision, and considerable work has been done with a view to meeting this want. Mr. ParnTer has a revision of the Mexican and Central American Species of Meibomia well advanced. It was not the intention to publish any notes on these genera until our revisions were completed; but there has been considerable demand, both from general collectors and from botanists © have been working on Mexican fungi, for correct names for certain Species; and we have concluded to publish a few of the new combinations and new species at the present time. Cracca talpa (S. Wats.) Rose.—Tephrosia talpa S. Wats. Proc. Am. Acad. 222405. 1887. : macrantha (Rob. & Greenm.) Rose.—Tephrosia macrantha Rob. & Greenm. Proc. Am. Acad. 29:383. 1894. Cracca Pringlei Rose, sp. nov.— Herbaceous perennial much branched At base; branches 10 to 20°" long, appressed-pubescent: leaflets 7 to 10 * Jour. Botany, Jan. 1900. 144 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [avousr pairs, oblong, 8 to 15™™ long, green above and with scattered hairs, densely cinereous beneath, rounded and mucronate at tip: infloresence short and compact, not much exceeding the leaves: calyx lobes narrow: corolla purplish, the banner 15™™ long: ovary very hairy; pods (imma- ture) 4°™ long. Collected by C. G. Pringle on hills of Las Sedas, Oaxaca, July 22, 1897 (no. 6741). Type in the U. S. National Herbarium. Parosela mutabilis (Cav.) Rose.—Psoralea mutabilis Cav. Ic. 4:65. pl. 394. 1797. Dalea mutabilis Willd. Sp. Pl. 3:1339. 180r. Parosela acutifolia (DC.) Rose.—Dalea acutijolia DC. Prod. 2:245. 1825. Parosela uncifera (Schlecht. & Cham.) Rose.—Dalea uncifera Schlecht. & Cham. Linnaea §:580. 1830. Parosela triphylla (Pavon) Rose.—Dalea triphylla Pavon, Linnaea 12:289. 1838. Parosela procumbens (DC.) Rose.—Dalea procumbens DC. Prod. 2: 246. 1825. Meibomia (HETEROLOMA) Metcalfii Rose & Painter, sp. nov—Her baceous, erect with ascending, striate branches: leaves trifoliolate, nal- rowly ovate-lanceolate, 3 to 5°“™ long, 0.6 to 1.5°™ wide, obtuse at base, acu at apex, margins revolute, upper surface sparsely hirsute with short hairs, dark green, under surface lighter green and glabrous, veins more prominent below than above; petioles angled, of lower leaves 3°%™ long, of og leaves nearly wanting; stipules deciduous: inflorescence in open panicles its tacemes terminal and lateral: flowers small, on pubescent pedicels; bracts acuminate, pubescent, early deciduous: calyx purplish, of 5 uned! teeth: corolla small, purplish: ovary pubescent, stipitate; loment decidedly stalked, of 2 to 5 joints, these much longer than broad and covered with uncinate hairs. Collected by Mr. O. B. Metcalf in the Black Range, Animas Creek, 6 County, New Mexico, on ditch banks, altitude 1,500", July 13, 1904 (no. er A species with the aspect of M. paniculata (L.) Kuntze, but more closely related to M. Lindheimeri Vail. Meibomia (HrTrRoLoma) pinetorum Rose & Painter, sp- 7 baceous, stem glabrous, trailing, r to 2™ long, with ascending branches: leaves trifoliolate; leaflets 1 to 3-5 long, 1 to 3°™ wide, thin, broadly ov— i oval, obtuse and mucronate at apex, very sparingly surface with scattered appressed hairs, the lower surface lighter # with the primary veins prominent, covered with fewer scattered appr “ hirsute on the we... BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XL PLATE .V. MEIBOMIA PALLIDA ROSE and PAINTER 1905] ' BRIEFER ARTICLES 145 hairs; petioles 1 to 3°™ long, glabrous; petiolules of lateral leaflets 1 to 3™™ long, of terminal leaflets 8 to 15™™ long, pubescent; stipules per- sistent, small, long-acuminate, glabrous: inflorescence in a simple terminal or lateral axillary raceme; flowers purple, on filiform pedicels; floral bracts deciduous, ovate, acuminate, somewhat puberulent: calyx unequally 5-toothed, pubescent: loment 3 to 4, rarely 5-jointed, almost sessile, the joints covered with uncinate pubescence. Collected by Mr. C. G. Pringle about Trinidad Iron Works, Hidalgo, Mexico, in pine woods, altitude 1650™, September 15, 1904 (no. 8890). Type in U. S. National Herbarium, no. 461381. This species is nearest M. orizabana (Hemsl.) Kuntze, but is easily dis- tinguished from that species by its obtuse, oval leaves, prostrate habit, and loment more deeply constricted above. Meibomia xylopodia (Greenman) Rose & Painter.—Desmodium xylo- podium Greenman, Proc. Am. Acad. 39:80. 1903. Meibomia (CHALARIUM) pallida Rose & Painter, sp. nov.—Low, shrubby, 20 to 30° high: leaves all unifoliolate, the lowest orbicular or broadly oval, obtuse, upper oblong, mucronulate, all pale green, obtuse at base, above covered with short uncinate pubescence, less so and reticulate-veined beneath, midrib prominent, pubescent; petioles pubes- cent, 2 to 5™™ long; stipules deciduous, ovate-acuminate, pubescent and with prominent veins; stipels subulate, pubescent, 1™™ or less long: inflo- rescence in a terminal simple raceme which is densely pubescent; flowers purple; pedicels when fully matured 5 to 6™™ long, pubescent; bracts deciduous, lancedlate-ovate, long-acuminate, ribbed: calyx pubescent, the teeth unequal: Ovary appearing spirally twisted, pubescent; loment about 5-jointed, the joints inflated, glabrous, reticulate-veined. Collected by Mr. E. W. Nelson at Huilotepec, Oaxaca, Mexico, altitude 25™, ay 4 to 11, 1895 (no. 2587). Type in U. S. National Herbarium, no. 40034. The affinity of this species is with M. xylopodia (Greenman) Rose & Painter, but it differs in the glabrous loments and the paler green leaves. EXPLANATION or Prater V: a, plant (x 4%); 6, floral bracts (x7); ¢ flower (X5); d, fruit (x24). Meibomia (CHaLartum) rubricaulis Rose & Painter, sp. nov.—Low shrub, twigs reddish-brown, older ones with striate and whitish bark: leaves small, trifoliolate, petiolate: petioles 5 to 12™™ long, covered with short pilose hairs; terminal leaflets obovate, 8 to 12™™ long, 6 to 10™™ Toad, the lateral leaflets mostly oval, at times somewhat obovate, rounded, mucronulate at apex and rounded at base, upper surface minutely 146 BOTANICAL GAZETTE - — [aveust roughened with very short hairs, beneath pilose, reticulate, the veins more prominent beneath than above; stipules long-persistent, subulate lanceolate: inflorescence terminal and lateral, of simple racemes; flowers purple, on pilose pedicels (5™™ long); bracts lanceolate, early deciduous: calyx lobes equal, obtuse, pubescent: ovary puberulent; loment 2 to 5-jointed, decidedly stipitate, the joints reticulate-veined, 4™™ long and 3™™ wide, with a very narrow isthmus (not quite central) rarely half as long as adjacent joints. Collected by Dr. E. Palmer at Tequila, Jalisco, August-September 1886 (no. 398); by C. G. Pringle, on rocky hillsides near Guadalajara, Jalisco, October 1, 1891 (no. 3877); by J. N. Rose & Jos. H. Painter, vicinity of Rio Blanco, Jalisco, September 30, 1903 (no. 7492); and by C. G. Pringle on mountains about Etzat- lan, Jalisco, October 2, 1903 (no. 11413; type, no. 460875 of the U. S. National Herbarium).—J. N. Rosx and Jos. H. Parnter, U.S. N’ ational Museum. A NEW KRYNITZKIA Mr. W. N. Suxsporr, who for a number of years has made quite extensive collections of plants in the northwest, more especially in the state of Washington, sent recently to the Gray Herbarium a consignment of specimens containing several species of particular interest. Among these rarities is a Krynitzkia which deserves an early record. Flowering specimens of this plant were first secured in the spring of 1901; and es June of the past season fruiting material was obtained. These collect have been placed at the disposal of the writer for study, and a careful comparison with the entire representation of the genus in the Gray Her barium shows that the Suksdorf plant is most nearly related to K. oxycary@ Benth. and K. rostellata Greene. From type material of both these species the Suksdorf plant differs in several important characters, at seems best, therefore, to regard it as specifically distinct. The writer tan pleasure in dedicating the new species to its collector. The plant sea) . characterized as follows: at, Krynitzkia Suksdorfii Greenman, n. sp.—A small annual: stem erect, leaves opposite below, alternate above, spatulate to linear, 0.5 to ns long, 1 to 3.5™™ broad, obtuse, entire, subappressed-tuberculate-hspl 1905] BRIEFER ARTICLES 147 diameter: stamens adnate to the corolla-tube for about one-half its length; anthers sessile: mature nutlets narrowly ovate, 2.5™™ long, acuminate, smooth and shining, pale chocolate-colored, somewhat mottled with darker spots; the ventral surface slightly flattened and the groove bifurcated at the base.—WASHINGTON: on dry hillsides near Rockland, Klickitat County, 18 April 1901, Suksdorf, no. 1495 (flowering specimen), and 8 June 1904 (fruiting specimen); on dry hillsides near Dallas City, 17 April 1901, Suksdor}, no. 2346 (flowering specimen). Type in herb. Gray. This species differs from K. oxycarya Benth. in having shorter broader leaves, somewhat larger corolla, more prominently beaked, darker colored and mottled nutlets which are bifurcately grooved on the ventral side near the base. From the Californian K. rostellata Greene, K. Suksdorfii differs in having somewhat smaller habit, shorter, broader leaves, much shorter branches of the inflorescence, slightly larger corolla with broader corolla-lobes, and shorter calyx-lobes in the fruiting state—J. M. Greenman, Gray Herbarium. CURRENT LITERATURE. BOOK REVIEWS. The origin of species and varieties by mutation. Proressor DEVriks' has hit upon a method for presenting his experiments and theories to the English-reading public that is as happy as it is unique. Itis commonly the fate of an epoch-making work, such as Die Mutationstheorie has proved itself to be, to undergo a translation into other tongues in the course of three or four years, without alteration except for some inevitable changes for the : worse. DeVries has taken into his own hands the preparation of the : exposition of mutation, and we have as a result a book that is written for a very different audience, couched in different language, and prepared in the light of the experiments and discussions of the past four years. The investigator who desires the minutiae of DeVries’ experimental results will still have recourse for the most part to the earlier volumes, but as investigators are supposed to i conversant with the German language and with the technical terminology thet employed, no difficulty results. The investigator, however, will requite present volume for the broader viewpoint, and for the contributions that have appeared since 1901. The great and undisputed field for the present bce the presentation of mutation to the large and important audience of intelligent people to whom German is a foreign language, and technical terminology ete sO gree Dp. T. Mac The volume under consideration is based on a course of lectures University of California in the summer of 1904, and was edited by OUGAL of the New York Botanical Garden, whose experiments and tions have done so much to make Americans conversant with the work of Der a. One of the most valuable and interesting of his lectures is the prewm'™ . 4 dealing with theories of evolution and methods of investigation. Here sae a an excellent portrayal of the relation that exists between his con ib those of others; and it is at once clear that the work of DARWIN is a it | but supplemented and strengthened; DaRwIN’s comparative sul ms - : im the accumulation of a vast array of material, while DeVries’ work esis tematized this material, and has given us an experimental basis for the a evolution. It is to be hoped that the perusal of this volume will p ~ — so widely circulated.in the newspapers, that DEVRIES 8 . of Darwinism : pen Cout Fa s * DeVries, Huco, Species and varieties; their origin by - T. MacDoveat. 8vo., pp. xviii+847. Chicago: The O 905. 148 1905] CURRENT LITERATURE 149 The following lectures outline the characteristics of elementary species, both in nature and in cultivation, and it is shown that natural selection must play a large part in determining their survival. Varieties are shown to differ from ele- mentary species in not possessing anything that is really new, and in originating commonly by the loss of some quality. Several chapters deal with the various kinds of varieties, retrograde, progressive, and ever-sporting; in the same connec- tion the subject of atavism is elucidated, as well as latent characters, and vicinism or variation under the influence of pollination by neighboring individuals. The lectures on mutations deal not alone with Oenothera, but as well with the peloric toadflax, double flowers, and a great many wild and cultivated plants that are supposed to illustrate mutation. A lecture that will be read with great interest by paleontologists, as well as others, is the one that considers the periodicity of mutations, and the relation that mutation bears to the length of geological time. The final lectures present the topic of fluctuating variations, and perhaps it is here that Darwinians will find least comfort in the work of DeVries. The closing words of the book, quoted from ARTHUR Harris, will be recognized as most apt: “Natural selection may explain the survival of the fittest, but it cannot explain the arrival of the fittest.” In a review of Die Mutationstheorie (Bot. GAz. 33:236-239. 1902), it was felt to be too soon to express an opinion concerning the place which that work Would occupy in the literature of evolution, although it was the reviewer's intu- ition that this place would be very high. Of the permanent value of that work, and of the work here under review, there is now no doubt at all. “The greatest contribution since DARWIN” is the universal testimony, and there is a feeling on all sides that the answers to many evolutionary questions are close at hand, and that through the application of experiment. To many of us the new volume brings more than did the old, because we have now seen the author face to face, and have perpetually in mind the modest, lovable man, as well as the renowned Investigator.—H. C. CowLes. MINOR NOTICES. EMERSON? has published the results of experiments in the control of the rust and scab of apples. He finds that the rust of apples due to species of Gymnospor- angium can be prevented by spraying with Bordeaux mixture if the first applica- oe is made when the gelatinous spore-containing projections first appear.on the ‘cedar apples.” ‘This spraying should then be followed by a second spraying about ten days or two weeks after the first. He recommends also that the cedar apples be removed from cedar trees near orchards in the winter or early spring, and that where practicable cedar trees themselves should not be allowed to remain within one mile of apple orchards. The scab he found could be prevented by spraying twice with Bordeaux mixture, once just before the apple blossoms open and again just after the blossoms fall—E. Mrap WILCOX. * Emerson, R. A., Apple scab and cedar rust. Bull. Nebraska Exp. Sta. 88: PP. 21. figs. 9. 1905. 150 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [aUcust CHRISTENSEN? has begun the publication of an Index Filicum, which is intended to do for ferns what the Index Kewensis does for seed-plants. The book will contain a systematic enumeration of the genera, based upon ENGLER and Pranti’s Pflanzenjamilien; an alphabetical enumeration of species and synonyms, which will include all names and combinations of names published from 1753 to 1905 and also names of garden ferns; and an alphabetical catalogue of literature containing critical notes and descriptions of new genera and species. The work will be complete in eleven or twelve parts, and the entire manuscript is ready for printing, awaiting only a sufficient subscription. The first fascicle, just issued, begins the alphabetical list of genera and species, closing with Aspi- dium.—J. M. C. Merritt+ has attacked the species described in BLANCO’s monumental Flora de Filipinas, recognizing that they must be identified and made available so far as possible. He has brought together these identifications in a conveniently arranged bulletin, calling special attention to the species that are yet to be identi- fied. To give some idea of the results attained by this absolutely isolated worker, it may be said that in the two editions of the Flora (1837 and 1845) BLANC described 1127 species and varieties; about 623 of these were proposed as new, and 504 identified with species of other authors, 219 of them correctly and 285 incorrectly. A large proportion of the new species remain unknown, and only go are known to be valid.—J. M. C Hircucocxs has published an elaborately illustrated synopsis of the North American species of Agrostis, recognizing twenty-seven species and describing three. as new. It is announced as the intention of the department to publish occasional monographs of the larger genera of grasses.—J. M. C. a Husvor® has published the first part of an illustrated synopsis of the Coe aceae of France, Switzerland, and Belgium. This part contains Elyna, Kobrestay and Carex. The important characters of each one of the 123 species of aie are illustrated —J.M.C. - on. ote CHRISTENSEN, Cart, Index Filicium sive enumeratio omnium generum ne o Tumque Filicum et Hydropteridum ab anno 1753 ad annum 1905 descriptorum aq" synonymis principalibus, area geographica, etc. Fasciculus 1. pp- ®4- Copenhagen’ : H. Hagerups Boghandel. 1905. Each part 38 6d. = ERRILL, ELMER D., A review of the identifications of t 4 > : of egy - Blanco’s Flora de Filipinas. Bull. 27, Bureau of Gov't. Labs., Depa Interior. Manila. 1905. e 5 Hircucock, A. S., North American species of Agrostis. Bulletin 68, Buea? : p of Plant Industry, Department of Agriculture. pp: 68. pls. 37- 1995: oo ‘ « Husnor, T., Cypéracées: descriptions et figures des Cypéracées de fe: = | Suisse et Belgique. Part 1. pp. 48. pls. 12. Cahan, par Athis (Orne);_the 28° 1905. 5 jr. oe a 1905] CURRENT LITERATURE 151 NOTES FOR STUDENTS. Apocamy in the genus Alchemilla has been investigated very thoroughly by STRASBURGER.? The work was suggested by MuRBECK’s researches; and his statements that the embryo of the EUALCHEMILLAE develops from the egg without fertilization, and that there is no reduction of chromosomes in the life history, are confirmed. On the other hand, STRASBURGER reaches a different conclusion as to the origin of the embryo sac of apogamous species of Alchemilla, and has a different theory as to the nature of the embryogeny of these species. More than forty species were studied. In the European species the pollen, except in a few species, is abnormal, the development being checked at various stages. The pollen mother-cells may disorganize or a tetrad may be formed, but the pollen grains fail to be liberated from the mother-cell. In some cases, the division into tube nucleus and generative nucleus takes place, but such pollen grains disorganize early. There are thirty-two bivalent chromosomes in the pollen mother-cells, and sixty-four univalent chromosomes in the vegetative tissues. In American and African species, an examination of herbarium material showed normal pollen, and it is probable that fertilization occurs in the usual way. In the ovules of apogamous EUALCHEMILLAE one or more megaspore mother- cells appear. The nucleus passes through the prophases of the heterotypic division up to the synapsis stage, but here the mode of development changes an the nucleus divides by a typical vegetative division. Division in the embryo sac shows the sporophytic number of chromosomes, so that when the egg is formed it contains the vegetative number of chromosomes. When such an egg develops an embryo without fertilization, STRASBURGER regards the phenomenon not as parthenogenesis but as apogamy. Strictly speaking, it would not be even a case of apogamy, but we should have merely an adventitious embryo like one coming from cells of the nucellus. There is not the beginning of a new generation. The subniveal EVALCHEMILLAE which form normal pollen show a reduction of chromosomes in the formation of the megaspores, and fertilization takes place in the usual way. Those EUALCHEMILLAE which have not lost their sexuality are chalazogams, and some of them form hybrids. It seems probable that the extraordinary mutation of the EUALCHEMILLAE has weakened the sexuality, and that the failure of fertilization has brought on the apogamous condition. Rubus and Rosa, which were also examined, have retained their sexuality in spite of extensive polymorphism. The reduction division and fertilization occur regular Dioecism has in many cases given an impulse toward apogamous reproduc- tion, since the separation of male and female individuals decreases the frequency of fertilization —C. J. CHAMBERLAIN. ey 7 STRASBURGER, E., Die Apogamie der Eualchemillen und allgemeine Geschichts- punkte, die sich aus ihr ergeben. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 41:88-164. pls. 1-4. 1905. 152 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [aucust ITEMS OF TAXONOMIC INTEREST are as follows: S. LEM. Moore (Jour. Botany 43:137-150. pl. 471. 1905), in describing numerous new Australasian species, has described a new genus (Cratystylis) of Compositae (Inuloideae), with 3 species, and one (N epenthandra) of Euphorbiaceae (Crotoneae).—H. Curist (Bull. Soc. Bot. France IV. 5:1-69. 1905) has published an account of the Chinese ferns in the collections of the Museum of Natural History, Paris, deserib- ing 41 new species and a-new genus (Neochevropieris), to replace Cheiropteris, preempted by a genus of fossil plants——M. A. Howe (Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 32:241-252. pls. 11-15. 1905) has described new species of Chlorophyceae from Florida and the Bahamas in Halimeda and Siphonocladus, and has established a new genus (Petrosiphon) related to the latter—H. D. House (idem 253-260. pls. 16-18), in presenting Viola in New Jersey, recognizes 33 species and describes one as new.— Mrs. E. G. Britton (idem 261-268) has proposed Pseudocryphaea and Dendroalsia as new genera of mosses, and has described new species in Erpodium.—A. ENGLER (Bot. Jahrb. 36:213-252. 1905) has described the fol lowing new African genera: Spondianthus and Nothospondias (Anacardiaceae), Magnistipula (Rosaceae), Pretreothamnus (Pedaliaceae), and Cycniopsis (Scroph- ulariaceae).— M. L. FERNALD (Rhodora 7:81-92. 1905) has begun the pub- lication of a revision of the North American species of Eriophorum.—J. CarDOoT (Rev. Bryol. 32:45-47. 1905) has published two new genera of acrocarpous antarctic mosses, naming them Pseudodistichium and Skottsbergia, the peristome of the latter being described as most extraordinary.—A. A. Eaton (Fem Bulletin 13:51-53. 1905) has described a new species and variety of Iosetes from Wash- ington.— J. W. BLanxinsHip (Montana Agric. Coll. Sci. Studies 1: 35-109. pls. 1-6. 1905), in his “Supplement to the fora of Montana,” has published new species in Sagittaria, Zygadenus, Salix, Arabis, Physaria, Sedum, Ribes, Saxifr Astragalus (2), Lupinus (4), Impatiens, Ammania, Bupleurum, Carum, and Petasites.—Jesste MILLIKEN (Univ. Calif. Pub. Botany 2:1-71. pls. I-11. 1904) in a well-illustrated revision of Californian Polemoniaceae, recognizes 6 : of Polemonium, 5 of Collomia, 22 of Navarretia, 36 of Gilia, 31 of Linanthus, and 9 of Phlox, and describes new species in Gilia and Linanthus.—J. M. C. o PerrcE® has studied the dissemination and germination of the seeds of Arceuthobium occidentale on the Monterey pine (Pinus radiata) of Californ'a. The structure and mechanics of the exploding fruit are described in detail; and the seeds were observed in the laboratory to be thrown fifteen feet, sticking whatever they struck. The so-called seeds, by the way, are closed the inner part of the ovary. The field observations indicate that the pies . of seeds strike the leaves of the pine, either of the tree on which they grow * — one near by. In germination the root is negatively phototropic and not very Sensitive to contact. When growth is blocked by some obstacle the root ni : a thick foot-like holdfast, into which the material in the upper end of the embryo ; * PEIRCE, GEORGE J., The dissemination and germination of Arceuthobiwm occidentale Eng. Ann. Botany 19: 99-113. pis. 3-4. 1905. es 1905] CURRENT LITERATURE 153 is transferred, the seedling becoming mainly a foot. Vascular elements form in the foot, and its central part grows out into the bark. Strands of infecting cells grow toward the medullary rays of the host, through these to the cambium, and finally effect an attachment with the young xylem elements. While the parasite is thus establishing a connection with the young wood, the main part of the haustorium forms a mass of parasitic cells in the cortex of the host. From this cortical mass buds arise and develop into branches that grow out through the bark into the air. The author remarks that “‘we have here an instance of regeneration without wounding, amputation, or other pathological stimulus. The small part of the seedling which penetrates the host forms and develops stem and leaves; a small part of one SS root—develops into a complete plant by Snadng the missing members.””—J. M. C STEINBRINCK ° finds that Mrz made a very imperfect study of the absorption hairs of Tillandsia, and that his erroneous conclusion could have been avoided easily by reference to published investigations of the author. According to MEz the four central and empty cells of the hair are free from air and collapsed when dry; but when the thickened portion of the shield absorbs water the appressed walls are forced apart, leaving lumina into which water passes because of negative pressure. The author finds that negative pressure is not a factor at all, and bases this conclusion upon a study of the mechanics of cohesion involved in the shrink- age of artificial cells to which he finds natural cells are comparable. The author first demonstrates that water exercises a cohesive power, which being so well known is perhaps unnecessary. Next he shows that the shrinkage and collapse of artificial cells occurs in a vacuum as well as under ordinary pressure; also that the tension present in a membrane through which water is passing to supply evaporation is independent of air pressure. In the latter case water placed on the surface of such a transpiring membrane is quickly drawn inside because the sion pull of the water already inside extends through the fine pores of the membrane. Of course the greater the elasticity of the membrane the stronger cohesion pull it will support and the greater its capacity for bringing outside water within the cell. It is in this relation that the thickened Deckel of the scale plays a rdle and not as Mrz found.—Raymonp H. Ponp. KRaSNOsSELSKy'° has made a study of the influence of injury on the activity of the respiratory enzyme in the onion. In agreement with numerous other investigators he finds that injury does increase the respiratory activity of vegetable tissues, and points out that Stoxiasa’s failure to confirm this observation was due to his not allowing his experiments to run for a sufficient length of am and that his belief that the results of other workers were due to bacterial con INBRINCK, C., Einfiihrende Versuche zur Cohisionsmechanik von Pflanzen- zellen nebst Bemerkungen iiber den Saugmechanismus der wasserabsorbierenden Haare von Bromeliaceen. Flora 94:464-477. 1905. SSELSKY, T., Bildung der Amungsenzyme in verletzten Pflanzen. Ber. *© KRASNO Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 23:142-155. 1905. 154 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [vcusr tamination is unfounded. Respiration increases gradually after injury, and it is only after several days that the maximum activity is reached. From tha time the process goes on more slowly and finally returns to the normal. By grinding the onions with sand and expressing the juice with a Buchner press, he obtains solutions which liberate carbon dioxide, apparently through the agency of an enzyme. After injury this respiratory enzyme shows an increase in its activity, an increase which reaches a maximum somewhat later than the maximum respiration of the tissues from which the extracts are obtained. Onions whose cells are killed by freezing yield more active enzyme solutions than those not previously frozen. These expressed juices give the oxidase reaction with guaiacum, the juices from injured tissues moré vigorously than those from uninjured ones.—ARTHUR L. DEAN. Vines" has given the results of a number of experiments carried out for the purpose of throwing light on the nature of the tryptic enzymes of plants. He assumes that if the powers of a plant extract to convert native proteid into pro- teases and peptones on the one hand, and to reduce protones to the final cleavage products on the other, do not vary concomitantly under the influence of outside influences, then the two processes are carried out by separate enzymes. Exper- ments were conducted with the enzymes of Carica Papaya, Ananas sativus, Saccharomyces Cerevisiae, Agaricus campestris, Hordeum sativum, Hyacinthus orientalis, and Nepenthes. The proteids used were blood fibrin as 4 native proteid, and Witte peptone as a proteose and peptone mixture. The factors used to produce variation in proteolytic activity were changes in reaction. In every case it was found that solution of fibrin and cleavage of Witte peptone were affected differently by changes in reaction. Wines concludes that the two processes are carried out by different enzymes; the first stage by sass of the pepsin type; the second by those of the erepsin group. He is of the opinion, therefore, that pepsin-like enzymes do occur in plants and that the tryptic action is due to the combined action of such enzymes and those of th : erepsin group.—ArTHUR L. DEAN. Te MAssart’s?? interesting experiments with geophilous plants should have been noted long since. In the case of the subterranean stock he sees @ ©" between the depth of its burial and the development of aerial shoots. In each Plant, therefore, there is a most favorable depth of the subterranean stock which Is secured and maintained. Experiments were performed involving were hundred species of plants, well distributed throughout monocotyledons de ‘dicotyledons. Each species was treated in three lots: one lot very neat as ‘surface; another 1o°™ deep; the third 20 to 30 deep. ‘The results are Ou a very briefly under two heads: methods of ascending when planted eae | normal depth; and methods of descending when above the normal depth. ; 71 VINES, S. H., The proteases of plants. III. Ann. Botany 19: 171-188: = ve *2 Massart, JEAN, Comment les plantes vivaces maintiennent leur niveau Soule rain. Bull. Soc. Roy. Bot. Belgique 417:67-79. figs. 12. 1903- 1905] CURRENT LITERATURE 155 methods of ascending from too great a depth are stated in outline as (1) elongation of internodes, (2) elongation of internodes and position of buds; (3) localization of buds, (4) curving of the rootstock, and (5) curving of the winter shoots. The methods of descending to a greater depth are (1) localization of the buds, (2) curvature of the rootstock, (3) curvature of the winter shoots, and (4) contraction of the roots.—J. M. C. Jounson*s has published a preliminary note in reference to his study of the Piperales. In addition to Peperomia, Piper, Heckeria, and Saururus, previously studied, he has studied recently Anemiopsis and Houttuynia (Saururaceae), and also representative genera of Chloranthaceae and Lacistemaceae. The general result is a confirmation of the view that the development of the mega- sporangium and female gametophyte of angiosperms is not a satisfactory index of genetic relationship, for it may vary widely within a single family or genus. Tn the genera of Piperales studied there is a variety in the development of the tapetum, megaspore, embryo sac, and endosperm nearly as great as can be found in the whole range of angiosperms. The development of the seed, however, suggests relationships of Piperaceae and Saururaceae to other dicotyledonous families; and the author concludes from such evidence that the Piperales are not very primitive angiosperms, and that they are probably most nearly allied to the four dicotyledonous orders with perisperm-containing seeds—Aristolochiales, Polygonales, Centrospermales, and Ranales.—J. M. C. Miss Rrpp1e" has investigated Batrachium longirostris, more often regarded Sporogenous tissue to form the tapetal layer. It is noteworthy, also, that the male cells, or at least their nuclei, appear just before pollination. In the develop- naoreg of the megasporangium two or more archesporial cells often appear, and no parietal cell is cut off. The antipodals have the character that belongs to the family, retaining the primitive number, but increasing much in size. In the development of the-embryo the suspensor is short and somewhat massive, the longitudinal division of the end cell of the proembryo occurring when it consists of three cells.—J. M. C. SABLON’S has studied the development of the sporogonium of mosses with the view of comparin g it with the development of the stems of vascular _— “ ” JoHNson, Duncan, S., Seed development: in the Piperales and its bearing on ‘he relationship of thef order. Johns Hopkins Univ. Circ. No. 178. pp- 28-31. 19°5- he _ NIDDLE, Lumina C., Devel t of the embryo sac and embryo of Batrachium Srostris. Ohio Nat. §:353-363. pls. 22-24. 1905. "Ss SABLoN, LECLERC DU, Sur le développement du sporogone des mo : = usses. Rev. Gén, Bot. 17:193-1097: figs. 3. 1905. 156 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [aucust carrying forward a point of view suggested in 1878 by KreniTz-GERLorr. The sporogonium described is that of Funaria hygrometrica, although Brywm nutans was also studied. SaBLon states that the first periclinal division of the apical segments differentiates a cortical-epidermal region from a central cylinder. The former region continues centrifugal periclinal divisions until the last or so-called epidermal layer is differentiated. This late differentiation of the outer- most layer is a feature of the pteridophytes and not of seed-plants. The inner- most or oldest layer corresponds to the endodermis of vascular plants. central cylinder, on the other hand, shows a centripetal succession in its per clinal divisions, the outermost layer, giving rise to sporogenous tissue, being the oldest and corresponding to the pericycle of vascular plants.—J. M. C. - NewcompBe’® has applied three methods to the determination of the angle for maximum response of primary roots and stems. The method of noting the perception time did not give decisive results, although a shorter perception time for a deviation of 90° was indicated than for 1 35°. The method of noting the after effect did not yield satisfact y results. The method of alternate stimulation at go° and at 135° deviation from position of stable equilibrium gave very positive results in favor of the former angle. These results discredit the conclusion of Czapex that the strongest stimulation occurs at a deviation of 1 35°. 72a author: s conclusion, recently announced, that orthotropic roots and stems do not receive equal stimulation at equal angles above and below the horizontal, is withdrawn, and support is given to Firtrve’s view that equal stimuli are received at equal angles above and below the horizontal.—Raymonp H. Ponp. Ficpor?? finds that the sheathing leaf base of grasses, in addition to protecting and supporting the unfolding bud, performs the function of a guiding ongat While the growing apex of the young shoot is still enclosed by the cotyledon, the latter, being sensitive to light and gravitation, assumes a favorable position into which the emerging leaf is directed. Coincident with the protrusion of the leaf the growth of the cotyledon ceases and its sensitiveness to light and gravitation disappears. This guiding function of the cotyledon is then assumed by the sheathing leaf base, as the author finds, by virtue of its sensitiveness to light and gravitation. The blade is not sensitive to light, but the vaginal sie the sheath are and in such portions the sensibility is uniform. The evidence sgh regarding the sheath as sensitive to gravitation might be more convincing~ Raymonp H. Ponp. GHLY SPECIALIZED plant cells and_ their peculiarities are discussed bY Davis"* in a continuation of his studies upon the plant cell. The forms om —————— 3 : fee "© NEwcomsg, F. C,, Geotropic response at various angles of inclination. se Botany 19:311-323. 190s, a B *7 Ficpor, W., Ueber Heliotropismus und Geotropismus der Gramineenblatter a er. Deutsch. Gesells. 23:182-1091. 1905. 8 . : i ia a5 Pian B. M., Studies on the plant cell. III. Section 3. Highly spe#™ piant cells and their peculiarities. Amer. Naturalist 38: 571-594, 725-760. aint 1905] CURRENT LITERATURE 157 sidered are the zoospore, sperm, egg, spore mother cell, coenocyte, and coenoga- m rms and eggs are compared with the zoospores with which they are phylogenetically related. After considering the literature of the blepharoplast, the writer is inclined to the view that it does not represent a centrosome. The statement that the synergid may possibly represent portions of a reduced arche- gonium is somewhat surprising. The author believes that there is no qualitative reduction during the mitoses in the spore mother cell. Pallavicinia receives , icular attention. About one hundred and twenty papers are cited in the bibliography of this section.—C. J. CHAMBERLAIN. SHREVE’? has investigated the morphology of Sarracenia purpurea. The microsporangium passes the winter in the mother cell stage, a two-layered tapetum is developed, the reduced number of chromosomes is twelve, and the tube and generative nuclei appear before the shedding of the pollen. In the megaspor- angium the integument is single, no parietal cell is cut off, and a linear series of four spores usually appears, although there are variations in number and arrange- ment. The functional megaspore (innermost one) destroys the overlying nucellar layer at the micropylar end and comes to lie directly against the integument. The endosperm has developed extensively when the embryo is two-celled. In germination the cotyledons act as haustoria, ‘(and survive as simple liguliform leaves bearing chlorophyll.””—J. M. C. FritscH?° claims that the cells of the Cyanophyceae are provided with a delicate cell immediately investing the protoplast in addition to the sheath, which is characteristic of many forms or of mucilaginous envelops. The inner invest- ment is regarded as a modified plasma membrane of a-viscous gelatinous nature. The outer envelop is called the cell-sheath, and is believed to be a modified inner- most layer of the external mucilaginous investment. This view is quite different from that of most algologists, who regard the sheath as directly derived from the protoplast. Frirscx also believes that the intercellular protoplasmic connections described by other autbors are due to peculiarities in the staining of the gelatinous partitions between the cells.—B. M. Davis. THE LAMINARIACEAE pass through several phases in their life histories, Which have been grouped as the embryonal and the post-embryonal. The embryonal stages include the periods up to the time when the simple laminarioid frond is developed; and the post-embryonal the later changes leading to the adult condition which is so various in the different genera. Considerable attention is kely to be given to the post-embryonal stages of development, which promise to throw much light on the problems of relationship. YENDO’s work in 1902-3 on Echlonia, Eisenia, and Hedophyllum has recently been supplemented by an s 19 SHREVE, Forrest, The development of Sarracenia purpurea L. Johns Hopkins nv. Circ. No. 178. pp. 31-34. 1905. *° Fritscu, K., Studies on the Cyanophyceae. II. Structure of the investment ~ spore-development in some Cyanophyceae. Beih. Bot. Centralbl. 18: 194-214. ZT. 1905. A 4 ; 158 BOTANICAL GAZETTE ~ [aveust investigation of SETCHELL** on the last two genera and Thalassiophyllum— ' GWYNNE-VAUGHAN” has had the opportunity to study the anatomy of the Chinese marattiaceous genus Archangiopteris, established in 1899 by Crist and GIESENHAGEN.. Only a single small specimen was available, but if it repre- sents the structure of the larger stems, the genus has a simpler anatomical struc- ture than any of the other Marattiaceae. The single internal vascular strand characteristic of young plants of Angiopteris, Marattia, and Danaea, persists in the mature stem of Archangiopteris. ‘The sporangia were examined by Pro- fessor Bower and reported as corresponding very closely in structure to those of Angiopteris.—J. M. C. oe IN AN INVESTIGATION of the fluctuations in the number of ray-flowers of Chrysanthemum segetum, Lupwtc?3 has attempted to answer the question how large a number of heads must be counted to insure trustworthy. determination of the modes. By counting in lots of fifty heads and adding the results, he comes to the conclusion that in this species 500 heads may be considered the lower limit; that in most species 1000 counts are necessary; and in some 10,000 or even 20,000 He deprecates the work done by American and English investigators who have contented themselves with biometric analysis of a couple hundred observations.— . SHULL. SETCHELL”* gives a brief account of several parasitic red algae found on the coast of California and describes a new genus, Peyssonneliopsis epi ‘phytica Setchell and Lawson, “growing in small dark red pustules scattered over the surface of membranaceous Rhodophyceae, sending rhizoidal filaments deep into the tissu of the host plant; antheridia and cystocarps unknown.” The form is said © differ from Cruoria “only in its parasitic habit and consequent. possession é thizoidal filaments penetrating the host plant.” It may perhaps be questioned a such characters alone justify the establishment of a new genus—B. M. — from the Acme variety of Lycopersicum esculentum produced only — © Potato-leaved tomato, which he calls I. solanopsis, and the latter then P pigieecc tl A., Post-embryonal stages of the Laminariaceae. Univ. Calif ub. Botany 2115-138. pls. 3. 1905. re WYNNE-VaucHaN, D. T., On the anatomy of Archangiopteris Henry - arattiaceae. Ann. Botany 19:259-271. pl. 10. 1905. 2. . : 3 Lupwie, F., Zur Biometrie von Chrysanthemum segetum. Festschr. 20 Son’s 70 stem Geburtstag, PP. 296-301. 1904. “SETCHELL, W. A., Parasitic Florideae of California. Nuova Notarisia. ™ 59-63. Igo5. “95 Ware 161. jigs. 2, 1905 » C. A., The mutations of Lycopersicum. Pop. Sci. Monthly 67:15" ae 1905] CURRENT LITERATURE 159 true to its new characters. The author gives repeated assurance that the care taken with these plants leaves no possibility of error. He does not consider the theoretical possibility that his plants were the “extracted recessives” in second- generation Mendelian hybrids instead of mutations.—G. H. SHULL. STEINER*® has found intumescences on the leaves of Ruellia formosa and Aphelandra Porteana, and traced their development. Excessive humidity is found to be the determining condition, as is already known in the case of several other plants. Submersion and darkness each inhibit the appearance of such swellings, while wounding or poisoning cannot be used to induce their formation. The author has evidently overlooked ATKINSON’s work of several years ago, in which excessive humidity was found to be important in causing oedema of tomato. —RKAyYMOND H. Ponp BARBER?” has given an account of the haustoria of the roots of Santalum album. It seems that those in charge of sandal plantations were for a long time uncertain as to the parasitic nature of this tree. There is a certain amount of selection as to hosts, certain plants being much more efficient “nurses” than others. The haustorium arises independently of the presence of any foreign rootlets. When there is contact with such a rootlet the haustorium applies itself closely to its surface, enlarges, and assumes a “conical or bell-like form.” —J. M. C. Miss Berripce?® has discovered and studied two new specimens of the Carboniferous strobilus described by Scorr as Spencerites insignis, of which only four specimens were known. In consequence, the original diagnosis is considerably modified, but the relationship to other paleozoic Lycopods as outlined by Scorr remains unaffected.—J. M. C THE FISHER FOLK of the Hawaiian Islands apply the term “limu” to the seaweeds of their coasts. They make use of a large number of forms as food and garnishes with fish, shrimps, and limpets. SETCHELL”? gives a lengthy list of the native names, identifying them in many cases with particular species.— B. M. Davis. Leavirr and SpaLprNc° have announced their determination of partheno- Senesis in Antennaria jallax and A. neodioica, and the great probability of its occurrence in A. canadensis and A. Parlinii. A detailed account, with drawings, will be published later.—J. M. C. Vaan "STEINER, R., Ueber Intumeszenzen bei Ruellia formosa Andrews und A phel- andra Porteana Morel. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 23: 105-112. pl. 2. 1905- 5 BERRIDGE, Miss E. M., On two new specimens of Spencerites insignis. Ann. 5. *° SETCHELL, W. A., “Limu.” Univ. Cali. Pub. Botany 2:91-113- 1995- . % Leavirr, R. G., and Spatp1n, L. J., Parthenogenesis in Antennaria. Rhodora +105, 1905. NEWS. PROFESSOR STRASBURGER has been awarded the gold medal of the Lisa Society of London. me Dr. W. B. McCatium has been appointed assistant in plant physiology in ? : the University of Chicago. PROFESSOR CHARLES R. BARNES, after spending six months in Ea As return to his duties at the University of Chicago October 1. Mr. J. W. Rircuie, Fellow in botany at the University of Chicago, has beet This Means Good. 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Te Lead 05 During Hot Weather sleeping-rom, or. kitchens and bath-rooms should be pas 1780 for 125 Years 19 io iad ie “in| Plat e & Cocoa Chioriae its 4 | gested, fitted to repair t h e oO d oO p | e $$ |] wasted strength, -pre- ee ie disinfectam TRADE-MARK A new and handsomely ‘ . fe d illustrated Recipe Book sent free. A colorless liquid, which mstanhy foul odors and disease-breeding matter sd Walter Baker & Co.Ltd. diluted with ten parts of water for BMS Established 1780 DORCHESTER, MASS, use, zt costs Jess than 5. cemts & quart. . 45 Highest Awards everywhere in quart bottles. is eae in Europe and America by Henry B. Platt, N. ¥. | — antl 3 OUT O’ DOORS — SUMMER PLEASURES are essentially phe ones. All the active sports make the bath a luxury, ih its delights by using HAND SAPOLIO, the only S0@P a lifts a bath above a commonplace cleansing Process It is 3 every pore respond, and energizes the whole beer d who summer necessity to every man, woman, and i would be daintily clean. Keeps you fresh and Make the Sea breeze; prevents sunburn and roughness. | test yourself. 6s THE PERFECT PURITY of HAND SAPOLIO ME | it a very desirable toilet article; it contains no 40! ble oils: but is made from the most healthful of the veget Its use is a fine habit. ree y because ae HAND SAPOLIO is related to Sapolio onl 0 made by the same company, but it is delicate, pee ty, soothing, and healing to the most tender S%? argue, Don’t infer, Try it! : ] YEAR? have been established cgi 5° IANOS payments every a. CVOSE gee, a aati ne ae eet to eee : : OS deliv: Write for Catalogue D and explanations. tston st., B® Vacr © 3ONC PIANO CO., 160 Boye ’ Vol. XL No. 3 THE BOTANICAL GAZETTE September, 1905 Editors: JOHN M. COULTER and CHARLES R. BARNES CONTENTS Two Conidia-Bearing Fungi A. F. Blakeslee The Development of the Heterotypic Chromosomes in Pollen Mother Cells D. M. Mottier Relation of Transpiration to Growth in Wheat Burton Edward Livingston Rusts on Compositae from Mexico J. C. Arthur 4 Morphological Study of Ulmus americana Charles H. Shattuck Briefer Articles Precursory Leaf Serrations of Ulmus Frederick H. Billings The Effect of Different Soils on the Development of the Carnation Rust Johan hn L. Sheldon Current Literature News The University of Chicago Press CHICAGO and NEW YORK William Wesley and Son, London ARS’ me SAI Every child ac- customed \ to Pears’Soap has faith in its charm. oi Its power is in its absolute purity in oe deleterious substances nor artificial coloring os ae f Pears’ Opens and cleanses the por es i i « 50 lt venting the enlargement, tearing and irregular aps, ti’ caused by the injurious ingredients of some ith skin of which result in a coarse, rough and wii a ‘ Pears’ is pre-eminently the baby-skin-soap— stare the skin a clear, soft, smooth and beautiful te happil® izing the body and contributing to health an e best. neit” is th Of All Scented Soaps Pears’ Otto of Rose i All righis secured, The Botanical Gazette A Montbly Fournal Embracing all Departments of Botanical Science ‘= by Joun M. Covutter and CHARLES R. BARNES, with the eon of other members of the _ botanical ‘staff of the University of Chi Vol. XL, No. 3 Issued September 15, 1905 s CONTENTS TWO CONIDIA-BEARING aeoha pene ai gener AND Mee ati over N. GEN. WITH PLATE vi). A. F. Blakeslee 161 F THE eee ates THE HETEROTYPIC CHROMOSOMES IN POLLEN ER CELLS. D. M. Mot 171 RELATION a TRANSPIRATION — GROWTH IN WHEAT. ristaesotaies FROM THE HULL Bo aaa Seer. eis iis I Ae TWENTY-ONE she haa Burton 4 Edward Livingsto 3 - 198 _ RUSTS ON COMPOSITAE FROM MEXICO. J. C. Arthur - ae els Se Sop _ A MORPHOLOGICAL STUDY OF ULMUS AMERICANA. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE © q HULL BoranicaL LABoRATORY. LXXVIII (witH PLATES vu-Ix). Charles H. Shattuck 209 ied ARTICLES. RECURSORY LEAF SERRATIONS OF ULMUS (WITH TWO FIGURES). Frederick H. aan 224 THE EFFECT OF Ja tee SOILS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CARNATION Rust. John L. 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PORTER Scientific Instruments 326 Dearborn Street, CHICAGO EME erp MAE RS ee iii --~ Airmen corre : In the following de- +0 a fee O07... ROL.---- OF inti : °. scriptions of series, the : : 6 tables of observed data ' * ~° will often be omitted, the “184 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER numbers placed upon the curves showing their relative magnitudes, which alone are of interest here. Series II.—This series is identical in treatment with Series I. It lasted 18 days, from November 11 to November 29, 1904. The plants are shown in jig. 3, and curves for the series are given in jig. 4. It will be noticed that in this case both weight of leaves and weight of tops are represented, the latter being denoted by Wi. Apparently the former increases somewhat more rapidly than the latter with increasing fertility of the soil. The curves of transpira- tion, leaf area, and the other two curves just mentioned lie 9 Ses FIG. 5 close together that according to any one of them the several baskets would fall into exactly the same series, which would again be iden- tical with that obtained by arranging them in accordance with the increasing amounts of manure used. Transpiration per unt area is fairly uniform throughout this series, but that per gram of green tops decreases slightly with increasing fertility. The series is on the whole in harmony with Series I. Series III.—This series is another duplicate of Series 1. The experiment lasted from November 23 to December 14, 19% s plants are shown in fig. 5, and fig. 6 represents the curves. If bas no. 2 were omitted from the series (and it is obvious that its a are very erratic, though wherein the error lies it is impossible : determine), the curves would take the general form as those of ae TandIl. Itis again seen that the order of arrangement of the et kets by amount of transpiration agrees with that obtained from t 1905] LIVINGSTON—TRANSPIRATION AND GROWTH 185 relative amounts of manure, leaf area, and weights of leaves and of tops. Here the two lower curves are again nearly horizontal lines. There is a slight tendency for transpiration per unit area to increase with increasing soil fertility, but this tendency is hardly shown at all in case of transpiration per gram, 32, Series IV, V, and VI.— oe: These are duplicates of I, “ ‘JI, and HI respectively, carried on at the same time z6z, and in the same place. s While the three already de- scribed are based on a single basket of each treatment, 1.43 36 —— igs r A those here presented are based on four baskets, con- plants. Only transpiration and green weight of tops are considered; the other deter- See were not made ere. 1.00 —————— til Curves for these three © 2. 2 “8 : Fic. 7 series are given in jigs. 7, 8,and9. In fig. 7 it is to be noted that culture 6, containing 30,000 P-P-m. manure in the Takoma soil, shows a discrepancy which was not found in Series I, of which this is a duplicate. No reason for Ses can be given. It is obviously due, however, to soil conditions, Since the curve of transpiration follows closely that of weight, both exhibiting the same drop for culture 6. 186 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER There are no discrepancies in Series V; the curves of fig. § approximate each other throughout and agree very well with those of Series II. Series VI (jig. 9) shows a fall in transpiration in culture 3, which does not occur in Series III. This fall in transpiration is accom- 379, panied by a very much diminished relative weight, *’ although this does not amount to an actual depres- sion in the curve. Aside from this culture the series is in agreement with the pre- ceding, and the two curves are seen to be very closely similar throughout. 2 3 4 3 Fic. 8 For the six similar series so far described, it appears that total transpiration is as good a criterion as green weight for judging of the relative growth in these soils. “The differences are 3 . generally somewhat more a: : marked by the weight cri- ion 10. terion than by that of transpiration. Series III is an ao be this, however. . yariols Series VII.—This series consists of Cecil clay? poo bees which treatments as given in the following table. The samples dite ° This soil is from near Statesville, N.C. _Itis a stiff reddish Ys ood pot best soil of the Piedmont Plateau for general farming purpos¢s- varieties are markedly different agriculturally, but appear to be ° Be far 38 . dentical so fat 2 analysis can determine. eee 1905) | LIVINGSTON—TRANSPIRATION AND GROWTH 187 received fertilizers were mixed with the latter, moistened, and allowed to stand several weeks with frequent stirring. The aerated soil was treated in the same way. At the end of this time lime was added to certain of the samples and the seeds were then planted. The proportions of fertilizers added are stated under “treatment” in the following table. a 2 Where more than one ee ur ute y i s 107 A fertilizer was uscd, “as ‘“” © woe P each was in the same proportion as when used alone. The amount of lime added is given in the third column. Five baskets of six plants each were used for each treatment. The experiment lasted from November 19 to December 8, 1904. The data are given in the following table. Only transpiration and weight are given. The cultures are arranged in order of transpiration figures. cs) w - &| » é = & 7 FIG. 10 DaTA FoR SERIES VII T P.pim, lime| weight of | spiration p.m. 1 reatment Culture no. added oo Ww ml T) AOE SSE ae On ee age Cecil clay good added to WO ic eas I 7-30 313-8 10 per cent. Cecil clay poor, aerated..... 2 none 6.95 316.5 aNO3. 127 p.p.m....... pea eee 3 7-85 | 324-2 co A ear Syne aie cern 4 none 7-50 337-5 MOePOg)s 77D. P.M. ....2..5, 5.66. 5 7-50%| 348.41° og ig ae ge Cape aR 6 3000 8.35 | 351-1 MUM.” tO00 p. Hi Ik. ss. 6565s 7 980 1° 383.7 K,SO,. I30p.p.m... a ee eee ee 8 2000 8.35 356.1 NaNO, +K,SO,+Ca,(PO,);........-.. 9 3 9-05 | 361.3 Cecil clay POC, Vattraly ss. 5 ee 10 none 7-75 367.0 KNO,. ae On be GER SED SMa SR ce II 8.65 368.0 WAND EDO. oe ccscc ss 0. 12 3000 9-10 372-9 The curves are shown in fig. 10. That of transpiration is practi- cally a Straight line and is nearly horizontal. The weight curve varies on both sides of that of transpiration, leaving the latter as approx!- mately the mean of the points of the former. No marked improve- ment of the soil by any of the treatments used is to be made out. All variations here are comparatively very slight. *° Only 29 plants; calculated numbers for 30 plants are: Wt, 7.80; T, 349-2: 188 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER Series VIII.—This is a series similar to the last described, and carried out at the same time, but having as its basis another natural soil, Leonardtown loam poor.'? For the treatments and data see the following table, in which the system of notation is the same as in the last. The cultures are again arranged by transpira- sa, tion figures. _ _ Curves for these ‘data are given in jig 11. Theyagree very well in all points with the last series dis cussed. , Series [X.—This again is similar to Series VII, and was carried out at the same time, but is made from Leonardtown loam good, Data For Serres VIII ——<— ; Green _ | Total tran- Treatment Culture no, | PP Ried rons wi De Leonardtown loam poor, aerated......... I none bape ee ” Leonardtown loam poor, natural......... 2 none 5 rile CE ST DOD Mrs res owe es ct 3 2000 este 0 NaNO,+ Ca;(PO,)2 Ss gigas ba shies we ee oe he 4 3000 7 . 2 a A oS Ee ene eee eee 5 2000 7o Io per cent. Leonardtown loam, good ‘aes wie 6 gooo | 7-60 a7 NaNOQ3. 127 p. p.m 7 ao0F ee 30-5 KNO. 151 p. p.m 8 fee ae Se RON, Doane yp kk vee ds pee ee 9 none 7-45 37-1 Well S650)... ...... 10 ooo | 5:08 ae Stable manure. 7000 p. p. M..........+5 II aces re 87-1 NaNO, ESO;4- Ca fPO,),....... 6.55. 12 gooo | 9:55 oe and sodium nitrate was added at the time of planting Se agi | lime, as in the last two series. The system of notation BT as above and the cultures are arranged as in the two poe a, series. on a yellow silty Joa, closely resembling loess, and is considered a good soil for g The : in Kentucky: arge areas in Maryland and Virginia, and to some extent 17 e a dee and/poor varieties of this soil are related in the same manner 4S those ste 1905] LIVINGSTON—TRANSPIRATION AND GROWTH 189 DATA FOR SERIES IX P.p.m. Green | Total tran- Treatment Culture no. NaNO, weight of | spiration added tops (W?) (T) 10 per cent. Leonardtown loam _ poor Re te POOU Se rT ee ae I 80 23.0 Leonardiown Sean good, natural. ........ 2 none 7.4012} 352.812 Eh he MA sae oe a oops ss ve eal a | 606'3 | 10.10 75-6 NaN +K, ts. eee Cae curse tees ae | 3 II. 384.6 K.SO,. 5 none 10.50 3098.6 ae WOOO De: White Scners oie sowed 6 637 II.70 402.1 Ca;(PO,)2. 77 p. p.m 7 382 10.40 406.114 Ee ee eae er ae ee an 8 51 10.7014| 410 NaNO,;+K,SO, 9 none 10.20 424.1 ere RE he ee a 10 255 10.05 426.9 4 nardtown loam pees aerated. .icccc2 II none 9-90 438.0 NaNO. 127 p. p.m peers Ge 12 none 10.60 438.4 The curves are given in fig. 12. With the exception of culture 2, and perhaps also of the last three cultures of the series, in which weight is low as com- se Oi pared to transpira- : tion, these agree with the last two series dis- cussed. See on ee ee Fe a ee ee Series X.—This sods consists of five different natural soils and a rich garden soil from the greenhouse. The experiment lasted thirty-four days, from November II to December 15, 1904. Weight of both leaves and tops as well as transpiration and leaf area were determined. A single basket of six — Plants was used for each soil. The data are given in the table. The arrangement is by transpiration figures. 7 DaTA FoR SERIES X. 1.00 Baik | come | tae | weak | oe eS et | transpi- - a Ww -* no. ration area (A) —_ rec) A Wi ies eh lee Cecil clay 86 80.1 We ioe eo, I 68.8 | 48.1 | 0.70] 0. 1.43 Fakoma so 2 | 70.6| 48.8| 0.73| 0-73 | 0-86 | 82-1 (conardtown loam poor.. 3 90.1 | 60.6} 0.97 | 1.21 | 1-49 | 74-5 Bae beh cal go.r | 63.8] 1.02] 1-28 | 1-41 Si town loam J. 127. 8 | Fag | ESET tt Garden soil. . : Bood ze 7 ae thee 1.54 | 2-18 | 1.56 | 70-4 *2 Only 29 plants; calculated numbers for 30 plants are: Wt, 7.65; T, 365-1. "$ KNO, in place of NaNO3. 4 Only 29 plants; calculated numbers for 30 plants are: Wt, 11.10; T, 420.0. 190 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER The plants are shown in jig. 13, and the curves in fig. 14. Those for weight, transpiration, and leaf area approximate each other very well. With increasing fertility of the soil the transpiration increases somewhat more rapidly than the area, while the same function increases somewhat less rapidly than the weight of tops. Thus the curve of transpiration per unit area rises slightly, while that for transpiration per gram falls to about the same degree. The last Imo curves, however, both approximate horizontal straight lines. 245 Series XI—this ® Jom study of soil a ir T from the soils used 2 Be X. The plants ie in bottles, as has bet pottle already stated. One 0S es, containing four ee Sts ae used for each culture. from San experiment nae 2 3 a 6 November 11 t0 Fic. 14 I, 1904. The extent , ken at the sam changed every four days, and the transpiration was ta tthe i intervals, beginning November 15. The plants were abou old when placed in the bottles, the seeds having been 8 sand. The data are given in the table. in fig: 16 A photograph of the series is given in fig. 15, 4 curves In tion dis: It will be observed that the criteria other than aa 1905] LIVINGSTON—TRANSPIRATION AND GROWTH IgI DATA For Serres XI. Green Soil extract aloes ones wren li ze * | tion (T)| “Gpp |tops(Wy| 4 wt woo a eee ere I 41.9 1.07 | 3.5 0.61 | 28.9 ge Ea, er ae ae 2 54.9 1.09 | 1.44 0.75 36.1 mardtown loam poor.......... 3 63.8 1.47 | 1.917 | 0.70 33-2 Seren MOOG Shin 4 70.8 T.40 | 1.918 | 0.80 36.9 nardtown loam good. ..... 5 75.8 | 2.90 }-as98 0.76.1 93.4 i cg "sok win ane dass 6 111.6 I.9o | 2.78 0.96 | 40.1 agree with the latter in the relation of cultures 3 and 4. By trans- piration the soil of 4 is considerably better than that of 3, but by the other criteria it is a trifle poorer. Besides this discrepancy there appears a rather markeddisagreement between the differ- ence between 1 and 2 and that between 5 and 6. Comparing ; 266, FIG. 15 lw this set of curves with those of Series X, we find that the order of arrangement of the soil vg extracts (by transpira- i. oe tion) differs in one ' : } : : Point from that of the Fic. 16 oo By the soils, Cecil clay poor stands lower than four as “Sg while by extracts this is reversed. However, by all and th ‘ag — two are practically equivalent in the former series, © same is true in the latter by all criteria but transpiration. 192 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER Transpiration both per unit area and per gram of tops increases quite markedly with the increasing fertility of the extract. Series XII.—This consists of duplicates of cultures 1, 2, 4, and 6 of Series XI. The cultures were carried on at the same time as were those of the former series. One bottle, containing four plants, 2, was used for each culture. Leaf area was not determined. The curves are given in jig. 17. From them it is seen that the 2 © 1, Q. [ on a Lan ra) ej n zz. ot rt} poset © S —e j=] NM 5 nt. mn 5 th mi appear here, and the discrepancy culture 2 also disappears. 18 relatively high transpiration of the garden soil is again exhibited ig <3. by both weg and transpiration pe 27 the cultures fall in the same ordth and this is the order obtained in the pre- ceding series. Regard- ing the relation of Takoma soil to Cecil clay poor, it may be that the deleterious properties of the former are more pronounced in aqueous extract than in the soil itself. Series XIII.—This consists of five differ- ent nutrient solutions. No. 1 is a solution of the necessary salts 8 which had already had —- crag is the wheat plants growing in it for twenty days. No. : put witht? one part per million pyrogallol added. No. 3 is the sam 1905] LIVINGSTON—TRANSPIRATION AND GROWTH 193 times as much of the chemical. No. 4 is a nutrient solution exactly like no. 1 but freshly made. No. 5 is the used nutrient solution with manure extract added. The cultures lasted from October 11 to November 8, 1904. The transpiration was taken for 17 days, from October 22 to November 8. ot A photograph of \78we the series is shown in eo OS ~2I given in fig. 19. The oe itn sia We first three cultures ie ra “ier “ter - show practically the : 3 4 5 same weights and leaf areas, and nos. 2 and 3 show about equal transpirations. The transpiration numbers for nos. 2 and 3 are somewhat greater than that for no. 1. Nos. 3, 4, and 5 show about the same rela- tion to each other by all three cri- teria, transpiration, weight, and area. In other words, the transpiration is surprisingly high in the two cultures containing pyrogallol. In some way this substance usually accelerates growth of roots, and this may explain the discrepancies above referred to. The question here brought up will be deferred to a future time. Series XIV.—This consists of soil extracts all made by the method described by Wurrney and CAME- RON (loc. cit.). No. 1 is an extract of the poor Takoma soil used in sae Series I, etc., but which had been used for the growth of wheat before for a period of twenty days. No. 2 is of the same extract freshly made with addition of one part per million pyrogallol. No. 3 is the same as the last without pyrogallol; and no. 4 is ale, but with addition of manure extract instead of the chemical. The Period is the same as that for Series XIV. 194 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER The photograph for this series is given in jig. 20, and the curves in fig. 21. The three criteria arrange the cultures in the same order, although by transpiration the difference between nos. 2 and 3 is emphasized. Transpiration per unit area increases somewhat with the fertility of the solution; while that per gram is practically uni- form throughout the series. The former of these ratios thus appears to vary in the opposite direction from that shown in certain of the soil series already described. It may be that the presence of a superabundance of water about the roots raises the transpiration per s————+ gram and per unit area above what it would be if the roots were in soil. CONCLUSION. From the experiments which have been described the conclusion seems evident that total transpiration of wheat plants grown in vari- ous media is as good a criterion for comparing the relative growth in these media as is the weight of the plants. That these two criteria vary generally with the weight and area of the leaves gives the expla- nation for this conclusion. The facts are made clear that, for the types of media investigated at least, the amount of transpiration is practically a simple function of the leaf surface; and that this latter varies quite uniformly with the leaf weight, which in turn varies with the weight of the entire tops. Thus total transpiration appears be a measure for the growth of the plant. With some series there seems to be a slight variation in the ratios of transpiration 0 weight and to area respectively, according to the nature of the medium; but these variations are so small when compared with those of their component terms, and lack uniformity in the different series to such a degree that they are practically negligible in the comparison of the cultures. It thus appeals that the nature of the soil or solution in which the roots ay grown has little or no influence on those structural and physt- 1905] LIVINGSTON—TRANSPIRATION AND GROWTH 195 ological properties of the leaves which control the amount of water lost per unit of leaf surface. The water loss per unit area of leaves is practically uniform throughout the different treatments; therefore the variations in total transpiration exhibited are due not to any difference in structure or activity of the leaves, but simply to the differences in extent of leaf surface developed. In making use of this criterion of transpiration for the comparison of different nutrient media, it must be borne in mind that, as in all other biological experimentation, there will occur unexplained vari- ations, and the truth must be attained by the summation of the tesults of a number of experiments. Many of the unexplained dis- crepancies of the experiments just described might not have occurred had the number of plants used been larger. The individual varia- tion among wheat plants is found to be great, so that the larger the number of plants used the nearer would the result approach the true average. Also, it must be remembered that if total transpiration is decreased by temperature, atmospheric conditions, etc., the differ- ént members of a series will approach each other in the amount of water lost; were transpiration checked completely, all the members would agree. It is thus necessary to have good conditions for evap- oration from the leaves where such experiments are carried on, in : order to magnify the differences in transpiration and keep them well above the limits of experimental error. The method for comparison of plant growth here provisionally established for wheat is found also to hold for the grasses generally. This doubtless rests on the fact that the leaves of these plants are far and of continuous basal growth. Whether or not it can be adapted to other groups of plants is not yet determined. THE UNIVERSITY oF CHICAGO. RUSTS ON COMPOSITAE FROM MEXICO. JG, ARTE R. Tue following enumeration of two hundred collections of Mexican rusts on Compositae comprises part of Mr. E. W. D. Hotwavy’s material obtained on his several trips into Mexico, not heretofore published; together with two specimens collected by C. G. PRINGLE, communicated by Mr. Hotway; two by Rose and PAINTER, com- municated by Dr. J. N. Rose; one by E. W. NELson, communicated by Dr. W. G. Fartow; and one by SELER, found in the phanerogamic herbarium of the N. Y. Botanical Garden. Of the fifty-four species in the list it has been found necessary to describe eighteen as new. It is interesting to note that the genus Puccinia embraces three- fourths of all the species, and the genus Coleosporium one-half of the remaining number. Two new species are described -under Dietelia, with some misgivings. Both of them are accompanied with spermogonia, and are devoid of a peridium. Whether these differ- ences should constitute valid ground for separation into a new genus is problematical without further knowledge of their life histories and affinities. Cronartium, Pucciniosira, Uredo, and AEcidium with one species each, and Uromyces with two species are the remaining genera. The present communication is another illustration of Mr. Hot- WAY’S skill as a collector, and his service in making known the Mex- ican rust flora. 1. COLEOsPORIUM VIGUIERAE Diet. and Holw. On Viguiera helianthoides HBK., Tehuacan, Nov. 18, 1903, n0- 5355; dentata Spreng., City of Mexico, Oct. 14, 1898, no. 3055. 2. COLEOsPoRIUM VERBESINAE Diet. and Holw. On Verbesina virgata Cav., Oaxaca, Oct. 21, 1899, nO. 3711} Cuernavaca, Oct. 30, 1903, no. 5298; Amecameca, Nov. 20, 1903, no. 5427: V- montanoifolta Rob. & Greenm., Patzcuaro, Oct. 19, 1898: V. pinnatifida Cav., Oct. 1896. 3 COLEOsPorIUM ANcEPs Diet. and Holw. On Verbesina sphaerocephala A. Gr., Sayula, State of Jalisco, Oct. 7, 1993: ho. 5124; Zapotlan, State of Jalisco, Oct. 10, 1903, no. 5145. 196 V. [SEPTEMBER 1905) ARTHUR—RUSTS ON COMPOSITAE FROM MEXICO 197 4. COLEOSPORIUM SOLIDAGINIS (Schw.) Thuem. On Aster pauciflorus Nutt., City of Mexico, Oct. 10, 1898, no. 3071 a. 5. COLEOSPORIUM PARAPHYSATUM Diet. and Holw. On Liabum discolor Benth. and Hook., Guadalajara, Sept. 28, 1903, no. 5062. 6. Coleosporium Dahliae, n. sp.—Uredosori hypophyllous, irreg- ularly scattered, round, o.5™™ across or less, soon naked, pulveru- lent; uredospores irregularly ellipsoid, 16-22 by 24-30m, wall color- less, rather thin, 2, closely and strongly verrucose: teleutosori hypophyllous, irregularly scattered, sometimes confluent, roundish, about 0.5™™ across, waxy; teleutospores oblong, 18-21 by 45-7op, rounded at both ends, early septate, bright orange-yellow fading to pale olive-yellow. On Dahlia variabilis (W.) Desf., in city park, Guadalajara, Oct. 6, 1903, no. 5121. 7, Coleosporium Steviae, n. sp.—Uredosori hypophyllous, scat- tered unevenly and often thickly, round, 0.25-0.5™™ across, early naked, pulverulent; uredospores ellipsoid to globoid, somewhat angular, 18-23 by 26-35, wall colorless, rather thin, 1.5-2, finely Yerrucose: teleutosori hypophyllous, scattered, often confluent, regularly orbicular, o. 2 5-0.5™™ across, waxy; teleutospores form- ing 4 single layer beneath the epidermis, cylindrical, 12-19 by $0-75# tuncate or rounded at both ends. On Stevia trachelioides (DC.) Hook., Nevada de Toluca, 3,000 ™ alt., Oct. ra) ho. 5159 (type): S. rhombifolia HBK., Amecameca, Oct. 20, 1903, no. ¢ : Hondo, near City of Mexico, Oct. 4, 1899, no. 3565: S. viscida HBK., Cuernavaca, ce y > aa Oct. oh 1903, no. 5169: S. monardaejo e se cas oes we ce ke as Sol No, 3135, Sept. ios cane 8 i a siglo ce h wicks : es co 5248; Santa Fé =e ss ri Ot ea ee , y of Mexico, Oct. 18, 1903, no. 5176. 8. CRonartIUM PRAELONGUM Wint. On Eupatorium Sp., Orizaba, Oct. 8, 1898, no. 304r. ne ae Eupatorii, n. sp-—Spermogonia amphigenous, numer- itis a small groups, punctiform, rather COMSPACUGUE, sen ite pidermal, globoid, too-1s0# broad; ostiolar fila- ing agglutinate: teleutosori hypophyllous and caulico- 198 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER lous, crowded in orbicular groups, often circinating about the spermo- gonia, on stems causing small swellings up to 1°™ long, on discolored spots, very small, 0. 2-0. 3™™ across, round, somewhat waxy; peridia wanting; spores ellipsoid, more or less angular from pressure, 20-25 by 24-36, wall golden-brown, smooth, medium thick, 1. 5-2. On Eupatorium patzcuarense HBK., Amecameca, Oct. 21, 1903, NO. 5205 (type): Eupatorium sp., near City of Mexico, Oct. 9, 1898, no. 3033- This and the following are the first species belonging to this genus reported from North America. They both differ from the type in the absence of a perid- ium, and in the presence of spermogonia. Like the type, however, they both have the sori separated from the tissues of the host by a filamentous layer of delicate, colorless hyphae. The form on Eupatorium is waxy, with smooth con- solidated spores, like the type, the spores germinating in the sorus upon maturity. The form on Vernonia is not waxy, but pulverulent. to. Dietelia Vernoniae, n. sp.—Spermogonia chiefly epiphyl- lous, numerous, crowded in orbicular groups, punctiform, golden- yellow becoming brown, prominent, subepidermal, depressed-globoid or somewhat conical, 130-145 broad; central cavity large; ostiolar filaments becoming agglutinate: teleutosori hypophyllous, crowded opposite the spermogonia in annular groups of 2-7, or solitary, round, ©.5™™ across, soon naked, pulverulent, ruptured epidermis notice- able; peridia wanting; teleutospores ellipsoid or globoid, more OF less angular and irregular from pressure, 22-27 by 30-37 wall very pale yellow, medium thick, 1.5-2/, closely and strongly vertu: cose, except a small spot at the base, tubercles somewhat deciduous. On Vernonia (probably V. Deppiana Less.), Jalapa, Mex., Oct- 5 1898, no. 3111. 11. Puccrytosira BRICKELLIAE Diet. and Holw. ” On Brickellia secundiflora A. Gr., Pachuca, Oct. 27, 1903, 00. 5249: Brick- lia sp., Guadalajara, Sept. 22, 1903, no. 5020; Zapotlan, State of Jalisco, Oct. TO, 1903, no. 5144; Amecameca, Nov. 20, 1903, no. 5428. 12. UREDO ParTHENt! Speg. On Parthenium hysterophorus L., San Andres Chalchicomula, n¢4t - Orizaba, Oct. 8, 1898, no. 3228. 13. Aciprum Curpapr Syd. On Clibadium arboreum J. D. Smith, Jalapa, Oct. 2, 1898, no. 3114: 14. Uromyces senecionicola, n. sp.—Teleutosori hypophyllous,. 1905] ARTHUR—RUSTS ON COMPOSITAE FROM MEXICO 199 thickly scattered, irregularly roundish, o.5™™ or less across, long covered by the grayish epidermis; teleutospores obovoid, more or less angular, 20-25 by 24-36, obtuse or rounded at apex, narrowed at base, wall golden-brown, rather thin, 1-24, much thicker at apex, 3-64, concolorous; pedicel nearly colorless, thick, two-thirds length of spore or less. On Senecio Roldana DC., Amecameca, Oct. 20, 1903, no. 5183 (type), Oct. 31, 1899, no. 3752: Cacalia sp., Patzcuaro, Oct. 20, 1898, no. 3182. The morphological characters and gross appearance of this species closely resemble those of Puccinia senecionicola, except that the teleutospores are one- celled instead of two-celled. A very few uredospores were seen, which resembled those of P. senecionicola closely, except that they were quite colorless, which may have been due to weathering, or to their origin in teleutosori as an obsolescent form of spore. A single group of hypophyllous aecidia was also found, accom- panied by epiphyllous spermogonia, but too old for securing accurate characterization 15. UROMYCES CUCULLATUS Syd. On Zexmenia sp., Iguala, Oct. 4, 1900 (C. G. Pringle): Perymenium Ber- landieri DC., Amecameca, Oct. 31, 1899, no. 3753: P. verbesinoides DC., Cuer- Ravaca, Sept. 30, 1898, no. 3116: P. Mendezii DC., Pachuca, Oct. 5, 1899, No. 3578, Oct. 28, 1903, no. 5257: P. discolor Schrad., Oaxaca, Nov. 10, 1903, NO. 5362, Noy. 14, 1903, no. 5417. 16. Puccinia senecionicola, n. sp.—Uredosori amphigenous, some- what Stegarious or solitary, round, small, tardily naked, pulverulent, “imamon-brown, ruptured epidermis noticeable; uredospores glo- boid, 24-27 by 25-324, wall cinnamon-brown, thin, sparsely and Strongly echinulate, pores 2, opposite in the equator: teleutosori hypophyllous, thickly scattered and somewhat confluent, punctiform or bullate, long covered by the epidermis; teleutospores oblong or oblong-clavate, 16-27 by 42-60, obtuse, truncate or even rounded on and often oblique, more or less narrowed at base, slightly or a a sige at septum, wall golden-brown, sometimes darker Aas ? a ~ thin, little to much thickened at apex, 3-12, con- Tous; pedicel short, nearly colorless. eg oe DC., Amecameca, Oct. 20, 1903, no. 5189 (type), - 3762; Pachuca, Oct. 6, 1899, no. 3586, Oct. 28, 1903, no. i Fick bs, a. aa, 1899, no. 3714; Nevada de Toluca, 10,500" gernes | Pringles Wass . Sinuatus HBK., Pachuca, Oct. 28, 1903, se 5252: : » Zapotlan, State of Jalisco, Oct. 9, 1903, no. 5143: C. ampullacea 200 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER Greenm., Pachuca, Oct. 5, 1899, no. 3572, Oct. 27, 1903, no. 5244: C. sinuata Cerv., Patzcuaro, Oct. 16, 1898, no. 3196: C. amplifolia DC., Oaxaca, Oct. 23, 1899, no. 3725: C. obtusiloba Rob. & Greenm., Cuernavaca, Sept. 30, 1899, no. 3538, Oct. 30, 1903, no. 5299; Patzcuaro, Oct. 17, 1898, no. 3171: Cacalia sp., Guadalajara, Sept. 14, 1899, no. 3417; Uruapan, Oct. 11, 1899, nos. 3617, 3618. 17. Puccrnta TITHONIAE Diet. and Holw. On Tithonia tubaeformis A. Gr., Acambora, Oct. 21, 1899, no. 3143; near Tula, Sept. 20, 1898, no. 3197: T. speciosa Hook., Sept. 28, 1898, no. 3119. 18. Puccinia globulifera, n. sp.—Uredosori hypophyllous, small, round, scattered, pulverulent, cinnamon-brown; uredospores globose, small, 15-184 in diameter, wall medium thick, 2“, cinnamon- brown, evenly and strongly echinulate, pores 2, opposite in the equa- tor: teleutosori amphigenous, small, round, scattered, somewhat pulverulent, blackish; teleutospores oblong-globose, 22-25 by 24-32#4, semiopaque, rounded at both ends, not constricted at the septum, wall dark chocolate-brown, 3m thick, closely and evenly aculeate with strong conical points; pedicel colorless except near the spore, slender, » 5-6 thick, twice the length of the spore or longer, place of insertion indefinite, often at the septum. On Otopappus epalaceus Pringlei Greenm., Iguala, Nov. 3, 1903, no. 5313: This species is widely different from P. Otopappi Syd., which has smooth teleutospores of the common obovate-ellipsoid form. 19. Puccrnta AsTerts Duby. On Aster pauciflorus Nutt., City of Mexico, Oct. 10, 1898, no. 3071. 20. Puccinia Gymnolomiae, n. sp.—Uredosori hypophyllous, scattered, small, early naked, pulverulent, bright cinnamon-brown; uredospores globoid or obovate-globoid, 20-24 by 21-27#; wall golden yellow, rather thin, 1-2, closely and _ strongly echinulate, pores 2, opposite, in the equator or often much lower: teleutoson hypophyllous, scattered, small, somewhat pulverulent, chestnut brown; teleutospores elliptical, 26-30 by 36-454, rounded at both ends, which are strongly introverted and concave when dry, much constricted at the septum, wall chestnut-brown, smooth, evenly thick, 3~4#, apex slightly thicker with a very low semiyhaline umbo; pedicel colorless, about once length of spore. On Gymnolomia subflexuosa Benth. & Hook., Oaxaca, Oct. 17, 1899, 2° 3045 (type): G. patens brachypoda Rob. & Greenm., Jalapa, Oct. 2, 1898, no. 3145: 1995) ARTHUR—RUSTS ON COMPOSITAE FROM MEXICO 201 This species does not include the rusts on species of Gymnolomia occurring in the United States throughout the Rocky Mountain region, which belong to Puccinia Helianthi Schw. 21. PuccintA ENCELIAE Diet. and Holw. On Encelia adenophora Greenm., Etzatlan, State of Jalisco, Oct. 2, 1903, no. 5092; Oaxaca, Nov. 10, 1903, no. 5360: Fncelia sp., Guadalajara, Oct. 3, 1903, No. 5102. 22. Puccinia Caleae, n. sp.—Spermogonia epiphyllous, crowded, in small groups opposite the aecidia, punctiform, inconspicuous, globoid, 100-130 broad: aecidia hypophyllous, in circular groups, peridia cylindrical, lacerate; aecidiospores globoid, 18-24 by 20-27H, wall pale yellowish, thin, closely and prominently verrucose: uredo- sori amphigenous, in small groups or scattered, small, early naked, pulyerulent, cinnamon-brown; uredospores globoid, or obovate- globoid, 20-24 by 24-30, wall dark cinnamon-brown, medium thick, 1. 5-2. 5m, sparsely and strongly echinulate, pores 2, opposite and near the equator: teleutosori chiefly epiphyllous, scattered, P1.5™™ across, early naked, somewhat pulverulent, blackish; teleutospores obovate-oblong or ellipsoid, 20-30 by 40-54, obtuse above, narrowed below, sometimes rounded at both ends, slightly °r hot constricted at septum, wall dark chestnut-brown, smooth, thick, 3-3-5#, apex unthickened, or with a more or less prominent and paler umbo, sometimes with a similar umbo on the lower cell next the septum ; pedicel colorless, firm, once to twice length of spore. Pay Calea axillaris urticaefolia Rob. & Greenm., Sayula, State of Jalisco, teivacs, ee no. 5126 (type): C. Zacatechichi rugosa Rob. & Greenm., Cuer- th igc, as gia 5301: C. hypoleuca Rob. & Greenm., Oaxaca, Nov. 5097 - 3394, 5384: Calea sp., Etzatlan, State of Jalisco, Oct. 2. 1903, no. ie Puccinia Axiniphylli, n. sp.—Uredosori not seen; uredo- vee th the teleutosori ellipsoid or globoid, 16-24 by 21-26, wall yellowish, thin, 1-1. 5#, sparsely and strongly echinulate, pores Probably 3 and equatorial, very indistinct: teleutosori hypophyllous, — eregularly gregarious, or scattered, somewhat confluent, small, eed and imperfectly naked, dull chestnut-brown; teleutospores es 2 or obovate-oblong, irregular, large, 24-30 by 45—6o#, obtuse obliquely truncate above, somewhat narrowed below, slightly or - 202 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER not constricted at the septum, wall smooth, cinnamon-brown, or partly darker, rather thin, 1.5-2.5, much thickened above, 7-124; pedicel tinted, firm, 7-12 broad, half length of spore or shorter. On Axiniphyllum tomentosum Benth., Oaxaca, Oct. 21, 1899, no. 3710; Etla, State of Oaxaca, Nov. 13, 1903, no. 5393- 24. Puccinia Noccae, n. sp.—Uredorosi amphigenous, small, scattered, pulverulent, cinnamon-brown; uredospores globoid, 18-24 by 20-28, wall pale brown, rather thin, r.5-2, evenly echinulate, pores 3, in the lower hemisphere, often close to the base: teleutosori amphigenous, small, scattered, blackish, somewhat pulverulent; teleutospores broadly oblong or elliptical, 26-31 by 32-42#, rounded at both ends, or obtuse at apex, not constricted at septum, wall smooth, dark chestnut-brown, thick, 3-4, thicker at apex, 10-124, a broad semihyaline umbo at apex, often a similar one on the lower cell; pedicel colorless, firm, once to once and a half length of spore. On Nocca decipiens Kuntze, Sayula, State of Jalisco, Oct. 7, 1903, 00. 512? (type): NV. rigida Cav., Cuernavaca, Oct. 29, 1903, no. 5262: N. suaveolens (HBK.) Cass., Oaxaca, Oct. 23, 1899, no. 3724. 25. Puccinia jaliscana, n. sp.—Uredorosi hypophyllous, small, round, pale yellowish, soon naked, somewhat pulverulent; uredo- spores globoid or oblong-globoid, 18-24 by 21-27, pale brownish or nearly colorless, wall rather thin, 1.5-2", minutely echinulate- - verrucose, pores 6-8, scattered: teleutosori chiefly hypophyllous, small, round, early naked, blackish, somewhat pulverulent; teleuto spores elliptical, 20-24 by 30-39, rounded at both ends, slightly constricted at septum, semiopaque, wall chocolate-brown, promi- nently verrucose, thick, 2.3-3u, slightly thicker at apex, 4-OM pedicel colorless, once or once and a half length of spore. On Porophyllum Holwayanum Greenm., Sayula, State of Jalisco, Oct. 8 1903, NO. 5130. 26. Puccinta PoropHytii Henn. On Porophyllum macrocephalum DC., Cardenas, Oct. 22, 1898, 10. al Yautepec, Oct. 24, 1903, no. 5238: Porophyllum sp., Guadalajara, Sept S 1899, no. 3431; Chapala, Sept. 17, 1899, no. 3439 bis. 27. Puccinta TacETIcoLa Diet. and Holw. On Tagetes tenuifolia Cav., Sept. 12, 1899, no. 3403; Etla, State of peeve Nov. 16, 1903, no. 5425: T. jilijolia Lag.» Cuernavaca, Sept. 26, 1898, 80- 3°39 1905) ARTHUR—RUSTS ON COMPOSITAE FROM MEXICO 203 Guadalajara, Sept. 28, 1903, no. 5028: T. /ucida Cav., Patzcuaro, Oct. 19, 1898, no. 3233; Cuernavaca, Oct. 29, 1903, no. 5264: T. micrantha Cav., San Angel, City of Mexico, Oct. 1, 1900 (C. G. Pringle): Tagetes sp., Guadalajara, Sept. 15, 1899, no. 3423; Oaxaca, Oct. 20, 1899, no. 3685; City of Mexico, Oct. 19, 1903, NO. 5179. 28. Pucctn1A ZEXMENIAE Diet. and Holw. On Zexmenia podocephala A. Gr., Patzcuaro, Oct. 20, 1898, no. 3215, Oct. 13, 1899, no. 3626; Chapala, Sept. 20, 1899, no. 3468: Z. fasciculata A. Gr., Patzcuaro, Oct. 18, 1898, no. 3101; Cuernavaca, Sept. 30, 1899, no. 3530: Z. ceanothijolia Schz. Bip., Guadalajara, Sept. 28, 1903, no. 5058; Cuernavaca. Oct. 29, 1903, no. 5268: Z. helianthoides A. Gr., Cuernavaca, Sept. 30, 1899, no, 3531: Z. elegans Schz. Bip., Patzcuaro, Oct. 13, 1899, no. 3632: Z. crocea A. Gr., Cuernavaca, Sept. 25, 1898, no. 3016; Cuautla, State of Morelos, Oct. 23, 1903, no. 5232: Z, aurea B. & H., Rio Hondo, near City of Mexico, Oct. 4, 1899, no. 3566: Zexmenia sp., Chapala, Oct. 5, 1903, no. 5116. A number of these collections have well developed aecidia with the other rig and no. 3016 shows only aecidia. The teleutospores are quite variable i size and roughness of surface. 29. PuccinrA opaca Diet. and Holw. On Zexmenia sp., Guadalajara, Sept. 29, 1903, no. 5069; Patzcuaro, Oct. 16, 1898, no. 3002. ig of these collections, no. 5069, shows aecidia in good condition. The vee b 2 deep-seated in the tissues, appear hemispherical on the surface, and < ya small orifice; the peridial cells are loosely united, and fall away readily; © aecidiospores are somewhat smaller than those in Puccinia Zexmeniae, and have a thicker wall. . 30. Puccinia Diaziana, n. sp.—Teleutosori hypophyllous, in 8 Sle 3-8™™ across, on pale spots, often annular, small, igh or less in diameter, round, pulvinate, chestnut-brown or Pe €r; teleutospores linear-oblong or oblong-fusiform, 15-21 by a usually narrowed and obtuse at each end, slightly constricted ae a wall cinnamon-brown, paler below, smooth, thin, 1-1. 5#, Le i. at apex, s-8u; pedicel slightly tinted, thick, half ore. ae ety Diaz oa, ese Cav. (Verbesina encelioides A. Gr.), City of Porfirio ek Oahuila, Oct. 10, 1900. Nate .., belongs to the LepropuccrNtA section, as the spores germi- Of this cect. sus Centrifugally as they mature. It differs from most species. n inhabiting composite hosts by having the sori well separated from One ano} i ther, instead of crowded in a compact group. *. 204 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER 31. Puccinia semiinsculpta, n. sp.—Uredosori amphigenous, scattered, round, small, o.2-0.3™™ across, cinnamon-brown, soon naked, pulverulent; uredospores broadly elliptical or globoid, 17-25 by 22-284, wall 2m thick, echinulate, pores indistinct, probably 3 and equatorial: teleutosori amphigenous, or often only epiphyllous, scattered, round, small, o.2-0.5™™ across, often confluent, soon naked, pulverulent, chocolate-brown, or compact and cinereous from germination; teleutospores broadly elliptical or elliptical- obovate, 25-36 by 40-50, round at both ends, or narrowed below, slightly or not constricted at septum, wall finely to coarsely reticulate- verrucose, thick, 4-6, slightly or not thickened at apex, 5-0/; concolorous, often thinner below; pedicel colorless, 4-7# thick, once to twice length of spore, more or less minutely rough. On Vernonia Alamani DC., Amecameca, Oct. 31, 1899, no. 3754 (type); Patzcuaro, Oct. 17, 1898, no. 3105, Oct. 10, 1899, no. 3602, Oct. 13; 1899, no. 3631; Oaxaca, Nov. 11, 1903, no. 5379; Amecameca, Oct. 20, 1903, no. 519°: Vernonia sp., Chapala, Sept. 19, 1899, no. 3459; Cuernavaca, Sept. 30, 1899, no. 3540; Oaxaca, Oct. 18, 1899, no. 3668. The different collections vary in appearance. In some of the collections most or all of the sori are dark and pulverulent, in others they are compact an pale from germination, while in others its two forms are variously intermixed. The spores from germinating sori are thinner-walled, lighter-colored, and more . obovate. The extreme forms are quite unlike, but all gradations occur, even on the same leaf. The uredosori are quite inconspicuous. : 32. Puccinia egregia, n. sp.—Uredospores from the teleutosor globoid, 23-26 by 24-28x, wall golden-yellow, rather thin, echinulate, pores 3, equatorial: teleutosori amphigenous, scattered, pulvinate, chocolate-brown; teleutospores ellipsoid, 27-30 by 35-464; round at both ends, slightly or not constricted at septum, wall thick, 4-6, slightly or not thickened at apex, coarsely and prominently verrucose, with conical and well separated papillae; pedicel colorless, 5-6# thick, twice length of spore. On Vernonia uniflora Schz. Bip., Oaxaca, Dec. 29, 1895, no. 1739 (Seler). This specimen was obtained in looking over the phanerogamic herbarium at the New York Botanical Garden. It is a very marked species. The host was determined by VOLKENs, as recorded on the label. 33- Puccrnta ELectRAE Diet. and Holw. - On Electra Galeottii A. Gr., Oaxaca, Nov. 11, 1903, no. 5387, Nov. 73: se . 5394. ~ @ 195) ARTHUR—RUSTS ON COMPOSITAE FROM MEXICO 205 34. Puccinia Zaluzaniae, n. sp.—Uredosori chiefly epiphyllous, scattered, round, small, soon naked, ruptured epidermis evident; uredospores obovate, 16-21 by 23-274, wall golden-brown, rather thin, 1.5-2H, sparsely and finely echinulate, pores 2, opposite in the equator: teleutosori chiefly epiphyllous, scattered, very small or punctiform, confluent, somewhat pulverulent, blackish; teleutospores semiopaque, ellipsoid, 21-27 by 39-45, obtuse or rounded at both ends, slightly or not constricted at septum, wall dark chocolate-brown, minutely rugose, medium thick, 1.5—2.5, thicker at apex; pedicel colorless except next the spore, tapering downward, lowest third noticeably roughened, twice length of spore. On Zaluzania asperrima Schz. Bip., Tehuacan, Nov. 7, 1903, no. 5347. This species is much like Puccinia Electrae, but has smaller and less roughened spores, which form smaller sori. 35- Puccinta Crrsit Lasch. . oa lomatole pis (Hemsl.), City of Mexico, Oct. 14, 1898, no. 3047: : sts (Klatt.), Toluca, Sept. 19, 1898, no. 3133: Carduus sp., Patz- cuaro, Oct. 17, 1898, no. 3102; Uruapan, Oct. 11, 1899, no. 3616; Etla, State of Oct. a2 1899, NO. 3730. 36. Puccinia concinna, n. sp.—Uredospores in the teleutosori sloboid, 19-22 by 24-28u, wall thin, rp, minutely echinulate, pores + approximately equatorial: teleutosori chiefly hypophyllous, scat- a roundish, 0-5-1" across, pulvinate, blackish; teleutospores oo: aa 24-30 by 37-50H, rounded or obtuse at apex, fase? ow, slightly or not constricted at septum, wall chocolate- "1s Smooth, thick, 3-3-5, thicker above, 6-10, concolorous; je = except next the spore, delicate, once to thrice length »r€, olten deciduous. aes sea Creggii (A. Gr.) Small (Eupatorium Greggii A. Gr.), Sierre : bee 1899, E. W. Nelson, comm. W. G. FarLow. ; "a Meas di a much like the South American P. Eupatorii Diet., but differs -walled uredospores, with twice as man res, and much teleutospores. The sorus of the North American form is also and earlier naked. ie alee Diet. and Holw. DC, ¢ “igi DC., Oaxaca, Nov. 10, 1903, NO. 5375: E. > Jalisco, Ot Ras. as th no. 5274: Eupatorium sp., Sayula, State o 206 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER 38. PUCCINIA ESPINOSARA Diet. and Holw. On Eupatorium espinosarum A. Gr., Oaxaca, Nov. 10, 1903, no. 5366: E. Smithii Rob., Oaxaca, Nov. 10, 1903, no. 5365. 39. PuccINIA CoNocLinir Seym. On Eupatorium Neaeanum DC., Etla, State of Oaxaca, Nov. 13, 1903, no. 5410. 40. Puccinia rosea (D. and H.), n.n. On Eupatorium deltoideum Jacq., Amecameca, Oct. 20, 1903, nO. 5202; Oaxaca, Oct. 21, 1899, no. 1119: E. tubiflorum Benth., Patzcuaro, Oct. 17, 1898, no. 3007, Oct. 19, 1898, no. 3232, Oct. 10, 1899, no. 3600: E. glabratum HBK., Pachuca, Oct. 28, 1903, no. 5255; Amecameca, Oct. 22, 1903, no. 5204: E. trinervium Schz. Bip., Oaxaca, Nov. 14, 1903, no. 5418: E. Gonzalesii Rob., Etla, State of Oaxaca, Nov. 13, 1903, no. 5403: Eupatorium sp., Cuernavaca, Sept. 26, 1898, no. 3013; Patzcuaro, Oct. 17, 1898, no. 3100: Stevia rhombijolia HBK., Jalapa, Oct. 2, 1898, no. 3107; Pachuca, Oct. 5, 1899, no. 3581, also Sept. 1, 1903, no. 6724 (Rose & Painter): A geratum corymbosum Zacc., Yautepec, Oct. 23, 1903, no. 5235; Cuernavaca, Sept. 28, 1899, no. 3509: A. strictum Cuernavaca, Sept. 30, 1899, no. 3533 The uredospores and teleutospores of this species closely resemble those of Puccinia Conoclinii, but are noticeably larger. 41. Puccinta DesMANTHODII Diet. and Holw. On Desmanthodium jruticosum Greenm., Oct: 9, 1903, nO. 5139: D. ovalum Benth., Etla, State of Oaxaca, Nov. 1 3, 1903, no. 5402. 42. Puccinia paupercula, n. sp.—Teleutosori hypophyllous, crowded in orbicular groups, 1-4™™ across, minute, punctiform, com fluent, soon naked, compact, chocolate-brown, usually cinereous by germination; teleutospores oblong or lance-oblong, 15-17 by 395° acute or obtuse at apex, obtuse or narrowed at base, slightly ot ee constricted at septum, wall smooth, rather thin, thicker at 2P™ 7-9 #; pedicel colored like the spore, firm, one half length of spore oF less, On Elephantopus Spicatus Juss., Veracruz, Oct. 5, 1898, no. 3074 aor This species differs from Puccinia Elephantopodis P. Henn., from el by the position and arrangement of the sori, as well as in the shape and size 0 43- Puccinta aprupra Diet. and Holw. = On Viguiera excelsa Benth. & Hook., City of Mexico, Oct. 18, ie _ 5174; Amecameca, Oct. 20, 1903, no. 5197: V. tenuis A. Gr., Guadald) 1905] ARTHUR—RUSTS ON COMPOSITAE FROM MEXICO 207 Sept. 30, 1903, no. 5079: V. helianthoides HBK., Santa Fé, near City of Mexico, 18, 1903, no. 5173; Tehuacan, Nov. 8, 1903, no. 5358: V. buddleiformis Benth. & Hook. f., Patzcuaro, Oct. 20. 1898, no. 3217, Oct. 13, 1899, no. 3630; Rio Hondo near City of Mexico, Oct. 4, 1899, no. 3563; Morelia, Oct. 14, 1899, no. 3634: Viguiera sp., Guadalajara, Sept. 29, 1903, no. 5070. The teleutospores on each species of host differ a little from all the others. It would be possible to make as many species of rusts as there are species of Viguiera, but the differences are of a character that can very plausibly be ascribed to the influence of the host, and it seems more in keeping with the present conception of species, therefore, to list these slight variations, whose limits are yet undeter- mined, under a single name. The specimens cited, therefore, include what have been separated as Puccinia abrupta D. & H. and P. subglobosa D. & H. An examination of the type material of P. Viguierae Peck, discloses the fact that the host was incorrectly determined by the collector. The rust is clearly not one of the forms on Viguiera, but is doubtless P. Helianthi Schw. 44. PUccINIA NANOMITRA Syd. On Viguiera eriophora Greenm., Oaxaca, Oct. 21, 1899, no. 3689: V. dentata Spreng., Oaxaca, Oct. 25, 1899, no. 3744. 45. Puccinta IostePHANeEs Diet. and Holw. On Iostephane heterophylla Benth., Cuernavaca, Oct. 30, 1903, no. 5291. 40. Pucciyta cocnata Syd. On Verbesina tetraptera A. Gr., City of Mexico, Oct. 11, 1898, no. 3061; Rio Hondo, hear City of Mexico, Oct. 4, 1899, no. 3564; Patzcuaro, Oct. 13, 1899, ie 027; Oaxaca, Oct. 21, 1899, no. 3706: V. pinnatifida Cav., Cuernavaca, 7 192d NO. 5327: V. sphaerocephala A. Gr., Zypotlan, State of Jalisco ; 9, 1903, no. 5141: V. montanoijolia Rob. & Greenm., Patzcuaro, Oct. 16, No. 3000, Oct. ro, 1899, nos. 3605, 3606; Morelia, Oct. 8, 1899, no. 3592: = sig on V. sphaerocephala is without teleutospores, and is referred much a: slight doubt, as the uredospores of several related species are Possible ae In deciding upon the boundaries of this species it has not been itzian aeree with Sypow in his Monographia Uredinearum. The Schwein- eta which is founded upon a South Carolina collection, probably on time, occidentalis, although the specific determination was not made at the on a to be confined to southeastern United States, and is not yet reported Similis ea than V. occidentalis. The species named by Lone Puccimia wees © changed by Sypow to P. cognata, occurs from Texas southward, Siti ape of hosts. It may be identical with the South American P. Spegas- has sii +» but the exact proof is not at hand. The form on P. montanoijolia OS eed and paler spores, but otherwise the same. No. 3606 is y an abundance of aecidia. 47. Pucctnta FEROX Diet. and Holw. : : 208 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER On Verbesina diversijolia DC., Oaxaca, Oct. 21, 1899, no. 3692; Etla, Oaxaca, Nov. 14, 1903, no. 5396. 48. PUCCINIA AFFINIS Syd. On Verbesina trilobata Rob. & Greenm., Oaxaca, Nov. 15, 1903, no. 9 Verbesina sp., Etzatlan, State of Jalisco, Oct. 2, 1903, no. 5093. 49. PUCCINIA TUBERCULANS E. and FE. On Aplopappus spinulosus DC., Aguas Calientes, Sept. 12, 1899, no. 3404: Bigelovia veneta A. Gr., Pachuca, Oct. 27, 1903, no. 5250, Oct. 5, 1899, no. 3584. 50. PUCCINIA PRAEMORSA Diet. and Holw. On Brickellia veronicaejolia A. Gr., Tehuacan, Nov. 7, 1903, no. 5343: 51. PuccrNIA DECORA Diet. On Brickellia megalodonta Greenm., Guadalajara, Sept. 22, 1903, no. 5022. 52. PUCCINIA INVESTITA Schw. On Gnaphalium semiamplexicaule DC., Santa Fé, near City of Mexico, Oct. 13, 1903, no. 5175; Amecameca, Oct. 20, 1903, no. 5191: G. leptophyllum DC., Nevada de Toluca, Oct. 15, 1903, no. 5155: G. oxyphyllum DC., Amecameca, Oct. 20, 1903, no. 5194: Gnaphalium sp., Oaxaca, Nov. 11, 1903, nO. 5381: 53- PuccrintA EVADENS Harkn. On Baccharis glutinosa Pers., Etla, State of Oaxaca, Nov. 13, 1903, 00. 5499: B. pteronicoides DC., Peiscuan, Oct. 14, 1898, no. 3099: Baccharis sp., ben of Mexico, Sept. 20, 1896 54. Puccinta BACCHARIDIS-MULTIFLORAE Diet. and Holw. On Baccharis multiflora HBK., Santa Fé, near City of Mexico, Oct. 18, 1903; no. 5166; ee Noy. 20, 1903, no. 5430: B. elegans HBK., Oaxaca, Nov. ik, 1903, no. 5382 PuRDUE UNIVERSI ITY, Lafayette, Ind. A MORPHOLOGICAL STUDY OF ULMUS AMERICANA. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE HULL BOTANICAL LABORATORY. LXXVIII. CHARLES H. SHATTUCK. (WITH PLATES VII-IX) A stupy of this species was suggested by the interesting results of recent investigations in this region of the Archichlamydeae; notably those of KarsTEN (12), Miss BENSON (1), ZINGER (22), and NAWAS- CHIN (16). METHODS. Collections were made from February 13 to May 1, 1903, and tepeated during the same period for 1904. During the first year collections were made on.alternate days throughout the more rapid period of growth, and at intervals of ten days at other times. During the second year the same plan was followed except that collections were made every day during the period of fertilization and embryo growth, | The ovules are covered with a dense growth of hair which pre- vents sinking in the killing fluid; but after immersion in 95 per cent. | they sink at once. A 2 per cent. solution of chromo- acetic acid was found to give the best results as a killing agent for all but the oldest stages;. these requiring a somewhat stronger solution. The material was imbedded in paraffin and the sections were cut from 2 to to in thickness. A preparation of Le Page’s glue and Byeerin was used for fixing sections to the slide (glue 40 parts, Hee 10 parts, glycerin 50 parts). The albumen and several other The ne oe oa ted, but all failed to fix the sections to the ae: shige ‘3 — 1s as perfectly transparent on the slide as Mayer's sive, will k hag cag easily prepared, is a much stronger adhe- Th eep indefinitely, and is not so easily coagulated by heat. 2... = sactory combination for staining the ovules was to the abo patranin and gentian violet. The addition of orange G 1905] ve brought out the pollen tubes best, as they hold the gen- 209 210 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER tian violet after it is drawn from the nucellus and integuments. The male cells stained best in orange G. Haidenhain’s iron-haema- toxylin gave good results, as did also gentian violet. FLOWERS. The earliest stages in the development of the flower were not studied. The first collecting was done on February 13, when the ovule was found to contain a clearly defined megaspore, and the anthers to be in the pollen mother cell stage. By March 25 the trees were in full bloom. The method by which self-pollination is prevented, at least to a large extent, is of interest. When the flower bud first opens, the two-parted stigma is found protruding beyond the anthers and is ready for pollination (fig. r). About two of the more centrally placed flowers in each cluster are somewhat earlier than the others in length- ening their flower stalks and filaments and in opening their anthers (fig. 2). The first flower to open its anthers has an excellent oppor tunity to pollinate the entire cluster. At the same time this flower may be prevented from self-pollination only by the pollen from some earlier flower having reached its exposed stigma before its own anthers were opened. In many instances the stigmas of flowers whose anthers were not yet open were found covered with pollen grains, some of which had developed tubes. As the time requi ed for the pollen tube to complete its growth is from one to three days, it is quite evident that these early tubes will have completed the act of fertilization in each flower before its own pollen grains have an oppor tunity to begin the development of tubes. . MICROSPORANGIUM. On February 13 the microsporangia were well formed. Most of the sporogenous cells of the four chambers were in the spore mother cell stage, in which they had evidently passed the winter (fig 3): It is of interest to note that at this stage it is impossible to distin- guish any definitely organized tapetum, the cells all having the same size and shape, and giving the same reaction to stains. Sporangi of the same date were found in which the mother cells had passed into the synapsis stage (fig. 4); the nucleolus staining red and ibe chromatin mass violet. Many of the cells which were function!ng 7905] SHATTUCK—ULMUS AMERICANA 211 as tapetum contained two or three nuclei and abundance of food material which stains deeply. _ The tapetum consists generally of a single layer; and is derived from the original sporogenous mass. This is clearly shown by the fact " that the two layers of cells within the endothecium never contribute to the formation of tapetum, but break down early while the endo- thecium itself enlarges (fig. 5). That the tapetum is derived from the original sporogenous mass is further shown by its extension inward, sometimes to the depth of several layers (fig. 4), more or less intermingled with the cells which are functioning as spore-forming tissue. Bowrr (2) has shown that in Equisetum from one-fourth to one-third of the sporogenous cells disorganize and do not form spores. He says “their function is that of a diffused tapetum and there can be no doubt that their substance contributes to the nutri- tion of the survivors.”? This contribution seems to be very evident in Ulmus. Wy1te (21) has shown in Elodea that there is a regular contribu- tion to the tapetum from the sporogenous mass; WEBB (20) shows in Astilbe that the tapetum has the same origin as the spore mother cells; LAND (14) notes that in Ephedra it is often impossible to dis- tinguish the tapetal cells from adjacent mother cells, mentioning that the tapetum seems to be potentially sporogenous tissue which has become sterile by virtue of its position; and CouLTER (6) states that A Ranunculus it seemed as if the whole tapetum were cut off from the Periphery of the sporogenous mass. The tapetum in Ulmus is surely composed of sterilized sporogenous cells. éy 15 the pollen mother cells are just beginning to pass in the = winter stage, for on the same slide mother cells were found Testing stage (jig. 3), in synapsis (fig. 4), in the first mitosis — ih in the second mitosis (fig. 7). Ten days later the tetrads : ormed (fig. 5); also there were many cells containing four i evidently just preparing to form microspores (fig. 8). 2 a begins to break down about March 1, and by March ea). — absorbed. At this time the tetrads are uninucleate ek tows € two inner layers of the sporangium wall also rapidly hie « and disappear. At the same time the endothecium Its cells take on a cork-like appearance and do not stain 212 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER well; later the irregular thickening bands appear in its cells (fig. 5). The filaments do not begin to elongate until March 20, when they extend quite rapidly, the microsporangium being fully mature March 26. MEGASPORANGIUM. On February 13 the megasporangium consisted of the nucellus containing a single hypodermal archesporial cell and a single integu- ment. The archesporial cell divides by a periclinal wall, and the outer daughter cell also divides by a periclinal wall, giving rise to two parietal layers of cells (fig. 23); one of these occasionally again divides. The megasporangium evidently passes the winter in the megaspore mother cell stage, thus being identical in this particular with the microsporangium. By February 15 the mother cell begins to enlarge. It accom- plishes this chiefly by elongation, the long embryo sac pushing its somewhat pointed lower extremity deep into the tissue of the nucellus (fig. 24). The second integument appears February 25. By March 15 the first integument has closed over the top of the nucellus (jig. 27), whose crown cells have already begun to enlarge and divide pre- paratory to forming the long beak-like or archegonium-like necks shown in figures of more mature stages. These archegonium-like necks strongly resemble those figured by Miss Lyon (15) for Euphor- bia corollata, They differ however from those of Euphorbia in that they do not project through or beyond the integuments, but press against them. Possibly the rapid anticlinal divisions of the cells of the inner integument cause the elevation, thus forming a dome-like cavity into which the beak-like tip of the nucellus grows (figs. 27-35): The integuments are fully developed by March 25. A third integu- ment was clearly made out in a number of instances (fig. 27), which 1s probably due to the splitting of the outer integument. MALE GAMETOPHYTE. The mother cells were found in the first and second mitosis sa February 15 (jigs. 6-7). About February 25 there appears 4 a tinct though delicate wall about each of the four young spores, whi are still enclosed by the wall of the mother cell (fig. 9)- The wall 1905] SHATTUCK—ULMUS AMERICANA 213 of the mother-cell gradually breaks down and by March 1 the micro- spores are rounding off; many of them have formed their tube and generative nuclei. These are at first very much alike, but the tube nucleus soon becomes larger and stains more deeply (jig. 10). At this time the two coats can be clearly distinguished, the exine having acquired an uneven, reticulate surface and showing five very dis- tinct openings (figs. ro-11) through which the intine can be seen. The division of the generative nucleus was observed March 23, or before the dehiscence of the sporangia (fig. 12). At this time the tube nucleus shows signs of disintegration which is completed by March 26. The tube nucleus was often found disintegrating when the pollen tube was just starting, and was never found to leave the pollen grain, and in my judgment it never does so in Ulmus ameri- cana. Perhaps this is due to the fact that the pollen tube is not more than 3™™ in length. It was definitely determined that the male structures are cells, and not merely nuclei, the delicate limiting membranes being clearly made out. During a large part of their existence in the pollen grain these lenticular cells are attached to each other by their adjoining ends in such a manner as to make them appear in longitudinal sec- tion as if astride of the tube nucleus (fig. 13). WYLIE (21) has shown that in Elodea the male cells are attached in a similar manner. FEMALE G TE. _The mother cell does not form the usual tetrad, but functions directly as a megaspore (fig. 23). This condition is well known in many angiosperms. While no instance of more than one mega- pi was found, the fact that there are frequently two embryo “acs in the older stages at once suggests the possibility that the Megaspore mother cell in Ulmus may yet be found like that of oo a closely allied form, to vary in the number of megaspores orms, or possibly to form occasionally two mother cells. This Would account for the double embryo sacs (figs. 55-56). ve - early part of February the megaspore shows only slight dif- htiation, being but little larger than the adjacent cells (fig. 23): ee nucleus however is quite large, deeply staining, and begins to W signs of preparation for division. 214 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER The actual mitosis resulting in the binucleate embryo sac was not observed, but binucleate sacs were found March 11 (fig. 25), in which the spindle fibers between the nuclei had not yet disappeared. By March 16 these nuclei had again divided, showing a great varla- tion in the arrangement of the resulting four nuclei (jigs. 26, 27, 60). On March 17 the third mitosis (fig. 28) shows one nucleus dividing parallel to the main axis and three at right angles to it. Figs. 29-31 are even more perplexing than the foregoing, showing that rapid divisions have occurred in various planes. After reaching the eight-nucleate stage there are, in a majority of cases, no further nuclear divisions; the egg apparatus begins to organize, the antipodals take their proper place, and the polar nuclei move toward each other preparatory to fusion (fig. 30). However, in very many cases, there is further nuclear division without any indication of polarity, the nuclei being distributed promiscuously throughout the cytoplasm of the sac and all apparently alike (jigs. 31-55). Mitotic figures were not found in the sac after the eight-nucleate stage was reached, but many sacs were examined containing as hig as twelve (occasionally more) free nuclei very evenly distributed and very similar in appearance. Later a number of embryo sacs were found having more than eight nuclei and showing polarity. In these four nuclei were in the micropylar and eight or more in the antipodal end of the sac (fig. 32). Fig. 54 shows the only observed exception to the above rule. (These numbers include also the nuclei which are to function as polars at a later date.) _ The antipodals, excepting two or three, soon disintegrate. The remaining ones enlarge rapidly, sometimes rivaling the egg in their prominenee (jigs. 53-54). They seem, however, to be of the passive type common among Archichlamydeae. The embryo sac of Ulmus americana, therefore, shows 4 condi- tion intermediate between the regular eight-nucleate angiosperm type and the sixteen-nucleate sac of the Peperomia described by CAMPBELL (3) and JoHNSON (11). The fusion of the eight nuclei to form the endosperm nucleus 1” Peperomia has its parallel in the fusion of several nuclei in Ulmus for the same purpose. NawascHINn (16) has reported an instance 1905] SHATTUCK—ULMUS AMERICANA 215 of three polar nuclei fusing in Ulmus and I have frequently observed three or four nuclei in contact and evidently preparing to fuse (figs. 58-59). Several cases were found where a well formed egg appeared in the antipodal end of the sac (figs. 36, 50, 54, 56). Notwithstand- ing the fact that in each of these cases the structures seemed to be normal eggs in every particular, I hesitated to adopt this interpreta- tion until later, when embryos were discovered in the antipodal ends of two sacs, and in each of which a larger and older embryo appeared in the micropylar end (figs. 51-52). These antipodal embryos are wholly within the sac and I do not think they were produced apogamously. In 1895 CHAMBERLAIN (5) found in Aster novae-angliae what he termed an antipodal oosphere, calling attention to its cytological resemblances to the ordinary oosphere, and stating that ‘“‘we need only fertilization and the formation of an embryo to completely establish its right to the name.” Lately Miss OppERMANN (17) has found an antipodal egg in Aster undulatus, with the sperm lying against the cytoplasm of the egg, thus proving that fertilization does actually occur. ‘TRETJAKOW (19) has found the antipodal embryo which, since Miss OPpPERMANN’s discovery we are justified in concluding comes from a fertilized antipodal egg, thus making the history complete and establishing beyond a reasonable doubt the right to call this - structure an egg. As the conditions mentioned above were all found in Ulmus, I feel justified in calling these antipodal structures eggs. There are two well formed synergids which enlarge nearly to the size of the egg. One of these usually disappears about the time the pol- len tube enters the sac. The other generally persists until after the fist division of the egg. The polar nuclei were never found actually fusing, though they Were often found in close contact (fig. 33), in which condition they seem to remain for some time. Wwi1e (21) has shown that in Elodea the actual presence of the ea in the ovule is necessary in order to stimulate fusion. ae "a So has arrived at the same conclusion in regard to bas oa find that the polar nuclei of Ul/mus americana behave € manner, fusion occurring at least before fertilization. 216 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER FERTILIZATION. The most interesting feature in connection with fertilization is the behavior of the pollen tubes. These begin to project through the openings in the exine about March 26, usually presenting a single tube for each pollen grain (fig. 15). While this is the general rule, it is by no means always the case, as many pollen grains were found developing from two to five tubes (figs. 18-19). In jig. 18 all the tubes seem to have had an equal stimulus to growth, but such is not the case in fig. 19. In this instance the largest tube was in contact with the stigmatic hair, which fact doubtless accounted for its greater size. Eventually one of these tubes gains the ascendency over the others which are drawn back into the microspore as it gradually shrivels and the tube elongates (jig. 17). This figure also shows the peculiar method of the young tube on coming in contact with the stigmatic hair, down which it almost invariably travels to reach the stigma. It was noted frequently that the tube when meeting the hair nearly at right angles would direct its course towards the distal end instead of towards the stigmatic end, as might be expected. After reaching the end of the hair the tube would often form a cyst-like enlargement before proceeding downward to the stigmatic tissue. The behavior of the pollen tubes within the tissue has been so accurately described by NAwAscHIN (16) for Ulmus moniana and Ulmus pedunculata that it will not be necessary to dwell upon their behavior in Ulmus americana. Suffice it to say, the same branching and apparently aimless wandering through the funiculus, integuments, and occasionally the nucellus which he describes was noted. In a few cases these tubes were found anastomosing about the micropylar end, as shown in fig. 22. The tube, after pre-sing its way through the micropyle, enters the nucellus near the tip of the beak (fig. 35) and passes directly to the upper end of the embryo Sa® The only cases where I observed branching were those of belated tubes entering the ovule after fertilization (figs. 21-22). Such tubes seem to have a general tendency to push toward the antipodal end of the sac. In fact there is some indication that they occasionally reach the chalaza. 3 : The pollen tube is not easily disintegrated after fertilization, and is found intact, though staining feebly, until the embryo 45 1905] SHATTUCK—ULMUS AMERICANA 217 sixteen to twenty-four cells. Two tubes passing down the same micropyle were occasionally noted (jig. 20). The male cells lose their cytoplasm on entering the pollen tube, and during their journey to the embryo sac are simply elongated nuclei (figs. 16, 33). They were found side by side in the tube soon after leaving the pollen grain and were still somewhat elongated and very close together on entering the embryo sac, where the tube enlarges in a very irregular cyst-like manner (fig. 33). After enter- ing the sac the nuclei become spherical and begin to gather a small amount of cytoplasm around them. The first to enter the sac generally fuses with the fused polars (fig. 34), the second fusing with the egg. Fertilization occurs from March 29 to April t. ENDOSPERM. The endosperm begins to form soon after the male nucleus fuses with the fusion nucleus (fig. 34). This almost always occurs before fertilization, but instances were noted where fertilization probably occurs first (fig. 37). This variation was noted by LAND (13) in Erigeron, where he found sometimes the egg and at other times the endosperm nucleus dividing first. CouLTER and CHAMBERLAIN (8) also call attention to the fact that after fertilization the egg seems to fest for a period, while free endosperm nuclei are being formed. While this may be true in a majority of cases in Ulmus (figs. 35; 30), many instances were found which seem to be at variance with it (fig. 37). The formation of endosperm generally proceeds rapidly and takes Place by free nuclear divisions, the nuclei being scattered through the cytoplasm of the sac. These nuclei, especially in the early stages, mad enormous in size and multinucleolate (figs. 35, 36, 56), the nucle- oli being so large as to be mistaken often for nuclei in the act of fus- oe Mentioned by STRASBURGER (18) for Corydalis cava. ane Cosperm nuclei were often found to be in simultaneous division throughout the sac (fig. 50), and in no instance was a rudimentary cell-plate noted. As the development of endosperm progresses; the ‘Ytoplasm becomes more and more vacuolate, the nuclei take a Parietal position and become smaller; yet throughout its existence t . : he endosperm is characterized by large multinucleolate nuclei. 218 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER EMBRYO. The first division of the fertilized egg is by a transverse wall (figs. 36-38). The terminal cell again divides, usually transversely (fig. 39), while the micropylar cell becomes vesicular although not enlarging very much. ; After a proembryo of three or sometimes four cells has been formed, the end cell is usually the first to divide by a vertical wall (fig. 40). However, many exceptions to this rule were found, jig. 42 showing the second as well as the terminal cell forming a vertical wall; while fig. 43 shows the second cell dividing first. Figs. 44 and 45 show anomalous forms of embryos in which no definite order of division can be discovered. From the regular octant stage the development of the embryo is quite rapid and usually regular, the apical octants being the first to divide by periclinal walls, thus differentiating the dermatogen of the cotyledonary region (fig. 46). Almost immediately that of the hypo- cotyledonary region is formed in the same way (jig. 47): Fig. 48 shows early development of plerome, of periblem of the root, and the differentiation of the dermatogen of the root tip. A further study of the development of the embryo revealed nothing worthy of mention. POLYEMBRYONY. The discovery of pollen tubes near the chalazal region, as well as perfectly formed eggs in the antipodal end of the embryo sac; led me to suspect that antipodal embryos might be discovered associated with normally placed embryos. In several cases antipodal embryos were noted (figs. 51, 52), and in one case an extra-miesopylar embry (fig. 49). It is also likely that pseudo-polyembryony may result from the presence of two embryo sacs, as well-formed and probably fertilized eggs were observed in such cases (fig. 56). SUMMARY. : ell stage in the early 1. The microsporangia are in the mother c forming part of February and probably pass the winter in this stage, tetrads at the first breaking of winter weather. 2. The tapetum is formed from the peripheral layer of sporoge nous tissue. 1905] SHATTUCK—ULMUS AMERICANA 219 3. The pollen grains leave the tetrad stage March 16 to 18 and generally show tube and generative nuclei at this time. By March 23 the male cells appear, while the dehiscence of the sporangium occurs from March 25 to 27. 4. The single megaspore begins to germinate February 15, result- ing in eight to sixteen and occasionally more free nuclei. 5. In many instances the pollen grains thrust tubes through the openings in the exine in from two to five directions before coming in contact with the stigma, but only the one gaining such contact develops. 6. The pollen tube generally enters through the micropyle, though it has been found piercing the nucellus at various places and even making its way down the funiculus; it may also branch pro- fusely, but this seems to occur only in the cases of belated tubes. ne The male cells leave the pollen grain as soon as the tube is 1"™ im length, remaining close to its tip, and were always found side by side; they appear in their early existence to be fastened together by their adjoining ends. - The tube nucleus does not leave the pollen grain. 9. Double fertilization was observed, taking place March 28 to 31, the first male cell fusing with the endosperm nucleus. to. The endosperm nucleus generally divides before the fertilized gg, forming large, multinucleolate nuclei. _ HU. The embryo is of the massive type, the suspensor cell enlarg- Ing but little. 12. An antipodal egg is not uncommon. 13. Two embryos are occasionally found in the same sac. _14. Two embryo sacs are sometimes formed in a single nucellus with an egg apparatus in each. _ 15: Chalazogamy was not certainly found, but from indications it May occur, T am indebted to Professor Joun M. Courter and to Dr. HARLES J. CHAMBERLAIN for efficient direction and assistance. Wasupurn CoLLEcE, Topeka, KANsas. LITERATURE CITED. Marcaret, Contribution to the embryology of the Amentiferae. - Trans. Linn. Soc. Bot. London 3: 409-424. pls. 67-72- 1894. 1. Benson, ¥ Y 2 - 2% BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER Bower, F. O., Studies in the morphology of spore-producing members. I. Equisetineae and ae Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London. 185:473-572. pls. 42-52. 18 CampBELL, D. H., Die aiden des Embryosackes von Peperomia pellucida Kunth. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 17: 452-456. pl. 31. 1899. CHAMBERLAIN, C. J., Contributions to the life history of Salix. Bor. GAZETTE 23:147-179. pls. 12-18. 1897. e embryo sac of Aster novae-angliae. Bot. GAZETTE 20:205- 212. pls. 15*16. 1895. Covutter, J. M., Contributions to the life = of Ranunculus. Bot. GAZETTE 25: 73-88. pls. 4-7. 18098. , Contributions to the life history of Lilium philadelphicum. Bot Gaserrs 23:412-422. pls..32-34. 1897. and CHAMBERLAIN, C. J., Morphology of Angiosperms. p. I Ernst, A., Beitrige zur Kenntniss der Entwickelung der Embryos und des ged ees von Tulipa Gesneriana L. Flora 88:37-77- pls. 4-8. 1 GUIGNARD, e La double fécondation dans le mais. Jour. Botanique 15: 37-50. Igol Jounson, D. S., Gs the tae and embryo of Peperomia pellucida. Bor. Gazerre 30:1-11. pl. 7. KarsTEN, G., Uber die atisis der weiblichen Bliithen bei einigen Fastindaceen. Flora 90: 316-333. pl. 12. 1902. Lanp, W. J. G., Double fertilization in Compositae. Bot. GAZETTE 30: 257” 260. Be ay te. 1900. and oogenesis in Ephedra trijurca. Bot. GAZETTE 38: 1-18. pls. ms. 1904 Lyon, FLORENCE M., A seatHibution to oe life history of Euphorbia cordl- lata. Bor. Gaterrs 25: 408-426. pls. 22-24. 1898. NAWASCHIN, S., Uber das Verhalten des Pollenschauches bei der Ulme. Bull. Acad. on. Sci. St. Pétersbourg 8: 345-357. Pl. 1 8. OPPERMANN, Martr, A ae to the life amen of Aster. GAZETTE 37: 353-362. pls. 14-15. SrrasBurcer, E., Ueber Zellbildane vd Zelltheilung. Ed. 3. Jens. 188. TRETJAKowW, S., Die Betheiligung der Antipoden in Fallen Ba Polyembry- onie bei Allium odorum L. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 13:13-17- f* 1895. Wess, J. E., A morphological study of the flower and embryo of Spiraea. Bor. Gazerre 33: 451-460. figs. si 1902. For correction of name ” REHDER in Bor. GAzETTE 34:2 1902. Wy, R. B., A morphological a at Elodea canadensis. 37: 1-22. pls. I-4. 1904. ZINGER, N., Beitrige zur Kenntniss der weiblichen Bliithen und. Inflo- rescenzen bei Cannabineen. Flora 85:189-253- P!s- 6-10. 1898 Bor. Bor. GAZETTE 1905] SHATTUCK—ULMUS AMERICANA 221 EXPLANATION OF PLATES VII-IX. All figures were made with an Abbé camera lucida and reduced one-half in reproduction. Figures with a magnification greater than 600 diameters were made with a Zeiss apochromatic objective 2™™, ap. 1.30, and Zeiss compensating oculars 4, 8, and 12. All others with Spencer 5™™ and 16™™ objectives and oculars 4 and 8. The abbreviations employed in describing fhe figures are as follows: 7, flower; pt, pollen tube; po, polar nuclei; e, egg; en, endosperm nucleus; ed, endothecium; s, stigma; sy, synergids; smc, spore mother cells; /, fusion nucleus; at, antipodals; m, male cell; mm, megaspore; 0, ovule; 07, outer integument; ii, inner integument; tm, tube nuclei; ¢, tapetum; gv, generative nucleus; cr, crown cells; m, nucellus; sh, stigmatic hair. ‘ Fic. 1. Young flower showing stigma protruding and ready for fertilization. 12. Fic. 2. Flower cluster showing filaments and flower stalks in the center as first to elongate. x5. 1G. 3. Winter stages of microsporangium showing mother cells. 600. 1G. 4. Later stage showing the organization of tapetum from peripheral mother cells; other mother cells in synapsis. > 600. Fic. 5: Section of microsporangium showing enlargement of endothecium, the breaking down of the tapetum, and the two inner layers of cells of the sporan- sium walls; also tetrads dissociating. 600. Fic. 6. Microspore mother cell in first mitosis. 1260. Fic. 7. Second mitosis of microspore mother cell. 1260. * 45 8. Four-nucleate mother cell preparing to form tetrads. 1060. -9. Tetrads within the mother cell. x 1000. : Fic. ro. Microspore showing tube and generative nuclei and openings in the exine, X 1260. Fic. 11. Portion of the exine showing holes through which pollen tubes emerge. X 1200, Fic. 12. Division of generative nucleus to form male cells. 1260 Fig, 13 Male cells ne a ; ae ee attached by their adjoined ends; tube nucleus disin- tegrating. 1260 : : Fic. 14. Male cells free and encircling disintegrating tube nucleus. X 1260. air. x 16.18. Microspore showing five tubes emerging; all equal in size. X 1260. Fic. 19. Mi . 19. Microspore showing five emerging tubes; one in contact with the stigmatic hair. 1569 . oe : : Fig, 20. Tw Fy : erating microspore showing cyst formed at end of stigmatic 6 2g pollen tubes entering the same micropyle. 45°. «ar, Branching pollen tubes. X 200. 222 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER Fic. 22. Anastomosing pollen tubes. X 200. Fic. 23. Megaspore mother cell showing nucellus and first integument. Fic. 24. Later stage of megaspore. 1260. Fic. 25. Binucleate stage of the embryo sac. 1260. Fic. 26. Normal four-nucleate stage of embryo sac. 00. Fic. 27. Frequent form of the four-nucleate stage of embryo sac; also a third X 400. : 28. Mitosis of the four-nucleate sac. goo. Fic. 29. Eight-nucleate sac; unusual mitosis in antipodal end. X 1200. Fic. 30. Usual eight-nucleate sac with the egg apparatus organizing and the polars approaching each others preparatory to fusion. goo Fic. 31. Embryo sac showing more than eight nuclei, but no sign of polarity. x Fr IG. 32. Multinucleate embryo sac showing polarity. goo Fic. 33. Eight-nucleate sac showing fusion of polars and entrance of pollen tube bearing the two male cells. x 1450. __ Fic. 34. Embryo sac showing one male cell in the act of fusing with the fusion nucleus, and the other near egg. 1450. Fic. 35. First integuments; nucellus showing beak and bearing pollen tube; embryo sac showing first division of fertilized egg and multinucleolate nuclei of endosperm. X 500. Fic. 36. Embryo sac showing two-celled embryo unusually large; multi- og nuclei of rapidly forming endosperm; also an antipodal egg. *8r0. G. 37. Embryo sac showing two-celled embryo, and the beginning of the Lente: of endosperm tissue. X 1200. Fic. 38. Ordinary type of two-celled embryo. 500. Fic. 39. Three-celled embryo. X 500. Fic. 40. Four-celled embryo showing first vertical wall. 500 Fic. qr. F — embryo showing usual method of formation of second vertical wall. Fic. 42. ae ae embryo; both end cells dividing at once. * 50° Fic. 43. Three-celled embryo showing second cell dividing before the cell. 500 Fie. 44. F acialous form of embryo. X 500. Fic. 45. Anomalous form of embryo. 500 end Fic. 46. Later embryo showing the periblem in the cotyledonary region; also mitosis in the hypocotyledonary region. x 4oo. Fic. 47. Embryo showing periblem in EELS: region. d Fie. 48. Advanced ees showing early development of veriblem see dermatogen of root tip. x Fic. 49. Two embryos in Bie micropylar end of sac. X 500. oak Fic. 50. Well-formed embryo in micropylar end of sac; endosperm in taneous mitosis; egg-like formation in chalazal end. X 400. ANICAL GAZETTE, XL PLATE VII SHATTUCK on ULMUS AMERICANA PLATE VIII “BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XL SHATTUCK on ULMUS AMERICANA eo (24 PLATE IX MANICAL GAZETTE, XL SHATTUCK on ULMUS AMERICANA 1905] SHATTUCK—ULMUS AMERICANA Fic. 51. Embryo sac showing two embryos nearly the same age. 500 Fic. 52. Embryo sac showing two embryos; one much older. 800 Fic. 53. Embryo sac showing unusually large antipodal. x 810 Fic. 54. Large embryo sac showing fifteen nuclei, the central one probably the fusion nucleus; a large egg-like antipodal. x 1200. Fic. 55. Double embryo sac showing in one sac nine, and in the other twelve nuclei; no egg apparatus organized. 1200 Fic. 56. Double embryo sac ails egg i apearetan ——— in the opposite ends. X 1000. Fic. 57. Fusion of two polars. X 1000. Fic. 58. Fusion of three polars. 1000 Fic. 59. Fusion of four polars. 1000 Fic. 60. Second mitosis of the binucleate sac. x 400 BeiereR ARTICLES, PRECURSORY LEAF SERRATIONS OF ULMUS. (WITH TWO FIGURES) Ir is a commonly accepted fact that embryonic plant tissue is mostly devoid of intercellular air spaces, and that gas interchange is accomplished from cell to cell by means of water which contains the necessary gases in solution. Such tissues are generally small in bulk, so that the most deeply lying cells are not widely distant from the outside atmosphere. Inter- cellular air spaces develop as the embryonic tissue increases in size, until at maturity an intricate system of passages, connecting with the atmosphere through stomata, insures proper aeration. Leaves in which air spaces are prominently developed to assist the process of photosynthesis form no exception to the rule. Tissues of young leaves ) are compact, and form air passages during their growth after emergence from the bud scales. While wide observation is perhaps lacking to support the {view that the air spaces arise uniformly over the entre leaf, it is generally accepted as true. Racrgporski! has shown, hawever, that the leaves of certain lianas have a part which develops air space and stomata and hence becomes functional in advance of the main portion of the leaf. Such an organ he calls a Vorléujerspitze, and it consists of a slender, Fic. 1—Young pointed prolongation of the blade, from which aa leaf of Ulmus alata; partially separated by a slight constriction. thoseinwhichspongy *PPears that the purpose of the organ is to fig parenchyma has de- Process of photosynthesis as early as possi, main veloped. would help to accelerate the development of the portion of the leaf. While no such well-differentiated leaf organ is reported ee living in temperate latitudes, it seems certain that spongy parenchym® tion not always develop simultaneously over all parts of the leaf. An excep * Ractgorsk1, M., Ueber die V orliuferspitze. Flora 87:1-37- 19° 224 from plants [SEPTEMBER . 1905] BRIEFER ARTICLES 225 is to be found in Ulmus, the serrations of whose leaves become functional when the latter are still very small, or about the time they are emerging from the bud scales. It is not necessary to cut sections to observe this phenomenon, for the leaf margins are of a deep green color, which con- trasts strongly with the pale yellowish-green of the remaining portion (jig. 1). The serrations appear slightly swollen as though the leaf were thicker in this region than elsewhere. The color contrast remains for a considerable time, or until the leaf has nearly reached its full size. It requires but a section of a young Ulmus leaf to prove that the ser- tations really have fully developed spongy parenchyma and functional stomata, while adjacent and other portions of the leaf consist of compact i FS $. or Stee 3o. Ee ef, rt : Fic. 2.—Cross-section of a leaf at the margin; the spongy parenchyma on the Tight is readily distinguishable from the compact embryonic tissue on the left. "sue. Th fig. 2 it will be seen that in the right or marginal portion of the “ection the air spaces are such as would be found in any ordinary mature Mesophytic leaf; while on the left of the section, which lies toward the mid- te a will be seen regular rows of cells compactly arranged and evi- oa embryonic condition. It will also be noticed that the marginal Portion is thicker, in consequence of the development of air spaces. 2 a 0 ae that other instances of precursory leaf serrations will be » M Tact one other was found by the writer, but it was not so well ll case as that of Ulmus.—Freperick H. Brix1nes, Louisiana wersity, Baton Rouge, La. THE EFFECT OF DIFFERENT SOILS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CARNATION RUST. an = ideas are held in regard to the rusting of plants, especially them srains, and to a limited extent asparagus, carnations, and chrysan- The conditions which favor the rusting of such plants as the Most part d the chrysanthemum, plants grown in the greenhouse for the ing of f 1 are probably better understood than those which favor the rust- eld crops. However, the conditions that would tend to bring 226 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER about infection in one place would probably bring it about in the other. Observations made in the field cannot in general be as reliable as those made in the greenhouse, where the conditions of temperature and humidity, important factors in bringing about infection, are to a greater extent under the control of the observer. Observations made in the greenhouse may be duplicated from time to time more readily than can be done in the field. An example of the rusting of wheat, cited by RoBERts,? seems to indi- cate that.an excess of nitrogen in the soil favors rusting. The many field observations made by STONE and SmITH,? on the other hand, indicate that the physical condition of the soil is an important factor in the abundance and distribution of the asparagus rust, the rust being more abundant on asparagus grown in light soils with a low water retentivity, and less abun- dant on asparagus grown in heavier soils containing more organic matter and with a higher water retentivity. What are the conditions that produce an abundance of rust, whether in the field or in the greenhouse? Are they excessive food supply in the form of available nitrogen, the physical condition of the soil, favorable conditions for bringing about infection, or some other causes ? There cannot be a general distribution or abundance of a rust without a previous general infection; and there must have been a previous development of Tust spores with which to bring about such an infection and distribution. There must have been sufficient food furnished by the host so that the rust could mature its spores for distribution and infection. Of course, certain conditions of temperature and moisture are always necessary before germination of the spores and infection can take place. Some results obtained by the writer, in cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture, have already been published in Science.* The present results obtained for the carnation ‘rust, when different kinds of soils were used, are a continuation of the same line of investigation. From previous inoculations of Asparagus, Allium, Dianthus, and Gyp- sophila, with the asparagus and carnation rusts, the results obtained seemed to indicate that the conditions that were favorable for the devel- opment of the host were also favorable for the development of the rust- A considerable number of inoculations were made on different species of Asparagus and Dianthus. The plants were of different ages and Badass in the greenhouse, where they were under control in so far as infection was concerned. The results show that the plants that were making @ vigorous growth were more susceptible to artificial infection—inoculation— - ? Roserts, I. P., The fertility of the land. p. 155. 1897- 3Stone, G. E. and Suirn, R. E., Ann. Rept. Hatch Expt. Sta. 14/199? 4SHELDON, JoHN L., Science, N. S. 16:397. 1902. 1905] BRIEFER ARTICLES 227 than those that were making little or no apparent growth. A few slowly growing plants were repeatedly inoculated without success until the plants were given extra care and stimulated so that they began to grow more vigorously. Some carnations, grown in small pots, were each inoculated five or six times at intervals of about twenty days, without any of the inoculations being effective. These plants grew very slowly, were slender and produced only one, or at most two, sma!] blossoms. Certain varieties of carnations are known to be more susceptible to the rust than others; among these are Uncle John and Daybreak. Other varieties are practically immune. The green-leaved varieties are con- sidered by carnation growers to be more susceptible than the more glaucous- leaved ones. The writer has noticed that there was a difference in the period of incubation of the rust when both green- and glaucous-leaved species of Dianthus were inoculated at the same time. A lack of susceptibility to inoculation, similar to that noted for Aspar- agus and Dianthus, occurred when seedling onions were inoculated with the asparagus rust. The inoculations were begun as soon as the seedlings appeared above ground, and were repeated at intervals until the seedlings were two months old, when almost every inoculation was successful. From the resulis obtained, not only with the rusts referred to, but with other fungi, it would seem that plants, like animals, are not equally suscepti- ble to infection and inoculation at all times. The negative results obtained by other investigators, as well as by the writer, may be attributed in some Instances probably to a lack of susceptibility of the host at the time the inoculation was made and not to a failure of the spores to germinate or to the way the inoculation was made. At some other period the same Plant might have been susceptible. ‘The state of growth of a plant seems to have much to do with the success or failure following an inoculation, as Well as conditions of temperature and moisture-which favor the germination of the spores. : It was determined in some of the earlier inoculations that the season, temperature, and sunshine exerted a marked influence on the period of ‘ncubation of the asparagus and carnation rusts. It was also thought that “aog =a some difference ; for when twenty to thirty plants were eee =e rg as in a box or large flowerpot, the period of nae a 5 i ies - each of the plants inoculated at the same time varied 0 é urs In most instances, while those that were of the same age ani stown in different soils showed more variation. : haem for testin g whether a difference in soils would bring about € in the period of incubation of a rust, a stock plant, a green- 228 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER leaved pink which was known to be very susceptible to the carnation rust, was selected. Sets of cuttings were taken from the stock plant and rooted in river sand. After the cuttings were well rooted, they were transplanted to pots containing the soils to be tested. Each of the soils was carefully mixed before it was put into the pots, so that all would be as uniform in composition as possible. The five soils used ranged from one that was - principally sand with a very small amount of organic matter to those containing less sand and more organic matter and clav. ._ After the plants were potted, they were arranged im sets of five or seven in large saucers, and placed so far as it was possible under the same condi- tions of light, heat, etc. When the plants had become established and made a growth of a few inches, each set was inoculated. Of the 170 plants inoculated, only three failed to show rust sori in sixteen to twenty-one days, the raajority showing sori in seventeen to nineteen days. The leaves were carefully examined with a hand lens twice a day after yellow spots began to show on them, indicating that infection had taken place. When the uredospores were observed to be breaking through the epidermis of a leaf, a record was entered for that plant. This record was afterward used in making comparisons with the composition of the soils. The Bureau of Soils of the United States Department of Agriculture made a mechanical analysis of the soils and determined the percentage of organic matter and nitrogen. Rather than depend upon his own judgment, which was liable to have been somewhat biased on account of having watched the development of the pinks and the rust, the writer averaged those of several other persons with respect to vigor, growth, and color of the plants. The results of the investigation are summarized in part below; the details will be published later. Whether similar results can be obtained by using a different host and parasite remains to be determined. 1. The intensity of color was directly proportional to the amount cf clay in the different soils. 2. The growth of the host was directly proportional to the amount of organic matter, nitrogen, and silt in the different soils. : : 3- The period of incubation of the carnation rust, while not uniform mM every instance, was in general inversely proportional to the amount of organic matter, nitrogen, and silt in the different soils, and to the growth of the host; it was directly proportional to the amount of gravel and sand ” the different soils; that is, the more gravel and sand there were in a the longer it was before the uredospores broke through the epidermis after an inoculation had been made; and the more organic matter, nitrogen, and 1995] BRIEKER ARTICLES 229 silt there were in a scil, the less time it was before the uredospores broke through the epidermis after an inoculation had been made. 4. Those soils that were favorable for the development of the host were also favorable for the development of the rust; namely those contain- ing the most organic matter combined with silt and clay and a small amount of sand—soils with a high water retentivity, soils rich in nitrogen. If then the conditions favorable for bringing about distribution and infection were the same for the different soils, the rust should in time be more abundant on those plants grown in a heavy loam where the period of incubation of the rust was least, than on those grown in a light sandy soil, agreeing with the observations made by Roserts (I. ¢.) on the wheat rust, rather than those made by SToNE and Smrra (i. c.) on the asparagus rust. There is a possibility that while the asparagus rust may not have devel- oped so rapidly on the asparagus grown in light soils with a low water tetentivity, the greater abundance was due to conditions which were more favorable for bringing about infection. Whether the humidity is greater over sandy soils than over a heavy loam, the writer cannot say from per- sonal observations. Perhaps some one has already determined this factor, which is so important in bringing about the infection of cultivated crops with various parasitic fungii—Joun L. SHELDON, Agricultural Experiment Station, Morgantown, W. Va. CURRENT LITERATURE. BOOK REVIEWS. German instruction in botany. Ir Is INTERESTING to compare the latest German book on botanical instruction with our own. Dr. Krenttz-Gerorr,' professor of botany in the Agricultural _ school at Weilburg, has briefly described the present condition of botanical teach- ing in Prussia; has discussed at some length the principles, pedagogical and botanical, on which a proper course should be laid out; and has devoted the greater part of his book to the outlining of such a course as meets his views. The first section of the book may be passed over with the remark that ‘‘nature study” finds a place in the primary schools, but it is nature study directed to a somewhat definite end; for pupils are taught something of the structure and life of plants, and are even “made familiar with the use of the lens and microscope.” This study is extended in the intermediate grades, and in the Gymnasien and Realschulen becomes a two to six-hour course weekly in natural sciences, con- tinued for six years. Of this botany has a reasonable share. In the Landwirth- Schajischulen (not technical schools) zoology and botany have four hours weekly for two years and two hours a week for a third, and applied biology has the same time. In the second section the author with rather elaborate pedagogic philosophy develops his theory that the normal course of instruction in botany should planned broadly on the lines that its historical development has followed. In the practical application of this theory he divides the course into four parts: (1) preparatory, (2) morphology and taxonomy, (3) physiology and anatomy, (4) cryptogams and reproduction. the preparatory course, no formal morphological distinctions are made, but the endeavor is to awaken interest, and to train in observation and induction by using the common and useful flowering plants. Incidentally, of course, @ deal of morphology is learned. The second course, by using plants of the larger orders and families, and by comparisons, is for training in external morphology, and at the same time to give fundamental conceptions of taxonomy. The mere determination of names IS made wholly incidental, and the memorizing of terms and definitions is rightly condemned. In both these courses actual examples of lessons (stenographically Teported) are given. The third course is given in extenso in the form of questions and a statement * Krenttz-Gertorr, F., Methodik des botanischen Unterrichts. 8vo. PP: viii+ 290. figs. 114. Berlin: Otto Salle. 1904. M6. so. 230 [SEPTEMBER 1905] CURRENT LITERATURE 231 of the way in which pupils are to answer them, accompanied by many illustra- tions; so that this part of the book might almost be used as a guide for elementary plant physiology and anatomy. e fourth course begins with a somewhat detailed presentation of the bac- teria, after which the book breaks off suddenly with a recommendation that pupils study a list of fourteen cryptogams, closing with the sexual reproduction of the phanerogams and a synopsis of the whole system. There is much good advice and suggestion in Dr. Krenrrz-Grertorr’s book, but like all such books it plans a course which is far beyond the possibility of execution in the time allowed. Naturally it demands a well-prepared teacher, and when once a school has that factor, the problem is practically solved. To such this book will be helpful if it does not suggest overcrowding. (And to everybody it would have been more helpful had a good index been provided.) It is interesting to see that the ideals as to the content and method of botanical instruction in the higher schools in Germany and America are so nearly identical: But we fear Germany will long outstrip us in the practical application of these ideals unless superintendents are more alive to the necessity for the thorough training in botany of those to whom they commit such teaching. —C. R. B. MINOR NOTICES. Ponp? has been studying the relation of aquatic plants to the substratum. After an introduction and a historical résumé of the subject, he gives the details of a series of carefully conducted experiments on the growth of aquatic plants under different soil conditions. The plants experimented on were Vallisneria ut also for absorption. He shows that most of these plants have root hairs takes place. It is evident that the establishment of f th xperiments serve to bring out very clearly the important bearing ~~ Tesults on plankton problems. Without doubt most authors have sup- live = aquatic Plants draw their nutriment from the medium in which they merged 'S Deing the case, the general conclusion drawn by Kororp, that sub- easily Mica. are accompanied by a relatively small amount of plankton, is ae ood. For if the plants draw their food from the water, there is 7 From UG: ? 2 Ponp, R AYMOND H., The biological relation of aquatic plants to the substratum. S. Fish Com. Rep. for 1903. 232 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER left for plankton plants; but if these plants draw their food from the soil, they will, through this and their subsequent decay be adding to the material in the water which is available for the plankton organisms. In the discussion is brought out the way in which the work of Kororp and of PonD may be harmonized. In conclusion, the author points out the logical inference that a fish pond should have a good soil at bottom on which plants may grow and flourish, and thus add to the food available for fish. The problem of the relationship of the aquatic animals and plants is so complicated, however, that while the author ought to point out these inferences, less value attaches to the economic conclusions than to the main thesis of the paper. The paper is valuable as being a definite contribution to knowledge on a question which has been hitherto in doubt, and it is the kind of work that is much needed in solving the problems of the plankton. In the absence of just such work as this, much of our plankton literature has been speculative in character; and while there is a real value to be attached to good guessing, in the long run we must have demonstrated facts as the basis of our theories.— C. Dwicut Marsu. . Miss Eastwoops has prepared a popular manual of the trees of California, the purpose being to give all the information necessary for identification so com- pactly that the book may be carried into the field. The numerous plates add greatly to the value of the book, many of them being reproductions of drawings * left by Dr. Atsert Ketiocc. Three keys are provided: the first based upon leaves, the second upon fruits, and the third upon the usual taxonomic char- acters. The trees of Oregon and Washington also are included, being placed in footnotes in case they do not occur in California. The only new species is Quercus Alvordiana.—J. M. C. THE RELATIONSHIP between Sigillaria and Lepidodendron has been the subject of much discussion, and in connection with it S. vascularis and L. selagi- noides have been prominent species. The identity of the two species has been urged and largely accepted upon evidence obtained from a study of their com- parative anatomy. Werss and Lomax‘ have now described a specimen consist- ing of a stem of S. vascularis giving off branches of L. seg iyi This demon- stration of actual continuity closes the discussion.—J. M THE TWENTY-FIRST PART of ENGLER’S Pfansenreich is a presentation of the sub-family Pothoideae of Araceae by ENGLER.S The sub-families of this family will be published in separate fascicles. Ten genera of Pothoideae are recognized, comprising 581 species, 489 of which belong to the great genus Anthurium, under _ p, ALIcE, A handbook of = trees of California. Calif. Acad. S¢- Occasional cen IX. pp. 86. pls. 57. 19 * Weiss, F. E., and Lomax, ag a stem and branches of Lepidodendrom selaginoides. Manchester Memoirs 49: no. 17. pp. 8. figs. 4. 19° S$ Encier, A., Das Pflanzenreich. Heft 2r. aracie: Pua von A. Engler, PP- 330. Leipzig. Wilhelm Engelmann. 1905. M16.50. . 1995] CURRENT LITERATURE 233 which 55 new species are described. The next largest genus is Pothos, with 48 species, 5 of which are new.—J. M. C. Bray® has published a description of the “sotol country” in Texas. The sotol is Dasylirion texanum, and gives name to characteristic areas of the arid southwest, whose vegetation is largely made up of plants of the cactus, agave, and yucca types. The general vegetation features of the country, the floristic elements, as well as the economic importance of the vegetation are presented.— .M.C. Sewarp has published descriptions of certain collections of fossil plants from Natal,’ Victoria,’ and Kashmir.? To be able to compare the floras and horizons of these regions with those of Europe and North America is looked forward to with great expectations, and every scrap of definite information is valuable—J. M. C. THE FOURTH PART of SCHNEIDER’s IIlustriertes Handbuch*? concludes Spirae- aceae, includes Rosaceae, and begins Drupaceae. There are forty-five text figures. The general character and scope of the publication are stated in the notice of the first parts (Bor. GAZETTE 39:373. 1905).—J. M. C. NOTES FOR STUDENTS. THE LAST PAPER of GERASSIMow'! brings together concisely the principal conclusions of the interesting series of experimental studies on the cells of the \jugales which have appeared in recent years. It will be remembered that by Subjecting filaments of Spirogyra to a temperature at freezing point, or treating them for a short time to the anaesthetic influence of ether, chloroform, or chloral hydrate, Gerassrmow was able to arrest the processes of mitosis at different Stages, with the result that the protoplasm may become variously distributed in the daughter cells. (x) A daughter cell may be formed lacking a nucleus, but “ontaining portions of the divided chromatophore in a peripheral layer of cyto- me A single cell may contain the two daughter nuclei either separated 6 ‘ Bray, W. L., Vegetation of the sotol country in Texas. Bull. Univ. Texas no. ' Pp- 24. pls. rr. 1905. os A. C., Report on ‘collections of Natal fossil plants. Second Rep. = urv. Natal and Zululand. Pp. 97-104. pls. 4-5. 1904. Geol. “cag A. C., On a collection of Jurassic plants from Victoria. Records : - Victoria 13:155-210. pls. 8-19. 1904. oo. A. C., and Woopwarp, A. SairH, Permo-carboniferous plants and 8 from Kashmir. Memoirs Geol. Surv. India N. S. no. 2. pp. ¥4- pls. IO. 1905. 190 Scm Vierte Lief, ER, CAMILLO Kart, Illustriertes Handbuch der Laubholzkunde. i 7 ecg Jena: Gustav Fischer. 1905. M 4. - 18: 45-118 ai MOW, J. J., Ueber die Grisse des Zellkernes. Beih. Bot. Centralbl. - pls, 3-4. 1904 234 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER from one another or more or less intimately associated and perhaps wholly fused, depending upon how far the processes of mitosis have progressed before the cells have been subjected to the shock of the experiment. (3) Binucleate cells may continue their growth with subsequent mitoses, which when treated as before may give daughter cells with three and one nuclei respectively, or with two each or indeed a cell containing four nuclei. Furthermore, these nuclei may fuse with one another to give structures with a greatly increased chromatin content. (4) In place of the non-nucleated cells, there may be formed chambers containing cytoplasm and chromatophores, but without nuclei, which remain in open com- munication with the nucleated companion protoplast, because the cell wall is not formed entirely across the mother cell. GERASSIMOW presents the results of his observations on these various types of cells in many elaborate tables and diagrams, with the following chief conclu- sions. (1) Cells which come to contain unusually large nuclei through the sup- pression of mitosis, or by the reuniting of partially divided nuclei, increase pro- portionally in size and their further cell division is postponed. The nuclei of such cells have of course the peculiarity of an increased amount of chromatin content. The large nuclei may later fragment into two or more structures which separate and may come to be at a distance from one another in the cytoplasm. The fragments finally lose their powers of reproduction and exhibit marked evi- dence of degeneration. (2) Cells which lack nuclei may form starch in the usual manner in the presence of light, and exhibit for a short time a weaker general growth than normal nucleated cells. The power to develop a gelatinous sheath also becomes markedly weakened. Finally there results a decrease in the volume of the cell, a fading of the chromatophore and conditions which lead to eventual death. (3) Chambers which lack nuclei but are in protoplasmic union WI nucleated cells may be contrasted sharply with the non-nucleated cells. They exhibit a much stronger growth for a longer time and with a greater power to form starch, although not so marked as in the nucleated cells, and the chromato- phores retain their color. There is also a conspicuous development of the gelati- nous sheath.—B. M. Davis CoRRENS” presents a continuation of his studies on Mirabilis hybrids in which he had found*3 red appearing as a new character in hybrids between two constant races having respectively white and yellow flowers. Instead of assuming, as does TSCHERMAK,"4 that there is a latent allelomorph for red in one or other of these races, and that this is rendered active on crossing, he considers the red color to be a modification of the yellow produced through the activity of a distinct character-unit present in the white-flowered race, the antagonistic characters 19 "2 CorrENs, C., Zur Kenntniss der scheinbar neuen Merkmale der peat Zweite Mittheilung iiber Bastardierungsversuche mit Mirabilis-Sippen- Ber. Dew ot. Gesells. 23: 70-85. 1905. 13 See Bor. Gazette, 372775 1O0d. ‘4 See Bor. GAZETTE 39: 302 and 303. 1905. 1905] CURRENT LITERATURE 235 the two races being: color vs. no color, and no modification vs. modification of the yellow color to red. Pigmentation inherited from the yellow parent and the modifying element inherited from the white parent are dominant, giving all red- flowered offspring in the first generation, and rose-yellow-white nearly in the ratio 9:3:4 in the second generation. The results were further complicated by the presence in the white-flowered race of a nearly latent striping which became active on crossing and behaved approximately as a Mendelian character. The attempt to explain this character on similar grounds as the red color is less satisfactory. Correns's has also studied the inheritance of the petaloid calyx in the caly- canthemus-forms of Campanula medium and Mimulus tigrinus. The calycanthe- mus-form of the former he finds never produces seed but has good pollen, so that all of the “‘hose-in-hose” Campanulas are hybrids between the calycanthemus and typical forms. The expected Mendelian proportion, DR XR, on the assump- tion that the hose-in-hose condition is dominant, is in this case 50 per cent. of each, and the result obtained was 44.5 per cent. to 55.5 per cent. hose-in-hose. The Tecessiveness of the typical form was further shown by the fact that when self- fertilized it produced 97.3 per cent. typical, the expected result being too per cent, In Mimulus tigrinus both male and female germ cells of the calycanthemus- form are functional and the question of dominance could be more completely tested. It was determined that here also the hose-in-hose perianth is dominant Over the normal. As the petaloid calyx is unquestionably a phylogenetically recent character, this result is the reverse of that expected from DEVRIEs’ law that phylogenetically older characters are dominant over newer. CORRENS Suggests that the “higher” character dominates over the “lower,” thus making EVRIEs’ law apply only to retrogressive characters; but he also calls attention - several cases in which the ‘“‘higher” character is obviously recessive, ¢. g., the laciniate leaves of Chelidonium majus laciniatus, and the yellow color of flowers m the cross of Polemonium coeruleum album with P. flavum. As most varieties ey Tetrogressive, the views of CorrENS and DeVries would equally fit the facts majority of cases.—G. H. SHULL. K. . moe MACKENZIE has described (idem 102-108) new species from Missouri under ets, Convolvulus, Dasystoma, Xanthium, and Senecio.—W. W. on Amer. Acad. 41:143-167. 1905) has revised the genus Zexmenia, 15 see = ~=- — C., Einige Bastardierungsversuche mit anomalen Sippen und ihre €n Ergebnisse. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 41:458-484. 1905. 236 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBER recognizing 42 species, 6 of which are new.—C. H. KAurrman (Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 32: 301-325. figs. 7. 1905) has published a preliminary study of the genus Cortinarius, illustrated by half-tones from excellent photographs, in which, after a full description of the structure of the various parts, 7 new species are described. —E. L. GREENE (Pittonia 5: 205-308. 1905) has published a revision of Esch- scholtzia, recognizing 112 species, 88 of which are new, thus breaking up what seems to have been a great aggregate of species collected under a few names; has published Petromecon as a new genus of Papaveraceae from Guadalupe Island, founded on Eschscholtzia Palmeri Rose and containing a new species; has pre- sented a synopsis of Dendromecon, recognizing 17 species, 14 of which are new; and has suggested an extension of species under Sanguinaria by separating 4 new species from what has been treated as a monotypic plexus.—C. A. M. LinpMan (Arkiv. Bot. K. Svenska Vetensk. 3: no. 6. pp. 14. figs. ro. 1904; rev. in Bot. Centralbl. 98:659. 1905) has published a new genus (Regnellidium) of Marsili- aceae from southern Brazil, which combines certain features of the two other genera with characters of its own.—M. L. FERNALD (Rhodora 7:129-136. 1995), in continuing his presentation of the N. Am. species of Eriophorum, has discussed the generic status of Eriophorum and the status of the names E. Chamissonis and E. Callitrix-—J. M. C. Frrrinc’s*® full paper has recently appeared; an abstract of his preliminary report may be found in the January GazerTE of this year. It is difficult to find an unnecessary paragraph among the one hundred seventy-five pages of this notable paper. Considerable ingenuity is displayed and this accounts for the author’s success in reaching a much closer analysis of geotropic phenomena. Part I contains eight chapters exclusive of introduction and recapitulation. Description and explanation of apparatus constitute the first chapter. Elaborate cuts and diagrams contribute to a very clear presentation. Particularly satisfying is the second chapter, because here is answered the very fundamental and gi controverted question of optimum position. CzAPEK’s answer of I 35° deviation m position of normal equilibrium is proven incorrect, and the horizontal posi- tion of 90° deviation is demonstrated to be the optimum position for the plants tested. The variety of the latter is great enough to make a general statement for Parallelotropic organs very probable. Positions at equal angles above or below the horizontal afford equal stimulation. The latter conclusion has already received confirmation in that the contrary conclusion of NEWCOMBE has been withdrawn, and evidence presented by him to support the author. Moreover the intensity of stimulation as determined by position varies approximately as the sine of the angle of deviation. In Part II the investigation endeavors, on the basis of seta Strations in Part I, to penetrate further the complicated processes involv anes perception and response. Admirable caution is here manifest, a clear ssa ination between demonstration and probability being maintained. The autho 16 Firtinc, Hans, Untersuchungen iiber den geotropischen Reizvorgang: Teles II. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 41: 221-398. 1905. * 1905] CURRENT LITERATURE 237 is inclined to regard sensitiveness to gravitation far greater than hitherto supposed, even as much as to light. It is not at present considered possible to determine the time required for an organ to recover from stimulation, since the autotropic straightening merely indicates expiration of reaction. Other important con- clusions are stated in the abstract mentioned.—RaymonD H. Ponp. NUCLEAR DIVISION in Fritillaria imperialis has been studied by SIJPKENS,*? who uses a somewhat novel method. Material is fixed in Flemming’s stronger solution for three weeks, after which it is thoroughly washed in water and run up to 96 per cent. alcohol. A piece of parietal endosperm with its nuclei is now brought into 6 per cent. celloidin, where it is kept an hour or so longer, care being taken not to let the celloidin become hard. With a pipette the piece with some celloidin is taken up and placed upon a cover glass where the celloidin flows out, forming a delicate film, which in a few minutes becomes rather tough. The film Is moistened with 96 per cent. alcohol until it is easily separated from the cover. Stain in gentian violet, clear in origanum oil for two hours, imbed in paraffin, and cut sections about 2u in thickness; then stain again in gentian violet. Another method was also used. A piece of the parietal endosperm was brought into a drop of 50 per cent. chromic acid, which soon dissolves the proto- plasm away from the nuclei. The nuclear membrane itself dissolves soon after, leaving only the chromatic network, which is washed in water and then stained with gentian violet. From a study of such preparations S1jpKINs concludes that the reticulum of resting nucleus is an anastomosing network with thick, irregular knots. — en linin thread, with chromatin granules, but the network is a homog- eure. The spindle arises inside the nucleus from protoplasm which Sema into the nuclear cavity after the dissolution of the nuclear membrane. nar Teads reaching from pole to pole are formed first, the mantle fibers appear- § fater.—C. J. CHAMBERLAIN. ot _ bungering” for priority, FiscHER™® shows wherein the theory of n denden ’ substances, recently presented by Loew, agrees closely with - view earlier expressed. Since neither Lorw nor the author have hice. ten _ more than enough to make the theory a rational hypothesis, the Writers “tt a t point to notice here is that the speculations of two independent kinds of ea theory. The author’s analysis is closer in that three Presence determ} substance are distinguished, namely: Formstojje, whose relative i. the habit or architecture of the plant; Reizstoffe, whose | induces a tendency to reproduce at the expense of vegetation or vie Versa. * b a Se eae With Sacus, Formstofje and Reizstoffe were identical; while accord- 7 SI . : ; Bot. N JPKENS, B., Die Kernteilung bei Fritillaria imperialis. Recueil des travaux. ie ho. 2. (repaged) pp. 58. pls. 4-6. : ; Ps “hing Huco, Ueber die Bliitenbildung in ihrer Abhiangigkeit vom Licht und enbildenden Substanzen. Flora 94: 478-490. 1905. 238 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [SEPTEMBE ing to Loew the latter would correspond to the author’s Baustoffe, by which is understood substances which cause a differentiation of tissue, as into vegetative and reproductive. Such Reizstoffe arise or become governing under abnormal conditions and imply a disturbed equilibrium in the plant; while Baustoffe are normally active. Thus to an excess of carbohydrates caused by conditions favor- able to photosynthesis (abundant light and little moisture), but unfavorable to vegetation (reduced absorption), the author attributes an overproduction of flowers.—RayMonD H. Ponp. THE ADDRESS GIVEN by Professor GOEBEL last year at the Congress of Arts and Science in St. Louis has been translated by Professor F. E. Lioyp and pub- lished in Science.t° The subject was an assigned one, but could not have been more appropriate to the man and the occasion. The time was limited, so that the speaker was able only to outline rather than to develop his ideas; but the paper contains a statement of the relations between the old or formal morphology, phylogenetic morphology, and experimental morphology, from the standpoint of one of our most philosophical botanists, that will be illuminating and suggestive to many. All of the speaker’s views may not be accepted by all, but that he has indicated the most needed direction of morphological investigation in the imme- diate future can hardly be doubted.—J. M. C. BotiEy?° has announced that he has at last established definitely the fact that the uredospores of a number of rusts, including those of Puccinia graminis, can endure the winter uninjured. They were found successfully surviving upo? dead leaves, dead straw, etc.; those of P. graminis remaining unimpaired when exposed to the driyng winds of autumn and to the intense cold of a North Dakota winter. The uredospores of P. rubigo-vera were found wintering freely in Mis- sissippi, Texas, Illinois, Minnesota, and North Dakota, both upon living matured leaves and straw. The inference is drawn that although the aecidium stage May be a physiological necessity for the perpetuation of the species, its annual recur- rence Is not a necessity.—J. M. C Cockayne?" has studied the vegetation of the Open Bay Islands, two small islands three nautical miles from the coast of New Zealand (South Westland). The most important vegetation consists of thickets formed by lianes. The con- clusion is reached that “when attached to the mainland the present islands = have been occupied by subtropical evergreen rain-forest similar to that now exist: ing on the adjacent coast. After separation, as the area of the islands becamé smaller and smaller, and the climatic conditions more and more severe, only thon Plants specially adapted to such conditions could survive, and of these certain of _ %GorseL, K., The fundamental problems of present-day plant me Science N. S. 22:33-45. July 14, 1905. 2° Botey, HENry L., New work upon wheat rust. Science N.S. 22: 50-5! a t Cockayne, L., Notes on the vegetation of the Open Bay ey N. Z. Inst. 37: 367-375. pl. 23. 1905. : — 1905] CURRENT LITERATURE 239 the lianes, although most highly specialized forest plants, are the most suitable.— .M.C. Rawatey?? has continued his comparisons of the anatomy of cotyledons with that of leaves by giving an account, with illustrations, of the **foliaceous”’ cotyledons of eight species of tropical plants: Jatropha curcas, Manihot glaziovit, Eriodendron anjractuosum,.Bombax malabaricum, Couroupita guianensis, Ipomoea coccinea, Solanum quitoense, and Cosmos bipinnatus. The conclusion is reached that these observations confirm the author’s view, previously published, that cotyledons and leaves “are not really of the same nature.”—J. M. C. Unperwoop?s has done good service in working out the itinerary of CHARLES Wricut’s three explorations of Cuba. His sojourn in Cuba covered a period of nearly ten years, 1856 to 1867; but his travels were confined chiefly to the two ends of the island, leaving the great central portion largely unexplored.—J. M. C. SHELDON?4 has announced that as a result of cultures and inoculations he has reached the conclusion that in all probability the bitter rot of the apple, the ripe rot of the grape, and the anthracnose of the sweet pea are caused by the same fungus —J. M. C. THE FULL PAPER by Scott?’ on a new type of strobilus in Sphenophyllum has appeared. A notice of the preliminary announcement, containing a summary of the results, was published in Bor. GAzETTE 39:76. 1905.—J. M. C. CHRYSLER?® has shown that through the agency of man in planting conifers ie. bare area at Woods Holl, Mass., the second stage in reforestation—that oaks—has been nearly attained in fifty years.—J. M. C. tet FLORISTIC PAPERS are those by KRAvSE?’ on the flora of Aden; and ee the flora of the Madeiras.—J. M. C. sis. Ramatey, Francis, A study of certain foliaceous cotyledons. Univ. Colorado €$ 2:255-264. figs. 42. 1905. was UNDERWoop, LucteNn M., A summary of Charles Wright’s explorations in Cuba. orr. Bet. Club 32: 291-300. map. 1905. 24 ¢ eh me Don, JoHN L., Concerning the identity of the fungus causing an anthrac- € sweet pea and the bitter rot of the apple. Science N. S. 22:51-52- 1995: . On the structure and affinities of fossil plants from the palaeozoic the lower ee a new type of sphenophyllaceous cone (Sphenophyllum fertile) from Ags. 3. 1905 oal-measures. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London B. 198:17-39- pls. 3-5: 26 CHry —. . M. A., Reforestation at Woods Holl, Massachusetts—A study in . = Rhodora 7: I21-129. pls. 62-63. 1905. 35:6 USE, K., Beitrige zur Kenntniss der Flora von Aden. Engler’s Bot. Jahrb. " 57-662. 1905. 3 Vy : ' AHL, M., Ueber die Vegetation Madeiras. Idem 36:253-349- 1995- NEWS. Dr. F. W. T. HunGER, Buitenzorg Botanic gee. goes to the University of Utrecht. Tue Dutcu cross of Orange and Nassau has been conferred upon Professor Dr. Juttus WIESNER. ProFressor Dr. G. HABERLANDT has bikes elected a foreign member of the Linnaean Society of London. Dr. Grorce T. Moore has resigned his position as physiologist and algolo- gist in the Department of Agriculture. Dr. E. ZEDERBAUER, formerly of the Botanical Institute of the University of Vienna, has been neha assistant at the Royal Forestry Experiment Station in Mariabrunn near Vienna Proressor Dr. R. v. WertsTEIN has been chosen president of the “Asso- ciation Internationale des Botanistes” for three years. He has also been elected a member of the Royal Academy of Science in Madrid and of the Royal Physio- graphic Society in Lund. Tue HEIRs of Professor Dr. EUGEN ASKENASY have set aside a fund of 10,000 marks, the interest of which is to be devoted to “‘study-travels” of the members of the faculty of the University of Heidelberg, especially to the insufficiently paid docents, older doctors, or students of the colleges. The grants are to alternate _ ' regularly between botany and zoology. Tue Prusstan Rovat ACADEMY OF SCIENCE has made the following grants for botanical investigation: to Professor ENGLER for continuing work upon Das Pjlanzenreich, 2,300 marks; to Dr. E. BAUER, for investigations on hybrids, Biologische und morphologische Untersuchungen iiber Wasser- und Sumpige- sf ig 640 marks. a OGRAPHICAL SKETCHES of deceased members of the Deutsch. Bot. Gesells — in the Berichte (22: 10-83. 1905) as follows: A. MiLLarvEt by P. MAGNUS) Joser FReyn by V. ScHirFNER; FRrancors Créprn by L mete WESTERMAIER (with portrait) by S. SCHWENDENER; orttie B. Herct; W. J. Benrens by Ernst Kuster; Avcust ee ty H.R 2 BACH; Kart ScHUMANN by G. VoLKENS; M. Stavs by J. BERNATSKY; Us Puruprr by Kart REICHE. uUssKNECHT by - i Ai ceeat From the Greek HEADACHE SOZO—to preserve is the brain’s cry ODONTES—the teeth for phosphates nent ee ee iain a True to its name Every effort of the body consumes it has ever been the phosphates. When the supply is less . han the demand, deranger pent takes old reliable ev and headache follow Horsford’ Bea Phosphate Sozodont is the ideal preparation for brain- workers. Supplies phosphates in a form es assimilated, er "a otly wwe mphlet et containing PE tiacmatinn H Ai .. & R U C K E L r druggist can't supply you, send 2 If yo cents . Bins ‘RD CHEMICAL Works, Prove NEW YORK dence, R.1., for sample bottle: postage paid. wale bee'y save m ““GEM”’ Blade i tyou pa = or a “E , - igin; ; Sam pl g al, sale wevery where or by mnen's Viole ae r/CUuPR, ARD D MENNEN 7 EVERY PAIR WARKANS “Unit Book-keeping System.” S : D ; c. H l LD S & CO, = = sf eens STATIONERS fi ———4 200 Clark Street - CHICAGO Ae iz it YZ WW ee ce ATLANTIC CITY The Resort of HEALTH, PLEASURE and FASHION LL THREE Hours From NEW YORK via New JERSEY CENTRAL Luxurious Equipment — Fast Service Stations C. M Foot Liberty Street, N.R. | 1 Pas fy Street, N.R. | General Passenger Agent and West 23d St, fork It costs you nothing to receive our announcements and other ey tising matter. Simply ask to be placed on our mailing list. Il. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, I TT, eee ee ESTAS eo aR te SPENCERIAR STEEL PENS. * STANDARD AMERICAN’ Brand OR OVER Have been ae of years and are reco all purposes 7/e Dest. 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Chemical Apparatus at will dent under a blow, vl ‘finish will not ae a Our stock of chemical apparatus is sack or turn white, This is the highest achieve- complete and selected wit the great CBee est care. ur aim is t yo wet yet attained in a Floor Finish, and is not the highes 1: sae skely to be improved upon. lowest “oe consistent wi “with quality. j ‘ : ur chemical glassware manu- Finished samples of wood and instructive factured in our own factory in pamphlet on the care of natural wood floors sent Germany is stamped BALOC, a guarantee of excellence. free . for the asking. rd gees cial ckipeey catalogue schools application. BERRY BROTHERS, Limited, Varnish Manufacturers, Bausch & LombOptical Co. =i og CHIGAGO ST. LOUIS Rochester, N. Y. : GINGINNATI SAN FRANCISCO New eboney pour Ke Chicago ed te ARIO Frankfurt a/M. Germany a ee Through Pullman Service to Virginia Big Four C. & O 7 Aen . Route Kt Leaves Chicago 1:00 Pp. m. daily, Ee This Means “Good. as “ON ae tant our” TREE anteeait Seat All Meals n familia: endl ll All Big Four Trains stop at Ilinois Tal 634 Stat —— > eae: Eten 3d * 2 Withi a few . tion, > Chicago, ‘I ' minutes’ 1 : i University of Chi ie walk of th £ cra black, cop ot pe the writing being p sere ~ R esting tng Chicago and Peoria con- pot eal with 2? ~ bets 4 © .) ty iS ~*~. ie) 7 ~ os ) 2) Nd | 2 WN o Geo ea Hi a of Wea C., L& = N. and B. & 0. S. W. Railways Guide, indered by voce. icago iE: fentyrce sone ae Si rf ay Ticket Office BP Ags lication. ee ia Af ne Harrison 4620 *Phon c. (sea » General Northern Agent, JOSEPH DIXON CRUCIBLE CO., Jersey City, N. J. gS RECAP Se THE ANGELUS Is The Only Player Expressing Human Feeling sedp : fter, see how TRIKE a single key on your piano, again, then Paka eee S many different degrees of intensity you can produce. pong Bi repro The Angelus felt-covered fingers, which strike ne Each finger duce just the touch you want —they cannot act Hees ees vou all the power is controlled by a pneumatic (not bellows) which oe yc ow eee elicacy, flexibility or elasticity of touch procurable wit se Angelus, insures he Phrasing Lever, the great exclusive feature of absolute control of the time and phrasing of your playing. “The Human Touch of THE ANGELUS : ‘6 . xpress his of is just the human touch of the human pone employing apy & suiting her interpretation, sympathy and feeling for re a change in time © the desired intensity to every single note and the instan shading to every bar of the music. . Angelus translates glorious melodies and harmonies thoughts or Pictures do scenes Send for illustrated booklet. oa as words ¢° ‘cians. , test must Purchased by Royalty and the worla’s grea NY THE WILCOX & WHITE COM as Established 1876. Meriden, C Say that YOURS is a PrECK your judgment. . Catalogue No. 10 free arerooms, Aeolian Hall, 362 Fifth : NEW YORK = When you were engaged THE YOUNG LADY RECEIVED A BOX OF ALMOST DAILY - HOW OFTEN DOES YOUR WIFE NOW RECEIVE A BOX OF THESE DELICIOUS CONFECTIONS? REPENT - AND MAIL YOUR ORDERS, AT SHORT iNTERVALS, TO ’2 $63 BROADWAY — 508 -FlF TH AVENE? NEWYORK SEVENTEEN OTHER STORES & SALES AGENTS EVERYWHERE. CANDIES SENT ANYWHERE BY MAIL & EXPRESS. Follow the Flag’’ Pullman. Sleepers Free Chair Cars Chicago to PITTSBURG WABASH 6.P.&T, ST, Louis A. CHICAGO ho‘ F RA Differs from the ordinary dentifrice in minimizing ae deliciously to the den- flavored, and a delightful adjunct For sale at tal toilet. In convenient tubes. drug stores, 25c. per tube. AVOID SUBSTITUTES DENTACURA COMPANY, S. A» Newark, N. J., U. THE INCREASING DEMAND FOR THE SMALL GRAND PIANO Proves its popularity. The reason is not far to seek. Its cost is no more than the larger style of Uprights. The Grand action and tone are preferable to the Upright. The little extra room required is only at the keyboard end, while its artistic appearance more than compensates for that small disadvantage. We speak now of the Chickering The only piano of such small dimensions. Made now in two sizes: Style R, 5 ft. long; and Style A, 5 ft.5 in. long. Both just wide enough to admit the full 7% octave keyboard. Chickering Pianos are made only by CHICKERING & Sons, Boston, and are sold in Chicago only by CLAYTON F. SUMMY CQO. 220 WABASH AVENUE CHICKERING, KURTZMANN, MATHUSHEK AND GABLER PIANOS We Sell all Pianos at Definite Prices we Publishers and Importers of Music Dealers in Music of the Better C We publish a number of desirable Musical Works for school use end for Descriptive Circular ne Che Land of Manatee described and illustrated, its wonderful resources shown, and its strange and absorbingly interesting history recounted, in the Seaboard Magazine. SENT FREE ON REQUEST J. W. WHITE, General Industrial Agent PORTSMOUTH, VIRGINIA Seaboard Air Line Railway eee ee Preserve Your Magazines ————— AVE them bound in ites or Leather. a ie job bindery and Wee” Pleased to quote Mote The Univers} f ° chy Chicago Press CHICAGO Let us prove . what we claim at our expense There is only one way to prove ae thing ay a a typewriter. and that an — test of the machine itself zx y fe what we bee every possible Fox Typewriter to do typewriting in your office, gi a better grade of work ogee save you a vast amount of worry about airs When Ww prov i this to some of the most aiscriminating buyers in the coun- try. venty-five per cent of our sales are ae under just such circumstances. f we can prove it to you, you want our mac Remember» we i this at our €x- Pp All have to do is say you are steaetiel no matter eae you are. Write us today. Fox Typere Co. Executive Office and Factory 560-570 naak 5 GR RAPIDS, MICH. Branches and Agencies in Principal Cities. Not just any way to California cA tour to the Pacific Coast should be planned with a view to using the best way, not “just any way.” Experienced travelers have learned that the most convenient service need cost no more than the least convenient. Moreover, there is, if routes be wisely chosen, quite as much to see between the East and California, as there is in California itself. It was with these facts in mind that the Burlington Route installed, some years ago, a special personally-conducted tourist service from Boston, Chicago and St. Louis through to San Francisco or Los Angeles via Denver, Colorado Springs, Manitou, Pueblo, Canon City, Royal Gorge, Ute Pass, Mount of the Holy Cross, Glenwood Springs, Salt Lake and the majestic Sierras. The plan met with immediate success. ‘Today there seems no other so generally popular with California Tourists. It combines the great advantages, absolute comfort and worryless convenience, with that other important merit, economy. During the fall and winter of 1905 it will be a little better than it ever was before. We firmly be lieve it would suit you better than any other tourist service in America. At least we should like you 10 know more about it. Through cars from Chicago and St. Louis every day, until October 31, 1905. cAny Burlington Route representative will hed pleased to provide full details and illustrated . erature, or you may secure such by writing pe P. S. Eustis, 115 Q Bldg., Chicago. ee The PROOF of Remington Supremacy: It outsells every other Typewriter The REASON for Remington Supremacy : It outworkKs and outwears every other Typewriter THE CHICAGO & ALTON runs the say “site gaa engines t They keep the Gatos on time * ’ n Between Chicago, 33 R gt cago. emingto ~sargg City and Typewriter Company Geo. J, cake “oe Passenger Agent New York anda a GO, ILL. Lectures on Commerce A Book for Business Men An interesting chapter SOME RAILWAY PROBLEMS : L MORTON — merly Secretary o the Navy and Vice-President of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé Railway ¢ of the five lectures o n Railways etl in this pent The volume is edited by age: , the Diivwenns ot Califor The er panes rand dt on Railways are set f is Central, on Railway Management and BS) one George G. Sate a X “aide Rail way Mail Ser E. D. Kenn the Atchison, bi oy ailway Consolidation; Louis Sacksoel ‘of the Chicago, * ilwnakes & St. Paul, on actors in Industrial Developm nent. The a mr pe Subjects treated in Lectures on Commerce are Higher Commercial seston sped Praag e Laughlin ; The Steel Industry, by Franklin H. Head; Investments, rr ¢. 0 Seats Fé, on Railways. as F L ; rae on eae, 306 pages, 8vo, cloth, $1.50 net; $1.03 postpaid : le a HE UNIVERSITY of CHICAGO PRESS Cc HICAGO and 156 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK —eee When you are wearied from work or worry, when you feel listless or lan- guid, or when you cannot sleep, just use Pabst Extrad the ‘‘ Best Tonic.” It is simply rich, pure malt—the most healthful, wholesome and upbuilding food own to science. It gently soothes the sweet sleep of child- | hood. | 25c at all druggists. Write for free booklet telling how Pabst Extract is ma le, and why you ought to have it in your home. Pabst Extract Dept., Milwaukee, Wis, \ ey LO AShort Cut to Comfort The “Long Distance’? HYLO oh gat in the . segatcmyd is ust right for man who Seale 3 in gr Fr ‘Co rd snaps a glove e when burned out i Cords can om e any length des Look for the (THE STEERING ROD TO SUCCESS) HYLO and letter writing is a pleasant pastime, The and conse tm- Paul E, Wirt Fountain Pen has sold on its ttatio: Twelve styles of HYLO la : ive ed Satneneand booklet by all sta ‘o Read Your Meter.”’ 9 co contitwnel guarantee. -The Paul E, Wirt pen is meee in eque THE PHELPS yr PANY | [ Full catalogue sent on r WSSTATE STREET DETROIT, U.S.A. BOX G11 acoousebiiies PA. A Great Combination for THIS SUMMER’S VACATION The Canadian Rockies the grandest scenery in the world—unapproachable in magnificence and majesty and The Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition AT PORTLAND, OREGON This will be the popular trip this summer Through Service Between St. Paul and the Pacific Coast ” Send for handsome booklet Challenge of the Mountains oe . aceite CANADIAN PACIFIC RY. 239 a A. C. SHAW, General Agent, Passenger Department outh CHICAGO ae Street - sy «© THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS ANNOUNCES FOR PUBLICATION IN THE EARLY AUTUMN General Sociology An Exposition of the Main Development in Sociological Theory from Spencer to Ratzenhofer By ALBION W. SMALL Professor of Sociology at the University of Chicago A Book not for Sociologists alone, but for every student of human relations. The work has two aims—/irst, to present a conspectus of the whole field of Sociology in such a way as to orient workers in its subdivisions with reference to their place in the whole scheme ; second, to persuade scholars in other divisions of social science that the Sociologists have something to say which specialists in other departments of science cannot afford to ignore. el THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS CHICAGO, anv 156 FirtH Avenue, NEW YORK eal ‘Two New Books by the University of Chicago Press RUSSIA AND ITS CRISIS By PAUL MILYOUKOV, formerly Professor of History at the Universities of Moscow and Sofia. * The book aims to explain the internal crisis in Russia; it offers a timely exposition of deep-seated ulcers of the Russian political system, and it makes clear that an interpretation of existing conditions, to be at all adequate, must necessarily be based upon a general and comprehensive survey of the historical circumstances under which the Russian civiliza- tion has been developed. * The author is a typical representative of the liberal party known as the “intellectuals,” and his activity in the cause of freedom has already earned him calumny, imprisonment, and exile. 602 pages, 8vo, cloth, net $3-00, postpaid $3.20 Christian Belief Interpreted by Christian Experience THE BARROWS LECTURES By CHARLES CUTHBERT HALL, President of the Union Theological Seminary, New York. 1 . "he volume contains a series of lectures delivered in 1902 and 1903 in ndia, Ceylon, and Japan. They are six in number with the following r Nature of Religion; The Christian Idea of God Interpreted God: 'T nee; The Lord Jesus Christ, the Supreme Manifestation of of H ‘he Sin of Man and the Sacrifice of Christ ; The Christian Ideas oliness and Immortality Interpreted by Experience; Reasons for istianity as the Absolute Religion. ductory Note of much interest by Principal J. Mackichan, H. DeForest, of Sendai, Japan, who has recently served Manchuria among the soldiers of the Japanese army. 300 pages, 8vo, cloth, net $1.50, postpaid $1.66 THE UNIVERSITY of CHICAGO PRESS SHICAGO and 156 Fifth Avenue NEW YORH The New Hammond Typewriter | For All Nations and Tongues and used by All Classes of People. THE BUSINESS MAN - Because the New Hammond is the Best Letter Writer, Manifolder and Tabulator. THE SCIENTIFIC MAN - Because the Hammond has a practically unlimited range of service. THE LITERARY MAN - Because the Hammond allows the use of several styles and sizes of type. THE LINGUIST - - ~- Because on one Hammond machine more tae twenty languages can be written. THE LADIES - - - ~ Because the Hammond has a beautiful Script PE | and others in preparation. EVERYBODY - Because one Hammond will write anything | style of type, language, or color of ink, on any — size paper in any direction. 1 THE HAMMOND TYPEWRITER COMPA ae ee BUFFALO LITHIA WATER No Remedy of Ordinary Merit Could Ever Have Received Indorsations from Men Like These. Sam uel Oo. L. P r, Fe Fey M., M. R.C. P.,; London, Braresor of the Primes and Practice as Meding and Clinical si kine in the College belt hope and Surgeons, San Francisco. i Bright? . H. Dru eli mee Moticit Jurisprudence, $ Disease Bishop s ag ono Mosiveni, Chee os lih eo 1 New s Cyrus Edso Ons A. M., M. D., Albuminuria Yi pe dort and S tate, President Board of Pha , New York City, padre: Physic wie ae hp Counc oe John V. sriennatit M. D., Pregnancy Medica and Ther , Med Jo tebagion Oe ites teh ye riladeiphia. Dr. George Ben. Johnston, Richmond, Va., Ex-President Southern Surgical and Gene ‘Association, Ex-President Medical Society of Va., and sheaees 7 of gets and Abdomi: it Stone Dr. A. Gabriel Pouchet, Professor thd Pharmacology and al Blad- Materia Medica of the Faculty of Me icine, Paris. s Rena alculi, Dr. J. T. LeBlanchard, Sig apabvat Cink, SM.,SN.,V.0. Jas. M. Crook, A. M., M. Professor Clinical Medicine ifannvatl one se loonie New York oe Graduate Medical Se on Louis C, Horn, M. D., Ph.D Feb 36 Diseases of Chit- dren a Dovsinoey, Baltimore Univer Bladder Dr. J. Allison Hodges, President th | Professir Nereous on Mental Diseases, University College of Medicine, Richmond, Va. | Dr. Robert Bartholow, M.A., LL. D., Professor Materia In Gout, Medica and General Ti herapeutics, Jefferson Medical College, ince Rheum Dr. 1. N. Love, New York City, Former Professor Diseases @ atism Childr en, College of Physicians and (slice pit Marion Sims College z no ‘eer Lou ue H Hu M. D. Ex-President American Uric Acid Medica! yf Peed be sy aye pected oar Pals Professor Clinical Sur gery, University College of Medicine, Richmond, Va. tel Dr. Alexander B. Mott, of New York, Professor 0 urgery, Belleone Hospital Medical College, Surgeon Bellevue Hospital. Seo tellin : S what these and many other of the inading pence men of the day say of the value of _— treatm PROPRIETOR sietien is LITHIA . SPRINGS, VIRGINIA. Fevers prevail in the Fall. As a pre. 1780 The Leader 1905 ventive, purify the cellar, closets. sinks, for 125 Years nooks behind olen birae and every spot # where disease germs may déyelop, w ccuctaie | Platt’ Cocoa) Chlorides Itisa perfect a highly pe ae THE HOUSEHOLD fl |? %\\ nourishing, eas di- | 4 | 5 f: : | wasted strength, pre- Seed Serve health and _pro- Eexistered, long life, . A new and hand ly Reese gested, fitted ‘ Seualy illustrated Recipe Book sent free. An odorless, colorless a which — Ay foul odors and disease-breeding matter. t alter Baker & Co. Ltd. a pies with ten parts of water for ho poe = as Established 1780 ORCHESTER, MASS. ets less than § cents a quar sg Of oe is 45 Highest Awards ant bottles, he ared only by in Europe and America HENRY B. PLATT, New York ee The refreshing bath must be complete must eliminate waste matter From the pores and aid their breathing. A HAND SAPOLIO bath does this, ives a delicious sensc of fresh coolness. and tones B EARS: have been establis ' ae spouts pa yments every fa ai in pera semen VOSE piano. We ‘take 0 eng deliv ver the new piano im Write for Catalogue D and explanations es on Mass VOSE & SONS PIANO co., 160 Boylston St., B98 No. 4 THE BOTANICAL GAZETTE October, 1905 Editors: JOHN M. COULTER and CHARLES R. BARNES CONTENTS Regeneration in Plants. II. William Burnett McCallum A Botanical Survey of the Huron River Valley. III. Forrest B. H. Brown The Spore Coats of Selaginella Florence Lyon Contributions to the Biology of Rhizobia. V. Albert Schneider _ Briefer Articles The a, Okage of Plants Commonly Used in American Botanical Laba i Sophia Eckerson Further oe. on the Structure of the Starch Grain Henry Kraemer _ Current Literature News The University of Chicago Press CHICAGO and NEW YORK William Wesley and Son, London “ Cleanliness of body was ever esteemed to proceed from a due reverence to God, to society and to ourselves.” Beacon From the end of the 18" Century to the beginning of the 20° PEARS’ SOAP has been popularly recognised as the clean and cleansing soap: ee ————— Of all Scented Soaps Pears’ Otto of Rose is the best. AL rights secured, —_— SELF-FILLING FOUNTAIN The Remex Self-filler isnew. It is simple as can be. No mechanism to unlock, no screws to turn, nothing to undo. Not a possibility of accidental overflow of ink from any cause what- ever. Instant- ly filled and instant] y cleaned. It will hold 2% other self-filling foun- tain pen made. The making of the light material per- Of a larger ink- ble with the use Covering, thus giy- great ink hold- = Room 404, N. A, Building Streets Chicago, Ill. Stationers, Sola Druggists , ,and b Bi Stores Everywhere, : The finger times as much ink as any = REMEX 101 PEN, PRICE Soe $1.25 To fill: Give the collar, which is part of the bar- rel, a half-turn, expos-. ing rubber sack on which 7 is cemented a metal | bar extending the full length of the rubber. Ee Press this bar, dip in the ink, re- move the pressure and the pen is filled. A half-turn either way opens or closes the fills it barrel. —————_———————————— pen-holder in a mits the insertion sack than is possi- of any other style ing the Remex ing capacity. L. E. Remex Company 6 Cortlandt Street New York Nid SECTIONAL VIEW Its Meat and Drink to me. for the YY y ~ Seven Ages is a delicious food-drink, very nutri- tious and digestible. It upbuilds the young, refreshes and sustains the ‘ged and invalids. More healthful than tea, coffee, or cocoa, as it assists no cooking, o ad n o milk, A glassful, hot, ge retiring, | brings refreshing sleep. : In poh lhe oes form, radial: choco- t¢ ate, es free upon : the Jo E 2nd wey: ty wits Sing Fel) Ask ee SHOHEEOKE"; 5”; ee are MIE Sth a wn Se z imitations. : . the School- Horlick’s Food (Company, Racine, Wis., London Montreal England ana ? me ibe “And then the Lover 3/4 . : F rd ; © Lover 4 z that ends this with his Ballad, ‘ Eventful History. \d The Botanical Gazette H Monthly Journal Embracing all Departments of Botanical Science by Jon M. CovuLtER and CHARLES R. BARNES, with the ee of other members of the botanical staff a the University of Chi - Wel XL, No. 4 Issued October 18, 1905 CONTENTS REGENERATION IN PLANTS. II. ConrTriBuTIONS FROM THE HULL ee er LXX1X (WITH NINE FIGURES). William Burnett McCallum 241 pana SURVEY OF oi vete 2 Sate Linton p ALLEX, III bite MAPS AND FIVE ures). Forrest B. H. Bro 264 me hice COATS OF SELAGINELLA. CoNTRIBUTIONS FROM THE — hidieusiacs mATORY. LXXX (WITH PLATES X AND x1). Florence Lyon - 285 UTIONS TO THE BIOLOGY OF RHIZOBIA. V: THE Jacganinn AND bese | VATION OF RHIZOBIA IN ARTIFICIAL MeEpIA. Albert Schneider 296 BRIEFER ARTICLES. THE PHystoLocIcaL CoNSTANTS OF a ican: Sings IN a bees 0d Lasoratortes. I. Sophia Eckerso a FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE babes OF THE STARCH GRAIN. Fons Kraemer = 305 seid ce Re ‘e K ie el ~ - - - - o~, 318 ig eee ea FRENCH INSTRUCTION IN BOTANY. MINOR NOTICES x & ee i ee earn are a ne a ee. a Ge me . 5: - - - . i - a es . : a - - - 320 ications for the Editors should be addressed to them at the Ign ee of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. dt e scientific roper names with particular care and in citations 50 100 150 200 $1.30 $1.60 $1.80 $2.00 2.20 re ae od 20 4.00 4.65 . =2 single 3 I.10 1.35 1.60 like Gazerre cover) . 1.20 1.60 2. _ ingle copies - cents. ee soo by > pela for all ape : a Pets ; other Islands, Guam, Tutuila (Samoa), Shanghai. Fo missin » 75 cents for postage should be added to the subscription price. > 8 same should be filed within thirty days after the date = seeweee Westy 4S per year rt d), should be remitt a lite hee ssn 7, 1896, at the es at Chi as second-class matter, under Act of Congress, March 3, 1879 Pyright, ans. bs the University of Chicago. Ohe Zeiss Photomicrographic Outfit For Ultra-Violet Light is a new and powerful instrument of research. Not only does it present a resolving power nearly eighty per cent. greater than can be attained with white light, but it gives most remarkable results in the optical differentiation of unstained and living tissues Full particulars and prices on request THE SCIENTIFIC SHOP Scientific Instruments dens 326 Dearborn St., CHICAG) Physical Chemistry in the Service of the Sciences By Jacogus H. Van ’r Horr,’ Professor at the University he Berlin English version by ALEXANDER Smit, Professor at the University of Chic In Four Gr OupS Typical Reviews oes The eight lectures Leeman in this volume have already appeared See in German and been note Th re n this Journal, 24, 1217 (1902). PHYSICAL before us is an cneapeag see one, which makes a strorig appe@ al to Instructors # _ LPooklover ras swell a he chemi * _From the fact, probably, tt he bei Chemistry CHEMISTRY ly as related to — _— the German, aud the baciux posses esses a charm whic were! Analytical 3 th urnal of the American ee ener 1. Pure Chem- This is an licciiasity readable book, interest being sustain ned from first to last. Manufacturisé The chapters on “ Phys sic cal Chemistry = beigece 36 are particularly interesting, taking up ‘ 2. Industrial nape and the specific action : — ions in the nes Imetabolis, Instructors , Chemist the second chapter taking up the subject of enzymes and their eet physiology abies agents aie toward chemical ———. In the chapters ae 3- Physiology on Geolo; of the chemistry ussed, the forma Phy tion and pra of geological salts, and ‘she influence of heat and varla- Geologist? 4- Geology tions i in temperature upon crystallization. The book will peor waa a: nart } 1. + 4 3. A A + Pp ularly eset! ee The University of Chicago Pre CHICAGO, york NEW 88 erin heme | Geld Medal Paris Exposition—Gold Medal St. Louis Exposition THE PERRY PICTURES ee Gent Each &*.35 St sath soos 120 for $1.00 Eetra Size, 10x12, Five for 25 cents; 11 for 50 cents; 23 for $1.00 Small Size,3x314. For shack use, etc. One-half cent each for a Pictures j in Colors Birds, animals, minerals, etc. Size, 7 wo cents each for 13 or more. A cent et 8 han quart more ers each in lots of 100 or Send two-cent stamp for Catalogue, or two two-ce mps during — ie Mestrated Catalogue of one thousand ake Sire, or 25 25 An Subjects. THE PERRY MAGAZINE If you on nn “ain about the world’s gre aintin ou wish to is italian At, a course laid out dhe bah wil liam Care ey P Poland, of Brown University, Monthly, except July and August. $1.00 mi r vanes THE PERRY PICTURES COMPANY —— s Box 501, MALDEN, MASS. (The One-cent Pictures are 5 to 7 times this size, IMPORTANT BOOKS ses Ries and Its Crisis ying cloth ; net $3.00, post- wn $3.2 HALt—Christian Belief Inter lan preted by Christian Experience 300 pp. ; = cloth; net $1.50, post- paid $1.6 f Hy HARPER (W, AR ~The aoe Element N ew Re lecting "Scape R nine PP. 5 pre bie $1.00 Lantern eligion and riche igher Life ape sh t2mo, Fos, ce $1.00, post- For or Ln eee nes T.09 as natural colors photos, engravings, bears ; colored prints, flowers, specimens, mechanica oe "swopady in po cage pa aed models and ents in books. Also shows lantern 2 i" cloth 50 slides perfectly. Attachable to any electric pai , n. YOR —The y tock of Lantern Slides to i Place o of Se tesisies in Modern Surecate Raceniional eed Scientific Subjects. 298 Lantern Slides on Ge oe ography. oo 278 Pp. 5 “egg cloth; a Lantern Slides on Geology and Botany. paid $1.1 Eo 1 wey Stes, post Lantern Slides on Natural History. n History. mae Bony Scots tO°KS for use in the poser an ar a pedagogic al vie itten trom the modern scien Lantern Slides on E ——-, and Architecture. erecta — se published. Lantern Slides on Minin: Lantern Slides illu stating say other subjects. We rent slides at low S. ene for lists, naming particular sabject ot i teres’ Nt t ADDRESS DEPT. A AVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS sate ie « EARLE ete., 186 FirTH Avenue NEW YORK pt. 24 918 Chestnut St, Phila. ————————— ie bck Numbers of the Botanical Gazette Wanted ; Val piesa egg for the following back numbers of the recsac Gazette: a I, No, vii te 12, Vol Vv ol. Ill, Nos. I, 5, 9g, 10. Vol. IV V, Nos . ol. a OS. 4; 5» 7 Vals No , a ae Vo ; Vi, Nos. I, 2, 3, 4, 7; 8,9 GO, Ii, 12. Vol. Vil, Nos at 5, 6 ’ 7,8 Il. Vol. a XIV, N 1 ol. IX, Nos a oe 2 3, 4, 7, 8, 11,12. Vol. KI! Nos. f 2, 3 ©. Vol. XXIII, Nos. 1, 3, 4. Vol. XXXV, No. 1. ders = ma eee speeded azine who have any of these Eapate to dispo Poe OORT OF GHC PRESS :: ::_ GHIGAGO, ILLINOIS For Students of Botany Physics and Chemistry The Role of Diffusion and Osmotic Pressure in Plants By Burton E. LIVINGSTON HE first part deals with a clear statement of the physical principles of diffusion and osmotic pressure, and will probably be found of use to begin- ners in physical chemistry and theoretical physics. The second part presents the literature of the physio- logical réle of these factors in a connected and reada- ble form, and embodies the researches of the author as to the influence of the medium. “The treatment of the whole subject is clear and con: cise and forms an admirable addition to the literature © physiological botany. It will be found indispensable to a students along these lines.” — Zhe Plant World. xiv-+150 pp., 8vo, cloth, ez, $1.50; postpaid, $1.62. ee me The University of Chicago Pres K CHICAGO and 156 Fifth Avenue NEW 3 “With fingers,as it were, on the world’s pulse.” Current Literature Edited by EDWARD J. WHEELER “Infinite riches ins litle room” sthe most essential of all magazines to every man or woman who wishes a clear comprehension of all that is vfa/ in the thought and haat world. It brings to its readers the thought-harvest of a ra ay in Politics, Industry, Science, Literature, Religion, members of ae hoes just those things about which the informed, 'T ry intelligent American household should be well - To the busy man or woman it is indispensable. bd be, 44 2. . 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DEPT. 25 0 UME XL NUMBER 4 MTANICAL (sAZETTE OCTOBER, 1905 REGENERATION IN PLANTS. _ II.” CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE HULL BOTANICAL LABORATORY. XXITX. WILLIAM BURNETT MCCALLUM. (WITH NINE FIGURES) WOUND STIMULUS. Tue influence of the wound has been put forward many times, either as the direct cause, or as an important factor in regeneration. WIESNER (19) has suggested that between the wounded part and the new structure formed there is a direct causal connection, due to substances developing in the wounded cells and passing to other parts, there inciting the reversion of mature cells into the meristematic condition. GOEBEL (4, p. 204) also believes the wound stimulus to be a factor. KLEBS (9), on the other hand, rather discredits this idea and thinks that the wound in itself is of no Importance in regeneration. The possibility of the wound having a far teaching influence is not at all improbable, for many well-known fases of traumatropism show how cells may be affected at a distance from those actually concerned in the wound. Of the many experi- Ments to determine if such an influence is operating, only a few need s Mentioned, and in these cases only the results will be given. i. Was seen that with Phaseolus the removal of the stem above ag primordia is followed by the development of the latter. . femoval of the cotyledons, while causing wounds still closer to ie young bud, produces no such development; nor does the sever- _ 1g of the stem as close as possible below the primordia. Wounding . by cutting notches immediately above the primordia, as first paper was published in BoraNIcAL GAZETTE 40:97-120. 1905- 241 242 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocroBER deep as four-fifths through the stem, has no influence. String was tied tightly around young stems, just above the primordia, and as the stems grew the string cut in deeply on all sides; no results followed. Longitudinal slices, the length of the epicotyl and three-fourths through the stem, produced no results. Experiment 38.—Notches cut at different points in a spiral around the stem, so that all the bundles were severed, failed to incite the buds below. Experiment 39.—Five plants 70-100°™ high, 6-9 internodes long, and with lower internodes old and hard were used. The tip of each plant was cut off and also the buds from all the nodes below. In three plants the basal primordia produced shoots; one plant died; and the others remained alive, but no shoots formed. Here the wound effect, if there was such, traveled through a distance of nine internodes. A wound, however severe, seems unable to cause the buds to develop if it does not include the complete removal of the growing apex; and even on a large plant the removal of the very tip is all that is necessary. Here, as in the willow and other plants (see experiment 43), the effect of the wound passes only down the stem; a wounding or a complete severance at any point along the stem has no effect on the buds above this point. As will be brought out later, the opposite is true of the roots; that is, the influence of the removal in inciting new roots only passes upwards. This would hardly be true if it were due to the diffusion of substances formed in the wounded cells, as WIESNER supposes. GOEBEL (5) has found that in Bryophyllum no wounding at all is needed to produce shoots on the leaves. He encased all the buds on the shoot in plaster so as to prevent further growth, and after a time the buds on the leaves developed. If the leaf blade of Cyclamen is cut off new leafy structures arise along the margins of the petals. But WINKLER (19) has shown that this removal is not necessary. He left the blades intact, but incased them in plaster, and soon the leaf-like outgrow appeared as when the blade was removed. The blade was not injured or wounded in any way by this treatment, though undoubtedly some of its activities were suppressed. ”g , As will be described in experiment 4o, I inhibited the growth the apex of Phaseolus by placing it in a hydrogen atmosphere. ° * McCALLUM—REGENERATION IN PLANTS 243 1905] basal primordia in the air below promptly developed. When the hydrogen was removed, the apex continued growing. Placing the roots in plaster, which inhibited any further growth on their part, also resulted in the development of roots along the stem. In these cases there was no wounding anywhere. It appears that while regen- eration follows the removal of certain parts, neither this removal nor the wound incident to it are necessary, since the regeneration occurs equally well when the part is left uninjured and certain of its activities suppressed. The wound, therefore, is not in itself any part of the stimulus. 7 CORRELATION. By correlation is meant the influence which one organ or part may exert over another. That the removal of certain parts leads to changes within the plant that may modify markedly the growth or function of other structures is a matter of common observation. Examples of this interdependence among the different members of the plant body are abundant. Jost (8) has shown that in Phaseolus the mere presence of the leaf is a necessary condition to the develop- ment of the bundles of the leaf trace. P1sCHINGER (16) determined that if the large cotyledon of Streptocarpus be removed the small functionless one will develop into a large one. According to GOEBEL (6, p. 809) the early removal of foliage leaves induces the bud scales to develop into the foliar structures. If the upper end of a Taraxacum Toot be cut away, removing all the buds, new buds soon arise from the cortex below; this is true of many roots. IrmiscH and others (10) have shown in many species that if seedlings be cut off below the first node, new buds arise out of the tissue of the hypocotyl. The Temoval of the growing tip on many shoots is followed by the development of the dormant axillary buds. As is commonly observed ln cultivation, if the lateral roots be destroyed, their place is taken ta sa roots, which otherwise would not have developed. GOEBEL eR 5) showed that in Begonia and Bryophyllum, and this 1s y true for many other plants, the removal of all the buds on “0 will result in the development of buds on the leaves. sie — by which such an influence is exerted by one part a er is the main problem to be solved in regeneration. attempts to explain it in one of two ways: either (1) the one 244 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocroBER part monopolizes the nutritive material to such an extent that the other parts concerned cannot obtain sufficient to enable growth to go on; or (2) he applies Sacu’s .Stoff-jorm hypothesis. According to this (1'7), there are formed in the plant small quantities of different substances, presumably of enzyme-like nature, each one having the capacity to incite the formation of a definite structure. These sub- stances are supposed to move in definite directions, and where they accumulate in sufficient quantities start the development of the par- ticular structure they are concerned with. In GoOEBEL’s opinion (4, p. 204) the influence of external conditions are of little account in regeneration, the important cause being “the direction in which the constructive material moves.’”? GOEBEL says (3, p. 42) “the vegetative points act as centers of attraction for the plastic material, their influence being stronger or weaker according to their position.” In Bryophyllum, for example, the apex of the shoot is the strongest, then the lateral buds, and last of all the vegetative points on the leaves; so that the apex is able to draw to itself the greater part of the “constructive material;” but if this apex is removed, the lateral buds will be able to “attract” this substance; and in the absence of these lateral buds, the growing points on the leaf are able to appro- priate it. In Begonia no growing points are present on the leaf, but when it is removed GoEBEL says bud-forming material accu- mulates at the base and induces the formation of buds there. If this material, formed in the leaves, moves toward the base of the leaf and passes out because it is “attracted” by the growing points on the stem, just why it should continue to flow in that direction and accumulate at the base, when all connection with these “centers of attraction” is broken, is one of the unexplained difficulties that beset -this hypothesis on every hand. Morcan (12) has strongly objected to this theory, but his evidence against it does not seem to me to be necessarily fatal. GorBEL in a recent paper (5) is inclined to lay less stress on it than formerly, asserting that the non-development of the buds on the leaves is due to a checking influence exerted u the buds of the shoot; “but,” he adds, “whether we are here dealing with a stimulus transmitted along the conducting system, OT whether the building material (Baustoffe) flowing in the conducting chanm o is attracted more strongly by the shoot vegetative points than by those on the leaves remains uncertain.” 1905] McCCALLUM—REGENERATION IN PLANTS 245 Driescu (1), who has worked on animals more than on plants, recognizes in correlation the dominant factor in regeneration, and daims that the absence (Nichtmehrvorhandensein) of the one part is the cause of the development of the other. The plant, according to him, is not influenced in regeneration by external factors, but being sensitive to something lacking endeavors to replace it. Some- what analogous to this is NoLu’s idea (14) of a body-forming stimulus (Kérperjormreizen), by which he implies that there is an innate impulse in the organism toward a definite form, and when a part is removed the resulting disturbance (Formstérung) acts as a stimulus to the reconstruction of the whole. Such hypotheses as these are at present as incapable of demon- stration as they are of refutation, and can only serve a useful purpose if they form the starting point for experimentation. Unfortunately they can scarcely be said to do that. Quite different from these is the view held by KiEBs (9, p. 109), who believes that the removal only serves to bring about those conditions, such as accumulation of moisture, changes of a nutritive nature, etc., which would under all other circumstances cause a similar development. To take a specific case, the normal absence of roots on the stems of Salix, KLEBS says, is due to the retarding influence of light, of dry air, and to the fact that the water is being used by the leaves and young parts. When these conditions are supplanted by those of moist air and abundance of water, the roots develop quite independently of any removal or wounding. The experimental evidence that follows shows, however, that the problem is much more complicated than this. The experiments described have shown the dependent relation that exists between the growth of the apex and the non-development of the buds below. On Phaseolus the basal primordia do not develop so long as there are buds above them developing. Indeed, only one bud is sufficient for this; for if the upper part be cut away and all the buds but one be removed, the basal buds do not start. Experiment 40.—The stems were cut off at the second internode, and the buds from one side of the base of this were removed; and in Some cases not only the bud but the leaf and one-half the diameter of the epicotyl for its entire length was sliced away. The remaining ay eoroUsly, but neither of the buds at the base developed. y time this bud was cut away those at the base promptly started. 246 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocToBER Experiment 41.—The buds at all the nodes were removed from a larger number of plants, leaving the growing tip and the basal primordia; the latter did not develop. When the tip also was removed they started promptly, even though they were separated from it bya distance of 7o°"—six to nine internodes. Figure 1 shows one with three internodes. It has been shown that no amount of wounding short of the complete severance of the stem will produce this result. GOEBEL (2, p. 386) says that in Circaea if the central orthotropous shoot be allowed to grow in a dark chamber, it has the same effect on the lateral plagiotropic shoots as if it were removed; that is, one or more of these become orthotropous. Experiment 42.—Young plants of Phaseolus were taken when the epicotyl was 5 or 6°™ long, the first Sper ta cence pa Sakai of leaves jt Sl soon developed shoots. the apex with the leaves directed into a dark chamber. The lower part of the stems were in light and the roots in soil. The parts ™ the dark elongated rapidly and soon were completely etiolated, but in no case did the buds below develop. Similar experiments with Salix showed this would not cause the axial buds below the part the dark to develop. It would look as though a complete removal of the apex is necessary to start into activity the latent growing pom's below, but experiment 43 shows that this is not so, for there the pe of the four young plants were passed into a bell jar and sealed alr tight with wax, and through the bell jar a continuous current of hydrogen gas was passed. The growth slowed down, and after about twenty-four hours ceased entirely; and in a few days the but in the axils of the cotyledons below started to develop and grew quite vigorously, Upon the removal of the bell jar the apices of the shoots continued to grow. This shows that only a cessation of certain 1905] McCALLUM—REGENERATION IN PLANTS 247 activities, presumably those concerned with growth, is necessary; and it has been shown above that however this may act on the buds below, it is not through any disturbance created in nutritive or water relations. GOEBEL (5) has shown that if in Bryophyllum all the buds on the stem are prevented from growing by encasing them in plaster, the growing points on the leaves develop. HERING (7) showed that the small cotyledon of Streptocarpus would develop both structurally and functionally into the large one, if the latter were prevented mechanically—by plaster—from growing. WINKLER (19) has found that by a similar treatment of the leaf blade of Cyclamen the new leaf-like structures that develop when the blade is removed will arise from the margin of the petiole. He leaves us in doubt as to whether he selected leaves that had entirely ceased growth before his experi- ments began. He thinks that the regeneration is due to the inter- Tuption of one or more of the functions; either respiration, transpira- tion, or photosynthesis. My results show that for Phaseolus and Salix cessation of neither transpiration nor photosynthesis will cause regeneration. Respiration is checked in the hydrogen, but what other changes may be involved it is impossible to say. On those plants whose growing tip soon ceases activity and dies, as Syringa vulgaris, I have not been able to induce the axillary buds to develop by removing the apical part of the shoot. In all of many cases tried, however, in which the terminal growing points continue their activity during the growing period, their early removal was followed by the sprouting of latent buds below (jig. 2). This is true even in those plants whose annual shoots are without branches, and in the axils of whose leaves the buds cannot be seen even with the aid of a lens. Lack of space prohibits a detailed description of these experi- oe, and only the results need be given. In the majority of cases tis the buds near the apex that start (fig. 3), but occasionally almost €very one on the shoot starts; and in one case, ‘on a shoot of Salix, only those at the base started. The young shoots were either cut off and the base placed in water, or else they were left attached to the plant. If the tip is cut off and also all the leaves, the buds develop. Or if the tip is removed and the shoot placed in the moist 248 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocroser chambers mentioned above, so that transpiration is entirely pre- vented, they also develop. In these moist chambers, however, with the tips still intact, no development of the buds occurs. If the shoot is removed and placed in darkness for a few days, until the food is mostly exhausted by the rapid growth, and then the apex cut off, the lateral buds still develop. The —————_{ removal of the leaves has no influence on the buds, for from many shoots not only were all the larger leaves carefully cut away, but even those ~A4, Ee LY ie a | a ft Fic. 2.—Lycium halimijolium. Two similar shoots were selected and from A the apex was removed; the photographs show them both three weeks later. still folded in the buds, and in no case did the growing points develop. But when in addition the tip of the shoot was removed, they at once started. While these experiments were mostly on Salix, other plants, such as Cornus, Lycium, Ficus, Oleander, etc., gaV° similar results. Here, as in the basal primordia of Phaseolus, no matter how vigorous. and well-nourished the plant may be, oF aie abundant its water supply, with the growing apex of the shoot intact, the young axillary buds remained dormant. When this tp § removed, the bud starts to develop even with a loss of water or in a starved condition. This capacity is greatest in the young shook and gradually declines with age as the seasonal growth ceases. “™ 1905] McCALLUM—REGENERATION IN PLANTS 249 annuals, like Helianthus, whose axillary buds finally develop branches, the removal of the apex from young plants causes the buds to develop at once. Silphium integrijolium has a leafy stem, unbranched until late in the season when the flower branches arise; but if the apex is early removed, the minute axillary buds promptly produce branches. Not only does the growing apex exert an influence felt by the growing points below it, but those along the shoot exert a similar influence upon those lowerdown. VocHTING (18) showed that in isolated pieces of Salix stem only the buds toward the upper end of the piece develop. Fic. 3.—Young shoot of Salix amygdaloides. The apex was cut off at a and four branches developed PFEFFER (15) found jclow this. that if the upper buds are placed in plaster those lower down start. As a series of expeti- ments on polarity will be published in an article to follow this one, only brief mention will be made here of the experiments in this connection. The plant used was Salix. Experiment 43.—Four pieces of two-year old stem, 35°™ long, ae Placed with the basal ends in 6°™ of water. Two were erect, = me Temaining parts in the moist air; the upper 8°™ of the other - Aa In a bell jar through which a current of hydrogen passed. rise ~ days the buds at the upper part of the first two started to — and, so far as could be observed, simultaneously with them in h ‘ n the other two pieces just below the part in hydrogen. Those to Yetogen were not killed, and when the gas was removed started . In a few weeks their shoots had surpassed those below - ich had now almost ceased growing. 30°m Periment 44.—Twelve similar pieces of stem were selected, long. On three the buds were left only on the upper third; 250 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [octoBER on three more only on the middle third; on three more only on the lower third; while all the buds were left on the last three. These were all placed horizontal in moist air. On the last three mentioned only the upper buds formed shoots; and at the same time most of the buds, especially the uppermost ones, started on all the other pieces. Many tests showed that any bud at any place along the stem would develop if the buds above it were prevented from doing so. Here again, it is not a question of nutrition or water, for the stems and buds are filled with reserve food, and in a constant spray (in which the experiment was repeated) there can be no lack of water. Whatever the influence of the growing buds may be, it is felt only on those below them, and not on the buds above them (that is, toward the apex of the axis). In the experiment just mentioned, in whi the upper buds were inhibited by hydrogen, those below had gotten a good start and were forming shoots, but when the hydrogen was removed, the upper ones developed as usual. Experiment 45.—A piece of Salix stem, 30°" long, was placed so that the 12°™ in the center was in a continuous spray, and the two ends in quite dry air. The buds in the central portion swelled up and burst open before the others showed any signs of swelling. The whole piece was then placed horizontal in moist air. The buds at the apical end soon enlarged and developed shoots; but those at the lower part did not. ‘These central buds, while able to prevent the buds below them from developing, had no influence on those above them. Finally, all the young shoots and buds were cut off from the upper two-thirds of the piece, and the upper ones 0? the basal third promptly started. : If the entire piece is surrounded by the same conditions, the shoots all appear at the apical end; but by placing the basal end in water and the rest in dry air, the buds in the water or close to the surface start first; but soon the upper ones commence to m0 apparently indifferent to those below them; and as the young — increase in size, those below become less vigorous and are pi finally suppressed. Other experiments of a kindred nature migh : be mentioned, but these will suffice to indicate that the developme of the buds at any region along the stem tends to suppres? wt 1905] Mc CALLUM—REGENERATION IN PLANTS 251 below them from developing, but does not influence those above them. Here we are dealing with growing points already laid down, but the same principle holds where these do not exist. If we place a root of Taraxacum in a moist condition, the buds at the top will soon develop; but if we remove all these buds, entirely new ones will be organized and develop. If these be prevented from growing, lower down others will be organized, as GOEBEL has shown (2, p. 492). Here the organization of new shoot primordia along the root does not occur so long as those at the top are allowed to grow. Here again we cannot attribute this to the monopolizing of the food or water by the upper part, for these are abundant everywhere. There is a direct relation between the growth of the shoots at the top and the non-formation of buds lower down, entirely independent of these two factors. The development of new roots when those present are removed shows a similar phenomenon. The behavior of Phaseolus in this connection may be briefly mentioned. Plants grown with roots in Water cultures developed a vigorous root system. From some of ese all the lateral roots were removed, leaving only the main root. Soon numerous new lateral roots arose and grew. vigorously; these Were cut off and still others came on, though not so vigorously, In the mean time no new lateral roots had come out among the older ones on those that had not been so treated. If we cut off the main Toot transversely, numerous roots arise just above the cut; and if We cut away the whole root system by severing the stem at the base, Rew roots arise on the lower part of the stem. Sometimes the roots Pi So numerous here that I have counted eighty-one coming out of .. Tae” of a Phaseolus stem less than 5™™ in eae . a: almost impossible to produce roots on any part of He € on - in direct connection with roots below, but when this ag 1s broken roots promptly start. 5 nba a 46.—Local regions of several stems were surrounde iia eam cylinders, as in fig. 4. On some the roots were ia *e a rom others the stem was cut off at the base. The fue still att er ends of the stems were in water. On those with roo ached no roots formed on the part of the stem surrounded by 252 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocroBEr water; but the others produced abundant roots there and also at theflower end (jig. 5). Finally, from one of the former the root system was removed by severing the stem at the base, and vigorous roots then appeared in the cylinder, as well as on the lower end of the stem. The influence exerted by the roots very evidently passes along the vascular bundles, for the transverse cutting of these at any place leads to the origin of roots just above the cut. The cutting of the cortex as deep as the bundles has no results. If a notch be cut in the ie Fic. 4.—Phaseolus:—A short glass tube attached around stem and filled with water. Roots, / grown in water culture, left removed; uninjured and submerged. No Fic 5.—Phaseolus: Entire root gate in tube roots formed on stem within otherwise as in fig. 4. Roots develop tube. and in water at base of stem. nly above, stem so as to sever some of the bundles, roots appear © not below the notch (fig. 6). If the stem is cut off near sii roots come at this place; but if it be cut off further up; a come there even more vigorously. If a series of notches, either 1905] Mc CALLUM—REGENERATION IN PLANTS 253 directly above the other or on different sides, be cut, roots come from above each of them, but more vigor- ously from the upper ones, due probably to that part being nearer the source of food supply. Or when stems are cut through, some at the base and some higher up, the roots appear perceptibly sooner on the latter. No matter where. the stem is cut off, roots develop immediately above this point, showing that the pericycle has the power to produce roots at any point. Yet, as has been stated, if the stem be cut off, say near the base, roots come only here, though the whole stem is submerged in water. But when the cut ends of the stems were encased in plaster so as to prevent roots from coming there, they came further up. Also stems whose lower internodes were 1o-12°™ long were placed in water, andevery day ig OPE 0.5°™ was cut off. In Lower internode of stern, ten days roots ap- a diferent sides Peared scattered merged Pactely sub- along the remain- 4 cots appear . only above the notches. amg part. ee ; Ex periment 47.— ica : stems with Toots intact were ae -. by glass cylinders 4-5°™ long a oa © air-tight at each end by means T stoppers and wax, and opening G. 7.—Phaseolus: Part of phe to dotted line above which stem is notched to center. Roots appeared in tube, arising only on side directly above notch. 254 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocromse into a vessel containing a 3 per cent. solution of ether. This seemed to anzsthetize the stem without killing it, and roots appeared just above this portion. The effect of the anesthetic probably was to prevent any passage of stimuli through this part of the stem either up or down. Experiment 30 is instructive in this connection. It will be recalled that surrounding the stem at any place with water in glass cylin- ders will not start roots at that place if the con- nection with the roots below is unbroken; but, as shown in fig. 7, if a notch is cut in the stem some distance below, thus severing connection with the roots, roots will appear above the notch in the water, apparently coming from those bun- dles severed by the notch. In other words, the water supplies a favorable con- dition for root develop- ment, and the cells are able to act as soon as the connection with the roots | below is broken. If the air be moist, roots come | out also immediately | Fic. 8.—Phaseolus: Stem cut off at base; lower above the notch. cee end submerged. Portion of next internode above When a stem 18 | oo by water as in fig. 4, and stem severed; ranged as in fig. 8, roots che -- slightly separated. Roots appeared always arise on the part just above the cut, bi on the part just below it, even though this piece is inverted with its end in water, as in fig. 9. This difference in the behavior of the cells 1905] Mc CALLUM—REGENERATION IN PLANTS 255 at the two places cannot be due to any difference in the amount of water or nutritive material available at the two places, for both may be saturated with water and equally well provided with food. Nor can it be that the cells just below the cut have any less capacity for root production than those just above; for if the cut be made a little lower down, so that the cells which formed the upper part of the lower piece now form the lower part of the upper piece, they promptly produce roots. It is evident that there is some factor operating on the cells at the one point that is hot present at the other; and it seems equally evident that - this is not a condition of mois- ture, of nutrition, or of a wound influence, for all of these are equal in each case. - As stated above, when no cut is made Fic. 9.—Phaseolus: Inverted stem with there is no tendency for any of first pair of leaves and adjacent parts of these cells to form roots: but internodes. Apex in water, base in moist air. : Roots arising only on base. 4S soon as an incision is made, there is a change in the behavior of the cells above it, while those below remain uninfluenced. In the present state of our knowledge there seem only two possible lines of explanation: (1) as a result of the incision, new conditions are added to the cells above the cut Which serve as a stimulus inciting them to root production, conditions hot acting on the cells just below the cut; or (2) the cells above the See have been relieved of some influence that previously prevented their growth, an influence still acting on the cells below the incision, and which acts on all the cells when no incision is made. Recurring to the first idea for a moment, we have noticed that there are two different conceptions current. The one is that these new conditions added are the results of changes induced by such actors as nutrition, moisture, wounding, light, gravity, aeration, te. While light retards the development of roots in this case, It 256 BOTANICAL GAZETTE focroper does not modify their distribution; and as the roots occur in the same way whether the piece is erect, horizontal, or inverted, gravity cannot be a determining factor. The other conception is that of specific formative substances, which in this case, moving toward the base, would accumulate at the lowest part and incite the formation of roots there. As this theory is to be discussed later, only two cases will be mentioned here to show its inefficiency. If in Salix, instead of cutting the stem off just above a bud, the bud is cut entirely away from the stem, it starts to develop just the same; or, as in jig. 7, where a notch is cut at the base of the stem, there can be no accumulation of these substances further up where the roots actually occur. It is not impossible that the upper parts, especially the leaves, exert some influence on the formation of roots on the stem. If so, it is not through the transpiration current, for the roots develop as well when transpiration is entirely checked as when it is quite active. Also, in fig. 9 the leaves are transpiring and a current must be passing in through the end that does not produce roots. The removal of all leaves greatly decreases the vigor of the roots and also the number that are formed, but the same result is obtained by placing the leafy part in the dark, or in an atmosphere free from carbon dioxid. The fact that pieces of the internode produce roots indicates that the leaves are not necessary; their influence probably lies in keeping the stem better nourished. On the other hand, the evidence seems to point to the second line of explanation, namely, that just as the growing shoots seem to exert a retarding influence on the buds below them, so the growing roots exert an influence which inhibits cells, otherwise able to do ” from forming roots. If, as just mentioned, the stem is cut off at its lower end and placed in water, and at the same time a portion of the stem higher up is surrounded with water, we get roots at both places. When these are growing well, if we cut off the lower part of the stem having the roots on and then submerge this end again, new rools soon appear at this point, although roots are growing vigorously . few centimeters above. In no case could I ever get 4 retarding influence of the roots to pass down the stem. The problem to be solved in regeneration seems t - much the growth of parts following a removal (the causes here 4 o be not 5° ala 1905] MCCALLUM—REGENERATION IN PLANTS 257 those that induce growth everywhere), but the cause of non-develop- ment in the normal life of the plant; and this seems to lie in that influence which one part may exert over other parts or throughout the entire plant. A glance will show how universal this is among plants and the variety of ways in which it may manifest itself. If the main shoot of spruce is cut off, one or perhaps more of the dor- siventral plagiotropic lateral shoots will change their nature and become erect and radial. Many bulbous and tuberous plants do not produce seeds normally, but if the bulbs or tubers are removed seed production is then accomplished. This cannot be explained on the ground of specific bulb and seed forming substances, since if we assume the existence of these two substances, we must assume them to be different. GorBEt (3, p- 213) says “‘in the normal condition the seed formation is hindered because the plastic material which might be used for the seeds streams into the bulb, where it is turned to account in the formation of bulbils for asexual repro- duction.” The assumption is that the nutritive materials, stream- ing to the point where the bulbs or tubers are to be formed, incite the formation of these organs; and if these are prevented from forming, the material will flow toward the flowers and there stimulate seed formation. This supposition is exactly the opposite of what nig tually occurs in plants. The nutritive, or any other soluble material, diffuses from its point of greatest density in all directions, as well toward the seed as toward the bulbs, and it will diffuse in one direction rather than the other because it is there being either changed or “moved from solution by the activity of the cells. ‘The “streaming” does hot start the growth, but the growth activities remove the 7 oopetimaldihetgr ete teon =~ cell activities in lvi : saat . i volving a use or change of material must of necessity Sage any movement other than diffusion in all directions. We : reason for assuming that the food made in the leaves would hia the bulb any faster than toward the seed, and oes a. A ant in a well-nourished condition it is scarcely possible ount available would be so slight that the embryos would Still be even eee 4 condition of starvation so extreme that they could not 8 . art to grow. If the latter were true, the diffusion of food 258 BOTANICAL GAZETTE _ [ocroser materials from the leaves would be stronger toward this point than toward the tuber of any other point in the plant. There seems to be some factor dependent on the presence of growing tubers or bulbs which prevents the fertilized embryos from developing even in the presence of sufficient food and moisture. Kindred phenomena are common, é. g., the death of the fern prothallium with the developing of the embryo. This cannot be due primarily to starvation, since each cell retains its own mechanism for food manufacture. MorGAN (II, p. 272) has suggested that these phenomena are due to differences of tension existing throughout the plastic parts of the plants. “As long as the apical bud is present at the end of the stem or branch, or even near the apex, it exerts a pull or tension that holds the development of the parts in check; but if the apical bud is removed, the tension is relaxed and the chance for another bud developing is given.” And further, Morcan suggests that “from the apex of the plant to its base the tension is graded, being least at the apex and increasing as we pass to the base,” so that, when the apex is removed, ‘those buds will develop first that are on the region of least tension, and then development will hold in check the other buds by increasing or establishing the tension on the lower part of the piece.’’ Just what this “tension’”’ may be is not very clear, and with GorBeL I am unable to see that it makes the matter any plainer. Morcan has suggested later (12) that if this idea of differ- ences in tension is too vague, it can be given a more practical form by assuming it to be the outcome of osmotic differences in the cells. Diligent search has failed to reveal these in Salix or Phaseolus, and there seems to be no basis for the assumption. Morean has more recently modified this hypothesis by another Suggestion (13), according to which the difference in the develop- ment of buds at the two ends of a piece of stem is due to the relative state of development of the buds. In the willow, for example, those toward the apical end have reached a greater’ degree of matunity than those lower down, and so naturally are the first to develop. A few experiments will show this hypothesis to be quite untenable. Experiments already mentioned have indicated that when We taxe two pieces approximately alike, and remove all except the ‘be buds from one, these buds will develop simultaneously with 1905] McCALLUM—REGEN ERATION IN PLANTS 259 apical buds of the other. Indeed if any bud be selected, and the stem cut off just above it, the bud develops; but if the stem be cut off just below this same bud, so as to leave it at the base of the piece, it will not develop. Two pieces of Salix stem were selected as nearly alike as possible, and of exactly the same age. At about the center of each several buds, all alike, were selected; and each piece was cut in two, one so that these buds remained at the apical end, and the other so that they were at the basal end. In the former they developed and in the latter they did not. Experiments could be multiplied indefinitely to show that all the buds along the stem are equally able to develop; and whether any particular one does or not depends on whether the piece be cut so as to leave it near the apical or basal end. The development of any plant involves the growth of a few and the suppression of many potential structures; and this is true not only of the vegetative buds, but also of other parts. In the ovary of Tilia, for example, ten ovules are present and may all be fertilized; but very soon nine cease activities and one only continues to form - embryo. A similar event occurs in Pinus and other plants. Were it merely a question of food, a fierce struggle would ensue among the developing embryos, and some at least would continue for a long time in a more or less starved condition. In Pinus practically all the embryos except one stop growing, while all about them are disinte- grating tissues liberating food materials, some of which must pass by, or even through the arrested embryos to get to the one that con- tinues growing. The formation of the embryo in many plants is ‘ccompanied—or immediately followed—by the development of other parts, often more or less distant, e. g., the large fruit of the melon, an event that we cannot attribute to any increase of nutrition resulting from the developing of the embryo. = to the growth at the meristematic growing point ba. “a5 special regions which remain meristematic, as the cam- of th i Slay for vegetative development is retained by per ox. ae tissues in various parts of the plant body. Sits a ‘bi s > the embryonic tissue differentiate into other ee ie us ome er functions they may still remain ensheyems = aining complete reproductive capacity. So we 260 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [octoBER often matured cells of the leaf or cortex quite as able to form new organs as the cells of the meristematic apex of the shoot. In many cases, as Tolmiea Menziesii, Cardamine pratensis, Asplenium bulbi- jerum, Cam ptosorus rhizophyllus, in the ordinary course of develop- ment vegetative growing points arise on the leaves as well as on the shoot, and produce new members in the same way. As a rule, the more luxuriant the growth the more of these buds will be organized ‘and develop; but usually, as in Tolmiea, even under the most favor- able conditions not all the leaves on a plant will produce shoots. But I have found in this plant that every leaf produces a shoot when separated from the plant. In Bryophyllum crenatum there are numerous growing points along the margin of the leaf which do not usually develop further. They bear a similar relation to the grow- ing points of the shoot as do the young axial buds of Salix to the growing point; for when the influence of these shoot buds is removed, those on the leaf form shoots. On the other hand, in such leaves as Begonia the cells do not start to exercise this reproductive power by organizing growing points so long as they are in connection with other growing points of the plants; and GorBet showed that in Begonia, upon the removal of all the growing points of the stem, the leaf will organize them. The same principle holds for other parts. In many rots the capacity for shoot development is expressed in the formation of “suckers,” as in willows and other trees; but in other plants, prob- ably the majority, as in Taraxacum, this ability seems able to expre itself only when the influence of the shoot above has been removed. Protoplasmic continuity from cell to cell throughout the entre living plant may fairly be accepted as demonstrated and the ea of various stimuli, either accelerating or retarding, emanating from different masses of tissue and affecting other even agi remote tissues is not at all impossible. Indeed, such a transmission of stimuli necessarily occurs in many of the tropisms, where . receptive region is separated by some distance from the region response. The whole development of the plant body aera involves the suppression of many and the development of ee few, either actual or potential, primordia; and the means by war this is accomplished (correlation if we must have a name) unde 1905] McCCALLUM—REGENERATION IN PLANTS 261 in a most fundamental manner the entire organization of the plant. All the meristematic tissue and in many cases much of the differ- entiated tissue contains various potentialities of growth, potentialities which seem impossible of expression while in organic connection with certain growing parts. This interdependence of parts may be manifested in an inhibiting influence, as in the case of the roots or shoots mentioned, or in an accelerating effect, as in the growth of the fruit and adjoining parts after fertilization, or perhaps more correctly with the developing of the embryo. The experiments described indicate that the means of accomplishing this, that is the means by which, for example, a terminal bud suppresses the develop- ment of the other growing points on the stem or leaf, do not lie in the withdrawal by the former of the nutritive materials or the water. The theory of specific formative materials fails to account for it; nor does the tension hypothesis add anything to our knowl- edge of the process. Correlation, the endeavor of the plant to teplace something lacking (DrrescH), and form-stimulus (Kor per- jormreizen of NOLL) are statements of the phenomenon and not at all explanations. Protoplasmic stimuli emanating from various parts, reaching often throughout the entire organism, and affecting the behavior of the protoplasm of even remote portions are quite conceivable; so also are the formation and diffusion of ferments controlling growth; but we have yet no evidence of the existence of either. | SUMMARY. A brief summary of the general conclusions thus far may be made as follows: The occurrence of regeneration in plants usually involves the replacement of parts removed, but the same result is often obtained when the organ is not removed, but is prevented from functioning, It is often inseparable from the ordinary growth of the plant, as for example when buds arise on the leaves of Tolmiea or Mine in ordinary course of the vegetative development of these Sag and the causes here are, no doubt, not different from those t induce the origin of buds on the growing points of the stem. Plant possesses innumerable growing points either organized or Potential, the vast majority of which must not be allowed to develop 262 BOTANICAL GAZETTE ) [octoper if the plant body is to retain anything like a definite organization. In most cases this development does not occur in the ordinary life of the plant, because these cells, capable of producing new organs, are held in check by those parts already growing. This non- development does not seem to be due to any lack of those conditions that favor growth, as nutrition and moisture; or to such influences as light and gravity; or to a lack of definite ‘‘formative substance;” but to some influence independent of all these, which an organ, acting perhaps along the protoplasmic connections, is able to exert over other parts and so prevent their growth. When this influence is removed, the favorable growth condition, present all the time, permits the growth of the part to occur. In such a controlling influence of growing organs over the numerous potential growing points throughout the plant there exists very evidently a principle of fundamental importance in plant organization. THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO. LITERATURE CITED. — H., Die organischen Regulationen. Leipzig. 1901. 2. Gorsetl, K., Cie Regeneration im Pflanzenreich. Biol. Centralbl. 22: 385-397, ete. 1902. bt . 3: , Organography of plants, especially of the archegoniates and sper- matophytes. Part I. pp. 270. figs. 130. 1900. 4. , Regeneration in plants. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 30: 197-205. 1903: 5 , Morphologie und biologische Bemerkungen. Flora 92:1327 146. 1903 , Beitraige zur Morphologie und Physiologie der Blatter. Bot. Zeit. : 38: pea atio. etc. 1880. 7- Hern, F., Ueber Wachstumscorrelationen in Folge mechanischen Hep mung des Wachsens. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 29:132-170. 1896. 8. Jost, L., Ueber Dickenwachstum und Jahresringbildung. Bot. Zeit. 49° 390-596, etc. 1891. 66 9- Kess, G., Willkiirliche Entwickelungsainderungen bei Pflanzen. pp- 1°" figs. 28. ua, 1903. Io. Kuster, E., Beobachtungen iiber Regenerationerscheinungen an Beih. Bot. Centralbl. 14: 316-326. 1903. See also literature this paper. 11. Morcan, T. H., Regeneration. Pp. 316. New York. 190t- “ , The hypothesis of formative stuffs. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 39 206-213. 1903. Pflanzen quoted In 1905] MCCALLUM—REGEN ERATION IN PLANTS 263 , Polarity and regeneration in plants. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 31: 227-230. 1904. . Nott, F., Ueber den bestimmenden Einfluss von Wurzel-Kriimmungen auf die Peshiung von Seitenwurzeln. Landw. Jahrb. 29:361-426. goo. Prerrer, W., Druck und Arbeitsleistungen durch wachsende Pflanzen. Leipzig. 1893. PiscHINGER, F., Ueber Bau und Regeneration des See von Re iccarpus und Monophyllaea. Stizungsb. Wien Akad. Wiss III:287-304. 1902. 17. Sacus,.J., Vorlesungen iiber Pflanzenphysiologie. 2d ed. Leipzig. 1887. 18. Vocutinc, H., Ueber Organbildung im Pflanzenreich. Bd. I. Bo 1878. 19. WIESNER, J., in GorBEL’s Morphologische und biologische Bermerkungen. Flora 92: p 132. 188 Winxrer, H., Ueber die Regeneration der Blattspreite bei Cyclamen Arten. Ber. Deutsch, Bot. Gesells. 20:81-87. 1902. nn. 8 A BOTANICAL SURVEY OF THE HURON RIVER VALLEY. Ill. THE PLANT SOCIETIES OF THE BAYOU AT YPSILANTI, : IGAN. ForREsT B. H. Brown. (WITH MAP AND FIVE FIGURES) | INTRODUCTION. , THE materials for the present paper were collected from a detailed | survey of an area of sixty acres, known as the “bayou,” which lies } to the west and southwest of the Ypsilanti Highland Cemetery. It | includes steep slopes, a large bayou, with a stretch of floodplain and stream, embracing a wide variety of conditions. From a reconnais- sance of the entire course of the stream, it was found that many of the ecological conditions occurring from the source to the mouth “were represented at the bayou area. In this small territory, the plant societies have reached an unmolested development, exceptionally favorable for their study. The results here presented are the outcome of an attempt (1) to determine what plant societies are clearly represented, paying special attention to those which are found also in other parts of the stream course; (2) to determine so far as possible, from existing evidence, the influence of the factors of the environment which, both past and present, may account for their presence or explain their ongin- Naturally the stream course societies are considered, leading _ different line of study from the two previous papers of this series, in which the glacial lakes included within the valley have been made the subject of treatment. A careful record of all species found upon the area was kept anda complete herbarium made, which is to be left at the herbarium of the University of Michigan. The work was carried on under the direction of Professor V. M. SPALDING, and the ee desires to express his indebtedness to him for many helpful suggestions. DESCRIPTION. 1. TOPOGRAPHY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.—In the vicinity of Ann Arbor, Ypsilanti, and other parts of its lower course, the gre River flows through a wide valley with flats bordered by a 264 1905] BROWN—THE PLANT SOCIETIES AT YPSILANTI 265 very steep, which rise to a height of some go feet above the water. The portion mapped is a fair type of the portion between Ypsilanti and Rawsonville, a village four miles southeast of the bayou. Throughout this part of its course the stream makes a number of loops and bends that would cause a boat to journey over ten miles to reach a linear distance of four. 2. GEOLO HISTORY —The cemetery bluff, shown in the upper middle part of the map (p. 266) and also in ig. 1, is a portion of an old sand bar, “which trends north about a mile, and con- nects with a beach leading in from the west, which forms the continuation of the Western or main ridge found Fro. 1.—The cemetery bluff, shown in the south of the Huron River.’’? upper middle part of map; a portion of an This beach is one of two ancient sand bar. marking the northwest shore of Lake Maumee, which was the first of a series of large glacial lakes formed in this region with the retreat of the glacial ice. Later a change of outlet permitted the water to subside, forming Lake Whittlesey at a level some 75 feet below the upper Maumee beach. ning its existence this lake formed the well defined Belmore beach, weeting the river about three miles southeast of the bayou. Still farther subsidence of the waters brought about the formation of Lake aren, by whose waves the Forest beaches were made at levels of 60 to 90 feet below the Belmore, and at a distance of more than seven miles further down stream. From this point there is a stretch of fixed sand dunes extending to within eight miles of Lake Ene. ee the Lake Maumee stages, ice and water had not yet vered the bayou area, except for high points of the sand bar. ring the Lake Whittlesey stage, the stream was cutting its first I i : er. F., Glacial formations and drainage features of the Erie and Ohio - S. Geol. Survey 41:chaps. 14-16. [ocToBER BOTANICAL GAZETTE 266 edo -yso -uml7 & ET ce aT Or rma: eynag Satiiys beta rats ati oad i Hols pit 2 1905] BROWN—THE PLANT SOCIETIES AT YPSILANTI 267 bluffs. As the waters had now subsided only about 50 feet, the base of the cemetery bluff was as yet under water; but the part exposed was free for the first vegetation to come in. It was not until the Lake Warren stage that the river, through the fall of waters at its mouth, cut still deeper in its channel and exposed the base of the cemetery bluff. The land area which was for a time submerged F ee) : IG. 2.—Carex stricta, the deepest water sedge here, appears on the advance of the line of sedges, and forms tufts of great compactness and strength. ane’ then exposed by degrees forms the large relatively level portion of southeast Michigan, extending for thirty miles or more west from ake Erie and the Detroit River, and nearly the same distance etal into Ohio. Westward from the basin area the surface gh we into countless hills, ridges, and kettle-holes, characteristic —.. regions. It has been known for some time that the that of “ oi en of the Huron-Erie basin is distinct from limits of . morainal Brea, with a line of tension in sight of the og been off € city of Ypsilanti; but an explanation of this has not yet offered, and does not fall within the limits of the work in hand. 268 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [octoper 3. THE sorts.—The distribution of surface soils is important because of the relations existing between soil types and plant societies. The floodplain, while having areas of peaty earth about the center and between the ponds and bluff, with an outwash of sand at the northwest and southeast, is fundamentally of compact till, which underlies the whole region and frequently appears elsewhere at the surface. The east bluffs are more porous, being composed of gravel or sand. A long ridge of mineral soil reaches from the northwest, forming a low barrier along the stream to the marsh about e the bay, where it is bordered by peat-like earth. Humus “1 is present everywhere except on the washed slopes of the Pee bluffs. At the east is a line 600 feet in length, Mis Gar xe following the base of the cemetery bluff, where a > sand borders the till below with the “x sharpness of exposed strata. A profile was made through B (map), shown in fig. 3, which further explains this peculiarity in the structure of the Ss Fic. 3.—Profile through B, map, showing influence of plant associations In pre- venting the outwash of soil, and in the formation of beds of peat; A, black oak; = black locust; C, yellow oak (Quercus acuminata); D, bur oak; 5S, seepage — E, shrubs (Betula pumila); scale 60 feet to the inch. bluff. The sand or gravel-capped bluff, with seepage springs along its soil line, and with its structure plainly revealed by the plant societies which inhabit its slope, occurs commonly in the valley. — 4. SOIL WATER.—The conditions of soil moisture, as influenced 46 varying soils and differences of elevation, have an obvious sae bearing upon the distribution of plant societies. Conditions : extreme dryness are to be found in places along the brink of the steeper bluffs, where the combined effects are felt from the age nature of the soil, elevation, and exposure to drying effects of wi and heat. More soil moisture is found on descending the — and the change may be abrupt along soil lines where seepage springs occur. There is a slow but constant flow and percolation of spring - 1905] BROWN—THE PLANT SOCIETIES AT YPSILANTI 269 water from the base of the bluffs to the central ponds, giving rise to one of the main differences between the conditions existing in the bayou and the usual kettle-hole swamp or bog in which water is more or less standing. The ridge along the west is usually free from surface water, although always moist. THE PLANT SOCIETIES. The vegetation of the bayou and bluffs consists of a number of plant societies, which may be treated under three heads. 1. PEAT-FORMING socreTIES.—Under this head are included the societies commencing with the deepest submerged vegetation and reaching landward as far as the elms, red and green ash, and silver maple of the floodplain. A connected account of each in its order is given because the vertical succession of societies which occurs here seems to have been a common one on the wide floodplain areas below Ypsilanti, and would appear to possess some unusual features in the light of what has been written regarding the floodplains of other river valleys. This group comprises 131 species, or 32 per cent. of all species found upon the area surveyed. Seven distinct societies may be distinguished in order as follows, the number of species being given in parenthesis: 1, pondweed (7); 2, waterlily (5); 3, water smartweed (6); 4, Typha-Sparganium (10); 5, water sedge (19); 6, willow (71); 7, tamarack (13); total 131 species. The first society is submerged, consisting chiefly of species of Potamogeton, and occurs only in the stream. The growth offers resistance to the flow of water, checking the current, and causes deposit of suspended particles in addition to that arising from vege- table decay. Following upon the submerged society, there appears one of floating plants, which still further checks the current. The Waterlilies secure a firm anchorage. The white waterlily (Castalia aia) is more common in the current. The yellow pond lily (Nymphaea advena) commences just back of this and occupies the bays where the current moves more slowly or is scarcely perceptible. the oy of species in relation to habitat is best shown between bay and the current (map). With the presence of the waterlily “oclety, there is a marked tendency to secure room neat the water Surface. The potamogetons appear to rely on the anchorage offered 270 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [octoBER by the waterlilies, sending out long stems with leaves clustered above. In this zone, when the surface of the water is quiet, occur such plants as Utricularia, Lemna, Spirodela, and Riccia. Peat-like material rapidly accumulates below as growth proceeds above. The inter- woven rootstocks are firm enough to support the weight of a person. The several kinds of water smartweed are most active in forming this mat, although the yellow pond lilies add a good deal of firmness. At length the intervening space between the surface growth above and the substratum below becomes filled in with an oozy accumula- tion of peat, and gradually two marsh societies appear, the Typha- Sparganium and the water sedge. These marsh plants are charac- terized by the possession of thickly matted root systems and rhizomes. Carex stricta is the deepest water sedge here. It appears on the advance of the line of sedges and forms tufts of great compactness and strength. These tufts persist through subsequent changes that occur, and long after the death of the sedge itself, finally become covered with Potentilla fruticosa and turf-forming grasses. They give rise to the peculiar mound or hummock configuration so charac- teristic of the numerous valley meadows which have been built up in this way. Sedges build up the peat bed in two ways: (1) by the death of the aerial parts; and (2) by the death of the roots and rootstocks, the latter often the more rapid of the two processes. As the surface becomes rather free from water and firm, there appear the first woody types. Shrubby species of Salix are the first to grow in abundance, covering many parts so densely that other forms are almost excluded. Rhus venenata, Naumburgia thyrsiflor 7 Asclepias incarnata, and Scutellaria lateriflora act as pioneers seizing decaying timbers, islands of sedge, and similar places of advantage. This results in the formation of a willow or Swamp society, the vegetation of which is richer in individuals and species than that of any other association. From the map tt wil be seen that the arboreal species of Salix are confined chiefly to the ridge, which is mainly till in this portion. The shrubby kinds, i the other hand, prevail over the beds of black peat bordering the water. d _ Part of the drained swamp area has culminated in tamarack a other plants with xerophytic characters similar to those characterist 1905] BROWN—THE PLANT SOCIETIES AT YPSILANTI 271 of the flora of the so-called undrained swamps. This stage does not appear to have been uncommon in the wider parts of the valley, and possesses points of unusual interest. This association forms a cres- cent-shaped area at the base of the cemetery bluff, commencing with the seepage springs (fig. 2 and map) and reaching stream-ward as far as the water sedge. It is here 700 feet long and 200 feet wide, containing the following species listed in order of their relative abundance: Scirpus americanus, Carex filiformis, Koellia flexuosa, Lysimachia quadrifolia, Campanula aparinoides, Lobelia Kalmii, Aster junceus, Parnassia caroliniana, Rynchospora alba, Gerardia paupercula, Solidago Riddellii, Sarracenia purpurea, Larex laricina (once abundant, but now removed for firewood). On comparing the composition of this society with that of others, it was found that the above species are peculiar to the one society and occur rarely if at all outside of it. A sharp line of separation occurs between it and neighboring societies. As a whole it may be said that the vegetation is the most distinct of all those studied. With but two exceptions all species are perennials, and a certain likeness of form characterizes the members, as if mutually adapted to xerophytic conditions, causing the vegetation to stand out in contrast with the neighboring broad-leaved hydrophytes. Regarding this group of plant societies the following points are to be noted. 1. Of the whole group, 5 per cent. of the species were found to be submerged, 32 per cent. amphibious, and 63 per cent. terrestrial. € willow society is richest in species, containing more than twice - umber of species found in any other society of this group, and ghtly more than any society to be discussed later. 2. Of the agencies active in filling the bayou, the first place is ee to vegetation (fig. 3). Not more than one-third the material _ came the composition of earth so formed is inorganic matter, Proportion often being smaller. From the areas of organic soil uently occurring along the flats it is plain that the process has as active in past as in present times, converting numerous stand- : em and deserted channels into dry land surface supporting y forest growth. ; eae of the common species are gregarious, and tension lines y marked. : ing 272 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocToBER 4. The vertical succession of societies which build up the drained swamp may culminate in tamarack and other plants with xerophytic adaptations. 5. The bayou vegetation is similar to that of like areas along the stream, and only minor differences were brought out; but on com- paring this vegetation with that of the glacial lakes about Ann Arbor, the most pronounced differences were discovered when the respective swamp and bog societies were compared. Andromeda polifolia, Chamaedaphne calyculata, Arethusa bulbosa, Sarracenia purpurea, Oxycoccus macrocarpus, Drosera rotundifolia, and sphagnums are common about lakes, but absent or very rare along the stream. In both cases, however, there is a dominance of northern forms. 2. FLOODPLAIN socrETIES.—The series of changes taking place in the previous group are continued until swamps and pools disappear, to be replaced by a dense woods of mixed mesophytic species. Three societies appear, often with a more or less zonal arrangement. (1) Moist sedge society.—Turf-forming grasses here make their first appearance, but are not able to replace entirely the terrestrial sedges, which occupy occasional areas. (2) Elm-ash-maple society—There is little space not occupied by tree growth, except where clearings have been made. Populus iremuloides and P. deltoides appear early as pioneers, followed later by Ulmus americana, U. pubescens, Fraxinus pennsylvanica, F. lanceolata, F. nigra, Acer saccharinum, A. rubrum, Platanus o0ce dentalis, and Tilia americana; which make up a woods character istically mixed, dense, and vine-clad. Of the herbaceous forms, only the most shade-enduring kinds with broad thin leaves are to be met with in the forest. Of these Urticastrum divaricatum, Acnida concatenaia, Adicea pumila, and Lobelia cardinalis are most — (3) Walnut society—The most abundant and characteristic tee of this association is Juglans nigra, which appears to have uniformly distributed, and often over three feet in diameter, * shown by stumps. It is one of the arboreal types which shows 5 tendency to follow along streams or bodies of water. It a mixed with Juglans cinerea, Quercus macrocarpa, Hicoria re Quercus platanoides, and other species. It was attempted " “ acterize the group as a bur oak-walnut association. This 1905] BROWN—THE PLANT SOCIETIES AT YPSILANTI 273 abandoned because the bur oak was found to occur not alone in moist situations, but with equal frequency under much more xerophytic conditions, such as prevail in the oak openings a few miles west from Ann Arbor. However, the bur oak of these drier situations differs in appearance from the walnut association form, which has drooping branches with heavy corky ridges. The walnut society occurs in the better drained parts of the floodplain and for a short distance up from the base of the slopes, as shown in the map. It grows best of all in the coves. Along the tension line nearest the water Carpinus caroliniana is common; along the drier tension line Osirya virginiana is rarely absent. The most common associated herbaceous species are Houstonia ciliolata, Mesadena atriplicijolia, Allium canadense, Verbesina alternifolia, Homalocenchrus virginicus, Falcata comosa, and F. Pitcheri. As a whole the vegetation of the floodplain is mesophytic. Its growth differs from that of the peat-forming group in being mainly forest, in the tendency of its species to grow in mixture, in possessing a greater number of southern forms in its composition, and in the greater shade endurarce of its species. The composition does not vary much in similar parts of the valley, but certain elements occur which serve to distinguish the stream-course type from that which occurs in the More remote parts of the valley, where mesophytic associations are found. Platanus occidentalis, Juglans nigra, Hicoria laciniosa, Houstonia ciliolata, Quercus acuminata, Meibomia canadensis, Fraxi- » nus pennsylvanica, F. lanceolata, and Acer saccharinum occur char- Scteristically along stream; but Fagus americana, Acer Saccharum, Asimina ‘riloba, and associated species, forming a distinct maple- beech society in some other parts of the valley, are rarely met with on the floodplain. _3- BLurr socreties.—Like the floodplain, the blufis are covered with forest, but of a quite different character. The woods are more ses share in common with other vegetation numerous xerophytic “Hons. Four societies need to be distinguished in an account of existing relations. he oo? society.—Beyond the few hickories at the north, sia y 1s little represented at the bayou. This may be partly ined by the absence of the more moist till slopes, upon which 274 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocroBER it is abundantly represented in the vicinity. A variety of hickories is found, most common of which are Hicoria ovata, H. alba, H. odorata, and H. glabra. ‘These are associated with Quercus rubra, and Q. alba is present. The other vegetation also shows a number of easily recognized characteristics. The proportion of leguminous species (Melilotus, Trifolium, Vicia) is high; composites (Aster /aevis and other summer- blooming species) are frequent; Podophyllum peltatum, Erythronium, Muhlenbergia diffusa, Scrophularia marylandica, and Cornus candi- dissima are common species. Counting in the smaller vegetation, the society is not rich in species, but is rich in southern forms. (2) Black oak society.—The cemetery bluff conditions, brought about partly by the porous sand and partly by slope, are much more arid than the till bluffs. The hickories and red oak disappear from the forest, and Quercus velutina becomes most common, 53 per cent. of the individuals on the slope above the 760-foot contour line being black oaks. Quercus alba is common, and in places west of Ann Arbor Q. imbricaria. Comparing the other vegetation with that of the oak-hickory society, it is found that equal differences exist. The May apple 1s rarely found; there are fewer leguminous species; ericaceous shrubs are common; and the proportion of composites is high. The er tation is rich in species, characteristic of which are Lespedeza capitala, _ L. violacea, Solidago caesia, S. speciosa, S. nemoralis, S. rigida, Gaultheria procumbens, Gaylussacia resinosa, Vaccinium vacillans, Angelica villosa, Viola pedata, Lupinus perennis. All of the numerous species of grass which clothe the steepét slopes have prominent adaptations serving to bind down: and the soil from outwash. They are all perennials, have deep root systems, strong woody stems and rhizomes, and grow in ee tufts which offer the greatest resistance both to being torn apart an to being displaced. Even loose sand, which otherwise would i quickly washed away, is by this means held in place indefinitely, 2” the steepness of slope so formed is often surprisingly great. ae found that the angle of repose of the dry sand composing the Was 28° 35’. The mean angle of the slope was 39° 55/3 the @ ae slope of the bluff as held by the soil binders is 11° 20’ steepe! 1905] BROWN—THE PLANT SOCIETIES AT YPSILANTI 275 the dry, loose sand would take by gravity alone. Andropogon scoparius, A. furcatus, Chrysopogon avenaceus, and Stipa spartea are the most common of these soil binders. (3) Juniper heath—The conifers are restricted to open or unfa- vorable situations, and thrive where other arborescent forms do not. Only isolated individuals of juniper and cedar are met with at the bayou; but southeast from the city are found slopes covered by them. On the brink of a bluff which has been undermined by the stream so as to leave the slopes bare of any vegetation, Juniperus communis makes an early appearance. From this point it throws out decum- bent rooting stems, which, partly directed by the movement of the unstable soil, come to extend down the slope, and the growth is con- tinued from above downward. A covering is soon made, in which also occur J. virginiana, Lepargyraea canadensis, Rhus aromatica, and Stipa spartea. None of the other societies occur under conditions equally xero- phytic. The juniper and cedar are most common (fig. 4), but not “a characteristic of such situations as other less frequent members, like buffalo berry or porcupine grass. If we compare slopes of differ- ent ages, evidence will be found showing that the juniper slope is transformed into an oak slope as conditions become more favorable for the growth of vegetation. In the heath appear Populus grandi- dentata and P. tremuloides and seedlings of black locust, basswood, and oak. Cedar Bend, Ann Arbor, has gone a step farther. Here the oaks are dominant, but there is still much juniper, cedar, and aspen. Even the final black oak stage is not without decayed logs, ees, and isolated individuals, suggesting the former prevalence of the Juniper and other members of that society. (4) Thicket societies.—One of the most characteristic features of _ Ape as a whole is the large proportion and variety of : ns ich it contains. Along the bluffs these shrubs occur either scattered individuals or mixed together as thickets or undergrowth. oe species of thorn and bramble, Ampelopsis, Smilax, ni lis ing thi and other vines, occur most frequently in dense i os. where an open ledge or slope affords a chance. Rhus . - glabra, however, do not tend to mix with other shrubs, ict? a each other, but form patches of pure growth, which hguish at once the sumac thicket from all others. 276 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocToBER As a whole, the bluff vegetation is made up of light-requiring species. The prevailing forest trees are among the least shade- enduring kinds to be found in the region. Such trees never crowd together to form the dense type of woods common on the floodplain; but, like the black oak woods, or like the openings of bur oak west of Ann Arbor, the trees stand far enough apart to permit an abundant ars in round; Fic. 4.—Washed slope in juniper-heath stage; the ground juniper appe patches in the foreground, with red cedar forming a dense grove in the backg near Rawsonville, Michigan. growth of smaller vegetation to spring up in the woods. Also there is less tendency to growth in mixture. The sumac and junipers are gregarious, and there is not the variety of trees in the oak woods that there is in case of the more mesophytic kinds. The tendency of the black oak group to occur on sands, and of the hickories to occu! “ clays, are among the most constant relations which societies have been found to bear to soil types. 1905] BROWN—THE PLANT SOCIETIES AT YPSILANTI 277 OTHER BIOLOGICAL GROUPS. The account thus far deals mainly with indigenous plants which seem to bear a more or less constant relation to the environment, and includes a total of 316 species which have been classified into societies. There remain eighty-four species found upon the area surveyed, which occur in widely varying situations. These have been classified into two groups. 1. THE HETEROPHYTES.—A group of twenty-one native species were found to occur in so wide a range of habitat as to be best termed heterophytes. The most common of these are Onagra biennis, Taraxacum Taraxacum, Poa pratensis, Aster novae-angliae, and Solidago canadensis. 2. INTRODUCED WEEDS.—A second group, the exotics, embracing the introduced weeds, is characterized by a similar wide range of habitat. Their presence is due solely to the agency of man, and serves to indicate the extent to which he has changed the composition of the original vegetation by clearing away the forest and cultivating areas in the vicinity. Nearly one-seventh of all the species collected at the bayou have been introduced. Of these fifty-two are European, four (Amaranthus retroflexus, Chenopodium ambrosioides, Mollugo verticillata, Datura Tatula) are tropical American; one (Ailanthus glandulosa) Chinese; one (Lonicera Tatarica) northern Asiatic; one (Abutilon Abutilon) southern Asiatic. The important fact is brought neat in the study of the bayou vegetation that the aquatic and swamp Societies are almost free from introduced species. Only five species were found in this area: Solanum Dulcamara, Mentha piperita, Roripa Nasturtium, Salix purpurea, and S. alba vitellina. These were con- fined mainly to the drained swamp. The juniper-heath is also nearly free from exotic species. The largest number of exotic species occurs . ie grain-bearing or grass-producing societies, the highest pact age being associated with the black oak and the oak-hickory societies. PROMINENT INTER-RELATIONS. From the fact that members of a plant society live together under common conditions, it is to be expected that individual species of a 8toup would possess common adaptations and hence resemble one 278 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [octosEr another. This is seen to be the case in the tamarack society, for example, where there is a marked morphological resemblance. But it is possible to trace the resemblance much further. With this in view, the percentages of spring, summer, and autumn blooming species were obtained for each society. Fall percentages were taken as positive, summer percentages as zero, and spring percentages as negative, the results being shown in the accompanying table. A TABLE SHOWING PERCENTAGE OF SPRING, SUMMER, AND FALL BLOOMING SPECIES; THE PERCENTAGE OF NORTHERN, CONTINENTAL AND TEMPERATE, AND SOUTHERN SPECIES IN EACH SOCIETY. SPECIES TIME OF BLOOMING GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION Temper- ee No.| Spring | Summer} Fall Northern ote Southern No. Society of a + | Value = _ nent ae — No | % \No.| % |No.| % No.| % |No.| % | No. | ee 1 | Juniper-heath..} 5 | 5 |r00 6: |" 0} <0 |: 0 |—100| 4 Bo ~o| e| x] 20| —6 2 | Black oak 62 | 15 | a4} 45 |73| 2|.3 | —22 | 4 et 29 | 47 | 29 | 47 elec 3.4 SUMAC. ca 2 |-6 | o| 2|100] o|] o o|.o] 0] 3 [tee | ee Bere 4 | Oak-hickory...| 26 | 8 | ar} x7] 6s| t| 4| —27| ©] ©| 35 ss ||| +0 5 Watnut.:. 3c... | 50 | 20 | 40 | 30 | 60] o o | —40 2 4 “25 5° 33 | Oe 6 | Elm-ash-maple| 46 | 22 | 48 | 24 | 52| 0] o | —48] 6 | 13] 31 | 67 | a ad 7 | Moist sedge. a) 24 33. a4 OF} 6.) 6 | —33 BR Gee Fe | or} oe 8 Tamarack... eae ee Ee ee 1 OS | OS | Ts ~9| | 4| 30] o| © on | Willow... ... 71 | 32 | 45139] 55| of] o| —45 “28 | 40° 32 | 45 | #5 Bad =< to | Water sedge...) 19 | 3} 16] 16! 84] of] 0 | —16 ae 27 33. acd Be” Foe ie pa Ge bad - ie +20 aoe parganium.| 10 ON 7) ° CG: fb — 30 ° ° 8 | 80 ade 12 | Water oe +34 ie eed Gio] op 6 yoo |. 6 fs Of O04 ole : OO ee Da Waterlily...... ee O44 o bos isos 1 obo o| 0° ~e| 5 [roo ats - ae Pondweed.....| 6 | 1|17] 5 | 83| 0] 0] -17'| © oe 6 je | Sie curve was then plotted from the summation of such percentages The curve suggests that in general similar societies possess similar habit. The societies which bloom earliest have a high per cent : northern forms. Like many of the willows, poplars, and maples, h the flowers often appear before the leaves. Also the leaves unfold and the fruit matures before more southern types like the oak, hick ory, walnut, and sycamore. The bluff societies, except for the juniper possess the southern habit. 1905] BROWN—THE PLANT SOCIETIES AT YPSILANTI 279 The trees are mainly nut-bearing and ripen their fruits, unfold their leaves, and bloom relatively late. Thus we commonly see a tamarack swamp or a floodplain forest with young foliage well along before the surrounding oaks have begun to show marked signs of life. Both curves show that the highest per cent. of vernal as well as north- ern forms occurs in the floodplain societies and on the juniper slopes. The highest per cent. of southern forms occurs along the favorable slopes of the bluff and in the aquatic societies. CONTROLLING FACTORS. 1. CLimatic.—A number of species have been pointed out whose distribution is more or less restricted to the stream, although this will be shown to be less true near the mouth. Most common of these are the hickories, walnut, yellow oak (Q. acuminata), red elm, silver maple, red and green oak, sycamore, hoptree, Rhus aromatica, Juni- perus communis, J. virginiana, Iris versicolor, Meibomia canadensis, M. grandiflora, Ambrosia trifida, Dioscorea villosa, Sanguisorba canadensis, and Mesadenia atriplicifolia. Most of these are near the northern limits of their range. Since many of these forms occur in a wider range of habitat in the south, it may be assumed that cli- mate plays some part independent of other factors in causing such Species to become limited to the neighborhood of the stream. 2. ATMOSPHERIC.—The fact that the forest is usually open along the edge of the bluffs seems to account in large part for the presence here of the juniper and associated species. Their behavior indicates €xacting light requirements, as they thrive only in open situations, and early show a decline when shaded. To a less degree the sumac Society occupies open places in a similar manner. 3. MECHANICAL.—The mechanical effects of stream erosion are continually bringing about changes of topography and soil to which the plant societies are in turn conforming. Although a number of luffs are being denuded by the cutting of the current, the floodplain areas are not likely to be very greatly increased; since it has been shown that a stream cuts within the limits of a belt not over eighteen mes the width of the stream at that point.’ The fact that Populus ‘ — JEFFERSON, M. S. W., Limiting width of meander belts. Nat. Geog. Mag. ‘373-384. 1902, : 280 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [OCTOBER and Salix are often the first woody types to appear on the exposed places of the floodplain and bluffs appears to be due to nothing beyond the fact that they were first on the ground. Judging from the shrubs, dispersal by wind may be more rapid than dispersal by animals, but it is certainly far less prevalent, as will be shown later. 4. Epapxic.—Of all the local conditions, the societies sustain the most obvious relation to the amount of available moisture in the soil. It is this which in large measure gives the distinctive characters to the bluff societies as compared with those of the floodplain or the peat- forming group. The relation which tension lines bear to water supply takes on particular interest in case of the bayou peat-forming societies indicated in the map. There is a slope toward the center in which there occurs a pond-like bay. The main part of the sur face water discharged from the seepage springs along the cemetery ‘bluff is carried to the southeast to a point near the fence, where it makes a good sized stream as it flows directly to the ponds. A similar discharge of surface water comes from several points along the elm- ash-maple zone. The map shows the general tendency of tension lines to arrange themselves concentrically about the bay; also 4 tendency to arrange themselves parallel to the stream, and the com- plex pattern of the peat-forming societies is the resultant of these conflicting tendencies. : A chemical analysis was made of the soil water about the springs in the hope that peculiarities might be detected to account for the xerophytic adaptations noticed in the vegetation. The water was found to be neither acid nor alkaline. It contains sulfates, chlor- ids, and carbonates, with iron, calcium, and sodium, but not differ- ent from the usual spring water. The water, however, is cold a2 keeps the swamp at a low temperature. There are five of the societies which stand in so definite a relation to soil types that they give fail reliable information as to the kind of soil merely by their occurrence. The black oak society may be taken to indicate dry sand or grave < the oak-hickory society, till or clay; the tamarack society, eee the elm-ash-maple society, wet soils; the maple-beech society, ness of soil. Such soil relations do not appear to be limite valley alone, but to hold true over a considerable area outside. 5. Biotic racrors,—It is due to the interaction of one life form 1905] BROWN—THE PLANT SOCIETIES AT YPSILANTI 281 upon another that there have been produced areas of turf which otherwise would have been very limited or wholly absent. Along the brink of the cemetery bluff a line of tension is easily traced. It is not sharp like the swamp lines; but, like the usual upland type, there is an area over which the societies blend. Poa compressa, Andropogon scoparius, A. jurcatus, and Stipa spartea crowd their way for a distance of one to six feet into the turf of Poa pratensis and Trijolium repens, where they fade out altogether. It is plain that animal life has played an important if not a chief part in the dispersal of seeds in the valley. Squirrels and like animals were formerly more common than now, but birds are yet numerous; the blue-jays,3 cat bird,t and crow blackbird’ alone feed upon a variety of fruits that includes more than one-half of the woody species at the bayou, exclusive of the large trees. Besides these, there are the red-winged blackbird, vireo, oriole, woodpeckers, song sparrows, cowbirds, and robins, which are com- mon all along the stream and are known to devour fruits. This has resulted in scattering the seeds of a number of shrubs, vines, and small trees in the open places of the forest. At the bayou there are sixty-one species of this kind, 82 per cent. of which have adaptations for seed dispersal by animals; 72 per cent. have the brightly colored fruits eaten by birds, of these 22 are red, 10 black, 7 blue, and 5 white. It is possible that this may indicate something with regard to the relative attractiveness of the several colors. Over two-thirds of the species with colored fruits occur in the bluff societies, and are most numerous with the juniper, sumac, and 8 oak. This fact is not so easily explained by any habit of the as it is by the character of the woods. ‘The same relations “ppear to hold true of corresponding societies away from streams, én * Beat, F. E, L., The blue-jay and its food. Yearbook, U.S. Dept. Agric. 1896: Se a S. D., Birds of a Maryland farm. Bull. 17, U. S. Dept. Agric. Div. - Survey, p. 104. s Us ase & : . L., Food of the bobolink, blackbirds, and grackles. Bull. 13, * Dept. Agric., Div. Biol. S urvey, p. 64. ; Nees The crow blackbirds and their food. Yearbook, U.S. Dept. Agric. 1894: ake BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocroper where the forest has been undisturbed. Blueberry, barberry, black- berry, hackberry, huckleberry, raspberry, strawberry, currants, cornel, cedar, juniper, sumac, sassafras, black cherry, pin cherry, choke cherry, and black haw occur commonly in the dry sand of oak woods, less commonly with the hickories, and least of all in the maple-beech woods. Oaks, however, have thin crowns, are not shade-enduring, and do not grow crowded together, forming open woods that give a chance for the growth of a variety of herbs, shrubs, and vines on the forest floor. On the other hand, the beech, maple, and ash are distinctly shade-enduring, have thick crowns, and grow crowded together, forming a dense woods in which there is little chance for undergrowth to come in. In such woods there are s0 few shrubs and vines that the average woodsman is not aware of their presence at all, and finds himself at a loss to account for the thick berry patch that springs up wherever he cuts a few trees. It is plain that seeds are scattered in all woods, but only the open woods afford a chance for their growth. 6. THE HISTORIC FACTOR.—The presence of Sarracenia near cold seepage springs, and of the white pine on the bluffs, suggests that those plants may be relics of a past northern flora, which followed closely the retreat of the ice. While the tamarack society probably does not date back to this period in its origin, its flora may have been derived in large part from species so left, in the same way that ie juniper-heath spreads out over exposures as fast as made on the bluffs. The fact that 70 per cent. of the species associated are north- ern adds confirmation, and accounts for the dissimilarity between J and neighboring societies. With further investigation it does . seem improbable that many if not all of the peat bog forms may found lurking in the neighborhood of springs of this character. : Societies of the favorable places of the floodplain and bluffs apis a pronounced southern flora. A few northern forms occur = all floodplain societies; but the oak-hickory society, in which ao occurs a high per cent. of southern forms, has so few northern ese that their occurrence may be regarded as accidental. pee (fig. 5) shows how in land situations southern tendencies fade 0 as conditions become more and more unfavorable. 1905] BROWN—THE PLANT SOCIETIES AT YPSILANTI 283 SUMMARY 1. The bayou of Ypsilanti, as indicated in the sketch of its geo- logical history, is of relatively late origin, and relics of postglacial floras have been nearly obliterated by more recent changes, which render the portion of the valley directly affected by the stream not so suitable for the preservation of ancient floras as the secluded swamps ~ Jun Ohad ~ Sumae av ve Black gs pss i, fa ss Lad cn oie vss ounvie soos s S010 Seb ee eld waediew ay hae cenwen y Wem euerae eter Ook. Aickory. Weg Walnut... ...-. P I Ed Moist ee ee NS esd. Toma rach... ee. ee tetee UN | Iypha-Sparganinen:. ot AS Water-Smortweed...™...... Water Os eee Pond weed Fic. 5.—A, curve of period of bloom; B, curve of geographical distribution; “arves drawn from values obtained in map. or bogs of the morainal regions. But the seepage springs and bluff €Xposures of sufficient age and isolation still retain such relicts of a Past northern flora which followed closely the retreat of the ice. 2. The societies of river swamps, such as the bayou here described, ate distinct from those of the lake swamp or bog. In both, however, sTophytic adaptations are conspicuous, which cannot be explained acid es drainage currents nor by the presence of humus 8. 3: The peat-forming societies show sharp tension lines, conforming to depth of water, characteristic of pond vegetation. Such tension 284 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocrosER lines become obscured in the floodplain societies, and still more so in the bluff societies, but in each of them the relation of distribution to soil water, as a controlling factor, is plainly marked. The definite relation of certain societies to soil types, shown to exist here, appears to be due primarily to the capacity of these various soils for water. 4. Of other factors to which the plant societies are evidently Telated, the influence of light is conspicuously manifest, as for exam- ple in the place taken by light-requiring species in the bluff vegeta- tion. Quite as manifest, though far more complicated, is the coincident operation of biotic factors, which are so numerous and varied in their manifold interrelations as still to demand much special study. 5. The high per cent. of northern species in early blooming societies, the occurrence of various southern forms along the river near the northern limit of their range, the occupation of favorable places by societies of distinctively southern cast, and of unfavorable ones by those of pronounced northern composition, are all indicative of the close relation of the members of these societies to slowly chang: ing climatic conditions. A discussion of the migrations of these plants in connection with geographic and climatic changes is deferred until a greater accumulation of data has been made. UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, Ann Arbor. THE SPORE COATS OF SELAGINELLA. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE HULL BOTANICAL LABORATORY. LXXX. FLORENCE LYON. (WITH PLATES X AND XI) Since the development of the modern technique in botany, com- paratively little has been done in investigating the mode of formation of cell walls or of spore coats, and botanists are still much in the dark as to the nature, as well as the morphology, of certain complex sttuctures protecting the protoplasm of spores. A recent contribu- ton to this subject by Firrrnc* is of special importance, because =* result of his study of the development of the spore coats of cer- tain species of Selaginella, he advanced a theory that they grow quite independently of the protoplasm of the spore, with which during the time of their greatest increase in bulk they have no organic con- nection except at one point. This, of course, is revolutionary and ees at variance with all previous ideas of the growth of membranes; = . it is true that protoplasm ‘can act at a distance,” and without ®rganic connection can build massive structures, the fact is of the Sreatest importance. “ the time that Frrrrnc’s paper appeared, I was investigating aes Phases in the life history of two native species of Selaginella— ie S. rupestris. In the main the peculiar phenomena ek ed with the formation of the spore coats of the first named seemed to agree with those described by Frrtmnc; but the dev. it — of the spores of S. rupestris differed so completely that distj ame a matter of interest to determine whether there were two n ence Ct types of spore formation in this genus or whether the differ- S taken ads More apparent than real. The present work was under- dite th a view to throwing some light upon this question. The €s which all investigators have encountered at every stage 1 Fr Isoetes aoe ° Ss; Bau und Entwickelungsgeschichte der Makrosporen von icher Zellm aginella und ihre Bedeutung fiir die Kenntniss des Wachsthums pflanz- see) embranen. Bot. Zeitung 58':107-164. 1900. 285 286 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocroBEr of technique, fixing, embedding, sectioning, and staining, together with the fact that Selaginella spores are sui generis, and one has no standard of comparison, make one fearful of drawing conclusions from artifacts. Apparently the only way to lessen this danger and make results convincing, is to have a very large number of prepara- tions killed and treated in various ways, for little critical study can be made of the living spore. This has made my investigation an exceedingly tedious one, for in the early development of the spore, transformation takes place so rapidly that important phases are obtained with difficulty, and if not found the danger of misinter- pretation is very great. The results of my work fail to confirm Firtrne’s theory, nor am I able to accept his description of the origin of the coats for the species that I have investigated. It is quite certain, I think, that the spore coats of S. rupestris do not lose their complete organic connection with the protoplast during growth, and I have a growing conviction that to our imperfect technique are due the phenomena which gave rise to Firtrne’s theory and — described by Firtinc, CAMPBELL, and all other workers in this group, including myself. ee Very complete series of three species—S. apus, S. Emmeliana, and S. rupestris—from the origin of the sporangium to the develop- ment of the embryo sporophyte have been studied. Throughout 1s history S. rupestris is aberrant, and proves to be a plant of much importance and interest, as it has characteristics supposed fe peculiar to the seed plants. Normally, and in a greater number cases, only two megaspores were found to develop in a spe va These miay be two of a tetrad, the others failing to develop after division of the mother cell; or, more important still, the mother cell may divide only into two spores. These megasports | e shed from the megasporangium at all! The female gametophyte and the young sporophytes are retained in the old strobilus pie the latter have roots, stems, and leaves; then the tissue of the spe gium and megasporophyll decays, thus liberating the lack only integuments to be seeds. A still further megaspores to one is infrequently found. In tracing the spores, I again emphasize the fact tha . appearance which would suggest that the protoplasm reduction of the growth of is there a0Y 1905] LYON—THE SPORE COATS OF SELAGINELLA 287 tact at every point with the thick gelatinous membrane from which the coats are formed. The megaspore mother cell in all species may be distinguished from the other sporogenous cells (fig. 1) at the time that the sporan- gium wall is differentiated into three layers. It is slightly larger, more granular, and stains intensely as contrasted with its sister cells. Its wall thickens slightly, stretching and probably growing some- what, and persists until the enclosed spores are more than half grown. I shall refer to it as the mother cell membrane, to distinguish it from a second membrane, the spore membrane, that shortly appears upon its inner surface in contact with the protoplasm (fig. 1). The mother cell membrane remains comparatively thin; whereas the spore membrane is gelatinous in nature, becomes very massive, and dis- solves readily in many of the fixing reagents, especially in very young Stages. It increases rapidly in bulk, forming a thick layer about the protoplast which for a period grows imperceptibly, if at all (jig. 2). As the mother cell divides, it assumes a dumb-bell shape, the two resulting Spores often not completely separating from each other until half grown (jig. 3). At this early stage, each spore consists of . Protoplast with a relatively large nucleus, and an envelop of thick gelatinous Matter, the spore membrane. The two spores lie within - mother cell membrane. Whether any part of the spore membrane 's formed in connection with a nuclear plate at the time of cell division Hes 2% ne determined, owing to the diminutive size of the spindles a infrequency in the material investigated. The protoplast bia vacuolate. Many small vacuoles ultimately coalesce to oi ugd large one centrally placed, so that the protoplast comes a delicate vesicle (fig. 4). os =a Com of a coat is detected as a transformation of a : € gelatinous spore membrane. A clear homogeneous = little distance from the protoplast stands out in con- . ey rest of the membrane, which has become granular (fig. 4)- mie... becomes convoluted upon its outer surface, and these of the me ° ee giai with radiations in the outer granular wee solutions Tane that suggest fixed diffusion currents (fig. 4) ) At this Passing through the two membranes from the sporangium. "ime, the sporangium is turgid with fluid made up of dis- 288 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocroner organizing sporogenous cells, and a secretion poured out by the tapetum, which is the source of nourishment of the two young spores. The spore membrane itself is a somewhat viscid substance, almost fluid in character, that flows out of the hole if a living sporangium be pricked with a needle. The spore membrane becomes much thicker at the base of the spore, so that the remarkably small pro- toplast lies near the apex (jig. 5). The growth and differentiation of the spore membrane into regions are extraordinarily rapid. Just inside of the clear area described above, a part of the membrane is much denser than elsewhere. These two regions, 7. e., the clear and the denser (fig. 5), constitute the preliminary stage of the first or outside coat, the exospore. It is possible in a close series of prepara: tions to note gradual changes in structure as the coat matures. Chemical tests to determine the nature of the transforming spore membrane and of the resultant coats were very unsatisfactory. In all early stages the minute living spores are so difficult to manipulate that no reliable results could be obtained. On the other hand, material that is sectioned and upon the slide where it can be handled has already been subjected to the action of many reagents. The clear area, or outer layer of the exospore (fig. 6), is gradually trans- formed into a granulated condition, while the inner layer and the rest of the spore membrane becomes reticulated. All the regions are quite distinct and react differently to the stains used. Up to this time the protoplast has not altered in size oF but now it suddenly dilates—like a bubble which is blown up ; presses outward toward the exospore. When its diameter a“ half that of the entire spore, a second delicate coat, the endospor’ may be detected, having formed upon the outer surface of the oe toplast. This is difficult to demonstrate unless the coat gp : plast become torn apart and displaced; for it is little more aap faint line in section during the entire period that the protoplast expanding and pressing it back against the outer coat. pele ato of the spore membrane (fig. 6) which is not directly transfo ), dis the exospore, and against which the protoplast presses (78: ee appears as the protoplast and endospore dilate. As the € ; has been undergoing modifications (figs. 7 and 8, ¢é) — density, 190] LYON—THE SPORE COATS OF SELAGINELLA 289 time, which render it more impervious to the entrance of solutions from the sporangium, this undifferentiated portion of the membrane in its turn has probably served for nutriment or has been taken into the protoplast. Often, however, a little of the original membrane may be detected crowded back against the exospore, forming a layer that-easily may be misinterpreted as an additional coat, if intervening stages have been overlooked (jig. 8, h). As the spores now nearly fill the sporangium cavity and the tapetal célls are disorganized, all future growth must be at the expense of the central vacuole. The principal changes in the maturing of the spore are the increase in the amount of protoplasm, with marked “§rowth of the nucleus, and the thickening of the endospore by suc- cessive laminae upon its inner surface, which is in contact with the protoplast at first only in the region of the nucleus (fig. 9). Even- tually, however, it becomes a layer of equal thickness throughout (fig. 10). The exospore is elaborately bossed and sculptured, and the protuberances form a layer—the so-called perinium—that stains (ute differently from the part in contact with the endospore (jigs. 7-10). It seems to me from its formation that it should not be Tegarded as a distinct coat, however, but as the outer region of the exOspore. The central vacuole throughout the spore development 1S filled with a transparent fluid, which in early stages disappears in Preparing the slide, but which becomes a coagulable mass as the female gametophyte forms (fig. 11). € most conspicuous differences between S. Emmeliana or S. “pus (taken as a type) and S. rupestris, described above, are due I - to the simultaneous transformation of the spore membrane of g former fro coats, and to certain phenomena due to mechanical Tains that arise between these two coats and the protoplast. In oa , = i — gnc <) teatare p AA: eee ‘ rt ca Z § Species about determining the origin of that port as = membrane on the contiguous surfaces (fig. 14). Earlier . the formation of nuclear plates, and there is no such pe ce of lobing of the spore mother cell as in S. rupestris. At be more membrane is homogeneous and translucent (jig. 15); *n its thickness is about half the diameter of the protoplast 290 BOTANICAL GAZETTE ——_ focrozrr (jig. 16), a portion of it lying in contact with the protoplast stains differently and marks the beginning of the two coats. This layer, almost as soon as it can be detected at all, shows a dual nature: It appears in section as'a shaded band not sharply marked off from the undifferentiated portion of the spore membrane. Its outer region stains more vividly than the inner, perhaps because it is denser. Gradually a difference in structure becomes apparent, which I have attémpted to show in fig. 17. The spores are so small, stain so intensely during this critical stage, and the changes in the métamorphosing spore membrane occur with’such rapidity that it has been with difficulty that I could demonstrate to my own satisfaction that one coat was not formed after the other, but both simultaneously. Frrrmne thinks that the endospore is formed after the first and arises de novo as a new forma- tion of the protoplast. The spore is much smaller, and the changes much more rapid in this form; consequently they are harder to follow than in S. rupestris. The outer denser region with its roughened surface becomes the exospore, the inner the endospore. The pro- toplast becomes a vesicle by the formation of one large central vacuole. It is at this time when there ate two coats of distinctly different struc ture that the peculiar phenomena occur which led FitTINé to draw the conclusion that the protoplast is not concerned in the conspicuous _ growth of the spore coats. ie As the spore grows larger, the outer coat increases in diameter and thickness much more rapidly than the inner, producing a strat in the viscid mass of which the two are concentric layers. FITTIN® thinks this results normally in a complete separation of the two, thus developing between them a comparatively large empty se In a like fashion, due to the fact that the protoplast is quiescent a? the endospore growing, a second “empty space” is formed a them, except at one point, thus severing all organic connection ok protoplast with the developing coats except at this point of pee There is no doubt that the majority of preparations have precisely appearance. Moreover, the living spore examined in a no : : ation of the coals: solution seems to confirm Firrrnc’s view of a separation 0! ne and on this fact he lays great stress. The spaces, pete an are afterward partially filled with a solution which has entered the sp 1903] LYON—THE SPORE COATS OF SELAGINELLA 201 from the sporangium.” . I have come to believe, however, that where actual gaps occur they are due to shrinkage and the dissolution wholly or in part of the intervening substance, and that the appearance of separation in the living spore can be explained by the different density of the concentric layers. In material showing no shrinkage elsewhere, I found that these regions were not empty, but completely filled with matter closely resembling the spore membrane at different periods of its transformation into coats. It must be understood that the entire substance of the spore out- side of the protoplast is a viscous mass of the consistency of thin syrup, in which two regions are becoming not.only different in their physical but also in their chemical natures. This substance retains a plastic condition until the spore has attained its full size and the ‘wo coats their entire bulk. Then follow the changes which. result in their hard horny or woody character. Into the viscid mass are passing solutions from the sporangium. ‘The direct physical effect upon this mass as a whole would be a tendency to increase in diameter and bulk; but apparently all regions do not swell alike, the more sistant regions where coats are forming become drawn apart, ang between them a stretched area of less dense nature, very tasily dissolved by reagents, subject to great shrinkage and liable to be ‘orn and not readily stained. From material fixed in bichromate of Potassium and exposed to light, the gelatinous nature of the sub- sey In these regions was clearly demonstrated. They always n like the undifferentiated part of the spore membrane, Firr1ne also remarks that “‘sie verhalten sich bei allen Arten gegeniiber Ren- sentien wie die Special Mutterzellmembranen.” There seem to be three possibilities: (1) Firtrne’s view that the nee between protoplast and under coat, and between inner and eo zwischen den Hauten und zwischen dem Mesospor und ikrotom oe ealapsaie Sporen ganz: hyalin. . a An fixirtem und = on Entwickelungsstadium * aterial sind in ihnen Gerinnungsmassen, = ae der Meaheiscs ca a Menge, vorhanden. enn die die Hohlriume a © begonnen hat, ist von ihnen noch nichts zu a hier und da netzartig ‘alla eworden sind, werden in ihnen aise se" PN ene sichtbar die wahrend der Vergrésserung der spore Schnell : “srmehrt werden. In noch dlteren Stadien bilden sie . . . . sowohl zwischen r ‘ : . und Mesospor, wie auch zwischen diesem und der Plasmablase je eine hyaline, s durchsichtige Masse, die die beiden Riume meist nicht vollstindig ausfillt.” 292 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocToBER outer coat, are spaces filled with a solution—comparable to a vacuole; (2) that possibly there are protoplasmic connections between the protoplast and the two coats, and that the intervening substance is protoplasm, penetrating the endospore and extending to the exospore; (3) the suggestion, made above, that normally there are no clefts in the spore, but that the matter outside of the protoplast is to be regarded as an envelop of gelatinous matter in process of local trans- formation into concentric layers of different physical ‘nature, and at the same time increasing enormously in size by the imbibition of matter from the sporangium. Much time was expended in trying to demonstrate protoplasmic continuity through the coats but with- out success. The third view grows convincing, as it is possible to obtain sec tions which show the spores to be a solid mass without spaces, the regions of the developing coats not being sharply marked off from the substances that Firrinc regards as foreign matter, and that I believe to be merely stretched areas of the gelatinous membrane out of which the spore coats are differentiating. Indirect evidence is afforded by the growth of the coats in S. rupestris in which there 1s at no time any suggestion of “spaces filled with nutrient solutions.” The further development of the megaspore consists in the expan sion of the protoplast which soon overtakes the endospore, which 1 turn is carried along and stretched against the exospore. ate portion of the exospore in contact with the endospore (fig. 18) usually fails to coalesce completely with the outer part (figs. 18 and 19); and if one has failed to follow its behavior closely might readily be interpreted as an intermediate distinct coat. This account fails to agree with Frrrmnc’s and CampBELi’s.3 The two coals I have shown in figs. 17-19 they call exospore and mesospore- ‘The a spore they describe as arising de novo after the protoplast — expanded, and in contact with it, thus making three distinct coats: In the species which I have investigated—S. rupesiris, Ae Emmeliana, S. densa, S. cinerascens, and two unnamed sper, not Jamaica—I can demonstrate only two distinct coats. iy it be possible that others have made the same error tha 3 CAMPBELL, D. H., Studies in the gametophyte of Selaginella. 16: 419-4 8. pl. 19. 1902. 1905] LYON—THE SPORE COATS OF SELAGINELLA 293 former paper‘ when I interpreted the inner region of the exospore as a separate membrane ? In a late paper by BEER,‘ the author states that he has observed a separation of coats in the pollen grains of certain Onagraceae that is quite comparable to the condition described by FITTING as occur- ting normally in the megaspores of certain species of Selaginella. His forthcoming paper on the subject will be one of interest, especially if he finds evidence to support Frrrinc’s view of protoplasm acting at a distance. THe UNIVERSITY oF CHICAGO. EXPLANATION OF PLATES X AND XI. In all figures, @ indicates mother cell membrane; 5 the protoplast, c the spore membrane, d the nucleolus, the nucleus, and v the vacuole. PLATE X. Selaginella rupestris. Fic. 1. Median section of megaspore mother cell with three sporogenous cells that fail to form spores. X 1250. Fic. 2. Not quite median section of megaspore mother cell showing slight lobing, before division into two spores. 1250. Fic. 3. Nearly median section of two megaspores not completely separated from each other; that portion of the spore membrane between the two proto- Plasts 1S apparently formed by the lobing of the mother cell and not in connection with a nuclear plate. X1250. Fic. 4. Median section of megaspore after the formation of a large central vacuole and at the time the spore membrane shows a region differentiating into ““ £xospore or outside coat; e, region differentiating into exospore; /, possibly currents of solution passing into spore from sporangium. X 600. 5. Sections of two megaspores lying near the sporangium wall; by Greater growth of the spore membrane at one side the protoplast has come to lie near the apex of the spore; the spore A is in nearly median section, B is not; ¢, “spore, S, sporogenous cells that failed to divide into megaspores. X6c0. ke Portion of median section of megaspore (drawing not completed at these dig show further differentiation of spore membrane; ¢, exospore showing erent regions. X6oo. ooo 7. Apical portion of median section of more advanced stage of mega- dias Show the first appearance of the second coat—endospore—and the 8S in the exospore; the undifferentiated part of the spore membrane (h) a as FLoRENcE, A study of the sporangia and gametophytes of Selaginella - Claginella rupestris. Bor. GAZETTE 31:124-193- pls. 5-9- 190T- 3: EER, RUDOLPH, The present position of cell-wall research. New Phytologist “1590-164, 1904. ; Fig, 204 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocrouEn between the expospore and endospore shows signs of dissolution; ¢, spore mem- brane (includes everything between a and g); @, portion of spore membrane becoming transformed into exospore; §, endospore. 600. Fic. 8. Small portion of median section of apical region of megaspore more advanced; the protoplast 6 with the endospore g on its outer face has expanded until it has come to lie close to the outside e; the undifferentiated part h of the spore membrane has almost entirely disappeared; e¢, exospore; g, endospore (black line); /, layer of granular matter which is all that remains of region between ¢ and g in fig. 7. X60. Fic. 9. Apical region of median section of older megaspore; the mother cell membrane has disappeared entirely; b, protoplast increasing rapidly; e, exospore; g, endospore (increasing in thickness by successive laminae formed on its inner surface in the vicinity of the nucleus). 600. Fic. 10. Portion of apical region of median section of mature megaspore in the region of the nucleus; the protoplast has increased in thickness at the expense of the central vacuole near which the nucleus lies; the protoplasm contains much proteid matter which stains deeply; e, exospore; g, endospore. X 600. Fic. 11. Part of median section of female gametophyte after cell walls have begun to form; the proteid granules have increased in number and in size; & exospore; g, endospore; mm, nuclei. 600. PLATE XI. Selaginella Emmeliana. Fic. 12. Megaspore mother cell in optical median section, after the formation of the spore membrane. 1250. ‘ Fic. 13. Median section of megaspore mother cell in process of division into tetrad; nuclear plates forming; «x, nuclear plate; 4, spindle fibers. X 1250. Fic. 14. Median section of megaspore tetrad showing com Jetion of spore membrane along the nuclear plates. 1250. Fic. 15. Median section of somewhat older tetrad, ness of spore membrane between the protoplasts of the spores; ion of a layer of th the convoluted showing increase in thick- protoplasm border becomes the exospore, the inner region in contact with the ig becomes the endospore; outside of the forming exospore, at mother cell membrane, is a layer of the undifferentiated spore membran?s y portion of spore membrane in process of transformation into coats; ¢ regio” exospore; /, region of endospore; m, undifferentiated portion of spore membrane: 1250. ae Fic. 17. Nearly median section of tetrad showing farther differentiation exospore and endospore; two megaspores show the effect of the m api strain between exospore and endospore which has a tendency to split the &* a into two layers; stages between fig. 16 and fig. 17 were not foun among $f oh 2 hundred preparations; the transformation of the spore membrane into eats © S PLATE X BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XL te 4, Ve Fi ? dep DOK Eo % 4 . "oat ta er (| ; “a tg fl me reas ma KY é i teat ; Wl Na sa y ty ee = i vi ake == on nae tah ‘ 3, » a =. <= na alTS GATS 9 LYON om sPORE 4 SELAGINEL 4 3 3 i fie S : 3 > Rae pee con saga Ota igs anes 88a: < se BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XL LYON on SELAGINELLA PLATE Al 1905] LYON—THE SPORE COATS OF SELAGINELLA 295 very rapid; e, exospore; /, endospore; m, undifferentiated part of spore mem- brane; ~, outer sculptured part of exospore (so-called perinium); g, strained region in exospore. X 375 Fic. 18. Nearly median section of a megaspore at a later stage than fig. 6; the specimen was slightly shrunken, which gives the appearance of a cleft in the exospore traversed by some unbroken strands; the undifferentiated portion of the spore membrane between the exospore and the protoplast (jig. 16, m) has been transformed into endospore; at this stage the protoplast increases in diame- ter rapidly; e, exospore; jf, endospore; g, stretched and partially split region in the substance of the exospore. 375. Fic. 19. Small portion of the median section of a nearly mature megaspore in the apical region; coats fully formed; the cleft separating the exospore into two layers is probably due to the action of reagents; e, exospore; f, endospore; §, cleft in substance of exospore; m, undifferentiated remnant of spore membrane. X375: CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIOLOGY OF RHIZOBIA. VY. THE ISOLATION AND CULTIVATION OF RHIZOBIA IN ARTIFICIAL MEDIA. ALBERT SCHNEIDER. Ir is with a somewhat guilty conscience that this paper is sub- mitted. It is directly prompted by the fact that numerous inquiries have been received as to details regarding the isolation and cultiva- tion of the root nodule microbe of leguminous plants. While I am now well satisfied that rhizobia are very easily isolated and grown in artificial culture media, I am nevertheless only too conscious of my earlier repeated failures and mistakes, and the failures of others. These facts should have prompted me to publish the finally success- ful efforts as soon as possible in order to assist and simplify the work of others who were contemplating research along similar lines. In a recent article by GRosVENoR,? outlining some rhizobia culture work done by Dr. Grorce T. Moore of the Department of Agn- culture, the statement is made that “‘after much labor he (Moore) isolated the nitrogen-fixing bacteria,” from which we are led to con- jecture that even at this late date similar difficulties were encountered. With perhaps the one exception of Miss Dawson, so far as can be ascertained, no investigator has published a detailed description of the methods of procedure in the isolation and cultivation of rhizobia. It is then with the view of correcting this neglect that this pape . submitted. The rhizobia of the various leguminous plants,exa and cultivated by the writer, such as those of red clover, : bur clover, sweet clover, garden peas, and alfalfa, gave peach the same results so far as methods were concerned. The difficulties and failures were due entirely to ignorance with re to the behavior of these organisms in artificial media, as has with set forth in previous papers. However, in spite of the readiness in pre- which rhizobia are cultivated, the student must observe ae P A remarkable discover? (October). 1994 [ocrose® mined, isolated, white clover, * GROSVENOR, GILBERT H., Inoculating the ground. in scientific agriculture. The Century Magazine 68:831-839 296 } | ; : : 1905] SCHNEIDER—CULTIVATION OF RHIZOBIA 297 cautions in order that satisfactory results may be obtained. After numerous trials I have finally found the following methods to give the most satisfactory and most uniform results. 1. Securing tubercle-bearing roots.—Taking it for granted that it is desired to isolate and cultivate the rhizobium of some herbaceous leguminous plant, it is of considerable importance that the roots should be taken from plants growing in soil free from contamination with surface sewage, away from thickly populated areas, as vacant lots in large cities, etc. The object is to obtain tubercles which are comparatively free from foreign bacteria. Experiments with roots and nodules from plants growing in vacant lots in Chicago showed that they were covered externally with multitudes of microbes, which interfered very considerably with the rhizobia experiments. Select healthy looking plants growing in loose soil, dig up the Toots carefully; shake off the dirt very carefully, as the nodules are quite easily removed. By means of a sharp knife cut off root por- tions having well-developed single nodules or small groups (two or three) of nodules, and place them in a clean sterile container in which ‘0 carry them to the laboratory. Do not take roots with nodules that appear quite dark (bluish hue) at the base, as these are old tubercles and are quite badly contaminated with foreign soil microbes. Do not take roots with large tufts of nodules for similar reasons, and for the further reason that these nodule clusters are difficult to clean. _ 2. Cleaning and garbling roots.—At the laboratory look the mate- nal over carefully. Remove all foreign vegetable substances. Reject all roots or rootlets showing decay or discoloration. By means of the pocket knife cut away root portions which are undesirable. Now place this carefully garbled material under a faucet and let the Water run over it to wash away dirt and sand. Care is necessary, aS a strong flow or careless handling may remove the most desirable nodules, Remove all dirt, using a small brush, if necessary, to remove §ing sand and soil particles. o = seis nodules.—After this cleansing, look the material over a y: By means of a pair of small, blunt-pointed, clean, sterile id - pick off young, clean-looking, but well-developed nodules tho Pp them into a small, clean, sterile beaker about half full of Toughly boiled water (boil this water yourself for half an hour). 2098 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [OCTOBER About ten nodules should be selected. This is more than is required but allowance should be made for loss through accident. 4. Brushing and washing nodules.—Take up each tubercle by means of the blunt tweezers and clean it by means of a sterile camel's hair brush, rinse back and forth in the water, and then drop the cleansed nodules into a second small beaker half full of boiled water. Stir the tubercles about in this second beaker by means of a sterile glass rod or a small section lifter. By means of the section lifter transfer the nodules to a sterile test tube, about half full of boiled water. The camel’s hair brush removes many microbes and sand and soil particles which cannot be removed in the following’ rinsing process. 5. Rinsing the nodules in the test tube-—Place the thumb over the mouth of the test tube and shake vigorously for five to ten seconds. Decant the water by holding a sterile wire gauze over the mouth of the test tube (after a little practice the water can be decanted without the use of the wire gauze). Add more water, shake, and decant as before. Repeat this process fen times. The object is still further to get rid of microbes clinging to the exterior of the nodules. 6. Sterilizing the exterior of the nodules.—After the last rinsing, described in the previous section, add to the test tube, in the place of water, a 5 per cent. carbolic acid or formalin solution and shake vigorously for eight seconds and decant the disinfectant immediately. The object is to kill microbes which may still be present upon the exterior and in the cork tissue and epidermal cells of the nodules. Naturally the antiseptic must be used quickly to prevent It i entering the interior of the nodule and killing the rhizobia themselves Of these two disinfectants I am inclined to favor the carbolic acid, as it penetrates tissues less readily. 7. Removing the disinfectant.—This must be : in boiled water (as in section 5) five times in rapid succession, i i rid of all traces of the disinfectant.. The importance of het 4 dent, for should any considerable trace of the disinfectant pee would destroy the rhizobia in the next process.. No tests - : made to determine what the resisting power of rhizobia 15 - eer disinfectants. I am inclined to believe that they have wee resisting power, as is evidenced by their behavior _ done at once. Rinse 4 4 : “ if : 2 1905] SCHN EIDER—CULTIVATION OF RHIZOBIA 299 media. Microbes differ widely in this regard. For example, typhoid fever germs and others, survive in a 0.5 per cent. carbolic acid solution. 8. Crushing the nodules.—Decant the last supply of water and transfer the tubercles to a thoroughly sterilized watch glass or similar small container (small salt cellar does well), and crush the tubercles with a sterile solid glass rod with rounded end. The crushed tubercles with the moisture that remained from the last rinsing form a pulpy mass. Cover with a sterile cover, such as a glass plate or a watch crystal, and set aside until ready to make the isolation cultures. If some time is required, the covered crush preparation should be placed upon a sterilized portion of the table and covered with a ster- ilized beaker or bell jar to present contamination by means of air microbes. 9. Preparations jor isolating rhizobia.—It is ‘assumed that the desired culture media have been prepared in the usual way. I would — advise using the usual very slightly alkaline solid media of beef extract, salt, gelatin, and agar. Only sufficient agar should be used to give it solidity (about 1.5 per cent.). A number of test tubes about one-half to two-thirds full of the culture medium, sterilized by the fractional method, should be on hand ready for use. Six of these tubes should be placed in the steam sterilizer so that the medium may be thoroughty liquefied. This will require -half an hour or more. They should be placed in the sterilizer about the time that the work * cleaning the tubercles is begun. Three thoroughly sterilized Petri dishes should be on hand ready for use. Number these one, two, and three. - Preparing the test tubes jor inoculation.—When the culture medium in the test tubes is thoroughly liquefied, place the tubes into : beaker of moderately cool water. As soon as the water becomes ie hog heat of the tubes, replace it with fresh moderately i ay ile the tubes are still quite warm to the be place ae cos beaker of water having a temperature of about 50” C., the cag being to keep the medium liquefied. In this considerable ae S necessary. The medium must not be too hot, nor should ie Portion of it be allowed to coagulate. The tubes should feel arm. (not hot) to the touch when used. The tubes can be cooled 300 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocroBER much more rapidly by holding them under a faucet of running water, but this is not recommended to the beginner because of the danger of cooling the tubes too much. Number four of the tubes and add two with blank labels for reserve purposes in case of accident or special requirement. 11. Preparations jor making the inoculations.—A lighted Bunsen burner and a platinum wire loop fastened into a glass rod are that is required. Wipe the table on which the work is to be done with a cloth moistened in some disinfecting solution. 12. Inoculating tube no. 1; first attenuation.—Heat the platinum loop in the Bunsen flame, allow it to cool and dip into the root nodule crush. preparation, being careful not to include larger portions of tubercles, and introduce the loopful into test tube no. 1, shaking the platinum loop back and forth a few times within the medium. Replace the cotton plug in the tube, heat the loop in the Bunsen flame to a red glow, and place to one side. Now roll the test tube, kept in vertical position, between the hands to mix thoroughly the contents. Roll for five or six seconds. 13. Inoculating tube no. 2; second attenuation.—Take two loop- fuls out of tube no. 1 and transfer them to tube no. 2; sterilize needle flames as before, and roll tube no. 2 as above. 14. Inoculating tube no. 3; third attenuation—Take two oF loopfuls out of tube no. 2 and transfer to tube no. 3 and proceed . under section 12. 15. Inoculating tube no. 4; fourth attenuation—Take three loop- fuls out of tube no. 3 and transfer to tube no. 4 and proceed as under section 12. Immediately after rolling, the tubes are t of warm water to prevent the media from coagulating. Clo cation to detail is very important in order to avoid confusion. well to rehearse mentally the different manipulations before beginning with the tube inoculations or attenuations. way 2 16. Plating contents of inoculated tubes.—Tube n0- pas rejected, but it is preferable to set it aside for control one. aly Roughly estimated it contains several thousand rhizobia quite eve" distributed. Pour contents of tube no. 2 into Petri dish no. a os has been kept in a warm place (about 50° C.), spread the three o be replaced in the beaker se appl It 3s SS a ee 1905] SCHN EIDER—CULTIVATION OF RHIZOBIA 301 evenly by inclining the dish slightly from side to side and set aside to cool. Pour contents of tube no. 3 into Petri dish no. 2, and con- tents of tube no. 4 into dish no. 3, spread medium and set aside. After the media in the Petri dishes are well coagulated, place the dishes where they will not be interfered with. They may be placed in an incubator provided the temperature is kept well below the melting point of the culture medium. I have obtained the most uniform results by keeping the plate cultures at the normal tempera- ture of the laboratory. About the third day the growths will begin to appear as very small light grayish specks; several hundred, more or less, in dish no. 1; twenty-five to thirty in dish no. 2; and perhaps only five to ten in dish no. 3. These are rhizobia cultures, and if the work was well done there will in all probability be no foreign microbes present. The cultures on the upper surface of the medium will be circular in outline, while those within the medium will be spindle-shaped. Growth of cultures is comparatively slow, thus giving ample time for study and to make tube cultures, plate cultures, etc. Tube cultures have been quite fully described in previous papers, likewise the morphology of the rhizobia grown in various artificial media. Various other methods of isolating rhizobia have been tried suc- cessfully, but the method just described is recommended as giving the best Tesults. It is somewhat lengthy in detail, but nevertheless simple iD operation. It will be found that the isolation and cultivation of thizobia is indeed simple, and even the beginner in the study of bac- teriology will wonder what might have been the cause of the diffi- Culties encountered by the earlier (1886 and later) investigators of — the root nodule organisms. The difficulties however will become somewhat evident on examining the cultures microscopically. The morphological characteristics are found to be entirely changed, so t there is no similarity between the organism as it appears in the nodule and the organism as it appears in the artificial culture media. CALIFORNIA CoLLEcE oF PHARMACY, : San Francisco. BRIEFER ARTICLES. THE PHYSIOLOGICAL CONSTANTS OF PLANTS COMMONLY USED IN AMERICAN BOTANICAL LABORATORIES. I. THE series of papers of which this is the first will give the results of careful study undertaken to find which of our common plants are best adapted for the demonstration of each of the physiological phenomena of plant life. The work is being done in the Laboratory of Plant Physiology at Smith College with the advice of Professor W. F. GANonc. The litera- ture of the various subjects is of course being used; but citation will be omitted for the most part, because the work is all being done de novo, and for the sake of teachers rather than investigators. It is intended that the resultant data shall enable teachers of botany to select in each case the best plant for the particular experiment in hand, and to know quantita- tively the physiological behavior of each of the common kinds. Since most of the teaching of botany in this country is necessarily done in the winter, when out-of-door plants are not available, only greenhouse plants have pees considered; and of these for the most part only the more common kinds, which can be grown in any ordinary room. Exceptions have been made in a few cases where a less common plant has been found to be especially good. : I. CHLOROPHYLL SPECTRA. In order to compare the spectra of chlorophyll from differe is necessary to adopt some standard solution and some uniform metho examining the leaves. The optimum amount of leaf for giving 4 — solution, without filtering, from most leaves was found to be 25°" of the nt plants, it in 15°° of 95 per cent. ethyl alcohol, and accordingly I have pepe the standard solution. A larger proportion of leaf gives a clouded solu Icohol. Solu- which must either be filtered or be cleared by adding more 4 tions may be made equally well with methyl or wood alcohol. ie The solutions were made as follows: A beaker was fitted with a ‘ in which three holes were made to allow two test tubes, holding the solutions, and a thermometer to be suspended in the beaker. The beaker = um with water and set on a tripod over a Bunsen burner. The ~~ C, temperature for extraction of the chlorophyll was found to be fl at which the water in the beaker was kept. A tin hood was set : 302 | | . ee A eee tare 1905] BRIEFER ARTICLES 303 beaker to exclude all light during the extraction of the chlorophyll. In order to eliminate individual peculiarities, each experiment was done in duplicate for two different plants of each species studied. The time required for extraction of the chlorophyll from leaves of different species varied widely and is recorded for each case in the table following. Except where otherwise stated, half-grown leaves were used, as in most cases they yield the best solution in the shortest time. It was found that the transparency of living leaves was increased if the air was driven from the intercellular spaces and its place was taken by water. Accordingly in these experiments the leaves were put in water under the air pump for half an hour and examined at once. If they are allowed to stand in water for an hour, leaves like Pelargonium, Begonia, Oxalis, etc., show the characteristic spectrurn of incipient decomposition of chlorophyll. In the table the spectrum of a single leaf is given in each case The spectra were observed by a Kohl spectroscope, Hoffman form, mith a comparison prism; one which is ample for all educational work. The Welsbach light was used. Asis well known, chlorophyll when examined by means of a spectroscope shows in all seven distinct absorption bands which are usually designated by the Roman numerals. I is 4 broad black band in the red; II is a ‘artow gray band in the red, near the orange; III is a gray band in the srange near the yellow; IV is a dark band in the middle of the green; V, VI, and VIE are broad black bands in the blue, usually absorbing it to such a degree that with a few exceptions they can be seen separately only it a very thin layer of a dilute solution, These seven bands are never all present at one time. _1n the following table the letter d means the band is dark; that it is oa ul that itis very faint; and o that it is absent. Where the spect are 5g leaf differs from that of the chlorophyll solution its differences tion of ape by the bracketed letters. The time required for the extrac- the asiosit chlorophy ll is given in minutes. The thickness of the layer of Solution in each case was 15™™, ‘Typical green” means the average ; nged color of chlorophyll. ing a“ a table it will be seen that certain leaves are described as yield- acid $3 w-green solution. In all these cases the solution gives an fhe on With litmus paper and the spectrum is of a distinct character a of the other leaves. ‘These facts, with others developed in the Classes of this study, show that we must distinguish between two distinct of chlorophyll spectra: the ‘normal chlorophyll spectrum” show- 304 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocToBER Time BANDS Name of plant in | Color of solution Lares I Il III IV | V|VI\Vil Abutilon (golden bells) (young leaf) 5 typical green d d (0) f rt) djdjid Saneieas Sprengeri....... 30 light green d vf vi 0) o|djid Avena | — "aml Brats, 5 bright green d d f ° di aid Begonia coccinea......, un | yellow d ° ° f djdjid non coc cnea: Sires gra Ga 15 brown-yellow d (f) o (f) dio) | dj} did fp omy 10 bright lig d o (f) o (f) ° oj}did Cestram elegans (young leaf)| 5 dark d f (vf) f t) djdjid : cs yeant " 30 pale ot d | f£(0) 0 ° djdjid uphorbia Ic errima (Pabeartite) f) 10 dark green d f (0) f ° djd ‘ Ficus elastica *hacvined and 120 pale green d f oO f djd i Ficus elastica as leaf)..} 15 pale green d | d() | 4 {0} f(0) | dj d 4 Ficus Fees oung leaves) | 10 pale green Pee pee ate f (o Co) djd 4 Fuchsia speciosa........... 15 vellow-green d o (f) o (f) f(o) | d 4 4 Heders Hel (English ivy)... 5 dark green d | d(o) | f@) | vi@j)d Heliotropi hee sta (Heliotrope)...... St ig >. pale green d | f (vf) o (f) o d a\d — Sultani an ees 15 bright green d | fo) | 39. o d acobinia magnifica (young 30 dark green d f f ce) dj dj4 copersicum esculentum a omato ).. et ee 10 pale green d vi vi () ‘1 d. ‘ i Oxalis Bowiei.....:....... 15 yellow-green d f o (f) | d(o)f(o) nt ata 2 se ha sia aa 15 yellow-green d : 0 B d (0) aldaiéd a petiete I 5 green-yellow d f (o) 0 (o)-| d (0) dida\d Pelargoni male. 15 brown-yellow d f o (f) d (0) d|ald Primula ibouics 2 ee bright green d | f(o) | £ (vf) . Primula ws fon me (Chinese dick al aw f diaié Perse ethics a ive 15 ark green d latin verticillata... 5 pale green d f (0) f (vf) . 4 4 d. = phan ti — 2 bright green d | d(o) | £(f) 2 P es communis castor Re en os: 15 pale d | f(vf) | f (fh) 2 ‘ : a Salvia involucrata.......... 30 pale green ait (0) f . o |d(o)| 4 Senecio mikanioides........ 15 pale green d (f) © is dijdajd Petasitis.. 4.5... .. 15 typical green d f f ” t Tippacokim majus (nas- o {dod} 4 < i AL ene eee 30 typical green {d (f) ° . é d d Vicia Faba (horse bean).. 2 bright green | d f f oe Se ing bands I, II, III, V, VI, and VII, given by living leaves and by ea made by extracting the chlorophyll quickly with only a nie ‘ of heat; and the “decomposition chlorophyll spectrum,” havens solutions II, IV, V, VI, and VII. This decomposition spectrum is given by ( (a) from boiled leaves, (b) from leaves which contain acid salts ‘s cad etc.), (c) by solutions made by prolonged immersion . oe adding alcohol, (d) by solutions in which the chlorophyll is decomposed sof few a drop of hydrochloric acid, or by exposure to direct oe minutes, and (e) by living leaves after standing in water — an extra On further decomposition of chlorophyll by light oF ne disspr : band appears in the green beyond IV and band V in the bine It is to be remembered that these spectra were given by sna | made as described above. With weaker solutions the ba nds bec and with increasing diluteness bands II and TIT disappeat of the poral Comparatively few living leaves show all the bands : 1905] BRIEFER ARTICLES 305 chlorophyll spectrum in a single leaf, but all leaves give all these bands when two or three are used. _The bands in the spectrum of a solution of chlorophyll were compared with those in the living leaf in two ways: (1) by observing the two spectra at the same time, one with direct light and the other by means of the comparison prism; (2) by observing the position of the bands in direct sunlight with reference to the Fraunhofer lines. In all cases the bands appear in exactly the same place in the spectrum of a leaf as in that of a standard solution giving the normal chlorophyll spectrum. From the above it is plain that the most typical spectra are yielded by those non-acid leaves from which the chlorophyll can be extracted most easily, namely (in the order of their excellence) Primula obconica, Raphanus sativus, Vicia Faba, Abutilon (young leaf), Avena sativa, Cestrum elegans (young leaf), Euphorbia pulcherrima (young leaf), Lycopersicum esculen- tum, Primula sinensis, and Ricinus communis. Another well-known optical property of chlorophyll is its fluorescence, all solutions of chlorophyll being slightly fluorescent. The products of the decomposition of chlorophyll, however, seem to be more fluorescent: than chlorophyll itself. A solution of chlorophyll extracted with boiling alcohol from boiled leaves in the light is more fluorescent than a solution of unchanged chlorophyll. Of course some leaves are better than others, and of all the leaves in the above table, the very best are Jacobinia mag- nijica, Cineraria cruenta (the dark-leaved varieties), Cestrum elegans, and Hedera Helix, Standard solutions from these leaves give a brilliant Pia fluorescence.—SopHia Eckerson, Smith College, Northampton, ass, te, FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE STARCH GRAIN.! 1S a previous paper (1) on the structure of the starch grain, I showed “oO peripheral layer of the potato starch grain breaks and recurves cement with certain reagents, much like the cutin layer of an epidermal "Uh on treatment with sulfuric acid. While I had previously observed ay aia gue layer is stained with certain of the aniline dyes, I Protoplas . me effect might probably be due to the remains of plastids or I ie mic material, rather than to the presence of a distinct membrane. eral atte satisfied, however, that it can be demonstrated that the periph- It of the starch grain is a distinct membrane. : 's well known that upon the addition of an iodin solution to unaltered 1 R f : : ber a dat the meeting of the Society for Plant Morphology and Physiology, Decem 306 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocToBER starch grains at the ordinary temperature, the grains are colored blue; while the solution or filtrate remains colorless or some shade of yellow, depending upon the amount or strength of iodine solution that has been used. If on the other hand the grains are triturated with sand (one part of starch to five of sand) for a short time previous to the addition of the water, the filtrate will be colored a deep blue upon the addition of an iodin solution. Heretofore it has been supposed by some that the blue colora- tion was due to the presence of fine particles which went through the filter and were suspended in the filtrate, while in reality there is a true solution of the starch; or in other words the soluble starch has been liber- ated from the grain by the rupture of the peripheral layer. A polariscopie examination of the starch solutions, after clarification by means of talcum, showed that they have marked dextro-rotatory properties. The angle of rotation for solutions of corn, wheat, maranta, and potato starch ranged from 0.3814 to 0.8770°. Furthermore, a microscopic examination of bed triturated starch shows the grains to be in various stages of disintegration, and this taken together with the behavior of starch toward iodin, as well as the other observations referred to, would indicate that the starch grain consists of a membrane that is insoluble in water at ordinary temperature, and an interior portion which is at least in part soluble in water at ordinary temperature, that is consists of soluble starch or starch that is colored blue with iodin. This technique enables us to differentiate at once the soluble starch present, which heretofore has not been supposed to a in the unaltered starch grain. As to whether this substance is identi with the granulose of NAGELI (2) is a problem which remains to be deter- mined. It may be added that this method furnishes a means of wre the constituents in the unaltered grain, and is to be preferred to the me = which have been employed heretofore, of using solutions of pare mineral acids, which give rise to altered substances, and hence do give a true differentiation of the substances as they naturally occut 8 starch grain. : i This brings us then to consider the views of RASPAIL (3), m pee with those of others, in regard to the nature of the starch grain, whic be summarized as follows: cs tee 1. The starch grain consists of a membrane which is 1ms0 water, and a more or less soluble content, as pointed out 2. It develops from a centric or excentric point, to whic layer is added, a view first advanced by FritscHE (4); and enlarged upon by ScuimpER (5), who demonstrated that its dependent upon the function of the leucoplastids. 1905] BRIEFER ARTICLES 307 3. The content of the grain consists of at least two different substances, as first pointed out by NAGELI (2), and later confirmed by Meyer (6), SCHIMPER (5), and others, who showed in addition that the structure might be compared to that of sphero-crystalloids. THE ACTION OF IODIN UPON STARCH. The effect of iodin upon starch has been the subject of considerable investigation and speculation by both botanists and chemists. MyLius (7) eld to the view that the blue coloration formed on the addition of iodin to starch is due to the formation of a compound of hydriodic acid and starch. MrrNEKE (8) also contended that hydriodic acid is essential to the formation of the blue color of an iodin-starch solution. Stocks (9), SEYFERT (10), and Rouvier (11) are of the opinion, however, that this colored compound does not contain hydriodic acid, the last named investigator having shown that it may be formed in the presence of alcohol as well as water, and all of them agreeing that a true chemical compound (iodid of starch) is formed. On the other hand, Kiister (12) and Meyer (6) believe that the so-called iodid of starch is not a true chemical compound, but that the todin and starch are combined in much the same way as the ingredients man emulsion. This latter view has been more or less sanctioned on ‘ccount of the statements in the textbooks that the iodin is removed from the combination on treatment with carbon disulfid. My observations, however, show that if the starch is in excess of the iodin (using 12” of potato starch and roc¢ of a solution containing 0.1 per cent. of iodin and °5 Per cent. of potassium iodid), or if the iodin and starch be in such Proportion that all of the free iodin is taken up, and the mixture is dried before adding the carbon disulfid, even on allowing it to act for six months» wd carbon disulfid is not colored; that is, does not take up the iodin, the same being true of alcohol and chloroform. This result, taken together with - Previous experiments in the treatment of starch with sand and then with lodin, would seem to confirm the view that a true chemical com- ie ily Produced by iodin and soluble starch, whether in the grain or in ori oat the amount of soluble starch varies in the starch grains of different hae ss be demonstrated by the treatment of definite amounts of of the se with definite quantities of iodin solution. On treating 0.5 of iodin veral commercial starches with 2°¢ of iodin solution (0.1 per eae is a a er per cent. of potassium iodid), it will be found that t Potat difference in the intensity of the color in the grains, those 0 © and maranta being colored deep blue, while those of corn and wheat 308 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocTOBER are scarcely at all colored, the mixtures being somewhat of a purplish color. These observations seem to accord with the experiments of Rouvrer (13), who found that the different classes of starch took up varying amounts of iodin, and are contrary to the statement by Stocks (g) that the shade of color varies with the amount of iodin but not with the different starches. In other words, the shade and intensity of color not only vary according to the strength of iodin solution, but also according to the kind of starch used. It is well known that if a starch solution be treated with iodin in the cold, a blue coloration will be the result, and that if this solution be then heated the blue color will disappear, but will return on cooling the solution, though less intensely than before. This peculiar behavior of starch and iodin has never been satisfactorily explained. NAGELI and SCHWENDENER (14) consider that the loss of color on the application of heat is due to the production of hydriodic acid; but this does not explain the reappearance of the color on cooling; and so far as I am aware no one has ever demon- strated the presence of thisacid. If this acid were present, then according to Myutus (7) and MEINEKE (8), the blue color would remain on heating solution, since they claim, as already pointed out, that the blue color 1s due to the presence of this acid. It is thus apparent that there is considerab contradiction in the arguments that have been presented on this subject. The following experiments tend to explain this phenomenon. If we take 0.5%" of potato starch and mix it with so°° of water and heat the mixture in an Erlenmeyer flask of about roo°¢ capacity on a water one % a temperature of about 80° C. for one hour, and then add 5° of iodin solution (iodin 0.1 per cent. and potassium iodid 0.5 per cent.) and place a piece of ordinary filter paper, which usually contains starch, over ert of the flask, and then continue the heating until the solution is decolo: which takes place at about 80° C., the filter paper will be colored blue, showing that some of the iodin has been volatilized. Furie . cooling the solution, as already pointed out, the blue color begins to pe at about 65° C. and increases in intensity until at about 40° C. it sen a the maximum; though it is less intense than the color produced Ww. ee iodin solution is added to a starch solution cooled to this temper? ; These results may be interpreted as showing that iodin forms 4 ee ae with starch which is dissociated on the application of heat; ai fe temperature between 60 and 80° C., part of the freed iodin 1s ee ngth a such, and the amount remaining in solution depends upon the } ge time the heat is applied. Also the loss of iodin in this way accoum the decrease in color of the starch-iodin solution on cooling. e. is a - e 1905] BRIEFER ARTICLES 309 An attempt was made to remove the free iodin from the hot colorless starch-iodin solution by the addition of chloroform, but it was’ found difficult to handle the material, as chloroform boils at about 60° C. Sub- sequent experiments, however, showed that unaltered potato starch grains as well as a solution of potato starch would remove the iodin from a chloro- formic solution at the ordinary temperature. These experiments were conducted as follows: 5°¢ of an iodin solution, of the strength already stated, were shaken in a separatory funnel with 25°¢ of chloroform, and most of the chloroform containing the iodin separated. To this was added 58™ of dried starch. The latter, however, did not take up the iodin from the solution; but on the addition of a small quantity of water (about ro°°) and after shaking the mixture, the starch and iodin combined, and almost all of the iodin in the chloroformic solution may be removed in this way. The addition of 2°¢ of potassium iodid solution (5 per cent.), even with 0.5®™ of starch, causes the iodin to be taken up immediately. The starch in a soluble starch solution also combines immediately with the iodin in a chloroformic solution. In summing up the observations on the behavior of iodin and starch, it seems to me that we are dealing with a chemical compound of iodin and soluble starch; but that the combination is a feeble one, being easily dissociated upon the application of heat, and the iodin being more or less volatilized. Also the facility with which soluble starch takes up the iodin in @ chloroformic solution indicates that the affinity of starch for iodin is considerably greater than heretofore supposed. . STAINING OF THE GRAIN, While T have obtained at times some beautiful results by the use of anilin stains, it has been impossible for me until now to duplicate some of my earlier results. I have ‘succeeded, however, in developing a method . the staining of wheat starch which yields uniformly satisfactory results. 38 as follows: to o. 5008™ of wheat starch add 2° of an aqueous iodin rena (containing 0.1 per cent. of iodin and o.5 per cent. of potassium ); mix well and allow the mixture to stand from 20 to 30:minutes in a Porcelain dish or watch crystal; then add 2°¢ of a saturated aqueous solu- ne a et (18™ of gentian violet to roo° of water) ; allow this mou : from 12 to 24 hours; examining the grains from time to time by : ning them in water. When the grains are satisfactorily stained, the muxture is transferred to a filter and the excess of stain is removed as = “S Possible by washing the magma with water. The material is allowed to dry spontaneously or between pieces of bibulous paper. 310 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocToBER For examination it is then mounted in Canada balsam, the preparation being permanent for years, as is also the case with the unmounted material. Corn starch may also be stained by the use of this method, but in the staining of potato and maranta starches it is necessary to use weaker iodin solutions. I have not evolved entirely satisfactory methods, however, for uniformly staining these latter starches. It may be of interest to state that the foregoing method has certain features which are similar to those of the gentian-violet method used in demonstrating the so-called continuity of protoplasm in the vegetable cell wall (15). In the study of the continuity of protoplasm a swelling reagent, such as sulfuric acid, is used and a.comparatively short time is consumed in the whole operation; whereas in the method proposed for the staining of wheat starch the water used may be considered a swelling agent acting on the grain during a longer time. The analogy in the results are 0 striking that students who are interested in the study of the continuity of protoplasm will do well to compare their results on the cell wall with those obtained in the study of the wheat starch grain by the method just described. The author acknowledges his indebtedness to Miss FLORENCE YAPLE for valuable assistance in the preparation of this paper.—HENRY KRAEMER, Philadelphia College of Pharmacy. LITERATURE CITED. I. KRAEMER: Bot. GAZETTE 34:341. 1902. 2. NAGEL, C.: Die Starkekérner. 1858. 3. Raspatt: Citation by von Mout in Bot. Zeit. 1'7:226. 1859. 4. FritscHe: Poggendorff’s Annalen der Physik und Chemie 32:—: 5. ScHImMPEr: Bot. Zeit. 38:881. 1880; 39:185, 201, 217- 1881. 6. Meyer, A.: Untersuchungen iiber die Starkekérner. Jena. 1895. 7. Myttus: Ber. Deutsch. Chem. Gesells. 20:688. 1887- 8. MEINEKE: Chem. Zeit. 18:157. 1894. 9. Stocks: Chem. News 57:183. 1888. 0. Sryrert: Zeitschr. Angewand. Chem. 1:15. 1886. 11. Rouvrer: Compt. Rend. 114:749. 1892. 12. Kisrer: Liebig’s Annalen der Chem. 283:360. 1894- 13. RovuvreR: Compt. Rend. 120:1179. 1895. 14. NAcELI und SCHWENDENER: Das Mikroskop. Leipzig. 1877: 15. Kraemer: Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 41:174- 1902- 1834- SURRENT LITERATURE. BOOK REVIEWS. The water-lilies CARNEGIE INsTITUTION has published a sumptuous volume bearing the above title. Mr. Conarp, the author, is a Senior Fellow in Botany at the University of Pennsylvania, and has spent four years in the preparation of this monograph. The purpose seems to be to present water-lilies from every botanical standpoint; and so far as this can be done by one man making most diligent use of his time it has been well done. The conception that research is the exhaustive study of a single form, and that all observations should be reported whether pertinent to anything or not, is well exemplified in this volume. The diligence it has demanded is beyond praise; the ideas directing it are questionable. The following statement in the preface is significant: ‘‘had the learned doctor (Cas- PaRY) of Kénigsberg assembled his vast knowledge into one connected whole, the Present work would be needed chiefly as a translation.” As this implies, the Volume is the assembling of a vast amount of information about water-lilies; and the scope of it is expressed by the following statement: “It has therefore seemed important to bring together the knowledge of the genus in all of its botan- ical relations and in its bearings on human life and history.” _ Itis questionable whether any one man is equipped to do this as a contribu- hon; he may do it as a compilation. Just here is the vital difference between research and collected information. It is unfortunate that many who are direct- ing research do not make the distinction. It would reduce publications in bulk and save an immense amount of time consumed in discovering the contribution. In the present work, for example, there have doubtless been made some real and Valuable contributions to botany, but there is no way of discovering them without looking through nearly three hundred large pages. : There are eight parts in the volume, each presenting water-lilies from a ctly different point of view, as follows: (1) history, including oriental liter- ature as well as pre-Linnaean literature; (2) structure, which is for the most sc tesemaiae (3) development, by which is meant what is usually considered ne morphology ; (4) physiology; (5) taxonomy; (6) distribution; (7) hybrids — aoa Varieties; and (8) culture and uses. The taxonomy must have been ri ame good condition, except perhaps as to nomenclature, for of the thirty- €s Tecognized only one is described by the author as new. The thirty plates are works of art, twelve of them being colored. It is a A empaiy to know that the Carnegie Institution has money enough to spend this lavish way.—J. M. C. SUE pearaee re I 4to. Conarp, Henry S., The water-lilies, a monograph of the genus Nymphaea. 312 BOTANICAL GAZETTE focromzs French instruction in botany BONNIER and SABLON? have published the first volume of a text-book of botany for thé use of classes in universities, and in schools of medicine, pharmacy, and agriculture. The first impression is that of great bulk, and it is almost beyond belief that such an amount of material can be absorbed by undergraduate stu- dents in a continuous course. The authors, however, are teachers of large experience, and must know what the French situation demands and how much the French student can endure. The illustrations are for the most part excellent, and are said to be published in this volume for the first time. This means a large stock of new illustrations of well-known structures; and this stock really constitutes the chief contribution of the volume. The text is clear and well organized; and the distinct paragraphing is all that could be desired in a text for elementary students. The material is brought together from every direction, making the volume a compendium of information concerning the topics presented. However, it gives an impression of voluminous- ness and diffuseness rather than of logical and compact presentation. The four parts of this first volume are very unequal. The first part (138 pp.) consists of a general introduction, beginning with the characteristics of living things and gradually approaching plants. ‘The second part (602 pp.) presenls the morphology of angiosperms, under the following topics: leaf, stem, root, flower, and development. In this part the emphasis is laid upon anatomy and what one may call for convenience the older morphology. ; The third part (524 pp.) deals with the families of angiosperms, that dreariest of all wastes for the elementary student, but perhaps demanded by the French schools. Just what is done with this part of European text-books has always been a mystery to the majority of American teachers. The fourth part (62 pp.) PR sents the gymnosperms and closes the volume. : : A noticeable feature of the presentation is the singular blindness to published work. In an elementary text this seems natural, and usually would rere no remark; but this large conipendium cites literature, and further ere citations by collecting them in a list at the end of each part. The four lists mn ‘ pcsed entie Jection has beet 108 titles; and when they are examined, it is evident that the se po at random, without refererice to the importance of the papers OF bes fc sentative character of the lists. In fact, the impression upon students am leagues would be far better if no citations had been attempted. fiend Taking the book as fairly representative of botanical instru old botatY schools, one may conclude that the instruction includes more of te «ay ideas; than the new; presents a mass of details rather than general wee C and calls for diligence and a good memory rather than for inl : ae tiative. fe | Phanéro- 2 Bonnier, GASTON, et SABLON, LECLERC DU, Cours de ep ee gnement games. 8vo. pp. iv+1328. figs. 2389. Paris: Librairie générale | 1905. 1905] CURRENT LITERATURE 313 MINOR NOTICES. A SECOND REPORT to the Evolution Committee of the Royal Society has been made by BATEson, SAUNDERS, PUNNETT, and Hurst,3 under the subtitle “ Experi- mental studies in the physiology of heredity.”” About two-thirds of this report deals with plants and the rest with poultry. The plants used were Datura, Matthiola, Salvia Horminum, Ranunculus arvensis, Pisum, and Lathyrus odoratus, the most attention being given to Matthiola, Pisum, and Lathyrus. The numer- ous experiments present too many important details to permit of adequate review, but several features deserve special mention. In Matthiola it is found that two _ races which are constantly glabrous when pure-bred may, on crossing, produce hoary canescent offspring, and that in certain combinations this hoariness is coupled with purple flower-color, both the hoariness and the purple color being Tecognizable as atavistic characters. These reversions occur invariably when (ream or white-flowered glabrous stocks are crossed with those of any other color; but the various sap-colors (e. g., purple, flesh, red, copper, etc.) crossed with each other conform strictly to Mendelian expectation in regard to hoariness, though with respect to color there is a complication introduced by the presence of the atavistic purple in addition to the two parental types. Very similar rever- — and half-reversions are also found regularly in sweet peas. Generally white was found recessive to all sap-colors, and cream recessive to both white and the Sap-colors, so that cream-colored sweet peas are always homozygous and can produce nothing but cream-colored offspring. With one exception, white crossed with any sap-color gave reversion in the first generation to purple om to “painted lady” (red bicolor). This occurrence of two reversionary types fives rise to complications -which have not yet been well worked out. Perhaps the most novel result is seen in the different behavior of two white- flowered strains known to the trade as “Emily Henderson” and distinguishable from each other only by the form of the pollen which is either long or round. a pollen is generally characteristic of the various strains of sweet pea Tound appears to be limited to this one strain of “Emily Henderson, and to the various dwarf sweet peas or “Cupids” which are believed to have *prung from it. When any pure-bred white-flowered strain having long pollen "as crossed with any colored strain the first-generation hybrids were always Purple. When white with round pollen was crossed with blue sap-colored, it et < Produced F;, but when crossed with red sap-colored the first ———— ways painted lady. When pure-bred white “long” was crossed with pure- the first generation hybrids were sometimes purple, sometimes hi , on the other hand, extracted whites are used, whether they long or round pollen, no reversion takes place when they are crossed together, and F are all white-flowered ;. 3 Bateson, W., SAUNDERS, Miss E. R., Punnett, R. C., and Hurst, Cc. C., * “ § to the Evolution Committee of the Royal Society. Report II. Experimental 190s, in the Physiology of heredity. 8vo. pp. 154. London: Harrison & Sons. 314 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [OCTOBER This difference of behavior between pure-bred and extracted whites is sug- gestive of CASTLE’s* recently reported results with guinea-pigs, in. which several white individuals showed the presence of latent black pigment by transmitting it to a certain proportion of their offspring. ‘The whites extracted from the non-black members of these crosses proved to be pure albinos incapable of pro- ducing black offspring —G. H. SHULL. MacDoveat’s has published, with the cooperation of A. M. Vat, G. H SHULL, and J. K. SMALL, some of the results of the study of Oenothera that have - been made at the New York Botanical Garden. Thus far the attempt to find O. Lamarckiana in its native state has been unsuccessful, although herbarium and other records make it “fairly conclusive that it is a true and independent species, native to America.” That this species has remained unchanged for over a hundred years is certain. O. grandiflora, O. Lamarckiana, and O. argilli- cola are more closely related to one another than any of them are to O. biennis. An expedition by S. M. Tracy undertaken for the purpose of the rediscovery of O. grandiflora was successful. O. biennis, as commonly understood, includes two or more elementary species, and O. cruciata embraces three such species. These facts make it evident that the resolution of a “species” into its elementary species is the first requisite for the study of mutation, casual field observations being almost worthless. Careful studies were made of hybrids of O. Lamare with O. cruciata and O. biennis. The occurrence of known mutants, % 0. rubrinervis, O. albida, O. gigas, etc., from a culture of O. Lamarckiana was observed, showing that the mutative period of the latter is still present, and that. the same mutants may occur in diverse environments. Some hitherto sconces mutants were also observed. Results of statistical studies are set forth in sont detail; while the mutants show great variability, there is yet a great gap between other place. them and the parent form. A summary of this paper® is given in ano H. C. Cow es. Wutte’ has published a preliminary report on the Hymeniales of Connecticut illustrated by half-tone reproductions of excellent photographs. 4n€ P't, of the report is to compile, so far as possible, a complete list of native spec with notes as to the characteristics of the genera.—J. M. C. . 4 CasTLE, W. E., Heredity of coat characters in guinea-pigs and rabbits. sigh of the Station for Experimental Evolution at Cold Spring Harbor, New York, pp. 78, pls. 6. Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington. a 5 MacDoueat, D. T., Vat, A. M., SHuLL, G. H., and SMALL, J. K., » df and hybrids of the Oenotheras. Pp. 57. figs. 13. pls. 22. Carnegie Institubo® Washington, Publication No. 24. Washington, 1905. Gard 6MacDoveat, D. T., Studies in organic evolution. Jour. N. Ya 6: 27-36. 1905. 7 Waite, Epwarp ALBERT, A preliminary report on necticut. State Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey, Bull. 3. pp- 81- the Hymeniales _ pls. 40. 1995- 1995] CURRENT LITERATURE 315 Cuton® has described the fifty species of smuts known to occur in Con- necticut, introducing the descriptions by a general account of the characters of the gro umerous drawings and reproductions of photographs illustrate the paper.—J. M. C. SCHAFFNER® and his associates have made an ecological study of a glacial lake near Columbus, Ohio. Many of the typical bog plants, such as sphagnum, are absent; but some, as Decodon, are present in abundance.—H. C. CowLes. Oscoop,"° in an account of a reconnoissance in Alaska mainly concerned with birds and mammals, gives notes on the distribution of the more characteristic plants that will interest plant geographers.—H. C. CowLes. NOTES FOR STUDENTS. Favti! has made a cytological investigation of the ascus, studying the origin of the asci from the ascogenous hyphae, and their nuclear divisions and spore formations in a number of hitherto uninvestigated Ascomycetes, particularly H ydnobolites sp., Neotiella albocincta, and Sordaria finicola. He has examined thirty-six species in order to determine how the ascus originates from the ascog- enous hyphae. He finds numerous cases in which the ascus does not arise from the penultimate cell of the recurved tip of an ascogenous hypha, as described for Various Discomycetes but not for mildews. Marre and GUILLIERMOND have fully described deviations from this type, and Favtt in his examination finds that such is invariably the case in only eleven species. The ascus may bud out from the penultimate cell, although occasionally the septum between it and the terminal cell is lacking. The absence of this wall cutting off a uninucleate terminal cell at the tip seems to be the most frequent departure from the con- ventional type, being well illustrated by Genea hispidula, in which form the wall s always wanting. In some forms the asci arise from the terminal cell of the “scogenous hyphae and in others apparently from any cell. In every case defi- see determined, the uninucleate stage of the ascus arises by fusion of two nuclei, which may be daughter nuclei or sister nuclei, either before or after enter- = ne ascus. Extranuclear granules, staining like nucleoli and evidently nutri- Ye in character, were observed in the neighborhood of nuclei in the asci. a appearance of these bodies is a characteristic feature at different stages. bodies were also observed in ripe spores. Sn eas ie ae . — Perkins, The Ustilagineae, or smuts, of Connecticut. State ‘ at. Hist. Survey, Bull. 5. pp. 45. figs. 55- 1905: oo » J. H., Jennincs, O. E., and Tyzer, F. J-; Ecological study of - Froc. Ohio State Acad. Sci. 4:151-165. 1904. Pp. eageas W. H., A biological reconnoissance of the base of the Alaska Peninsula. : 5. maps 2. North American Fauna No. 24. Washington. 19°4- — J. H., Development of ascus and spore formation in Ascomycetes. Proc. - Nat. Hist. 32:77-113. pls. 7-II. 1905. 316 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocroBER This author helieves that the spindles are of intranuclear origin, while the centrosomes and asters with which they are associated are of extranuclear origin. The nucleus occupies the dense cytoplasm which becomes differentiated about it. In Neotiella and Sordaria the protoplasm about the exceedingly large nucleus streams out irregularly into the foamy cytoplasm above and below; while nucleus of Hydnobolites is surrounded by a hyaline area possessing a radiate structure. The fibers of the broad spindle taper in Neotiella and Sordaria to terminate in two very minute centrosomes, from which radiate very fine rays, often so fine as not to be easily demonstrable. The astral rays in Hydnobolites are long and coarse and easily observed. These rays stain differently from the centrosome, and there is no evidence that they are outgrowths from or that they are absorbed by the centrosome at the time of their disappearance. In Hydno- bolites the chromosomes are very small, while those of Neotiella are large horse- shoe-shaped bodies. The number of chromosomes may vary in different species, being four or five in Hydnobolites and six or seven in Neotiella. The method of spore formation is particularly interesting, as it does not at all correspond with that described by Harper. A plasma membrane is organized about the spore- plasm before the nuclei pass into a resting condition. This membrane is formed entirely distinct from the astral rays, which do not appear to enter into its com- position. The long thick astral rays of Hydnobolites change position, but s as to he thrown farther apart. A fusion is an impossibility. These rays May be seen distinctly even after the spores are delimited. ‘The sporeplasm is delim- ited from the rest of the cytoplasm by the differentiation of a certain hyaline finely granular area. This specialized hyaline layer of protoplasm begins just outside the centrosome and proceeds progressively until it entirely encloses the sporeplasm. A plasma membrane is subsequently formed from or in this limiting area. Concurrently with this first membrane a second membrane is formed in contact with the first, which lines the cavity in which the spore is to lie. esto suggests that these membranes may arise by a cleavage in the limiting area, @ by its increased growth and differentiation and‘a pull on the part of the ee Both plasma membranes are intimately concerned in laying down the spore between the opposed membranes. The time of the formation of the saat of the is variable in the different species and bears no relation to the delimitation wi sporeplasm. Multinucleate spores are usually septate, but those re kary- are unseptate. The multinucleate condition arises, at least in Sordaria, ot okinetic division of the nucleus of the spore. Where a septum is formed due to .off an énucleated portion, as the tail of the Podosporas, its organization 6 nly in the direct action of the nucleus on the cytoplasm, since septa are jones = the immediate neighborhood of nuclei. The author favors the view that + favor gizes the ascus with a zoosporangium of the Oomycetes, as an argo of the origin of the Ascomycetes from the Oomycetes. He does not ea the difference between the method of spore formation in the ascus and ad is so great as to prevent an assumption of their homology.—J. B. nic bas 1905] CURRENT LITERATURE 317 WaAsIELEWsKI"? has undertaken by theory and. by his own experimental data to dispel what he calls the “‘Mitosendogma” of Hecirr. This so-called dogma consists in a discrimination between mitosis and amitosis, in which the former is regarded as the only process by which nuclear division can be accom plished and the potential qualities retained. According to this view, frag- mentation of the nucleus is held without exception to involve loss of regeneration capacity. According to the author this dogma ignores the fact that amitosis is just as normal for many lower organisms as mitosis is for the higher. Further, the idea that the nucleus is the bearer of the hereditary qualities is a theory only, though so widely accepted as to be regarded often as a fact. A study of the influence of chloral hydrate, especially, on nuclear and cell division leads the author to conclude that both may occur amitotically in higher plants. This tendency to amitosis apparently dormant may be aroused by stimulants. Degen- eration as a consequence of amitosis was not observed, and cells so divided can Tesume mitotic divisions without loss of capacity for development. Two modes of amitotic nuclear divisions were observed: Diatmese (dissection) and Diaspase (distraction). Thus, the latter are regarded as members in a phylogenetic series which includes mitosis and from which amitosis does not fundamentally differ. In the second section the author goes so far as to state that a given nucleus may begin its division mitotically and complete it amitotically. The physiological ¢quivalence of mitosis and amitosis is advocated. NEMEC’s paper, in which the author is believed to have confused amitosis with nuclear fusion, appeared after this second section had gone to press. The author promises a paper in which this matter will be considered—Raymonp H. Ponp. Es RECENT PAPER by Lonco's describes the nutrition of the embryo sac in is ol. especially in Cucurbita Pepo. The principal point of interest behavior of the pollen tube, which, after discharging the usual function — age fecundation, serves as an organ of food absorption. About the _ the pollen tube reaches the emb o sac, an enlargement occurs in it a short sca from its extremity. After fertilization, slender branch-like outgrowths ceed from the enlargement and grow along the nucellus to enter a specialized ca the outer integument. This region is composed of cells containing the 7a as starch, which is extracted by the haustorial_ prolongations of Polen tube. In the meantime the epidermis of the nucellus, or its outermost ia — Becomes cuticularized and the cells near the chalaza become suber- eg it would seem that the path of the food material is through the to the a dle of the outer integument to the nutritive tissue, and from oat Temainder ata the haustorial prolongations and the pollen tube. The ——_*1 0! the paper is occupied (x) with an account of the changes that occur I Riss a W. von, Theoretische und experimentelle Beitrage 2ur Kennt- ee - Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 38: 377-420; 39:581-606. figs. 10. 1904: Annalj “ea ms Bracio, Osservazioni e ricerche sulla nutrizione dell’embrione vegetale. Rica 2: 373-396. 1905. 318 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [ocToBER in the endosperm and integuments during seed development; and (2) with reviews of various papers dealing with different methods of embryo sac nutrition. While Lonco’s paper was in press, that of Kirkwoop" appeared. A footnote by Lonco states that his observations and Kirkwoop’s do not agree in respect to the presence of a micropyle and the passage of the pollen tube through it in Cucurbito Pepo. Lonco maintains that in this species no micropylar canal is present, but that the pollen tube grows between the cells of the nucellus. Asa ‘micropyle is present in other species, he thinks Ktrkwoop: has made a mistake in determination.—F. H. Brtirncs. Two INVESTIGATORS have published preliminary announcements of the results of a study of fertilization and the associated structures in Jumiperus com- munis. NoréN*S says that during the summer following pollination the pollen _ tube grows into the tissues of the nucellus, but fertilization does not occur until the following year. The two male cells are equal in size. A ventral canal nucleus is formed, but it is not separated from the egg by a wall. The male cel is still surrounded by its cytoplasm when it enters the egg, but slips out from it as the sex nuclei come into contact. There are eight free nuclei in the proembryo ‘before walls begin to be formed. SLUDSKY’s'® announcement was hastened by that of NorEN. He —_ that the entire development of the sexual generation, from pollen to fertilization, and from megaspore to embryo, lasts only one summer; the growth of the pollen tube lasting only two to six weeks. A ventral canal nucleus is formed, but dis- appears before fertilization. Centers with radiations are prominent In the As" and are caused by the diminishing pressure which accompanies the formation ° vacuoles. There are never more than two male cells in a pollen tube. — cellular complex described for Cupressus by JUEL is regarded as te material. Not more than two male cells ever enter the egg, and only bes funct in fertilization. The nucleus of the male cell is still surrounded by 1s cytof | after it enters the egg. During fertilization there can be seen in the upper Pas of the egg the tube nucleus, neck cells, and even cells of the overlying me In regard to the fusion of sex nuclei, the author agrees with NorEN, and in to the embryo he agrees with SrRASBURGER.—C. J. CHAMBERLAIN. ; LILIENFELD"? ascribes the indecisive results obtained by aie”: s Ruopes in their study of the chemotropism of roots to inadequate tions (1) Among the sources of error unprovided for by them the author men 14 KirKwoop, I. E., The comparative embryology of the Cucurbitaceat in Bor. GAZETTE 39:73. 1905. i Vorlaufige sNoréx, C. O., Ucber Befruchtung bei Juniperus commun Mitteilung. Arkiv. Bot. Svensk. Vetens. Akad. 3: pp- 11- 1994 P commis 16 SLupsky, N., Ueber die Entwickelungsgeschichte des Juniperus Vorlaufige Mitteilung. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 23: 212-216. 17 LILIENFELD, M., Ueber den Chemotropismus der Wurzel. Bot. Gesells. 23:91-96. 1905. Ber. 1995] CURRENT LITERATURE 319 traumatic disturbance due to resistance offered by gelatin surface to entering root; (2) positive aerotropism because of the stratum of air between the gelatin blocks; (3) diffusion of stimulating subst from one block to the other. In the author’s improved method, only one large circular block of gelatin is used. After a cavity is made in the center of the block, the seedlings are planted in the gelatin at vary- ing distances from the margin of the cavity, and into the latter the stimulating substance is then placed. By using this method negative responses were obtained in cases corresponding to which positive responses were obtained with the method of NewcomBe and Ruoprs. The former responses are regarded as chemo- tropic, while the latter are considered traumatropic.—RayMonpD H. Ponp. _ THE Greatest Gap in our knowledge of the morphology of Coniferales is in connection with the Araucarineae. THOMSON,’* whose interesting work on the megaspore-membrane of gymnosperms has been noted, has published a preliminary statement of the results of his investigation of the tribe. The con- spicuous features are the supernumerary nuclei found in the pollen tube, in one case reaching thirty in number; the failure of the pollen grains to reach the micro- Pyle, lodging at the distal end of the scale and sending out their tubes from that point; the unusual freedom of the nucellus from the integument; and the peculiar arrangement and development of the archegonia, not described in this notice. The anatomical details also indicate a peculiar isolation of the tribe among oe The forthcoming monograph will be looked for with great interest. Scott has discovered the sporangia of Stauropteris Oldhamia, a common a * the English Coal-measures, which has been regarded as a much branched naked rachis of a fern leaf. The ultimate branchlets are exceedingly numer- ous and slender, “occurring in dense, faggot-like groups.” ScoTT now finds that pr branchlets bore terminal sporangia of the ordinary fern type, except that ma ‘6 : 2 asa stomium and no annulus. There is a suspicion that these Se eporanais of a pteridosperm, especially since the ovules of that hak = = found attached, are also terminal upon ultimate branchlets. as oS ie would be that such a position of sporangia attained among accounts for its occurrence among pteridosperms.—J. M. C. ae Ust of some unrecorded stations for New Zealand plants, COCKAYNE” Patago tee Darwinii urolepis, a plant hitherto recorded as occurring only in and nia, thus adding another form common to the floras of South America New Zealand.—J. M.C oe ee 18 1905 THomson, Science N. S. 22:88. R.B., Preliminary note on the Araucarineae. Scorr eis: » D. H., The sporangia of Stauropteris Oldhamia Binney. New Phytol. 4-120, figs. ae Igos. 20 e Pere CKAYNE, L., Some hitherto-unrecorded plant habitats. Trans. N. Z. Inst. 301 367. 1905. NEWS. PROFESSOR EDUARD TANGL, ee of Czernowitz, died recently at the age of fifty-seven years. ee Proressor Leo Errera, director of the Botanical Institute of the University 4 of Brussels, died August 1 at the age of forty-seven years. : THE TOTAL APPROPRIATION for the U. S. Department of Agriculture for the year 1905 is $5,944,540. This includes $1,337,740 for the Weather Bureau. : Dr. RoBpert BRAITHWAITE completed on his eighty-first birthday his mono — the British Moss Flora, on which he has been engaged for twenty-five years Repaid W. Berry is studying the fossil flora of Maryland. His new address is in care of the Maryland Geological Survey, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. Tae New York Botanical Garden has purchased the entire mys i collections of Mr. Grorcr Masser, on which largely was based. his _work ‘ British Fungi. : It WouLp Nor be amiss for the editor of the Zeitschrift ji P a heiten to revise the list of collaborators on its title page. One at least dead these ten years. WE LEARN from the Journal of Botany that Mr. GEORGE Mivesay has compelled by failing health to resign his curatorship in the department Se of the British Museum. AN ADMIRABLE SUMMARY of the relation of plant physiology. to oi ment of agriculture is presented by ALBERT F. Woops, tee ologist of the Bureau of Plant Industry, in the Yearbook of the U > Je} of Agriculture for 1904 (pp. 119-132), just issued. THE Iratan Botanical Society devoted a special session at its meeting in September to the memory of Professor F. of died last May. The meeting was held in Vallombrosa, where ; formerly professor. A eulogy was pronounced by Professor — earlier his pupil and then his assistant. PavL Parry (Berlin) announces that the third edition of the the Pflanzenkrankheiten is in preparation by Professor Dr. P associated with him Professor Dr. G. Lrnpav and Dr. L. Ren. Th ; respectively the plant and animal parasites which occasion diseases the original author, Dr. Soraver, confining himself in this edition © due to conditions of weather, position, soil, and cultivation. will appear in three volumes : 320 ome HEADACHE is the brain’s cry for phosphates Pa et eng the body consumes ‘ 1en the supply is less han the deman eae adi akes ace and headache fo lows. Horsford’s Acid Phosphate ln oer ah pe for brain- vis a i upplies “be, peas in a Song taaa ilated, promptly ache, ne vo nervousness an ad ‘Wesads co mtaining full i adh ona = aon _neghamee none ur druggist can’t Me *f. supply you, send soe RD CHEMICAL Wom, eee Genc nce, R.1., for sample bottle, postage paid. ete Sozodont Tooth Powder a delicious dentifrice. Free from acid and grit. 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SUMMY C®: 220 WABASH AVENUE TAN CHICKERING, KURTZMANN, MATHUSHEK AND GABLER P We Sell all Pianos at Definite Prices Publishers and Importers of Music Dealers in Music of the use We publish a number of desirable Musical Works for school Send for Descriptive Circular a Better class ener Ee ee ee an eg to foo < igestion the original, in use h s MclIlh " alf enny’s teasoning {i entur i. ’ or Soups, Sauces, ‘Salad ago a , etc d, But be sure i the appetite, and Oysters, Clams, Fish, Roas Booklet of Re cipes NALEENNY’S T TABASCO. New on req w Iberia, Louisiana. new catalogue 7 of the books and Periodicals published by the University of Chicago Press has just been issued. Those interested in learned and scientific works may obtain a copy free by addressing Ga Riversity of Chicago Press Chic *9, and 156 Fifth Av., New York 8 tp ateess | Let us prove what we claim at our expense The i is only one way to prove any- sit ng about a typewriter, and that is pe test of the machine itself 1 cane own office That is what we want every possible purchaser of a Fox Typewriter to do before he buys. When we say the Fox Typewriter can be asada with from 25 to 100 per " ; and save } amount of ripe eng repairs. u rte a per cent. of our sales are ‘aaa under just such circumstances. If we can "por it to you, you want our ar Remember we frove this at our ex- pense. ‘All you have to do is say you are interested, no matter where you are. Write us today. Fox Typewriter Co. Executive Office and Factory 560-570 Front St., GRAND RAPIDS, MICH. Branches and Agencies in Principal Cities. 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Kenna, Milwaukee S Railway Consolidation; steed a of the Chicago, Cc Railw Bi as Factors in Industrial Developme oe p ae & ° 5 al Educt Commercial other subjects bir: in Lectures on Commerce are kin Head; Investments tion, by ni aurence Laughlin; The Steel Industry, by Sag b an; Th at mercia s . F. J. Porter; At Wholesale, by A -C. Bartlett; The Com siness, by Do by John Lee Mahin; The on edit | Department of Modern Bu and Fire Insurance, by A F, Dea postpaid Lectures on Commerce, 396 pages, 8vo, cloth, eo Se —— Go PRES THE UNIVERSITY of CHICAG® w xo CHICAGO and 156 Fifth Avenue NE ae The man who buys any other Typewriter always HOPES it will be as good as the Remington ; IS EASILY THE BEST MADE : , 2. Always Ready—Always Writes Obtainable from best dealers ho others just as good. Send for book of 100 styles to sutt all #xG11, BLOOMSBURG, PA. Remington Typewriter Company New York and Everywhere a ee a Preserve Your Magazines AVE them bound in Cloth or Leather. ress has a well- job bindery and leased to quote “quipped Will be p Prices, ago Press CHICAGO The University of Chic Mig. Dept, Bindery CHICAGO & ALTON RAILWAY “THE ONLY WAY” THE CHICAGO & ALTON runs the largest passenger engines in the world : They keep the trains on time Between Chicago, St. Louis, Kansas City and Peoria F Geo. J. CHARLTON, General Passenger Age” CHICAGO, iLL. The New tlammond Typewriter For All Nations and Tongues and used by All Classes of People. THE BUSINESS MAN - Because the New Hammond is the Best Lets Writer, Manifolder and Tabulator. THE SCIENTIFIC MAN - Because the Hammond has a practically ot range of service. THE LITERARY MAN - Because the Hammond allows the use of — styles and sizes of type. - THE LINGUIST - - - Because on one Hammond machine mei twenty languages can be written. 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Disinfectant. : A colorless liquid, which instantly deste foul-odors and disease-breeding matter, W#*) diluted with ten parts of water for houseboé use, it costs less than 5 cents a quart Sei | everywhere in quart bottles. Prepared = by Henry B, Platt, N. ¥3 q THE DAINTIEST SOAP MADE is HAND SAPOLIO for toilet and bath. Other soaps chemically dissolve the dirt —HAND it. It contains no animal fats, but is made from the most vegetable oils. It opens the pores, liberates their activities, chemical change in those delicate juices that go to make up bloom of a perfect complexion, Test it yourself. THE FAME OF SAPOLIO has reached far and wide, Everywot® in millions of homes there is a regard for it which cannot. be Sapolio has done much for your home, but now for you ever tried HAND SAPOLIO, for toilet and bath? It is relate only because it is made by the same company, but dainty, soothing, and healing to the most tender skin. It p ITS USE IS A FINE HABIT_-ITS COST BUT AT SAPOLIO removes | healthful of the but works 2° the charm and wi 4 to Sapole it is delicate leases ever 0% RIFLE pa nts. € We take old & I [ANOS 2 VOSE pi new piano a | Write for Catalogue D and explanations. é VOSE & SONS PIANO CO., 160 have been estab’ shed ofr poder neal THE DOTANICAL GAZETTE November, 1905 Editors; JOHN M. COULTER and CHARLES R. BARNES CONTENTS Studies of Irritability in Algae ~ A George J. Peirce and Flora A. Randolph The Bogs and Bog Flora of the Huron River Valley | Edgar Nelson Transeau Briefer Articles Notes on North American Willows. I. Carleton R. Ball : Current Literature News _ The University of Chicago Press : CHICAGO and NEW YORK William Wesley and Son, London 3 aT se {aw a ak ed A Ps é “er a ee * ne The Botanical Gazette Montbly Journal Embracing all Departments of Botanical Science by Jom M. CouLter and CHARLES R. BARNES, with the assistance of other members of the botanical staff of the Untenals of Chi No. 5 Issued November 15, 1905 CONTENTS ‘OF IRRITABILITY IN ALGAE hatiale TWENTY-SEVEN oe ae J. Peirce and Flofa A. Randolph Page We m AND BOG FLORA OF THE HURON RIVER VALLEY — SIXTEEN Figures). Edgar Nelson Transeau - 351 ARTICLES. Notes ON NorTH AMERICAN WILLOWS (WITH PLATES XII AND xmt). I. Carleton R. Ball 376 Lag » rma - 5. - : se : é eS é “ “ - 381 lee IN ECOLOGY. NOR NOTICES ‘ ¥ ‘ x 3 ‘ fi ca - oc 38a S FOR STUDENTS elt eign @ 4 go. eb ee one eee eres ee eg ce as 6 ol OR ee a “a nications for the Editors should be addressed to them at the University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill are requested to write scientific and proper names with particular care, to use the metric sights and acaie. and in citations to follow the form shown in the pages of the BoTANICAL » if desired, must be ordered in advance of publication. Twenty-five separates 0! f original i covers) will be furnished gratis. 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If you canno ante ern og on 7 eology and Botany. f n asso eson 1 Histo -Ce pe we Slides on Astr tea og Anatomy. a ten nt eaier wie tal ff of eson A i Lantern Slides Mat eee or orongpacag i of catalogues and s eit antern Slid Engi pote rh on n Engineering and Architecture. b ks at greatly reduced prices Lantern Slides iiluabraatnn many other subjects, oe We rent slides at low rates, atone for lists, ANT naming particular subject of intere F. jae WILLIAMS, 0 ee York egg of Stereopticons, Microscopes, etc. 23 W Forty-Second Sty New t.24 918 Chestnut St., Phila. [—— —— — carte Wall Back Numbers of the Botanical Gazette Wat te: Vo! We will ae a arp — oa “ ee back numbers oc the Botanical ory sles i . Vol. I, » I, 10, I Tol. , Nos... %,:5, 9, 19: Vol. os. I, II. Tks , i : 8, 9, 10, II, ay Vol. VL. ibs ie 4 3, 4 75 8) 9, 11, 12: roi v II, Nos. 4 Vol. XI, Nos 1,43 VIII, Nos.'3, 5. Vol. IX, Nos. 3,5, 10, 11. Vol. X, Nos. 3, 4, 7» 8: 1 1 Vol. XLV, No. 10. Vol. XXIIL Nos. 1, 3, 4¢ Vol. XXXV, No. I. to Readers of this magazine who have any of these numbers _ Of please write THE UNIVERSITY OF GHIGAGO PRESS CHIGAG. it | dispose SER VICE FOR BOOKBUYERS We carry at all times the most extensive and varied assortment in this country of the books of all publishers. Anything in general literature or in special branches, such as theological, tech- nical, or scientific works can be supplied, or if out of stock temporarily, will be ordered. Our Monthly Bulletin gives a complete list of all new books received by us with de- scriptions, and will be sent to any address free of charge. College Libraries No house in this country has better facil- ities for handling library business, as our long experience enables us to give valuable aid and advice. A. C. MCCLURG @ CO. Chicago, Illinois ee Ghe University of Chicago Press The Significance of the pohly Element in the Philosophy of Pla By ee VING ELGAR MILLER. 96 pp., royal 8vo, paper, net $0.75; postpaid . 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RANSOM Vp Fellow in the History of Artin | iy "Uf, P os the University of Chicago Lye Yy yy Manyyptt Wy y Me =~ 4 RCHAEOLOGISTS, philolo- Mir, ” ists, ¢ Libis Sists students of Greek and Yf/f - WL, latin literature, collectors of an- Ve rrr VIMY NY“ tque furniture, and designers will deinterested in this valuable book. For the first time the subject of beds and couches of the classical period has been treated exhaust- ively, caress “ft | | ee is ej me li dining-couch in the house of Eurytus. This book is to be commended, Heals reclining, upon = dining cost te ing fot only to classical scholars, but ‘all persons interested in the history or designing of furniture. It is issued i handsome quarto form, with large, clear type, heavy paper, wide margins, a buckram cover of rich dark green stamped in gold, and is abundantly illustrated. $4.50 net, postpaid $4.75 Egoism: A Study in the Social Premises of Religion By LOUIS WALLIS ‘Ae st the author sets forth the proposition that<‘‘egoism is aoa ST at or 3 the social machine.” This thesis he praesent its = of the Bie by evidence drawn from biblical history. The historica i nea etefore FE “i author maintains, must be made in the light of epeton = “ROWS its he the cognizance of the basic sociological factor. saci : ‘tremely Practical bearing on the present social problems. The little Y readable and suggestive. 137 PP., 16mo, cloth; net 75 cents, postpaid 85 cents. THE UNIVERSITY OF CACACe Studies in General Physiology By JACQUES LOEB Professor of Physiology in the University of California , Ly these two volumes Professor Loeb has collected the results of his exper ments with physical life-phenomena and_ has presented them in loga sequence. Great interest also attaches to the books because they recount i preliminary steps which have led to the wonderful results lately attained § Professor Loeb in his attempts to fertilize ove in an artificial way (parthear genesis). The volumes contain numerous diagrams and other illustratioe In two volumes, royal 8vo, silk; net $7.50, postpaid $7.91 | Light Waves and Their Uses By ALBERT A. MICHELSON Professor and Head of the Department of Physics in the University of Chicago | HESE lectures, delivered at the Lowell Institute, proved so popular a interesting that there was a wide-spread demand for them in book ye; This volume will be found of great practical value, not only by all nye optics and general physics, but also by those who have to solve engineer ; mechanical problems that call for extreme accuracy. Numerous practical cations of recent theories, together with accurate illustrations and ane apparatus, add materially to the value of the book. There are 108 cu three colored lithograph plates. 176 pp., 8vo, cloth; net $2.00, postpaid $2.13 Physical Chemistry in the Serv* of the Sciences By JACOBUS H. VAN’T HOFF : os i Dee Member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences, Professor Honorarius Hoff a t : HE course of lectures delivered by Professor Jacobus Be baie Al University of Chicago has been carefully edited by Prote me under Smith, and is now available in book form. The lectures are a emistry following heads: Introductory, Physical Chemistry and Pure ad Phys oft cal Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry, Physical Chemistry 4 Physical Chemistry and Geology. rity of BO mee AI VERS TY OF CHICAGO PRESS Methods in Plant Histology By CHARLES J. CHAMBERLAIN Instructor in Botany in the University of Chicago THE many teachers and students of botany who already know Professor Chamberlain’s book will welcome the new and enlarged edition. It is he only book that gives full directions for the collection and preparation of otanical material for the microscope. The various methods of mounting are ‘rated in detail, special prominence being now given to the Venetian turpentine method and to improvements in the paraffin method. Microchemical tests, fee-hand sectioning, the use of the microscope, and the securing of repro- | ductive stages in the simpler forms of plant-life receive particular attention in the new edition. While intended for college classes, the book will be of great assistance to high-school teachers and amateurs. This revised and enlarged edition, which was placed on the market Novem- | bert, is practically a new book. It is the result of ten years’ work. It aims to Tet the needs not only of the student who has the assistance of an instructor oy equipped laboratory, but also the student who must work alone with ‘mited apparatus. X+262 pp., 8vo, cloth; net $2.25, postpaid $2.39 ALaboratory Guide in Bacteriology By PAUL G. HEINEMANN Fellow in Bacteriology, the University of Chicago 2. peeipal purpose of the manual is to guide the medical student through has ey course in bacteriology. In writing this Guide, special gu cmprehendi ula ie ae instruction of a student inadequately Bie - ‘dvancj ing the all-important methods of this comparatively new ane F pidly cing branch of biology. : ~ Course as outlined includes all well-known pathogenic bacteria, mS the student with their biological characteristics in such a way as to the coming physician to recognize them by the prescribed methods. coon is useful to the practitioner as a reference to aso trated a afford him guidance for research in his practice. — e€ ; | ia dia adds greatly Its Usefulness and ‘quai le € illus to a list of recipes for making up special culture me vii+-143 pp., 12mo, cloth; net $1.50, postpaid $1.61 THE UNIVERSITY OF CAICAGH ae a CONSTRUCTIVE BIBLE STUDIES Edited by WILLIAM R. HARPER and ERNEST D. BURTO) ORIGIN: The Constructive Bible Studies are the outgrowth of ts conviction that the prevailing systems of Sunday-school instr tion are insufficient to meet the growing demands of the times PURPOSE: Believing the Sunday- school to be the great education branch of the church, the editors of the Constructive Bible Studie have sought to produce a series of religious textbooks based « the fundamental laws laid down by trained educators. One 6 the most important of these laws is the principle that the currice lum must be adapted to the capacity of the pupils, giving to ead grade work which is suited in material and method of treatmes to the stage of development of the pupils. PLAN: The Studies comprise four series, each corresponding 10 definite stage of development in the pupil. THE KINDERGARTEN SERIES takes up work of a more general character, mental facts of the Bible and the religious life. dealing with the fst THE ELEMENTARY SERIES ink as 4 | ble is intended as an aid in broadening the view of wae and as an introduction to the study of particular books THE SECONDARY SERIES has for its object a closer acquaintance both with the and with religious concepts. biblical mae THE ADVANCED SERIES has been planned with a view to promoting of the historical data, and naturally inv religious problems and the various attempts e minute € exe? g " a mor : jon of ites a discuss at their solution. — Meme iPr ER STTY OF CHICAGO PRESo CONSTRUCTIVE BIBLE STUDIES BEING A SERIES OF TEXTBOOKS FOR THE GRADED SUNDAY SCHOOL CURRICULUM FOR 1905-6 FOR THE KINDERGARTEN DIVISION tee Year of Sunday-School Lessons. By FLORENCE U. Pater. Postpaid, $1.00. FOR THE ELEMENTARY DIVISION BEGINNING GRADES (AGES 6-8) | Manual for Teachers, with Lessons, Music, and Manual Work. By Grorcia L. 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IN a recent book on the physiology of plants (13) the statement is made that “when zoospores and other motile and floating spores of sessile plants come to rest, attaching themselves to the substratum, the attachment is effected through means not yet wholly clear. . - - It remains for experiment actually to show that the increased rate and the changed direction of growth in such cases among plants are due to contact, though it seems to be the case in animals” (10). It was with a view to adding somewhat to our knowledge in this direction that the studies here reported were undertaken, first with fresh-water algae, and subsequently with marine. We worked together on the fresh-water algae; one of us worked alone on the sta-weeds;' we have gone over all the results together. For the sake of clearness, we may briefly describe the series of ‘Woes a small part of which we wish to report in some detail. Zoo- ae id of Oedogonium, Vaucheria, and other fresh-water algae, after scaping from the cells in which they form, may swim about for a ensiderable length of time. If they are in the light, the direction of : * locomotion is influenced by the direction and intensity of the sht which falls upon them. This has long been known, though ing, a ahanigeny to express my appreciation of the opportunity ] png Zoological a ni - aoe 1904, at one of the posers sar ee heartily to ik a: = es by the Carnegie gt ay: : — ik the ire cers of the Zoological Station for the y 321 . 322 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER even now far from perfectly understood (7). When the zoospores come to rest, they surround themselves with a cellulose wall. If they come to rest in contact with a solid object, their form changes as well; the part against the solid flattens and adheres to it. Thus a holdfast is formed. The young plant, now sessile, may pass rapidly by successive periods of cell-division and of growth through the subsequent stages of its development. The activities of zoospores, then, are greatly influenced at different times by various agents; the direction of their locomotion is determined by the intensity and direc tion of the light falling upon them, the formation of cell-wall imme diately follows their coming to rest; the growth of the foot or holdfast is proportioned in form and extent to the roughness of the surface with which the zoospore is in contact; and the direction of the first cell-division is probably determined mainly by the light. ‘These last three points we shall discuss in detail. Turning for the moment to the behavior of the non-motile spores of marine algae, such as those of Fucus, Cystoseira, Dictyopteris (Halyseris), we see nearly the same phenomena exhibited. There is no independent locomotion, and hence the transport of the spore from their points of origin to where they are to germinate is not direc- ted by the influence of light upon them, but by water currents. The formation of the cellulose wall, the growth of the foot, and the direction of the first cell-division (20) are, however, determined by the same influences as those controlling the similar phenomena among fresh: water algae. These we hope the following pages will make - We shall report first upon the fresh water algae, as it was upon that we began our work. I. FRESH-WATER ALGAE. MATERIAL AND METHOD. Vigorous plants of Oedogonium, somewhat crowd and other low forms, were found in watering-troughs z paddock or on pasture in the vicinity of Stanford University; | a fornia. Many of the plants were growing attached to the wee the troughs, submersed but near the surface of the yes a cases fully exposed to the light, in others partly — aj a? | Other Oedogonium filaments were found attached to Loe ed by diatoms for horses 1905] PEIRCE & RANDOLPH—I]RRITABILITY IN ALGAE 323 floating near the surface of the water in the troughs. This water was quiet and fairly clear. The level of the water, tending to be lowered by evaporation or by the draughts of the few horses using the troughs, was automatically maintained by ball-valves, similar to those used in houses. A few other plants, apparently of the same species, were found in a quiet pool in the San Francisquito Creek, growing on stones in comparatively clear water. The material was brought fresh into the laboratory from time to time from mid-September till mid-November, and again from early April till late in May. Since the material did not fruit in our cultures, and we found none fruiting out of doors, it was impossible to determine the species, though we tried to have this done for us. We regret this lack of definiteness in our work. METHOD OF MANIPULATION. Plants brought into the laboratory were placed in an abundance of tap-water in glass dishes covered with a glass plate or loose cap to Prevent excessive evaporation and to exclude dust. Small Stender dishes were largely used, since these could easily be placed under the Microscope, thereby avoiding such disturbance of the material as transfer from one dish to another would entail. Fortunately for us the water from the tap was from the same source that supplied the horse-troughs, and the creek contains mainly the overflow from the artificial lake which is the general water-supply for the region, When, therefore, our plants were brought in and put Into tap-water in the laboratory, they were put into water of the same Composition and approximately of the same temperature and degree of aeration as the water of the troughs and the pool from which they been removed. The behavior of our plants was immediately affected only by those factors changed by the transfer to the laboratory, pe y the —— , though it goes without saying that the temperatures t © cultures in the laboratory never fell quite so low at night during the winter and spring as that of the water outside in troughs and pools. : ultures were also made in Knop’s solution,” 1 per cent. and a Per cent. In certain cases we added ro per cent. gelatine or ‘25 Per cent. agar-agar to the Knop’s solution, in order to obtain a t _, osoligeeSegegs I part potassium nitrate, 1 part magnesium sulphate, . 324 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER solid culture medium. ‘These solid cultures were made in Petri dishes. Although such dishes have the same advantage as Stender dishes in that they can be put under the microscope and the cultures studied without disturbance, they cannot safely be employed in an ordinary laboratory for more than very brief periods at a time. The air of the ordinary laboratory is excessively dry (2). In consequence, there will be a quite too rapid and altogether excessive concentration of the culture medium in Petri dishes, even if covered, in all cases in which experiments last for more than a few days. In our climate, the air in the laboratory in which we worked is more humid during the winter (the rainy season) than in most laboratories. We therefore ventured to continue these cultures for some time. In summer and autumn here, and at all seasons in most laboratories elsewhere, Petri dishes are unsuitable for the culture of algae. They should be replaced by flasks holding a much larger volume of the moist culture medium and furnished with narrow necks closed by very tightly rolled cotton plugs. At certain seasons it would be well to cover the plugs with the rubber caps made for that purpose. : All dishes and solutions were carefully sterilized before the algae were sown in them. Instruments were sterilized immediately before use. In this way few if any organisms were added from outside when fresh cultures were made; but as, in order to save time, we started with small masses of material rather than with single cells 0". single filaments, our cultures were not pure. We experienced v siderable annoyance in a few instances from the wth of panes or of algae other than the ones especially sought. Nevertheless, : such experiments as we had in mind, the extreme pains and the a time required to obtain pure cultures would hardly be justified results. Furthermore, the behavior of living organisms eee a cultures may be due in part to two unnatural, that is to say WN"? factors, namely, the artificial culture medium and the vessel ° sk it is contained, and the freedom from the competition with we" a of organisms and their products. Our aim was, eee ae “a our algae under as nearly as possible natural conditions, | a — realize that the degree of naturalness which we attained 1s y = : stage in advance of the frank artificiality of pure culture. — of ret ‘ One of the greatest difficulties encountered in the culture : 7. 1905] PEIRCE & RANDOLPH—IRRITABILITY IN ALGAE 325 plants of any grade of complexity in a laboratory not provided with a greenhouse is in securing proper illumination, a difficulty all the greater when one realizes that not only is normal growth dependent upon adequate illumination, but many of the other phenomena of life are greatly influenced by it. As Kiess (8, 9). and VécuriNc (19) go far toward proving, the reproductive processes, as well as the behavior of the reproductive elements, are profoundly sensitive to light. Therefore, in any series of experiments involving irritability— that is to say, in every series of experiments on living organisms— the illumination must be carefully considered. Not having any green- houses connected with our laboratory, our difficulties were increased. Furthermore, in our climate, there is a great contrast between the light of the rainy and of the bright days in winter, while in spring and summer, the direct sunlight is quite too intense for algae except in running water or in large bodies of still water. Between too little light at a short distance from a window and too much light near it, the right illumination is difficult to find. We attempted to attain this by placing our culture dishes on glass shelves in a window looking southeast, screening the dishes at times of bright sunshine by a sheet of white tissue paper pasted across the lower part of the window. BEHAVIOR OF THE ZOOSPORES. Locomotion.—While motile, the zoospores are evidently sensitive to light, moving toward the more strongly illuminated side of a slide, °F coming to rest, when possible, on the light side of the dish in which they escape. This is a general statement of a result of our observa- ton; but, as has been known since STRASBURGER’S classical study (18) of the behavior of swarmspores, they move toward light of a certain intensity rather than light of greater intensity, turning away “OM spots too intensely illuminated toward comparative darkness, Just as they turn from comparatively dark spots to more suitably illuminated ones. Since there are still no means of accurately measuring either the intensity or the quantity of light falling upon 4 given Spot, it is out of the question to determine what the minimal, *pumal, and maximal illuminations are for motile zoospores, for their Production, or for the parent plant. We must, therefore, con- t ‘ . “nt ourselves with reporting such general observations as we were able to make. 326 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER The duration of swarming has been reported by various authors (15, p. 768), among them STRASBURGER, who found active swarm spores of Ulothrix zonata after three days, of Haematococcus lacustris after two weeks, during which the material had been kept continuously in darkness. ‘These figures have little significance beyond the fact that the plants produced motile zoospores during this time. The duration of swarming of the individual spores is quite unknown. On this point we can give little information. We found, however, that in our Oedogonium the zoospores came to rest and attached themselves within fifteen to eighteen hours, 7. e., zoospores which had escaped and were active in daylight came to rest and attached themselves during the succeeding night. The spot to which zoospores formed in water attach themselves is largely determined by the direction and intensity of the light, if there be any, which falls upon the culture. If light of not too great inten- sity fall upon a dish horizontally or nearly so, the zoospores will collect and come to rest mainly upon the more strongly illuminated side. If ~ on the other hand the light fall vertically or only somewhat obliquely from above, the zoospores will collect at the surface of the water. It is frequently observed, when the light falls obliquely upon 4 culture of algae, that the zoospores collect in greatest numbers at the surface of the water on the more brightly lighted side. From this the attract: ive influence of the oxygen of the air might be inferred. That such an inference is not always justified is proved by the fact that when the light falls horizontally, or is reflected obliquely from below 278 a culture, the zoospores still tend to collect at the point best | regardless of the greater oxygen supply near the surface of the walet- As to the directive influence of oxygen upon the : spores, we made no experiments, but it is clear from this Ke that in general the directive influence of light is stronger than ie of oxygen. When, therefore, zoospores come to the suriace water, they do so mainly under the influence of light. on reaching the surface; which is decidedly different from yr . zoospores coming to rest elsewhere, we shall presently descri oe . Germination.—When zoospores come to rest, the cilia e : walls, | : by cell-wa the naked masses of protoplasm surround themselves PY oe the forward end of each zoospore develops a holdfast at taching it! locomotion of 20° 1905] PEIRCE & RANDOLPH—IRRITABILITY IN ALGAE 327 the surface with which it has come into contact. As light evidently directs the locomotion of the spore, it is reasonable to suppose that it also determines its polarity on germination. It is hardly probable that light influences the growth of the holdfast; nor has gravity any effect, for the spores attach themselves in various positions and may even be suspended from the surface of the water. Chemical stimulus can hardly have any part in the matter, except perhaps in relation to the bacteria. The growth of the holdfast would appear, then, to result from contact with a solid body, as an irritable response to contact stimulus. This matter we wish to report upon at length. The influence of contact upon growing plants and their parts has been studied from various points of view by many investigators and upon a great variety of plants. It is now clear that contact with a solid object may influence growth in three ways: first, as to its direction, as shown by sensitive tendrils (16); second, as to its rate, also as shown by tendrils (5); and third, as to its kind, as shown by the formation of haustoria in dodder (14). Contact similarly influences the direction, rate, and kind of growth in germinating zoospores. If it is true that contact influences the direction, rate, and kind of growth in germinating zoospores, the character of the surface with which the contact is effected should be reflected in the germinated zoospores, a rough surface producing a different and more pronounced effect than a smooth surface. To test this hypothesis, we used a Yanlety of substances for the purpose of catching the zoospores, viz. Wisps of cotton, clean cover glasses, glass roughened by corrosion and deposit, strips of gelatine, freshly split mica, and the surface of the water itself, These we interposed between the swarming spores = the light. The spores came to rest and attached themselves within eighteen hours. Spores germinating on the surface of the water in contact with Particles, diatoms, and masses of bacteria developed long slender Processes, sometimes forked, but always hypha-like-in appearance (figs. 5, 6). Others on the surface, and in contact with no solid matter whatever of visible amount, formed the most rudimentary hold-fasts, ° -like Processes of very small size (figs. 1, 2, 3, 4). Those on gelatine, the acid reaction of which had been duly neutralized, formed dust 328 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER knob-like or filamentous processes in lieu of holdfasts on clean spots on the gelatine (fig. 8), whereas those in contact with particles of dirt were more or less branched (jigs. 9, 10). On roughened glass many zoospores developed disks (fig. 12). On clean glass the regularity of these disks was very striking (fig. 11). Irregularity of surface evidently induces irregularity of growth and form. This appears even more plainly from the experiments on marine algae (p. 343). Za Fics, 1-12.—Germinating zoospores of Oedogonium * ? X780. 1, 2, 3, Germinated on the surface of water (1, 2 filtered, 3 unfiltered) showin: g extremely ee holdfast.—4. Same somewhat older, ater into two cells.—s, 6. Same but with hypha or ' outgrowths at the basal end of each spo Bacteria surround these filamentous eae —o. Ger - on freshly split mica. Note well- eviaeet holdfast.—8. Germinated on clean wet pase aa) minated on a spot of dirt on wet sa —1o. Germinated on spots of dirt G inated eo tine.—11. Germinated on clean cover glass ote extremely regular holdfast—12- i d side of roughened glass dish. Note ae holdfast. Even clean glass and freshly split mica are not absolutely smov® The dustless upper surface of clean water is smooth. . Pa : wet gelatine, as Prrerer’s work on tendrils showed (16). On 4 two no holdfasts are formed by germinating zoospores. holdfasts longer or shorter hypha-like filaments appeats short indeed, and branched only where the surface is ro holds dust or dirt. On carefully polished clean cover glasses, h of remarkably regular form were developed. As later (p. 344), uniformly ground cover glasses used in expe often VOY y 1905] PEIRCE & RANDOLPH—IRRITABILITY IN ALGAE 329 the less irritable germinating spores of marine algae induced the formation of very regular holdfasts. We may say then that the form, size, and even the development of holdfasts by sessile fresh-water algae depends upon the character, the degree of roughness, of the surface with which the zoospores come into contact. A uniform though slightly rough surface, like that of clean polished glass, will induce the formation of very symmetrical holdfasts. Coarsely or irregularly roughened surfaces induce the formation of irregular holdfasts. Extremely smooth surfaces fail to induce the formation of holdfasts, unless perhaps of the most rudimentary sort. It would seem clear then, that so far as the direction and kind of growth are concerned, contact acts as a stimulus; for the holdfast grows parallel with the surface, no matter how irregular this may be, and the organ produced corresponds to the surface on which it is formed, being simple or branched, symmetrical or irregular, according to the character of the surface. As to the effect of contact upon the rate of growth, we can say nothing so far as fresh-water algae are concerned. The measurements of growth rates among marine algae are given subsequently (p. 347), rom the observations thus reported, it is obvious that contact acts as a very important stimulus in the germination of the zoospores of sessile algae. The value of this to the plant is evident enough. Hf, however, we could induce algae ordinarily not sessile to form thizoids or other holdfasts by bringing them into contact with suitably toughened surfaces, and if we could find, in nature,3 algae ordinarily hot attached fastening themselves to rough surfaces occasionally, we should add materially to the significance of our observations. Both . these things one of us has done. Though reserving the subject ns : lurther study, we may report now that plants of a species of ~°8yta which did not fruit and hence could not be determined Mile we were working upon them, formed rhizoids in our cultures, and were found to have formed rhizoids out of doors, wherever the ents were in contact with sufficiently rough material, clean cover pee 'rough-scrapings containing lime, diatoms, etc., and similar han part of our work was ended, at least for the time, CoLLINs’s paper in i Sitar - 1904) records the formation of holdfasts by Zygnema filaments Tock in a swiftly running stream. 330 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [Novewner material. We have never seen rhizoids on floating filaments or on the free floating parts of attached filaments. The size, form and direction of growth of the rhizoids were greatly influenced by the nature of the surface which the cells of Spirogyra touched, clean glass inducing the formation of strikingly regular crenate disks on the ends of the rhizoids like those formed on the same material by Oedogonium. Dirty glass, on the other hand, induced the formation of proportionally irregularly branching holdfasts. Thus our observations confirm the generally unknown observations of BorRGE (3), who in 1894 reported his studies of a species of Spirogyra which formed rhizoids. Borcr’s paper contains a list of earlier authors who mention having seen rhizoid-bearing Spirogyra.+ From the fact that on extremely smooth surfaces like the surface film of clean water or of wet neutral gelatine, no true holdfasts form, and that on sufficiently rough surfaces even such a plant as Spirogyra may form organs of attachment, it is clear that the growth of rhizoids or holdfasts represents the reaction of a plant to the stimulus of contact. The germination of a zoospore of a sessile alga is influenced by contact; but contact, though it stimulate the zoospore to form an organ of attachment, is not needed to cause the zoospore to germinate. The zoospore may remain in motion for a long, but at present unknown, period of time. So long as it continues to move about, it does not germinate. When its locomotion is stopped, germination begins. When a zoospore reaches a very smooth but impenetrable sheet of gelatine interposed between it and the source of light falling upon a culture-vessel, it loses its cilia, ceases to move, and surrounds itself by a cellulose wall—it germinates; but unless it has stopped upon a particle of dirt on the surface of the gelatine, it puts out at best only a rudimentary hypha-like process, a rhizoid, not @ gore and this it does after germination has begun. Similarly, if the f : progress of a zoospore toward the light be opposed by 1 _— reached the top of the water in which it was found, the zoospor lose cease to move, will lose its cilia, will surround itself with a cellu : wall, will germinate; but it will not form a holdfast or even a gee 4 Subsequent papers by BorcE figure other species of Spirogyr with nik ee a holdfasts (Die Algen der ersten Regnelschen Expedition. Archiy for Bota e 1903). 1905] PEIRCE & RANDOLPH—IRRITABILITY IN ALGAE 331 unless it has happened to land upon particles of dirt or other solid. Germination, then, follows enforced cessation of locomotion; growth, so far at least as the formation of a holdfast is concerned, follows and is dependent upon contact irritation. Let us turn now to the marine algae. II. MARINE ALGAE. MATERIAL AND METHOD. The material consisted of fresh fruiting plants brought in almost daily from the Bay of Naples. These plants, when not used imme- diately, were put into well-lighted aquaria, supplied with running sea-water, where they remained healthy for days after they had ceased to be used. The plants were Dictyopteris (Halyseris) poly- podioides, Dictyota dichotoma (two varieties at least of this extremely variable form), C ystoseira barbata, C. erica marina, among brown algae; and Laurentia obtusa, Polysiphonia (sp.?) among the red. I tried to get zoospores of Ulva, Cladophora, and other green algae, for the sake of comparison with the behavior of the zoospores of fresh-water algae; but whether owing to the season of the year (Octo- ber, November) or to other causes, I do not know—at all events, I failed to get sufficient numbers to justify any conclusions. The Spores used were of two sorts, the fertilized eggs of the two species of Cystoseira, and the non-sexual spores and tetraspores of Dictyopteris, a ka Polysiphonia, and Laurentia. Their behavior is essentially s r. BEHAVIOR OF THE SPORES. Anjluence oj light upon their escape—I began my work with D ‘ct yo pleris (Halyseris) polypodioides and the two species of Cysto- “ara. Clean fruiting branches, as free as possible from diatoms and other organisms, were put in small dishes about 4° diameter and a depth, filled with fresh sea-water. To reduce evaporation the dishes were covered either with glass caps or clear glass plates. The dishes were set on a broad shelf inside a northwest window about 13" below the lower edge of the glass. The light fell therefore ae wnat obliquely upon the cultures. At noon on sunny days Paty the screens, made of sheeting, in order to prevent the sun shining directly upon the dishes during the afternoon. I found this 332 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER illumination satisfactory. If the fruiting branches are put in the dishes late in the afternoon, enough spores will escape by nine o'clock next morning to justify removing the branches. In this way the age of the escaped spores may be confined within fairly narrow limits. If it were desirable to limit the age of the spores still more, as was sometimes the case, I made the cultures as soon as the fresh material was brought in, in the forenoon, and left them for four hours on the’ window shelf. In this time many spores escaped from good material, and I removed the fruiting branches. The dishes were left otherwise undisturbed for 22 or 24 hours after the cultures were made, in order to allow as many spores as possible to stick closely by their slimy coverings to the bottoms of the glass dishes. At the expiration of this time, the water in the dishes was carefully decanted, and fresh sea-water poured in. A considerable number of spores may wash out in this first change, but presumably they are the youngest, the ones last escaped from the fruiting branches, and there is the advantage in losing them that the material left in the dishes is still more nearly of the same age. Within these 24 hours the spores of Dictyoptens will have begun to germinate, putting out a short blunt process which is to form the holdfast, and having divided into two or three cells. - Cell-division, so far as the formation of a dividing wall is concernet does not seem always to precede the appearance of the process which is to become the holdfast; but there seems to a be slight difference in this regard between spores germinating under the ordinary 0% ditions of alternating daylight and darkness and those kept constantly in darkness. The latter generally form the division wall before putting out the process, but to this rule there are many exceptions In Dictyota and Cystoseira, however, the division wall is always plainly visible before the rhizoid appears. F The escape of th f Dictyopteris is much less abundant if pe of the spores of Dictyop ai the dishes are left in the dark than if they are normally light Thus, on November 11, at 12 o’clock, I put as nearly as ork equal quantities of fruiting Dictyopteris in eight dishes, two of en a I set on the window shelf and six in the dark. At 10 o'clock aie morning I counted the spores in all the dishes. There were 444 | elf.. In the #44 I 359 219 ek 75 spores in the dishes set on the window sh kept in the dark for these 22 hours there were 59, 134» 287, 1905] PEIRCE & RANDOLPH—IRRITABILITY IN ALGAE 333 218 spores. The first three of these dishes I then set on the window shelf, putting into each the same pieces of Dictyopteris that had been inthem. The other three I set back in the dark, putting into them the same branches which they had previously contained. All the dishes had fresh sea-water put into them. At 5 o’clock that afternoon so many spores had come out in the dishes in the light that I removed the pieces of Dictyopteris from all six and left them undisturbed until November 14 in the morning. Then I counted the spores, practically if not quite all of which had become fastened to the bottom of the dishes. There were now in the dishes in the light 1565, 2046, and 2245 spores; in the dishes in the dark 866, 1716, and 596 spores. In the dishes put into the light after darkness there were now 5856 spores where there had been only 480 before, a gain of 5376 or 11.2 times as many. In the dishes kept in the dark there Were now 3178 spores, a gain of 2606 or 4.5 times as many. Nearly two and a half times as many, therefore, had come out in the light as in darkness in the same length of time. The counting of such large numbers of small spores, especially where they lie very close together, is not easy. To facilitate counting and to bring the count to an approach to accuracy, I ruled lines about 2.5™™ apart with India ink on the bottoms of the dishes. The counting was done over a white surface with a hand-lens magnifying about fourteen times. To ascertain whether the amount of light has any effect on the discharge of spores, I put fruiting branches of Dictyopteris in dishes in the dark, in the full diffused light on the window shelf, and under black hoods which had a vertical slit on one side about 3™™ wide and ty" long. I did not count the spores, but it was evident that most had escaped in the dishes in full light, fewest in the dishes in the dark, and a quantity between these two in the diminished light. : Similar experiments with Dictyota dichotoma yielded results Similar in every respect. = indicating the relation of light to the process of extrusion of _. I may report some of my experiments on Cystoseira. On i 8, at 11 o'clock, I put fruiting branches of Cystoseira ac: 5 four small dishes, two of which I set in the dark, two on y a window, taking pains to have as nearly as possible equal Besa, 334 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [Novewsen numbers of fruiting tips in the different dishes. At the same time I similarly prepared four dishes of Cystoseira erica marina. In two hours and three quarters there were evidently many more spores (eggs) in the lighted dishes of C. erica marina than in those in the dark, but apparently about equal numbers in the two sets of dishes of C. barbata. At about 10 o’clock the next morning I removed the branches of C. erica marina from the dishes, throwing away those that had been kept in the light, and poured off the water from the four dishes. I counted 99 and 50 eggs in the two dishes which had been kept in the dark, 454 and 420 in the dishes kept in the light. The latter two had of course been dark for nearly or quite twelve hours, from sunset to sunrise. The branches which had been in the darkened dishes I put back in these dishes, with fresh sea-water, and set them on the window shelf. Four hours later many eggs had come out and I therefore removed the branches, but left the dishes quiet till the morning of the 1oth, so that the eggs might settle and become fastened to the bottom of the dishes. On the morning of the roth, I poured off the water, preparatory to counting the spores. Many spores were carried away by this means, but those attached to the bottoms of the dishes now numbered 270 and 241 respectively. I made similar counts of the number of eggs of C. barbata and attached in the dishes darkened for twenty-three and one-half hours. There were 426 and 348 in the two darkened dishes. There were so many spores in the dishes which had been exposed wae daylight till sunset and after sunrise that I contented myself fa counting those in the first three spaces from one side of one dish. # this space there were 376 spores. This area equals about oné quart the area of the bottom of the dish. The spores were not | distributed over the bottom, but there were at least oe many over the whole area. There were therefore about four er, many spores in the dishes which had been in the daylight as 7 constantly darkened dishes. As with C. erica marina, I put ad thet fruiting branches which had been in the darkened dishes, fl Three : with fresh sea-water, and set them on the shelf by the window. oe hours and a half later I took out. the branches, leaving t ne which had escaped to settle in the dishes and to beT i. The next morning I counted the spores attached to the a : * : | | 1905] | PEIRCE & RANDOLPH—IRRITABILITY IN ALGAE 335 the dish, in which 426 spores had escaped and attached themselves inthedark. There were now 1574 spores. In three hours and a half, therefore, after putting the dishes in the light, 948 spores had escaped and become fastened to the bottom, more than twice as many as had escaped in twenty-three and one half hours of darkness. That the number of spores which had escaped was far greater than the number which had attached themselves is shown by the other dish. From this dish I carefully decanted rather more than half the water and shook as many as possible of the loose spores into a space about 6™™ square. In this space a single layer of spores covered the whole area of 36°™™", Half the area had two layers of spores, and one quarter had three layers. If these spores had been spread out in a single layer, they would have covered an area of 63™". The average diameter of the spore is o.og™™. Calculating the area of 4 spore and dividing this into 63°¢™" we find that there were about 2623 loose spores in this area. There were many more loose spores than I could collect in one spot by shaking, so that the calculated number of practically spherical spores is none too large, though they could not occupy the whole of any quadrangular area. There must have escaped therefore at least 3400 spores during three hours and a half of daylight in the dish in which I had counted 348 spores, twenty-three and a half hours after the dish had been put in the dark. At least eight times as many spores had come out, therefore, in three and a half hours of daylight after darkness as in nearly seven times - long a period of darkness. It is to be noted that this very large number of spores (egg-cells, Probably fertilized) was obtained only after an abrupt change from Protracted darkness to full daylight. In nature, except in polar "egions, the darkness is never so prolonged; and nowhere in nature is the change from darkness to daylight so abrupt. Whatever effect darkness and light have upon the discharge of the gametes must be exhibited in maximum degree in such an experiment as I have just described. | = i, then, that light has a decided influence on the time and the Pea discharge of gametes (in Cystoseira) and of non-sexual spores ictyopteris and Dictyota). In Fucus it has long been known the majority of the gametes escape and fertilization takes place 336 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER soon after sunrise. OLTMANNS (12, p. 523) speaks of a periodicity in the discharge of the gametes of the constantly submersed Fucacee (Halidrys, Cystoseira, etc.) as well as in Fucus. Fucus does not occur in the Bay of Naples, though abundant enough in most other parts of the ocean. It is ordinarily twice daily exposed at low tide, but as various authors’ have shown such uncovering is not necessary to the discharge of the gametes. The mechanism of the discharge of the gametes consists, in part, in the swelling of the gelatinous material in the conceptacles and the compression of the walls of the conceptacles by the surrounding tissues when the sexual elements are ripe. OLTMANNs expresses doubt whether these two factors alone furnish an adequate explanation of the process. As the matter now stands, these mechanical means do not account for the periodicity, unless we assume the relation of light to the processes connected wit the growth of the gametes and with the formation of gelatinous matters within the conceptacles. The periodicity coincides with the sequence of light after darkness and is as evident, as my experiments have shown, in forms having no conceptacles as in those that do have them. In Dictyopteris, the aplanospores (tetraspores) form on both surfaces of the flat thallus, near the midrib, and project more or less from the surfaces as they grow. Finally they escape through a slit in the wall of the mother- cell. They may even germinate (12, p. 486) before escaping: It is difficult to see where mechanical pressure can effectively er here except in the sporangium itself, that is, by the growth of spores and the gelatinization of the wall and residual contents (if any : of the spore mother-cell. I shall subsequently show that light favors the germination of the spores and the growth of the young plants though they will germinate and grow in darkness. It is poor therefore, that light favors the growth of the spores before they esr from the sporangium as well as after. In this we eee spores explanation of the connection of the periodic discharge of pee , in Dictyopteris and of the gametes in Fucus and Cystoseit ae mechanical means of discharge above discussed. The develo & light is favorable to the growth of the spores, therefore totheT™ ght 1s tlavorabie to the gro pores, ment of mechanical pressure by them, but as th ae ; of a Sas e rapid dischne ae 5 Cited by OLTMANNS, I. c. 1905] PEIRCE & RANDOLPH—IRRITABILITY IN ALGAE 337 spores occurs within a few hours after the fruiting material has been put into the light after being in darkness, it may be objected that there is not time for sufficient growth to take place to develop the necessary mechanical pressure, if mechanical pressure has anything to do with the matter in such plants as Dictyopteris. In reply to this possible objection, I may say that, though the spores are rapidly discharged within a few hours, there was no evident increase in the accumulation of spores in my dishes until at least two hours had elapsed after they were put in the light. There is therefore time for owth To make this point clear I will report one experiment. Three small dishes of fresh fruiting Dictyopteris branches were kept in the dark for twenty-two hours. Early in the morning, the material was removed from these dishes, in which a considerable number of spores had been discharged, and placed in three clean dishes of fresh sea- water on the window shelf in the light. From these dishes the fruiting branches were removed after the lapse of one hour and put in another set of three dishes, the first set being left otherwise undisturbed to allow the spores which had escaped to settle and become attached. The same was done at the end of each of the two hours following. At the end of another hour and forty minutes, I repeated the process, and again after the lapse of two hours more. I therefore had five sets of three dishes each, in which spores had escaped. The number of spores at the time of exposure to light are as follows: After 1 hour’s exposure tolight . . . . . . . 36 spores in 3 dishes “ 2 hours’ “ “ e 26 a 3 y . eg 6“ “ : ee eee 17° “ 3 “ . : “ ‘“ “ ee a “ 3 “ ‘ ¢ a ee 597 “ 3 6“ be number of spores in rs dishes . . . . . « 2500 bia number of spores in escaped last 3% hours . . 2268 — of spores escaped in last 33 hours . . . 90 Teentage total time in which these spores escaped. 55 a these figures it is clear that the discharge of the spores in — 1S not an immediate one, but that a certain length of time aay “el after the plants are brought into light after darkness tak es discharge their spores rapidly. What changes © Place under illumination which result in the discharge of the 338 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER spores, I do not venture even to guess. On this interesting point I have no data. It.may be that in addition to the influence of light on the processes of food manufacture and growth in the spores and in cells adjacent to the sporangia, there are irritable responses which contribute to the development of the mechanical pressure which causes the spores to be discharged. Information on this point might add to our meager knowledge of the phenomena of irritability in the marine algae. I am by no means satisfied that the plant does not irritably respond to the light by more immediate means than growth. The light may also favor gelatinization, but the connection with this process, the details of which are unknown, is not sufficiently clear to justify discussion now. . The influence of light upon the germination of the spores.—The germination of the spores of Dictyopteris has been adequately described by REINKE (17), but he naturally made no attempt to ascertain the influence of the different factors of the environment upon the course of germination and upon the form of the young plants. In order to learn something about these matters I compared spores which had escaped during twenty-four hours in different dishes as to their rate of germination and the development of the young plants in the light and in darkness. In jig. 13 we have young plants shown which had developed thus far in a dish completely covered by black paper except for a vertical slit 17 x6™™ on the side of the dist toward the window. The time since sowing was three and three- quarters days. In fig. 14 are shown young plants from spores est at the same time, but in dishes kept completely be objected that the conditions of the two experiments were not U same, and therefore the results may not be comparable. i - shown above that light favors the escape of the spores, si because it favors their growth. For this reason, therefore, the res" are exactly comparable, because the point is made still clearer © the germination of the spores is more rapid under the normal alternation of light and darkness than in continuous the germination of the spores of ferns (4, P- 423-4 Viscum, and for various other plants it is claimed that sary. This is not generally the case with higher plants. ), the seeds light is nect* darkened. It may darkness. i 1905] PEIRCE & RANDOLPH—IRRITABILITY IN ALGAE 339 shows, the young plants grown in the dark for five days were only as far along as those grown for three and three-quarters days under the black cap with a slit in the side. Fig. 16 shows plants five days old grown under the black hoods with a side slit. This difference in growth rate may be due to two factors at least. In the first place, no manufacture of non-nitrogenous food can take place in the dark, though some such food may be manufactured even in the dim light under the black cover. If such food were manufactured, it could be used at once to nourish the organism, which is supplied in the spore with only a comparatively small amount of food. In the second place, ES 13 Oe 15 (fer 13. Germinating Spores sowed 33 days earlier on ground glass in dish ing light only through vertical slit on one side, 17X6™™; direction of light indicated by arrow. Note that all rhizoids point away from light, whereas the nearly erect plantlets are inclined toward the light—14. Same in every respect, except that it was kept constantly in darkness. Note smaller size of plantlets. 15. Same, five days old, EES a terete lighted plantlets 33 days old.—16. Same as 15 but in dish lighted ~ 48h vertical slit, 17X6™™, Plantlets stri ingly further advanced, erect but inclined toward light; direction of Source of light indicated by arrow. if the manufacture and assimilation of nitrogenous food is more rapid in the light than in darkness, as is now claimed,® those spores in the light would be better off than those in darkness. Whatever the reason may be, the young plants grow and develop faster in hormally alternating light and darkness than in continuous arsness. This fact, not altogether in harmony with certain current views of the influence of light and darkness upon growth (11), deserves much more extended study. It seems to us probable that the opinions e Plant physiologists, based too exclusively on studies of land plants, Will be modified when the algae, especially the marine algae, have we as familiar to them as aquatic animals now are to other Physiologists, ti Having Seen that light favors germination and growth, we may now quire what other effects it has. If spores sown in dishes in the 6 . SOPLEWSKr's papers in Bull. Acad. Sciences Cracow, 1903, and earlier and later. 340 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER manner previously described are exposed to one-sided illumination, the holdfasts will appear always on the side away from the light. If spores germinate in darkness, the holdfast will be put out in all possible directions from different spores. This result I have repeat- edly obtained in Dictyota, Dictyopteris, and Laurentia, as well as in two species of Cystoseira, thus confirming and extending WINKLER'S (20) interesting experiments on C. barbata. The gelatine method which WINKLER used for part of his experiments is apparently more exact than mine, but what it gains in apparent exactness it loses in naturalness. The spores in a layer of sea-water not too thin (as it may be on a slide, especially if this is covered) quickly adhere to the surface of clean smooth glass, and if the dish remain undisturbed for several hours they are not likely to be dislodged by ordinary move ments afterwards. The use of gelatine, or of any other similar material even in dilute solution, such as WINKLER describes, is open to suspicion by reason of the facts reported in the foregoing part on fresh water algae, and also because of the results of BoRGE (3) already referred to, although WINKLER reports the germination as perfes normal. Naturally, for his gravitation experiments, 4 solid medium was necessary, but not for those on light. To escape the legitimate objection that the spores may behave differently in darkness and in light, I put upon the horizontal plate of a clinostat a dish in which Dictyopteris spores had escaped during twenty-four hours in darkness, covering the dish with a black ee of cardboard so that all the light came from the side. The plate the clinostat was also covered with dull black paper to avoid po reflection from below. The dish was therefore revolved in a ae tal plane and received light not only from the side, but on all frat successively. The clinostat was very simple — an alarm clock i which face and hands were removed, a sleeve carrying @ a a plate being soldered to the minute hand spindle. The pen therefore revolved once an hour. The result was that the Oe ae spores sent out holdfasts in all possible directions, some s es l until growing upwards, others downwards, the majority aout ee their increasing weight tipped the spores sufficiently to bring of the rhizoids into contact with the glass. + oh It appears, then, that the side of the spore which is to - 1905] PEIRCE & RANDOLPH—IRRITABILITY IN ALGAE 341 to the holdfast is ordinarily determined by light, which in nature falls from above, vertically or more less obliquely. The direction of growth of the rhizoid is also determined by the light, other -things being equal, and this frequently brings it into a more or less vertical position until it comes into contact with a solid object. Although under natural conditions the cell which is to form a thizoid, and the direction of growth of the rhizoid, appear to be deter- mined by light and by the direction from which it comes, the fact that spores will divide and form rhizoids both in the dark and under supposedly equal illumination from all sides successively, leaves us with a doubt whether, after all, the point of formation of the rhizoid may not depend on other factors also. Keeping the spores con- tinuously in the dark for forty-eight hours or more is extremely unnatural. The results of such procedure may also be unnatural; they may mislead us as to the natural course of events. Again, cultivating the spores in a dish on a clinostat is an unnatural proceed- ing, for in nature the illumination is not even approximately equal on all sides in one plane, but is unequal and in many planes suc- cessively. And finally, though darkness follows light and light follows darkness only gradually, on the clinostat as well as in nature, itis obvious that a spore in a dish on the clinostat receives the stimulus of light on one side, and as darkness comes on, there can be only weaker and weaker stimuli, and finally none at all on the other sides of the spore. The direction of division of the spore may or may not be determined by this last stimulus of light. According to WINKLER (20, P- 302), a three or four-hour exposure to one-sided illumination necessary to determine the direction of the first division wall in the CBgs of Cystoseira. He suggests that perhaps by changing the direction of illumination 90° or 180° about every three hours, we might Stop the germination altogether. This I have not tried with — but as the foregoing shows, such is not the case with “tyopteris spores, for they germinate in darkness, and also on the oni t, at once, although perhaps not as rapidly as under ordinary ties arse It may take three or four hours under ordinary condi- oes 9 ed the line of division of an egg or spore. It vie which of time, much less of a stimulus by light, to determine € two cells thus formed shall send out the rhizoid. In 342 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER cultures of Dictyota dichotoma under one-sided illumination, but with the ordinary alternation of daylight and darkness, I noticed that both the direction of divisions that took place at night and also the cell which put out the rhizoid did not conform to the rule to which those spores which germinated in the daytime evidently pointed. This is clear from figs. 17 and 18. Rhizoids, formed during the night on the side which did and will receive more light during the day, bendaway from the light when the day- Fics. 17, 18.—Dictyota dichotoma. X123. 17. Germinating spores 1} days since sowing on ground t, direction. of light spores 1, 2, 3 divided during the night (in darkness), and that the rhizoids o are curving away from the light—18. Some- what older. such a polarity, for the undivided sp After the first division the spore becomes of the daughter cells at right angles to the divisi grow from one or the other end—sometimes from ellipses, not from the side; but beyond this there 1 the point of origin of the rhizoid. So justified in saying is that, in the light, the spore and the point of origin of the rhizoid by the direction from which the light falls upon spore has the impulse both to divide and to do both even in the absence of any directive case the direction of division and the point are determined by conditions preceding the esca light comes. In such cultures as these we have much more nearly normal conditions than in continuous darkness or on the clino- stat. Divisions often occur and the rhizoids often grow out in ‘darkness, and though the spores were lighted only from one side during the day, the direction of these divisions and the side from which the rhizoid springs fol- low no rule. This fact at least suggests, but without proof, that influences preceding illumination also affect the direction division of the spores, and the point of origin of the rhizoids. * of origin of pe of the olarity in the spor spore that there on wall. The rhizsids : : 1905] PEIRCE & RANDOLPH—IRRITABILITY IN ALGAE 3.43 the mother cells, conditions which may have induced a polarity in the spore, but a polarity which is not so fixed that subsequent influ- ences cannot alter it. Influence of contact on germinating spores.—From the work in fresh-water algae reported in the foregoing pages, one is led to suspect that the character of the surface with which the rhizoids of germinating spores of marine algae come into contact will largely determine the shape and completeness of attachment of the holdfasts. The strength of the holdfasts as the plants mature is determined not merely by the surface but by other factors. Among these may be mentioned the movement of the water in currents and waves, the size and shape of the plants, and all other factors which affect the strain which the holdfast must withstand.? But the first attachment of sessile algae, whether marine or fresh water, is greatly influenced by the roughness of surface. I was first led to suspect this by the extraordinary freedom of Spirogyra and Iridea—the smoothest, most slippery fresh and salt water algae, respectively, which I know—from diatoms and other sessile plants growing upon them. Cladophora and Microcladia, comparatively rough forms, show the direct opposite. To test this hypothesis with marine algae, I put in the bottoms of the glass dishes used for cultures cover glasses 18X18™™ square, which had been carefully ground on one side ona stone. One half of the cover glasses were put smooth side up, the other half rough side up. At first I used the cover glasses only rough side up, letting the smooth glass of the dishes furnish the other surface. This plan Seemed open to objection, as the glass of the dishes might not have the same composition as the material of the cover glasses, and the light would not be the same on a ground surface as on a smooth. This latter objection is not wholly eliminated even by using thin cover glasses, but it is as nearly eliminated as at present possible.* . The a co. (z, p- 395) has felt obliged to retract his published rena a aims ck ¢ - laboratory by the late R. HEGLER (6), sae i soa by ana- tomical changes ; sf e rs ee aa of increased mene as 3 a ag us steal thow that ee but I may venture to express the Dele® © ae nd HEGLER and not PFEFFER and Batt (1) were Ng in man can be and was eliminated in certain cultures nd oe ee introduces sess ae were similar to those in the light, but darkness s if prolonged. ; 344 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER cover glasses ground on one side only, some with the ground surface upward, others with the ground surface downward, served as the bottom on which the spores settled. In these experiments I used the same species previously enumer- ated, but those which form a single rhizoid at first give more imme- diately recognizable results than those which, like Cystoseira, form several rhizoids. For this reason Dictyota, Dictyopteris, and Lauren- tia are preferable. I shall describe first Dictyopteris, as it was the marine alga with which I first obtained satisfactory results. The results obtained with Laurentia are so similar that I shall not speak of them further. In fig. 19 we have sketches of Dictyopteris plantlets two and five sixths days after sowing on ground glass. Fig. 20 shows plantlets sowed at the same time on smooth glass. In the first set the rhizoids are beginning to enlarge, and one to branch, at the tips. In the latter there is no such appearance. The idea that this difference in appearance might be due to a difference in age suggests itself. But the difference in age could be only slight, for the fertile branches were removed at the same time from both dishes, and both dishes ares emptied and filled with fresh sea water at the same time. Emptying the dishes generally removes the youngest spores, those still unattached or only slightly so, leaving those which are equally firmly attached " I am nevertheless inclined to think that not merely is growth in the part of the rhizoid in contact with a rough surface stimulated by that contact, but also the growth and development of the other parts of the plantlet also. There seems to be a transfer from cell to cell of the stimulus produced by contact, a stimulus the greater the rougher the surface. If this be true, there is every reason for the younge appearance of the plantlets on the smooth glass, for their growth Lg less stimulated than that of the other plantlets. This 182°” with the observations previously referred to (10) which Loeb upon animals. Fig. 21 shows the same group of plantlets nearly twenty es later. Here holdfasts are evidently begun. Twenty ours poe this we have the condition shown in fig. 22, where the rhizois : almost completely lost their filamentous appearance and oa > holdfasts, circular in general outline, but with elaborately | 1905] PEIRCE & RANDOLPH—IRRITABILITY IN ALGAE 345 margins. Comparing these two figures with figs. 23, 24, showing plantlets of the same age on smooth glass, we see that the plantlets have not changed in character from day to day, though they have grown; that the rhizoids are still filamentous; and that no holdfasts are yet begun. ie J sowing as fig. 20, 33 days since sowing.—24. Same 26a “25. Ten days since sowing, a on ground side of cover glass, 6 on unground ¥ On cover glass.— 26d. ¢ L * 4: at halle J) the —— well-developed holdfast. Fic. 27.—Two Dictyota plantlets on smooth glass. X123- into “lowe formed a holdfast on coming into contact with dirt; 6 finding no such obstacle has grown out thizoid; a erect, b erect at tip but rhizoid creeping. ery al In jig. 25 we see the condition of two plantlets of Dictyopteris ten days after Sowing, the one on ground glass, the other on smooth. hese are not the extremes of two series of plants, but are the average. On unground glass, however, under certain conditions, as elaborate 346 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER holdfasts may develop as on ground glass. When I saw the plant shown in jig. 26a, I thought my hypothesis was disproved, for here we have as elaborate a holdfast as on ground glass. On examining the plant with a stronger magnification, I found, as fig. 26b shows, that diatoms or diatom-shells were very numerous on the glass at this point, making it rough, or rather covering it with obstructions to the growth of the base of the plantlet. This plant and the many others like it confirm my belief that roughness of surface stimulates the sessile algae firmly to attach themselves. It must be noted, however, that ground cover glasses kept in cultures for a week or so become slimy; their roughness is reduced or concealed by a thin, very smooth coat, which must be dissolved off before one can use the cover glasses again with the maximum effect. Even when all “dirt” and diatoms are washed off, the cover glasses are not clean as they are when new; they must have the slimy coat removed too. This is easily done by boiling in fresh water for a few moments. On the other hand, diatoms, animal excrement, and fine dirt generally, often so roughen the unground surface of glass as ' induce holdfast formation of marked character. When for any reason, such as the extreme smoothness of the glass or the absence of any contact whatever, the elongation of the thizods is not stopped, they may attain surprising lengths and often ina short time. Fig. 25 shows such an extraordinarily long rhizoid Dictyopteris. Fig. 27 shows us two plantlets of Dictyota dicholom? growing on the same smooth side of a cover glass. In the one eee the rhizoid soon came into contact with small particles of dirt sticking to the glass, and thereupon ceasing to grow in length, formed a typi holdfast. In the other case, no dirt caught the rhizoid, which con- tinued to grow over the smooth slime-covered glass. - I may here say something about the amount and the rate of grow of these germinating spores. On November 5th, = . oe twelve, I made a camera drawing of a spore of Dictyola ae nest Four hours later I similarly drew the same spore. And g This ng. - cent. morning at a quarter to eleven o’clock I made another draw! 1905] PEIRCE & RANDOLPH—IRRITABILITY IN ALGAE 347 two hours and a half it grew 0.089™™; and in forty-five hours and a quarter it grew’ o.2195™™. These figures converted into rates of growth per hour show that the plantlet increased in length at the rate of 4.23 per cent. per hour for the first four hours, 4.4 per cent. per hour for the next eighteen hours, and 5.82 per cent. per hour for the following twenty-three hours. These figures, however, distribute the growth over the whole length of the young plant, whereas it is mostly at the tip. Since this is the case, the rate of growth in the growing part must be much higher. I was not able at the time to make measurements to ascertain this rate in Dictyota. Similarly a spore of Dictyopteris poly podioides increased in length 360 per cent. in three days, or an actual increase in length of o.292™™. All of these cases of growth are unusual. The plantlets sent out their rhizoids either horizontally or somewhat obliquely upwards, at all events without contact with the surface of the glass. Where contact occurs, there is no such extraordinary growth unless the contact. be with an exceedingly smooth slippery object. There, as In water, the rhizoid will continue to elongate. . In a spore of Dictyopteris I attempted to measure the length of the growing region, the total increase in length, and the distribution of this increase among the cells of the rhizoid; but the growth rate in this instance has little value, because of the extraordinarily cold Weather prevailing at the time. As the laboratory is cold at night, the growth rate for twelve hours of the twenty-four must have been much below normal. However, I will give the figures. The increase in length of the tip cell of the rhizoid was 150 per cent. or 0.078%" i twenty-four hours. The increase in length of the cell next behind Was 40 per cent. or 0.020™™, The other cells of the rhizoid did not lengthen at all. Of the total increase in length 79 per cent. was made by the tip cell. This cell had at the outset only 41 per cent. of the length of the growing region. The actual zone of growth, however, 'S only the tip of the cell. Hence these percentages give only a vague and quite inadequate idea of how rapid the growth is in the actually towing part. SUMMARY. a The zoospores of Oedogonium, as has long been known, are “ensitive to light, the direction of locomotion and the place at which they come to rest being determined much more by the direction and 348 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER the intensity of the light falling upon a body of water than by other influences, such as unequal distribution of oxygen, étc. 2. Apparently the germination of the zoospores of sessile algae is induced primarily by interference with their locomotion. When this is blocked, germination begins; conversely, when nothing prevents locomotion, they do not germinate. 3. The nature of the attachment formed by the germinating zoospores of sessile algae is dependent upon the ‘roughness of the surface of the object with which they come into contact. Upon extremely smooth surfaces—such as the surface of clean water and clean wet gelatine—the spores form either only the shortest most rudimentary holdfasts or merely rhizoids; whereas, on relatively rough surfaces, the holdfasts are large and conform in their lobing to the contour of the surface. Furthermore, ordinarily floating algae may sometimes be induced to form rhizoids or other organs of attach- ment if brought into contact with sufficiently rough surfaces. 4. The discharge of the spores or gametes of Dictyopteris, Dicty- ota, and Cystoseira is strongly influenced by light, the discharge being much more rapid within a few hours after exposure to light than before or than in continuous darkness. For this reason the 2a of the discharge as well as the rate is strongly influenced by light, and a periodicity of discharge is established which follows appto® imately the periodicity of daylight and darkness. 5. The spores of the sessile marine algae studied germimit better in normally alternating daylight and darkness than in eae ous darkness; and subsequent growth and development follow the same rule. : 6. As shown by WINKLER to be the case with Cystosei@ egttc we have found that the direction in which the light falls determine | the plane of the first division in the germinating spores of ryt erica marina, Dictyopteris, and of Dictyota, the new cell wall formed at right angles to the incident rays. ae 7. Similarly, the rhizoids or holdfasts formed by light spores ordinarily issue from the daughter cells away from ne jmes In darkness the rhizoids arise in all possible directions, SOmeNN” even from both cells of a germinating spore. oe 4 8. The direction of growth of rhizoid and of plantlet 1s determine? 4 1905] PEIRCE & RANDOLPH—IRRITABILITY IN ALGAE 349 mainly by the direction from which the light comes: the rhizoids are negatively phototropic, the plants positively. g. As in fresh-water algae, so also in sessile marine algae, the nature of the surface with which the spores come into contact very largely controls the nature of the attachment formed, a rough surface inducing the growth of a large and well-developed holdfast, a smooth surface causing proportionately less growth. 10. Though the direction toward which the rhizoids ordinarily grow is determined at first by light, the character of the surface with which the rhizoid comes into contact still more strongly influences the direction of its growth. 11. The direction, rate, and kind of growth of these germinating spores is strongly influenced by contact irritation. STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CALIFORNIA. LITERATURE CITED. t. Batt, O. M., Einfluss von Zug aus die Ausbildung von Festigungsgewebe. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 39: 303-341. pl. 6, 7. 1903. - Bessey, C. E., Botanical Notes. Science 16:953. 1902. Borce, O., Ueber die Rhizoidenbildung bei einigen fadenformigen Chloro- phyceen. Upsala. 1894. 4- Davenport, C. B., Experimental morphology. Part II. New York. 5- Firmie, H., Untersuchungen iiber den Haptotropismus der Ranken. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 38:545-634. 1902 et seq. - HEcter, R., Einfluss des mechanischen Zuges auf das Wachsthum me Pflanze. Cohn’s Beitrage z. Biologie d. Pflanzen 6: 383-432. 1893. 7- JENNINGs, H. S., Contribution to the study of the behavior of lower organ- : ‘sms. Carnegie Institution, Washington. 1904. - KLERs, G., Die Bedingungen der Fortpflanzung bei einigen Algen sil Pilzen. Jena. 1896. = ee, Willkiirliche Entwickelungsinderungen bei Pflanzen. _— sgh le EB, iz Untersuchungen zur physiologischen Morphologie der Thiere. - Ueber Heteromorphose. Wiirzburg. 1891. : MacDovear, D. T., Influence of light and darkness upon growth. Mem. N.Y. Bot. Garden II. 190 wn an 12. Orry ; 13. = S, F., Morphologie und Biologie der Algen 1. 1904. . TCE, G. J., Textbook of plant physiology. New York. 1903. ~_—» A contribution to the physiology of the genus Cuscuta. Ann. - “tere 8:53-118. pl. 8. 1894. EFFER, W., Handbuch der Pflanzenphysiologie. 2te Aufl. 2. 1904. 350 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER 16. , Zur Kenntniss der Contactreize. Untersuch. Bot. Inst. Ttibingen 1:483-535. 1881-5. 17. ReInKE, J., Entwickelungsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen iiber den Dic- tyotaceen des Golfs von Neapel. Nova Acta Leopold Acad. 50:—. 1878. 18. STRASBURGER, E., Ueber die Wirkung des Lichtes und der Warme auf Schwarmsporen. 1878. 1g. V6cutING, H., Ueber den Einfluss des Lichtes auf die Gestaltung und Anlage der Bliithen. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 25:149~-208. pls. 8-r0. 1893. 20. WINKLER, H., Einfluss dusserer Factoren auf die Theilung der Eier von Cystoseira barbata. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 18:297-305. 1900. THE BOGS AND BOG FLORA OF THE HURON RIVER VALLEY EDGAR NELSON TRANSEAU. (WITH SIXTEEN FIGURES) I. The Huron River valley. PHYSIOGRAPHIC FEATURES, Tar Huron River valley, to the botanical survey of which the present paper forms the sixth contribution, is located in the south- eastern part of Michigan. As indicated in fig. 1, the valley embraces parts of five counties. Throughout, its surface forms are of glacial origin and, with the exception of the immediate borders of the river, have undergone but - slight modification since glacial times. Perhaps its most striking. lopographic features are the rough morainic hills of its upper and middle courses, and the gently undulating plain of its lower course. The river has its source in west-central Oakland County in Big Lake, 9 miles (14. 5*™) southeast of Holly and approximately 40 miles (64*") northwest of Detroit. Starting with an elevation of 950 feet (290™), after a course, extending for 50 miles (80*™) generally Southwestward and then for another so miles (80™) southeastward, It empties into Lake Erie at an altitude of 573 feet (175™) above tide. ‘s common in areas of glacial deposition, the topography of the drainage basin of the Huron has little of the appearance usually uggested by the term “valley.” The upper two-thirds of its course a winding depression among morainic knobs, lake basins, abandoned slacial drainage channels, and sand plains. Here the river is char- pa by long reaches and occasional slight riffles. At intervals s .. Into stretches of lake-like character, as is illustrated by uae es of water as Commerce, Taylor, Strawberry, Whitewood, mile ee Lakes, each with an area of one-fourth to one-half a square i ag hectares). The river margin is usually low and shied ba . of Sa. Utaries enter it at every angle, and bring to it the drainage es teds of lakes and swamps. Most of these lakes are small, - 351 352 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER occupying areas of an acre (half a hectare) or more, but there are several of considerable size. Portage and Whitmore" Lakes occupy one and one-fourth to one and one-half square miles (325-390 hee- tares), while Union, Straits, Four-Mile, Ore, Independence, ete., A STR IR TRS RE A- : 4 bate IG. 1.—Map of the Huron drainage basin. The boundaries of the paiete : moraine are shown by the lines —--—. The boundary between the clay ™ belt and the lake plain is marked by the line - - - - - : e cover a fourth to half a square mile (65-130 hectares). : ee the percentage of the tributaries lie in flat-bottomed dep ene surface approximates the ground-water level, consequently P : ur thousands of acres of swamp and marsh land. Everywhere oie small undrained depressions, some well above the average ae of water level, others containing lakes and bogs. It is also wo * Not connected with the Huron River by surface drainage. 1995) TRANSEAU—BOGS OF THE HURON RIVER VALLEY 353 note that a large part of the surface drained by the Huron and its tributaries, before it makes the great bend to the southeast below Portage lake, is made up of sand and gravel, composing and accom- panying the Saginaw-Erie interlobate moraine. It is a region of steep hills, with occasional dry plains, everywhere penetrated by lakes and swamps. The country which the river next crosses, beyond the great bend, for a distance of 20 miles (32*™) is composed of glacial till plains and clay moraines—a belt extending NE-SW, approximately parallel to the interlobate moraine. Here, although the hills are well marked, the slopes are more gradual and the basins broader. The river 8 bordered by banks several feet in height, and seldom attains a width of x 50 feet (5o™). The last 30 miles (50‘™) of the Huron River traverses a meander- ing course sunken from 50 feet (15™) at Ypsilanti to 25 feet (7-5™) at Rockwood below the surface of a glacial lake plain sloping gently ‘outheastward from the morainic belt just described, to the western shore of Lake Erie. The soil is here composed of sand, sandy loam, and—in the vicinity of the lake—clay; the only topographic features aside from the sunken water courses being the several beach ridges and dunes marking the successive stages in the lowering of the glacial lakes, forerunners of the present Lake Erie. There are, then, three natural divisions of the Huron drainage ah (1) the loose-textured rough interlobate moraine; (2) the ¥ Morainic belt lying to the southeast of it; (3) and the low-lying 8 extending to Lake Erie. Each implies important differences © Way of bog formation and provides edaphic factors which ‘‘tmine to a large extent the nature of the dominant forest covering- PHYSIOGRAPHIC HISTORY. The history of these topographic features is for the most part bo : Hite "Pp with the retreat of the ice at the close of the last (Wisconsin) Mick “poch. A topographic map of the region lying between Lakes of toy and Erie shows that the morainic hills so characteristic won basin are part of a belt of similar physiography _ (fig. : cog Indiana well up into the “thumb” of lower 7 — * 2). This belt of glacial deposits is directly connected — 354 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER development of reentrant angles along its crest, as the great con- tinental ice sheet? became more and more differentiated into lobes during its retreat (52, 13). In northern Indiana it marks the first areas uncovered, as the mass of ice, pushed forward from the basin of Lake Michigan, separated from that originating in the Lake Huron and Lake Erie basins. When the Huron River basin was reached, the Saginaw lobe had been developed and lay over the northwestern part, while the Huron- Erie lobe covered all of the territory southeast of the interlobate ar) Jae PGS Sr r EER Pe fe is Oe MT . ae Sad } Beale * iS ss peas oe ee o raat asa e008 tt ea ESS wi “y) aie WO, Re Fee Mp Suite Fic. 2.—Map of southern Michigan, northern Indiana, and n showing “moraines with strong expression.” After LEVERETT, U. S. Geo Mon. 41, plate 2. The irregular dotted lines mark the 1000-foot (300) eel moraine. The first portion of our area to be uncovered is the triangt lar gravel outwash apron extending southwestward from Sugarl Knob. This was the beginning of the Huron River. Kavanaugh Lake then lay just under the edge of the Erie ice, and Crooked Lake uccupied a similar position on the southern border of the Saginaw lobe. As has been recently determined by Mr. FRANK LEVERETH of the U. S. Geological Survey, the subsequent history of the Huron drainage is most remarkable. rally The waters from the glacial drainage at first flowed gene rae westward, reaching the Kalamazoo River near Albion, thence . St. Joseph at Three Rivers. At South Bend, Indiana, it ee ee tn fal : a % gf o pe ee ie * "> = = sv Whananaasseroe{-ewneeet” Fas heron acyl ‘ . 0 ed hx Feb Mar Qpr May June July Fug pt Oct Tox +=«sdee hie 3—Curves of rainfall and temperature conditions in the Huron basin Pared with those of the maritime region of Canada. Soil solution, Again, the occurrence of high temperature with “cteased precipitation means the production of conditions impos- nthe development of the “‘raised bog,” if not unfavorable to the highest development of the “flat bog.” Since bogs attain their maximum development in a region of a rainfall and comparatively low temperatures, it is _ Cal y os the extremes of summer heat become peculiarly sigmh- "tin this region. Examination of the weathér records shows that 360 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER temperatures of 97-100° F. (36-38°C.) are likely to occur every year, and that temperatures approximating these may be prevalent for several days in succession each season. When these extremes coincide with periods of drought, they must act as important checks on the growth of the bog plants, especially the sphagnum. As we pass from northern Indiana along the moraine into Michigan, the gradual increase of bog development, of the variety of bog species, and of the areas covered by sphagnum is very marked. Although other factors are involved, this increase may be correlated with a decrease in summer temperature extremes. II, The bogs: their development and ecological conditions. PHYSIOGRAPHIC ORIGIN OF THE LAKE AND BOG BASINS. In connection with the special consideration of the bog flora, it is of interest to note the origin of the depressions in which this flora has developed and flourished. Indeed, in the morainic belt of the Huron basin it would seem that among the agencies which have produced important topographic changes since glacial times, the bog plants stand near the head of the list. Stream erosion and deposition have been slight, while lake basins have been filled and the level of depressions generally raised by the deposition of plant débris. As no attempt has as yet been made at the mapping of peat deposits and muck soils, no reliable estimate of the total amount of aggradation accomplished by plant agencies can be made. Yet the frequency with which in field work one encounters peat soils, 1n various stages of making or decay, suggests that in the aggregate such deposition has been most effective in this region. The northwest quarter of the Ann Arbor topographic map, which embraces 40 are of about 215 square miles (55,700 hectares), located in the moralni¢ portion of this basin, indicates approximately 43 square miles (11,500 hectares)—20 per cent.—as swamp land. It is probable that at . early time this area was very much larger, but with the settlement the land many extensive areas have been drained and only the humous soil remains to suggest its past history. oe The most frequent source of lake and bog basins is here i | connection with the deposits made by glacial drainage- Apes ot vicissitudes attending the retreat of a glacier are the occash 1995) TRANSEAU—BOGS OF THE HURON RIVER VALLEY 361 detachment of blocks and masses of ice through differential melting (19). If these detached masses happened to be in the line of the overloaded glacial drainage, they became covered to a greater or less extent by sand and gravel. Owing to the poor conduction of heat by such deposits, they melted with extreme slowness. Where this latter ~ process was prolonged until the drainage line had been abandoned or the stream had ceased depositing, subsequent melting brought about a settling of the deposits and the production of basins. Sister, Kavanaugh, and Crooked Lakes are examples of this type. In the case of the chain of lakes which form a part of the Huron River in northwestern Washtenaw County, and such lakes as Portage, Tamarack, Ore, and Bass, according to LEVERETT, there was an additional settling of the fluvio-glacial deposit itself. This latter process has been of the greatest importance in the development of extensive bog areas. In the Portage Lake region this settling has amounted to as much as 4o feet (12™) in certain places, and has resulted in reducing many hundreds of acres of land to the ground Water level, Throughout the belt of till plains occur shallow marshes, some- limes drained, but usually by a sluggish meandering stream, itself impeded by the growth of swamp plants. These basins are the natural expression of the unequal deposition of glacial material. Till plains result from a comparatively rapid retreat of the ice; hence the depressions are usually shallow, and have been mostly filled with peat to the level of the present drainage. The several small lakes _ Ying to the west of Dexter are examples of basins not yet obliterated. Where the retreat of the glacier is slow and deposits are made to “great thickness about the edge of the ice, kame or “knob and kettle” ‘opography results. The basins of such areas are characterized ; » Mastodon, bison, peccary (Platygonus compressus te) (57), elk, and “big beaver” (Castoroides ohioensis Foster). - last named is not a beaver (34, p- 256), but is more nearly ted to the Coypu rat of South America. The common beaver 362 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER (Castor canadensis Kuhl) has been an important factor in the creation of bog areas (37), and in the extension of areas already existing, by the building of dams. The beaver was found in this section when it was first settled, but the last known specimen was killed sixty-nine years ago. The occurrence of peat deposits several feet in thickness and covering quite large areas, bordering streams, whose channels lie deeply sunken in the deposits, seems to find its best explanation in this manner. But little field work has been done on the relation of beavers to the peat deposits, and examples are still too hypothetical to cite in this connection. BOG AND LAKE VEGETATION. Of the plants which might come into a new land area containing basins, such as was laid bare on the retreat of the glaciers, none is better adapted to rapid migration than the group of aquatic plants. Whether. we have in mind the smaller submerged varieties or the partially submerged littoral species, their wide geographic distri- bution and uniform associations bespeak their evident solution of the problems of dispersal. The fact that deposits of peat and marl have been found in northern Indiana and lower Michigan to a thickness of 40 feet (12™) would indicate that in these particular basins the vegetation must have obtained an early foothold. Concerning the deposition of marl, it is of interest to us only in so far as it becomes an agent of aggradation in the basins. an the reports (5, 42, 21) on the marl deposits of Indiana and Michigan, many examples are cited where the marl forms the underlying sub- stratum of peat deposits. That its deposition to a large extent IS due to plant life has been shown by Davis (9, 10). The plants most concerned with this process are the Characeae and Cyanophyceae (Schizothrix, Zonotrichia). They are probably aided : i ‘ 7. ar ti : s or mollusks, and perhaps also by chemical precipitation eee Characeae and Cyanophyceae, they have a wide range us different lakes, and may occur in deep or shallow water an - various rock substrata. Where they come into competition i shore species, the rank growth of the latter usually precludes ee existence in sufficient amount to be of importance in marl ane Where wave action is strong, the chara is confined to deeper neces 1905] TRANSEAU—BOGS OF THE HURON RIVER VALLEY 363 but the blue-green algae may be present up to the water’s edge, in such situations frequently forming marl pebbles. The lower limit of existence is largely determined by the transparency of the water, and may lie between 20 and 30 feet (6-9™). Of the littoral plant associations there are commonly two quite distinct divisions, the outer made up largely of submerged or floating pondweeds and water- lilies, the inner of half-submerged rushes and sedges. Both are con- ceed in the process of peat formation. Under such conditions there naturally develop, in regions of calcareous underground waters, an outer zone of chara dominance and marl deposition, and an inner zone of pondweed-sedge dominance and peat deposition. Varia- tions in the slope of the bottom, in the amount of wave action, in the presence of shore currents, and in the color of the water, determine whether one or both of these processes shall go on, and to what extent these activities are kept distinct or grade into one another. In the case of the peat, however, the process is not dependent upon water species alone. They act. merely as forerunners of a denser and more luxuriant vegetation which frequently is of greater quantitative importance. Briefly, we may note here that in the case of the bogs, unlike that of the swamps, the plants which develop on the margin, especially Carex filiformis and forms of Eriophorum, are able to secure all of their food materials from the water and air and build their own substratum. ‘This tangle of roots and rhizomes usually attains a thickness of several inches, and on account of its — gravity floats on the surface of the water. Upas this tion the sphagnum and bog shrubs advance, adding their ae to the débris. Later, these are followed by such tree forms as 5 Sian Coincident with this increased weight at bby ae 2 ediaeatai comes the progressive submergence © ine? er , and its gradual disintegration and humification. e Pentying fig. 4 will serve to illustrate this process. — the last two years much has been promised segues _ Danish . of the peat deposits in this region for fuel purposes. sped drying . a been organized, and the machinery necessary aM Ca nd consolidating of the peat has been much Improve" Pac and Chelsea, factories have been erected, and attempts are M8 Made to place the industry on an economic basis. If these 364 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER ventures prove successful, we may hope for an interesting body of scientific information to come from the study of bog sections. The work of ANDERSON, LAGERHEIM, SERNANDER, WEBER, and others in Sweden and Germany, gives indication of the data concerning postglacial migrations of plants and animals, and climatic~changes, which will be obtainable when our bog deposits become of economic importance. ot - ry ahold - of a a Ye er 2 / 2 ‘og sais ~— TIS 3 Oe ag oy ‘, 4G he va “iba oe ar eM, Ores ea see . wy gti) 77, ks ee ae in Reon os Fic —Diagrams, gitar three stages in the developme deposits i in hee basins. In drawing the figures it has been assume’ marl and peat deposition are 5 eabS equal. The peat —_ on the western side is the basin. On the east side a common st Jacial times : sete diene Oe to the northeastern conifer forest formation have reached oar Modal the south- igan. eastern broad-leaved forest formation, mineral soils, while the conifers are almost restricted to bog areas- 195] TRANSEAU—BOGS OF THE HURON RIVER VALLEY 365 THE GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF PEAT DEPOSITS. In North America the distribution of recent peat deposits may be conveniently summarized under two heads, genetically unrelated: (1) those of glaciated regions; (2) those of the coastal plain. The peat of the glaciated area constitutes the great bulk of these American deposits. The southern boundary of this region is marked bya line passing westward from central New Jersey through northern Pennsylvania and Ohio, central Indiana and Illinois, thence north- ward through southern Wisconsin, northwestward to the Minnesota valley and the Red River of the North in Manitoba, westward through northern Assiniboia and southern Alberta to the Rockies. Here the boundary is deflected southward into Montana, but in crossing toward the coast it is again carried northward into British Columbia, and finally southward among the Cascades of Washington to the Pacific Ocean. Along. this southern border the peat deposits are exceedingly scattered and make up a small fraction of the total land surface. They have accumulated under water in depressions among the Tecessional moraines. As we go northward, the relative proportion of Peat bogs and peat deposits regularly increases, and there is a notable tendency toward the accumulation of pure humus in situations other depressions containing water. When the tundra or “barren stound” is reached, the accumulation of humus is almost universal. The contrast with our own region is well brought out in RUSSELL’S ‘ccount of the tundra (43, p. 129). The vegetation sews rapidly during the long, hot, summer days, dies below and partially nop pom frozen and has its complete destruction arrested, while —<. ie Partially 4 and stems continues to thrive. In this way an ae sie Year AS aelag vegetable matter is formed, which ——— in dit be whic ; y additions to its surface. The process 1s similar por LF aie fied ar. formed in temperate latitudes, except that the pa ole of cold Sorage _ becomes solidly frozen. It is in reality an exam a grand scale. é Under existing climatic conditions there does not seem to be any limit oo" may. attain. The amount of carbo ei extensive ig the tundras of America and Asia must equa eld known. South of the boundary above described, peat deposits of consider- 366 BOTANICAL GAZETTE * [NOVEMBER able extent are occasionally met with. In the region of the great plains they are sometimes found beneath a surface covering of sand and wind-blown deposits. Topp (54, p. 121) has mentioned the occurrence of such peat deposits in eastern South Dakota. BArsour also reports such deposits from central and eastern Nebraska (2). On the basis of their field relations and certain fossils which they contain, they are believed to be of Glacial and early Pleistocene age. If the plant materials of thése deposits could be carefully work over with reference to their successive floras, we might hope for some new light on glacial climate, since a part of the deposits are beyond the margin of the Wisconsin ice sheet. But even their location and existence give evidence of climatic change, and plant and animal migration. Although now widely separated from the region of active bog formation, they are historically connected with this division. Among the mountains of both the eastern and western United States, bogs and swamps are to be found in association with mountain lakes. More frequently than otherwise these depressions ate con- nected with former local glaciation, perhaps the most frequent situations being those afforded by the damming back of _ by terminal and lateral moraines. Basins for peat accumulation ar also found in solid rock made by glacial erosion. The conditions here are quite similar to those of the north, the altitude bringing about the same general effect as the latitude. The analogy is stil further shown on mountains in moist regions where alpine meadows are strongly developed. Not only are the plants related to those of the tundra, but the deposition of peat or humus is again irrespective of basins. F In many places east of the great plains there is another pee situation not directly connected with glaciation, but in which veget4 s débris may accumulate to considerable thickness, vizZ-, o débouchure of cold springs. Toward the north these springs ee bring about humus accumulation on slopes, but further south pe is usually associated with pools and small lakes. The second group of situations in which peat accumul place on a grand scale, are those associated with coastal nomena, such as the rising and sinking of the land, deposition of alluvial materials in deltas, and the exte ation takes plain phe- e nsion of the 15) TRANSEAU—BOGS OF THE HURON RIVER VALLEY 367 land through reef building. ‘These swamps have been described by SHALER, KEARNEY, JULIEN, and others (46, 26, 24, 7). They reach their greatest development in eastern Virginia, North Carolina, Florida, and the Mississippi floodplain. They may contain either silt or fresh water, and their vegetation is noted for its density and luxuriance. : The geographical distribution of peat deposits is of interest in this connection because it points to certain factors which contribute to the preservation of humus materials. Certainly in arctic latitudes: the most significant factor is the low temperature, for humus accu- mulates to great thickness even with a scant vegetation. In the northern states and southern provinces of Canada, peat is associ- ated with basins containing stagnant water or cold springs. The annual increment from the vegetation is greatly increased over that of the tundra. Mild temperatures and stagnant waters combine 0 preserve the plant débris. When we come to the coastal plain ees of the southern states, this process takes place only where a luxuriant vegetation is combined with areas of stagnant water of considerable depth. To put it sharply, we may say that, in spite of the scant vegetation, the cold of the tundra results in peat accumulation. In temperate latitudes, mild temperatures and stagnant water combine to prevent . Complete disintegration of a vigorous vegetation. In the south, spite of the high temperature, the luxuriance of the vegetation and stagnant water unite to make peat formation possible. THE PROCESSES INVOLVED IN PEAT FORMATION. its nie ag any reason the living protoplasm in a plant or any of of Hg nS Is brought to the condition of death rigor, the pare and ci te for a prolonged period inaugurates certain chemica exc Physical processes which result in the breaking down of the — complex structures and compounds making up the living is the loss ong the first outward signs of such im. and in a of water. The cells of soft tissues lose their normal ne The any case the tissue becomes more or less filled with gases- Protoplasts as such disappear, and in their place granular : hydrate and proteid bodies are to be found. 368 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER Aside from the mineral substances composing the ash of such bodies, the organic compounds are made up for the most part of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. In the case of the proteids, there are added to these nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus. As to the exact nature of the compounds existing in the dead material, aside from the carbohydrates, very little is. known. The same statement holds as to the nature of the decomposition which goes on without the intervention of saprophytic organisms. But it seems probable that oxidation does occur. This action, then, is the beginning of the more comprehensive process known as peat formation. When plants or their organs die, under ordinary circumstances they are at once attacked by fungi and bacteria. The progress of disso- lution is then greatly hastened, and the final disintegration is more complete. According to the operation of certain external factors, the destruction may involve two very different groups of organisms and result in bodies of very different chemical and physical properties. These two processes are known as eremacausis and putrefaction (61, 39). Where access to oxygen is accompanied by favorable temperature and moisture conditions, the first of these processes, eremacausis, takes place. The formation of ordinary soil humus may be cited as an example. That oxygen plays the important réle has been demon- strated both by experiment, and by the analysis of the gaseous and solid products. It has been shown, for example, that soils i in which eremacausis is in progress contain CO, and O in inverse proportion to one another. Under constant volume, as the one increases the other decreases. It has been also shown by experiment that the process is wholly dependent upon the activities of certain lower plants. Among these members of the genera Mucor, A spergillus, Penicillium, Saccharomyces, Micrococcus, Bacterium, spiilum Crenothrix, and Beggiatoa are most important. O, and The carbohydrates are by this means broken down to C f rms H,O. The albuminoids and amides constitute the principal . of the nitrogenous materials. Under the influence of these agit especially their katabolic processes, the oxygen unites with ap to form CO,, the § is oxidized to H,SO,, the P to HjPO» ®" H to H,O. The first form in which the nitrogen — - 1905) TRANSEAU—BOGS OF THE HURON RIVER VALLEY 369 of ammonia. This is at once attacked by the nitrifying bacteria, and changed successively to the form of a nitrite and a nitrate. The two latter changes again involve the addition of oxygen. If we consider only the temperatures occurring in nature, we may say that these activities increase regularly with the temperature. As’ to water conditions, it has been shown that in air-dry soil eremacausis is practically wanting, and that when the soil is filled with water it is reduced toa minimum. Between these two extremes lies an optimum at which there is sufficient moisture for the life of the organisms, and yet not enough to interfere with the diffusion of oxygen. An acid condition impedes, and a slight alkalinity favors, the production of both the carbon and the nitrogen compounds. Eremacausis is then essentially a process of oxidation, brought about by lower organisms, whose activities are favored by a high ‘emperature, a slightly alkaline medium, and free access to the air. Its products are simple compounds which may furnish food materials for the higher plants living on the substratum in which they are formed. By putrefaction is meant that process of disintegration which occurs when organic matter decays in the absence of oxygen. Here again Organisms are involved, but they belong for the most part to the anaerobes, and are wholly forms of bacteria. The process 1S “sentially one of reduction. 4 Carbon dioxid is again the principal gaseous product, but its relative amount is greatly reduced. Along with it CH, H, HS, HP, N,O, and N are produced in small quantities. In the manu- % of the carbon dioxid the oxygen is not only derived from the “rganic matter, but also from nitrous oxid, nitrites and nitrates which may be present. In the decomposition of cellulose, carbon dioxid ~ methane result from the hydrolysis of the cellulose molecule. of is at first break up into amido-acids, nitrogenous ee oS ame series, and other little-known bodies. If t si ee chin Continues, the amido-acids in turn form ammo Pounds of the fatty-acid series. The latter substances may D further disintegrate to carbon dioxid, hydrogen, and methane. "ra upon the stage in the progress of decomposition, We may ti complex organic compounds, organic acids, and their salts, or Paratively simple substances. 370 BOTANICAL GAZETTE : [NOVEMBER As to the influence of external factors, high temperatures increase the rate of disintegration, while the presence of acids prevents its continuance, due to the killing of the bacteria involved. It is to be noted that the products of putrefaction, both intermediate and final, can be of little use in furnishing food materials for the higher plants. With these two processes in mind, we may now consider the matter of peat formation as it occurs in this region. We have already seen how the substratum is being extended at the edge and renewed at the surface by the plants forming the outer zone of the bog vege- tation. It consists of sedges, especially forms of Carex and Erio- phorum. Each year these plants send up stems and leaves from the matted rhizomes. At the approach of winter these are killed, and the snow later on aids in bringing them down to the water level. In the spring the water covers almost the whole of this zone to the depth of several inches. With the gradual lowering of the water level and the coming of warmer temperatures, the conditions for eremacausis are made favorable. If the water is approximately neutral in its chemical reaction, the fungi and bacteria begin the work of disintegra- tion, which if continued would result in the complete destruction of the vegetable débris. However, on account of the great demand for oxygen, the process can be carried on only near the surface of the water. Even at a depth of a few centimeters the rate of oxygen diffusion is so small, as compared with the demand for it, that pract- cally all aerobic bacterial action is prevented. All of the surface — which I have examined have been found to be teeming with bactenis Close upon the extension of the bog-sedge zone comes t sphagnum-heath zone. Here the surface is characterized by os lows and elevations, the latter frequently due to the upward gro of the sphagnum beneath the shade of the heath plants, but see cases due to the building of mounds by ants. In the hollows water stands above the substratum throughout a large part of she year and even during dry periods lies just at the surface. parent sedges, the principal plants of this zone are evergreen. “ sphagnum forms a continuous mat of living plants several oe meters in thickness, through which all of the oxygem must — before it can be available for the eremacausis of the dead . material beneath. The cassandra, cranberry, and andre compose the bulk of the shrubby vegetation add to the débris ES NEA ee nS oe Te 1905) TRANSEAU—BOGS OF THE HURON RIVER VALLEY 371 by their leaves and underground stems. The former fall to the substratum as they die, but not at the close of each vegetative period. Consequently they are soon lost among the sphagnum, and there is no distinct annual layer added. But beneath this layer of possible aerobic activity, the material would seem to be subject to putrefactive agencies. And there can be no doubt that such destructive processes are carried on in those situ- ations in which the acidity of the soil solution does not preclude the existence of the anaerobic bacteria. Among the taller shrubs and trees, such as Vaccinium corymbosum, Aronia nigra, and Larix laricina, the defoliation takes place each autumn. As these plants are of relatively large size, the bulk of the material forms a noteworthy annual addition to the substratum. When to this is added the twigs and small branches which fall each season, we can understand the fact that the substratum is almost entirely free of surface water. Usually the ground-water level lies y10% below. But the substratum has a high water-capacity and 's kept constantly moist. Where the sphagnum covering is wanting for one reason or another, the dark color of the surface peat shows how much more complete is its disintegration as compared with that of the other zones. This condition is made possible by its position telative to the ground water. On the other hand, as will be shown later, the temperature conditions are more favorable in the zones of herbaceous and shrubby vegetation. ost of the basins in which peat formation is going on actively, are subject to considerable variation in water level, both season a annual. During the last two years the rainfall has been con- ‘iderably above the normal in lower Michigan, and many of these bog “reas Were flooded. At West Lake, for example, a large part of the tamarack area was covered with water to a height of several inches i” level of the roots. Most of the basins are also oes ._. level in the spring and during prolonged sisaaie Y % panying such changes there are great differences 1D the rate and manner of decay. High water, in so far as it excludes oxygen; fa ee "ors Putrefaction; if it comes as a result of heavy rains, It eat “cidity of the soil solution, increases its oxygen content, an ste for a short time favors the growth of the saprophytes causing Ik of the e : “macausis. Low water level exposes a much greater bu 372 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER substratum to disintegration, and favors the carrying away of the products of decomposition; in general, it favors eremacausis. In the samples of water which I have examined at various times from the same depressions, there have been marked variations within short periods of time in the color of the water and in the presence of such animals as Daphnia and Cyclops. No attempt has been made to count or even separate the bacteria present, but it is probable that _ they too vary with the color of the water and the animal life. When the bog land has been cleared and ditched, the marked increase in the rate of decay is apparent. Eremacausis becomes exceedingly active, and in the course of a few years the substratum is reduced to a brownish-black, pulp-like mass. If continued, this goes to form “muck,” a substance which when dry is powdery and somewhat resembles soot. During these processes of decay there occurs a succession among the organisms present. The accumulation of disintegration products makes the medium unfavorable for the com- tinued existence of the organism involved in their production. At the same time it may furnish optimum conditions for the development of other forms. An acid medium favors the growth of the Phycomycetes, while alkalinity favors the bacteria. In such regions as this, were the underground waters are alkaline, the latter fact, together with fluctuations in the ground-water level, may have an important bearing upon the presence of more thoroughly decayed peat and of a distinct depression about the margins of many of the bogs. weal If to the factors of relative scarcity of oxygen and the acidity : the soil solution is added the occurrence of temperatures considerably lower than those of the surrounding uplands, it is not di eo understand why a large part of each year’s vegetative products sho escape complete destruction. In our estimate of the bog . as a habitat for higher plants, the strong competition with them of scopic plants to which the former are subject in the acquisition oxygen for their underground parts, must be emphasized. THE PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ie a The peat formed through the agency of the bog << eee attendant plants has a fibrous and matted appearance. a put slight of the various dead stems, roots, and leaves have suffer | | 1903] TRANSEAU—BOGS OF THE HURON RIVER VALLEY 373 alteration... They were originally strongly cuticularized, and this has aided in their preservation. The color is commonly a pale yellowish- brown. During life these plant materials become strongly matted and interwoven, and this structure frequently persists. It is this structure that gives to the Carex-Eriophorum zone in many lakes its strength to support heavy bodies. A man’s weight will carry the substratum a foot beneath the surface of the water, but it seldom breaks under the strain. In the case of lakes where this zone is unusually developed, it may cover a large part of the lake surface and be of great importance in the filling in of peat: - In such cases the deposition takes place largely by the gradual falling of material from the under side of the floating substratum. On account of the slight weight of the material, it does not descend and produce a compact deposit on the bottom, but forms a sort of thick liquid peat. The sphagnum-shrub zone, where well developed, usually shows a brown peat beneath it. It is composed largely of sphagnum and the semi-decayed twigs, rhizomes, and leaves of the other plants. It is distinctly fibrous, but of a type different from that of the sedge zone; the fibers are short, and the material is not nearly so tenacious. Under the tamaracks a large part of the annual peat increment is made up of the tamarack needles, though mosses (Hypnum, Sphag- hum, and Polytrichum) usually are of importance in this connection. The color is reddish-brown and darker than that of the shrubby zone. The fibrous structure is still less apparent, though present. When these bogs have been burned over and partially drained, there frequently comes in a dense ground covering of moss (Poly- itichum). In such cases the peat continues to accumulate, largely through the agency of this plant. In such situations the peat 1s a teddish-brown, and the plant structures have practically disappeared through decay. Below the upper layer, the peat when moist has the sticky, clayey properties of well-decomposed peat. ne other well-marked stage is shown in the areas of muck land Pa: under cultivation to onions and celery. Under the influence of drainage and tillage, the disintegration is nearly complete. All plant Structures have disappeared, the humous acids have been largely neutralized or washed out, and there is left only a fine, powdery, brownish-black “muck.” 374 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [xoveunes The following table shows some other physical properties of these several varieties of peat. Cassandra- Fresh Tamarack Chelsea Onion née | Sphagnum Fg 3 Zone Peat | Bog Peat |Marsh Muck be ea 87.0 78.0% gI.o 84.0 82.0 75.0 by weight........ 892.0 | 1550.0 960.0 530.0 477.0 283.0 ir H,O-con- OD ni OUR Ce ree er 8.5 10.6 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 *Low volume percentage due to air present in tissues. These measurements were made by placing the peat samples in a zinc cylinder of 600 °° capacity. The bottom of the cylinder was closed with a wire gauze cap. The moist peat. was tamped into the cylinders with as nearly uniform a stroke as possible. The cylinders were then set in a dish of water for eighteen hours, after which the cylinder was removed and allowed to drip. When all dripping had ceased, the cylinder was weighed. The peat was then removed and allowed to dry at room temperature, and again weighed. Finally it was dried at 110° C., and the absolute weight determined. As usual in such measurements, considerable irregularity was shown by the different samples, owing to the difficulty of removing the air, and of packing to the same degree. However, the figures bring out clearly the fact that sphagnum more than any other plant influences the water-capacity of a peat containing it. The eriophorum peat has lower capacity, owing to its coarse fibrous structure. Of the series examined, the highest water-capacity was found in the cassandra zone. The effect of further decay and destruction of the plant tissue is shown by the reduction in water-capacity of the last three _— of the series. The percentages are of interest in connection with the utilization of such lands for agricultural purposes, in showing ‘ difficulty of proper drainage. It is the experience of the men W Z ditch these bogs that until the peat has reached the condition term “muck” the ditches act only with extreme slowness. Chemically, peat or humus is made up of varying several substances of a rather indefinite character, wh monly classified among the dehydration products of ich are com- the carbo- 1995] TRANSEAU—BOGS OF THE HURON RIVER VALLEY 375 hydrates. These bodies not only occur in nature, but may be arti- ficially produced by the action of strong acids on starch, sugar, and cellulose. The relation of nitrogen to these bodies is still unknown. Principally on the basis of color and solubility in alkalies and acids, there are several substances distinguished. Ulmin and ulmic acid are brown, and are early products of decomposition. Humin and humic acid are black, and occur more abundantly where eremacausis has been active for a long time. Crenic and apocrenic acids appear to be further oxidation products; the former is colorless, and the latter varies from yellow to brown. MAvERr believes these bodies to be organic nitrogen compounds (36), and on this basis SrOCKBRIDGE (50, p. 135) explains the insolubility of peat soils and the presence of the unavailable nitrogen in peat. Beside these substances xylic, saccharic, and glucinic acids have been recognized. Although great advances have been made in soil chemics, it seems strange that the only suggestion of formula for these substances was made by MULDER in 1861 (38). Humic acid forms water-soluble compounds, with the alkalies, and to these are due largely the brown colors of the bog waters. The color may be produced by the presence of free humic acid. With the alkaline earths humic acid forms insoluble or difficultly soluble com- pounds. Hence there is slight chance of lime and magnesia pene- trating from the surrounding soil into the peat deposits. During the changes which the plant material undergoes in the Process of peat-making there are alterations in the relative amounts of volatile hydrocarbons, fixed carbon, and ash—using these terms “S$ In ordinary coal analyses. qh Eriopho dra | Tamarack a ee ‘ rum Stems | Sphagnum | rum ome a. Zone Peat uck ‘and Leaves Peat : Slatile combustible, 68> V 45-7 : 62.0 54.0 53:0 Hoag gat, 21.0 a 21.8 22.9 23-4 wisi TO eee 3.8 4.5 7.4 13.8 13.6 sige a ° 10.6 8.8 9-3 10.0 ee 7- : fe The Proportion of volatile combustible matter decreases regularly as the humification proceeds. The ash regularly increases, while the air-dry water content shows but slight modification. : (To be continued.) BRIEFER ARTICLES. NOTES ON NORTH AMERICAN WILLOWS. L. (WITH PLATES XII AND XIII) Salix Gooddingi, n. sp—A shrub or small tree 2-3™ high: twigs straight, slender, yellowish, only slightly shining, glabrous or finely puberulent just above the axils of the short fertile branches (very young shoots probably pubescent): leaves on fertile twigs lanceolate or narrowly elliptic-lanceolate, sharply acute or sometimes abruptly short-acuminate at the apex, acute at the base, 2.5-4.5°™ long, 6-10™™ wide (probably considerably larger on sterile shoots), entire or sparsely to closely glandular-serrate, frequently somewhat falcate; usually glabrous, or puberulent to finely silky-pubes- cent when young, especially near the base, becoming entirely glabrous with age, dull green on both sides, scarcely paler beneath; midrib distinct, yellowish, nerves not prominent; petioles pubescent, 1-3™™ long; stipules none: aments appearing with the leaves, solitary, terminating short lateral leafy pubescent branches which are 1-2.5°™ long, and bear 3-6 leaves; pistillate abundantly produced, slender, rather lax in fruit, 3-5™ long, the rachis densely gray-pubescent: capsules short ovate-conic, 3-4" long, densely gray-tomentose, long pedicelled; pedicels densely gry- tomentose, 1.5-3™™ long; scales yellow, linear-oblanceolate, obtuse, ase wide, 2.5-3™™ long, white-tomentose on both sides; style none; stigmas divided, short, thick, reddish-brown.—Plate XII, figs. 1, 2. S. Gooddingi belongs to the section LonGrroxteAe and is probably most nearly related to S. Bolanderiana Rowlee, from the Yosemite Valley, California. a easily separated from all other species by the long pedicels, nearly — 5 capsule in length. The foliage bears a superficial resemblance to that of »- nigra Marsh. : The type was collected by Lestrz N. Goopp1ne, of the University of noe ing, no. 689, Flora of Nevada; ditch banks, Muddy Creek, May 2, — Lincoln Creek is a tributary of the Virgin River, which flows into the Ce ‘ County, in extreme southeastern Nevada. The specimen cure has beet shoots bearing numerous nearly mature aments. No other oe 376 | : 1905] BRIEFER ARTICLES 377 as it was collected at no other place. It doubtless is common along the Muddy. The region of the Muddy is a very barren desert, scarcely anything growing except along the streams or ditches. The water and the soil are quite salty and there are low hills of salt which border along the Muddy and the Virgin. The willow, however, seeks the stream banks and ditches, the little marshy places being too alkaline.” Salix Tweedyi (Bebb) n. comb. S. Barrattiana Tweedyi Bebb, Con- trib. U. S. Nat. Herb. 3:572. 1896.—A shrub, with short stout divaricate branches; bark on the older twigs gray, somewhat shining, on younger twigs chestnut to deep reddish-brown, usually quite glabrous except the twigs of the season,which are commonly densely pubescent with spreading gray hairs: buds large, 6-ro™™ long, chestnut, thinly pubescent with long hairs, at length glabrate: leaves elliptical and acute at both ends, to oval, and Wyourne : head of Big Goose Creek, Big Horn Mountains, nos. II (the type) i July 15-24, 1893; ‘along streams in Teton Basin, July. With neatly smooth! Professor Porter.” J. M. Coulter, 1872. i In "a eae is listed by Coutrer’ under the name of S. grea R. Mts National Herbarium the Hayden Survey specimen Is wig: cies a y daho Terr.” Trail Creek, along which the party worked, is, how: a Pea die “ TscHEernrajew, E., Ueber den Einfluss der Temperature auf a oe ght 23: ‘nttamoleculare Atmung der verletzten Pflanzen. Ber. Deutsch. Dot. *207-211. 1905. 48 Cottins, J. F., Some interesting Rhode Ish Rhodora 6:149-15° 1904. and bogs. 396 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER in which four species hitherto unrecorded for the state were discovered (Andro- meda polifolia, Kalmia glauca, Eriophorum vaginatum, Arceuthobium pusillum). The black spruce is more abundant than elsewhere in the state. Obviously this is a relict vegetation, and it is interesting to know that ice remains in this bog until late in May. The Andromeda was in full bloom, while the stems were yet imbedded in thick ice, a condition surely reminding one of the far north. —H. C. Cow tes. AN INSTRUCTIVE ECOLOGICAL STUDY of the giant cactus has been made by Mrs. SPALDING.49 It is found that changes in bulk due to varying amounts of stored water are accompanied by circumferential stem changes accomplished by a bellows-like action of the ribs, which draw closer together as the circum- ference decreases, and move farther apart as it increases. Variations in cir- cumference are least pronounced at the base and top; and differences are shown between the north and south sides. These changes in no way impair the mechani- cal system.—H. C. Cow Les. BLANKINSHIPS° has published an historical account of botanical work in Montana. The frontispiece is an elegant colored plate of Lewisia rediviva. The accounts of collecting expeditions are arranged chronologically, and the bibliography of titles dealing with the state flora, arranged mje will be very helpful to students of the vegetation of that region. BLANKIN st has also published a supplement to RypBERG’s Montana flora, and in ee with H. F. HENSHALLS? aie has prepared a list of the common names of Montana plants.—H. C. Cow BULLERSS has obtained some interesting data from the study of a single- gilled fungus whose saprophytism destroys paving blocks. When grown in light or in darkness papillae protrude which in the former case develop pilei but in the latter do not. The papillae remain rectipetal and indifferent to geotropic stimuli until exposed to light, when they become negatively geotropic and posi: tively heliotropic. The latter sensitiveness is lost, however, during the formation of the pileus, which is dependent upon sufficient illumination—RayMoNP onp H. Ponp. 49 SPALDING, EFFIe S., Mechanical adjustment of the suaharo (Cereus eee teus) to varying quantities of stored water. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 32: 57-68. 1995: 5° BLANKINSHIP, J. W., ntury of botanical exploration in Montana, eA — collectors, herbaria, at Sdidisgeanky. Mont. Agric. Coll. Sci. Studies 1:3-3* 9°5- corrections. Ibid. Be , Supplement to the flora of Montana: additions and 1233-109. 1905. ne s? BLANKINSHIP, J. W., and HENSHALL, H. F., Common names of 0 plants. Ibid. 1:113-139. 1905. nus lepideus Fr. 53 BULLER, A. H., R. The reactions of the fruit-bodies of Lenti to external stimuli. Annals of Bot. 19:427-436. figs. 30- 19°5- 1905] CURRENT LITERATURE 307 eee has prepared an extended morphological and physiological ograph on Fegatella conica (L.) Corda. The subject is treated under the Si : ae =e structure of the thallus, structure and develop- an ow shoots (including development of archegonia, antheridia and eee eo, of the sporogonium and spores, germination of spores, ae e thallus, and asexual reproduction. It is a very complete y e life-history and will be useful for reference.—C. J. CHAMBERLAIN. ties in Drosera, ’ in speaking of but without a “ an interesting paper dealing with monstrosi cara 3 axifraga, uses the term “morphic translocation’ ee DS ccan organ which appear suddenly on another organ, bas a shi gentian spoken of had a petaloid fringe on the carpel, ee or eu : g andular tentacles on perianth and carpels. The possible Ges 2 ee translocations, as well as the broader topic of the use of 8 ata, is discussed rather fully—H. C. COowLEs. logist, M. P. PorsILD, as land. The realization ae nroust and yet modest from the standpoint of expenditure, sh cact P value 2 science, and it is to be hoped that the Danish govern- ax i — s request. This seems likely, in view of the liberality previous botanical explorers in Greenland.—H. C. CowLes- 0 s LSSON-SEFFER®® tells of the plans of the Danish eco WHILE LIG : sett HT SEEMS to have little or no influence on the germination of most seeds, it fay Sa Dawe - es = ais epeancate of some, and in the case of a very few (as Viscum, Sis), light is necessary for germination. Only in the case of Acan- thostach ; ; adds oS ohaiaaad had light been found to hinder germination. Now REMER‘? significanc er plant, Phacelia tanacetifolia, to Aca thostachys. The ecological e of such aberrants is unknown.—H. C. CowLes. ar account of the Erysipha- - nd species found in the i of cultivated W ceae, oo has published a short popul State of Washington eys and descriptions of the genera @ plants in Washi, . Notes are also presented upon Six Cis Bordeaux aly on due to species of this well-known family. Spraying with of controlling Venn or flowers of sulfur is recommended as the best means me mildews.—E. MEAD WILCOX. 54 oe Fegatella conica (L.) Corda, Eine morphologisch-physiologisch $5 Leavirr - . Bot. Centralbl. 18: 327-408. pls. 12-13- 1995: 1905. , R. G., On translocation of characters in plants. Rhodora 7:1-1!7- 36 1905, Otsson-SeFreR, P., A biological station in Greenland. Science 21: 189-191- 57 jolia one Der Einfluss des Lichtes auf die Keimung bel Phacelia tanaceti- Pie er. Deutsch. Bot. Gesells. 22: 328-339: 1994 Stat, 7011-16 NCE, W. H., The powdery mildews of Washington. Bull. Wash. Exp. - figs. 22. 1905. 308 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NovEmBER CocKAYNE5? has found that Discaria Toumatou, a New Zealand xerophytic shrub that normally has long pungent spines, fails to develop these spines in moist chamber cultures. It is believed that the juvenile leafy shoots instead of spines would continue indefinitely in such conditions. He regards these facts as highly favorable to the xerophytic rather than the protective theory of thorns.—H. C. CowLes. HARSHBERGER®. proposes that the term zone in plant geography be restricted to broad belts determined by latitude, conforming to the law of priority as we as dominant usage. Mountain zones he would term belts; concentric pond zones, circumareas; submerged shore zones, shelves; strand, river, or prairie edge, strips; island zones, girdles; and vertical forest zones, layers.—H. C. CowLes. HARSHBERGER has been making further floristic studies on the North American flora. One paper®t deals with the comparative age of the various elements in eastern North America, and there is a chart that shows the supposed relative time of appearance of these elements from the Miocene until now. A second paper®? deals briefly with centers of dispersal—H. C. CowLes. SWELLENGREBEL®S finds something to attract him in the dunes of the Nether- lands in spite of H. Brrvx’s assertion that they have no true dune plants, and that if present they would be of no interest! The plant societies noted are those of the sea dunes, the gray dunes, and the dune hollows. Detailed notes are given concerning the source of the dune flora~—H. C. CowLes. IN A LECTURE before a convention of practical farmers at Breslau, January, 1905, T'SCHERMAK®4 gave a clear exposition of the recently discovered laws of inheritance and their significance for practical agriculture. He also included a brief discussion of variation and mutation.—G. H. SHULL. A coop accounts of the Desert Botanical Laboratory and of the more striking vegetation in its vicinity has been published by Professor LLOYD. —H. C. Cowles. 59 Cockayne, L., On the significance of spines in Discaria Toumatou Raoul Giana). New Phytol. 4:79-85. 1905. 6° HARSHBERGER, J. W., Suggestions toward a phytogeographic Science N. S. 21:789-790. 1905. 6: HARSHBERGER, J. W., The comparative age of the different fl of eastern North America. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 1904:601-615- se , Original centers concerned in North American. plant dispe 1905: 2. 3 SWELLENGREBEL, N., Ueber niederlindische Diinenpflanzen- Centralbl. 187: 181-198. 1 3 64 TSCHERMAK, E., Die Sees Vererbungsgesetze un ee Landw. Anwendung fiir die rationelle Pflanzenziichtung. Reprint from Wien Zeitg. nos. 17, 18, 19. pp. 31. 1905. 66: 6s Lioyp, F. E., A botanical laboratory in the desert. Pop. Sci. Monthly 329-342. 1905. nomenclature: oristic elements rsal. Ibid" NEWS. Mr. F. J. SEAVER has been appointed professor of botany in Iowa Wesleyan College, at Mt. Pleasant, where he hopes to continue his study of Discomycetes. Dr. R. H. True, in charge of drug-plant investigations for the U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry, is paying special attention to the culture of paprika peppers. The crop of the past season is reported as extremely satisfactory. Professors MAcBRiIpE and Suimek, of the University of Iowa, spent part of last summer in the southwestern deserts, especially in the Salton basin. The University herbarium now contains a fairly complete representation of the flora of New Mexico and Arizona. Gepriper BoRNTRAEGER are proposing to reprint certain missing parts of the Jahrbiicher fiir wissenschajtliche Botanik so as to offer complete sets of the first forty volumes, provided there are a sufficient number of subscribers at M 1250 for the set. We trust they will be encouraged to execute the project. Mr. L. H. Dewey, in charge of fiber-plant investigations, U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry, has recently distributed to agricultural colleges and other tech- nical schools sets of the principal plant fibers used in the textile industries in this country. Until exhausted, these sets will be forwarded to schools and colleges where they will be of service in teaching economic botany or commercial geography. _ THE DEPARTMENT of botany of Purdue University has this year added — in forestry, administered by Professor STANLEY COULTER, covering two years Work, and including instruction in timber physics under the direction of Pro- fesor W. K. Hart, in charge of timber tests for the U. S. Forest Service. With Prerequisites covering Freshman and Sophomore work, the initial enrolment 1s thirteen. The University of Iowa is also extending its courses along forestry lines. THE systematic botanical work of the U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry has Neently been brought together and put in charge of Mr. F. V. — Here- tofore, considerable work of this character has been carried on in several offices Bi Bureau, more especially in that of the Agrostologist, where reo his €s of grasses have been conducted for many years. The is oe Ye also been placed under the charge of Mr. CovILLE, and Mr. A. ». a °Ock, in general charge of systematic work on grasses, has been assigned to Office of the Botanist for the continuance of this work. ? ra THE University of Nebraska changes have been made which prov! : ia genie for the herbarium ine ie about 100,000 Spec! e botanical library. The plant houses, ‘partment of horticulture, sage be ae the full control of the department * y. A new botanical laboratory has been fitted rows - Agriculture and the Experiment Station, in oS ae 1905] ural Hall on the University Farm. While part © 399 400 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [NOVEMBER ment, this laboratory is specifically in the charge of Dr. F. D. Heap. Dr. F. E, CLEMENTs is to give courses in ecology as part of the larger division of plant physiology of which he was recently appointed associate professor. From THE Journal of the New York Botanical Garden we learn that Dr. and Mrs. N. L. Britton, accompanied by Mr. StEwarpson Brown, curator of botany in the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, spent three weeks in Bermuda in September, bringing back a large collection of plants, live and dried, in all about 3,000 specimens. Dr. P. A. RypBERG spent two months last summer in collecting about Salt Lake City, Marysvale, and Nephi, Utah. Mr. GeorcE V. Nasu has recently returned from an exploring expedition in the interior of Hayti, reaching some regions hitherto unvisited by any botanist and bringing back large quantities of live plants, seeds, and preserved material. Dr. Forrest SHREVE is spending the winter at the tropical laboratory of the New York Botanical Garden, Cinchona, Jamaica, having been appointed a laboratory assistant of the Garden and Bruce Fellow of Johns Hopkins University. THE FOLLOWING movements among the staff of the U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry have been reported at our request: Dr. W. CHTMANN has returned from a trip to California, undertaken in the interests of camphor and poppy investigations. rR. W. F. Wicut has just returned from Europe, where he spent four months in studying type specimens of plants in various herbaria. Mr. F. H. Hittman recently visited the Pacific coast in order to study the species of dodder which are so troublesome in alfalfa and clover fields. . G. Frep K1vuGH spent several months in Idaho and Nevada note the relation of poisonous plants to the sheep trouble known as “bighead.’ Mr. S. C. Hoon, who has been in charge of the Vermont station for drug: plant investigations, at Burlington, has returned to Washington for the winter. oFEssor H. Pirtier is about to start on an exploring trip of four or five months’ duration in western Columbia, with a special view to 4 study of the cottons of that region. aE Mr. T. B. Younc has returned to Washington after a season’s work at Eb ezer, S. C., where he has been in charge of the drug-plant farm, a with Mr. J. W. Kine, fe Mr. Epcar Brown recently returned from an inspection of the meee tant seed laboratories of England, France, Netherlands, Germany, ©° — Hungary, and Switzerland. ae Mr. W. W. SrockBercer recently made a trip through the hop- pee sections of the Pacific coast and the state of New York, where the con : brewing and of curing hops have been studied. oe Dr. J. W. T. Duvet is spending some time in Ohio and Illinois vee pi . the curing of seed corn. It has been found that by proper treatment of high vitality can be assured at planting time. | HEADACHE Sozodont is the brain’s cr . > . Tooth Powder for phosphates Every effort of the bod : y cons phoep oh ates, W aa the supply sarwion era ced and headache inlows.. ee Horsford’s Acid Phosphate is the ideal ee preparation for brain- a delicious dentifrice. Free vibes lorm ae phosphates in a : fete Ssctigenangi promptly from acid and grit. 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We ots ar be deli piano | THE MWTANICAL GAZETTE December, 1905 Editors: JOHN M. COULTER and CHARLES R. BARNES CONTENTS life History of Hypocrea alutacea George F. Atkinson The Bogs and Bog Flora of the Huron River Valley Edgar Nelson Transeau oe of Drought by Neapolitan Cliff Flora New Genus of Ophioglossaceae Current Literature The University of Chicago Press CHICAGO and NEW YORE William Wesley and Son, London ve Botanical Gazette y Journal Embracing all Departments of Botanical Science COULTER and CHARLES R. BARNES, with the assistance of other members of the botanical staff of the University of Chicago. Issued December 20, 1905 CONTENTS WV OF HYPOCREA ALUTACEA (win prares x1v-xv1). George F. Atkinson 401 D BOG FLORA OF THE HURON RIVER Ve Age SIXTEEN _ Edgar Nelson Transeau - 418 OF Droucut py NEAPOLITAN CuiirF FLORA (WITH THREE FIGURES). - 449 | Genus OF OPHIOGLOSSACEAE (WITH ONE FIGURE). - - ~ 7 -> 455 TURE. - s = ci 3 : * = = 2 - - ane ROGRAPHS OF PLANT RUSTS. BANK. ORGANOGRAPHY. 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Arrangement for viewing Ultra-Microscopic Particles. Pr ojecting Lanterns, the Epzscope and Epidiascope. Binocular and Monocular Telescopes. Astronomical and Astrophotographic Objectives. Feld Glasses and Stereoscopic Telescopes. Stereoscopic Range Finders. Photogr aphic Lenses, (Protar, Planar, Unar, and Tessar); Reversing Prisms, Focusing Lenses, ete: Palmos Cameras with focal plane shutters. Stereoscopes and “Oerants for viewing photographs. Telescopic Gun Sights. Optical Measuring Instruments for Chemists and Phys- icists, including Spectroscopes, Spectrometers, Re- fractometers, Comparators, Stereo - Comparators, Interference and Schlieren Apparatus, etc. s, together with Cc : : atalogues and circulars describing any of the above instrument Wotations of prices, either duty paid or duty free, sent on request. THE SCIENTIFIC SHOP ALBERT B. PORTER 326 Dearborn St., Chicago ‘entific Instraments JUST PUBLISHED Methods in Plant Histology SECOND EDITION, ILLUSTRATED By CHARLES J. CHAMBERLAIN, A.M., Ph.D. Instructor in Botany in the Unibersity of Chicago A Constant Help to Teachers and Students of Botany Contains Directions for Collecting and Preparing Plant Meterial forMicroscopic nbestigation T is based upon a course in botanical micro-technique, and is the first complete | manual to be published on this subject. It is the result of several years’ work with classes in residence at the University of Chicago, and with University Extension classes away from the University. It aims, therefore, to meet we requirements, not only of the student who has the assistance of an instructor '® a fully equipped laboratory, but also the student who must work by himself and with limited. apparatus. Free-hand sectioning, the paraffin method, the collodion method, and the glycerine method, are treated in considerable detail. In later chapters specific directions are given for making such preparations as are need by those who wish to study the plant kingdom from the algae up to the flowering plants. Special attention is paid to the staining of karyokinetic figures cas the student who masters this problem will find little difficulty in di other structures. Formulas are given for the reagents commonly used in histological laboratory. : Pee in the In preparing the second edition the author has kept in view the advance ! science since the book first appeared. Professor Klebs’s methods for 7 various reproductive phases in the algae and fungi have been outlined in an tical way, and in general much more attention has been given to ps material. New chapters deal with the Venetian turpentine method, micro-chem tests, free-hand sections, special methods, and the use of the microscope- changes and additions have enlarged the volume from 168 to 272 pages: 272 pp., 8 vo, cloth, net, $2.25, postpaid $2.39 —— a THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRES Chicago and New York en mE PERRY MAGAZINE soe the a te FOR CHRISTMAS GIFTS These pa llecmse irae The Perry Pictures rote remind your warded Four Gold Medals end of you ten times A Beautiful Gift Book, ONE CENT EACH The Story of the Christ. for 25 or more ie 50 cents for 50 Art Subjects, lonthly, except July and : Madonnas, etc.; 50 Life of itis Chri t, et gut. $1.00 per year, The story in Bible language. 25 ee ion i ad ab ae rca heestifuily Illustrated asec Some too full page Intended especially for children and young people, For Christmas Set of r20 choice d 25 cents ” Art Book- { pictures, or four 25: cent set " oy head agbi 00 but suitable for all. 20 pictures. 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By CHARLES TRUMAN WYCKOFF. 160 PP» - is net $1.00; postpaid . paper, net $1.00; postpaid The Idea of God in Relation to qhe- ology. By ELIPHALET ALLISON READ: 68 pp., royal 8vo, — net $0. agi postpaid ey ; An Ideal Actor in pa: By FRANK W. DIGNAN. 43 PP- pee 8vo, eee THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAG | CHICAGO and NEW YORH ; “4 0.56 1.04 R 0-79 0.53 oO PRESS SULLETIN OF NEW IND RECENT BOOKS ISS UBD fe the Aniversity of Chicago Press ie er S 0 C i ol An Exposition of the Main Development al 02 y in Sociological Theory, from Spencer to i Ratzenhofer 44ALBION W. SMALL frolessor and Head of th Se adhe e Department of tag in the University of Chica i my — American Journal of Sociology # Suit or of An Introduction to the Study i this important book Professor ml brings his wide reading “hee analytical powers to bear “aperdl of sociology and its “ace, Th fe * repatded as 4 fen ag claims have often beisterial oa mh ground that ma “aha : e recognized }™0mics ethnology, history, » tc. Professor Small’s ds Orker in one of the ny ledge hg that the body of os © gained legitimately * tWofold a; The book thus j, “ation of “ie being at once a “Well as a seas raison d'étre and a plea for the recognition © , Satins, hag the use of students in the classroom. % as t ‘omists, political scientists, psychologists, an ) Sociologists, *al fie] f the new science, It is addressed d moralists, quite xi ; IV-+-739 pp., 8vo, cloth; net $4.00, postpaid $4-23 TRe UNITVER ST TY OF “CHICA G. ee A Decade of Civic Development By CHARLES ZUEBLIN Professor of Sociology in the University of Chicago Author of American Municipal Progress Associate Editor of the American Journal of Soctology A VIGOROUS optimist is in himself a hopeful sign of the times... The author of this volume is a man of this stamp. ‘The last decade,” he says, “has witnessed not only a greater develop. ment of civic improvement than any former decade, but a more marked advance than all the previous history of the United States can show. Professor Zueblin is a practical mai, and his book is a practical book. It gives a concise and spirited sco of certain definite measures (pout cal, economic, social, and artistic) for the betterment of American cities. Here is a subject that lies at ng very doors—a subject that no citi- zen can afford to overlook. . Beginning with a discussion § the revived interest in citizenship he treats in turn the training ol the citizen, the making of the city, ie educational effect of the a world’s fairs, and the recent 1%. ‘ ae New York, Harris provements in the cities where most has been done— Boston, os burg, and Washington. The ‘Civic Renascence,” as Professor Zueblin calls pe | shown to be a great national movement, extending from sea t0 sea, compe J with the Civil War and the Reconstruction. There could hardly be renee | a more effective method of preaching the new crusade than arene recital of what has already been accomplished. What the fate yf movement will be can only be estimated, but no one will wish to remain 18 of its present status. The book, just published, contains twenty full-page illustr Aside from his classroom work as professor of sociology, is one of the most-sought lecturers of the day in the field of un! and was formerly president of the American League for Civic Impre ations. a Professor ued? | versity exon yement. 200 pp., 12mo, cloth; net $1.25, postpaid $1-39 EEE = #R UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS sia and Its Crisis by PAUL MILYOUKOV Formerly Professor of History at the Universities of Moscow and Sofia ) MOST opportune work athe present moment lal Milyoukov’s Russia ls Crisis. The book is “ition of the Czar’s ™t, as manifested in its political, and religious “tions. Professor Mil- “W, who is now in St. "tsburg, where he has ‘y suffered imprison- for his activity in the F*otfreedom, is a typical *Sehtative of the influ- ¥ presenta- ‘ ews perfectly Ssing hig Opin} +++. possesses an intimate knowledge of his i i + Sema and we feel through the whole discussion that’ : “*ektowleg co knowledge, training, and evident fairness, he is the best a 8¢ of present conditions in Russia from the historical point of view. xi ; ¥+589 pp., crown 8vo, cloth; net $3.00, postpaid $3.20 ie THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGy ae ANCIENT RECORDS General Editor: WILLIAM RAINEY HARPER President of the University of Chicago Professor and Head of the Department of Semitic Languages and Literatures pat plan of this important undertaking, which aims to place before & world of scholars many significant records of the past hitherto unavailabe or available only in fragmentary and scattered collections, originated seven years ago, and has been in process of elaboration ever since. It is intended comprise three series of volumes, each of which will cover a special pet the ancient world, as follows: I. Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia Special Editor: ROBERT FRANCIS HARPER Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures in the University of Chicago | Il. Ancient Records of Egypt Special Editor: JAMES HENRY BREASTED . = j i i : Professor of Egyptology and Oriental History in the University of Chicag? 3 III. Ancient Records of Palestine, Phcenecia, and Sees Special Editor: WILLIAM RAINEY HARPER Professor and Head of the Department of Semitic Languages in the University of Chicago to take defi Of these, Series II, “Ancient Records of Egypt, is the first is omit YF form, and four volumes are announced for publication during which will include the Historical Documents. The first vo about January 15, 1906, and the remaining three at intervals and July 1. - comple An advance price of $3.00 net per volume, or $12.00 net ga ia ‘ rot set, will be made. This will apply to all orders received prior . After that date the price will be advanced to $15.00 net pet set. (See opposite page. ) Mar VE RST TY OF CAICAGO PRESS cient Records of Egypt By JAMES HENRY BREASTED Professor of Egyptology and Oriental History in the University of Chicago Author of The History of Egypt ; FULL and reliable source-book of Egyptian history is at last to appear. After ten years of labor, Professor James H. Breasted offers to Egyptologists and students of history a corpus of Egyptian in- scriptions-on a scale not previously attempted, and with a degree of ac- curacy never before attained. Pro- fessor Breasted has copied with his own hand every Egyptian inscription in Europe and many of those in Egypt. So thorough a revision would have been impossible but for his connection with the great Egyp- tian Dictionary in preparation by the Royal Academies of Germany. The inaccuracy of even the best readings of ancient inscriptions is proverbial, but it is believed that, with the minute care that he has bestowed upon the work, Professor Breasted’s record of this vast mass of rapidly ill prove definitive. Remote and dry as such labor may an, it proves on closer acquaintance to be teeming with It is hardly necessary to say that an expert linguist at the a position very different from that of even the best scholar mare ago. So great has been the progress in the study of the language : ES rrision of the documents was imperatively demanded. ie Ads to Sa lons are arranged chronologically and extend from the earlies 5B. T nal loss of Egyptian independence by the Persian conquest in m phey are accompanied by historical introductions, explanatory notes, Uta analytical index. While intended as a companion to the author’s “Ares of 2 Egypt, they have an independent value, and deserve a place on the ty student of ancient history. ie ting material Ww 1 to the laym “2 interest. a nt day is in eWenty y Bacom Sa full 4 vols.; 390, 450, 300, 560 pp. (see opposite page.) THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGG ae The Silver Age of the Greek World By JOHN P. MAHAFFY Sometime Professor of Ancient History in the University of Dublin 5 students of ancient life and thought Professor Mahaffy’s scholarly litt volumes on the history of Greek civilization need no introduction, Ox of these the University Press has already been privileged to publish, 7 Progress of Hellenism in Alexander's Empire, and another is shortly to apes The Silver Age of the Greek World, which covers the period from the Rom conquest to the accession of Hadrian, tracing the spread of Hellenism in As Egypt, and Italy. To classicists the chapters on Cicero and Plutarch will bee especial interest, while general readers will be attracted by those that deal w= religion and literature in the first century. (To be published early in 1906) First Russian Reader By SAMUEL NORTHRUP HARPER st Graduate of L’Ecole des Langues Orientales, Paris; Associate in Russian Language © Literature in the University of Chicago. M®*® HARPER, who has studied his subject extensively in Moscow, Beri and Paris, is bringing out a First Russian Reader an adaptation © * French book compiled by Paul Boyer and N. Speranski, of the Ec ie Langues Orientales. The text for reading consists of stories from Tolstoy, there are grammatical and explanatory notes and a vocabulary. (Tomer lished early in 1906.) — ll The Metaphorical Terminology of Greek Rhetoric and Literary Criticism By LARUE VAN HOOK Preceptor in Greek and Latin in Princeton University. f the mot Gs this dissertation Mr. Van Hook aims to determine the cen fine thet obvious figurative terms, and to classify them accordingly; t© ‘. sini uses as critical terms by English and Latin equivalents; and ich critic terms and parallel passages from the literature of Latin and Englis 52 pp., royal 8vo, paper; net 75 cents, postpet ae The Idle Actor in Aeschylus By FRANK W. DIGNAN HIS dissertation is an attempt to show that the false ar is ridiculed by Aristophanes was largely due to the prim and immature drama of the period. The argument involves a gene of the management of the actors in early drama. 40 pp., 8vo, paper; net 50 cents, postpaid 53 cents t for which pec itive condi ral discuss mee VIVERSTTY OF CHhIcaGco PRESS Books for New Testament Study By CLYDE W. VOTAW Assistant Professor of New Testament Literature in the University of Chicago oo lists, comprising books both popular and professional, are presented in the hope that they may be of assistance to students of the Bible in the slection of books for their study of the New Testament. The number of per- sons who are endeavoring to gain a historical and literary, as well as a spiritual, understanding of the Bible increases rapidly, and many of them desire midance in the selection of books from which they may acquire the knowledge sought. The books named here are those which it is thought will prove most help- ful to the present-day student of the New Testament. Different schools of biblical interpretation are represented in the lists, brief annotations being given to characterize the books respecting their point of view, scope, and qualities of articular value. The only consideration in the choice of titles has been the tliciency of the books to promote the best appreciation, knowledge, and use of the New Testament. | 56 pp., royal 8vo, paper; net 50 cents, postpaid 53 cents . The Messianic Hope in the New Testament By SHAILER MATHEWS : Professor of Systematic Theology in the University of Chicago THs volume sceks to establish a criterion for determining to what extent the _ Soncepts of the New Testament writers were essential and to what na asp In other words, it seeks to determine whether these concepts were z Alsi or of local application. The book is not only an interesting an ay example of the historical method of studying the New ig EE W at, : : ollowe | bya ut be found indispensable in any attempt to fix the lines to be Positive and genuine evangelical rendition of theology. ‘ “Professo : wicks . Testament is the . , in the New Le est treatise T ehailer Mathew’s volume on The Messianis sass i else have we seen so dearly 08 this subject with which we are acquainted. bal his Meniznic gue Settly and sanely drawn the distinction between Christ s ddr‘ tg renege tec ing to ther “ct 2nd mission and the misinterpretation put Upow pede Se aed wa Wolk etson the erVious Pharisaic conception of what the kingdom of God m © Messiah was to be.” — Outlook. xx + 338 pp., 8vo, silk; net $2.50, postpaid $2.69 THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGy Finality of the Christian Religio J: 2100 By GEORGE B. FOSTER Professor of the Philosophy of Religion in the University of Chicago lbh a course of lectures delivered at Harvard in 1893 and 1894, Professor Foster outlined an argument for the absolute value of Christianity which s impressed his hearers that he was urged to put it into permanent form. This he has at length done in The Finality of the Christian Religion, a work which gives evidence on every page of deep reading and a penetrating mind. Professor Foster contends that Christianity is a part of human existence—that, in the words of Tertullian, men are by nature Christians. The tendency of modern thought is to reduce everything to mere relativity. To this he opposes the absolute value o! Christianity, not in the rigid form of a fixed revelation, but as a natural develop- ment, The work, which will be published in two parts, falls into four sections. The first section is a historical survey of the field under discussion; the second, a destructive criticism of authority-religion; the third, a presentation of the transition to a naturalistic view of the world; while the fourth is a constructs treatment of Christianity as the religion of the moral consciousness of maf, @ accordance with the evolutionary conception of a continually progressive humas- ity. (The first part will appear early in 1906.) The Prophetic Element in the Ml¢| Testament By WILLIAM R. HARPER President and Head of the Department of Semitic Languages and Literatures 0 co) f the Univers Sac is the latest volume in the series of ‘Constructive Bible Studies. forms, therefore, one step in the process by which the Sunday” ‘| pupil is led from the kindergarten stage to mature biblical che a f book is adapted for use in adult Bible classes, and will appeal particularly tant lege and divinity students. It assumes that the reader has already an vee ot ) ing of scholarly methods and a judgment of some maturity. The term a a is taken in its widest possible sense, and the prophetic element 1 weg | interwoven with every period of biblical history, the present phere it : the subject through Amos. 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Write for Plans and Payments today, to Dept. 25 THE PRUDENTIAL Insurance Company of America SiC Epica meal AS A STOCK COMPANY BY THE STATE # ae ae a UME XL ; NUMBER 6 BOTANICAL (GAZETTE DECEMBER, 1905 LIFE HISTORY OF HYPOCREA ALUTACEA.* GEORGE F. ATKINSON. (WITH PLATES XIV-XVI) Hy pocrea alutacea (Pers.) Tul. is an interesting plant, not only “mM account of its history, but because of its peculiar form and color “tharacters, taken in connection with its structure. In shape it 1s like a club or spatula, one to three inches high, resembling in form other members of the old genus Sphaeria now placed in the genera “Xylaria and Cordyceps. It differs from the Xylarias in not being black, as well as in differences of texture and structure. It resembles more nearly a simple Clavaria, in which genus it was first placed as Clevaria simplex Schmiedel.2_ It resembles also a Cordyceps, in Which genus it has also been placed, and it is even said to grow ‘Sometimes on insects. Some forms are also strikingly like species of Spathularia among the Discomycetes. To the collector, therefore, when he first finds it, it calls forth of its simple aR ic on the surface of the larger fungi, resembling in this respect of the species of Hypomyces. vouttibutions from the Botanical Department of Cornell University no. 103- 2 * Sea et Analyt. 18-26. pl. 4, fig. 2, pl. 5, figs. I-3: 1762, according to 401 402 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER The earlier students looked upon this fungus as an autonomous plant with an erect clavate stroma; among them are the following. Prrsoon? first described it as Sphaeria alutacea. SowErsy? dis- covered it in 1783, and described it in 1799 as Sphaeria clavaia. SCHUMACHERS followed Persoon. ALBERTINI and SCHWEINITZ® in 1805 record it as growing on decaying Alnus. NEES von EsENBECK? in 1816 placed it in his subdivision of clavate Sphaeriae (Keulen- Spharien-S phaeriae Clavaeformes) which he says are like a simple Clavaria, or Geoglossum in which the ascus layer has changed into perithecia. The first species which he places in this group is the leather-yellow Sphaeria, S. alutacea Pers. He states that it grows on the ground in fir woods. FRrres® in his treatment of the genus Sphaeria places it in the tribe Cordyceps, series Hypocrea, as Sphaeria alutacea. Those also who have placed it in the genus Cordyceps regarded it as an autonomous plant. Lrnx? first placed it in Cordyceps as C. alutacea and was followed by Fries.*° It was distributed under two different numbers in Rab. Fung. Europ. Ex. 132 (1860) from pine woods, England, as C. alutacea (Pers.) collected by C. E. BROOME, and no. 246 (1860) from mossy woods, near Leipzig, as C. alutacea B albicans (Pers.), a lighter form, from alutaceus to white, according to the note in connection with the specimen... BERKELEY" under Cordyceps alutacea Fr. says “clavate, tan colored or nearly white, head confluent with the stem. In fir woods amongst leaves and furze,” and his figures show a variation in size between stout and slender forms. QuéLET*? in connection with Cordyceps alulacea (evidently using the name employed by Fries in Summa Veg. elc.) 3 Obs. Mycol. 2:66. pl. 1, jig. 2, a, b, c. 1797. Comm, de fung. clavif. 12. 1797- 4English Fungi 2: pl. 159. 1799. ei, ‘Enum. Pl. Sellandiae 2:175. no. 1343. 1803. ® Consp. Fung. Lusat. Sup. 1. 1805. 7 System der Pilze 289. pl. go, fig. 304. 1816. 8 Syst. Myc. 2:325. 1823. 9 Handb. z. Erkenn. der Gewachse 3:347, no. 5. 1833. ro Summa Veg. Scand. 381. 1840. *t Outlines Brit. Fungol. 382. pl. 26, fig. 6. 1860. *? Champignon du Jura et des Vosges 487. 1869. 105] ATKINSON—HYPOCREA ALUTACEA 403 says that the spores are cylindrical and two-celled, the upper globose, the lower oblong, and in a footnote says that from the texture and fructification the species would belong rather to Hypocrea. It grew among needles of Pinus sylvestris. WuUNTER*S retords C. alutacea Qvuéter from the Jura mountains and says the spores are needle- like, with many segments, and 40-50 u long! Evidently this is not QuéLer’s species. CURREY" says it is a Cordyceps with the fructi- fication of Hypocrea. The TuLasNEs'S in their classical studies forty years ago pointed ut the resemblance in the habit of this plant to that of certain species of Hypomyces, as H.. lateritius Fr., and H. lactifluorum Schw., which are parasitic on species of Lactarius, the H. /actifluorum deforming white species of Lactarius and giving them a bright red color. With this interpretation of the dual nature of the fungus they were led to believe that HT ypocrea alutacea was in a similar way parasitic on a certain species of the simple clavarias, viz., Clavaria ligula Schaef. Their interpretation of the dual nature of the fungus has since been generally conceded to be correct. SACCARDO,?© WINTER,’’ and other systematists have followed them in considering it as parasitic oeither Clavaria li gula or Spathularia, on which latter host BROOME "ported it according to Saccarpo.® It has been reported by Dax North America also on an undetermined species of Spathularia, Where he says, “Apparently parasitic on Spathularia” and reference “made to Peck, Rept. N. Y. State Mus. 26:84. 1874, where the Plant is merely listed as growing on fallen leaves. WINTER (I. ¢-) He mh Synopsis of the fructification of the compound Sphaeriae in the Hookerian sg 858 7 18 : its OS a to Saccarpo /. c. See also Exxis, N. A. P.- 89. 1892, — nts of the city * Day, Davip i se : F., d naturalized pla A catalogue of the native an The reference d its vicinity. Bull. Buff. Soc. Nat. Sci. 4: 161. 1882. OW’s Host Index (see FARLow & SEYMOUR, A provisional host — oS ag States 175. 1891) to H. alutacea as parasitic on Sat found os 3 me, was made from Day’s catalogue, and he adds that pathularia. : 404 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER points out that the stroma of the parasite is completely merged with that of the host, and that only the upper clavate part of the host bears perithecia, while the stem is free or bears the conidial form. Some very discriminating observers, however, have dissented from TULASNE’s interpretation of the dual nature of the fungus, though no proof has been brought forward to demonstrate either its parasitic nature or its autonomy. CoRNu?° as early as 1878 collected several specimens on decaying leaves of Abies picea in a forest in the environs de Pontarlier. He searched diligently for specimens of Clavaria pistillaris of which he says Clavaria ligula is like a reduced form. He found none in the neighborhood of the H ypocrea alutacea, nor could he find any evidence that it grew either as a parasite or saprophyte on insects or on any subterranean fungus. Although he cannot say with certainty, he does not think the plant can be regarded as a parasite or that it develops at the expense of Clavaria ligula. He regards it rather as analogous in habit and nutrition to species of Xylaria which grow, some on wood, others on leaves and humus, and he cites an exotic species X. compuncta Jungh., as resem bling in some respects the Hypocrea alutacea, the plant being aluta- ceous to pallid, but dark punctate from the perithecia. In 1894 SCHROETER,?! a keen and discriminating student of the fungi, also took issue with the prevalent theory that Hypocrea alutacea was a parasite on Clavaria ligula. He says that this is not the case with the forms which grow in Schlesien. He says the fungus grows on wood as ALBERTINI and SCHWEINITZ have pointed out, and as he himself has observed at Breslau, while Clavaria ligula grows on needles of conifers. LixpAu?? also in his treatment of the Hypocreales follows SCHROETER’s judgment rather than that of TuLasNE and WINTER. Fartow?3 records collecting H , aad alutacea at Shelburne, N. H., under Pinus strobus where Was also growing Clavaria ligula, but he was unable to trace any direct con” nection between the two. There is thus a reasonable doubt probably as to 20 Note sur l’H ypocrea alutacea Pers. Bull. Soc. Bot. de France 26:3 2t Krypt. Fl. Schles., Pilze, Zweite Halfte 3:272. 1894. 2 Engler und Prantl Pfl. Fam. 11: 365. 1897. which horn of 3-35: 1879: 23 Lloyd’s Myc. Notes 9 (195):110. 1902. 1905] ATKINSON—HYPOCREA ALUTACEA 405 this dilemma we shall choose. At least none of these students has leit us any evidence which can be considered proof of one or the other of the theories as to the nature of H ypocrea alutacea. My first acquaintance with the plant was in August 1901, when Mr. A. M. Fercuson, one of the students in my laboratory, collected several specimens growing on very rotten wood in one of the forested gorges at Ithaca, N. Y. In looking up the literature at the time I was impressed with the diversity of opinion on the subject, as well as the lack of any attempt at experimental proof one way or the other in support of the theories advanced. It occurred to me that perhaps here was an opportunity to settle by simple experiment this dispute oi a century. At least the trial could be made. Accordingly the plants were placed over night in a new and clean pasteboard box, covered. On the following day I found that the bottom of the box Was nearly covered with numerous ascospores which had been shot ut of the perithecia during the night. There was also a thick and loose covering of the spores over the fruiting portion of the fungus as the plants lay in the box.. For culture media I employed sterilized slices of a species of Lactarius which had been prepared a few days before for culturing Nyetalis asterophora. These slices were in test tubes and about half covered with water. With a sterilized platinum needle, transfers of ascospores were made from the fresh pile on the plants to the ene substratum in the tubes. Twelve tube cultures were started. ith this number it was quite probable that from the fresh pile of ‘Pores several plantings could be made which would be pure. If the spores should grow, and the mycelium mature perithecia, there ee likely be some indication as to whether Hypocrea aluiacea Is “ngle or dual in its nature. If single, then we would expect the development . of a clavate stroma in the pure culture. If dual, the ‘toma would be spread over the surface of the dead slice of the eee At the same time dilution cultures were made in agaric agar “gar in Petrj dishes. None of the spores germinated in them, however. ee week’s time I left Ithaca for the mountains of ee — : a. At the time of leaving there was shins little evi is! 'Y growth in the tube cultures, although V yctalis asterophora spores, $0 j : Wed at the same time, produced a mature crop of plants in @ week 406 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER It is interesting now to note the form of the individual plants from which cultures were attempted. One of them resembled in shape S pathularia flavida, as if it might have been somewhat arrested in development (pl. XIV, fig. 1, b), while others resembled Clavaria ligula, and one was more or less deformed, curved strongly, and with a broad groove on the concave side. ‘These forms would seem to satisfy the wish of the most ardent advocate of the parasite theory who does not attempt to put the theory to the crucial test. In struc- ture, however, there was no indication of a difference of the structural elements such as one might expect to find were the plant parasitic on Clavaria ligula or Spathularia, and an advocate of this theory would be compelled to join WINTER in saying that the parasite and host were completely merged. It should also be said that no normal specimens of Clavaria ligula or of Spathularia were at the time grow- ing in the immediate vicinity of the Hypocrea. Of course, during the next five weeks, while collecting fungi in the mountains of North Carolina, I was on the lookout for Hypocrea alutacea and its relation to either of these supposed hosts. I found one day a large colony of Spathularia clavata growing under a white pine tree. The Spathularia extended over an area of 75 t0 100 square feet. Among the Spathularia plants I found four or five specimens of H ypocrea alutacea. These were growing not on wood, but apparently from decaying organic matter among the pine needles, and, as far as one could judge, their habitat was the same as that of the Spathularia. Singularly, the form of these specimens Was quite regular. The form was not, however, similar to that of the Spathularia, but more like that of Clavaria ligula. But no specimens of the latter plant were found growing in the immediate vicinity. No other specimens were found during that season. On returning to Ithaca in the latter part of September, I hastened to examine my tube cultures of the Hypocrea. There were 7 perfect specimens, one in each of two tubes. Both of them possessed the Clavaria-like form and stood up clearly from the substratum. Here, then, were two specimens of H ypocrea alutacea in pure culture from the ascospores, and the form in general like that of the ee found in their natural environment. Moreover, they were certainly growing as saprophytes and not as parasites. This, I believe, demon ‘Stratum and 1905] ATKINSON—HYPOCREA ALUTACEA 407 strates that H ypocrea alutacea is an autonomous plant,?4 and it is the first proof we have that it is not of a dual nature, parasitic on Clavaria ligula or Spathularia. It might still be contended that the plants which I found growing among the pine needles along with the Spathularia in North Carolina, were of a different species from those growing on rotting wood at Ithaca, N. Y. Especially might this view be taken since Frres*s describes Hypocrea alutacea as growing among needles of the fir, and describes a form ‘urgida, growing on rotting wood. SCHROETER (.¢.) when he states that according to his observations H ypocrea alutacea grows only on wood, cites FRreEs’s disposition of the two forms and says that possibly the form on wood is a different species which should be called H ypocrea turgida. It seems to me, however, More rational to attribute the slight variation in form to a recog- nizable Tange of variation in the species, either inherent in the species, or attributable to the change of substratum. According to F Ries the more robust form grows on wood. The form on wood at Ithaca "as More robust than the form among the pine needles in North Carolina. But I have collected a form on wood in North Carolina of the same size as, or even smaller than, those among the pine needles. However, the forms which I grew in pure culture on sterilized Lac- ue were more slender and were more like those found among the pine needles, alt ough their direct parentage was from the robust form from wood. The wood forms are found on half-decayed wood, and also on very Totten wood. From this condition of the substratum it is an easy Tansition to wood mold or leaf mold, in the adaptation of the plant ‘0a limited range in the variation of the condition of the same uk ‘ubstratum. Since the plant can grow as a saprophyte on ot Mushrooms, as shown by the pure cultures, it might be possible vi , “ometimes in the forest it grows as a saprophyte on decaying Spat g a Clavaria ligula buried among the leaves. It is very Ap however, that there is a range in the habitat of the species from W from the wood sub- 2. + These facts, as well as photographs of H ypocrea eA society of aioe at th, in pure cultures were presented before the Botanica : Washington meeting, December 30, 1902 to January 1, 1903+ *5 Syst. Myc. 23325. 1823. 408 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER or leaf mold to very rotten wood and to wood in a one-fourth to a one- half decayed condition. This range would be represented by a habitat life curve, which rises from the leaf or wood mold in the ground to the upper limit on the decaying wood, influenced, to some extent at least, by other conditions of environment. Or if the wood habitat is the normal one, then the curve would descend according to con- ditions to the wood mold and leaf mold in the ground. This range in habitat is manifested by a large number of the higher fungi. The curve rises or descends from the normal habitat according to the peculiarities of each species and according to the modifying influences of other environmental conditions. The history of Hypocrea alutacea has become more interesting by the publication of Hypocrea Lloydii Bresadola in 1902, which was collected by C. G. Luoyp in West Virginia, in the summer of rgor. Following the brief description, BRESADOLA notes*® that the species is very interesting, with the aspect of Cordyceps but fructi- fication of Hypocrea. The photograph published at the time, with the description, suggested to me that the plant might be identical with Hypocrea alutacea, and I inquired of Mr. Lioyp if he did not think this to be the case. My letter was communicated to Dr. BRESADOLA, and his reply was published in a note by Mr. LioyD”’ in September 1902. These notes from BRESADOLA are very inter- esting. In the first place he was not familiar with H ypocrea alutacea, since he had never seen the plant; but accepting, as was nature under the circumstances, TULASNE’s interpretation of its parasite nature, the plant communicated to him by Mr. LLoyd was believed to be a new species in the section Podocrea of SACCARDO,”® a section formed to include species of Hypocrea with a vertical stroma. BRESA’ DOLA also compared the structure of the stroma of H. Lloydit with the structure of both Clavaria ligula and S pathularia flavida, and finds it very different from either. He concludes by saying that if Hypocrea Lloydit is really identical with H ypocrea alutacea, 4 species unknown to him, then he does not believe in the parasitic nature of the latter. At this time Luoyn (/. c.) accepted BRESADOLA’S nole ” 26 Bresavoia, G., Hypocrea (Podocrea) Lloydii n. sp., Lloyd’s Myc Notes 9 (176):87. 1902. 27 Idem 10 (183):99. 1902. 28 Syll. Fung. 2:530- 1883. 1405] ATKINSON—HYPOCREA ALUTACEA 409 indicating that H. Lloydit and H. alutacea were identical. Later, however, he states?? that PATOUILLARD believes H. Lloydii “is a good species and very different from H. alutacea.” Luoyp saw specimens of H. alutacea at the Herbarium of the Museum of Paris and said that he does not think it possible the two plants are the same. Through the courtesy of Dr. BrEsADoLA I have had the oppor- tunity of seeing the type specimen of Hypocrea Lloydii, and I con- sider it identical with H-ypocrea alutacea. In plate XVI are photo- micrographs of a section from the dried specimen through a portion of the clavula showing the perithecia, and in plate XV are similar photomicrographs of the plant collected at Ithaca, the material having ° been fixed while it was fresh. The only differences which can be observed are those which are due to the difference in the age of the plants at the time they were collected. The specimen of H. Lloydit Was quite mature, as shown by the more advanced stage of disappear- ance of asci or freedom of spores from the asci. The perithecia are therefore somewhat older and larger, and are thus crowded against each other, and flattened on the sides where they are closely packed. The form of the plants themselves at first sight appears different, H. Lloydii, plate XI V, fig. 3, being long and slender, while those of H. alutacea, plate XIV, fig. 1, are stouter. But the individuals of H. alutacea which were all growing close together differ more among themselves than the H. Lloydii does from the individual of H. alulacea at the left. It is unfortunate that this specimen is curved, and therefore that not all of the stem is shown in the photograph. However, the long stem of the single individual of H. Lloydii (the Species is based on the single specimen collected), as one can see from an examination of the photograph, is due to the fact that the lower half of it was in the leaf mold, the stroma having 1ts origin about 4°™ below the surface of the leaf mold. It is a matter of com- mon observation in the case of many stipitate fungi to find the stem “onsiderably elongated under such conditions. I have seen notable “xamples in the case of Collybia radicata, Clavaria ardenia, and Others, the length of the stem depending on the depth of the ie Gags below the surface. The plant is quite variable also in — Its stoutness. This is perhaps also due to some extent to co 29 ’ Mycological Notes 15 (264):156. 1903. 4to BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER ditions of environment, though at present it is difficult to say just what conditions produce a robust form and what ones produce a more slender form. SCHROETER (1. c.) found the robust form on decaying wood, and suggested that perhaps it might be a different species which should bear the name given by Fries (/. c.) to the robust form, 8 turgida. Along with this variation in the robustness of the plant, there is a variation in the direction of a deformity where the clavula may be flattened, triangular, curved, etc., which has led some observers to question the identity of some of the forms described and figured by different writers. That the form on wood ‘is not always robust is well shown in a small and slender specimen which I collected several years ago on a log in the mountains of North Carolina. The log was not much decayed, and possibly the conditions of nutrition were not so favorable as in the case of much decayed wood, which was the condition of the substratum on which the robust Ithaca specimens grew (plate XIV, fig. 1). The variation in these individuals growing close together is sufficient to show what the range in form may be in specimens from different localities. There is also a variation in color. The plant is usually said to be “tan” color, or “leather” color (to which the specific A alutacea, refers), or “‘pallid,”’ and sometimes “white.” White forms gave rise to the variety @ Sphaeria albicans Pers.3° BERKELEY* describes the plants as tan-colored or nearly white. The color very likely depends very largely on the age of the plants when collected. The Ithaca plants here described were entirely white when collected. But the fact that the asci are so well preserved and most of the spores are still in the asci shows that the plants were just ripening. The plants in pure culture which had their parentage directly from the white ones, had white stems, but the clavulae were tan-colored the time they were photographed, probably because they Went well ripened. From the general character of the plant we pas ; expect that the young clavula would be white in all cases, - oe the color is an attribute of ripening or age, and it is then reason@ : to expect, even in specimens with well-formed spores, that e ‘s plants are collected there would be a sufficient variation In age account for the color variation observed. 860. 8° Syn. Method. Fung. 2. 1801. 3t Outlines British Fungology 382: 1 ‘ig Mak gd ore a elie a Ga gl Saal Soe alae ag RAR aie nS Ea 1905] ATKINSON—HYPOCREA ALUTACEA 411 That the American plants are identical with European ones is evident from an examination of the specimens in Raben. Fung. Europ. Ex. nos. 132 and 246 mentioned above, and I had the oppor- tunity also, while in Paris in October 1903, of personally examining, through the courtesy of M. Hariot, the specimens of H ypocrea aluiacea in the herbarium of the Museum of Paris, among which were some specimens from ‘TULASNE’s herbarium. The spores in this species, while presenting slight variations, are quite peculiar. As is well known, the spores in the genus Hypocrea are eight in an ascus uniseriate, and each one is two-celled, but at maturity the constriction at the septum is very strong, and the seg- ments of the spore are separated so that the ascus appears to have sixteen nearly globose or oval spores in a single row. The separation of the two segments of the spore is one of the characters distinguish- ing Hypocrea from Hypomyces, while short, two-celled spores dis- tinguish Hypocrea alutacea from species of Cordyceps, which have long filiform spores separating at maturity into numerous segments. Cornu (/.c.) also points out that species of Cordyceps grow on living ‘recently dead insects or plants, while H ypocrea alutacea grows on decay ing wood and leaves, though this distinction may not hold good, Since as a saprophyte H ypocrea alutacea might grow on dead insects under certain conditions, and it has even been reported on insects. The two segments of the spores of Hypocrea alutacea are somewhat different inform. They are usually described as ‘superior cell globose, Inferior cell oval, or suboval, or oblong.’ BRESADOLA3? does not ‘all attention to the difference in shape of the two segments in Hypo- 70 Lloydii, but says “articuli subcuboideis subglobosi.” But the Wo segments are different in form, as I have found by examination, and the Spores in the photomicrograph, plate X VI, fig. 9, from H. Uoydit show very clearly this difference in form, a globose and oblong Segment alternating throughout the chain formed by the Mxtaposition of the spores in the length of the ascus. The upper ‘egment (the one nearest the free end of the ascus) is globose oF ‘ubglobose Or subcuboid, while the lower segment is elongated slightly in the direction of the axis of the spore and is usually not ite so broad as the upper segment. The lower segment is very * Lloyd’s Myc. Notes 9 (176):87. 1902. 412 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER short oblong, or suboval. The shape of the segments is exactly the same in the Ithaca specimens of H ypocrea alutacea as can be seen in plate XV, fig. 6, a photomicrograph. The spores measure from 4.5-5-5 # long X 2.5-3@ wide. The upper segment is 2.5-3 » in diameter, and the lower one is 2.5-3.5 « long X 2-2.5 mu in diameter. After fixing and imbedding in balsam the measurements are some- what smaller than here given. The spores lie very close together, end to end in the ascus, so that the sixteen segments often appear connected into a necklace- like string. They appear sometimes to adhere to some extent even after escaping from the ascus, but the individual spores can be deter- mined usually by the difference in shape of the two segments. There is one other question in connection with this plant which it is now necessary to consider. In what genus shall the species be placed? Typical species of Hypocrea have a crustaceous, or cushion- shaped or hemispherical stroma, while the stroma of Hypocrea alutacea is vertical and elongated. Such a marked difference in the form of the plant is usually regarded as representing a different generic type, just as the erect stromata of the species of Xylaria represent a different generic type from the crustaceous, cushion-like or hemispherical stromata of Hypoxylon. Saccarpo* used the name Podocrea as a subgenus for the species of Hypocrea with a vertical stroma, and included three species: Cordyceps larvata Mont.,3# C. brevipes Mont.,35 and Hypocrea Petersii B. & C.3° Hypocred alutacea he did not place in this section, since he followed the TOLASHES in believing it parasitic on Clavaria ligula, Lxxpav37 in 1897 1alse Podocrea to generic rank, and places Hypocrea alutacea as the first species, although Karsren3* had founded the genus Podostroma five years earlier, for a species which he found on a larva of a decay- ing insect among mosses in Finland. Podostroma Karsten, therefore, should have precedence over Podocrea (Sacc.) Lindau, and It Is unfortunate that Linpav did not use the name Podostroma alulaces- Karsten (I. c.) described one species, P. leucopus. The om. 33 Syll. Fung. 2:530. 1883. 35 Idem 676, p. 201- 1856. 34 Syll. Crypt. no. 674, p. 200. 1856. 36 Grev. 4:13- 1875: 37 Engler und Prantl Pflanzenf. 11:364. 1897. 38 Hedwigia 31+294- _ 1905] ATKINSON—HYPOCREA ALUTACEA 413 acters of this genus and species are so remarkably like those of Hypocrea alutacea that it may be well here to give a translation both of the generic and specific diagnosis. PODOSTROMA n. gen.—Character of the Hypocreaceae. Stroma stipitate, davate, erect, entomogenous, fleshy, bright colored. Perithecia imme i he stroma. Asci cylindrical, 16-spored. Spores sphaeroidal, hyaline. Para- physes none. Pod. leucopus n. sp.—Stromata solitary. Clavula bearing the perithecia obovoid to oblong, alutaceous-pallid, about 6™™ long and 4™™ stout. Stipe equal, terete, flexuous, about 5°™ long and 2™™ stout, white. Perithecia in the periphery, spheroidal, immersed, opening by a pore. Asci cylindrical, sub- sssile, about 754. Spores 16, monostichous, spheroidal, hyaline, 2-3 # in diameter. On larva of certain putrid insects among mosses in coniferous woods, Syrjaas, October. The specimens of no. 246 Rabenh. Fungi Europ. Ex. in the her- barium of the Botanical Department here represent very well in form and size the Podostroma leucopus described by KARSTEN. The Plants are slender when dry, 3°™ high, the stem less than 1™™ in diameter and was likely not more than 2™™ when fresh. The cayula is obovoid, about 3.5" long a trifle over 2™™ in diameter, and was very likely stouter when fresh. The plants of no. 132 Rabenh. Fungi Europ. are much stouter, the stem more than 2°" i diameter when dry, short, and the clavula elongate and tapering gradually into the stem. ‘The spores in no. 246 are mostly cuboidal in the specimen examined, and the asci show that they are young: Many of the asci give the appearance of having sixteen equal sub- cuboidal spores. But occasionally, where they are 4 little older, “ery alternate one is slightly elongated and narrowed, so that 1t Js ‘uboval or short suboblong. Still younger asci show the plasma “entent divided into eight parts, and then occasionally one of these Young spores is divided into two cells. ‘This indicates clearly that here are eight spores. The second division is so prominent and the “onstriction so deep it gives soon the appearance of sixteen spores. t would appear that in the later growth of the spores the infenot “gment elongates slightly at the expense of its diameter. The ‘Pecimens collected at Ithaca show the same character from sa a when asci are just maturing the spores. The pee vided into eight portions, showing that there are eight spo 414 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER In older ones each of these is divided into two equal parts, and the inferior one is usually elongated slightly. But many asci which were dried at this stage show sixteen segments in a crowded chain, all of about the same form, and subglobose to subcuboidal. In a very few cases the spore is pyriform, divided into two cells by a cross wall cutting off the lower smaller cell without any perceptible constriction at the septum. It will be seen that the age of the asci and spores at the time of collection of the plant will vary, and consequently there will be a variation in the form of the spore segments. All may be subcuboidal and of the same size and form, or when older the inferior segment may be slightly elongated and narrowed, and the superior one will be globose to subcuboidal. They are so crowded also in the ascus that there is a tendency for them to cling into a chain or necklace, and this may be aided not only by a small amount of periplasm, but also by remains of the disintegrating ascus which are difficult to perceive. If Karsten’s plant had not been reported as growing on an insect, one would have no hesitancy in placing it in Hypocrea alutacea, for all the characters of form, color, and structure agree. The only difference is that of the substratum. The fact that it is reported as growing on a decaying insect, taken in connection with its agreement in form, structure, and color with Hy pocrea alutacea, is rather strong evidence that this is only a further extension of the range of decaying organic matter on which the fungus grows. It should also be noted that Podostroma leucopus was found in coniferous woods, and Hy po- crea alutacea is usually found under pines or spruces, though it occurs on decaying wood of the broad-leaved trees, as is seen from its Saal rence on Alnus cited above, and ELxis3° reports it at Newfield, N. J on “bark of a decaying (maple ?) limb, lying on the ground.”4° There remains to be considered the standing of the te, Fracidia proposed by Fries** in 1849 for certain exotic species of 39 Jour. Myc. 2:50. 1886, . 1865) 4° The Tulasnes find a conidial form (Select. Fung. Carp. 3:38: pl. 4 fh oe se Verticillium globuligerum Sacc. (see Syll. Fung. 2:530. 1888) growing on e a part ef the stem, which they regard as the conidial stage of H ypocrea ane not seen it. 4* Summa Veg. Scand. 381, 382. 1849. 195] ATKINSON—HYPOCREA ALUTACEA 415 Nylaria. In a footnote on page 381 of his Swmma Veg. Scand. he definitely cites X vlaria flabellijormis (Schw.) B., X. pumila Linn., X. comosa and X. collabens Mont., as pertaining to the subgenus Fracidia. In 1864 he transfers Sphaeria alutacea Pers., which he had formerly placed in Cordyceps (/. c.), to the subgenus Fracidia, where he writes itas follows: “Sphaeria s. Fracidia alutacea,*? but differing in color fom the species of Xylaria first placed in this subgenus, as Cord yceps nililaris differs from C. ophioglossoides.” This short paper by falzs is a critical review of CurREY’s Synopsis of the jructification ij the compound S phaeriae of the Hookerian Herbarium.*8 CURREY (.¢., 260) employs the genus Sphaeria, which is divided into sections and divisions. Fries in his annotations on certain species (/. ¢) netely follows CuRREY in writing Sphaeria as the genus, the s. prob- ibly standing for subgenus. It is therefore difficult to see how ‘Sh. s. Fracidia alutacea” can be taken as raising Fracidia from subgeneric to generic rank, and if the name is to be employed for a genus it should be used for those species of Xylaria first ascribed to itby Fries and cited above. The TuLasnes* list Fracidia alulacea i their synonymy of H ypocrea alutacea, but this could not be taken % taising Fracidia to generic rank. Podostroma Karsten?’ (1892) 1S psn the generic name to be employed for our plant, instead of docrea Lindau4® (1897), although it was employed as 4 subgenus by Saccarpo (I. c.) in 1883; but Saccarpo did not include the Hypocrea alutacea in his subgenus. The International Botanical ngtess at Vienna, June 190s, recommends that when the species s Subgenus are raised to generic rank, the name of the subgenus nwhich they were placed be employed, but this is a recommendation fructification of the # Adnotata ad age eer is of the ad Cel. Fr. Currey dissertationem; Synopsis ©: i Vik XXII, pp- ities ® of the Hookerian Herbarium in Act. Soc. Linn. Lon : et 313-35. Bot. Zeit. 22: 189, 190. 1864. is of the : “ ynops: ca Linn. Soc. London 22: 257-286. pls. 45-49. 18593 ee ad “ation of the simple Sphaeriae,”’ etc. Idem 313-335: Pls- SP ghee = as hten = : Carp. Fung. 35. 1865. The reference is “1m re of referring to ich SCHLECHTENDAL was an editor. is a8 Farrow of Harvard University and Dr. BRITTON of the “n in straightening out this reference. re 31:294. 1892. Engler und Prantl Pflanzenf. 11: 364. 1897- 416 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER and therefore not mandatory. Fracidia, as shown above, was never raised to generic rank, and if it were to be it should be used for the species of Xylaria which Fries first referred to it. KARSTEN might have used Saccarpo’s subgenus Podocrea in 1892, but since he founded the new genus Podostroma five years before LINDAU raised Podocrea to generic rank, Podostroma should stand. Furthermore it is very doubtful if any of the three species first placed by SAccARDO in his subgenus Podocrea are generically the same as Hypocrea alutacea, although SaccaRrDo‘’ suggests that Podostroma Karsten appears to be very like his section Podocrea. Inthe light of this study, then, the name to be applied to H ypocrea alutacea (Pers.) Tul. with its principal re would be as follows: Podostroma alutaceum (Pers.) Atkinson. Clavaria simplex p. p. Schmiedel. Icon. et Analyt. 18-26. =" 4, fig. 2; ‘pl. 5, figs. 1-3. 1762, according to Tulasne. Sphaeria alutacea Pers. Obsery. Myc. 2:66. no. 99. pl. 1, fig. 2, a 4, ¢ 1797. Comm. de fung. Clavif. 12. 1797. Sphaeria clavata Sowerby. Eng. Fung. 2: pl. 159. 1799. Sphaeria alutacea Alb. & Schw. Consp. Fung. Lusat. Sup. 1. 1805 Sphaeria alutacea 8 Sphaeria albicans Pers. Syn. Method. Fung. 2. 1801. Sphaeria alutacea Fr. and 8 turgida Fr. Syst. Myc. 2:325. 1823. Cordyceps alutacea Link. Handb. z. Erkenn. der Gewiichse 3:347- N0- 1833 Cordiceps alutacea Fr. Summa Veg. Scand. 381. 1849. Cordyceps alutacea Berk. Outlines Brit. Fung. 382. pl. 23, fig. 6. 1860. Cordyceps alutacea Quélet. Champ. Jura et d. Vosges 487. 1869. Hypocrea alutacea Tul. Selecta Fung. Carp. 1:62. 1861, and 3:35: pl. 4, (figs. 1-6. 1865. Hypocrea alutacea Peck. Rept. N. Y. State Mus. 26:84. 1894. H A siete alutacea Cornu. Bull. Soc. Bot. de ie 26: 33-35- 1879. Hypocrea alutacea Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2:530. 18 HE ypocrea alutacea Winter, Rabenhorst’s Kop F lora Deutschland, etc, Pilze.1?:142. 1887. ? Podostroma leucopus Karsten. Hedwieks 31:294. 18 alfte Hypocrea alutacea Schroeter. Krypt. Flora Schles., Pilz, Zweite Ha 3:272. 1894. Podocrea alutacea Lindau. Engler und Prantl’s Pflanzenf. 11: 364- 189 vel i eas Lloydii Bresadola. Lloyd’s Mycolog. Notes 9 (176): 87. f8- 9 is See Unrviesizy. ITHACA, N. y. 47 Syll. Fung. 113355. 1895. BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XL PLATE XIV ATKINSON on HYPOCREA BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XL PLATE XV ATKINSON on HYPOCREA BOTANICAL GAZETTE, XL PLAT LATE XVI ATKINSON on HYPOCREA _ 1905] ATKINSON—HYPOCREA ALUTACEA 417 EXPLANATION OF PLATES XIV-XVI. The photographs and photomicrographs were made by the author, except fig. 3 of plate XIV which was made from a print kindly loaned by Mr. C. G. Lioyp. PLATE XIV. Fic. 1. Plants collected at Ithaca on very rotten wood. a, Clavaria form; 6, Spathularia form; c, abnormal form; d, young individual; real size. Fic. 2. Pure culture in test tubes, parentage from a and b of fig. 1; real size. Fic. 3. Hypocrea Lloydii Bresadola, from leaf mold; note that one-half of the stem was developed underneath the leaves and leaf mold, which makes the stem long; real size. PLATE XV. : Photomicrographs from plants collected at Ithaca. In figs. 4, 5 the plate- holder was 36°™ from the object, and in fig. 6, the plate-holder was 48°™ from the object. Fic. 4 with Zeiss ocular 4, obj. 16™™. Fic. 5 with ocular 4, obj. 3™™. Fic. 6 with ocular 18, obj. 3™™. Note the chain of 16 segments of the eight spores from a single ascus, beginning at apex of series at left, the segments alter- hate, globose or cuboidal, and oblong. PLATE XVI. Photomicrographs from type specimen of Hypocrea Lloydii Bresadola. In figs. 7, 8 the plate-holder was 36°™ from the object, and in jig. 9 the plate-holder Was 48°™ from the object. Fic. 7 with ocular 4; Ob], 165 Fic. 8 with ocular 4, OD]. see, : Fic. 9 with ocular 18, obj. 3™™. Note form of the sixteen segments in the chain of 8 spores from one ascus, apex of series at left. THE BOGS AND BOG FLORA OF THE HURON RIVER VALLEY. EDGAR NELSON TRANSEAU. (WITH SIXTEEN FIGURES) [Continued from p. 375.] THE BOG AS A HABITAT FOR PLANTS. WHEN we consider the bog as a habitat for plants, there is at once — brought to mind the marked contrast between its characteristics and those of the other plant habitats of its vicinity. In both its atmos- ~ pheric and edaphic conditions it is unique. The various factors entering into the plant environment will be discussed as physical, chemical, and biotic agents. A. Puysicat Factors.—1. Wind.—Because of the fact that so large a number of our bogs lie in depressions surrounded by hills, the influence of the wind is somewhat lessened. It is only in the - case of the larger basins that its effects become marked. It has been noted by several students of bogs (41, 5) p- 373 59) 47) that in the region of prevailing westerly winds the greatest development of bog areas and peat deposits occurs on the western sides of lake basins. Where the deposition has taken place in a large lake basin, which is now only partially filled, we commonly find open water occurring toward the eastern side. The peat deposits at Portage, Parks, and West Lakes in the vicinity of Ann Arbor are massed on the western — shores, while the eastern margins exhibit an ordinary lake beach. At the bogs north of Delhi, although nine-tenths of the original basin has been filled, the two small lakes are near the eastern margin. T. J facts noted in this region all favor the idea of the bog plants being unable to gain a foothold on the eastern side in the presence of wave action. The shoreward thrust of the ice is of importance at times In this connection. Farther north in Michigan the wind frequently shows its ext effect in these bog areas in the presence of “windfalls.” Owing = the character of the substratum, such areas are more readily affected [DECEMBER reme 418 1905] TRANSEAU—BOGS OF THE HURON RIVER VALLEY 419 than the forests of mineral soils. These phenomena have not been observed in any of the bogs in this vicinity. The same statement holds for the presence of loose floating bogs which are driven about on lakes by winds (35). 2. Temperature.—In its temperature relations both the topography and the character of the substratum combine to influence the bog habitat. It has long been noted by agricultural writers that reclaimed bog areas are particularly subject to late frosts in the spring. One of the causes of this peculiarity lies in the fact that on clear and quiet nights the cooled air overlying elevations drains into the depressions (11). Some recent observations made by SEELEY (45) near Chicago show how effective such atmospheric drainage may be even in dis- tricts whose range of elevations amounts to but 15 feet (4.5™)- : He found that the hilltop averaged, on the night of the observations, 2.5° F. (1.4° C.) higher than that of the depression while a ther- mometer placed -30 feet (9™) above the hilltop averaged 8.8° F. (5° C.) above that of the ‘swale.’ On comparing the temperatures of atmospherically undrained and drained depressions with that of the hilltop, he found that the hilltop temperature was 36.3° F. when that of the drained depression was 36° F. and that of undrained 31.8° F. Here is a particular instance in which frost occurred in the undrained depression, but not in the other situations. On quiet nights low grounds in general are subject to lower temperatures than the adjoining highlands, and it is probable that these effects are more pronounced in the case of undrained depressions. — A second factor in the production of low temperatures ” bogs is found in the nature of the substratum. In the spring the ice whi cm has formed beneath the cassandra and tamarack areas melts with extreme slowness, when once the surface of the soil has been a This is explained by the low conductivity of the loose, ens y decayed, vegetable covering, and by the shading a the plants A For example, at First Sister Lake, in 1904, the Ice had oanre a ss from the water surface on April 10. On April 17, with - . “6 Perature of ro° C., the temperature of the substi. aes i sedge zone averaged 10° C., in the Cassandra zone 6 — a tamarack zone 3° C., and the area of willows and sedges Ze i a Was found at several points among the tamaracks, an inch belo 420 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER surface. The sedge zone was covered with 1 to 3 inches (25-75™™) of dark colored water. The other soils were wet, but their loose texture was effective in preventing a rise of temperature. It follows that of the various situations in bog areas those most liable to extreme low temperatures in the spring are in the cassandra and tamarack zone. Since their maximum temperatures are con- siderably below those of neighboring areas, on quiet nights the plants there are but little protected by radiation from the soil as compared with plants of other situations. In the following table it is shown that the soil temperatures of the several plant societies formed about a bog are different, and that each society has a characteristic temperature range. The records were made at First Sister Lake. The temperatures, given in °C, are averages of readings made in the second inch (25™™) below the surface. The “willow-sedge” conditions correspond to those of the ordinary swamp. The “maple-poplar” is an area’ of these trees on the peat substratum. The “upland” is a sandy, sod-covered area 3 feet (0.9™) above the surface of the bog. The temperatures for the most part were taken on clear afternoons about 3 p. M. when th differences are at their maxima. | Viiies April |April | April |April | April | May | May | May | May | May Le J ng 420) 37} a6 | 2 6 G6} 3h ae STAT AR in SUE at etna CES Re Soh Air temperature 10.5] 2.0 | 10.0} 8.5] 18.0] 2 26.0] 21.0} 26.0] 26.0 weet ee oh ss ‘ : : : 4.0} 27.0] 15 pn II.0| 7.0 | 10.0] 10.0] 17.0] 20.0] 23.0] 16.0] 20.5] 21.5) 25-5 = Willow-sedge.............. 7.0} 8.0 | 8.0] 9.0] 14.5] 17-7] 10.5| 15.0] 20.0] 22.0) 22 oie Peeve eee. Vite T.5| 2.0 | 6.0) 7.5) 11.0] 14.7] 15.5] 13.0] 16.5) 19-0) 20:0) “or8 Deca pee Ee 0.0, 0.0] 3.0] 4.5| 9.9] 11.7] 15.0] 10.6] 15.0] 17-0] 18.0) Bo-8 Boe sente cyo2 ee 9.0| 8.0 | 10.0} 9.0] 18.0] 19.0) 22.0] 16.0] 20.0] 23-0) 24-0 ws Maple-poplar.............. 7-0} 8.0] 8.0} 8.0} 15 8.0] 19.0] 15.0] 16.0] 15.0) 17-0) Bs In the accompanying diagram (fig. 5) it will be seen that the upland, bog-sedge, and willow-sedge soil temperatures do not deviate widely from those of the air, while the temperatures of the cassandra and tamarack areas range considerably lower. The high temper ature of the bog-sedge zone finds its explanation in that the brown bog water overlying its surface absorbs heat. I have tested this point many times in various bogs and have always found such bog water to have a higher temperature than that of the saturated substratum adjoining it. In its ability to absorb heat rays it approaches that of drained sand. Its range, however, is much less and it retains its 1905] TRANSEAU—BOGS OF THE HURON RIVER VALLEY 421 heat for a longer time.’ Consequently on cloudy days and following asudden lowering of the air temperature, the surface bog-water temperature stands above that of the drained and undrained soil. When we compare the effects of loss of heat from a free water surface and a saturated humus soil surface due to evaporation, there 40) to Te ct < as f A “= \ Aapiane c a. | (s : Ae a oq : A / q 4 4¢ ee | eae 4 4° SEN AL, = Fi ve \y x Lf “PN | as ice ae AP aS 4 Pena 4 a ae YN A y Pg * < 7 NA . , pe por? d ae “i ie Y Dike : = < bea 7 ae fj My \ - = eae lene ent eT | Pome, 8 —_ 2 L Be Se jt j 7 az a \Y | ae df Pe he Dees EE ea eee od a fee Fg 4 /Zaatl cane pom a ee v of . y, t= oth = | Sivas oy ea ry i ee ee ore awe ee = a - mes oa 2 4 April 12 7 as 29 May 6 46 al Fic. 5.—Diagram showing temperatures of the air and the substrata in the several plant societies. ia marked difference due to their specific heat. The humus will be cooled more rapidly by the evaporation of a given amount of Water. Where so large an evaporating surface is exposed to the on aS in the case of a sphagnum-covered area the loss of heat by ; Process is most effective in preventing pet mouse? a the surface. i In the case of drained soils, the most effective agent ™ raising 422 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER the temperature of the subsoil is that of percolating water which has been warmed at the surface of the soil. Because of the high water- table and the stagnant condition of the underground water in bog areas, this source of heat is relatively unimportant. The effects of these factors, resulting in low soil temperatures, are far-reaching. As compared with well-drained soils, chemical action is retarded, the rate of diffusion, solution, and osmosis is greatly reduced, and the conditions for the existence of soil bacteria made unfavorable. Plants which can successfully compete for the occupancy of such areas must be able to withstand low temperatures and late frosts. The difference between the temperature of the air and that of the substratum favors plants having a low transpiration ratio. However, in so far as the region of southern Michigan is concerned, the temperatures prevailing in bog areas do not seem to be adequate to account for the presence of the bog plants or their xerophilous structures. It is to be noted that with the leafing-out of the trees, about May 27, the temperature of the maple-poplar substratum falls below that of the tamarack. But that the soil temperature is one of the factors entering into the problem of competition between species there can be little doubt. It is probable also that in the region of optimum conditions for bog plants the conditions which occur here only in the spring are prolonged through the summer. That is, the difference between air and substratum temperatures is more marked, and is a powerful factor in the selection of plants for bog areas and in the production of xerophilous structures. 3- Texture.—This property of the substratum has already been referred to in connection with the genetic changes in peat. The sedge zone is developed upon a raft of interwoven rhizomes and roots. It is a coarse meshwork; but since it lies at or below the surface of the water, its texture is of slight importance ‘except as a means of mechan- ical support. As the bog develops, the admixttre of moss and shrub ‘débris brings about'the formation of a rather compact peat, overlaid ‘by a stratum of loose material. In: some cases, as at Delhi an ‘Oxford, 45 miles (72*™) northeast of Ann Arbor, the living sphagnum makes up the bulk of this loose covering. Usually the water level ‘lies just beneath it. As a consequence, this covering becomes the 1995] TRANSEAU—BOGS OF THE HURON RIVER VALLEY 423 principal seat of root activity. The small, fibrous roots of cassandra, andromeda, and the cranberry penetrate it in all directions, and it is from the water which is held among this moss and débris that they derive their water and mineral salts. The substratum beneath the tamaracks is also covered by a loose litter of leaves and twigs, with more or less moss. Depending upon the height above the ground water level, this surface layer is of greater or less thickness. In it occur the wide-spreading roots of the tama- rack. During summer and autumn it furnishes admirable conditions for the growth of fungi, and it is penetrated everywhere by their mycelia. When bog land is cleared, the decomposition of the surface layers is very rapid, owing to exposure to sunlight and higher temperatures. If the water-table is maintained near the surface, sedges and willows develop as the covering. The annual increment of plant material is often decreased, and in place of the fibrous and porous substratum there is produced a black, close-textured, and plastic muck. If ditching and draining are added to clearing, the summer drought dries the surface layer so thoroughly that it often becomes the habitat for many dry-ground weeds. Decay progresses in moist weather under the influences of the higher temperatures resulting from increased absorption of the sun’s energy by the dark colored. soil. 4. Mechanical properties—Bog soils in general de pat aliard ze good a foothold for the development of tree species as do the mineral Soils. On account of the high water-table, the roots of. the -plants are not able to penetrate to a depth of more than a few inches. The Toots of the tamaracks spread out in all directions from a flat trunk base, and upon the size and strength of these horizontal roots depends the tree’s ability to withstand mechanical strains tending to displace it. There can be no doubt but that, in the thick groves in which the tamarack occurs, the interweaving.of the roots from adjacent an becomes of mutual advantage, in so far as the roots function as hold- fast organs. 5- Diffusion properties —A most important soil: property jsees to the diffusion of mineral salts. This becomes of especial al ‘ance in saturated stagnant substrata. The mineral salts must distributed to the roots mainly by diffusion, for lateral, drainage 424 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER and percolation are at a minimum. It is well known that when salt solutions are passed through soil, much of the salt is retained by absorption. The relative amount is greatly increased in the case of humous bodies. Biancx (4) has further found that the diffusion of water in humus soils is decreased by the presence of acid humus compounds, and that this may be corrected by the addition of a neutralizing agent, such as lime. All analyses of peat show how little of this mineral matter has been derived from the adjacent soils. It is only in the case of samples taken from the bottom or edge of a bog that the mineral salts cannot be accounted for by the amount derived from the decay of the plant material, and that obtained from the atmosphere. 6. Water-capacity.—The high water-capacity of peat has already been noted. In relation to plant growth, it is detrimental in that it prevents proper aeration of the substratum (39, p. 346). So far as the diffusion of gases is concerned, such substrata are less favorable than a free water surface. King (29, p. 161), in speaking of sand and clay soils whose water-capacity is only 17.5 to 32.2 per cent. by weight, says that 30 to 4o per cent. of their saturation amounts must drain away before the soil can contain air enough to maintain the respiration of roots and germinating seeds. As compared with a free water surface, saturated humus cannot admit oxygen as freely, owing to the large part of the surface actually occupied by the humus (29, p. 239). In a chemical way it is still more effective, as will be noted later. 7- Osmotic pressure-—The osmotic pressure of bog waters has been found to be about the same as that of ordinary lakes and rivers.* They are approximately equivalent to a 0.1 to 0.5 per cent. normal Knop’s solution. They indicate quite certainly that bog plants do not owe their distribution and their peculiar structures to a high osmotic pressure of the bog water. 3 Four samples of bog water from this vicinity were tested by Dr. B. E. Livinc- STON, of the University se ae and found to have the following pressures in milli- meters of mercury at 2 First Sister ie pene A. 6 soores First Sister Lake, eer Be a a eee West Lake, — ple ee ne a ee a ee West race Sample B i ae a ee 6 Lake Middgnwaier © (6) 6 °° ° 2 22 so0.24Be See 33. 190s] TRANSEAU—BOGS OF THE HURON RIVER VALLEY 425 B. CHEMICAL FACTORS.—1. Ground water—The ground water of the Huron basin derives its mineral constituents from the glacial drift. The following analyses show the character of the solution. Quantities are expressed in parts per million (31). | Organic} Total CaCO,| CaSO, | Fe.O;|MgCO;|K2SO, SiO. | NaCl | NasCO;|Na.SO,| and | mineral volatile | matter Y ig aad ; hiversity well. ; é .85 | 267.72 An Atbor, E75. 001... 2.55 3.99| 60.58] 6.78 | 7.30} 4.48] 1.52 | 5-07] 3-95 7-7 — PISO i.e ss 6.43| 89.36] 5:31 | 9-20] 4.88] 0-42 | 9-71 | 25.00 | 353-31 Water works... . 289.00 39.00] 21.00) 100.00 T4.00] 35.00]....--erfereeers 71.00 498.00 as Ce 156.00] 223.00] Tr. | 109.00 18,00] 62.00] 17.00 |.-+-+-- 14.00 | 585.00 creek... . +| 128.00} 99.00] Tr. 83.00 25.00| 15.00] 25.00 |...++-- 14.00 | 375.00 (NaK)| (NaK) oe be a BES ces It is to be noted that they are all high in calcium and magnesium content, and under favorable drainage conditions contain sufficient minerals for plant growth. The ground water is of especial impor- tance in the early stages of bog development, when the sedge and aquatic vegetation is dominant. With the further development of the Sedge zone and the formation of a thick peat deposit, its relation 0 the vegetation becomes of less moment. There is a notable difference between the total mineral content of bog water and that of the soil waters adjoining. In the above table the total mineral fontent of the ground water varies from 267-7 to 585 parts per million. In three analyses of the bog water at the First Sister Lake ound the total mineral content to vary from 89.9 to 219 parts per million, the highest figure being that for the sample obtained near the Margin of the tamaracks, i. e., nearest the mineral soil. The absence of sphagnum from certain bogs has been explained by the presence of calcium salts (15, P- 235 16). In order » tg this Point, I have cultivated the species found in this vicinity in tap cussed later. he ash of sphagnum growing at er. I further found that the as It would seem, os Sister Lake contained 18 per cent. eects nce of refore, that, in so far as this vicinity is concerned, ae ae um calcareous waters will not explain the absence of species 0 sphagnum. 426 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER 2. Acidity—Much stress has been laid by various authors, following SCHIMPER (44, pp. 6, 18, 124), upon the acidity of the bog water as a factor in the bog habitat. In order to get a quantita- tive statement of the acidity for the bogs of this vicinity, a num- ber of 50°° samples have been titrated with an 1/100 solution of potassium hydrate Phenolphthalein was used as an indicator. The results show an acidity varying from .ooo1s5 to .00258 normal acid.* The lowest values are found in the areas occupied by bog sedges and by swamp plants, and they are practically the same. The areas occupied by cassandra and sphagnum have a somewhat greater acidity. The highest percentages are found beneath the tamaracks. The explanation of these variations in acidity is suggested by the tests, made from time to time, of the water in my experimental cultures. I found that the acidity of the water increased slowly in the undrained peat substratum cultures (see experiments). The increase was small in the case of the warm cultures, but quite notable in the case of the cold undrained substratum. On exposure to air in the water cultures, and in bottles, the acidity very slowly decreased, the decrease being greatest in the case of the water which was kept warm. This is probably due to increased oxidation. These relative amounts of acid, it will be seen, may be correlated with the tempera- tures in the several plant societies of the bog, the lowest temperatures corresponding to the highest percentages of acid. This suggests the probability that the acidity of the bog substratum increases farther north, On allowing open dishes of bog water to stand for some time, I found that the evaporation was not sufficient to raise the acidity of the water, oxidation apparently being more rapid than concentration of the solution. There is no apparent relation between color and acidity, although the lightest colored solutions usually show but slight acidity. This seems to indicate that only a part of the color is produced by free humus acids, the remainder by humates of the alkalies. solution: 4 Following are the determinations expressed in fractions of a normal acid ‘ 0o1lg, First Sister Lake: sedge zone, .00066, .ccog4; cassandra zone, .0015?, tamarack area, .00165, .00179, .00227, .00258; willow-sedge area, 00089, 0007? Chelsea; ditches, .00086, .ooors, .00043, .ooo19, and .00029. Delhi: tamarack area, .00146, cassandra zone, .oo117. Oxford: cassandra zone, .0009 4. 1905] TRANSEAU—BOGS OF THE HURON RIVER VALLEY 427 The effect of acidity upon cultivated plants has been investigated in this country especially at the Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station, under the direction of Professor H. J. WHEELER. The experiments have been conducted upon “acid upland soils” (60), and numerous: reports have been published. These experiments involved a great variety of plants and were carried on under natural field conditions. The areas planted for comparison had their acidity neutralized by the addition of CaCO,. The plants which were favored by the liming include the orange quince, black Tartarian cherry, Japan plum, Tilia americana, Ulmus americana, rhubarb, Australian salt-bush, hemp, barley, oats, onions, Anthoxanthum odoratum, Poa pratensis, Festuca ovina, Holcus lanatus, Festuca elatior, Alopecurus pratensis, etc. Plants which appear to be adapted to the acid soil conditions include cranberry, blackberry, raspberry, sheep sorrel, cow-pea, flax, corn, lupine, and soja bean. It would appear, then, that the acidity of the soil solution is unfavorable for the growth of some plants, and that it is a factor in the selection of species for acid soil conditions. = _ 3- Food. material.—As to the presence of plant food materials in the bog soil there is an agreement among all the analyses that have een made.’ The soils are unusually rich in nitrogenous materials, some analyses showing three times as much as good upland soils. But in the slow decay of the vegetable matter the nitrogen remains bound up in organic compounds and is unavailable for the growing Plants. This’ is confirmed by experimental tests in which nitrogen was directly applied, and by tests in which the conditions wer? modified so as to permit the action of nitrifying bacteria. In such Cases crops were produced when the untreated humus produced none. Under natural conditions the growth In bog soils is almost impossible. Three activity: (xz) the acidity of the soil solution; (2) the lack of . due to high water content; (3) the lower temperature. it ce. found that the optimum. temperature for these bacteria am 8 B (36.6° C.), and that their activity is very slight at 50° F. (10 ) Ann. Rept. Wis. Agric. Exper. Sta. 13: 304: 896. 48, p- 234; 12, P: 395 74+ of the nitrifying bacteria factors work against their 5 Analyses of Wisconsin soils. See al SO 27, p. 12; 23; 22, p. 276; 30} 428 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER (3). Furthermore, it has been shown that when soil rich in nitrogen is saturated with water so as to exclude free oxygen, denitrification takes place and nitrogen gas is set free (29, p. 115). The phosphoric acid content is comparable with that of the best soils, and it is at least partially in a condition for plant use. The potassium content is very low. Analyses and the results of agricultural experiments show that in order to produce crops this substance must be added, and preferably in an alkaline form. Inquiry among the owners of onion marshes in this vicinity confirms the need for potassium in local bog soils. The amount of calcium present is reported as equal to that of the best upland soils. But it is probable that as ‘it exists under natural conditions in bogs it is bound up largely in insoluble humates. Under the influence of oxidizing processes it would become available to the plants at the surface. When we consider the conditions under which the various plant societies in our bogs exist and their competition with one another, there can be little doubt but that the substratum varies in each case as to its chemical composition. ‘That the societies may be classified on a physiographic basis is certain, but how to determine the chemical factors accompanying each physiographic change is an unsolved problem. The ordinary methods of analysis give us the minerals present, but tell us little about their form and availability for plant assimilation. The colorimetric methods for determining the quantity of mineral salts present in bog water are mostly open to objection. The ease with which the humous bodies of the bog water are decom- posed render their quantitative estimation by present methods of little value. Yet it seems probable that work upon the chemistry of humus and humous compounds must result in data valuable alike to the ecologist, the forester, and the agriculturist. C. Broric ractrors.—The interrelations of the bog species will be discussed in connection with their other ecological characters. It will be sufficient to mention here that they are with a few excep tions light-demanding forms. Consequently, size and ability to produce shade are the important factors in their competition with one another. A second element enters into this problem of the struggle between 1905] TRANSEAU—BOGS OF THE HURON RIVER VALLEY 429 species near the borders of the area of geographic. distribution of the bog plants, viz., climate. The bog plants of this vicinity come into conflict with species whose range is either more nearly continental or more southern. That the climatic and edaphic conditions of this region are at present unfavorable to the successful competition of the bog species with swamp species is evidenced wherever the bog conditions have been disturbed. That the reverse is the rule in eastern Canada has been shown by GAnone (18, p. 178). The tenacity with which species, whose multiplication is principally accomplished by vegetative means, hold an area under complete control is apparent to any who have studied the vegetation of lake shores. It is just as strongly marked in the case of the herbaceous and shrubby bog vegetation. When we examine the chemical and physical data, now at hand, concerning the soils occupied by bog and swamp plants respectively, the conclusion must be that they are wholly inadequate to account for the difference in vegetation. The forester lays stress upon the fact that trees cannot gain a foothold On areas now covered with a grass turf because of the difficulty of the seedlings getting started. The bog societies form an equally Compact plant growth, and their preservation in this region would seem to be dependent upon analogous factors. III. The bog-plant societies. The following descriptions of local bog areas occurring in the Huron valley aim not only to present lists of plants found in this Vicinity, but to show their natural associations. The order in which the areas are described corresponds to the relative amount of filling Which has occurred in the several basins. To a certain extent this order is genetic, yet there can be little doubt but that many arctic Plants which were concerned in the pioneer stages of our mature bogs are Now extinct. If we accept the areas at West and First Sister Lakes as representing bogs in youth, maturity may be illustrated by the original vegetation of the bog on Carpenter’s road. The Chelsea ‘rea defines that stage beyond the climax, when the — mugurated by cutting, firing, and ditching have destroyed the original tamarack forest, and in its place has come a rude mixture of bog relicts and arborescent weeds. 430 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER WEST LAKE. This lake, situated three miles north of Chelsea (Sec. 30, Dexter Tp.), is also known locally as Johnson’s Lake. In area it is slightly more than a fourth of a square mile (65 hectares). The margin of the lake originally extended a half mile (0.8*™) farther west and southwest. This part is now occupied by a partially floating bog. The north, south, and east shores are sandy and low. Patches of bulrushes and water-lilies occur here and there over the lake and show its generally shallow character. Toward the east there is a narrow swampy outlet by which its water after a long and circuitous route reaches the Huron River. There are no streams tributary to the lake. The basin lies near the southeastern margin of the interlobate moraine, and is bounded on the north and south by hills 60 to 80 feet (18-24™) in height. Not all of the original extension to the southwest has been filled by peat; two small areas of open water still remain. The shores, with the exception of the western side, support a vegetation similar to that of many lakes in this region. Three societies of plants may be distinguished. Aquatics—The most abundant plants are Scirpus lacustris, Castalia tuberosa, and Sagittaria rigida. These occur not only along shore, but in shallow water throughout the lake. Associated with these are Naias flexilis, Brasenia purpurea, Potamogeton heterophyl- lus, Chara (sp.), Spirodela polyrhiza, Vallisneria spiralis, Scirpus americanus, and Decodon verticillatus. Sedge-grass society.—Very near the north, south, and east shores occur a great number of species of grass-like plants. Their associations vary greatly at different parts of the shore line. ‘The dominant forms are Carex filiformis, Panicularia nervata, Eleocharis palustris, Carex teretiuscula, C. Muskingumensis, Dulichium arundinaceum, Panicu- laria Canadensis, Dryopteris Thelypteris, and Scutellaria galericulata. Among the species of secondary importance are Onoclea sensibilis, Carex riparia, C. stipata, C. hystricina, C. interior, Spartina cynosut oides, Typha latifolia, Iris versicolor, Lobelia Kalmii, Comarum palustre, Lycopus americanus, and Eupatorium maculatum. Closely associated with these plants are the secdlings of the shrubs and trees which make up the next society. Willow-maple society—The shrub and tree border is composed, Se a 1905] |TRANSEAU—BOGS OF THE HURON RIVER VALLEY 433 for the most part, of Salix Bebbiana, S. discolor, S. sericea, Cornus candidissima, Acer rubrum, and Ulmus americana. Beside the many plants of the sedge-grass society which remain as relicts, the accessory species include Rosa Carolina, Impatiens biflora, Sambucus pubens, Spiraea salicifolia, Prunus serotina, Quercus alba, Q. velutina, and Opulaster opulifolius. These trees grade into the forests of the upland and establish a natural order of succession. An interesting comparison is afforded when we note the species dominant along the western or bog margin. Here the outer zone of aquatics is made up of the same species, but this substratum is a floating raft constructed by the plants themselves. Without again enumerating the species, we pass to the society which closely follows their development. Bog-sedge and shrub society.—This society forms a very complex gowth, averaging so feet (15 ™) in width. On the lakeward side are the aquatics; on the other, the growth of tamaracks. The sedges and shrubs are not separable, as in many other localities. Carex fili- formis is by far the most important plant in the society. Its vigorous Production of rhizomes and roots especially fit it for the position which occupies. Certain other plants are locally abundant and of great Consequence. These include Dryopteris thelypteris, Menyanthes infoliata, Eleocharis palustris, Comarum palustre, Sagittaria latifolia, Eriophorum polystachyon, Carex teretiuscula, Typha latifolia, Salix myrtilloides, S. candida, Betula glandulosa,° Oxycoccus macrocar- Pus, and Andromeda polifolia. As accessory species may be mien: tioned Salix discolor, S. Bebbiana, Cicuta bulbifera, Cardamine Pratensis, Chamaedaphne calyculata, Campanula aparinoides, Rumex Britannica, Epilobium adenocaulon, Asclepias incarnata, Pogonia 0phioglossoides, Blephariglottis blephariglottis, Limodorum auc : Sum, Marchantia polymorpha, Aulacomnium palustre, Sarracenia Purpurea, Drosera rotundifolia, Boehmeria cylindrica, Carex somone . hystricina, Cornus stolonifera, Parnassia caroliniana, Viola blanda, om Penthorum sedoides. Here and there occur young tamaracks Which by their growth inaugurate the next society. Tamarack societ y.—As development proceeds, osely to this species than the shrubs and 6 os The form found here and at Delhi corresponds more cl ‘ Pumila, but its characters are intermediate. 432 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER herbs gradually are superseded by a growth of Larix. This society has been much disturbed by lumbering, and a large part of the original area has been cleared. But there is good evidence to show that the part of the basin filled with peat formerly supported a dense covering of tamaracks. Where best developed and least disturbed, it shows an undergrowth of Vaccinium corymbosum, Aronia nigra, etc. As the other species are practically the same as at the lake to be described next, they need not be enumerated here. In contrast with most of the areas studied, the almost complete absence of sphagnum is worthy of note. It is also important that the absence of any gradation between the forest societies of the upland and of the bog be kept in mind. On this lake, then, there are two divergent series of plant societies. Starting with practically the same species, the one series leads us on mineral soil through willows, maples, and elms to the oaks of the surrounding forests; the other, owing to the development of a floating substratum, involves a very different set of shrubs and ends with the tamarack. The former series therefore more closely approximates the climatic type, while the latter is dependent upon edaphic factors. FIRST SISTER LAKE. This lake and its accompanying bog are located three miles west of Ann Arbor in a glacial drainage valley. Its origin is probably connected with the melting of a mass of stagnant ice after the abandonment of the valley by glacial drainage. The surrounding and underlying soil is a sandy gravel. At least a part of the western side presents an original tamarack bog vegetation, and it is particu- larly interesting in showing the results of competition between bog plants and those of other habitats (fig. 6). The vegetation in general Presents a different phase of the bog societies, as compared with West Lake. Especially to be noted are the dominance of cassandra and sphagnum in the shrub zone, the absence of cattails and swamp loosestrife as important members of the outer margin. The tamarack zone is also raised somewhat more above the water level. Aquatics.—With the exception of the shallow-water forms, the lake is almost free of higher vegetation. Potamogeton lucens and P. zosteraefolius occur sparingly. About the margin, however» | : . 105] TRANSEAU—BOGS OF THE HURON RIVER VALLEY 433 Nymphaea advena is of great importance. It forms an almost con- tinuous zone 10 to 25 fect (3-7.5 ™) in width. Patches of Castalia tiberosa and Brasenia purpurea occur. This arrangement in groups sems to be connected with their rapid multiplication by rhizomes. Typha latifolia occurs in a small area at the north end of the lake. Ceratophyllum demersum and Naias flexilis occur as secondary species. Bog-sedge societ'y.—Carex fili- formis, C. oligosperma, Eleocharis palustris glaucescens, and Erio- phorum polystachyon are the pri- mary factors in the formation of thiszone. Carex riparia has gained afoothold at the north end of the like, where muskrats have been active in destroying the original sedge zone. Dryopteris thelypteris, Onoclea sensibilis, Juncus effusus, J. canadensis, Comarum palustre, “x myrtilloides, Dulichium arun- dinaceum, Equisetum _ fluviatile, Bidens trichosperma tenuiloba, ' eat Menyanthes trif oliata, Viola Fic. 6.—First Sister Lake. / blanda, and Eriophorum virgini- (“tm occur as accessory plants. The great majority of these suns a 2 the construction of the substratum by their roots and root- Here and there among the sedges occur the forerunners of the b society. Among the very first to gain a foothold are the ‘phagnums. These build small tufts of great compactness and Stadually overcome the sedges. The rootstocks of the cassandra send up shoots and prepare the way for another vegetation a Oxycoccus macrocarpus and O. Oxycoccus both occur at intervals i this zone. Cassandra-sphagnum sociely.—Beyond th Hon is no longer arranged zonally. Conditions e sedge zone the vegeta- have been so muc 434 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER disturbed that on the western side the area of cassandra-sphagnum dominance is very irregular. On the eastern side this plant society is in the last stage of its existence. The intimate association of Chamaedaphne calyculata, Sphagnum cymbifolium, S. subsecun- dum, and S. recurvum is well illustrated here. The plants occupy the whole of the territory where they flourish. The other species are decidedly secondary. It is to be further noted that in the com- petition with the sedge species these plants actually override them, and only an occasional Eriophorum virginicum survives. The water-conserving properties of the sphagnum are too well known to need description here. But the mutual advantage of the cassandra- sphagnum combination is worthy especial note. The former by its -numerous branches furnishes a framework which aids in the upbuild- ing of the moss and in shading. The sphagnum, on the other hand, furnishes a moist cover in which the conditions for the shrub are most favorable. The accessory species include the moss, Aulacomnium palustre; the herbs, Drosera rotundifolia, Arethusa bulbosa, Habenaria lacera, Sarracenia purpurea, Pogonia ophioglossoides, Limodorum tubero- sum, Viola blanda, Osmunda regalis, Campanula aparinoides, Scutellaria galericulata; and the shrubs, Andromeda _polifolia, Betula pumila, Oxycoccus macrocarpus, O. Oxycoccus, Aronia nigra, and Ilicioides mucronata. Tamarack society—Among the cassandra occur many young tamaracks, and these by their development come to overshade the shrubs and form the tree society of the bog. The dead remnants of the cassandra mounds make up a large part of the floor beneath them. The species of secondary imiportance are Ilicioides mucronata, Aronia nigra, Chamaedaphne calyculata, Osmunda cinnamomea, O. regalis, Dryopteris spinulosa intermedia, D. cristata, Polytrichum juniperinum, Plagiothecium denticulatum, Thuidium recognitum, Aulacomnium palustre, Marchantia polymorpha, Sphagnum cymbi- folium, Boletinus porosus, and Thelephora intybacea. The tamarack zone has been much disturbed by clearing and burning. At the present time a large part of the area on the south- west side is dominated by other tree species. Some of the plants of the clearing have spread into the pure tamarack growth. 1905] TRANSEAU—BOGS OF THE HURON RIVER VALLEY 435 Poplar-willow-ma ple society.—Where the original conditions have been disturbed and a second growth allowed to come in, Populus iremuloides, Salix sericea, Salix discolor, and Acer rubrum have obtained dominance. Where groups of the more mature poplars ocur there is scarcely any undergrowth. Elsewhere the following plants occur: Ilicioides mucronata, Salix Bebbiana, Sambucus pubens, Amelanchier oligocarpa, Aronia nigra, Rubus nigrobaccus, Comus. stolonifera, and Rubus strigosus. These form a dense mixed association, with but slight reference to substratum conditions. T he smaller species present are Adicea pumila, Osmunda cinnamomea, Rosa Carolina, Onoclea sensibilis, Epilobium adenocaulon, Spiraea salicifolia, Dryopteris thelypteris, Verbena hastata, Solanum dul- tamara, Polygonum sagittatum, Spiraea tomentosa, Geum rivale, . Polygonum hydropiperoides, Ribes floridum, Ribes oxyacanthoides, Rumex Britannica, Impatiens biflora, Viola blanda, Osmunda Tegalis, On the southeast side of the lake and on the north, conditions have been still more interfered with, and there is now a mixed growth of bog and low-ground plants, which represent stages in the decline of the bog flora and the advent of swamp plants. The tallest forms ate willows and clumps of mountain holly. For convenience only, the plants may be enumerated together under the following title: Mt ixed low-ground society.—The dominant plants are Salix “ticea, S. discolor, Spiraea salicifolia, Poa flava, Solidago serotina, Chamaedaphne calyculata, Oxycoccus macrocarpus, Aster Vide gliae, and Rosa Carolina, Epilobium adenocaulon, Aronia nigra, Andromeda polifolia, Rubus strigosus, Dryopteris thelypteris, Scutellaria galericulata, Juncus effusus, Koellia virginiana, Sambucus ‘anadensis, Geum rivale, Osmunda regalis, Scirpus cee’ Gali um aparine, Homalocenchrus oryzoides, Juncus tenuis, Asclepias _ittarnata, Salix Bebbiana, Eupatorium perfoliatum, Gentiana Et, Lycopus virginicus, Osmunda cinnamoméa, Saat nifera, Carex riparia, Viola blanda, Sarracenia pe Yopteris cristata, D. spinulosa intermedia, and Triadenum vit- siticum also occur. oe last two societies are found upon a black peat 1S more thoroughly decayed than in other parts substratum of the bog. 436 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER Acidity tests show that the relative acidity is less than in the case of the cassandra-sphagnum and tamarack societies. The soil tempera- ture also runs somewhat higher as noted elsewhere. The First Sister Lake may be said to be dominated by three well- marked bog and two mixed societies in which bog and swamp species are brought into competition. The result can be foretold with considerable certainty. The bog vege- tation will sooner or later be replaced by the swamp species. BOG NORTH OF DELHI. — Two miles north of Delhi occurs an extensive bog which was formerly a mile and a quarter (2 *™) long by a half mile wide (0.8 *™) at its broadest part Fic. 7.—Delhi (fig. 7). The southwestern third has been cleared = rea alge and is in part under cultivation. The eastern and fcc @ Ard northern parts have been somewhat interfered with =r mile). by the cutting of timber, but areas occur which have been but little disturbed by these influences. Near the eastern margin are two small lakes, the last remnants of the larger lake which must have occupied this territory in early postglacial times. The basin is located in a clay moraine of the Erie ice-lobe, and probably owes its origin to unequal deposition by the glacier. The plant societies found about the southeastern lake will give an idea of the whole vegetation (fig. 8). Aquatic society.—The aquatic vegetation is represented almost wholly by the yellow water-lily, Nymphaea advena. This plant forms a broader zone completely encircling the lake and varying from 5 to 10 feet (1.5-3™) in width. Accompanying it occur Bra- senia purpurea, Ceratophyllum demersum, Lemna minor, and Spirodela polyrhiza. Typha-cassandra-sphagnum society.—On the floating margin of the bog substratum occurs a zone which partially encircles the lake. Near its outer edge Typha latifolia is the characteristic plant, but 7 certain places it is wanting or extends the full width of the zone Chamaedaphne calyculata, Sphagnum cymbifolium, S. subsecundum, S. recurvum, Carex filiformis, Eriophorum polystachyon, and Salix 1905] TRANSEAU—BOGS OF THE HURON RIVER VALLEY 437 myrtilloides are the most frequent plants. The accessory species. include Carex oligosperma, Menyanthes trifoliata, Comarum palustre, Tnadenum virginicum, Osmunda regalis, Onoclea sensibilis, Rumex Britannica, Asclepias incarnata, Viola blanda, Cicuta bulbifera, Galium Aparine, Scutellaria galericulata, Rhus Vernix, Dulichium aundinaceum, Oxycoccus macrocarpus, Hypnum cordifolium, Hypnum Schreberi, Aulacomnium palustre, and Mnium. Vaccinium-aronia society. —Forming a narrow tran- sition society between the low shrub zone just de- scribed and the tree society, occurs a dense line of tall shrubs. The dominant species are Vaccinium cor- ybosum, Gaylussacia re- ‘tosa, Aronia nigra, Ilici- dides mucronata, Betula dulosa, and Prunus | 2. Srotina. The other species“ pear rss SE Present are Acer rubrum, Fic. 8.—Portion of Delhi bog. Sambucus pubens, Os- ee munda cinnamomea, Salix discolor, $. Bebbiana, Spiraea salicifolia, Tlex Verticillata, Rosa Carolina, Sarracenia purpurea, Andromeda lifolia, Calamagrostis canadensis, and Eleocharis palustris sei ns. These shrubs border the tamaracks and to varying distances _-&xtend back among them. Tamarack-birch society.—Larix laricina and Betula lutea — ve made up the great bulk of the original forest which occupied _ > area. The relative abundance of the latter has probably been “teased by the cutting of the tamarack. The next most ienportant tree is Acer rubrum, which occurs scattered throughout, apd “ally abundant near the northeast side. Where isolated trees have Temoved, the shrubs which occur among the undergrowth have 438 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER made a rapid growth. Throughout the forest area are patches in which Aronia nigra, Vaccinium corymbosum, and Ilicioides mucronata stand so thickly as to be almost impenetrable. Where the forest has been but slightly disturbed and the tamaracks are more or less scattered, one finds a deep carpet of sphagnum with slender stems of cassandra, andromeda, and Eriophorum virginicum rising through it. Clusters of Sarracenia purpurea are common. The other plants found in this society are Trientalis americana, Unifolium canadense, Coptis trifolia, Rumex Acetosella, Rubus strigosus, Dryopteris spinulosa intermedia, Osmunda cinnamomea, Viola blanda, Impa- tiens biflora, Solanum dulcamara, Thelephora intybacea, Poly- trichum juniperinum, Sambucus pubens, Agrostis alba, Blephari- glottis lacera, Cornus candidissima, and Cicuta maculata. Clearing society.—Surrounding the forest on the east, south, and west sides is a large area, in part dominated by sedges and grasses, and in part by a typical “‘slashing.” It is impossible to characterize this plant association by any particular species. All that have been thus far mentioned occur in scattered clusters, the proportions and dominant plants varying from one locality to another. The notable facts are that on the east side Carex teretiuscula, C. vulpinoidea, C. riparia, C. filiformis, Scirpus cyperinus, Calamagrostis canadensis, Aster Novae-Angliae, Eupatorium perfoliatum, and Aster junceus have become the most abundant forms. To the west of the lake these plants are present, but the taller shrubs are in control. Salix discolor, Cornus stolonifera, Salix Bebbiana, S. sericea, and many others already mentioned as occurring among the tamaracks are present. The second lake and the more northerly one is bordered by an exceedingly narrow zone of low-growing plants. The dominant species are Decodon verticillatus and Typha latifolia. Chamae- daphne calyculata, Carex riparia, Panicularia canadensis, and Bromus Kalmii are of secondary importance. The trees come almost to the water’s edge. The proportion of red maples among the tamaracks and birches is considerably greater than in the vicinity of the other lake. Otherwise the tree society is essentially the same. We have illustrated, then, in the bogs at West Lake, First sister Lake, and Delhi, three stages in the filling of old lake basins. We 1905) TRANSEAU—BOGS OF THE HURON RIVER VALLEY 439 have seen that, although there are minor variations in the species present, all of the bogs show a series of bog-sedge, shrub, and conifer societies which are genetically related. In the Delhi bog the filling isalmost completed. In the bog about to be described we find this pss finished, and what was formerly a ring of bog-sedges sur- rounding an open lake has become an irregular disk forming the central plant society of the area. ie ale an feet. Se Fic. 9.—Bog near Oxford, Oakland county. ND COUNTY. rd Tp., there is a ). Although it lies BOG NEAR OXFORD, OAKLA Near the northeast corner of Sec. 31, Oxfo & (fg. 9) covering about 4.5 acres (1.8 hectares a few miles beyond the real boundary of the Huron River basin, it 1S included because it exhibits a flora somewhat different from the other areas, and may be considered as a neat approach to the type of bogs occurring farther north. The basin is a depression in the Sutwash sands and gravels of the interlobate moraine. It is sur- 440 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER rounded by hills 25 to 30 feet (7.5-9™) in height above the bog level. During wet weather it has a shallow outlet to the southwest. The land surrounding it has all been cleared and is now under cultiva- tion. As shown by other timber areas in the vicinity, it is probable that the original upland timber was made up in part of Pinus strobus, Quercus coccinea, and Betula papyrifera. Bog-sedge society.—Toward the center of the bog is a considerable area in which the water level lies just at the surface. The sphagnum is for the most part submerged, and the dominant plants are Carex oligosperma and Scheuchzeria palustris. Occasional plants of the following society are scattered throughout. Bog-shrub society.—While this zone is characterized by Chamae- daphne calyculata, Sphagnum cymbifolium, S. recurvum, and S. subsecundum, young and dwarfed specimens of the spruce, tamarack, and pine are present in large numbers. The surface formed by the sphagnum is exceedingly rough and marked by hummocks. Among the depressions Eriophorum virginicum, E. vaginatum, Andromeda polifolia, Sarracenia purpurea, and Oxycoccus macrocarpus are abundant. Tamarack-s pruce society.—This society forms a zone completely surrounding the shrub society, and is dominated by trees of Larix laricina and Picea Mariana. Occasional specimens of Pinus Strobus are found, especially toward the southwest corner, where the sub- stratum is somewhat higher than elsewhere. Beneath the trees is an almost impenetrable tangle of shrubs, especially Vaccinium corymbosum and Ilicioides mucronata. The substratum is prac- tically bare of lower vegetation. An occasional mat of Aulacomnium palustre may be found at the tree bases. That this society will come into possession of the central bog area is certainly indicated by the great numbers of young trees among the bog shrubs. Willow-sedge society—As usual in the clearing of the adjacent land, the larger trees of the bog margin were also removed, and in their stead has come up a growth of willows. The dominant plants of this zone are Salix sericea, Cornus stolonifera, Spiraea salicifolia, Salix discolor, Carex riparia, and C. stipata. Associated with these Plants are Sambucus pubens, Salix nigra, Iris versicolor, Populus monilifera, Dryopteris spinulosa intermedia, Osmunda cinnamomea, os] TRANSEAU—BOGS OF THE HURON RIVER VALLEY 441 Equisetum limosum, Cornus candidissima, Aronia nigra, Rosa Carolina, Juncus effusus, Calamagrostis canadensis, Rubus strigosus, licioides mucronata, Comarum palustre, Carex filiformis, Panicu- lia canadensis, and Poa flava. Forming a high border about the lamaracks and spruces are numerous large plants of Vaccinium corymbosum and Ilicioides mucronata. . The very marked difference between the vegetation of the central and marginal parts of the bog are worthy of especial note. The lormer represents the original vegetation of the bog. The latter illustrates most forcibly that under present conditions a very different “et of plants springs up and becomes dominant, in spite of the fact that the true bog plants were near at hand when the clearing ‘curred. This bog also illustrates that stage in the filling of a depression immediately following the disappearance of the lake. In other bogs near Oxford, Dasyphora fruticosa and Chiogenes tispidula occur among the shrubby growth. THE DELHI MUSKEAGS. In the bog north of Delhi which has already been described ‘cur two areas, somewhat to the west of the lakes, which seem to ‘present a later stage in the history of a bog than that shown by the es. These areas, if they were found in northern Michigan, would be termed ‘“‘muskeags.” They are surrounded by large tamaracks, and small tamaracks occur throughout, the smallest specimens toward the center. Tf the bog at Oxford were to continue its work of filling Until the central society disappeared, we should have a bog area of much the same appearance. The small tamaracks stand far apart, and between them is a most luxuriant growth of cassandra and ‘Phagnum. The hummocks rise between 3 and 4 feet (0.9-1.2") above the substratum. As one attempts to. traverse these areas, he ‘ks knee-deep in the lon fibrous, peat moss. : The total i iiber of ee is very small, and includes, besides those already mentioned, Andromeda polifolia, Sarracenla purpurea, paveoecus macrocarpus, and a few specimens of Vaccinium corym- um. BOG ON CARPENTER ROAD ie b This bog is situated in the SW. % Sec. 39; Amn Arbor P- ee ‘sin is a small depression in the glacial moraine occupying 4 442 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER one-tenth of an acre (fig. ro). On the south, west, and north sides it is bordered by clay hills which rise 25 to 4o feet (7.5-12™) above the bog level. The vegetation of the hills is dominated by Quercus velutina, Q. alba, and Q. rubra. With these trees occur Hicoria ovata, Hamamelis virginiana, etc. On the north side the upland has been cleared, and the land is now under cultiva- tion. From time to time tamaracks have been removed from the bog, until at the present time only the central area remains to indicate the origi- nal covering. Accom- panying the clearing See there has grown up ee! about the tamaracks the usual thicket of ‘shrubs and young trees. As elsewhere, the peat is more thoroughly decayed and the substratum level somewhat lower about the margin than toward the center. This fact is of importance in differentiating the willow-sedge society. Tamarack society.—This society is dominated by the group of rather mature tamaracks. The substratum has the characteristic hummocky surface, marked by large exposed roots, common to such areas. It is overlaid by a loose covering of vegetable matter, made up principally of tamarack needles. The undergrowth is sparse, but most of the bog shrubs and herbs are represented. The = important species are Chamaedaphne calyculata, Sphagnum cymbi- folium, S. recurvum, S. subsecundum, Eriophorum virginianum, and Lycopus virginicus. A very noticeable growth about the base of most of the shrubs is produced by the fungus, Thelephora inty- bacea. The mycelium in developing its sporophores rises about the stems, frequently to a height of a foot (25°). From the cy linder thus formed, irregular fan-shaped pilei are developed, which gives Fic. 10.—Bog on Carpenter road. 903] TRANSEAU—BOGS OF THE HURON RIVER VALLEY 443 the appearance of an elongated brown rosette about the stem bases. Clitocybe laccata and Boletinus porosus are also abundant in the autumn. The partially decayed stumps bear Peltigera canina. Other species occur in this area, but reach their dominance in the next society. Poplar-maple society—Here are brought together the remnant of the bog species, and those more characteristic of swamps and clearings. The trees are mainly Populus tremuloides, with a scat- tering of Acer rubrum. Elm seedlings occur. The shrubby plants, however, make up the bulk of the vegetation. TIlicioides mucronata, Ilex verticillata, Aronia nigra, and Vaccinium corymbosum have almost complete possession, and are struggling with one another for space. All these forms send up stems from the underground parts, so that among them the struggle is largely a mechanical one. How- ever, where the red maple overtops them, the factor of shade enters, and the black choke-cherry and high-bush blueberry are the most tolerant. The mountain holly and black alder prevail elsewhere. The next most important plants are the willows, Salix sericea and S. discolor. Mixed with these are Cornus candidissima, Rubus nigrobaccus, Rosa Carolina, Cornus stolonifera, Spiraea salicifolia, and Rubus strigosus. Willow-sedge society.—The area dominated by these plants is _ Covered with water in the spring and during moist weather. Although this Society is fast being crowded out by the next preceding, it is Probable that only a small part of that area was ever occupied by these Plants. These plants require a more moist substratum. The domi- hant species are Salix sericea, Carex riparia, C. stipata, Cornus Stolonifera, and Osmunda cinnamomea. In the case of the cinna- Mon fern found in this bog there is a remarkable development of aerial roots. They are about an inch long and extend outward from the thick rootstock in all directions, forming a dense covering. The Toots are thickly covered with root-hairs which have been persistent = least through one winter. The root-hairs are large and brown | Moolor. The appearance of these rootstocks, as a whole, Is very “uggestive of certain tropical tree ferns. The other species present are Ranunculus abortivus, Polygonum sagittatum, Cicuta bulbifera, Prunella vulgaris, Rubus americanus, Rhus. Vernix, Solanum dulca- 444 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER mara, Impatiens biflora, Eupatorium perfoliatum, Calamagrostis canadensis, Dryopteris thelypteris, D. spinulosa intermedia, Doel- lingeria umbellata, Lactuca spicata, Coptis trifolia, Boehmeria cylin- drica, Onoclea sensibilis, Marchantia polymorpha, and Rosa Carolina. The further development of these societies under present condi- tions will bring about a complete change. There can be no doubt that the poplars and red maples are the coming trees, with elm a close third. When these have become sufficiently large and numer- ous to overshade the shrubs, the latter will bé killed out, and we shall have in their place the maple-elm forest common to the low grounds. The shrubs, however, are capable of persisting for a great length of time, because of the difficulty of tree seedlings obtaining a start beneath them. THE CHELSEA BOG. Of the bogs which have been subjected to clearing, burning, and ditching, by far the most interesting in this region is located just to the southeast of the town of Chelsea. It covers an area of about 50 acres (20 hectares), and the peat is reported to be 40 feet (12™) thick at the deepest places. The divisions into societies, as indicated on the map (fig. rz), are based on the most general characters of the vegetation. There are gradations between all of the societies, and these are so gradual that it is difficult to determine definitely the boundaries. Further, owing to the tendency of many of the shrub species to form dense local growths by the development of stems from underground shoots, the smaller associations are very diverse in different parts of the same society. Birch-vaccinium society.—This mixed society of bog shrubs occupies about one-fourth the area of the bog. Its substratum consists of peat standing about a foot above the average water level. The dominant plants are Betula pumila, Vaccinium corymbosum, Rubus frondosus, Aronia nigra, Vaccinium canadense, and Pteridium aquilinum. Just as common perhaps, but of lower growth, are Rubus hispidus, Spiraea salicifolia, S. tomentosa, Aralia hispida, Chamaedaphne calyculata, and Rumex Acetosella. The ground covering, except beneath the dense shade of the shrubs, is made up of Polytrichum juniperinum. There are many small areas of which this plant now holds exclusive control, and forms a rich carpet of ! 4 E : ag TRANSEAU—BOGS OF THE HURON RIVER VALLEY 445 meen, yellow, and red, depending upon the season of the year. Where the moss is disturbed by the uprooting of plants, the substra- tim becomes exceedingly dry. The moss dies out, and in place of ithere springs up a growth of Cladonia rangiferina, C. pyxidata, VAS: VANTA a ‘ie v= 4 4NINZ ase ae ~ ea « < wivur,y < < ¢ ° ta i 7 s - x 7 << « “ Sct tet: cue «cet << ates << < TS +? < . he tae ae Pe “3 «sn Va ee siey Moose Meee, eee se ere NC ie, > Pts ad tA A SPR Lae RAN i Aol red 6 oy Soe ; wey hg EPA Fev Md hd v . ee wer Sr Se “ee "My Nye May wey vey Seale im feet. oo Fic. 11.—Chelsea bog. C gracilis, C. verticillata, C. cristatella, and frequently @ small admixture of Rumex Acetosella. These plants gee 5 As the the Surface and aid in the conservation of the moisture. es over ‘“onditions become more favorable, the Poly sie oo nabs ~~ 4tea, driving out the lichens. About the borders 446 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER the Polytrichum is killed out by the shade. Rumex Acetosella is better fitted to withstand such conditions, and consequently forms an inner border about each group of shrubs. Where depressions occur and are flooded for any length of time, the Polytrichum is replaced by Eriophorum virginicum and Scirpus cyperinus. Along the northwestern border Rubus nigrobaccus is making inroads upon this society. To the north of the railroad, however, the most impor- tant changes are being wrought by the development of Populus tremuloides and Quercus velutina. Young trees of the former are now scattered throughout, while the latter is present in small number. The plants of minor importance are Ilex verticillata, Viburnum len- tago, Ilicioides mucronata, Amelanchier Botryapium, Euthamia graminifolia, Doellingeria umbellata, Bidens trichosperma tenuiloba, Dulichium arundinaceum, Poa flava, and Sphagnum cymbifolium. Chokeberry society.—Aronia nigra forms the most dense and exclusive growth that occurs on the bog. Usually the substratum is somewhat lower and more subject to overflow than in the last — society. It would seem from observation that this condition is in part due to the chokeberry itself. Owing to its dense growth, it protects the surface of the peat from drought and favors the processes of decay. At the same time it adds very little to the substratum in the way of débris. Where it attains its best development it is prac- tically without undergrowth. About the borders it is mixed with Vaccinium corymbosum, Betula pumila, and Ilex verticillata. Of the smaller plants, Pteridium aquilinum penetrates to the greatest distance. Other species occurring about the borders are mentioned among the other societies. Poplar-willow society.—About the borders of the bog, and extend- ing to a greater or less extent into its interior, is a dense zone composed of Populus tremuloides, Salix discolor, Quercus velutina, Populus grandidentata, and Salix nigra. By far the most abundant form 1s the trembling aspen. The substratum varies from areas well above the water level to areas which are constantly submerged. The aspen is also the most important of the plants which are invading the shrub societies. In the relative proportion of the individual species there is the greatest variation at different places in this border zone. O the more enduring species, Quercus velutina is the most abundant. The other species present are Salix Bebbiana, S. sericea, S. lucida, Fe TRANSEAU—BOGS OF THE HURON RIVER VALLEY 447 " Prunus serotina, Quercus alba, Q. macrocarpa, Acer rubrum, Betula litea, Amelanchier Botryapium, Viburnum pubescens, Spiraea wlcifolia, S. tomentosa, Corylus americana, Sambucus pubens, Comus candidissima, C. stolonifera, Cicuta maculata, Aster lateri- orus, Carduus altissimus, Galium asprellum, Osmunda cinnamomea, 0, regalis, Ranunculus pennsylvanicus, Calamagrostis canadensis, Viola blanda, Euthamia graminifolia, Bidens frondosa, and Aster Novae-Angliae. __ Sedge society.—On the northeast side of the bog is an area domi- _ fated by sedges. In the fall of the year it appears to be a uniform atta of Scirpus cyperinus, but there are many other species mixed with it. The substratum is low and is mainly characterized by lissocks formed by the sedges. Throughout, occur small clumps if the willows already mentioned. The most abundant accessory species are Isnardia palustris, Calamagrostis canadensis, Carex _ letiuscula, C. stipata, C. filiformis, C. fusca, C. oligosperma, C riparia, and Aulacomnium palustris. The future flora of this bog appears to be indicated by the rapid fowth of the poplars, willows, and oaks. The few tamaracks tMaining are approaching maturity and are not being reproduced, ~ The means by which these tree species combat the shrubs is mainly oy shading, while the latter in the same way interfere with the develop- ~ Ihent of the tree-seedlings. The time involved in this struggle must | be very great, but the ultimate outcome will be an oak forest, the intervening Stages being filled in by poplar and willow growths. If, _“Wever, the decay of the peat beneath these trees brings the surface ia water level, the poplar-willow stage will be indefinitely pro- onged, GENERAL CONSIDERATION OF THE BOG FLORA. Beside the trees mentioned in the preceding descriptions, aie should be made of the occasional occurrence of the black ash, Fraxinus tigra, and swamp white oak, Quercus platanoides, in bog areas. It "quently happens, when the tamaracks are cut, that the black ash mes abundant, as in the area one-half mile southeast of Kava- augh Lake, where it is now associated with Ulmus americana and Acer Tubrum. Another example occurs about a mile north of Chelsea 7 te NE. % Sec. 1, Sylvan Tp. Here in a small area from which & lamaracks were removed, Fraxinus nigra, Quercus platanoides, 448 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER Fraxinus americana, F. pennsylvanica, Acer rubrum, Ostrya vir- giniana, Tilia americana, and Liriodendron tulipifera are associated. The undergrowth consists of Solidago patula, S. neglecta, Aster lateriflorus, Mitella diphylla, Euonymus obovatus, Viola pubescens, Agrimonia hirsuta, Cornus florida, C. candidissima, Eupatorium perfoliatum, Rosa Carolina, Viburnum Lentago, Juniperus communis, and Spiraea salicifolia. The substratum is almost entirely occupied by mosses, including Hypnum fluitans, H. Schreberi, H. Blandovii, H. roseum, Thuidium recognitum, and Climacium americanum. On the farm of James Barton (SW. % Sec. 2, Lyndon Tp.) the black ash, red maple, and American elm have replaced a former growth of tamaracks and black ash. In a previous publication (55: p. 403) the writer called attention to the absence of a genetic relationship between the bog plants and the surrounding vegetation in southern Michigan. This was explained on the basis that the bog vegetation is a relict of former climatic conditions; that it has a genetic relationship with the conifer forest formation of northeastern North America, as shown by studies in northern Michigan and Pennsylvania, and that in this region it has been surrounded by a more southern flora whose center of distribution is the southeastern United States. Consequently no order of succession between the tamarack and the oak floras is to be expected. When, however, bog areas are cleared or their normal development disturbed, such trees as the black ash, white ash, red maple, and elm replace the tamarack, and a definite order of succession is established. It was also maintained that present bog habitats are continuations of similar habitats which came into existence when a colder climate prevailed than at present. More recent observations tend to confirm and strengthen this statement. : The dominance of bog and swamp plants respectively in adjoining areas is to be explained largely by the time when the areas came to Support their present ground vegetation. If the habitat has existed undisturbed since the time when a colder climate prevailed, the bog plants will be dominant. If it came into existence in recent times, or has been disturbed, it will be dominated by swamp species. (To be concluded.) BRIEFER ARTICLES. TOLERANCE OF DROUGHT BY NEAPOLITAN CLIFF FLORA. (WITH THREE FIGURES) Tae writer has already made mention of several of the most abundant _ Species on the cliffs in the vicinity of Naples.t Some of these plants seemed to offer sufficient points of interest to be worthy of more detailed study, and a few notes in regard to their summer condition are here offered. At Pozzuoli, where most of these observations were made, the strip of fertile soil which skirts the beach is bounded on the landward side by diffs, in many places quite vertical, rising to a height of thirty to more than a hundred meters. These cliffs are occasionally of trachyte, but most frequently of gray or yellowish tufa, which in softness and porosity closely resembles the softest brick used in interior construction by American ilders. Decomposed it makes a moderately rich and very warm soil. The chemical composition of two such tufas (from the little island of Vivara, 8.3 miles (13*™) from Pozzuoli, of the same volcanic series and Not greatly different age from the Pozzuoli deposits) is as follows: Gray Tufa Yellow Tufa MS ie 51.08 45-50 (AG PRN te ec oc T3.7t 16.05 } PS Be ee igs 8 13.16 11.69 q Mie eres 4.72 gs 20 WO ae 7. 5.03 q2 , AO eee ree ee 2.04 2.28 K,0 Fie at erg Og ae eee a5 2.04 4.12 Pe oe 4.58 9. 36 Ris eid atees tle ee 1.50 RE re ie tse ibs hue oe een 0.40 JOO. 22 99-13 ___On account of the porosity and the vertical extent of these tufas, the ) Soil water sinks to great depths, springs (except profound volcanic — _ “f€ unknown, and the southerly faces of the cliffs during the summer _ Months appear perfectly dry. July August Mean daily temperature,°C. . . . 24-14 sqe Mean precipitation,mm. . . - - 19:12 ae : *Bor. Gazerre 35: 360-362. 1903. : had) 449 or a 450 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER During the summer of 1904 the maximum temperature at 2 P. M. observed in the superficial layer of soil on the little local deposits of weathered earth on the faces of cliffs, was 57° C. Occasionally the month of July is quite rainless. Some experiments on the amount of moisture contained in the material of the faces of tufa cliffs and walls gave the following results: Loss of moisture 1904 at 100° C., per cent. Aug. 15. Top of Roman pillar of brick and tufa, portion about ultimate Pores Ot Bl epiaeo arbors. oO ee ee Sept. 1. Earth on face of cliff about ultimate rootlets of Artemisia ME ee a ee Sept. 8. Earth on face of cliff about ultimate rootlets of Matthiola rupe- WS ee a a ea ee ae ee Sept. 9. Earth on face of cliff about ultimate rootlets of Artemisia I oa eee ee Sept. 1o. Tufa-like clay, surface of cliff, no vegetation except Sedum sp. 0.7 These determinations were made at a time when the autumn rains had not as yet set in, and the tufa and earth examined were nearly at their minimum as regards moisture-content. A few light sprinkles during late August and early September had not materially affected their condition. In the cliff-side formations about Pozzuoli the most important woody species, arranged roughly in the order of their abundance, are: 1, Artemisia arborescens, L.; 2, A. variabilis, Ten.; 3, Helichrysum rupestre, DC; 4, Inula viscosa, Ait.; 5, Spartium junceum, L.; 6, Medicago arborea, L.3 7, Opuntia Ficus-Indica, Mill.; 8, Mesembryanthemum acinaciforme, L.; 9; Matthiola rupestris, Guss. Number 5 of this list has been much discussed as a typical summer deciduous xerophytic shrub, and so it did not seem worth while to inves- tigate further its equipment for resisting the difficulties of its environment. Numbers 7 and 8, the succulent members of the formation, are not indige- nous and might better be studied in detail in their original habitats. ° Of the other members of this little flora it may be said that in general they have not the aspect of extreme xerophytes. It therefore seemed likely to be a profitable bit of work to look into the qualifications which most of the shrubs considered is the tufted form of the plant. Helichry- sum and Matthiola show this well in the shape of the plant as 4 whole 1905] BRIEFER ARTICLES 451 (jig. 1) and the Artemisias in the shape of the separate branches. It seems probable that this mode of growth is of use in removing the foliage of the plants as far as possible from the intensely heated cliff surfaces. The plants in question show few adaptations for extraordinary collec- lion or storage of water. The roots of the Artemisias are often twice or more than twice as long as their stems, but the other four species have compara- tively short roots. In all six species the means of checking foliar ttanspiration are only moderately developed. Most of them during the Tainy season transpire ab Teh a dantly. The loss Per hour per 100 square centimeters of leaf surface (reckoning lower Surfaces only) for “Matthiola is O61™8, Helichry- sum 750%, Med- : Kag0 1200™8, and Fic. 1.—Helichrysum rupestre (left), Matthiola rupestris Inula T431™8, at (right). May condition. 4 temperature of : about 30° C., when the moderately xerophytic leaves of the olive lose 450™ per hour. The leaf areas for the finely dissected leaves of oF Attemisias were difficult to calculate, so twigs of these were pug.aee With olive twigs by weight, and the loss per gram per hour os — st of Artemisia was found to be about 190™® when the loss of an olive twig Was Gong, : eae may Putting the means of checking transpiration in tabular form, they ma) be indicated as follows: 452 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER eaves toes Leaves Leave — aromatic summer withering paraheli- | sulcate or hairy or with deciduous otropic revolute PPR PeG Ser — Artemisia arborescens..... x x x Artemisia variabilis........ x Bie a x Helichrysum rupestre...... x x x x TGla VincOsA ok a * a ae rae x Medicago arborea......... x i x Ae os Matthiola rupestris........ ie me 2 x x No one of the nine cliff species enumerated is without some xerophytic characteristics, but it is noteworthy that only two of the non-succulent species have ample and obvious protection from injury by drought. The | Spartium, leafless during the drier months and with thick wax-coated epidermis and sunken stomata, endures months of rainless heat without injury. The Medicago (figs. 2, 3)* has a far less xerophytic aspect, but it flourishes not only on the nearly vertical surfaces of tufa cliffs, but also on the bare tops of ancient Roman walls and pillars. It is, indeed, the char- acteristic shrub of the meager flora of these latter localities, often at a height of 10-20™ above the ground and far beyond the reach of any moisture from the soil. Its roots are short and scanty, and the plant contains no mechanism for special storage of water, but the complete shedding of the leaves in early summer renders the shrub secure against fatal desiccation afterward. Unfortunately I was not able to make as many determinations of the rate of transpiration of M. arborea under various conditions, as would have been desirable, so the following values are far from exact; still they may serve to explain the tenacity of life of the species. The total transpiration per hour at 30° C. of a twig 8°™ long was about as follows: May i kaiytwiginwater. 6 5 =... oy 80™ ey 14 tealy twig in water <9. «Se pune47 leafy twig in water. 6 ws. 0 September 14, leafless twig,notin water ... . 5 In the first case above given, the leaves were in the height of their “activity; May 14 they looked as green and fresh as at first, but had lost a little of their power to transpire. By June 17 all the leaves had turned _ Yellowish and had taken up permanently their paraheliotropic position. On September 14 the twigs were (and had long been) entirely leafless and appeared rather destitute of moisture. The figures speak for themselves, and the final rate of transpiration, less than 3 per cent. of the maximum, « For these figures the author is indebted to Mrs. HERBERT S. JENNINGS. ; of oh eo 1905] BRIEFER ARTICLES 453 indicates an extremely high degree of adaptiveness to variations in tem- perature and water supply. The greatly lessened loss of water from the leafless twig of September 14 was certainly in great measure due to its comparatively desiccated condition at the beginning of the half-hour during which it was allowed to transpire. Twigs in vigorous leafy condition (May 14) lost about 7 per cent. as much water through the cortex alone as through leaves and cortex taken i together. It is evident that Medicago arborea depends for protection against the excessive transpira- tion mainly upon its summer- deciduousness. This is shown hot only by the lessened loss of Water after defoliation, as above Stated, but also by the fact that damp soil, as under large trees of Quercus Ilex at Lake Fusaro, where during the larger part of, the day in summer the illumina- tion is only from 1 to 5 per cent. of the total, the leaves of this species are hardly at all decidu- ous during the summer. The aspect of these shade plants (fig. 2) is notably different from that ,, O8€ growing on cliff sides. The former are much taller and Telatively more slender, with Teaves fewer, larger, and longer Petioled. Twigs of shade plants Save about one and one-half times as much leaf area as those “qual length from sun plants. : N individuals growin mn deep shade were less (fit 0 4S than on those growing in. ! Fic. 2.—Medicago arborea, shade form, wn in a situation with one to five per cent. illumination. X?. 454 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER the sun, but each leaf of the former class was about twice as large as one of the latter. Like those of a good many other Leguminosae, the leaves of this Medi- cago take a paraheliotropic position (fig. 3) during the hours when they are exposed to bright sunlight. This is identical with the nocturnal posi- Fic 3.—M. arborea, mesophytic form grown in full sunlight; leaflets in paraheliotropic posi- ion. X32. summer, and many of their branches die to the ground. The Artemisias _ tion. The movements of the leaflets are so slug- gish that it is difficult to ascertain definitely the percentage of illumination necessary to induce the position. As already stated, the leaves take this attitude permanently for some time before they are shed for the summer. Of the other woody non-succulent plants under discussion, the Matthiola alone at the end of the dry season has suffered no material injury. It is difficult to see how this plant, with its not incon- siderable rate of transpiration and its leaves des- titute of unusual epidermal protection and with loose, soft mesophyll, maintains itself so success- fully during the Mediterranean summer. Its most xerophytic characteristic is the manner in which the leaves are folded together upward along the midrib. The Helichrysum has a decidedly xerophytic aspect. Its cylindrical looking linear leaves are 30-7o™™ Jong and usually only 1.4-1.5™™ wide; sometimes 3™™ wide. Both surfaces, but especially the lower, are covered with an abundant coating of felted, cobwebby hairs, and in leaves of the narrower type the spaces between the midrib and the recurved leaf margins are quite filled with a mass of hair. But this apparent provision against excessive transpiration, as already shown, does not prevent rapid loss of water, and indeed the poorly developed epidermis and loosely packed cells of the mesophyll are ill adapted to retain water. Helichrysum and Inula both lose more than half of their foliage by drying up before the end of the also lose by drying in situ sometimes more than two-thirds of their leaves, but the branches generally remain alive. eee ee eee BRIEFER ARTICLES 455 _ Allfour of these species appear to occupy their clifi-side stations rather ae the latter are somewhat free from other competing shrubs than ag here is found an ideal environment. Indeed, the Artemisias and the Inula in good soil have a robuster habit and more abundant foliage . fan along the faces of the tufa cliffs where their presence is most char- acteristic. Summing up the results of the observations made upon the nine species ii i dalt with in this paper, the members of this flora may be classed according their qualifications to endure high temperature with deprivation of _ Water as follows: icculents, extremely resistant . . - Mesembryanthemum acinacijorme { Opuntia Ficus-I ndica Uni os \ “unjured by drought, retaining all foliage Matthiola rupestris Summer deciduous, highly resistant . S pore junceum Medicago arborea Artemisia arborescens ~ : ea found in large numbers, and a few gametop Leaves a branches often dying in situ, | Artemisia variabilis erately resistant Pee Ke Helichrysum rupestre Inula viscosa —J. Y. BERGEN, Naples, Italy. A NEW GENUS OF OPHIOGLOSSACEAE. se (WITH ONE FIGURE) Paes 4 a the spring of 1903 the writer discovered the gametophytes of the un obliquum Muhl., and later announced the fact in a catalogue eit pteridophytes of Minnesota. Since that time both sporophyte and oe of this and other species of Botrychium have been subjected be 1 study. The gametophytes of Botrychium virginianum have jolium were found in 1904. While pe question now being agitated by ot “ate alli ug has disputed BowER’s contention from th to the Lycopodiales. CAMPBELL WO | fhe Bryophyta. destitut gametophytes of Botrychium obliquum : € of chlorophyll. They grow by @ disti m are subterranean and net apical meristem, are ES r Mi Inn. Bot. Studies 3:249. 1903+ 3 , 3 ee) American Naturalist 38:761-775- 1904; (2) ibid. 39:273-285- 1905- 456 flattened dorsiventrally, and possess many long rhizoids. The reproductive organs are developed on the flattened monoecious. BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER They are dorsal side and in their organization differ essentially from those of Botry- chium virginianum as described by JEFFREY.3 The tig ila upon segmentation does not develop directly into a 1G. 1.—Photomicrograph of a section through - ee and young sporophyte of Sceptri- “um £6 The section is vertical, and trans- verse Fie gametophyte. The root is already Senses from the under side of the gametophyte, while! the position of the first leaf was marked by a pronounced elevation on the upper side. a, arche- gonium; s, suspensor; ¢, stem tip; /, first leaf; r, Toot. X_60. spherical protocorm, as is the case in all other ferns which have been studied, but first gives rise to a long suspensor, which burrows into the tissue of the game- tophyte in the manner characteristic of certain lycopod embryos. At the tip of this suspensor a spherical protocorm is or- ganized, out of which the stem and root apices are shortly differentiated. The axis of the metacorm trans- fixes the protocorm and all the tissue of the latter, ex- cept the suspensor, becomes a permanent part of the metacorm. The embryo does not, therefore, possess a lateral cotyledon (nurs- ing-foot) as does Botry- chium virginianum. The root grows downward and emerges jrom the under side of the gametophyte, and at a later period the first leaf breaks through the upper surface. The relation of the members in the young embryo and its orientation in the gametophyte are well illustrated by the accompanying figure. A study of the mature sporophytes of the ternate species of Botrychium 3 Univ. of Toronto Studies 1:1-32. 1898. q E 1905] BRIEFER ARTICLES 457° discloses unique characters which alone mark them as a natural group entitled to generic rank.. Considering, in addition, the anomalous character of their embryos as illustrated by Botrychium obliquum, it appears at once desirable to segregate them as a distinct genus. The writer would therefore suggest the name Sceptridium (from oxjr- tpov), in allusion to the scepter-like sporangiophore. SCEPTRIDIUM, a new genus of Ophioglossaceae. Stem subterranean, short, erect, with many clustered roots. Sporophyll dividing near the stem into a long petioled sporangiophore and a shorter petioled sterile segment. Sporangiophore erect, bi-, tri-, or even quadri- : pinnate, bearing naked, spherical sporangia in two rows. Sterile segment inserted obliquely near or at the surface of the ground, ternately divided orcompound. Gametophyte tuberous, subterranean, saprophytic, monoe- cious. Embryo with a suspensor and without a pronounced lateral coty- ledon; its axis ctraight, the root emerging from the lower side of the game‘ ophyte. To this genus should be referred the following described but ill-defined species and varieties: Sceptridium australe (R. Br.).—Botrychium australe R. Br., Prodr. Fl. Nov. Holl. 164. 1810. Sceptridium biforme (Colenso)—Botrychium bijorme Colenso, Trans. New Zeal. Inst. 18:223. 1886. Sceptridium biternatum (Lam.)—Osmunda biternata Lam., Encyc. Meth. Bot. 4:650. 1797. Botrychium biternatum (Lam.) Underw., Bor. GazerTE 22:407. 1896. one ; Sceptridium californicum (Underw.).— Botrychium californicum Un- erw., Torreya 5: 107. 1905. : en Poe oleh Botrychium Coulteri Underw., Bull. orr. Bot. Club 25:537. 1808. : ere 2 Sceptridium a (Hook. & Grev.).—Botrychium daucijolium Ook. & Grev., Ic. Fil. 2: pl. 161. 1831. : ay ae (Mart. & Gal.).—Botrychium decompo- Silum Mart. & Gal., Mém. Acad. Sci. Bruxelles 15:—(15)- pl. 1. 1842. r Sceptridium dissectum (Spreng.)—Botrychium dissectum Spreng. nleit. 3:172. 1804. ae ee _ Sceptridium Pie (Prantl) —Botrychium ene ee ae ‘cum Prantl, Jahrb. Bot. Gartens Berlin 3:349- 1834. vars Mponicum (Prantl) Underw., Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 2§:538: § - ae Ptridium Jenmani (Underw.).—Botrychium Neamt a nil Bull. 8:59. 1900. 458 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER Sceptridium matricariae (Schrank)—Osmunda matricariae Schrank, Baier. Fl. 2:419. 1789. Botrychium matricariae (Schrank) Spreng., Syst. Veg. 4:23. 1827. Sceptridium obliquum (Muhl.).—Boétrychium obliquum Muhl., Willd. Dp: £1. 5:62. 1510. Sceptridium obliquum elongatum (Gilbert & Haberer)—Botrychium obliquum elongatum Gilbert & Haberer, Fern Bull. 11:89. 1903. Sceptridium obliquum MHabereri (Gilbert).— Botrychium obliquum Habereri Gilbert, Fern Bu'l. 11:88. 1903. Sceptridium obliquum intermedium (Underw.).—Botrychium obliquum intermedium Underw., Our Native Ferns, ed. 6, 72. 1900. Sceptridium obliquum oneidense (Gilbert).— Botrychium ternatum oneidense Gilbert, Fern Bull. 9:27. 19or. Sceptridium pusillum (Underw.).—Botrychium pusillum Underw., Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 30:50. 1903. Sceptridium robustum (Rupr.)—Botrychium rutaefolium var. robustum Rupr., Milde Nov. Act. Acad. Caes. Leop.-Carol. 26:763. 1858. Botry- chium robustum (Rupr.) Underw., Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 30:51. 1903. Sceptridium Schaffneri (Underw.).—Botrychium Schaffneri Underw., Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 30:51. 1903. Sceptridium silaifolium (Presl)—Botrychium silaijolium Presl, Rel. Haenk. 1:76. 1825. Sceptridium subbifoliatum (Brack.).—Botrychium subbifoliatum Brack., U. S. Expl. Exped. 16:317. 1854. Sceptridium tenuifolium (Underw.).—Botrychium tenuijolium Underw., Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 30:52. 1903. Sceptridium ternatum (Thunb.)—Osmunda ternata Thunb., Fl. Japon. 329. 1784. Botrychium ternatum (Thunb.) Sw., Schrader’s Journ. Bot. 1800?:111. 1801. Sceptridium Underwoodianum (Maxon).—Botrychium Underwood- tanum Maxon, Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 32:220. 1905. —Harotp L. Lyon, University of Minnesota. CURRENT LITERATURE. BOOK REVIEWS. : Photomicrographs of plant rusts. THERE is a difficulty in studying microscopic fungi, from which the student of phanerogamic plants is exempt. It arises from the minuteness of the parts, making it necessary to prepare a slide and place it under the microscope, and sometimes more than one slide, before the essential characters can be seen. As only one slide can be examined at a time, the student must carry a mental picture of the various forms previously examined which he desires to compare with the one under examination. He cannot lay his two or more objects side by side and have them both or all equally under consideration at the same time. One of the best known means for reducing this difficulty to a minimum is the use of photomicrographs. When skilfully prepared under uniform con- ditions and magnification they are of great assistance in making close comparisons between a few forms, and immensely facilitate the rapid review of a large series. Recognizing these facts, together with the additional one that many species are so rare that the student can not hope always to secure a specimen, Professor E.W.D. Hotway, of the University of Minnesota, has undertaken to publish a complete series of photomicrographs of the spores of the North American rusts.’ The work starts out with the genus Puccinia, taking the species up systematically according to hosts. The first number begins with the order Ranunculaceae, having seventeen species, followed by nine other orders. The 45 species of this first number are illustrated by 62 figures, all but one representing the spores as seen in the field of a microscope under a magnification of 250 diameters. — The Photogravure plates show almost the same perfection of detail as the original tographs, both being of superior quality. The text accompanying the plates is of the nature arate Species is fully described, with synonymy, distribution, and citation of cana € work is all founded upon the specimens and treatises in the herbarrum of the University of Minnesota, and is carried out with much critical insight. € number forms a highly valuable addition to the literature of the plant Tusts, and especially so on account of the illustrations, few botanists having such skill in the production of photomicrographs as the author.—J. C. ARTHUR. of a monograph. Each Luther Burbank. Tost who know Mr. Burbank personally admire hi acter; they who know his work acclaim him as a gentus i re his gentle and simple in plant breeding ; Horw ay, E. W. o. North American Uredineae, Vol. I, part 1. 4to- PP iii+ 32- Pl. t-z0, Minneapolis, 1905. $2.00. 1905] 459 460 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER and marvel at his dauntless and unselfish devotion thereto; they realize that he has operated on a grand scale, producing, by his acute judgment and his keen insight, even more than by skilful and ingenious manipulation, remarkable and valuable results. He is a great man—doubtless the greatest—in his chosen field; granting that he is now worthy a biography, he is most unfortunate in his biographer.? To describe the personality of a great man one must not only be enamored of the man, but be able to sketch him in attitudes of mind and soul that carry con- viction of greatness. To exhibit the work of a great man, one must not only be conversant with the details of the work, but be able to make manifest its nature and its bearings, its problems, and its triumphs. Mr. Harwoop is convinced that LuTHER BURBANK is a superlatively great man; but he cannot compel his readers to believe this by mere reiterated asser- tion. He is sure that the work is marvelous and of surpassing value; but as he obviously knows nothing of horticulture and less of botany, he is incompetent to explain it. He insists ad nauseam that Mr. BuRBANK is a scientific luminary of the first magnitude; but our author has no inkling of the meaning of scientific training, nor does he know the criteria of a man of science; he does not even perceive that his liberal (and presumably literal) quotations convict his hero of some lack of the scientific spirit, which is even more important than the errors they embody. Given reasonably clear English and a logical presentation, the actual infor- mation in this book could be condensed into a magazine article. It is surprising that a house like the Macmillan Co. should lend its imprint to a volume with the style and English of a sensational newspaper, not to mention consistent misspell- ing which cannot be laid at the door of the compositor. As to the work of BuRBANK little need be said. Its economic value is unques- tionable, even though many of the most wonderful things are not yet quite per- fected. And no one will doubt the devotion and few will question the altruism of this man, who like Acassiz, has been too busy to make money, except for further prosecution of his work. But withal it must be recognized that he is no “wizard of horticulture;” he has no secrets but skill and insight derived from long experience; he has devised no unusual methods and developed no essen- tially new ideas in plant breeding. N aturally when he claims to have disproved this scientific theory or that, one hears his opinion and, without doubting his sincerity, remains incredulous until the proof is adduced. » If that can be done none sooner than scientific men will recognize and acclaim it. But incredulity is only aggravated by assertion without evidence, and distrust can only be intensified by such absolute misconception of so clear a theory as that of DeVrres.—C. R. B. os Harwoon, W. S., New creations in plant life. An authoritative account of the life and work of Luther Burbank. r2mo. pp. xiv+ 368. New York: The Macmillan Co. 1905. $1.75. me Sabena a Ll NR eee = SPs 190 U N 4 I ‘ Organography HE LARGE English edition of the second 0 part of GOEBEL’ e - oe appeared. The first part has become xe ances “é a A See morphology that the translation of the second has been the German edition peter: o iam some impatience as time wore on. As Be i iitle need mae reviewed in this journal shortly after its appearance Be ttempt to te e said about the subject matter. The work, as a whole a “is ao the configuration of plants from the point of view of BE the second aa While the first part is primarily a discussion of Bone of che a evoted to-a more detailed presentation of the structures ‘experience of the auth thet: eaten: hyta, and Spermatophyta. The wide oF first-hand observ experimental work, and more especially his great Mitled him to pres servation of plants under most diverse conditions, has a Be estiven: ent a mass of detailed information that is of very great value The trans] oe a will ot ae ae been accurately done by Professor BaLFouR. “‘Spermo- Iition and its ag pics as a novel form, but it has classical usage as justifi- tophyta. ‘The see will probably cause it to displace the more familiar Sperma- by making oe ee has taken wise liberties with the typographical form, ere When h s = subheadings that present the matter more clearly to er Other AR ers the order of figures, however, we think he goes a bit ee marie es s of make-up are open to objection. If the translation a Setdophyta me . volumes of nearly equal size, by dividing at the section 6 than in on Mis as the work would have been more convenient Separate pagination e : in (270 pages) and one thick (708 pages) part. The Dit of four , and calling the volumes “parts,” together with the separate al es seem to us distinct bibliographical mistakes. | ae very complete and adds greatly to the value of this translation. ee ustrations should have been made a part of it. Two indexes as good as one.—W. B. McCALLum. : Mosses and ferns oe of the edition of CAMPBELL’s Moss necessary, by em or it have given opportunity for a thorough fom a first edi he researches of the last decade. With the experience gained ee On, the author who undertakes a second, unhampered by “plates,” ially of the Archegoniatae and c Bayiey Batrour. Part ii. 7. Oxford: Clarendon es and ferns and the revision,’ made 3 Gor - Ditcchyia” K., Organography of plants, espec Special Organ Seok English edition by Isaa ography. Imp. 8vo. iv 1 Press, 1905. $7.00, p. Svo. pp- xxiv+ 708. figs. 41 4B . GAZETTE 31:204. IQOI. ‘AMP 80Niatae), ee see H., The structure and development of m & 0. pp- vii +657. figs. 322. New York: The Macmill osses and ferns (Arche- an Co. 1905. $4-59- 462 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER may reasonably be expected to perfect his book to the limit of his powers, embrac- ing the opportunity not only to bring the work up to date, but also to eliminate crudities of design and execution, well-nigh inseparable from a first edition. These expectations, unhappily, are not fully met in the revision of Mosses and ferns. This is the more disappointing in that the volume is indispensable, both because it is unique in its field, and because of certain undeniably excellent features. These have become well known, and we do not recount them because they are so. They are transmitted, undiminished, to the present edition. That the book is fairly brought up to date goes without saying, though one may differ from the author as to relative values among some of the newer researches, and may wish that some of the old figures had been replaced by new and better ones. In the bryophyte portion there is less change than among the chapters on pteridophytes, because among the mosses the researches have been fewer and less important. This is shown by space comparisons: Paces Approxi- FIGURES Approxi- mate per- mate per- centage centage ist Ed. and Ed. increase 1st Ed. and Ed. increase aa dS ath 217 228 5 107 123 7 passer penile ies 290 333 15 155 199 25 geet Rage ie 519 606 1636 266 322 2I In the bryophytes there are no notable changes of view;. in the pteridophytes there are some; but on the whole the author believes that later investigations have confirmed his earlier views. The Isoetaceae have been removed from their association with the Marattiaceae and placed after the Lycopodineae, ee other large groups hold 106 same position as in the first edition. The most te ferns, where particular attention is paid to the work of Bower. ‘ me new material is here published for the first time, but it is mostly taken (with due acknowledgment to others) from papers previously published. A new chapter on the nature of alternation of generations discusses the probable origin of the liverwort thallus, the origin and evolution of the sporophyte, and presents the arguments for homologous and for antithetic alternation, the author giving his adherence to the latter theory. He reiterates the opinion also, that the weight of evidence is in favor of a genetic connection of Pteridophyta with Bryophyta, through Anthocerotes. There is also a new chapter on fossil arch- egoniates, in which Scort’s results figure largely. Some inaccuracies of the first edition are corrected ad some persist. Thus, in an attempt to correct the curious error as to the annulus of the moss capsule, the author doubles it on p. 210, but leaves it in the adjacent figure and on p. 213 in its Simon-pure form. The obviously misleading account of the megaspo- ® Greater than either part on account of added chapters. CURRENT LITERATURE 463 tangium of Azolla is also retained (p. 414). “Recent” still appears in referring to papers, recent when the first edition was issued in 1895 (e. g., Waldner 1887, Guignard 1889, Buchtien 1887), but now rather ancient. In style and method of presentation the second edition has no advantage over the first. So far as typography affects it, there seems to be almost ingenuity in selecting for chapter headings and especially for subheads, the most confused ad, to a novice, confusing forms. Thus, interpreted by accepted typographical canons, The biology of the Marchantiales is a subhead under MonociEa; and Tae AcroGyNAE is a subhead under ANACROGYNAE, and coordinate with ANELATEREAE and ELATEREAE. Citation of bibliographical references in sub- heads is awkward and is a new blemish, e. g., LycopoDINEAE (Potonie (3); Scott (1); Solms Laubach (2) ). The bibliography, to whose enlargement and completeness the author refers inthe preface, would have profited by greater care. Not only are there numerous mistakes in the text-references, one paper being cited when another is meant, but there are papers cited in the text which do not appear in the bibliography atall. Five such cases came to light by pure chance—GarBER, PorsiLp, ASH- WoRTH, BAUKE, and GraNp’ Eury; how many could be found by searching Weknow not. Asa minor, but not trifling, matter may be mentioned the unsyste- matic mode of writing citations; e. g., in the same page four of Bower’s Studies m the morphology of spore-producing members are cited thus: Roy. Soc. Phil. Trans., vol. clxxxv: 1894, Pp. 473» London, 1896. [Nothing more.] hil. Trans. Roy. Soc., series B, vol. 189: 35-81, 1897. Phil. Trans., ser. B., vol. 192: 29 138, 1899. A like variety can be found in the citation of journals. There are traces ofa self-consistent system, however, which hardly goes beyond the adoption, ftom the one most widely used in America, of its most unimportant feature—the colon following the volume number! : = “Proof-reading throughout the volume has been very bad, for much of which E bd Printing office and the publishers are blameworthy, but not for all. oo The index is really absurd. It is charitable to believe that the author farmed this out to an inexpert hand, and what he did not do to spoil it by sins of omission ¥ Commission, the compositor did by ingenious disarrangement of a too com- Plex ‘ystem of indention. E. g., “Hepaticae” (a curious entry when there are se Pages about them) has thirty-nine bare entries; its subordinate phrase semmination of spores” has one, and “spores” one (the same), while the pane ogg germination are referred to dozens of times in the text. “Acrogynae ty five entries, but “‘ Acrogenous liverworts” in the next line has one, and that ane among the five! “Affinities” has only two sub-references, Matonta and a. whereas almost every large group has under it in the text a conspic- Subhead, like A finities of the Musci, and so on. 464 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER In fact, the revision everywhere shows evidences of haste, and as the author signs his preface April 1905, just before he sailed for Europe on his way to South Africa, it seems likely that he was working under pressure that prevented—most unfortunately, indeed—that ‘‘careful revision” of which he speaks. Spite of defects that, by a little more care, the author could easily have avoided, we welcome the new edition and commend it to every botanist as a necessary reference work, even though he have the first—C. R. B. and C. J. C MINOR NOTICES. IN AN ELEGANT work on the Bahama Islands,7 published by the Geographical Society of Baltimore, there is an interesting ecological presentation of the vegeta- tion by W. C. Coker, the result of an expedition undertaken in the summer of 1903. The discussion of the plant formations follows accounts of previous botanical work in the Bahamas, the composition and relationships of the flora, and the economic plants. On New Providence Island the author found.a sand strand formation made up of the following associations successively inward: Ipomoea pescaprae with Paspalum and Sporobolus, Uniola and Tournefortia, Pithecolobium and Salmea, Erithalia and Reynosia, and the silver palm. There are wet and dry pine barrens, the former with an undergrowth of Inodes pal- metto, the latter with a Coccothrinax. Other formations are those of the salt marsh, the fresh marsh, the coppice, and the rocky shore. On Watlings Island Suriana, Chrysobalanus, and Lantana are prominent on the sand strand, and there are mangrove formations with Conocarpus. The paper closes with a list of the plants collected. There are plates of typical formations, and of some economic plants, and there is a colored plate of Bougainvillea—H. C. CowLes. A POPULAR account of all the pteridophytes except the homosporous Filicales, with special attention to ranges, habitat, time of fruiting, manner of growth, folk lore, etc., is given by CLUTE in a new book entitled The fern allies of North America® The field notes, which show an intimate acquaintance with the life histories of the various forms, will interest the botanist as well as the layman. The seven keys, by which the genera and species may be identified are as untech- nical as an efficient key can be made. Necessary technical terms are defined in a glossary. Both common names and scientific names are given. No attempt is made to treat internal anatomy or morphology. The illustrations, more than 150 in number, are by InA MARTIN CLUTE. Details which are of taxonomic importance have been drawn with particular accuracy, so that many of the species might be identified by the illustrations alone.—CHARLES J. CHAMBERLAIN. 7 Coxer, W. C., Vegetation of the Bahama Islands. The Bahama Islands. pp- 185-270. New York. 1905. 8 Crure, W. N., The fern allies of North America north of Mexico. 8vo. pp. Xiv+ 278. New York: Frederick A. Stokes. 1905. $2.00 net. 1995] CURRENT LITERATURE 465 _ Bettevinc that insufficient attention has been given to the higher fungi as acause of disease in animals, Gu&GUEN® has compiled a volume containing descriptions of all fungi which have been reported parasitic on man and other “ani The material, including the Myxomycetes, is arranged in the following order: Myxomycetes, Oomycetes, Basidiomycetes, Ascomycetes, and Fungi Imperfecti. ‘To the description of each species are added notes on the pathology of the organism so far as known. All fungi that have been reported on animals, ~ even the lowest, are included. Full references to literature are given at the end ‘ofeach chapter. The volume as a whole will be of greater interest to patholo- gists than to botanists—H. HAssELBRING. _ Hatrrer'? has published a résumé of the more important features of his _ ‘Matural system of classification't with some corrections and additions, which are here noted. he Hydnoraceae and Balanophoraceae are held to be derived through parasitism from epiphytic Cactaceae; the Gnetaceae do not belong to ~The gymnosperms, but are reduction forms near the Loranthaceae, Myzoden- draceae and Santalaceae; and Casuarina is nearly related to Betula and Alnus.— C.J. CHAMBERLAIN. NOTES FOR STUDENTS. In A Norr in the Comptes Rendus,'? R&nfé MAIRE summarized the results ofhis cytological study of the mitosis in the ascus of Galactinia succosa, describing _ the existence of “protochromosomes,” or chromatic granules formed during the Prophases of the first division, and which united during the metaphase into the four chromosomes of the equatorial plate. In a more recent publication,’ upon a more detailed study of Galactinia as well as several other Ascomy- fetes, Marre has endeavored to explain the significance of the cio le eo and to recognize certain specific characters of the first division in the ascus. : . believes this division to be heterotypic, comparable to the heterotypic division 0 "higher plants. ‘The secondary nucleus of the ascus at the time of its greatest Shows long, fine, much intermixed chromatic filaments, which have been a | -‘Nished to it by the two primary nuclei. Later these chromatic filaments rae and fuse two and two. It has been impossible to determine whether or - t 4 __ bivalence is a result of a folding of a single thread or of the union of two d eren e filaments. At this time the filaments are collected to one side of the nucleus aa fompact synaptic ball, which later undergoes complete dissolution oe . i “atic granules or protochromosomes. At the time the centrosomes : animaux. 8vo. °GufcueEN, F., Les champignons parasites de homme et des ~ PP. 299. pis. ro. Paris: A. Joanin & Cie. 1904. 20ff- : ® Hariier, H., Neue anaes auf das natiirliche System der Dikotyledonen. Phylogenetische Betrachtungen. Imp. 8vo. pp- 15- : ™ Bor. GAzetrE 35:223- 1903- - *Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris 137:769- 1993 "3S Marre, R&éné, Recherches cytologiques sur | quelques Ascomycétes. Ann. ; Mycol. 3°123-154. pls. A ame 2 1905. : 466 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER internuclear aster appear, these protochromosomes leave the achromatic substance, being attracted about four centers to form the four definite chromosomes. Fac of the four definite chromosomes undergoes a longitudinal fission, the two halves of which separate at the metaphase, undergoing a new longitudinal splitting during their passage to the poles. This second split is often very distinct during the anaphase of this division, when eight chromosomes may be counted. Durin the prophases of the second division eight chromatic elements reappear, which unite two and two to form the definite chromosomes of the equatorial plate. The two halves of each chromosome separate, four passing to each pole. e first division of the ascus Marre believes therefore to be preceded by a true synapsis, very similar to that described by StRASBURGER for Thalictrum purpurascens. He believes the protochromosomes should be interpreted as the gamosomes of STRASBURGER. The segregation and re-collection of the chromatin of two primary nuclei assures a complete rearrangement of the chromatin in the definite chro- mosomes of the secondary nucleus. Marre designates the fusing nuclei as pri- mary and the resulting fusion nucleus or ascus nucleus as secondary. These phenomena, together with the longitudinal splitting preceding the metaphase of the first division, and the longitudinal fission during the metaphase of the second division, which split is much more complete than in phanerogams, all show that the first mitosis in the ascus is heterotypic, analogous to the first division of all normal spore mother-cells, while the characters presented by the second mitosis are those of a homotypic division. Marre further believes that the third division is a typic one, where the spirem directly segments into the four chromosomes, which only divide at the metaphase. The proof that the first division in the ascus is heterotypic certainly favors the view that the numerical reduction of chromo- somes occurs immediately after the fusion which produces the nucleus of the ascus. This hypothesis finds support in the fact that the number of chromosomes in the mitoses in the ascus and in the ascogenous hyphae is the same as in Pyro- nema. MatrE has not been able to count the chromosomes of the ascogenous hyphae. He admits the fact that the number of chromosomes may vary in different species of the Ascomycetes, just as this number varies in higher plants, instead of being always four as he has previously maintained. In Galactinia succosa the centrosomes and the spindle have an intranuclear origin, while the polar radiations have an extranuclear origin, developing independently of the intranuclear part of the achromatic figure. The ascus presents the cytological characters of secreting cells. In the epiplasm are found basiphile granules entirely distinct from the metachromatic granules, and often a sort of latex. The nucleus is able to take an active part in the elaboration of certain secretory products.—J. B. OvERToN. A RECENT paper by FiscHER"™ on the Cyanophyceae, while reaffirming in the main his earlier conclusions,'s presents some further additions to the cytology 14 FISCHER, A., Die Zelle der Cyanophyceen. Bot. Zeit. 63": 51-130. pls. 2. 1905. "Ss FiscHEer, A., Untersuchungen iiber den Bau der Cyanophyceen und Bakterien. Jena. 1897. ; 190s) CURRENT LITERATURE 467 ofthis group, a subject which is already overburdened with the results of much speculation rather than careful and accurate observation. FiscHER’s results on the microchemical detection of certain substances in the cell are far from convincing, since a comparison with the opposed results of other authors leads -rather to a realization of our needs of trustworthy micro- chemical tests for distinguishing certain carbohydrates and proteids than to FiscHER’s conclusions _It is not at all demonstrated that FiscHER is able even fo distinguish with certainty between a carbohydrate and a proteid substance, although he seems to be perfectly sure of his test. A new test is given for glycogen, which FIscHER designates as the “‘tannin- ‘Safranin stain.” He regards glycogen as the first visible product of assimilation. This is produced in the Cyanophyceae in such large quantities that, although in some instances 75 per cent. of the cells of a filament may be using up this food- substance in active division, there is always left a surplus which is stored up in the “central body.” In large species, ¢. g., Oscillatoria princeps, the central Se nee nT OSS is large enough for the storage of a considerable amount of unchanged flycogen, which in the treated sections assumes the form of large granules and imegular masses. FIscHER’s test for glycogen in this instance may be called into serious question, since the majority of writers on this subject interpret these same bodies as of a Proteid nature and not carbohydrate. We are left in serious doubt, in fact, as ‘0 whether FIscHER’s glycogen granules are to be referred to the albuminous “slime globules,” or to the “chromatin granules” of earlier authors, both of = bodies may be readily detected in the “central body” of the larger Oscilla- _ FiscHer concludes on the other hand, that in the smaller forms, the limited ‘Wom for storage necessitates the condensation of the glycogen, hence it is here Snverted into another carbohydrate, “anabaenin,” which is stored up in the Entra body, either in the form of Zentralkérnern or as “pseudomitotic” loops. | The number of these twisted rods is in some instances apparently constant, ote e ___ et, their similarity to chromosomes and their equal division between : ‘wo daughter cells arises, according to FiscHER, from the striving, not after an they exist ina finely divided state in the cytoplasm and a : tn of valuable material, but only the distribution of “‘listigen Ballast” _ The author thinks that it is probable that this “carbohydrate mitosis” oan ‘be the forerunner of the nuclear mitoses of such low forms. At first it is merely e aast-divider; but later, nuclein might be deposited, and then the central body Would assume the true nuclear character. But FiscHER denies emphati- vd that the central body as it is at present is a nucleus; nevertheless he would “gree that nuclein-like substances also occur in the Cynophyceae, but holds that re not yet formed in ey es. He thus returns to the old, much-exploited view of the scattered “ distributed nucleus. Such scattered nuclein bodies he fails to show, however, - m*ny of his figures.—Epcar W. OLIVE. 468 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER ITEMS OF TAXONOMIC INTEREST are as follows: N. L. GARDNER (Univ. Calif. Publ. Bot. 2:'169-180. pl. 18. 1905) has described a new genus (Nigro- sphaeria) of ascomycetous fungi, parasitic on Pseudhydnotria, one of the Tuber- aceae.—N. L. Brirron (Bull. N. Y. Bot. Garden 4:115-127. 1905), in a second paper entitled “Contributions to the flora of the Bahama Islands,” has described new species of Coccolobis, Caesalpinia, Canavalia, Hibiscus, Heliotropium (2), Lantana (2), Cestrum, Stemmodontia, and Anastraphia.—W. A. MvrriLt in his twelfth paper on the Polyporaceae of North America (Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 32: 469-493. 1905) has described twelve new genera of this family (Irpict- porus, Dendrophagus, Spongiporus, Rigidiporus, Earliella, Cubamyces, Coriolel- lus, Microporellus, Flaviporellus, Aurantiporellus, Aurantiporus, Pycnoporellus, Phaeolopsis), making new names for species formerly referred to Boletus, Poly- porus, Fomes, or Trametes. Earliella alone is possibly new.—K. K. MACKEN- zie (idem 495-506) describes three new varieties and creates two new specific names under Onosmodium, and refers O. Thurberi to Macromeria Thurbert.— In a sixth paper on Crataegus (Rhodora 7:162-164. 1905) C. S. SARGENT describes two new species of Tomentosae.—M. L. FERNALD (idem) refers the common Symphoricarpos racemosus Auct., with leaves glabrous beneath, to the new var. laevigatus; those with leaves pilose beneath to the type, and those with leaves whitened beneath to var. pauciflorus—A. Borzi establishes (Nuova Notarisia 16:20. 1905) two new genera of Chrococcaceae, Planosphaerala and Bacularia.— W. A. SercHeLt describes (idem 59-63) a new genus, Peyssonneliopsis, a parasitic alga distributed under a manuscript name in 1993, as no. 649 of the Phycotheca Boreali-Americana—Max FLEISCHER (Hedwigia 44:301- 329. 1905) describes as a new genus of the Indian Archipelago, Aerobryopsts, to receive ten species mostly belonging to a section of Neckera, Eriocladium, which, though preoccupied, was raised to generic rank by DusféN. A dozen new species, all issued in Exsicc. Musci Archipel. Ind. Series VII. 1904, are also described.—F. BusnAk and E. KapAt (idem 350-358) describe new species of fungi from Bohemia; Phyllosticta (3), Vermicularia (1), Ascochyta (3), Diplo- dina (1), Leptothyrium (4), and Ramularia (r)—H. Curist (idem 359-379) publishes the list of ferns,collected by Ute in the Amazon region, including one new species each of Elaphoglossum, Polypodium, Pteris, Lindsaya, Asplenium, Aspidium, Alsophila, and Danaea.—The whole of the first part of vol. 38, Engler’s Bot. Jahrb., is devoted to descriptions of new species of African plants. The following new. genera are established: by R. SCHLECHTER (Bot. Jahrb. 38:1-56. 1905) Auxopus, Genyorchis (Orchidaceae), and Neoschumannia (Asclepiadaceae) ; by H. Harms (idem 74-79) Platycelyphium and Stemnocoleus (Leguminosae); by A. ENGLER (idem 94-101) .Dicraeanthus, Winklerella (Podostemonaceae) and Tridesmostemon (Sapotaceae).—C. R. B. In THE large literature on Bordeaux mixture, secondary physiological effects on plants, not due to the fungicidal action of the mixture, have frequently been described. These effects are of two kinds: first, a stimulating effect, resulting 1905] CURRENT LITERATURE 469 in darker green, thicker foliage, with increased starch production and decreased transpiration; second, direct toxic action on the foliage and fruits. The whole question, on which many conflicting views have been published, has been critically examined by SCHANDER.'® Many writers have attributed the stimulating action of Bordeaux mixture to the entrance of small quantities of copper into the plant, both through the cuticle and through the stomata. SCHANDER finds that leaves injected with a solution of CuSO,, 1 part in 10,000,000, and allowed to lie in the solution 24 hours, showed poisonous effects, while much more concentrated solutions were unable to penetrate the uninjured epidermis when applied exter- nally. The argument is that the cuticle_prevents the penetration of very dilute solutions of copper, such as might result from solution of the particles of copper fompounds applied to the leaf, but if any copper enters the cells the results are injurious, never stimulating. By growing plants in water cultures with dilute Solutions of copper, it was found that the young roots were gradually killed, whereupon another crop of roots was formed, which also was finally killed, etc. Here again there was no stimulating action, although the top of the plant remained uninjured, showing that the copper was accumulated by the root cells, even from Very dilute solutions, but was not passed on into the vascular system. In soils, 4 more concentrated solution of copper was required to produce toxic effects on account of their absorption. By appropriate experiments it is also shown that neither the lime compounds nor the traces of iron produce stimulating effects. _ The true explanation of the phenomena is found in the physical action of the coating itself. ‘The same results were produced by shading plants with glass !0 which a spray of Bordeaux mixture had been applied, also by the use of thin % per or dust. Good results were obtained only in bright sunny weather, = injury resulted during cold rainy seasons. This, no doubt, explains ae ee cting reports of various investigators. The toxic effect of the mixture 1s found to be due to solution of the copper, caused by the secretions of glandular hairs aS in the peach, phaseolus, and sunflower.—H. HASSELBRING. THE FINAL sections of Davis's Studies on the plant cell” have appeared. Sec- tion IV deals with cell unions and nuclear fusions. The subject is treated under thtee heads: (1) protoplasmic connections between cells, (2) sexual cell unions and nuclear fusions, and (3) asexual cell unions and nuclear fusions. ce _ Says, “The test of a sexual act must lie with the history of the elements wie ae If they are shown by their morphology and developmental history to be sexu cells or gametes, then their fusion becomes @ sexua process." ogre qed and nuclear fusions are treated under three heads: (1 cell Ee ee 6 ‘apparently no sexual relations, (2) cell fusions which are substitutes em es “cestral sexual process now suppressed, and () extraordinary mom" ; Pane b ith 4 *6 ScHaNDER, R., Ueber die physiologische Wirkung der Kupfervitriolkalkbrihe Landy. Jahrb. 33:517-584. 1904. 7 Davis, B. M., Studies on the plant cell. ‘seaen Naturalist 39:217-268, 449- 499, 555-599, 695-740. 1905. 470 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER what may have been originally sexual processes but which at present serve some peculiar and special function. Section V deals with cell activities at critical periods of ontogeny in plants. The literature is discussed under the headings, apogamy, apospory, hybridiza- tion, and xenia. Historical accounts are given, but most of the space is devoted to cytological papers of the last three or four years. About 150 papers are cited in the bibliography. Section VI, which concludes the series, is entitled “Com- parative morphology and physiology of the plant cell.” The material is treated under the heads: the simplest types of plant cells, comparisons of the structures of some higher types of plant cells with simpler conditions, some apparent ten- dencies in the evolution of mitotic phenomena, the essential structures of the plant cell and their behavior during ontogeny, and the balance of nuclear and cytoplasmic activities in the plant cell. The series as a whole contains a fuller treatment of the subject than that given in KorRNICKE’s recent paper, Der heutige Stand der pflanzlichen Zell- forschung.*8 The writer’s personal views are expressed freely throughout the work. The bibliography of recent literature is quite complete.—C. J. CHAM- BERLAIN. Lanc"? has studied the structure and development of Cyathodium, a tropical genus of Marchantiaceae. The few species occur in the deep shade of tropical forests, in dark caves, in the crevices of walls, or even on paths in more exposed positions. The two forms studied (C. foetidissimum Schifin. and C. cavernarum Kunze) were collected in the Malay Peninsula and the material was preserved in alcohol. One interesting feature of the investigation was that it made possible a comparison between one of the least reduced and the most reduced form in the genus. The antheridia are borne on small disk-shaped antheridiophores, developed from the lower surface of the thallus, and at maturity are essentially similar to those of other Marchantiaceae. LErTGEs’s surmise that the antheridial wall is not formed of a layer of cells was definitely set aside for both species. In both species the archegonia stand on the morphologically upper surface of the thallus, in C. cavernarum actually retaining this position, but in C. foetidissimum becoming displaced so as to appear to be borne upon the under surface. e development of the sporogonium in the main resembles that of other Marchan- tiaceae, the sporogenous tissue and the greater part of the wall of the capsule being derived from the epibasal cell, and the foot and the base of the capsule wall being derived from the hypobasal cell. The four cells at the base of the foot grow out into a number of relatively long tubular processes, each of which may branch once or oftener, thus greatly increasing the absorbent surface of the foot. The conclusion is reached that the supposed close relationship of the genus with Targionia is confirmed; and that it is probably a reduction group of species, 18 See Bor. GAZETTE 39: 30-31. 1905. 19 Lanc, Witiiam H., On the morphology of Cyathodium. Annals of Bot. 19: 411-426. pls. 21-22. 1905. ence 1905] CURRENT LITERATURE 471 derived from a form not unlike Targionia by adaptation of the gametophyte to shady and damp situations, and by changes in the sporogonium induced by the alterations in the gametophyte.—J. M. C. Drimys, a genus of the Magnoliaceae, and a neighboring genus, Trochoden- dron, have long been known to resemble gymnosperms in the structure of their wood, which consists entirely of tracheids with bordered pits. Hatter, in his Tecent scheme of phylogeny, places Drimys in the Drimytomagnoliaceae, an hypothetical group of the Magnoliaceae derived from the Bennettitales or nearly telated Cycadales. A paper by STRASBURGER?° gives the results of’a study of the ovule, embryo sac, fertilization, and endosperm and early stages in the devel- opment of the embryo of Drimys Winteri. In all these particulars the devel- opment is that of a typical angiosperm, with not the slightest suggestion of gymnosperm characters! STRASBURGER takes this occasion to express his views as to the nature of the endosperm and embryo-sac structures. The formation of endosperm is still regarded as a continuation of an interrupted development of the prothallium, the fusion of polar nuclei which precedes it being a secondary phenomenon. In the usual development of the embryo sac the two polar nuclei lie in a mass of cytoplasm surrounded by a common plasma membrane. Under such conditions itis usual for nuclei to fuse. The synergids are not regarded as eggs, but rather as cells of the prothallium. The condition found in the ovules of Gnetum is not tegarded as a forerunner of the condition found in the embryo sacs of angiosperms. Gnetum is rather the last member of a line of development.—CHARLES ERLAIN. Wiesner has recently written several papers on leaffall,2* one of which, on summer leaffall, has been reviewed in the BoTantcaL Gazette.” A second Paper deals with Trieblaubjall, or leaffall in connection with the development of external factors which so strongly influence leaffall in summergreens are : account here. The third paper treats of frost leaffall. If the absciss layer _ freezes, the leaf drops at once, but if the rest of the leaf freezes, while the absciss layer remains unfrozen, leaffall occurs more slowly. In some cases leaffall is due to high turgescence in the cells of the absciss layer. The final =. is a Presentation of the biological significance of leaffall, and the author's con a are the result of many years of investigation. Leaffall is absent in plants where . . os 20 STRASBURGER, E., Die Samenanlage von sgh Winteri und die Endosperm- ildung bei i -are—271. pls. 7-8 1905- g bei Angiospermen. Flora 95:215~231 a eat Die emg :316-323- 1904- Ueber Frostlaub- fall nebst Bemerkungen iiber die Mechanik der Blattablosung. Jdem 23: 49-60. 1905. Die biologische Bedeutung des Laubfalles. Idem 23:172-181. 1995. *2 Bor. GazETTE 38:153. 1904- 472 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER leaves and stems die simultaneously, as in ephemerals, most annuals and bien- nials, and monocarpic plants generally. Leaffall is absent in most herbs, and present in most woody plants, especially in those which require much light in connection with bud development; this light is secured when the leaves have fallen. Leaffall is less pronounced or even absent in woody plants whose buds never lack sufficient light. Leaffall occurs in woody plants after injury or death, or when they develop in conditions where ] functions cannot be performed.— H. C. CowLes. CHANDLER?S has examined the “seedlings” of a number of ferns, mostly belonging to Polypodiaceae. In nearly all the cases studied a protostele was found to pass into the condition of siphonostele or dictyostele by the appearance, inside the xylem of the central cylinder, first of phloem, then of endodermis, and lastly of fundamental tissue which communicates at the foliar gaps with the fundamental tissue of the cortex. Usually several leaf traces are given off before the central cylinder incloses fundamental tissue, and at this level the core of the central cylinder consists of phloem. The writer concludes that “the primitive type of vascular system in the ferns is a solid rod of vascular tissue, which may be a solid xylem strand surrounded by phloem, or an amphiphloic strand.’”’ The writer follows JEFFREY in considering the parenchymatous pith of the central cylinder to be of the same morphological nature as the cortex; curiously enough he hesitates to apply this generalization to certain species of Osmunda, though he considers the rule to hold wen me O. oe The rae of the inves- tigation seem to confirm the view that tem resembles what has probably been its phylogeny. The disies ee a solid to a tubular central cylinder is attributed to the necessity for an efficient attachment of the leaf traces. The mode of origin of double leaf traces in several genera is care- segs senna = well represented in the plates accompanying the paper.— M. A. Car Within Ge past few years, Dr. Lujo Apamovié has published a number of papers dealing with the plant geography of Servia. A recent contribution?4 has to do with the sand steppes of that country. This is not a single unified forma- tion, but comprises a group of formations, similar in ecology, distribution, and life-history. Meadows contain hygrophiles, grasses which form close mats, and there are but few annuals or coarse herbs; steppes, on the contrary, contain xerophiles, and there are many annuals and coarse herbs; heaths are in places where soil and air are wet, and they contain half-shrubs, among which a single species often dominates. The life-history of the sand steppes is interesting. Sand commonly encroaches on vegetation, but the reverse is the case in wet years. 3 CHANDLER, S. E., On the arrangement of the vascular strands in the “seed- lings” of certain poke nee ferns. Annals of Bot. 19:365-410. pls. 18-20. 1995. 24 ApAMOvic, L., Die Sandsteppen Serbiens. Engler’s Bot. Jahrb. 33:555-617- 1904. 1905] CURRENT LITERATURE 473 The pioneer plant of the drifting sand is the delicate annual, Polygonum are- narium; a Veronica and a Tragopogon are other early plants. No grasses appear among the pioneers, though a Festuca appears the second year, with a Euphorbia; before long, these later species form mats and exclude the first named. When the dunes have become well covered with vegetation, and rather thoroughly established, they are termed Sandpussten. Plants found exclusively in sand are termed psammophytes, while those found elsewhere but preferring sand are termed psammophiles. The photographs accompanying the paper well illustrate the dunes and the Pussten.—H. C. CowLes A series of five papers by Brown and Escomse record the fundamental Tesearches made by these investigators at Kew during a period of three years, The paper here cited? is the largest of the series and to it the others are supple- mentary. Part I is descriptive of apparatus devised by the authors for accurately determining the amount of CO, in air before and after photosynthesis. The tate of photosynthesis as determined by the direct measurement of CO, entering was found to be one-third to one-fifth that found by Sacus with his method of increase in dry weight. When all sources of error were accounted for, the dis- crepancy was reduced to 50 percent. An investigation of SAcHs’s method shows that the errors are cumulative, so that it is very unreliable. T he estimation of foliar respiration as made by the authors agrees. with that made by BLACKMAN. An investigation of the “energetics” of the leaf shows that only a small part of the radiant energy incident upon a leaf is used for photosynthesis, the _ Sem coefficient” being only 6.5 per cent. in full sunshine. Even in moderate light the Supply of photosynthetic energy is far greater than the leaf can use. The surplus of energy which the leaf is compelled to absorb is dissipated by the vaporization of water in transpiration and by the thermal emissivity required in the constant adjustment of the temperature of the leaf to that of the surrounding air.—RAYMOND H. Ponp. AT THE suggestion of Professor WITTROCK, HessELMAN?® undertook the completion of an investigation begun by STENSTROM, but broken off upon the latter’s death in rgor. Having noticed that in Sweden southern slopes are often n and that birch woods ascend determined upon a careful study of the distribution of plants on slopes of various directions. He chose for this study railway embankments, because all kinds of slopes. The results obtained were very t having chiefly xerophiles or weeds (such as Anthemis arvensis, Barbarea vulgaris), and northern slopes having 4 more .. . . 45 Brown, H. T., and Escomse, F., Researches on some of the physiological Processes of green leaves, with special reference to the interchange of energy between the leaf and its surroundings. Proc. Roy. Soc. B. '76:29-112- 1995. S 26 Hessetman, H., K. O. E. Stenstrém’s Studier dfver Expositionen tande pa Vegetationen. Arkiv for Botanik 4:1-54- 1905. s tinctoria, Convolvulus closed and s Infly- 474 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER mesophytic vegetation (with Aira cespitosa, Ranunculus acris, etc.). No dif- ferences of moment were observed between east and west slopes. Although no close study of factors was made, it was clear that the direct influence of radiation, or its influence on moisture and temperature, is the controlling element. A figure is given of a valley in Lapland with a wood of birch with scattered pine and spruce on the southern slope, and a tundra with Salix herbacea, Andromeda hypnoides, and other characteristic forms on the northern slope—H. C. Cow es. SALMON has extended his investigations on the specialization of parasitism in the Erysiphaceae to include the ascospores of several forms.?7 In former experiments with conidia it was found that conidia from Bromus commutatus would infect B. hordeaceus but not B. racemosus or B. mollis. B. hordeaceus, however, acts as a ‘“‘bridging species,’’ so that if conidia from B. commutatus are used to inoculate B. hordeaceus, the conidia produced on B. hordeaceus will in turn infect B. mollis. > > ee hes > cs") = Baoh a, Stapt 388 esricus campestri a atte of 154 tells, “ae ti on 3 Agerat sum 206, strictum 206 Dgpeeris, Mathers on 76 Agrostis, Hitchcock on North American spec ies 1 50 oe, La re for U, Sices ent 320; and heredity, Tscher tak on 3085 jelatiod to physiology, , ie} Alcea Strasburger on apogamy in I Algae, irritability in 321; eeu on parasitic red 1 n, C. E., on behavior of gacioas 384; On germination in Coleochaete scutata Alsophila, Christ on 468 ernation of generations, Worsdell on oo ~I Amauroderma a, Murrill on 388 eg artemisiaefolia, “vitality of seeds Anelanchier, alnifolia 66; Cusickii 67; : elliptica ca 66; flo trans retroflexus, vitality of seeds: GENERAL INDEX. The most important classified entries will be found under Contributors, Personals, es and names of new genera, species, and varieties are printed — salicifolia, embryo sac 52, pol- len aa: sativus, enzymes of 154 pai ie Britton on 468 Anatomy, of Archangiopteris, Gwynne Vasighes on 158; of cotyledons, Rama- ley on 239; of ferns, Chandler on 472; and mutation theory, Dwight 8 Andersson, G., P ona sensed F. ases and nuclear divi- 47 Androsiphonia, Stapf on 388 Anemiopsis, nson On 155 . Antennaria, Barsheibaeneats Leavitt and Spalding on 159; Rydberg on 76 7 Il on embryology 390 Anti , Eastwood on forties oy eas, intumescences, Steiner on I ve Aplopappus speiiioate 46 ocynum androsaemifolium, morphol- ogy of the flower 49 nogamy yin i] } CT Aporsella, Chodat on 76 Apple, Emerson on as 149; Pammel on Tust 39 Aquilegia, Eastwood on 76 Aatiie Blankinship on 152 Araceae, ampbell on 39° Araucaria Bidwillii, Lopriore on micro- spores 391 Araucarineae, Thomson on morphology . Arceuthobium occidentale, Peirce on 152 —, giopteris, Gwynne -Vaughn on an- ew Arctstaphvlos, Eastwood o Arnica, Fernald on 388, Soke on 76 Artemisia, tufted form 451, Rydberg on 76; escens and drought 455; variab re Arthur, i a ‘196, 459; personal 69, 479 Arum maculatum an nd insects, Gerard Aonats sap, Dixon on cohesion theory 389 481 482 BOTANICAL GAZETTE Ascochyta, Bubdk and Kabat o oo Faull on spore rite Aerus, age on origin 315 Askenasy, E., personal 240 Association Internationale des Botan- istes, meetin se r; saearnsitaoas 64; Cordineri 64; S x auci hipabaian: ‘Blankinship on 152, East- wood on 7 \tkinson, G. F, Murrill on 4 \uxopus, Schlechter on 468 \xiniphyllum tomentosum 202 B f f £ Aurantiporus, f f Baccharis, spp. 208 Bact teriology, culture of rhizobia 296 Bacularia, Borzi Ba ahamas, Brit cine on flora 468 - R. 37 cared os H., on taxonomy and evolution Sakae, C. A., on roots of Santalum 159 Barnes, C. R. 68, 230, 460, 461, 468, 477, 478; ersonal ca s, Punnett, and Hurst’s 31 “Ph ae heredi ity” Batrachium longirostris, Riddle on 155 Bauer, E., p al Beal, ° Beck, G., 1 69 Bees and color Wee on 476 Begonia, regeneration 98 Behrens, W. J., eben of 240 Herberis slewals n 76 Bergen, J. Y Bernatsky, eo paren Berridge, E. M. cd on Spencerite 159 eck E. W., personal Bess os E, oA Mebeeaks forests and prairies 476 Bibclovis veneta 208 Bignonia fiw. bee) Billings, F 317 —. rot, Sheldon on Y identity of 239 Bitt r, Ka rolina, on chlorophyll in dark- 47 Packons: F. F., personal 480 Blakeslee . 164 152; and Hen of Montana plants 39) [DECEMBER Blodgett, Eleanor B., Frye a Bog, Rhode Island, Coline 6 on spe and bog - of the Huron river valley 264, 351; Bolleter, E, on Pie: conica 397 Bolley HL. n uredos ol ges of rusts 238 Bonne E., aeicnnl Bonnie, G. ni Seblon, “Cours de bot- aniq e” Rimientiés Viguier on 388 Borbas, V., pers 70 Bordeaux ad ca ‘Schande on physio- onal a. on new genera of Chroococcaceae 468 opselaeegns pit ke 455; Under- ood on 235; spp. referred to Scep- tridium -Pen.457 Seas, R., personal 320 Brassica nigra, tomes of seeds 141 Bra ay) Biss L. ae nal 480; on sotol ry of Tex 233 Brickellis, megalodonita 208; secundi- He se Mrs. * E.G; per: onal 400; Ww genera and aces in mosses I = Bri itton N. L., personal 400; on Cras- sulaceae 74; on flora of Pakainas 4 Bromus secalinus, mime 3 seeds I41 oe a pipe cipal Brow 26 Brown go Escombe, on physi- ology of se Brown, Stew n, sae 400 ardso B aanobin. regeneration gi 468 , A. H. R., on reactions of Lintines lepideus to stimuli i 306 Bupleurum, Blankinship on 152 Burbank, L., personal 160, 459 ush, B. F., on hers 235; on Trade- scantia 235; Mackenzie on new species from igecsacl 235 Cacalia, ampliifolia 2003 Te doesn 199} Pringlei 1 si apie giant, "Mrs. Spates on ecology Ciesalpinia, Britton o Calea ris Seeciin 201; hypo- ren tigs 201 : Zacatechichi rugosa 201 and sphagnum 425 Calyc anthus floridus, Overton on reduc- tion divi sion 385 Calyx, petaloid, of Campanula and AS 235 : Mimulus Campanula, Sees Overton on reduc ision 385; medium, petaloia Bittoniferous, Scott on seed plants of 382 Cardamine ‘east gh este 9 Cardot, J., n en S152 Carduus, Rydberg on aee: Small on 75; etolep 20 x Darwin saat as in New Zealand, sckayn Carica Pacaya, SRE 6 of 154 Carnation rust, effect of soils on develop- ment 225 Blankinship on 152 aa Greenman on n 388; Chamaecrista, izob: ritton Ceylon shore Meghna: Tansley and ritsc pamsesyce, Small on 75 berlain, C. J. 151, 156, 237, She 3; 388, “gor, 397) 461, 465, 469, 4 ndler, S. E natomy of ferns i ese ‘Moranthaceae, Johnson on 155 oroform, Latham , H., on ye ferns 152; on ferns 68 Amaz » “Index Filicum”’ 150 n pollen mother-cells he ~segetum, Ludwig 8 M. A. 472; on reforestration oe ale on 76 “yo PSis._alpicola 64, glomerata 64; Bakeri 64; Cooperi 63 INDEX TO VOLUME XL ‘Coker, W. C., 483 Claes ardenia ie vane 403; pistil- laris 404; simplex bw 6 , personal 400; on for- ion EF aiccession herbari ra 394; “Reseatth methods in ecology” 381 Clibadium srigeares 19 Clinton, G. P., on Ustilaginaceae of Con- necticut 31 5 Clute, W. N., ‘“‘The fern see 464 peer Britton on 4 Cockayne, L., lay of New Zea- land eo ae on spines of Disckse Toumatou 398 ee Vegetation of the Bahama Islands” 46 Co sinensis scu esiais Allgh0 mn 387 Coleospori 196; Dahliae 197; paraphysatum ee Solidaginis 197; so iae 197; Verbesinae 196; Viguierae Collisions lagenarium, Sheldon on ee F., personal 80; on Rhode bog 39 95 Collinsia, Eastwood on 76 Cobtuanes: calotricha 9; moesta 9 race radicata Col 409 ce and insects, Detto on 475; Wery ch a8 from Mexico, rusts on 196 Conard, H. S., ‘The water lilies” 3Ir Congress, 2nd International oo 68 Conjugales, Gerassimow Conklin, E. G., on felation of cytology ye mutation theory 386 reg, inium gil 205 Contact, cig on production of root = 18 Ph n germinating ‘panes 343; n growt 327 Contributors: Arthur, J. C. 196, 459; inso son, G. F. gor; Ball, C. R. 376; R. 68, 230, 460, 461, 468, o; Bergen, B. 6.5. rst, 156, lag 318, 383, 388, 461, 405) 4 ; Chrysler, ter, J. M. ‘74, 4, 75 79 150, i gin 155, 157> 158, 159, 232) 233, 235 238, 239 15 319, 382, 388, 390, 301, 392; 394 47% 475, 478; Cowles, H. C. 148, 314, 315» 381, 392, 393 304, 3 395, 396, 397, 8, 464, 471, 472, 473, om : vis. B. M. 157, 233) : Frye cs 49; Green- So J. M. 146; Hasselbring, H. 380, 484 BOTANICAL GAZETTE 465, 469, Wi Kraemer, H. 305; Liv ingston, B. E. 75, it Lyon, Ploserine 92. 486; Lyon, H. L. 455; McCallum, Olive, E. W. 466; 5, 465; "Picater i fs 143; Peir GI. 4o33-rond, k. 1. 78, 153, 156, 150, 236, 238, 317, 318, 304, 305; 3096, 4735 Kanda, age Kok, ose, J. N. Schn 20; eee J. ia 25; Shall G.H. on, 2 158, = 313; "385, Fat Smith, J. D. 1; Sno Laetitia M. 12; Transeau, E. N. ae nh Wilcox, E. M. 149, 395, 307) 477, 47 ae ~aage and Mackenzie on 2353 use on 76 ook, M. a a ad ei on diseases of tobacco in Cuba ,OCR, and Set, on cytology 475 Copeland E. B n movement of water Cones, physiological age tis 469 siriahit a bosigece 402; Vipes 412 — 2; militaris 41 " P lgiee ais Coriolellus, Murrill on 468 Correlation, in regeneration 243 Correns, C., on heredity 385 on letters by Mendel to N ‘geli 78; on Mirabilis hybrids 2343 oa Scere calyx 235 Cortinarius, Kau non 23 Cotyledons, Kamaley on anatomy 239 Coulter, J. M. 74, 75, 79, 150, 152, 154, 399, 391, 392, 394, 470, 475, 478; per- sonal — Stanley, a 399 oli VG personal 39 eae ae Cowles, H. C. 148, 314. iE aie ee 392, 393, 394, 395, 396, 397, 398, 464, aT 472, 473, 474, 475, 476; persona pas macrantha 143; Pringlel, 143; talpa 1 Crassulaceae, Britton and Rose on 7 Cra ay gus, Gruber on 388; Sargent on esatyet ylis, Moore on 152 Crépin, es death of 240 gee ag ydberg on 76; alpicola 65; ip 65; runcinata alpicola 65 lon 75 Cryptanthe, Eastwood on 76 [DECEMBER Cryptogams, Commission on 72 Cuba, sete nd Horne on teas of to- bacco in 478; Underwood on Wright’s explorations 239 ‘Cubam Murr ill on 468 Cucurbitacéae, Gubsiology, Kirkwood on 3? 18; ition of the embryo sac, Longo n 31 7 Canritnghameda: africana 161; echinu- Cyanophyceae, ee on 157; cytology, Fischer on Cyathodium, Lang on ip ge sie 470 152 erat a is, En -Cydis Cystoseira, behavior of i Pe 331 Cytisus Adami, Strasburger on 384 Cytology, Cook 159, 4 Fischer n 466; relation to mutatio theory, Conklin on 386 D Dahlia variabilis hs Dalea, acutifolia 144; psec) 1443 oo 1443 cia ra i srr bane ; uO: v., on spines of Mamil- a 304 fisreaee Bush and Mackenzie on 235 Davis, B. M. 157, 233; on rig 156, 469 Dean, A. 1,96, 17%, 163; DeCandolle, Coon rk Pee 76 no; F., ath 320 Dendroalsia, Britton on 152 d con, Greene on 2 e Dendrophagus, Murrill on De sert Botanical meas “Lloyd on . 39 : ee fruticosum 206; oratum Detto, C., on color rae insects 475 aa ries, es “Bie a — varieties” 148 Dewey, L. H., personal 399 Diateinacanthus, ae . ate Dicraeanthus, Engler on sites bate sss toes, ae of OOspor Dic bio dichotoma, behavior of zoo- Spore Dietelia, Eopatorit 1973 a 198 Diplodina, Bubdk and Kabét on 468 Discaria Toumatou, Cochanne 3 on dé -apines 30 bas not caused by fungi and insects, Stone on 4775 of tobacco in Cuba, Cook and Horne on 478 Seg NT scp remem. cama SI momen 1905] ‘Dixon, H. H., on ascent of sap 380; ona transpiration model 389 Dr. 3 nceana, Fernald and Knowlton n7 Eros, oes on 471 n monstrosities in PA and Neapolitan cliff flora Drude, O., persona pees 2 the Nethenbcnite Swellengrebel mn 39 Sant Titcher on 388 Duvel, J. W. T., personal 40 Dwight, T., on anatomy oa mutation theory 38 7 Farle, F. S., on PS aren fungi 75; on West American fungi 75 Earliella, Murrill o < a8e Eastwood, Alice, on new teas species 76; cc es of Californ 232 Eaton, A. A., person met on _— 152 Echites, recep 6 osana 6 Eckerson, Sophia Ecology, Adams i ae a on 473; Oliver and Tan on 474; Seigiy in, _ University ee Nebraska actus, Mrs. Spalding on _ of gian M6; ofa Sacial lake, Schaffner on 3153 of Huron river valley 264, 351, 418; of Neapolitan cliff flora 449; 480; of New Zealand, 238; terminology, iaceaaee on agp oo, Setchell on 157 Elaphoglossum, Soa on 468 Electra, Galeo tti 204 eeento opus spicats Embryo of Ulmus america Embryo-sac. of re sonia slicifolin 533 in Cuc curbitaceae, Longo a ; ier tures of Drimys, eure se Emerson, R. A., on apple scab and cedar Ricclia adenophora 20 Endosperm, of Drimys, Steetes on 471; of Ulmus american 217 Energetics of leaf, Brown sod Escombe a Engler, - pease 69, 80, 240; on new w species of 5 e 1543 proteo ae Me respiratory, Kras- osselsky on 153; tryptic, of plants, Pa on 154 Erechthites hieracifolia, vitality of seeds I Ereptase in Phaseolus vulgaris 129 INDEX TO VOLUME XL 485 ee Greenman on 388; Rydberg Briodadium, Sone on 468 Eriophoru nald on 152, 236 3 éra, L., personal che death of 3 ihe ee ae, Salmon n parastis oa hington teartie Pacha Greene on 2 ee Palmeri, Rose 0 Esc sobs F Brown and, on physiology of leaves Eupatorium, ; Robinson on 388; spp. 197, 108, 205, Eu BAS orbia Sachin’ vitality of seeds 141 cilia ad rae oe Chodat on 76 Evans, A. W., on liv safaris from Florida 6 Evergreens, Wiesner on leaffall 471 Evolution and taxonomy, Bailey on 387 Exposition, Botanical, at Vienna 70 F Faull, J. = on spore formation in As- comycet edde, F., "per nal 480 Fegatella © conica, P Bchete on 397 Ferguson, A. ersonal 480 aTeeet 152, 236; on Symphoricarpos of the Amazon, Christ on 468; Fertilization, peru: Norén on 318, Shudsky on pe ee Ulmus americana ha se Wi; - plop and geotrop- of fiechen, A., ped parte rat Rea 264, 351, 418; _ arper on 392; North American, rger on 398; of the Madeiras, ‘Vahl on 239; of New Zealand 23 Florida, Small on new — Be a pocynum androsaem : eatetai logy 49; formation, a on 237; of Ulmus americana 486 Fluorescence of ee 305 Fomitella, as ill on 3 Food, effect n production of root hairs 32; mate aks in bog soil 427 Forest and eka prairies, Bessey on 47 Forestry Formation and succession herbaria, Cle- ments on 394 acs idia alutacea 415 reyn, J., death of 240 Priced, a personal 80; on Cyanophy- ceae 157 C., and ee 49 Fuiren ; Bush o Funaria ® hygrometria, Sablon on 156 —. Latham rritability to chloro- for peek Ea ak on West American and t » 75 F ankle Sisboldiaca, Strasburger on divi- sion of nucleus 383 G ea eg: Piet on 76 Galactina Maire on Pe 465 Galtonia, Stesburger on divi ucleus Gametophte, of Botrychium 455; of Ulmu ricana I, guide to 393 BN. n Ni i ase 468 Poi ity ‘Sesall o on oe decorticans 60 Genea pigeon oo Gen bo pao a 397 periacnss Schlechter 0 n 468 Geo eography, Pp cyte on . 398 eorgia fio Be arper o Geotropism, Fitting o: a6 of grass leaves, Figdor on 156 course of growth mn, i rg on 78 i Newcombe on Gerard, -: : ie Arum maculatum a insects Gitaadinse ie J., on Conjugales a33 Germination, of Ora haete scutata, Allen on 387; of , Remer on in- Slsice of light 397; of zoospores 326 enon 152; e 53 multi- a = stenoth TSOnN: Fi Hi. ae pened 160 Greene, E. L., on Dendrom on 236; 0: Eschscholtzia 2 36; on Petro romecon 2 7 on Ptelea 235; on Sanguinaria 236 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER Greenland laboratory, Olsson-Seffer on 146; seb ht on wba se cnet e se of root hairs 19; eta on influence on 3 A tion of Sc-a guearap ene 17 Graber,.C. 1.., ew species of Cratae- gus 388 Guatemala, plants from 1 uéguen, F., “Les champignons ‘i sites de Vhomme et des animaux” 465 ghn, D. T., on anatomy of Archangiopteris 15 Gymnolomia, care brachypoda 200; subflexuosa Symauscaien, Pammel on 395, 477 H Haberlandt, G., personal 240 Haematococcus lacustris, swarm spores 32 Hallier, H., on Shecoamserr of seed plants 478; iirliche System der Dikotyled onen”’ ee reg patens coronata 4 rms, H., on new species of African ae nag Harper, R. “geen of ee 392 ap etna ; W., North American flora 398; on plant ¢ geography .S. Harwood, ., ‘New creations pare life”’ preanynas H. 389, 465, 469, 474; per- Hat mW. , personal 309 eaten kK. death ne 240 ws m 454; Bread of grass leaves, Figdor on I Heliotropium, Britton on 468; Small on Helleborus foetidus, Overton on reduction division 3 Helmer, A. G., personal 479 Henshall, a Es Blankinship and, on common names of Montana plants 396 Herbarium, panecve tions from Rock ountain 54; formation pene succes- sion, Clements on 394 Heredity, and agriculture, Tschermak on 308; Castle on 385; Correns on 385; problems of 383 ‘Hergt, B., personal 240 Hesselman, H., on ecology 473 Heuchera, Bush and Mackenzie on 235; Eastwood on 76 Eastwoo ., personal 4o , perso onal 3995. on North s 150 “North American 459 a “personal 4 lordeum yum, enaymes of 154 5 orkelia, ea sd 0 sage ne on diseases of 8 4 On + Convelvralis 76; on iola 152 outta, Lapecarscben on 155 , on Chlorophyceae 152; bey nal 70 » person 69 , Water in, Minssen on 477 unger, F. W. T per luron river valley, alegre pee 264, , Bateson, Saunders, Punnett, and, “Physiology of heredity” 313 Husno' ot, T., on ae 150 niales of Connecticut, White on 314 alutacea, _life — tory 401; actifluorum oe lateritius I tiens, sang on 152 ndex Kewensis, supplementum secun- ‘um, Tt iselton-Dyer 3°3 lana Academy of Sciences, 21st annual : eng 479 Insects and Arum culatum, Gerard cn n 475; and color, ‘Deto on 475, Wery 376 o; on Ruellia aa renk on 39 oo Steiner on 159, 3 : cosa and droug 5 Todin, starch reaction 307 : ersity, forestry at 399 oea, Tuerckheimii 8; Tweediei 8 INDEX TO VOLUME XL 487 Irpiciporus, Murrill on 468 Irritability, of ae 321; of fungi to chloroform, Latham on 394; of Lenti- nus lepideus, Buller on 396 Irvingiaceae, VanTieghem on 388 Isoetes, Eaton Istvanfh, G. ie. steoeee 69 J Jacquemontia, Small on 75 Jahrbiicher fiir sienchechalticlee Botanik 399 Sep acne Eastwood on 76 genre Dad, on Piperales 155 s, W. W, on Zexmenia 235 Juglans 2 regia 1 Necks and Sludsky on fer- tilization 31 jena slats from Victoria, Seward on 233 : K te E., Bubék and, on fungi 468 Kanto H., on Cortinarius 236 Kellerman, A. ., personal 479 Kienitz-Gerloff, F., Bt em des bo- tanischen Unterrichts” Kirkwood, I. E., on embryology of Cu- curbitaceae 318 Klugh, F., personal 400 Knowlton, C. H., on Draba incana 76 Kraemer, H. 305 Krasn sselsky, T., on respiration 153 Krause, K., on flora of Aden 23 Krynitzkia, oxycarya 146; en 146; Suksdo. rfii 146 , F., personal 70 = Kiister, E., sna 240; on position of chloroplasts 39 L Laborato Desert — Lloyd . 308; in’ Greenland, Olsson-Seffer 397 Lachesess ee 103 ae, Joh ra oe be dium 470 Lantana, — on ee Small on 75 atham, Marion E., irritability of twood on 76; maritimus, yrus, rhizobia on 135 Laurentia obtusa, behavior of zoospores pa fungi to sicecioems = Eas Py ee BOTANICAL GAZETTE ipl Soi W. H., on Washington Ery- siphaceae 39 Leaf, oes and Esc Fit Sos on oo of 473; serrations of Ulm ° eaflets, — on supernumerary in Trifo lium 78 nap R. G., personal 4705 . transloca- n of characters in pla S$ 397; and Spalding on Bet ale ae in Anten- cecines ‘pide, Buller on Lepidium inicum, vitality of seeds 141 Lepidodendron selaginoides, Weiss and 2 posers an Bubsk and Kabat on 468 Lessingia, Eastwood on Lewis, 3 - -, on development of Phyto- lacca decandra Lewisia rediviva, — on 396 Liabum ae olor tight, aol of, on Lentinus lepideus, Buller on 396; on germination 2 “aegie emer on 397; on germina of i ag 338; on production er eet hair Lilienfeld M., on chemotropism of roots Lilium candidum 103 au, ee personal 320; on Acan- thaceae Lindman, & A. M., on stein 236 Lindsaya, Christ on 4 oyd, » perso: At 4793 on ‘Desert Botanical Laboratory. 39 Locomotion, beha 325 Loeb, J., “Studies i in ight puddin? Lom: Weiss a on Lepidodendron slain o, B., on nation of embryo-sac in Castine 3 so Lopriore, G., pe 1 69; on micro- spores of Fas arog Bidwillii 391 » J. P., perso aed nma udwig, F., on amon baad ag * Chrysan- themu Lupinus, Blankinship on 152 Luxburg, H., on course of growth in geotropism 78 Lychnis Githago, vitality of seeds 141 [DECEMBER Lycopersicum esculentum, White on 158 aie ee aap 73, 255 Lyon, H. L. 455 M Macbride, T. H. 1 paige 399 McCallum, W. B. 97, 241, 461; personal 160 MacDougal, D. T., Vail, Shull, and ane “Mu ory and hybrids of the Oeno theras” 314 Sic wenthes. sibs. on 76 -tebondinas Vera apaz Mackenz < doy ON “Or iste Pe um 468; Bush a on new species from Mis- souri 2 cara a Engler on 1 a5 Magnus, P., 1 pee sonal 2 iG n mitosis i "Galactinia 465 iota difolin, vitality of — 14 Mamillaria spines, Darbi shire 394 Mangrove and nipa formations ‘of Ceylon 395 Marchantiaceae, Lang on 470 Marine algae, Setchell on 1 59 Marsdenia nae oe 4 Marsh, C. D. Marut Gotula: italy of seeds 1 Massa, ees sie olants 154 Mas nat Matthicla, tated fxs Oe xerophytism 454; rupestris and drought 455 Medicago hey — drought 455; rate transpiration 4 haa acai of isu americana 212 Megaspore mother-cells, Scher on 393 aE ao 144; Metcalfii lida 145; paniculata 144; pinetorum 144; xylopodia 145; rubri- 145 Metvniniea: Small on 75 Meliaceae, DeCandolle on 76 weet G letters to Nigeli, Correns on Fa E.°D., on Blanco’s Flora de Filipinas 150 Mesembryanthemum acinaciforme and drought 455 Mexico, ‘sad on ae aes from 196 Mez, @ sonal 6 Miconia hylla4 Micropdleline, Murrill on ey Microsporangium us eae pe 210 mof Ulm — pores of Araucaria Bidwillii, Lo n 391 Millardet: P., death o Mi om ay on Californian Polemoni- aceae 154 BS iby ps B five, oH BR a i ie - 1905] Men ee er : | ay - Mimophy ; © 74 Natal, Shores on fossil plants 2 tum, Greenm n 388 petalold 8 235 tigrinus, water in humus soils oa 7 tL, on Mirabilis hybrids, Correns on sae and amitosis, Wasielewski on 317; in Galactinia, Maire on 465 iyake, K., on pollen papel 384 M sch, H., pers olisc eeentans, Blankinship and Henshall on plants of 396 De ccnitic Leavitt on 397 Moore, A. C. 81 Moore, G. T., lage: 240 Moore, S. Le M., new Australian species 152 Morphology, Goebel on 238; Worsdell on principles of, 392 Mosses, Britton on 152; Cardot on 152; Sablon on I55 Mottier, M. 171 Murray, G., personal 320 Pas” W. A., on American Polyporaceae 4 Mutation theory, and anatomy, Dwight 7; relation to cytology, Conklin ag 386; Wheeler on 387 Myosurus, Eastwood on 76 N Nigeli, C., Correns on letters from Men- del to es, a Nes personal 400; on Podoste- 33 n prairies and forests 479; rsity, improvements 399 Neckera, Fleischer on 4 Nelson 54 Neocheiropteis, Christ on 52 Neoschumannia, Schlechter on 468 Reoticl albocinet Nebraska, “cima Uni : - Saeppil Moore on 152 Bateigey a Nephthytis liberica, Campbell on embry- Ee O 390 Netherlands; Peppy on dunes 398 Newcombe, F. C., on geotropism 15 : zea planks: Cockayne on 238, Nomenclature 72; a of 2nd In eae Congres Norén, C. O., on fertilization in Juniperus oa INDEX TO VOLUME XL 489 eee ian: flora 745 Harshberger Nothost ondias, Engler on 1 52 Nucleolus, Sarlpege of a Nucleus, divi of, ie: on, 384, 3873 ndrews n a on 384; Overton on 384; Flog cok on 383; Sijpkens on 237 a of eagle -sac in Cucurbita- e, Longo on 317; influence of on variahilit = T ae on 77; relation to regenera Nyctalis a 405 O Ceara ener ee 161 Oedo ps rae ability of fected _ 58, pubens 58; viri fos BW. 4 pee rsonal 480; and Tansey n in Greenlan se : modium, Mackenzie ae 468 Ophioglossaceae, new genus 455 oO ndica and “drought 455 pollen grains 5° vi hocarpus, Eastwood on n 76 ood, W. “J A biological reconnois- > sance ‘of Alaska” 315 Osmosis, effect on production of root hairs Osmotic pressure of bog waters 424 ‘Otopappus, epalaceus Pringlei 200; ro- } . cep. 315, 465; on reduction a —_ y oiet on production of root hairs P - kt and 143 r, J. Pelack’, J., al 69 Pallavicinia Peli, sporogenesis Pamm nel, -L. H., ~ rust ie on ty roapunageant 490 BOTANICAL GAZETTE 7 [DECEMBER — in the Erysiphaceae, Salmon Par arnassiaceae, Rydberg on 74 Parosela, acutif olia 144; mutabilis 144} pr ms 144; triphylla 144; unci- fera sake Parthenium hysterophorus 198 Pastiinnopenssls in — tennaria, _ Leavitt and Spalding on 1 steno od textbook 2 plant 479 Peat, physical and chemical properties 3723 geographic distribution of de- posits 365; formation, processes in- volved 367 Peirce, G. J., oo occiden- tale 152; ‘and Randolph 32 Peach, pers Penicillium coger om cum, Latham’on 394 Penthoraceae, Rydberg on on 74 heceamipead Eastwoo do Permo-car boniferous — ge Kash- 233 Bray, W. L. 480; Briquet, J. 68; Brit- ton, Mrs G. 400; Britton, N. L 400; Brown, E. 400; Brown, S. 400; Bur , 460; Cannon, W. A 480; Clements, F. E. 400; Collins, F. 80; Coulter, J. M. 160; Coulter, S. 399 e, F. V. 399; Cowles, H Crépin, F. 240; Delpin F. 320; Dewey, L. H. 399; Drude, O u W. T. 400; Eaton, A. A 479; Engler, A. 69, 240; Erréra hault, C. 68, 70; fy Fritsch, K. 80; Carcke, re das: Glick, H. 240; Goebel, K - 69; Graves, H. S. 160; Greenman, J 160; Haber- landt, G. 240; Has, -- 80; Hatt, W. K. 399; Haussknecht, K. 240; Heald, F. D. 400; Helmer, 93 Hergt, B. om Hillman, F Sepa a ; Hochreutiner, Lloyd, F. ‘E. 479; Loprio : Lotsy, J. P. 69; Macbride, T. H. 309; “teen W. B. 160; Magnus, P ssee; Gi 320; + Mez, “€: 68: Milardet, B, 2403 =o anaes H. 69; gd e, ‘DT. 2403 , Gige0; ns V. 400; ica - W.*480; Palack§, x; 695 Penck, 695 Prose 69; Philippi, A. ~~ Pittier, H. 400 Porsild, Ae a seas Reiche, K. 240; Reivle, * sta Rendle, 68; Richtmann, W. O. 400; ice - 100 479; mann, K. 240; Schw vendener. sy. 24 Stockberger, W. W. 400; Sabai E. 160; Tanfiljeff, 69; Tan 320 mo a a G. 480; haste, % 4795 H. 399; Volkens, G. r; ae Went, F. A. Fr. C.. tt reid M. 240; Wettstein, R. von 70, 160, 240; Wiesner, J. 68, 240; Wille, N. np aba: W. F. 400; en ae E. 240 You ung, AA 2 We. Berla andieri 199 olor ende i ig Blankin zii 1993 verbesinoides 199 nship 0 Petromecon, Greene on re Petrosipho ti owe on 152 ettkoff, p 69 Peysenndonss epiphytica, Setchell on T5° hee Phacelia, Eastwood on 76; tanacetifolia 39 Phaeolopsis, Murrill on 468 Phaseolus, multiflorus, regeneration TOT; Photosynthesis, Brown and Escombe on thus, Small on 75 47: Phyllan Phyllosticta, Bubdak ae Kabat on 468 ysaria, Blankinship on 152 Physiology of leaves, Brown and Es- agriculture 320 Phytolacca, Small n 75; decandra, ) wis on — 79 iata Piperales, Johnson on 155 ptocepha pto tothrix. nde on 388 thecolobium bain us rium 3 r, H., personal 400 nL ‘Bout on 468 1905] ze Plantago major, vitality of seeds 141 Plant geography of Servia, Adamovit on 47 im, Harms on 468 _ Podocrea 4 _ Podophyllu duction ‘divisi = Poostemonaceae, Nash on 74 Pe Podostroma 412; ainteieien 416; cael a caps Overton on re- 385 leu- copus ~~ ie oniace e, Milliken on 152 = nium, ccc on 76; coeruleum Daas Pollen, ain 50) 34 of Araucaria Bid- willii, n 391; mother-cells, heeroyple dercniomeied T7I, Miyake n 384, big agd 28 on 383 Patines mus americana 218 ae Christ 468 e. OE scca, Murrill on 388, 468 _ Polysiphonia, behavior of zoospores 331 Pond, R. H., 78, 153, 1565 159, 236, 238, 317; 318, 304, 305; 390; 473; “ Aquatic plants and the subst tratum” 231 Porcelia, cara goes a ———— I Porodaedale a, Murrill o ee eeyitum, Holwayanumn 202; macro- cephalum Porsild, P., penne 80; laboratory in enland, Olsson-Seffer on vitality Postglacial migration, Adam uti of Nebraska and rit Bessey 7 Bt cocharcnus, Engler on 152 es, subject for Walker, for 1906, 80 oserpinaca, Small on 75 Protease es in sho — vulgaris 127 Proteid see -Proteolys affinis 208, hylli ee inanipes 205; waite 20 INDEX TO VOLUME XL 491 phanes 207; jaliscana 202; montanoi- folia 207; nanomitra 207; Noccae 202; opaca 203; Otopappi 200; tae cula orophylli 202; pra a 208; rosea 206; semiinsculpta ge pti i similis 20 e obosa cola 202; Tithoniae 200; ; eR 207; Zexmeniae 203; ieee TE . Brickelliae Punnett, R. C., Bateso ig ee and gia tage Mur Pyrrocoma, Rydbe rg on os Quercus, Small on 75; rubra, vitality of seeds I41 R eS Eastwood on 76 m Se , F., on anatomy of cotyledons penwlata: Bubak and Kabédt on 468 Ran pointe Flora A., Peirce and 321 Ray rs of Chrysanthemum, Ludwig on I ae 2eforestration, hhc on 239 Sila 97; 2 gnellidium, iidans on 236 ie R ee. al 68 s Re J, ne patnence of light on germi- Sexton! A. B., personal 68 um novarum specierum regni ceoqtabiln - Respiration, Bro and Esc on foliar 473; Techeriajew on : oo ateso! Sau ders, Punne urst’s Phsiolgy of h caedity” and Sablon’s “ Sore de ° bel’s « Organography of pl ants” 461; Guéguen’s “Les champignon 492 ea de Ag et des animaux” 465; Hallier’s ‘‘Das hae Beta der Diketyledonen A058: oo0d’s “New creations in plant + life Pr ei: Holway’s “North American Uredingse ; Kienitz oe “Methodik 0 Leen Unterrichts” 230; Loeb in Asoiin physiolo ogy” os +E istent Vail, Shull, and Small’s and hybrids ‘of the Oeno- 43 “Nort d’s “A bio — ner sance of Alaska oe aos ae plants and eras i neater «Tilastie ttes Han dbuch der Laubholzkunde” Dyer’s “Index Kewensi Bogs, Wett- sient $s “Vegetationsbilder aus Siid- brasilien Rhabdadenia, ‘Small on 75; biflora 7; a Rhizobin, isolation and cultivation 296; oe Veena laand 1 74; Osgoo Rhode Islan g, Collins on 395 Ribes, an We One ae Richtm a, 8 nal 4 Riddle, L "C. on Sica hong hrostris 155 Ridley, H. eke on the dispersal of seeds by winds a in 137 479; on Ameri- ; of Santalum, Root hairs ao 12 Rosales, Small pets sarcomas n 76 . N., personal 80; on Crassulaceae 143 Ruellia, Small on 75; Steiner on intu- mescences 159, 391 Rumex crispus, vitality of seeds 141 lity Rusts, Bolley on uredospores 238; on Compositae from Mexico fe, bc, pe 4 n Parnas- siaceae and Poathieiceae 8 on Rocky ountain flora 76 Sablon, L. du, Bonnier and, “Cours de tanique” 312; on sporogonium of mosses 155 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [DECEMBER Saccharomyces oe enzymes of 154 Sadebeck, R.., onal 80 agittaria, Blankir stil on 152; ackenzie on 2 Sahagu nia, ob See ee uro ophylla 11 n I Bush lsoni 379; Tweedyi 377; Wo Idahoensis 378 Imon, E. S., on parasitism in the Erysi- phaceae 474 Salvia, Greenman on 388 Sand ‘steppes of Servia, Adamovit on io) 2 472 Sanguinaria, Greene on 236 antalum roots, Barber on 159 ap, Dixon on ascent of 389 Sargent, C. S., on Crataegus 468 egus Sarracenia purpurea, . on I et Saunders, Miss 5 and Hurst, “Physiology. ‘of heredity” 3%3 : Saxifraga, Blankinship on 152; monstrosl- ties, Leavitt on Sceptridium errors J. H., on ecology of a glacial lake Schander, cee on aS Pe effects of orde 468 Schifine Schi indler, perso onal 70 Schlechter, R., on new species of African chn - 135, 296 Schneider, C. K., on Berberis 76; “TIllu- striertes Ha c r+ Laubholz- 6 , D. H., personal 69; ©: , oF the Ca zboniferous 382; on sporangia n strobilus of spore coats ae Senecio, Bush and Mackenzie on 2 355 n sa 199; Roldana 199; sinu atus 19 Senn, on soe ition of chloroplasts 304 Setaria glauca, vitality of seeds 14 i ; Spalding, E 1905] b Setchel, WooAS on Laminariaceae 157; marine algae 159; on pera — Sse 158; on a eyssonneliopsis 468 Seward, A. C., n fossil plants 233; and cave rd on ‘‘ Permo-carboniferous plants and animals from Kashmir” 233 Shattuck, C. H. 20 Sheldon, J. L. 225; on anthracnose, of the watermelon ape - sweet pea and bitter rot of heist Shimek, B., rai Sai ‘eprosula Ridley on 391 Shreve, F., pool 400, 479; on Sar- 157 7 78, 1 35 33: 385, 39 a and, Small “aftgnt and he oe the Oeno- er 314 Sijpkens, B., on resting golem 237 imarubaceae, VanTieghem on 388 Simons, Etoile, ene pbs stag ay Cut dot on 152 , on jertiliaation | in Juniperus Slu ay Sil, J. K., on new species from Florida 75; on Rosales 74; MacDougal, Vail, rids Shull, and, “Mutants and hybrids of the Genotheras” 314 Smith Britt’ Ee and ‘e = on botanical survey of Scotland 3 oa of Connecticu, "Glinton on 315 titia M. Snow, Lae Sits bog plan fose 9; at Ypsilanti 264 on on development of carnation ee 225 | intions, effect on production of root Sorauer, P., Lindau, and Reh, “Hand- buch der Jeoee 320 Suantey “of exe, Bray on 233 Effie S., on ecology of giant * cactu 39 Spalding, L. J., Le ~~ bo on partheno- 159 n Antenna: Sphacrostigma, cot alyssoides 62, coe be 58, aie i ae pubens 58; INDEX TO VOLUME XL 493 decorticans 59, 60; filiforme 57; Hil- gardi 56; hirtellum: 59; Hitchcockii a, viridescens 60; oodae 61; tortuosum 60, clypeatum 60, tortum 60, ve 61; utahen Sphagnum 4 ested salts 425 Sphenophyllum, Scott on strobilus 239 Spinellus macrocarpus 1 Spines of Discaria Toumatou, Cockayne on 398; of Mamillaria, ‘Darbishire. on 394 Spiraea, oer ron 76 Spirogyra, mitosis at — stages 233 Shondanths, gare 152 Spongi trill o 483 Sporangia - phaateonitetla Oldhamia, Scott on 319 Sporangium, Worsdell on evolution 392 Sporogenesis in Sore nia soot oa 81 Sporogonium of mosses, Sablon on 155 mearepayts Worsdell on origin ie leafy Starch, ape 309; pena: ge Stapf, O., : n flora of ee Staub, M eath of 2 Stauropteris ‘Oldhamia, Scott on mor- phology 319 Steinbrinck, C., on absorption hairs of Tillandsia 153; on water movement 389 Steiner, R., on intumescences 159, 39! Stellaria media, vitality of seeds 14 Stemmodontia, Britton on 4 Stemnocoleus, H oO Stenophyllus, "Small 0 n 75 Sterigmatocystis ras Latham on 394 Stevia, monardaefolia 1 7 gan nsis 197; thombifolia 206; salicifolia 197; tra- chelioides 197; ida Stillingia, Small on 75 ose toe W. W., personal 4 n diseases siet ited by Stone, G. E., 0 fungi and ‘Adlets is ees eee Strasburger, oe rsonal 45 “ee : my in Alchemilla 1 Ti, on Drimys ; on nuclear ion 383 Sphenophyllum, si on 239 at pret 5 al, of i River valley 264, 351, 418; ecological 480, Olive and Tansley on methods for 474, of Swarming, Swellengebel W. T., Cook and, on geen tio IN. gos Netherland’ mene Swingle, Synaphoricarpos, Fernald on 468 494 BOTANICAL GAZETTE d's Syme 4 filifolia 202; ieee 203; mi- i a 203; tenuifolia ammes, Tine, on influence of nutrition on van ility 77; on supernumerary i jum 78 f 3 ra en aston cal 480; Oliver an Tansley, A d, on metho ds of surveying vegetation 474 Taraxacum, Rydber: 76 Taxonomy ‘a8, 782, 235, 388, 468; and evolution, Bailey on Bis eae effect o seas oduction of roo on aerobic respiration, Tsc hac ndum cc gstraien x B,; ca aieemeuiee - Arau- 319 Thuja occidentalis, ed. of seeds 141 Tieghemopanax iguier on 3 Tillandsia, Steinbrinck on absorption airs 1 Tithonia, speciosa 200; tubaeformis 200 — 0, re ook and Horne on diseases in Tolmiea “Monsicaii, regeneration 98 on 158 , ing ase ; _of Medicago arborea, rate 452; relation _ to growth in wheat 178; model, Dixon on 3 Tridesmostemon, Spec maia n 468 Trigonella foenu graecum, rhizobia in 137 ee Bisa in 135; Tam supernumerary leaflets 78; vitality ‘of se I Trophis macrostachya 1 Tue, per. and agriculture 39 Tscherniajew, E., on effect of pemperiinte _ ON respiration n 30 5 f 3 . H., personal 399 Tschermak, E., personal 69; on sg as 8 [DECEMBER Turgor, Kiister on orientation of chro- s 04 Tutcher, W. J., on Dunnia 388 Typha latifolia, ‘pollen grains 51 U sate leaf _aphcicgs 224; americana, morpholo 209 Ulothrix zonata, swarm spores 326 bd ea Asiatic L. M., 8 Borrychium B35; right’ s Ceoleecticns in Cuba 239 tts Partheni 198 Uredospores of rusts, Bolley on 238 inital ya, * Stanton 88 romyces, rie Teaeets 199; senecionicola 19 Ustilagineae of Connecticut, Clinton on 315 Vahl, M., on flora ae the Madeiras 239 Vail, A. "M.., MacDougal, Shull, and Small, “Mutants ee hybrids of the Oe notheras” 314 VanTieghem, Ph., on pi cae 388 Va — eg of ferns, Chandler on 472 oo aoe spas, vitality of ae I41 and Kabat on 468 mani athe: Deppiana 198; uniflora 204 Vicia, Eastwood on Viguiera, t ia 201i, dentata 196, ora 2 207; excels a heli- anthokdes: 196, ay: tenuis 2 Li con , on two new penis of Arali- oS Vinca major, pollen 51 Vines, S. H., on es tt enzymes 154 Viola, House Volkens, G., eane nal 240 Von Schre nk, i on intumescences of cauliflower W Walker prizes, subjects for 1906 80 a on Erysiphaceae, Lawrence on Wasiclewski, W. von, on mitosis and amitosis 31 Water, effect = Apc nghess of bes hairs 20;° 7 hcg soils, Minssen on 4773 -movem ng? os leben to bog 424, to Weiontion 107 ey a ae ihe ia vo 160, 2 SYegstasontide aus stidbrasilien” r, W. M., on mutation theory 387 B,C. A., on tomatoes 15 : White, = A., on Hymeniales of Connecti- Wiesn sat J ne 68, 240; on leaffall _in evi 4 n 376 n development of bog 418 er 68 oodward, A. S., Sew wit and, on dat earboniferous plants from Kashm 233 Worsdell, W. C., on the nunc of INDEX TO VOLUME XL 495 Wright, C., explorations in Cuba, Under- wood on 239 , x Xanthium, Bush and Mackenzie on 235 Ximensia encelioides 2 203 neon collabens 415; comosa 415; com- im cta 4043 fatal iornis 4 415; pumila 415 Xylorrhiza, Rydberg on 76 hg EA aes et societies Big ung, T. B., personal 4 Zaleski, W., on — synthesis 76 Zaluzania asperrima 205 Zederbauer, E., aaaiie al 2 Zeitschrift fiir Pflanze washer helboh 320 Zexmenia 199; Jo! 35; aurea 203; ceanothifolia 2 legans 203; fasci- 203; € culata pile helianthoides 203; podo- cephala Zone in lant ene Harshberger on 39 —— fogaeees of 321 Zostera, pollen grains 5 Zygadenis, Blankinship on I 52 NERVOUS DISORDERS The nerves peed a constant supply of phosphates to keep them steady and strong, A deficiency of ee Phosphates tauses a lowering of ner cated by exhaustion, atlas head: ache or insomnia Horstora’s Acid Phosphate (Non- Alcoholic.) furnishes the ag pce in &@ pure and abundant form. It supplies the nerve cells with health- -giving sliislonee. repairs aste, restores the strength ar 1d induces restful tien without the use of nica a *s drugs, An Ideal Tonic in Nervou Diseases, Ifyour dri Tuggist can’t supply you we will send a tal a ale ny prepaid, on receipt of 25 cents. umford Chemical Works, Providence, oe Sozodont Tooth Powder a delicious dentifrice. Free from acid and grit. Just the thing for those who have an inclination for the niceties of every-day life. FOR SALE EVERYWHERE be th e §$ now F lies ngs ped air roughens the skin, use —it kee ne and au A positive relief for chapped. Pie oe Sure th. Sin troubles. Mennen’s face on every i, be lat you getthe genuine, * Sample free, 7 vy Menn en's Violet Talcum. ENN HARD MENNEN CO... Newark, N.J. =. ispresece to the Mu sic Room | A ‘THE ac uEh NEW Small Grand mous “* Fischer Tone ng with grea ¢-design, while occupying 1 Combines the fa rampage and ge sab Catalogue and Terms upon Rasont. - ac. ~ leygnatennbeget Dept. Q fth Ave., near 22d ete pa 164, Figen 125th St., Baton Yo 3 What Is Daus Tip- lop? TO PROVE 2:22 Ioo copies from Pen-written and 50 copies from Typewritten original we are willing to send a complete DUPLICATOR without deposit on ten days’ trial. No mechanism to get out of order, no — no press, no printer's ink, The product of 23 years’ experien n DUPLICATORS. Prict ro complete apparatus, cap size (prints By in 4 “by 1 13 in.). $7.50, subjec ‘o the trade discount of 33% per cent. FELIX P. a os DAUS DUPLICATOR CO.; Daus Bldg., 111 John Street, New York Sanbingand? Prices fromU. S. Sole gents PERRY & CO. 4 9 Broadway, New York. The Prospects of the Small College By Witi1am R. Har President of the University of fonicues I2mo, paper; postpaid, 25 cents bc University of Chicago athex HICAGO and 156 Fifth Avenue NEW “4 Complete Catalogue of Publications Sent on Request Mothers! Mothers!! Mothers!!! Mrs. Winslow S Soothing ng Syrup and ask for ‘‘Mrs. “si take no other sink "Twenty-five cts. a bottle. ———$—$—_—_———— IF YOU ARE INCLINED TO ACT AS AGENT a ANY OF OUR PERIODICALS WE SHALL BE G TO OFFER YOU VERY ADVANTAGEOUS TERMS THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS, Chicago, ins q isceestona Athletic Coaches, Physical cl and Teachers t Pra high-g: tt Institute, high schools, etc., and can assist you. EGISTER NOW, The Physical Training Teachers’ Bureau, th other branches, Purd ae } wo Have filled vacancies in University of Wisconsin, FREE. 2 South Second S Zs ROCKFORD, ILL. a 'CRAND PRIZE ; (the highest honor) AWARDED TO t : ESTERBROOKS Steel Pens AT THE St. Louis Exposition “gu eg CHAIN of testimonials from dentists in 1 estoy eae hon u xe excel- aste. It leans io : Dentacura Tooth ileca y eo teeth, Zuere ys bactet ak pes revents ast. cc. s applied . hea — befpewinny ae may ke Sine the of powder. That mam, Ow (DY ex] nce its value we wil i! ‘Our “hie mscraple tube of Dentacura es Write a t, ‘Taking Care of the Teeth. Meg I t once er expires u st, ac tacura may be had at mo toilet jt ve it S. Price 25c you dealer does not We will send it on receipt of price 0 ga COMPANY, 166 —_ ST., propigh N. és se Ce a a WHEN YOU ASK FOR HE IMPROVE REFUSE ALL __ | SUBSTITUTES AND INSIST ON HAVING THE GENUINE “Mm The Name is stamped on every op— o CUSHION BUTTON yeep LIES FLAT TO THE LEG— SLIPS, TEARS NOR sacaavans apie pair, Silk 50c., Cotton 25c. GEO. F FROST T CO., hres Boston, Mass. “The anti-friction sliding back, which i ro rt of the suspender w Will not wear pe and allows free side moti Easiest adjustable buckle made ill not te e garment Willnot corrode. out or of any ithe Ask for your correct $ swe ake the su ioeader! in ; font If your dealer does not carry the ‘Gordon’ in his stock, ea us 50c for a trial pa Take no substitute.”” FO. co., N.Y. SLUDENTS' NOTE BOOKS Stiff Board Covers, Marble Paper Sides, Sectional Sewed, Sixty Leaves, Ruled or Unruled SAFE) ST SNe gge Cones 1085—5 x 8 , Open End, each, 20c. 1087—54x 73, Open Side, each, 20c. 1090—7 x 88, Open Side, each, 25c. 1092— 7Zx104, Open Side, each, 30c. OTHE BEST CHRISTMAS GIFT Useful, Reliable, papady sgh Lasting,Up to Date and Authoritative. No other gift will o oft s ed wit 000 Write for Special Discount in Quantities S.D.CHILDS & CO. [WHOLESALE anp RETAIL STATIONERS 200 CLARK STREET CHICAGO Webster’ 8 2 Collegiate Dictionary, Largest EaFeo eon a Citions, 1116 p: Write for “The Story a7 a Book”—Free. G. MERRIAM CO., Springfield, Mass. The University of Chicago Press Educational and Scientific works printed in English, = French, and all other modern languag Hd this Fait [ | T Y Address 58th St. and Ellis Ave., Chicago The Resort of HEALTH, SPENCERIAN PLEASURE and FASHION STEEL PENS. | THREE Hours ° E Woe NEW Youn nk "STANDARD AMERICAN BRAND VER FIFTY YEARS N Ew JE RSEY Have eee subjected to the test of years and are recognized for CENTRAL all purposes Zhe Best. Luxurious Equipment — Fast Service SPENCERIAN PEN CO. 349 Broadway, New York. Stations C, M. BURT Foot Liberty Street, N.R. | General Passenger Agent est 23d St. New York q you are having any trouble with the finish on your floors, or are not entirely pleased vith their appearance, it is certain you have not sed LIQUID GRANITE, the finest floor finish wer introduced. It makes a finish so tough that, although the so0d will dent under a blow, the finish will not wack or turn white. This is the highest achieve- ment yet attained in a Floor Finish, and is not likely to be improved upon Finished samples of wake and instructive vamphlet on the care of natural wood floors sent tee for the asking. BERRY BROTHERS, Limited, Varnish Manufacturers, YORK PHILADELPHIA CHICAGO ST. LOUIS STON BALTIMORE CINCINNATI SAN FRANCISCO n Office, D DETROIT. _ “dona erepeneennah ta ONTARIO CO —=ersSS — — Through Pullman Service to Virginia Big Four C. & O. Route Leaves Chicago 1:00 p. ™. daily. “ONLY ONE NIGHT out... All Meals in Dining Cars All Big Four Trains stop at Illinois Central 63d St. — on, —— ; within a few minutes’ walk o University of Lema ell o and Peoria con- Only Railroad from irae. 3 at Cincinnati with necting in same depot trains of t (. &0., 0. & G, L&N. and B. & 0. S. W. Railways sr 4620 Chicago City Ticket 238 Clark Street I. P. SPINING, General ia Sik Remington Typewriter 4 Every model of the pnTeE ae writer has been a success. Ther never was a mantaeine failure. {The New Models represent the sum and the orf of ad? Remington success—plus 30 years of experience in typewriter ating. We will ~ glad to have you call at any of our offices and see the new models or _ for ih istrated Lesage ne t Remington Typewriter Company 325-327 BROADWA BRANCHES EVERYWHERE Pencil to suit any se has been the aim of the makers of N’S American Graphite PENCILS a Dixon Pencil to por Not a poor a Dip JOSEPH DIXON CRUCIBLE CO., Jersey City, N. a. s tastiness to food, mga ae the appetite, and promotes digestion. But be it’s McIlhenny’s, the peg caaagiy in use half a cen von A stimulating seaso for Soups, esi ee Gravies, The 20th Century Piano Any piece of music sounds better ona STROHBER PIANO Price and Terms are better too Direct ‘from the Manufacturers STROHBER PIANO CoO.,Chicago McILHENNY’S TABASCO. New theria, Louisiana. Che Keritg (only five feet long and four feet Wee Waid wide) makes a Grand Piano possible where formerly an Upright only could be considered. Its attrac- tive appearance and great portability make their own appeal, and the price, too, for it is less than that of the largest Upright. A paper chart, showing the exact space it occupies, will be sent gratis upon application. Chickering Pianos are made only by Chickering & Boston, and are sold in Chicago only by CLAYTON FF, SUMMY, CO. 20 Wabash Avenue CHICKERING, KURTZMANN, ATHUSHEK aa> GABLER PIANOS We Sell All Pianos at Definite Pric Publishers and Importers of Music Dealers in Music of the Better Class ** Follow the Flag’’ Pullman Sleepers Free Chair Cars Chicago to PITTSBURG VIA THE WABASH G. S. CRANE, 6, P.& T.A. ST. LOUIS F. A. PALMER, A.6.P.A. When you were engaged THE YOUNG LADY RECEIVED A BOX OF ALMOST DAILY - HOW OFTEN DOES YOUR WIFE NOW RECEIVE A BOX OF THESE | DELICIOUS CONFECTIONS? REPENT - AND MAIL YOUR ORDERS, AT SHORT iNTERVALS, TO 63 BROADWAY 508 FIFTH AVENUE e} NEWYORK SEVENTEEN OTHER STORES & SALESAGENTS EVERYWHERE. CANDIES SENT ANYWHERE BY MAIL & EXPRESS. ONLY DIRECT ALL-WATER ROUTE BETWE NEW YORK, BOSTON and CHARLESTON, S. C. JACKSONVILLE, FLA. ie a agp — d, Enterp i npaiets Lan is the favorite ere between wm St. Johns River S: arvice between De Land, poosaaget Int Pasa ‘Clyde Line York, BosTon, ~~ Cx cca ~ ma ee > Boath and sone Paap ome and Ea some PoINnTS, ’ a’ Jac CKS ORV > aiceet "panieetion for all cotate & Modern Steamships and Superior Service Colorado A Winter Resort that Fortifies and Up-builds A winter resort not at all like the old ones you have previously visited with in- creased temporary comfort but no permanent better- ment! No, not like those! But a winter resort which, by deluging you with bright sunshine and dry air, keeps you so constantly astir that at the end of two or three weeks you have increased in weight, increased in strength, increased in chest measure- ment—increased in the things that govern health and business capacity. The argument is elaborated to include proofs and details in a new folder which you may obtain without cost by writing P. S. Eustis, 143 “Q” Building, Chicago. CAGO & ALTON THE CHICAGO & ALTON runs the largest passenger engines in the world They keep the trains on time Between Chicago, t. Louis, Kansas City and Peori eoria GEo. J. CHARLTON, General apr Agent CHICAGO, ILL a —_—— ee CONTRIBUTIONS TO EDUCATION By JOHN DEWEY and ELLA FLAGG YOUNG N this series a union is effected between a theories and actual practice. The fun cuenee principles of modern s cholog are strictly ap- ea to th nati and there is a grati- Ing absence of vague oad bstract theorizing I, elation * en anions By ELLA FLAGG Iz2mo, paper; net, 50 oa se I. At ie ology a ak Social pact: te JOHN DEWEY. 12mo, paper; net, 25 w Das e Educational Sitpats n. By JOHN SWEY. ate pp., 12mo, paper; net, 5° cents; post 53 pene IV. Ethics in en - hool. By ELLA FLAGG UNG. “9 past paper; net, 25 cents; postpaid, 27 ¢ Vv. the pone and the Cureicubint By JOHN 40 pp., st : pape r; net, 25 * hare "poktpail 27 : .: BE ae of Moder ‘Educational sd toc ELLA FLAGG ‘0 2mo, eo net, 25 cents; : eed, 28 pure i The Series, in Paper, Six Numbers; net, $1.50; postpaid, $1.63 The University of Chicago Press HIc AGO and 156 Fifth Avenue NEW YO - Let us prove what we claim at our expense spain is init one way to prove any- thing a a typewriter, and that is an cae yn of the machine itself z# your own office. That is what we want every possible purchaser of a Fox Typewriter to do before he Soe we say the Fox Typewriter can 4 amount of worry about repa airs. When we show you ¢hat, you are interested. We have proved this to some of the un- try. Seventy-five per cent. of our sales are made under just such circumstances. If we can io it to you, you want our machine Remember we /rove ‘his at our ex- ense. All you have to do is say you are interested, no matter where you are. Write us today. Fox aapeerer Co. utive Office and Factory 560-570 rat St., GRAND RAPIDS, MICH. Branches and Agencies in Principal Cities. Your oat big. rela errs. if the “GEM” is ept stubborn beard close in from Durable, Clean, Safe, ea thig rg Finest Eng lish Cutlery Steel Blades. T. Send for interesting Wie “Aba for bhevens Laon complete = = on the ““Gem’’—at dealers or direct on sauseil price ome CUTLERY GO., Dept. 24, 34 Reade St., New York A Short Cut Lee Comfort ocu coh “Little Stropping: ly “ae lamp needs e replaced nth burned out. Cords can be any ™™ length desired. Look for the name HYLO and refuse im- tations. Twelve styles of HYLO lamps. Send forCatalog’ sie: or ** How to Read" r Met THE PHELPS COMPANY 106 STATE STREET DETROIT, U.S.A. were 2 tale 3 by Virchow, Mantegazza, Flower and other savants, the most perfect F: ACSIMILES OF RACE Che Land of Manatee described and illustrated, its wonderful resources shown, and its strange and absorbingly interesting history recounted, in the Seaboard Magazine. SENT FREE ON REQUEST J. W. WHITE, General Industrial Agent PORTSMOUTH, VIRGINIA Seaboard Air Line Railway ¥ The Best Xmas Gift hyd " One that will give the reci ient ) ithe most genuine and lasting pleasure is a Paul E. Wirt Fountain |The original fountain pen. Oldest and best b tes raare 1 Always Writes Over 100 styles, Suitable for any purse and hand. Sold by best dealers ] Send for catalogue showing styles and ‘prices Box G11, Bloomsburg, Pa. ‘ Agents desired todeal directly (T= with theFactory fe easy ul aul TOT EMEA BAUSCH @ gi PROJECTION APPARATUS Tre most complete lecture room projector ever pro- ceed ———a ~ a change of light or recenter- CATALOG C ON REQUEST Bausch @ Lomb Optical Co. Manufacturers Microscopes, Photographic Lenses and Shutters, Eyeglass Lenses, Field Glasses, etc. Rochester, N.Y. New York Chicago Boston San Francisco Frankfurt A/m Germany 346 broadway, New York US.A. a ane Hammond Typewriter 2 R t WreHE HAMMOND TYPEWRITER has been, since lo fj its introduction in 1884, the Favorite Writing Ma- ===! chine of the Educated, the Literary, and the Pro- fessional Man. We can point to College Professors by hundreds, and to College Alumni by thousands, who are users of the Hammond. Their preference for it is not accidental, but is due to the inherent merits of the machine itself. The printing of the Hammond is automatic—independent of the operator's touch — therefore, the novice can do as good as the expert; the type of the Hammond is interchangeable, therefore the Linguist can write on one Hammond any desired language; mathematical and algebraic signs are provided; therefore, the Mathematician and the Scientist can work out equa- tions and problems: and finally, the work is in sight, which renders easy the. orderly arrangement of tabulated matter. Lhe flammond Typewriter Company Factory and General Offices, 69th to 7oth Streets & East River, Mew York City, N. Y. MEDICAL OPINIONS OF _ BUFFALO LITHIA WATER “All the Argument Necessary.” ere! cdpvenepiet ayers Journal of Surgery, August, 1905, under the heading adie leant barge ap tonry deny mor my orn iniste oh sada BUEFALO LITHIA WATER it to the Cystitic patient, as it is not Sua abet solvent, but has the additional virtue of containing substantial quantities of age aline Lithates. Patients should be encouraged to take two quarts per day, if ey can, and the relief they will obtain will be all the argument necessary after the Oo first day or so. “The Results Satisfy Me of Its Extraordinary Value.” Dr. Jos. Holt, of New Orleans, Ex-President of the State Board of Health of in affections of the kidneys and Louisiana, says: LITHIA ATER : oe prescribed BUFFALO : Wa . urinary Passages; particularly in ios y Subjects, in Albuminuria, and in irritable condition of the Bladder and of¢ ra in females. ‘The results satisfy me of its extraordinary value in a large class ases usually most difficult to treat.’’ “I Have Witnessed Decided Beneficial Results from iim. B. Towles, M. oe formerly Professor of Anatomy and Materia Medica of e University of Vir- are marked in causing a disap- sia: ‘‘ The effects of BUFFALO LITHIA WATER pearance of Albumin from the Wtine, and in certain stages of Bright’s Disease I have witnessed decided beneficial fesults from its use.”’ “Results, to Say the Least, Very Favorable.” i Griswold Comstock, A. M., M. D., S# Zouis, Mo., says: et ams in gynecological practice, in women su ering Use of BUFFALO LITHIA WATER pat! acute Uraemic conditions, with results, 9 say the least, very favorable.” Additional medical testimony on request. 1 water trade. SPRINCS, VIRCINIA- Its Use.” For sale by the general drug and minera PROPRIETOR BUFFALO LITHIA 1780 Png: 8 tvs 1905 Walter Baker &G0;§ | | | Pneumonia Ch | t are preventable! BASSAS , yx “ ; RS Wy a . Reginvered =e life. with a U-8. Fas Of, ew and handsomely illustrated ‘Becine Book sent free. - Walter Baker & Co.Ltd. Established 1730 DORCHESTER, MASS. 45 Highest Awards Impu ic oil and just "i » a pias aie ag. of little v livin g room Baa an open Platt’s 0 seat containing water and Chlorides 0 yd Itis a perfect food, highly costs you . Platt’s a ea pe Ses nothing by 0 @Mlorides 5 . Q _ SPURTE IN 2c NONE IEE asted strength, pre- J ietiraes ¢ The Odoriess sickness. (§ Dassinfectant. It does not cover one odor ot but removes A colorless liquid which destroys foul In Eurcope and America i THE DAINTIEST SOAP MADE is HAND SAPOLIO for toilet and bath. Other soaps chemically dissolve the dirt—HAND SAPOLIO removes it, It contains no animal fats, but is made from the most healthful of the vegetable oils. It opens the pores, liberates their activities, but works no chemical change in those delicate juices that go to make up the charm and bloom of a perfect complexion. Test it yourself. THE FAME OF SAPOLIO has reached far and wide. Everywhere in millions of homes there is a regard for it which cannot be shaken. Sapolio has done much for your home, but now for yourself—have you ever tried HAND SAPOLIO, for toilet and bath? It is related to Sapolio only because it is made by the same company, but it is delicate, smooth, dainty, soothing, and healing to the most tender skin. It pleases every one. ITS USE IS A FINE HABIT—ITS COST BUT A TRIFLE bss new piano in your Write for Catalogue D and expl. vo OS i have been established nae s0 YEARS. By our serge | 4 ANOS: ents every family Av ee ona ego We take old instrumen 3 deliver te iano. We moe i SE & sass Pram < Co. 160 Boylston St., Bosten, Mass.