MISSOURI BOTANICAL GARDEN BULLETIN Volume 59 1971 Miseour: Borantcag GARDEN LIBRARY MISSOURI BOTANICAL GARDEN BULLETIN 2 SRS L/X ; VOLUME Lx NUMBER 1 JANUARY FEBRUARY 1971 BOARD OF TRUSTEES C. Powell Whitehead, President Tom K. Smith, Jr., First Vice President Sam'l C. Davis, Second Vice President Howard F. Baer — Henry Hitchcock Clarence C, Barksdale Leonard J. Holland — Leicester B. Faust A. Timon Primm III Richard A. Goodson — Warren McKinney Shapleigh Robert R. Hermann _— Harry E. Wuertenbaecher, Jr. HONORARY TRUSTEES: George L. Cadigan Dudley French ss EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS Tem poehcadet Ty-ok.S Cuan: ioe =e ‘+. a Oh Kducation of me Louis eer Campbell, 24 P A at Chancellor, V Wastit cee . ae oy ye iter G. Seern: Pfesident ‘ . wn Ware i a arm Se . abe Mrs. Jerome F. Kircher — Mrs. John S. Lehmann Mrs. Virginia Brewer, Mgr. Tower Grove House HORTICULTURAL COUNCIL _ Edgar J. Gildehaus, Chairman — Mrs. “Neal S. Wood Mrs. J. Herman Belz Mrs. Paul H. Britt E. G. Cherbonnier Carl Giebel Robert E. Goetz Earl Hath Mrs. Hazel L. Knapp F. R. McMath | Dan R. O'Gorman Ralph Rabenau Mrs. Gilbert J. Samuelson Mrs. J. Glennon Schreiber Rudy Zuroweste The Missouri Botanical Garden is a Fund Member of the Arts and Education Council of Greater St. Louis. +. 1” From The Director HE MISSOURI BOTANICAL GARDEN is the oldest extant botanical garden in America today. It was founded in 1859 as the Kew Gardens (London, England) of the West. Tower Grove House, Henry Shaw’s original country home on the grounds dates from 1849. The museum building from 1859. The administration building has two parts: the north end was Henry Shaw's town house built in 1849 and moved to its present location in 1891; the south end was added in 1908. Many of our greenhouses were built during the period 1912-15. The Climatron, which replaced the old palm house, was completed in 1960. Shaw’s Garden will be here for a 1,000 years to come. Old buildings require constant repair and renovation. We have now nearly completed the job of putting every building in apple pie order. Old iron work has been repaired or replaced. Greenhouses, the Floral Display House, and desert house have new roofs and other parts. New steps adorn the south end of the museum. The main rose garden has a fine fountain and pool at its center and the Lehmann rose garden is set off with a handsome new gazebo. The grounds are being manicured and an elaborate automatic sprinkler system is being installed around the main entrance flower beds which are set off by the handsome Henry Moore sculptures which were placed there last spring. The rose gardens are among the finest in the U.S. All of this costs a great deal of money, but with your support St. Louis will continue to have the finest botanical garden in the west. David M. Gates MISSOURI BOTANICAL GARDEN VOLUME LXIX NUMBER 1 EDITOR Barbara Perry Lawton EDITORIAL ASSISTANT Marjorie Richardson CIRCULATION Clarence Cherry EDITORIAL COMMITTEE David M. Gates Mark W. Paddock Kenneth O. Peck EDITORIAL & PUBLICATION OFFICE Missouri Botanical Garden 2315 Tower Grove Avenue St. Louis, Missouri 63110 Published bi-monthly by the Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Subscription price: $3.50 a year. Entered as second-class matter at the Post Office at St. Louis, Missouri BULLETIN CONTENTS From the Director............ Gardening in St. Louis os 8 ee ee ow William Turner’s A New Herball and The Nettle Tree (cover) Carla Lange Books and Bookbinding Kendra Deerene Lovette Ce ae ae eet ee ee The Galapagos Islands Erna R. Eisendrath ee fan) ee a Se 2 Sa Mysteries and Treasures in Bernhardi’s Herbarium William G. D'Arcy Asphalt and Artificial Turf... .. S. Elwynn Taylor and Gerald Pingel Thoughts on Foundation Planting Paul A. Kohl Cover design by Peter Geist Illustration is from a woodcut of the nettle tree (Celtis australis) in William Turner’s A New Herball published in London, 1551. 2 JANUARY-FEBRUARY 1971 Gardening in St. Louis January and February ESOLVED: to keep the Christmas poinsettias growing for next Christmas. When plants have lost their bracts, move them to a cool part of basement and water once a month. In May or June move to a sunny spot outside, sink pots in soil, and cut back to six inches. Feed occasionally with liquid plant food and prune as needed for stocky, compact growth. In October, start giving them the short day treatment: indoors before frost, total darkness from 5 p.m. until morning, warm sunny window in daytime. Continue treatment until color begins to show. Other resolutions worth making: keep a garden notebook of plantings, successes and failures, and maps of your garden to help in selecting seeds and plants for spring from the seed catalogs. Indoor projects for winter include air-layering lanky house plants; cleaning and repairing tools and lawn mowers; repotting, watering, and feeding of house plants. Another project, especially appealing to children, is starting cacti from seed. Barely cover the seed with soil. Germination may take a while but the tiny plants are worth the waiting and watching. Outdoor activities include watering of evergreens and shrubs when ground is dry and unfrozen, tamping down soil around frost- heaved plants, and brushing snow off brittle evergreens. What to use to melt the ice on driveways and walks? Sodium chloride (common salt) can burn plant roots when swept off onto lawns, and ammonium sulphate, although acting as a fertilizer, can hurt concrete. So consider the use of sand or cinders for ice removal instead of either of these. This is a great time of year to develop an observing eye. Notice the shapes of trees and limbs and manner of growth, their great variety of shades and colors, and watch for steady growth of tree buds. A few branches of alder, birch, redbud, quince, apple, silver maple, or forsythia brought inside to force into bloom will bring springtime a little sooner. WILLIAM TURNER’S A NEW HERBAL Carla Lange ‘1 COVER ILLUSTRATIONS for this year’s Bulletins will be taken from William Turner’s book “A new Herball, wherein are conteyned the names of Herbes in Greke, Latin, Englysh, Duch Frenche, and in the Potecaries and Herbaries Latin, with the proper- ties degrees and natural places of the same, gathered and made by Wylliam Turner, Physician unto the Duke of Somersettes Grace,” printed in London in 1551. This work is in the rare book collection of the Missouri Botanical Garden Library. William Turner, often referred to as the father of English botany, was born probably around the year 1515 at Morpeth in Northum- berland, England. He was educated at Pembroke College, Cambridge, under the patronage of Sir Thomas Wentworth, where he was chosen a Fellow of Pembroke Hall. There he acquired a great reputation for his learning and early discovered an inclination for the study of plants and the materia medica of more ancient times. Still at Cambridge, he complained: “Being yet a student of Pembroke Hall where I could learn never one Greke, neither Latin, nor English name, even amongst the Physicians, of any herbe or tree: such was the ignorance at that time; and as yet there was no English herbal, but one all full of unlearned cacographies and falsely naming of herbes.” At Cambridge he studied medicine, and became involved with the Reformation as had so many of his contemporaries engaged in 4 ball, toberin are contepned the names of Herbesin Greke,La- tin,énglph, Puch Frenche,and inthe otecaries and Herbart- es Latin, both the properties Degrees and naturall places of the fame, gathered and made bp mpiliam Turner, Pbilicton bnto the Dube of So-z merfettes Grace, IMPRINTED AT LONDON BY STEVEN MIERDMAN. ANNO i55t. Cum Priuilegio ad imprimendum folum. And they are to be folde in Paules Churchparde, Po pa 5 \Y Sv. ft rs a = © 6.0 Oa € . =ale— 0.0: ee = Title page of A New Herball by William Turner. the study of the natural sciences. He became an itinerant preacher making revolutionary speeches in favor of the Reformation. This resulted in his imprisonment, after which he became a voluntary exile from his native country during the remainder of the reign of Henry VIII. This exile certainly benefited his medical and botanical studies. He lived for a while in Cologne where his studies and observa- tions became the basis of a flora of the vicinity of Cologne. He went to Basel where he became a friend of the great physician and botanist, Conrad Gesner and kept up a correspondence with him. Gesner had a high opinion of Turner as a physician and man of general learning. Later, he became a student of Ghini’s at Bologna and received his degree as a medical doctor from the University at Ferrara. This degree was confirmed in Oxford when he returned to England after the accession to the throne of Edward VI, son of Henry VIII and his fourth wife, Jane Seymour. He became physician t» his new protector, the Duke of Somerset, and for his theological merits was rewarded by being appointed Cannon of Windsor and Dean of Wells. Being a physician and a botanist as well as theologian was a not uncommon combination at that time. When, after the death of Edward VI, Mary I (Bloody Mary), daughter of Henry VIII and his first wife Catarina de Aragon, ac- ceded to the throne of England in 1553, Turner left again for Cologne and stayed in various European countries for the duration of her reign. He returned to England after Elisabeth, daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, became queen in 1558 and restored all his offices and benefits. The rest of his life Turner devoted to botanical, zoo- logical and ornithological studies as well as to his clerical duties. He created a botanical garden at Wells, formed his own herbarium and also built a second garden at Kew. Twice his books were banned and ordered destroyed while he was in exile. It is, therefore, not surprising that his works are now exceedingly rare. Turner's main botanical work A new Herball is the only original botanical work written by an Englishman in the sixteenth century. It was published in three parts, the first in 1551, which was dedicated to the Duke of Somerset, uncle of Edward VI. The second part of his Herball is dedicated to his other patron, Lord Thomas Wentworth, and the complete work, including the last part, to Queen Elisabeth. 6 He said that he wrote the Herball in English in order to aid the apothecaries who, as he maintained, did not know sufficient Greek or Latin and could use more knowledge of the plants they needed for their concoctions. The Herball is arranged alphabetically, and is more original and practical than the more popular publication of Gerarde. The object of an herbal was to determine the plants of the ancients and record their reputed virtues. Turner accomplished this with more caution and discretion than most of his contemporaries and with far less dogmatic confidence and superstition. He was one of the few herbalists who cautioned against any excessive use of herbs. Nevertheless, Turner is the first of the old herbalists who credits the old and widespread belief that the larch was fire-proof. In the third part, dedicated also to the Company of Surgeons, Turner concerns himself especially with the treatment of medical plants not known to the ancients. For any imperfections, he apol- ogized: “For surely beying to much vexed with sickness, and oc- copyed with preaching and the study of divinitye and exercise of discipline, I have had but small leasure to write Herballes.” Approximately one third of the illustrations used in Turner’s Herball were borrowed from the prominent physician and botanist Leonhard Fuchs, or possibly even printed from the actual wood- blocks used in Fuch’s octavo edition of his herbal De historia stir- pium of 1545. However, many of the wood cuts were made specifically for Turner’s work. William Turner was married to Jane Ander, daughter of a Cambridge alderman. Turner died on July 7, 1568, and was buried in St. Olave’s Church, Crutched Friars, London, where the grave- stone to his memory can still be seen. He left one son, Peter Turner, who also became a physician though he did not share his father’s interest in the natural sciences. However, he must have had some knowledge of plants, since the copy of his father’s Herball in the British Museum (Natural History) in London contains a long list of errata compiled by Peter Turner for which he apologized in an address to the Reader. The genus Turnera was dedicated by Charles Plumier in Turner's memory, whom he referred to, in spite of his heresy, as “a man of solid learning and justice’. The famous Swiss botanist Augustin Pyramus de Candolle used Plumier’s genus Turneria as the type genus for the family Turneraceae. 4 The Nettle Tree v~ \ The cover illustration of this Bulletin is “The Nettel tree or lote tree (Lotus arbor, sive Celtis)” (sic) taken from Turner’s Herball. Turner says that he himself never saw this plant in England or Germany, but that he saw it in Italy. It belongs to the family of the Ulmaceae. The nettle tree (Celtis australis) is a native of southern Europe. The flowers open at the beginning of May and the berries reach maturity the following January and stay on the tree until the sap rises in the spring. The wood of the nettle tree is of a dark color, remarkably hard and heavy, tough and flexible and was, therefore, used for making shafts of carriages and hoops of barrels and tubs: in ancient times it was used for making flutes and other musical instruments and in our time is often used by sculptors since it is not easily cracked. The American nettle tree (Celtis occidentalis), a native of Pennsylvania, was introduced into England in 1656 by the famous gardener John Tradescant. It is distributed in the United States from Massachusetts to northwestern Nebraska, North Dakota, southern Nevada, New Mexico and southwards to Florida, Missouri, eastern Kansas, Arkansas and eastern Texas. It grows usually in rich moist soil, and often, especially in the east, on dry, gravelly or rocky hill- sides. Charles S. Sargent, in his beautifully illustrated work Silva of North America originally published between the years 1890 and 1902, states of the nettle tree that “Few American trees are better suited to adorn parks or highways; and its value as an ornamental tree is increased by its rapid growth under varied conditions of cli- mate and soil, its resistance to drought, and its freedom from serious diseases and the injuries caused by insects.” In Missouri, the nettle tree, usually referred to as the hackberry or sugarberry, is found in low woods along streams and upland slopes throughout the state. Celtis occidentalis var. canina is the most common variety in the state. A powder obtained from the dried mashed-up stones of the fruit was used as a seasoning by Indians of the Dakotas. The seeds are so persistent that they are often found in archeological digs. 0 BOOKS AND BOOKBINDING Kendra Deerene Lovette After the basic necessities of life, nothing is more prescious than books. Pierre Simon Fournier (Manuel Typographique, Paris, 1764.) INCE THE BEGINNING of time, man has sought to record his thoughts and deeds for future generations. These records have taken many forms, from cave paintings to clay tablets to the American Indian’s bison skins and, after years of evolution, to books made of paper bound together. Man has used books in many ways: to educate, to put forth new ideas, to repudiate old opinions, and to serve as a source of enjoy- ment. The Missouri Botanical Garden reference library is primarily concerned with botany, but its objectives are the same as any other library: to educate, inform, and entertain. Our library contains approximately 65,000 bound books and 100,000 unbound books and separates. These books range in value on the resale market from practically nothing to priceless sums. 9 All are exceedingly valuable considering the amount of time, space, and money that the Garden has invested in them. In use and avail- ability, each book is considered irreplaceable and is given the best possible care. Our library has only recently realized the necessity of properly maintaining its collections. Our books had been neglected due to a lack of proper knowledge of what to do and when to do it, as well as a lack of both financial and human resources. Only in the past ten years has there been a concentrated effort to repair the majority of our books. A hand bindery is necessary to maintain a library such as ours. Many books require special handling; books whose paper will not withstand rough handling, and books that must be signature sewn, rather than side sewn, must be done by hand. The capacity of the Garden's bindery has steadily increased until it is now possible for the staff to do almost any kind of binding and restoration, except for de-acidifying and laminating. Machine binding, because of its speed and economy, is still used to process the latest periodicals into volume form. One half to two thirds of the collection still needs attention, and the Garden is limited only by the lack of some of the special equipment and personnel to do the work. Our staff consists of two part time binders (William F. Panos and Arpad de Kallos), one part time conserver (Robert A. Mauss), and one full time restorer (Kendra D. Lovette). Every book that comes into the bindery is analyzed for the extent of damage and the type of repair it should receive. The kind of repair will depend upon the expected use of the book. A normal rebinding consists of disassembling the book, mend- ing where necessary, resewing the pages, gluing the spine, titling, and casing. Each book needs special attention and rebinding may take from three days to two or more weeks. A book may come apart easily and need no mending, or it may be torn and require mending on every page. If the pages are fragile, stronger paper is often interleaved for support. A book of single pages or plates may be made into signatures before being sewn. 10 ' LUT Claude Johnston Kendra D. Lovette “side sewing” a book on cords. This is not the most practical or durable method of sewing but is occasionally used when it is important to restore the original format of the book. Sewing may be done on tapes or cords (raised or sawn-in) and may be done with an individual signature or two or three at a time. Gluing the spine seldom varies but casing may range from simple pressboard covers to heavy davey board. This is the basic routine used on the majority of our books. In addition, each staff member does specialized work. Bill Panos prepares manilla and bristol board covers for those periodicals which are not bound. Arpad de Kallos does hand lettering and plastic bind- 11 ing of single sheets into book form. Conservation and treatment of leather bindings is handled by Bob Mauss. Kendra Lovette does the machine lettering and restoration, as well as supervising the conservation program to preserve our rarest and most valuable books. Proper training is an extremely important, and often over- looked aspect of bookbinding. Improper handling and repairs can ruin books as much as or more than lack of care. Many stores today will not accept books previously “repaired” by haphazard taping and gluing “to hold it together until it can be restored.” Know- ing what not to do is as important as knowing what to do! Arpad de Kallos learned bookbinding in his native Hungary and practiced this trade at the Archdiocesan Teachers College of Kalocsa, Hungary and in several of the libraries of Austria and Germany before coming to this country. He, together with the previous librarian, Dr. George B. Van Schaack, instructed Bill Panos in the techniques of rebinding and repair. Bob Mauss studied conservation on his own as well as receiving instruction and super- vision from Miss Lovette. Kendra studied hand binding independently for six years be- fore coming to the Garden, and then received guidance from Dr. Van Schaack. The Garden sent her to New York City in 1968 for nine weeks of concentrated and personal instruction with Mrs. Laura S. Young, President of the Guild of Book Workers. Mrs. Young is a well known binder and restorer, and has taught for thirty years. While there, Kendra restored six books from the Garden library; attended lectures and exhibits on binding; and studied the allied fields of library science, papermaking, typography, calligraphy, and rare books. Much of the knowledge gained from the course has already been applied to her current work and is of great benefit to the Garden library. The new library-herbarium-education building, scheduled for completion in 1972, will have the humidity and temperature control so very necessary to the proper care of books. This new housing for 12 : Ge yn Claude Johnston William (Bill) F. Panos glues a new mull to the spine of a book to reinforce the hinges. Probably the most common problem in any library is weak or broken hinges because of the enormous stress placed upon this part of the book. the Garden’s library plus the program of binding and restoration will fulfill the two vital needs for the preservation of this priceless collection. “After the basic necessities of life, nothing is more precious than books” and the most precious books of all are both useful and usable. 0 Id THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS Birds, Beasts, and Botany Erna R. Eisendrath | peas TRAVEL INNOVATIONS plus publication of Alan Moorehead’s Darwin and the Beagle have recently removed the name of the Galapagos Islands from the category of mispro- nounced gazeteer entries; today almost everybody knows how to speak of them correctly, and many combine this information with the readily associated fact that the name means ‘tortoise’ in Spanish. Tortoises have been associated with this Pacific archipelago in the minds of sailors ever since its discovery by the Bishop of Panama in 1535, The meat of these huge reptiles is not only edible, but the reptiles themselves keep it fresh when they are imprisoned in the holds of ships for months on end. Treated with proper inhumanity, the tortoises can live for incredible lengths of time without either food or water. And so, for 300 years, tortoise meat was almost the only reason that men purposely visited the almost barren, almost waterless excrescences of volcanic rock that constitute the Galapagos Islands. When Charles Darwin landed on them in 1835 he wrote that single vessels have taken away as many as seven hundred, and that the ship’s company of a frigate some years since brought down in one day two hundred tortoises to the beach, Today, as a result of such maritime gourmandism, the Galapagos tortoise population is tragically reduced. Of the fifteen sub-species recognized as having been native to the various islands, two have surely become extinct, two very probably have also be- come extinct, six others are sorely threatened; and biologists are seriously concerned about four of the remainder. Fortunately, however, all fifteen sub-species were flourishing when Darwin visited the islands, and this is the reason that they subsequently assumed such an important role in the history of 14 biology that the redundant phrase “Galapagos tortoise” has become so familiar. When differences among the tortoise populations of several of the islands were pointed out to the young Britisher, his course was set for the intellectual voyage that charted a revolution- ary change in biological thinking. Alerted to the anomalous distri- bution of these animals, Darwin searched out similar discrepancies among other organisms and, in the years after his return to England, these Galapagos collections served as warp for the complicated tapestry of evolution theory. Thus, 300 years after their discovery, these distant and uninviting chunks of land assumed the important role that has distinguished them ever since, that of a living lab for the study of evolution. It was some years, however, before the significance of his Galapagos finds became entirely clear to Darwin himself. It was not until 1859 that he finally knotted the complex skeins of his think- ing into The Origin of Species by Natural Selection (or) The Preser- vation of Favorable Races in the Struggle for Life. He reasoned, in this great book, that Species occasionally arriving (on such islands as these) and having to compete with new associates, would be eminently Erna R. Eisendrath A typical landing, from rubber boat to lava shore. 15 liable to modification, and would produce groups of modified descendants. On the Galapagos archipelago the originally lifeless rocks have come to support a motley crew of plants and animals, all of which reached the islands by merest happenstance, and faced environ- mental factors entirely different from those to which their ancestors had become adapted. When the new arrivals survived and repro- duced themselves, their descendants, even as yours and mine, would have been a variable lot, with some better adapted than others to the conditions of the new habitat. “By means of natural selection” these individuals would have been “preserved” to produce races favored for further survival on the islands. When such favored groups were subjected to the isolating mechanisms that for one reason or another prevented their back-crossing with other groups, the favored races eventually evolved into brand new types of organ- isms, such as the fifteen sub-species of Galapagos tortoise, as well as the numerous groups (or species) of undistinguished sparrow- like birds that have become a favorite tool in the teaching of evolu- tion theory—the so-called “Darwin’s finches.” 4yyeipuasiyz Yl euly i oN or ve ‘ ies ‘Nae: one of the endemic composites (Scalesia) in bloom. aie The author was delighted to find 16 But the origin of species in the Galapagos archipelago is not limited to the familiar tortoises and finches; other groups of animals also demonstrate the processes of evolution and so do a number of plants. Darwin wrote in his Journal, “The botany of this group is fully as interesting as the zoology,” but very few people are aware of this. The area has tempted relatively few botanists and, as a result, little has been known about the island vegetation. It is with excitement, therefore, that people interested in the distribution of plants await publication, in early 1971, of the first Flora of the Galapagos Islands; and the book is awaited by friends and associates of the Missouri Botanical Garden with special interest and a bit of borrowed pride, since one of its co-authors is Dr. Duncan Porter of the Garden staff. The publishers, Stanford University Press, include not only the work of Dr. Ira Wiggins and Dr. Porter, but also contributions by a number of other specialists; a great number of line drawings, a number of range maps, and photo- graphs in color as well as black and white. The authors give defini- tive descriptions of all the vascular plants of the archipelago, and their work will be invaluable to serious students of the area; but this study’s interest will not be limited to professionals. Amateurs accustomed to consulting floras of large land areas will be fascinated by the obvious discrepancies in this one. The inquisitive layman will soon discover how relatively few monocots are represented among the 700 or so flowering plants of the islands: there are no native lilies or aroids and, almost incredibly where there are so many hundreds of miles of tropical shore-line, no palms! Likewise, anyone even slightly familiar with the typical flora of the American tropics will be astounded that the Galapagos Islands have no resident members of the rose family. On the other hand, the pages of the new Flora will introduce to the lay public some brand new plants, plants which exist nowhere on earth except on these islands, because it is on these islands that they have evolved. Among them are all the species of four genera of the composite family, all distant cousins of sunflowers. Among them, too, are a number of species of genera (especially of the borage, euphorbia, and acanthus families) quite unrelated to each other in any botanical way. In all, Dr. Porter and his associates esti- mate that 25-30% of the species of flowering plants that grow native- ly on the islands originated as species on the archipelago, and this 17 Erna R. Eisendrath An endemic cactus (Brachycereus) grows from the lava of Hood Island. fact, in combination with the strange disparities in floral distribution confirm Darwin's suggestion: the flora of the area is just as interest- ing, and in exactly the same ways, as is the fauna. Darwin in fact suspected this so strongly that, on his return to England he turned over his plant collections to the great botanist, Joseph Dalton Hooker. Hooker studied them, along with a very few other specimens that were available to him and, in the mid-1840’s, read several papers on the subject of the Galapagos flora before the august Linnean Society of London. Himself a great student of plant distribution, Hooker frankly stated that he could “give no clue to the representation of species amongst them; which representation -... 1S a mystery which it is my object to portray, but not to explain.” 18 How fortunate for Hooker that he could with dignity so limit his task! Although Darwin's Journal of the Beagle voyage was published at about the same time that Hooker was presenting his work, the great tapestry of evolution was still far from complete, the enigmas of Galapagos life still unexplained, as they would be for some years to come. It has only been since publication of the Origin of Species in 1859 that Darwin’s solutions to such mysteries as that pointed out by Hooker have been available. During the past century and more his complicated rationale has been accepted, reprinted innumerable times, translated into most languages of the earth, and diluted for popular consumption in any number of books—the latest of which is Darwin and the Beagle. Students and laymen of all sorts have been drawn to, in one literary form or another, the intricacies of fact and theory that Darwin was able to synthesize. Such reading can be exciting indeed, but it can in no way compare with the thrill of a visit to the very source of his inspiration. The Galapagos Islands were for many years thought by sailors to be enchanted; enchanted by a sort of witchery induced by compli- cated winds and currents that made landing on them very difficult. For naturalists in more recent times the enchantment has been of a very different sort—but strong, nonetheless. One is lured to land on the very lava fields over which Darwin must himself have had to slither; one observes birds and other animals, as well as plants which are direct descendants of the birds and animals and plants that caused him to jot in his Journal, ‘The natural history of these islands is eminently curious, and well deserves attention.” Much attention has been paid since Darwin's day to the lessons that can be learned from this still living laboratory of evolution, but it will only be after publication of the new Flora of the Galapagos that botanists will have a textbook for these lessons in their field. Both professionals and laymen will rejoice that Dr. Wiggins and Dr. Porter yielded to the islands’ enchantment: their work will greatly increase the pleasure of others who will subsequently visit the enchanted isles. 0 19 Mysteries and Treasures in Bernhardi’s Herbarium William G. D'Arcy VER A CENTURY AGO, when Sir William Hooker of Kew Gardens in England encouraged Henry Shaw to include a library and economic museum in his newly established botanical garden, he also urged that Mr. Shaw purchase a herbarium. The herbarium Hooker had in mind was the large personal plant collection of a recently deceased German professor, Johann Jakob Bernhardi, which was then being offered for sale at a very small price. Shaw's good friend and scientific advisor, George Engelmann, was in Europe at the time, and Shaw wrote asking him to purchase the herbarium for $600. Towards the end of December, 1857, Engelmann spent a day at Leipzig to conclude the bargain with the heirs, and in due course the result of this purchase arrived in St. Louis to become the nucleus of the Missouri Botanical Garden's now famous herbarium. Who was Professor Bernhardi to have built a herbarium important enough for the attention of Sir William Hooker? Born in 1774 in Erfurt, Germany, he became a professor on the medical faculty of the former university there and also director of the town’s botanical garden. Before he was thirty years old he had published two books on the plants growing around Erfurt, a botany manual and an introductory text on plants. Papers he wrote on plant anatomy gave him a firm ranking with the botanists of the day. He studied vessels in wood and was the first to distinguish clearly be- tween vascular bundles, phloem, and parenchyma, tissues recog- nized even in elementary botany classes today. Perhaps more important, at least for building plant collections, he was editor of two gardening magazines. His contacts through these magazines probably did much to help him acquire dried speci- mens from botanists in other parts of the world. J. J. Bernhardi died in 1850 leaving a herbarium of some 40,000 species which turned out 20 5 SILUL I (EB KR isssray Ure el ; a, senbinsehalt acrveseat: GAROEN ig yrs collet on No \¥s 7 Polygale hylla OC 6.183 May pene Atnica Polyale gusrallioide Pe Sed Afiica coll, EcRlon + “eather call. Ecklon & Zeyher Claude Johnston These two milkwort (Polygala) specimens were mounted on the same herbarium sheet with the collectors’ tags left in place. The labels at the bottom of the sheet were added after the herbarium arrived at the Missouri Botanical Garden. Ecklon & Zeyher collections in the Bernhardi herbarium include types of many South African species. The purple “Bernhardi Herbarium” stamp is sometimes even fainter than on this sheet. 21 wc) CM BAalye / ; . Aesculus Hater - es MS $ Ch.* Lemenns x : Reet 5; Batttam Claude Johnston A specimen of buckeye collected by John Bartram which found its way into Bernhardi’s herbarium. This sheet was borrowed by C. K. Schneider of Vienna who has annotated it as Aesculus austrina, a shrub of the Southeast United States Coastal Plain. N N to include over 60,000 specimens. As a token of recognition, the great Berlin garden director Willdenow named a genus of plants Bernhardia. Just what did Henry Shaw get for his $600? Even now, after one hundred and thirteen years, no one knows exactly. After arrival, the specimens were gradually mounted over a period of years, and the total exceeded 62,000. Each mounted sheet was rubber stamped “The Bernhardi Herbarium” in purple ink. Perhaps stamp pad ink was scarce in those days, for on many specimens, the stamp is quite faint, and some sheets missed the stamp altogether. The specimens themselves are quite good, but the labels are totally inadequate by modern standards and are probably below the standard of labels used a century and a half ago when the collection was amassed. In perhaps the majority of cases, the speci- mens are identified only by a collector’s tag or the small piece of paper with a number, phrase, or name which was affixed to the plant in the field, and which in modern practice would have been replaced in the herbarium by a permanent sort of label on good paper giving the collector's name, the date, locality and perhaps some information about the appearance of the plant. Most of the labels on the Bernhardi specimens consist of small scraps with a scribbled name or number and nothing else. Sometimes there is no label at all, and only guesswork can suggest the collector, era, or locality. For about thirty years, the Bernhardi herbarium formed almost the entire collection at Shaw’s Garden, and containing as it did a more or less world-wide representation of species, it was very welcome. There was little else in America to match it. With George Engelmann’s death and the addition of his large herbarium about 1892, dependence on the Bernhardi material lessened, and, as science moved into the twentieth century, only the most determined botanists took the trouble to deal with the uncertainties involved in citing material from it. Even today, much of the Bernhardi material gets only a passing glance from those who can easily work with better material. But although much of the Bernhardi collection is undefinable in terms of collector or locality, several people in the past have taken pains to make parts of it useful to the modern botanist. By carefully comparing the “tags”, which were often printed in the 23 The Bernhardi Herbarium: This list gives some sources of specimens, including names familiar to most natural historians. Bartling, F. G. 1798-1875 Germany, S. W. Africa Bartram, J. 1699-1777 Eastern United States Bertero, C. G. L. 1789-1831 S. America, Mexico, West Indies Beyrich, H. C. 1796-1834 Brasil, Germany, United States Blanchet, J. S. 1807-1875 Brasil Brotero, F. di A. 1744-1828 Portugal Brunner, S. 1790-1844 Africa, Italy, S. Seas, Cape Verde Is., Russia Carey, J. 1797-1880 United States Chamisso, L. A. von 1781-1838 Voy. around the world ‘‘Rurick’’ Cuming, H. 1791-1865 S. Am., Ceylon, India, Malaya, Sumatra, West Indies, Phillip. Cunningham, R. 1793-1835 Australia Dregé, J. F. 1794-1881 S. Africa Duerinck, J. B. 1809-1857 Missouri, Illinois Ecklon, C. F. 1795-1868 S. Africa, Ascension Ehrenberg, C. A. 1801-1849 West Indies, Mexico Fliigge, J. 1775-1816 Europe Fortune, R. 1812-1880 China, Japan Frivaldsky, J. 1740-1784 Balkans, Crete GGring, P. F. W. 1809-1879 Japan, Java, Sumatra Haenke, T. 1761-1817 S. America, Alaska, Philippines Hornemann, J. W. 1770-1841 Surinam Hostmann, Fr. W. R. & A. Kappler 1794-1864 Scandinavia, Greenland 1815-1887 Jan, G. 1791-1866 Italy, Sicily Kinn, M. 17°?-182? United States Klotschy, J. F. 1805-1860 Europe, Scotland Kotschy, K. G. T. 1813-1866 Africa Ledebour, C. F. von 1785-1851 Russia Lhotsky, J. 1800-1843? Brasil Manso, A. L. P. de Silva 1788-1818 S. America Martius, C. F. P. von 1794-1868 S. America Muhlenberg, H. E. 1753-1815 S. United States Nuttall, T. 1786-1859 United States Poeppig, E. F. 1798-1868 S. America, Cuba Poiteau, P. A. 1766-1854 Haiti, Guiana Presl, J. S. & K. B. 1791-1849 Europe 1794-1852 Rottler, Rev. J. P. 1749-1836 India Salzmann, P. 1781-1851 Brasil Schiede, C. J. W. 1798-1836 Mexico Seeman, B. C. 1825-1871 Panama, Mexico, S. Am. Sellow, F. 1789-1831 Brasil Sieber, Franz W. 1789-1844 West Indies, Brasil, Africa, Mauritius, New Holland Tausch, I. F. 1793-1848 Europe Thirke, Dr. 2222-222? Rumania Vahl, J. L. M. 1796-1854 Greenland Wallich, N. 1786-1854 Himalayas Weigelt, C. 2222-1828 Surinam Willkomm, H. M. 1821-1895 Spain Zeyher, C. 1799-1858 S. Africa 24 Bernhardi era, by writing to botanists in Europe and elsewhere for handwriting samples, and by studying monographs and other botani- cal works, a small special handwriting collection was built up and many specimens in the Bernhardi material have been identified with surety in this way. Past directors of the herbarium have played a major part in this, and probably J. M. Greenman in the 1913-45 period had the greatest success. Visiting botanists and even graduate students have played a part in working out the puzzles posed by this large, badly labeled purchase of over a century ago. And as if bad labels in the J. J. Bernhardi herbarium were not confusing enough, there are specimens from another Bern- hardi, Theodore, a nephew, who lived in Germany at about the same time and left his specimens at Berlin and St. Louis! The question arises whether this difficult identification is worth it, or whether it might be better to forget about the Bernhardi bargain altogether. A look at the success to date is impressive. On page 24 is a list of over fifty of the botanists whose collections have been identified with certainty in the Bernhardi material. The list includes collectors of many nationalities who collected in many parts of the world. Most important, they were collecting at a time when botanical discovery and classification were proceed- ing at a rapid pace, and many of the specimens brought in by these collectors became the types for plant species. Type specimens are the final authority in establishing species names, and must be referred to for determining names when confusion has arisen between species which are too much alike to distinguish apart on the basis of available written descriptions. Not only does the Bernhardi herbarium include a great many type collections, but some of them became unique when their only dupli- cates were destroyed in Berlin during World War II. The list of collectors given here is only a part of those whose collections have so far been established in the Bernhardi herbarium. In some cases, only a few sheets have been clarified as belonging to a particular collector; in other cases, the Missouri Botanical Garden has a major portion of the man’s collections. The Bernhardi speci- mens are irreplaceable today, and the progress made so far on them has helped give Henry Shaw’s Garden the scientific status it now enjoys. Bernhardi’s herbarium includes botanical treasures known to be priceless, as well as many baffling mysteries. 0 29 Asphalt and Artificial Turf S. Elwynn Taylor and Gerald Pingel ANY PERSONS ARE SERIOUSLY considering an artificial turf backyard, and although the lover of living things may shudder at the thought of plastic flowers, perhaps plastic grass is not so displeasing to him. We do not intend to evaluate the aesthetic or the economic value of artificial turf, but we have investigated some properties of the turf and find that it may be undesirable in some specific instances. A newspaper article stating that the turf in Busch Stadium was often too hot for pleasant daytime use prompted us to make a comparison of artificial turf and real grass. We obtained a section of turf and base mat material from the stadium and used it in our study. Comparisons of artificial turf, bluegrass turf, and a piece of asphalt from a crumbling drive were made in our laboratory. It was expected that the grass would be cooler than the arti- ficial turf because of evaporative cooling resulting from the transpiration process; this was the case. The temperature difference was also influenced by the absorption of sunlight. Measurements of reflected sun showed that grass reflected 2.94 times as much sun- 26 ae Ted Cavagnaro Experiments conducted in the wind tunnel facility showed that asphalt reflected about twice as much solar energy as did artificial turf, and true grass reflected nearly three times as much. The artificial turf becomes much hotter than grass because it absorbs more solar energy and has no evaporative cooling capacity. The artificial turf becomes hotter than the asphalt primarily because of greater absorption of solar energy. 27 light as did the artificial turf, and the asphalt 1.78 times as much. The absorptances to sunlight were grass, 78.4 per cent, asphalt 87 per cent, and artificial turf 92.7 per cent. The experiment was conducted in early October, so the sun was not as intense as it sometimes is in mid-summer. The air temperature was 32°C (90°F) and the relative humidity was 40 per cent. The wind was 50 cm sec-! (1.1 mph). ! ie US) Mae a, SPE Nie, to Rape NE Se i, bean ey PRES ee a by siti tat x * Sap e t hy oaty Y J “im ws ff Gerald Pingel An infrared device is used to compare the temperatures of asphalt, artificial turf, and lawn grass. The artificial turf was much warmer than either the asphalt or the lawn. 28 The grass was near 38°C (100°F) and the asphalt was at 60°C (140°F). The artificial turf heated to 72°C (162°F)! No wonder the ball players occasionally feel uncomfortable when playing on the artificial turf. It is hotter than being on an asphalt field. Asphalt has a definite effect on the city. First, it replaces plants and forms what some have called an “asphalt desert.” The asphalt contributes to the sweltering heat of the city and may actually be responsible for some of the extreme high summer temperatures. Asphalt is not generally considered attractive; further, the plants that are removed when asphalt is laid are not just a loss of beauty, but are in a sense air conditioning units lost to us. Living plants can serve to cool the air by the process of evaporation and freshen it by removing some pollutants from the atmosphere (e.g. fluorides, NO, y SO> , and ©, ). Replacement of lawns with artificial turf may be more attractive than replacement with asphalt, but the effects on our environment are very similar to those of asphalt. A patio of artificial turf may provide a very pleasant environment, especially on cool but sunny fall and winter days. The warmth of the turf would certainly not be unwelcome at these times. However, in the heat of the summer, the area may be uninhabitable when the sun strikes it. 0 ORCHARD GRASS Orchard grass (Dacylis glomerata) does indeed grow in orchards, as in many other shaded areas, so that the American common name is an appropriate one. However the name used in England is even more descriptive and it seems a pity that it somehow got lost in crossing the Atlantic. It is called “Cock’s foot grass” there, a truely descriptive name; the grass florets are packed into little wads that resemble the blobs of flesh, covered with tough skin, on the foot of a chicken. The scientific name Dactylis refers to this same feature; it came from the Greek word for finger. 29 Thoughts on Foundation Planting Paul A. Kohl NEW RESIDENCE or an older one is often in need of a neat, reasonably trouble-free, group of plants to improve the appear- ance of the home. “Foundation planting” is the term usually used in the broadest meaning of the expression. One can sympathize with a person who is confronted with such a problem but who knows very little about plants. Possibly he has noticed some brilliant red azaleas in front of a number of homes in April so he thinks he has the answer—why not plant azaleas? But he must realize that they bloom for only two or three weeks and look better when combined with other plants. Obviously it would be better to select plants that are presentable throughout the year. To attain such an effect it would be well to consider the evergreens, broad-leaf and needle types, that retain their leaves throughout the year. They do shed their foliage each year but so gradually that it is hardly noticed. The deciduous shrubs differ from most of the evergreens in that they need some yearly pruning to keep them in good condition. If neglected they soon become overgrown. Unfortunately, a new problem has arisen with regards to the disposal of prunings from 30 shrubs. They may not be burned and trash collectors will not pick them up unless they are bundled. This a chore and a mean one if thorny plants like barberries are bundled. The foundation planting picture features a good combination of evergreens which have been in excellent condition for many years. For a large plant American holly is a good subject. Berried hollies are preferred but a staminate tree will be needed in the area to in- sure a good set of berries. The reason is that staminate and pistillate flowers, male and female, occur on separate trees and both kinds are needed so that bees will be able to pollinate the female flowers. beakaad is | | TE cree = > Re : ey FO Be. | Paul A. Kohl Foundation planting of American holly, yew, ivy, and periwinkle. a American holly has been growing in St. Louis gardens and parks for many years indicating that it is a good plant for this region. It needs good soil and the addition of peat in the mixture at the time of planting will be beneficial. Hollies are fed once a year in early spring with a lawn fertilizer or an azalea-camellia formulated product. Cottonseed meal and flowers of sulfur spread around the base of the hollies every two or three years will prevent a chlorotic condition which sometimes occurs. Yews are excellent plants and should be planted more often. There are spreading types like the Japanese yew and also various upright forms like Hicksii and Hatfieldii. The spreading yews may be left to grow naturally or sheared to keep them within their allotted space. The upright-growing varieties may be trained into globes. Yews have no special soil preference such as the slightly acid soil needed by the hollies. The only requirement is good soil with leaf-mold or peat added at the time of planting. Occasionally a yew might lose its lustrous green color. This may be due to poorly drained soil or tiny, black ants which could be gnawing at the roots. If ants are present, a little chlordane worked into the soil near the roots should stop them. In the spring the yews will send forth many new growths. If the plants have attained the desired height these shoots are cut away with shears. A second growth develops by mid-August and this too is removed. This twice- a-year shearing is the only attention the yews need. They should be fed once a year in spring with a commercial fertilizer. The ground-cover plants, as seen in the picture, are common periwinkle, or running myrtle as it is known, and English ivy which grow well together, the ivy being the predominant plant and the vinca giving a welcome touch of blue when it blooms in early spring. 32 STAFF. - DAVID M, GATES, Director ADMINISTRATIVE Andrew Johnson David Mitter pe Program Development Controller and Business Manager Mark Paddock, Assistant Director for Administration RESEARCH & RESEARCH SUPPORT SYSTEMATICS: Walter H. Lewis, Director of Herbarium Marilyn Andreasen Herbarium Supervisor ulius Boehmer Herbarium Associate Marshall R. Crosby Assistant Botanist, Curator of Cryptogams Sheri Davis Herbarium Assistant John D. Dwyer Research Assoctate Viktor Muchlenbach Research Associate Joan W. Nowicke Research Associate, Flora of Panama Royce L. Oliver Research Assistant Duncan M. Porter Curator, Flora of Panama ohn Ridgwa Cosa of Bepopltis Linda Volimar, Herbarium Assistant Sally Walker, Research Associate SUMMIT HERBARIUM, CANAL ZONE Thomas B. Croat Patricia Croat Curator Herbarium Associate ECONOMIC BOTANY: Leonard Blake Hugh Cutler Research Associate Curator of Useful Plants LIBRARY: | Eugenia Maddox _— Erna R. Eisendrath Librarian Botanical Historian Carla Lange Marion Koch Assistant Librarian Cataloger ECOLOGY: Lloyd Dunn Research Associate Paul Lommen Assistant Project Director Shmuel Moreshet Research Associate Gerald W. Pingel Research Technician Christa Schwintzer Research Associate Owen J. Sexton Research Ecologist James R. Spotila Research Associate Oscar H. Soule Research Associate PUBLIC SERVICES Ladislaus Cutak Horticulturist and Manager of Public Relations Clarence Barbre Instructor Barbara Lawton Publications Manager Kenneth O. Peck Head of Education Sandra Thornton, Educational Associate HORTICULTURE & MAINTENANCE Robert J. Dingwall, Chief Horticulturist James Hampton, Chief Engineer and Superintendent of Operations Joseph Baker Grounds Maintenance Foreman Clifford Benson Plant Breeder Leroy Fisher Greenhouse Superintendent George Greene Curator of Old Roses Claude Johnston Grower, Photographer Paul A. Kohl Consultant F. R. McMath Rosarian Jack Pavia Assistant Engineer Marian Pfeiffer Orchid Grower . James Rhodes Assistant Greenhouse Superintendent Alfred Saxdal, Grounds Superintendent Visit Your Missouri Botanical Garden (SHAW’S GARDEN) Forest Park | 2315 Tower Grove Avenue « St. Louis, Missouri BOTANICAL CARDEN BULLETIN VOLUME LXIX NUMBER 2 MARCH-APRIL 1971 BOARD OF TRUSTEES C. Powell Whitehead, President Tom K. Smith, Jr., First Vice President - Sam'l C. Davis, Second Vice President Howard F. Baer —_— Henry Hitchcock Clarence C. Barksdale Leonard J. Holland Leicester B. Faust =A. Timon Primm III Robert R. Hermann — Warren McKinney Shapleigh Harry E. Wuertenbaecher, Jr. HONORARY TRUSTEES: George L. Cadigan Dudley French Mrs. William CeBeeaahy | George E 7 ohn S. Wagner Mrs. Jerome F. Kircher — Mrs. Neal S. Wood Mrs. John S. Lehmann eS Mrs. Virginia Brewer, Mgr. Tower Grove House HORTICULTURAL COUNCIL — Edgar J. Gildehaus, Chairman Mrs. J. Herman Belz = Mrs. Hazel L. Knapp Mrs. Paul H. Britt =F. R. McMath E.G. Cherbonnier Dan R. O'Gorman Carl Giebel = Ralph Rabenau > Robert E, Goetz = Mrs. Gilbert J. Samuelson Earl Hath —— Mrs. J. Glennon Schreiber Rudy Zuroweste The Missouri Botanical Garden is a Fund Member of the Arts and Education Council of Greater St. Louis. From The Director HE VICTORIAN INFLUENCE of the Nineteenth Century was very strong in this country at the time that the Missouri Botanical Garden was being established by its English founder, Henry Shaw. This era’s emphasis upon gracious living and a highly ornamented style of architecture and decor is apparent in the Garden even today. In 1849, Henry Shaw built his city house, now the Administra- tion Building, as well as his country home Tower Grove in the Victo- rian tradition. The Mausoleum Grounds with its ornamental iron fence, the massive structure of the Main Gate, the Museum, and the Linnaean House are also consistent with the Victorian Age. During this time, British high society became very fond of ferns which are highly ornamental in a way that compliments the style of the era. This special Bulletin's emphasis upon ferns and the special exhibits on ferns were inspired by The Victorian Fern Craze, a book written by David Allen and published in 1969 by Hutchinson and Co. Publ., Ltd. It is a book concerning the history of “pteridomania.” The Garden Library possesses most of the books published about ferns during this period. Ferns, among the oldest of higher forms of land plants, are deli- cate and esthetically attractive. They generally grow in damp, shaded places which is why they are easy to grow indoors and in terrariums. David M. Gates MISSOURI BOTANICAL GARDEN VOLUME LXIX NUMBER 2 EDITOR Barbara Perry Lawton EDITORIAL ASSISTANT Marjorie Richardson CIRCULATION Clarence Cherry EDITORIAL COMMITTEE David M. Gates Mark W. Paddock Kenneth O. Peck EDITORIAL & PUBLICATION OFFICE Missouri Botanical Garden 2315 Tower Grove Avenue St. Louis, Missouri 63110 Published bi-monthly by the Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Subscription price: $5.00 a year, domestic; $6.00 a year, foreign; $1.00 per single copy. Entered as second-class matter at the Post Office at St. Louis, Missouri BULLETIN MARCH-APRIL 1971 CONTENTS From the Director................0-. ut Maidenhair Fern (cover) .............. K) Carla Lange The Truth about Ferns ............... 6 Kenneth Peck Pern Culture: < ojcad 4-6 5h ono eeda eas 12 Robert J. Dingwall Mr. Ward’s Portable Greenhouse ....... 16 Duncan M. Porter Fern: Ore s.< 4s. 4-wab 8 kdb dew wa oe 9 Ds 21 Erna R. Eisendrath An Introduction to the Ferns of the Arboretum ................... 28 Marshall R. Crosby Cover design by Peter Geist. Photocopy by Todd Studios. Illustration is from the facsimile reprint of the Codex Dioscurides, Anicia Juliana, originally written in the sixth century. yi) Maidenhair Fern (cover) Carla Lange HE COVER ILLUSTRATION of this Bulletin is the earliest ex- tant picture of the maidenhair fern, Adiantum Capillus-Veneris which was taken from the facsimile reprint of a manuscript of one of the oldest herbals still in existence, the Codex Dioscurides, Ani- cia Juliana, or commonly known as the Vienna Dioscurides since it was part of the Austrian Court Library in Vienna for many centuries and is now housed in the Austrian National Library where the fac- simile copy was made. The Codex contains the earliest plant pictures that have come down to us, about ten of which illustrate ferns. According to the dedication picture in the Codex, it was com- missioned to be written during the first decade of the sixth century by the citizens of Honoratae (now known as Pera and part of the city of Istanbul) and presented as a gift to the Princess Anicia Juliana to express their gratitude for her donation of a church for their town. This dedication picture is probably the earliest illustration of a book dedication. It shows the Princess Juliana in a purple tunic with gold embroidered sleeves, purple shoes and a cap of the same colour with pearls and a golden clasp, wearing earrings with one large pearl in each. The Princess was the daughter of Flavius Anicius Olybrius and his wife Placidia, daughter of Valentinian III, emperor of the West from 425 to 455 A.D. In 480 she married Flavius Areobindus Dag- alaifus and had one son, Flavius Olybrius Anicius who later became a Roman Consul. Princess Anicia Juliana died at the age of 65, with the reputation of a very pious person, deeply interested in theology, benefactress of the poor who built and had restored many churches in Constantinople. It is not known what the princess did with this valuable Codex, whether it was kept in her family after her death or whether it was made part of the Imperial Library or whether she gave it to a mon- astery or a hospital. However, after the crusaders took Constan- tinople in the thirteenth century and after it was successfully 3 reconquered, the Codex seems to have been kept in a monastery in Pera for generations until the fall of the Roman Empire in 1453 when the Codex fell into the hands of the Turks. The physicians of the conquerors now in power, however, were well aware of the value of this work and the use they could make of it in their profession. To its original descriptions of plants in Greek, they added Arabic, Persian and Turkish synonyms and during the sixteenth century, when it was used by the Jewish personal physician of Sultan Suleiman II, he added his translation of some of the plant names in Hebrew. His son sold the Codex in 1569 to the Austrian Imperial Ambassador who bought it for Emperor Maximilian II for one hun- dred gold ducats and this valuable work became part of the Vienna Court Library. It became soon known to the famous botanists of this time that the Codex was now in Vienna and Dioscurides’ plant descriptions and the “vertues” he ascribed to them were mentioned by many of them in the herbals they published, including the well-known Belgian botanists Rembertus Dodonaeus and Carolus Clusius as well as the English botanists Gerard, Parkinson and others. The largest part of the Codex consists of full-paged illustrations of plants with descriptions in Greek to which later synonyms in various other languages were added. Most of the descriptions of plants in alphabetical order were taken from manuscripts of the Greek physician Pedanios Dioscurides who was physician to the Roman troups under Nero which he accompanied throughout all parts of the Roman Empire, using this opportunity for an extensive study of plants, minerals and other objects in nature which aroused his curiosity and interest. The plant of the cover illustration was originally described in Dioscurides’ work De materia medica, The following comes from the only English translation of De materia medica made in 1655 by John Goodyer, edited and last printed in 1933 by Robert Gunther, reprinted by Hafner in 1959; ADIANTON. Adiantum Capillus-Veneris ‘Asplenium Trichomanes (Penzig)) Adiantum, which some call Polytrichon (some Calli- trichon, some Trichomanes, some Ebenotrichon, some Argion, some Coriandrum aquaticum, the Egyptians Epier, ye Romans Cincinnalis, some Terrae Capillus, some Super- cilium terrae, ye Dacians Phithophthethela) hath little 4 leaves like Coriander, jagged on the top, but ye little stalks on which they grow, are black, very thin, a span long, glist- ning. The leaves like to Filix, very small. But it bears neither stalk, nor flower, nor seed: ye root is unuseful. The decoction of ye herb being drank is of force to help ye Asthmaticall, Dyspnaicall, Ictericall, Splenicall, dys- ureticall. It breaks also ye stones & stays ye belly, & helps ye venemous-beast-bitten, & ye flux of ye stomach, being drank with wine. It drives out also ye menstrua, & after purgaments. It stays also ye spitting up of blood. It is smeared on also raw, for venemous-beast-bitten things & thickens ye Alopeciae, it disperseth ye Strumas: with Lye, it wipes off ye furfures & ye Achores. But with La- danum & with Oleum Myrtinum & Sufinum, or else Oesypum, & wine it staies ye falling hair; & ye decoction of it being rubbed on with Lye & wine doth the same. And it makes cocks and quailes ye more fighting when mixed with their meat. But it is planted for ye sheep about sheep- coats. It grows in shady and marshy places, and moist walls, & about fountains. Adiantum Capillus-Veneris is a native of the southern part of France and the Mediterranean countries where it grows on rocks and used to be found in old ruins. From there it was brought to England for medicinal purposes. It is one of the rarest and most local of British ferns, growing only on some cliffs or rock in Scotland and Wales. It is a perennial with fibrous, tufted and shaggy roots and produces spores from May to September; being a very succulent plant, it yields almost its entire weight in juice, but has neither taste nor smell. It can be preserved in pots with gravel and lime-rubbish in which it will thrive much better than in good earth. Its common name is the true maidenhair, called ‘true’ because among some half a hundred species of Adiantum, the original name given by Dioscurides, the Capillus-Veneris gave the name of maiden- hair to the whole genus. On the American continents it is found from south of the Amazon River to north of the Potomac River. Dr. C. C. Parry in his Botanical Observations in Southern Utah published in the American Naturalist in 1875, says: “Apparently quite out of place in this arid climate, we notice quite frequently on the perpendicular face of moist sandstone rocks Adiantum Capillus- Veneris.” It grows wild in almost all states of this country, however, it does not endure the cold winters of the Northern United States. C1 5 The Truth About Ferns Kenneth Peck Illustrated by Sandra Thornton T MIGHT BE SAID that much of our ignorance is couched in an inability to see the truth of a matter clearly. We feel compelled to “innovate’and then elaborate on what is considered fact and some- times emerge with a fantasy requiring more faith to accept than the actual facts themselves. In a later article which deals with fern lore, some of the delightful fantasy surrounding human associations with ferns will be unfolded, but here we will delve into some of the tangible aspects of the fern’s life history and botanical relationships. Ferns hold a curious position in the plant kingdom. On one hand, they assume a moss-like stature in some forms, but on the other hand, a number of tropical forms become tree-like and grow 45 to 50 feet high. One of the baffling things about ferns to early botanists must have been the combination of the fern’s possession of a conductive or vascular system and total lack of any seed-producing structure like a flower or cone. How can a plant grow to a good size like other plants in the forest and not produce seeds? This is the point at which we can refer to ferns as “Vascular Cryptogams.” The meaning of the first term is clear now, but the second one, “cryptogam” has reference to the manner in which ferns reproduce. Trees like oak, maple, and pine all produce seeds in addition to having a well-developed vascular system. They are, in fact, about 95% vascular system which to some extent accounts for their oc- casional great size. Some vascular plants, like the floating duck- weeds, are very small though, and scarcely exceed a 2 mm. diameter. Going in another direction, we encounter the mosses which not only lack flowers and the ability to produce seed, but have no appreciable vascular system. Their constituent parts, therefore, are considered only analogous to the leaves, stems, and roots of vascular plants and they are never of any height greater than about 24 inches. The fol- lowing tabular summary will help visualize these things collectively. 6 SEED PLANTS FERNS MOSSES Flowers Yes No No Cones (a) Yes No No Seeds Yes No No Vascular system Yes Yes No (b) True leaves Yes Yes No True stems Yes Yes No True roots Yes Yes No (c) Spores No (d) Yes Yes (a) Bearing seeds, i.e. (b) Vasculation evident in some forms (c) Rhizoids are analogous to roots in mosses (d) Pollen grains and embryo sacs are considered to be types of spores which produce the sex cells that, upon union, give rise to the seed embryo. Fern and moss spores never produce seeds and are never sexual. The life history of a fern is well known to students of botany and is usually presented in typical “cycle” form. I prefer to think of this as a linear process and the accompanying illustration of a “typi- cal” fern’s life history will demonstrate this. The spore, temptingly analogous to the seed, seems to be a logical place to begin, although it might be more appropriate to begin epic style in the middle of things, and deal with the development of the fern embryo. Let's take a spore anyway—one that has fallen to the ground in a good location. (Since the following description involves terminology that may not be familiar to all, your attention is directed to the ety- mological glossary on page 27. | think this will add meaning to your understanding.) The germinating fern spore produces a short, green filament, the protonema (Fig. 1B), which abruptly expands into the relatively broad leafy structure called the prothallus or prothallium (Fig. 1C). Here is where the action is and where the term “cryptogam” has its application. In the early confusion about ferns, sexuality was not recognized and the prothallus was truly considered to be the first leaf on a young fern instead of the plant on which reproductive structures were formed. The term “cryptogam” means rather literally “hidden marriage.” The agents of reproduction—sperm and egg— 7 p C PROTHALLIUM PROTONEMA (GAMETE PRODUCING) | | KD, YOUNG FERN tis\ (SPORE-PRODUCING) |t eae > oe o— eo el 6 Figure 1. Typical fern life history. See text. are contained within microscopic structures quite appropriately specific to each. Sperms are produced by the antheridium (Fig. 1D) and the egg by an archegonium (Fig. 1E). Each structure encloses its contents with a single layer of cells. When mature, the antheridial jacket ruptures when flooded with water causing the release of numerous, minute, motile, sperms usually in a matter of minutes, whereas the archegonium may take one or two hours to open. Swim- ming randomly at first, the sperms are eventually drawn to the arche- gonia by a chemical attractant secreted by the latter. Several sperms may enter an archegonium, but only one sperm actually fertilizes the egg. The new body formed by the union of egg and sperm (‘‘syn- gamy” in text book parlance) is called a zygote. The latter becomes the embryo of a new fern plant which soon proceeds to the business of producing green leaves bearing spores, and growing separately from the prothallium. The fern leaf, termed a frond, arises from a typically horizontal rootstock. The frond is variously cut and divided into lesser parts, with an appropriately descriptive terminology. Frequently seen on the underside of fern frond (Figure 2) are round or elongate struc- 8 Sonera Ap PINNA RACHIS Figure 2. Typical fern frond with sori. tures called sori (singular: sorus). A woman once called me about some little brown bugs on her fern plants. You guessed it! After just a little interrogation, her bugs turned out to be sori. She had been careful to pick off each one of these as they formed on the leaves. Sori are clusters of stalked sporangia containing spores. The sporangial groupings may or may not be covered by an umbrella- like indusium, a good taxonomic feature. The accompanying photo- graph shows a vertical section through a sorus. Some ferns produce their sori on special branches which are not leafy. Such sori usually lack an indusium. The sporangium is an interesting device. It not only forms and contains the spores, it also disperses them. Dispersal is accomplished as a result of a gradual drying out of a special ring of thick walled cells called the annulus. The tension resulting from this causes the sporangium to rupture, quite vigorously casting out spores. In reviewing the events of reproduction in ferns, the botanically well-known feature of alternation of generations should be discussed briefly. A simple way of describing this is that in reproduction, a diploid, spore-bearing plant alternates with a haploid, gamete- producing plant. The former is the dominant, vascular generation, the latter an inconspicuous, non-vascular phase. We could refer to this as the morphological expression of alternation of generations. The diploid fern plant has a normal number of chromosomes, whereas the haploid prothallium has but one-half the normal chromosome complement, a feat accomplished by the type of cell- division known as reduction division which usually precedes events relating to reproduction. (The other cell-division type relates to the 9 growth of an organism.) This represents the genetic expression of al- ternation of generations. For a graphic illustration of the foregoing, see figure 3. The significance of this phenomenon is fundamentally difficult to assess. This is not only true for the botanist, but more so for the non-botanist. Alternation of generations assumes importance only when considered in an evolutionary context. Theoretical botanists look to two possible avenues along which such a process may have come. One theory postulates that the dominant, spore-bearing phase somehow interposed itself into the reproduction sequence of things. This is the Antithetic or Interpolation Theory. The second theory supposes that both phases—spore-bearing and gamete-producing — are essentially similar, the former having arisen from a stock of structurally less well differentiated plants whose vegetative and sexual phases were similar. This is the Homologous Theory. It is felt that further exposition of either theory rests in future fossil finds. Nature has given this alternation process some difficulties which are beyond the scope of this article. It is interesting to note however, that the fern sporophyte lives independently of the prothallium that produced it, and that the latter dies soon after active sporophyte growth. In contrast to this, the sporophyte generation of mosses completes its life function while permanently attached to the haploid generation of the plant. In flowering plants, the gamete generation performs its function while attached to the diploid phase. Concepts and insights like these do not come through to fully integrated human consciousness all at once. Years pass before per- spectives are in correct proportion. So it is small wonder that even genetic genetic condition condition reduced ne | PROTHALLIUM- ee |] SPORES |} — GAMETE PRODUCING PLANT SORI ; PLANT Retr sD tales 1 set of L 2 sets of chromosomes 1 set of chromosomes (haploid) chromosomes (diploid) (haploid) Reduction Division | SPORANGIA Figure 3. Alternation of generations. See text. Ze uo, < hh. TE Re be & ms i ais Figure 4. Greatly enlarged photo of vertical section through sorus of Holly Fern. A—indusium; B—sporangium; C—Spores; D—annulus. as late as 1840, ferns were considered to be sexless. Even though Robert Hooke could see cells with his primitive microscope in 1665, I am inclined to believe that much of the failure to understand ferns, and other groups as well, resided in not being able to see small things. While most of mystery surrounding fern reproduction was solved by 1860, the sophistication of present day microscopy puts things into a visual reach that the nineteenth century biologist never dreamed of. It will be interesting for the twenty-first century biolo- gist to focus with “20-20 hindsight” on current biological thought. U1 sy : . Syngamy _}| EGG+ | 1 EMBRYO 7 a age ‘ IF, piece > (Fertilization) si (diploid) ___ iene ZYGOTE 2 sets of chromosomes (diploid) Fern Culture Robert Dingwall HERE ARE ABOUT 300 varieties of ferns found growing in the United States. Ferns are ideal for damp, low spots, shady areas under trees, and on north sides of buildings. There are few gardens that are without a suitable spot in which hardy ferns would flourish. While a few ferns will tolerate a certain amount of direct sun, there are none that require it. Ferns make a fine background for many flowering plants. The deciduous types are especially valuable to fill the empty spots where spring bulbs have bloomed. Ferns help to cool the ground and moisten the atmosphere, shading the plants beneath them like a parasol which is very help- ful for young plants or for delicate flowering ones. Spring or fall is the best time to plant or move ferns. Those with running rootstocks, however, will send up new fronds if trans- planted in any season. Running rootstock types such as hay scented, bracken, and ostrich tend to overrun their sites so plant these only where you want a large mass effect. Ferns may be purchased from a wildflower nursery or dug up in the woods where they grow naturally, provided you first secure permission from the landowner. In planting, most ferns with spreading roots do best if the roots are barely covered, while some central crown types like the crown exposed and others prefer the crown at the soil surface. Careful preparation of the soil before planting is essential. Remember that ferns are woodland plants and in nature grow ina 12 spongy carpet of rotted humus made up of decayed leaves and wood that has accumulated over the years. They cannot stand a heavy soil. Do not use lime, as most dislike it. Dig the soil deeply and in- corporate with it a liberal supply of organic material such as leat mold, peat moss, or compost so that food and moisture are conserved. Once ferns are established it is wise to mulch annually with organic humus, and wood ash, at 1/4 pound per square yard, as these materials contain all the main requirements for them. Do not use chemical fertilizers as they cause the plants to brown and in many cases, to die. If fertilizer is needed for a boost in growth, fish meal, or cotton seed meal applied in spring is sufficient. Rock growing ferns are hard to establish on rocks but planted alongside the rock, they quickly spread over it. For sunny rocks the hay scented, Woodsia, ebony, spleenwort, bracken, and cliff- brake are good. The hay scented fern will thrive in the shade also. Also good around rocks are harts-tongue, royal, northern lady, maidenhair, and the evergreen and marginal wood ferns. Claude Johnston The Boston fern (Nephrolepis bostoniensis cv. Fluffy Ruffles) is an old favorite. This is the fern so often seen in barber shops. 13 a it ee Claude Johnston The holly fern (Cyrtomium falcatum), a smaller and more rugged variety than the Boston fern is an excellent house plant. For large mass planting in the shaded area, the handsome cinna- mon or the interrupted fern are ideal. The cinnamon fern has color- ful fruiting fronds that resemble flower heads. The leathery fronds of the sword ferns are also eye-catching planted thickly under dense shade trees. For dry, shady plants the Christmas fern is ideal and is ever- green. For boggy spots, try the marsh fern, sensitive fern, or the New York fern. The royal fern prefers full sunlight but will tolerate very wet conditions such as lake or pond borders. The popular hardy maidenhair is easy to establish in any well-drained area. For limestone sites the walking fern spreads to a tangled mat over mossy rocks in the shade. INDOOR PLANTING Ferns of the tropics and subtropics are the greenhouse ferns of temperate zones and include a number of kinds suitable as house plants. To cultivate them successfully it is desirable to imitate the 14 environment in which they grow naturally and to provide the moist, humid, sunless, but light conditions so essential to their well being. Household climates do not maintain as high humidity as condi- tions in a greenhouse. Some ferns, notably the sword fern (Nephrolepis exaltata), the holly fern (Cyrtomium falcatum), and the squirrel’s foot fern (Davallia bullata) will succeed as house ferns. Soil for these ferns should be rich organic soil with good drain- age. Some people like to mix some charcoal in the soil mix to keep it “sweet.” Ferns will need to be repotted from time to time. In the greenhouse this can be done at any season of the year although spring is best. The temperature in the greenhouse is important. A night temperature of 55° is best with a 10°-15° rise for the day temper- ature. Avoid high temperatures as these slow growth and in some cases are detrimental to good growth. Propagation of ferns is often done by division when moving or repotting. They are also grown from spores (they do not pro- duce seed as in higher plants). The tiny, dust-like spores are clustered on the backs or edges of the fronds (leaves). Brush these off gently on paper and let dry for a week or two, then shake onto a pot of moist leaf mold and sand. Set the pot in a saucer of water and cover with a piece of glass to retain moisture. Young plants will be ready to transplant in four to six months. Never allow the soil in which the ferns are growing to become dry, and also never let it become water-logged. Keep the ferns’ leaves clean. This is best done by syringing them with clean water on all bright days. Thrips and red spider can be troublesome, especially in a dry atmosphere. The two can be kept in check by frequent syringings of water, being sure to hit the underside of the fronds. Monthly feedings of diluted manure tea or liquid fish emulsion will keep all ferns healthy and vigorous for years. U) 15 Mr. Ward’s Portable Greenhouse Duncan M. Porter Illustrated by Marjorie Richardson HE ATMOSPHERE OF William IV’s London during the 1830's may be likened to that of St. Louis during the 1920's. In both cities increasing industrialization, with the widespread burning of soft coal, filled the air with smoke and soot and killed great numbers of plants, both wild and ornamental. In St. Louis this situation led the Missouri Botanical Garden to purchase a tract of land far out in the clearer skies of the countryside near Gray Summit, then planned to become the Garden’s new home. When pollution from soft coal was brought under control, the abandonment of the city proved unnecessary. In London the increasing atmospheric effluents spewed by the Industrial Revolution led, among other things (such as epidemic rates of respiratory diseases), to the invention and wide- spread use of the Wardian Case. Nathaniel Bagshaw Ward (1791-1868) was a London surgeon who was also an ardent amateur botanist. In 1830 he happened to notice that several seedlings had begun to grow in some moist soil in the bottom of a loosely-capped bottle into which he had placed a moth chrysalis the previous summer. The seedlings proved to be Poa annua (annual blue grass) and Dryopteris filix-mas (male fern). Ward placed the bottle on his window-edge, and the plants con- tinued to thrive without the addition of fresh water—for at least nineteen years. His curiosity aroused by the seedlings, Ward put a native Hymenophyllum (filmy-fern) into another bottle and found that 16 it too survived untended. These initial observations led Ward to undertake a series of experiments using both ferns and flowering plants. He had constructed a number of small greenhouses, about the size of breadboxes, sealed with putty, and watered the plants within them every five or six weeks. These small greenhouses, or “fern-boxes” as Ward called them, proved admirably adapted to the growing of ferns and other plants difficult to cultivate in the open air. The principle of Ward's invention is quite simple. Plants may be placed in soil inside a glass box and watered; then the box is closed. The box need not be airtight, only tight enough to keep most of the moisture from escaping. When the sun shines through the glass, evaporation and transpiration serve to saturate the air inside the box with water vapor, which condenses on the glass and runs back down into the soil. The Wardian Case is essentially a closed system. So long as there is sufficient light for photosynthesis and the temperature does not get too hot or too cold, plants may exist in it indefinitely, although some additional water must be added from time to time. Wardian Case filled with ferns. After an illustration in An Analysis of the British Ferns and Their Allies, by G. W. Francis (second edition, 1842). 17 When Ward was pursuaded to make his invention, later adver- tised as ''Wardian Cases of Ferns or Ward’s Portable Greenhouses” known to the public in the mid-1830’'s, its potential was immedi- ately recognized, by scientist and layman alike. Nathaniel Ward was not the first to grow plants under glass. Others had done so, some utilizing the very techniques that Ward had discovered in- dependently. The popularity of the Wardian Case was the result of several factors, particularly air pollution and the curious tastes of the English middle class. The filthy smoke-filled air of metropolitan areas allowed few of the usual ornamental plants to survive outside, let alone the frail exotics. Add to this the sputtering gas-jets inside, and one wonders how even potted plants in the parlour managed to exist. True, the rich had their full-sized greenhouses. Mass-produced sheet-glass became available in England in the 1830's, but high excise duties on glass prior to 1845 severely limited green- house construction. About the same time that Ward was perfecting his cases, a new phenomenon burst upon the British public: pteridomania. The rise, spread, and decline of this phenomenon have been ably outlined by David Elliston Allen in his interesting little book The Victorian Fern Craze (Hutchinson, London. 1969), In essence, pteridomania Was a continuation of the cabinet of curiosities popular in the pre- vious century. Now, living ferns were substituted for fossils, shells, or pressed seaweeds. Since it was impossible to grow ferns exposed to a city’s air, what better place to grow them than in a Wardian Case? The Wardian Case provided the vehicle by which the pteri- domaniacal craze spread through early-Victorian England. This utilitarian object provided the means to grow ferns in places with air too foul or too cold to grow them elsewhere. Most middle class households were unable to buy the glass necessary for a full-sized greenhouse, but few could not afford a Wardian Case. For those who could not, bell-jars or the jars of druggists or confectioners provided inexpensive substitutes. Practically anyone could become a fern-fancier. In the beginning, simple Wardian Cases were used by the affluent and fashionable to display the latest arrivals from the tropics. As time went by, the cases became more and more elabor- 18 The window greenhouse, a 20th-century equivalent of the Wardian Case. ate, covered with all sorts of Victorian gee-gaws, and the fern craze eventually deteriorated into the hoarding of monstrosities, many of which we would find less interesting than objectionable. Although today's terrarium and aquarium are the direct descendents of Wardian Cases, few are as elaborate as those of late-Victorian times. While the Wardian Case was evolving into a parlour decora- tion, it was also being put to a less sophisticated but far more utili- tarian purpose. As early as 1832, Ward had sent several of his sealed cases from London to Australia. The plants arrived in good condi- tion, as did those sent back to England on the eight-month return voyage. Thus began a new era in plant exploration and introduction. Hitherto, it had been necessary to carefully pack seedlings and cuttings in moss, and to expend precious fresh water on them while in transit. More often than not, available fresh water was drunk by the crew, and few plants survived the trip. With the development of the Wardian Case, seedlings and cuttings could be placed on the deck of aship to receive sunlight and still not be subject to the viscissitudes of salt spray and the lack of fresh water. Live plants could now be transported from one part of the world to another with relative ease. 19 The first plant explorer to make use of the Wardian Case was the great Robert Fortune, who introduced many Asian exotics into the western world through the Royal Horticultural Society. To Fortune and the Wardian Case we owe the introduction of tea from China to India, which took place in 1848. Besides the count- less exotic ornamentals, such as’ Fortune’s Himalayan rhododen- drons, that now enhance our gardens, Wardian Cases brought Cinchona (the quinine tree) from South America to Java and India, rubber trees to Java and Malaya from South America, coffee from Africa to the New World, and bananas from South-east Asia to the rest of the tropics. Captain Bligh of Bounty fame would have had a much better time of it had he had Wardian Cases in which to transport his pre- cious breadfruit seedlings from the East to the West Indies. But the annals of the sea would have been poorer for it—and who would have ever heard of Pitcairn’s Island? 0 Maidenhair spleenwort (Asplenium Trichomanes L.). Illustration is from the facsim- ile reprint of the Codex Diocurides, Anicicia Juliana. 20 FERN LORE Erna R. Eisendrath WONDER WHY Ferns are such a nameless sort of things, not nearly so livable and lovable as flowers,” said Flower Hat, as she leaned against a sloping rock...” Her companion, Mabel Osgood Wright, who reported the conversation in Flowers and Ferns in their Haunts, in 1901, was hard put to find an answer. Perhaps, she sug- gested, it is because ‘the Fern does not appeal directly to insect or man through a specialized color, or perfume.” Perhaps, | add, it is because ferns have not played a large role in man’s economy, as food, drug, or otherwise useful plant. Whatever the reason, as Mrs. Wright acknowledged, ferns had in 1901 “scanty literature and few gracious names.” There are few more of either to-day, although mention of ferns can be dug out of our most ancient botanical literature, and the lore that has built up around them, little as it may be, can be found persisting in various sorts of ways. One of these, for instance, is in fern names, both popular and botanical. Asplenium can be traced back to an early belief that in those parts of the Island of Crete where the “spleenwort” grew wild, flocks that ate of the fern were spleenless, whereas in those areas where the fern did not grow, the animals’ interiors were quite nor- mal! Again, Adiantum comes from a Greek word (adiantos) that means “unmoistened,” and goes back to a fact noted by Theophrastus in the 4th century B.C. “In ‘wet-proof’ the leaf does not even get wet when it is watered, nor does it catch the dew because the dew does not rest on it; whence its name.” In another instance, the specific epithet applied to our native “southern maidenhair,” the Adiantum capillus-veneris, (see cover illustration and article, page 3) refers 21 back to the myth that when Venus rose from the sea her hair, like this “maidenhair fern,” appeared to be dry! Botrychium lunaria is distinguished from the other “grape ferns” by the specific epithet describing the shape of the leaflets on its fronds, a sign, according to the “Doctrine of Signatures,” that the plant would be useful in the treatment of diseases of a periodic character, themselves under the influence of the moon. The common name, “moonwort,” often applied to this fern has, therefore, an obvious derivation, but other common names are not so easily explained. The American fern au- thority, Willard Clute, reported that it was once known as the “blasting-root” because the strongest locks were thought to fall open in its presence; Culpeper, almost two hundred years ago, connected it with “fetlocks,” thus leaving Clute’s lore open to sus- picion! Culpeper wrote: Alchymists say, that this herb is peculiarly useful to them in making silver; and it is reported that whatever horse casually treads upon this herb will lose his shoes; it is also said to have the virtue of unlocking their fetlocks and causing them to fall off; but whether these reports be fabulous or true, it is well known to the country people by the name of Unshoe-Horse. As either “blasting-root” or “unshoe-horse,” Botrychium lunaria is credited with miraculous powers closely related etymologically if in no other way. Equal powers must have been thought inherent in its relatives, Botrychium virginianum, the “rattlesnake fern,” and Ophio- glossum vulgatum, the “adder’s tongue fern,” but one is left wondering about the relation of ferns in general to the reptiles. Pliny, long ago, wrote: Fern-leaves kill bugs, and serpents will never harbor among them: hence it is a good plan to strew them in places where the presence of these reptiles is suspected. But Mr. Clute felt quite differently about them, saying: Just as the average individual imagines every species of snake to possess fangs and venom and regards it as some- thing like a duty to kill it, so does he consider ferns to be the natural protectors of these creatures and to be shunned accordingly. vi) However the reptiles may react to these fern genera, believers in the “Doctrine of Signatures” have recognized over the centuries that the resemblance of their fertile fronds to the hindmost part of the rattle- snake furnishes sound evidence of their efficacy in the treatment of snake-bite. By the same token, the small and difficult-to-see fern spore is probably the basis of the once wide-spread belief that the possession of fern spores, collected under very strictly observed conditions, would render their bearer invisible. These conditions were similar throughout Europe. The spores could be collected only on St. John's Eve, the shortest night in the year, and only then if the collector went after them bare-foot, in his shirt, and in a religious state of mind. If the collector’s preparations and timing were correct he would be rewarded by seeing the fern produce a small blue flower, as well as by achieving his original purpose. Something was obvi- ously wrong with the preparations of the character in Ben Johnson's The New Inne, who bemoans the fact that “I had no medicine, sir, to walk invisible, No fern-seed in my pocket.” Falstaff’s companion, Gadshill in Henry IV, fared better, and was able to report to the Chamberlain, “We have the receipt for fern-seed, we walk invisible;” but, if you remember your Shakespeare, you'll know that the Cham- berlain was skeptical. “Nay, I rather think,” he replied “You are more beholden to the night than to fern-seed, for your walking in- visible.” Clute reports another effect of “fern seed,” related again to optics: In Russia fern seed was supposed to confer second sight. It is related that a man went out to search for his cattle, when some fern seed fell into his shoes. He at once knew (not only) where his cattle were, but discovered some buried treasure besides. Going home for a shovel with which to dig it up, his wife unfortunately induced him to change his shoes, when the fern seed fell out and was lost and with it went all knowledge of the treasure. The fern usually associated with this business of invisibility is the common “bracken,” Pteris aquilina, which, unlike most ferns, grows in full sunlight, often in poor soil. Its popular name probably 20 comes from the German Brache, meaning uncultivated ground, re- ferring to the fact that old fields, not recently plowed, are often covered with “bracken,” which takes over quickly, particularly after burning. This may account for a legend that associates the “bracken” with fire, a belief that burning over the area in which it grew would induce rain. The Earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, responsible for the comfort of Charles I during a 17th century royal tour, wrote the High Sheriff of Staffordshire requesting that no such burning be permitted during His Majesty's visit to that area, as the King was “desirous that the country and himself... enjoy fair weather as long as he remains in those parts.” The “bracken” stem is also reported to bear religious symbols that are variously interpreted. In cross-section, the Scots are said to have seen the pattern of the fern’s vascular bundles as repre- senting an impression of the devil's foot; elsewhere, on the other hand, the same pattern has been related to the Greek letter “X”, the initial of Christ, and therefore very frightening to witches. Surely more frightening still is the Irish interpretation of the vascular pat- tern as observed in different sections of the stem: in one was observed the letter “G,” in the next, “O,” and in the third, “D.” Accordingly, the “bracken” is sometimes referred to in Ireland as the “Fern of God.” Ferns as a group do not, however, stand high in the hierarchy of Scriptural plant lore. Ferns are ferns, indeed, by definition plants of a lower order than those that produce flowers, because the fern ancestors included among the plants that made up the straw in the stable of the Nativity did not, like the other plants, bloom in honor of the event and were, therefore, condemned forever after to remain flowerless. Another religious connotation is found in connection with the genus Polypodium, of which it is said that “the grey powdery Lichen that gathers about (its) roots... came first from the Blessed Mother’s milk having fallen to earth, and that from the stained soil arose this fern.’’* With its beginnings so literally sublime, I can’t resist telling you of a use for this fern so very lowly as to verge on the ridiculous; since it was suggested by no less an authority than Izaak Walton I “Dowling, A.E.D.R.; The Flora of the Sacred Nativity, London, 1900. 24 feel justified in doing so. If one’s worms, Walton suggests in The Compleat Angler, are anointed with a drop or two of oil from the “nolypody of the oak” they (the worms!) will be given so tempting a smell that “the fish will fare the worse and you the better for it. There is no space for me to dwell further on the uses that have been made of ferns, though many are recorded. Well worth our limited space, however, is a legend often traced to a fern, a legend that has nothing to do with its usefulness and has, in- deed, in the opinion of some authorities, nothing to do with ferns. However the ‘Vegetable Lamb of Tartary’’ was for so many years always associated with the fern that it is the most important of all “fern lore.” The earliest written report on this curi- ous creature is thought to have appeared in a Latin version of the Talmud, dating from 436 A.D. According to this version there grew in Tartary a zoophyte or plant-animal, in form of a lamb, from whose navel grew a stem by which it was fixed, attached like a gourd to the soil below the surface of the ground. Ac- cording to the length of this stem, it was able to devour the herbage that grew around it, just as does an animal eat all that grows within reach of the radius of its tether.” Reports concerning the same natural marvel are contained in the work of “Sir John Mandeville,” in the latter half of the 14th cen- tury. Whoever it was who wrote under this pseudonym tells of gourd-like fruits which “when thei ben rype men kutten hem ato, and men finden with inne a lytylle Best ... as though it were a lytylle lomb.” In the early 17th century, Parkinson thought the “Vegetable Lamb” so great a wonder as to include it among the inhabitants of the Garden of Eden, illustrated in the handsome frontispiece of his Paradisi in Sole; he very possibly thought, however, that Eden was the only place it ever grew, since I can find no mention of it in his text! Later in the century the great naturalist, Sir Hans Sloane, under- took to lay the rumour that the “Vegetable Lamb” had ever grown any place at all. Sir Hans exhibited before the Royal Society, in 1698, ‘Lee, Henry; The Vegetable Lamb of Tartary, London, 1887. 20 a bit of fern rhizome that did, indeed, look something like an animal, but not nearly so much as the specimen shown to the same august body a quarter century later by a Dr. Breyn of Danzig. Both men argued that the rumours that had spread from Western Asia and been a subject of discussion by learned men during many centuries were based upon the chaffy scales that often cover the lower parts of the fern plant so thickly as actually to look like wool; when such “wooly” bits of the plant were “doctored up” a bit they could readily be made to resemble little animals. Sir Hans and Dr. Breyn sounded the death knell of the ancient rumour for the learned world, but its popularity, persists in some parts of the world even to-day. In an article that ap- peared in this publication in 1955, when Dr. Alice Tryon was on the Garden staff, she identified the source of the “Vegetable Lamb” as Cibotium Barometz, a fern common in parts of Formosa; in Russian, “Barometz” means “little lamb,” confirming Dr. Tryon’s statement that the “country folk” of the area ‘gather the stems (of this plant), add the essential parts and fix the face, preparing the lambs for the city market. The illustration Dr. Tryon uses is strangely reminiscent of the creature pictured so long ago by Parkinson! Certainly the ferns have not contributed greatly to the mass of plant lore that man has accumulated over the centuries; but they played a role in this area of Victorian taste as in the others discussed and exhibited at the Garden at this time. In the several popular books of the period that are concerned with “the language and sentiment of flowers” we find ferns used to symbolize sincerity. The reasons for this should, perhaps, be obvious; if they are not, let me explain by quoting from Catherine H. Waterman’s Flora’s Lexicon of 1855. Fern often affords an agreeable seat to lovers; its ashes are used in the manufacture of glasses for the convivial party; and all the world knows that love and wine make men sincere. L] 26 Term Annulus Antheridium Archegonium Diploid Frond Gamete Gametophyte Haploid Indusium Pinna Prothallus | Prothallium { Protonema Rachis Rhizoid Sorus Sperm Sporangium Spore Sporophyte Syngamy Zygote Etymological Glossary From Latin Greek Greek Greek Latin Greek Greek Greek Latin Latin Greek Greek Greek Greek Greek Greek Greek Greek Greek Greek Greek 27 Original Sense = ring anthos = flower arche = old Vee an = parent diploos = double frons = leaf j gamete = wife ) gametes = husband gameto + phyte = plant haploos = single = tunic feather pro = first \ thallus = twig, bloom, shoot Proto = first cee = thread rhachis = spine rhiza = root ‘oid = form, like Soros = heap, group = seed, sow angeion = vessel spora = seed Sporo + phyte ‘syn = with ‘ae = marriage zygotos = yoked An Introduction to the Ferns of the Arboretum Marshall R. Crosby (Author illustrations) ver sixty kinds of ferns and fern allies are known to occur in Missouri. Only fourteen of these are definitely known from the Garden's Arboretum at Gray Summit. However, these fourteen provide a good introduction to Missouri’s ferns, since a good diversity of forms are represented. This introduction provides a means of identifying the ferns and their allies of the Arboretum by means of a botanical key com- bined with pictures (not all drawn to the same scale) showing im- portant features of each fern. The key consists of numbered pairs of contrasting statements describing features of the plants. To use the key, both statements in a pair are read, and the one describing the plant at hand is followed. After following one or more such statements, one reaches a pair of silhouette sketches representing two ferns. These are distinguished by referring to the brief state- ments describing characteristic features of each. Arrows point out these features as depicted in the silhouettes. Technical terms describing ferns have been kept to a minimum in this introduction. Briefly, the fern leaf is called a frond. The frond may be simple or compound—divided into leaflets (called pinnae). The pinnae may in turn be compound. The stalk below the first pinnae of the frond is the stipe, and the stalk above the first pinnae is the rachis. The sporangia are the organs which produce the spores by which the ferns reproduce. Sporangia are either large 28 and globular or almost microscopic and flattened. Ferns with almost microscopic sporangia have them clustered together into sori (singular, sorus) which are easily visible to the naked eye. A deli- cate piece of tissue called the indusium (plural, indusia) covers the sorus, at least when it is young. These and other features of ferns are discussed in the article ‘The Truth about Ferns” by Ken Peck on page 6 of this issue of the Bulletin. (See also glossary on page 27.) The two fern allies treated here do not resemble typical fern plants and should not be mistaken for them. They are called fern allies because their life cycle resembles that of the true ferns. Ferns 1. Sporangia large, yellowish, borne on a separate portion of the frond. ai Limestone Adder’s Tongue Fern (Ophio- glossum engelmannii). The sterile portion of the frond is entire and elliptical, and the fertile portion is erect and unbranched. This fern is found on the numerous glades at the Arboretum. \ Grape Fern (Botrychium dissectum var. <— obliquum). The sterile portion of the frond is compound, and the fertile portion is erect and branched. The Grape Fern is not uncommon where rich, moist woods meet the many meadows at the Arboretum. The Cut-Leaved Grape Fern (Botrychium dissectum var. dissectum) also occurs at the Arboretum, often growing to- gether with the Grape Fern. It is distinguished by its very finely divided sterile portion of the frond. 29 1. Sporangia small, clustered into sori on the backs of the green pinnae of the frond. 2. Fronds with all the pinnae simple. Christmas Fern (Polystichum acrostichoides). The stipe and rachis are covered with numer- ous light brown scales. This fern and the next are very common in the woods at the Arboretum. The sporangia are on the upper pinnae of the frond. Usually there are so many that they cover the entire surface, and the circular indusia appear to be —- wading in a sea of sporangia. Ebony Spleenwort (Asplenium platyneuron). The stipe and rachis lack scales. The sporangia of this fern are in elongate sori on the backs of the pinnae. A flap-like indusium covers the sori when young, but as they mature the indusium is pushed back, and the sporangia cover most of the surface of the pinnae. 2. Fronds with at least some pinnae compound. 3. Margins of the pinnae reflexed over the sporangia. Purple-Stemmed Cliffbrake (Pellaea atro- purpurea). The pinnae are smooth and more than 1/4 inch broad. The sporangia of Cliffbrakes occur near the margins of the pinnae and form a continuous sorus. The sorus lacks an indusium but is covered by the reflexed margin of the pinna. The Smooth Cliffbrake (Pellaea glabella) also occurs at the Arboretum. It has a smooth stipe, _ while the stipe of the Purple Cliffbrake has scales and hairs. 30 : Slender Lipfern (Cheilanthes feei). The pinnae are densely wooly and less than 1/8 inch broad. This tiny fern shares many general features with the Cliffbrakes—it even occurs together with them on limestone cliffs. Its small size and very hairy and narrow pinnae easily separate it from them. 3. Margins of the pinnae not reflexed over the sporangia. : é “yr I" Blunt-Lobed Woodsia (Woodsia obtusa) The stipe and rachis are scaley. This Woodsia and the Fragile Fern are similar in overall appearance. The scaley stipe and rachis of the Woodsia easily distinguish it from the Fragile Fern, however. The Blunt-Lobed Woodsia is common at the Arboretum in rocky woods. Fragile Fern (Cystopteris fragilis). The stipe and rachis are smooth. The Fragile Fern’s close relative the bulblets Fern (Cystopteris bulbifera) also grows at the Arboretum. It is similar to the Fragile Fern, but its fronds are usually longer and more slender, and it produces bulblets on the undersides of the fronds. The bulblets fall off, germinate, and grow into plants. ok Fern Allies 1. Leaves long, grass-like, emerging from the bulb-like stem. \ Butler’s Quillwort (Isoetes butleri) This very unfern-like plant is typical of the limestone glades at the Arboretum. It might easily be mistaken for Wild Onion or a sedge. Internally the leaves are partitioned into four air-chambers which run the length of the leaf. Each chamber is interrupted along its length by cross-partitions giving the leaf a slightly jointed look. 1. Leaves minute, forming notched rings at the nodes of the tall, jointed stem. <— <— £— Rough Horsetail (Equisetum hyamale) Found along the flood-plain of the Meramec River at the Arboretum, where it forms extensive stands on the sandy shores. The Field Horsetail (Equisetum arvense) occurs at the Arboretum in similar situations. This species has whorls of slender branches arising at the nodes, while the Rough Horsetail is unbranched at the nodes or rarely has a few branches at scattered nodes. 32 STAFF DAVID M. GATES, Director ADMINISTRATIVE | Mark Paddock David Mitter — . : _ Assistant Director — Controller and Business Manager RESEARCH & RESEARCH SUPPORT SYSTEMATICS: Walter H. Lewis, Director of Herbarium Marilyn Andreasen Herbarium Supervisor ulius Boehmer Herbarium Associate Marshall R. Crosby Assistant Botanist, Curator of Cryptogams Sheri Davis Herbarium Assistant John D. Dwyer Research Associate Viktor Muehlenbach Research Associate Joan W. Nowicke Research Associate, Flora of Panama Royce L. Oliver Research Assistant Duncan M. Porter Curator, Flora of Panama John Ridgway Curator of Bryophytes Linda Vollmar, Herbarium Assistant Sally Walker, Research Associate SUMMIT HERBARIUM, CANAL ZONE Thomas B. Croat Patricia Croat Curator Herbarium Associate ECONOMIC BOTANY: Leonard Blake Hugh Cutler Research Associate Curator of Useful Plants LIBRARY Eugenia Maddox — Carla Lange Librarian Assistant Librarian Erna R. Eisendrath = Marion Koch Botanical Historian Head Cataloguer Brenda Gieseker Leanne Miller Manuscripts Cataloguer Assistant Cataloguer ECOLOGY: George Bakken Research Associate Lloyd Dunn Research Associate Paul Lommen Assistant Project Director Shmuel Moreshet Research Associate Gerald W. Pingel Research Technician Christa Schwintzer Research Associate Owen J. Sexton Research Ecologist James R. Spotila Research Assoctate Oscar H. Soule, Research Associate PUBLIC SERVICES Ladislaus Cutak Horticulturist and Manager of Public Relations Clarence Barbre Instructor Barbara Lawton Publications Manager Kenneth O. Peck Head of Education Sandra Thornton, Educational Associate HORTICULTURE & MAINTENANCE Robert J. Dingwall, Chief Horticulturist James Hampton, Chief Engineer and Superintendent of Operations Joseph Baker Grounds Maintenance Foreman Clifford Benson Plant Breeder Leroy Fisher Greenhouse Superintendent David Goudy Manager of Arboretum George Greene. Curator of Old Roses Claude Johnston Grower, Photographer Paul A. Kohl Consultant F. R. McMath Rosarian Jack Pavia Assistant Engineer Marian Pfeiffer Orchid Grower James Rhodes Assistant Greenhouse Superintendent Alfred Saxdal Grounds Superintendent Visit Your Missouri Botanical (Shaw’s) Garden he Missouri Botanical Garden’s main entrance is at Tower . Grove and Flora Place. The Garden is served by both the Sarah (No, 42) and the Southampton (No. 80) city bus lines. The Missouri Botanical Garden Arboretum—1600 acres— established at Gray Summit, Missouri, in 1926, is open to the public. The Garden—70 acres—is open every day except Christmas and New Year’s. For the main entrance, grounds, Climatron, display greenhouses, and Floral Display House: May 1 through October 31 .... 9:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. November 1 through April 30 9:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. Sundays and Holidays........ 9:00 a.m. to 7:00 p.m. For Tower Grove House: May 1 through October 31 ... . 9:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. November 1 through April 30 10:00 a.m. to 4:00 p.m. The Display House presents four major shows: November, Chrysanthemums; December, Poinsettias; February, Orchids; April, Spring Flower Show. During the year other shows, competitions, and festivals are sponsored by various garden clubs and flower societies. Courses in botany and horticulture for adults are conducted by the Garden staff. Children’s nature classes are provided free on Saturdays from mid-September to early June. The Pitzman Nature © Program is held for children during the summer. The Garden is world famous for its scientific research program. The scientists of the Garden hold teaching appointments on the staff of Washington University. The Missouri Botanical Garden was established for the public’s benefit in 1859 by Henry Shaw. The Garden, a non-profit institution, relies for support solely upon contributions from the public, the Arts and Education Council, and income from the Shaw estate. The Garden receives no city or state tax support. Support your Garden and take part in Garden activities through the Friends of the Garden. Information may be obtained from the Main Gate or by mail or phone (865-0440), = net epee Fy 2: cA _ MISSOURT BOTANICAL ~ GARDEN BULLETIN VOLUME LIX NUMBER 3 MAY-JUNE 1971 BOARD OF TRUSTEES — C. Powell Whitehead, President Tom K. Smith, Jr., First Vice President Sam’'] C. Davis, Second Vice President ~ Howard F. Baer : pi ate C. Barksdale Joseph H. Bascom - Leicester B. Faust Robert R. Hermann Henry Hitchcock — Leonard J. Holland A. Timon Primm ll Warren McKinney Shaplei gh Harry E. Wuertenbaecher, Jr. HONORARY TRUSTEES: George L. Cadigan Dudley Brencl es FEI 0. ME —— ee : ireh Mrs. Jerome _ Mrs. John S. Exbn John ge ae : Neal S. woo! Mrs. Virginia Brewer, Mgr. Tower Grove House HORTICULTURAL COUNCIL Edgar J. Gildehaus, Chairman Mrs, J. Herman Belz Mrs. Paul H. Britt E. G. Cherbonnier Carl Giebel Robert E. Goetz Earl Hath Mrs. Hazel L, rece F. R. McMath Dan R. O’ Gorman Ralph Rabenau Mrs. Gilbert J. Samuelson Mrs. J. Glennon Schreiber Rudy Zuroweste | St. Louis The Missouri Botanical Garden is a Fund Member of the Arts and Education Council of be St. Louis. MISSOURI BOTANICAL GARDEN EDITOR Barbara Perry Lawton EDITORIAL ASSISTANT Marjorie Richardson CIRCULATION Clarence Cherry SDITORIAL COMMITTEE David M. Gates Mark W. Paddock Kenneth O. Peck EDITORIAL & PUBLICATION OFFICE Missouri Botanical Garden 2315 Tower Grove Avenue St. Louis, Missouri 63110 Published bi-monthly by the Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Subscription ice: $5.00 a year, domestic; $6.00 a year, foreign; $1.00 per single copy. Entered as second-class matter at the Post Office at St. Louis, Missouri ANNUAL REPORT —1970 BULLETIN VOLUME LIX NUMBER 3 CONTENTS From the Director Financial Summary, 1960-70 Ecology Herbarium and Systematics Useful Plants Research Grants and Contracts Library Education Horticulture Arboretum Maintenance and Engineering Friends of the Garden Tower Grove House Public Relations Publications AN AMATEUR BOTANIST’S GREAT DISCOVERY David M. Gates Cover design by Peter Geist. Illustration is from a woodcut of the marigold (Calendula officinalis) in William Turner’s A New Herball published in London, 1551. 1 CY MAY-JUNE 1971 ANNUAL REPORT — 1970 From The Director KNOW OF NO institution which has more going for it today than does the Missouri Botanical Garden. It is an institution of beauty, pleasure, and learning and has, indeed, the best of both possible worlds. Shaw’s Garden, as it is affectionately known in St. Louis, is a significant force in the life of the community and yet has inter- national fame and respect as a scientific and horticultural institution. The Garden is not wealthy, and in fact was in extremely serious fiscal difficulty for several decades. Instigating a number of pro- cedures, such as charging admission to the Garden, working effec- tively with the Arts and Education Council of Greater St. Louis, improving food service, greatly enhancing the quality and quantity of sales at the Garden Gate Shop, and the procurement of grants has increased operating income to nearly keep pace with rapidly rising costs. A Capital Fund Campaign last year raised sufficient funds to allow the construction of the new John S. Lehmann herbarium- library-education building, to renovate many of our old facilities, and to improve endowment sufficiently to meet the operating ex- penses of the new building. Unfortunately endowment income has not kept pace with the increasing cost of living nor with the rate of increase of other income support. This has been a great disappoint- ment to me since I am convinced that the generosity of concerned people could correct the endowment needs of the Garden. Today men have on their consciences the realization that they are fouling their own nest, molesting their environment, and are eroding the quality of life for all future generations. The Missouri Botanical Garden has the experience and expertise, as well as the scientific collections and library, which will allow its staff to con- tinue to help mankind chart its course in a world which will always depend upon living things. 0 emery ees, : A “s Claude Johnston Dr. David M. Gates, Mrs. John S. Lehmann, and Board President C. Powell Whitehead broke ground for the John S. Lehmann Building on December 2, 1970. The new herbarium-library-education building is scheduled for completion in late spring of 1972. A generous increase in the endowment of the Garden will allow its staff to continue making outstanding contributions towards man’s understanding of plants. Compared with the plight of most institu- tions the endowment needs of the Garden are modest. Of course, any increase of endowment is helpful, but in order to have a stable, healthy, productive institution the Missouri Botanical Garden re- quires another $3 million. This is not very much money in terms of society as a whole. Yet if it is not achieved, the gap is a very serious one. The exciting thing is that a single individual or a few individ- uals could put this institution in good health for a long time to come. I am personally convinced that it can happen and will indeed come true. I will always, wherever I am, help to support the goals of this exciting and necessary institution. Good luck. David M. Gates Financial Summary, 1960-70 Expenditures $900,000 T T Total Expenditures aa 800,000 Total A Operating Expenses 966 b06 Expenditures, Grants, En Special Deposits A 600,000 = — od _— | 4) oe 500,000 gees == a ae ss a — Pet ee. | _ >. a 400,000 = a Pre 300,000 _-# b—-—— 4 / 200,000 7 ‘ - vd 100,000 +! ee ee eer @------ ~ oe “@----- -@------ a 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 Income $900,000 | T Total Operating Income 800,000 +— Endowment Income 700,000 F— Other Income 600,000 500,000 a 400,000 ie call 300,000 _--¢ 300,00€ RE aoe | an Ge a J, __ + neq ene (eee Oe aa ye 200,000 Hse — e ct ee: See wer ee Oar 100,000 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 HE ILLUSTRATIONS on the opposite page give a graphic un- derstanding of the Garden's financial affairs for the last ten fiscal years ending June 30, 1970. The first half of the decade witnessed an annual operating defi- cit as operating expenditures were greater than operating income. Since fiscal 1965, the operating budget has essentially been in balance. Increased operating income has largely been due to sources other than endowment —this is especially true in the past five years. Perhaps the most significant recent change is the seven-fold in- crease in expenditures from grants and special deposits. These funds are received in the form of grants and contracts for research and also as gifts earmarked for specific projects placed in special deposits. The procurement of grants, contracts, and special gifts are almost directly related to a more active role on the part of Garden staff in such activities. Therefore, it is apparent that the long-term financial security of the Missouri Botanical Garden is related to an increase in endow- ment income. Other sources of income for operations and specific projects are subject to more transient factors. 0 Claude johnston Businessmen tour the Growing Center in preparation for their work on the Arts and Education Council Fund Drive, which each year provides a substantial sum for the Garden's operating expenses. Ecology HE ECOLOGY GROUP, headed by Dr. David M. Gates, has been working on a model describing photosynthesis in terms of gas diffusion and enzyme kinetics. Predictions of photosynthesis and transpiration under a variety of environmental conditions are made possible by this model. Photosynthesis is the basic process by which green plants convert solar energy, carbon dioxide, and water to food. This process provides all food energy and oxygen for all living things. For this reason the model is an extremely valuable research project. Field work during the summer of 1970 was done at the Univer- sity of Michigan Biological Station and included continuation of work on the photosynthesis model. Dr. Christa Schwintzer and Dr. S. Moreshet also examined the microenvironment including relative humidity, temperatures, and radiation of a peat bog. Of particular interest was the rate of water use by the bog vegetation and possible relationships between the environmental conditions and the leaf morphology of the dominant shrubs. Dr. James Spotila and Dr. Oscar Soule’s work included microenvironments of salamander habitats. A series of fall ecological trips to study various habitats in Missouri were made. The first trip was to the Arboretum with a dis- cussion by Dr. Porter on local flora. A two day excursion on the Current River was also taken by the Ecology Group. Dr. Cutler ac- companied the group and described various aspects of river ecology. Tucker Prairie near Columbia, Missouri was visited to consider prairie soil structure and common prairie plant species. Dr. Claire Kucera from the University of Missouri guided the group. A natural limestone cave was explored during one of the field trips. The Ecology Group has continued to work on various related projects involving past work as well as the development of new analytical approaches to improve our research. Dr. George Bakken and Mr. Charles Puccia are studying the measurements of water use in an intact tree in the field. This will give us detailed information on how trees and their branches use water. An apparatus has been used by Dr. Bakken that pumps water 6 through a branch to test various techniques before actual field work is begun. Dr. Bakken came to the Garden in September from Rice University. Mr. Puccia is a graduate student in Electrical Engineering at Washington University. Dr. Lloyd Dunn received his doctorate from U.C.L.A. and has been at the Garden since the fall of 1970. His research there involved studying the water loss and CO? fixation of chaparral plants native to Chile and California in order to learn better how they have adapted to survive a long dry season each year. Here, Dr. Dunn has been developing a device to allow simultaneous measurements from a single attached leaf of water loss and CO2 uptake under different light intensities, temperatures, and humidities. Dr. Sam Ajiri, a native of Biafra (Eastern Nigeria), joined the Biophysical Ecology Group in November of 1970. He completed his Ph.D. at the University of Massachusetts and is concerned with boundary layer theories as applied to leaves. His work here pertains to transport co-efficients for simultaneous fluxes of heat and mass between the leaf and surrounding air. Knowledge gained here will be helpful in understanding plant mechanisms in food production. Dr. Ajiri has a degree in Food and Agricultural Engineering. Two graduate students, Mr. David Aronow and Mr. James McCrum, began their studies at Washington University this fall. Dr. Oscar Soule and Dr. Spotila have almost finished their research efforts and will be taking new positions in the fall of 1971. A combined work, completed in 1970, determined a climate space diagram for a medium sized alligator. This was used to re-examine some previous work done by other investigators and was also in- cluded in a discussion of the extinction of some of the dinosaurs. Presently, Dr. Spotila is working on effects of water loss on the energy budgets of amphibians. Dr. Soule took part in the Club Ex- plorecion Deportes Aquatico Mexicana Rio Mezquital Expedition in the states of Durango and Nayarit in Mexico. This expedition was the first non-native group to cross this region from the mountains to the sea and to make collections of plants and animals for scien- tific purposes. Dr. S. Moreshet, from Israel, has focused his efforts on a photo- synthesis model regarding the water use efficiency of plants, and is examining theoretically what methods can be used to reduce water loss without affecting crop yeilds. This will be especially useful in 7 countries which are short of water. Dr. Moreshet is also interested in developing a field porometer for measuring stomatal behavior. Continuing in the capacity of Assistant Project Director for Eco- logical Research is Dr. Paul Lommen. The mathematical and physical aspects of the photosynthesis model were worked out by Dr. Lommen and he has also helped in the research of other members of the ecology group. He and Dr. Schwintzer have spent considerable time writing and preparing the previously mentioned paper on the photosynthesis model. Dr. Schwintzer reviewed the literature on the various physiological aspects of photosynthesis to help determine the features incorporated into the photosynthesis model. She gave special attention to the extensive literature on photo-respiration and wrote an inhouse summary of it. Dr. Jesse Bennett left the Garden in June for work at the Uni- versity of Utah. His research here was primarily on the photosyn- thesis model and its relation to air pollution. Dr. Hyrum Johnson accepted a position at the University of California, Riverside, after completion of two years of study on the problem of energy exchange between leaves and environment with particular emphasis on gas exchange and the influence of pubescence. Dr. S. Elwynn Taylor left the Garden in mid-January, 1971. He finished his work for the Ph.D. degree which involved leaf size, leaf shape, and other adaptations of significance to plant survival. Mrs. Sylvia Morhardt will complete her Ph.D. in June, after fin- ishing her dissertation on the Belding Ground Squirrel which inhab- its high mountain meadows in the Sierra Nevadas of California. Her research has combined the energy budget techniques with physiological and behavioral data in order to relate the success of the species to the habitat with which it is commonly associated. 0 PUBLICATIONS-1970 Bakken, G. S., and J. A. Jordan, Jr. Optical design for beam-foil experiments. Nuclear Instruments and Methods, 90(1):181-185. Dunn, E. Lloyd. Seasonal patterns of carbon dioxide metabolism in evergreen sclero- phylls in California and Chile. Ph.D. Thesis, University of California, Los Angeles. (Libr. Congr. Card No. Mic. 71-9222) 139 p. Univ. Microfilms. Ann Arbor, Mich. Gates, David M. Animal climates (where ant- mals must live.) Environmental Research, 3(2):132-144. , Designing a decent planet. The National Gardener, 41(2):3-5. , Ecology: the integrative science, part 1. Current Science, Teacher's Edition §5(21):1-3. , Ecology: the integrative science, part II. Current Science, Teachers’s Edi- tion 55(23):1-3. , From the director (repr. as Ecology vs. Environment). Mo. Bot. Gard. Bul. 58(3):1. _____, Have you thanked a green plant today. The Garden Club of America Bulletin, 58(4). , One man speculates—which way will the world go? IBM Magazine 2(9): 44-45. ________, Physical and physiological proper- ties of plants. In Principles of Remote Sensing for Agriculture and Forestry. Produced by Committee on Remote Sens- ing for Agricultural Purposes by the National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council. 224-252. , Relationship between plants and atmosphere. In Challenge for Survival— Land, Air, and Water for Man in Mega- lopolis. Pierre Dansereau (ed.), Columbia University Press, New York and London. 145-154. _______, Strategy for living. Proc. SIO Sym- posium on Human Population Density and the Quality of Life. Univ. of Cali- fornia, LaJolla. , Synergisms of life and climate. Proc. Joint Symposium of the American Mete- orological Society and the U.S. Weather Services ‘‘A Century of Weather Prog- ress’’, Washington, D.C. , Weather modification in the service of mankind: promise or peril? In The Environmental Crisis—Man’s Struggle to Live with Himself. H. W. Helfrich, Jr., (ed.) Yale Univ. Press. New Haven and London. 33-46. , and Warren P. Porter. The energy budget of animals. Proc. Symposium on Physiological and Behavioral Tempera- ture Regulation. John B. Pierce Founda- tion Laboratory, New Haven. Lanphaer, F. O. and Oscar H. Soule. Injury to city plants from industrial emissions of herbicides. Hortscience, 5(4):215-217. Mooney, H. A. and E. Lloyd Dunn. Convergent evolution of mediterranean-climate ever- green sclerophyll shrubs. Evolution, 24 :292-303. _______, and E. Lloyd Dunn. Photosynthetic systems of mediterranean-climate shrubs and trees of California and Chile. Amert. Natur. _______, E. Lloyd Dunn, F. Shropshire, and L. C. Song, Jr. Vegetation comparisons between the mediterranean-climate areas California and Chile. Flora (Jena), 195: 480-496. Moreshet, S. Effect of environmental factors oncuticular transpiration resistance. Plant Physiol., 46:815-818. Soule, Oscar H. Animals, environment, and ecology. Missouri Bot. Gard. Bull., 58 (5):18-24. , Dr. George Engelmann, a complete scientist. Ann. of Missouri Bot. Gard., 57(2). , Lizard ecology, a symposium; a book review. Arid Lands Newsletter, 34:17:18. , and Charles H. Lowe. Osmotic con- centration of tissue fluids in the sahuaro giant cactus (Cereus giganteus). Ann. of Missouri Bot. Gard., 57(3). Spotila, James R. and Ronald J. Beumer. The breeding habits of the ringed salaman- der, Ambystoma annulatum (Cope), in Northwestern Arkansas. The American Midland Naturalist, 84(1):77-89. , The Role of temperature and water in the ecology and distribution of several species of salamanders of the family Plethodontidae. Ph. D. Thesis, Univers- ity of Arkansas, Fayetteville. Taylor, S. Elwynn. Tattered banana leaves. Missouri Bot. Gard. Bull., 58(5):14-18. _ «and David M. Gates. Some field methods for obtaining meaningful leaf diffusion resistances and transpiration rates. Oecologia Plantarum V, 103-112. Herbarium and Systematics Claude Johnston The two millionth number was stamped on a specimen of the red haw (Crataegus mollis), state flower of Missouri, on July 1, 1970. At that time the Herbarium con- tained an estimated two and one-half million specimens. Dr. Walter Lewis and former Herbarium Supervisor Susan Verhoek-Williams are shown here with Mark Paddock and Dr. Marshall Crosby. HERE HAS NEVER BEEN a greater need for the botanical curating and research that has been the backbone of the Garden’s scien- tific work since its founding in 1858. The accelerating destruction of the natural environment has increased the need for the under- standing of nature. Our systematics research and training program, which relies heavily upon the Herbarium’s vast collections of pre- served plants, increases the world’s knowledge in this vital area. The number of specimens incorporated into the Herbarium this year showed an increase over that of last year. Thirty-one thousand and eighty-seven specimens have been accessioned this past year, due primarily to exchanges of specimens with other institutions, gifts, purchases, and collections by staff members and others. 10 Specimens sent out on exchange from the Garden numbered 6,941 including cryptogams, and those specimens received on ex- change numbered 9,475. The exchanges received came from many parts of the world including Finland, Germany, Mexico, Panama, Poland, Russia, and the United States. The total number of specimens received as gifts was 1,205. This, however, does not include two large collections presented to the Herbarium. The first was a collection of African plants by Adele Grant presented through the University of California at Los Angeles. The total number of this collection is not known as yet because these specimens will not be curated until the new building is com- pleted. The second was a large collection of duplicates, primarily European plants, from the British Museum received through the University of Iowa. Other specimens received as gifts came from institutions in Canada, Brazil, Venezuela, Hawaii, Rhodesia, Panama, Australia, Mexico, and the United States. Two thousand nine hundred and four specimens were pur- chased by the Herbarium this year. These specimens were primarily African and were purchased through the F.B. and B.A. Krukoff Memorial Fund presented to the Garden last year specifically for the purchase of plants of Africa, the Middle East, and Australia. In December of 1970, the Fund was almost doubled which will no doubt dramatically increase the number of specimens from these areas to be purchased in coming years. The Garden is the official repository for African plants in North America and therefore this additional gift from Dr. and Mrs. Krukoff will be especially valuable. The number of loans requested from other institutions by stu- dents and staff members numbered fifty-six and included 2,893 specimens. The number of loans sent to other institutions numbered 131 and included 12,587 specimens. Dr. Tom Croat departed in March to become the curator of the Summit Herbarium in the Canal Zone and to continue his re- search for the flora of Barro Colorado Island. While in Panama, Dr. Croat has been doing extensive collecting for the Herbarium here and also for Summit Herbarium. He has collected on the Azuero Peninsula, in the Atlantic lowlands (Miguel de la Borda, Guasimo, Portobello, and Escobal), in Chiriqui Province, and in the cloud forests of Central Panama (Cerro Campana and Cerro Azul). While in the United States for the Symposium in October he made 11 trips to the Gray Herbarium, the New York Botanical Garden, and the Smithsonian Institution to examine herbarium specimens. Dr. John Dwyer travelled to Guatemala and several Middle American countries, including Honduras, under the auspices of the Organization of American States and the Instituto Centroamericano de Investigacion Tecnologia Industria (ICATI). He collected ap- proximately 1,500 numbers along with Mr. William Harmon, a pre-doctoral student at the University of Missouri/Columbia. In December, Dr. Dwyer visited the Museum d’Histoire Naturelle in Paris to check herbarium specimens. Other members of the staff who travelled and made collections this past year were as follows: Dr. Walter H. Lewis collected in the Bahama Islands, Panama, and Texas. In September, he attended the A.E.T.F.A.T. (Association pour l’Etude Taxonomique de la Flore d’Afrique Tropicale) meetings in Munich, Germany. Dr. Lewis also spent a few days at the Conservatoire et Jardin Botaniques in Geneva and Kew and the British Museum in London. A grant from the American Philosophical Society enabled Dr. Joan W. Nowicke to spend a month in London at the British Museum and at Kew. Dr. Nowicke photographed plant specimens collected in Panama by B.C. Seemann during the years 1847-1851. A list of these photographs will be published and made available to in- stitutions interested in the flora of Central America. Dr. Richard C. Keating spent time collecting in British Honduras. During the summer he was a faculty member of the Tropical Ecology Course, appointed through the Tropical Science Committee of the AUIE (Associated Universities for International Education) and was recently appointed Program Director for the 1971 course. Dr. Duncan M. Porter collected in Tennessee, North Carolina, northwestern Arkansas (with Dr. Delzie Demaree and W.G. D’Arcy), and also at the Arboretum with Dr. Marshall R. Crosby. Susan Verhoek-Williams, Sheri Davis, and Terry Luikart collected on the grounds of the Garden. Marilyn Andreasen, Sheri Davis, Terry Luikart, and Norma Fowler collected at the Arboretum and in Franklin County, Missouri. Dave Spellman, as a botanist with an expedition from the University of Edinburgh, collected plants in the Belize District of British Honduras. William G. D'Arcy collected in Panama, the Virgin Islands, and Puerto Rico, and northwestern Arkansas. John Semple collected in New England and West Texas. 12 Through the efforts of Dr. John Dwyer and his students some previously undetermined collections are being identified. Dr. Dwyer himself has continued his routine identification of recently collected Central American and Peruvian plants. Identification of Felix Woytkowski’s Peruvian collection of over 3,000 plants was con- ducted on a team-work basis with Dr. Dwyer’s students. A list of these identifications will be sent to any institution interested in Woytkowski’s collections. Also, in connection with a course in plant identification taught on an inter-university basis through ISEB, many Mexican, Central American, and Peruvian flowering plants have been identified. The Flora of Panama, of course, was still an active concern. The determination by various staff members and distribution to other institutions of specimens collected on previous trips to Panama has continued. In September the Herbarium received a substantial grant, to be used over a three year period, from the Sunnen Foundation of Claude Johnston Marilyn Andreasen, Herbarium Supervisor, opens the new compactor which has proven so useful in multiplying the storage capacity of the Garden’s herbarium facilities. 13 St. Louis. This grant is being used for the hiring of much needed help in the Herbarium and for the purchase of supplies. Collections in the Cryptogamic Herbarium have increased. Several thousand more mosses were put into new high quality packets and placed in the recently adopted vertical filing cases. In addition, several new exchanges were initiated which should bring valuable specimens to the Garden in years to come. An extensive collection of microscopic mounts of moss plants was obtained for the Cryptogamic Herbarium from Dr. H.S. Conard, author of many papers concerning mosses and also the popular guide ‘How to Know the Mosses.” An article concerning Mr. Leonardo Mourre and his work as a botanical illustrator will be contained in the next issue of G. H. M. Lawrence’s Botanical Illustrators published by the Hunt Botanical Library. Leonardo is the illustrator for the Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. A new facility, called the Compactor, was installed in the Herbarium Annex this year. The Compactor consists of a series of doorless cases which fit together tightly when not in use. To gain Claude Johnston Leonardo Mourre works on a botanical illustration for the Annals. 14 access to the specimens the user turns a wheel at the end of the row and the bases slide apart creating an aisle. The algae, lichens, fern allies, and a portion of the ferns are housed in the Compactor. The Compactor was installed in the Herbarium Annex to test it for possible extensive use in the new building and it appears that it will be quite satisfactory. In 1970 the Annals published a large issue devoted primarily to papers first presented at the 1969 systematics symposium. The theme of this symposium was “Tropical Island Biogeography,” and the subject matter of the various papers ranged from fruit flies in Hawaii to mosses in the West Indies. Another number of the Annals published in 1970 was a continuation of the long series treating the plants of Panama. This issue of the “Flora of Panama” series included treatments of seven families of plants including the dogbane family (Apocynaceae) which has many representatives in Panama. In 1971 it is hoped that a special issue of the Annals will be devoted to the memory of Dr. Edgar Anderson. The 1970 Sympo- sium, “Hybridization, Evolution, and Systematics,” was dedicated to Dr. Anderson and attracted over 200 botanists and zoologists. Dr. G. Ledyard Stebbins of the University of California, Davis, served as Moderator, and papers were presented by Dr. Lewis Anderson of Duke University, Dr. Leslie D. Gottlieb of the Uni- versity of California, Davis, Dr. Norton Nickerson of Tufts University, Dr. Sarah B. Pipkin of Howard University, Dr. Robert K. Selander of the University of Texas, and Dr. Lester Short of the American Museum of Natural History. Dr. Charles B. Heiser, Jr., of Indiana University shared some early memories of Dr. Anderson at the evening talk that capped the Symposium. During the year the Institute for Systematic and Evolutionary Botany added several new members. Joining from the University of Missouri/St, Louis is Dr. John E. Averett, a chemical taxonomist, who is working on a biosystematic study of Goillardia (Compositae) and a chemical study of the gypseous species of Halopappus (Compositae). Dr. Averett recently completed studies on the Cham- aesaracha and the Leucophysalis, both members of the Solanaceae family. Two new members were elected from the Garden staff, Mrs. Erna Eisendrath, Botanical Historian and Mr. Kenneth O. Peck, Head Instructor of the Education Department. Members elected ex officio were: Dr. Lawrence D. Friedman of the University of 15 Missouri/St. Louis; Dr. John W. Hopkins, Washington University; Dr. Harold E. Manner, St. Louis University; and Dr. Richard B, Parker, Southern Illinois University/Edwardsville. The Institute, founded late in 1969, has continued to provide an excellent curric- ulum in systematics for undergraduates and graduate students. As a result of this consortium, many new inter-university courses were added for the Fall semester. Research activities of the systematics staff and graduate stu- dents continue in several fields. In cytology, Dr. Walter H. Lewis and Mr. Royce L. Oliver have reported two new botanical phenomena: Chromosomal drift, which is the variation of the basic units of heredity around an environmental condition; and multiple geno- types in individuals, a phenomena in which chromosomal number may vary according to the part of the plant studied. Mr. Terry Luikart continues his morphological and medical work with the Scanning Electron Microscope. Dr. Marshall R. Crosby continues his research on the classification and evolution of mosses. Dr. Duncan M. Porter is working on the Flora of Panama and Dr. Thomas B. Croat on the rain forest ecosystem of Panama. These are only a few examples of the research being conducted by the systematics group in taxonomy, cytology, evolution, geography, ecology, medicine, floristics, and histology. Two students received doctoral degrees this year. Bruce MacBryde finished his degree at Washington University in January and is now a Research Associate at the Instituto de Ciencias, Pontificia Universidad Catolica del Ecuador, Quito and has also been appointed to the Department of Biology at St. Louis University. The title of his dissertation was ‘A Revision of the Galphimiinae”’. Daniel F. Austin also completed his doctoral degree at Washington University in August with a dissertation entitled “A Monograph of the American Erycibeae (Convolvulaceae): Maripa, Dicranostyles, and Lysiostyles.” He is currently on the staff of Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida. © 16 PUBLICATIONS-1970 Austin, Daniel F. What's in a wort. Missouri Bot. Gard. Bull. 58(3):4-5. Averett, John. Chamaesaracha (Solanaceae), In D. S. Correll and M. C. Johnston, Manual of the Vascular Plants of Texas, pp. 1392-93, 1741-43. Croat, Thomas B. Seasonal flowering behavior in Central America. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 56:295-307. , Family 2A, Gnetaceae, In Flora of Panama, Part 2. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 57:1-4. Crosby, Marshall R. The mosses reported from Panama. Bryologist 72:513-521. , [review of] Willem Daniel Margadant. Early Bryological Literature. Bryologist 72:541-542. , [review of] Andrew Denny Rodgers, III. ‘‘Noble Fellow’’ William Starling Sullivant. Bryologist 72:543. , Distribution patterns of west Indian mosses. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 56: 409-416. , [review of] The illustrated flora of Illinois, edited by RobertH. Mohlenbrock. Missouri Bot. Gard. Bull. 58(6):31-33. , A study of Groutiella apiculata and G. mucronifolia. Bryologist 73:607-611. D'Arcy, William G. The Ozark flora—Some collections of note. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 56:465-467. , In Chromosome numbers of phanero- gams 3. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 56: 471-475. , Jacquin names, some notes on their typification. Taxon 19:554-560. ___, Mock bishop's weed in the New World tropics: range extension for Prilimnium capillaceum (Umbelliferae). Rhodora 72:393-396 Dwyer, John D. Plant systematics and the Garden in winter. Missouri Bot. Gard. Bull. 58:41-43. , with George R. Romano. A demon- stration of sieve plates in the Podo- stemaceae. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 97: 307-309. , with Sister M. Victoria Hayden. Seed morphology in the tribe Morindeae (Rubiaceae). Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 96: 704-710. 17 Gentry, Alwyn. A revision of Tabebuia (Big- noniaceae) in Central America. Brittonia 22: 246-264. Keating, Richard C. Comparative morphology a the Cochlospermaceae. II]. Anatomy of the young vegetative shoot. Amer. Journ. Bot. 57:889-898. Lewis, Walter H. Species roses in the United States and their relation to modern roses. American Rose Annual 55:78-85. , Chromosomal drift, a new phenom- enon in plants. Science 168:1115-1116. , Extreme instability of chromosome number in Claytonia virginica. Taxon 19: 180-182. , Species roses in the United States, their relationship to modern roses. Mis- souri Bot. Gard. Bull. 58:22-26. , Missouri Botanical Garden as re- pository of African material in North America. Taxon 19:345-346. ____, Hedyotis (Rubiaceae), In D. S. Correll and M. C. Johnston, Manual of the Vascular Plants of Texas, pp. 1487-1490. , with R. L. Oliver. In Chromosome numbers of phanerogams 3. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 56:471-475. MacBryde, Bruce. Rediscovery of G. Marcgrave's Brazilian collections (1638- 1644). Taxon 19:349. Nowicke, Joan W. Family 174, Apocynaceae, In Flora of Panama, Part 8. Ann. Mis- souri Bot. Gard. 57:59-130. Oliver, Royce L. The genus Sisyrinchium, In D. S. Correll and M. C. Johnston, Man- ual of the Vascular Plants of Texas, pp. 425-428. , with W. H. Lewis. In Chromosome numbers of phanerogams 3. Ann. Mis- souri Bot. Gard. 56:471-475. Porter, Duncan M. The rape of Panama. Mis- souri Bot. Gard. Bull. 58(1):11-17. _______, The genus Dodonaea (Sapindaceac) in the Galapagos Islands. Occas. Papers Calif. Acad. 81:1-4. —_____, Zygophyllaceae Caltrop Family. In E. A. Menninger, Flowering Vines of the World, p. 340. ______, Tropical Island Biogeography: The Missouri Botanical Garden's Sixteenth Annual Systematics Symposium. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 56:293-294. , Some new combinations in Protium (Burseraceae). Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 56 :475-476. —_——.,, Zygophyllaceae. In D. S. Correll and M. C. Johnston, Manual of the Vascular Plants of Texas, pp. 901-906. —_______, Kallstroemia in the Middle Atlantic States. Rhodora 72:397-398. —., [review of] Flowering vines of the world, by E. A. Menninger. Missouri Bot. Gard. Bull. 58(6):29-31. —_______, Family 91, Burseraceae, In Flora of Panama, Part 7. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 57:5-27. , [review of] Wild flowers of the world, by Brian D. Morley. Sci. Books —_——, with James A. Duke. Darien Phyto- sociological Dictionary. Battelle Memo- rial Institute, Columbus, Ohio. 70 pp. Romano, George R., with Yow-Yuh Chen. An illustrated key to some fossilized post glacial, climatic indicator pollens. Taiwania 15:227-244, , with J. D. Dwyer. A demonstration of sieve plates in the Podostemaceae. Bull Torrey Bot. Club 97:307-309. Verhock-Williams, Susan. Olives, past and present. Missouri Bot. Gard. Bull. 58(3): 18-24. , Family 152, Primulaceae, In Flora of Panama, Part 8. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 57:51-54. , Family 153, Plumbaginaceae, In Flora of Panama, Part 8. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 57:55-58. 6:231-232. Useful Plants AST YEAR, for the first time, we made comparisons of the total number of plants used by people at a single place and at a single time period with collections used by people in the past or at other places. The many specimens of useful plants from living peoples and from archeological sites which have been studied at the Garden pro- vided most of the data. They show that changes in use and in the characters of a plant are often accompanied by related changes in patterns of use and in the evolution of other plants. This new ap- proach provides a method to interpret inter-action of plant evolution and culture change, and will be especially useful in studies of food production and use in agricultural communities of underdeveloped areas, Some of this research was supported by a grant from the Na- tional Science Foundation as well as contributions from other insti- tutions for travel and assistance. At the request of the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Northern Regional Research Laboratory we reviewed our corn collections for types which could contribute desirable characters to high protein 18 food for humans and other animals. Several ears among our Bolivian collections were selected to be bred with high-yielding strains in order to adapt short day Bolivian plants to corn belt growing condi- tions. Modern field corn is a selection from only a few of the many thousands of kinds the Indians grew for special purposes and en- vironments. As we try to increase and improve our food crops, we will have to turn more often to collections like those assembled at the Garden in our search for different sorts of germ plasm. Leonard Blake continued his work on archeological plant ma- terials. Most of his time was spent on collections recently excavated from sites in the Mississippi River Valley. He visited many of these sites in order to demonstrate techniques for recovery, identification, and interpretation of plant materials. Largely as a result of his efforts, archeologists in this region have recovered more plant specimens in the past few years than in all previous years. With these collections we can study evolution in cultivated plants near St. Louis over a thousand year period. Agriculture here was well-developed in pre- historic times but was slow to change, probably as a result of in- fluence from the great trade and ceremonial center of Cahokia. Scholars frequently visit the Garden to consult the collections and to work with out staff. Dr. Martin Cardenas, Professor of Botany from Cochabamba, Bolivia, for example, spent June here, working on a revised edition of his book, Plantas Economicas de Bolivia, 0 PUBLICATIONS-1970 Blake, Leonard W., and Hugh C. Cutler. The © ————,, and Leonard W. Blake. Floral re- builders of Cahokia Mounds and their mains from the Tyler-Rose site, Okla- cultivated plants. Missouri Botanical homa River Basin Survey Archeological Garden Bulletin 58(5)25-32. Site Report 19:57-59. Cutler, Hugh C. (Review of) Martin Cardenas’ © ———, and Leonard W. Blake. Plants from ‘“‘Plantas Economicas de Bolivia’’. Eco- Arizona J:6:1. Plateau 43:42-44. nomic Botany 24:107-108. , with Vorsila L. Bohrer and Jonathan , Review of C. W. Pennington’s ‘‘The D. Sauer. Carbonized plant remains from Tepehuan of Chihuahua: Their Material two Hohokam sites, Arizona. Kiva 35: Culture."’ Economic Botany 24:228-229. 1-10. , and Leonard W. Blake. Corn from Cahokia sites. Illinois Archaeological Society Bulletin 7:122-136. 19 Research Grants and Contracts in Effect in 1970 HE HEALTHY STATUS of the Missouri Botanical Garden in the world of science is reflected by the continuing strength of its research programs. The Garden receives a number of grants from various federal agencies as well as from national and local foundations. This financial support makes it possible for the Garden to con- tinue to play its important role in the world today, and provides funds for research associates, graduate students, research assistants, and helps our scientists obtain the equipment and tools so vital to their work. 0 Title Agency Amount Period “Energy Exchange within Ecosystems”’ Atomic Energy Commission $ 24,900 1 year ‘Biophysical Theoretical Ecology’’ Ford Foundation $420,000 5 years ‘Maintenance, Repair and Renovation of MBG Library”’ Green Foundation $ 59,000 3 years ‘Curatorial Operations of Herbarium” Sunnen Foundation $ 57,000 3 years “Flora of Panama (4th Cont.)’’ NSF $ 73,500 2 years “Identification of Archeological Plant Materials” NSF $ 7,086 2 years “Maintenance and Curatorial Support of MBG Herbarium and Library’ NSF $ 30,000 1 year “Operating Support of MBG Systematics Facility in Panama”’ NSF $ 11,000 1 year Publication of Annals’’ NSF $ 29,300 3 years Systematics Symposium (1970) “Hybridization, Evolution and Systematics’’ NSF $ 1,800 1 year 20 Library HE MISSOURI BOTANICAL LIBRARY was able to begin work on several projects that had long been under consideration. This was made possible by two grants, one of $9,000 for one year from the National Science Foundation and another of $59,000 for three years from the Allen P. and Josephine B. Green Foundation. The National Science Foundation grant has been renewed for 1971, its third year. Reclassification and recataloguing, which has been in the plan- ning stages for several years, was begun after the employment of Miss Marion Koch as head cataloguer. Miss Leanne Miller, who joined the library staff in October, 1970, is assisting in the work of cataloguing and recataloguing. After careful consideration of various book classification schemes, the Library of Congress Classification, with a few modi- fications, was adopted for our library. This classification offers many advantages including compatibility with the systems being used in the majority of research libraries. Another important step in organizing the library’s collections was the employment of Mrs. Brenda Gieseker as manuscripts cata- loguer. The Missouri Botanical Garden has impressive holdings of manuscripts, but with the exception of the Engelmann correspon- dence this material has been scattered throughout the library in a completely disorganized state. Mrs. Gieseker will arrange, index, file, and calendar all manuscripts. A useful publication listing scientific and technical periodicals in the Missouri Botanical Garden Library and the Washington Uni- versity Libraries was issued during 1970 as Washington University’s Library Studies Number 6, Circulation statistics for our library do not reflect the true rate of use because researchers and students consult many books and periodicals in the library without finding it necessary to borrow them for extended periods for home or office use. Books borrowed totalled only 1250. In addition, 239 requests for interlibrary loans were filled. The library borrowed 25 publications from other institutions on in- terlibrary loan. 21 Although library users were primarily staff members and gradu- ate students, there were many others who came from all parts of the United States as well as from foreign countries. During the past year, cataloguers processed 668 titles consisting of 861 volumes. The library is currently receiving 1411 serial publi- cations. Of these, 820 are received through exchange, 119 as gifts, and 472 as purchases. Two foundation grants have already been mentioned. Other generous donors of funds were Mrs. John S. Lehmann and the Na- tional Council of State Garden Clubs. Mrs. Lehmann’s gift was for the restoration of the magnificent eight volume set of Redoute’s Les Liliacées by the R.R. Donnelley Company. The National Coun- cil of State Garden Clubs donations were for the repair and restora- tion of books. A large collection of books, periodicals and pamphlets was received from the estate of Dr. Edgar Anderson. There were many other gifts, too numerous to mention here, from individuals, organ- izations and institutions. With additional funds for the purchase of equipment and materials there has been vast improvement in both the quality and quantity of work done by the staff of book repairers and restorers. Their total output was 433 books, many of which required exceptionally careful handling because of deterioration resulting from such things as air pollution and lack of humidity and heat control. The leather bindings of 500 volumes have been treated with preservative. Most of our current periodicals are being bound by a commer- cial binder. A total of 419 volumes were bound in this manner during 1970. Carla Lange and Eugenia Maddox attended the Conference on Botanical and Horticultural Libraries held at the Hunt Botanical Library, Pittsburgh, in April. A paper on Union Library Catalogues was read by Eugenia Maddox at this meeting. Carla Lange continued to select from the library’s collection of pre-Linnaean herbals the illustrations to be reproduced for the covers of the Missouri Botanical Garden Bulletin. For 1970 she selected woodcuts from Parkinson’s Theatrum Botanicum. Her articles on this work appeared in the Bulletin, 0 22 Education Department J.M. Carrington Each spring children come to the gardening courses given by the Education De- partment under the direction of Ken Peck, assisted by volunteers from the Men's Garden Clubs of Greater St. Louis. NE WORD THAT MIGHT aptly describe the efforts of the Education Department during 1970 is variety. Like so many activities in education, there is a constant need to review old materials, update, and even change them. One popular trend in adult courses is toward the workshop in which students spend more time working with plant materials than listening to lectures. Four programs for children were offered by the Education De- partment. The oldest of these is the Pitzman Summer Nature Pro- gram, first given in the summer of 1958. The good fortune of this program has been the gracious financial support of the Pitzman Charitable Trust. For the first time, each child this year was charged oo a small fee to help cover ever-increasing costs of materials. This had virtually no effect on the number of children who attended and seemed to reduce the attrition in attendance which is natural after the first two weeks of each session. The St. Louis Audubon Society played a bigger role than usual in the program by renting buses to take one entire group from each session to the Arboretum for a day. This was a new experience for the Education Department and for most of the children who came equipped for walking and collecting insects. The purpose of the trip was to let them visit natural areas under the guidance of trained naturalists. Lanier Criger once again organized her Audubon staff for teaching the course in bird study. The second oldest children’s program is the Saturday Morning Program, which also began in 1958. A fifteen-cent per person charge, effective last September, has made children more selective in choos- ing the programs they wish to attend. The most popular programs are those in which children plant bulbs or cuttings and make terrar- iums or Christmas wreaths. It was estimated that 425 people made wreaths for Christmas 1970. There is an increasing and welcome trend for parents to sit in on the classes with their children. Approximately 7,000 students and teachers participated in the very popular Plant Science Lectures and Workshops. This is a pro- gram in which a teacher may arrange to bring a class to the Garden for a botany lesson. The Workshops are expanded sessions in which students learn to identify plant materials. The volunteer Garden Guides are now leading most of the Gar- den tours. The Education Department still gives tours to high school and college biology and ecology classes. Department members led 2,200 people on their 1970 tours. The most popular new adult courses and workshops were the two terrarium courses using woodland and tropical plants, ‘Ecology and the Environment,” and the “Christmas Decoration Workshop.” The course in “Herbaria and Herbarium Techniques” was well- received. Other new courses included “Patio Gardening” and “Plant Communities”. Our two basic courses in raising plants from seeds and cuttings consistently draw full registrations year after year, as does “Home Orchid Culture.” One adult activity that the Education Department enjoyed setting up for was the European Floral Design Festival, co-sponsored by the Garden and Florist Transworld Delivery (FTD). Six Belgian 24 florists demonstrated European methods of floral design, and the arrangements they made were sold to the people who attended. Mrs. Landon Jones and other volunteers conducted the sale and the pro- ceeds went to the Garden. The Education Department is now setting up instructional dis- plays monthly in the Growing Center. The largest display was the one featuring early spring wildflowers. This was followed by a dis- play of common weeds which was very popular. The display of plants damaged by air pollutants such as ozone and sulfur dioxide was of interest but we found that it was very difficult to damage plants with pollutants short of killing all the foliage! The fall display featured squashes and pumpkins and their new world origins. A dis- play of cones and cut branches of conifers made an interesting botanical treatment of Christmas materials. These displays depend greatly on the artistic ability of Sandra Thornton. Miss Thornton was given an Audubon Nature Camp scholar- ship by the local Audubon Society and attended the Wisconsin Camp, which she found very rewarding. Mrs. Shirley Barnett helped us coordinate all of our activities. Horticulture ANY CHANGES OCCURRED in Horticulture in 1970. The first big event was the opening of the Growing Center in March. This new facility was created through funds raised by the Friends of the Garden during the first Plant Sale in October 1969. The Growing Center is located just off the Floral Display House and is manned by volunteer guides who conduct tours and do the general maintenance and upkeep of plants in the area. Exhibits on growing and propagating plants, as well as special lectures on gar- dening, have added a great deal of interest for groups visiting the Garden. Later in the year an office for the Public Services Coordi- nator was added to the Growing Center. 25 In October, renovation of the American Desert House was finished and the building was again opened to the public. This dis- play uses a new technique that gives the visitor an ecological im- pression of the American desert. We have received much good reaction from the public on this new display. In the Floral Display House brick planters were added to the upper level and redwood panels installed in the main area to con- ceal heating pipes and add a more suitable background for floral displays. Hardy chrysanthemums were planted in an area south of the new Desert House and give a pleasing colorful effect in autumn when viewed from several areas. An organic vegetable garden was set up under the direction and care of Bill Davit. It created considerable interest and wil] be a permanent feature each year. The Boxwood Society under the leadership of Mrs. D. Goodrich Gamble was successful in collecting approximately forty A beautiful Japanese garden, designed by Roy Fisher and Jim Rhodes, was the focal point of the 1970 Chrysanthemum Show and Preview Party. 26 different varieties of boxwood. A test area was set up in the Garden, and over 800 plants were planted late in the summer. Plans call for establishing a boxwood garden in memory of Dr. Edgar Anderson, and we hope to start on this in the spring of 1971. Early in the year we were successful in securing the services of Leroy Fisher as Greenhouse Superintendent and James Rhodes as Assistant. They have made a number of improvements in growing, such as adding automatic watering to part of the growing range. Through improved methods of growing, chrysanthemums for the fall show were produced in about half the time required in the past. Better use of the growing space has been made possible by rearrange- ment of growing benches and the installation of more automatic watering. Alfred Saxdal was made Grounds Superintendent, and under his watchful eye, vast improvements were made. An automatic water system was added to the area between the main gate and the Clima- tron. Lawn renovation was carried out in this area and in front of the Desert Houses. Other parts of the lawns and shrub areas received increased maintenance, giving a neater appearance to the overall grounds area. A number of new pieces of power equipment were purchased as part of the Capital Fund Drive renovation project, thus enabling the grounds maintenance crew to make a large increase in productivity and efficiency. The horticulture operations of the Garden receives a great deal of aid and support from the St. Louis Herb Society. Aside from main- taining the Herb Garden, they volunteer help in the greenhouses and their annual herb sale produces much needed funds for horti- cultural supplies and equipment. We also receive volunteer and financial support from a number of other groups and individuals. Without this support it would be difficult to continue to make needed improvements. Through the cooperation of the Men’s Garden Club of St. Louis, the “Answer Man” service flourished in 1970, answering 7,209 calls pertaining to gardening and horticulture. Each morning during the warmer seasons an expert gardener is on hand to receive calls from the general public. When the caller wishes to have advice from some specialist on the Garden staff, the “Answer Man” takes his number, and after consultation, calls the individual back with the requested information. Pi; The past school year our Garden staff has been working with twenty Soldan High School students on a horticulture work-study program sponsored by the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare through the St. Louis School Board. The program entitled Project Stay, is an effort to encourage students to stay in school to complete their high school education while learning a vocation they can pursue after graduation. Two groups of students spend half days in the Garden and then attend school during the other half day. The students spend much of the time on the job receiving practical experience while classes are periodically held to help the students acquire the theory to aid in basic skills and knowledge of maintenance in the various aspects of horticulture. In one regard 1970 witnessed the end of an era at the Missouri Botanical Garden. Mr. Paul Kohl, who was associated with the Gar- den for over 50 years, retired at the end of the year. For over 40 years, Paul Kohl created the beautiful floral displays enjoyed by millions of people in the Floral Display House. A man of immense integrity, intelligence and devotion to his task, Paul Kohl has become a legend in his own time. (J The Arboretum HE ARBORETUM IS BECOMING a greater source of interest and activity appropriate to a facility of its unique beauty and natural features. During the summer the National Park Service and the Arboretum coordinated a program on environmental awareness (Project NEED). Over 1,500 city children spent time at the Arbore- tum, enjoying and learning first hand about the natural environment. The St. Louis Audubon Society and other natural history groups continue to use the area for nature walks and classes. A Washington University program at the Arboretum farm continued with its fourth group of students. The experience of studying and living for a semes- ter in a rural environment, a unique situation for students predomi- nantly from the city, has shown itself to be an effective educational 28 tool. Plans for a more rigorous program are being considered by the University and Garden. This fall a number of important changes occurred. Mr. Frank Steinberg retired as superintendent, having been associated with the Arboretum since 1927. The excellent condition of the facility today is a tribute to his careful and conscientious management. The fall also marked acquisition of two important new pieces of property. Mrs. Stratford Morton donated her beautiful Persimmon Hill, 253 acres located along the southwest corner of the Arboretum. The Garden then purchased another farm, belonging to the Bair family, lying along the western edge of the present farm and easily visible from the bluffs of the Morton’s and the Arboretum. This protective action came at a time when developers are acquiring numerous hold- ings in the area to accomodate the westward sprawl of St. Louis. The Arboretum now can protect nearly three miles of the scenic Meramec River for enjoyment and study. Perhaps most significant to the future of the Arboretum was funding of a basic program to develop it as a center for environ- mental education. Scheduled to begin in the spring of 1971, it will encourage public use of the Arboretum, and promote an increased understanding and appreciation for the beauty and importance of our natural environment. For too long man has been guilty of a gross misuse of the land, air, and water which support his life. In- creasing population with its consumptive technology demands an enlightened responsibility for this environment of which man is an inextricable part. The Arboretum provides an unsurpassed facility and opportunity for providing the public with insights into the eco- logical as well as aesthetic necessity of adopting a new environmental ethic based upon man working with nature. Two major roles of the Garden are education and research. It is appropriate and important that we, as a vital community institu- tion, take an active role in environmental education and research. The Arboretum has the potential to have one of the most outstand- ing environmental education programs and natural history research areas in the nation. The Garden has the talent to make it so. We are now taking the first small step toward that goal. 0 20 Maintenance and Engineering NUMBER OF PROJECTS were completed in 1970 as part of the renovation begun at the Garden in 1965. Acceleration of this program was possible as funds from the successful Capital Fund Drive became available and were earmarked for the renovation projects. Under the expert guidance of Mr. Jim Hampton, Chief Engineer and Superintendant of Operations, long-standing maintenance needs have been met, such as the cracked stone steps and rusty eroded rails on the south entrance to the Museum which were finally re- paired with new stone and recast ironwork. For many decades this was an unfortunate eyesore on this, one of the Missouri Botanical Garden’s original buildings built by Henry Shaw. The service entrance on Alfred Avenue was completely refur- bished. The buildings in the maintenance area were equipped with sliding doors, and a vast maintenance and storage room was created out of the old coal bin near the boilers. Over 3,000 square feet of bright, clean, useful space was prepared using a little ingenuity and a lot of effort on the part of our resident maintenance staff. Two greenhouses were completely renovated, and the Desert House mentioned in more detail under ‘Horticulture’ was Claude Johnston These before and after pictures clearly show the vast improvements made on the south entrance of the Museum. 30 completely remodeled. Our carpenters, electricians and other main- tenance personnel put many hours into the creation of a Growing Center and office for the Coordinator of Community Services. This renovation program will continue for the next few years using funds earmarked for this purpose in the Capital Fund Drive. As renovation progresses, maintenance costs diminish and efficiency of operation increases. The maintenance and engineering staff are heavily involved in tasks related to the new John S. Lehmann Building, now under construction. Some of the work pertaining to this new building is being done by our own staff. Mr. Hampton has had to dovetail tasks relating to the construction of this new building into his normal workload. We are extremely fortunate to have such a conscientious and productive maintenance department at the Missouri Botanical Gar- den. The efforts of these staff members are becoming more apparent daily. O Friends of the Garden N 1970, THE FRIENDS of the Garden continued their financial support of the Missouri Botanical Garden through annual mem- bership contributions, profits from the Garden Gate Shop, the Annual Plant Sale, and the Spring Fiesta Trip. The Friends also played a large part in the expansion of the Garden’s community services. Friends activities doubled under the direction of the enthusi- astic President, Mrs. Walter G. Stern, who was assisted by the Women’s Executive Board, and many other volunteers who helped make 1970 the most exciting year in the Friends’ thirty-one year history. The Garden made 500 new Friends as the result of an extensive membership drive under the direction of Mrs. C. Carroll Stribling, Sr., Chairman. Her committee spent innumerable hours collating lists, and sending invitations to “Become a Friend of the Garden.” 31 The second super plant sale was held October 3, with proceeds going for the construction of the community services office adja- cent to the Growing Center. In addition to plants grown at the Garden, material not usually available commercially was brought in for this sale. Volunteers stocked the shelves and served as sales- people under the direction of Co-Chairmen Mrs. Tom K. Smith, Jr. and Mrs. Donald J. Sher. In early April, thirty-five Friends joined Dr. and Mrs. Gates for the Spring Fiesta Tour to New Orleans. They toured private gardens in the Vieux Carre and the Garden district and participated in the city’s Spring Fiesta. Each traveler contributed fifty dollars to the Garden. May 6 was Friends Day at the Garden and included guided tours, a talk on ecology by Andy Johnson, rides on the Flower Wagon, a gift plant for each Friend, and gourmet box lunches served in the Floral Display house. Three workshops were held for the membership. In June, Bob Dingwall and Al Saxdal of the Garden staff, assisted by members of the St. Louis Rose Society, lectured and then took guests on tours through the rose gardens to give practical hints on rose care. In August, Nelson Russell gave instructions on fall lawn care. December 1, Mary Gamble presented a talk on the history of herbs and Virginia Schreiber discussed the use of herbs in the kitchen, in the beauty ritual, and in creative housekeeping. That afternoon, Jim Rhodes demonstrated the use of natural materials in making Christmas decorations. Preview parties, held on the Friday evening before the floral displays are opened to the public, continue to be the Friends most popular event. The Orchid Show Preview in February included a preview of the new Growing Center. The Spring Flower Show Preview was held in March, and the Chrysanthemum Show Preview was in October. The Christmas Flower Show Preview is especially for children and grandchildren of members. Our very special Garden Santa arrived December 12 in a gaily decorated motorized cart and gave each guest a tiny, live pine and a candy Christmas tree. The Garden Gate Shop enjoyed another very busy and prof- itable year. Gross sales were double that of the first year, of the present Shop and twenty five per cent above 1969. 32 The Shop was redecorated in 1970 and new book shelves were added. The small storeroom, refurbished and given over entirely to books, is now a good place for customers to browse and buy. With the expanded book department, the shop is becoming known as the” place to look for all books on gardening and nature. It has that reputation for those “special” gifts. Co-Chairmen Mrs. E. Lawrence Keyes, Jr., Mrs. Holland F. Chalfant, Jr., Mrs. Alexander Cornwell, Jr., devoted much of their time to the managing of the shop, under the direction of manager Mrs. Edwin R. Stuessie. The Garden Gate Shop could not operate without its fine group of volunteer women, both the regulars and the substitutes, who give so loyally their time and effort. It is natural that, as the Garden’s community services expanded, they would emanate from the office of the Friends of the Garden. These services depend upon volunteer assistance, and the Friends are the Garden’s major source of volunteer manpower. Soon, it became necessary to enlarge the staff to provide for a co-ordinator of these activities. Mrs. Robert Dvorak joined the staff in September 1970, as Co-ordinator of Community Services, and in late December moved into her new office adjacent to the Growing Center. The Community Services Office, just off the Growing Center, was built in 1970 and schedules the Garden’s lectures, tours, and various facilities. 32 The Community Services Office provides tours for children and adults by the Garden Guides, lectures on horticulture by the Growing Center Guides, luncheons, speakers’ bureau, and the scheduling of Garden facilities. The third year of the volunteer guide program began in September with a program which included two meetings a month September through November. A Garden staff member lectured on topics ranging from the plants of the Desert House to the projected Library- Herbarium building. Several new tours were added to the guides’ repertoire: Historical Tour, Bloomin’ Tour and Herbarium-Library Tour. Over 85% of the guides attended all sessions, which is an in- dication of the interest and devotion of these volunteers. From September to December of 1970, there were 700 more people who came for guided tours or an increase of 23% over the same period in 1969. ( Tower Grove House OWER GROVE HOUSE is unique among the Victorian houses of our nation, not only because of it’s famous tower, rising above the two story stone, brick, and stucco residence, and the authenticity of its furnishings, but also because it is set in the beau- tiful surroundings of the Missouri Botanical Garden. Visitors in- terested in the Garden's historical aspects are rewarded with views of Tower Grove (originally Shaw's country home), the Museum, Henry Shaw's city home (the administration building), and Linnaean House, all built by Mr. Shaw in the nineteenth century. The Historical Committee is pleased to report that approx- imately 40,000 visitors came to Tower Grove House in 1970, includ- ing many groups of school children. Under the efficient direction of Mrs. Virginia M. Brewer, our manager, eighty hostesses were on duty seven days a week. Some were on a regular weekly schedule, others as needed when large groups were scheduled. Mrs. William G, Bowman arranged two “thank you” teas for our hostesses, one in the spring, another in the fall. 34 » ‘ 4 ‘ Se badd : SS +e m~ ™ Author photo This specimen of the Great Basin bristlecone (Pinus longaeva) shows the charac- teristic erect, and almost parallel branching. 43 of variety probably on the basis of later specimens that came to him from Nevada and California, and probably without re-examining the original material from Colorado collected by Parry. This down- grading was not accepted by later botanists who have maintained Pinus aristata as a true species. Part of the trouble was probably related to the fact that the original description of Pinus balfouriana was somewhat inaccurate and suggested that the foxtail pines dif- fered more than is actually the case from the bristlecones. Engelmann also had in his possession at the Missouri Botanical Garden a speci- men collected by William Gabb in 1867 from the eastern slopes of the White Mountains in California which he had annotated as Pinus aristata var. decurva. Thus, interestingly, Engelmann had noted particular characteristics of. this specimen and had contemplated separating it as a subspecies from the Colorado specimens which he had described a few years earlier. Bailey, while delving into all these interesting historical facts, had continued to pursue his detailed comparative studies of the foxtail bristlecone pine complex from California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico and Colorado. He not only studied critically the needles for position, size, and number of resin ducts, but also the cones and seeds. He then studied the color of the wood and bark, the resin odors of the trees, and their growth forms and appear- ance as to “dandruff” or no “dandruff,” Following this he pursued all the chemical analyses of gum turpentines of these trees which had been done by various investigators. Bailey also investigated what was known of the paleobotany and paleogeography of the western mountainous region of the U.S. in order to learn the possi- ble migration routes by which these pines reached their present positions. He understood how the trees growing in the mountains of eastern California, Nevada, and Utah became isolated and dis- tinct during approximately the last 5 million years from those now growing in the Sierra Nevada farther west and the Klamath Moun- tains of northern California, and how, still longer ago, the Rocky Mountain bristlecones of Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona became distinct. Then after consulting with numerous botanists in America and abroad, including the leading authorities on the genus Pinus, Bailey came to the conclusion that the Great Basin bristle- cones were a hitherto unrecognized species of pine distinct from 44 Engelmann’s Pinus aristata. The evidence was overwhelming. He wrote up his findings and published the description of this new species in the Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, Volume 57, pp. 210-249, 1971. His name for the new species is Pinus longaeva. Appropriately longaeva means “long-lived”, and is the Latin root of the English word “longevity.” The type locality is the Wheeler Peak Scenic Area, Humboldt National Forest, White Pine County, Nevada. The holotype specimen is in the herbarium of the Univer- sity of Colorado. Isotypes are at the Missouri Botanical Garden herbarium and at several other important herbaria. Here we have a magnificent illustration of the value of herbaria by which we keep the taxonomic fabric of the plant world in order. Without our great collections of preserved plants from the present as well as the past we would not understand how plants are related nor how they evolved. The longest living things known, Pinus longaeva, the Great Basin bristlecone pines, whose ages can be pre- cisely determined non-destructively by the techniques of dendro- chronology, are of enormous interest to scientists for a variety of reasons. They are also of an almost mystical fascination to the public whose own maximum life span of 100 years is so very short com- pared to these trees capable, under certain favorable circumstances, of attaining ages of 5,000 years. Moreover the older and more ex- posed trees are frequently objects of great beauty to all who con- templatively behold them, and are deserving of the strict protection they are now being given by the U.S. Forest Service in the accessi- ble and exceptionally fine stands of the “Ancient Bristlecone Pine Forest” of California. Dr. Dana K. Bailey was born at Clarendon Hills, Illinois, on 22 November 1916. His father taught history at La Grange, Illinois. The young Bailey had an exceptional childhood interest in natural history which led him to discover, when only 10 years old, a new gentian, Gentiana puberula var. lilacina. Dr. Paul C. Standley of the Field Museum in Chicago encouraged the lad to collect and study and helped him identify and name his new discovery. The interaction of the interested layman with the professional scientist was highly significant. It is one of the reasons why the museums and botani- cal gardens of the world continue today to have professionals who are willing to teach natural history to children and adults. 45 The Bailey family moved to Riverdale, New York, in 1928, and in the following year death left the young boy without a father at the age of 13. Young Bailey attended the Fieldston School for his high-school studies. For the summer of 1931 his mother sent him to a cattle ranch in central Arizona where his interest in natural history continued to develop. There, for example, he found a rare purple- flowered species of cinquefoil (Potentilla) which had not previously been reported from the region. During high-school days at Fieldston he was an avid amateur astonomer and was an officer of the Junior Astronomy Club at the American Museum of Natural History. A ial t A - Author photo The needles of the Great Basin bristlecone (Pinus longaeva) are easily dated. The year 1960, indicated by the pen, was a year of low available moisture as can be seen from the very short needles. This photograph was made in June 1969 before the needles of that year had developed. li. 46 few years later when Bailey graduated from the University of Arizona, Professor A. E. Douglass made a present to him of his per- sonal copy of William Chauvenet’s book A Manual of Spherical and Practical Astronomy, a classic work much sought after then be- fore its later reprintings. Interesting to note is that Chauvenet was Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy at Washington University, St. Louis. In 1937 Bailey went to Oxford University in England as a Rhodes Scholar to continue his education in physics. After receiving his B. A. degree there in 1940 he went to Harvard University for a semester of study in astronomy, and then went to Antarctica to do cosmic-ray research for Professor Serge Korff with whom in the summer of 1937 he had been on a solar eclipse expedition to Peru. World War II began and in September 1941 he went on active duty for the army. He served with the Signal Corps from 1941 to 1946. During nearly eighteen months of this time he was attached to the Royal Air Force and acted as the Air Ministry representative in the Inter-Services Ionosphere Bureau (ISIB) near London. During this period he received his M. A. from Oxford. For the next twenty-one months he was assigned to the War Department where he established the Radio Propagation Unit (later the Radio Propagation Agency). From April 1945 to June 1946 he served in Manila, Leyte, and Tokyo in connection with Signal Corps ionosphere stations. In Tokyo he assisted Japanese scientists in reestablishing a radio re- search program. In December 1946, Bailey joined the RAND project at the Douglas Aircraft Company where he worked in the communication and electronics field. In 1948 he joined the National Bureau of Standards and from 1948 to 1950 he was a member of the U.S. Delegation to the Provisional Frequency Board in Geneva, Switzer- land, serving as chairman of the propagation working group. Since then he has been a member of numerous U.S. delegations to inter- national conferences and now serves as the International Chairman of Study Group VI (Ionospheric Propagation) of the International Radio Consultative Committee (CCIR) of the International Tele- communications Union. At present Dr. Bailey is a Consultant to the Space Disturbances Laboratory, a component of the Environmental Research Labora- tories of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 47 (NOAA), in Boulder, Colorado. He is currently engaged in active research on solar cosmic rays and electron precipitation in the polar regions. For four years he served as the Scientific Director of Page Communications Engineers, Inc. in Washington, D.C., before re- joining that part of the National Bureau of Standards that had moved to Colorado and was subsequently incorporated in NOAA, Bailey is the author of numerous papers appearing in various scientific journals, and on the basis of these Oxford University awarded him the D. Sc. degree in 1967. His professional affiliations include membership in the American Astronomical Society, the American Geographical Society, the American Geophysical Union; he is a fellow of the American Physical Society, the AAAS, the Royal Geographical Society, and the Royal Astronomical Society. He holds the Legion of Merit and is a member of Phi Beta Kappa. He received the Arthur S. Flemming Government Award in 1951, and has received the U.S. Department of Commerce awards for both meritorious and exceptional service. Scientific discoveries are made by persistent inquisitive people with good intuition who wish to know the answers to questions they ask. The route to success need not be through formal training, but scientific success requires sustained careful research. Dr. Bailey has never taken a formal course in botany, but then the author of this article has only taken one such course. 0 48 <5 STAFE DAVID M. GATES, Director ADMINISTRATIVE ih Sri Ric Mark Paddock David Mitter ~ Assistant Director Controller and Business Manage: RESEARCH & RESEARCH SUPPORT SYSTEMATICS: Walter H. Lewis, Director of Herbarium Marilyn Andreasen Herbarium Supervisor ulius Boehmer Herbarium Associate Marshall R. Crosby Assistant Botanist, Curator of Cryptogams _ Sheri Davis Herbarium Assistant John D. Dwyer Research Associate Viktor Muchlenbach Research Associate Joan W. Nowicke Research Associate, Flora of Panama Royce L. Oliver Research Associate Duncan M. Porter Curator, Flora of Panama John Ridgway Curator of Bryophytes Linda Vollmar, - Herbarium Assistant Sally Walker, Research Associate SUMMIT HERBARIUM, CANAL ZONE Thomas B. Croat ; Curator Patricia Croat Herbarium Associate ECONOMIC BOTANY: Leonard Blake Hugh Cutler Research Associate — Curator of Useful Plants LIBRARY Eugenia Maddox _— Carla Lange Librarian _—_ Assistant Librarian Erna R. Eisendrath = Marion Koch Botanical Historian Head Cataloguer — Brenda Gieseker Leanne Miller Manuscripts Cataloguer Assistant Cataloguer ECOLOGY: George Bakken Gerald W. Pingel Research Associate Research Technician Lloyd Dunn —— Christa Schwintzer Research Assoctate Paul Lommen Assistant Project Director Shmuel Moreshet Research Associate Research Associate Owen J. Sexton Research Ecologist James R. Spotila Research Associate Oscar H. Soule, Research Associate PUBLIC SERVICES Ladislaus Cutak Horticulturist and Manager of Public Calesent Clarence Barbre Instructor Barbara Perry Lawton Publications Manager Kenneth O. Peck _ Head of Education. Sandra Thornton, Educational Associate HORTICULTURE & MAINTENANCE Robert J. Dingwall, Chief Horticulturist James Hampton, Chief Engineer and Superintendent of Operations Clifford Benson Plant Breeder Leroy Fisher Greenhouse Superintendent David Goudy Manager of Arboretum George Greene Curator of Old Roses Claude Johnston Grower, Photographer Paul A. Kohl Consultant Jack Pavia Assistant Engineer Marion Pfeiffer Orchid Grower James Rhodes Assistant Greenhouse Superintendent Alfred Saxdal Grounds Superintendent Visit Your Missouri Botanical Garden (SHAW’S GARDEN) Forest Park | | , Hwy 40 ne iy 100 a NM acnes* ae ‘A . | aor 3 See ss OS Seg 4 Missouri Botanical: : es Y Garden} 12 = ne Magnolig é Kingsh ighway Morgan ford Bee i nt _ 2315 Tower Grove Avenue « St. Louis, Missouri 4 REFLECTED SUNLIGHT BOTANICAL GARDEN BULLETIN TRANSFER BY RERADIATION VOLUME LIX NUMBER 4 JULY-AUGUST 1971 BOARD OF TRUSTEES © _C. Powell Whitehead, ‘Prostdoms Tom K. Smith, Jr., First Vice President | Sam’l C. Davis, Second Vice President Howard F, Baer Robert R. Hermann | ~ Clarence C. Barksdale Henry Hitchcock _ Joseph H. Bascom —_A.. Timon Primm III Leicester B. Faust Warren McKinney Uapleigh _ Harry E. Wuertenbaecher, Jr. | HONORARY TRUSTEES: a as George L. Cadigan Dudley French ey EX-OFFICIO. MEMBERS Seo 3 ie 4 Preseden ay Foe of St. Louis Rae - Jule D. C Raa Mt "Chancellor, ; con UA ee men | h Education as es hs S. pie | Mrs. Jerome F. a _ Mrs. John S. fchwiane Mrs. Virginia Brewer, Mgr. Tower Gee House “HORTICULTURAL COUNCIL ene Edgar J. Gildehaus, Chairman = Mrs. J. Herman Belz = Mrs. Hazel L. Knapp Mrs. Paul H. Britt F.R.McMath ~ E. G. Cherbonnier Dan R. O’Gorman - Carl Giebel Ralph Rabenau — Robert E. Goetz = Mrs. Gilbert J. Samuelson Earl Hath = Mrs. J. Glennon Schreiber. _ Rudy Zuroweste of St. Loui ‘The Missouri Botanical Garden is a Fund Member of the Arts and Education Council of Greater St. Louis. From The Director IX YEARS AGO when I came to the Missouri Botanical Garden from the University of Colorado the word ecology was unknown to the general public. Today it is one of the most popular words in our vocabulary. My father, Frank C. Gates, was one of the first ecologists in America, entering the field in 1910 with the publication of a paper on the relic dunes of northern Illinois. For the next 45 years he spent most of his professional life in ecology and plant systematics. During my formative years we knew well most of the leading ecologists of America. Although I studied some entomology and botany, I majored in physies at the University of Michigan where I did my Ph.D. thesis in molecular spectroscopy. During 15 years of research and teaching in physics and atmospheric physics I often thought about the beautiful and fascinating features of the landscape. I began to wonder exactly how plants and animals interacted with the environ- ment in which they live. I wondered how the wind, water, sunlight, air and soil affected the life of a plant, and how and why the plants and animals of the world lived where they do. Suddenly I could see that a knowledge of physics was essential to our understanding of ecosystems. Plants and animals exchange energy, gases, chemical nutrients, and water with their environment and the mechanisms of exchange involve the laws of physics. But the 1 f Bs Claude Johnston The Ecology Group shown here in early 1971, includes, (left to right, front row) Charles Puccia, Sam I. Ajiri, Shmuel Moreshet, E. Lloyd Dunn, David M. Gates, Christa R. Schwintzer, Shirley Barnett, Oscar H. Soule, and (back row) George S. Bakken, Gerald W. Pingel, David Aronow, Jim McCrum, James R. Spotila, 8. Elwynn Taylor, Paul W. Lommen. Missing from photograph are Sia Morhardt, LaVerne Papian. manner of organism response is biological. I blended the knowledge of physics and biology into a new subject now called biophysical ecology. This issue of the Bulletin is devoted entirely to a general description of our ideas concerning biophysical ecology, including our laboratory and field work. Many of our readers will gain insight into the elements of the living landscape from the articles written by my young Ph.D. scientific associates. Almost everything con- tained in this issue represents relatively new understanding of ecology most of which was done during the last few years at the Missouri Botanical Garden. David M. Gates MISSOURI BOTANICAL GARDEN BULLETIN VOLUME LIX NUMBER 4 JULY-AUGUST 1971 EDITOR Barbara Perry Lawton EDITORIAL ASSISTANT Marjorie Richardson CIRCULATION Clarence Cherry EDITORIAL COMMITTEE David M. Gates Mark W. Paddock Kenneth O. Peck EDITORIAL & PUBLICATION OFFICE Missouri Botanical Garden 2315 Tower Grove Avenue St. Louis, Missouri 63110 Published bi-monthly by the Missouri Botanical Garden Press. Subscription price: $5.00 a year, domestic; $6.00 a year, foreign; $1.00 per single copy. Entered as second-class matter at the Post Office at St. Louis, Missouri CONTENTS From the Director......................... 1 Biophysical Ecology....................0005 4 David M. Gates Photosynthesis Studies................0.00. t E. Lloyd Dunn, Paul W. Lommen, Gerald W. Pingel Boundary Layer on Leaves.................. 26 Samuel I. Ajiri, David M. Gates Water Use by Bog Shrubs.................. 28 Christa R. Schwintzer, Shmuel Moreshet Water Loss and Plant Growth in Dry Climates. ....................005. 33 Shmuel Moreshet, Christa R. Schwintzer Leaf Movements in Coral Bean.............. 38 Christa R. Schwintzer Alligators and the Energy Budgets of Large Reptiles..........44 James R. Spotila Surface Temperature of Animals............. 49 Oscar H. Soule Schlieren Photography and the Energy Budget .53 George Bakken, James R. Spotila Cover design by Peter Geist. Illustration represents the ecological relationship between a plant and its environment. (From “Heat Transfer in Plants’ by David M. Gates. Copyright © 1965 by Scientific American, Inc. All rights reserved.) BIOPHYSICAL ECOLOGY David M. Gates COLOGY IS THE sTuDY of the interactions of organisms with their K environment and of the interactions of organisms with one another. By definition, in order to do the science of ecology well, one must thoroughly understand the plants or animals with which one is working and understand equally thoroughly the physical environment in which they live. The world about us is a world of heat and cold, light and dark, wind, water, gravity, electricity, magnetism, chemical elements, and all the forces which have shaped the biosphere of our planet. This is the physical world which is studied by the physicist, chemist, meteorologist, geologist, geophysicist, and others. But ecology is not just the study of the physical environment, it is the study of the manner in which the physical environment impinges on the plants or animals and how they respond to it. A plant or animal is, however, a very complex entity, an entity which has been shaped by millions of years of evolution in response to environ- mental factors. Generally speaking, the biologist is the scientist who studies living things, but the subject matter is sufficiently diverse and complex that he divides it into many subdisciplines such as taxonomy, systematics, genetics, morphology, anatomy, physiology, molecular and cellular biology, and even more so into various branches of botany and zoology. The task of the ecologist is a difficult one. He is the synthesizer and the integrator. He is the person with the overview. He must understand the biotic or biological aspects of the world just as 4 thoroughly as he understands the abiotic or physical attributes of the environment. This is a difficult accomplishment indeed and in fact our educational system has had a tendency not to encourage this integration of the sciences in the training of a single scientist. We train biologists or we train physicists but we do not often train the complete scientist. It is not sufficient to take one course in physics in order to understand the physical world about us. One must be thoroughly schooled in mechanics, optics, electricity, thermo- dynamics, atomic and molecular structure, ete. in order to achieve a proper foundation for understanding the forces which shape our lives and the lives of all living things. At the same time, the ecologist must understand the organisms with which he works. He must know their names, how they are related, where they live, how they function, what their physiological requirements and limitations are, how they reproduce and disperse, and their social behavior and community structure. This is a large order and one, which on the surface, would seem impossible. Does this suggest that the ecologist is simply a jJack-of-all-trades and master of none? Does this mean he is perpetually the dilettante? I am convinced that it does not. There is another pitfall which the ecologist must avoid. While studying physics or chemistry in detail, or meteorology or geology, he must avoid being ‘‘captured’”’ by these subjects to the extent he becomes then a physicist, chemist, meteorologist or geologist and forgets his interest in biology. Or to the contrary he cannot become so engrossed with his study of life that he loses interest in the attributes of the physical world. Unfortunately the traditional training of scientists has created the kind of dichotomy which I am insisting we must avoid with the training of ecologists. It is exciting to be an ecologist. It is challenging and satisfying. The ecologist is truly the complete scientist and his depth of training is in both the physical and biological sciences. It requires more careful planning of curriculum and career and it takes more time. But to avoid doing so is a disaster for the individual whose desire is to do well the science of ecology. For this reason, I have developed the subject called biophysical ecology. The term is redundant, but lends emphasis to the idea that both the biotic and abiotic aspects of the subject matter must be understood thoroughly. 5 INFRA-RED THERMAL RADIATION REFLECTED ie FROM ATMOSPHERE SUNLIGHT f/f 7 DIRECT / / os / SUNLIGHT/ \._ INFRA-RED THERMAL RADIATION / ye < FROM ANIMAL / ' : ees / DUST AND. *% \ / / PARTICLES: | Xe . EVAPORATION / SCATTERE een ~ I ff SCA D INFRA-RED THERMAL ttt} SUNLIGHT __ | RADIATION — F _ / ROM VEGETATION REFLECTED SUNLIGHT INFRA-RED THERMAL RADIATION FROM GROUND Energy exchange between an animal and the environment. ECOLOGICAL QUESTIONS Before I describe biophysical ecology let me say a word about the kinds of ecological questions to which we ultimately need some answers. Why do particular kinds of plants grow where they do in the world? Why are succulents and thorny shrubs found in the deserts? Why do semiarid zone plants such as mesquite, creosote bush, palo verde, and others invariably have small leaves? Why does Gambels oak grow on the drier, warmer lower slopes of our western mountains; Ponderosa pine at intermediate more moist, cooler eleva- tions; spruce and fir further up the mountain; and only grasses and herbs on the tops of our high mountains? Why do we have timber- lines and tree limits? Why do pines of various kinds grow all the way from the Gulf of Mexico to the Brooks Range in Alaska? Why do specific kinds of plants grow together, such as the particular mixtures of oak, ash, hickory, walnut, and juniper in our woods of Missouri? Why do cottonwoods and sycamores grow on the flood plains of our rivers? Why does plant succession proceed in the particular way it does in a given habitat? What advantages does a particular plant form have over another form and shape for competi- tion within a given field or forest? Why do some plants thrive in the sun and others do well only in the shade of their neighbors? Why do sunflowers seek disturbed sites where many other kinds of plants find life too difficult? Why do only certain kinds of plants grow in bogs, other kinds along lake shores, some types on sand dunes, other kinds in moist soils, completely different plants in dry soils; and some seek hot climates while still others distinctly prefer the cold? Insects, birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and other animals are distributed throughout the world, but each species is limited in a particular way. But why? Some animals associate only with certain kinds of plants. We wish to know all of these things. It is my belief that the life of this planet, and for that matter any life anywhere in the universe, is shaped and regulated by the physical forces of its environment; and in turn organisms develop a highly organized complex of responses which produces mutual assis- tance to one another and helps shape the localized environment of 7 their habitats. Those organisms which do not evolve in a coopera- tive, collaborative manner with their fellow travelers get wiped out and those unable to cope with the environmental forces of their habitats do not survive. Therefore in our attempt to understand the incredible diversity and distribution of life on this planet we must understand these forces and know precisely how organisms are coupled to their environment. The difficulty of achieving this understanding is enormous. There are many dependent and independent variables involved and numerous plant and animal parameters as well. The climate of the environment in which we live is described in terms of sunlight and radiation, wind, precipitation, humidity, and soil moisture, and air temperature. Plants and animals respond to all of these factors by assuming a certain temperature themselves, by having certain rates of water loss, and by building tissue and growing in specific ways. We want to know exactly how all of these things are interrelated. Plant or animal temperatures, rates of water loss, and photo- synthesis or metabolism are dependent variables. There are four or five independent variables, e.g. the environmental factors, and numerous plant or animal parameters which must be specified. We are trying to find our way in a world of seven, eight, or ten dimen- sions or more. You and I can draw easily a two dimensional graph, or even sketch a three dimensional diagram, but when we get into four or more dimensions we quickly become lost in the vast varia- bility of this complex world. What we need is a compass in order to navigate in this domain of many variables. Mathematics and sound physical principles will help us build the compass we require. ENERGY EXCHANGE OF PLANTS All life does work and consumes energy. Without a flow of energy between an organism and its environment, life could not exist. The variables which describe climate, e.g. radiation, air temperature, wind, and humidity, are each different in character but have one feature in common, e.g. energy, with respect to the way they affect an organism. Onee we understood that energy was the common denominator for the way climate is coupled to a plant or animal then we were able to establish precisely the effects of climate on any 8 organism. Basically, all organisms must be in energy balance when considered over extended intervals of time. If we work with this principle and account for all of the energy which flows to or from an organism we can then relate the response of the plant or animal to its climate. Energy is transferred between a plant and its environment by radiation, convection, evaporation of water, and by chemical re- actions. One direct consequence of energy flow to or from a plant is that the plant has a certain temperature and a definite rate of water loss. Just as body temperature is important to each of us so also is the temperature of a leaf important to a plant. The rate at which a leaf carries out photosynthesis is directly dependent upon its temperature. At low temperatures the rate of photosynthesis is is low and at very high temperatures the rate is also low, but over a fairly broad span of optimum temperatures the rate is maximal. Plants which are adapted to very cold conditions, such as arctic or alpine tundra, have evolved maximum rates of photosynthesis at optimum temperatures near 10 or 15°C (50 to 59°F), while those that live in more temperate regions do best at 25 to 30°C (77 to 85°F), and some tropical plants like corn have maximum photosynthesis at nearly 40°C (104°F). Aretie and alpine plants die at temperatures at which tropical plants thrive. The energy balance of a plant leaf is written as follows: Energy In = Energy Out Radiation Absorbed = Radiation Emitted + Convective Heat Loss + Evaporative Energy Loss + Metabolism This statement concerning the mechanisms which determine the energy flow between a plant leaf and its environment can be given a more detailed description. The radiation absorbed by a plant leaf includes sunlight, skylight, and reflected light, and also includes infrared radiation emitted from the atmosphere towards the ground and from the ground surface towards the sky. A detailed description of these various fluxes of radiation is more than we can give here, but suffice it to say that a leaf always has radiation incident upon its two surfaces and it absorbs a certain fraction of this radiation. A leaf absorbs about 50% of sunlight and skylight and about 97% of infrared thermal radiation. All surfaces emit radiation according to 9 the fourth power of their absolute surface temperature; in the case of a leaf the radiation emitted is equal to a constant, o, times 7'¢ 4. Air flowing over a leaf surface transfers heat at a rate propor- tional to the difference in temperature between the leaf and the air, and proportional to the square root of the wind speed. If the air is cooler than the leaf it takes away heat, and if it is warmer than the leaf it delivers heat to it. There is, next to every surface, a boundary layer of adhering air across which convective heat transfer occurs. The thicker the boundary layer, the less is the rate of convective heat transfer. A large leaf has a thick boundary layer of adhering air and a small leaf has a small one. It turns out that the boundary layer thickness is proportional to the square root of the width of the leaf, W, and therefore the convective heat transfer is inversely pro- portional to the square root of the leaf width. If V is the wind speed the total convective heat transfer is written k(V/W)”? (Te—T.) where k is a proportionality constant and 7’, is the air temperature. The rate of moisture loss from a leaf depends upon the avail- ability of energy which is necessary to change water from liquid to vapor within the leaf and upon the existence of a water vapor gradient between the leaf and the air. The water vapor concentration inside the leaf, Mg, is a function of the leaf temperature and is considered to be at saturation. The water vapor concentration of the air is the amount of water vapor the air would contain at saturation, M., multiplied by the relative humidity, H, of the air. Water vapor escaping from a leaf must flow from the interior spaces within the leaf mesophyll out through the stomates or pores, across the boundary layer, and into the free air beyond the leaf. This pathway offers a resistance to flow which we call R. The rate of water loss from a leaf, E, which we refer to as the transpiration rate, we write as follows: Me—H M, aa R For every gram of water transpired, approximately 580 calories of energy are consumed. In order to place this term into the energy budget equation we must multiply the rate of water loss by 580. It is now possible to put all of these terms back into the energy budget relationship in order to visualize how it is that a leaf responds to the energy flow between it and the environment. Hence, if the 10 amount of radiation absorbed by a leaf is Q, we get in mathematical language for the energy budget the following: Q=aTet + k(V/W)” (Te —-T.) + 580 Me -—H M, R Every leaf in the world, in effect, solves this equation for its leaf temperature and rate of water loss every moment of every day of its life. It turns out that the metabolic rate can be ignored in this energy balance as a term which is small compared to the values of the other terms. Now for the first time one can see with precision just how it is that radiation, leaf temperature, relative humidity, and wind simultaneously affect the leaf temperature and the rate of water loss. We can also understand exactly which leaf properties need to be known in order to realize the manner in which a leaf will respond to its environment. The important leaf properties are its ability to absorb radiation, its leaf size or width, W, and the resis- tance, R, to water loss through the stomates and boundary layer. It is a much too detailed story to relate further here except to give an illustration concerning an observation I made in Australia several years ago. Near Sydney, in the National Forest, were a variety of trees in close proximity with leaves of very different sizes, shapes, orienta- tions, colors, resistances, and other properties. The summer day was warm, 32°C (89.6°F), the sky was clear except for a deck of high cirrus clouds, and there was little or no air movement. I made observations of plant leaf temperatures during midday when the sun was near the zenith. Hrythrina indica, a tall tree with large leaves (8 x 10 em) standing nearly vertical, had temperatures between 36° and 38°C (96.8-100.4°F) for sunlit leaves and at 33°C (91.4°F) for shade leaves. Those leaves which were not upright but in a horizontal position had temperatures 42° to 44°C (107.6°-111.2°F). The verti- cal leaves of Erythrina indica kept cool by assuming a vertical posi- tion under the noon sun and thereby not absorbing much solar radiation. Nearby was a cottonwood, Populus deltoides, transplanted to Australia from North America. Its large leaves were nearly the same size as those of Hrythrina, but instead of being vertical they were primarily in a horizontal position. Immediately I thought they would be very warm, but when I pointed my infrared thermometer at them I found the sunlit leaves to be at 32° to 34°C (89.6°-93.2°F) 11 and the shade leaves at 80°C (86.0°F). The coolness of the shade leaves, which were 2°C (3.6°F) under the air temperature, and the relative coolness of the sunlit leaves immediately told me that this cottonwood was transpiring large amounts of water. These leaves were dissipating the large quantity of absorbed sunlight by turning on evaporative cooling and making abundant use of soil water. A Jacaranda tree, Jacaranda acutifolia, with very small leaves exposed to full sun had leaf temperatures not exceeding the air temperature by 3°C (5.4°F). These leaves lost heat rapidly because of strong convective transfer between the leaves and the air. Here among these three kinds of trees I found in operation all three mechanisms for keeping cool. The Erythrina kept cool by not absorb- ing much radiation; the Populus used evaporative cooling to consume the heat absorbed from the sun; and the Jacaranda had its leaves tightly coupled to the air temperature by having small leaves with large convection coefficients. If none of these mechanisms were used and if the sunlit leaves were large, in a horizontal position and with- out transpirational cooling, their temperatures would have been about 45°C (113°F) or more. Denaturation of many plant proteins occurs at these temperatures. PHOTOSYNTHESIS The next step in our progress towards understanding precisely how a leaf lives in its environment was to analyze the way a leaf takes in carbon dioxide from the air and exactly how the leaf assimilates the carbon dioxide through photosynthesis. The flow of carbon dioxide into a leaf from the air is a gas diffusion process. Once the carbon dioxide reaches the chloroplasts located within the mesophyll cells it enters into a very complex chemical reaction known as photosynthesis. Clearly the rate at which the carbon dioxide diffuses into the cells must be compatible with the rate at which it is assimilated in the chemical reaction. The photosynthetic rate is dependent upon the light intensity, the concentration of carbon dioxide at the chloroplast, and the temperature of the leaf. We can describe all of these events in mathematical language based on fundamental scientific principles. By combining these processes with a simultaneous solution of the energy budget equation 12 for a leaf we can predict the photosynthetic response of a leaf to the environmental factors of incident radiation, air temperature, wind speed, and relative humidity. Also we can demonstrate analytically the dependence of photosynthesis by a whole leaf on such leaf properties as absorptivity to radiation, size, shape, orientation, diffusion resistance to water vapor and to carbon dioxide, and to co- efficients which describe the chemical capacity of the chloroplasts to respond to light, carbon dioxide concentration, and leaf temperature. For the first time we have an ability to understand the funda- mental photosynthetic response of a plant leaf of specific personality and properties to environmental factors. This analysis is absolutely basic to our understanding of ecological processes in a community of plants. ENERGY BUDGETS OF ANIMALS Just as human beings must maintain their body temperatures at approximately 37.0°C (98.6°F) so also all other warm blooded ani- mals, the homeotherms, must keep their body temperatures reason- ably close to some preferred value which differs from species to species. Body temperatures of birds are generally from 40.5 to 43.3°C (104.9 to 109.9°F) and 47°C (116.6°F) is lethal. Mammals have body temperatures from 36 to 40°C (96.8 to 104°F) and most mam- mals die when their deep body temperatures reach 42 to 45°C (107.6 to 113°F) or fall below 15 to 20°C (59 to 68°F). Cold blooded animals, the poikilotherms, can tolerate a great range of body temperatures, with a definite preferred range according to species and according to acclimatization. The eritical thermal maximum for turtles and snakes is 40°C (104°F) about 45°C (113°F) for lizards, and between 30 and 40°C (86 and 104°F) for amphibians. Garter snakes have survived temperatures as low as —2°C (28.4°F), but most reptiles cannot withstand temperatures below 0°C (32°F) or slightly above. The body temperature of an animal is maintained at a particular level by the flow of energy between the animal and its environment. If an animal constantly receives too much energy it will overheat and perish or if it receives too little energy it will undercool and not survive. Just as with plants the flow of energy between an animal and the climate of the air or water surrounding it occurs by the mecha- nisms of radiation, convection, and evaporation of water. In contrast 13 with plants, many animals can generate substantial metabolic heat and thermoregulate their body temperatures. Although all animals lose heat through evaporative cooling produced by respiratory water loss only a few animals, such as man, can sweat and keep from over- heating for limited lengths of time. We are interested in the energy budgets of animals for a very particular reason. We believe that the energetics of animals partly determines the climates in which animals must live, but also deter- mines the behavior of an animal within a particular climate. Animals are thermodynamic machines. Mach and every kind of animal has particular thermodynamic properties which cause it to live within very specific climates. An animal is white or brown or black and absorbs solar radiation according to its coloration. Some animals have fur or feathers and some do not, some have much fat and some very little fat, and in this way the thermal insulation of animals varies. The size of an animal, in particular its diameter, determines the magnitude of the convective heat transfer coefficient. The body temperature of a small animal tends to be much more strongly coupled to the air temperature than does that of a large animal. In fact, for lack of effective convective heat transfer, very large animals such as an elephant or rhinoceros have difficulty preventing over- heating when standing in the sun during hot days. The energy budget of an animal is written in the following mathematical form: Energy In = Energy Out M+Q =o(T.-I(M—-E)|' +k V8 D24[T,-T,-I (M-E)] +£ This is the balanced energy equation which our own bodies solve every day of our lives. The body temperature is 7',. M is the metabolic heat generated by our furnace. Q is the amount of radia- tion which we absorb by our surfaces. o is a proportionality constant for blackbody radiation. J is the thermal insulation created by fur, feathers, fat, or clothing. F is the amount of evaporative water loss, usually respiratory. V is the wind speed and 7’, is the air tempera- ture. D is the diameter of the animal’s body. / is a proportionality coefficient in the convective heat exchange. A warm blooded animal ean vary, J, M, and F in order to maintain its body temperature constant according to the available amounts of sunshine, wind speed and air temperature. 14 An adult human has a metabolic rate of approximately 150 watts. A person out-of-doors in cool air may lose too much body heat and therefore will put on a coat in order to increase the amount of thermal insulation. By increasing J the quantity 7,—J(M —£) entering the right hand side of the equation is made smaller and the result is a reduction of heat loss due to radiation and convection. The same effect is achieved by increasing the metabolic rate M. If on the other hand a person becomes overheated, say by standing in the hot sun, then he must contrive to dump more body heat by radiation and convection. The quantity 7,—/(.M-—F) must be increased in order to lose more energy. This is increased by decreasing J, that is taking off an insulating layer of clothing, by decreasing M, or by increasing FE’, which is accomplished by sweating. In order to predict the climate in which an animal must live as a result of having specific body properties we put into the equation the values of 7, M, J, and FE which are characteristic of the animal and solve for the set of climate conditions involving Q, T., and V. If we allow the animal to change the values of 7;, M, J, and E according to the degree of stress by heat or cold then we obtain the ] Cardinal D=5 cm 20 © 40F — wind Speed el ° : lOcm sec! WwW __ __ 100 cm sec! 489 a =| - = 20k—:— IOOO cm sec ui g The Garden Gate Shop's Book Corner Barbara Perry Lawton T’S NEXT TO IMPOSSIBLE for the lover of books, natural history, and gardening to spend only a few minutes in the book department of the Garden Gate Shop. It’s more likely that a person will stop by the Shop after a visit to the Garden, intending only to browse, and go away with a new load of “books I must have.” The Shop expanded the book department at the end of 1970, and now has, in addition to the regular book rack in the main area, a Book Shop Annex. The Annex is a small quiet room off the traffic area where one can linger and select his choices from the many books that have been carefully chosen for the Garden's friends and visitors, In the enlarged shop that will be constructed this winter, there will be a much larger book room in addition to an expanded area where other articles will be displayed. Books are unbeatable as gifts for Christmas as well as through- out the rest of the year. We have selected a few of the newer books for review in this Bulletin, and, in addition, will pass on some recom- mendations from Mrs. Edwin Stuessie, Shop Manager. The Sierra Club’s handsome pictorials that focus on such areas as the Big Sur and Navajo land are now available in paperback. There are many other soul-soothing picture books on famous gar- dens, historical homes, flower and plant arranging, and landscape design. Euall Gibbons’ “stalking books,” such as Stalking the Wild Asparagus and his more recent Stalking the Good Life (David McKay), are very popular with amateur naturalists and respected by the scientists as well. In much the same vein are the books Edible Wild Plants, one by Fernald and Kinsey (Harper and Row), and the other by Medsger (Macmillan). Yes, they both have the same title. Wyman's Gardening Encyclopedia (Macmillan) by Donald Wyman, the former head of Arnold Arboretum, would be a magnifi- 18 cent and definitive addition to any gardener’s library. This is the newest in Wyman’s series of books on botany and horticulture, having been published in the spring of 1971. Also for the gardener, especially one with an interest in organic gardening, is Companion Plants (Devin-Adair) by Philbrick and Gregg. The Pocket Encyclopedias on cactus, indoor plants, roses, an- nuals and bulbs, perennials and water plants are a real bargain in hardback at only $4.95. These are part of the Macmillan Color Series and are profusely illustrated in color. The many fine books on identification of plants and animals always sell well. The ultimate botanical authority for our area is, of course, Julian Steyermark’s Flora of Missouri (lowa State), but this is hardly a field guide, except perhaps for the jolly green giant, as it weighs a ton. It is a must as a reference in any good botanical library, whether it be one of ten books or one of thousands of books. In using the Flora of Missouri, you bring the plants to the book rather than vice versa. Steyermark’s Spring Flora of Missouri (Lucas) is another excel- lent, but more limited, reference. The same is true for another bar- gain publication, Trees of Missouri (University of Missouri Press) by Settergren and McDermatt, which sells for only $1.50. The Peterson Field Guide Series (Houghton Mifflin) has been a howling success ever since it began with its A Field Guide to the Birds. This series now includes guides to almost everything in the natural world. Its A Field Guide to the Wildflowers, which is keyed to the color of the flowers, is great for the peripatetic beginner and casual botanist. The Golden Field Guide series is a late starter, but is sure giving the Peterson Series a run for its money. Many staunch Peterson sup- porters are now using Birds of North America (Golden Press) which does have certain advantages, such as including all North American birds, descriptions next to illustrations, year round territorial maps, and diagrammatic descriptions of birdsongs. All of the above books, plus those in the following reviews, as well as many more, are available through the Garden Gate Shop located at the Main Gate of the Missouri Botanical Garden on Tower Grove Avenue between Shaw and Magnolia. For further information or mail order, call (314) 865-0440. 19 A review by Hugh C, Cutler Gardens, Plants and Man by Carlton B, Lees (Prentice-Hall, $19.95) HIS IS A BEAUTIFUL BOOK of essays and illustrations for armchair and philosophizing gardeners. Lees begins with views of window boxes in the slums and the Governor’s palace garden at Williamsburg. His main concern is the development and general effect of the great gardens. A series of plans, illustrations, and dis- cussions traces garden development from Theophrastus and Hadrian to the famous gardens of France and England. A short chapter tells of recent developments of the public gardens in the United States. Some great herbals and the works of men like Bartram, Downey, and Olmstead, important in the development of gardens, are re- viewed briefly. As a contrast, in a gossipy two page account, he tells how a group of ladies, the Neighborhood Garden Association of Philadel- phia, encouraged residents of low rent housing communities to erect and maintain window boxes and provided materials and continuing guidance. As the flowers grew, the occupants began to have more interest in caring for their homes and improving their neighborhoods. During the first year 427 window boxes were planted. Now there are more than 500 garden blocks, 16 community gardens, and 1,200 dooryard gardens in the project. The book has beautiful color plates, but the price ($19.95) is high. Pictures of gardens and some essays with a similar approach are often printed in Horticulture, the magazine of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, of which Carlton Lees is Executive Secretary. (Horticulture costs $6.00 per year, from the Society at Horticultural Hall, 300 Massachusetts Ave., Boston, Mass. 02115). Those who en- joy Gardens, Plants, and Man and Horticulture would also enjoy the varied viewpoints on landscape, city planning, gardens, and people, as published in the magazine, Landscape, (3 issues each year, $4.00; Box 7177, Landscape Station, Berkeley, Cal. 94707). 20 A review by Duncan M. Porter Wild Flowers of the World by Brian D. Morley Paintings by Barbara Everard (Putnam's, $15.00) N THESE DAYS of exorbitant book prices, few real bargains are available. This is one of them. Reproduction of Mrs. Everard’s paintings is superb, and they alone are well worth the price. This is not to detract from the interesting and authoritative text that Dr. Morley has provided. Wild Flowers of the World is that rare sort of picture book that one can also sit down and read. Morley begins with a concise introduction to plant nomencla- ture, morphology, classification, ecology, and geography, plus an historical essay which emphasizes botanical exploration. This sec- tion will be especially welcome to those unaware of botanical his- tory. Too few of us know how and why we acquired the conglom- eration of garden plants we grow today. Following the introduction are three short sections devoted to acknowledgments, selected bibliography, and glossary. The bibli- ography is a good introduction to systematic and _ horticultural literature, although one could quibble about favorites left out or unfamiliar works included. The book might be easier to use if the glossary and the indices of scientific and common names were com- bined into a single index and glossary. The abbreviations of author’s names used in the botanic index also would be more useful if some indication were given of the origins (countries or institutions) of the botanists listed. However, these are minor annoyances. Everyone has his favorite flowers, and some of your favorites may not have been illustrated, but no one can object to those in- cluded. Most appear to be cultivated by at least a few gardeners outside their natural ranges. The paintings were done mainly in Malaya and at Kew and Wisley, and depict plants actually or poten- tially cultivated in Great Britain. PA The plants are arranged systematically by family within geo- graphic areas, first dicots, then monocots. Twelve geographic areas are represented in 192 plates, with an average of about five species pictured on each plate. Opposite each plate is a page full of information about the species illustrated, which contains the real meat of the book. Names —common (at least for the English), scientific, and synonymous— are given. The sometimes extensive discussions cover relationships, morphology, history natural and unnatural, uses, and occasional notes on cultivation. Many books of this type are written by amateurs who may have a profound knowledge of the cultural aspects of the plants discussed, but who often use nomenclature that is unfathomable, especially when discussing horticultural plants. Brian Morley, happily, is a professional taxonomist who is able to avoid this unpleasantry. He also appears to be a far more knowledgeable gardener than the aver- age taxonomist. My only adverse comment about the plates is that they are too few. The discussions of the flowers do not follow the illustrations in order, but as they are opposite the plates they discuss, the an- noyance is trivial. The only typographical errors of significance are on Plate 150, where the symbols for Magnolia virginiana and IIlicium floridanum have been switched, and in the discussion of Plate 172, where the symbols for Centropogon cornutus and [isianthius um- bellatus have been transposed. The plants pictured range in size from the diminutive pink- flowered Sinningia pusilla, a South American gesneriad that ‘can be grown in a thimble,” to Dipterocarpus trinervis, an Indonesian forest tree which grows to 230 feet or higher. They range from our everyday Catalpa bignonioides, the cultivated and naturalized Indian bean, or Rosa setigera, the beautiful prairie rose, to Couroupita guianensis, the tropical cannon-ball tree, with its bizarre reddish flowers and huge smelly indehiscent fruits, Chian- thus formosus, Sturt’s desert pea, from Western Australia, with its red-bodied and -headed, black-faced pixies for flowers, and finally to Rafflesia, that Malayan and Indonesian genus of root parasites which has flowers fully a meter in diameter. This list could easily be extended until at least one plant from each plate is in- cluded, but I'll stop here. Spend $15 to buy the book, and see for yourself the tremendous diversity of the flowering plant world. 22 A Review by Sandra Thornton Bamboo Robert Austin and Koichiro Ueda (Walker/Weatherhill, $15.00) M°: OF US ARE UNFAMILIAR with bamboo except for glimpses here and there, perhaps at a flower show or in a friend’s house where it is used for such things as curtains and place mats. We usually appreciate it when we see it, but to buy bamboo plants or articles we have to go to a special store or an import house. In the Orient bamboo and utensils made of it are so common it’s hard to imagine life without it. Bamboo, a large handsome book by Robert Austin and Koichiro Ueda, is a most enjoyable way to learn about what we’re missing. Bamboo is divided into three sections—lore and versatility, beauty and uses, and growth and cultivation. The first and last sections are mostly text including surprising facts about bamboo, such as the phenomenal growth rate of almost four feet a day for some species. It is actually a woody grass, hollow on the inside, with a wall at each node which divides the stem, or culm, into compartments. Like other grasses it flowers, but unlike them it dies soon after flowering. This fact is especially important to com- mercial growers of bamboo, because it can take a grove ten years to completely come back after flowering. Information like this is presented in such a concise yet comfortable way it gives the history of bamboo and its cultivation in two relatively short sections. The visual appeal of this book comes from the large middle section with over 160 of Dana Levy’s excellent photographs, many of them in color. There are pictures of ordinary, everyday articles such as writing brushes, ladles, flutes, baskets, carved boxes, chop- sticks, umbrellas, spoons, hats, fishing poles, rakes, rice tasters, and fish tubs. Each photograph has been taken with such an eye for composition and the natural beauty of bamboo that you feel as if you're browsing through an art gallery. There are also several series of black and white photographs with descriptions showing step by 23 step the craftsmanship involved in making handcrafted products like bows and arrows. Altogether, it’s the photographs that make Bamboo such a pleasure to page through. Occasionally captions aren’t clearly linked to pictures, but the photographs are so striking and self-explanatory that many times descriptions are unnecessary. A Review by Mary E. Baer Bouquets That Last Emily Brown (Hearthside, $10.00) HE UNDERLYING THEME of this informative book is “respect for nature.” That it achieves its. purpose is revealed in the con- tents of its twelve chapters. To name a few: “Prolonging the Life of Flowers and Foliage,” ‘““Glycerinizing and Shellacking for Perma- nence,” “Making Renewable Arrangements,” and others that include the care and composition of fresh flowers, the drying for winter bouquets, the use of rocks, shells and wood to enhance a modern composition. The chapter “Plant Lists” consumes almost a third of the book. The use and treatment of each plant is described and thor- oughly detailed. The colored plates of flower arrangements are of such magni- tude and beauty that they come alive and are truly superlative. For each of the seventy-three there is a full description. The book is written in depth for a novice and yet contains knowledge sophisticated enough for the professional. Emily Brown is a nationally known horticulturist, garden consultant, writer, lecturer, and flower show judge. She serves on the boards of the deYoung Museum and the Stryling Arboretum in California, where she lives. Mr. Jack Napton is the photographer, and is also a knowledge- able specialist in the plant world, as well as a board member of the Stryling Arboretum. 24 A Review by Marjorie Richardson Making Gifts from oddments and Outdoor Materials Betsey B. Creekmore (Hearthside, $7.95) ERE IS A BOOK for people who enjoy nature, like to collect nature’s bounty, and then wonder what to do with the collec- tions. There are dozens of suggestions, from how to successfully send your own garden fresh flowers to how to make pseudo-topiary frames in fanciful forms. Several chapters explain drying, curing, preserving, and using flowers and leaves. Floral Easter eggs, dried flowers in glass bottle tops, Victorian arrangements under glass domes, pressed flower pictures, and decoupage projects are among the many suggestions. “Glass” flowers made from liquid plastic inspire lovely gifts: jewelry, domed paperweights, buttons, flowered drawer pulls, door knobs. There are suggestions for laminating plant materials between plastic for place mats, screens and room dividers. The chapters utilizing pine cones, seeds, pods, and nuts are especially helpful to the gatherer who can’t resist collecting fall’s fruits. Here are ways to use all those pine cones stashed away in the basement! There are explicit directions for making and good sugges- tions for using many different kinds of coneflowers. (I liked Mrs. Creekmore’s admonition about using restraint with gold paint!) After seeing the fetching photograph of a cornhusk doll, I was inspired to save every husk from the summer’s corn, thereby start- ing a new collection. Fortunately, this book tells me what to do with it—dolls, Christmas angels, flowers, rosettes. Doll fanciers will also learn how to make dried apple-head and gourdhead dolls. Chapters on herbs and seasonings, scented gifts, waxed flowers and candles, holiday decorations are all included in this good “how to” book. There is a listing of 116 different flowers and foliage and how to preserve them in the appendix. 0 25 MISSOURI BOTANICAL GARDEN BULLETIN INDEX FOR VOLUME LIX (1971) The index is in three parts: Title, Author, and Book Reviews. *indicates that an article is illustrated in some fashion. TITLE INDEX *Alligators and the energy budgets *Howard L. Hibbs appointed ps pee reptiles 59:4 :44-48 assistant to director Raven 59:6:4 *The almond tree 59:5:1 *How to grow boxwood *An amateur botanist's great in the midwest 59:5 :19-30 discovery Index for 1971 59 :6:27-28 Dana K. Bailey and *An introduction to the ferns Pinus longaeva 59:3 :39-48 of the arboretum 59 :2:28-32 *Annual report 59:3:2-48 *Leaf movements in coral bean 59 :4::38-43 The Arboretum §9:3:28-29 = Library 59 :3:21-22 *Asphalt and artificial turf 59:1:26-29 *Maidenhair fern 59 :2:3-5 *Bernhardi’s herbarium, mysteries *Maintenance and engineering 59 :3:30-31 and treasures in §9:1:20-25 The music of a scientific name 59:5 :30 *Biophysical ecology 59 :4:4-16 *Mysteries and treasures in *Books and bookbinding 59:1 :9-13 Bernhardi’s herbarium 59:1 :20-25 *Boundary layer on leaves 59:4:26-27. *The mystical cactus 59:6:10-12 *Boxwood, how to grow in... *Nepenthes blooms again 59:6 :13-15 the midwest 59:5:19-30 *The nettle tree 59:1:8 *Christmas is— 59:6:16-17. *New director of *Construction of John §. Lehmann Missouri Botanical Garden 59:5 :6-9 Building progresses well 59:6:5-6 Orchard grass 59:1 :29 *Copal, frankincense, and myrrh 59:6:7-9 *Photosynthesis studies 59:4:17-25 *Cypress tree 59 -6:1-2 Publications department 59 :3:37-38 *Dawn tedwood atid Public relations 59:3 36-37 bald cypress trees 59:5:10-18 Reader survey 59 :5:31-32 Ecology 59:3 6-9 Research grants and contracts *Education department 59:3:23-25 , in effect in 1970 59:3 :20 Etymological glossary 59 :2:27 Schlieren photography and *Fern culture §9:2:12-15, the energy budget . 39:4 :53-56 Bon tans 59:2:21-26 ashe a atone of animals, 7 *Financial summary 59:3-4-5 aor 2 Preliminary look at variation 59:4:49-52 Aiisindl avibr planeinn pauls Os 40100049 Thoughts on foundation planting 59:1 :30-32 *From the Fe ane 8 8 59:1-6: *Tower Grove House 59:3 34-36 eehisare *The truth about ferns 59 :2:6-11 various paging *Friends of the Garden 59:3:31-34 TREES *The Galapagos Islands, birds, *The almond tree 59:5:1 beasts, and botany 59:1 :14-19 *Cypress tree 59:6 :1-2 The Garden Gate Shop's *Dawn redwood and book corner 59 -6:18-26 bald cypress trees 59:5:10-18 *Gardening in St. Louis 59:1:3 *The nettle tree 59:1:8 *Greenhouse, Mr. Ward's portable 59:2:16-20 Useful plants 59 :3:18-19 *Herbarium and systematics 59:3:10-18 rea an ei ea growth ee * ; a imates 4:33- so Rae Pa oe Vitec by bog shrubs 59:4 :28-32 HORTICULTURE *Welcome to Dr. Raven *Fern culture §9:2:12-15 from Dr. Gates 59 :5:3-5 *How to grow boxwood *William Turner's a new herball 59:1 :4-7 in the midwest 59:5:19-30 *Mr. Ward's portable greenhouse —59:2:16-20 AUTHOR INDEX Ajirt, Samuel I., David M. Gates *Boundary layer on leaves. 2 2 2) . 59:4:26-27 Anderson, Edgar The music of a scientifiCmame. . 2...) §925230 Bakken, George and James R. Spotila *Schlieren photography and the energy budget... 5924 253-56 26 AUTHOR INDEX Cont. Crosby, Marshall R. *An introduction to the ferns of the Arboretum . . D'Arcy, William G. *Mysteries and treasures in Bernhardi’s herbarium. . . Dingwall, Robert *Fern culture Dunn, E. Lloyd, Paul W. on Gadd W. / Pingel *Photosynthesis studies . . Dwyer, John D. *The mystical cactus . . Etsendrath, Erna R. Fern lore oo *The Galapagos Islands, birds, beasts, and botany Fisher, Leroy *Nepenthes blooms again Gamble, Mary A. *How vo grow boxwood in the midwest . . Gates, David M. *An amateur botanist’s great discovery Dana K. Bailey and Pinus longaeva . . *Biophysical ecology . . . *Welcome to Dr. Raven from Dr. Gates. Gates, David M., Samuel I. Ajiri *Boundary layer on leaves Kohl, Paul A. *Dawn redwood and bald cypress trees . . *Thoughts on foundation planting . . Lange, Carla *The almond tree *Cypress tree a. *Maidenhair fern. . *The nettle tree *William Turner’s a new herball . Lawton, Barbara Perry The Garden Gate Shop's book corner *New director of Missouri Botanical Garden . Lommen, Paul W., Lloyd E. Dunn, Gerald W. ncn *Photosynthesis studies . a Lovette, Kendra Deerene *Books and bookbinding = Moreshet, Shmuel and Christa R. Schwintzer *Water loss and plant growth in dry climates. . . . *Water-use by bog shrubs . . Peck, Kenneth *The truth about ferns : Pingel, Gerald and S. Elwynn Taylor *Asphalt and artificial turf Pingel, Gerald W., Lloyd E. Dunn, Paul W. ‘Come *Photosynthesis studies. 2. . ed, eee op eos Porter, Duncan M. *Copal, frankincense, and myrrh. . . *Mr. Ward's portable greenhouse . . bd vests ads 4 ook Raven, Peter H. *Construction of John S. Lehmann Building progresses well. . . Schwintzer, Christa R. *Leaf movements in coral bean 27 . 59:5: 9:1 . 59:2:28-32 . 59:1:20-25 . 59:2:12-15 . 5§9:4:17-25 . 5§9:6:10-12 . 59:2:21-26 59:1:14:19 . 59:6:13-15 . 59:5:19-30 . 59:3:39-48 . . 59:4:4-16 . 59:5:3-5 . 59:4:26-27 . 59:4:17-25 . 59:1 :9-13 . . 59:4:33-37 . 59:4:28-32 . 59:2:6-11 . 59:1:26-29 . $9:4:17-25 . 59:6:/-9 . 59:2:16-20 59 :6:5-6 . 59:4:38-43 AUTHOR INDEX Cont. Schwintzer, Christa R. and Shmuel Moreshet *Water loss and plant growth in dry climates. . . . *Water-use by bog shrubs. . . . 2 2... Soule, Oscar H. *Surface temperature of animals, a preliminary look at variation Spotila, James R. *Alligators and the energy budgets of large reptiles Spotila, James R. and George Bakken *Schlieren photography and the energy budget Taylor, S. Elwynn and Gerald Pingel *Asphalt and artificial turf BOOK REVIEWS NOTE: Initial immediately following title of book indicates reviewer: (B) Baer, Mary E. (C) Cutler, Hugh (P) Porter, Duncan M. (CR) Richardson, Marjorie (T) Thornton, Sandra Austin, Robert and Koichiro Ueda Bamboo CT). Brown, Emily ene that last (B) Creekmore, Betsey B. Making gifts from oddments and outdoor materials (R) . . Lees, Carleton B. Gardens, plants, and man(C). . . . . . ince @ etl ee Morley, Brian D. Wild flowers of the world (P). . 28 . 59:4:33-37 . 59:4:28-32 . 59:4:49-52 59 :4:44-48 59:4:53-56 . 59:1:26-29 . 59:6:23-24 59 :6:24 . 59:26:25 . 59:6:20 . 59:6:21-22 STAFF Peter H. Raven, Director ADMINISTRATIVE Howard L. Hibbs = David Mitter © Assistant to Director Controller and Business Moma RESEARCH & RESEARCH SUPPORT SYSTEMATICS: Walter H. Lewis Richard C. Keating Director of Herbarium — Research Associate Marilyn Andreasen =‘ Terry Luikart Herbarium Supervisor Research Assistant John Averett Research Associate ulius Boehmer Herbarium Associate Alan Covich Research Associate Marshall R. Crosby Assistant Botanist, Curator of Cryptogams Sheri Davis Herbarium Assistant John D. Dwyer Research Associate Bruce MacBryde Post Doctorate Fellow Viktor Muehlenbach Research Associate Joan W. Nowicke Research Associate, Flora of Panama Royce L, Oliver Research Associate Duncan M. Porter Curator, Flora of Panama Linda Volimar, Herbarium Assistant SUMMIT HERBARIUM, CANAL ZONE Thomas B. Croat Curator Patricia Croat . Herbarium Associate ECONOMIC BOTANY: Leonard Blake Hugh Cutler ~ Research Associate Curator of Useful Plants LIBRARY: Eugenia Maddox _— Carla Lan Librarian Assistant Librarian Erna R. Eisendrath Marion Koch Botanical Historian Head Cataloguer Brenda Gieseker Leanne Miller Manuscripts Cataloguer Assistant Cataloguer ECOLOGY: Daniel Lane, | Owen J. Sexton Ecologist-Naturalist Research Ecologist PUBLIC SERVICES Ladislaus Cutak Barbara Perry Lawton Horticulturist and Manager of _— Editor Public Relations Clarence Barbre = Kenneth O. Peck Instructor Head of Education Mrs. Robert Compton Sandra Thornton Manager, Community Services Educational Associate HORTICULTURE & MAINTENANCE Robert J. Dingwall, Chief Horticulturist Clifford Benson Plant Breeder Paul Brockman Grounds Foreman Clara Fieselmann Gardener, Climatron Leroy Fisher Greenhouse Superintendent David Goudy Superintendent, Arboretum George Greene Curator of Old Roses James Hampton, Chief Engineer and Superintendent of Operations Claude Johnston Grower, Photographer Paul A. Kohl Consultant Jack Pavia Assistant Engineer Marion Pfeiffer Orchid Grower James Rhodes Assistant Greenhouse Superintendent Alfred Saxdal Grounds Superintendent Visit Your Missouri Botanical Garden (SHAW’S GARDEN) Forest Park Hwy 40 a 100 \ae t ncnes* Dy Nv mS 9 ATES N © Shaw + Missouri Botanical. : = Garden > , © 2 Magnolia e 52) f 2315 Tower Grove Avenue « St. Louis, Missouri