TRANSACTIONS
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE
VOL: ALY
EDITED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF
GOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE
BY
JAMES HECTOR, C.M.G., M.D., ERS
Issueb,. Max 1879
WELLINGTON
Na BLAIR, PRINTERS, LAMBTON Quay,
TRUBNER 4 CO., 60, PATERNOS STE R ROW LONDON Y
TRANSACTIONS
AND
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE E
K, yal Society of New Zealand, Welling
we
Ko 2d
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE
P
1518
VOL. Al.
EDITED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD oF
GOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE
E UNT *
JAMES HECTOR, C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S. J 3
^
uu
te
YA
IssumD, Max 1879 - N
- WELLINGTON:
AT
PREFACH,
Tuer Editor acknowledges with thanks the assistance he has received from the following
gentlemen in revising the proofs of their payon :—viz., Messrs. Carruthers, J. T. Thom-
son, Buller, T. Kirk, Buchanan, and T. W. Kirk. :
For the Meteorological Statisties, and the illustrations, the thanks of the Board are
due to Messrs. Gore and Buchanan respectively, ard to Messrs. McColl and Earle of the
lithographic department, who, by permission of the Hon. Colonial Secretary, completed
the preparation of the plates.
ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA.
Page
32, line 12, for Island read Land.
32, line 7 from bottom, for Peter 1st read Peter's.
32, lines 3 and 4 from bottom, for Ballemy read Balleny.
33, lines 13 and 15, for Kemp read Kewp.
37, line 5 from bottom, for was read is. —
38, line 1, for They read Ships.
39, line 18, for streets read sewers.
51, line 14, for consume read conserve.
134, line 20, after from insert the sum of.
136, line 24, for the read this.
136, lines 5 and 6 from bottom, after + insert a comma, and at end of each line add the
minus S1
137, line 2 from bottom, omit To compute tlie eye and object corrections.
138, before line 1, insert To compute the eye and object corrections.
139, line 11 from bottom, for verticle read vertical.
229, line 13, for bases read hairs.
229, line 16, for leaves read hairs.
269, bottom line, for duodesma read duodenum.
270, line 19, for species read spines.
354, line 13, for Cueubus read Cuculus.
354, line 12 from bottom, for marginal read margined.
366, In title of Art. XLIX., for September read November.
397, In title of Art. LVI., for 30th October read 9th November.
469, line 14 from bottom, for intro read nitro.
474, line 8 from bottom, for suitable read notable.
536, line 10 from bottom, for mataurienis read matauriensis.
ART.
CONTENTES
TRANSACTIONS Se.
N
I.—MiISCELLANEOUS.
PAGES.
I. On some of the Terms used in Political Economy. nd John
Carruthers, M. Inst. C.E. i is 31
II. On Antarctic Exploration. By C. W. Purnell E is .. 81—38
III. On the Pune of Towns. By J. Turnbull Thomson, C.E.,
F.R ., F.R.S.8.A., Surveyor-General of New Zealand .. 88—70
IV. The en cba By R. C. Barstow 71—76
V. Contributions towards a better Knowledge of tho Maori iie. By
. Colenso, F.L.S. 011—106
VI. On the Ignorance of the Ass Now zuhadis of the Use of
Projeetile Weapons. By W. Col 106—118
VII. On Temporary and Variable Stars. ees AW. Bickerton, F.C. s.
Associate of the Royal School of Mines, Londo . 118—124
VIII. Partial Impact A possible Explanation of the Hes n fe Solar
Sys Comets, and other Phenomena of the Universe. jd
: . 125—132
Pa fA W. Bickerton
IX. On ~~ Wee era of Distances by means of Reciprocal Vertical
By C. W. Adams . 182—140
X. A Deseriptioo of maa Apparatus k measuring the pa of
Pos and Distances of Double Stars, and the Method of
sir it. “By James Bo
XL im gi ae | ibe ies ud Protection of River Banks
y Dou
. 141—144
ins's Floating Log Dams. By H. P. Macklin . 144—146
XII. On Mire mme, e M: D, ME A.LC.E. . 146—149
— How aged Zealand may continue to oe, Wheat and te £ Cereals.
mes C. Crawford .. . 149—153
XIV. On the um Paintings in the Weka Pass. Ex
Cameron. Communicated by Prof. J. von Haast, PhD. "X R. S. 154—157
XV. Barat or Barata Fossil Words. as J. Turnbull D F. RG. ae
F.R.8S.8.A., eto. .. . 157—185
II.—Zoo
XVI. On some Coccide in New Zealand. goes Ww. M. Maskell ..
XVI. On a c— n Insect — on Coccide. Br W. M.
Maskell
XVIII. New Zealand Crustacea, with Deseriptions x3 new Species, By
George .. 230—248
e M. Thoms
XIX. Description of new Crastaccan iue ‘the Auckland Islands. pF . :
George M. Thomso: ++ 249—2:
XXL On the Now Zealand Duomo, By George M. Thomson -
zan. on 15 | crie ag raat ema
vi Contents.
2
ART. PAGES,
XXIII. Notes on: -the Anatomy of SANE erimus von Haast. "
Llewellyn Powell . 269—270
XXIV. On the Brown Trout inicodosdd into theo. By W. Anh, C. E. 271—990
XXV. On some new Fishes. By F. E. Clarke 291—295
XXVI. On a new Fish found at Hokitika. By F. E. Clarke Ts T . 295—297
XXVII. On a new Fish. By W. D. Campbell, C.E., F.G.S. : . 297—298
XXVII. coge ss the Genus Callor BUR RS with a Description - an MS
bed New Zealand Spe By W. Colenso, F.L.S. . 298—300
XXIX. ub on the MSN. Co a ns of our zee Moths, Dasypodia
selenophor W. Colen . 800—804
XXX. Further Notes on riam in a ar ter pios Mr. T. c.
Stur the Ho onorary Secretary, Hawke be Philosophical
Institu 305
XXXI. pee on — Now Ze aland Echinodermata, with Deseriptions « =
new Species. By Professor F. W. H . 305—308
XXXII. The Sea ees of New AA -x OUS Hutton .. 808—314
XXXIII. Catalogue = the hitherto-described Worms of New Zealand. Br
r Hutton š . 814—327
XXXIV. List on e New DEAE Ci ipedia in the Otago Muwe. By
Professor Hutto . 828—330
XXXV. On a masai ibaa » parasitio on Patella argentea. By Proltesur
Hutto 330
XXXVI. ae of some new eg By Pradas Hutton a .. 881—332
XXXVII. On Phalacrocorax carunculatus, Gmelin. By Professor Hutton .. 332—337
XXXVIII. No x^ on a Collection from the Auckland Islands and —
Island. By Professor Hutton 337—343
XXXIX. Note Berara iss Specimens of the Black Rat (ats ee L),
Ta or White. Communicated by Profess . 843—344
XL. On a new Species of Millepora. By the Rev. J. E. a ia
Communicated by Prof. Hutton . 845—847
XLI. Notes on the Life History of Charagia vir ae By the Bd C. H.
Gosset. Communicated by Prof. Hut . 847—348
XLII. d Bite on the cusa zi the eae pre By Walter k
t, C.M.G., Sc.D., F.L.8. 349—351
XLIII. On as ante Value of chis banksii. D Walter E: Buller .. 951—352
XLIV. Remarks on the M tailed cie ee sae By
Walter L. Bull .. 353—355
XLV. Remarks ona cipes of Lao inhabiting our Seas. By Walter L.
Buller . 955—359
XLVI. Note on em Howard Saunders pores of the Larine, or Gulls. By
Walter L. B . 359—360
XLVII. Ona tid er mies of the Australian Tree Bvailow (Hylocheti
don nigricans) in New Zealand. By Walter L. Buller 360
XLVIII. — one to List of Specie es, and eid of Rare Occurrences, since
opum of ‘ The Birds of New Zealand.’ 5r a L.
. 361—366
XLIX. Further ‘abe to the Ornithology of Nov Zealand, By
Walter L. Buller .. 966—376
L. Memorandum of the Keti. By dne ba Dr. Mose. M. L. C. +» 976—377
LI. Descriptions of three new Species of Opisthobranchiate Mollusca. By
; T F. Chee ; £.L.8 oe ee ee ee .
. 878—380
LII. Our Fish Supply. By P. Thomson .. oe "s .. 880—386
. LIII. The District of Okarita, Westland. By A. Hamilton 1
LIV. me on the Piem S of the ers (Latrodectus hatipo
By C. H, Robso: . 891—392
Contents. vi
ART, PAGES,
LV. On uem z = Carcinological Fauna of New Zealand. By T.
W. Eir stant in the Colonial Museum . 392—397
LVI. On some is up Aphrodite, with Descriptions a supposed
new Species. By T. W. Kirk . 397—400
LVII. Notes on some New Zealand Aa By T. W. Kirk .. 401—402
ITI.—Bortany.
LVIII. piede. Observations upon certain Grasses and p Plants. Br
S. M. Curl, M.D. . 408—411
LIX, On PHA: a new ML M Produet that deserves fps Tavestiga-
By 8. M. . 411—415
LX. dir. on | Clelstogamio pedes oi the don Viola. By George. M.
Thom . 415—417
LXI. On ie Means zt Fertilization | Mons some Sw Zealand Orchids.
y G.M . 418—426
LXII. dde is 8 new rede of cores By D. Petrie, M. A. .. 426—427
LXIII. Description of a new Species of Celmisia. By J. Buchanan .. 427—428
LXIV. Notice of a new Species of Pomaderris (P. tainui). By Dr. Hector.. 428—429
LXV. A a of d tu Zealand dein believed to be new to
Science. By W.C . 429—431
LXVI. On the pees of mo Australi otn Pordi in | New i
land. By T. F. Che FLS: . 432—433
LXVII. Notice of the E p hne ser wild, in Ner Dai
By T. F. Cheeseman . 483—4834
LXVIII. bee à e Ereren of the T Eyltinga in r Zealand.
T.F
434—435
LXIX. List i Plants neue in the District of Okarita, Westland, By A
Hamilto . 485—438
LXX. Notes on Mr. iine 8 Collection of Okarita Plants. = TP. Kirk,
F.L.S. . 489—444
LXXI. Notes zi tho tees ot Waiheke , Rangitoto, i cir Islands in
uraki Gulf. By T. Kir . 444—454
LXXII. On x A of Fungus from >x Zealand. By T. Kirk s.. 454—450
. Description of a new Species of Lycopodium. By T. Kirk .. 456—457
LXXIII
LXXIV. Description of a new Species of Hymenophyllum. By T. Kirk .. 457—458
LXXV, zoa i Sy ra on the aca of certain neglected Hou
and Timbers. By T. Kir PS . 46
i. 8—463
LXXVI. Pene of New Plants. By ^ Kirk e . 463—466
LXXVII. Ser = i Discovery of Calceolaria ier ag Hook. f., “al keer
in the Wellington District. By H arry Borrer Ke
Sambu ated by Mr. T. Kirk, FLS. .. . 466—467
IV.—ÜOnEMISTRY.
LXXVII. et Note on the Presence of one or more Hydrocarbons of
the Benzol Series in the erican unam, also in our
Petrol tak . By William sd — to the ÁO
Survey Department . . 469—470
LXXIX. On 5 ia operty possessed by Essen tial Oils of diog ih doi
tate produced by mixing a Solution of Métourododids with
Sna of ua S T William Skey . 470—471
LXXX. Preliminary Note on the Production of one or more Alkaloids from
Fixed Oils by the Aniline Process. By William Skey , 471—473
LXXXI. On the Cause of the Movements of Camphor = peoa upon the
Surface of W: By William Skey s 473—485
LXXXI. On Osomose, as the Canso ofthe persistent Suspension of Cay in
Water. By William Skey : . 485—490
TXXXIIL On the Nature and Cause of Tonlinor's Cohesion F
William Skey
vili Contents.
V.—GroLocy.
ART. PAGES.
LXXXIV. On = Poen i Seas of Banks DEUM being an Address 1
y Pro Haast, Ph.D., F.R.S., President of the
Philocontieal “Tustieats of Canterb n . 495—512
LXXXV. Notes on a Salt Spring near Hokianga. By J. A Bend em .. 912—514
LXXXVI. Notes of a Traditional ees in the Coast-line at vn Heads.
By 8. Percy Smith . 514—516
PROCEE LED INGS,
WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
Remarks by the President, T. Kirk, F.L.S. 3 : & 520
On the Production of Platino-iodides of the Alkaloids. By w. Skey 523
On some of the Causes which operate in Shingle-bearing Hivers in the Deter.
mination of their Courses and in the Formation of Plains. = J.
Maxwell, A.I.C.E. (abstract) . 524—525
Some Notes on the D’Urville Island ipu Mine. By 8. H. Cos, F.C. "
F.G.S., Assistant Geologist (abstract) . 525—527
On the rs of Hydro-carbons in Fats and Oils. By W.s key . 527
Some Remarks on Dr. Curl’s “Notes on Grasses and Fodder Plants, suitable
for snc hs to New Zealand.” By Henry Blundell (abstract) . 528—529
An Account of — on Miramar Peninsula. By J. C. Crawford, F.G. s.
(abstract) 530
On a Gas-lamp for KA GEN, By x Kebbel 532
Note on a curious eee of Tusks in the common Wild Pig ( Sus sorofa ,
By A. Hamilto 535
n the Fossil Flora of M Nin. Br Dr. Hector, PE of the Geological
Survey (abstrac® . 536—537
On the Fossil Brachiopoda of sae Sislend: By Dr. Mio (biu) . 987—539
Abstract Report of Combed s » 539
Election of Officers for 1879 ja 539
Anniversary Address of the President, T. Kirk, B. L. 8., — on the Saladin.
ship between ns Floras of New Zealand and Australia ; . 539—546
AUCKLAND INSTITUTE. `
On the Histeride of New Zealand. By Captain T. Broun .. 7 E 547
The New Zealand Anthribide. By Captain T. Broun $ ve xs 547
The British Arctic Expedition of 1875-76. By F. G. Ewingivü s. s 547
Education as a Science: Part I. By C. A. Robertson s b. s 547
The Cossonide of New Zealand. By Captain T. Broun we. ie s 547
Education as a Science: Part II. By C. A. Robertson nye ts s 547
Æolus Vinctus. By J. Adams, B.A. 6 v ne .. 547—548
The New Zealand Anobiide. By Captain T. Dnie bed ae s 548
The Establishment of a School of Design BA IA $. 549
The Dascillide of New Zealand. By Captain T. Prom spa v (t 549
High Schools for Girls. By J. Adams, B.A, "x oe 549
On the Telephoridg of New Zealand. By Captain T. Broun ne es 549
Notes on the Rising Generation. By D. C. Wilson Sensu hs ga .. 549—550
Annual Report e . PER .. 550—552
Eleetion of Officers for 1879 a 552
PHILO OSOPHICAL IN STITUTE. OF CAN TERBURY.
Remarks on Mr. Mackenzie Cameron's Tog epi » Kahui Tes
By J. W. Stack 553
Election of Officers for 1879 $e ee is "i wa oi 554
Abstract of Annual Report ' .. Ke s "e (d +» 554—555
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Contents. JE
PAGES
OTAGO INSTITUTE.
The Science of the Weather. By D. Petrie, M.A ‘ 556
The Fauna of New Zealand. By Prof. Hutton vd .. 556
A Plea for the Study of Politics. By the Hon. R. Stout, M. H. Ike. - 557
Description of two new Crabs. By Prof. Hutton .. 557
Notes on the New Zealand Shells in the “ Voyage au Pôle Sud. BY Prof. Hatton 557
d HEN, and the MOI Education of Women. Be: the Rev. A. B 25
; On Magnetic Dip. By E H: Bas (abstract) iF e .. 008—559
The Mechanism of Voice and Speech. By Prof. Scott 3 i ket 560
On the Scientific Form of Harbours. By W. G. Jenkins .. s, x 560
Eleetion of Officers for 1879 ae es za 561
Address by the President, W. N. Blair, C. E. xa .. 561—566
HAWKE BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE.
Annual Report of the Council .. YA i a ws Ea 560
A Memorandum of my rin Journey to A t Ruahine Mountain Men. and of
|
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the Flora of that Regi tI. By W. Colenso, F.L.S 2 567
Election of Officers for ee 9 v ds i zi - 567
Abstract of Annual Report Le Ses e 5 567
On the Moa (Dinornis, sp.) By W. cana, F.L. S. . 568
On Fi Lus a pits of Trees suited for Timber and Fiordi “By F. w.
. 568—570
—"Ü of a a in which en succ coded in crossing the R Ruahine
Mountain Range, with Notes on the local AE and Tapoutnphy of thet
cig Part II. By W. Colenso, F.L.S. 570
On certain New Zealand and Australian — useful for ‘Tanning Purposes
. 570—571
New Specimens in Natural History, AA By w. Oin 5T
WESTLAND INSTITUTE.
Notice of a Tadpole found in a drain in Hokitika. By F. E. Clarke as 573
On the Discovery of Moa Bones near Marsden. By W. D. Campbell MA 574
Election of Officers for 1879 ya ve e «s ve 574
| Abstract of Annual Report zA WA T G SA we 574
| NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.
| Tenth Annual Report of the Board of Governors ve "e 511—518
| Museum = x € vs EM .. 518—581
Meteorology .. z ya - YA ee os EP “582
Time-ball Observatory . ne is x vá m ER 582
! Laboratory Ke a a E 582
| Aovurde ol tha New Sa kandi Insitute, 17-8... i P so Mn
| APPENDIX.
| Meteorological Statistics of New Zealand for 1878 x za ae xxi—xxiii |
| Earthquakes reported in New Zealand during 1878 — .. x E xxiii
Comparative Abstract for 1878, and previous years wA wa
Notes on the Weather during 1878 x s ce
x Contents.
PAGES
Record of Papers on New Zealand Natural History, 1878-9 ae s xxvii
Honorary Members of the New Zealand upite T Pe on xxviii
Ordinary Members oe E: xxviii—xxxix
List of Publie Instituti dIndividuals to whom this ia Volnine i is oaiit xl—xlii
Addenda et Corrigenda dm = 2 «d m gs iii
Contents os T s s a za YAI
List of Plates E BA AC. AC Es = 2 xX
ard of Governors of the New Zealand Institute ve is xi
commie of Rules and Statutes of the New Zealand Institute is xi—xiii
List of Incorporated Societies =e sis xiv
Officers of Incorporated Societies, Ge EPEE ML the Juill ve y. xiv—xvii
LIST OF PLATES.
TO FACE
PLATE PAGE.
I. Porr.—Apparatus for measuring Position of Double Stars Re s. 144
Il. Macxiin.—River Protective Works .. n ya 4 "uen cct
III. CAMPBELL.—4AÀ Method of Beach Protection .. 1. JAS
IV. J. T. Tuomsox.—Map showing Distribution of arcas used in iwa WAA
V. MaskELL.—Coccide YA wa . MEC
VI. » m a T Ws es cr ga AM
VII. m" crm um zs ya is za ve SES
VEL sy ms - .. 224
CONI ERE Peste c on Coccide re x i JAN
x. G M. Tuousoxs.—Crustacea 2 E M WA v... 248
Entomostraca ek ue as is 2.7 AOA
xir. Pets. —Desis robsoni ' HE e a Se <6 909
XII. ArtHur.—Salmo fario, S. trutta a is c c nO
XIV. CLARKE.— Lepidopus elongatus, Pe a pon 296
C ANO Trypterigium robustum, T. dorsalis, T. decipitur, dA
clinus taumaka ee wa ss Ae 92
XVI. CHEESEMAN (E Opüthobranchiate Mali ve za ya (7880
XVII. Corzxso.—Callorhynchus decem 7 . " 300
XVIII. Bucnaxax.— Celmisia corda PET
XIX. T. Kimx.—Hymenophyllum PE ada ii WA ... 456
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NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.
ESTABLISHED UNDER AN ACT OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF NEW ZEALAND,
INTITULED “THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1867.”
LI
BOARD or GOVERNORS.
(Ex OFFICIO.)
His Excellency the Governor. | | The Hon. the Colonial Secretary.
(NOMINATED.)
` The Hon. W. B. D. Mantell, F.G.S., The Hon. G. M. Waterhouse,
W. T. L. Travers, F.L.8., James Hector, C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., The Ven.
Archdeacon Stock, B.A., Thomas Mason.
(ELECTED.)
1878.—James Coutts Crawford, F.G.S., Thomas Kirk, F.L.S., The
Bishop of Nelson.
1879.— Thomas Kirk, F.L.S., The Hon. Robert Stout, M.H.R., W. T
Buller, C.M.G., Se.D., F.L.S.
MANAGER.
James Hector.
Honorary TREASURER,
“The Ven. Archdeacon Stock.
SEcRETARY.
R. B. Gore.
————
ABSTRACTS OF RULES AND STATUTES.
GAZETTED IN THE ' NEW ZEALAND GAZETTE,” 9 Marca, 1868.
Section I.
Incorporation of Societies. ———
1. No Society shall be incorporated with the Institute under the provisions of ** The
New Zealand Institute Act 1867,” unless such Society shall consist of not less than
twenty-five members, subscribing in the aggregate a sum of not less than fifty pounds
sterling annually, for the promotion of art, science, or such other branch of knowledge
for which it is associated, to be from time to time certified to the satisfaction of the
Board of Governors of the Institute by the Chairman for the time being of the Society.
2. Any Society incorporated as aforesaid shall cease to be incorporated with the
Institute in case the number of the members of the said Society shall at any time become
less than twenty-five, or the amount of money annually subscribed by such members shall
at any time be less than £50.
3. The bye-laws of every Society to be incorporated as aforesaid shall provide for the
expenditure of not less than one-third of its annual revenue in or towards the formation
or support of some local publie Museum or Library; or otherwise shall provide for the -
contribution of not less than one-sixth of its said revenue towards the extension and
i npud Ce GS KAWA = ee et icc ds de
Li
xii New Zealand Institute.
4. Any Society incorporated as aforesaid which shall in any one year fail to expend
the proportion of revenue affixed in manner provided by Rule 3 aforesaid, shall from
thenceforth cease to be incorporated with the Institute.
5. All papers read before any Society for the time being incorporated with the
Institute, shall be deemed to be communications to the Institute, and may then be
published as proceedings or transactions of the Institute, subject to the following regula-
tions of the Board of the Institute regarding publications :—
Regulations regarding Publication
(a.) The publieations ot the Institute shall consist a. & current abstraet of the
proceedings of the Societies for the time icis incorporated with the Institute,
to be intituled, ** Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute," and of transactions
comprising papers read before the Incorporated Societies (subject, however, to
selection as hereinafter mentioned), to be intituled, “ Transactions of the New
Zealand Institute."
(b.) The Institute shall have power to reject any papers read before any of the
Ineorporated Societies.
(c.) Papers so rejected will be returned to the Society before which they were read.
(d.) A proportional contribution may be required from each eco towards the cost
of publishing the Proceedings and Transactions of the Instit
(e. Each Daane Society will be entitled to receive a aE number of
copies of the Proceedings and Transactions of the Institute, to be from time to
time fixed by the Board of Governors.
(f.) Extra copies will be issued to any of the members of Incorporated Societies at
the cost price of publication.
6. All property accumulated by or with funds derived from Incorporated Societies
and placed in the charge of the Institute, shall be vested in the Institute, and be used
and applied at the discretion of the Board of Governors for public advantage, in like
manner with any other of the property of the Institute.
ubject to “ The New Zealand Institute Act, 1867,” and to the foregoing rules, all
Societies incorporated with the Institute shall be entitled to retain or alter their own
form of constitution and the bye-laws for their own management, and shall conduct their
own affairs.
8. Upon application signed by the Chairman and countersigned by the Secretary of
any Society, accompanied by the certificate required under Rule No. 1, a certificate of
incorporation will be granted under the Seal of the Institute, and will remain in force as
long as the foregoing rules of the Institute are complied with by the Society.
Secrion Il.
For the Management of the Property of the Institute.
9. All donations by Societies, Public Departments, or private individuals, to the
Museum of the Institute, shall be ‘acknowledged by a printed form of receipt, and shall
be duly entered in the books of the Institute provided for that purpose, and shall then be
dealt with as the Board of Governors may direct
10. Deposits of articles for the Museum may s aecepted by the Institute, subject to
a fortnight’s notice of removal to be given either by the owner of the articles or by the
Manager of the Institute, and such deposits shall be duly entered in a separate catalogue.
11. Books relating to Natural Science may be deposited in the Library of the Insti-
tute, subject to the following conditions :—
fa.) Such books are not to be withdrawn by the owner under six months’ notice, if
such notice shall be required by the Board of Governors.
SESE PEP BAA
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Abstracts of Rules and Statutes. xiil
(b.) Any funds specially expended on binding and preserving such deposited books,
at the request of the depositor, shall be charged against the books, and must be
refunded to the Institute before their withdrawal, always subject to special
arrangements made with the Board of Governors at the time of deposit.
(c.) No books deposited in the Library of the Institute shall be removed for temporary
use except on the written authority or receipt of the owner, and then only for a
period not exceeding seven days at any one time.
12. All books in the Library of the Institute shall be duly entered in a catalogue
which shall be accessible to the public.
13. The public shall be admitted to the use of ma Museum and Library, subject to
bye-laws to be framed by the Board.
Secrion IJI,
14, The Laboratory shall, for the time being, be and remain under the exclusive
management of the Manager of the Institute.
Section IV.
Or DATE 23RD SEPTEMBER, 1870.
Honorary Members.
Whereas the rules of the Societies incorporated under the New Zealand Institute Act
provide for the election of Honorary Members of such Societies; but inasmuch as such
Honorary Members would not thereby become members of the New Zealand Institute,
and whereas it is expedient to make provision for the election of Honorary Members of
the New Zealand Institute, it is hereby declared—
1st. Each Incorporated Society may, in the month of November next, nominate for
election as Honorary Members of the New Zealand Institute three persons, and
in the month of November in each succeeding year one person, not residing in
the colon
. The names, descriptions, and addresses of persons so nominated, together with
the grounds on which their election as Honorary Members is recommended,
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»
wW
TRANSACTIONS
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE,
1878,
I.—MISCELLANEOUS.
Art. I.—On some of the Terms used in Political Economy.
By Jons Carrutuers, M.Inst.C.E.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 18th July, 1878.]
PornrmcaAn Economy has been very unfortunate in its nomenclature, which
has been drawn from the vocabulary of the mercantile world, every word
of which, besides its direct notation, connotes more or less distinctly some
economie doctrine. In spite of definitions, the secondary meanings of the
several words have influenced the thoughts and teaching of politieal
economists.
The object of this paper is to examine some of the principal terms in
general use, and their definitions as given in Mill's ** Principles of Political
Economy," whieh is almost universally accepted as the best exponent of
modern thought on the subject. I hope to be able.to suggest others, which
wil not be so liable as those given by Mill to confuse the thoughts by
suggesting a secondary meaning not included in the definition itself. Even
should I not succeed my labour will not be thrown away, as it is always
useful to look at scientific problems from more than one point of view.
Wealth.
Mill defines wealth to be “all useful or agreeable things which possess
exchangeable value.” To this definition it may fairly be objected that
exchangeable value is a merely accidental quality of some things useful or
agreeable, and should not, therefore, be treated as essential. Robinson
Crusoe’s cave and garden were just as much wealth as if he had been able -
to exchange them for other things. Exchangeable value is, it is true, a
4 . Transactions.— Miscellaneous.
very important quality in connection with the distribution of wealth, and
should, therefore, be accurately defined and carefully studied, but it should
not be treated as a specific distinction of wealth itself. Mill himself says
(Book III., chap. i.), that “The conditions and laws of production would be
the same as they are if the arrangements of society did not depend on
exchange, or did not admit of it." Here **production" means the pro-
duetion of things whieh must, by the definition, possess exchangeable
value; but if the arrangements of society did not admit of the existence
of exchangeable value at all, how could the production of things possessing
it becarried on? Again, he says: “ Exchange is not the fundamental law
of the distribution of the produce, no more than roads and carriages are the
essential laws of motion, but merely a part of the machinery for effecting
it.” A definition, however, of motion, which made it dependent on the
existence of roads and carriages, would be exactly parallel to a definition
which makes wealth dependent on exchangeable value.
It is always undesirable to use a definition which pointedly draws the
attention to any accidental quality of the thing defined, in such a manner
that this quality may come to be regarded as essential. More especially is
this the case when there already exists a tendency to regard the accidental
quality as the only necessary and essential one. There can be no doubt of
the existence of such a tendeney as regards the exchange value of wealth.
How many people look upon a short harvest as a not very great misfortune,
because they think the high prices for which it is sold make up for the
shortness of the crop? In one of President Grant's annual messages he
congratulates his fellow-countrymen on the rise of prices in grain and pork
which the Franco-German war had caused, and which he thought must be
of great advantage to the United States. He evidently looked upon the rise
in the exchange value of these commodities as equivalent to an increase of
their utility, and that a scarcity of the necessaries of life was no real mis-
fortune to the labouring classes of his country as long as it was accompanied
by high prices. "Where such opinions are held, even by men of education,
it is surely well not to carelessly use a definition which gives a sort of
plausibility to the error.
I propose to define wealth to be anything which is useful to man, by
enabling him to live more comfortably or elegantly than he could with-
out it.
Of the total wealth existing in a community a part is usually called
capital. Unfortunately, this word has several different meanings in com-
mon language, and confusion and error have arisen from its being used
in one of these instead of in its defined meaning. It sometimes denotes not
actual wealth, but a right to a certain share of the wealth of the community.
CannuTHERS.—On some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 5
Mill frequently uses it where it can have no other meaning than this
notwithstanding that he has defined it to be “a stock previously accumu-
lated of the product of former labour,” —a definition which scarcely differs
from that given of wealth; for, except land and its natural productions,
nothing possesses exchangeable value which is not the product of former
labour.
Fixed and Circulating Capital,
Capital, again, is subdivided into “fixed” and “circulating.” Mill's
explanation of these terms, given in Book I., chap. vi., is too long for
quotation, and is very far from being clear or exact. His summation is,
however, that the result of a single use of circulating capital must be a
reproduction equal to the whole amount of the circulating capital used,
and a profit besides; and that with fixed capital, such as machinery,
this is not necessary, as it is not wholly consumed by one use.
If capital means wealth of any kind, this sentence is absolutely without
meaning. How can, for instance, the result of a single use of a sack of
coals in a locomotive engine be a reproduction equal to a sack of coals and
a profit besides? If, however, capital has the meaning above given, of a
right to a share of the wealth of the community, the sentence becomes
intelligible. The use of the coals must reproduce to the owner a right to
some other wealth which he values more highly ; and if the coals and the
other wealth be both compared with a common standard of value, like
money, the use of the coals must reproduce to the owner their price and a
profit besides. Capital, with this meaning, can have nothing to do with
the production of wealth except indirectly, and its subdivision into fixed
and circulating does not seem to serve any good purpose in political
economy. s
There is, however, a natural division which cannot be disregarded.
Some things, such as bread, wine, dwelling-houses, clothes, ete., etc., are
useful for their own sakes ; the production of these is the end and aim of all
labour and sacrifice, or at least of all that falls within the province of political
economy ; they may be called direct wealth. Others are of no use for their
own sakes; they are useful only by co-operating with human labour in the
Production of direct wealth; they are land, steam-engines, ploughs, coal
when used to drive an engine, warehouses, ete., etc. ; these may be called
implements. Of course, neither direct wealth nor implements, if the pro-
duct of human labour, are made complete at one operation ; they first pass
through the stage of materials, such as corn, wool, iron, wood, ete. ; but
it is not necessary to place materials in a separate class, as they may be
classed with the final products of which they eventually form a part.
6 Transactions.—Miscellaneous.
Whenever labour is devoted to the production of an implement, there is
a sacrifice of present for future advantage. The sacrifice may be slight and
the advantage great and almost immediate, but there is always some
sacrifice. For instance, olive oil is direct wealth, useful for its own sake;
if, instead of consuming it as food, the owner uses it as an implement to
lubricate a steam-engine, he gets, as a reward for his slight sacrifice of
present good, a vast return in labour saved. This is an extreme case at
one end of the scale; at the other end, are improvements in land, where a
sacrifice of the product of a year’s labour of, say, thirty men, may be given
in exchange for a future increase of the yearly harvest, equal to the product
of one man’s labour. A wealthy landowner in England would probably -
undertake such a work, as he would make 33 per cent. interest on his out-
lay; but it would not follow as a matter beyond dispute, that the employment
of the labour in this manner was to the advantage of the community at
large, or that, if both the sacrifice and the reward were evenly distributed,
it would be worth while to incur the one for the sake of the other.
Bearing in mind the division of wealth I have proposed, we may readily
test the accuracy of the several statements made by Mill and other writers as
to the effect of employing labour in the production of fixed and circulating
capital (or wealth) respectively. It is stated that the increase of fixed,
when it takes place at the expense of circulating capital, must be tempo-
rarily prejudicial to the interests of the labourers. This is not quite
accurate: labourers’ cottages would, under his definition, be fixed capital ;
but it would not be prejudicial to the interests of the labourers themselves
to employ labour in building them ; provided, of course, such employment
were judicious—that is, that the cottages were required, and the still more
urgent requirements of the labourers, food and clothing for instance, were
already provided. The same may be said of workmen's club-houses, tea-
gardens, theatres, taverns, and other places of use or amusement which
workmen frequent.
It is also stated that “there is a great difference between the effects of
circulating and fixed capital on the gross produce of the country," the
context showing that the former is supposed to be the more productive.
A steam-engine, for instance, is fixed capital, the coal which is consumed
in it is circulating ; the coal is, therefore, more productive than the steam-
engine. Surely this is equivalent to saying that one shear of a pair of
scissors does more work than the other. Although the steam-engine is
fixed eapital the iron of which it is made is circulating; and it is, therefore, .
a more productive employment of labour to manufacture unwrought iron
than to make that same iron useful by putting it into an engine. The
CARRUTHERS.—Ûn some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 7
absurdity goes even one step further; the steam-engine is circulating
capital when it is still in the hands of the maker—at least I think Mill’s
definition would so classify it. When it is in the hands of the user and in
“full work it is clearly fixed capital, and therefore less productive than before
it came into use.
These illustrations show how needless, or even mischievous, is the usual
subdivision of wealth into fixed and circulating capital. The division I
have indicated of direct wealth and implements is, however, natural and
essential to an intelligent study of the laws which govern the production of
wealth,
The sacrifice which is always made when labour, which would otherwise
have been applied to the production of direct wealth, is applied to the pro-
duction of implements, is made by the labouring classes. The whole wealth
of the community belongs to part only of the individuals composing it.
They apply a portion of their wealth to their own use, the rest they give to
labourers to induce them to work for them. The reasons which induce
them to employ part of their wealth in this manner, are not influenced by
a resolve on the part of one of their number to produce new implements.
When, therefore, new implements are made, capitalists do not take men
away from the production of those commodities which they intend to use
themselves ; in other words, they do not lessen their own personal expendi-
ture. They take men who would otherwise be engaged in producing com-
modities for the labourers, and, of course, less of those commodities are
produced, This less quantity becomes the total fund to be divided between
the labourers as wages. The owners of wealth as a body, without any
personal sacrifice, become the owners of the implement; the sacrifice is
made by the labourers alone and at once.
Generally, and perhaps always, except in the case of countries, which
invest much wealth abroad, like England and Holland, the labourers suffer
a further and still greater loss than the first cost of the new implements.
The wealth-owners do not act as a body, but each individual acts indepen-
dently of the others. Each man gives, of his own share of the general wealth,
a certain portion annually to the labouring classes. When the implement
was completed, no one would give more than before, while the man for whom
it was made would give less; his gross share of the whole would be less than
before by the whole cost of the implement, and he would give less by
exactly that amount, as he would not reduce his own personal expenditure.
There would thus be a general rise of profits, and a general fall of wages
equal to the total cost of the implement, and this would continue for some
years until the causes which had before fixed the relative proportions of
8 Transactions.—Miscellaneous.
wages and profits had time to bring them back to what they were before the
disturbance.
New and improved implements always increase the guantity of wealth
which can be produced by the labour of the community, and the labourers
share more or less in this advantage. Their interest is thus seldom opposed
to the construction of new implements, although they bear the whole of the
necessary preliminary sacrifice, and even in most cases a great deal more.
In new countries, however, like New Zealand, the interests of the labourers
and employers of labour are more often in conflict. If, for instance, aman can
manufacture cloth for a little less than he can import it from England, it is
his interest to employ his wealth in erecting buildings and machinery for
the purpose. He gets thereby a small increase of his income. The labour-
ing classes suffer for several years an annual loss equal to the entire cost
of these implements, and derive only a small final benefit, as, by the
hypothesis, the cost of manufacturing the cloth is only slightly less than
that of importing it.
The ery for “protection to native industry,” and consequently for
increased expenditure on machinery and buildings, is perfectly rational
on the part of colonial employers of labour. They gain, directly, the higher
profits, for the sake of which they agitate for protection; and for every
pound that is spent on implements, which would otherwise have been spent
in producing direct wealth, they, as a body, get a pound a year out of the
labourers, unless indeed they curtail their own expenditure, and thus pay
for their machinery out of savings from their incomes. This they seldom
do; machinery and buildings are generally made with money borrowed or
taken out of some other business for the purpose.
Unfortunately, the labourers are generally so unskilled in political
economy that they are as eager for protection as the employers. They
see the employment that is given by a manufacturer, and do not see the
much greater employment which would have been given by the same wealth
had it been turned to other uses. |
If they knew their own interests, instead of wishing to have nothing
imported which can be manufactured in the colony, they would be loath to
see any manufactory started which required expensive implements, if the
article to be made could be imported at a cost not much exceeding that of
manufacturing it in the colony. We, in New Zealand, are in so happy a
position that we need not undergo the privation necessary to procure
expensive machinery. The English are ready to do that for us, and are
content with a recompense which we, in our more favoured circumstances,
would consider inadequate.
CaRRUTHERS.—On some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 9
Productive Labour and Capital.
The words productive and unproductive play a great role in the works
of political economists. Nominally, they mean productive or unproductive
of wealth—that is, of things useful or agreeable which possess exchangeable
value—but when closely examined they will often be found to refer, not to
wealth, but to a right to a share of the wealth produced by others; or, in
other words, labour is sometimes said to be productively employed when it
produces wealth, and sometimes when it only produces profits to the
employer of labour. To distinguish between these two meanings I propose
to use the words “ productive" and “profitable,” to mark the production of
wealth and of profits respectively ; and, unless otherwise stated, I shall use
“ capital” to denote, not wealth itself, but a right to a certain share of
the wealth of the community.
A productive labourer is said (Book I., chap. iü., sec. 4) to be one “who
produees more than he consumes." Let us take for example a navvy, who
excavates ten cubic yards of earth and consumes in the same time a certain
quantity of beef and beer. Has he produced more or less than he has con-
sumed? Is he to be classed as a productive or an unproductive labourer ?
and if, instead of ten yards, he had only excavated one yard, would it have
any influence on the classification? A shoemaker, again, makes a dozen
pairs of shoes, and, while doing so, consumes a certain quantity of food and
other things. He has produced the shoes, and must, therefore, be a pro-
ductive labourer; but it is impossible to compare them with the things he
has eonsumed, so as to say that his consumption has been greater or less
than his production. There is no difficulty in finding out whether he is a
* profitable" labourer or not. If he consumes less commodities than his
employer can get in exchange for the shoes he makes, he is profitably, and,
if more, then he is unprofitably employed.
Mill’s illustration (Book I., chap. iii., sec. 4) of the results of productive
and unproductive labour shows clearly that he really means profitable and
unprofitable. He says:—“ When a tailor makes a coat and sells it, there
is a transfer of the price from the customer to the tailor, and a coat besides
which did not previously exist; but what is gained by an actor is a mere
transfer from the spectator's funds to his, leaving no article of wealth for
the spectator's indemnification. Thus the community collectively gains
nothing by the actor's labour."
Here the price of the coat is not wealth, nor anything which benefits the
community or any member of it. The customer acquires the coat, giving
to the tailor a piece of metal, useless of itself, but which gives him a right
to a certain share of other people's wealth. This right he exercises,
10 Transactions.—Miscellaneous.
perhaps, in buying food for himself. The community is not benefited
by the transaction more than in the case of the actor. In that case the
customer acquires a seat at the theatre, giving to the actor a similar piece
of metal, with which he, like the tailor, buys food. Here, also, the com-
munity is not benefited; in both cases the customer alone gets the benefit;
he acquires and applies to his own use the product of other people’s labour.
A coat is not worn out by one use, and will last some months or years ;
but if the customer had, instead of a coat, taken a beef-steak and a bottle of
wine, there would have been “no article of wealth left for his indemnifica-
tion," precisely as would be the case if he went to the theatre.
It is stated in Book I., chap. iii., sec. 8, that ‘it is essential to the idea
of wealth to be susceptible of accumulation; things which cannot, after
being produced, be kept for some time before being used, are never, I think,
regarded as wealth, since, however much of them be produced and enjoyed,
the person benefited by them is no richer, is nowise improved in circum-
stances.” This limitation of the meaning of wealth would exclude most of
the articles used as food. Grain, vegetables, live stock, are not focd; they
are only the materials of which food is made. As soon as they are cooked
and served for use they become food, but are no longer susceptible of
accumulation.
To test the value of this definition we may take some examples: A
painter is a producer of wealth, as he, with the help of the canvas-maker,
produces commodities susceptible of accumulation. A poet, unless his
works are printed, is an unproductive labourer; so is a musician. It
will, I think, be readily conceded, that any classification is faulty which
separates works so allied in generai character as the productions of poets,
painters, aud musicians. An actor is emphatically an unproductive work-
man, and is always quoted as the example of the class; the dramatic author
is also a non-producer ; the theatre-builder is, however, a producer, because
his work “can be kept for some time before being used.” These three are,
however, fellow-labourers, the finished product of their combined labour
being an acted play: why should they be differently classed? If the actor
does not produce wealth, the mason and carpenter who build the workshop
in which his work is carried on must be also employed in producing some-
thing which is not wealth. The physician is a non-producer; but his
fellow-labourers, the druggist, instrument maker, hospital builders, etc.,
are all producers; the labour of all is necessary to the work which they
perform in common, and, in any classification, they should all go together.
The public singer is at present a non-productive labourer, but if, as seems
likely, the phonograph is ever so perfected that sounds may be stored up
REDEEM cec -—
CannUTHERS.—On some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 11
and thus made articles of trade, he will become a productive labourer.
Such an improvement in the phonograph would be, of course, a great
addition to the wealth of the world. The labour of the singer, instead of
adding to the pleasure of hundreds as at present, would give pleasure of a
very high order to tens of thousands. The average happiness of man would
be inereased, but I do not see how the improvement would so change the
charaeter of the singer's labour as to convert it from unproductive to
productive.
Throughout the whole of his chapter on ** Unproductive Labour," Mill
appears to have in mind, production of profits rather than production of
wealth. The so-called unproductive labourers— authors, actors, publie
singers, lawyers, physicians, soldiers, sailors in the navy, civil servants,
etc.—are men whose labour is as necessary to the well-being of society as
that of any other class, but for the most part they work on their own
account and are not dependent on capitalists. The product of their labour
cannot be passed from hand to hand, and cannot, therefore, be made the
instrument for acquiring a right to a share of the wealth of the community ;
it is, in short, not productive of profits or of capital.
Of all the products of labour, food is the most necessary, and may,
therefore, most justly be called wealth. The community at large is not,
however, enriched by the labour of the farmer more than by that of the
actor or public singer. Without the farmer's labour the community could
not exist at all, but without the actor’s labour it could not maintain that
average state of enjoyment in which it lives and to which the labour of
both is equally necessary. The product of the labour of both can only be
enjoyed once, and when once used is gone for ever.
Far too much stress is laid on the aceumulation of wealth in most works
on political economy, especially when discussing productive labour, and too
little on the kind of wealth which can be, or at least should be, accumulated.
We are unfortunately obliged to store sufficient grain for one year's con-
sumption, but there would be no use in accumulating a stock sufficient for
several years, unless, like Pharaoh, we anticipated a drought. So with
clothing and all other forms of direct wealth; there is no advantage in
having a large stock of them on hand. The makers and sellers of all kinds
of direct wealth always strive to keep the stock in existence, and not in
actual use, as small as possible, while the consumers take care that the
stock in use shall not be needlessly large. No one has any interest or wish
to acquire or keep a stock of commodities which will not be shortly
consumed, or put into the consumers’ hands for use.
Under the social system prevailing in all civilized countries, everyone
12 Transactions.— Miscellaneous.
should in his youth accumulate capital, that is, a right to wealth which he
himself has not produced, so that in his old age he may live in comfort
without working; this is not, however, accumulating wealth, but only pro-
viding that the distribution of future wealth shall be made in a particular
manner. The community never grows old; and it would be unreasonable,
even if it were possible, that one generation should scrimp and spare so
that the next should live without labour. Each generation provides for the
future by rearing children. It does not lay aside wealth for future use, but
stores it, by using it to feed the young, who in their turn support their
fathers when no longer able to work. Unhappily, the machinery by which
this is effected is very faulty, and age and want too often go together ;
but it is still true that all who are too old or too young to work are
supported by those in the prime of life.
Direct wealth is never saved, but is consumed as fast as it is made, or
is stored up so far only as may be necessary to make the stock in hand `
last until more can be produced. This can not be called saving at
all; it is no more than the exercise of sound judgment in the rate of
consumption. There is no sacrifice involved, but the reverse.
Saving on the part of the whole community can only be made by making
implements ; there is in this case a clear sacrifice, for the labour which is de-
voted to the work might have been employed in producing direct wealth, which
would at once have been useful, while the implement only makes it possible
that a larger stock of wealth shallin future be produced with the same labour.
The number of implements which can be judiciously made is, of course,
limited by the number of men who are at hand to use them; it is also
limited by the advantages which would be gained by having them; if a
large expenditure would be incurred in making a new machine, and only a
small increase obtained in the production of future wealth, the community
would be richer by not making it at all. In a community where education
and knowledge of the laws of nature are stationary this latter limit is soon
reached, and no further increase of wealth is then possible.
There would have been for instance no use, just before the invention of
railways, in making more macadamized roads in England, as those already
made were sufficient, and any increase in their number, however large,
would have been followed by only a small increase of utility. Increased
knowledge of the laws of nature, by suggesting that invention, opened out
a new way of employing labour in making new implements which would
repay their eost. The result was a large increase of the wealth of the
world, measured, not by the cost of the railways, but by their efficiency“as
compared with the roads they superseded.
CannurTHERS.—Ó some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 13
From the language generally used by writers, it would almost appear
as if they thought the usefulness of the “accumulated stock of the
product of former labour” depended on the labour which was spent in
producing it, and not on the facility it gives for producing future wealth,
and hence too much importance is generally given to the durability of
implements. If, in a community, a given number of machines is required
to carry on its manufactures, say ten, each of which requires a year’s
labour of a hundred men to produce, and will just last ten years: at the
end of every year one machine will be thrown aside as used up, and a new
one brought into use ; there will always be ten in use, each representing the
labour of 100 men, so that the stored-up wealth of the community will be
represented by the labour of 1,000 men for one year, and there will always
be 100 men employed in making new machines. If, now, a new kind of
machine be used, which is equally efficient, but will last only one year, and
- requires only ten men to construct: At the end of every year the whole ten
machines are thrown aside and ten new ones put in their place. The total
number of men employed in machine-making is, as before, a hundred. The
community is no better off than before, and no worse off; the same number
of its members are removed from the business of producing direct wealth.
The amount of labour stored up is, however, represented by one year's
labour of a hundred men instead of, as before, of a thousand. The
* accumulated stock of the produce of former labour” has been reduced
to one-tenth of its former amount without lessening the well-being of the
community.
There are hundreds of steam-engines now being thrown aside which
would last for twenty or thirty years longer, but it is better to make new
ones of better design. The old engines cost as much labour to produce
as the new ones, so that if the wealth of a community is to be measured
by the amount of stored-up labour it possesses, there is no advantage
in replacing old-fashioned machinery by new.
The exaggerated importance generally given to saving and accumulation
in common estimation, and even by political economists, is due to the use of.
the word capital in a sense not covered by its definition. A capitalist is one
who, without labouring himself, has a right to a share of the wealth pro-
duced by others. If he exercises his right in acquiring costly food and
clothing for himself, and coarser food and clothing to give to servants to
induce them to wait on him, his right is satisfied and thereafter ceases. He
is said to have lived on his capital. If, instead of doing so, he uses only a
part himself and gives the rest to labourers to induce them to work, some
to produce articles which he himself will consume, and the rest to produce
14 Transactions.—Miscellaneous.
food to maintain both themselves and the other labourers, he is said
to invest his capital and to live on the interest. The more he gives to
the labourers and the less he uses for himself, the more he is said to
save. Of course there can be no limit to the saving of this kind which
it is desirable that he shall make, short of his not keeping enough to
maintain himself in average comfort. All that he saves is consumed by
the workmen, so that the community as a whole stores up nothing.
Both capitalist and workmen cannot save at the same time, except, as
before said, by making new implements. If they both persist in refusing
to consume the wealth produced, their barns would be filled with grain
for the benefit of the rats, and their warehouses with cloth and iron
for the moth and rust to corrupt; but they could not go on for ever
in that way, and would have eventually to cease work. Any indivi-
dual workman may save, that is, he may refrain from consuming his share
and invest it, by giving it to his fellow-workmen who would consume it;
but the whole body of workmen can only become capitalists by making new
implements, unless other capitalists live beyond their incomes.
It must not be forgotten that implements are made for the purpose of
being at once useful and not for the sake of storing wealth. If one genera-
tion gets any advantage from the labour of its predecessor, it is due to the
accident that most implements, and some articles of direct wealth, are made
of durable materials, and not to any saving made intentionally with the view
of benefiting posterity. One generation, however, owes very little to its
foregoers of the material wealth it enjoys. The greater part of the wealth
of the community was made within the last year, and very little is ten
years old. The accumulations we have received from our fathers, and
owe to our sons, are knowledge of the laws of nature, good laws, and habits
of labour. If these are increased, the means of producing material wealth
are also increased; with the same labour our sons will be able to live better
than we, unless their numbers increase so much that they cannot produce
sufficient food without increasing the proportion of those employed in
producing it as compared with the whole community.
Capital.
This word has not been as closely defined as its importance requires,
nor is it uniformly used in its defined meaning. Mill says it is “a requisite
without which no productive operations beyond the rude and scanty
beginnings of primitive industry are possible.” His first definition already
quoted, makes it equivalent to all exchangeable wealth, except land and its
spontaneous productions. With this meaning it is clearly an unnecessary
word. Landis simply an implement, and does not require to be classed
WA WA
— et Se AA AA
CaRRUTHERS.—On some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 15
separately from other implements ; nor do trees and grass, which have grown
without the help of man's labour, differ from those which man has planted or
sown.
In Book I., chap. iv., sec. 1, it is thus further defined :—“ What, then,
is his (the capitalist's) capital? Precisely that part of his possessions,
whatever it be, which is to constitute his fund for carrying on fresh
production. It is of no consequence that a part, or even the whole of it, is
in a form in which it cannot directly supply the wants oflabourers." And
again :—'* The distinction between capital and Not-capital does not lie in
the kind of commodities but in the mind of the capitalist—in his will to
employ them for one purpose rather than another; and all property,
however ill-adapted in itself for the use of labourers, is a part of capital,
so soon as it, or the value to be received from it, is set apart for productive
re-investment. The sum of all the values so destined by their respective
possessors, compose the capital of the country.”
The first objection to these definitions which presents itself, is that they
would be unmeaning if there were not two classes in the community, one
to whom the whole of its wealth belongs, and who may or may not, as they
like, give any of it to the other class, who own no wealth and can only
procure any by labouring for the wealthy class. The existing social
arrangements under which this state of things almost necessarily exists,
are not, however, essential to the production of wealth. The total produce
of the labour of the community might be equally the property of all; there
would then be no part set aside for productive re-investment. The whole
direct wealth would be consumed as it was made, or at least given to the con-
sumer to put into use. While it was being consumed, the community would
be at work producing new wealth, which in its turn would be consumed.
Can any part of this wealth be marked out and said to be the capital of the
community ? the part on which the production of future wealth depends ?
Food is, of course, necessary, and if an insufficient quantity were produced
the community would starve and produce no more wealth; but if by
capital be meant the necessaries of existence, why use so confusing a
word when others, about the meaning of which no doubt can arise,
are at hand? Except implements none of the other articles which
were consumed or used were more necessary than another to production,
and all must, therefore, be in the same class, either capital or not-
capital.
Implements are essential to production, but no politieal economist has
defined capital to be the stock of them in the country; land, the most
important of all, is indeed pointedly excluded, obviously because the land-
16 Transactions.—Miscellaneous.
lord’s share of the common stock of wealth depends on different conditions
than that of other capitalists.
It thus appears that in a communistic society there is no such thing as
capital in the sense of a fund for carrying on fresh production, or of a fund
set aside for productive re-investment. The material requisites of produc-
tion are labourers and implements only. The necessaries of life are
required, as are also health, strength and intelligence, to enable labourers
to work—but they are connoted by the word labourer, and need not be
taken into consideration. There is one immaterial requisite which must,
however, be considered, namely, the effective wish that wealth be produced,
that is, a wish strong enough to overcome man’s natural repugnance to
work.
In a rude stage of society this wish is so weak that man will only labour
under the immediate spur of hunger; his repugnance to making other people
work is not so strong, and he makes his wife and slaves work even where
the return from their labour is somewhat distant; the rude beginnings of
agriculture are always the result of woman’s labour. It is doubtful whether
there is, even now, a society so advanced in civilization that the production
of wealth could be safely left to the average forethought of its members
without the help derived from the pressure of immediate want. As society
is at present organized, the great majority of the people, the labouring
classes, are kept to their work by a pressure almost as strong as in the
rudest societies; if they do not work to-day they will get no dinner
to-morrow. In a commune, the punishment of idleness would be quite
as certain but more distant. As long as the past year’s harvest lasted they
would be equally well fed whether they worked or not; the results of their
idleness or industry would not show themselves until after the following
harvest, when it would be too late to make good any past errors. The wish
that wealth be produced need not be so strong as in a commune; for wealth
will be produced if the capitalists wish it, and they need not themselves
labour to carry their wish into effect; it is sufficient that they induce other
people to labour.
The requisites of production are the same under present social arrange-
ments as they would be in a commune; they are labourers, implements, and
the wish to produce. If capital is, as it is stated to be, a requisite of pro-
duction, it must be one or more of these, and is a worse than useless word,
for it is never, in ordinary conversation, used with a meaning allied to that
which would have to be given to it by definition.
It is impossible, by reading Mill’s definitions as given | in Book L,
chap. iv., to get any clear understanding of what he really means by
PET D
RA AA AA S AAA a RON E
CannvTHERS.— n some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 17
capital; we will therefore examine his four fundamental propositions as
given in chap. v., to see whether he means any or all of the three requisites
of production above given.
His first proposition is, that “Industry is limited by capital,” and con-
versely, ‘‘ every increase of capital gives, or is capable of giving, additional
employment to industry, and this without assignable limit.”
The whole wealth produced by the community belongs to the capitalists.
The labourers have no share in its ownership. Theoretically, the capitalists
could store it in their warehouses and keep it for their own exclusive use,
leaving the workmen to starve; practically, they do not, nor would they
be allowed to do so. It is their interest to keep only a certain share for them-
selves, and to give the balance to the workmen to induce them to work for
them and produce new wealth. If they acted together as a class, or if no
individual capitalist wanted to get more than the share he was already
entitled to of the total product, they need never give the labourers more
than the bare necessaries of life. All that could be produced beyond that,
they might themselves consume. The labourers would then be divided into
two classes; one engaged in producing the necessaries of life for themselves
and for the other class ; the other engaged in producing luxuries for the
rich, and new and improved implements, which would still further increase
those luxuries. It is obvious that if the wealthy then reduced the share
of wealth which they gave to the producers of necessaries, some of the
labourers would starve, and industry would thus be lessened as the number
of labourers was lessened. The theorem is correct only when the conditions
are such as are here indicated, when the labourers get only the bare
necessaries of life, and when capital means these necessaries. Industry is
then limited by capital, but not otherwise.
Fortunately, capitalists do not act together as a class; each individual
tries to get more than his allotted share of the wealth of the community,
and all try to entice workmen from the others by giving higher rewards,
that is, they **employ more of their capital in reproductive investment.”
The result is not, however, an increase of industry as stated in the theorem,
but higher wages for the labourers.
The second theorem is, that “Capital is the result of saving.” The
meaning of saving in this sentence is not that which it usually bears. It
means the saving made by the capitalist, that is, giving to the working
classes some of the wealth which the capitalist might, had he so chosen,
have consumed himself. He says, by way of illustration of the theorem,—
“ If all persons were to expend in personal indulgences all that they pro-
duce, and all the income they receive from what is produced by others,
; B
18 Transactions,— Miscellaneous.
capital could not increase.” The community as a whole does, however,
practically consume all that it produces. If population is stationary,
nothing more is required to increase the average wealth than to replace all
worn-out implements with new ones of a more scientific kind. If population
is increasing, the number of implements must be increased as well as their
quality improved, in order that the larger population may labour more
advantageously than the smaller had done. This would not in the ordinary
meaning of the word be called saving; if the community increases, it is
part of its current expenditure to provide the new members with facilities
of producing wealth for their own support.
-~ The meaning of “capital” in this case appears to be the wealth which
the capitalists give to the labouring classes in exchange for their labour;
and the theorem is little more than an identical proposition.
The third theorem is, that ‘‘ Capital, although saved and the result of
saving, is nevertheless consumed.’’ This follows from what has been
already said; everything which is saved by the capitalist is consumed by
the labourers, except new implements, the production of which may be
called saving by the whole community, as it implies a sacrifice of present
for future advantage. All that Mill deduces from it does not, however,
follow. He says: “ Saving, in short, enriches, and spending impoverishes,
the community along with the individual; which is but saying, in other
words, that society at large is richer by what it expends in maintain-
ing and aiding productive labour, but poorer by what it expends on its
enjoyments.” Saving by the capitalist, as has been so often said above,
enriches the workman, but saving by the community would enrich no one.
The object of labour is the bettering the conditions of life, and the com-
munity, therefore, is the richer by what it expends on its enjoyments, and
not the poorer ; it is the richer by what the capitalist saves, simply because
this kind of saving is only another name for more equal distribution.
The community does not require to save; it requires only that its labour
shall be wisely directed, so that the produce shall give the greatest possible
comfort and enjoyment. If the necessaries of life are not produced in
sufficient quantity it will suffer privation, although every man had been
engaged in what is generally called productive labour; no amount of cloth
or iron would make good the want of food. The necessaries having been
first provided for, the common labour should be devoted to producing those
luxuries which all can share. This is the “productive labour" which it
is the interest of society to “maintain and aid." An actor or publie
Singer may more properly be called a productive labourer than a velvet-
maker or diamond-digger, because the enjoyment which his labour pro-
Li
CanRUTHERS.—O some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 19
duces is shared by a larger number. As nothing can be done without
implements, the stock of these must be kept up, and whenever increasing
population or increasing knowledge makes it possible to do so with
advantage, it should be increased. Care must, however, be taken that the
future advantage shall not be purchased at the cost of an undue present
sacrifice.
The fourth theorem is, that “ What supports and employs productive
labour is the capital expended in setting it to work, and not the demand of
purchasers for the produce of the labour when completed. Demand for
commodities is not demand for labour. * * * * The maintenance or
payment of labour depends on the amount of capital or other funds directly
devoted to the sustenance and remuneration of labour.” The main deduc-
tion from this theorem is, that a capitalist, by buying velvet or other
commodity for his own use, does not improve the circumstances of the
working classes, but that by employing gardeners, grooms, and other
retainers, or by giving alms, he does so. The error contained in this
deduetion unfortunately pervades Mill's work, and makes that part of it
which treats of the production of wealth far less valuable than that which
treats of its distribution.
If two capitalists, A and B, are entitled to equal shares of the wealth
of the community, and both invest their shares from year to year, the
working classes will receive the whole product of their own labour; A and
B will receive none of it. If they retain for their own use a certain pro-
portion which we may call interest, and invest the balance, the labourers
will receive, not the whole, but a part only, the part received from A being
equal to that received from B. Let us now assume that both resolve to
consume the whole themselves; A deciding to take his share in the form
of attendance on himself, while B decides to procure velvet; the wealth
which had been produced by the labourers they had previously employed
must in both cases be again given to the working classes; in A’s case it
goes to grooms and footmen ; in B's case it goes to velvet weavers. When
the wealth is all consumed, the labourers get no more from either A or B;
A has received the share of wealth he was entitled to in the form of the
services of his attendants, and having done nothing to entitle him to any
share of future wealth his right lapses. B gets a certain quantity of velvet
which he uses for his own pleasure, the labouring classes get no benefit from
it, and, as in the case of A, his right to a share of future wealth also lapses.
It is obvious that in both cases the labourers receive precisely the same
advantage ; A has done no more good than. B.
If A had not come to the selfish resolve to apply his wealth to his own
20 Transactions.—Miscellaneous.
use, until a year after B had done so, he would have invested it, and the
working classes would have enjoyed the use of it once more, receiving
thereby a further benefit He would then enjoy the services of his
attendants at the same time that B was wearing his velvet, and not, as
before, at the time B was manufacturing it. Mill's error consists in
thinking that, in this latter case, the actions of A and B are parallel,
and that both were using contemporaneously their right to the product
of the labour of others. A definition of the word “invest” would have
prevented this mistake.
The capitalists, as a class, have absolute power over future production ;
whatever they wish to be produced will be produced; but they have no
power over the past; the stock of wealth in existence is the result of their
past wishes and actipns, and cannot be altered. If any capitalist resolves
to ‘‘invest his wealth," he means to give it to the working classes, and to
continue to give them the result of their labour, keeping for himself only a
part, which he calls his interest. He will so dispose the labour over which
he has control, that it shall produce for himself the particular commodities
which he wishes to use, and for his labourers the particular commodities
which they will require. It may be more convenient that he shall arrange
to produce for some other capitalist a different commodity, while the other
capitalist produces what he requires, and that they shall exchange their
respective productions. This would have no influence on the total wealth
produced, which will be the sum of all the different kinds of wealth which
all the capitalists require. Of course, in a large community there is no
previous bargain made as to what each capitalist shall produce. They all
anxiously forecast what their fellows will require, and direct the labour
under their command accordingly ; the result is, that taking one year with
another, everyone gets exactly what he wishes. If any particular capitalist,
after he has influenced the disposition of the year’s labour of the com-
munity, changes his mind, and wishes to consume, himself, the share of
wealth which he had previously determined to give to his labourers, he will
be unable to do so, He may, by outbidding a fellow-capitalist, procure for
himself what had been manufactured for his colleague, who will thus be
deprived of it, but the labourers will be uninfluenced. The capitalist who
was outbid will have on his hands, instead of the particular commodity
which had been produced to gratify his wishes, a stock of goods suitable for
the labourers, which he can only turn to account by giving it to them in
exchange for the product of their future labour. If the first capitalist is not
prepared to outbid his fellow, he must wait for a year before his new wish
can be gratified, and in the mean time his labourers will get the benefit of
CannuTHERS.—O some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 21
his former determination to invest his wealth. The result of a sudden
resolve, on the part of one capitalist, to squander, thus appears to be, to
induce another capitalist to save; on the other hand, a sudden resolve to
save would in the same way induce an equal expenditure on the part of
some one else; in either case the working classes are not affected.
A resolve, to have influence on the community at large, must have been
made a year beforehand, when it could influence the future supply of
commodities.
The word year here means, not a solar, but what may be called a
manufacturing year; that is, the time which must elapse before the resolve
on the part of a capitalist to produce any commodity can bear fruit. In
the case of grain, wool, cotton, and other important agricultural products
which form the main wealth of the world, it is equal to a solar year;
however much capitalists may wish to increase the total stock of these,
they cannot do so before next harvest. For most other things the year is
shorter ; if more iron or coal is wanted than has been produced, more men
can be employed in producing it, and the stock thus increased pretty
quickly. There are, however, many practical difficulties in the way of any
great and sudden increase of the production of any particular commodity,
and the manufacturing year is, perhaps, on the average not less than the
solar.
To return to our former illustration: When A resolves to employ
retainers he can do so at once, because his past resolve, which influenced
production, gave him the food and other necessaries which he could give to
the labourers to induce them to wait upon him. B could not at once wear
velvet, because his past resolve was not that velvet should be produced, but
that commodities suitable for workmen should be. These were produced in
obedience to his wish, and he can only turn them into velvet by giving them
to weavers to induce them to produce the velvet for him. If he does pro-
cure velvet at once, as Mill supposes, he can only do so by taking from
some one else the share of it, which he had willed to be produced, and by
giving him in exchange the commodities suitable for workmen, and these
the workmen would in the end receive.
In short, a capitalist expends his wealth whenever he gives it to workmen
to produce any commodity which he will himself consume; it does not
matter whether the commodity be capable of accumulation, like velvet, or
incapable, like a song or the services of a footman. The expenditure begins
when the workman begins to labour.
He invests his wealth in wages when he gives it to workmen to support
them while producing commodities which he neither intends to consume
99 Transactions.—Miscellaneous.
nor to exchange for others which he will consume. He intends that the
work produced shall be consumed by the workmen themselves, and it
must therefore be of such description as workmen generally use. The
wealth so given to the labourers may be called the ** invested fund.”
He ** invests his wealth in implements" when he induces labourers to make
them. It is absolutely necessary that implements shall be made, and it
would therefore be absurd to say that it is any special hardship for the
workmen to be obliged to produce them; but there is a good deal of analogy
between wealth expended, and wealth invested in implements. In both
cases the capitalist becomes the owner of the product of the labour, and
the workman does not, as in the case of invested wealth, get any direct
benefit from it.
He exchanges his wealth when he gives a commodity, or a valid certificate
of a right to a share of the common wealth, such as eash, mortgage, book
debt, or bank credit, in exchange for another. This form of transaction is
generally looked upon as most important, but to the community at large
it matters very little whether A owns a ship and B a farm, or B the ship
and A the farm.
Mill (Book I., chap. v., sec. 9) speaks of a capitalist ‘‘ expending his
income in buying velvet or lace,” as if this were the same as expending his
income in producing it. The confusion between the two expressions has
grievously misled him. The mere exchange of gold for velvet is of not the
slightest importance to the community. A owned gold and B velvet; they
make an exchange, and B then owns gold and A velvet. No one is in the
least influenced except themselves. If A produces gold, or B velvet, for his
own use, he applies the labour of the community to his personal advantage ;
if he is a mere agent, and C or D is the real user, then C or D gets the
benefit, and expends his wealth in producing the velvet.
The foregoing examination shows that Mill does not use the word
capital in any one fixed sense, but glides almost imperceptibly from one
meaning to another. It is not, when used with any meaning he gives to it,
a requisite of the production of wealth; these are labourers and implements
only.
Its common meaning is that in which I have used it—the share of the
direct wealth produced by the labour of the community, to which any
capitalist can make a valid claim. The owner of implements, cash, mort-
gages, or any other form of acknowledgment of indebtedness, is called a
capitalist, because by means of these he can make good a claim on the
common stock of direct wealth, and not because he owns the things them-
selves which are not directly useful to him or to anyone else.
CarruTuEers.—On some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 23
Capital in this meaning is of so much importance that some further
examination of it is required.
The capitalists, who are the owners of the whole of the wealth of the
community, must give some of it to the workmen to induce in them an
effective wish to produce a further supply; the wealth so given forms what
may be called the wages fund. As it is greater or less compared to the
numbers of the workmen, wages will be high or low.
The wages fund embraces all wealth which is being “ expended” (as
before defined), that is, which is being given to labourers, who are employed
in producing something which the capitalist will himself consume; as
well as that which is being “invested.” The present prosperity of the
labourer depends on it alone; but that prosperity will only last the year,
unless the “invested fund” forms a large proportion of the total wages
fund. Next year's prosperity depends on the “invested fund," which will
produce the wages fund of next year, since the capitalists have placed all
that itis instrumental in producing beyond their own reach, in so far as
they have willed that it shall be in the form of those commodities which
workmen generally use. Future prosperity will depend on the fature actions
of the capitalists; if they resolve to expend their wealth for their own
gratifieation, the labouring classes will not suffer during the following
year, as they will then be as fully paid for producing commodities for the
capitalists' use as they had been before. Their privations will not begin
until the second year, when the capitalists will keep for themselves all the
wealth produced by last year's labour. .
If an individual capitalist is content not to consume a larger proportion
of his share of the common wealth than the average of his fellows, he will
be able to enjoy that proportion every year, and still keep good his claim to
the proportion of the whole year's produce to which he was originally
entitled. The part he consumes is often called the interest on his
capital, and the part he invests, capital. By a false analogy, it is generally
supposed that the wealth of the whole community is also divided into
capital and interest, and that if the community consumes more than its
interest it encroaches on its capital, and is on the downward road to
ruin. An article lately appeared in the London Times, which argued from
some manipulation of that bugbear of political economists, the returns of
exports and imports, that England was “ expending its capital," and, like a
spendthrift squire, would soon be ruined unless she retrenched. Ruin to
the squire would mean that in future the poor fellow would have to work
for his living, and it would be hard to say when England was not in that
unhappy state.
24 Transaclions.—Miscellaneous.
It is also commonly supposed that a spendthrift who expends his capital
in one year, does more direct harm to the working classes than a wealthier
man who expends as large a sum out of his interest; there is a feeling that
in the one case capital has been destroyed, and that on capital the well-
being of the workmen depends, while in the other case the capital which
produced the interest is still intact. There is, however, no difference,
except indirectly, in the two cases. Both consume certain wealth, which,
had they not consumed it, would have gone to the working classes. It
makes no difference to the latter whether what they want and would have
had, if it had not been taken by some one else, is taken by A or by B; nor is
their future stock of wealth at all influenced, for the men who were employed
in producing the commodities consumed by prudent B were just as much
taken away from the production of goods to be used by workmen, as were
those employed in producing for spendthrift A.
When a spendthrift squanders his wealth he ceases to be a capitalist,
but the others acquire the share which he has lost. The whole class owns
between them all the wealth produced. If one of their number falls out of
the ranks it is so much the better for the rest; on the other hand, a capitalist
who increases his share by saving and investing a larger proportion of his
gross share than the average, acquires his right at the expense of the
others. He benefits the working classes, not only directly by increasing
their wages, but also indirectly, by compelling other capitalists to be more
frugal so as to maintain their proportionate share of the future stock ;
the spendthrift injures the working classes directly by consuming the wealth
which they have produced, and also indirectly, by making it easier for the
average man to keep his position as a capitalist, and thus keeping up the
rate of interest.
It is the interest of the capitalists to give as little as they can to the
labourers, and to receive as much from them as possible, consistently with
their attaining other objects they have in view. As a rule, while they wish
to live comfortably or luxuriously themselves, they also wish to leave
to their heirs a right to a share of the common wealth, not less than
that which they themselves enjoy. If they live too abstemiously, they
increase the share to which they are entitled, but exercise a self-restraint
which, under the circumstances, they consider unnecessary ; if they live too
well, other more abstemious men will push them from their stools, and
acquire, to their loss, a right to the wealth produced by the community. In
order to hold their own they must conform their personal expenditure to
that of the average of their fellow-capitalists.
Capitalists are not necessarily men of more than common intelligence,
CannuTHERS.—On some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 25
nor more likely than others to take a wide view of their own interests.
They do not try to get more profit out of their steam-engines by stinting
the supply of coal, or out of their horses or cattle by stinting their food,
but they will, if they can, reduce wages to a point at which the labourer ean
barely live and work. They forget that a real and active desire that wealth
shall be produced is one of the requisites of production, and that this
cannot be entertained by a spiritless, hopeless drudge, who by hard and
continuous labour can scarcely live better than the paupers in the work-
house, into whose ranks he must fallas soon as, broken down with rheu-
matism and other ailings brought on by insufficient food and shelter, the
few best years of his wretched youth are passed.
The total wages fund does not depend on the supply of labour, but on
the competition between capitalists, and will be the same whether wages
are high or low. The rate of wages depends on the numbers of the work-
men who share the wages fund. Where the community is divided into
capitalists and labourers, the latter have scarcely any inducement to keep
down their numbers, or rather, it is not so apparent as in the case of the
capitalists, and they are not fitted by education or habits of thought to
exercise self-restraint when the reward is distant and not very obvious.
They, therefore, tend to multiply until the wages fund is not more than
sufficient to give them the bare necessaries of life. If the capitalists avail
themselves of the competition of the labourers against one another, they
may pay their workmen no more than is just sufficient to keep body and
soul together. It is not their real interest to do so; by doubling wages
they would induce the men to work so much better, that the produce would
be increased in a still higher ratio. They should, even in their own interest,
refuse to pay less than a certain liberal rate; the wages fund would then
maintain only a comparatively small number of labourers, and an efficient
check would be at once placed on undue increase of population.
We have a right to expect more from capitalists in return for the
immense privileges we grant them, than a simple acquiescence in the course
which events are taking. If they cannot prevent a country from falling
into the state into which Ireland fell, or even into that in which the south-
west of England now is, they are of no use, and the sooner they are
abolished the better.
No other servants of the State, which capitalists simply are, would be
tolerated who were so highly paid, and who performed their work so badly.
We leave in their hands the absolute disposal of the labour of the com-
munity, and the distribution of the wealth produced by that labour; we
26 Transactions.—Miscellaneous.
allow them, within wide limits, to fix their own wages, only requiring them
in return to conduct their operations so as to give themselves the largest
profit they can make. The only argument which can be used to justify
such a trust is, that in striving for the interests of themselves, they, if they
use thought and self-restraint, are likely to do better for us than we could
without their help. The failures they have made would fairly justify the
community in trying to do without them ; it is scarcely likely that worse
disasters would follow than the Irish famine, or the long years of hopeless
misery which preceded it. The subjects of King Tawhiao or Sitting Bull
are far better off than the poorest classes of Ireland, or even of England.
It is a very important social problem to ascertain what is the rate of
wages which would give, in any geographical area, and under existing con-
ditions, the largest return to the capitalists (excluding landlords) as a class.
If this were known, public opinion among them would probably prevent any-
one from offering a lower rate, and it is almost certain that the labourers of
all the older ‘countries of the world would be bettered in circumstances by
getting this minimum instead of their present wages. Notwithstanding the
falling off in the population of Ireland since the famine, and the higher rate
of wages now paid, there is no doubt whatever that the capitalist class gets
a larger return; than they used to when the rate of wages was only from
fourpence to sixpence a-day.
EThe number of hours which a man must work during the day in
order that the produce shall be a maximum is also unknown. Capitalists
would seem, from their actions, to think that it is not less than four-
ieen or even more. Some information may be gained from the public
works carried out;in New Zealand; during the last few years. The
average rate of wages for unskilled workmen has not been less than a
shilling an hour, the men working "eight hours. In England the rate is, or
atleast was, a few;years ago, about threepence an hour, the men working
twelve hours; the cost of earthwork should be, if the work done were
proportional to the number of hours in a day's work, four times as high in
New Zealand as'in' England, but it has averaged considerably less than
twice. This is a very rough test, but it tends to strengthen the opinion
held by many intelligent employers of labour, that a man will do more when
working eight than he will when working twelve hours a-day.
Interest.
As before'said, that part of the national direct wealth which capitalists
keep for {their own use is; called interest; it is the reward they receive for
investing their wealth, instead of expending it.
As new men are continually, by frugality, making good a footing in,
ooo REN
CannUTHERS.—On some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 27
and others, the spendthrifts and prodigals, are dropping out of the list
of capitalists, the average rate of interest tends, even when the population
is stationary, to become lower, to approximate more closely to what will
satisfy the more frugal part of the class.
As population inereases, and it becomes necessary to cultivate inferior
land in order to produce a sufficiency of food, the average effectiveness of
labour tends to decrease, and the rents of the landlords to increase, the
labourers can then, besides making new implements, produce little more than
is sufficient to maintain themselves and to pay the landlords. The tempta-
tion to expend wealth instead of to invest it becomes greater, and in the
struggle for a position the smaller eapitalists are gradually pushed out of
the ranks by the larger, who can, with less sacrifice, afford to invest a
larger proportion of their capital.
There is thus a tendency of wealth to fall into the hands of a few, and
the extremes both of riches and poverty are generally found in the same
community.
In an extreme case, the number of capitalists may become so small that
2 practical combination may occur amongst them to reduce the wages fund;
and something like this appears to have taken place in the later years of
Rome.
Those who share the interest fund are the owners of money and land,
the fund-holders, and those whose wealth, invested either in implements or
wages, had been instrumental in its production.
The owners of that large stock of wealth which is in the hands of the
consumer, dwelling houses, furniture, clothes, ete., do? not share in it, nor
do the owners of goods manufaetured for the use of capitalists. The velvet
manufacturer, for instance, gets no interest on his velvet; it is the product
of ** expended " wealth. As a rule, he would not himself be the consumer
of his own manufactures; he has only manufactured them so as to
procure other goods which he requires ; the velvet was made because other
capitalists had so willed it, he knowing from former experience that they
had done so, and that, in the same way, whatever he willed to be produced
would be duly provided. If he intended to invest his wealth, others would
provide the commodities which he requires to give to his workmen, and
he will be able to get these in exchange for his velvet. He has, it is
true, “ expended " his wealth in making a commodity for the use of
capitalists, but by so doing has induced those capitalists to ** invest " theirs
in making goods for the future use of his labourers ; by exchange each gets
exactly what he wants, more conveniently than he could otherwise have
done. If there had not been a prospect amounting to a certainty that this
-28 Transactions.— Miscellaneous.
exchange would take place, the velvet consumer would have manufactured
the velvet he required, and the velvet manufacturer would have made the
commodities for workmen which he required. The essential part of invest-
ment does not consist in what is actually manufactured by any capitalist,
but in what he wills shall be manufactured for him, his will being equivalent
to an order given to the makers. As long, however, as the velvet remains
in the hands of the maker, he cannot invest it; he must exchange it for
other goods, and, when exchanged, it comes into the user’s hands, when it
is of just as little use to the working classes as the past services of the same
user’s footman.
It would be impossible to adjust the claims of the various capitalists
without the help of a common measure of value, and throughout the world
gold and silver have been adopted for the purpose.
The capitalist measures his wealth in money; it is the quantity of gold
he has, or which at current rates he could get, for the particular thing on
which his claim to a share of future wealth is founded. The only capitalists
who help, directly, in producing wealth are those who invest either in wages
or implements, and the capital of each individual is measured by the
current price of his implements or of the food and other things which he
possesses. The money owner, indirectly, facilitates production, and his
capital is measured by the gold he owns. The landlord and fund-holder do
nothing towards production, but as they share in the product, their pos-
sessions have, on that account, exchangeable value and therefore a market
price. If the money value of the possessions of these five classes of
capitalists were added together, it would form what might be called the
capital of the country, if the term were not so likely to suggest other and
different meanings. The share of the interest fund which any capitalist
could apply to his own uses without lessening his future share bears the
same proportion to the whole that his capital bears to the total capital of
the country.
The expression “ capital of the country " is often used to represent that
part of the wealth of the community on which its prosperity and well being
are supposed peculiarly to depend, but as in all other cases in which the
word capital is used, there is great vagueness as to the meaning which is
intended to be conveyed.
In estimating its value, the price of land and of the national debt is
often included, but the interest of these is simply a tax on the community
at large, and cannot in any sense be said to further the general prosperity.
Money also should not be included. It consists largely, and might
consist entirely of paper, which costs nothing. Our just distrust of the
£n AA AA M— A
EPOR
-— €t e E
ee WA AA
CarrutHErs.—On some of the Terms used in Political Economy. 29
honesty of governments is the only reason why gold should not be given up
as the medium of exchange and bank notes substituted, the number issued
to be limited in accordance with a fixed and unvarying rule. The whole of
the enormous expense of gold-mining would be saved to the world and the
existing stock of gold made available for use in the arts. In any case,
whether it consists of metal or paper, money has no intrinsic worth, being
a mere implement to assist in the distribution of wealth.
Implements should also be deducted; their costliness is not an element
of prosperity but only an indication of past privations. Their efficiency
does influence production, but cannot be valued in money, as it is the result
of thought and knowledge, as well as of labour. The engines of one of the
Cunard steamers of the present day cost no more labour to produce than
did those of five-and-twenty years ago; they will, however, develope the
same horse-power with one-third of the cost of coal and repairs. As far as
they are concerned the “capital of the country’’ has trebled, but no indica-
tion of the increase would appear in a return of the machines in use and
their cost.
In short, there is no means of comparing the prosperity of two different
countries or the same country at different times. Present prosperity
depends on the stock of direct wealth in actual use or stored ready for
use, and on the number of men, such as actors and singers, employed in
producing for the immediate gratification of the community enjoyments not
capable of being stored. Future prosperity depends on the number of men
who are employed in producing a further stock, and in the efficiency of their
labour. The only further requisites are, that the choice of things to be
produced shall be judicious and their distribution moderately equal.
A large part of capital consists of what is generally called floating
capital. Its ownership is attested by bank accounts, promissory notes, and
other acknowledgments of indebtedness. At first sight it would appear that
this was not included in any of the forms above enumerated, but the
owners of floating capital really own a share of the wealth nominally owned
by those who are indebted to them ; they do not, as is generally supposed,
own money of which the supply in existence is comparatively small.
It has been assumed throughout that the owner of capital applies it with
average skill and energy, in such way as shall give him a right to share in
the future wealth ; the implement-owner must take care that his machines
are kept fully employed; the employer of labour must keep his men to their
work, and must direct their labour judiciously ; the landlord must find
tenants or farm the land himself; the fund-holder has nothing to do but
to draw his dividends when they become due—his claim is the reward of
we
30 Transactions.— Miscellaneous.
past services done to the community. The money owner has a very
peculiar duty, as he has only to see that he keeps no more of it on hand
than is required. Ifa banker keeps a larger reserve than he needs, he will
not get the average banker’s interest. He gets no interest, directly, on his
gold reserve, but the profit on his other transactions is larger on account
of it. If it is unnecessarily large, he, of course, loses the interest on all the
money he needlessly keeps. This is also true of the merchant and manu-
facturer. The consumer who keeps money in hand to meet current
expenditure gets no interest for it.
A capitalist who uses his capital unskilfully benefits all other capitalists
and injures the community at large, except in the case of a money owner,
who injures no one, except himself, by mismanagement. If he keeps more -
on hand than the nature of his business requires, the stock in the hands of
others becomes more valuable, by the exact amount of his excess, and the
smaller amount in circulation is quite as efficient as the larger would be.
Cost of Production.
The cost of production of any commodity is simply the labour required
to produce it; it does not matter whether the labourer be a Millais or a
coal-heaver. Wealth being required, there is only one way of getting it,
and that is by labour, and the labour of all is equally necessary to the
production of the common stock. The problem to assess the utility
of each man’s production would be quite insoluble. There would even be
a difficulty in deciding whether a day’s labour of Turner or West, or
of Browning or Tupper, were worth most. It would be easier to assess the
relative value of two nayvies’ work, one of whom could dig ten and the
other only five yards of earth in a day. Even in this latter case the labour
of both men would be equally requisite to the production of the total stock,
if it were necessary to dig fifteen yards a day. A capitalist must take into
account not only the labour which was required to produce his wares, but
also the rate of wages he was obliged to pay his workmen, and the interest
he would be obliged to pay to other capitalists; from his point of view,
therefore, both interest and wages form part of the cost of production.
It would be well to keep distinet what is essential under all cir-
cumstances from what is due to the accidental conditions under which
society may happen to regulate its labour; and as a medium of exchange,
like money, is necessary in 2 community divided into capitalists and
labourers, I think the capitalists' costs of production should be called the
** price of production."
The exchange value of wealth tends to be in proportion to its price of
production and not to its cost.
————À À
PuRNELL.—On Antarctic Exploration, 31
[Norz.—Mill makes a note that the reviewer in the Edinburgh Review,
(October, 1844), suggested a definition of implements very similar to that
which I have proposed, but I have not been able to procure a copy of the
review. See Book I., chap. ii., sec. 4.)
Art. IL.—0On Antarctic Exploration. By C. W. Puryett.
[Read before the Otago Institute, 14th May, 1878.]
In a presidential address delivered to the members of this Institute, in
February, 1875, Mr. J. T. Thomson eursorily alluded to the subject of
antarctic exploration. This subject had been under my own notice for
some time previously, and I should probably have asked permission to
read a paper upon it but for Mr. Thomson's remarks, which seemed to
render it needless for me to do so just then. Other persons, I dare say,
have had their attention directed to so fascinating a topie, although, after
searching such official records of the proceedings of the different Philoso-
phieal Societies in the Australian colonies as are available, I have been
unable to discover any paper dealing with it, or any allusion whatever
to the matter, save that contained in Mr. Thomson’s address. Yet it
- seems to me that there is no subject better fitted for the consideration of
& scientific society in these colonies, and more partieularly of the Otago
Institute, than the best means of exploring the South Polar Seas. They
form a weird and strange region almost unknown to man. They have been
unvisited by any exploring expedition since 1843; and no discoveries appear
to have been made by whaling vessels, or at all events none have been
recorded, to supplement those of Sir James Ross; so that, while during
the last five-and-thirty years our knowledge of the North Polar region has
been immensely augmented ; while Africa has been crossed and re-crossed ;
while the telegraph line has been carried over the then unknown interior
of Australia, absolutely nothing has been done towards clearing up the
mystery which enshrouds the regions lying within the antarctic circle. It
has been estimated that a portion of the globe, three times the area of
Europe, here lies unexplored. The entrance to this field of enterprise, too,
is within a few days' steam of Otago.
It is of the highest geographieal importance to know whether an
antarctic continent exists or not. Cook's researches in the latter part of
the eighteenth century dispelled the old belief in a Terra Australis, but
82 Transactions.—Miscellaneous.
subsequent discoveries revived the idea in a modified form, and it is so
long since anything was done towards exploring the antarctic regions, that
a hazy notion that a mass of land surrounds the South Pole seems again to
be diffusing itself, and we frequently find “the antarctic continent" spoken
of as though it were an ascertained fact, whereas its existence is a mere
hypothesis, although not a groundless one. What has really been dis-
covered are three large tracts of land, many islands, and two or three
pieces of land which may either be islands or the outlying points of a
continent. The longest and best known of the three large tracts just
mentioned is that lying to the south of Cape Horn, its various parts being
named respectively Louis Philippe Land, Palmer Land, Graham Land,
and Alexander Island. It is fringed with islands, of which the South
Shetlands and the New Orkneys are the principal groups. In the same
hemisphere, but due south of port Dunedin, lies Victoria Land, discovered
by Sir James Ross in 1841, the coast line of which was further explored by
him in the following year. This land is remarkable for being the site of an
active volcano, 12,367 feet high, named by Ross Mount Erebus. It is
situated in the high latitude of 76° 6’ S., and is in the vicinity of an
extinct volcano, called by Ross Mount Terror. Ross traced Victoria Land
from the 70th degree of latitude to nearly the 79th, the precise latitude
attained by his ships being 78° 10’ S., or nearly four degrees higher than
any navigator had reached before. It would appear that Victoria Land, to
the south of New Zealand, forms a sort of bight; but what checked Ross's
progress, and prevented him ascertaining the precise contour of the land at
this latitude, was a solid barrier of ice, without flaw or fissure in its face, from
100 to 300 feet high, trending to the north and east. He sailed along this
barrier for 450 miles, without being able to find an entrance or to see any
land rising behind it during a great part of the distance, so that, although
Ross himself seems to have been of opinion that the barrier sereened a body
of land, it cannot be positively asserted that such is the case. Victoria
Land, may either at the point where Ross met the barrier, trend to the
South Pole, or it may, covered by the ice barrier, stretch away to the east-
ward to meet Alexander Land, between which and Victoria Land the only
known Land is Peter 1st Island, on the 91st meridian of west longitude,
discovered by the Russian navigator, Bellingshausen, in 1821.
Turning now to the westward and south of Australia, we come to the
important discoveries of our countryman Ballemy, the Frenchman D'Urville,
and the American Wilkes. These consist of the Ballemy Isles, Sabrina
Land, and Adélie Land. The two latter form a coast line, if we are to
credit Wilkes, extending from 154? 27' E., to 97? 80' E. long.; but Wilkes's
Purneti.On Antarctic Exploration, 83
authority is not of the best, since he seems to have seen a great deal
more than sailors of other nationalities could do. Indeed, Ross actually
sailed over one spot where Wilkes affirmed that he had discovered a chain
of mountains, Without, however, placing too much reliance upon Wilkes's
alleged discoveries to the westward, we have the concurrent testimony of
himself, Balleny, and D’Urville, that an extensive tract of land does exist
in this direction; Balleny Isles, lying considerably to the eastward (lat.
66° 44’ §., and long, 163° 11’ E.), and so forming a connecting link between
these and Ross’s discoveries. It is noticeable that Cook, on his second
voyage, was unable to get so far south as this body of land by four or
five degrees, being stopped by the ice, although he was on the right track
for its discovery.
Still proceeding westward, we next meet with Kemp Land on the 60th,
and then with Enderby Land on the 50th meridian. These were discovered
by our countryman Biscoe, in 1831-3. Whether Kemp and Enderby Lands
are islands, or the outlying parts of a large mass of land, we do not know;
but it is noticeable with respect both to them and the discoveries just men-
tioned that they all lie adjacent to the antarctic circle.
I have now summarised all that is actually known of the so-called
** antarctic continent," from which you will see that, while there are indica-
tions which might lead us to infer a connection between the principal dis-
coveries that have been made, it may well be that the most extensive of
these lands are only the chief members of an archipelago. Hach hemi-
sphere offers its special attractions to the explorer. In the western, the vast
space between Ross’s discoveries and Alexander Land, extending over about
60° of longitude, remains to be examined. Cook tried to penetrate its re-
cesses, but could get no farther than 71° 10’ S., which he did on the 107th
meridian, when he was beaten back by the ice. Ross made a similar
attempt on his second voyage, and actually crossed the antarctic circle in
longitude 156° 28’ W., or fourteen hundred miles to the eastward of the
place where he crossed it on his first voyage ; but he was afterwards driven
to the west by the pack, and reached his lowest latitude in 161° 27’ W.
There is next the gap between Louis Philippe Land and Enderby Land.
This has been tried by various navigators. The most successful was
Weddell, who, in 1823, got as low down as 74° 15’ 8. on the 35th
meridian (W.), and found there a sea clear of ice. Weddell accom-
plished this great feat in a brig of 160 tons burthen, accompanied by a
cutter of 65 tons. He would have sailed still further south but for
the lateness of the season, which rendered it prudent to turn back. -
D'Urville, however, following on his track, could not attain to even
Cc
84 Transactitons,—Miscellaneous,
66°; and Ross, on the same meridian, was stopped by an impenetrable
pack at 65° 18’ S. Ross afterwards sailed eastward, and reached the
latitude of 71° 80’ S. in 14° 51’ W. Still further eastward, on the
second meridian west longitude, Bellingshausen reached 69° 45’ S. None
of these navigators met with land at the extreme limits of their voyages,
Finally, it is necessary to ascertain whether a connection exists between
Victoria Land and Terre Adélie.
The practical object which I have in view is to urge that, as soon as
circumstances permit, an expedition should be fitted out at the joint expense
of the Australian and New Zealand governments for the purpose of follow-
ing up Ross’s discoveries, and ascertaining whether land does or does not
exist between Victoria and Alexander Land. Such an enterprise would
doubtless be outside the routine work of these governments; but is never-
theless one to which they might properly devote their attention, unless,
indeed, we accept the theory that Englishmen who happen to reside in a
colony thereby become emancipated from national duties, and are entitled
to consecrate their lives to money-making. The cost would be considerable,
but when we reflect how many expeditions, which have made important
discoveries in the Arctic Seas, have been despatched from England, the
United States, and Germany, at the expense of private persons, it seems
absurd to contend that it would be beyond the means of these rich Colonial
Governments. What is wanted are two auxiliary steamers, of from 800
to 400 tons burthen, officered and manned from the Royal Navy, and pro-
visioned for three years, so that if a harbour could be found the ships might
be able to winter in the Antarctic Seas. The natural starting point of such
an expedition would be Port Chalmers. The expedition would sail about
the middle of November, and would be able to continue its explorations
until the end of February, when it must either look for winter quarters or
return home.
It is possible that the vessels might not be able to winter in the ice,
for one of the peculiar difficulties connected with antarctic explorations
is that no harbour has yet been found where vessels can go into winter
quarters as they are accustomed to do in the arctic regions. Hence Ross,
on each of his three voyages, was only able to remain in the Antarctic Seas
during the summer season, and could not therefore utilise the winter for
land expeditions. He was also compelled to navigate in sailing ships, and
without any of the appliances for securing the health of the crews and the
safety of the vessels, which have since almost raised Polar exploration to
the rank of an exact science. Nevertheless, his discoveries were of a
remarkable character, and in reading his narrative one can easily perceive
Purnaui,—0n Antaretic Eaploratión, 85
how much more he would probably have done had he been aided by steam,
On his second voyage, when he attained the highest latitude ever reached, he
was 56 days in the pack, which was 1000 miles through, and by the time he
had got out of it and reached the ice barrier it was time to return. With
steamers he would probably have pierced the pack in two or three weeks,
In the event of the expedition being unable to winter in the ice, I should
propose that the explorations be renewed in the next and following years,
thus making three attempts to accomplish the objects in view.
It cannot, however, be denied that the antarctic explorer has a harder
task to encounter than his northern comrade. The cold is more intense;
storms more frequent; while a constant heavy swell of the sea adds to the
dangers of the navigator. Describing the state of the ice barrier on Feb-
ruary 9, 1841, Ross says, “ gigantic icicles depended from every projecting
point of its perpendicular cliffs, proving that it sometimes thaws, which
otherwise we could not have believed, for at a season of the year equivalent
to August in England we have the thermometer at 12°, and at noon not
rising above 14°; this severity of temperature is remarkable, also, when
compared with our former experience in the Northern Seas, where, from
every iceberg you meet with, streams of water are constantly pouring off
during the summer.” There is not the smallest trace of vegetation visible
in these inhospitable regions, even in the middle of summer. The most
southerly spot where vegetation has been seen is Cockburn Island, one of
the South Shetland Group, situated in latitude 64° 12’ S. ; but it only con-
sists of a few mosses, alge and lichens. No land animals have been
observed. Whales, seals, penguins, petrels, and skua gulls are the only
visible living creatures in the highest latitudes that have been reached.
The winter is rather longer and the summer shorter than in the Arctic Seas.
These peculiarities would of course prove great hindrances to land explora-
tions, which would, even if they could be undertaken at all, have to be made
under different and more arduous conditions than those attaching to land
journeys in the North Polar regions.
The determination of the existence, or non-existence, of an Antarctic
Continent is the principal problem to be solved by a South Polar expedi-
tion. It must, however, be also borne in mind that the geographical
discoveries which have already been made are of the baldest nature.
Certain lands are known to exist and that is all. They have never been
explored. Louis Philippe Land and the other land to the south of Cape
Horn are the only Antarctic Lands of whose geography and productions
we have any real knowledge, and that is very limited, But the explorer's
foot has never trodden Victoria Land, Terre Adélie, Sabrina, or Enderby
86 Transactions, —Miscellaneous,
Land, Outlying islands alone have been visited, and then for the brief-
est period. The main land has been seen from a distance bursting
through the antarctic ice-cap and that is all. It is of the utmost interest
to know whether all or any of these lands are inhabited by human beings.
Their entire separation from the great continents of Asia and America,
and the want of even the limited means of subsistence afforded by the
North Polar regions for mankind, seem to forbid the supposition but
are not conclusive, and nothing but actual research can settle the ques-
on.
A knowledge of the geology of those regions would be of deep interest,
but it is noticeable that, according to such observations as could be made,
the lands visited by Ross’s expedition were wholly volcanic in character.
There was an entire absence of sedimentary formations, whose examination
in the North Polar regions has yielded such useful fruits to science. Even
in zoology a new expedition could hardly be barren of results, for Ross’s
enriched the naturalist's catalogue considerably. Ice action, too, is playing
such an important part in modern geological speculations, that it is a little
surprising that such a novel field of study as the Antarctic regions has not
been taken up before, inasmuch as ice here assumes highly characteristic
forms, quite different from those it presents in the north. Meteorological
and magnetic phenomena can also be studied under peculiar advantages.
The precise object of Ross’s expedition was to take magnetic observations,
and to reach the south magnetic pole. Ross determined the position of
the latter, but did not get within 160 miles of it. I could, however, traverse
a large part of the domain of physical research, pointing out how it would
be enriched by an antarctic expedition, but I have said enough to prove
that such an expedition would be likely to produce scientific fruits of the
utmost value. Its probable commercial results must also not be overlooked.
Ross discovered plentifully-stocked whaling grounds, and a rich bed of guano
on Possession Island, situated in lat. 71° 56’ S., and long. 171? 7’ E. Upon
this island there were scaly penguins in myriads, and the same bird was
seen in immense numbers in other places. This species of penguin attains
a large size, the birds often weighing as much as 601bs. or 701lbs. a-piece,
and, as they yield a valuable medicinal oil in considerable quantity, their
capture ought to be commercially profitable. Seals, too, swarm in the
lower latitudes, where they have bred undisturbed during countless ages.
Indeed, when we begin to contemplate the vast impetus which might be
given to the commerce of New Zealand and the neighbouring colonies
by a thorough exploration of the Antarctic Seas, the imagination is apt to
wander into boundless regions of potential wealth, only awaiting the enter-
PunxELL.—On Antarctic Eaploration. 97
prise of man to become available for his use. I shall not, however, be
tempted into this attractive ground, but shall content myself with pointing :
to its allurements.
I have not entered upon the details of the proposed expedition, because
they can be better diseussed in a separate paper. My present aim is to
direct your attention to an important but neglected subject in which New
Zealand is specially concerned. This colony has contributed nothing to
the cause of geographical discovery. Australia has done much, and the
adventurous feats of travel which have been performed by Eyre, Sturt,
Stuart, Leichardt, Burke, and other explorers, are such as to justify the
belief that their names will be perpetually preserved, not only in local but in
the national memory. It is deeds like these which redeem the colonies from
the reproach of being engrossed in the selfish-pursuit of wealth; and it is
by these means alone that we shall become entitled to rank in the eye of
the future historian with our fellow-countrymen in the older parts of the
empire. We pride ourselves much upon our industrial successes; upon
the vastness of our flocks and herds ; upon the immense crops of grain we
raise ; upon our budding manufactures; the roads, railways, and bridges
we have built; and all the other manifestations of our material progress ;
but these things are for ourselves alone, and can claim no higher praise
than appertains to a man who devotes his life solely and successfully to the
acquisition of a private fortune. We have as yet done nothing for mankind,
nothing for the intellectual advancement of our race; we have laid upon
our baeks none of those mighty but glorious burdens which fall to the lot
of those who occupy the lofty station of citizens of an ancient and illustrious
State.
The physical characteristics of New Zealand have virtually shut its set-
tlers out from the field of geographical exploration, so far as the country
itself is concerned ; but, on the other hand, it is the most convenient base
for operations in the noble arena of research which lies open for our enter-
prise in the South Polar Seas. No real obstacle stands in the way.
Experienced officers and men could be got in plenty from the Royal Navy.
The Home Government would no-doubt willingly lend their services, and -
the arctic service is so popular in the navy that we should only have to
pick and choose from amongst the volunteers. I propose that the vessels
should be manned from the Royal Navy, because it was admitted by all
competent authorities on the subject that naval discipline tends materially
to the success of polar exploring expeditions, and is a sure safeguard
against such misfortunes as those which befel Captain Hall’s expedition in
the ‘Polaris,’ The scientific staff, however, should consist —. of :
38 Transactions.— Miscellaneous.
colonists. They would, of course, be easily obtainable. The question of
money is the real one, but the difficulty there lies not in our want of funds,
but in the unwillingness of the Assembly to vote money for any purpose
which is not likely to prove of immediate practical utility. The cost, how-
ever, when divided between several colonies would fall lightly enough upon
each, and I cannot bring myself to believe that either the colonists of New
Zealand as a body, or their representatives in the General Assembly, would
begrudge the expenditure of £15,000 or £20,000 (for our share would
probably not exceed that sum) upon a scientific work which would shed
lasting honour upon the colony.
Art. III.—On the Cleansing of Towns. By J. Turnsutn Tnuowsow, C.E.,
F.R.G.8., F.R.8.8.A., Surveyor-General of New Zealand.
(Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 30th November, 1878.]
Aw efficient and economical system of town cleansing is 2 responsibility
that soon forces itself on colonial communities; hence its discussion cannot
but be fraught with interest. Even in mere camps the subject is of the
first importance to the health of armies, to travellers, or to moving tribes
and peoples; an early appreciation of which we have in the laws of Moses.”
That it is not otherwise in New Zealand is evidenced by the various
enquiries that have been instituted from time to time, by the measures of
the various town councils, and by the reports and papers of engineers. The
earliest Sanitary Commission in New Zealand, that I am aware of, was that
of Dunedin, in which city it is stated that the death-rate, in the year 1868-4,
was 35:3 per thousand. More recent statistics show great variation in
different towns and years, as follows :— .
Auckland .. in1875 .. 86°77 in 1877 .. 16:68 per 1,000
Wellington .. » +x 26°01 2 to, 05D iv
Nelson “a 27°39 js 16:96 ^
Christchurch j .. 80°44 » .. 35:60 ue
Dunedin .. 5 . 22°94 A c bor 5
Impressed with the weight of the above considerations, during my recent
visit to England I took the opportunity of examining the actual state of the
sanitary works in several towns either wholly or partially, besides which I
obtained personal interviews with the officers of several of the Boards, thus
directly obtaining the views that had been arrived at by a full knowledge of
* Dout, xxiii., 12, 18.
T'Homson,—On the Cleansing of Towns. 39
their local circumstances and wants. These I found, as will be seen in the
sequel, to be very various and often discordant.
First of importance was the drainage of London, and to this I had free
access given me by the officers of the Metropolitan Board of Works, whereby
I was enabled to inspect the arterial, side, and house-drains, as well as the
outfalls some miles below the city. I had also several papers given me
describing the same, and to these I shall now refer, quoting first in order
from a paper by their engineer.” Here we are informed that the “ subject
of sewerage received the attention of the Legislature at an early date ;"
and that ‘amongst others, a proposal by Sir Christopher Wren for improved
drainage, nearly two hundred years ago, is preserved in MS. in the records
of the ancient Westminster Commission.”
Again: “Up to about the year 1815 it was penal to discharge sewage
or other offensive matters into the sewers. Cesspools were regarded as the
proper receptacles for house drainage, and sewers as the legitimate channels
for carrying off surface waters only ; afterwards it became permissive, and
in the year 1847 the first Act was obtained making it compulsory to drain
houses into the streets."
Again: “ Prior to the year 1847 sewers were under the management
of eight distinet Commissions," who “carried out (each) its drainage
works, frequently regardless of the effect thereby produced upon the
neighbouring districts through which the sewage flowed."
Again: “In the year 1847 these eight Commissions of Sewers were
superseded by one Commission termed “the Metropolitan Commission of
Sewers,” who made “the adoption of the new system of drainage com-
pulsory, so that, within a period of six years, thirty thousand cesspools
were abolished, and all the house and street refuse was turned into the
river."
Again: “ Similar systems were, about this period, to a large extent
adopted in the provincial towns, by which means their drainage has been
vastly improved, but the rivers and streams of the country have become
very generally and seriously polluted.”
Again: ““In 1852 the fifth Commission was issued, (when) fresh plans
for intercepting the sewage of the metropolis still continued to be heard
before the Commission, and were from time to time examined and reported
on without any practical result. In 1854 the author (Sir J. W. Bazalgette)
was directed to prepare a scheme of intercepting sewers intended to effect
the improved drainage of London.”
ain: “ The sixth Commission, formed in 1855, continued to discuss
the subject, but without coming to a practical result.” “ But it was not
alone the anomalies of the old Commissions, &c., which compelled the
* * Main Drainage of London," by Sir J. W, Bazalgette, M. Inst, C.E,
40 Transactions.— Miscellaneous.
adoption of a general system of main drainage. The metropolis had
suffered severely in the cholera visitation of 1831-2, again in 1848-9, and
lastly in 1858-4." “The places formerly most favourable to the spread of
the disease became quite free from it when afterwards properly drained."
Again: “In designing a system of main drainage these points had to be
kept in view—to provide ample means for the discharge of the large and
inereasing water supply consequent on the universal adoption of water-
closets, and of the ordinary rainfall and surface drainage at all times,
except during extraordinary storms, and to afford to the low-lying dis-
tricts a sufficiently deep outfall to allow of every house being effectually
relieved of its fluid refuse.”
Again: “ For centuries there had existed Sewers Commissions appointed
by the Government, and irresponsible to the ratepayers, upon whom they
levied rates." “The author (Sir J. W. Bazalgette) having been appointed
engineer to the Metropolitan Board was again instructed to prepare a plan
for the drainage of the metropolis ;’’ “and it was through the influence of
Lord John Manners that the Board was left free to carry out their system
of main drainage.”
Again: “The objects sought to be attained in the execution of the main
drainage works were—-the interception of the sewage (as far as practicable by
gravitation), together with so much of the rainfall mixed with it as could be
reasonably dealt with, so as to divert it from the river at London; the
substitution of a constant, instead of an intermittent flow in the sewers;
the abolition of stagnant and tide-locked sewers, with their consequent
accumulations of deposit; and the provision of deep and improved outfalls
for the extension of the sewage into districts previously, for want of such
outfalls, imperfectly drained."
Again: “ According to the system it was sought to improve; the London
main sewers fell into the Thames, and, most of them passing under the low
grounds in the margin of the river before they reached it, discharged their
contents into that river at or about the level, and at the time of low water
only. As the tide rose it closed the outlets and ponded back the sewage
flowing from the high ground."
“ The volume of pure water in the river (Thames) being at that time at
its minimum rendered it quite incapable of diluting and disinfecting such
vast masses of sewage."
Again: ‘‘In the system now adopted it has been sought to remove those
evils by the construction of new lines of sewers laid at right angles to
those existing, and a little below their levels, so as to intercept their
contents and convey them to an outfall fourteen miles below London
Bridge n
Tuomson.—On the Cleansing of Towns. 41
“By this arrangement the sewage is not only at once diluted by the
large volume of water in the Thames at high-water, but is also carried by
the ebb tide to a point in the river twenty-six miles below London Bridge,
and its return by the following flood tide within the metropolitan area is
effectually prevented.”
Again: “At the threshold of my (Sir J. W. Bazalgette’s) enquiry into
this subject the following important points required to be solved :—
“1st. At what point and state of the tide ean the sewage be discharged
into the river, so as not to return within the more densely inhabited por-
tions of the metropolis ?
* 2nd. What is the minimum fall which should be given to the inter-
cepting sewers ?
“Ərd. What is the quantity of sewage to be intercepted, and does it
pass off in a uniform flow at all hours of the day and night, and in what
manner ?
“4th. Is the rainfall to be mixed with the sewage? In what manner
and quantities does it flow into the sewers; and, also, is it to be carried
off in the intercepting sewers, and how is it to be provided for ?
' 6th. Having referred to all these points, how are the sizes of the
intercepting and main drainage sewers to be determined ?
' 6th. What description of pumping engines and of pumps are best
adapted for lifting the sewage of London at the pumping stations? So
comprehensive a subject, involving not only the above but many other
important topics, cannot be fully considered within the limits of an
ordinary paper, in which these questions can only be briefly touched
upon."
Experiments by floats were now made on the river Thames, by
whieh it was found that *the excess of the ebbs over the floods was
only five miles in four days," and “that a substance in suspension, works
up the river about one mile a day at each high water, as the springs
strengthen, and down the river two miles a day as they fall off." Again:
that “the delivery of the sewage at high water into the river at any
point, is equivalent to its discharge at low water at a point twelve miles
lower down the river; therefore the construction of twelve miles of sewer
is saved by discharging the sewage at high instead of at low water."
The flow of sewage in the drains was then determined by reference to
the data afforded by the works of well-known authorities, and it was con-
cluded by the engineer to regard that “a mean velocity of one-and-a-half
miles per hour in a properly protected main sewer, when running half
full, is sufficient, more especially when the contents have passed through
8 pumping station,”
42 Transactions.— Miscellaneous.
In estimating the quantity of sewage to be carried off ** provision has
been made for an increase of the population up to 80,000 people to the
square mile, except over the outlying districts, where provision has been
made for a population giving 20,000 to the square mile." “An improved
water supply, equal to five cubic feet, or 814 gallons per head for such
contemplated increased population has moreover been anticipated."
Again: “How to dispose of the rainfall is a question of considerable
difficulty, and has given rise to much diversity of opinion. This arises
from the fact that, whilst it is in itself harmless, and even advantageous to
the river, it sometimes falls suddenly in large quantities. These considera-
tions have induced theorists to advocate that the rainfall should not be
allowed to flow off with the sewage, but should be dealt with by a separate
system of sewers. This theory however is most impracticable."
Referring to experiments on this subject the result ‘‘ distinctly establishes
the fact, that the quantity of rain which flowed off by the sewers was, in all
cases, much less than the quantity which fell on the ground,” also “that
1 of an inch of rainfall will not contribute } of an inch to the sewers;
nor a fall of 4$; of an inch more than } of an inch."
Again: “ As it would not have been wise or practicable to have increased
the sizes of the intercepting sewers much beyond their present dimensions
in order to carry off the rare and excessive thunderstorms, overflow sewers,
io act as safety valves in times of storms, have been constructed at the
junctions of the intercepting sewers with the main valley lines.”
Again: “ Having determined the quantities of sewage and rainfall to be
carried off, and the rate of declivity of the sewer required for the necessary
velocity of flow, the sizes of the intercepting sewers were readily determined
by the formule of Prony, Eytelwein, and Du Buat.”
Again: “A primary object sought to be attained in this scheme was
the removing as much of the sewage as praetieable by gravitation, so as to
reduce the amount of pumping to a minimum." Under this view, on the
north side of the Thames, the high level sewer commences at the foot of
Hampstead Hill, passing through certain distriets of London, draining about
ten square miles (shown in the plan), the form of which **is mostly circular,
and it varies in size from 4 feet in diameter to 9 feet 6 inches by 12 feet;
its fall is rapid, ranging at the upper end from 1 in 71 to 1 in 876, and from
4 feet to 5 feet per mile at the lower end.”
The middle level sewer is as near the Thames as the contour of the
ground will allow, the area intercepted being 17} square miles.
The low level sewer intercepts the sewage from the low level area, which
contains 11 square miles? ‘It is also the main outlet for a district of about
THomson.—On the Cleansing of Towns. 48
14i square miles, forming the western suburb of London, which is so low
that its sewage has to be lifted at Chelsea a height of 174 feet into the
upper end of the low level sewer. It is tunnelled under the river Lea, on
its route to Abbey Mills, where its contents are raised 86 feet by steam
power.
Again: “The northern outfall sewer is a work of peculiar construction;
as, unlike ordinary sewers, it is raised above the level of the surrounding
neighbourhood in an embankment, which has the appearance of a railway
embankment, and it is carried by aqueducts over rivers, railways, streets
and roads.”
Again: “The Barking reservoir is 163 feet in average depth, and is
divided by partition walls into four compartments, covering altogether an
effective area of 412,384 superficial feet, or about 9434 acres. The external
and partition walls are of brickwork, and the centre area is covered by
brick arches supported upon brick piers, the floor being paved throughout
with York stone. The reservoir, being almost entirely above the general
surface of the ground, is covered by an embankment of earth, rising about
2 feet above the crown of the arches. The ground over which it is built
being unfit to sustain the structure, the foundations of the piers, and of the
walls, were carried down in concrete to a depth of nearly 20 feet.”
Again: ** The Abbey Mills Pumping Station will be the largest establish-
ment of the kind in the main drainage works, providing, as it does, engine-
power to the extent of 1140 h.p. for the purpose of lifting a minimum
quantity of sewage and rainfall of 15,000 cubic feet per minute a height
of 36 feet."
The Engineer adds that “It is fortunate that these works were not
projected in the year 1806 when coal was first introduced into London,
and was regarded as such a nuisance that the resident nobility obtained a
royal proclamation to prohibit its use under severe penalties; for this
pumping station alone will consume about 9700 tons of coal per annum.
The cost of pumping is not, however, actually in excess of the former
expenditure upon drainage, for the cost of removing deposit from the tide-
locked and stagnated sewers in London, formerly amounted to a sum of
about £30,000 per annum, and the substitution of a constant flow through
sewers by means of pumping must necessarily reduce the deposit, and
consequently the annual cost of cleaning."
Again: ‘On the south side of the Thames the high-level sewer and its
southern braneh correspond with the high and middle-level sewers on the
north side of the Thames." ‘‘ Both lines are constructed of sufficient
capacity to carry off the flood waters, so that they may be entirely inter-
44 Transactions.— Miscellaneous.
cepted from the low and thickly inhabited district, which is tide-locked and
subject to floods. The storm-waters will be discharged into Deptford Creek,
whilst the sewage and a limited quantity of rain will flow by four iron
pipes laid under its bed, each 3 feet 6 inches in diameter, into the outfall
sewer." *
Again: “The main line varies in size from 4 feet 6 inches by 8 feet
at the upper end to 10 feet 6 inches, of the same form as the branch by the
side of which it is constructed.”
Again: “The falls of the main line are at the upper end 53 feet, 26
feet, and 9 feet per mile to the Effra sewer at the Brixton Road, and
_ thence to the outlet, 23 feet per mile. The sewer is erected in brickwork,
varying in thickness from 9 inches to 221 inches, that forming the invert
being in Portland cement, and the remainder in blue lias mortar.”
Again: “ The low-level sewer does not follow the course of the river as
on the north side; but commencing at Putney it takes a more direct line
through the low ground once forming the bed of the second channel of the
Thames, and drains Putney, Battersea, Nine Elms, Lambeth, Newington,
Southwark, Bermondsey, Rotherhithe, and Deptford.” The Engineer
adds that this district being mostly level was formerly much subject to
be overflown, and to stagnation of waters, causing malaria, so much so that
“the late Mr. R. Stephenson and Sir W. Cubitt forcibly described the
effect of artificial draining by pumping as equivalent to raising the surface
to the height of 20 feet. The low-level sewer has in fact rendered this
district as dry and as healthy as any portion of the metropolis."
Again: “ The Deptford pumping station is situated by the side of the
Deptford Creek, and close to the Greenwich railway station. The sewage
here is lifted from the low-level sewer to a height of 18 feet into the outfall
sewer. Four expansive condensing rotative beam engines, each of 125 h.p.,
and capable together of lifting 10,000 cubic feet of sewage per minute to
a height of 18 feet, are here constructed.”
Relating to the southern outfall sewer: ‘‘The large volume of water
met with in the marshes rendered the construction of that portion of the
work very costly. These marshes originally formed part of the Thames,
and were first enclosed, in the reign of Edward I., by the monks of Lesnes
Abbey. Two thousand acres were afterwards flooded by the bursting of
the river banks in the reign of Henry VIIL, and were not again reclaimed
until the reign of James I."
Again: “ The outfall of the sewage at the south side of the Thames is
at Crossness reservoir and pumping station. The sewage is discharged into
the river at the time of high water only; but the sewer is at such a level
* Written in 1865,
kinini
wi aina
Txomson.—On the Cleansing of Towns, 45
that it can discharge its full volume by gravitation about the time of low
water.”
Again; “ The maximum quantity of sewage to be lifted by the engines
(at Crossness), will ordinarily be 10,000 cubic feet per minute, but during
the night that quantity will be considerably reduced—while, on the other
hand, it will be nearly doubled on oceasions of heavy rainfall. The lift will
also vary from 10 to 80 feet, according to the level of the water in the
sewer and in the reservoir into which it is lifted." “ The reservoir, which
is 64 acres in extent, is covered by brick arches, supported on brick piers,
and is furnished with weirs for overflows with a flushing culvert.”
Again: ‘‘ The specifications provide that the whole of the cement shall
be Portland cement of the very best quality, ground extremely fine, weigh-
ing not less than 100lbs. to the bushel, capable of maintaining a breaking
weight of 500lbs. to the bushel on 14 square inch, seven days after being
made in an iron mould, and immersed in water during the intervening
seven days.”
Again: “ The total cost of the main drainage works when completed
wil have been about £4,100,000." “The sum for defraying the cost of
these works is raised by loan, and paid off by a 3d. rate levied in the
metropolis, which produces £180,262 per annum, the rateable value being
£14,421,011, and the principal and interest of the loan will be paid off in
forty years.”
* There are about 1,300 miles of sewers in London, and 82 miles of
main intercepting sewers. 380,000,000 of bricks and 880,000 cubic yards
of concrete have been consumed, and 8} million cubic yards of earth have
been excavated in the execution of the main drainage works. The total
pumping power employed is 2,880 nominal h.p. ; and if at full work night
and day 44,000 tons of coals per annum would be consumed, but the
average consumption is estimated at 20,000 tons.”’
* The sewage of the north side of the Thames at present amounts to
10 million eubie feet per day, and on the south side to 4 million cubie feet
per day; but provision is made for an anticipated increase up to 114
millions on the north side, and 53 millions on the south side, in addition to
281 million eubie feet of rainfall per diem on the north side, and 173 mil-
lion cubic feet per diem on,the south side; or a total of 68 million cubic
feet per diem, which is equal to a lake of 482 acres 8 feet deep, or fifteen
times as large as the Serpentine in Hyde Park."
Turning now to the labours of a deputation appointed by the Town
Council and Board of Police of the city of Glasgow, to enquire into
the methods of disposing of sewage adopted in various towns in England*,
* Report dated October, 1877.
.
46 Transactions.— Miscellaneous,
we find it stated in the appendix of their Report that—
Lzzps has a population of 291,580, covering an area of 21,572 acres.
But the town at present sewered covers only about 4,900 acres, with a
population of 245,600, thus showing a population of 50 to the acre, while
Glasgow has 88:6. The average mortality for the five years—1871 to 1875
inclusive—is 27:4 per 1,000. The number of water-closets in Leeds is
8,500, and of ash-pits and privies 13,000, and about 3,000 of the latter are
provided with pails or boxes. Many of the privies have been recently
altered into trough water-closets, which are highly approved by Dr. Goldie,
the Medical Officer of Health. Originally experimental works were erected
to test the efficacy of the A, B, C process, which was in the hands of a
Native Guano Company. These works cost about £10,000, and were con-
structed to treat 2 million gallons of sewage daily. The success of the
experiment, so far as producing an apparently good effluent, induced the
Corporation to erect works for the chemical treatment of the entire sewage
of the town, amounting to nearly 14 million gallons daily, which cost
£50,000; but since the works have been in operation practically, it has
been found impossible to dispose of the produce in any quantity. As
regards undried sludge the farmers in the vicinity refuse to accept it as a
gift.
Braprorp has a population of 173,000 and covers an area of 7,221 acres,
giving a density of population equal to 24 per acre. The average death-
rate is 26:1 per 1,000. The number of water-closets is about 2,000, and
of dry-closets 3,000. The works for the purification of the sewage are at
Manningham, about 1} miles from the town. The sewage amounts on an
average to 9 million gallons per day, and the precipitant used is lime. The
quantity employed is about 18 cwt. per million gallons of sewage. The
works cost £65,000, and cost of working £5,000 per annum.
Harrrax, a town of 68,500 inhabitants, occupies an area of 3,768 acres,
giving a density of population equal to 18 per acre. ‘The average mortality
is 26:6 per 1,000. The town contains 2,000 water-closets and about
8,300 dry-closets. The sewage amounts to 24 millions of gallons (per
diem), and is carried in a culvert to a small beck or burn, which runs through
the valley in which the town is situated. Formerly lime was used to :
defecate the sewage, but this attempt at purification has ceased. The Goux
system is here adopted for the dry-closets. Once worked by a company,
but at a heavy loss, the Corporation now carry on the works.
Croypon has a population of 63,000, and occupies a space of 10,000
acres, giving a density of population equal to 6:8 per acre—the average
annual mortality being 19 per 1,000, The sewage in dry weather amounts
Tuomson.—On the Cleansing of Towns, 47
to 23 millions of gallons per diem, and the number of water-closets is about
15,000. The whole sewage is disposed of by irrigation, for which the place
is eminently adapted by nature. Crops of rye grass are thus obtained in
value £40 per acre. Financially the farm to which the sewage is applied
is not a success, the loss per annum varying from £1,012 to £1,700. The
Deputation say it is, however, probably the most successful sewage farm in
England.
Of London the Deputation remark that the population is 8,500,000; the
density per acre being 45-7, and mortality 22-9 (per 1,000). Here also the.
sewage farms have been unsuccessful, and I need not go over the ground
already traversed in the preceding part of this paper.
BigurxGmaw has a population of 875,000, occupying an area of 8,490 >
acres; density, 44:5 persons to the acre; death-rate, 25:2 per 1,000. The
number of water-closets in 1872 was 7,065, but though the population has
largely increased since that time, the number of water-elosets is now only
7,514. In fact, the use of these is discouraged by the municipal authorities,
although not absolutely forbidden. The number of houses in 1871 was
75,000, and since that time 8,420 have been erected, bringing up the present
number to 88,490. The number of pan-closets in use in 1876 was 17,000,
all the new houses of the smaller class being fitted with these—one closet
serving for not more than two houses. Of ordinary privies, at the same
date, there were 27,436, and of ash-pits 19,154. The quantity of sewage
is from 12 million to 16 million gallons per day, and before being passed
into the River Tame it is treated with lime to cause precipitation. The sludge
is also treated by a patented process, the annual expense of which, after
deducting income from revenue, is £12,000.
The Rochdale system of pails for night-soil, and tubs for ashes is carried
out at Birmingham ; about 17,000 pans being now in use.
Coventry has a population of 40,000; an average annual mortality of
23:4 per 1,000, and 10 persons to the acre. The water supply is from
artesian wells. The present number of water-closets is about 5,000; and
privies, 800. The sewage works are about a mile from the town, and the
effluent goes into a small stream called the Sherbourne. The sewage is
passed through gravel filters before it is let out in the stream. But the
system becoming inefficient, works for purification and utilisation were
erected at a cost of £14,000. But the company to whom the sewage was
conceded had to succumb. The Corporation now carries on the works at a
yearly expenditure of about £2700.
Manchester has a population of 356,000; the average death-rate being
80 per 1000. The number of persons to the acre is 83, The river Irwell
48 Transactions,—Miscellaneous,
separates it from Salford, which has a population of 136,000, and whose
death-rate is 29:3 per 1,000, and density per acre, 26:3. There are compara-
tively few water-closets in Manchester, and they are discouraged as much as
possible, and practically forbidden in houses of a smaller kind. There are
42,000 privies, and these are gradually being altered into pan-closets.
Already 24,000 have been thus converted; and Dr. Leigh, the medical
officer of health, expects that in three years the whole will have been
altered. Dr. Leigh calculates that, when all the privies are converted,
6 million gallons of urine annually will be kept out of the sewers, and
consequently out of the Irwell, that were formerly allowed to flow into it.
Next, the system of removing is entered into, but we pass over this, and
only note that about 3,000 tons of material are dealt with weekly, and”
these consist of—paper, 1 ton; rags, 3 tons; dead animals, 2 tons; stable
manure, 2 tons; old iron and tin plate, 33 tons; refuse from slaughter-
houses and fish shops, 60 tons; broken pottery, earthenware and glass, 80
tons; vegetable refuse, door-mats, table-covers, floor-cloths, old straw mat-
trasses and 100 tons fine ashes, 1,250 tons; cinders, 1,400 tons. These
are separated, and specially dealt with; and, I may note here that,
amongst these, 400 tons of manure is made weekly, and sold at 12s. 6d.
per ton.
OxpHam was the last place visited by the Deputation. It is a purely
manufacturing town, having a population of 88,000, and an annual mor-
tality of 28:2 per 1,000; the density, per acre, being 18:7. The pail
system is in general use, and the contents are taken by the Carbon Fertili-
zing Company, who have purchased the patent for absorbing excrementi-
tious matter by charcoal. The Deputation add that, unfortunately, this
patent does not appear to have had a fair trial, the works being in
inextricable confusion.
Guascow.—A few statistics of their own city is added, of which the
following, as well as the preceding, are extracts. The estimated population
in 1875 was 534,564, and the average mortality 29:9. The area of ground
occupied is 6,084 acres; giving an average density of 88:6 persons per acre.
The number of dwelling-houses in 1874 was 101,368; and of shops, ware-
houses, and factories, 16,218. The water-closets nnmbered 81,927 ; sinks,
71,291; fixed basins, 9,865; and urinals, 211. There are, also, at the pre-
sent date (1878), 6,751 dry ashpits; 1,995 middins or wet ashpits; 8,816
pan-closets; 94 trough-closets (chiefly in public works); and 18 publie con-
veniences, 7 of which are fitted with pans, and 6 with Macfarlane’s patent
troughs. One hundred and nine manufactories discharge refuse of various
kinds into the sewers, And there are 2,304 stables, with 7,024 horses;
THomson.—On the Cleansing of Towns, 49
and 811 cow-houses, with 1,350 cows. In addition to the factories, the
refuse is conveyed into the drains. Twenty discharge direct into the
river. The length of the sewers is about 100 miles, Within the city
boundary there are at present 1314 miles of paved streets, 204 miles of
statute labour roads, and 10 miles of turnpike roads; in all 162 miles,
The estimated volume of discharge into the river daily is 40 millions of
gallons, exclusive of rainfall, but including the water of the Molindinar and
other burns. The total quantity of sewage in wet weather would be about
74 million gallons per day. The water sent into the city and suburban
villages (from the waterworks) averages 83 millions of gallons per day. It is
distributed to a population of 710,000, so that the volume of water per head
was 463 gallons a day.
From the conclusions arrived at, as set forth in the report of the
Deputation, we make the following extracts: The question of conservancy
of rivers was constantly pressed on their attention, many of the inland towns
being compelled, under heavy penalties, to render their sewage clear, in-
odorous, and perfectly colourless, and sometimes under manifest injustice.
The necessity of a Conservancy Board to watch over the whole drainage area
of the various river-basins was constantly dwelt upon by the various authori-
ties, as the only means of solving the important questions which were so
intimately connected—the disposal of sewage, and the restoration of rivers
to a state of purity. The Deputation state as a fact that the sewage question,
in London even, is only partially solved; and in reference to the immediate
subject of their attention, viz., Glasgow, the Deputation are of opinion that
no sewage works can safely be undertaken till a Conservancy Board has
been constituted for the Clyde. They point out at the same time that this
city, in respect to area for discharge, is fortunately placed, being into a tidal
river, as contra-distinguished from many of the inland cities of England,
whose outfalls are into sluggish rivers of small capacity.
They point out that it has never yet been shown that the foul condition
of the Clyde is directly injurious to health; and of the mode of dealing with
sewage in particular, there are two ways, viz., the dry system, and carriage
by water; the first being the most rational as well as consistent with public
health and with national prosperity, which, however, has weak points, that
while it disposes of excreta, it leaves untouched all other sewage which would
still require to be removed by water-carriage, and be purified of course
before passing into a river in the same way as if it had contained the whole
excreta. While, therefore, they hold that upon economical and sanitary
grounds, water-closets in houses—especially in houses of the smaller sort.—
and in public works, gaols, railway stations, &c., should, as far as possible, be
D
50 Transactions,— Miscellaneous,
replaced by an efficient dry system, they do not think that the adoption of
this course will very much lessen the amount of sewage to be dealt with, or
render its purification less imperative.
When water-carriage is used, the following methods may be employed :—
1st. Running into the sea or into a tidal river, under conditions that will
prevent its return.
2nd, Irrigation,
8rd. Intermittent filtration.
4th. Purification by precipitation—
(a) by lime.
(b) by sulphate of alumina.
(c) by the A, B, C system.
The dry method includes-—
1st. Pan closets,
2nd. Earth closets.
9rd. Goux system.
4th. Stanford's system (Carbon Fertilizing Company).
oth. Lienur's pneumatie system.
In regard to Glasgow, the report notices Messrs. Bateman and Bazal-
gette's scheme to pump the sewage to a high level and then carry it down
to the Ayrshire coast. The plan adopted in London of running the unpuri-
fied sewage into the river could not be supported owing to the small current
of the Clyde tidal waters.
If the sewage of Glasgow were taken to Farland Point, or to the lands
between Irvine or Saltcoats, the scheme would resemble that carried out by
Bir J. Hawkshaw for Brighton, whose outfall sewer is about eight miles
long; but efficient ventilation would require to be applied to carry off the
noxious gases generated.
Of dealing with sewage by irrigation, great hopes were entertained a few
years ago that the grand solution had been attained. All this is now
changed, owing to general failure. Probably the Beddington Manor Estate
at Croydon is the most successful of sewage farms, and the report states
that it is no small matter to say that it disposes of the sewage of a popula-
tion of 60,000 persons at an outlay which is now reduced to a little over
£1,000 per annum. But the situation of Croydon adapts it in a peculiar
degree to the utilization of its sewage by filtration through land. When
the Deputation visited this and other sewage farms the weather was
cold, so that no odours of a truly offensive nature were observed; but this is
not always so; on the contrary, evidence is adduced to the effect that warm
weather makes these exceedingly unhealthy, giving off a most odious stench.
WA Aa E E i iA spes
TxHomson.—On the Cleansing of Towns, 51
It is right to add, the report continues, that at Edinburgh, Croydon and
other places, no evil effects to health have been traced to the influence of
the farms irrigated by their sewage; but as to the land itself, sometimes
enormous quantities of sewage are applied in season and out of season, till
the surfeited land is sick, and even then it has to take more. If the land
were obtainable at an ordinary agricultural value, suitable for the reception
and distribution of sewage without pumping, a sewage farm might be made
to yield a profit.
Regarding chemical treatment, the report states that purification of
Sewage is possible, and is carried out successfully at Bradford, Leeds,
Coventry, Birmingham and other towns, but, so far as the Deputation had
been able to ascertain, the sale of the so-called manure appears to have
failed of accomplishment, and this is not to be wondered at, as the processes
fail to consume the ammonia and potash salts, whieh are the most valuable
part. €
As a precipitant, lime appears to be most capable of universal application,
especially if supplemented by some form of charcoal. The A, B, C process
was examined, but with unfavourable results, and the manure obtained by
this process has a very low market value; the manipulations are also
attended with a most nauseous odour.
Intermittent filtration has been carried out quite successfully at Merthyr
Tydvil, but the conditions there are so exceptional that there are very few
places where the process could be pursued with equally satisfactory results.
It appears to be in operation also at Kendal.
Referring to the defects of the water-carriage system, the report points
out the decomposition and evolution of sewer-gases, calling for careful
ventilation in all cases.
Water-closets should be discouraged in small houses owing to the greater
likelihood of their getting out of order. Drainage from stables and byres
should be absolutely prohibited, and chemical factories should be under
close regulation, as, where the disinfectant is cheap, there can be no hard-
ship to the proprietors.
Coming to the dry system as affecting Glasgow, it is stated that the
number of houses is 100,000, water-closets numbering only 32,000, showing
that half the population is provided with these, the other half being supplied
with other conveniences in one form or another of the dry-closet. This
branch has therefore occupied much of the attention of the Deputation. In
Leeds the old-fashioned privies are being replaced by trough water-closets ;
in Manchester and Birmingham, on the other hand, water-closets are being
systematically repressed, and elaborate attention is being paid to the develop-
52 Transactions,—Miscellaneous,
ment of dry collection and daily removal. The Deputation strongly com-
mend, on sanitary grounds, the tub and pail system, which opinion has
already had wide effects in the City of Glasgow, where the gain in health
and decency is great and unquestionable.
The Goux system was in operation at Halifax, but is not recommended
on account of its want of simplicity.
The earth-closet is supported as being admirably suited for country
houses of the better class, but otherwise it is too costly to work.
Lienur’s pneumatic system in operation in Holland, was not inspected
by the Deputation, as it had not been adopted in England. However, they
advance an opinion that, theoretically, it is perfect, since the whole of the
excreta are converted into a highly portable and valuable manure, while all
risk of sewer-gases being formed is entirely obviated, and all operations
being conducted in vacuo are entirely free from offence. They then quote
from a report to the Local Government Board, to wit :—“ As, however, the
pneumatic only deals with a small fraction of the refuse to be removed
from houses, leaving all other forms to be dealt with in the ordinary way,
so Dutch town sewage must flow into the rivers and canals, as now, to
pollute the water supply, or else some complicated mode of intercepting it
must be provided at an additional cost to the local authorities. The
pneumatic system is ingenious, but is complicated in its construction and
working arrangements, and is liable to derangements which are sometimes
difficult to mend. We do not know one English town in which the appara-
tus, if adopted, would be other than a costly toy.”’
== The report of the Glasgow Deputation concludes with the following
recommendations, viz. :—
1. That the system of having water-closets for public works, factories,
gaols, workhouses, infirmaries, and railway stations, should be forbidden, so
as to reduce the quantity of water-closet sewage now turned into the river
(Clyde); water-closets in small houses should also be discouraged.
2. That ordinary privies and ashpits be altered to the tub and pail
system, to be cleansed daily, as it has been carried out in Manchester and
other important English cities and towns, and that special accommodation
be provided for children.
3. That all drains, soil and waste-pipes, and all apparatus connected
with water-closets, sinks and baths, and their connections, be constructed
under public supervision.
4. That a complete system of ventilation of the common sewers
throughout their entire length be immediately adopted.
5. That a system of ventilation of the house-drains and soil-pipes, inde-
THomson.—On the Cleansing of Towns. 58
pendent of the common sewers, be immediately adopted and enforced
throughout the city.
6. That the use for domestic purposes of water from cisterns supplying
water-closets be absolutely forbidden.
In the event of it being found necessary to purify the river—
7. That the whole drainage of the city be taken into main intercepting
sewers, and conducted to a suitable point; and, after having been rendered
clear by precipitation and filtration, passed into the Clyde.
8. That the sludge obtained in the precipitation process be got rid of
in the cheapest possible manner. A part of it might be utilized in making
up waste land, and a certain quantity might be taken away by farmers, but
the greater part would probably require to be disposed of in the same man-
ner as the dredgings of the rivers.
The report entirely discards the idea of utilization of the sewage itself,
or the precipitate obtained by the action of lime or other chemical agents.
The sludge obtained by many of the patented processes is dried at such
cost, and its value when dry so trifling, that all hopes of disposing of it for
manurial purposes—at a price that would be remunerative—is entirely
illusory.
The report concludes that, while they consider the purification of the
Clyde important, yet for the health of the city, the sewage works are of
greater consequence, which they hope will be carried out without un-
necessary delay.
Attached to the Glasgow report are appendices, containing the opinions
of the Local Government Board, and the Health and Sewage of Towns Con-
ference Committees, which closely coincide with the above in their recom-
mendations, and they pointedly insist “that no one system for disposing of
sewage could be adopted for universal use; that different localities require
different methods to suit their special peculiarities ; and also that, as a rule,
no profit can be derived at present from sewage utilization, but for health’s
sake, without consideration of commercial profit, sewage and excreta must
be got rid of at any cost.”
* That the pail system, under proper regulations for early and frequent
removal, is greatly superior to all privies, cesspools, ashpits, and middens
and possesses manifold advantages in regard to health and cleanliness ;
whilst its results in economy and facility of utilization often compare
favorably with those of water-carried sewage." :
* That for use within the house no system has been found in practice to
take the place of the water-closet.”
vd And that all middens, privies, and cesspools in towns should be
54 Transactions.— Miscellaneous.
abolished by law, due regard in point of time being had to the condition of
each locality."
By referring to appendix I.,* the cost of the several systems of town-
cleansing will be seen at a glance, which will be found to vary from 1d. to
114d. per pound on the rateable value of house property, local peculiarities
evidently having influence in this matter. For instance, at Rochdale,
scavengering is put down at 83d., Birmingham at 53d., and Leamington at
1d.; while sewage for Rochdale is put down at 0d., Birmingham at 41d.,
and Leamington at 54d.; the totals being 83d., 10d., and 61d. respectively.
The highest rated is Blackburn, viz., at 114d. in the pound.
Coming to my own observations, I shall first notice Berwick-upon-Tweed,
as I had an opportunity of watching the construction of the waterworks
and drainage of that town 23 years ago, so I inspected their state lately
with more than ordinary interest. This is a town of 20,000 inhabitants,
situated on rising ground near the mouth of the Tweed, and where its waters
are fully affected by the tide. I ascertained that the drainage on the whole
had worked well, excepting when the water-supply ran short, which occurs
periodically in the summer. The sewers, constructed about 23 years ago,
were well executed; but the engineer had under-estimated the water-
supply, which had rendered the working somewhat experimental. The first
trouble that was experienced was in the high-pressure mains being con-
nected directly with the water-closets ; this, when the supply of water was
intermittent, sent the excreta back into the closets, creating great nuisances ;
this difficulty has now been obviated by each closet being provided with a
small cistern filled by the mains, from which the closets are supplied.
Before this was done, people, finding the water not on in leaving, tied up
the valve, so that it might run when it came on, thus much of the supply
was wasted by the water running continuously,
The poor classes especially are difficult to manage or to deal with, owing
to the practice they are given to of abusing the conveniences, hence this
class always demand sharp looking after by the inspector.
Ashpits are allowed in this town to a limited extent, but for small houses
boxes or pails are used for the removal of rubbish, ashes, &c.
The sewage falls into the river Tweed, but to this the Tweed Salmon
Commissioners object as it is tending to pollute the stream and destroy fish.
When the high-pressure water-supply is good and sufficient, the water-
closet and sewage system of the town has worked well, but the entire
problem of the removal of house-refuse has not yet been fully solved.
It is quite clear that here, as elsewhere, the subject is one for continuous
effort, not possible to be settled by spasmodic exertion, and then to be
done with.
Ls
* End of Glasgow Report copied,
Tuomson.—On the Cleansing of Towns. 55
At the inland town of Dunse, coutaining about 4,000 inhabitants, and
where the water-closet system has been introduced during these last 40
years, I found that, as this was perfected and in operation, new and unan-
ticipated difficulties presented themselves. Thus, as the town became
satisfactory in its sanitary condition, the rural districts near and under its
level became deteriorated by the nuisances flowing on them. Which cir-
cumstance brought about long and expensive law-suits with the proprietors,
and especially with the owner of Wedderburn House and Demesne.
In the town of Kelso, situated on the banks of the Tweed, and about
25 miles inland, it was observed here, also, that the increase of sewage, by
the introduction of improved water supply and conveniences, was drawing
opposition from the owners of the valuable salmon fishing stations. In view
of this, the Corporation is now about to try and remedy the evil by carrying
their outfall to an extensive shingle bank, where they hope to absorb the
objectionable matters.
At Edinburgh it was observed that the sewage that used to flow solely
over the fields near Holyrood House uninterruptedly, and at least, without
active objections, are now not only increased in their area, but the same
system of irrigation is being applied to the west suburbs of the city.
Hence, no certain action by the population can be anticipated on this
subject.
At Glasgow, from the report of whose Deputation I have so largely
quoted, I found that still no general scheme had been decided on; in fact,
that different principles had been found applicable to different parts, and
broadly, the water-gravitation system to first and second-class houses, and
the pail system to those inferior. The sewage yet falls into the Clyde, and
Bazalgette’s recommendations were considered, if not impracticable, and
beyond the means of the ratepayers, at least inadvisable. As a better
scheme for conveying the offal away, steam barges, proceeding from Glasgow
to the sea, were contemplated; as any attempt to utilize sewage is now
abandoned.
As my time and other engagements enabled me to ascertain, such is
the state of town and city cleansing at home; and it will be noted that
whilst much difference of opinion in detail exists amongst engineers, yet,
to those who are able to bring an unprejudiced judgment to bear on the
question, the principles to be adapted to the several and varied circum-
stances are not difficult to be laid hold of. Comprehensively speaking, the
interest is a n growing one, and in this respect it is not an exception from
her great ts and expansions of modern civilization and requirements,
If its necessities cause it to unduly infringe on other interests, then conflict
56 Transactions.—Miscellaneous.
takes place, the conflict not anticipated in the early years of its application,
but in the course of years becoming palpable. It is no other than the ord-
nance versus iron-plate warfare; if the one increases in force and magnitude,
so the other must be fortified in ratio. Thus, if ships have to be protected
from their assailants, so must the rivers, estates, parks, seats, and castles be
protected from the other. Hence Corporations, in initiating sanitary im-
provements for themselves, are not justified, as hitherto, in neglecting the
interests outside of their precincts; and, as justly observed by the Glasgow
Deputation, those cities having a natural outlet apart from all other
interests, are fortunate.
This latter condition is oftener the case with seabound towns than
with inland ones. Certain it is that the idea so often prevailing amongst
sanitary engineers that their works are for ever, and all time to come, must
be abandoned, and their judgment must be exercised, not as now to create
works of magnitude far beyond present wants, but to institute systems to
which least objections can be taken ultimately, or for the time being. The
wants of the present population must not only be estimated, and of the
future, but their capacity to bear the burden of taxation, hence, though
working to an end, and on just principles, the consideration should be as to-
what was actually necessary, and no more, leaving their successors to
continue the same. Without being attentive to these facts, the city
populations may pay too dearly for the luxury of improvements or quasi
improvements, and property may be overburdened by works which could
perfectly well be held over.
As an example of the conflict between interests, that takes place conse-
quent on the modern introduction of town cleansing by water-gravitation,
we turn to the greatest city in the world, where it has perforce had largest
development. The outfall of the sewage, till recent years, was into the
Thames, within the precincts of the city. This created nuisances which it
was found desirable to remove; hence those measures were taken which
have already been described in the preceding part of this paper. But,
besides the Metropolitan Board of Works, there exists a Board of Conser-
vators of the River Thames, having other interests than the population of
London to take care of, and on which the operations of the former Board
were felt to act detrimentally. In consequence of this, Captain Calver,
R.N., F.R.S,, was, by the secretary, directed to investigate and report on
the subject”. That gentleman acknowledged the receipt of the instructions,
to wit; that he should direct his attention to some recent surveys which had
been made by the officers of the Board, of that section of the River Thames
extending from Woolwich to Erith, as well as to analytical examinations by
* Thames Commission, 6th June, 1877.
Tuomson.—On the Cleansing of Towns. 57
Drs. Letheby and Williamson of the soil of its bed, both in Woolwich Reach
and near to the sewage outfalls; and to give his consideration to the changes
thus shown to have taken place in the channel of the river, and in the
character of its bottom, for the purpose of reporting thereon. Captain
Calver adds, that from the time of receiving the foregoing instructions,
he had been engaged upon the various details of investigation, including,
amongst other things, repeated observations upon the movements of the
streams in the central section of the Thames, with the collection of such
other physical facts as were likely to aid him in arriving at a clear under-
standing of this important and interesting case*.
From his report we shall make extracts, noticing the salient points
of interest. He states “that the general features of Mid-Thames, its
sectional capacity, and the various details of increase and decrease, are
all brought out very clearly in the surveys made by the order of the Board.
This series—the work of the same observers, and all referable to a common
standard —has been made between 1861 and 1876.”
Again: * It having been reported in 1867 that a vessel had unexpectedly
touched the ground while passing the southern outfall, a new survey was
ordered to be made for the locality."
Again: “1832 to 1861, a considerable increase in the general capacity
of the channel occurred in the foregoing period—the result of dredging, for
the most part."
Again: “1863 and 1864, sewage began to be discharged from the out-
falls."
Again: ** Since the Metropolitan outfalls came into operation, the former
deep and free frontage of the southernmost one has lost a quarter part of its
low water contents." Again: “that the upper part of the river has been
troubled with accumulations, which, as will be shown, must necessarily have
been conveyed upwards by the flood-stream.”
In the analyses made, * the mud in each case was black and fetid in a
state of active putrefactive decomposition, and, when examimed under the
microscope, it was found to consist of broken-up sewage matter.” Of the
water, when near Woolwich, Greenwich and London Bridge, “ all the
samples were black and offensive, and they were found, on examination
under the microscope, to consist of amorphous matter of the disintegrated
tissue of vegetables, especially of wheat, and swarms of diatomaceous re-
mains,” Again: in the last test of 1875, “ most of the samples demonstrated
the presence of sewage.matter in a state of decomposition." Those from “the
Gallion Reach, within the influence of the northern outfall, exhibited
organic and other similar matter to those of street-mud, while others in the
* Report, 15th October, 1877.
58 Transactions.— Miscellaneous.
central track of the river-streams, and acted upon by their scourage, had
very little organic matter.”
Again: “The reporters of 1858 estimated that 92,000 tons of solid
matter of every description were contained in the sewage passing into the
Thames at that time;" but it is now estimated, from data supplied by
Glasgow, that ‘ 465,000 tons — represent the annual solid matter
contained in Metropolitan sewage.”
gain: “ The excreta of each person per day having been found by
experiment to weigh 2ilbs., this, with the population of 8,500,000, in
connection with the outfalls, gives 3,900 tons per day, or 1,425,000 tons per
annum as the amount of excreta sent into the river from the outfalls.”’
Again: It was found by experiment “that matter committed to the
water of Mid-Thames would move down seaward about five miles in a
fortnight.”
Again: “The daily discharge from the outfalls has been stated as
120 million gallons or 19,246,000 cubic feet, so that 423,412,000 cubic
feet or 22 days' discharge, represents the aggregate amount of sewage
in the oscillating section, being about one-fifth part of the whole contents
of the river within the same limits below the level of ordinary low-water.
This vast mass of polluted water—eight miles long, 750 yards wide, and
44 feet deep, charged with offensive matter, both fluid and solid, moves up
and down the channel four times daily, between Gravesend and near to
` Blackwall, dropping its solid burden wherever a reduction of the rate of
current or still water may favour deposit. The purifying change which the
putrescent matter may be supposed to undergo, after discharging from
the outfalls, is reserved for future consideration."
Again: In regard to accretion of the sewage in Woolwich Reach, it is
stated that there is **a complete identity between accreted matter and that
in the sewage discharged from the outfalls. There can be little doubt that
it has been brought from their neighbourhood by the flood-stream. Most
observers of rivers are aware of the disturbing action of the first portion
of the flood-set, for, owing to its greater specific gravity, it works its way
upwards under the last of the ebb-set, and probably obtaining thereby
a strong rotatory or grinding motion, the surface of the bottom is sufti-
ciently disturbed to charge the water with its particles."
Again: “ Another point which has bearing upon this section of the case
is, the superior carrying-power of the flood-stream over the ebb; a fact very
distinctly brought out in the Analytical Returns.”
Again: “ The amount of solid matter in the flowing- tide at Greenwich
and London Bridge is nearly 21 grains per gallon, while that in the ebb-tide
is only 8'2 grains,"
THomson.—On the Cleansing of Towns. 69
In reference to the deleterious effect of sewage discharged into a tidal
river, from various experiments, Captain Calver concludes that “it will be
seen that it matters not whether the sewage be sent into the river at low-
water at London, or at high-water at Barking Creek and Crossness, for the
result is one and the same. The matter from the sewers will work its way
upwards, and form accumulations above the outfalls both in the bed and
along the sides of the channel."
Again: As to the theory which erroneously assigns docu to the
credit of sewage discharge. This is said to be due “to two very different
causes—viz., to the dredging carried on in the district, and to the scour
resulting from the removal of impediments out of the channel in higher
portions of the river." Dredging, also, is stated to have removed
* enormous hills of gravel which now disfigure and encumber the banks
of the Tyne and Wear." Another cause stated as tending to increase
the depth of Mid-Thames resides in the removal of the old bridge at
London, and the dredging that has taken place as high up as Isleworth.
Again: “As matters now stand, the Metropolitan sewage discharge has
reproduced in Mid-Thames, in an aggravated form, a nuisance which was
felt to be unbearable in the upper portion of the river. Formerly, the
sewers at London discharged their contents into the river at low water, and
this, Sir Joseph Bazalgette has pointed out, “ was most injurious, because
it was carried by the rising tide up the river to be brought to London by
the following ebb-tide, there to mix with each day's past supply, the pro-
gress of many days’ accumulations towards the sea being almost imper-
ceptible.” This exactly describes the existing state of things in Mid-Thames,
both in respect to accumulation of sewage, its daily oscillation, and its slow
progress seaward ; the only difference now is, that the nuisance which was
formerly brought down to London by the ebb is now carried up to London
by the flood.”
Again: “ The evidence of the senses may also be relied on as an
important factor for determining the question of purity. While in the
neighbourhood of the outfalls, I observed that bubbles of gaseous matter,
arising from decomposition, were continually ascending to the surface of the
water, reminding me of similar experience in the polluted Clyde. The foul
condition of the river was also apparent from the smell caused by the dis-
turbance raised by the steamers’ paddles; and the floating abominations by
which I was surrounded, when making the test observations, are to be
remembered rather than described.”
Again: “ Contemporary and reliable opinions are all opposed to the
practice of discharging crude sewage into rivers,"
60 Transactions.—Miscellaneous.
Again: “ Results worked out, and still being worked out in the ESR
by sewage discharge, are evils of great magnitude, and seriously detract
from the general value of the Metropolitan sewage arrangements. If certain
foul accumulations, formed near to the old sewers at London, led the reporters
of 1868 to declare that the evil had attained such proportions as to render
it essential to the well-being of the Metropolis that means should be taken
for its permanent abatement, what would they say of similar features on a
more gigantic scale lower down the river? Observing that the present
channel in Mid-Thames is through banks of fetid matter, that the water
in the channel is loaded with material in a state of putrescence, and that it
daily oscillates within the Metropolitan area, with its teeming population,
and contaminates the atmosphere, they would probably admit this to be a
state of things altogether detrimental to the public interest. Though it may
be very true that the action of land-floods, and the frequent passing to and
fro of the steam-traffic of the river, will always maintain a navigable passage
through its foul reaches, yet the sides of the channel and the contiguous
foreshores must, of necessity, become more foul, and to a greater distance
from the outfalls, as the population increases and the water is more highly
charged with the accreting matter which sewage contains.”
Again: “ Nothing can be possibly more unsatisfactory than the present
condition of things.”
I may add that no effectual remedy is suggested by Captain Calver,
though he anticipates that ‘experimental research and discovery” may
bring about ** a successful solution of this pressing question."
The report concludes a re-iteration of what has already been advanced, to
the effect that the “foul and offensive accretions have recently formed in
the channel of the Thames;” and that a ‘‘ material portion of these accu-
mulations are in the neighbourhood of the metropolitan sewage outfalls;"
and he recommends that the Metropolitan Board of Works be called on to
dredge away those portions of the accreted matter which interfere with
the convenience of navigation, and that they be requested to adopt such
arrangements as are calculated to prevent similar accumulations in future.”
He further hopes that the ** noble metropolitan river” may be “ freed from
a drawback which is impairing its commerce and usefulness.”
The report of Captain Calver is met by a lively rejoinder from Sir J. W.
Bazalgette, C.B., Engineer to the Metropolitan Board of Works, supported
by other scientific men, in which he premises that, “ when it is considered
that the report in question purports to be, not the exaggerated statements of
an advocate, but the calm and deliberate conclusions of a scientific man,
upon a matter involving the most serious and vital interests, adopted and
PNEU
THomson.—On the Cleansing of Towns. 61
circulated with the authority of a responsible public body, it is impossible
to overrate the grave importance which attaches to such statements” as are
contained therein.
Again: The Engineer states that, **in order to simplify the subject as far
as possible, we propose to direct our enquiry to the following points, viz.:—
“1st. Whether there is any evidence that foul and offensive accretions
have formed within the channel of the Thames since the metropolitan
sewage outfalls came into operation.
‘2nd. Whether careful analyses do show a perfect identity between the
constituents of the Thames mud and those of the metropolitan sewage.
* 8rd. Whether it is true that the sewage discharged at Barking and
Crossness does work its way upwards, and cause the same pollution of the
Thames within and about the metropolitan area as formerly existed.
“dth. As to the quantity of solid matter contained in the sewage dis-
charged into the Thames at Barking and Crossness, and whether it is suffi-
cient to produce any sensible deposit in the bed of the river, and as to the
real cause of such deposit."
As to the recent formation of foul and offensive accretions, the Engineer
argues that comparison of the state of the river thirty years previous to
1861, and that in fifteen subsequent years, has “no value or significance
whatever." Further, when it is considered that the traverse sectional areas
of the river taken at half-tide off the Crossness outfall have been increased
by the removal of shoals,” &e., “it would be no matter of surprise if the
river in this part of its course should be even more liable to partial deposits
forming upon the banks than it was formerly."
He then enters into the subject of the Woolwich shoals, and concludes
“that it is obviously impossible to draw the conclusion which Captain Calver
suggests, that because mud is found in this part of the river, therefore it
comes from the metropolitan sewers." Then as to the mud deposits higher
up, near Waterloo Bridge, he remarks ‘that it is obvious that the deposits
of mud above referred to, and which, it appears, accumulated in a few
months time, could not have resulted from the sewage discharged into
the river upon the ebb-tide at a point no less than 14j miles lower down
the stream."
— Next, as to the identity of Thames mud with sewage mud, the Engineer
endeavours to show the fallacy of much of Captain Calver's arguments.
This is illustrated by a table, from which he (the Engineer) surmises that
‘‘it is perfectly obvious that no conclusion can be possibly true which is
founded upon the supposed * perfect identity' of quantities which vary from
0°85 to 40-91."
62 Transactions, — Miscellaneous.
Then, as to the sewage working upwards, the Engineer quotes a previous
paper by Captain Calver, where he himself “ proves very distinctly the
decided preponderance of the power of the ebb over that of the flood," and
points out that the late theory propounded by Captain Calver, to wit, ** the
operation of accretion has been effected by the superior disturbing and trans-
porting power of the flood stream,” is ‘diametrically opposite and con-
tradietory." He also calls attention to Captain Calver's grammar in regard
to his introduction into the English language of the new word *' stickability."'
The amount of solid matter actually contained in the sewage is then
diseussed, of which 32 examples were taken from different parts of the
Thames, which, being analysed, the Engineer proceeds: ** Then taking the
&verage quantity of sewage discharged in the 24 hours, at 120 million
gallons, we have, for the weight of solid matter discharged into the river
every year, 64,250 tons," A different result from Captain Calver's, which is
465,000 tons.
Again: The rejoinder continues, the quantity of solid matter discharged
into the river at the outfalls in each tide is 88 tons, or 1,380 million grains;
and the quantity of tidal water passing the outfalls in a spring ebb, as stated
by Captain Calver is 108,138,140 cubic yards, or 18,248,811,125 gallons ;
consequently the amount of solid matter thrown into the river from the
outfalls only ** amounts to ‘076, or 4 of a grain per gallon, a quantity
far too small to exercise any appreciable influence upon the purity of the
water.”
Again: “ That the water in the lower reaches of the river is very much
loaded with mud, especially upon flood-tide, is a matter of fact which cannot
fail to strike any person observing it; and the reason will be very evident
upon examining the state of the river banks.” Then alluding to the
“ saltings,”’ that is erosions by waves, having been computed; the cubic
contents of the same are estimated, whereby it is found that “at least a
million tons of soil are washed into this part of the river every year, in
addition to that which is brought down from above.”
It is stated that thus the ** saltings below London, therefore, supply at
least 153 times as much solid matter as that discharged by the sewage out-
falls." This, the Engineer adds, ‘‘is, in fact, the real source of the mud
deposit on the banks of the river, which, as we have shown, Captain Calver
has erroneously attributed to the metropolitan sewage."
The report concludes “ that there is no documentary evidence to prove
that foul and offensive aceretions have recently formed within the channel of
the Thames;’’ that, “in fact, the water and mud of the Thames have im-
proved greatly in purity; ' that “there is no resemblance between Thames
prm
THomson,—On the Cleansing of Towns, 68
mud aud sewage mud ;" that “sewage does not work its way up the river;"
and, finally, that “the muddy condition of the river is caused principally
by the unprotected state of its banks,"
Here, then, we may pause and exclaim, How doctors differ |
Captain Calver supports his statements by numerous tables and analyses,
and Sir J. W. Bazalgette does the same in treble volume, hence his
chemical referees quaintly conclude their support of their employer by a
remark, viz., conclusions of a few samples only (by Captain Calver’s
analysts) must be looked upon with great distrust !
The report of Sir J, W. Bazalgette is accompanied by an appendix con-
taining letters and reports of other authorities, besides plans, charts, and
sections of the Thames and its estuary. The evidence of Faraday is
brought out as to the former foul state of the Thames within the city pre-
cinets, and apart from the question before us the charts of the saltings or
erosions of the banks of the Thames estuary are interesting to the physical
geographer. And here we may take the liberty of pointing out that, as
these all take place below the sewage outfalls, extending for a distance of 20
miles, from which Sir J. W. Bazalgette ascribes the muddy condition of the
river above—from this, his own principle, we have a difficulty in clearing
him from contradiction, when he ignores Captain Calver’s statement in the
same direction, viz., that the filthiness of the river above the outfalls,
extending up to London, little more than 10 miles, is due to the sewage
deposits of Barking Creek and Crossness, which is but a corollary to his
own theory.
But, in truth, the controversy is of a kind in which one throws his filth
into a neighbour’s bed, so complete equanimity is not to be expected, on the
contrary, perturbations from the true mean of sound judgment are to be
looked for. It is open, therefore, to the enquirer to suppose, that as the
sewage issues from the outlets into the Thames with the ebb, weightier
particles will be the first to descend to the bed not far from the outlets;
hence, may it not be supposed that, when the advancing flood of the heavier
salt water, forcing itself beneath the lighter fresh water, yet ebbing at the
surface, arrives at the outlets, these weightier particles will be carried
up the river to certain distances? In the notesof experiments, on either
side of the question, we do not detect that sufficient investigations have
been made on this point. It is, therefore, yet unsettled, and can here only
be alluded to.
But to the general public this subject carries little interest with it, for
to those acquainted with the Thames near London, 25 years ago and now,
the enormous improvement in the cleanliness of its waters is palpable.
64 T'ransaetions,— Miscellaneous,
This was so patent to ourselves that we had scarcely anticipated a most
distant demur from any quarter. Leaving this portion then, and proceeding
to what we suggest as being the vital point of misunderstanding between the
Thames Conservancy and Metropolitan Board, viz., the interruption of navi-
gation, we will tarry a little to examine it.
The official surveys, admitted to be correct by both parties, show changes
going on in the river-bed near Barking Creek and Crossness, but that it has
shallowed cannot be stated.
The cross-sections at Crossness show a bank as increasing on the Kent
side (that is the side at which the sewage falls); and at Barking Creek, a
bank inereasing on the Essex side (that is the side on which the sewage
there falls). But in both cases a deepening to an equal extent has taken
place at the opposite sides of shallowing. The section lines are given for
the years 1861, 1867, and 1876. At Crossness the soundings of 1861, on
the Kent or outfall side, show a decrease of 10 feet, more or less; but on
the Essex side an increase in like quantity. At Barking Creek, similar
changes have taken place, but to a less degree. Thus exact data do not
indieate danger of closing to the channel of the Thames, but only alteration
of its bed. That this alteration is due to the new influence brought to bear
on it, viz., the issue of large quantities of drain detritus, we think will be
admitted by all unprejudiced persons.
But that the navigation of the Thames will be affected from the issue of
the drainage of a district at points higher or lower, or the converse, we are
not prepared, beyond a certain point, to admit. If the present drainage
were not issued at Barking Creek and Crossness, it would have issued above
-and below London Bridge, carrying with it the same quantity of matter and
sediment into the river, and in an equal degree, and no more ; depositing the
heavier partieles in the beds or along the banks continuously; but at the
same time continuously aeted on by floods and tides, spreading it out from
landward to seaward in that equilibrium due to the natural forces at work.
Thus, in the interests of Thames navigation, the question of outfall at
London, or at Crossness, 14 miles below it, is of very little consequence.
If one deteriorate passage of shipping, so would the other; but if either can
be proved to do so, then the City of London would be bound to seek another
area for the deposit of its offal. This contingeney appears not yet to have
arisen.
In prosecuting my enquiries, on the 2nd August last, I proceeded to
Abbey Wood, near to which is the outlet of the South London drainage, on
& point of the river called Crossness. I arrived there at about noon, and was
taken over the works by the manager, The works are situated on a raised
Tuomson.—On the Cleansing of Towns. 65
mound, close to the south bank of the Thames, and on which are also
erected official and workmen’s houses, with a school for the children. The
mound is actually a covered tank of six acres in extent, but being covered
with earth, and planted with grass, this cannot be detected by a stranger.
The engine-house is a spacious erection of the Byzantine style, the
-chimney-stalk being of elegant proportions. The power of the engines
is 500-horse, and is used in pumping the sewage from the main drain
into the tank, by means of eight plunge pumps, of about three feet in diameter.
The main drain is 80 feet below the surface, and the tank rises above this,
having a depth, when full, of 14 feet.
The sewage is only let out at high-water, on its turn to ebb, and it con-
tinues to flow till nearly low-water. There are three outlets for the sewage
from the tank into the river, constructed of solid brick and cement, leading
to the high-water mark, then by open timber ducts to the low-water mark.
It was near low-water mark when I visited the place, and I could not
markedly detect offensive smell, but the water of the river was exceedingly
turbid and discoloured.
I also examined the sewage in the tank, through a manhole, and ascer-
tained that but slight offensive odours escaped by this aperture.
I did not consider it necessary to examine the works on the north side
of the river, as the principle is merely repeated, but they are larger, the
tank there being equal to 10 acres.
The effect of the outfall of eity sewage and detritus in a river, then, is
similar to what may be readily studied on any goldfield where hydraulic works
in simple gold-washings are in force. The sludge does not pen up the rivers
of magnitude, but it merely spreads itself out on the banks adjacent to the
outfalls, and what it occupies of the original bed, the stream compensates
itself by scouring out a deeper channel on the opposite, so that it maintains
an equal volume. Limiting the enquiry to navigation, such, in our view,
is the influence on the Thames in this much-vexed question.
In regard to its pollution, that is another question. We cannot help
opining that Captain Calver is more eloquent on this subject than necessary.
That fetid matter is carried up to the metropolitan area, teeming with popula-
tion, contaminating its area, is surely their grievance, not his; and so long
as they are contented with the smells in their precincts, the Thames Con-
servancy need not disturb themselves, but if they can show that ship and
barge crews are struck with gastric fever, or otherwise intolerably discom-
posed by the odours, by passing the outfalls, this comes within their
functions to remedy, But no statisties are brought forward on this head,
nor are complaints from this quarter even alluded to.
Looking at the question with a bird’s-eye view, in our humble kag
66 Transactions.—Miscellaneous.
there can-be no question that London, having adopted the water-gravitation
system for cleansing its precincts, within practical distance, no sites could
have been better chosen for the outfalls than Barking Creek and Crossness,
as here the country around is devoid of population, hence the works, if not
altogether inoffensive, are placed where they are in a position to give least
offence. :
Having thus discussed the Home sewage question in its various phases,
and noticed the opinions drawn from experimental enquiry, as well as from
long experience, we will now turn to the subject as it presents itself in this
Colony. Referring to the report published by the Sanitary Commission of
Dunedin, dated 25th January, 1865, we find this town principally built of
wood, at that time containing 15,037 inhabitants, and whose bad sanitary
state was graphically described by.the city engineer, the late John Millar,
Esd, FBA.
The remedies submitted to the Commission by several engineers were as
follows:—One assumed, as a matter of course, that the sewage would be
“ hurried into the harbour," though ultimately the outfall might be on to the
ocean beach. Another propounded a scheme of irrigation, conducting the
sewage over or through two dividing ranges to the land between Dunedin
and Saddle Hill, and in which the Taieri Plain might participate. This
was to be effected by a series of pumping engines. Another suggested
that the sewage should be discharged at the Lawyers’ Head, by means of
hydraulie pressure on the drains. Another scheme was to submit the
Forbury Flat to a system of high-class farming by the application of liquid
sewage.
From this it may be surmised that there was great diversity of opinion
amongst engineers as to the proposed measures; but in saying this, it cannot
be said to be more so than is or was existent amongst engineers in England
at that date. The fact of the matter is, the subject is a growing one, in
which time makes changes, and matured experience, we have seen, has’
suggested alterations.
In this case of Dunedin, we see one engineer proposing to direct a
system of irrigation over a plain, which ten short years have converted into a
town. Another proposes to fertilize, by a similar scheme, an agricultural
district, separated from the town by two ranges of hills, at ten miles
distance, a project worthy of the greatest cities in Europe, and only prac-
ticable to them. Another proposes to send it into the sea; another into the
harbour. It is worthy of note that none proposed a dry system of
treatment,
Now it would be wrong to infer, from the want of unanimity in the
T Pee that iod were n professionally. On the setup
*
enterprises, etc.
Tromson.On the Oleansing of Towns. 67
the question was not of a technical nature in the first place, and at that
time, but of the power to bear taxation on the part of the citizens, in their
anticipated progress and increase, in estimating which (a duty of the statis-
tician rather than of the engineer) they may be said to have failed. Study
of the various works applied to cities-in Europe will illustrate this fact in
every direction; but here, also, fhe lesson cannot escape us. The practical
end of all the professional advice given to the Dunedin Commission has
been, that the sewage is carried to the nearest available point; that is,
into the harbour fronting the city, and into which area it will flow till
sufficient opposition has been conjured up to prevent it.
This is the history of older cities ; so it is the same of younger.
And continuing our theme, with Dunedin as our example; This city,
like London, having adopted the water-gravitation principle of cleansing,
the sewage will flow to its assigned levels, till, as in its great prototype, it
becomes an intolerable nuisance. Then the city authorities will have to
look abroad for projects in its disposal otherwise; and to all of them, from
local interests, there will be objections. The question in the end resolves
itself, not into attaining a project which has no objections attached to it, but
to one which has the least. Hence, as we see in the cities of the Home
country, the wearied and puzzled municipalities will have to look to the
harbour as an easy solution of their difficulties, but to be opposed by the
Boards in charge of this interest. Next, they will look to the ocean beach,
to be thwarted by the suburban population and pleasure-seekers of that
locality. Perchance, then, imitating the Borough of Brighton, they may
have power to tunnel to beyond Tomahawk on the one side, or Green Island
on the other; or, taking example by the inland cities of England, such as
Birmingham, Leeds, or Bradford, they will discourage the water-gravitation
system, and, perforce, purify their sewage before delivering it into the
subjacent water of their estuary.
In Christchurch we also have a recent example in the colony of want of
unanimity as to measures, the projected scheme only to be thwarted by the
ratepayers ; the real difficulty being, not what should be done, bat what
the majority of the several interests will allow to be done.
From this, it might be inferred, that sanitary engineering is at 2 A
experimental. To this it may be answered, that it has hitherto bee largely
80, a necessary concomitant of the modern advance of science, t altered i
conditions of ae and the variety and complicates arrangements 0 fits
requirements. In this, it has been no otherwise. with other practical and
economical branches, eps as railroads, steam navigation, m in
ut large data, the result of experiment an
are also now fee i nobi ee
68 Transactions,—Miscellaneous,
guidance under the different difficulties he has to meet, are at hand to
support him,
Thus in this colony, when principles are sought for, they will be found
to be simple in the main, however complicated the details may be.
Sanitary works resolve themselves into two distinct systems, namely—
wet and dry; the former acting by the gravitation of water, the other by
manual or machine carriage.
The wet system carries its burden to the sea, or to rivers, when it can
do this unopposed ; to areas for irrigation in the production of crops ; or to
waste areas for the purpose of absorption and filtration. The burden may
also be brought to tanks for precipitation and the purification of the sewage.
The dry system has its burden carried to the sea, whether by boat.or
carriage; to the fields for direct application to cultivation, or to works of
manure manufacture, for all of which the extracts made in the preceding
part of this paper give examples.
The separate systems, suitable for the respective situations, are not difficult
to decide on. Where towns have accessible water-supply and easy exits,
the wet system is suitable; where these do not exist, the dry system
becomes imperative. We use the word imperative, because it is in human
nature for people to divest themselves of that which is disagreeable with
the least trouble to themselves, and this, when the conditions are favourable,
is most readily effected by water. But-it has not in all cases proved
“economical or efficient in the end where water has been had recourse to,
owing to the nuisance being cast on other interests, and for which the law
when appealed to has demanded a remedy at great cost.
In favour of the dry system one great recommendation is to be said,
namely—that it returns to the soil that which man took from it; thus, that
it should have a general acceptance by cities in a practical and convenient
manner, will always be considered a desideratum.
In New Zealand, more than in almost any other country, the wet system
is easily available, districts in which a contrary condition exists being
limited to Canterbury, Southland, and Auckland.
The proportion of human excreta to sewage is an important question to
sanitary engineers ; and taking the data afforded by London, it will be found
that these do not exceed one-hundredth part of the whole sewage. This
element makes but a small factor in the whole, and is of very secondary
consideration, under the circumstances of the city possessing a full water-
supply and a ready place of disposal, such as the sea or a tidal river. But
in the case of inland towns, where they are forced to purify the sewage, the
matter is different; for though the excreta there may only form a small
portion of the whole volume to be dealt with, they perforce form a large
ININE Rc S BER Saree
THomson.—On the Cleansing of Towns. 69
part of the nuisances to be got rid of. The proportion of excreta must
necessarily vary with the industries and habits of the towns or cities, in
manufacturing populations the refuse from factories being great, while with
residential populations this must be limited. Hence, in inland towns, we
observe the present measures of municipalities discouraging water-closets
and promoting some form or other of the dry system.
In a colony such as ours, where new municipalities are being annually
incorporated, it is desirable that in their varied responsibilities they should
not neglect sanitary reform. Though in the early stages of a town cess-
pools are not to be avoided, yet in relation to the health of the people these
should, as early as possible, be abolished by law, and in the first place the
dry system instituted, until they have obtained a water-supply and fully
considered their facilities of removal and the permanent sites to which
they could conduct the sewage, with the least offence to interests in
their neighbourhood.
70 Transactions, —JMiscellaneous,
APPENDIX, No. 1.
Comparison of the Cost of Dispostne of Town Srwaaz by different Processes,
in proportion to the Axwvan RarrEasLE Vanuz, etc., 1875. Compiled
from a Table given in the Report of Committee appointed by the Local
Government Board, 1875, page lviii.
BY IRRIGATION.
PER £ OF
Popula- Number sine es Annual RATEABLE VALUE.
NAME oF Town. on Water. | Rateable
(about) ease Closets. M
Sewage. | Scavenging.
£ :
1. Banbury .. .. | 12,000 3,485 | 2,485 84,104 1d. —
2. Bedford .. .. | 18,000 8,500 | 3,000 5,000 1d
8. Blaekburn. s 6,7 130 235,127 8d 34d
Cheltenham .. | 45,000 8,725 | 8,500 217,849 i i4
5. Chorle $5 i 20,000 4,00 200 44d 24d
Doncaster .. .. | 20,000 4,30 8, 34d —
7. Harrowgate : 12,000 1,500 | 1,62 50,000 52d.
8. Leamington ie 5700 4,5 ,370 ,40 54d. 1d
9. Merthyr-Tydvil .. | 55,000 | 10,778 | 8,000 135,000 74d. —
10. Rugby B ou ,400 1,700; 1,4 ,00 13d. =-
^ Eis Wells.. | 23,000 5,750 | 5,635 142,914 104. E
i z« | LLUOU 2,400 | 2,000 43,339 64d. -—
14. NS endis .. | 71,000 | 14,000 750 210,000 2d. 14d.
14. West Derby sis; | 32,000 — 3,220 163,000 4d. 1}d.
BY LAND FILTRATION.
15. Kendal .. ve | 18,700 | 9,927 450 | £44,600 | 4d. | —
BY PRECIPITATION.
Birmingham .. [850,000 | 83,420 | 8,000 | 1 225 844 414. 53d.
^s psta Oai > Pato: Laches
“ Though this be Let aia yet there is method in’t.”—Hamlet.
On THE [DEALITY or THE AnolENT New ZEALANDER,
Part I.—LrcENps, Myrus, anp FABLES.
8 1. Introductory.
I nave long been desirous of adding what little I may have gleaned on this
subject during an extended sojourn in New Zealand; and I feel still the
more inclined to do so through (1) it being now evening time with me, and
(2) through my having noticed the many crude theories which have been
broached concerning the Whence of the Maori, not a few of which, by their
several writers, have been laboriously propped and buttressed with all and
every item, however insignificant, far-fetched, and vague, they could possibly
impress and bring forward, but in which, in my estimation, they have
notwithstanding signally failed, because they laboured to build up a pet
faney or hobby of their own rather than the truth; some even starting
with assuming the very proposition which they had to prove.*
For my own part, I altogether disclaim all such; I have no pet theory ;
I only seek the truth; to do what little I may towards establishing it; firmly
believing, as I have already written,{ that in the years to come this, too,
will be found out and known. :
For this purpose, then, I shall bring before you on the present occasion
& few, out of the many, curious old legends, myths, and fables of the Maori,
preferring those which I have known for many years, which have to do with
natural and tangible objects, and whieh have not been tampered with or
&dded to by Europeans, or by Maoris who had imbibed new and foreign
ideas.
* Plenty of this will be found in several volumes of the “ Transactions N.Z. Inst.,”
which, although often attempted to be dressed up in a new fashion, is not new. I append
8 suitable extract on this subject from an old book, as the work itself is scarce and little
known :—
“In respect to the New Zealanders, some have imagined that they sprang from
Assyria or Egypt. “The god Pan, says Mr. Kendall to Dr. Waugh, “is universally
acknowledged. The overflowings of the Nile, and the fertility of the country in con-
sequence, are evidently alluded to in their traditions; and I think the Argonautic
expedition, Pan’s crook, Pan’s pipes, and Pan’s office in making the earth fertile, are
mentioned in their themes. Query—Are not the Malay and the whole of the South Sea
Islanders Egyptians ? To which we reply—When will the spirit of conjecture rest ?”—
Beauties, etc., of Nature, by C. Bucke; new ed., vol. ii., s. 79; London, 1837 (note).
In Essay on The Maori Races; Trans., Vol. I., pp. 61, 62, 1st Ed.
78 Vransacttons.—Miscellaneous,
Here, however, let me pause awhile to explain clearly, yet briefiy, what
I mean by the term Ideality : I mean that superior faculty—that conception
of the natural and beautiful, the truthful and symmetrical, which has ever
been found to pertain to the higher races, or varieties of men, and in par-
ticular to the more gifted among them. As Cousin says (On the uni ee
—'* The Ideal appears as an original conception of the mind. * *
Nature or experience gives me the occasion for conceiving the ideal, but the
ideal is something entirely different from experience or nature, so that if we
apply it to natural, or even to artificial figures, they cannot fill up the con-
dition of the ideal conception, and we are obliged to imagine them exact.”
Kant lays it down—* By ideal, I understand the idea, not in concreto but in
individuo, as an individual thing, determinable or determined by the idea
alone." * On this subject, also, Emerson impressively writes :—“ I
hasten to state the principle which prescribes, through different means,
its firm law to the useful and beautiful arts. The law is this: The
universal soul is the alone creator of the useful and the beautiful;
therefore, to make anything useful or beautiful, the individual must be sub-
mitted to the universal mind. * * * Beneath a necessity thus
almighty, what is artificial in man's life seems insignifieant. He seems to
take his task so minutely from intimations of Nature, that his works become,
as it were, hers, and he is nolonger free. * * * There is but one
Reason. The mind that made the world is not one mind, but the mind.
Every man is an inlet to the same, and to all of the same. And every work
of art is a more or less sure manifestation of the same. * * * We feel,
in seeing a noble building, much as we do in hearing a perfect song, that it
is spiritually organic; that is, had a necessity in nature for being; was
one of the possible forms in the Divine mind, and is now only discovered
and executed by the artist, not arbitrarily composed by him. * * * The
highest praise we can attribute to any writer, painter, sculptor, builder, is,
that he actually possessed the thought or feeling with which he has inspired
us."t Thatdelightful writer on Art, J. Ruskin—whether considered as artist
or art eritie—always in love with the Beautiful, and possessing the wonder-
ful power of telling it in such charming language, says :—‘‘I call an idea
great in proportion as it is received by a higher faculty of the mind, and as
it more fully occupies, and in occupying, exercises and exalts, the faculty by
which it is received. * * * He is the greatest artist who has embodied
in the sum of his works the greatest number of the greatest ideas.” Then
Ruskin contrasts the old Venetian worker in glass, with his profusion of
design, his personality of purpose, and his love of his art, with the British
* Crit. Pure Reason.
1 Essay on Art.
CoLesso.—0On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 79
worker with his mechanical accuracy. ‘‘ Everything the old Venetian
worker made was a separate thing—a new individual creation ;* but the
British worker does things by the gross, and has no personal interest in any
one article.’’+
To this, from the Moderns, I would also add two short extracts from the
Ancients. According to Cicero, there is nothing of any kind so fair that
there may not be a fairer conceived by the mind. He says:—“ We can
conceive of statues more perfect than those of Phidias. Nor did the artist,
when he made the statue of Jupiter or Minerva, contemplate any one
individual from which to take a likeness; but there was in his mind a form
of beauty, gazing on which, he guided his hand and skill in imitation of it."
(Orator, c. 2,3.) And Seneca takes the distinction between ida and Zidoc
thus :—‘* When a painter paints a likeness, the original is his ióéa—the
likeness is the édoc or image. The #idoc is in the work—the idéa is out of
the work and before the work.” —/ Epist. 58.)
Possibly some one may say, or think: ‘ Do you really believe that any
thing of that kind, or power, ever appertained to the mind of a New
Zealander ?" And my reply would be: “ Yes, undoubtedly, and that in no
small degree." And here we must be careful in discerning and considering,
in order to arrive at a right conclusion.
The fragment of brown floating seaweed, when properly examined and
considered, shows the hand of the Great Artificer as surely as the superb
and symmetrical flower of the garden, the admiration of all beholders. In
viewing the colossal architecture of the ancient Egyptians, we must
beware how we compare it with that of ancient Greece, especially with the
airy and flowery Corinthian Order. So, when we contemplate the modern
Greek, untaught and unskilled peasant it may be, sauntering among the
marble ruins of the cities and capitals of his forefathers, and thoughtlessly
breaking up some exquisite creation of the gifted sculptor of ancient days,
and the question of doubt arises in our minds as to the possible oneness of
that race, we must not forget how sadly, how greatly, they have degenerated.
Just so, then, in my estimation, it has been with the nation of the New
Zealanders. They, too, have degenerated—sadly, surely, and quickly—
particularly within the last half a century :
** "Tis Greece, but living Greece, no more."
But do not mistake me, as if I meant to assert that they in their
Ideality ever approached to that of the great Western nations which have
been mentioned. Not so; but speaking comparatively, and in their degree,
* Much of this re the old Venetian workman is truly relatively applicable to the old
New Zealand worker. :
Po + Modern Painters,
80 Transactions.—Miscellaneous.
and according to their own national conceptions, and to the circumstances
in which they were placed by nature,—without a written language, or the
use of metals, or beasts of burden, or any knowledge of, or communication
with, the great world of mankind lying around them,—aye, more ;—without
teaching or instruction or communication of ideas (even among them-
selves !) ;—without the healthy incitement arising from competition with
artists of other tribes, and of exhibition, and of praise from afar !—without
even a probable certainty of his even completing what he had painfully
devised and begun (all such being utterly precluded by their constant
wars !); and without the slightest excitement of pay or reward, as things
were never made for sale among them; and also with having a share (in
common with the other members of his tribe) in the almost daily labours
attendant on the cultivating and obtaining his food,—from which exertion
no New Zealander in health, whatever might be his rank or intelligence,
was ever exempt ;—all these things being fairly weighed and considered,—
this, this is the way in which they should be judged by us—"
** They are of the works of the Father,
And of the one Mind the Intelligible.
For Intellect is not without the Intelligible,
And the Intelligible does not subsist apart from Intellect."— Zoroast.
The Maori of to-day is not worthy, in this respect, to carry the shoes of
his forefathers. And he knows it; he feels it. Ichabod! or Fuit Ilium,
may well be called upon them.
I, who have been, I may be allowed to say, long conversant with them,
have no hesitation in stating, that the more I have seen and known of the
works of the Ancient New Zealander, the more have I been struck with the
many indications of their superior mind,—of their fine perception of the
beautiful, the regular, and symmetrical; of their desire and labour after the
beautiful; of their prompt and genuine, open and fearless criticisms,—in a
word, of their great Ideality. And this high faculty of theirs which they
possessed in an eminent degree, wil probably be better known and under-
stood hereafter than itis at present. It was their possession of that faculty,
even in more modern times, which enabled them at a glance, and, as if by
inspiration,” to detect inaccuracy or want of ssthetic conformity and exact
precision in the skilled performances of their European visitors, and as
quickly to declare it ;—as in the martial exercises of the military (regulars),
in the want of exact time in the rowing of boats by the most skilful seamen
of H.M. navy ;—and, in all their own works, to perceive instantaneously
all such want of symmetry if present.
* I use this word here in the Socratic sense, as by him in Plato, Ton,
sel iioii emet dti ai
E TAURUM UA MA UU MUUMMMMUKMNUNUMMMMAMMM€KCMA———-EREEEEEEEMEDENMN
CoLENso.—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 81
That faculty was exhibited in many ways, e.g. :—
In the building of their war-canoes with all their carving and many
adornments; and that without plan, pattern, or tools. The exquisite re-
gularity and symmetry of both sides of the vessel, including even that
difficult one of carved concentric circles worked in filagree, were astonishing ;
and, as such, borne ample testimony to by all their first visitors.*
In the building of the highly ornamented houses of their chiefs.
In all their better carvings, with which every article of wood, of bone,
of shell, or of stone, was profusely and boldly adorned—from the handle of
a working-axe, or spade, to the baler for their canoes. Horace truly says—
** Pictoribus atque poetis
Quidlibet audendi semper fuit equa potestas,"
to which, however, I would also add, sculptoribus; unless such may be
considered as included in poetis; for Plantus affirms, ** Poeta ad eam rem." 1
In their tattooing.
In their Weaving, plain and ornamental, of many kinds and patterns
(more than 200) of textile fabrics; and all simply done by hand!
In their chequered dogs’-skin, and kiwi-feathered, and red parrots’-
feathered, cloaks.
In their making and twisting of threads, cords, lines, and ropes; many
varieties of each.
In their ornaments—of feathers,} of greenstone, and of sharks’ teeth.
* Vide Cook, Forster, Parkinson, and others, passim; also, Nicholas’ “ New Zealand,”
Vol. I., p. 48; 49.
T “One of us arts in which the New Zealanders excel is that of carving in wood,
They often display both a taste and ingenuity, which, especially when we consider their
miserably imperfect tools, it is impossible to behold without admiration. The N. Z. artist
has no lathe to compete with, neither has he even those ordinary hand tools which every
civilized country has always afforded. The only instruments he has to cut with are
rudely fashioned of stone or bone. Yet even with these his skill and patient perseverance
contrive to grave the wood into any forms which his fancy may suggest. Many of the
carvings thus produced are distinguished by both a grace and richness of design that
would do no discredit even to European art. Their war-canoes have their heads and sterns
elaborately carved. On their musical instruments much time and labour is bestowed in
shaping, carving, and inlaying.”—The New Zealanders, pp. 129, 131
t Of their taste in feathers for decoration of the head, we have notable instances
recorded. It is well known that the national taste in this respect was severely simple yet
graceful
t Simplex munditiis"—HoRn. “Plain in thy neatness."—MILTO:
The New Zealanders preferring the snowy-white plumes of three birds in leas in
white stork, the albatross, and the gannet, and the black feathers, tipped with white, of
the Huia (Heteralocha gouldi);—nothing gaudy or of strong glittering colours was
approved of by them; otherwise they could easily have manufactured such feathers fom
several of their indigenous birds. All this we have in the voyages of their
visitors, and in the plates. But in the principal plate (or the one ostentatiously intended
&
B^
82 Transactions.—Miscellaneous,
In their ornamented staffs of rank, carved and inlaid with mother-of-
pearl, and decorated with quillets of flowing dog’s hair, and red feathers.
In their symmetrical planting of their food, with faultless regularity,
and all done “ by the eye.”
In their language; hence its great grammatical precision, its double
duals and double plurals, its euphony, its rhythm, and its brevity, and its
many exquisite particles and reduplications, both singular and plural, all
highly pregnant with meaning, which almost defy translation into English.
In many of their songs and recitations; some plaintive and mild and
full of love, others bold and martial; all natural and sympathetic.
In their possessing diesic modulations, or quarter-tones, in their airs and
music.”
In their proverbs and sayings, and quaint laconic effusions; often
abounding with wit and beauty of expression and depth of meaning.
In their legends, myths, tales, and fables.
In the regular sequence of their peculiar mythology, and of the begin-
ning and formation of all things; all natural orders of living things having
each a separate creator or progenitor.
In their polite and courteous behaviour, and true, open and free hospi-
tality, often exhibiting the true gentleman.1
In their knowledge of many of the operations of nature, including the
periodic return of the moon and stars, and the seasons.
In the faultless precision of bodies of them moving together, as if it
were but one man! as in their paddling and dancing and in several games.
Now in all these matters, and more might be adduced, they ever
showed their innate national taste, in which they were vastly in advance of
our own British forefathers when first visited by Cesar; although the
Britons had many natural advantages, of which the New Zealander had
never dreamed.
o return from our earliest intercourse with the Maori, two or three
peculiar and strange traits and circumstances highly characteristic of him
have been known. I allude to those respecting his belief in, and fear of,
animals of the Saurian or Lizard kind. Settlers and colonists of to-day
can form no correct idea of how a bold and daring New Zealand warrior,
who feared not to meet his fellow foe in a stern hand-to-hand deadly fight,
would blanch and run away in horror from a little harmless lizard! yet
to be such—the frontispiece) to Hochstetter’s work on New Zealand (English edition), we
have a Maori Chief with three peacock’s feathers stuck in his hair!! a proof of their dege-
neracy in taste; or, as I believe, of the baser (inferior) taste of the English artist, who had
c oe learnt by rule, and who had no conception of the superior faculty.
* See Appendix to this paper ; one highly interesting to trained musicians,
t Vide Nicholas’ “ New Zealand," Vol, I., pp. 24, 25,
CoLenso,.—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race, 88
this I have often seen. Why was this? was it that he really feared that
little harmless animal ? or was it that that tiny creature was to him the
form and representation of a great, fearful, mischievous, and mysterious
power, the deadly foe of man, ever hated and dreaded by all New Zea-
landers, and called an Atua, or demon? of which it was said—aye, and
firmly believed—that it often gnawed the internal part of diseased folks,
and so surely caused their death; or was it through their belief in those
cherished legends of the olden time, that had been strictly handed down
through many generations from father to son, containing the history of
some dreadful monsters of the Saurian order, and which the prowess of
their ancestors, aided by the charms and spells of their priests (mark this),
had enabled them to vanquish and to overcome ? Animals of such a huge
and monstrous size as would comparatively leave the Megatherium and
Mammoth far behind in the place of kittens!
And here I cannot help calling your particular attention to a very
curious feature, which will prominently appear in the relations I shall have
to give you—viz., that while the utmost exactitude is preserved in those
strange stories—of time, and place, and persons, and of a certain amount
of strong natural reality, yet not a single vestige of any osteological remains
of any animal of the Saurian kind has ever yet been discovered! While,
on the other hand, the fossil remains of many large and extinct Struthious
birds of several genera and species, and commonly known in the lump by
the name of Moa, are to be met with in great abundance; and yet, of these
realities, there are neither credible history, nor curious legendary tale, nor
myth nor fable, that I have ever been able to lay hold of.
Captain Cook heard something of those large Saurians on his third voyage
while at anchor in the Straits which bear his name; which, being but brief,
I will give in his own words :—'* We had another piece of intelligence from
this chief, that there are lizards there of an enormous size. He described
them as being eight feet in length, and as big round as a man’s body. He
said they sometimes seize and devour men; that they burrow in the ground;
and that they are killed by making fires at the mouth of the holes. We
could not be mistaken as to the animal, for, with his own hand, he drew a
very good representation of a lizard on a piece of paper, in order to show
what he meant.” And this statement was further confirmed by Mr. Ander-
son, the surgeon to the ship, as appears from a note appended to that
voyage, viz. :—‘‘In a separate memorandum book, Mr. Anderson mentions
the monstrous animal of the lizard kind, described by the two young New
Zealanders they had on board, after they had left the island."'*
* 3rd Voyage, Vol. I., pp. 142, 153,
84 Transactions, — Miscellaneous,
Mr. Nicholas, who accompanied Mr. Marsden on his first visit to New
Zealand in 1814, says :—‘‘ While in the forests at the Bay of Islands,
observing a hole at the foot of one of the trees, which evidently appeared to
have been burrowed by some quadruped, we inquired of Kena what animal
he supposed it was; and from his description of it, we had reason to believe
that it must be the Guana. Wishing to know how far our surmise was
correct, we desired our friend to thrust a stick into the hole, and endeavour
to worry the animal out of it; but this he tried with no effect, for either it
was not in the hole at the time, or, if there, not to be dislodged by such
means. Kena, however, was rather well pleased than otherwise at not
meeting with this animal; for his dread of it was so great, that he shrunk
back with terror at the time he thought it would come out, nor did he
examine the hole but with very great reluctance. This we thought very
strange, for the Guana (the animal we took it for) is perfectly harmless.
* The chief, Ruatara, however, informed us that a most destructive
animal was found in the interior of the country, which made great havoc
among the children, carrying them off and devouring them, whenever they
came its way. The description he gave of it corresponded exactly with that
of the alligator. * * * The chief had never seen the animal himself,
but received his accounts from others; and hence it appears to me very
probable that his credulity might have been imposed upon.””
Captain Cruise, of the 84th Regiment, who came to New Zealand in
H.M.S. ‘ Dromedary’ five years after Mr. Nicholas, and who resided in
this country ten months, gives in a few words an interesting notice of
the abject fear exhibited by the Maori at the mere sight of a small lizard!
which, as it is (or was) so truthful—as I have too often myself witnessed—
I also quote :—'** A man who has arrived at a certain stage of an incurable
illness, is under the influence of the Atua, who has taken possession of him,
and who, in the shape of a lizard, is devouring his intestines ; after which
no human assistance or comfort can be given to the sufferer, and he is
carried out of the village and left to die. * * * This curious hypothesis
was accidentally discovered by one of the gentlemen, who, having found a
lizard, carried it to a native woman to ask the name of it. She shrunk
from him in a state of terror that exceeded description, and conjured him
not to approach her, as it was in the shape of the animal he held in his
hand that the Atwa was wont to take possession of the dying, and to devour
their bowels."t
In various parts of this island, but all to the north of Napier, I have
had shown me when travelling (1834-1844), many spots where it was said
monsters of the Saurian Order had formerly dwelt.
* Narrative, Vol. Il., pp. 124, 126,
t Journal, pp. 283, 320,
CorzNso,—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 85
Thirty-five years ago, when journeying along the Hast Coast, between
Cape Kidnappers and Castle Point, on reaching the top of the high hill or
range situated between Waimarama and Te Apiti, named Marokotia, my
attention was called to a remarkable rift or chasm at the head of the glen
just below me, on the east or sea side of the old Maori track or pathway.
This, I was told by the old chiefs of the coast who were with me, was in
ancient times the dwelling of a monster Saurian, named Hinehuarau ; that
it burst away from this place, tearing and rending all before it, and so
went on south until it reached Wairarapa, where it was subsequently killed
by a chief of note of ancient days, named Tara, whose name he gave to the
lake near Te Aute, “ Te Roto-a-tara.”’
Some time after I was again in the Wasani Valley, and hearing so
much of the ** bones," or, as some said, “the head," of this monster being
yet to be seen in the place where it was slain, away among the hills, I
purposely walked thither from a village called Hurunuiorangi to see them.
It was rather a long and rough walk to the place among the hills on the
other side of the Ruamahanga river. Arriving there, I found the said
* bones" to be a heap or knob of yellowish, friable, glittering, quartz-like
stone (calcite), which cropped out from the hill-side and lay in large lumps.
I remember well how angry one old Maori became, who was of the party
with me, on my asserting that the pile before us was not bone at all but
stone. Very likely those natives had never seen any other stone like it (up
to that time I had not). It bore, at first sight, a resemblance to the yellow
decaying bones of a whale. I think the spot was called Tupurupuru, and
that it is not very far from the head waters of the river Taueru.
Such places, however—caves, rifts, chasms, and strange-looking stones
—are by no means unfrequently met with in travelling in New Zealand,
especially when journeying (as I was obliged to do) along the old foot-paths,
which mostly led over ridges of hills; and there are plenty of such stories
coneerning them, each spot having its own peculiar rudi or legend, which
was once most certainly believed.
I have also more than once seen another curious pati in this neighbour-
hood (Hawke Bay), which deserves recording, the more so, perhaps, from
the fact of its being no longer to be seen as I saw it. It was on the low
undulating grassy banks of the river Waitio. There, at that time, was a
huge earthwork representation of a ngarara, or ika, i.e, a lizard, or
crocodile, which, several generations back, had been cut and dug and
formed in the ground by a chief of that time named Rangitauira, wh», in
doing so, had also dexterously availed himself of the natural formation of
the low alluvial undulations in the earth. It had the rude appearance of a
huge Saurian extended, with its four legs and claws and tail, but crooked,
86 Transactions,— Miscellaneous,
not straight, as if to represent it wriggling or living, and not dead. It was
many yards in length, and of corresponding width and thickness, and by no
means badly executed. On two occasions, in particular, in travelling that
way, as we generally rested there on the banks of the stream, the old Maori
chiefs with me would diligently use their tomahawks and wooden spades in
clearing away the coarse grass and low bushes growing on it in its more
salient parts, so as to keep its outline tolerably clear, reminding me of what
has been said of the periodical scouring in the Vale of the White Horse.
The natural vegetation of the place was well suited for the purpose of pre-
serving it, being mostly composed of our (Hawke Bay) common carpet or
mat grass (Microlena stipoides) and a low-growing Muhlenbeckia (M.
axillaris )*, but in those days no foot of man trod on it, and of beasts there
were none !
This curious earth-work was called Te Ika-a-Rangitauira, that is, that
that Saurian outline was made or formed by a chief whose name was
Rangitauira. He was an ancestor of the chief Karaitiana (M.H.R.), and
of several other chiefs and sub-tribes now living here in Hawke Bay ; he
lived nineteen generations back ; one of his residences was a large pa called
Te Mingi, on the Tutaekuri river. He formed this design, or earth-work
(which originally consisted of three Saurian outlines) in remembrance of his
having returned from that spot with his fighting party. They had left their
own pa to attack another on the east side of the Tukituki river, but being
here overtaken by daylight abandoned their design. First, however, forming
and leaving there those three monsters, to indicate to the people of the pa
they had set out to attack, how they had intended to serve (i.e. devour)
them. This chief subsequently met with his death in returning from the
Patea country in the interior, through being overtaken by a violent snow-
storm, and taking refuge in a cave called Te Reporoa (on the lower passes of
the Ruahine mountain range) where he and those with him miserably
perished in the snow ! His younger brother, who persevered and kept on
his journey, escaped. Consequently for many years this chief's huge earth-
work was attended to and kept clear of coarse weeds by his descendants in
commemoration of him.
I now proceed to give you some of those old legendary tales, for which
I have been preparing the way, premising that these are all fair translations
from the original Maori as I received them, and without any addition. Like
most translations, however, they lose much of their striking original
character and beauty iu attempting to clothe them in a foreign dress.
* It was here that I discovered that pretty little and very scarce plant, Stackhousia
minima.
CoLenso.—0On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 87
§ 2.—Tales.
THE Srory or tHE Destruction or MowsrERS.
1. The Slaying of Hotupuku.
Here is the tale of the valiant deeds of certain men of old, the ancestors of
the chiefs of Rotorua. Their names were Purahokura, Reretai, Rongohaua,
Rongohape, and Pitaka; they were all the children of one father, whose
name was Tamaihutoroa. As they grew up to manhood they heard of
several persons who had been killed in journeying over the roads leading by
Tauhunui and Tuporo, and Tikitapu,—all places of that district.
People of Rotorua who had travelled to Taupo, or who went into the
hill country to meet their relations, were never again heard of; while the
folks of the villages who were expecting them were thinking all manner of
things about their long absence, concluding that they were still at their
respective places of abode; but, as it afterwards turned out, they were all
dead in the wilderness !
At last a party left Taupo on a visit to Rotorua, to travel thither by
those same roads where those former travelling parties had been consumed.
Their friends at Taupo thought that they had arrived at Rotorua, and were
prolonging their stay there; but no, they, too, were all dead, lying in heaps
in that very place in the wilderness!
Afterwards another travelling party started from Rotorua to Taupo; this
party went by the lakes Tarawera and Rotomahana, and they all arrived
safe at Taupo. On their arrival there many questions were asked on both
sides respecting the people of Taupo who had gone to Rotorua, but nothing
whatever could be learned of them. On hearing this the people of Taupo
earnestly enquired of the newly-arrived party from Rotorua, by what road
they came? They replied, ** We came by the open plain of Kaingaroa, by
the road to Tauhunui.” Then it was that the people of Taupo and the
party from Rotorua put their heads together, and talked, and deeply con-
sidered, and said, ** Surely those missing travellers must have fallen in with
& marauding party of the enemy, for we all well know they have no kins-
folk in those parts." Upon this the Taupo people determined on revenge,
and so they proceeded to get together an army for that purpose, visiting
the several villages of Taupo to arouse the people. All being ready, they
commenced their march. They travelled all day, and slept at night by the
road-side; and the next morning, at daylight, they crossed the river
Waikato. Then they travelled on over the open plain of Kaingaroa until
they came to a place called Kapenga, where dwelt a noxious monster, whose
name was Hotupuku. When that monster smelt the odour of men, which
had been wafted towards him from the army by the wind, it came out of
its cave, At this time the band of men were travelling onwards in the
88 Transactions.— Miscellaneous.
direction of that cave, but were unseen by that monster; while that monster
was also coming on towards them unseen by the party. Suddenly, however,
the men looked up, and, lo! the monster was close upon them; on which,
they immediately retreated in confusion. In appearance, it was like a
moving hill of earth! Then the fear-awakening cry was heard, ‘ Who is
straggling behind? Look out, there! A monster, a monster, is coming
upon you!” Then the whole army fled in all directions in dire dismay and
confusion at seeing the dreadful spines and spear-like crest of the creature,
all moving and brandishing in anger, resembling the gathering together of
the spines, and spears, and spiny crests, and ridges of the dreadful marine
monsters of the ocean. In the utter rout of the army, they fell foul of
each other through fear, but, owing to their number, some escaped alive,
though some were wounded and died. Then, alas! it was surely known
that it was this evil monster which had completely destroyed all the people
who had formerly travelled by this way.
The news of this was soon carried to all parts of the Rotorua district, and
the brave warriors of the several tribes heard of it. They soon assembled
together, 170 all told, took up their arms, and marched even until they came
to Kapenga in the plain, and there they pitched their camp. Immediately
they set to work, some to pull the leaves of the cabbage-tree (Cordyline
australis), others to twist them into ropes; then it was that all the various
arts of rope-making were seen and developed !—the round rope, the flat
rope, the double-twisted rope, the three-strand rope, and the four-sided
rope* ; at last the rope-making was ended.
Then the several chiefs arose to make orations and speeches, encouraging
each other to be brave, to go carefully to work, to be on the alert, and to be
circumspect, and so to perform all the duties of the warrior. All this they
did according to the old and established custom when going to fight the
enemy.
One in particular of those chiefs said—Listen to me, let us go gently to
work; let us not go too near to the monster, but stay at a distance from it,
and when we perceive the wind blowing towards us over it, then we will get
up closer, for if the wind should blow from us to the monster, and it smells
us, it will suddenly rush out of its cave, and our work and schemes will be
all upset.” To this advice the chiefs all assented, and then the men were
all properly arranged for each and every side of the big rope snare they had
contrived and made, so that they might all be ready to pull and haul away
on the ropes when the proper time should come.
* This was still the custom in late years; their strongest common ropes were made
from the leaves of the cabbage-tree, after steeping them in water, and a strong and very
peculiar kind of 4-sided rope was made by them of it, I have had such made for me,
but I almost fear the art is lost. Flax (or Phormium) leaves would not be suitable,
CoLenso.—0On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 89
Then they told off a certain number to go to the entrance of the cave
where the monster dwelt, while others were well armed with hard-wood
digging spades* and clubs, with long spears, and rib-bones of whales, and
with short wooden cleavers or halberts. Last of all, they carefully placed
and laid their ropes and nooses, so that the monster should be completely
taken and snared in them ; and then, when all was ready, the men who had
been appointed to go up to the mouth of the cave to entice and provoke the
creature to come forth, went forwards ; but, lo! before they had got near to
the cave, the monster had already smelt the odour of men. ;
Then it arose within its cave. And the men who had gone forth to
provoke it heard the rumbling of its awful tread within the cave, resembling
the grating noise of thunder. Notwithstanding, they courageously enticed
it forwards by exposing themselves to danger and running towards it, that
it might come well away from its cave ; and when the monster saw the food
for its maw by which it lived, it came forth from its den ramping with joy.
Now this monster had come fearlessly on with open mouth, and with its
tongue darting forth after those men ; but in the meanwhile they had them-
selves entered into the snares of ropes, and had passed on and through
them, and were now got beyond the set snares—the ropes, and nooses, and
snares, all lying in their proper positions on the level ground.
At this time those men were all standing around below when the huge
head of the beast appeared on the top of the little hill, and the other men
were also ascending that hill and closing in gradually all around ; the
monster lowered his head awhile and then came on, and then the men, the
little party of provokers, moved further away on to the top of another
hillock, and the monster following them entered the snares! At this the
men on that little hill stood still, then the monster moved on further and
further towards them, climbing up that ascent also, so that when its head
appeared on the top of that second hillock its fore legs were also within the
set loops of the big snare.
Then it was that the simultaneous cry arose from the party who were
standing on the top of the little hill watching intently, “Good! capital!
it has entered! it is enclosed! pull! haul away!” And that other party,
who were all holding on to the several ropes, anxiously waiting for the
word of command, hearing this, pulled away heartily. And, lo! it came to
pass exactly as they all had planned and wished for—the monster was
caught fast in the very middle of its belly.
* This implement (called a ko) might be just as well termed a lance, or pick; it was
narrow, pointed, and 6-7 feet long, and used for digging fern-root, &e., and ag
here, as an offensive weapon,
90 Transactions.— Miscellaneous.
Now it began to lash about furiously with its tail, feeling more and more
the pain arising from the severe constriction of its stomach by the ropes.
Then the bearers of arms leaped forth. A wonderful sight! The
monster’s tail was vigorously assaulted by them ; they stabbed it over and
over with their hardwood digging picks and their long spears, and pounded
it with their clubs, so that even its head felt the great amount of pain
inflicted on its tail, together with that arising from the severe constriction of
the ropes on its softer parts. Now the monster began to rear and to knock
about dreadfully with its head; on seeing this, the enticing band of pro-
vokers, who had still kept their position in front, again began to entice it to
make straight forward after them, by going up close to it and then running
away from it, when, on its attempting to stretch out after them, they suddenly
faced about in a twinkling, and began to play away upon the monster’s head
with very good effect. Oh! it was truly wonderful to behold!
By this time, too, the party of rope-pullers had succeeded in making fast
all their ropes to the several posts they had fixed in the earth all round
about for that purpose; this done, they also seized their weapons and
rushed forward to assist their comrades in beating the monster’s head—
` this being now the part of it which reared and knocked about the most
violently. Now, the assault on its head was carried on alternately by those
men, combined with the others who began it, and who for that purpose
divided themselves into two parties, when one party rushed forward and
delivered their blows, and the hideous head was turned towards them, and
they fell back a bit, the other band came on on the other side and delivered
their battery, either party always beating in the same place. After a while
the monster became less vigorous, although it still raged, for its whole body
was fast becoming one vast mass of bruises through the incessant and
hearty beating it was receiving.
Still the fight was prolonged ; prodigies of strength and valour, ability,
and nimbleness were shown that day by that valiant band of 170, whose
repeated blows were rained upon the monster. At last the monster yielded
quietly, and there it lay extended at full length on the ground, stretched
out like an immense white larva* of the rotten white pine wood, quite dead.
By this time it was quite dark ; indeed, night. So they left it until the
morning. When the sun appeared they all arose to cut up this big fish.t
There it lay, dead! Looking at it as it lay extended, it resembled a very
* The word is huhu. I suppose this large grub has been selected for a comparison
owing to its dying helplessly extended, and its plump, fat appearance.
+ I have translated this word (ika), wherever it occurs in the story, by “fish,” this
being one of its principal meanings; but it would carry a very different one to a New
Zealander, Here it would be just synonymous with whale, or large marine animal,
ies eee eR STR meetin ee
(RECTO SRS Tea Pe IIR S T UON ee ee Ree ENSE MEN M
e EE DA
CorzNs0,— On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race, 91
large whale,* but its general form or appearance was that of the great
lizard,t with rigid spiny crest, while the head, the legs, feet, and claws, the
tail, the scales, the skin, and the general spiny ridges, all these resembled
those of the more common lizards (tuatara). Its size was that of the sperm
whale (paraoa).
Then this man-devouring monster was closely looked at and examined
for the first time—the wretch, the monster, that had destroyed so many
persons, so many bands of armed men and travelling parties! Long, `
indeed, was the gazing; great was the astonishment expressed. At last,
one of the many chiefs said, “ Let us throw off our clothing, and all hands
turn to cut up this fish, that we may also see its stomach, which has
swallowed so many of the children of men.1
Then they began to cut it open, using obsidian and pitch-stone knives,
and saws for cutting up flesh made of sharks' teeth, and the shells of sea
and of fresh-water mussels (Unio). On the outside, beneath its skin, were
enormous layers of belly fat (suet), thick and in many folds. Cutting still
deeper into its great stomach or maw, there was an amazing sight. Lying
in heaps were the whole bodies of men, of women, and of children! Some
other bodies were severed in the middle, while some had their heads off, and
some their arms, and some their legs; no doubt occasioned through the
working of the monster’s jaws and the forcible muscular action of its
enormous throat in swallowing, when the strong blasts of its breath were
emitted from its capacious and cavernous belly.
And with them were also swallowed all that appertained to them—their
greenstone war-clubs, their short-knobbed clubs of hardwood, their weapons
of whales’ ribs both long and short, their travelling staves of rank, their
halbert-shaped weapons, their staffs and spears—there they all were within
the bowels of the monster, as if the place was a regular stored armoury of
war. Here, also, were found their various ornaments of greenstone for
both neck and ears, and sharks’ teeth, too, in abundance (mako). Besides
all those there were a great variety of garments found in its maw: fine
bordered flax-mats; thick impervious war-mats, some with ornamented
borders ; chiefs’ woven garments made of dogs’ tails, of albatross feathers,
of kiwi feathers, of red (parrot) feathers, and of seals’ skin, and of white
dogs’ skin; also, white, black, and chequered mats made of woven flax, and
garments of undressed flax (Phormium), and the long-leaved kahakaha
(Astelia, species), and of many other kinds.
* Nui tohora.
; Tuatete, the angry, frightful lizard, now extinct. ^
1 Uri-o-Tiki: literally, descendants of Tiki: Tiki n in their teres i the
wa or progenitor of man.
92 Transactions.—Miscellaneous,
All the dead bodies, and parts of bodies, the conquerors scooped out and
threw into a heap, and buried in a pit which they dug there. And that
work over they proceeded to cut up the fish into pieces; and when they had
examined its fat and suet, they expressed its oil by clarifying it with heat,
which was eaten by the tribe; and so they devoured and consumed in their
own stomachs their implacable foe. This done, they all returned to Rotorua
and dwelt there,
2. The Killing of Pekehaua.
After the destruction of the monster Hotupuku, the fame of that exploit
was heard by all the many tribes of the district of Rotorua. Then a
messenger was sent to those heroes by Hororita, or by some other chief, to
inform them that another man-eating monster dwelt at a place called
Te Awahou, and that the existence of this monster was known, just as in
the former case of the one that dwelt in the plain at Kaingaroa. The
travelling companies of the districts of Waikato and of Patetere were never
heard of; and so the travelling companies of the Rotorua district, which
left for Waikato, were also somehow lost, being never again heard of. When
the people of Rotorua heard this news, those same 170 heroes arose, from
out of many warriors, and set forth for Te Awahou. Arriving there, they
sought for information, and gained all they could. Then they asked,
“ Where does this monster dwell?" The people of the place replied, “ It
dwells in the water, or it dwells on the dry land, who should certainly
know ; according to our supposition, no doubt it is much like that one which
was killed."
Hearing this, they went to the woods, and brought thence a large
quantity of supplejacks (Rhipogonum scandens), with which to make water-
traps of basket-work. Those they interlaced, and bound firmly together
with a strong trailing plant (MuAlenbeckia complexa), so that when they were
finished the traps consisted of two or even three layers of canes or supple-
jacks. "Then they twisted ropes wherewith to set and fix the water-traps, in
order to snare the monster, and these were all done. Then they made
similar plans and arrangements for themselves, as on the former occasion
when the first one was killed. All being ready, the band of heroes set out,
reciting their forms of spell, or charms, as they went along; those were of
various kinds and potencies, but all having one tendency, to enable them to
overcome the monster. Onwards they went, and after travelling some
distance, they neared the place, or water-hole, where it was said the monster
lived; the name of that deep pool is Te Warouri (1.e., the Black Chasm).
They travelled on until they gained the high edge of the river's side, where
they again recited their charms and spells, whieh done, the 170 proceeded
to encamp on that very spot.
Corzs80,—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race, 98
Then they diligently sought out among themselves a fearless and
courageous man, when a chief named Pikata presented himself and was
selected. He seized the water-trap, which was decorated on the top and
sides and below with bunches of pigeons’ feathers; the ropes, also, were all
fastened around the trap, to which stones were also made fast all round it,
to make it heavy and to act as an anchor and to keep it steady; and, having
seized it, he plunged into the water with his companions, when they boldiy
dived down into the spring which gushed up with a roaring noise from
beneath the earth. While these were diving below the others above were
diligently employed in performing their several works, viz., of reciting
powerful charms and spells,* of which they uttered all they knew of various
kinds and powers, for the purpose of overcoming the monster.
Now it came to pass that, when the spines and spear-like crest of the
monster had become soft and flaccid, through the power of those spells and
charms, for they had been all erect and alive in full expectation of a
rare cannibal feast, Pitaka and his chosen companions descended to the
very bottom of the chasm; there they found the monster dwelling in its
own nice home; then the brave Pitaka went forwards, quite up to it, coax-
ing and enticing, and bound the rope firmly around the monster ; which
having done, lo! in a twinkling, he (Pitaka) had clean escaped behind it!
Then his companions pulled the rope, and those at the top knew the sign,
and hauled away, and drew up to the top their companions, together with
the monster, so that they all came up at one time. Nevertheless, those
above had also recited all manner of charms for the purposes of raising,
lifting, and upbearing of heavy weights, otherwise they could not have
hauled them all up, owing to their very great weight.
For a while, however, they were all below; then they came upwards by
degrees, and at last they floated all together on the surface. Ere long they
had dragged the monster on shore on to the dry land, where it lay extended;
then they hastened to hit and beat with their clubs the jaws of this immense
fish. Now this monster had the nearer resemblance to a fish, because it
had its habitation in the water.
* Upwards of ten kinds of spells are here, and in other parts of these stories, parti-
cularly mentioned by name ; but as we have nothing synonymous in English, their names
cannot be well translated, and it would take as many pages of MS. to explain them.
Among them were spells causing weariness to the foe, spells for the T g of taniwhas
(monsters), spells for the warding off attack, and for the protection of the m
enemy; spells for causing bravery, for returning like-for-like in attack, for np feet
from ground, for making powerless, ete., etc., all more or less curious, but mostly very
simple in terms. Of spells and charms, exorcisms and incantations—for good or for ill-
luck, for blessing and cursing—the ancient New Zealander possessed hundreds, ingeniously
contrived for almost every purpose ; few, however, if any, of them could be termed prayers,
Such form a bulky history of themselves.
94 Transactions,—Miscellaneous,
So then went forth the loud pealing call to all the towns and villages of
the Rotorua district. And the tribes assembled on the spot to look at and
examine their implacable foe. There it lay dragged on to the dry land on
the river’s side, in appearance very much like a big, common whale. Yet
it was not exactly like a full-grown old whale ; it was more, in bulk, as the
calf of a big whale as it there lay.
They then commenced cutting-up that fish as food for themselves; on
laying its huge belly wide open there, everything was seen at one dias all
in confusion, as if it were the centre of a dense forest.* For, going down-
wards into its vast stomach, there lay the dead, just as if it were an old
bone-cave with piles of skeletons and bones—bones of those it had swallowed
in former days. Yes, swallowed down with all their garments about them,
women and children and men! There was to be seen the enormous heap
of clothing of all kinds; chiefs’ mats of dogs’ tails and of dogs’ skins—white,
black, and chequered—with the beautiful woven flax-mats adorned with
ornamental borders, and garments of all kinds. There were also arms and
implements of all kindst; clubs, spears, staves, thin hardwood chopping
knives, white whalebone clubs, carved staffs of rank, and many others,
including even darts and barbed spears, which the monster had carried off
with its food. There these arms and implements all were, as if the place
were a store-house of weapons or an armoury !
Then they proceeded to roast and to broil, and to set aside of its flesh and
fat in large preserving calabashes, for food and for oil ; and so they devoured
their deadly enemy all within their own stomachs; but all the dead they
buried in a pit.
Then every one of those valiant warriors returned to their own homes.
The name of that village, where they were for a while encamped, was
Mangungu (i.e., broken bones).
So much for thy victorious work! O thou all-devouring throat of man,
that thou shouldest even seek to eat and to hunt after the flesh of monsters
as food for thee !
3. The Killing of Kataore.
When the fame of those victors who had killed the monster Pekehaua
reached the various towns and villages of Tarawera, of Rotokakahi, and
of Okataina, the people there were filled with wonder at the bravery of those
men who had essayed to destroy that terrible and malicious man-devourer.
Then they began to think, very likely there is also a monster in the road
to Tikitapu, because the travelling companies going by that place to Rotorua
* The words are: “ Koteriu o Tane-Mahuta ;" lit., the hollow stomach, or centre of
Tane-Mahuta—i.e., the god of forests; Tane-Mahuta being the god of forests.
1 Ten kinds are here enumerated, all of hardwood and hard white whale's-bone.
CoLenso.—0On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 95
are never once heard of; their relations are continually enquiring, ““ Have
they arrived at the place to which they went?” but there is no response ;
therefore they are dead. Hence it follows that the sad thought arises
within, were they killed by some monster? or, by some travelling man like
themselves? or, by some armed marauding party of the enemy ?
But the chief of Tikitapu and of Okareka, whose name was Tangaroa-
mihi, knew very well all along that there was a monstrous beast at Tikitapu,
although he did not know that the beast there residing ate up men; the
chief always believed that it dwelt quietly, for it assumed the very air of
peace and quietness whenever the chief and his men went to the spot where
it dwelt to give it food; and that beast also knew very well all its feeders, and
all those who used it tenderly and kindly. Nevertheless, when they had
returned from feeding it to their village, and any other persons appeared
there going by that way, then that monster came down and pursued those
persons and devoured them as food.
Now the manner of acting of this ugly beast was very much like that of
a (bad) dog which has to be tied to a stick (or clog). For its knowledge of
its own masters was great; whenever its master, Tangaroamihi, went there
to see it, its demeanour was wholly quiet and tractable, but when people
belonging to another and strange tribe went along by that road, then it arose
to bark and growl at them; so that, what with the loud and fearful noise of
its mouth, and the sharp rattlings of its rings and leg-circlets, great fear
came upon them, and then he fell on them and ate them up.
Now when the multitude everywhere heard of the great valour of those
men, the tribes all greatly extolled them, and wondered exceedingly at the
prodigious powers of those four chiefs.
Then it was that the chiefs of Rotokakahi, of Tarawera, of Okataina,
and of Rotorua began to understand the matter, and to say, “Oh! there is
perhaps a monster also dwelling in the road to Tikitapu, because the travel-
ling parties going from those parts to Rotorua, as well as those coming from
Rotorua to these five lakes, are never heard of.” For when the travellers
went to Rotorua by the road of Okareka they safely arrived thither; and
so when they returned by that same way of Okareka they reached their
homes in safety ;—but if the travellers went from Tarawera to Rotorua by
the road of Tikitapu, they never reached Rotorua at all; somehow they
always got lost by that road.
And so again it was with the people from Rotokakahi, travelling thence
to Rotorua; if they went by the road leading by Pareuru, they safely
arrived at Rotorua, and also in returning from Rotorua; if they came back
by that same road, they reached their villages at Rotokakahi in safety ;
somehow, there was something or other in that road by Tikitapu which
96 : Transactions.— Miscellaneous.
caused men’s hearts to dislike greatly that way, because those who travelled
by it were lost and never heard of.
Therefore, the hearts of those who remained alive began to stir within
them, so that some even went as far as to say—‘‘ Perhaps that chief
Tangaroamihi has killed and destroyed both the travelling parties and the
armed parties who travelled by the way of Tikitapu." But that chief
Tangaroamihi had shown his hospitality and expressed his kindly feeling to
the enquirers who went to his town to seek after those who were missing.
Now, however, when the suffering people heard of the exceeding great
valour of those four chiefs in their slaying of monsters, then they con-
sidered how best to fetch them to come and to have a look at Tikitapu.
So their messenger was sent to those brave heroes, and when they heard
from him the message, they all bestirred themselves, that same 170, for they
were greatly delighted to hear of more work for them in the line of slaying
monsters. So they immediately commenced preparations for their journey
to Tikitapu, some in pounding fernroot, some in digging-up convolvulus
roots, some in taking whitebait (Galawias attenuatus), and some in dredging
freshwater mussels, all to be used as food on their journey to Taiapu, to the
mount at Moerangi, for Moerangi was the place where that noxious beast
called Kataore dwelt.
In the morning, at break of day, they arose and started, taking their
first meal far away on the great plain, at a nice kind of stopping-place.
When they had scarcely finished their meal they commenced conversation
with the usual talk of warriors on an expedition ; for at this time they did
not exactly know whether it was really by a monster, or by the people who
dwelt thereabouts, that all those who had travelled by that road, whether
armed parties or whether singly, had been destroyed.
When this armed party took their journey, they also brought away with
them the necessary ropes and such things, which had been previously made
and got ready. They knew that such (as they had heard) was the evil
state of all the roads and ways of that place, therefore they sat awhile and
considered, knowing very well the work they had in hand.
However, when the eating and talking were ended, they again arose and
recommenced their march. They entered the forest and traversed it,
quitting it on the other side. Then the priests went before the party to
scatter abroad their spells and charms, that is to say, their Maori
recitations. But they acted just the same on this as on former occasions
already related.
They recited all the charms and spells they had used against both
Hotopuku* and Pekehaua, going on and reciting as they went; at last
* Though not once mentioned or alluded to in that story.
Corzxso.—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 97
they made up their minds to halt, so they sat down. Then it was that the
people in the villages, under the chief Tangaroamihi, gazed watchfully
upon that armed party there encamped, thinking it was a party of their
enemies coming to fight and to kill; but in this they were deceived, it being
altogether a different party.
A long time the party remained there, watching and waiting, but
nothing came. At last one of the chiefs got up and said—“ Where-
abouts does this noxious beast that destroys men dwell?" Then another of
those chiefs replied —* Who knows where, in the water, or in the stony cliff
that overhangs yonder ?" On this they set to work, and closely examined
that lake; but alas! the monster was not to be found there ; nevertheless,
the appearance of that water was of a forbidding fearful character, that is |
io say, the fear was caused by the peculiar glitter of the water, as if
strangely and darkly shaded, having the appearance of the water whence
the greenstone is obtained. But notwithstanding all that, they could not
detect any kind of chasm or deep dark hole in all that lake, like the hole in
which Pekehaua was found.
Then certain of the chiefs said to the priests, ** Begin, go to work; select
some of your potent charms and spells." So those were chosen and used;
the priests recited their charms, causing stinging like nettles, and their
charms of stitching together, so that the bubbles might speedily arise to the
surface of the lake, if so be that the monster they sought was there in the
water. At this time one of the priests arose, upon the word spoken forth
by one of the chiefs of the party, and said, ** It is all to no purpose; nota
single burst, or rising, or bubble has arisen in the water of Tikitapu.”
Then they turned their attention upwards to the stony cliff which stood
before them ; when, before they had quite finished their spell, causing nettle-
stinging, and were reciting their lifting and raising charms, a voice was
heard roaring downwards from the overhanging precipice at Moerangi, as if
it were the creaking of trees in the forest when violently agitated by the
gale; then they knew and said, * Alas! the monster's home is in the cave
in the stony cliff."
Upon this the whole body of 170 arose and stood ready for action; for
glad they also were that they had found food for their inner man. In their
uprising, however, they were not forgetful, for they immediately commenced
reciting their powerful charms and spells ; all were used, of each and every
kind—none were left unsaid; the several priests made use of all,* that
being their peculiar work.
They now set to work, and soon they got near to the entrance of the
* Seven or eight kinds of charms and spells are here also particularized, and then
the remainder given in a lump.
I
98 Transactions.— Miscellaneous.
cave in the rock where this noxious cannibal beast dwelt. At last they got
up to the cave, where the whole band quietly arranged themselves, and
took a long time to consider how to act. At length the valiant, fearless
men arose—men who had already bound monsters fast
and, seizing the
ropes, went forward into the cave. There they saw that noxious beast
sitting, and staring full at them; but, oh! such fearful eyes! Who can
describe them ? In appearance like the full moon rising up over the
distant dark mountain range; and when gazed at by the band, those
hideous eyes glared forth upon them like strong daylight suddenly flashing
into the dark recesses of the forest. And, anon, lo! they were in colour
as if clear shining greenstone were gleaming and scintillating in the midst
of the black eye-balls! But that was really all that gave rise to the
appearance of fear, because the creature’s spines and crest of living spears
had become quite flaccid and powerless, through the potent operations of
the many weakening spells which had been used by those numerous
warriors, that is to say, priests.
Then they managed to put forth their hands stealthily over its huge
head, gently stroking it at the same time. At length the rope was got
round the monster’s neck and made secure; another rope was also slided
further on below its fore-legs, and that was firmly fixed; twice did those
brave men carry ropes into the cave. Having done all this they came out
to their friends, those of the 170 warriors who had been anxiously waiting
their return, and who, when they saw them emerge, enquired, “ Are your
ropes made fast?” They replied, “ Yes; the ropes are fastened to the
monster; one round the neck and one round the middle.” Then the
enquiry arose, ** How shall the dragging of it forth from its cave, and its
destruction, be accomplished ?" "When some of the chiefs replied, ‘ Let us
carry the ropes outside of the trees which grow around, so that, when the
monster begins to lash and bound about, we shall be the better able to
make them fast to their trunks." Then others said, “All that is very
good, but how shall we manage to kill it?" Some replied, ** Why should
we trouble ourselves about killing it? Is it not so fastened with ropes that it
cannot get away? Just leave it to itself; its own great strength will cause
it to jump violently about, and jerk, and knock, and beat itself; after that,
we having made the ropes fast to the trees, the destroyers can easily run in
on it and kill it; or, if not, let us just leave it alone to strangle itself in the
ropes." So all this was carried out by those 170 brave warriors.
Then the several men having been all properly placed, so as to hold and
handle and drag the ropes effectually; the word of command was given,
* Haul away !" and then they all hauled with a will! But, wonderful to
behold, entirely owing to the cave being in the face of the perpendicular
"ir RM eiae d NUR ehe et tem
Cotenso,—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 99
cliff, almost simultaneously with the first pull, lo! the monster was already
ontside of the entrance to the cave. But then, in so saying, the potent
work of the priests in reciting their raising and uplifting charms must be
also included in the cause of the easy accomplishment. The moment that
the monster’s great tail was outside clear of the cave, then its head began
to rear and toss and plunge, frightful to behold! On seeing this, they
loosened a little the rope that held it by its middle; when, lo! its head was
close to the trees, against which it began to lean, while it knocked about
its tail prodigiously. The men, however, were on the watch, and soon the
two ropes were hauled tightly up around the trees, notwithstanding the
jerkings and writhings of its huge tail. There, at last, it was, lashed fast
close to the trees, so that it could only wriggle a little that is to say its
tail.
Then the armed men came on; they banged and beat and clubbed away
at the monster, which now lay like a rat caught in the snare of a trap; and
it was not long before it was quite dead, partly through the blows and
bruises, and partly through the ropes ; and so it came to pass that it was
killed.
The fame of this great exploit was soon carried to all those tribes who
had fetched and sent Purahokura on his errand to Tikitapu. Then they
assembled at the place, and saw with astonishment their deadly foe lying
on the ground, just like a stranded whale on the sea-shore, even so this
noxious monster now lay extended before them. Then arose the mighty
shout of derision from all both great and small, the noise was truly deafen-
ing, loud sounding, like that arising from the meeting together of the strong
currents of many waters !
Early the next morning the people arose to their work to cut up their
fish ; then was to be seen with admiration the dexterous use of the various
sharp-cutting instruments—of the saw made of sharks’ teeth, of the sea
mussel-shells, of the sharp pitch-stone knives, of the freshwater mussel-
shells, and of the flints. Truly wonderful it was to behold, such loads of
fat! such thick collops! This was owing to the cannibal monster con-
tinually devouring men for its common food at all times and seasons; it
never knew a time of want or a season of scarcity ; it never had any winter,
it was always a jolly harvest time with it! How, indeed, should it have
been otherwise ? when the companies of travellers from this place and from
that place were continually passing and repassing to and fro; therefore it
came to pass that its huge maw was satiated with food—not including the
food given to it by its master Tangaroamihi—and therefore it came to be so
very fat. :
So the big fish was eut up. As they went on with their work, and got ve
100 ; Transactions,—Miscellancous,
at length into its stomach, there the cannibal food which it had devoured
was seen! there it lay—women, children, men—with their garments and
their weapons. Some were found chopped in two, both men and weapons;
no doubt through the action of its terrible lips in seizing them! others were
swallowed whole, very likely through its capacious mouth being kept open,
when the strong internal blasts from its great gullet drew down the men
into its stomach! For you must also know, that this cave is situated near
to the water, so that whenever a party came by water paddling in their
canoe to Tikitapu, and the canoe came on to the landing place, this monster,
Kataore, seeing this, came out of its cave, and, jumping into the water,
took the canoe with the men in it into its stomach, so that both men and
canoe were devoured instantaneously !
The victors worked away until they had taken everything out of its big
maw, both the goods (of clothing and instruments as before) and the
deal; the dead they buried in a pit. Then they finished cutting up that
big fish; some of it they roasted and broiled; and some they rendered down
in its own fat, and preserved in calabashes; and so it came to pass that it
was all eaten up, as good food for the stomach of man.
But when the news of this killing was carried to the chief Tangaroamihi,
to whom this pet Saurian belonged, and he heard it said to him,—‘‘ What
is this they have done; thy pet has been killed?" The chief enquired, “By
whom?" and they answered, “By the tribe of Tama" (Ngatitama). On
hearing this the heart of Tangaroumihi became overeast with gloom, on
account of his dear pet which had been killed; and this deed of theirs was
& cause of enmity and war between Tangaroamihi and those who had
destroyed his pet; and it remained and grew to be a root of evil for all the
tribes. Thus the story ends.
It should be briefly noticed, in conclusion, that the name of this chief
(Tangaroamihi), is one highly suited to the event; or it may have been given
to him at an earlier date, through his having a pet reptile. Tangaroa is
the name of the god, or ereator or father and ruler, of all fishes and reptiles;
(though Punga is sometimes spoken of as a god possessing similar powers,
but perhaps over only a certain natural section of those animals;*) and mihi
means, to show affection for, or to lament and sigh over, any one,—present
or absent, living or dead ;—so that Tangaroamihi might mean, (1) that this
chief lamented over the death of one of Tangaroa's family, or tribe; or (2)
that he ever liked and showed great affection towards one of them.
* Vide the beginning of the following fable, —“ The Shark and the large Lizard,” and
ihe note there,
Conengo.—0On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race, 101
$ 8.-— Fables,
l.— The Fable of the Shark and the Large Lizard—(Guana).
In days of yore the large lizard and the shark lived together in the sea,
for they were brothers, both being of the children of Punga.* The lizard
was the elder and the shark the younger. After some time they fell out, and
as the quarrel was great and protracted, the lizard, vexed at the conduct of
his younger brother, determined to leave off dwelling in the sea, and to
reside on the dry land, so he left the water.t But just as he had got on the
Shore, his brother the shark swam up to where he was on a rock, and
wished him to return, saying—“ Let you and I go out to sea, to the deep
. water.” The lizard replied, with a bitter curse, saying—‘ Go thou to the
sea, that thou mayst become a relish of fish for the basket of cooked roots. t
On this, the shark retorted with another curse, saying—“ Go thou on shore
that thou mayst be smothered with the smoke of the fire of green fern.” ||
Then the lizard replied, with a laugh, “ Indeed, I will go on shore, away up
to the dry land, where I shall be looked upon as the personification of the
demon-god Tu,§ with my spines and ridgy crest causing fear and affright,
so that all will gladly get out of my way, hurrah !”
.2. The Battle of the Birds.—(A Fable of the Olden Time.)
In ancient days, two shags met on the seaside. One was a salt-water
bird and the other was a fresh-water bird; nevertheless, they were both
shags, living alike on fish which they caught in the water, although they
differed a little in the colour of their feathers. The river-bird, seeing the
sea-bird go into the sea for the purpose of fishing food for itself, did the
* According to the Maori mythology (in which each portion, or kingdom, of Nature
had a different origin or progenitor), Punga was the father, or former, of fishes and
reptiles.
arwin, in his “ Naturalist’s Voyage” (ch xvii.), writing of the large aquatic lizard
Kabir ynchus cristatus), has some curious remarks very applicable here.
t “Roots” is not in the original, which has merely “ kete maoa "—basket of cooked
(food, understood); but the meaning is fernroot, or sweet potatoes. Our common
potatoes were not then known to the New Zealander, otherwise I should have preferred
that word, “Sweet potatoes” (or kumara) — not answer well, as this food was not in
use all the year ronnd; and “ vegetables” islead, as such were never alone cooked
save in times of great scarcity. The allusion is as to the Maori manner of serving-up and
setting food before men, each basket having a bit of fish or flesh, as a savour, placed on
the top.
|| I had often heard of the old mode of capturing this (the edible) lizard, which lived in
holes (burrows) at the foot of trees, and was made to appear by smoking them out ; fori
years ago this animal was still being eaten by an inland tribe named Rangitane, (Vide
ante, extract from Cook, p. 83, and from Nicholas, p. 84.
$ Tu was the name of the New Zealand god of war,
102 Transactions, —Miscellaneous,
same. They both dived repeatedly, seeking food for themselves, for they
were hungry ; indeed, the river-bird dived ten times, and caught nothing,
Then the river-bird said to his companion, ** If it were but my own home,
I should just pop under water and find food directly ; there never could be
a single diving there without finding food.” To which remark his com-
panion simply said, “Just so.” Then the river-bird said to the other,
** Yes, thy home here in the sea is one without any food.” To this insulting
observation the sea-bird made no reply. Then the river-bird said to the
other, * Come along with me to my home; you and I fly together." On
this both birds flew off, and kept flying till they got to a river, where they
dropped. Both dived, and both rose, having each a fish in its bill; then
they dived together ten times, and every time they rose together with a fish
in their bills. This done the sea-bird flew away back to its own home.
Arriving there it immediately sent heralds in all directions to all the birds
of the ocean, to lose no time but to assemble and kill all the fresh-water
birds, and all the birds of the dry land and the forests. The sea-birds
hearing this assented, and were soon gathered together for the fray. In
the meanwhile, the river-birds and the land and forest birds were not idle ;
they also assembled from all quarters, and were preparing to repel their
foes. ;
Ere long the immense army of the sea-birds appeared, sweeping along
grandly from one side of the heavens to the other, making such a terrible
noise with their wings and cries. On their first appearing, the long-tail fly-
catcher (Rhipidura flabellifera) got into a towering passion, being desirous
of spearing the foe, and danced about presenting his spear on all sides,
crying “Ti! t?"* Then the furious charge was made by the sea-birds.
In the first rank came, swooping down with their mighty wings, the
albatross, the gannet, and the big brown gull (ngoiro), with many others
closely following ; indeed, all the birds of the sea. Then they charged
at close quarters, and fought bird with bird. How the blood flowed and
the feathers flew! The river-birds came on in close phalanx, and dashed
bravely right into their foes. They all stood to it for a long time, fighting
desperately. Sucha sight! At last the sea-birds gave way, and fled in
confusion. Then it was that the hawk soared down upon them, pursuing
and killing; and the fleet sparrow-hawk darted in and out among the
fugitives, tearing and ripping; while the owl, who could not fly by day,
encouraged, by hooting derisively, ** Thou art brave! thou art victor!" ;+
and the big parrot screamed, “Remember! remember! Be you ever
remembering your thrashing !"1
* Its faint little note, uttered as it hops, and twirls, and opens its tail.
+ ** Tod koé! toä ko# !" was the owl’s cry, which the words a little resemble. -
i “Kia iro! kia iro koe!” was the cry of the parrot,
Wa
Corzsso.-—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 103.
In that great battle, those two birds, the tiitii (Haladroma urinatriv—
petrel), and the taiko,* were made prisoners by the river-birds; and hence
it is that these two birds always lay their eggs and rear their young in the
woods among the land-birds. The tiitii (petrel) goes to sea, and stays away
there for a whole moon (lunar month), and when she is full of oil, for her
young in the forests, she returns to feed them, which is once every moon.
From this circumstance arose with our ancestors the old adage, which has
come down to us, “He tiitii whangainga tahi;” literally, A tiitii of one
feeding ; meaning, Even as a tiitii bird gets fat though only fed well once
now and then.
Appenpix.— Note to p. 82.
This is an astonishing fact, but it is strietly true, though, I believe,
scarcely known. I, therefore, with great pleasure, give in a note an extract
or two from an interesting letter ** On the Native Songs of New Zealand,"
written nearly twenty-five years ago, by a talented musician and author of
several works on musie (Mr. J. H. Davies, of Trinity College, Cambridge),
which letter was printed as an appendix to one of Sir G. Grey's works
on New Zealand; and though highly worthy of being read and of being
deeply studied—especially by a trained musician—it is, I fear, but very
little known among us.
* Of this bird, the Taiko, I have formerly often heard, particularly at the northern
parts of the North Island, but have never seen one. It is scarcely known here in Hawke
Bay, save by name to a few of the oldest natives. An old chief at Te Wairoa told me
ihat he had known of two which were seen together on the shore of Portland Island
(Hawke Bay), many years ago, one of which was snared and eaten. From another very
old chief I had heard of two having been once cooked in a Maori earth-oven as a
savoury mess for a travelling party of rank; and from his story it would appear as if the
bird could have been easily taken in its habitat, at the will of the lord of the manor;
for, on that travelling party arriving at the pa, one of the chiefs' wives remarked,
* Alas! whatever shall I do for a tit-bit to set before our guests ?' The chief said, “TI
get you some." He then went out and soon returned with two Taikos, which were cooked
and greatly relished. This bird is said to have been large, plump, and fat, and highly
prized for food, and only to be obtained on exposed oceanie headlands and islets. (There
are small rocky islets called by its name, Motutaiko.) Possibly it may be a large species
of petrel or puffin; although, if the imperfect Maori relation is to be depended on, its
beak was more that of an albatross.
+ This proverb would be used by the New Zealanders on various occasions; such
as (1) When chiefs of lower rank would bring a present (annual, perhaps, as of sweet
potatoes [kumara] at harvest-time), to their superior chief: (2) When a travelling party
arrives at a village, and something particularly good, or extra, which perhaps had been
stored up or set by, or just obtained with difficulty or labour, should be given to the
party; on such occasions the proverb might be used. Much like (here) our sayings of,
"We don’t kill a pig every day;” ‘In luck to-day ;” “ Just in time," ke,
d
d
104 Transactions.— Miscellaneous.
First, Mr. Davies writes of * the enharmonie scale of the ancient
Greeks" (which has long been lost, and which, indeed, has been disputed),
that “it consisted of a quarter-tone, a quarter-tone and an interval of two
tones, an interval somewhat greater than our third major;" and that this
long-lost ancient scale has been found to exist among the Arabians, the
Chinese, and the New Zealanders.
* As the highest art is to conceal the art and to imitate nature, that
mighty nation the Greeks, with an art almost peculiarly their own, having
observed these expressions of natural sentiment," stated fully in the pre-
ceding paragraph, * thence deduced certain laws of interval, by which,
while they kept within thelimits of art, they took care not to transgress
those of nature, but judiciously to adopt, and as nearly as possible to define,
with mathematical exactness, those intervals which the uncultured only
approach by the irregular modulation of natural impulses. * * *
Hence, I conceive the reason of the remnant of that scale being found
among most of those nations who have been left to the impulses of a * nature-
taught’ song rather than been cramped by the trammels of a conventional
system—the result of education and of civilization."
“ Plutarch remarks, that the most beautiful of the musical genera is the
enharmonie, on account of its grave and solemn character, and that it was
formerly most in esteem. Aristides Quintilian tells us it was the most diffi-
cult of all, and required a most excellent ear. Aristoxenus observes that it
was so difficult that no one could sing more than two dieses consecutively,
and yet the perceptions of a Greek audienee were fully awake to, and their
judgment could appreciate, a want of exactness in execution."
“ Mr. Lay Tradescant, speaking of the Chinese intervals, says that ‘it
is impossible to obtain the intervals of their scale on our keyed instruments,
but they may be perfectly effected on the violin; * * * and our own
ears attest that, universally, in the modulations of the voice of the so-called
savage tribes, and in the refined and anomalously studied Chinese, there
are intervals which do not correspond to any notes on our keyed instru-
ments, and which to an untrained ear appear almost monotonous."
** Suffice it to say that many Chinese airs, of which I have two, show the
diesie modulation and the saltus combined; but the majority of the New
Zealand airs which I have heard are softer and more ‘ligate,’ and have a
great predominance of the diesic element.”
** One thing, however, is certain, that, as Aristoxenus tell us, no perfect
ear could modulate more than two dieses at a time, and then there was a
* saltus ' or interval of two tones, and as the New Zealand songs frequently
exhibit more than two close intervals together, it is more than probable that
many of these songs are a chromatic,”
Conzxso.—On a better Knowledge of the Maori Race. 105
* In proof that a system of modulation like the above still survives, I
shall produce as nearly as my ear nc discern, the modulation of some of
the New Zealand melodies. *
** [ here beg to state, that though with great care and the assistance of
a graduated monochord, and an instrument divided like the intervals of the
Chinese kin, I have endeavoured to give an idea of those airs of New Zealand
which I heard, yet so difficult is it to discover the exact interval, that I will not
vouch for the mathematical exactness. * * * I must also, in justice to
myself, add, that the singer did not always repeat the musical phrase with
precisely the same modulation, though without a very severe test this would
not have been discernible, nor then to many ears, the general effect being to
an European ear very monotonous. But I may say that, when I sang them
from my notation, they were recognised and approved of by competent
judges, and that the New Zealander himself said, * he should soon make a
singer of me.’ "*
Mr. Davies has also, in his letter, given some of our Maori New Zealand
songs, set by him to music, as examples.
I may here also mention, that one of the earliest scientific visitors to
New Zealand, Dr. Forster, who aecompanied Captain Cook on his second
voyage, has left a statement on record of a similar kind. Here is a short
quotation from it, given, partly on account of the learned German's feeling
and truthful deduction therefrom, and partly because his valuable work is
searcely known in the Colony. (And, to the everlasting honour of the good
Doctor, it is to be further noted, that he does this immediately after relating
several acts of killing and cannibalism perpetrated by the New Zealanders
on Europeans, among which was the very recent one, in which ten seamen
belonging to Captain Cook's expedition were killed, ete., so that Dr. Forster
did not allow his reason to be carried away by his feelings.) He says,—
“The music of the New Zealanders is far superior in variety to that of the
Society and Friendly Islands. * * * The same intelligent friend who
favoured me with a specimen of the songs at Tongatapu, has likewise given
me another of the New Zealand music; and has also assured me that there
appeared to be some display of genius in the New Zealand tunes, which
soared very far above the wretched humming of the Tahitian, or even the
four notes of the people at the Friendly Islands." (Two specimens of their
tunes set to musical notes are then given.) “The same gentleman likewise
took notice of a kind of dirge-like melancholy song, relating to the death of
Tupaea.” (The musical notes of this, with the words, are also given.)
* (Nore.—See “ Polynesian Mythology and Ancient Traditional History of the New
Zealand Race, as furnished by their Priests and aue" Appendix, p. 313. By Sir
George Grey ; Wan London, 1855.—Ep.]
» 3
106 T'ransactions.—Miscellaneous.
“They descend at the close from c to the octave below in a fall, resembling
the sliding of a finger along the finger-board of a violin. I shall now dis-
miss this subject with the following observation,—that the taste for music
of the New Zealanders, and their superiority in this respect to other nations
in the South Seas, are to me stronger proofs in favour of their heart, than
all the idle eloquence of philosophers in their cabinets can invalidate."—
Forster's Voyage, vol. IL., pp. 476-478.
Art. VI.—Onm the Ignorance of the Ancient New Zealander of the Use of
Projectile Weapons. By W. Corzxsso, F.L.S
[Read before the Hawke Bay Philosophical Institute, 9th September, 1878.]
I save read Mr. C. Phillips’ paper “On a peculiar Method of Arrow
Propulsion amongst the Maoris,” * and as Mr. Phillips has referred to a
very brief remark made by me in my essay “On the Maori Races," t and
is evidently unacquainted with the old state of things which obtained in
this country with regard to missiles, I have thought it right to say a few
words on this subject in this paper.
First, however, I would briefly remark, that in my tbc that essay I
appended thereto a quantity of “Notes,” all elucidatory of many of the
statements I had made therein. Somehow those “Notes” were not
printed with the essay—a matter I have greatly deplored, for it was wholly
incomplete without them. Had they been printed with it, then Mr. Phillips
would have found related the cireumstance which gave rise to my remark
quoted by him, of the New Zealanders “throwing fiery-headed darts ata
pa (or fort) when attacking it. " That note I shall give in this paper
further on.
It should be perfectly well known to us all that the first European
visitors to New Zealand found the people utterly without the bow and
arrow, and the sling, and, indeed, the common frequent use of the small
dart or javelin, as an offensive projectile weapon. And all of those early
visitors had ample opportunities of knowing this, for they were often
attacked themselves by the New Zealanders, both on land and on water,
when such missile weapons were never once used.
At the same time it should be observed, that whenever a canoe, or a
body of natives, came up with Cook, whether at sea or on land, and were
for fighting, a single spear was invariably thrown ; this, however, was by
way of challenge /taki), and was in accordance with their national custom ;
just equal to the old European one of throwing down the gage.
This non-use of prepared missiles appeared the more strange to the
Europeans, from the fact _ weapons (slings and darts) srd com-
* Trans, N. Z. Inst., Vol. X. 97. s
+ Trans, N. Z. Inst., a 15 of the essay; "E
CoLenso.—IJgnorance of Ancient New Zealander of Use of Projectiles, 107
monly used as weapons of attack in the South Sea Islands, which Cook and
his companions had but lately left. While the use of the bow and arrow,
for sport, was also known to some of those islanders.
Captain Wallis, who discovered Tahiti in 1767 (two years before Cook’
first visited it and New Zealand), was fiercely attacked by the Tahitians, who
surrounded his ship with “a fleet of more than 800 canoes, carrying 2,000
men.” On that occasion (when Wallis was in danger, and only saved by
his big guns), the islanders commonly used powerful slings, with which
they did some execution even in a ship of war. Captain Wallis says :— -
“ The canoes pulled towards the ship's stern, and began again to throw stones
with great force and dexterity, by the help of slings, from a considerable dis-
tance; each of these stones weighed about 2lbs., and many of them
wounded the people on board, who would have suffered much more if an
awning had not been spread over the whole deck to keep out the sun, and
the hammocks placed in the nettings." Their bows and arrows, however,
they did not use on that occasion during the fight. Further on Captain
Wallis adds :—** Their principal weapons are stones, thrown either with the
hand or sling, and bludgeons; for though they have bows and arrows, the
arrows are only fit to knock down a bird, none of them being pointed, but
headed only with a round stone.”
Sydney Parkinson, who was with Cook on his first voyage, gives a
drawing of the Tahitian sling (Pl. 13, fig. 1), and a description of it, He
says :—“ Their sling is about four feet long, made of plaited twine, formed
from the fibres of the bark of a tree; the part which holds the stone is
woven very close, and looks like oleih, o which the string gradually
tapers to a point.” }
Captain Cook, in 1769, thus speaks of the use of the bow and arrow by
those Tahitians :—“ Their bows and arrows have not been mentioned before,
nor were they often brought down to the fort. This day, however, Tupurahi
Tamaiti brought down his, in consequence of a challenge he had received
from Mr. Gore. The chief supposed it was to try who could send the
arrow farthest; Mr. Gore, who best could hit a mark, and as Mr. Gore did
not value himself upon shooting to a great distance, nor the chief upon
hitting a mark, there was no trial of skill between them. Tupurahi,
however, to show us what he could do, drew his bow and sent an arrow,
none of which are feathered, 274 yards, which is something more than a
seventh and something less than a sixth part of a mile. Their manner of
shooting is somewhat singular ; they kneel down, and ee moment the
arrow is discharged drop the bow.”
* Wallis’ s Voyage; Cook’s Voyages, Vol, L, pp. 444-448, i
t crea 75. $ Cook's Voyages, Vol. IL, p. 147, -
108 Transactions,.—Miscellancous,
And this is what he says respecting the New Zealanders, after having
been some time among them :—“ The perpetual hostility in which these
poor savages live has necessarily caused them to make every village a fort.
* * '* These people have neither sling nor bow. They throw the dart
by hand, and so they do stones; but darts and stones are seldom used
except in defending their forts. * * * Butit is very strange that the
same invention and diligence which have been used in the construction of
places so admirably adapted to defence, almost without tools, should not,
when urged by the same necessity, have furnished them with a single missile
weapon, except the lance, which is thrown by hand; they have no con-
trivance like a bow to discharge a dart, nor anything like a sling to assist
them in throwing a stone, which is the more surprising, as the invention of
slings, and bows and arrows, is much more obvious than of the works
which these people construct, and both these weapons are found among
much ruder nations, and in almost every other part of the world. The
points of their long lances are barbed, and they handle them with such
: trength and agility that we can match them with no weapon but a loaded
musquet.''*
Sydney Parkinson has an excellent remark on this subject (excellent in
more ways than one), which I also quote, in the hope that future writers on
“the whence of the Maori," will take a note of it. He says—“ Something
has already been mentioned respecting the language of the New Zealanders,
and of its affinity with that of the people of Tahiti, which is a very
extraordinary circumstance, and leads us to conclude that one place was
originally peopled from the other, though they are at near 2000 miles
distance, * * * The migration was probably from New Zealand to
Tahiti, as the inhabitants of New Zealand were totally unaequainted with the
use of bows and arrows til we first taught them, whereas the people
of Tahiti use them with great dexterity, having, doubtless, discovered the
use of them by some accident after their separation; and it cannot be sup-
posed that the New Zealanders would have lost so beneficial an acquisition
if they had ever been acquainted with it.”
It must not be overlooked that two Tahitians (Tupaea and his son
Taiota) were with them on this oecasion. Tupaea not only aided the
English considerably as interpreter, but was often facile princeps during the
whole of their long stay among the New Zealanders. So, again, on Cook's
second voyage from Tahiti to New Zealand, he had on board a native of
Porapora (one of the Society Isles), named Mahine, who came on with him
io New Zealand. %
£ Cook's Voyages, Vol. II. p. 815 ; III. 466,
f Parkinson's Journal, p. 75.
CoLenso,—Ignorance of Ancient New Zealander of Use of Projectiles. 109
Dr. Forster, who accompanied Cook on his second voyage round the
world, has given us a full account of the weapons of the people of Tanna, an
island they discovered and spent some time at on their third voyage from
Tahiti to New Zealand. There, at Tanna, not only darts and slings were
used in warfare, but also bows and arrows. And, again, subsequently,
. when at New Caledonia (which island Cook also discovered during that
voyage), Dr. Forster gives another interesting account of the very peculiar
manner in which those natives threw their darts, and, also, their prepared
stones from slings.*
Mr. Nicholas, who was in New Zealand with Mr. Marsden in 1814, and
who spent several months in the country travelling about, and seeing all
that was to be seen, saw no projectile weapon used by the natives save their
common hand spears. And Major Cruise, during his ten months’ residence,
is also equally silent about any missiles used by them in their warfare,
although as a military officer, in command of soldiers, anything of that kind
would be sure to have attracted his notice.
We gather the same from Rutherford's Journal. This witness had
ample opportunities during his long sojourn of ten years among the New
Zealanders, during which time he got fully tattooed and lived wholly á-la-
Maori, in his frequent travellings with the Maoris from place to place in the
interior, and from his having been a witness of several severe and bloody
battles. Curiously enough, Rutherford was at the great battle fought at
Kaipara between the Ngatiwhatua and the Ngapuhi tribes, in which the
savage and murderous chief Hongi was present, commanding the Ngapuhi,
and in which fierce battle Hongi’s son, Hare, was slain, and his head, with
others, carried off in triumph by Rutherford’s Maori party from the East
Coast; that battle was fought in the year 1825. Rutherford is in many
respects a truthful witness, as I have good reasons for saying, having formerly
traced out not a few of his statements. To the above I might add the
uniform testimony of all the first missionaries, who saw quite enough of
bloody work; and of Polack,+ who resided a few years in New Zealand;
* See appendix A for these extracts which I make, as Forster’s Voyage is a scarce
work; and, also, believing they may be of service hereafter.
t Polack says :—“ The weapons employed in the native warfare were not remarkable
for beauty or variety, and are now entirely laid aside. The bow and arrow found among all
savage nations were unknown in the country, where numerous woods exist admirably
fitted for the formation of such universally known weapons. Slings, another implement
that did much execution, were also unknown." (Vol. IL, pp. 28-29). Polack is a writer
whom I should scarcely ever think of quoting, not merely on account of his being com-
paratively modern (in my writing of the ancient New Zealander) but owing to his many
errors ; had he contented himself with giving us plainly what he saw, without colouring
(for he travelled a little while in New Zealan without attempting anything of
science or history, theology or language, or Re drawing of deductions,(!) for all which he
was totally unfitted, then his observations would have been of real service,
-
110 Transactions,—Miscellaneous,
but I will here close with my own, and that for two reasons; 1. That I had
early travelled more than any one in New Zealand (the North Island),
leaving few spots unvisited, and had used my eyes and ears in so travelling;
and that I had also witnessed their manner of fighting and of attack; 2.
That it was our custom at an early date (1834-1840), seeing we were but
few then in number in the land, and could not possibly go everywhere—to
collect young Maoris from all parts, and to teach them at our principal
mission stations in the Bay of Islands, and then, when taught, return them
to their homes and tribes; and that many of our Maori servants and labourers,
amounting to some scores, or hundreds, were from those who had been
taken young in war (of whom a large number we got liberated and returned
to their homes), and from them I had often their vivid and interesting
recitals of those battles and sieges, with every minutia ; and my own testi-
mony is this (the same indeed as that of Cook and others) that the New
Zealander never knew the use of the bow and arrow, nor of the sling proper, as
used, for instance, by the natives of Tahiti. .
Ås to the use of the little instrument called a kotaha (sometimes a kopere,
though, more properly speaking, the kopere was that by which the kotaha
was thrown.") I have ever had very grave doubts of its being a true New
Zealand implement ; for the endeavonr to learn something about it (when
first prosecuting my enquiries 40-45 years ago) always ended in disappoint-
ment. On this head I could say a good deal, but for the present I forbear.
Here, however, are a few things that should not be lost sight of in this
investigation: 1. That in all those old Maori tales of fightings and battles
and sieges, and especially the killing of monsters (taniwhas, some of which
I have lately translated), while every possible weapon known to the old
Maori, both of offence and defence, including even walking-sticks, is always
carefully noticed, nothing of the kind in question (missiles) save plain common
hand-spears, are ever mentioned ;* and yet, for those very purposes, no
other weapon would have been so useful. 2. That just as the old New
Zealanders were early taught how to use the bow and arrow (and, no
doubt, the sling also, by Tupaea and Taiota), as Parkinson says, so were
they iu after years taught how to make and use the bow and arrow, by
myself and other of the early missionaries, as implements of sport for the
boys, both of the mission families and of the Maori families living with us.
I have made several for them, but the young Maoris of that day never took
to it, from the fact of its not being a national weapon, and not falling in
with the genius of the Maori. 3. That from the beginning of this century,
or even earlier, the New Zealanders went often abroad in ships as visitors,
* And even these darts, it should be observed, are not spoken of as thrown at the
taniwhas.
MEE tii 5 SN
Corzxso.—[gnorance of Ancient New Zealander of Use of Projectiles. 111
especially to New South Wales; indeed, a very extensive intercourse was
then and for many years carried on between Port Jackson and New Zea-
land, partly owing to the whale and seal fishery.* 4. That on Mr. Mars-
den’s visit (1814) several foreigners were residing in New Zealand; mention
is particularly made, among others, of a Tahitian,+} and a Hindoo, who
were dwelling with the Maoris as Maoris, and who had quite made this
country their home, without a wish to leave it; Major Cruise also, in
1819, found a native of the Marquesas { Islands fairly settled among them ;
and that for many years convicts from the neighbouring penal colonies were
continually escaping thence to New Zealand. 5. That from 1820-1840
young New Zealanders were frequently entering whale-ships and other
vessels, to serve on cruises in the South Seas, several of whom returned to
their native country and settled. 6. That during several years, after the
arrival of the missionaries and before the formation of the colony, many
harbours in New Zealand, and the Bay of Islands in particular, were the
common resort of American, Colonial, and other whalers, whose crews were
composed of men of many nations and of all colours; and among them
were often natives from the East, including China and the South Sea Islands,
some of whom settled in New Zealand, and no doubt many of them taught
the New Zealander not a few novel things. 7. Two old sayings of the
Maoris bearing on this subject I would also adduce :—1. Their terse old
proverb, ** He tao rakau ka taea te pare, he tao küekore e taea’’—a wooden
spear can be parried,|| a slanderous word§ cannot be parried. Now, if any
other more destructive missile were known and in use among them, than
the common hand-spear, surely such would have been preferred here. 2,
Their saying, on the introduction of fire-arms,and for a long time after,
that the only thing they disliked them for was, that by them the warrior
fell as well as the slave at a distance," before that the hand-to-hand fight
begun :** another proof that deadly missiles acting at a distance were not
known. (8) Further, in all their very many proverbs and sayings there is
no allusion to any such thing.
My own opinion has long been, that the old New Zealanders (ever quick
and able imitators, especially in any matter connected with warfare), having
early had lessons from the Tahitian, Tupaea (whom they all but adored)
and his son, Taiota, and also on Cook’s second voyage from Tahiti to
New Zealand, from Mahine, the native of Porapora, in the arts of
fashioning and using projectiles, perhaps endeavoured to adopt them, and
* See appendix B. ? + Nicholas’ “ New Zealand," Vol. L, p. 92.
1 Cruise's Journal, p. 198. || Lit., a spoken spear.
8 See appendix, note B, for an illustration. Lit., died like a nobody—a fool,
** The chiefs and the principal men urged ohward the rush of the vanguard, but were -
not in it; they followed.
112 Transactions.—Miscellaneous.
possibly did so to a certain poor extent; but the great facility with which
they very soon acquired firearms caused them to set those missiles aside.
What they might have done and perfected, having once been put into the
way, had they remained isolated and not obtained muskets, is another
matter.
I have been led to make all these almost extra remarks through noticing
what was said by a Mr. Grace at the time of the reading of Mr. Phillips’
paper, as reported (I am sorry to find) in the ** Proceedings” (Vol. X., p. 527).
Mr. Grace might equally as well have said, that because he had always seen
the Maoris playing at draughts, or growing and eating melons, peaches, and
potatoes, ergo, such were indigenous! Such observations tend, to mislead
(being wholly erroneous), and will mislead still more in the future unless
refuted ; hence, in great measure, I now write to such an extent. It is from
such superficial remarks that the works of Tylor, Lubbock, and Herbert
Spencer, and others, become of less value than they would otherwise be,
through everything being gathered and admitted as of equal authority!
And just so it is (I regret to say) with some of the remarks made by Mr.
Philips himself in this very paper; i.e, in my estimation they are
deceiving, because they assume the very thing we are in search of—‘ the
whence of the Maori?”—a problem by no means yet proved. Yet Mr.
Philips says:—* I have often wondered how it is that the aborigines of
New Zealand should have made so little use of the bow and arrow, this
being a weapon peculiarly suited to savage tribes, and, moreover, the familiar
one of their ancestors." (Where did Mr. Phillips get this?) Again,
speaking of the toy-arrow he had been describing, he says :—'* In itself it is
& harmless weapon, and how it happens that the Maoris, a section of the
Polynesian race, should have thus allowed so useful a weapon as the South
Sea bow and arrow to degenerate into a mere toy,* is to me a curious circum-
stance." (S. Parkinson's remark on this very point, already quoted by me
at p. 108, made a hundred years ago, is far more rational every way; but
then Parkinson, although he had seen more, had no preconception, no pet
hobby to support!) Further, Mr. Phillips says:—** It is well-known (?) that
in olden days the Maoris launched their spears against a hostile fort by means
of a whip, similar to the one above described, and they were even able to
hurl stones a long distance." (Whence, too, is this derived?) Lastly, Mr.
Phillips winds up his paper by saying :—“ All these weapons, however, fell
into disuse after the introduction of fire-arms some sixty jen ago, which
may account for the disappearance of the bow and arrow." To which
statement, I trust, this paper will be found a complete answer.
des one
* Vide post “ Proceedings H. B. P. Institute, ordinary meeting, September 9, E" j
for an interesting account of the introduction into New Zealand of this “ toy arrow, bya
living witness,
WW Aa OO
. made, one of the wondrous works of old! in those Notes of mine,
Corzxso.— /gnorance of Ancient New Zealander of Use of Projectiles, 118
Mr. Phillips also gives an account of a ‘ pigeon spear," made out of
a rough unworked piece of a “raataa vine.”(!) Just so; that is the poor
modern spear, hastily put together by the lazy, loquacious, itinerating Maori
of modern days! but such make-shifts were not (commonly) used by his
forefathers, although I have seen them* stored up in the mountain forests ;
they were far above it.| And then follows the novel idea of “ trapping the
brown parrot by means of a shorter hand-spear.”(!) As if parrots were
ever caught in that way! The Maoris had but one general mode of taking
the parrot (kaakaa), which was admirably adapted and serviceable, and is
still in use in the dense forests of the interior.
My Note, referred to at p. 106, is as follows :—'* Note 7, par. 15, § 2.
—Travelling beyond the East Cape in January, 1838, I arrived at Waipiro
(Open Bay), and striking inland over high hills reached a place called Tapa-
tahi, where were the remains of a famous stronghold or pa of the olden time.
This fort is strongly situated on the abrupt precipitous end of a high hilly
yet narrow range, and made impregnable by art; the only possible way of
access leading from the top of the ridge, but this the Maoris had completely
secured by cutting a deep fosse across it. The Ngatimaru tribe, arriving in
their canoes from the North, well armed with muskets for the purpose of
slaughter, the people of this neighbourhood took refuge in their stronghold
on the crag, where they were regularly besieged. Several hundreds of
Maoris were cooped up in it, and for some time the place was closely
invested; and though provisions fell short among them there was no outlet
of escape. The besiegers getting both tired and hungry (!)—for the entrance
end of the fort was made so high above the deep-cut fosse that musketry
could effect nothing, unless any one of the besieged wilfully exposed him-
self—at last the besiegers hit upon a mode of attack and assault which
proved successful; they prepared sticks with dry combustibles fastened to
one of their ends, while to the other was tied a strip of flax-leaf, and the
wind being favourable, they set fire to them, and then whirled and flung
those flaming darts across the ditch into the pa, where, alighting on the dry
thatch roofs of the houses and sheds, the whole was soon on fire; then, in
the confusion, the assault was made, under cover of their muskets, and the
slaughter was very great, even for a successful Maori attack! Many of the
unfortunate besieged threw themselves down the precipice in sheer despera-
tion, and only a very small number escaped with their lives. There is a
small moat or pool of deep water close to the base of the precipice on one
* That is, a spear-head, fitted on to the rough stem of a large creeper (vine): but
never on a raataa ( Metrosideros robusta ).
+ If I mistake not there will be a full description of a ** pigeon spear," and how it was
114 Transactions.— Miscellaneous.
side, and possibly a lucky few might have fallen into it, and so broke the
force of their fall. The whole spot is a most romantic one naturally, and
at the time of my visit it was desolate and bare—a sad and striking memento
of the horrid past !”
The Editor of the “ Transactions,” in a note of his own appended to
Mr. sea paper, refers us to three works, viz. :—
. Bir G. Grey's ** Polynesian Milos p. 157. The single case
S mentioned is said to have taken place in the very beginning of Maori
history, and was just simply the whirling of a fire-brand on to a thatched
roof, much the same as the cireumstance above related from my Notes.
2. Dr. Thomson’s “ Story of New Zealand," Vol. I., chap. 7. In this
relation (as well as in several other places in his book) there is much of error,
as must always be the case with all modern compilers who may follow in
ihe Doctor's wake; for (1) Dr. Thomson has completely ignored all that
was written by Cook and others,* although he has given a list of their
Works, and the question has often arisen in my mind, did Dr. Thomson ever
read them ? (2) Knowing nothing himself personally of the matters in
question, he copied freely, and picked up and set down all that he heard, too
often hastily drawing conclusions. Hence it was that he says of their pro-
jectiles—'* Occasionally red hot stones were thrown from slings in the hope
of setting pas on fire; so were slight javelins, sharp and jagged at the
point; occasionally they were pointed with bone, or the barb of the
stingray ; these were discharged by slings from elevated platforms, etc.
Bows and arrows were not unknown, though never used in war." (Vol.
ch. 7.)
8. Mr. White's new work, * Te Rou,” is one of fiction, and his long
note, referred to by the Editor, is suited to it ; it is of no use here.
Apprnpix A.—(See p. 109).
Dr. Forster says :—'* The weapons which the men of Tanna constantly
carry are bows and arrows, clubs, darts, and slings. Their young men are
* In addition to bebe we ck on record (already referred to) by Cook and others,
there are a few early wn engagements, attacks on Maori forts by Europeans,
when, if ever, the Maoris ae sd used such projectiles, viz :—(1) That by the French
under Crozet, in revenge for the death of their commander (Marion) and his men, when
they attacked and took their stronghold or fort in the Bay of Islands. See App. C. (2)
That of the combined crews of five the pa in the islet in Whangaroa harbour in
revenge for the taking and burning of the “ Boyd,” and the killing of the captain, passengers,
and crew. (3) That of the soldiers and sailors of H.M.S. “ Alligator " on the pa at W : mate,
near Cape Egmont, in revenge for their having plundered Guard's ship, &c. In all these
cases the Maori pas, or forts, securely fenced and well situated (after the old custom) and
almost inaccessible, were attacked and taken; and yet, while the Maoris defended them-
selves well and long, nothing was seen, or shown, or used, in the shape of “slings” and
“ hot stones,” “ bows and arrows, jagged darts, and poisoned Kotahas |" (Jam satis !)
nce a ERIS
MER a ee EE RENE et ae
LE aE Se aa Oe CR eee REPETI
Cotmnso,—Ignorance of Ancient New Zealander of Use of Projectiles. 115 `
commonly slingers and archers, but those of a more advanced age make use
of clubs or darts. The bows are made of the best club-wood (casuarina),
very strong and elastic. They polish them very highly, and perhaps rub
them with oil from time to time, in order to keep them in repair. Their
arrows are of reed, near four feet long. The same black wood which the
Mallicollese employ for the point is likewise made use of at Tanna; but the
whole point which is frequently above a foot long, is jagged or bearded on
two or three sides, They have likewise arrows with three points, but these
are chiefly intended to kill birds and fish. Their slings are made of cocoa-
nut fibres, and worn round the arm or waist; they have a broad part for
the reception of the stone, of which the people carry with them several in a
leaf. The darts or spears are the third sort of missile weapons at Tanna,
They are commonly made of a thin, knotty, and ill-shaped stick, not exceed-
ing half-an-inch in diameter, but nine or ten feet long. At the thickest end
they are shaped into a triangular point, six or eight inches long, and on
each corner there is a row of eight or ten beards or hooks. These darts they
throw with great accuracy, at a short distance, by the help of a piece of
plaited cord, four or five inches long, which has a knob at one end, and an
eye at the other. They hold the dart between the thumb and forefinger,
having previously placed the latter in the eye of the rope, the remaining
part of which is slung round the dart, above the hand, and forms a kind of
noose round it, serving to guide and confine the dart in its proper direction,
when it is once projected. I have seen one of these darts thrown, at the
distance of ten or twelve yards, into a stake four inches in diameter, with
such violence that the jagged point was forced quite through it. The same
thing may be said of their arrows; at eight or ten yards distance they shoot
them very accurately and with great force ; but as they are cautious of
breaking their bows, they seldom draw them to the full stretch, and there-
fore, at twenty-five or thirty yards, their arrows have little effect, and are
not to be dreaded.”
** The arms of the natives of New Caledonia were clubs, spears, and slings.
* * * Their spears are fifteen or twenty feet long, and black. They
throw them by the assistance of such short cords, knobbed at one end and
looped at the other, as are usual at Tanna, and which seamen call beckets.
Those of New Caledonia were of superior workmanship, and contained a
quantity of red wool, which we should have taken for the covering of a new
sort of animal, if we had not formerly seen the Vampyre or great Indian bat,
from whence it was taken. Their last weapons were slings, for bows and
arrows were wholly unknown to them. These slings consisted of a slender
round cord no thicker than a pack-thread, which had a tassel at one end anda
loop atthe other end and in the middle, The stones which they used were
116 Transactions, — Miscellaneous;
oblong and pointed at each end, being made of a soft and unctuous soap-
rock (simectites ), which could easily be rubbed into that shape. These exactly
fitted the loop in the middle of the sling, and were kept in a wallet or
pocket of coarse cloth, strongly woven of a kind of grass, which was tied on
about the middle. Their shape gives them a striking resemblance to the
glandes plumbee of the Romans." —Forster's Voyage, Vol. IL, pp. 278, 279,
885,
Appendiz B.—(See p. 111).
I here give an interesting extract from ** Turnbull’s Voyage Round the
World ” (1801-4), as it bears a little on the subject before us :—
“A chief of note named Te Pahi, with five of his sons, who resided at the
Bay of Islands, wished to see Port Jackson. They were taken by Captain
Stewart in his ship to Norfolk Island, where they received every attention
from the commandant and inhabitants; and after remaining there some
time they were received on board- H.M.S. * Buffalo, to be conveyed to Port
Jackson. On their arrival, Te Pahi was introduced by Captain Houstin to
His Excellency and the officers at the Government House, where he con-
tinued to reside during his stay in the colony.
“ Shortly after his arrival, a number of the natives assembled in the
vicinity of Sydney for the interment of Carrawaye (whose death was
occasioned by a spear wound in the knee), who the night before was con-
veyed here in a shell composed of strips of bark ; and the funeral obsequies
being over, a war spectacle ensued, when an intended sacrifice to vengeance
(known by the name of Blewit) was singled out to answer for the desperate
wound inflieted by him upon young Baker. The animosity of his assailants
was uncommonly remarkable; their party was far the more powerful, and,
confident of their superiority, took every advantage of their numbers. The
flight of spears was seldom less than six, and managed with a precision that
seemed to promise certain fatality. After 170 had been thus thrown, ten
of the most powerful stationed themselves so as nearly to encircle the cul-
prit, and front and rear darted their weapons at the same instant. His
activity and strong presence of mind increased with the danger; five he
dexterously caught with his feeble target, and the others he miraenlously
managed to parry off. One of his friends, enraged at the proceedings, threw
a spear, and received ten in return. Blewit turned one of his assailant’s
spears, and passed it through the body of old Whittaker; the affray then
became general, but terminated without further mischief.
«Te Pahi, who with several of his sons was present, regarded their war-
fare with contempt; he frequently discovered much impatience at the length
of intervals between the flights, and by signs exhorted them to dispateh; '
4
Cotunso,—Iynorance of Ancient New Zealander of Use of Projectiles, 117
he considered the heelaman, or shield, an unnecessary appendage, as the
hand was sufficient to turn aside and alter the direction of any number of
spears. He, nevertheless, highly praised the woomera, or throwing-stick, as,
from its elasticity, he acknowledged the weapon to receive much additional
velocity. He was visibly chagrined when he saw the old man wounded
through the body, and would certainly have executed vengeance upon its
author, had he not been restrained by the solicitations of the spectators, '—
Nicholas’ ** New Zealand," Vol, IL., p. 869
_Appenpix C.— (See p. 114).
M. Crozet's description of this attack is so graphic, and at the same time
so much in keeping with what I have known to take place among the New
Zealanders in their old sieges, that I am tempted to give an extract, as I
believe his work is not commonly known in the colony :—M. Crozet com-
manded the King's sloop of war, the ‘Mascarin,’ under M. Marion, and put
into the Bay of Islands in distress, having lost his-masts. With great diff-
culty they cut down fit trees, some three or four miles off in the woods, and
to get them out had to make a road! They had now been here at anchor
thirty-three days, when the Maoris suddenly rose against the French, and
killed Marion, with twenty-eight men! and it was with extreme difficulty
that Crozet managed to get on board the ship those left on shore. After
this the New Zealanders made several attempts to take even the ships,
which they fiercely attacked in a hundred large canoes. At last Crozet,
seeing it impossible to supply the ships with masts, uuless he could drive
the natives from the neighbourhood, went to attack their pa, which was one
of the greatest and strongest. He put the carpenters in front to cut down
. the palisadoes, behind which the natives stood in great numbers on their
fighting stages, from which they threw down stones and darts.* His people
drove the natives from these stages by keeping up a regular fire, which did
Some execution. The carpenters could now approach without danger, and
in a few moments cut a breach in the fortification. A chief instantly
stepped into it with a long spear in his hand. He was shot dead by Crozet's
marksmen, and presently another occupied his place, stepping on the dead
. body. He likewise fell a victim to his intrepid courage, and in the same
manner eight chiefs successively defended the post of honour. The rest,
seeing their leaders dead, took flight, and the French pursued and killed
numbers of them. M. Crozet offered fifty dollars to any person who should
take a New Zealander alive, but this was absolutely impracticable. A
soldier seized an old man and began to drag him towards his Captain, but the
savage, being unarmed, bit into the fleshy part of the Frenchman’s hand,
* As described in Cook's Voyages, Vol. IL, p. 342-344.
118 Transactions, — Miscellaneous,
of which the exquisite pain so enraged him that he ran the New Zealander
through with the bayonet. M. Crozet found great quantities of dresses,
arms, tools, and raw flax in this pa, together with a prodigious store of dried
fish androots. Hecompleted the repairs in his ship without interruption after
accomplishing this enterprise, and prosecuted his voyage after a stay of
sixty-four days in the Bay of Islands.—Forster’s Voyage, Vol, IL, pp.
461-465,
Art. VII.—On Temporary and Variable Stars. By Professor A. W.
Bicgerton, F.C.S., Associate of the Royal School of Mines, London.
[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 4th July, 1878.]
Tue sudden appearances of stars in various regions of the sky have been
recorded from very early dates. Some of these stars have had an intensity
of light greater than any of the fixed stars, and in some cases have remained
visible for a year or more, the intensity of light all the while gradually
diminishing.
Two considerable stars of this kind have appeared within the last twelve
years, and in both cases they have been examined with the spectroscope.
Unfortunately the results have not been so satisfactory as could be desired.
The spectrum of the star of 1866 appears to have been continuous, with
bright lines. The lines diminished in number and intensity until they
finally disappeared, leaving only a feeble continuous spectrum. The light
of the star of 1877 at first appeared yellowish, and when five or six days
afterwards it was examined with the spectroscope, a line spectrum was
seen. The number of lines gradually lessened until only one was left, and
that the same line as is seen in some nebula.
A few considerations will show the stupendous nature of these pheno-
mena. Temporary stars have all appeared to be fixed in the heavens, this
fact showing them to be at true stellar distances, and consequently, like the
fixed stars, their luminosity is comparable to that of our sun. The sun
may be roughly classed as a star of the second magnitude ; its intensity is
approximately one four-hundredth that of Sirius, which is a very short
distance from us relatively to the size of the universe, therefore it is not
improbable that these temporary stars should be, on an average, at least
as far away as he is.
We may therefore safely assume that most of the temporary stars whose
appearance has been recorded, have had an intensity of light as great as the
sun, and probably in some cases many times greater, The amount of heat
Bicrerton.—0n Temporary and Variable Stars. 119
radiated from each square yard of our sun’s surface is estimated to be equal
to the combustion of ten cubic yards of coal in every hour, while the sun’s
disc has four times the area enclosed by the orbit of the moon. The star of
1866 when first seen was of the second magnitude, and its spectrum shows
that it consisted of a nucleus of compressed gas, or of liquid or of solid matter.
This was surrounded by an atmosphere of heated gas, having a greater
monochromatic light than the nucleus; or it might have been simply a
small permanent star in the same line of vision as the gaseous temporary
star. I cannot say if this suggestion agrees with the present condition of
the star. This star diminished from a star of the second magnitude to the
tenth in about a fortnight. The spectroscope showed the star of 1877 to be
ignited gas only, and from the number of the lines diminishing the tempera-
ture and pressure probably did so likewise. The intensity diminished in
four months from the third magnitude to the ninth.
Many hypotheses have been formed to account for the nature of these
stars, of which the following appear to be the most noteworthy :—
1. Zoolner imagines a sun in which spots have covered the whole
surface, the temporary stars being produced by the breaking of such a
surface.
2. Vogel assumes a volcanic bursting-out on a dead sun.
In both of these hypotheses a decomposition and combustion of hydrogen
and other elements is also assumed to account for the great intensity.
9. Meyer and Klein suppose that a similar dark body is suddenly raised
to incandescence by the projection of a planet or other body xd its
surface.
4. Proctor supposes that the atmosphere of a dead sun is suddenly
brought to a high degree of luminosity by the passage of a meteoric train
through it.
In examining these hypotheses, we find that there is one thing in
common, namely, the assumption of the existence of large dark bodies in
space. The first two of them also depend on the existence of internal com-
motion, attended with combustion. The last two depend upon the energy
developed by gravitation.
A little consideration will be sufficient to show that, on grounds of
intensity alone, Zoolner’s and Vogel’s—in fact, any hypothesis not
dependent upon gravitation—is improbable. Is it conceivable that a
dark body should suddenly change its surface by voleanic or other internal
action in such a manner as to heat gases to a pitch of luminosity as high
as our sun’s, especially when it is considered that if a gas and solid be at
the same temperature, the solid is much the more luminous of the two; nor
would combustion or decomposition help it; generally the latter would take
120 Transactions.— Miscellaneous.
place, but would tend to diminish rather than increase the intensity. How
inadequate combustion would be is shown by the fact that a pound weight
would develope about forty million units of heat in falling upon the sun, and
the combustion of a pound of mixed oxygen and hydrogen would only
develope about 4000 units. And again, in either case the chief luminosity
must be from the fused material; a continuous spectrum would then result,
which in the last star at least is altogether contrary to observation. The
precipitation of a body upon the surface of a dead sun is much more
probable; so likewise is the meteoric theory; but in the former case if
sufficient heat could be developed a fused mass would almost certainly
result, and in the latter case nothing short of a marvellous combination
would prevent its resulting. The latter hypothesis Proctor bases on the
bright monientary light once observed on the face of the sun; he assumes
that the gaseous photosphere was temporarily raised to a high luminosity
by meteors. I think this of itself is very improbable. I cannot conceive
how it is possible that if the atmosphere were raised to incandescence it
could cool again in so short a time as two minutes. I think it far more
probable that that most wonderful phenomenon (affecting as it did the
entire earth) was due to the collision of two bodies revolving in approxi-
mately opposite directions around the sun. Such a pair of bodies would have
their temperature raised to about one hundred million degrees Centigrade.
' I need not say that such a temperature would quickly volatilize such small
bodies and produce an intense light, the phenomenon is in this way
explained without any assumption other than known laws. The basis of
the meteoric hypothesis is thus shown to be in the highest degree
improbable, and even if it were admitted it would require an inconceivable
number of meteors to raise the atmosphere of a dark body to such a
temperature as to produce a luminosity as great as our sun’s and of some
months’ duration. Still more inconceivable does it appear that the body
upon which they impinge should only have its atmosphere raised to such a
luminosity, whilst the body itself yemained non-luminous. Altogether the
theory of Meyer and Klein appears the only possible one, but it is oniy when
both bodies are of such stupendous dimensions as to produce complete
volatilization that the hypothesis agrees with spectroscopic observation ;
and such a case does not appear to be contemplated by the authors or they
would scarcely have suggested a planet. Complete dissipation into space
could not take place by the entire coalescence of two bodies however large,
unless they had a higher initial velocity than observations of the proper
motion of stars render probable. No one of these hypotheses, therefore,
appears to be a satisfactory explanation of the phenomenon.
An hypothesis that agrees better with observation would be one of
partial impact. If two immense bodies moving in qued come well within
Broxerton.—On Temporary and Variable Stars. 121
the influence of each other's gravitation, they would be attracted out of
their path with a constantly increasing velocity. Three possibilities present
themselves: the first, the most general one, of passing each other and
ultimately attaining their original velocity in space; the second would
be that of imperfect impact; and third, as an extreme case, we
should have complete impact when the centre of each mass would have,
except for the collision, occupied the same point at the same time. It is
reasonable to assume that in impact the case of partial collision would be
more probable than complete impact. And it is this imperfect impact that
is the basis of the present hypothesis. In this case a piece will be struck
off each colliding body; these two pieces would to a greater or less degree
coalesce, developing at the same time a high degree of heat, whilst the
remainder of the two bodies would pass on in space. What would finally
happen to the two retreating bodies depends on the original proper motion
and the masses of the coalesced piece. If the original proper motions were
large and the piece cut off small, one or both of the two bodies would most
likely pass entirely away from the other bodies and travel on independently
in space. If, on the other hand, the original proper motion were small and
the piece struck off large, then it would be most probable that they would
be once more attracted back and collide again and again until complete
coalescence took place; or, as I shall show further, it is possible that they
may form a system similar to our solar system. The size of the bodies will
also have an influence in the escape or otherwise of the pieces. Other
things being equal, the larger the body the greater the probability of escape,
as the distance between the centres will be greater and consequently the
attraction will be less.
Partial impact appears competent to explain the occurrence of temporary,
double, and variable stars, nebule of various kinds (the kind depending on
the nature of the impact), comets, and finally stars or suns accompanied by
bodies of smaller size. The third case, that of complete coalescence, is pro-
bable only in the collision of very large bodies, and offers an explanation of
the existence of large spherical nebule with a general condensation towards
the centre. (We will consider the hypotheses somewhat in detail.) In
order to render the conception of the hypothesis as simple as possible, I
shall all through keep as far as I can to a direct conception of energy, as in
this way most questions may be reduced to ordinary arithmetical series,
Thus, if the two approaching bodies be equal to each other (at the same
distance), the attracting force acting on each unit of mass will be propor-
tional to the total mass of either; now in a force acting through space, the
work equals the force multiplied by the space through which it acts, and the —
work is equal to the heat, A
122 Transactions.— Miscellaneous.
The sun, by attracting a body from infinite space, would give it a velocity
of 378 miles a second, or each unit of mass would develope about forty
million units of heat. If we suppose two bodies, each half the size of the
sun, to come together by mutual attraction alone, then each unit of mass
would develope about twenty million units of heat. If, on the other hand,
two bodies twice the mass of the sun come together, each unit of mass
would have four times the force acting upon it through equal spaces, and
each unit of mass would consequently develope four times as much heat.
If the impact of such bodies were imperfect, as we have seen the general
case would be, a piece of each would be cut off, and these two pieces would
coalesce. Suppose a quarter of each be struck off, a body of the mass of
the sun would be produced, but it would have four times the temperature
the sun would have, assuming the sun to have been formed by direct impact
and complete coalescence. Each unit of mass in this case would have
approximately eighty million units of heat; and the temperature will depend
upon the specific heat of the material, and may be much higher than this.
I will now show, in the case of partial collision, how small relatively the
work of cutting off the piece is compared to the energy available. It
appears to me that in all cases the energy needed for shearing force has its
superior limit in the latent heat of fusion. This, in the case of ice, is about
one-fiftieth that of combustion, and combustion is about one twenty-
thousandth part that of percussion, in the case we have been considering.
The work of shearing would consequently not be greater than one millionth
that of the energy of velocity, and soit appears it may safely be disregarded.
Thus in the case of such a partial collision it may certainly be accepted that
those parts not in the line of motion of the other body will not coalesce with
the other body, but will pass on in space. In the piece struck off we shall
have partial destruction of motion in space, with development of heat;
many pieces will fly off, and a rotary motion of the whole will ensue.
There wil be a slight pause from inertia, then the powerful outward
pressure due to the expansion by heat will overcome all resistance, and will
expand the whole into gas, much of it certainly passing beyond the limits of
effective attraction, and away into distant space. Let us pause for an
instant to examine a little more fully what has happened.
Two pieces of different bodies, each with a velocity of about 500 miles a
second, have coalesced, but although the motion of translation is destroyed
the larger part of each side of the mass is made up chiefly of one of the two
different bodies: as these are moving in opposite directions, there is con-
sequently a couple acting on the mass, and this couple spins the mass on
its centre. Consequently many pieces fly off, and are followed by the mass
of gas, being impelled outward by the energy of heat and centrifugal force ;
Bickrrton,—0n Temporary and Variable Stars, 123
whilst, on the other hand, we have inertia and gravity tending to keep the
mass together. The centrifugal force acts only in one plane, whilst the re-
pellent force of heat acts in every plane; a bun-shaped mass must result,
with a number of distinct pieces, which at first at least are in advance of the
general mass. Follow it on in time and we get the ring nebula, with or
without a luminous centre; in the latter case, with a dark circle dividing
those parts whose velocity has carried them beyond the powers of the
attractive force, from those parts held prisoner by it, These parts, as they
gradually radiate heat into space, are once more slowly attracted to the
centre by gravitation. If the piece struck off from each body were very
small, then complete dissipation of the whole into space would result,
Clearly such collisions as I have described would be competent to produce
every variety of temporary stars that has appeared. Applying the spectro-
scope to such a star, we get at first a continuous spectrum; then black
lines, quickly followed by bright lines and spectrum; then bright lines
alone. Again, if the colliding bodies were of very different size, or if the
heat were not great enough to entirely volatilize the star, we should have
lines and spectrum. Lastly, as heat and pressure diminish by the dissipa-
tion of the body into space, we get fewer and fewer lines, until only those
substances in greatest quantity, or of greatest power in giving lines at
lowest temperature and pressure, remain luminous, and we have a nebule
left; or in the case of total dissipation of the gaseous mass all evidence
of its existence will disappear. It will be seen how exactly the above
hypothesis agrees with the spectroscopic observation of temporary stars;
and I have showa as fully as perhaps it is wise to do in this paper, that the
hypothesis of partial impact is competent to account for every variety of
these bodies, and also for their intensity and short duration.
We must now return to the parent bodies which we left travelling on in
space. A cylindrical or curved slice has been cut out of each ; sometimes
that is the chief thing that will happen. But on the other hand we may have
the molten interior of the body exposed to view. If there were atmospheres
on the two colliding bodies, a very great heating of the surface of the section
would result, and when both causes are acting in unison a stupendous lake
of fire must be formed. Let such a body rotate on its axis, alternately the
light and dark sides are shown, and we get a variable star. May not Mira in
this way be attempting to tell us her autobiography ; how she is a dark body,
with a molten lake of fire, 80 degrees of are, a lake as big as our sun, and
how she rotates about an axis in a little less than a year? If it be so, she
tells us of a dark body almost as large as Sirius, or how would 30 degrees moe
of are produce a star of the first magnitude? Algol appears to tell us that oo
it is a dark and gloomy PM with a brilliant son who were! passes
*
124 Transactions, — Miscellaneous,
partly behind his dusky parent’s body, and in this way suffers partial
eclipse,
But the autobiographies of these bodies must not detain us; we must
discuss the existence of such gigantic feebly-luminous or non-luminous
bodies as our hypothesis demands. The existence of variable stars seems
sufficient to prove there are such bodies, and, as I have shown, all the
hypotheses offered in explanation of temporary stars assume their existence.
The high temperature and small relative light of celestial radiation points
to the same conclusion, or to non-luminous gas. It might be asked, if there
are dark bodies, why not stellar eclipse. I do not know if such have been
observed ; it would be wonderful if any had been, for they must be very
rare, probably as rare as temporary stars; for, although we have all the
depths of space in which eclipses are possible, on the other hand with
temporary stars we have attraction bringing very distant bodies together.
Further, the points of light of the fixed stars form but a small area in space,
and, lastly, if eclipses occurred they would probably not be recorded, as
small black patches of cloud so often obscure a portion of the sky that such
an occurrence would scarcely attract attention. But why should there not
be large dark bodies? Laplace’s theory of a universal nebule may be
assumed to be against it; but did Laplace assume that it was contem-
poraneous ? if not, then even that theory does not interfere. All our con-
ceptions seem to agree more with a rhythmic cycle than with any definite
beginning or end. If we assume this hypothesis, then the period of dissipa-
tion of energy seems indefinitely projected into futurity ; for all radiation
falling on the matter in space, must prevent its temperature from falling so
low as without this radiation, and when at a subsequent date a collision
occurs, this heat must exalt the final temperature. Nor does it appear that
we need look forward to a gigantic dead sun as the final condition of this
universe; for doubtless our universe has its own proper motion in space,
which may bring us into collision with other universes. This shows that
gravitation may be as competent to multiply worlds as to absorb them one
into another. But after all our hypothesis only takes us a step back in
time, and our imaginations a step forward into the future, thus removing
further than ever from our conceptions every trace of a beginning or pro-
mise of an end.
BicxErton.—On Partial Impact, 125
Art, VIIT,— Partial Impact: a possible Explanation of the Origin of the Solar
System, Comets, and other Phenomena of the Universe. By Professor
A. W. Bickerton, F.C.S., Associate Royal School of Mines, London.
(Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 1st August, 1878.)
Iw the last paper which I submitted to the Institute, I gave a short sketch
of some hypothetical cases of partial collisions, and suggested that such
cases might possibly be of frequent occurrence throughout space, and might
offer an explanation of many phenomena of the universe. I especially
showed the application of the hypothesis to temporary and variable stars.
To-night I intend to show that it appears competent to explain the
formation of the solar system, of comets, of meteors, and of some variety of
nebule. I shall, however, in the first place point out the very great dif-
ference which exists in the capabilities of cases of partial and complete
collision, the first offering a field of possibilities of cosmical phenomena
which is really surprising, the latter being probably confined to but a few
rare cases.
In the last paper I assumed that the partial collision of two attracting
bodies having an original proper motion in space, would be much more
likely than entire coalescence. It appeared, however, to be a very general
idea, that if the bodies struck at all, it must be that their mutual attraction
would certainly produce complete coalescence. On the other hand, it was
generally admitted that two bodies when attracted by each other would
seldom come into contact, but would in most cases be carried by their
original velocity away once more from each other’s influence. It is only
necessary to assume that the size of the bodies has increased enormously
without increase of mass for a case of mere disturbance to become one of
partial collision ; the generality of the case is thus practically demonstrated.
As cases of partial collisions may be of infinite variety, for the sake of
simplicity I have in this paper (except where stated to the contrary) assumed
that all the colliding bodies are of the same size; composed of the same
chemical elements; with the same initial proper motions, the velocity of
which is small compared with that developed by attraction; also that the '
mass of each of the two bodies of any one pair is the same.
If two bodies come into direct collision from rest, a definite energy of
velocity will be acquired at the moment of contact, depending solely on the
mass. After coalescence, if a single particle were attracted from infinite
space, the particle being attracted by the whole coalesced mass, and this
mass not appreciably moving towards the particle, twice the force would act
through twice the space, and would develope twice the velocity, or four
times the energy. Hence, also, a particle to leave the body must have this
double velocity. Therefore, as it does not appear reasonable to expect that
126 - Transactions.=—Miscellaneous,
after collision any portion will acquire much greater energy than before, we
may reasonably assume that no part will acquire four times the energy of
motion, and be thrown off into space, On the other hand, if two bodies
come into partial collision, a piece of each would coalesce, and the rest
would pass on into space. Ifthe motion be entirely destroyed, the temperature
developed by coalescence will be the same, no matter what proportion be
struck off; whilst, if the pieces struck off be very small, the coalesced mass
will have but little attractive power to keep the body together, and hence
the velocity of each particle may be great enough to project the whole into
space ; whereas we have seen, in the case of complete coalescence, none
would be able to be thus projected. This is a most important distinction
between partial and complete collision.
Influence of Chemical Composition.
If two bodies, each a mixture of chemical elements, meet and destroy
their motion of translation, then a molecular motion of identically the
same energy must be developed (a small part will be converted into some
form of potential energy, but this we will disregard). If a mass of small
bodies have the same energy as an equal single mass, the velocity is also
equal. Whence we must also assume that the velocity of the molecules,
no matter what may be their respective weights, is not greater than the
velocity of the whole body was before impact. Therefore, from what has
been stated, in direct impact no particle will have sufficient velocity to leave
the mass immediately after impact. But different elements having the same
velocity are at different temperatures, inversely proportional to their mole-
cular weight; the heavy atoms are therefore very much hotter than the
light ones. We know by the laws of heat that these unequal temperatures
will tend to equality; but it is worth while looking at this a little in detail.
Let us suppose a hydrogen and a mercury particle to meet. The mercury
is one hundred times as heavy as hydrogen, but the velocity of both is the
same. The collision cannot produce heat, as it is heat motion already.
The principle of energy at once tells us that the mercury will lose a part
of its velocity, and the velocity of the hydrogen will be increased. Let this
happen many times, and the temperature will become equal; in other
words, the hydrogen will be moving ten times as fast as the mercury. Let
both of these particles come to the surface of the body; their molecular
motion will cause them to leave it; the hydrogen will probably have velocity
sufficient to carry it away from effective attraction, which is impossible
with the mercury, as initially its velocity was insufficient, and now it is less
than before. Thus we see that at the surface of a mixed gaseous atmo-
sphere there is a tendency the opposite to that of the diffusion of gases;
probably the hydrogen and lighter atomic weight elements will be on the out-
TE UN Inr diee PENES = Ss ae
Bicrerton.—0n Partial Impact. 127
side, and the heavier on the inside of bodies. Hence, the chief elements of
the surface of bodies may reasonably be expected to be hydrogen, lithium,
carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, magnesium, sodium, and sulphur. All these
elements, except lithium (which may consequently be assumed to be
universally rare), are the common elements of the surface of bodies; and
hydrogen, the highest of all known bodies, is the most common of all. Is
not the element of 1474 line, which is found outside of hydrogen on the
sun, an element of still less atomic weight than hydrogen? If this
hypothesis be true, then it is reasonable to assume that diffused hydrogen
must fill space. This would account for the retardation of comets and
planets without the assumption of an ether resistance. It thus appears
that the molecular motion of gases may become one of mere translation.
There is accordingly a continuity of heat and mechanical motion. It is
reasonable to suppose, that at a certain height above the sun the general
motion of the particles of hydrogen may become more or less parallel ; there
would be no collisions of molecules, and consequently no luminosity would
be then produced, and an apparent dissipation of the protuberances would
occur. I have now shown the most striking points in the contrast of the
energy of different cases of collision. I have also shown a possible reason
why the small atomic weight elements are common on the surface of
bodies; why we should expect to find hydrogen on the surface of all
bodies, such as the sun and stars; lastly, that hydrogen, and probably the
unknown element of the sun, may be the resisting substance which retards
the motion of bodies in space.
On the Rotation of Systems.
It does not seem reasonable to expect rapid rotation in the case of entire
coalescence of two bodies, as only the resultant of the two original rotations
will tend to develope this motion. But, in the case of partial collision, we
must have a rapid rotation of the mass, as each of the two bodies from
which it was formed occupy chiefly one side of the new body, and as the
velocity of each of the two bodies was originally opposite to that of the
other, rotation is a necessary consequence.
There are two chief reasons for the inequality of the balance of mo-
mentum at the two sides of the coalesced mass: 1st. The piece cut off will
be much thicker towards the middle of the original mass than at the out-
side. 2nd. The density of the inside is much greater than that of the
outside, in consequence of the greater pressure, and also from the fact that
it is probable the heavier elements are towards the centre of the mass. It
may easily be seen that the resultant momentum on the two opposite sides
are in opposite directions, consequently tending to rotation, .
128 Transactions.— Miscellaneous.
Comets and Solar System.
It is almost certain that the initially irregular shape of the two coalesced
pieces would cause many smaller masses to fly off into space, producing
possible visitants to other worlds, but in most cases the heat would be
sufficient to cause all these masses to be converted into gas.
When two bodies of different size attract each other, the velocity
acquired by the smaller body will be greater than that of the larger one (as
an apple falling to the earth does not give the earth the same velocity as
the apple itself acquires). With unequal bodies therefore, when collision
occurs, the larger piece. will have a smaller velocity than the smaller, hence
there will be two orders of fragments. First, from the small piece, the high
velocity of which may make comets and shooting stars of them.
Planets.
Secondly, the fragments of the larger piece, whose small velocity may
not take these bodies away from effective attraction, and they may thus
become planets.
But the large mass of our sun shows that if the planets of our system
have been formed in this way, one of two things must have occurred, either
the original proper motion of the bodies must have been very much greater
than the average is at present, or the bodies themselves must have been
very large, so that even at impact the centres were a long distance from
each other. There is, however, another reason why at impact the centres
may have been at a distance from each other—namely, the great distortion
of the bodies which must take place immediately before impact, in conse-
quence of their mutual attraction. tis impossible to give even an approxi-
mate idea of how much this may influence the result. Generally, it is easy
to see that the problems offered by partial impact are of extreme difficulty,
the data being of necessity of infinite variety.
It is shown further on, that there is another partial impact hypothesis
which may possibly explain the origin of our system.
All the following remarks apply equally to that hypothesis :—
- At first the orbits of these bodies would be extraordinarily eccentric ;
on passing away on this firsí journey they would be in advance of the
expeled gas, but would meet it on returning. This would tend to
neuiralise the force of attraction, and the orbit would become much more
circular. Again, the passage of the planet through the gas would retard it.
And lastly, on each of its orbits the attraction of gravitation would be
greater on its outward journey than on its return, in consequence of the
expelled matter passing outside its orbit into space. This fact would both
tend to render the orbit more circular, and also tend to neutralise the action
of the gaseous resistance in causing the body to approach the sun. It
Bicxerton.—On Partial Impact; 129
is a well-known fact, that if a projectile revolyes on one axis at right
angles to the line of motion, there is a tendency to move in a curve.
(The full discussion of this phenomenon would occupy much time.) It is
possible to show that this force at first would have considerable effect in
rendering the orbits circular, but finally with the planets near the sun its
effect may be to render the orbits more elliptical. All these forces, there-
fore, tend to render the orbits more circular, but not as an average result
to alter their mean distance from the sun. The larger masses would
suffer less resistance in proportion than the smaller ones, and the general
result would be, that if all started at the same distance the smaller bodies
would be brought nearer the sun. It is easy to see that the centrifugal
force and the attraction of nebulous mass would cause all the planets to
travel approximately in the plane of the ecliptic, also why the sun’s equator
so nearly approaches it, and generally, why the rotations of the planets on -
their axes should bein the same direction. On the other hand, the pressure
due to heat, the extreme want of symmetry of such a case of partial impact,
combined with the original motion of rotation of the colliding bodies, if they
had any, must all tell in the ultimate resultant motion, both orbital and
axial. Almost certainly these forces would produce slightly inclined orbital
planes, inclination of polar axes to these planes, and may as an extreme
case produce a retrograde motion. It is also easy to see that the enormous
atmospheres of those early days would effectually clear the bodies of all but
very large masses of cosmical dust.
The Asteroids.
This fact appears of itself sufficient to show that the production of the
asteroids must have been a subsequent event to the formation of the solar
system. With respect to the asteroids, it is conceivable that the destruction
of the planet which formed them may have been produced by a large
meteorie visitant, with a high velocity. This hypothesis shows that such
bodies may exist in considerable numbers. Such a mass might conceivably
bury itself in another body, and when its motion of mass was stopped, its
heat might be sufficient to produce a pressure of many thousand atmo-
spheres. Such an explosion of developed gas might reasonably be expected
to blow the body to pieces. It is generally considered that if the asteroids
had been produced by the destruction of a planet, the fragments would
have the same mean distance from the sun, and would pass the same points
in their orbits where the destruction occurred ; which is contrary to the
observed motions of these bodies. The hypothesis that they are pieces of a
planet is therefore not generally accepted ; but these assumptions are only
true if the velocity remain the same, the eccentricity of the orbit the same,
and there is no resisting atmosphere. The first of these assumptions ig
M
130 Transacttons,—Miscellancous.
clearly not admissible in such a case as I have suggested, and the relative
positions of the planets would influence the second. Or if this be con-
sidered to be insufficient, it is only necessary to assume that the destruction
took place before the whole of the gas had been absorbed by the sun.
Altogether, I think from the great eccentricity of the orbits of these bodies,
from their positions, from the varying inclinations of the planes of their
several ecliptics, from their varying intensity, and their small size, the only
conceivable explanation of their formation is by a violent explosion. This
would account for all their peculiarities. I am unacquainted with any force
in nature that could produce such an explosion except the one here
suggested.
Saturn’s Rings.
It would appear also that the rings of Saturn cannot be considered to be
a primary phenomeuon ; they may have been developed by the blowing to
pieces of a moon, or by Saturn's atmosphere entrapping a train of meteors.
This latter suggestion hardly appears so reasonable as the former. If the
destroyed moon was brought to a very high temperature, mere liquid spray
might have been produced, which would quickly cool and become a mass of
solid particles revolving around in all eccentricities.
Comets and Meteors.
It is a necessity of this hypothesis that there should be large numbers
of bodies travelling in space. Groups of these bodies may frequently have
& common direction. Of these bodies it is probable that some may be very
large, and even come within the solar system, yet remain invisible except
as meteors. But it is conceivable that in some cases of collision bodies may
leave, consisting chiefly of carbonie acid ; which at certain stages of a body's
heat, may form an important part of its atmosphere. It is not difficult to
imagine that a portion of the atmosphere of such a body may have taken a
common direction in space, and in its path become attracted by our system.
Ifits nucleus, when near the sun, were volatilized carbon, and its atmosphere
carbonie acid, the result of the sun's radiation on such an athermic sub-
stance as carbonic acid might certainly decompose it. Might it not be the
case that the temperature of dissociation of carbonic acid may be lower
than the temperature of the volatilization of carbon? There are certain
peculiarities in the electric light supporting this. Thus the carbon might
be liberated as a sublimate away from the sun, but in the direction towards
the sun, the temperature may be sufficiently high to volatilize the carbon.
This, or some other radiation theory, as Tyndall has suggested, seems the
only one possible to explain the stupendous velocity of the growth of the
tails, amounting in some cases to as much as 5,000 miles a second, a velocity
which the energy of the sun would be incompetent to give to matter, Again;
Brexerton,—On Partial Impact, 181
this hypothesis agrees with some of the spectroscopic observations of comets,
in which the tail gave a feebly continuous spectrum, showing it to be solid,
and the nucleus a banded spectrum, showing it to be gaseous. It may be
possible that there are other gases whose temperature of decomposition is
lower than the temperature of volatilization of one of their constituents, such
as fluoride of silicon and generally halogen compounds of infusible bases.
Lhe Sun.
I shall now attempt to show that there may be agencies at work which
may cause a great difference of temperature between the poles of the sun
and its equator, This may give us an insight into the cause of the tremen-
dous cyclones of the meeting solar trades, and these cyclones are possibly
the cause of such spots. If this hypothesis really represents the formation
of the solar system, then it is probable that radiation is greater in a direction
perpendicular to the ecliptic than in its plane, Again, the combined energy
of gravitation and centrifugal force would cause most of the absorbed matter
to fall upon the sun about the equator; both of these causes may produce
a great difference of temperature between the poles and the equator of the
sun, sufficient, perhaps, to produce cyclonie spots. The projection of bodies
upon the surface of the sun, bodies trapped by the sun itself, might probably
produce the sea of flame which surrounds it, and the protuberances so often
seen upon itslimbs. The precipitation of bodies upon its surface appears
to me to offer the only conceivable explanation of the high velocity which
the hydrogen on the surface of the sun sometimes possesses. The speed
of some comets proves that bodies in space may have a velocity of many
hundred miles per second, and we know that a body at rest would aequire
nearly 400 miles a second by the sun's attraetion alone. Therefore many
bodies may fall upon the sun with a velocity of 500 miles a second or more.
Such a body would bury itself far down in the sun, clearing the gas by
pressing it down before it and in a few minutes it would be many thousand
miles into the sun, and, its motion of mass destroyed, a temperature of
100,000,000 might readily be developed, which, even if the density of the
body were no higher than air, would amount to a pressure of 400,000
atmospheres, and would most likely be much greater than this. Here are
all the conditions for a most powerful explosion, amply sufficient for all
that has been observed of the prominences. It is quite evident that if there
are trains of bodies, which have been brought into the orbits around the
sun, most of the phenomena of periodical variations of spots and protuber-
ances may be explained on the assumption that these bodies plunge
obliquely into the body of the sun.
On Double and Multiple Stars.
When the original proper motion is small, and the proportions struck
off large, after partial coalescence the greatly increased attraction acting on
182 Transactions. — Miscellaneous,
the two retreating bodies will in many cases cause one or both of them to
be attracted back to the coalesced mass; but as the foree which produces
this return is partially due to the other retreating body, and for reasons
already mentioned, the returning body will not necessarily come into
collision with the coalesced mass, but may revolve around it producing
double stars, or, if both bodies returned, triple stars, and in many cases the
coalesced mass would also separate and produce even quadruple, or still
higher multiple stars. I need not say that many thousands of multiple
stars exist. Generally the returning stars, although sometimes of greater
magnitude, would be of less luminosity, but this body would collect much
of the matter revolving around the more luminous body, and so have its
own temperature raised. In the case of nearly complete collision, the two
pieces leaving the coalesced mass might reasonably be expected to break
into pieces. Tt is possible to show that the rotation of each of these pieces
must generally be in the same direction as the rotation of the coalesced
mass, and that most of the forces acting would tend to produce a system
resembling the solar system.
Nebula.
I have already shown how a ring nebule may be produced by a case of
partial collision. The cometic nebule would be produced when a high
resultant velocity was produced in the coalesced mass. It is not difficult
to conceive that in the collisions of approximately equal bodies the coalesced
mass might separate chiefly into two other larger masses, and produce
double nebule, and ultimately double stars revolving around each other.
Again, a case of almost complete coalescence appears competent to give rise
to the conditions we observe in the spiral ‘nebulw, as it will be seen that
rotation wil be very slow in this case, and the expulsion of matter
irregular, although it must be confessed that it seems probable that
generaly a large nucleus of eontinuous nebule would be produced. At
the same time possibly higher power observations may show this to be the
case.
Art. IX.—On the Calculation of Distances by means of Reciprocal Vertical
; Angles. By C. W. Apaus.
[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 12th September, 1878.)
Tar distance between any two points on the earth's surface may be found,
if the angle subtended by those points at the centre of the earth is known,
Avams.—To Calculate Distances by Reciprocal Vertical Angles, 188
as itis then only necessary to multiply the number of units in the given
angle by the value of one unit at the earth's surface, in order to find the
distance, or ** Contained Aro," as it is generally called.
The method of deducing the subtended angle, or rather the length of the
** Contained Are," when the vertical angle from each station to the other is
given, may be shown as follows, dividing the problem iuto two eases—first,
when one angle is an elevation ; and, secondly, when both are depressions.
Case 1.— When one angle is an elevation, and the other a depression.
i To investigate a method of ascertaining distances by
means of reciprocal vertical angles:—Let 4 and B in
EE fig. 1 represent the two stations, and C the centre of
| the earth. Draw A F a horizontal line at A, and B G
E a horizontal line at B, and B H parallel to A F.
Then ÆA B G is the true angle of depression at B, and
B A F' is the true angle of elevation at 4, and G B A
— H B A (or BAF) = C (the contained are). Thus
s we see that the difference between the true angles of
elevation and depression is equal to the “contained
arc," xcd d taking the mean value of l'on the earth's surface — 101:4 feet
or 153-6 links, we could thus obtain the distance between the two stations
in feet or links.
But the observed angles are not the true angles, as they are both affected
with refraction.
Let 4 K and BK — the apparent direction of each station from
the other.
Let D pe. the true angle of depression, G B d.
Let E represent the true angle of elevation B 4 F.
Let C represent the angle 4 C B or contained are; and
Let R represent the angle of refraction = K A B or K B A.
G B K will be the apparent angle of depression = D — A.
And KA F will be the apparent angle of elevation = E + R,
and the difference between the observed angles of depression and elevation
will be (D — R) — (E + R) = D — E — 2R = C — 2R.
Now, assuming R to be 4, of the contained are, C — 2R will be C — $5 C
asd»
Therefore the difference between the observed angles of elevation and
depression will be 13 C; so, by multiplying the number of seconds in 15 C
by 13 x 158:6, we shall get the number of links in the contained are, or
the distance between 4 and B. (Note 44 x 159:6 = 177:3). If the dis-
tance between 4 and B is required in feet instead of links, then multiply
by 1$ x 1014 = 117.
184 Transactions,— Miscellaneous,
Casz 2.— When both angles are depressions.
Using the same notation as before, except that D
and d represent the true angles of depression, and
D — R, d — R the observed angles of depression ;
then D + d+ F = 2 right angles, also C + F = 2
right angles ^. D+d=C;andD—-R+d—-—-R
=C—2R. ae is, the sum de both angles of de-
pression — C — —C—fC-i£OC,andiiC
x 1$ x 153°6 (or sum of observed cbe in ers multiplied y
177:8) = distance in links between A and D. If the distance between 4
and B is required in feet, then multiply by 117 instead of 177:8.
The above results expressed in words give the following
Practical Rule.
Take the sum of the observed vertical angles when both are depressions ;
or their difference when one is an elevation, and reduce this sum or differ-
ence to seconds; multiply by 177:3, and the result will be the approximate
distance between the two stations in links. NorE.—lf the distance be
required in feet, then multiply by 117.
Or the following general rule will apply to all cases :—Subtract 180°
from the observed zenith distances, reduce the remainder to seconds, and
multiply by 177-3, the result wil be the approximate distance between the
two stations in links.
In the preceding investigation, I have assumed the mean value of 1" on
the carth’s surface = 101:4 feet, and I shall now show what is the greatest
error that can be introduced in any case by this assumption.
'The radius of curvature on the meridian varies with the latitude from a
minimum at the Equator e m to a maximum at the Pole (s. et
And the radius of curvatare of the Prime Vertical also varies with the
latitude from a minimum at the Equator (= E.) to a maximum at the Pole
E
P
Also, the radius of curvature in any latitude varies with the Azimuth
from a minimum on the meridian to a maximum on the prime vertical.
Still the limits of variation are so small, compared with the ordinary
errors of observation, that in general praetice it is sufficient to assume
101:4 feet as the mean value of 1” on the surface of the earth for New
Zealand.
The following are the precise values for latitudes 89° and 44°, taking 89°
as the mean latitude of the North Island of New Zealand, and 44? as the
mean latitude of the South Island,
cM E E d M RE E
ApAus.— To Calculate Distances by Reciprocal Vertical Angles. 185
FEET.
Taking Bessel's value of the equatorial radius (E) = 20923597
d sel’s value of the polar semi-axis ( == 20853654
e value of 1” on the meridi la = 101:164
The value of 1’ on the prime vertical = 101:575
he mean value of 1” at all azimuths in lat. 39° — 101:370
Again, the value of 1” on the meridian at | = 101-252
A he value of 1” on the prime vertical at lat. 44° = 101-604
é e alue of 1” at azimuths at - 449 = 101:428
And the mean value of 1” at all azimuths at 39° E 101:370
mean value of A atall azimuths for Wa Nude o[N A. = 1:999
Or say, 101:4 fee
It will thas be seen es by using this : mean value, the results would be
sometimes slightly in excess of the true values, and sometimes slightly in
defect; but in any case the difference would only amount to about 1 per
cent., d may therefore in ordinary practice be neglected.
With regard to the co-efficient of refraction which I have adopted, it
may be thought that 45 is too small, as in most works on surveying it is
stated to be from 4 to yy.
The reason I have used 4; is because I find it more in accordance with
actual observations in hilly country in New Zealand.
The factor 177:3, as stated above, is obtained by taking the value of 1"
on the carth’s surface as 153-6 links, and the refraction as 4 of the con-
tained are; but if it is required to obtain the distance in any other
denomination, such as feet, metres, miles, etc., for any other values of ter-
restriul curvature and refraction, this may easily be done by means of the
following formula :—
Let v — value of 1" on the earth's surface, in the given denomination
>> m-co-efficient of refraction
>> £=the factor required ;~ then
Foix
Example. Suppose v— 80:89 metres and m=-071
then — = = ae = 36, the factor required.
It must be borne in mind ihat this method is only approximate, as the
observed vertical angles are liable to an error of 2" or 3” even when an
8-inch theodolite is used, and a mean of several observations taken.
Supposing the average error of each double observation to be 5” or 6”
then the error in the calculated distance would be 5 or 6 times 177 links,
say about 10 chains. This would be 1 per cent. in a distance of 1000
chains, which is the usual distance between geodesical stations in New
Zealand.
The chief ani of this method is that the observations are not
subject to a ratio of error in proportion to the distance. Most approximate
methods, by telemeters, etc., although tolerably correct for short distances,
fail altogether when applied to long distances; but this method gives pro-
138 Transaetions.—Miscellatrteous.
portionately better results, the longer the distance, as I estimate it as subject
to an average error of 5” or 6’ which is equivalent to about 10 chains, and
this error is the same for all distances. Thus, in finding the distance
between two hills 50 miles apart, this would only introduce an error of
21 links per 10 chains, thus nearly approaching in accuracy to a chained
measurement, besides being free from accidental errors and omissions which
all chained measurements are liable to.
But although the errors of observation do not affect the results in pro-
portion to the distance, still, any error in the estimated refraction will do so;
therefore this method is only suitable for hilly country, where other methods
are not available; as, whenever the line of sight between the two stations
passes for any considerable distance close to the surface of water or level
land, the refraction is generally very variable and uncertain, and the results
obtained by this method will then be unreliable.
In my own practice, using an 8-inch transit theodolite, reading to 10",
and noting the level readings at each observation, the distances found by
this method have an average error of half-a-chain to the mile.
For instance, in a circuit of 50 miles between two known points,
average distance of stations 10 miles apart, the error was found to be 23
chains, or less than half-a-chain per mile. In another case, there was an
error of 31 chains in 60 miles, or about half-a-chain per mile.
It is requisite, in this method, to use only the corrected vertical angles,
that is, they must be corrected for the height of the eye and object.
Rules for calculating the correction are given in most books on survey-
ing, but the following blank form will be convenient when the difference of
heights of the eye and object is given in feet and inches, and the distance
between the stations in links :—
Blank Form.
Difference of height of eye and objesi HEHcheklog 42.790 e a
Distance between stations in lin AA a
Colog tang 1'—log 7:92 — REDE log 4°41570
Correction in seconds of are — log .*.....
Note.— When the height of the eye exceeds the height of the object, the
correction is to be added to an elevation or subtracted from a depression.
When the height of the object exceeds the height of the eye, the cor-
rection is to be added to a depression, or subtracted from an elevation ;
Or the rule for applying the corrections may be simplified thus :
Mark angles of elevation + mark angles of e eque
Mark he ight of eye -- mark height o of obje
Then take the algebraical sum of the heights of the eye did object, to com-
pute the correction, to which prefix the same sign; then the algebraical
sum of this correction, and the observed vertical angle, will give the true
vertical angle,
Uma
Apams.—To calculate Distances by Reciprocal Vertical Angles. 187
In order to compute this correction by the above rules, the distance
between the stations is required to be known; but as in all cases where this
method is used the distance between the stations is not known, we must
proceed as follows :—
With the observed vertical angles, as they stand in the field-book,
compute the distance between the stations; and with this approximate dis-
tance, compute the eye and object correction. Then, with the corrected
angles, again compute the distance, and in most cases no further calcula-
tion will be required; but in cases where the second calculation gives a
result differing greatly from the first approximation, it may be advisable to
repeat the calculation.
Instead, however, of neglecting the eye and object correction altogether,
in calculating the first approximation, it will be sometimes advantageous to
ascertain the correction roughly, and take it into account. This may be
done as follows :—
As 1 inch subtends 1" at 26044 links or 8} miles nearly, we can easily
ascertain the angle subtended by any number of inches, at any number of
miles distance, by the following rule :—
Multiply the inches by 81 and divide the product by the number of miles,
ihe quotient will be the number of seconds subtended. The distance in
miles can generally be estimated to within 10 per cent. or so, and calcu-
lating the first approximate pedo ia this way will often save time.
Exa
Bryant's Hill to ahadi s Hill. Elev. r " 18”
Barker's Hill to Bryant's Hill. Dep. 2’ 50" 2
Bryant's Hill to Barker's Hill. Height of eye ao Gy
3s object = 0 0
Ix,
Eye exceeds object 3 1 = 87
Distance, say 10 miles 10) 120
12:0"
Ew. Ix.
Barker's Hill to Bryant's Hill. Height of eyo = a
te object = T
— HE Ix.
Eye exceeds object = 1 9 = £^
10 ) 68
6:8
Bryant 1° 14 13” + 12' = 1° 14 25"
ee o D Elev., D M trat. LE i
Barker's io Bryant's Hill. Dep.,
8 182 = 498"2
3771
49820
34874
8487
To compute the eye and object corrections 149
138 Transactions.— Miscellaneous.
INCHES.
37 = log 156820
88330 = colog 5:05389
[uU
eonstant log 441570
Correction 10-^9 = log. 1.:03779
INCHES.
21 = log . 1:32222
88330 = -Golog 5105389
con ni Pe 4:41570
Correcttion 6*2 = log 079181
; Corrected Angles.
Elev. 1° 14' 13” + 10.9 — 1? 14' 28-9
Dep. 1° 27 50 — 6 2 = 1 22 4*8
8 199 = 4999
3
Distance from Bryant’s Hill to tog s Hill — 88632 links
ithe rue distance as found by Triangula = 97
Difference 565 a
Which is about half a chain per mile.
Having found the contained arc, or distance between the stations, in
links, by the rules given above, the difference in altitude may be obtained in
the usual way, viz., by converting the links into feet and then multiplying
the distance in feet between the stations by the tangent of the true angle
of elevation or depression. (Norr.—The true angle of elevation or
depression is half the sum of the observed reciprocal angles, when one
is an elevation; or half the difference when both are depressions; or,
generally, if zenith distances are used, the true vertical angle is equal to
half the difference of the reciprocal zenith distances;—of course sup-
posing the eye and object corrections to have been applied.)
But instead of finding the distance between the stations in links, and
then converting it into feet, it would be more simple to find the distance in
feet at once, by MA the factor 117 instead of 177-3, as before explained :—
Example.
Bryant’s Hill to enke s E Corrected Elev. 1° 14’ 23⁄9
Barker’s Hill to Bryant’s " Dep. 1° 22’ 437-8
Diff. 819^9 — 4999
Sum. 2° 87077
$ Sum. 1° 18’ 338
499.9 = log 2-698883
117 = constant log 2-068186
1*1999^8 = tangent 8:359040
1337°0 feet = 8126109
Avams.—1o calculate Distances by Reciprocal Vertical Angles, 189
If no logarithmic or trigonometrical tables are at hand, the difference of
altitude may be found as follows :—
As :00000485 represents the value of sin 1’ are 1" or tang 1" (true to
the last figure), and as the tangents of small angles vary very nearly as the
number of seconds contained in the angle, we may substitute for the tangent
of the angle the number of seconds multipled by ‘00000485.
In practice, the operation may be shortened by combining the two
multipliers together; thus, 00000485 x 117 = :0005675.
(Norz.—In order to show how very nearly the sines, arcs, and tangents
agree for the first two degrees, their values at two degrees are given, for the
sake of comparison,
Thus sin 22 =
are 2° = :0349066
tang? — 0349208 | 142 = 8"
Diff.
0348995 | 71 = 14
Therefore, the arc of 2° = sin 2° 00’ 01%’, and the tangent of
2° = arc of 2° 00’ 08",
Also, in obtaining the tangent of 2° by multiplying -00000485 x 60
X 60 x 2, the result is ‘0349200, or just 1 of a second below the true value.
Similarly the tangent of 1°, found in the same manner, is ‘0174600, or
just 1” above its true value ; but the value used for tang 1’, viz., 00000486,
is slightly in excess of its true value, which is -0000048481368, etc.)
Then the difference of altitude may be found by the following rules :—
Case 1.—When one angle is in an elevation.
RuLe.—Take the difference of the observed vertical angles, and also half
the sum, both reduced to seconds ; multiply them together, and their product
by ‘0005675; the result will be the difference of altitude between the two
stations in feet.
Case 2.— When both angles are depressions.
Rvrz.—Take the sum of the observed verticle angles, and also half the
differenee, both reduced to seconds, multiply them together, and their pro-
duct by -0005675 ; the result will be the difference of altitude between the
two stations in feet.
Or, if zenith distances are used, the following general rule will apply in
all cases :— :
Rurr.—Subtract 180? from the sum of the observed zenith distances and
reduce the remainder to seconds; then take half the difference of the
Observed zenith distances and reduce it to seconds ; multiply the two
quantities together, and the product by *0005675, and the result will be the
difference of altitude between the two stations in feet,
140 Transactions,— Miscellaneous,
\
Example as before.
poe
uit,
1° 18’ 337-8
8' 19”
4713-8
499-9 9994 = 499-9 reversed
2356300
0005675 5765000 = 0005675 reversed
Diff. of altitude = 13373 feet
Even when a book of logarithms is available, the calculation by logs
will be more expeditiously performed by using the logs of the above
quantities than by using the log tangent.
Example.
1? 18 33° ‘8 = 4713:8 “log 8 sd
= 499:9 log 2:6988
Constant log -0005675 z= 6.158960
1337:3 feet = 3:126220
With regard to the actual results obtained by this method, I may
mention that in the circuit of 50 miles previously referred to, the altitudes
closed to 18 feet, and in the circuit of 60 miles, the error in closing was
only 2 feet.
It is thus evident that this method is quite capable of giving reliable
results in hilly country, and is well adapted for the topographical survey of
a new country. A line of stations might be selected in the most accessible
positions, and each line used as a base from which to extend triangles on
either side, and as every line is determined independently, there would be no
accumulation of error.
On the contrary, by observing to distant hills on either side, the distances
found would check each other, and any erroneous result could be rejected.
In very level country, where the refraction is too uncertain to give
reliable results by this method, other methods may be employed, such as
chained lines, or triangulation from a measured base, ete.
Porz,—4 Methad of measuring Position of Double Stars, 141
Art. X.—A Description of inexpensive Apparatus for measuring the Angles of
Position and Distances of Double Stays, and the Method of using it.
By James H. Porr.,
Plate I.
(Read before the Otago Institute, 13th August, 1878.)
UxpousrEDLY anyone who wishes to make observations of double stars
should provide himself with a first-class telescope equatorially mounted,
having an aperture of from eight to ten inches; he should place this
telescope in a commodious and well built observatory and should procure a
first-class filar micrometer and a galvanic chronograph. He should have
perfect illuminating apparatus, so that the micrometer wires may appear as
bright lines on a dark field or as dark lines on a bright field, and he should
be able at will to employ whatever tint he wishes to give to his field or his
wires. Besides all this, his telescope should be accurately driven by clock-
work, so that he may keep a star in one part of the field of view as long as
he wishes to do so, and may have both hands at perfect liberty to take
angles of position and to measure the distances between the components of
double stars. But, unfortunately, this apparatus is extremely expensive.
Cooke of York will provide every requisite for some £1200; it is not every
one that can quite see his way to spend such a sum. There are many
enthusiastie students of astronomy who are anxious to engage in this kind
of work, but think it quite out of their power to do so on account of these
same pecuniary difficulties. The following paper attempts to show how
good work in this department of astronomy may be done at a very trifling
expense, and to make it evident that the possessor of a good telescope may,
with a small expenditure of trouble and a still smaller expenditure of money,
hope to be in a position to take measures of double stars, that will be worth
preserving in the scientific records of the day. Here I would say, once for
all, that the methods described in this paper are, many of them, not new.
Some of them were invented by Sir John Herschell, some by other
astronomers. For many of the details the writer alone is responsible. For
working out the mechanical construction, and for many most valuable
improvements in the water-clock used in the method, the writer has to thank
Mr. Forsyth, station-master, Caversham. All that the writer claims to
have done is to have worked out a complete system (the materials for which
have been derived from various sources), by means of which double star
observation is placed within the reach of a large class of students of the
starry heavens, who are debarred from pursuing this fascinating branch of
astronomy by the great expense involved in procuring the instruments
ordinarily used in it,
149 Transactions.— Miscellaneous,
Fig. 1 represents the field of view of a positive eye-piece of high mag-
nifying power. In this are arranged, in the manner shown in the figure,
images of wires for ordinary use and of webs for more delicate observations.
Fig. 2 is the position circle. This is made of very stout block-tin, and
is wired at the back to prevent its warping. Its circumference is divided
into degrees (the minutes are to be estimated). The circle is fastened on &
central cap, like that which is used for a sun-shade, so that the circle can be
screwed on to the eye-piece with facility. Every care must be taken to set
the plane of the circle at right angles to the axis of the telescope.
Before the circle is put on the eye-piece, the index I, fig. 3, is placed
on the telescope, tube T’, and temporarily secured by means of the clamp
and screw Cs. Then the circle is put on, and the apparatus will be in
the condition represented in fig. 8. If the telescope used is equatorially
mounted and properly adjusted, it may be now turned on a double star in
any part of the heavens; if it is an alt. azimuth, a star must be chosen on
or near the meridian, the nearer the better. The star, or rather one of the
component stars, is now made tó run along between the wires TT, fig.1, by
turning the eye-piece tube of the telescope round until it does so. Then
the index I, fig. 8, must be made to point accurately to the zero of the
position circle, and be firmly secured there by means of the clamp.
Next the eye-piece tube is turned round until the line joining the centres
of the two stars is exactly parallel to the two wires. Then the circle
indication is read off, and, if necessary, 180° must be added to the angle so
obtained. Then, evidently, the angle of position with the meridian has
been obtained. Several observations of the same star on different nights
should be taken. It is advantageous, too, to use different parts of the circle
as the zero point. If this be done, the mean of all the observations will be
a very close approximation to the truth.
Having found the angle of position, we next proceed to obtain the
distance. This operation should be attempted only in the very finest
weather. The writer always measures distances either in morning or
evening twilight, or in full moonlight when the moon is near the meridian.
Thus the illumination difficulty is avoided.
The clepsydra, the use and construction of which will easily be under-
stood from the section of it given in fig. 4, is placed in a convenient position
near the telescope. The tanks T and T” are filled with water, the eyepiece
tube is turned round as in the previous operation. until one of the com-
ponents of the double star runs along the wire TT or the web w.w. Then
the star is recalled and raised in the field a litttle, so that it may transit the
oblique wire TW, or the oblique web w.T. The instant that the first star
is bisected by the wire or web, the lever is pressed sharply down to the peg P
TRANS. NZ.INSTITUTE VOL XLPLT
Fig 2.
JAH Pope, del.
by LI Pope
To illustrate paper
SAA AA AA KAA
EXPLANATION OF PLATE I
Rovem Puans or Position CIRCLE, ETC.
Fig. I.—Field of Oblique Transit Eye-piece.
MM Meridian transit wire.
TT Declination parallel wire.
ww Declination parallel web.
TW 20° oblique transit wire.
Tw i0?oblique transit web.
Fig. II.—Position Circle.
E Eye-hole.
C Cap for fastening circle to tube of telescope.
Fig. III.—Vertical Section.
C Position circle.
F Field lens.
T Eye-piece tube.
T" Telescope tube.
œ Clamp and screw for index.
I
Rouen SECTION oF CLEPSYDRA.
Fi
Bars, supports
D Lever.
F Fulcrum.
S^ Sp 1
ring.
P Pegto limit movement of lever.
F^ Fastening of spring.
S" Spring to keep valve shut.
T ——————— ULA UNI KAA ee KUMALIZA
Pore.—A Method of measuring Position of Double Stars. 148
and firmly held there, this raises the valves VV’, and water flows up the
glass tube G, which has previously been filled up to the zero point of the
scale. The instant that the second star is bisected by the wire or web the
lever is released, the valves are immediately closed, and the flow of water
ceases. The height of the column of water is then accurately measured by
means of the graduated scale. Then the water is allowed to escape through
the waste-tap T", and the operation is repeated. A mean of all the observa-
tions gives the quantity of water that flows into the glass-tube during the
interval between the transits of the two stars. Let this quantity be 2°25
inches. Then an observation is made, by means of a watch, of the time
required to fill the tube, that is to say for 30 inches of water to run into it;
let this time be 21:5 seconds. A rule of three sum shows us the time
elapsing between the transits of the two stars :—
EK UE Sees.
35 5 * 21:5 t: 1:613
1:612 seconds of time is, Meroe the interval between the transits of the
two stars.
Having found this interval, a simple trigonometrical Spanien gives us
the distance between the two stars :—
Let p = the North Polar TM zi ne sy
= angle of position
= angle of position of ie line j ue the stars.
T = interval between the two transits in seconds of time.
A= distance in seconds of arc between the two stars.
T x 15.sinp.cosa:
Gea
Then A =
sin (a — 9).
These calculations are not very troublesome. A very little practice
enables one to do them very rapidly. It may be as well, in conclusion, to
give an example just to show how very little labour is really involved in this
process,
On April 5th, 1876, twelve oblique transits were taken of the aber 4763
(of Brisbane’s catalogue), R.A. 14h. Om., Decl. 53° 6 S. The average
duration of time between the transits of the component stars of the double
over a wire inclined 78? 5/ to the meridian, was 9:61 secs. The angle of
position had been found to be 22° 0'. Then—
9:61 secs. L e — 14415 Log 2158814
sin : dis 97718455
cos | 9-314897
cosec d 56? 5 10081000
1:333166
The natural number corresponding to this is 21:58. Hence the distance
between the stars is 213 seconds of arc. This measure was taken before
apparatus described in this paper had been made as perfect as it is at
144 Transactions.— Miscellaneous.
present. It is probable that measures taken now with the improved position
circle and the clepsydra, will at all events approach in accuracy the best
measures taken with perfect appliances. If mercury could be used instead
of water with similar apparatus, still better results would be obtained, but
as the object has been to incur as little expense as possible, it has been
thought advisable to adapt the arrangements to the use of water.
It is obvious that this method is available for measuring the diameter
of planets, sun-spots, etc., and also for selenographical observations.
Art. XI.—Deflection of Shingle-bearing Currents and Protection of River
Banks by Druslin’s Floating Log Dams. By H. P. Mackin.
Plate II.
(Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 17th August, 1878.}
Tue plain of the Wairau in the Province of Marlborough is a tract of flat
aluvial country, averaging about ten miles by seventy, and has been
formed on the channel of an ancient iceberg (mer-de-glace), by the streams
from the surrounding hills and the Wairau River, which traverses its
entire length, rising on Mount Mackay, and debouching in Cloudy Bay, a
portion of Cook Strait. Geologically the plain is of post-pliocene formation,
surrounded towards the north and west by mountains of metamorphic and
paleozoie origin, and on the south by low hills of marine tertiary drift.
The Wairau River has evidently formed the greater portion of the plain,
and carries with it immense quantities of shingle, of which it is made the
receptacle, by the rivulets from the hills, The district is & prosperous
farming one; and from its first settlement, has been liable to considerable.
damage, not only from the flood-water itself, but also from the shifting of
the river-bed, and the deposit of shingle on the adjacent lands. The town
of Blenheim is situated on the middle of the plain, and unfortunately, its
site is lower by several feet than the surrounding country. Every year its
danger is becoming more imminent, as the beds of the river and its branch,
the Opawa, are gradually rising, from these rivers being compelled to deposit
the drift on their banks and beds by lateral embankments. The late
Provincial Government, under the direction of eminent engineers, has
tried in vain many devices to direct the stream from the town. All were
unavailing, as the rapidity of the current undermined cratings, tanks, and
wing-walls, while the enormous quantities of shingle deposited defied all
control. Not a wreck remains of ali the works thus erected, costing some
£15,000. On plan No. I will be seen, at the point X, the lowest point in
the river bank, whence the town gets flooded by overflow, and where the
TRANS. NZ INSTITUTE. VOL. XI. PUIL.
SECTION AA
>
adieu S
NDI WA MA MAA sel Kirar, g
o S It b a gt
9 f g LI
To illustrate paper by HP Macklin.
Macxitn.—Protection of River Banks. 145
river threatens to form a new channel, leading directly through the town, as
the lowest portion of the plain. The construction called a “dam” was
erected some two years ago, at the point Z, (plan No. 1) and has not only
diverted the stream into the * new ” channel, but raised the bank of shingle
behind and below it. The old bed is gradually silting up. Had solid
planking been put in to divert the current, it would have got undermined
almost immediately, and the shingle been carried on and deposited where
it would do harm.
The theorem is as follows :—If a current will carry shingle, when
travelling at the rate of six or seven miles per hour, but will not, if the
velocity is decreased to say four, then, anything so decreasing it, will force
it to drop the shingle; and, what is of more importance, at the point where
itis so decreased. The invention I have to describe was suggested to Mr.
Druslin, by observing and experimenting on the action of one log floating
and moored diagonally across a current, by which it was seen that the
surface current was deflected. It then became clear that a series of logs
moored at certain distances from the bottom above one another, and so fixed
to upright posts that they would float or rise with the flood, would not
only divert the current by producing a resultant between the downward
velocity and the resistance, but by forming eddies below the logs, and
decreasing the velocity, cause the deposit of all the shingle. The water
here in flood time is about twelve feet deep, and there is a series of frame-
works of five logs each, averaging twenty-eight inches in diameter, placed
diagonally across the stream, sloping from the bank at an angle of 135
degrees down stream. It will be seen that these logs, fixed in the following
manner, check about half the volume of current and divert the remainder.
Piles of very heavy timber are driven into the bed of the river; the first
horizontal log lies on the bottom, the next about a foot above it, and so on
to the surface; the whole series is so arranged that the top log always floats;
in fact the structure is so buoyed that it rises on the piers with the flood.
The accompanying plans will show the construction. Reference to plan No.
8 will show how the stones and sand get piled up during a flood, so high as
to reach within a short distance of the surface, while in front of the logs
there is a raging torrent. There is one defect about this invention, which
led many people to condemn it at first. During flood-time a bank of shingle
is raised, averaging eight feet (see along the line m n on plan No. 1), but
during its subsidence, and until the next flood occurs, the river is acting on
it, and cutting it away. But plans are now devised for placing a wing-wall
of planks, perpendicularly to the horizon, in a frame in such a manner
that they will drop into any holes made beneath them by the water,
thus keeping the bank of shingle intact. There is no doubt in m mind
146 Transactions.— Miscellaneous.
that the town of Blenheim has been saved by this invention. Of all the
money spent in conservation and attempts to divert the stream, these log-
dams only remain, and when thrown up shingle can be retained, no danger
need be feared for the future. It will thus be seen that the great problem
of how to divert the current and make a bank of shingle where it can be’
utilised, has been solved in one of the most dangerous and rapid rivers in
New Zealand. Unfortunately the conservation of rivers here is in the hands
of a Board elected by the settlers from among themselves, and such bodies
are not only slow to see, but timid in admitting the merits of a new idea.
To make the matter clearer than can be done by written description I forward
a small model of the invention.
Art. XII.—On Beach Protection. By W. D. Caurszrr, Ass. Inst. C.E.
Plate ITI.
[Read before the Westland Institute, 15th July, 1878.)
Tue encroachments of the sea on the sandy ridge upon which a portion of
the town of Hokitika is built, have often been very considerable during
tempestuous weather, and at times have created no unusual amount of
alarm among the inhabitants of Revell Street. The subject of beach pro-
tection will therefore be of interest and importance to many present, and I
propose to briefly discuss it, prefacing my remarks by a glance at the
conditions presented by waves in accumulating and removing beaches.
The movements of shingle and sand along the coast are due to the
waves, whose direction is determined by the prevailing wind, but tidal
currents sometimes indirectly affect their action by subduing or increasing
the waves according as they may be with or against their direction. The
action of the waves may be taken to be of three kinds:*—1st. The
accumulative action, which heaps up the particles against the shore.
2nd. The destructive action, which breaks down the accumulations pre-
viously made. 8rd. The progressive action, which carries forward the
pebbles and sand in a horizontal direction.
The difference between the first and second actions is determined by
the rate of succession of the waves ; for when they break upon the shore so
rapidly as to over-ride each other, a continuous downward under-current is
produced and the destructive action commences. The progressive action
takes place when the waves impinge obliquely upon the shore.
* See “Observations on the ,Motions of Shingle Beaches,” by H. R. Palmer, C.E.,
F.R.S., Phil. Trans. Royal Society, 1834, Part I,
p
XR
j
CaupBELL.— On Beach Protection, 147
Works, having for their object the protection of the sea-beach, should
divide the destructive and progressive actions of the waves. This require-
ment is fulfilled by piled and planked groynes, constructed at right angles
to the shore line, their tendency being to collect and retain the sand and
shingle. When the waves approach the shore exactly at right angles, the
groynes will have their minimum effect, as no progressive action exists,
The constant shifting of the beach, however, at Hokitika, either to the north
or south, shows that an oblique direction usually prevails. Groynes have
been found to be most successful in similar cases of encroachment on the
coasts of Great Britain. In the Baltic, a double row of piles has been found
to succeed; while on the Dutch coast groynes are constructed of fascines,
where the dykes are more than usually exposed to the waves. The English
practice is to drive the piles from one-half to two-thirds of their length in
the sand or shingle, either in pairs, placing planking between them, or to
have a pile on alternate sides of the planking. Sheet-piling would be
particularly advantageous, and is shown in figs. 1 and 2, which “closely
resembles a design by Mr. R. Pickwell, A.I.C.E. With main piles 27 feet
long, and sheet piles 15 feet long, the rate per yard run would be 16 lin,
feet main piles, 8 CBM timber in planking, sheet piles, and waling, 51lbs.
ironwork in bolts and 30lbs. in shoes. With planking only, the quantity per
yard run would be 15 lin. feet main piles, 1 CBM timber in planking and
40lbs. ironwork in bolts and 8lbs. in shoes.
To protect the beach from opposite Camp Street to Hampden Street, a
distance of 770 yards, six groynes, each 66 lin. yards in length, might be
placed every 154 yards. Their cost would be about £3,000. With the
foreshore thus protected a line of scrub and saplings could be placed with
advantage along the beach. The cost would be about £500.
As instances of the successful conservation of foreshores by groynes, it
may be mentioned that, at Spurn Point in Yorkshire,* piled and planked
groynes were used by Sir John Coode, and in four years the line of bent
grass had extended 200 feet to seaward, covering many drift banks; also at
Withernsea,+ in the same neighbourhood, some groynes 800 to 350 feet
long were constructed 200 yards apart by Mr. Pickwell; the piles at first
stood ten feet above the beach at the land end and six feet at the sea end,
the upper five planks were added as the beach accumulated, and in four
years the groynes were nearly covered; at Eastbourne and Folkestone
groynes of similar construction have been successfully used; at the former
place they were constructed 150 yards apart, the piles were driven in pairs
with two walings and a centre row of closely driven sheet-piles six inches
* Proc. Inst. C.E., Vol. XXVIIL., p. 503.
1 Proc. Inst. C.E., Vol. LL, p. 206.
148 Transactions,.—-Miscellaneous.
thick. At Cranz, on the Baltic, rows of piles 8 x 8 inches and 10 to 12 feet
long, spaced 18 inches apart, have been successful, with a breastwork of
piles and fascines, Breastworks are often required in cases of low foreshore
or where a cliff is exposed to rapid erosion by the sea.
Beaches have also been successfully formed along the sea barriers of recla-
mation works by means ofgroynes. At Sunderland, successive additions were
made to the reclaimed area as the beach formed. In 1874-5 the author had
charge of similar works at Ayr; a reclamation of 24 acres of foreshore for &
dock was made, and six groynes with stone filling, each 150 feet in length
and 250 feet apart (see figs. 8 and 4), were constructed along the line of sea
barrier in order to collect a beach in front of it. In the first year after their
erection a rise of two to three feet took place. With main piles, having a
nett length of 81 lin. feet, the rate per yard run with scrub and stone filling,
instead of wholly stone as shown in the drawing, would be 18,5, lin. feet
main piles, 23 CBM timber in way-balks, walings, cross-ties, and planking,
and 50 lbs. iron work in bolts, 83 lbs. spikes and 21 lbs. in shoes; scrub
and stone filling 173 cubic yards. The cost of 6 groynes, each 66 lin. yards,
would be about £5,800.
On spits and low beaches exposed to encroachment, groynes require to be
constructed first, and then rows of fascines and scrub can be placed with
advantage along the crest of the beach. The serub placed along the beach
at Hokitika probably assisted the accumulation of sand behind it; but
without groynes it cannot affect the action of the sea at the foot of the beach
where the erosion is greatest, and encroachment proceeds until the scrub is
undermined. The rough cribwork groynes that Mr. Rochfort placed on the
beach in 1867 and 1868* were efforts in the right direction, but a much
greater length would be required for efficient protection. The formation of
a broad beach upon which the waves can expend their force is of far greater
importance than a high narrow ridge which must always be liable to be
washed down by heavy seas.
The fetch or reach of open sea is considerably greater here than at those
places that I have mentioned, and the waves from that cause must be larger ;
but the depth of water off Hokitika at 1 mile and 1 mile distance is 26 and
42 feet, at Sunderland it is 27 and 52 feet; while the range of spring tides
at Hokitika is 9 feet, and at Sunderland it is 14 feet 6 inches; and it must
follow that the power of the waves are more broken here, having to pass.
over shallower water. I believe the design shown in figs. 1 and 2 would be
efficacious, and it has the merit of presenting the minimum amount of
surface to the seas.
* Seo Trans. N.Z, Inst., 1871, Vol. IV., p. 299.
TRANS. INSTITUTE VOLXL PU
ELEVATION OF GROYNE
Urawrord.—Growth of Cereals in New Zealand. 149
The snags cast up after every flood will no doubt dangerously affect the
groynes when first constructed, as they would then have a large portion
above the surface of the beach, but such risks must be unavoidably
encountered. Hurriedly constructed works such as have hitherto been in —
vogue are seldom satisfactory, for permanent results can only be obtained
by a system of management pursued when opportunity favours, the best
time for constructing the groynes being at the period of extension of beach.
Arr, XIIL—How New Zealand may continue to grow Wheat and other
Cereals. By James C. CRAWFORD.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 8rd August, 1878.]
Wz have all heard of the exhaustion of soils in new countries from the
system of taking crop after crop of the same grain off the land year after
year without manure, so that eventually the richest soils have been
reduced to a barren state, and have refused any longer to yield returns to
the husbandman.
Thus the fertile bottoms of Virginia were impoverished—although, I
believe, it was by tobacco and not by grain—and thus the former wheat-
growing lands of Campbeltown and Appin, to the southward of Sydney,
now refuse to grow wheat, and are only used for the growth of oaten hay,
which, the grain not being ripened, takes little out of the soil.
The immense wheat-fields of South Australia, which now give so large
an export to that colony, must, in course of time, share the same fate, if
continued on the same system, and even now the yield per aere is very
small.
Wheat-growing has become an important industry in New Zealand, and
the returns from the provincial districts of Canterbury and Otago have for
several years past been very large.
New Zealand soils will not long, however, stand the system of cropping
above described, for a very few years will exhaust the constituents required
for a grain crop. Let us consider, however, how grain-cropping in this
colony can be put upon a permanent footing.
We must not be too hard upon the farmers who exhaust their soils, and
supply no manure to make up the waste, because, from the system of
farming necessary in a new country, it is not easy, perhaps it is impossible,
to obtain the required supply of manure. In Great Britain and other
thickly-peopled countries, the farmer lays his plans to provide a supply of
manure for himself, He has either a dairy, or he stall-feeds oxen, or he
150 Transactions, —Miscellaneous,
keeps a flock of sheep to feed off his turnips. He has probably, also, a town
or large village iu his vicinity, from which he ean purchase house-manure ;
and, under the system of high farming, other manures are brought to him
from all parts of the world.
It probably would not pay in a new country to go into the elaborate
system of farming which is practised in an old one. Much may, however,
be done in this direction ; and if we contrast the farm work of Otago with
that of the rest of the colony, we will see that it can be done to advantage.
It may be that most of the wheat crops now grown in New Zealand are
only preparatory to laying the land down in grass. In that case there is
little harm done. The land is not exhausted, and after being for some
years under grass, may be again broken up and cropped; but what I
propose to consider is whether we can hit upon an economical plan of
continuing grain-cropping without a rest under grass.
There is nothing new in what I propose to state. It is only a reitera-
tion of well-known facts, but facts which, strange to say, are seldom known
to the farmer. He knows that his land is liable to exhaustion, but of the.
constituents which are taken away in the grain removed, or of how to
replace them, he is generally ignorant.
The chief constituents of a grain crop which are carried away with the
grain are only three in number—viz., phosphate of lime, potash, and
nitrogen. The two former, when once exhausted, cannot be replaced
except by earrying them to the ground, or by the slow process of the land
lying fallow, or in grass, until fresh supplies which may still remain in the
soil shall be released, and put in a condition to furnish food to plants.
With regard to nitrogen, there is an ample supply in the atmosphere,
and, if I remember right, Liebig originally held that no nitrogenous
man‘ires were necessary, but afterwards, considering the effect of guano
and of muck, changed his views on this point, and eame to the conclusion
that the nitrogen of the atmosphere in, I suppose, the form of ammonia,
did not assimilate with sufficient rapidity to obviate the necessity for
nitrogenous manures, and that therefore these manures must be provided.
Now, leaving aside for the time the question of the supply of phosphate
of lime and of potash, let us consider how the supply of nitrogen may be
most readily brought about. No doubt the simplest plan would be to pur-
chase and apply Peruvian guano, but I wish to arrive at the result without
an outlay of money. If we go back to the time of the Romans we find that
they supplied nitrogen by growing and ploughing in lupins. Now any of the
bean tribe will answer for the purpose, these plants being rich in nitrogen,
and, when ploughed in, the decomposition which is set up places the
nitrogen in a state to be assimilated by plants,
Crawrord.—Growth of Cereals in New Zealand. 151
Can we in the climate of New Zealand grow a crop of some plant of the
bean tribe, after the grain crop has been harvested, so as to be ready to be
ploughed in before the next year’s grain crop is sown? If we can do this,
then, with a supply of phosphate of lime and of potash when required, we
might grow wheat every year. I think this might be done in the North
Island, but as regards the wheat-growing districts of the South, it may be
doubtful. However, I suppose the plan would be to grow and plough in a
bean crop whenever it should be thought necessary, if a crop of turnips, or
vetches, fed off by sheep, should not be found equally satisfactory.
The main point, however, is the supply of phosphate of lime. Asa
rule, the soils of the colony are deficient in this mineral, and every effort of
the farmer should go to increase it in quantity. As the best supply of
nitrogen would be derived from Peruvian guano, so probably the readiest
supply of phosphate of lime would be from the phosphatic guanos. But we
have a grand supply of phosphate of lime within the colony without going
abroad to look for it. We have over 12,000,000 sheep, and a corresponding
number of great cattle. We have a large supply of bones every year, much
of which is exported. Not a pound of bones ought to leave new Zealand,
but, on the contrary, they should be imported from Australia or elsewhere.
We have plenty of sulphur. The manufacture of sulphuric acid should be
commenced. Bones treated with sulphuric acid in a state of readiness for
use, and other manures, such as nitrate of soda, can be manufactured when
sulphuric acid is procurable. A country which contains a liberal supply of
sulphur, and in which the inhabitants are intelligent enough to understand
the uses of sulphuric acid, is placed at an immense advantage over countries
deficient in this mineral. Both in agriculture and in manufacture the uses
of sulphuric acid are manifold, and perhaps it is only second to coal in
productive economy. How much more is the presence of sulphur a God-
send in a country so remote from the rest of the world as is New Zea-
land, because sulphuric acid is a dangerous commodity to send by sea,
and in consequence, when brought from Europe, is very expensive.
It is to be hoped, therefore, that the manufacture of sulphuric acid
within the colony may be soon commenced, and then the farmers may be
supplied with a liberal quantity of superphosphates.
An excellent example of the use of supplying phosphate of lime may be
seen in the treatment of the clay soils near Auckland. These soils appear
to be in their natural state entirely devoid of this mineral, and are in con-
sequence extremely sterile. A liberal dose of crushed bones makes them
productive, and without this supply their cultivation is useless, as they will
give no returns,
152 Transactions.— Miscellaneous.
It might have been of advantage to the farmers of the hills near
Wellington and other parts of New Zealand, if the phosphates there had
also been entirely wanting, because by this time they would have learnt the
necessity of applying them. As the case stands the phosphates are merely
deficient in quantity, not absent altogether, and thus the farmers have been
able to get along somehow. A liberal dose of bone-dust, repeated when
required, would vastly increase the produce of their soils.
I am inclined to suppose that there is generally a sufficient supply of
potash in the soils of this Colony, but no doubt the quantity is constantly
subjected to diminution. On grazing lands a considerable portion is an-
nually removed in the wool, and sent to England, and in cultivated land it
is carried away as a constituent of the crop, and if not restored in manure
is lost to the soil.
I suppose fresh supplies of potash might be procured by taking more
care of our waste timber—by saving ashes from timber land when cleared,
and from the toppings of branches at the saw mills, and also from sea-
weeds.
Growing continuous grain crops is not confined to new countries but
has been tried in England—of course in that country with the use of
manure
i think that Mr. Dawes, the celebrated agriculturist, first tried the
system, and I have come across an account of some experiments in the
same direction, conducted at Paxton in Berwickshire. These experiments
seem to have extended over seven years, and a statement of the results may
prove of interest. I therefore give it :—
Four-Acre Field.
; Value of Crop
Year. Kind of Crop. | Kind of Manure and quantity per Acre. per acre
with Straw.
1870 ..| Turnips, after) | Portion of turnips eaten on ground b £ sd
Barley ..]| shee z io z 917 6
A3NI es | ey c. [2 owt, nitrate of soda 2 s s 1118 4
18/2. ...|Osld .. cwt. guan ja p a 0 0
19573. >. | Beans .. ..|2 owt. dissolved Noe s : ba 1410 0
1874 ..| Wheat 20 tons farmyard l0 0 0
1876 ..|Barley .. .. | 1d cwt. nitrate of soda, and 1 ewt. super-
phosphate 3 910 0
1870 .. | Barley .. -« | 14 cwt. nitrate ol pe and 1 ewt. super- )
phosphate of lime xd 910 0
1877 .: | Barley .. .. | 23 cwt. nitrate of d). and 2 ewt. . super-
phosphate of lim 3 Um
Crawrorp.—Growth of Cereals in New Zealand. 153
SetensActe Field.
Value of Crop
Year. Kind of Crop. Kind of Manure and Quantity per Acre. per acre
with Straw.
1870... | Turni £0. d.
. | Turnips cule us kanywa dung, and 3 cwt. 6 0 0
no
1871. = 3. | Barney .. 2 uet ni en on ground by sheep Bits
1872 ae MAF ys .. | 2 owt. tga of soda 9.8. 93
1873 Oats o manure E 715 0
1874 ..| Beans .. | 2 cwt. bone 12 0 0
187b .. | Barley .. .. |14 cwt. nitr e of soda, “and dj cwt. ji 6 9 4
Pride uii ud of lime kj
1876... .. | Barley... .. | 1} cwt. nitrate of MK and 1 cwt. super. 817 1
phosphate of li j
1877 ..|Barley .. .. | 24 ewt. nitrate ts soda, and 3 cwt. imme 700
phosphate of li
Ishould be inclined to think that continuous corn-growing in Great
Britain could hardly come into competition with a rotation of crops, for one
reason in particular,—viz., the want of provision for destruction of weeds.
This is a diffieulty which would also occur in New Zealand, where, from the
moisture of the climate, weeds are very difficult to be kept under. If a
good payable system of rotation for this colony could be hit upon, I am
inclined to think it would beat the continuous eorn-growing system. If,
however, farmers will continue to work their land on the latter plan, I will
again reiterate that they cannot continue to do so for many years without
giving and keeping up a supply of phosphate of lime, of potash, and of
nitrogen.
I have seen it stated, on excellent authority, that pastures which are
deficient in phosphate of lime in the soil ought never to be used for breed-
ing sheep; for the lambs on such pastures scour, get pot-bellied, are deficient
in size, and many of them die. This seems according to reason, for if there
is an insufficient supply of mineral to form the bones, the animal must
probably also suffer in other ways. Possibly, when the sheep has attained full
growth, and his bones are fully formed, these pastures may do for fattening
him ; or, if it will pay, the land may be treated with bone-dust, but it would
be bend to suppose that this could be done with dis on a large sheep-
run and with stock at present prices.
154 Transactions.— Miscellaneous.
Art. XIV.—On the Rock Paintings in the Weka Pass. By A. MACKENZIE
Cameron. Communicated by Pror. J. von Haasr, Ph.D., F.R.8.
[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 4th April, 1878.)
** 1, Cascade Terrace, Cascade Street, Paddington,
** Sydney, 9th February, 1878.
“To Professor Julius von Haast, President Philosophical Institute,
Christchurch, Canterbury, New Zealand.
** My Dear Sir,—You have already received my hurried acknowledgment of
the receipt of your kind communication enclosing photographs of the newly-
discovered rock paintings in New Zealand, with notes on them supplied by
yourself and the Rev. Mr. Stack.* I now proceed to offer some suggestions
on the figures, premising that being connected with the Society of Biblical
Archeology of London, and having in the course of extensive travels in old
Asiatic countries come across and studied many very ancient remains (some
fully 8000 years old), and further, having made early alphabets and symbols
special studies, I was entrusted lately in London for elucidation, by my
very old friend, Dr. Thomas Allan Wise, M.D., F.R.S. Edin., with drawings
of rock sculptures and figures which he (delighting in antiquarian researches)
had at considerable labour and expense made in various parts of the kingdom
of Scotland, and which may be seen on Plates in the ‘ Transactions of the
Royal Society, Vol. XXI. Ihave thus materials at hand for comparison
besides my own studies and experience. I may add that I am pleased to
see Mr. Stack’s name, as I happened in England to be well-known to, and
sometimes associated in work with, his venerable and respected father, the
Rey. James Stack.
“To proceed to the figures, I have to state—(1.) That such ancient
remains are to be found in such distant parts of the globe as Ireland, Scot-
land, India, and Borneo, and the distance from the last to New Zealand is
not so great as the distance of Ireland or Scotland from India. (2.) In the
western countries there are two sets of figures—one Eastern in origin and
pre-Christian, and the other Native, and post-Christian. They are easily
distinguishable. (3.) The pre-Christian figures were made by Phenician
traders and Buddhist missionaries from India. Both were of the same age
of the world's history. The first were well known for maritime enterprise,
and if they made for one extremity of the world in Cornwall for tin, and
down south-east to Taprobane and the Aurea Chersonesus for other mer-
chandise and gold, why should it be improbable that they visited the ‘ Isles
of the Sea’ expressly mentioned by Ezekiel, and reach to the end of the
chain which begins with Sumatra and ends with New Zealand? We have
gue
* Vol. As p. 44, et sês; pl. x
CauERON.—On Rock Paintings in Weka Pass. 155
clear philological testimony that the serpeni-race of India in early times
obtained a foothold in New Zealand. This will be further brought out
below. Again, as to the Buddhist missionaries, they were noted for their
enterprise and travels for their faith. They carried their faith, doctrines,
aud symbols to the extreme east, north, and south of the great continent of
Asia; over seas, deserts, and extended barriers of eternal snow, and all
through to the extreme west of Europe. Is it improbable that, whether
with the serpent-race from India, or in Phoenician vessels, they arrived in
New Zealand? The association of the Buddhist cross with Phoenician
letters on inscriptions in the west is a fact.
** These observations will serve to clear up the following remarks on the
figures transmitted by you :—First, I may say that the figures strike me as
divisible into pre-Christian, Indian, symbolie, and later native. The pre-
Christian are generally the hieroglyphies, while most of the drawings of
men with marine monsters appear to be later native. This may be a mere
supposition, but you have other cireumstances to decide this point. Secondly,
figures 2, 6, 13, 21, 21a, and, perhaps, 24, constitute, along with, very
probably, 15, 16, 18, one group—the Trinity symbol—and are pre-Christian.
I can only briefly explain here this symbol. It may suffice to state that
spirit, matter, and organised life, as the result of the action of the first on the
second, are supposed to form the pan-theo-cosmical (if I may coin such a word)
nature or universe of the ancient religious ereed of India, and which was
carried by the Buddhist missionaries over the world. The symbol of this
cardinal and esoterie doctrine of religion was three circles near each other,
and, in my opinion, also two joined circles, crossed with the zig-zag figure
(supposed by some to be also a Masonic symbol) usually called the ‘spectacle
ornament, the crossing zig-zag figure representing probably spirit. We
find these symbols alike on great Buddhist temples in India, on the Bhilsa
*topes, on the standing stone in Aberdeen, and on the Dingwall stone in
North Britain. The figures composing the symbol are either plain or
ornamented, and disposed in various ways. The variations are remarkable,
and give a clue, as I believe, to the true signification of figures 2, 6, 13, 15,
16, 18, 21, and 214. In all these, the three parts are distinctly made out,
especially in figures of 2, 6, 21, 214. In my opinion, figures 18, 15, 16, 18
are similar to the ‘spectacle ornament’ of North Britain. Figure 14 may
be a representation of the same symbol, or of a Buddhist temple, the form
of which figures in North Britain, explaining unmistakably the zig-zag line,
and the sacred nature of the Trinity symbol. :
** I make no observations on fig. 17, of which there are several similar
representations in other parts of the world. Figs. 4, 9, 22, and perhaps 24,
also have counterparts elsewhere. The Buddhist cross (and Phenician
156 Transactions,—Miscellaneous,
tau) is probably intended in figs. 5 and 12, though the execution is very
degenerate. (The same may be said of all the other symbols). The very
remarkable figure 23 probably represents the early Pheenician and Hindoo
Fish-god. I have certainly seen it before somewhere in India. This
establishes the early age of the drawings, the race of workmen, and the
sacred character of the drawings. (See also the philological notes lower
down.) You will perceive that I have not noticed the theory of figs. 2, 6,
18, 21, 21a, representing any oriental characters, ancient or modern, for
this reason; that amid the numerous and complicated alphabetical forms
of various Eastern languages some resemblance is sure to be found. In
this view I might recognise fig. 2 as Arabic, figs. 18 and 21 as Sanscrit,
and fig. 24 actually as the Hebrew aleph. Fig. 2, to me, is conclusively a
Buddhist symbol. Fortunately, however, your communication encloses
several notes furnished by Mr. Stack, and I find there abundant philological
proof that New Zealand had early intercourse with India.
** Te kahui tipua—Ahe definite particle (Greek to, English the, Malay itu,
ete., etc.), limiting, indicating ; kahui tipua, the deceitful, wicked dog-race
(Malay tipu, deceitful, and kuh, the dog-race), remnants of whom are still
to be found in the north-west of Burmah. Of course I may be mistaken in
this interpretátion, and I should wish to know which is the adjective.
* Again: Ngapuhi—nga puhi, the serpent-race. This race is to be found
in parts of India, and plays an important part in early Indian history.
My Hindoo mythology is rather dull at present, but, if remembranee serves
me, I believe the Aryan race had a long and desperate contest with the
earlier serpent-race, and, succeeding, drove these last into hills and moun-
tains, and beyond the seas. Sanscrit naga, great serpent; and puh, race,
descendants.
“I may be tempted on to great length with these and other words
furnished in Mr. Stack’s letters, and therefore shall conclude here, only
adding that should any portion of the observations I have made require
further explanations I shall be happy to give them to you.—I remain, &c.,
* A, Mackenzie CAMERON.”
“ P.5.—With reference to some of your own remarks, made in your last
annual speech, I should state that figure 15 resembles an Indian bow and
arrow; figure 18, a war conch; and figure 14, a broad-brimmed hat, nearly
similar in shape to those used in Malayan countries. Notwithstanding all
these resemblances, I still adhere to the opinion that they represent Buddhist
symbols. The P.S. of your own speech would appear to dash my theory to
the ground, but what is the meaning of your own words, “they are of a
more primitive nature’? and of Mr. Stack’s assigning them to “the oldest
inhabitants of this island—somewhat mythical people—of whom there are any
J. T. Tuomsoxn.—On Barat or Barata Fossil Words, 157
traditions.’ If furnished with the necessary philological and ethnological
materials I might be able to indicate the early history of your island.”
Postscript By Proressor von Haast.
It is scarcely necessary to point out the important nature of this
communication, which opens up quite a new field for research into the
early history of these islands, and goes far to prove the great antiquity of
the paintings in question. In reference to Mr. Cameron's views, I may,
however, be allowed to observe that these red paintings have evidently all
been executed at the same time, and cannot therefore represent two distinct
periods, or have been the work of two distinct races. In stating in the post-
script to my address that when speaking of the great antiquity of these
paintings, I did not do so in the European sense, but only as far as there
were existing reliable traditions of the present Native inhabitants of these
islands, I did not wish to give any expression as to my views of what the
real age of these paintings might be. Before doing so I wished to obtain
more material. However, anybody acquainted with my own views in
regard to the great number of years these islands have been inhabited, and -
the long period of time since the Moa has become extinct through the
agency of man, of which we have ample geological evidence (the only one
to be trusted), will easily understand that I can only coincide with Mr.
Cameron's opinion as to the great antiquity of the paintings in question,
even in the European sense.
Art, XV.— Barat or Barata Fossil Words. By J. TumwNsvLL Thomson,
F.R.G.S., F.R.S.8.A., ete.
Plate IV.
(Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, February, 1879.]
This continues the subject of three preceding papers”, and the heading
requires some explanation. Barat is the Malay traditional and poetical
name for Hindustan, and to this day they speak of the angin Barat—that
is, westerly, or wind of Barat; as they do of the angin Jawa—that is, the
southerly, or wind of Java. Barata, or Bharata, is the ancient term for
their country by the natives of Hindustan. In the language of Madagascar,
allowing for difference of phonology, precisely the same word is used for
the North, viz., avaratra, whose winds wafted commerce from the parent
country, viz., South India. We use the term parent on the force of the
facts elicited in our preceding investigations.
* Whence of the Maori, Trans. N. Z. Inst., Vol. IV.; Barata Numerals, Vol. V. ;
Philological Considerations on the Whence of the Maori, Vol. VI,
158 Transactions,— Miscellaneous,
The term ‘fossil words” signifies words embedded in a language, or
which have not been eradicated by foreign influences—such as the Saxon
words in the modern English language. The roots of the language will be
found to consist of these; hence they remain as witnesses of derivative,
national or tribal connection with the parent region, however remote in
time or distant in space. Fossil words, then, furnish as certain a clue to
connection of races as either idiomatic or phonetic similarity,* though this
Opinion is disputed. Root or fossil words, it has been shown in previous
papers, are only to be eradicated with the extinction of the race, and to
this branch we at present address ourselves.
The previous papers on this subject, whose first object was to investigate
the whence of the Maori, t.e., the tribe that inhabits New Zealand, confined
their scope to the Malayan, Malagasi, and Polynesian dialects. In the
present paper I have prosecuted my enquiries far beyond into the regions
of Asia, Africa, and Australia, in which labour I was assisted by the works
noted below.t
The basis of my investigations have been the Malayan Language, with
which my long sojourn in the Far East made me familiar, but the present
work has led me into a scrutiny of over four hundred languages and dialects.
The conclusion that I was brought to previously, viz., that, counter to
popular opinion, the Maori and hence Polynesian race, was not originally
from the Malay (though it might be through or with them), but from a race
or races which in pre-historic times inhabited Hindustan, seemed to claim
further demonstration than my materials could at that time afford. In my
recent visit to England, therefore, I collected all the works bearing on the
subject that I could obtain.
* For instance, Malay has a compounding construction, Malagasi an inflecting,
though both are admitted to be originally one.
+ Non-Aryan Languages of India and High Asia, by W. W. Hunter; Languages of
India, by G. Campbell; Polyglotta Africana, by S. W. Koelle; Australian Languages, by
William Ridley; Mosambique Languages, by W. H. J. Bleek; Malagasi, by Julius Kessler;
Kafir Language, by John Ayliff; Swahili Handbook, Shambala Language, Yao Language,
all by Edward Steere; Malagasi Grammar, by David Griffiths; Enguduk Iloigob Vocabu-
lary, by J. Erhardt; Dictionary of Tshi, Akra, &c., by Christaller, Locher and Zimmer-
mann; Vocabulary, Haussa Language, by J. F. Schon; Languages of Sierra Leone
(anonymous); Bullom Grammar, by G. R. Nylander; Western and Central African
Vocabulary (anonymous); Dialects in Africa, by John Clark; Bornu and Kanuri
Languages, by Edwin Norris; Dialects of Nicobar and Andaman Islands, by F. A. de
Róepstorff; Fijian Dictionary, by D. Hazlewood; Samoan Grammar and Dictionary, by
George Pratt; New Zealand Language, by William Williams; Hawaiian Dictionary, by
Lorrin Andrews; Japanese Dictionary, by J. C. Hepburn; Comparative Vocabulary,
Malay Archipelago, by Wallace, &c., &e,
J. T. Tuomson.—On Barat or Barata Fossil Words. 159
The present paper is thus principally devoted to the following question,
viz., by analogy in fossil words or radicals, how far are we justified in
denoting Hindustan as the original seat of the Malagas-malayo-polynesian
race, which, for the sake of brevity and distinction, I have taken the liberty
to term Barata. In attempting to solve this question, we must have regard
to other theories that have been propounded by various authors. The most
generally accepted theory, viz., that the Malagaso-polynesians were of
Malay origin, I have already dealt with in my previous essays. Another
theory I have since observed to be that the Malayo-malagasi had sprung
from the Polynesian, the supporters averring that as the Polynesian was
the more primitive and ancient section, he must have been the progenitor.
To this the following considerations suggest themselves: 1st. Admitted
that the Polynesian is the most primitive and ancient section, this only
denotes that he was the first to migrate from his original seat, when that
seat—whether in Africa, Asia, America, or Australia—was in possession of
& primitive and ancient ancestry ; and as there have been waves of migra-
tion from time to time, the most primitive have stretched out furthest.*
2nd. The over-running of skilled populous and armed nations by the
simple weak and defenceless, is contrary to all experience, ancient or
modern. 8rd. Another theory has been suggested, that Africa was the
original seat of the race, another that it was in Egypt; but as these have
had little acceptation, I merely notice the same.
Before entering into the comparison of words in different dialects or
languages, i in order to judge of the connection of race we must hold in view
this fact, that the radicals bear but a small proportion to the whole, thus in
an English dictionary of 90,000 words, not more than 4000 or „y part are
Saxon. Hence, amongst the races whose languages we are about to
consider, and whose dictionaries do not count over 5000 to 6000 words, we
must be prepared to find not over 800 words more or less which can come
under the denomination of radical terms or fossil words. This fact at the
same time facilitates the investigation, making it less laborious.
The number of works that can be compared are further curtailed by the
subject or object being only known in portions of the regions inhabited.
Thus while I have gone over many full vocabularies, I have been forced to
strike out many of the words from the above cause. For instance, the
cocoa-nut well known to the Malay is not known to the Maori. In a similar
manner the deer, elephant, plantain, rice, &c., are well known in some
regions but not in others—hence, though they come under the designation of
radical terms, they are inapplicable in our enquiry.
—:
* See Trans, N.Z. Inst., Vol. IV., 1871, p. 47.
160 Transactions.— Miscellaneous.
v"
We must again guard against the error of accepting all radical terms as
proving affinity of race; the terms most certain are those which are con-
nected with immediate surroundings or events, such as for parts of the
body, head, mouth, feet, &c., the principal physical objects—sun, moon,
stars, earth, &c.; articles of food—water, rice, fruit, &c.; calls to companions
as come, go, give, &c. If the terms be not connected with immediate
surroundings then they become less valuable in support of proof of racial
affinity, as for example :—
3 In
Serer Malay Archipelago. gnam
Dog .. | asu, gaso, kaso, aso | tasu Angami Naga, azz Nowgong Naga, East of Bengal.
Horse .. kuda ghoda, Kiranti, Nepal; ghora, Nepal; kodo, kudata,
Central India ; kudre, Southern India.
CrOW >» gaga gagah -po, Kiranti, Nepal; gugga, Central India;
kakka, Southern India
Buffalo .. kurbau eros wasaa Nicobar iak: kla-ou booh, Talain,
Cocoa-nut nior nio, Malagasi i; nazi, Swahili; nyu, nui, niwi, nua,
niu mn, me etc., Malay Esci niu,
a and Haw
Here the words dog, horse, crow and buffalo being similar, or nearly so, in
Malay and several races of Asia, do not indicate aflinity, but only that such
animals had been derived from thence. On the contrary the radical Malay
word nior, having wide similarity from Africa to Polynesia, may be taken
to indicate affinity of race, for as the cocoa-nut grows on the sea-shore,
letting its fruit fall to float and be carried to all tropical regions, it may be
supposed to have preceded the emigrant tribes; thus, as they approached
each island or shore, they carried the fossil word and applied it to the same
species of tree, in whichever parts of their vast regions it had drifted and
germinated, or they may have carried, exceptionally, the fruit with them.
Again, in the following examples :—
= | In Malagasi. |
amboa
Dol eee imbua, Inhambane; imbua, Sofala ; umboa, Cap Del
Cattle .. ombi
gado.
ngombe, Tette, Sena, Quellimane, Mosambique, Cap Delgado, etc.
The dog and the crow are not indigenous words of Malagasi, but derivative
from Africa, the designations having been imported with the animals
themselves.
Hence, in choosing words found in the various dictionaries for compari-
son, I have had the above considerations in view, and have adopted only
such as can be held as radical, indigenous, or truly fossil. By this means
the racial affinities of the separate and far distant tribes can be indicated in
the Barata of the tropics as in the Gypsies of Europe or the Portuguese in
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J. T. THomson.—On Barat or Barata Fossil Words. 161
Africa and Asia, though many tribes of both have in these historic times
lost their idioms and phonology, but not the roots of their languages.
We may now come to the comparison of words collected from the
various sources already stated,* and in commenting on the same it is hardly
necessary for me to remark that I do so under the conviction that the
insular races were derived from the continental, but I am open to enquiry
from what continent or portion of continent :—
1, Arrow: zana Malagasi, panah Malay, pere Maori.
The glossarial indication would denote in the case of the Malagasi
and Malay immediate derivation from Telugu in South India, with
affinity to Shan in Indo-China. In the case of the Maori from Garo,
N.E. Bengal, with affinity to Great Nicobar, Bay of Bengal.
The African affinities in each case are doubtful.
2. Bird: vorona Malagasi, burong Malay, manu Maori.
Malagasi and Malay derived from tribes in Nepal and East of
Bengal, Maori from tribes in Indo-China.
No African affinities.
3. Droop: ra Malagasi, dara Malay, toto Maori.
Malagasi and Malay derived from Tibeto-China, Nepal, and Bay of
Bengal.
African aflinity distant.
4. Bone: taolana Malagasi, tolan Malay, iwi Maori.
Malagasi and Malay derived from Bay of Bengal, but doubtful; Maori
from Nepal, Indo-China and China.
No African affinities.
5. Doe: amboa Malagasi, anjing Malay, kuri Maori.
Malagasi from Bay of Bengal, doubtful; Malay from Nepal, Maori
from Nepal and Indo-China.
Malagasi from Africa, Maori also from Africa.
6. Ear: talinhe Malagasi, talinga Malay, taringa Maori. All from East
Bengal.
Indications of African affinities.
7. Earm: tany Malagasi, tana Malay, one-one Maori.
Malagasi and Malay direct from Khond, Central India, less distinetly
from Indo-China and Bay of Bengal, Maori from Central India,
doubtful.
No African affinities.
8. Eee: atody Malagasi, telor Malay, hua Maori.
Malagasi, from Singpho, E. of Bengal, doubtful ; Maori from Burma
and Indo-China, doubtful.
Malay from ossa, W. Africa, doubtfal. 7
* See Appendix I,
162 Transactions.—Miscellaneous.
9. Eye: maso Malagasi, mata Malay, kanohi Maori.
Malagasi and Malay from N. Central and E. Hindustan, Maori from
Tibeto-China, Central and Southern India.
Malagasi and Malay have E.W. and S. African affinities.
10. Fre: afo Malagasi, api Malay, ahi Maori.
All from India and Indo-China, indications also from China and
Japan, also all allied to Fulah, Africa, but doubtful.
11. Fisu: loaka Malagasi, ikan Malay, ika Maori.
All from Nepal, E. of Bengal, Indo-China and Bay of Bengal.
All have indications of African connection.
12. Frowrer : vony Malagasi, bunga Malay, pua Maori.
All from Nepal, Central and Southern India.
In Africa indications doubtful.
18. Foor: tongon Malagasi, kaki Malay, wae-wae Maori.
Malay from Indo-China and E. Bengal.
Maori has African connection.
14. Ham: volo Malagasi, bulu, rambut Malay, huru Maori.
All Tibeto-China and E. Bengal.
African indieations doubtful.
15. Hand: tanana Malagasi, tangan Malay, kutanga, ringaringa Maori.
All from Hindustan.
All have African indications,
16. Heap: loha Malagasi, ulu, kapala Malay, upuko Maori.
All from Indo-China, Nepal, Central and East India.
African indications.
17. Hoe: kisoa, lambo Malagasi, babi Malay, poaka Maori.
All from North, South, and Central India.
All have Afriean affinities.
18. Lear: ravina Malagasi, daun Malay, rau Maori.
Malay and Maori from Nepal and Indo-China.
Maori has African indications.
19. Licur: maivana Malagasi, trang Malay, ao Maori.
Malay and Maori from Bengal and Indo-China,
Malay from Swahili, Africa, doubtful.
20. Moon: volana, Malagasi, bulan Malay, marama Maori.
Malagasi and Malay from Nepal and Indo-China.
Indications in Ibu, Central Africa.
21. Moura: vava Malagasi, mulut Malay, mangai, waha Maori.
All from Nepal, Central and Southern India.
All have African affinities,
22,
no
ae
bo
Or
bo
m
J, T, Tmowsow.—On Barat or Barata Fossil Words,
Nieut : alina Malagasi, malam Malay, po, kenyo Maori,
Malagasi and Malay from China and Central India,
No African affinities.
. Rain: ranonorana Malagasi, ujan Malay, ua Maori.
Malay and Maori have African connection.
Roan; lalambe Malagasi, jalan Malay, ara Maori.
All from different parts of Hindustan and Indo-China.
Maori term has indieations in Yao, East Central Africa.
. Sky: lanitra Malagasi, langit Malay, rangi Maori,
All from Nepal and Central India.
No African affinities.
Star: kintana Malagasi, bintang Malay, whetu Maori.
Malagasi and Malay, N.E. Bengal, Central and South India.
No African affinities.
. Bun; maso-andro Malagasi, mata, hari Malay, ra, komaru Maori.
Malay and Maori from Indo-Tibeto China and Nepal.
Maori has affinity with Haussa, Central Africa.
Toneve: lila Malagasi, lida Malay, arero Maori,
Malagasi and Malay from Kast Bengal and Bay of Bengal.
168
Malagasi and Malay have African affinities in East Central and
South.
. Toorn: nifi, nifo Malagasi, gigi Malay, niho, rei Maori.
Malay from Nepal, East and Central India.
Malagasi and Maori have African connections.
. Tree: kazo Malagasi, pun, poko, kaiu Malay, rakau Maori.
All from Hindustan and borders.
No African connection.
. Water: rano Malagasi, ayer Malay, wai Maori.
All from Hindustan and borders.
Malay and Maori have African connection.
. Yam: ovi Malagasi, ubi Malay, uwhi-kaho Maori.
No Asiatie or African connection.
. Hor: mafana Malagasi, panas hangat Malay, wera Maori.
Maori from Tamil, South India.
No African connection.
- Raw: manta Malagasi, manta Malay, mata Maori.
All from East of Bengal and Bay of Bengal.
No African connection.
. Rep: mena Malagasi, mera Malay, whero Maori.
All from South and Central India.
No African connection,
=
164 ; T'ransactions.— Miscellaneous.
86. Rire: masaka Malagasi, masa Malay, maoa Maori,
All from Nepal.
No African connection.
97. Suarn: keli Malagasi, kichi Malay, riki, iti, nohi-nohi Maori.
All from Hindustan and borders.
No African connection.
88. Come: avi Malagasi, mari Malay, mai Maori.
All from Hindustan and borders; also, Chinese connection.
No African connection.
89. Five: dimi, limi Malagasi, lima Malay, rima Maori.
No Asiatic or African connnection.
40. Six : enina, oné Malagasi, anam Malay, ono Maori.
No Asiatie or African connection.
41. Seven: fito Malagasi, tuju Malay, whitu Maori.
Malagasi and Maori from Central and South India, Malay from East
Nepal.
No African connection.
49. E1enr: valo, varlo Malagasi, delapan Malay, waru Maori.
Malagasi and Maori from Central India.
No African affinities.
. NINE : sivi, siva Malagasi, sambilang Malay, iwa, iva Maori.
Malagasi and Maori from Indo-China.
No African affinities.
On analysing the comparative vocabulary given in the appendix, I find
that the analogies are much greater as between the Barata terms and Asia
than as between these and Africa; and of the list of 43 given, 235 analogies,
or close analogies, are found in the primitive languages of the former,
particularly in Hindustan, while 97 analogies are found in Africa— princi-
pally in the Mosambique distriets—but in most cases the analogies are by
no means so perfect.
It may be further remarked, that of the 43 Barata terms given in our
list, all except two are found embedded in the languages of South Asia,
while 17 of them are not found in any African language.
Proceeding on our basis then—viz., that the Malagas-malayo-polynesian
tribes derived their origin from the continent— not the continental tribes
theirs from the islands—which theory some ethnologists support; it can
scarcely now be doubted (that is, if the testimony of language have any
value), that the origin of the Barata race extending over the tropics from
Madagascar to Easter Island was in Hindustan, where the roots of their
language are yet found so profusely preserved,
H
e
J. T. Tuomson.—On Barat or Barata Fossil Words, 165
Further, that many of these words should also be preserved in Africa is
not to be wondered at, seeing that the negro race had in archaic times such
large expansion* over all the regions under review, and between whose
tribes and nations there has been immemorial intercourse.
The question still remains—from what part of Hindustan did these great
Island Tribes emanate? The reply will be best made by reference to the
accompanying map (pl. IV). It will be seen from this that Hindustan is now
overrun by two distinct sections of the human race—viz., Indo-Germanic or
Aryan and Turanian; or, in other words, the one Caucasian, the other
Mongolian; the one occupying the western and northern regions, the other
the southern and eastern ; and in overrunning Hindustan have they extir-
pated the primitive races? not entirely ; many of these remain, much modi-
fied, it is true, in colour and physiognomy, but little in language. The
roots of a language die only with the tribe’s extirpation. Hence, it is not
in the languages of the intruding sections that we have found the Barata
fossil words ; but, for the most part, in the various small tribes, yet pre-
served in the obscure portions of their territory, difficult of access, such as
under the Himalaya, Jynteah and Nilgherry mountains. In these, the
undeleted glossarial remains of what had once been the language of a
numerous people, we have witnesses fo facts and conditions of nations long
since past and preceding historie record.
Small tribes may have found their way towards the Tropies by divers
routes, and partieularly by those through the Malay Peninsula, Tenasserim
coast and islands, but the section or nation that spread its influence, girdling
two-thirds of this globe, could not have been one or more of these.
It is to South India, therefore, that we mustlook. For the inhabitants
of this region have from times immemorial carried on trading expeditions,
westerly to Africa and easterly to the Moluccas, a circumstance that can
neither be stated of the natives of the rest of Hindustan nor of any of the
Malayan states. The original seat of the great Barata race can then be
only fairly sought for or denoted in South India, which commands the
routes east to Malayo-Polynesia, west to Madagascar, and whose population,
eminently maritime, were competent to the task of navigation. Thus we
are led to the same conclusion as stated in my previous essays. |
In my researches I have had to scrutinise the Sanscrit terms, several of
the Asiatic and Afriean-Arabie dialects, Bask, Finnie, Magyar, Turkish,
Circassian, Georgian, Mongolian, Muntshu and Japanese languages, without
ding analogies. I have also examined twenty languages of Australia,
and, amongst these, instances of but very exceptional and remote affinities
* See Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1871, p. 32, + See Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1871, p. 36,
t Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1871, p. 48,
166 Transactions,— Miscellaneous,
are detected, and none such as would indicate connection. The Barata
language must therefore be held to be a purely tropical one, its offshoots
seldom extending above thirty degrees from the equator. With Chinese,
exceptional analogies have been found, but these are either doubtful or
accidental.
A fit sequel to this present paper (I suggest) will be E in Appendix
IL, where I have compared the languages of the Malayan Archipelago with
that of Samoa or the Navigators Islands in Polynesia. I am enabled to do
this by the recent publication of a Samoan Grammar and Dictionary, by
the Rev. George Pratt, edited by the Rev. S. J. Whitnee, F.R.G.S. This
portion of the subject is the more interesting as Samoa is the reputed
Hawaiki * of the Maori.
It will be observed by the comparative vocabulary given in Appendix II,
that all objects known in the Samoan Islands and the Malay Archipelago
are, almost without exception, represented radically by the same words in
either region. Objeets unknown to the Polynesian as a matter of course are
not represented—such as deer, gold, honey, iron, monkey, ete. And the
locality where these Malayo-Polynesian affinities exist is not difficult to
point out, viz., the Moluccas; thus of the 94 analogies represented, 24
are found in Ceram, 11 in Matabello, 7 in Borou, 7 in Amboyna, 7 in
Sula Islands, 7 in Sangair, 6 in Celebesi. Again of the 114 words
contained in the whole list only 26 are Malay. Thus on our premises
we would infer that the population of Samoa was not directly derived
from Malaya (Sumatra or Malay Peninsula) but from the Moluccas, In
other words, in the diffusion of the blood of the Barata race, while Malaya
may have acted as a vein or path—the Moluccas acted as a gland or
stepping-stone.
For this purpose no region could be more appropriate than the Mol-
uceas, for here were the spices and rare birds so attractive to commerce, to
be found. From time immemorial here would be the great rendezvous of
Barat, that is, western adventurers and conquerers, and from whence their
more enterprising spirits would venture further east. Thus, if it be said
that the Moluccas were the stepping-stone to Barata emigration, so also is
it said that Samoa was the focus of Polynesian dispersion.
That we have not found a language in the Malayan Archipelago com-
pletely analogous to Samoan is consistent with our theory—for in the
preceding part of our paper neither has there been found a language in
Hindustan completely consistent with the Malagas-malayo-polynesian dia-
lects. In both cases, however, the unquestionable evidence of root or fossil
* Query; Hawa-iki, literally small harbour, or coral reef opening,
+ See Appendix III.
J. T. Taomson.—0On Barat or Barata Fossil Words. 167
words is there, which gives unerring witness of community of blood and
race. The fossil words preserved in the Moluccas, not in the tongues of
the great races of Java, Waju, or Malaya, but in those obscure remnants
whose remoteness or inaccessibility have protected them from the deleting
waves of successive migrations.
APPENDIX I.
Arrow.
REGION. COUNTRY. DISTRICT. MALAGASI. MALAY. MAORI.
zanatsipikia panah pere
Asia .. | Indo-China | Shan pen pen i
South ago rind banamu banamu
N.E Gar s wa phe-e
Bay = yale Great mak e m enphe hnje
Africa — .. | East Coast | Mozambiq a z ntere
East Centra 2 mpamba mpamba A
0, embai embai ^
W. & Central Mandingo benyo benyo +
» do. arra bien bien we
do. Fant & Ash- eben eben zi
anti
Malay Archi-
pelago .. | Javanese e pannah pannah és
P. Tongan vs fanna fanna yu
awaiian es he pua pana | he pua-pana
Australia .. ee es isa e
Bird.
vorona burong manu
Asia .. | Nepal Limbu bu “à
| East of Bengal! Mithan Naga o o es
do. Namsang Naga vo vo as
do. Singpho wu wu $
Indo-China | Siamese ar is nok
do. Ahom F ; nuktu
o Khamti T no
do. 3 os è nok
Malay Archi-
pelago .. | Javanese es é «i
fi manoko manu, n
manui, manu-
Other islands - a = ack, wae
manuo, manu-
wan, ete,
South Celebes| Salayer burung burung T
boyna Batu merah burung burung ke
Polynesia .. | Fijian "d o YA manu-manu
Samoan s ee sy manu
i Tongan oe ..
Hawaiian n ..
Australia oe oe or >
168
Transactions.— Miscellaneous.
Blood.
REGION. COUNTRY. DISTRICT. MALAGASI. MALAY. MAORI.
ra dara toto
Asia Das cm China | Takpa [ten khra khra a
prm writ- khrag khrag
FE Pakhya ragat ragat
Bent Nepal and haa haa s
do. Walin ha ha sa
Nepal e ragat agat ..
do. Denwar raktai raktai ja
do. Kuswar rakti rakti i
Bay of Bengal| Nancowry wa wa =
0. Car Nicobar maham maham s
Africa ..| W. & Central | Walof is derrete RU
orah, rara,
daha, dugu
poha, p^
Malay Archi-| Various Is- raha,
pelago .. lands lali. lalah, the same
ia,
lahim, lasin,
moh ?
meu pee
Polynesia .. | Fijian P dra dra e
Samoan as "s 2s toto
Tongan ; vs tawto `
Hawaiian E uu he koko
Australia .. . 2s n
Bone.
taolana tolan iwi
Asia .. | Nepal ar aS js kwe
Indo-China | Sgau-Karen i khi
do. Pwo-Karen ia khwi
Chinese ` | Shanghai A es kweh-den
Bay of Bengal| Teressa kolran kolran ue
Ahirieà =. E: A ne .. és
Malay Archi-
pelago .. | Javanese ne balong balong as
N. Celebes | Bolang hitam tula tula ‘
Sula Island 2 ies Vs ho:
Polynesia .. | Fijian . .. v sui-na
Samoan i: «s s ivi
Tongan ee we ae hui
WwW A . ee Ld iwi
Australia .. i ^ i * od
anjing kuri
nangi ..
ee k
.. kuti-ma
xe khwe
J. T. Tnuousow.—On Barat or Barata Fossil Words.
Dog—continued.
169
REGION, COUNTRY. DISTRICT. MALAGASI. MALAY. MAORI.
Africa East Coast Swahil mbwa s
do. Inhambane &
Sof imbua RE as
do. Cap Dura umboa R a
do. Shambala i za kuli
East Central | Yao "mbwa : oe
West Coast | Haussa
teruni, tin, | to lin, tolnin,
tolor, atulu, | telli untello
Polynesia.. | Samoan y ae a fua
Tongan š ; ws foi
Hawaiian za ri he hua
Australia .. as wA n s
Eye.
maso mata kanohi
Asia ..| Hast Nepal | Dumi mas mas vv
East of Bengal) Munipuri it mit ..
Indo-China | Shan matia matta oe
0. nnam mat mat ;
Central India | Ho (Kol) met met E
do. i met met d
di Brahui vs s khan
Tibeto-China | Thochu v 3 kan
Central India | Uraon e 5 k
YA ond m E kannuka
Southern do. | Telugu E 5 kannu
do. daga S ; u
Khasi & Jyn-
ah Hill Khasi m khymat vi
do. Synteng : khym. oe
do. Battoa A ka-khymat vs
do. wee i ka-mat m
do. Lakadong ka-mat =
Bay of Bengal) Nancowry an
Car Nicobar olmat olmat YA
do. Teressa ema emat ;
do. Shobeeng inmat hinmat ès
Africa ., | East Coast | Swahili macho, mato mato a
Inhamba
ette, Se
do. Cap Delgado = e se
Maravi
do. fala messo = E
do. Quillimane and
Mosambique a eto $s
do. Shambala mesho mesho .
East Central | Yao meso meso n
Western Kongo mesu es oe
E Benin me-is me-is «s
South Kafir amaso xx ss
moto, mata, hama, ram raman,
Malay Archi- gue ramani, matara, mata-mo,
pelago .. | Various isles e mata-colo, matan, matara, | qe
mata-nina, matada, matin, |
tun, mut, moorba
J, T. Taowsos,—On Barat or Barata Fossil Words, 171
Eye—continued.
REGION. COUNTRY, DISTRICT, MALAGASI. MALAY MAORI.
Polynesia .. | Fijian ' mata mata oe
Samoan mata mata E
mata mata ..
Hawaiian ve maka vs
Australia .. vs ; = pua’a
Tongan a Aes € boaka
Hawaiian x Se : he puaa
Australia .. E. vs s Pe
Leaf.
ravina daun rau
Asia Nepal Gurung T: lau lau
Newar hau hau
Indo-China | Ahom bou bou
o Khamti š mau mau
Africa W. & Central | Fanti and ; atau atau
Ashanti
Malay Archi-| Various Is- aires taha, daun, ailaw,
lands | n, laini, lan, idun
Polynesia .. Fijian ; da mag na drau-na
oan au lau
awaiian "s he lau he lau
Australia .. = er zs -
Light.
t maivana trang ao
Asia E. of Bengal | Mithan Naga YA rangai
do MADE Naga rangvo
Indo-China lang
N.E. Bengal toe (Sik-
: kim) 7 ee aom
Africa .. | East Coast Swahili YA anga zi
Polynesia.. | Samoan vs mala malama d" ae
awaiian mala malama he ao
Australia .. ud uie
Moon
i volana bulan ^^ marama
Asia .. | Nepal Serpa oula oula e
: Indo-China | Mru v Toung pula pula dg
J. T. Tuomson.—On Barat or Barata Fossil Words.
Moon—continued.
175
REGION. COUNTRY. DISTRICT. MALAGASI. MALAY. MAORI.
Africa W. & Central | Ibu oua | oua .
wulan, bula, bulan, bal-
5 : rang, a, buran, bu-
Malay Archi-| Various Is- rang, bulani, fhulan,
pelago ..| lands ul o anita,
hoolan, hulani, phulan,
ulani, wua
Polynesia .. | Fijian : vul vula ..
Australia .. ew és po YA
Mouth.
: vava mulut mangai, waha
Asia Nepal Lohorong ya Vx ya
Central India Makee vayi a vayi
‘Southern India} Tam vay i vay
do. ioia vaya 3E vaya
do. Karnatika bayi yi bayi
do. Toduva payi a payi
do. ta vai un vai
do. Kurumba bai zx bai
Nepal Newar za hutu A
j Yakha š mulaphu ..
do. Kusw .. muhu xs
Bay of Bengal) Teressa ex .. monoi
Africa .. | East Africa | Swahili kinwa es kinw
do, Sofala Tete & e muromo T oe
Sena
do. Quellimane mulomo ..
do. Shambala mulomo
do. do. kanwa es kanwa
East Central | Yao kamwa i kamwa
do. Kimasai os eng-uduk sv
South Kafir .. umlomo ^
ped at South Celebes| Salayer bawa a bawa
Baju boah boah
poinenia .. awaiian “ he waha " he waha
Australia .. | N. W. Coast f s mulu (s
* Lip.
Night
alina malam po, kengo
Asia China ae yali ss ve
Central India | Naiku ale 23 ss
do. Tamil (ano) al al oe
Africa ae . .. .. *
Malay Archi- i
pelago .. | Amboyna Batu-merah hulanita WA ..
aparua es .. .. potu
Polynesia .. | Fijian js F .. bogi
amoan .. .. .. po "
Tongan es ex . bo-uli
AW ii .. .. LE po
Australia ee ee .. ee .. ..
a
176 Transactions.— Miscellaneous.
Rain.
REGION. COUNTRY. DISTRICT. MALAGASI. MALAY. MAORI.
l ranonorana ujan ua
Asia ae ^w d ws ET Ja
Africa .. | East Africa | Swahili 3 mvua mvua
do. Lourenzo Mar-
gues x. infula infula
do Inhambane vula l
do Sofala umvura umvura
do Tete ura 1
do Sen ku-bowmba | ku-boumba E
do Mosambique . ip-pula ip-pula
do Cap Delgado 3 (m) vula vula
do aravi vura vura
do. Shambala .. fula fula
East Central | Yao ps ula ula
Central Haussa AN rua
South Kafir nA i
buena oha, weng, RA »
: : ulani, ah, an,
(em bisce z Pe hulan, hulani, huran, ulane,
oe | am ulani, ulan, uan, udama,
hurani, golim,
Polynesia .. | Fijian ca
Samoan ua ua
Tongan YA uh
Hawaiian T Es he ua he ua
Australia .. E ší s sa ya
Road.
lalambe jalan ara
Asia ...| Tibeto-China | Tibet (written) lami iy ie
Nepal Serpa and two 1
Oo rs
East Nepal | Kirante and 14 lam e| ..
" others
| North Bengal| Bhutani and 4 lam "e ee
a others
East Bengal | Mithan Naga lam as “
and 2 others
do. Abor Miri lambeii ae ae
Indo-China pore and 6 lam vs T
ata China Tibet — YA lani
Nep Newar ya lon Wa
Indo-China Burman za lan ny
(spoken)
Tibeto-China | Manyak P ws rah
Nepa anwar es n^ la
Central India | Santali es ds har
0. Mundala ua ho:
Africa .. | East Central | Yao petal
3 : * dara. dalre en, lora, dalin, aya,
poe ere Pies vm | oe (i, Pis lolan, lahan, islang latina, lalim,
: um laan, laran, lagain, lelin, lalan
Polynesia .. | Fijian za sala sala
Sam pas ala ala ala
oe hala hala
ah he ala nui | heala nui| healanui —
J. T. Tuomson.—On Barat or Barata Fossil Words.
Sky.
177
REGION. COUNTRY. DISTRICT. MALAGASI. MALAY. MAORI.
lanitra ngi gi
Asia Nepal Sunwar sarangi sarangi sa-rangi
0. uswar sa-rang sa-rang a-rang
Central India | Ragmahali sa-range sa-range sa-range
Africa oe ee oe ee .. ..
Malay Archi-
pelago .. x Ok à i
Polynesia .. | Fijian lagi lagi lagi
amoan lagi lagi lagi
Hawaiian ka-lani ka lani ka-lani
Australia .. em Be wa ..
Star.
tana bintang whetu
Asia N. E. Bengal Garo laitan itan aie
Central India | Uraon inka Vs
South’rn India) Toda i min ey
Africa... m.
Malay Archi-| Various Buen, tiniang, bituy, bituin, fatui, teon,
pelago . islands | {| tot
Polynesia .. | Samoan fetu
ongan fetu
Australia .. "m bs
Sun.
maso-andro | mata-hari ra, komaru
Asia Chi Annam 5 mata-troi vi
Tibeto-China | Sokpa is nara
epal Sunwar y nd
Africa .. | Central Haussa . - rana
Malay Arebi-| Various Is- mata- "alo, mata-rou
pelago .. ands | | mata
Polynesia .. | Fijian ja mate ari p mata ni-siga "e
amo ne px x la
Tongan oe is laa
Hawaiian $5 vs la
Tongue.
lila lida arero
Asia ..| Khasi & Jyn- | Battoa u-thylliad | u-thylliad Kx
ieah Hills
do Amwee u-khli u-khlid a
do Lakadong u-khliad u-khliad vi
Bay of Bengal | Nancowry geletak letak ie
Africa .. East Coast | Quellimane lilimi lilimi us
o Shambala lulimi lulimi
East Central | Yao lulimi lulimi
r 1 South |K ulwimi | ulwimé
178
Transactions.— Miscellaneous.
Tongue—continued.
REGION, Country. District. MALAGASI. Marav. MAORI.
I
Malay Archi-| Various Is- ilat, lilah, dila, melin,
pelago ..| lands | ninum, delah :
ysol a i ae aran
Polynesia .. | Samo : va $5 alelo
ongan zs = elelo
Hawaiian "n ka elelo
Australia .. e za
Tooth
nifi, nifo gigi niho, rei
Asia .. | Nep Thaksya M gyo ;
East Nep Chourasya as ginnso YA
Central India| Gadaba ne ginna m
Africa — .. | East Coas Swahili jino 22 jino
do. Shambala zino M zino
East Central | Yao lino ka lino
West Coast | Mandingo gi E
W. & Central | Filatah, Filani
or Fulah p niye
do. Bambarra 2 nye
South Kafir izinyo
JE nihi. nis | nihi, nis im,
: nisi formed nisi, re
ges Archi- cii Is- niki, nio, : niki,
ade | nisi-mo, nifan "ord mitan,
| nifoa, nifin nifoa, nifin
do "d nM gigi, ngisi, isi ra
Polynesia.. | Samo P nifo i nifo
Tongan zs nifo nifo
Hawai ; niho iho
Australia .. ba KS 5
m
Tree.
[poko
i hazo pun, kaiu, rakau
Asia .. | Tibeto-China | Thochu gwozosi zA vs
x E. Bengal | Garo za pan .
of Ben La Mithan Naga Ss pan oe
Singpho pu phun si
Indo-Persia | Brahui Ap n darakht
Bay of Bengal | Teressa 2i ; ..
Africa ee ee or . oe
Polynesia.. Samoan z Na : la' au
waiian "e za x helaau
Australia .. we ja vs i 3
Water.
: rano ayer wai
.. | Tibeto-China | Horpa hrah T an
0. anyak np dyah YA
Nepal Bhramu a awa awa
| Central India | Gondi es yer oe
J. T. Tuowsow.—On Barat or Barata Fossil Words.
179
..
..
Water—continued.
REGION. COUNTRY, DISTRICT. MALAGASI. MALAY. MAORI.
Asia Central India | Gayeti $ yer ;
do. utluk ? er wa
do. Naikude R ir is
do. Kolami ; ir EI
do. eh er è
do. per .
Southern India Toni (mod.) t
and 4 others a nir A
East Nepal | Sang Pang ka is wa
Africa — .. | East Coast Swahili ‘x maji maji
0. Shambola * mazi mazi
East Central | Yao ‘ mesi mesi
Western Sussu se i-e i-e
o essa za ah iah
South s amanzi
aer, akei, aki, wai, hy
Malay Archi-| Various Is- zs d waiyr, weyer, weyl, waeli,
pelago ..| lands welo, wai-im, arr. wehi, wayr
Javanese v banyu
S. Celebes Bouton anu e js
Polynesia .. | Fijian ax = wai wai
Samoan ine ms vai vai
Tongan sie eis vai vai
Hawaiian ue i wai wai
Australia .. E Ya T ei za
Yam
* ovi ubi uwhi-kaho
Asia E ; oF ay ie
IR. v sa -— D ks ‘
Polynesia .. | Fijian D. uvi uvi ui
Samoan i ufi ufi ufi
Hawaiian - uhi uhi uhi
Australia .. t su d. jum
Hot.
— poc wera
Asia . |South'rn India| Tamil (anc.) veya
Africa .... ue wA ..
Malay Archi-| Various Is- |) panas, " mopani, bahaha, panas
pelago ..| lands j za | bafanat, mofanas, benis
ysol ae x ne pela
Polynesia .. | Samoan “a rs vs vevela
ongan ya $ x vela
Hawaiian is * "es wela
Australia .. wa és . I os
Raw.
manta manta
Asia .. | Eastof Bengal] Nowgong Naga; matok ` tok matok .
te Bay of Bengal | Teressa mahaa j
Aa.
|
;
3l
180 Transactions.——M iscellaneous.
Raw—continued.
REGION. COUNTRY. DISTRICT. MALAGASI, MALAY. MAORI
Polynesia .. | Samoan mata mata mata
awaii maka maka maka
Australia .. = ae =
Red.
mena mera whero
Asia . |South’rn India| Telugu era era yerupu
Central India err ae yerodi
Kolami yerrodi
Africa -.. a
Malay Archi-| Various Is- me erai, maramutah, mia, miha, mehani,
pelago ..| lands meranati, merah.
Australia . a de
Ripe
masaka masa maoa
Asia .. | Nepal Sunwar iso miso miso
Africa... a ets À s "T
Malay Archi-
pelago . ;
Polynesia .. H
Ausiralia .. .
Small.
keli kichi riki, iti, nohi
hi
Asia .. | Tibeto-China | Gyarung kachai `
East Nepal | Thulungya kichem s
do. Bahingya chim ne
do. Lambichong michiyuk WA
North Bengal |Lepcha (Sikkim) chim y
E = — ingpho katsi Se
om za zi noi
Bayo of Bengal Andaman kitimarda | kitimarda kiti-marda
Africa. M a Wa zs
Malay Archi-
pelago .. à T Pi i =
Polynesia .. | Samoan a FA " laiti-iti
awaiian s = : palanai-iki
Australia .. A Š es ' ae
Come
Asi Chin Nankin, Pekin a ec ET
sia YA a ankin, Pekin, : : ;
peo } lai lai lai
do. anton loi loi loi
Tibeto-China | Thochu hai hai hai
Indo-China | Sgau-karen hai hai hai
J. T. Tuomson.—On Barat or Barata Fossil Words. 181
————
Come—continued.
——
| REGION, COUNTRY. DISTRICT. MALAGASI. MALAY. MAORI.
|
| Asia. .. | Indo-China | Annam lai lai lai
| do. Siam, Ahom
| Khamti, Laos } Ng "s —
| Central India | Yerukala va i s
South'rn India Tamil va a i
| do. Toda, Kota it va YA YA
do. Malabar va Ex *
Africa... m xl s de i
marein, ieri sous vt dumahi,
Malay Archi- Various Is- maranih, ma ikomai, gumaho,
pel .. | lands x ber oimai, poen S oL edhe jog-
ago
Polynesia .. | Fijian ss lako- mai et mai lako-mai
Tongan zd hau-mai mai au-mai
Hawaiian ew e hele mai e sot mai | ehele mai
Australia .. ae v. Vs je
Five.
pane limi lima rima
Asia = vs En Es wA
Africa vs 25 a"
Malay Archi-| Various Is- || ( limanu, ee delima, leplim, rima, enlima,
pelago lands j y || lim, nima è
Polynesia .. Fijian $ ee lima i
amoan "m e-lima e-lima elima
Tongan i nima nima nima
Hawaiian ei | elima elima elim
Australia .. ae: is a
Siz.
enina, oné anam ono
Asia s eu Pa HA ea KA
Africa — .. os Vi i
nanam, nanamo, unam, num, "nomo,
Malay Archi- Mp es kanum, annuh, gane, ne, noh, nena nóo,
pelago .. oóh, nome, noi, num, ennoi, wonen,
lomi, onam, nem, onum,
Polynesia.. | Fijian za e-ono e-ono e-ono
Samoan za ono ono ono
ongan ie whaine whaine whaine
Hawaiian ex eono eono eono
Australia .. i yi S 2 um
Seven.
fito tuju whitu
Asia .. | Central India} Gondi yetu ae ye
do. Madi yedu .. yedu
do. Kuri yeiku is yeiku
do. oaan yedu S yedu
erukala yegu i yegu
Southien’ India Telugu yedu e. yedu
Ee anean | yelu pi yelu
I n elu
East Nepal Balali ; oe nuji tt
Africa. o e ..
182
Transaclions,—Miscellaneous,
Seven—continued.
REGION. COUNTRY. DisTRICT. MALAGASI. | MALAY, MAORI.
pitu, pituano pitu, pituano
Malay Archi- kapitu, gapitu kapitu, gapitu,
pelago J , pito, hito, pito, ito
MES die I hitu, ON itua, hitu, witu
|| wi u, fitu, fitu, fit, fiti,
U M itu, tit | itu,
S. Celebes Salayu tujoh "
; aj es z. tujoh Ya
Polynesia .. | Fijian za e-vitu i e-vitu
amoan is fitu PR fitu
Tongan ix fidda "m fidda
Hawaiian vi ahiku s ahiku
Australia .. Wa 2d Ma Ss =
Eight.
: valo, varlo, delapan waru
Asia .. | Central India | Yerukala vattu i vattu
Africa .. .. ja s vs ve T
) ( wola, veluano ( |wola, veluano,
| | alru waro '| walru, waro
Malay Archi-| Various Is-| : (| walu waru walu war
pelago ..| 1 F : | lua wagu oe walua wagu
j i kh enwal i| wol, enwol
1 , allu E , allu
: aj ds | v dolapan =
Polynesia .. | Fijian ee walu à walu
? oan es valu èi valu
ongan 2o aru v. aru
dui Hawaiian i. awalu is awalu
ustralia .. ee NA "à a EN
Nine.
: : Sivi, siva sambilang iwa, iva
Asia > IE aus d Hn hkwi m kwi, hkwi
o wo-Karen wi x kwi
Africa... AE Wa =
sioanu, s | sioanu
Malay Archi-| Various Is- Faso, si siwa kasiow, si siwa
pelago ..| lands i > ce bey chia, sia, ensiwa
2 siwer, si, sin | siwer, si, sin
a aju .. P. sambilan ie
Polynesia .. | Fijian .. ciwa dis eiwa
Samoan re iva o iva
oron za hioa sy hioa
‘een awan Pes elwa vs eiwa
oN ae
J. T. Tuomsun.—On Barat or Barata Fossil Words. 183
APPENDIX Il.
ENGLISH. SAMOAN, —
1 | Black uliuli wulin, Langowan, North Celeb
2 | Fire afi afu, “satya ; aif Ga b, Msep d Matabella ; yaf,
; yap,
3 | Large latele ww "Matabello Ri:
4 | Nose isu n Lariki; ; inu, Vaiqueno, East Timor
5| Small laitiiti kiii, Wahai, Ceram
6 | Tongue alelo , Sasak, Lombok ; kelo, Matabello
7 | Tooth nifo nifan, UNO. eram ; nifoa, Matabello ; "e. Teor
8 ater vai ve, Teto, E = Timor ; wai, Solor and other
9 | White pa-epa-e piuper,
10 | Ant loi foin, fihi 0,
11 | Ashes lefu-lefu lavu, Amblaw ; xpo Ahtiago, Ceram
12 ad eaga sol
13 | Banana fa-i fiah, Sula Islands
mo-i muk, Teor; mah, Mysol
14 | Belly manava tiava, Batumerah
15 ird manu nu, Camarian, Ceram
16 | Blood toto kokotu, Tidore
17 | Blue uli
18 | Boat tulula
19 | Body tino
20 | Bone ivi i, Sula Islands; luliva, Butumerah, Amboyna
21 | Bow ufa Salayer, South Celebes; fean, Mysol
22 OX atola-au
23 | Butterfly pepe pepeul, Morella, Amboyna
24 gose
geli
pusi
25 | Child tama
26 | Chopper —
27 | Cocoanut ni niula, Bah, Ceram; MM Mysol
28 | Cold a- mariri, Wahai, Cer
29 | Come fotu mai mai, Sula Islands, Lariki, Amboyna, Gah, Ceram, etc.
30 | Day heo ARE , Bout h Ce lebes ; aoaaoa , Lariki, Am-
'boyna; u, Baju
Deer
2 | Do ul kafuni, Gah, Ceram
| | Door püpuni, puipui
L ar talig telinga, Malay, Baju, etc.
Egg fua en ie Wayapo, Bouru
Eye mata Lariki, Amboyn
3 Face mata da, Wahai, Cera
} ather tama ama, Wahai, Ceram
) | Feather fulu fulun, Wayapo, Bouru
40 | Finger i-lima limin-tagin, Teor
41 | Fish i-a i-an, Matabello, etc.
42 | Flesh a-ano
4 Flower fuga bunga, Gani, Gilolo, etc.
44 | Fly lago ont o, Sanguir
45 | Foot vae i, Wahai, Ceram, etc.
46 | Fowl moa
47 | Fruit fua fen, re kie etc.
48 | Go alu ou, Wahai, C
) | Gold —
) | Good le
Hair fulu-fulu folo. Masarati, Bouru
Hand lim guir, ete,
|| Hard ma-a-a io Saparua, etc.
| | Head ulu ulu, Camarian, Ceram
|| Honey —
184
Transactions.— Miscellaneous.
ENGLISH.
56 t
57 use
58 | Husband
59 on
60 | Island
61 | Knife
62 | Large
63 | Leaf
64 | Little
65 | Louse
66 an
67 | Mat
68 | Monkey
69 | Moon
7 osquito
71 | Mother
72 out
73 | Nail
74 | Night
75 il
76 ig
77 | Post
78 | Prawn
79 | Rai
80 | Rut
81 | Red
82 | Rice
88 | River
84 | Road
85 t
86 | Saliva
87 | Salt
88 | Sea
89 | Silver
90 | Skin
91 o
92 | Snake
93 oft
t Sour
5 | Spear
96 | Star
97 | Sun
98 | Sweet
99 | Wax
100 | Wife
SAMOAN. ROMA
vevela pela, Mir
fale bare, San
tane burani, Bi, South Celebes
amea
nu-utoloto
otu
polo
pena
naifi
latele mwani Matabello
‘lau n, Saparua
itiiti eid Wahai, m
utu utu, ) bep ne others
tagata tomata, Saliba
tane
papa
fala
masina fasina, Sula Islands
auli
namu nymo, Javanese
ti ina, Lariki, Amboyn
gut nanguru, Galela, Gilolo
atigi-lima, fao
po potu, Saparua
u- majulu, Mysol
suau-u
pua-a hawhua, Camarian, Ceram
po faolnim, Ahtiago, Ceram
ua uan, Gah, Ceram
imoa
ioli
isumu
mumu hamu, Sanguir
ulaula ululi, Teor
toto-toto
vaitafe
ala aya, Sula Islands
aa ai aha, Matabello
pogai
anu udu, Sanguir
feanuga
tai tahi, Matabello
sami
vasa
pa-u
iliola "etie Ten Ceram
asu Gil olo
gata re oan ^ Banguir
malulu mulumu, Wahai, Ceram
o-ona ko-unim, Ahtiago, Ceram
tao
fetu fatui, Sula Islands
la lea, Sula Islands
suamalie
pulu
ava sawa, Sanguir
J. T. Taomson.—On Barat or Barata Fossii Words. 185
ENGLISH. SAMOAN. —
AAA
101 | Wing apu-au opani, Bouton, sius Celebes
102 | Woman fafine Siné, Masa rati, Bou
103 | Wood la-au a-au, Cajili, Bour i
ao-matua
104 | Yellow sama-sama
105 ne asi i, Camarian, Ceram
106 | Two lua Wahai, Ceram
107 | Three tolu ee Matabello
a
108 | Four efa fad, Amblaw
esoani
109 | Five elima lima, Ahtiago, Ceram, and o
110 | Six ono ono-mo, Bolan ees am, Noch € Celebes
111 | Seven fitu Jitu, Mata
112 | Eight valu walu, Tes 2
113 | Nine iva siwa, Cajili, Bouru, and other
114 | Ten sefulu sapulo, m North uds, and others
cuu d sc uem p TE
ApPENDIx III.
i, xs is 1 Gilolo Ji vs 2 } 3
Galela : ya : M ee ss |
angowan .. ya Celebes YA 1
Salayer n m : Eee =a | 6
Bouton Sa He 5 M 3
Bolanghitam i a ; m -
Ahtiago za Ceram oe 23 )
ah se ee se P S ox
Wahai m ya x a V d 24
Camarian .. T is sk vs an í
Teluti . .. oe .. .. ..
' Lariki us oe s Amboyna vie ..
Batumerah "E vá YA ie i» 7
Morella ed we nm ei ve es
Vaiqueno .. 5 WA Timor we oe } 2
to "s s wA Pa e eo J
yapo . .. of Bouru LEO .. í
Masarati .. en XR tn cx za : 7
jeli ee oe .. .. ^s E
mblaw - $e
Matabello Ns s 1
eor A ya [
Sasak Lombok wa we 1
Solor s e 1
Dorey vs «à 1
Mysol .. x 5
Sula Islands ya ne 7
Tidore “a pe 1
aju LI oe 1
Malay oe oe 1
Sanguir RE .. 7
Saparua WA eal 3
Salibabo is os 1
Javanese .. m 1
—————— MS
—€——————————
II,—ZOOLOGY,.
Art, XVI.—On some Coccidæ in New Zealand. By W, M. MASKELL.
[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 6th June, 1878.]
Plates V., VI., VII. and VIII.
Tux Coccide—Scale or Gale insects—are a family of the order Homoptera.
They are exceedingly common in all parts of the world, and I may say that
in New Zealand I have scarcely come across a single plant or tree that is
not in some way attacked by them. In many instances plants are found
wjth several species of Coccidæ living on them together, and sometimes the
number of insects on a leaf is so great as entirely to cover the surface,
rendering the plant very unsightly.
Notwithstanding, however, the enormous number of these insects and
the undoubted damage which they do, there is not much known about
them. I believe I am correct in stating that in this colony nobody has
yet attempted to study them: probably the very great incentives to research
in other branches of natural history have diverted attention from these little
pests. It is, however, curious that in older countries scarcely more know-
ledge has been attained regarding the Coccide. Books and papers respect-
ing them are certainly not few in number. I have a list of more than a
hundred authors who have written something upon the subject. But, with
the exception of the insects yielding cochineal, gum-lac, and other articles
of commercial value, and a few whose peculiarities of form attracted special
notice, hardly any of the genera or species have, until lately, been satisfac-
torily described. Most of the authors referred to seem to have contented
themselves either with indefinite accounts or with copying the phrases of
those who preceded them.
An application to the Librarian of the British Museum, last year, made
known to me a work by M. V. Signoret, a member of the Entomological
Society of France, giving a monographical account of the known species of
Coccide. After some months’ delay I have succeeded in procuring this
work, and I have to express my thanks to Dr. von Haast and to Professor
Milne-Edwards of Paris, the former of whom wrote for, the latter of whom
forwarded, a copy of M. Signoret’s book to me,
188 Transactions,— Zoology.
The chief difficulty under which I have laboured has been that of being
unable to compare my specimens of New Zealand scale-insects with those
of other countries. The work just mentioned has, therefore, come most
opportunely to me as a text-book.
Not professing any degree of entomological science, I may, perhaps, in
my descriptions of these insects, fail sometimes in properly expressing
myself. I must take my chance of this, declaring myself quite open to
correction.
The Coccide are, as I said, a family of insects of the order Homoptera,
The chief distinguishing features dividing them from all the other families
are, 1st, the absence of wings or elytra in the females, and, 2nd, the absence
of a mouth or rostrum in the males.
The damage done by these insects, which attach themselves to different
trees, is very great. Everybody must know the scale on the apple and pear
trees, which covers the trunk and branches and eventually kills the tree.
Every gardener knows how destructive they are to his flowers and choice
plants, whether in the open air or in green-houses. It is stated that, in
France, different species of Coccus and Lecanium have destroyed whole
forests of almond, orange, and olive trees; in Mauritius and in Brazil the
sugar-cane, and in Ceylon the coffee-plant, has been ravaged by them. Sir
Wyville Thomson, in the volumes just published of the voyage of the
** Challenger," states that in the Azores the cultivation of oranges was for a
time almost stopped by a small species of Coccus; and we all know how the
oranges and lemons which come to us from Sydney are covered with
innumerable insects of the same family. In Christchurch a good example
of their work may be seen in the holly hedge round the Christchurch Club,
where Lecanium hesperidum reduced the plants a few years ago to a miser-
able state. In Auckland, I saw a month or two ago a fine hedge of the
kangaroo 4cacia being rapidly destroyed by colonies of an insect which
appears to be a new species of Coccus, allied to Icerya.
There is an immense variety in the appearance of the different species
of Coccidæ, and this variety is rendered still greater by the fact that the
insects themselves are by no means the same as a rule in all the stages of
their existence, and by the difference between the sexes. There are, how-
ever, certain characters which belong to all the species, and with which I
may fitly begin my description of those that I have observed :—
lst. In the first stage, after leaving the egg, there is no appreciable
difference between the male and the female. The change in form does not
take place until the insect discards its second pellicle.
2nd. The males of all species have two wings, six legs, two antenna
(generally pretty long), two proper eyes, and in some species two other eyes
placed further back on the head,
Masgrni,—0n some Coccida in New Zealand, 189
8rd. The males, in their perfect state, are absolutely destitute of mouth
or beak, the place of this organ being apparently taken by the two last eyes
just mentionod.
4th. The females of all species are wingless.
5th. The mouth of the female, in all species, consists of a beak or
rostrum, usually jointed, from which start long tubular sete or bristles,
apparently retractile, sometimes longer than the insect itself. Westwood,
and after him Signoret, says that there are four of these sete. This is
certainly the case in some species, but in many instances I have been
unable, though carefully watching, to see more than three, and in some
specimens there would seem to be no doubt on the matter.
The above characters are constant in all the species. The differences
observable will be noticed as I go on.
I may say here that, in the majority of instances, the males are
extremely rare and difficult to find; in fact, for some species, such as
Mytilaspis pomorum (the common ne scale), I believe that the male insect
has never been found.
The whole family may be divided, according to Signoret, into four great
groups :—
1. The Diaspidse, of which we may take as the type the apple scale,
Mytilaspis pomorum.
2. The Brachyscelide: these appear to be chiefly Australian species,
and have been described by M. Schrader, in the Proceedings of the
Zoologico-Botanical Society of Vienna for 1868.
8. The Lecanide, type L. hesperidum, common on our hollies.
4. The Coccide: our type for this will be an insect found on the
Norfolk Island pine and on native trees in Riccarton Bush.
The species which I shall have to describe as being, in my opinion,
new, will not, as far as I know at present, require the creation of a new
group.”
I propose to take the above groups in order, and for the present shall
confine myself to the first. I shall begin by giving an account of the
features characteristic of the whole group; then pass on to the distinguish-
ing features of the various genera, and lastly describe the species which I
have observed.
1. Drasprpz.
This group includes those scale insects which cover themselves with
separate shields, composed partly of the discarded pellicles of the earlier
stages, partly of a fibrous secretion more or less independent of the body of
the insect.
* Powellia (vide post) seems to belong to none of the m Soup, but I have not
yet been able to make out where to place it,
190 Transactions.—Zoology.
We are all familiar with the appearance of the outer shell or shield of
the apple scale. The shield varies considerably in different genera: some-
times it is round, sometimes long, sometimes white, sometimes brown, but
it invariably exhibits, in some part or other of its extent, when taken from
the adult female insect, the two pellicles which she has discharged in her
earlier transformations. In my plate V., fig. la, is shown part of the
shield of the apple scale, mounted to show the pellicles. In the shield of
the male insect, in certain species, only one pellicle appears, the insect
undergoing only one transformation before the pupa stage.
The female insect, having arrived at her full growth, fills her shield with
eggs. A figure of its appearance is given in plate V., fig. 15, for the apple
scale.
The young insect shows no sexual differences. It is oval in shape
(plate V., fig. 1c), with six legs, two antenne, and two eyes.
The female, discarding her first skin, throws off also at the same time
all external organs except the mouth or rostrum. In the first pellicle
attached to her shield the remains of the antenne may almost always be
seen. The legs are not to be found, andI cannot say what becomes of
them. The insect, thus debarrassed of her limbs and eyes, becomes only
an inert mass. She remains thus for some time, merely feeding and grow-
ing, still retaining an oval shape, as shown by the second pellicles in the
shield. Throwing off this pellicle, she appears in her adult stage, a des-
cription of which must be left till I come to each species, as they differ
considerably.
What I have just said as to the discarding of the limbs is, like every
rule, subject to some exception. In one or two species, chiefly of the genus
Mytilaspis, a pair of minute protuberances, which M. Signoret states are
rudimentary antenne, are visible on the head.
The adult female, whatever her shape, oval or round, is much cor-
rugated, in fact made up of rolls of fat, with the exception of the head—
which is usually smooth, and of the abdomen—which is peculiarly shaped
and marked. The colour of the insect as a whole varies—being sometimes
whitish, sometimes pale yellow, sometimes red.
In all cases that I have observed the abdominal region is of a bright yellow
colour, and it is from the markings of this portion of the body that the
specific differences of the genera of Diaspide are taken. My plate V., fig.
ld, gives the appearance of the abdomen of Mytilaspis pomorum, the
apple scale, which I have taken as the type of the group. It will be seen
that the corrugations of the body end a short distance from the posterior
extremity, which has a curved outline, broken by numerous small lobes,
“intermixed with scaly hairs, The anal opening is at what might be termed
iene no PENNE
MasxeLu.—On some Coccidz in New Zealand. 191
the focus of the curve (this does not hold good for all genera), and it is
surrounded by groups of minute circular marks, arranged like bunches of
grapes, whilst other marks are scattered singly over the abdominal region.
These marks, which are in reality the open ends of tubes, are supposed to
be a kind of spinnerets from which the insect builds round itself the shield
of which I spoke just now. Some of the chief characters upon which the
specific differences of Diaspide are founded, are the presence or absence of
these spinnerets, the number of the groups, their continuity or separation,
and the number of openings in each group. There are other features, such
as difference of outline in the body, difference of shape of shield, difference
of form of the male, difference of length in the thoracic band of the male.
But these are often more properly generic than specific differences; more-
over, the excessive rarity of the male insects renders it very difficult to
arrive at certainty from them; whereas the abdominal markings of the
females are in general so distinctly clear that they offer an excellent means
of distinguishing between individuals.
The mouth is, as I said above, absent entirely in the male insect in its
perfect state. The mouth of the female consists of a rostrum, or beak, on
the underside of the head, some little way from its anterior edge. It appears
in the Diaspide to have no joints, and from its interior start three (or in
some cases four) very long, thin tubular bristles, which, I suppose, the insect
inserts into the stomata or minute orifices of the plant on which it lives, for
the purpose of withdrawing thence its food. My plate V., figs. le and f,
show this rostrum (which is, with modifications, common to all Coccide), as
it appears on the insect, and as it shows after mounting for the microscope.
So much for the general features of.the female. The male differs a
good deal in shape in various species, but, as far as it is known, has always
two wings, six legs terminated by a single claw, antenna usually of ten
joints, and, at the posterior end of the abdomen a long double spike,
sometimes nearly equal in length to the whole body. The insect undergoes
three transformations. From the egg it emerges as an oval insect similar
in all respects to the female; in some species it surrounds itself with a
shield like that of the female, in others the shield is much longer and
narrower. After a time it discards its first pellicle and remains in the
shield, gradually changing into the pupa stage. During this process,
according to M. Signoret, the successive formation of the eyes, wings,
antenne, and abdominal spike may be observed. I have specimens of
pups of Aspidiotus epidendri, in which this formation is apparent. The
first pellicle is the only one which remains attached to the shield, as the
insect emerges from the pupa stage, winged and perfect; consequently, in
some species it is possible to distinguish between the shields of the two
sexes simply from the presence in one of two pellicles, in the other of only
one,
+
*
192 Transactions.— Zoology.
Having thus briefly enumerated some of the characters which are
common to all the Diaspide, I proceed to particulars.
The group is divisible into several genera, but I need now only mention
those of which I have obtained specimens in this country. Considering the
immense number of plants, imported or native, whether in greenhouses,
gardens, or the bush, which are attacked by scale insects, and the multi-
tudinous variations of form and markings which distinguish the individuals,
it is likely that future research will discover, if not new families and genera,
at any cate many new species.
The genera known to me at present are the following :—
1. Myritaspis. This includes the apple scale and many others. The
- shield, or puparium, is elongated ; the two discarded pellicles are seen at
the smaller end.
2. Asprpiotus. Shield of the female round, or nearly so; that of the
male somewhat oval; discarded pellicles in the centre.
8. Draspts. Shield of the female round, as in the last genus; the dis-
carded pellicles usually near the side ; shield af the male elongated.
Subsection I.—Myrtinaspis, Linn.
The females in many species of this genus, as a rule, resemble each
other in form. The number and disposition of the groups of spinnerets
offer a means of distinguishing the species. The males, in most cases, are
unknown.
1. Mytilaspis pomorum, the apple scale.
Plate V., figs. 2a, b, c, d.
This species is not indigenous. The shield, which may be seen cover-
ing the trunks and branches of oür apple, pear, and other trees, is elongated,
mussel-shaped, brown or grey (I have seen some white). It is open under-
neath, adhering to the tree with its edges; it has considerable consistency ;
length averaging 4'; inch, breadth nearly „y inch. The discarded pellicles
are at its smaller end, and, when mounted in balsam, the rest of the shield
is seen to be composed of transverse interlacing curved fibres.
In the spring, a close inspection of a branch of apple tree will show a
number of extremely minute yellowish specks intermingled with the adult
puparia. These specks are the young of the insect, hatched and beginning
to travel on their own account. Plate V., fig. 1c, shows the form at this
stage. It is oval, flattish, yellow-coloured, with two antenne, each with
six joints (of which the last is the longest); the antennz have longish hairs
on each joint. The head is smooth, rather darker in colour than the body,
with four hairs on its anterior edge. The body is corrugated, each corruga-
tion having a spine. The anal extremity is yellow, with several hairs, of
which two are of some length. The legs have short femora, tibie rather
MaskErL.—ÓOn some Coccidæ in New Zealand. 193
longer and very thick, tarsi somewhat longer and thin, and a single claw at
the tip. Just above the claw spring two long hairs each ending in a knob.
After fixing upon a suitable resting-place the young insect remains in
the same state for some time, and then undergoes its first transformation,
The result of this is seen in the puparium, where the oval pellicle overlying
what is evidently the pellicle of the young one shows that it becomes merely
an oval inert mass. ‘The antenna and legs disappear, the skin of the
former remaining attached to the first pellicle. The mouth only survives
the change. In this second stage the insect begins to spin its shell, or
puparium, and after another interval undergoes another transformation
appearing at length in the shape shown in plate V., fig. 2b, or as the perfect
female.
The body is here seen to have lost its former regularly oval shape and
to have become longer. The cephalic end and about half the rest are
smooth, the remainder much corrugated. There are no legs, or antenne
proper, but in some specimens may be seen two extremely minute pro-
tuberances on the head, each with a few attached hairs, which are said to
be rudimentary antenne. Some of the corrugations near the abdomen
have three or four spines. The mouth, or rostrum, which is of the same
general character as in all Coccide, exhibits three very long sete.
The abdominal region, as in all Diaspide, is bright yellow. Plate V.,
fig. 2c, shows ‘its outline, which is a pretty regular curve broken by a
number of small triangular and foliated lobes. Two of these lobes, in the
middle, are the largest, and have on each side of them one smaller lobe.
Between the lobes are several strong spines. The anal orifice is situated at
what might be called the focus of the curve of the abdomen; it is oval and
hairless.
Forming an arch around the anus are five groups or bunches of minute
circular openings, which are the spinnerets used in building up the
puparium. In the uppermost group are l7 openings, in each of the two
upper side groups 17, and in each of the two lower groups 14. Plate
V., fig. 2d shows the appearance of these spinnerets, magnified 700
diameters. A few single spinnerets are scattered about the abdominal
region, and near the edge of the abdomen is a row of egg-shaped openings,
larger than the others, the narrow ends of the eggs pointing outwards;
these are arranged in pairs.
I am inclined to think that the whole abdomen is covered with extremely
minute fine hairs, for it usually presents a velvety appearance, with very
fine parallel strise.
When in its perfect stage the female insect occupies nearly the whole
puparium. Later on, however, she begins laying her eggs, with which she
dap the shield, shrivelling up herself into pore m
194 Transactions.—Zoology.
The eggs, according to my observations, are usually from thirty to fifty in
number, oval in shape, of a white or opaline colour, changing to yellow as
spring comes on.
The males of this species have yet to be discovered.
I have often found amongst the eggs of Mytilaspis pomorum a minute
white Acarus. It is to be hoped that it feeds largely on the eggs.
Several cures for this pest of the apple tree have, I believe, been tried.
Mr. A. Carrick, of Park Terrace, showed me last year a tree of his which he
had painted over with a mixture of kerósene and linseed oil. Inspection
of the puparia showed that the fluid had thoroughly penetrated them and
surrounded the eggs ; and I understand that the cure has been complete.
Mytilaspis pomorum attacks in this country the pear and plum trees as
well as the apple. Indeed, I have found specimens identical in almost every
respect on the following trees :—plum, peach, apricot, pear, lilac, cotone-
aster, thorn, sycamore, ash, and many others. That these are all the
same or different species, I do not like to affirm. Yet in the numbers of
their spinnerets they differ. M. Signoret states that in Europe Mytilaspis
pomorum is found only accidentally on the pear tree, sometimes on the
plum; and he names scarcely any other trees. Here all those which I
mentioned appear to be indiscrimately attacked by them. The scale on the
ash is perhaps a little smaller. I give, however, as an indication for com-
parison the spinnerets of insects on a few of these trees :—
— Upp & Groups. Upper side Groups. Lower side Groups.
Apple 17 17 14
Plum ` 20 17 17
tiae 22 ee 17 19 16
Ash 10 12 9
Cotoneaster .. .. 4 15 10
2. Mytilaspis pyriformis, sp. nov.
Plate V., fig. 8.
The puparium is broadly pearshaped, the discarded tests occupying the
smaller end ; the tests are of a pretty regular oval shape ; the pellicle of the
second stage reaches to about the middle of the puparium. Colour of
shield light brown ; texture thinner than in Mytilaspis pomorum, and form
flatter ; length about ji inch; greatest breadth about j inch. Plate V.,
fig. 8a, shows the appearance of the puparium.
This species in the shape of its shield and a few other partieulars
resembles Mytilaspis buwi of Bouché; but there are differences which
authorise me, I believe, in considering it as new,
MASKELL.—On some Coccidz in New Zealand, 195
The adult female is deeply corrugated except (as in every Mytilaspis) on
the cephalic portion. The corrugations bear a few strong spiny hairs.
The abdominal pygidium shows an almost continuous arch of spinnerets
over the anal orifice. In Mytilaspis buwi the groups are distinct. The
spinnerets of Mytilaspis pyriformis run in a double ring round the anus,
with here and there an outlying opening. Altogether there may be from
60 to 70 openings in the arch. There are many single spinnerets scat-
tered about, a large number of them more or less oblong; and they may
be traced up the sides of the body as far as the corrugations extend.
Plate V., figs. 3b and c, show the appearance of the female and the arrange-
ment of the spinnerets.
The abdomen, including all that is tinted yellow, does not show a con-
tinuously curved outline. On each side, next to the last corrugation of the
body, is a large triangular lobe, the apex furnished with scaly, triangular,
serrated hairs. The rest of the abdomen shows a curve broken by small
lobes, of which the two middle ones are the largest, the next two on each
side smaller, and the rest inconspicuous. Between the lobes are scaly hairs,
and near the edge runs a row of large oblong openings.
I have a specimen of a scale from Dysoxylum spectabile, which seems to
resemble much more nearly Mytilaspis buai; and this is not unlikely, as the
specimen came from a greenhouse.
3. Mytilaspis cordylinidis, sp. nov.
Plate V., fig. 4.
This scale, which appears to be also new, I have found on a great
number of New Zealand plants, such as Cordyline, Asplenium, Phormium,
Gahnia, Drimys, Astelia, and many others. I have also seen it on Eucalyptus
globulus, but only in the vicinity of New Zealand trees. It is perhaps more
abundant on the cabbage tree than on others; hence I have named it as
above.
The puparium is very long and narrow, generally straight, sometimes
curved, semi-cylindrical. Length about 1 inch; breadth jj inch. Colour
pure white, except at the end where the discarded tests are; these are
bright yellow. The tests are oval; the second more elongated than the
first, and the two together generally occupy rather more than a quarter of
the length of the puparium. The eggs are small, oval, and of a bright
yellow colour.
The adult female is pale golden, about three times as long as broad ; the
cephalic end a little flattened anteriorly, and above the rostrum are often
seen the two minute hairy protuberances called rudimentary antenne. The
body is somewhat corrugated, but less so than in M. re the gi :
tions show a very few fine hairs, ^
196 Transactions.—Zoology. i
The abdomen exhibits a curve almost continuous and regular, broken
only by very small lobes except in the middle, where there is a deepish
depression with a large lobe on each side. Between the lobes are scaly
serrated hairs, some of which are pretty long.
There are five groups of spinnerets of which the middle has 7 to 8
openings, the two upper-side ones 14 to 20, the two lower 20 to 25.
There are a great number of single spinnerets, a few oval or circular,
the majority oblong. They are placed in curved lines arching round the
pygidium, each arch lining the groove of a corrugation, and are visible on
the sides of the body nearly to a level with the rostrum.
The male insect is very minute and difficult to find. I succeeded in
procuring one specimen, though not in good order. I could observe that
the antenns were short and the tibiæ excessively large.
Plate V., fig. 4a, is the puparium ; fig. 4b, the adult female; fig. 4c, the
pygidium.
4. Mytilaspis drimydis, sp. nov.
Plate V., fig. 5.
I have found this species on a great many native plants, but more often
perhaps on Drimys colorata, whence I give it its name.
The puparium is straight, long and narrow, but not so much so as in
M. cordylinidis. Average length 41, inch; breadth 4L. inch; colour generally
& dirty white, sometimes brown, yellow at the end with the discarded
pellicles, which are oval, narrowing somewhat at the tip.
The adult female is of a dull red colour, about twice as long as broad ;
the widest part is about two-thirds of the length from the head. It is less
corrugated than M. pomorum ; the head and thoracic portion of the body
are smooth and roünd, the anterior edge not so much flattened as in M.
cordylinidis. The remainder of the body, on the corrugations, has a row
of short, thick, tubular bristles extending down the edge as far as the com-
mencement of the abdominal pygidium ; these are cylindrical, some with a
circular top, some forked, some appearing like bundles of parallel fibres. It
is probable that they are spinnerets protruding further than is usual in
other species.
There are no groups of spinnerets on the abdomen, but a number of
single ones, mostly oblong, scattered about.
The abdomen ends in a number of very small lobes of which four are
conspieuous in the centre. Between the lobes fine hairs.
On the cephalic region are a few scattered spines and the two rudimentary
antenne.
I have no adult male, but pups showing long antennæ, a very long
body, short wings and the usual abdominal spike peculiar to the Diaspide.
TRANS. NZ INSTITUTE VOL XLP] V.
COCCIDA-
MaskELr.—On some Coccidg in New Zealand. 197
Males of this species are not so rare as in some others, and I hope before
long to have a perfect specimen.*
Subsection 2.—Aspiniotus, Bouché.
This genus is characterised by a round, or nearly round, puparium ; the
discarded pellieles are in the middle, and usually their major axes are inclined
to eaeh other. Several species are known in Europe.
1. Aspidiotus epidendri, Bouche.
This is a well-known species. In Mr. Duncan’s hothouses it may be
found in abundance upon the Seaforthia palm, upon Lelia anceps and other
orchids, and on several other plants.
The puparium is round, flat, of a dirty white colour, sometimes (as on
the wattle) brownish ; the pellicles in the centre are yellow; the fibres
run in interlacing circles.
The eggs are yellow ; the young insect is oval, somewhat broader than
in Mytilaspis pomorum, and has at the posterior extremity two protruding
lobes with a pair of very minute lobes between them.
As a rule, the insects are found in considerable numbers, in colonies,
the puparia of the females intermingled with the young and with the
cocoons of the males.
The pellicle of the second stage is oval, tapering to the posterior
extremity,
The adult female is almost round, or rather in the shape of a peg-top.
Plate V., figs. 6a and b, show the insect and its puparium. The curve of the
cephalic portion is circular and smooth ; no hairs are visible, but the two
rudimentary antennæ can be seen. The abdominal region is yellow, ending
in lobes of which the two middle ones are the largest; between the lobes
are very fine hairs. The pygidium has four groups of spinnerets ; the two
upper groups have from eight to ten openings, the two lower from six to
eight. Many single spinnerets.
The puparium of the male is elongated, cylindrical. At one end is seen
the pellicle of the first stage. The male escapes from this cocoon, when
perfect, backwards. This mode of egress is, as I understand, not uncom-
mon amongst the Coccide.
In the pupa stage the male (plate V., fig. 6d) exhibits the wings, legs
and abdominal spike coiled up to fit the cocoon.
* Since writing this paper I have obtained a specimen of the adult male. The wings
are about equal in length to the body. The antenns have ten joints, of which the two
first are very short and thick, the rest very long and thin, covered with hairs and equal
to each other with the exception of the last which is spindle-shaped. These antenne
resemble those of the hie 3 of Depi giga dece pur The thoracic band is
inconspicuous. The le g airy.
198 Transactions.—Zoology,
In its perfect state the male has a roundish head with two globular eyes
on its anterior portion, and further back, in the place where the rostrum
should be, two other eyes (?) filled with a mass of pigment. The antenne
are long, hairy, ten-jointed. The wings are a little longer than the body.
The thorax is somewhat broad, with a band crossing it near the middle;
this band (seen I believe in all species of Diaspide#) does not in this species
reach across the whole thorax. The abdomen, smaller than the thorax, is
oval, and ends in a tubular sheath from which start the two long spikes
characteristic of the Diaspide. The legs exhibit a few hairs; the femora
are thick; the tibiw not very long, narrow; the tarsi end in the usual single
claw.
2. Aspidiotus budlai, SP
On the silver wattle, in Nelson, last year, I found specimens which I
believe to belong to this species. I have had one or two from a tree of the
same kind in Christchureh. My specimens are all females.
The difference between this and the last species is, for the female, in
the number of the spinnerets. These are in four groups, the two upper
ones having only five or six openings, the two lower only three or four.
Tt is possible that these specimens may be Aspidiotus aloes. It requires
an examination of the male to distinguish clearly.
3. Aspidiotus atherosperma, sp. nov.
I take this to be a new species; I have it from an indigenous tree,
Atherosperma nove-zealandie. The puparium resembles that of Aspidiotus
epidendri, but is somewhat darker in colour. The adult female is much
more corrugated, and the corrugations overlap the abdominal region. The
pygidium has four groups of spinnerets; the upper pair have 15 openings,
the lower 9 or 10. The abdomen ends in several lobes, of which the four
middle ones are the largest. The rest of the lobes are sharply pointed.
Between the lobes are scaly serrated hairs.
Plate VL, figs. 7a and b, shows the adult female and the abdomen.
4. Aspidiotus dysoryli, sp. nov.
Plate VL, fig. 7.
The puparium is brown, somewhat convex, the underside white. The
female in the middle is bright yellow, corrugated, the corrugations over-
lapping the abdominal region which is comparatively small. There are
four groups of spinnerets—the upper pair with ten openings, the lower with
nine, many scattered oval and oblong spinnerets. The abdomen ends in
six lobes, of which only the two median are conspicuous; between the lobes
fine, serrated hairs. The abdomen is very velvety.
? Am the second stage, shown in plate VI., fig. 7c, the body is more oval
g i 24 ihe rostral sete are exceedingly 1 ong.
*
WA AA aa WW Wa AA WA AA AA AA Wa Wa aaa aa aa aa aa aa i ia a
CONCERN IRT
MasKELL.—On some Coccidæ in New Zealand. 199
With the exception of the abdominal lobes and the numbers of spinnerets
in the groups, the adult female resembles Aspidiotus atherosperme.
9. Aspidiotus aurantii, sp. nov. (?)
Plate VI., fig. 8.
This is not an indigenous species, being found in immense numbers
upon the oranges and lemons in our shops, imported from Sydney. As,
however, it occurs on orange trees growing at Governor’s Bay, I introduce
it here.
M. Signoret describes, under the name of Parlatoria zizyphi, or aurantii,
an insect infesting orange trees in Europe. Its form, as given in his plate
V., fig. 9, bears certainly great general resemblance to the insect I am
describing, but it differs altogether in the shape and colour of the puparium,
and the abdominal lobes are also different. .
The puparium of Aspidiotus aurantii is round, yellowish, flat. The
insect, in the centre, is curiously shaped. It has a generally spherical out-
line, but looks as if, from rich feeding, rolls of fat were produced, making
the corrugations of the body very largely overlap the abdomen. It is
yellow, the abdomen being the deepest coloured. The curve of the body
and head is regular and smooth; the rudimentary antenna are absent; the
abdominal region, very small in comparison with the rest, ends in six lobes
of which the two middle ones are the largest. There are no groups of
spinnerets, Pan
The young insect (second stage) is somewhat different, being of a nearly
regular oval shape, without the rolls of fat.
The male is very small, brown in colour; the antenne have ten joints.
The two first joints are very small, round and smooth; the third, fourth,
fifth and sixth equal in length, the seventh, eighth and ninth half as long,
the tenth somewhat shorter still and pointed. All the last eight joints show
numerous hairs. The thorax is short and thick, the thoracic band oceupy-
ing more than one-half the width; the abdomen short, the double spike of
some length. The wings are oval, about as long as the body. The legs
are hairy, femora thick, tibie longer, thicker at the end next the tarsus than
at the other end; tarsi broad at the top, tapering gradually down to the
usual single claw. The hairs on the femora are much fewer than those on
the tibie and tarsi.
This insect does not correspond in any particular with the species
described by M. Signoret, except in the general outline of the adult female,
resembling Parlatoria. Nevertheless, as it is manifestly not a species
indigenous to New Zealand and must be known to entomologists, I give it
the name of Aspidiotus aurantii only in default of better information than I
have at present, M. Schrader, in the work above cited, mentions an insect
200 Transactions.—Zoology.
attacking orange trees in Sydney, which, he says, “appears to be an
Aspidiotus.” I take it that this is my Aspidiotus aurantii ; but it would seem
from his expression that hitherto no detailed description has been given of
[Nore.—Aspidiotus limonii, Signoret, cannot be this species.]
Aspidiotus camellie, Boisduval, attacks camellias in our greenhouses.
It somewhat resembles Aspidiotus nerii, but there are no groups of spin-
nerets.
Subsection 3.—Diaspis, Costa.
In this genus, as in the last, the puparium of the female is round and
flat, but the discarded pellicles are usually at the side instead of in the
centre. The female is generally rather more elongated than in Aspidiotus.
The puparium of the male is long and narrow; the perfect insect does not
differ from Aspidiotus, except that the space between the first and second
pair of legs appears disproportionately long.
1. Diaspis boisduvalii, Signoret.
Plate VI., fig. 9.
This is an European species. I have found it in abundance upon
orchids in Mr. Dunean's hot-houses. The female is somewhat pear-shaped,
the cephalic region smooth, with a protruding lobe at each side on a level
with the rostrum, distinguishing it from all the other species. There is
sometimes a cottony fluff on the body. The widest portion is a little below
the lateral protuberances ; from thence it tapers gradually to the posterior
extremity, where the abdomen ends in two lobes with a depression between
them. The abdominal curve is broken by small serrations with a few spiny
hairs amongst them. The pygidium has five groups of spinnerets; the
uppermost group has from five to eight openings, the two upper side ones
twenty to twenty-five, the two lower somewhat less. There are a few
scattered single spinnerets, mostly oblong.
The male is very small; its cocoon is white, cylindrical, with the dis-
carded pellicle (similar to that of the female) at one end. As in Aspidiotus
epidendri, the perfect insect escapes from its cocoon backwards (Plate VI.,
fig. 9b. The head is transverse, grooved in front, with four eyes, of which
the two occupying the position of the rostrum are full of pigment. The
antenne spring from the anterior region; they are very long, having ten
joints, of which the two first are short and thick, without hairs, the
remainder twice as long but narrower, and covered with fine hairs. The
last jomt (which possibly may consist of two or three soldered together) is
spindle-shaped.
The thorax is long ; the thoracic band conspicuous, but occupying only
about half the width of the body. The wings, which appear to have only a
MaskELL.—On some Coccidee in New Zealand. 201
single nervure, are oval, and estend far beyond the extremity of the
abdomen. The abdominal spike, which has a tubular sheath of larger size
and length than in Aspidiotus, is double and long, but does not reach the
tip of the wings.
The legs are hairy; femora and tibiæ about the same length, but the
former thicker than the latter; tarsi thick and spindle-shaped, ending in
the usual single claw. The great distance between the first and second
pair of legs gives the insect a peculiar bg uas:
2. Diaspis rose, San dberg.
Plate VI., fig. 9c.
This also is European. It occurs here on rose trees at Governor's Bay,
in Mr. Potts's garden. The puparium is flat and white, and the discarded
pellicles on one side. The adult female is of a deep red colour, elongated
in form, distinguishable from all other species by the size of the cephalic
region and the deep corrugations of the body. Its appearance is more
striking than that of any other species of the Diaspide, and the contrast
of the blood-red head and thorax with the bright yellow abdominal region
is curious.
The cephalic region, mushroom-shaped, is quite smooth. There is no
appearance of rudimentary antenna. The body has four large corruga-
tions, nearly equal in size, and on the last two are a few spiny hairs. The
abdomen, broken by serrations, ends in two lobes with a depression between
them. The pygidium has five groups of spinnerets, but the side groups are
almost continuous. The upper group has about 20 openings, the side ones
50 or 60; there are no single spinnerets but on each side 8 or 4 rows of
large oval openings forming arches.
The young insect is brown, oval, with the head a little flattened
anteriorly ; the legs and antenne and abdominal hairs as in other species.
The cocoon of the male is white, cylindrical. I have not yet a specimen
of the perfect insect.
3. Diaspis gigas, sp. nov.
Plate VI., fig. 10.
I found this species on Atherosperma nove-zealandie, a North Island tree,
of which Mr. Armstrong gave me a branch some months ago. I believe it
best, as a rule, to use the name of the tree on which a scale-insect lives as
its specific name, but as I have already used this particular name in the
case of an Aspidiotus, I prefer, in order to avoid confusion, to call the
present species by a descriptive title. I have lately found it in abundance
on a species of Astelia, in Riecarton Bush. It is the largest of the Diaspidw
which has yet come under my notice ; the puparium of the female is some-
times more than } inch long and pẹ inch wide; the female reaches yy inch -
in length, : i |
*
202 Transactions.—Zoology.
The puparium is yellowish-brown or dirty white, flat, roughly pear-
shaped, thin in texture. The discarded pellicle of the first stage occupies
the broad end of the pear; that of the second nearly fills the puparium.
This second pellicle is different in shape from those of other species.
Instead of being oval in shape with a regularly curved outline, it is nearly
identical with the form of the adult female. Its cephalic and thoracic
portions are very large, oval, and smooth; at the point corresponding to
the metathorax are two prominent lobes, triangular, with rounded angles,
the apex of each turned slightly outwards. The outline then descends with
three or four other smaller lobes to the extremity of the abdomen. Plate
VI., fig. 10b, shows the appearance of this pellicle.
The adult female would appear to be, in its earlier state, as large as the
second pellicle, that is, filling the puparium or nearlyso. In the specimens
which I obtained the female had begun in every instance to lay her eggs,
and was gradually shrivelling up. Her appearance is shown in plate VL,
fig.10a. It will be seen that the lobes visible in the pellicle are here absent,
but I am not sure whether this is not the effect of the shrivelling of the
body.
The cephalic region is still proportionately very large. The abdomen is
conical, the sides broken to within a short distance of the extremity by
sharp serrations, between which are triangular scaly hairs. There are no
groups of spinnerets, and only a few scattered single ones.
The puparium of the male is long, narrow, whitish, and with the
appearance of a semi-cylinder lying upon a plane base. The perfect insect,
in general appearance, resembles the male of Diaspis boisduvalii; but the
abdomen is not nearly so long, and the tubular sheath of the abdominal
spike is much smaller, being nearly globular. The antenne are much the
same as in D. boisduvalii. The thoracic band occupies about half the width.
This species appears to be very subject to fungoid growth. In dealing
with the succeeding families of Lecanide and Coccide, we shall find that
very many of their species are subject to fungus; but in the Diaspide, so
far as I have been able to observe, this is not the case. Diaspis gigas, how-
ever, on the branch of Atherosperma, which I received, was in several
instances entirely overgrown by a fungus which appeared to me to belong
to the Physomycetous Order and family Antennariei. In one instance this
growth, which was clearly attached to the puparium, extended nearly an
inch in every direction round it.
4. Diaspis ——
©) Plate VI., fig. 10e.
On the same tree, Atherosperma, I found a Diaspis which may perhaps
be an abnormal form of the last species, perhaps distinct. The puparium
ucc c eee
*
Maskeni,—0n some Coccide in New Zealand. 208
was oval; the adult female, somewhat resembling Mi ytilaspis pomorum, was
dark yellow in colour, irregular in shape, having three prominent lobes on
each side, The male puparium was oval; the enclosed pupa was not to be
clearly made out, but seemed to resemble Diaspis gigas.
The above include all the species of Diaspide which I have as yet
observed. There are doubtless many more in the country, and I hope at
some future time to be able to procure new specimens. Meanwhile I shall
go on to the next family of scale insects, the Lecanids.
Since writing the above I have found three other Diaspide, which may
be new species, but which I have not had time to thoroughly examine.
The first, a Mytilaspis, is found on a small Leucopogon growing on dry
soil in the hills, It is yellowish, with a puparium somewhat pear-shaped,
quite white, and rather tough. It is very minute, averaging only about y
inch in length. The puparium of the male seems to be narrower, if the
specimens I have looked at are the cocoons of males. The abdominal
region of the female has a pygidium with eight groups of spinnerets; the
lower groups have from twenty to thirty openings in each, the upper only
from four to six. There are a great number of cylindrical protruding
tubes. The abdomen ends with six spines. The lobes are inconspicuous,
with a medial depression.
Another M ytilaspis, found on a very small Mesembryanthemum growing
moss-like in our river-beds, appears to differ from the last only in its colour,
which is dull red. I am not sure how far mere colour may be taken as
constituting a specific difference.
The third insect, growing on the Wild Irishman (Discaria toumatou),
Seems to me a species of Diaspis; but the only specimens I found were a
number of discarded pellicles of the female mixed up in a mass of white
cottony fibre as in Diaspis rose.
I hope shortly to be able to identify all these insects.
I nave now to pass from the first group of Scale Insects to the second
group, the Lecanide. In investigating this group it will be necessary first
of all to divide it into several classes, because otherwise it will be impossible
to avoid confusion. The number of genera and species of the Lecanid@ is
So great, the plants infested by them are so various, and their specific
differences so slight in many instances, that it is easy, I should say, to fall
into errors concerning them, I have, however, no intention of dwelling at
length upon those species which, although attacking plants in this country
in gardens or greenhouses, are European, and described by other observers.
Of these, as far as my experience goes, we have in New Zealand several ;
but, with one exception, which I take as the type of the group, I shall pass
lightly over them and go on to the genera and species which I believe to be
new and indigenous. |
204 Transactions.—Zoology.
The Lecanide affect the most varied forms and habits. Some are flat,
some are globular; some are naked, some covered with a test which may be
cottony, or glassy, or waxy; some are viviparous, some form cocoons or
nests for their eggs. But there are two charaeters which very clearly
distinguish them all from the Diaspide. These are the presence of a
mentum or under lip, and an abdomen cleft at its posterior extremity, with
two triangular lobes above the cleft.
In the Diaspide the rostral sete are clear of the body from the moment
they leave the tip of the rostrum. In the Lecanide the sete pass some
little way down the body, and then, returning towards the rostrum, pass
through a second tube, or mentum, as shown in plate VL, fig. 11a. This
mentum is also visible in the next group, the Coccide proper; but it is there
articulate, whereas in the Lecanids it has but one segment.
The rostral sete appear to be generally three, but in some instances I
ean observe that one of them is double.
The abdominal cleft and its lobes are shown in plate VI., fig. 115. There
are of course specific differences in the size and shape of these lobes, in the
hairs on the abdomen, and in the spines surrounding the anal ring.
In plate VI., fig. 11c, I give a representation of the respiratory system of
& Lecanium, the arrangement of which does not greatly differ in the species l
which I have observed. It will be seen that there are four stigmata, from
each of which start large trachee covering the body with their ramifica-
tions. Fig. 11d gives a magnified figure of a stigma, mounted in balsam,
with the stigmatic spines. -
The antenne in the young insect have usually six or seven joints; in
the adult female seven or eight. The feet end in a single claw; just above
the claw spring four hairs, of which the two uppermost are long, ending in
a small knob, the lower pair generally shorter and broader, swelling out into
a club at the end. See plate VI., fig. 11e.
The males of most of the Lecanide are, I believe, unknown. 1 have
been fortunate enough to procure specimens of males of one indigenous
species.
The two distinguishing characters just mentioned, the uni-articulate
mentum and the bi-lobed abdomen, are best observed in the young insect.
The former, indeed, is often not to be made out in the adult, but the latter
is generally conspicuous enough to prevent mistaking one of the Lecanide
for an insect belonging to another group.
All the Lecanide are very much infested by a fungus, apparently of the
order Coniomycetes. No doubt most people have observed that plants
attacked by seale, such as for instance the holly, or the ivy, have also their
leaves much blackened. The blackening is due to the fungus just men-
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MaskELL.—On some Coccide in New Zealand. 205
My subsections of this group, after having said so much of its general
characteristics, are as follows :—
1, Lecaniee, for the species having the body of the female naked,
often viviparous.
2. Pulvinariee, for the species having the body naked, but formimg
cottony nests for the eggs
8. Lecanio-diaspide, for the species having the body covered with a
test ; sometimes viviparous.
Of course, Tam here only paying attention to such classes as contain
genera known to me in New Zealand. There are many other divisions, but
they do not come within my scope.
Subsection I.—Lzcanmz.
All the species which I have observed in this class are European, and I
might therefore, according to my intention expressed just now, pass them
over without entering into details. But there is one species which has
become so widely spread and so noxious in this country, and which is
moreover so excellent a type of the whole group, that I am constrained to
dwell more particularly upon it. This species, which infests in our green-
houses a vast number of plants, and in our gardens the holly, ivy, ilex, bay,
Portugal laurel, orange and other trees, is, I suppose, tolerably well known,
as far as its outside appearance goes, to most amongst us. It is
1. Lecanium hesperidum; auctorum.
Plate VI., fig. 12.
The young insect, in outline, is not much different from that of Mytilas-
pis pomorum, with the exception of the abdominal cleft. In colour it is
reddish brown; it is flat and very active. The antenns have six joints,
but the fifth joint looks as if it were composed of two soldered together; the
third joint is the longest. The last joint has a few hairs. The tibie and
tarsi are of about equal length; the upper pair of hairs, or digitules, above
the claw long, the lower pair short and narrow. The abdominal lobes end
in two very long sete. Plate VI., fig. 12a.
The adult female is figured by Westwood (vol. 2), but not large enough
for detail. M. Signoret gives only a brief — The insect is flat,
oval, brown in colour, sometimes as much as } inch long. The abdominal
lobes are not, in the live animal, so apparent as in the young; but when
mounted for the microscope they are plainly seen to be without the two
long hairs characterising the young insect; as shown in plate VI., fig. 11b.
The anal ring is surrounded by six long hairs. The lobes are triangular,
with rounded angles, or heart-shaped.
The antenns, which do not, as in the Diaspide, disappear with age, —
have seven joints; fig. 12b. The first and second joints are the thickest;
206 Transactions.—Zoology,
the third, fourth, and seventh the longest, and about equal to one another ;
the fifth and sixth somewhat shorter. There are a very few hairs on most
of the joints, but the seventh has a good number.
The feet are moderately long; the coxa thick, the femur moderately
large and about the same length as the tibia which is somewhat thinner,
the tarsus still narrower, tapering to the claw. The upper pair of digitules
above the claw are pretty long, ending in a very small knob; the lower pair
are about twice the length of the claw, very broad.
The general outline of the body (fig. 12c) is oval, but varying in eccentri-
city. On the holly and ivy in our gardens it forms a pretty regular ellipse ;
on the Portugal laurel it is more elongated; on the orange nearly circular.
It is covered with minute specks, and a row of small hairs, not very close
together, runs round the edge. There are four stigmata, as shown in plate
VL, fig. 10c, and opposite each, at the edge, is a depression with three
strong spines, of which the middle one is much longer than the other two.
At certain stages of the life of the insect, on lifting it from the leaf, cottony
trails may be seen on the plant marking the position of these stigmata, an
appearance usual, according to Signoret, amongst the Lecanide.
The male of this species is unknown.
Lecanium hesperidum is said to be always viviparous. In the Diaspide,
the female lays her eggs in a prepared nest; in the Lecaniew she becomes
herself the nest of her young. About April, in this country, on turning
over one of the females, it will be seen that on the under side of the body,
there is a broad deep-red cavity, between which and the leaf numerous
young ones run briskly about. Inserting the insect into some transparent
fluid, such as glycerine or balsam, the body is seen to be full of eggs; but,
with the exception of some minute white objects amongst the brown young
ones which might be remains of shells, no eggs are visible outside her. I
am unable to account for the blood-red colour of the cavity. Signoret
speaks of it as ‘‘a mortified spot;" but it sometimes occupies nearly half
the under surface of the body, and at the same time the insect is not dead.
The interior substance, which, in mounting for the microscope, is pressed
out of the body, is not red but yellowish brown.
This insect is becoming a veritable pest in this country. Hollies, ivies,
Portugal laurels, and many other trees in our gardens are every year
becoming more and more infested with it. Whatever may be the chances
of keeping it down in greenhouses, it is to be feared that a cure for plants
out of doors is next to impossible.
2. Lecanium depressum, Targioni.
This is an European species, occurring here in our greenhouses. The
adult female is oval, not so flat as Lecanium hesperidum, and with the skin
curiously marked with a mosaic pattern,
| ESSA on Gan GE ToS Rp EO A TOT AEN eee eR ase REOR a A eae ei aa Rt TERT PORE SEC
MasKELL.—On some Coccidee in New Zealand. 207
8. Lecanium hibernaculorum, Targioni.
Also European; the body, in its later stages becomes quite rounded or
bag-shaped, the open mouth of the bag downwards on the leaf. The bag
becomes filled with eggs and young. The skin is marked with small spots
at pretty regular distances. It is common in our greenhouses.
4. Lecanium maculatum, Signoret.
European; occurring here on a hothouse plant, Bavardia. The species
is distinguished by a row of oval spots commencing above the abdominal
lobes and extending up the centre of the dorsal region as far as the rostrum.
I need not dwell longer on the species of Lecanies; there are others
here, but European. Nor shall I dwell upon the next subsection on my list.
II.—PurvisanrE x.
As far as my observation has extended, this subsection is confined here
to one species, namely, the Camellia scale.
5. Pulvinaria camellicola, Signoret.
The insect, which is European, differs from Lecanium hesperidum chiefly
inits mode of propagation. Instead of producing the young beneath itself
it forms elongated cocoons of white cottony fibre in which it encloses its
eggs. Ihave not been fortunate enough to procure a male, although, as I
understand, it is not rare. -
III.—Lecanto-piaspip#, Targioni.
I come now to my third subsection, containing in this country only
genera and species which are, as I believe, new to science. The subsection
itself has been created by Professor Targioni-Tozzetti, of Florence, in order
to include those genera of Coccide which partake of the characters of the
Lecanide and of the characters of the Diaspidm. They have the mentum
and abdominal lobes of Lecanium, but they are surrounded by a shell, shield
or test, as in Diaspis. This test or carapace is therefore a character clearly
distinguishing them from the other Lecanide which have the body naked in
allits stages; at the same time the abdominal lobes forbid their entrance
into any other group.
It would appear that Professor Targioni makes one of the distinguishing
characters of this subsection the fact that the insects lose their limbs like
the Diaspidz, ** becoming apodous in the adult stage." Now the genera
and species which I have to describe do not all entirely agree with this
account. The feet and antenna are preserved at least until the female has
propagated her young and sometimes still later, although in other instances
I have been unable to detect the limbs in the later stages. To the naked
eye, indeed, or even with a low power of the microscope, all the insects
appear apodous ; but a higher power often reveals the limbs as if buried in
the fat body. It seems to me that I have therefore only two alternatives;
208 Transactions.—Zoology.
either to create a new subsection, or to attach so much elasticity to the
existing classification as to allow these species to belong to the Lecanio-
diaspide. I am loth to take the former course, because in their other
characters they present little difficulty ; moreover, the context of the
expression quoted above is not entirely free from doubt. I shall therefore
proceed upon the second course.
I have already said that the insects in this subsection combine the
mentum and lobes of Lecanium with a test or carapace as in the Diaspide.
In the species before me this test is whitish, glassy, and transparent in the
earlier stages, often waxy on the old insects. A fringe more or less broad,
and divided into segments more or less large, is seen in most species ; and
the old female, after having produced her young, is generally found
shrivelled up at the cephalic end of the test.
Spinnerets are not to be made out in the earlier stages, but whan the
insect is fully grown there may be seen, all round the edge of the body, a
row of numerous cireular openings, and, especially in Ctenochiton viridis,
other rows of minute oval marks disposed along the borders of seales like
those of a tortoise. I imagine that these marks are the spinnerets.
In this subsection I have two genera, both of which I believe to be new.
CTENOCHITON, gen. nov.
Four genera are included by Signoret in the subsection Lecanio-
diaspidee :—
lst, Pollinia, in which the test is globular, and the young insect pre-
sents, instead of the abdominal lobes of Lecanium, the anal tubercles of
Coccus,
2nd, Asterolecanium, in which the fringe is double, and the females in
most cases apodous.
8rd, Planchonia, in which the test is felted, the adult female without
feet or antennæ.
4th, Lecanio-diaspis in which the test is also felted, but the female
retains her antenne,
It will be seen that my genus Ctenochiton does not agree with any of
these. The young insect has the abdominallobes; the test is glassy and
transparent, becoming waxy at a later period and, in one species, felted at
the latest stage ; the females preserve their feet and antenne at least until
after producing the young.
6. Ctenochiton perforatus, sp. nov.
Plate VIL, figs. 18, 14.
This species is very common upon native trees and shrubs near
Christchurch. Pittosporum, Drimys, Coprosma, Rubus, Panaz and many
others are attacked by it, sometimes so much so that the underside of the
leaves is scarcely to be seen for the number of insects covering them,
TWAA BANA TAPE PPA aa
AA a em eee EE Ne poet re NE RS
MasKELL.—On some Coccidæ in New Zealand. 209
The young, on leaving the parent, resembles that of Lecantum hesperi-
dum ; in fact I can see no difference except that perhaps one of the hairs on
the last joint of the antenus is longer in this species. The antenna has
Six joints, on the last of which are eight fine hairs.
In its next stage the female insect is extremely thin, appearing on the
leaf like a translucent blueish film; so thin indeed that some care is
necessary to detach it unbroken from the plant. Sometimes so many of
these films are seen together as to give quite a slimy appearance to the
under side of the leaf. Plate VII, fig. 18a, shows the appearance of the
insect at this stage. The toothed fringe is here seen as closely attached to
the body; it is very difficult, if not impossible, to detach it mechanically at
this stage. Upon immersion, however, in turpentine or spirits of wine and
then in Canada balsam the test seems to become dissolved, and with it dis-
appears the fringe, leaving the insect as shown in fig. 134.
It will be seen that the outline of the body is elliptical, but instead of
presenting a regular curve as in Lecanium hesperidum the edge shows a
number of re-entering curves, giving a wavy appearance. This peculiarity
is noticeable to a greater or less extent in all the species of the present sub-
division which I have observed; and I am somewhat inclined to think that
it might be taken as a distinguishing characteristic of the New Zealand
Lecanio-diaspida.
The rostrum and mentum are of the usual kind. The antenna have
seven joints (fig. 13c); the third much the longest, the two first short and
broad, the fourth rather less than the fifth which is again rather less than
the sixth, the sixth about equal to the seventh which has a few long hairs.
The legs have the cox; very thick, the femora thick and not very long, the
tibie and tarsi narrow and of about equal length. The claw (fig. 18d) has
the upper digitules very long, with a minute knob, the lower pair shorter,
and not nearly as broad as in Lecanium hesperidum. The abdominal lobes
are as usual, and the anal ring has six or eight long hairs.
Opposite the stigmata are spines, as in all Lecanid@, and several short
hairs are placed all round the edge.
The eyes appear as small red granular spots placed in front of the
antenne.
It is not until the female insect has entered upon a later stage that the
character of the test or carapace can be made out. An insect taken towards
the end of summer, say in February, can be easily detached from its test;
and in the autumn and winter a large number of tests, empty, may be
seen on the leaves. The female herself does not, I think, undergo a change,
except that she has increased in size and thickness and is full of eggs. She
appears circular in outline, somewhat convex, with an average diameter of
w
210 Transactions.—Zoology.
l inch. A rather broad edge runs round the body, on the interior of which
are seen the numerous circular openings of the spinnerets. The antenna
and feet do not seem to have changed. There is a small quantity of white
cottony fibre visible on the under side, but the general appearance is rather
leathery.
The test, detached from the insect, is seen to have become thicker and
more solid than on the young female. It has now the appearance not of a
translucent film but of a thin cake of cloudy wax. It is still extremely
brittle, but it does not dissolve when immersed in Canada balsam. The
whole of the central space, as shown in fig. 18e, is seen to be divided into
segments, irregular in shape, of which the row along the middle may be
said to be roughly hexagonal, having next to i& on each side a row of
elongated pentagons with apices turned outwards and then a third row of
pentagons with their bases outwards, with a few triangular segments filling
up the spaces. The divisions between the segments are somewhat thickened,
and along each runs a line of very small oval marks, possibly spinneret
orifices. I have not, in this species, observed any symmetrical markings
on the interior segments, a feature which, I think, distinguishes the next
species on my list.
The apices of the first row of pentagons reach nearly to the edge of the
solid part of the test. The bases of the second row form the edge itself, and
are in juxtaposition to the segments of the fringe, which are much the same
as in the earlier stage. In this outer row of pentagons, however, and in the
fringe are observable certain peculiar markings, shown in figs. 18e and 13f.
I am not aware of the use of these, which appear to be produced by rows of
perforations containing air. The effect of them is not without beauty.
In autumn the female is seen in her last stage. Having produced all her
young she becomes shrivelled up at the cephalic end of the test in a shape-
less mass, in which the legs, antenns and abdominal lobes can be dis-
tinguished with difficulty.
The male of this species is by no means uncommon. In the spring a
large proportion of males will be found under tests similar to those of the
female. The insect is shown in plate VII., fig. 14a.
The head is somewhat rounder than those of the Diaspide. The eyes
are small and granular, and there are four pairs of them. The antenna,
fig. 14a’, are placed at the anterior part; they are long, having nine joints,
of which the first is very short and thick, the second thin and rather longer,
the three next each about twice as long as the second, the remainder equal
to the second and to each other. Every joint has numerous hairs.
The coxæ are thick, the femora longer and more slender, the tibie still
longer and thinner, broadening a little to the tarsus which is not quite half
i SEENE NEER EI m
WA —— €—
Wa IP UTEBNIRUPE PUNIRI mn
MaskELL.—On some Coccidæ in New Zealand, 211
as long, and tapers slightly to the claw. All the joints are hairy. The
upper digitules are not long, and the knobs small; the lower pair are only
airs.
The thoracic band occupies nearly the whole width; the wings are
broad and elliptical, with a single nervure of two branches. The abdomen,
somewhat long, ends in a single spike shorter than that of the Diaspide.
This species is very much infested by a hymenopterous parasite which
takes advantage of its test to lay therein its eggs. A very large number of
tests will be found to contain, not their proper insects, but pups of this
parasitic fly which might possibly be mistaken for males of Ctenochiton, I
have been able to follow the transformation of the parasite, which appears
to be one of the Proctotrupidz and which I have described in a short paper
read before you to-night,”
T. Ctenochiton viridis, sp. nov.
The differences between this and the last species are not, I think,
noticeable in the earlier stages, except that the insect when first appearing
on the leaf with its fringe has not so much of the filmy look of C. perforatus,
but is yellower and somewhat more solid. The divergence is more apparent
in the stage of propagation, when C. viridis attains a much larger size, The
female insect has then a bright green colour, is sometimes j-inch long
and }-inch wide and pear-shaped, acuminate at the cephalic end. It
has a repulsive appearance on the underside of the leaf where it forms a
depression corresponding to its body. I have found it abundant on Co-
prosma, Panax, and Rubus, near Christchurch, in Riccarton Bush.
The test, in the earlier stage, resembles that of C. perforatus, being
glassy, with a fringe of broad segments. At the later stage the fringe
disappears, and the test, instead of being easily removable as in the last
species, becomes intimately attached to the insect, so that in order to
examine it one has to tear and wash away the body and internal organs.
When this is done it is seen that the rows of segments are more numerous
than in C. perforatus, the segments themselves smaller, and the oval mark-
ings on the dividing lines in double rows. Moreover, each segment is
marked by radiating straight lines crossed by wavy curves, giving it an
appearance something like the scale of a fish. These lines are not clearly
to be made out after immersion in a fluid, such as glycerine or Canada
balsam.
The fringe is absent at this stage, and there is no sign of the lines of
perforations characteristic of the Jast species.
The appearance of a segment of the test is shown in plate VIL, fig. 145.
> Vide Art. XVII,
212 " Transactions..—Z oology.
The antenns and feet do not, as long as the fringe is present, differ
from those of C. perforatus. In the later stage, when the insect has
attained its full size, they become very small proportionately, indeed
almost atrophied, and difficult to make out. Maceration in potash shows
them as existing, but they can be of no use to the insect. I cannot detect
any difference between them and the antenns and feet of C. perforatus,
except their comparative smallness.
The edge of the female in the earlier stages presents the usual wavy
outline which I referred to just now.
In its last stage the female is enclosed in a thick coat of whitish-cottony
felted fibre. The feet and antenn# are only to be made out after prolonged
maceration in potash. The whole mass inside the felted matter is dirty-
brown in colour, leathery in texture, preserving the acuminate pear-shape
of the last stage.
When arrived at this condition the insect appears on leaves of Panaz,
Rubus, Coprosma, ete., like splashes of birds’ dung, giving the leaf a
peculiarly nasty look.
I have not found the male insect.
8, Ctenochiton elongatus, sp. nov.
Plate VII., fig. 14.
I obtained this species in Auckland, on Geniostoma ligustrifolium. I have
only the female, in one stage. The body is very much more elongated than
in the last species, the width being not more than a quarter of the length;
the edge of the body is, as usual, wavy; the stigmatie spines very pro-
minent.
The antenne and feet resemble those of C. perforatus, but I can detect
no lower digitules.
The fringe, which disappears in Canada balsam, differs from that of
C. perforatus in the absence of the perforations and in the shape of the
segments. Instead of the perforations there seem to be transverse wrinkles,
and the segments are not roundly triangular but quadrate outwardly, their
inner apices pointed; see plate VIL, fig. 144. The remainder of the test is
divided into quadrangular scales. The whole test is extremely delicate and
transparent.
9. Ctenochiton spinosus, Sp. nov.
Plate VII., fig. 15.
I have this species from Atherosperma nove-zealandie. The female is
brown, oval, about „y inch long, the edge slightly wavy. The antenne are
thick, with seven joints, all nearly equal in length; the third joint is some-
| what the longest; the seventh has a few hairs; plate VIL., fig. 15a, The
Masxeti.—On some Coccida in New Zealand. 918
. feet are long; the coxa thick, femur thick and twice as long, tibia and
tarsus narrow but equal in length to the femur; upper digitules short; I
have not seen the lower pair. Fig. 15d.
The abdominal lobes, rostrum and mentum as usual,
The body, fig. 15b, is edged with a row of strong bristly spines, seemingly
hollow, starting each from a distinct tubercular root, and set close together.
Each spine is slightly curved, and the whole row gives the insect something
of the look of Dactylopius citri, Signoret, a similarity which is at once seen
to be deceptive on comparing the species.
The test is thin and waxy, and does not appear to be subdivided into
segments as in C. perforatus; but my specimens are so much covered with
fungoid growth that I cannot make this out with certainty. The fringe is
composed of feather-like segments, much narrower than in the other species.
Each feather corresponds to, and covers, a spine of the body. See figs. 15b
and 15c.
T have not a specimen of the male.
I come now to another genus, which I believe to be also new. It was
brought to me first by Mr. J. Inglis, from whom I have named it; but I
have since found it on Coprosma in Ricearton Bush.
I include this genus in the Lecanio-diaspide, on account of the test and
the presence of the abdominal lobes, but it differs from Ctenochiton in the
shape of the test and the absence of segmental fringe.
Inguisia, gen. nov.
I have as yet only one species of this genus, which presents one or two
remarkable characters. Exteriorly it resembles very much in shape a
limpet, from which I have given it the specific name of
10. Inglisia patella, sp. nov.
Plate VII., fig. 16.
The test is whitish, glassy, limpet-shaped, marked with istic strie ;
the stris, on examination, prove to be composed of rows of oval perfora-
tions containing air. They give to the test, which is composed of several
corrugations, a very elegant appearance—fig. 16a. The insect, test and all,
reaches j to y inch in diameter. The height is about one-third of the
length.
The female insect, fig. 16/, corresponds in shape to the test, filling it
entirely. In this state the antenne and feet are scarcely to be made out,
but on maceration in potash and subsequent pressure the underside presents
the appearance shown in fig. 16b. The wavy edge spoken of above is here
visible, and it is seen that the curves of the body correspond with the cor-
rugations of the test. The antenns are very short, and, as far as I have
` observed, have only six joints, but I may be in error in this, as the Lecanida
£
Wa
214 Transactions.—Zoology.
have almost all seven-jointed antenna in the adult. The second joint, fig.
16c, is very short, the third the longest, the fourth, fifth and sixth about
equal in length; the last three have some hairs. The feet, fig. 16e, have the
femur thick and strong, tibie rather longer and thick, tarsus still longer
and thin; the upper digitules very long, the lower pair narrow, about twice
as long as the claw. The edge of the body is surrounded with a row of
small spines, of which each alternate spine is pointed (fig. 16d), the remainder
club-shaped. The abdominal lobes of the Lecanide are present, but the cleft
is different from that of any other species. The abdomen, as shown in figs.
16 and 16d, ends in a pair of narrow curved protuberances, nearly meeting
at their ends, but separated above by a broad open space in which the two
abdominallobes are seen protruding. The row of alternate spines does not
extend round this space. The anal ring has eight long hairs.
The edge of the body shows a double line, like a ribbon, in which are set
the alternate spines. Inside thisis a row of spinnerets with, on the inner
side, a line of short curves. . The edge itself is crenated. i
The female in the stage immediately preceding that which I have
described, and before covering itself with the test, resembles somewhat the
female of Ctenochiton, as given in plate VII., fig. 18b. The outline of the body
is much the same, with the four spiracular spines, and the alternate pointed
and clubbed spines are absent. But, on close examination, it cannot be
mistaken for Ctenochiton, as the antennæ are shorter and thicker, and the
abdominal cleft already shows signs of the peculiar shape assumed in the
later stage. Moreover, a commencement of the test may usually be detected,
and this is quite different from that of the Ctenochiton.
I have not yet found the male of this interesting species which, in out-
ward appearance, has some similarity to Fairmairia bipartita, Bignoret, but
is certainly not the same.
I ovext now to proceed to the description of the third great group of Scale
Insects, the Coccide proper. But I must first give an account of a genus
which perhaps should have come into my last paper, but which I had not,
at the last meeting of the Institute, made out sufficiently for description.
This genus is somewhat anomalous. It is clearly not belonging to
Lecanium, nor does it come under the subdivision Lecanio-diaspide, as the
abdominal lobes are wanting, or rather different. At the same time it has
so much likeness to the Lecanide that I cannot connect it with any other
group. I imagine, then, that the genus is new, and typical, in fact, of a
new subdivision, to which I give the name of
ÁASTEROCHITON, gen. nov.
"The genus is characterised by enclosure in a test which is so intimately
os : masi to the insect that it cannot be removed without injury. The
Masxetu.—On some Coccidæ in New Zealand. 215
specimens which I have obtained from Canterbury, Wellington, and Auck-
land, although taken at different seasons, in October, J uly, February, March,
and April, show only two forms. The one is the young insect before it
becomes covered by the test; the other is apparently an intermediate stage
prior to appearance as a perfect insect. In July, on fronds of Polypodium
billardieri, I have collected great numbers of empty tests, and intermixed
with them tests with enclosed insects. It might be assumed that this fact
points to the emergence of insects in the perfect state leaving their pupa-
eases behind them. But so many of these cases contained the pupe or the
remains of the pupe of parasitic flies, that it is equally probable that the
scale-insect had been devoured. I hope to obtain, ere long, specimens of
other stages of this insect; meanwhile, as there is no doubt that, in the
stages whieh I have observed, it differs considerably from any other genus,
I shall proceed to describe it.
In the Lecanio-diaspide the test does not entirely enclose the insect,
which is, on the underside, free. Ctenochiton viridis, which I described in
my last paper, becomes in its later stages closely attached to its test, and
in its last form of all enveloped inacottony mass. But this last takes place
when the insect is practically dead, or dying ; indeed, I am inclined to think
that the white mass is not the usual cottony web of the Coccide but
fungoid. Asterochiton, on the other hand, in the specimens I have seen, is
entirely shut up in its test ; even the feet are useless to it, being enclosed.
All that emerges is the mentum with its suctorial sete ; and it is this which
prevents me from considering the insect as being in a pupa state. If it
were a pupa I imagine that it would not require to feed, and the mentum
would be enclosed like the other organs.
This genus, I may observe, cannot well belong to any of those described
by M. Signoret, under his subdivision Lecanio-diaspide, such as Pollinia,
Asterolecanium, as in those the young insect has the abdomen ending in
two protruding tubercles, which in this genus is not the case,
I have two species of the genus.
1. Asterochiton lecanioides, sp. nov.
Plate VII., fig. 17.
Common near Christchnrch, on Pittosporum eugenioides and Polypodium
billardieri.
The young insect is extremely minute, and requires great care to mount,
It is oval (plate VII, fig. 17a), greenish gray in colour, the outline smooth,
with the four spiracular spines of the Lecanidz; at the posterior end are
six long hairs, of which the two middle ones are the longest. The eyes are
red, comparatively large, granular, and set somewhat far back; the anal
marks resemble those of the adult, I have not been able to make out the
&ntenne and feet,
216 Transactions.—Zoology.
With a very high power of the microscope the commencement of the
test may be observed, which in the next stage envelopes the insect. Here,
as shown in fig. 175, the outline is still oval, but the edge is slightly crenated ;
there are now only four hairs at the posterior end and these are short. The
insect is evidently quite enclosed in the test. There is an indication of the
abdominal cleft, but it is only a sort of groove, and the abdominal lobes are
replaced by a sort of vase-shaped organ. It is possible sometimes to mount
a specimen so that the sight is not wholly impeded by the test, and it is
then seen that the antennz are short and the legs thick, but I have not
been able to make out the joints of either satisfactorily. Round the edge
runs a row of cup-shaped spinnerets, and a number of others, sometimes
protruding in form of tubes, are scattered over the body.
Later on, although the insect appears not to have entered any further
stage, the tests are very frequently found empty. This may be attributed
to the action of parasitic flies, for the tests commonly enclose either the
pupa or the pellicles of these, the scale insect having disappeared. The
tests are white and glassy, and over them are scattered, chiefly round the
edge, tubular appendices corresponding to the spinnerets on the body of the
insect. Sometimes these tubes are set so close together that they are
straight and have the appearance of a fringe, but as a rule they are
irregularly set and curled in different directions.
2. Asterochiton aureus, sp. NOV.
Plate VII., fig. 17.
I have this species from Melicytus ramiflorus at Auckland. It differs
from the last in being of a golden or orange colour, the insect in the middle
being purple. The outline is also more inclined to be circular, the size is
larger, the test is somewhat thinner and allows the insect to be better seen,
the groove at the posterior end is deeper, and the rows of spinnerets more
numerous. I have not observed in this species any protruding tubes. The
antenne and legs, so far as I have been able to make them out, seem
to resemble those of A. lecanioides. Fig. 17d.
I pass now to the description of the Coecidz proper. This group con-
tains several subdivisions, but, as heretofore, I shall confine myself to those
which appear to me to be indigenous. The differences between many of
the subdivisions are not to be detected without the microscope, depending
as they do upon the number of joints of the antenn;, number of anal hairs,
number of digitules, ete. As for the species which I have collected here I
have had a good deal of difficulty in deciding sometimes whether they differ
or not from European species; and even now I am not, in some cases,
TRANS.N.Z INSTITUTE VOLXLPIVIL
COCCIDAL
MaskELL.—On some Coccidæ in New Zealand. 217
The general characteristics of the group are as follows :—the females are
of all shapes and colours, usually covered with a mass, more or less thick,
of cottony or waxy secretion, but not, as a rule, enveloped in glassy tests like
the Lecanio-diaspide. The mentum differs from that of the Lecanide in
being bi- or tri-articulate. The abdominal lobes of Lecanium are absent, and
the posterior end is not cleft; but the body ends in two protuberances,
more or less developed and prominent, which I shall call the ** anal tubereles.”’
These tubercles usually terminate in fine hairs, sometimes long, sometimes
short. The tubercles are not always easily detected, but close examination
reveals them. The segments of the body are much more visible than in the
Lecanide, and the insect has altogether a more woolly appearance. In
some genera the female envelopes herself in a cottony sac, white or yellow.
The males are not uncommon; but I have not been able to procure
many specimens. They do not greatly differ from those of the Lecanide,
but in my specimens the abdominal spike is accompanied by a shorter
curved spike at the side.
The subdivisions of this group to which my specimens belong are :—
1. Acanthococcus, of which I have specimens from the common broom
plant and from Budlaa.
2. Eriococcus, from the Norfolk Island Pine.
8. Dactylopius, from Rubus australis, Pittosporum, Calceolaria and
other plants. |
4. Icerya, from the Kangaroo Acacia.
All these contain species known in Europe, from which mine, I believe,
differ,
I. Acaxrnmococcus, Signoret.
The subdivision is characterised by an elongated sae, usually brownish .
yellow, enveloping the female, by the prominence of the anal tubercles, and
by the number of rows of conical spines distributed over the body. One
species is known in Europe. I give to my specimen the name o
Acanthococcus multispinus, sp. nov.(?)
Plate VIIL, fig. 18.
The sac, fig. 18a, is dull yellow, nearly cylindrical, one end closed with
a curve, the other open. It is composed of interlacing cottony fibres. The
female insect, fig. 18b, is of an elongated oval form, the widest part being
near the posterior end. It is dull pink in colour, covered thinly with whitish
meal. The segments of the body are not very distinct. The anal tubercles
are plainly visible, and between them is a pencil of white meal glueing
together the long hairs of the anal ring.
After mounting for the microscope and expressing the interior substance,
the insect is seen, as in fig. 18c, to have several rows of large conical spines,
X
218 Transactions.—Zoology.
which distinguish it from the next genus which has but two or three rows,
and from the European species which has six. Besides these there are a
number of spinnerets secreting the cottony meal, and many of these protrude
as tubes of peculiar shape, as shown in fig. 184. The antennze, fig. 18e, have
six joints, the third the longest, the fourth and fifth equal to each other and
nearly round. The legs have the tibia somewhat shorter than the tarsus,
the upper digitules are pretty long, the lower only short hairs.
The male insect is orange red, with long wings, undergoing its trans-
formations in a sac resembling that of the female. The antenne have ten
joints, of which the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh are long ; the second,
third, eighth, and ninth wider and globular; the tenth globular but smaller.
The hook of the foot is long; the abdominal spike, fig. 18/, is short and
thick, with a curved appendage.
i II.—Enrococcvs, Targioni.
This subdivision also has a sac, but it is usually less elongated than in
the last, and white in colour. My species, to which I give the name of
Eriococcus araucarie, sp. nov. (?)
is found on the Norfolk Island pine at Governor's Bay, but I am by no
means certain that it is indigenous. The female insect differs from the last
described only in the number of the conical spines, of which there is usually
only one row round the edge, though in some specimens a few seattered
spines may be seen elsewhere. It appears to resemble greatly E. buzi,
Signoret, and I doubt whether it is a new species; at the same time, the
anal hairs are only six in number as against eight in E. buzi, and the lower
digitules appear to be much smaller. I therefore provisionally consider it
a distinct species.
I have a specimen of the male, not in its perfect state but as a pupa
upon the point of undergoing transformation. It appears to differ some-
what from that of Acanthococcus, but I am unable to say how far it differs
from E. buzi.
III.—DaoryLorius, Signoret.
The females of this subdivision have eight-jointed antennz, the anal
tubercles less prominent than in the two foregoing, and usually a series of
cottony appendages running all round the edge ef the body, increasing in
length at the posterior end.
The differences between my species and those described in Europe are
not, in some cases, great, yet they are such as induce me to set down my
New Zealand specimens as distinct species.
Dactylopius calceolaria, sp. nov. (?)
Plate VIII, fig. 19.
This insect is effecting great destruction in the publie gardens in Christ-
church amongst the calceolarias, and upon several native plants such as
Maseeni,,—0n some Coccide in New Zealand, 219
Traversia, Cassinia, ete. I am glad to say that the gardener, Mr, Arm-
strong, has seen the little white-eyes (Zosterops) busily engaged in picking
them off the plants.
The general form of the female is shown in plate VIIL., fig. 19a. Itis
pink in colour, covered with white meal. It resembles in several particulars
some of the Dactylopii described by M. Signoret, but, either in the antennæ,
or in the feet, or in the appendages, differs from them all. The body is pretty
regularly oval, the segments very distinct; the appendages are short except
at the posterior end where there are two very long, with, on each side of
them, another somewhat shorter. The two longest surround the hairs of
the anal tubercles, which are inconspicuous, and between them is visible
the white pencil of meal surrounding the anal setze,
The interior substance of the body, expressed for mounting, appears to
be very oily, at least containing great numbers of oil globules. The
antenne, in the adult female, have eight joints, fig. 195, of which the 8rd
and 8th are the longest, the 6th and 7th the shortest. Each joint has
several hairs. The mentum appears to be tri-articulate, and has a few
hairs at its tip; the rostral sete are long. On the legs the coxa and femur
are thick; the tibia, much thinner, is more than twice as long as the
tarsus; the upper digitules, fig. 19c, are not very long; the lower are
narrow and about equal to the claw.
The anal tubercles are inconspicuous; each has a few hairs, of which
one is longer than the others, and two conical spines. The anal ring has
six hairs. These details are shown in fig. 194.
The young insect differs slightly. The antenne have six joints, the
sixth much longer than any of the others, which are about equal. The
tibia is shorter than the tarsus. (According to M. Signoret, this character
affords the means of judging the age of any insect of the group Coccide.
Whenever the tarsus is longer than the tibia the insect is in an early stage).
The anal tubercles are somewhat more prominent than in the adult, giving
the insect an appearance of having been cut off square at the end.
I have not the male of this species.
Dactylopius glaucus, sp. nov. (?)
This species differs from the last in its colour, which is light green, and
in having a less regularly oval line ; the abdominal region runs more to a
point. The antenna, feet, ete., resemble those of D. calceolarie. My speci-
mens are from Pittosporum enyenioides and Rubus australis.
I have one specimen which appears to me to be a male in an early stage.
In outline it resemb:es a female, but the rostrum is absent, and at each side
there is a protuberance which seems to me to be the rudiments of the wings.
A
220 Transaciions.—Zoology.
The abdominal segments overlap each other, tending to the form of abdomen
ofthe male Coccidm. The antenne, which are thick, have six joints. The
claw of the foot is very small.
Dactylopius poe, 8p. nov.
Plate VIL., fig. 19.
This species is found on the roots of the common tussock grass, or rather
on the stems close to the ground.
It is a rather large insect, bright pink in colour, covered with a white
meal, and with a very regular oval outline; flat on the underside, convex
above. The mentum has a few hairs at the tip ; the seta are long.
The antenne are very short; the second and third joints are the longest;
the last joint has a few hairs. Fig. 19e.
The legs are short; the eoxa thick, the femur somewhat thinner, the
tibie and tarsus still less and about equal in length. The upper digitules,
fig. 19f, are not long, the lower inconspicuous, if not wanting. There are a
few hairs on the tarsus.
The anal tubercles are extremely small, searcely perceptible ; each has
three conical spines but no hairs, and a few other spines are visible on the
abdomen. The anal ring has, I think, six hairs; fig. 19g. All over the
body are numbers of small circular spinnerets. —'
I have not the male of this species, which is, I think, certainly new.
IV.—lIoznva, Signoret.
My specimens of this subdivision were found on a hedge of the kangaroo
acacia, in Auckland, in March last. I understood from Mr. Cheeseman
and Dr. Purchas, who kindly brought the insect under my notice, that it
had only lately appeared in Auckland, and that it was only, as yet, to be
found upon that one hedge. The plants, I may say, were nearly destroyed
by the insects, which covered them in great numbers; and the large size
and peculiar appearance of the pest were very striking.
The genus Icerya belongs to the Monophlebide, a family of Coccide,
which has eleven joints in the antenne of the female, and ten in the
antenne of the male. There are several genera of these, but the insect
before me seems certainly to belong to Icerya. There is but one feature,.
the absence of which in my species may perhaps relegate it to some new
genus. M. Signoret says that, after treatment with potash, a tube may be
seen above the anal orifice forming a sort of folded ring; this tube he takes
to be the oviduct. I have not been able to observe this tube although I
have examined several specimens. At the same time all the other features
correspond to the description of the genus Icerya; and I am not inclined
to attempt the formation of a new genus simply on account of the absence
of a feature which perhaps I ought to have been able to make out.
-
MaskELL.—On some Coccidæ in New Zealand. 221
Only one species of this genus seems to be known, and that is Icerya
sacchari, an insect which, in Mauritius, does great injury to the sugar-
canes. M. Signoret deseribes this species, which differs from the one I am
describing in a few particulars. First, its general colour is yellow; secondly,
its cottony fibres appear to envelope it more completely than in my species;
‘thirdly, the segments of the body are more clearly defined; fourthly, the
young insect is more hairy, and the hairs are not similarly arranged ; fifthly,
the abdomen ends in a trifoliated lobe, which is not the case in my species.
I imagine, then, that the insect from Auckland is new, and I take the
liberty of naming it after the Rev. Dr. Purchas who, I believe, first found it.
Leerya purchasi, sp. nov.
Plate VIII., figs. 20 and 21.
The eggs of this species resemble those of the other Coccide ; they are
red in colour. The young insect emerging from the nest is reddish,
inclining to brown. The body, fig. 20a, is oval, hairy, with a quantity of
cottony down beginning to cover it. The antenne have six joints, fig. 20f,
the first wide and short, the next four a little longer and about equal to each
other, the sixth much larger, club-shaped, having apparently four segments
joined together. All the joints have a few hairs; on the sixth are several,
of which four are very much longer than the rest. The legs are brown,
thin. The coxa and femur moderately large, the tibia and tarsus long
and thin. The tibia and tarsus have several long hairs. The claw is some-
what long. I am not sure about the upper digitules, but they seem to be
only hairs; the lower pair are a little wider, bent like a hook.
The eyes are prominent, tubercular, set behind the antenne. The
mentum, which is broad and thick, seems to be bi-articulate. The rostral
setze are not long.
The abdomen ends in a smooth curve, but at each side of the centre are
three small lobes from which start six very long hairs, as long or longer
than the body of the insect.
Six rows of spinnerets are seen on the body, four along the middle and
one at each side. Alternating with these are rows of hairs.
In its next stage the female insect becomes somewhat altered. Its out-
line is still oval, but not so regular, and its colour is a darker red, nearly
brown, under the white curly cotton which covers it. The six hairs o
abdomen are still visible, but they are much shorter than in the young
insect, scarcely appearing beyond the other hairs of the body. Maceration
in potash and subsequent mounting get rid both of the interior substance
and of the cotton, and the insect is then seen to be much more hairy than
the young. The hairs are short, and distributed.pretty thickly over the
thoracic portion of the body, less thickly on the abdomen; but all round
the edge they are placed in tufts close together, each tuft containing twenty
or thirty hairs; fig. 20b.
222 Transactions.—Zoology.
The spinnerets are not arranged in rows, but scattered in great numbers
over the whole body. The vast majority of them are small and circular,
but round the edge of the body, amongst the tufts of hairs, runs a row of
others much larger. These protrude some distance from the body; their
lower end being brown, with a sort of crown encircling it, from which
springs a long glassy tube. Some of these spinnerets and a tuft of hairs
are shown in fig. 20¢.
The feet and digitules, fig. 20e, resemble those of the young insect, but
the antenne have now nine joints, all nearly equal, the last joint smaller,
comparatively, than in the young; the hairs of the antenns are also
shorter.
In its third stage (fig. 21), the insect acquires its very peculiar appearance
and afterwards ehanges no more. The feet are much the same as before; the
antenne have now eleven joints, tapering slightly to the tip, and all some-
what more hairy than in the last stage; fig. 20d. The tufts of hairs are still
at the edge; the spinnerets are still more numerous than in the earlier
stages.
The general colour of the inseet is now a rusty brown, but it is so
covered with cottony down as to seem, in the latest period, nearly white.
All round the edge, especially at the abdominal end, runs a row of black
marks (the tufts of hair spoken of above), and just within it a fainter line.
At the commencement of this stage the insect lies flat on the leaf or twig,
but its edge is slightly raised all round, whilst along the middle of the upper
side of the thoracie portion is a raised hump, or rather a prominence
divided into three humps. A white meal covers the back, and all round the
edge is seen a narrow ring of white felted cotton. This is the commence-
ment of the large ovisac or nest, in which the young insects are enveloped.
Later on the female begins to proereate. The body becomes full of eggs,
and these are ejected into the ovisae, which is gradually becoming larger.
The insect now begins to be raised up; the cephalie end still remains
attached to the plant, but the abdominal end is elevated, and the space left
is filled with the cottony down of the ovisae. At the same time, white
cottony processes form at the edge of the thorax, over the feet, looking, in
fact, to the naked eye, as if they were actually attached to the leg. Long,
fine, translucent white hairs or spines radiate from the body in every
direction. The general colour of the insect is still brown, powdered with
white.
The female at length reaches her full development. Now the abdominal
end is still more raised, so that the insect has the appearance of standing on
its head. The ovisae attains its full size, and extends for some distance
behind the body, filling also the space between it and the plant, as shown
MaskeLu.—0On some Coccidee in New Zealand. 223
in fig. 215. In fact the insect is now, as it were, resting on a bed of cottony
down, its head downward to the twig. The ovisac, in its upper portion, is
divided by regular grooves; the under side is flat, having several short
cottony processes radiating from its edge. It is now full of eggs, and these,
rapidly hatching, produce the young insects which emerge through the
cotton and go to seek their fortunes on the plant. I think the ovisac usually
contains from 60 to 70 young insects. The extreme length, from the head
of the female to the extremity of the ovisac, is sometimes nearly } of an
inch, the height being about } inch.
I have not been able to find a male insect of this, which is certainly the
most curious species of the Coccide with which I am acquainted. The
male of Icer; ya sacchari is also, I believe, unknown.
I have now completed the description of the species Coccide proper, and
in fact of all the insects which I am as yet able to relegate to well-defined
genera. I have still to describe one species whose position I cannot deter-
mine with certainty. Itis by no means the least beautiful of the family.
My specimens have come from Pittosporum engenioides and Discaria toumatou.
I am constrained to form from it a new genus, which I dedicate to my
friend Dr. Powell who was the first to find it.
PowELLi, gen. nov.
The genus is certainly not one of the Diaspide ; it does not belong to
the Lecanide, for it has not the abdominal cleft and lobes and the mentum
is tri-articulate, nor to the Coccide proper, for there are no anal tubercles,
and the feet are clearly different. In some of its characters it bears a
resemblance to an Aphidian insect which is very common here upon the
young leaves of very young Eucalypti, although I do not think that Powellia
belongs to the Aphides. Is it not possible that it may be a link between
the two families Aphis and Coccus ?
Powellia vitreo-radiata, sp. nov.
Plate VIII, fig. 22.
The female insect is shown in fig. 220. Itis at once apparent that, in
some respects, it has the characters of the Lecanio-diaspide; there is the
test covering the body and there is the fringe. But further examination
shows that it differs a good deal from that group. First, there is an evident
division between the test over the thorax and the test over the abdomen;
the fringe of the latter is seen to overlap that of the former. Moreover, the
eyes are faceted, which is not the case in the Lecanide. ^ Again, there is
no abdominal cleft,
"The first peculiarity of the species is that it seems to have four well
defined wings. If this were really the case, as the insect is undoubtedly a
female (for it has a mouth), it could not belong to the Coccide, But I am
224 Transactions.—Z oology.
not able to consider these lateral appendages as wings; first, because they
start from the head itself and not from the thorax; secondly, because
trachez may be seen ramifying from the thoracic spiracles through them ;
thirdly, because in the discarded tests which, in November, can be found
pretty numerous, these appendages are very clearly portions of the test
itself; fourthly, because the fringe runs round their edges in the same way
as on the rest.
The second peculiarity is in the different size of the thoracic and
abdominal regions and the clear line of demareation between them. In the
other species of Coccide it is difficult, if not impossible, to tell where the
thoracic portion of the female ends and the abdominal portion begins.
In Powellia the division is as distinct as in the males of the other genera.
À third peculiarity is in the feet, which I shall describe presently.
The eggs of this species are bright yellow, tapering to a point at one
end; the point appears to be somewhat hooked; fig. 22a. "They are seen
attached in clusters to twigs of Discaria and Pittosporum.
The young insect is extremely minute, not so large as the dot over the
letter iin small type. Its colour is brown; the winglike appendages are
not distinguishable. The abdomen, which is similar in outline to that of
the adult, is marked by six transverse dark bands and a dark patch at the
extremity, fig. 22c. From each band, at the edge, spring long transparent
tubes, in form of fringe, but they are not set so closely together as in the
later stages. The antenns, I think, have only four joints, of which the
third is the longest; the fourth joint has two long hairs. The legs are
short and very thick; I saw no coxa; the foot resembles that of the adult.
In the next stage the general form is not altered. The bands of the
abdomen have become fainter, and the tubes of the fringe are set closer
together.
Still later, the insect appears as in fig. 225. This is the last stage which
I have been able to observe. The four wing-like appendages are now
clearly defined, but, as shown in the figure, five tracheæ ramify from the
body through them, and they cannot be considered as wings. The head,
thorax and abdomen are distinct. The head, transverse, is oval; the eyes
are large, faceted, red in colour. The mentum, tri-articulate, ends in brown
toothlike processes. The antenna have six joints; the first and second
very broad and short, the third narrower and longer, the fourth and fifth
still narrower and shorter than the third, the sixth very long, somewhat
fusiform, with two small spikes at the tip and just above the spikes a long
hair.* See fig. 22d. The legs are thick and long, set equi-distant on the
thoracic region ; the coxa and femur very thick, the tibia and tarsus some-
* Mite 1 ete ae EN eee
8 8 in all specimens.
TRANS NZ INSTITUTE VOL XLPI VILL
f
d li YA M
pu
aiia haz
«d
3
Ez
pz
T^
t
M4 dl do
COIT
Epe
COCCIDA-
Maskeni.—0On some Coccidee in New Zealand. co -—
what thinner and of about equal length. The tarsus does not taper to the
claw as in the other Coccide, but is cylindrical, ending, as in fig. 22e, as if
suddenly compressed and bent downwards. The claw, in which this insect
differs from all other Coccidex, is double, opening like the hooks on the foot
of the housefly; it does not spring directly from the tarsus but is set in a
sort of ring or socket. At the root of the claw, and spreading over it, is a
fan-shaped translucent appendage which is not observable in any other
species of the Coccide. Above the claw, near the abrupt angle of the end
of the tarsus, is a long stiff bristle, slightly curved at the end.
The abdomen, divided clearly from the thorax, is nearly round. The
transverse bands seen in the young insect are not now distinct, but may be
traced. The anal markings, fig. 22f, differ from those of all other Coccide.
They form an elongated ring on the abdomen, not unlike an Australian
boomerang in outline; the outer edge marked like a fine comb, and with
a row of small circular spots following the inner contour. I cannot detect
any hairs or cilia.
The fringe of this species, which borders the whole test, is very delicate
and pretty. Itis quite white, glassy and transparent; the threads, very
fine, are set close together, and their great length gives to the insect a
peculiarly elegant appearance. Under the microscope they are seen to be
composed of three parts; a small socket in which is set a vase or cup, and
springing from this a long cylindrical glassy tube, apparently open at the
end. Very great care is needed in handling the insect, to avoid breaking
this very delicate fringe. The cups will remain attached, but the long glass
tubes fall off with almost the slightest touch ; see fig. 225. "
This genus, Powellia, presents so many MACH Heg in its general shape,
in the wing-like appendages, in the divisions of the body, in the shape of
the antenns, the peculiar foot and the abdominal markings, that it scarcely
seems related to the members of the family of the Coecide. On the other
hand it has many affinities with the family, and it will fitly conclude the
series of papers which I have been able to draw up this year. I feel sure
that there must be many species of Coccide yet to be discovered in New
Zealand; perhaps at some future time I may be able to describe them.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATES, V.—VIIL.*
Coccrpz.— Plate V., figure, 1.—Dtaspipz,
Fig. a, Mytilaspis pomorum : portion of puparium, showing discarded tests of first
iwo stages: magn. 40
b, Mytilaspis pomorum : rja, female with eggs: magn. 25 diams.
* The measurements are one-third less than stated, the original drawings having
been reduced,
X
226 Transactions.—Zoology.
Fig. c, Young insect: magn. 60 diams.
d, Mytilaspis pomorum: abdominal region: magn. 60 diams.
e, Rostrum of Diaspide, natural state: magn. 60 diams.
, Rostrum, mounted: magn. 60 diams.
Coccipm.—Plate V., figure 2.—DIASPIDÆ.
Fig. a, Mytilaspis pomorum: eggs: magn. 60 diams.
b, jy n adult female: magn. 60 diams.
e, s pygidium of female: magn. 200 diams.
d, a pinneret: AR 700 diams.
Coccmæ.—Plate V., figure 3.—DIasPInÆ.
Fig. a, Mytilaspis pyriformis: puparium : magn. 25 diams.
b, » i adult female: magn. 60 diams.
e, 33 i pygidium: magn. 200 diams.
; Coccma.—Plate V., figure 4.—Dusrida.
Fig. a, Mytilaspis cordylinidis: puparium: magn. 25 diams.
b, 2 We adult female: magn. 60 diams.
e, ” > pygidium: magn. 200 diams,
Coccwæ.—Plate V., figure 5.—DIASPIDÆ.
Fig. a, Mytilaspis drimydis: adult female: magn. 60 diams.
b, s » pygidium: magn. 200 diams.
e, js $5 pupa of male: magn. 25 diams.
Coccrpz..—Plate V., figure 6.—Diaspipz.
Fig. a, Mention. epidendri: puparium of female: magn. 60 diams.
b,
” T adult female: magn. 60 diams.
e, » > pygidium of female ; magn. 200 diams.
d, » » pupa of male from cocoon : magn. 60 diams.
Cocctpm.—Plate VI., figure 7.— DIASPIDÆ.
Fig. a, Aspidiotus atherosperme: adult female: magn. 60 diams.
b, 2» extremity of kia magn. 200 diams.
dyso. ayli female, 2nd stage: magn. 60 diams.
" MG of adult female: magn. 200 diams.
Coccrpm.—Plate VI., figure 8.—DrzAsPIDE,
Fig. a, Aspidiotus aurantii: adult female: magn. 60 diams.
b, o s extremity of abdomen : magn. 200 diams.
6, PA 3; male: magn. 60 diams.
Coccrip#.—Plate VI., figure 9.—DrsPIDJE.
Fig. a, Diaspis boisduvalii: adult female: magn. 60 diams.
x 5 eocoon, with male E Md magn. 40 diams.
6, » rosæ: adult female: magn. 60 diam
Coccipm.—Plate VI., figure 10.—D1aspipm.
Fig. a, Diaspis gigas: female shrivelled after egg laying: magn. 40 diams.
D s » pellice of 2nd stage of female: magn. 40 diams.
e ‘a serie of adult female: magn. 200 diams.
40 diams.
MaskErLr,— On some Coccide in New Zealand. 297
Coccrp®.—Plate VL, figure 11.—Lecanma. *
Fig. a, Rostrum and mentum of Lecanide : magn. 90 diam
b, Abdominal cleft, and lobes, and anal ring of ditto; magn, 60 diams.
6, Respiratory organ of Lecanium,
d, Stigma, and stigmatic spines of ditto: magn. 200 diams,
e, Foot and digitules of ditto: magn. 200 diams,
OCCIDIE,—Plate VI., figure 12.—LECANDÆ.
Fig. a, Lecanium hesperidum : young insect: magn, 90 diams.
" » Pn antenna of adult: magn. 200 diams.
e, T iy adult female: magn, 15 diams,
Coccrp2#.—Plate VII., figure 13.—LECANIDÆ.
Fig. a, Ctenochiton perforatus: female, 2nd stage: magn. 40 diams.
b, ditto without the test: magn. 40 diams.
” ”
e, » ” antenna: magn. 200 diams,
d, ie s foot: magn. 200 diams
e, ” 3 test of adult female: magn. 20 diams.
perforations of fringe: magn. 200 diams.
t, ” ”
Cocoz.—Plate VIL, figure 14.—LECANDÆ.
Fig. a, Ctenochiton perforatus; male: magn. 25 diams.
a, enna of male: magn. 60 diams.
b, AA viridis : Bes of test: magn. 40 diams,
€, Ctenochiton elongatus: adult female: magn. 40 diams.,
, » » portion of fringé.of test.
Coccrpug.—Plate VIL, figure 15.—LECANIDJE.
Fig. a, Ctenochiton spinosus: antenna of female: magn. 200 diams.
ult female
e, ” i spines, with fringe: magn. 200 diams.
d, » + foot of female: magn. 200 diams.
Coccin#.—Plate VII.. figure 16.—Lecanda.
Fig. a, Inglisia patella: test, or id: magn. 60 diams.
b, » » adult female, after treatment with potash: magn 60 diams.
e, » a antenna: magn, 200 diams.
ee * abdomen, showing alternate spines: magn. 200 diams.
e » ý foot: magn. 200 diams.
EU. = adult female, external appearance: magn. 25 diams,
Coccinæ.—Plate VII., figure 17.—LECANIDÆ.
Fig. a, Asterochiton lecanioides : young insect: magn. 60 diams.
female in test: magn. 40 diams.
abdomen of female: magn. 90 diams.
A dAnterac on aureus: female in test: magn. 40 diams.
Coccip#.—Plate VIII., figure 18.—Coccipz.
Fig. a, Acanthococcus multispinus: sae: magn. 25 diams.
b ” female:
, ” ”
e, " n part of female, with spines: magn. 60 diams.
d, » » a spinneret : magn. — diams.
e, » n antenna of female: magn. 200 diams.
i, >” » anal spike of male: magn. 200 diams.
228 Transactions.—Zoology.
* Cocomæ.—Plate VIIL, figure 19.—Coccwz.
ig. a, Dactylopius calceolarig: female; magn. 20 diams,
” za antenna: magn. 60 diams.
" 4 foot: magn. 60 diams.
? ,
Dactylopius poe : antenna magn. 60 diams.
S magn. 60 diams.
g, "T 5 ae region: magn. 200 diams.
Coccrpz.—Plate VIIL, figure 20.—Coccrpz.
Fig. a, Icerya purchasi: young insect: magn. 40 diams.
b, p sr female, 2nd stage: magn. 20 diams.
«B c ^t hairs and spinnerets: magn. 200 diams,
d " antenna, 3rd stage: magn. 40 diams.
ONDE ii foot, 9rd stage: magn. 90 diams.
* cw * antenna of young: magn. 90 diams.
occip#.—Plate VIII., figure 21.
Fig. a, —-— purchasi : female, commencement of last stage, viewed from above:
6 diams.
b, Nye Mie: ditto, under side; magn. 6 diams
Q, k xi female, end of last stage: magn, 6 diams,
d... » ditto, under side,
Coccrp x.—Plate VII., figure 22,
Fig. a, Powellia vitreo-radiata ; eggs: magn. 150 diams.
b
’ " > female: magn. 25 diams.
Cy: os " abdomen of young: magn. 90 diams.
& y " antenna: magn. 100
e, » i foot: magn. 200 diams.
5h » anal marking; magn. 200 diams,
8; n 5 fringe: magn. 200 diams,
Art. XVII.—On a Hymenopterous Insect parasitic on Coccide.
By W. M. Masxeut.
[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 4th July, 1878.]
: Plate IX.
Some of the Coccide are much troubled by parasites. In this country I
have not found this to be the case upon the naked-bodied species, Lecanium,
ete. But some of the Diaspidz, particularly Mytilaspis pomorum, have often
in their shells minute white Acari; and as in these cases many of the
enclosed eggs have been shrivelled or empty, I imagine that the Acarus may
devour them.
The insect I am now describing attacks some of the indigenous test-
bearing Coccide. When in June, 1877, I found my first specimens of
Ctenochiton perforatus, Y did not at first understand the nature of an object
TRANS NZINSTITUTE VOLALPL IX.
HYMENOPTEROUS PARASITE ON COCCIDA.
MasreLL.— On a Parasite of Coccide, 229
which was frequently seen under the centre of the tests. This object, which
is shown in the accompanying puts, fig. 1, I took to be the pupa of the male
Ctenochiton.
Later on, in September, I found other pups in a more advanced stage,
for I was able to detach them easily from the test of the scale.. They now
resembled the pupæ of Eulophus nemati, a common Hymenopterous insect.
One of them is shown in my fig. 2, where it will be seen that the form of
the head, with its bars or stripes, and the spurs on the end of the tibia,
seem to refer the insect to the genera Eulophus or Encyrtus. In Eulophus,
indeed, the antenns are branched, but this could not be distinguished in
the pupa stage.
In October, when searching for more specimens of Ctenochiton in order
further to examine these pups, I came across a tree, one of the species of
Olearia, on which I found numbers of them in another condition. The leaves
of the tree had evidently been pierced by a leaf-mining insect, and were
covered with the blisters formed by it. Some of these were closed, others
open; in each of the closed ones I found the remains of the larva of the
leaf-miner and the pupa of which I was in search. It was quite evident
that it could not be the pupa of a male Ctenochiton. The blisters, I may
mention, were on both sides of the leaves; but the orifice by which the
insect escaped was always on the under side.
I was able to procure several specimens of this parasitic insect in the
imago state.
According to Westwood, there are five families of parasitic Hymenoptera;
but only one has all the characters of the insect I am describing. In the
Evaniide the antenne are straight and the wings are veined; in the
Ichneumonide the same; in the Chalcidide the pupa is naked; in the
Chrysidide the abdomen is oblong-ovate. There remains only the Procto-
trupide, and to these I relegate my insect. Of the genera of this family
Diapria approaches it most, by the form of the wings. The only other
genus resembling it seems to be Platygaster ; but, according to Westwood,
the legs in this genus are “not saltatorial,’’ whereas the fly before me
can leap pretty actively. I may observe that Westwood states that the
Coccide are much infested by Chalcidideous parasites, of a genus to which
he gives the name ** Coccophagus,” and which, he says, is intermediate
between Encyrtus and Eulophus. My insect cannot be this, for the antenne
have at least 12 joints, against 8 in Coccophagus, and the three terminal
joints, although soldered together, do not form a club, Again, it cannot be
Encyrtus, for there is no dilation of the tarsus; hor Eulophus, for the
antenna are not branched. And the thin covering of the pupa prevents it
from entering the Chrysidide,
230 Transactions.—Zoology,
I propose for this insect the name of Diapria coccophaga.
In colour the insect, to the naked eye, is black; under the microscope
the vertex of the head is green, the eyes red, the thorax and abdomen brown
with green streaks; the whole body diapered with spots. The posterior
wings are furnished with two minute hooks. The antenne are moniliform,
with from 12 to 15 joints; elbowed at the third joint, the last three being
soldered together. The head is transverse, the eyes faceted, the mandibles
. foreipate. The tarsus is five-jointed; the anterior pair of legs has a sharp
curved spur with three points at the end of the tibia.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE IX.
Fig. 1. Outline of test of Ctenochiton perforatus, with enclosed pupa of Diapria.
Fig. 2. Pupa of Diapria eoccophaga.
Fig. 8. 1, Head of D. coccophaga, magnified 25 diams.
2, Posterior wing, 5 I
3, Antenn ” 55 ”
4, NER dn with spur, wA 5b: ^.
5, Mandibl jen DOS
Fig. 4. Female WA YA O
Fig. 5. Ovipositor, retracted ss GOS;
Art. XVIII.—New Zealand Crustacea, with Descriptions of New Species.
By Gzonger M. Tuousox.
[Read before the Otago Institute, 13th August, 1878.)
Plate X.
Tar publication of a Catalogue of the New Zealand Crustacea by Mr. Miers,
of the British Museum, under the auspices of the Government of this colony,
fills up a wide gap in our records of local zoology, and enables others to work
up the subject, on the spot, with a much greater degree of certainty. The
catalogue enumerates altogether 140 species, of which no less than 62 sp.
are Brachyura (Crabs); while of Anomoura, 18 sp.; Macroura, 18 sp.;
Stomapoda, 2 sp.; lsopoda, 28 sp.; Anisopoda, 2 sp.; and Amphipoda
15 sp. are described. I now propose to add 22 species to the above, of
which 19 are new to Science. Of these, 2 species belong to Macroura, 6 to
Isopoda, and 14 to Amphipoda, "Type specimens of all of these are lodged
in the Otago Museum,
G. M. Tuowsox.—New Zealand Crustacea. 281
I would here desire to express my thanks to Professor Hutton for the
great assistance he has given me, and particularly for handing over for my
inspection the collection of Crustacea in the Otago Museum, poker with
his own valuable notes and manuscript descriptions.
Decapoda macroura.
Sub-tribe Caridea. Fam. I. Crangonidae.
Crangon, Fabricius.
Internal antenne dilated at the base, the peduncle short, and terminated
by two filaments. External maxillipeds pediform, the terminal joint obtuse
and flattened. Anterior legs sub-didactyle, stronger and thicker than the
others; the hand flattened, the moveable finger inflexed upon the hand, and
meeting a rudimentary thumb; second and third pairs very slender, the
second didactyle ; two last pairs shorter and thicker. Abdomen large and
rounded,
1. Crangon australis, Hutton, MS. Cat. Fig. A.1.
Carapace with five longitudinal rows of spines, the outer with three from
the base of the moveable plate, the next with five from the outer margin of
the orbit, and the median with two. Moveable plate extending beyond the
peduncle of the outer antenne. Inner antenne short, hardly passing the
external maxillipeds. Anterior legs extending beyond the tip of the move-
able plate; second pair about half the length of the first; the third much
longer. Abdomen smooth, not keeled, suddenly contracted at the second
and third segments from the end, posterior segment nearly cylindrical.
Length 14 inches. Common.
Cook Straits, Dunedin, and Stewart Island. (Allied to C. spinosus, of
Britain).
Palemon.
Sub-genus Leander, Miers’ Cat., p. 85.
2. Leander fluviatilis, nov. sp. Fig. A.2
Palemon fluviatilis, Hutton, MS. Cat.
Beak narrow, slender, nearly straight, with from nine to fifteen teeth
on the upper margin, which are more or less separated into three groups,
the posterior of which consists of two, or rarely three, situated behind the
orbit ; the middle of four to six, in front of the orbit; and the anterior of
three to six, much smaller and situated near the apex ; four to six teeth on
the lower margin. Anterior margin of carapace with one spine, and another
over the inner angle of the orbit. Anterior feet short, but rather stout,
reaching to the end of the peduncle of the outer antenne# ; second pair very
slender, longer, but not reaching to the tip of the EA plate. Length
14 inch.
Waikato River (Professor F, W. Hutton); Taieri River, and lagoons in
Taieri plain,
232 Transactions.—Zi oology.
Edriophthalmata.
Tribe I.—Isoropa.
Sub-tribe I. Idoteidea. Genus Idotea.
Idotea affinis, Miers' Cat., p. 93.
In the description given of this species the flagellum of the antenna is
said to be about 20-jointed, and the length 13 inch. The species is said
also to ** vary slightly in the number of the joints of the external antenna.”
In a great number examined by me, I found the length to vary from 1
inch to over 23 inches, and the number of joints in the flagellum from
sixteen up to thirty-two.
Sub-tribe IT. Oniscoidea.
Fam. II. Oniscidee. Miers’ Cat., p. 98.
Sub-Fam. I. Oniscing. Genus Oniscus.
8. Oniscus punctatus, nov. sp. Fig. A.3.
Body rather convex, oval, minutely granulated over the entire surface.
Head short and broad; eyes small, round and black. Antenne finely
hirsute, fifth joint the longest, equalling the last three. First segment of
thorax wider than those succeeding ; last segment produced acutely back-
wards. Abdomen not much narrower than thorax, but falling away rather
abruptly; two anterior segments narrower than the others, and not pro-
duced into exserted lateral angles; three succeeding segments subequal,
with their latero-posterior margins acutely produced; last segment short
and rounded. Caudal stylets short, external branch the longest, narrow-
cylindrical, minutely hirsute, with two or three short sete at the extremities.
Colour light brown, with darker markings. Length :8 inch.
Dunedin.
Sub-Fam. III. Ligiine.
Genus Ligia, Miers’ Cat., p. 108.
4. Ligia quadrata, Hutton, MS. Cat. Fig. A.4.
Oval, sub-depressed, with minute granulations on the back, but free from
hairs. Three posterior segments of thorax acutely prolonged backwards on
either side. Abdomen considerably narrower than thorax, last segment
sub-quadrate, the angles hardly projecting. Outer antenna two-thirds the
length of the animal, fourth and fifth joints much the longest; flagellum
from 15-to 23-jointed, minutely setose. Base of caudal stylets about half
as long as abdomen; rami slightly unequal, shorter branch with a long
slender seta, which reaches beyond the extremity of the longer branch.
Colour yellowish-olivaceous closely speckled with black. Length :5 inch.
Dunedin.
This species lives among loose stones on the beach, and runs with great
rapidity.
G. M. Taomgon.—New Zealand Crustacea. 288
Sub-tribe TII. Cymothoidea.
Fam. I. Cymothoide.
Genus Ceratothoa, Miers’ Cat., p. 104.
5. Ceratothoa trigonocephala.
Cymothoa trigonocephala, M. Edw. Hist. Nat. Crust., iii., p. 272.
Head small, triangular, having the antero-lateral margins very concave
above the antenns, and the front narrow but obtuse, and projecting a little
beyond the base of the inner antenne. Eyes very distinct. Outer antenna
considerably longer than the inner. Anterior margin of the first thoracic
segment produced a little at the corner upon the head so as to give rise to a
tooth upon the median line; antero-lateral prolongations of medium size,
narrowing in front, but rounded and not reaching to the base of the outer
antenns. First segment of the abdomen about a third less than the second,
which exceeds on each side the margin of the last thoracic segment. Pos-
terior margin of the fifth segment very sinuous, and presenting a deep,
median indentation. Sixth segment large, but gradually narrowing from
the base, rounded posteriorly, and not nearly so far extended as the terminal
plates of the lateral appendages, Length 1:6 inch. (My specimens are
about 1 inch long).
Dunedin.
This species is also found in the Australian and Chinese Seas.
Fam. III. Spheromide. Miers’ Cat., p. 109.
Genus Amphoroidea, M. Edw., Hist. Nat. Crust., iii., p. 222.
Body eonvex, somewhat oval and flexible. Head quadrilateral, broader
than long; eyes small, occupying the lateral margin; anterior margin of
the head with five small teeth. Basal joint of inner antenne very large,
lamellate, quadrilateral, broader in front than behind, horizontal, and in
contaet with its fellow; second joint small, inserted at the side of the first,
near its posterior angle; the rest almost moniliform. Outer antenne in-
serted under the inner and directed forwards; the peduncle cylindrical,
terminal joint longer than that of the inner antenne. Abdomen broader
than thorax; last joint large, seutiform and deeply exeavated below.
6. Amphoroidea falcifer, Hutton, MS. Cat. Fig. A.5.
Smooth, sub-depressed, rounded on the back. Head broader than long,
the anterior margin three-lobed, the middle one pointed and acute; lateral
margins hollowed; posterior margin straight, sub-sinuated, produced
posteriorly on either side into a truncated lobe. Basal joint of inner
antenne longer than broad, the anterior margin convex, the outer side
straight, the posterior side bilobed, fitting into the lobes of the head.
Outer antenne reaching to the middle of the third thoracic segment.
Last segment of the tail triangular, bidentate at the tip. Outer ramus of
YA
234 Transactions.—Zoology.
appendages long, projecting considerably beyond the tail, falciform, acute,
curved inwards; the inner much shorter, sub-rectangular, longer than
broad, truncated at the apex. Claws short, subequal, hooked. Reddish
brown. Length -6 inch. Kaikoura Harbour and Stewart Island.
Norz.—Since writing the foregoing description, I have seen, through
favour of Dr. Haast, the Atlas of the Crustacea described by Dana in the
Zoology of the U.S. Exploring Expedition. From the figures alone (not
having been able to obtain a description), l think that this tennis may
prove to be identical with A. australiensis, Dana.
Genus Cymodocea, Miers’ Cat., p. 118.
Sub-genus Dynamena, Leach, Dict. Sec. Nat., t. 12., p. 343.
Terminal segment of the abdomen simply notched, but without a median
lobe. Rami of caudal appendages lamellate, as in Spheroma.
7. Dynamena huttoni, nov. sp. Fig. A.6.
Moderately convex, nearly smooth, marked with numerous minute
granulations. Head small, twice as broad as long, with small obtuse
frontal lobe. Segments of thorax subequal, the three last slightly produced
backward at their infero-posterior margins, the last with a slightly rounded
lobe, just overlapping the edge of the abdomen. First segment of abdomen
with four lines of articulation, the last of which has a tooth on each side on
its posterior margin. Last segment triangular, swollen above, ending in
two short acute teeth, with a rounded sinus between them. Rami of
caudal lamelle equal, oval-oblong, obtuse. Orange-yellow colour. Length
'5 inch.
Dunedin.
I have named this species after Professor Hutton who collected it.
Genus Nesea, M. Edw., Hist. Nat. Crust., iii., p. 216.
Body not very flexible, and incapable of being rolled into a ball. Ex-
ternal ramus of the caudal lamelle projecting, thick and rounded, incapable
of being folded beneath the inner. Inner rami united to the inferior
margin of the abdomen and earried transversely underneath it, so as to be
easily mistaken for it.
8. Nesea caniculata, nov. sp. Fig. A.7.
Body very convex ; roughly granulated, particularly towards the abdomen.
Head prominently rounded. Eyes black, triangular, received into a deep
indentation in the margin of the first thoracic segment; an intra-marginal
groove extending between the eyes round the front of the head. Frontal
lobe small, obtuse. Basal joint of inner antenne large, and adhering
nois to the head, second joint short and rounded, third slender. Outer
G. M. Taomson.—New Zealand Crustacea. 985
antenna springing from underneath the base of the inner, half as long again,
and slender. Segments of the thorax directed backwards at their postero-
lateral margins; first segment broader than others; succeeding segments
subequal, each with a flattened granulated ridge on its posterior margin,
giving the back a transversely grooved appearance. First segment of
abdomen produced posteriorly into a flattened truncate expansion, with a-
slight median indentation; last segment placed almost underneath, the
former, triangular in shape, with a pyramidal tubercle on each side, its apex
united to the internal rami of the caudal lamelle. External rami thick,
angular, and two-jointed. Legs fringed on their inferior margins with
short, thick hair, Colour dark brown, Length *6 inch,
Dunedin,
Collected by Prof. Hutton.
Tribe III.—A wPnrpopA.
Division Normalia. Family I. Orchestide.
Talitrus ? nove-zealandie, Dana, ( Orchestoidea ? novi-zealandie ).
This species is certainly the female of Talorchestia quoyana, and therefore
ought to disappear from the catalogue. I have repeatedly found the two
together, and in fact have seldom collected the one without the other.
The males of the Talitrus, and the females of the Talorchestia, have never
yet been described as such.
Genus Nicea.
Nicea, Nicolet, Gay's Chili, Vol. IIL., p. 237. 1849.
Galanthis, Spence Bate, Ann. Nat. Hist. 1857; and Cat. Amphip. Crust. Brit.
Mus., p. 51. 1862.
This genus is defined as follows :—‘ Superior and inferior antennm
subequal, scarcely longer than the cephalon. The rest of the animal
generally resembling Allorchestes, except the telson, which is deeply cleft.”
It in reality includes all those Crustaceans which would range under
Allorchestes, but for the cleft telson.
9. Nicea nova-zealandie, nov. sp. Fig. B.1.
Eyes reniform. Inferior antenna about one-fourth as long as body;
flagellum slightly longer than base, with 18 or 14 articulations, which are
minutely setose. Superior antenne reaching to middle of flagellum of
inferior ; flagellum 14.jointed. Gnathopoda of first pair small; carpus
produced inferiorly to a rounded lobe, furnished with a bundle of sete ;
propodos sub-quadrate, inferior margin excavate about the middle and
furnished with a bunch of setm, palm transverse, defined by two stout
spines, setose; a bunch of set at the articulation of the dactylos. Propo-
dos of second gnathopoda large, ovate (almost pyriform) in male, palm very
oblique, occupying nearly all the under surface, furnished with a double
__ Tow of stiff setæ, and defined by two stout spines; dactylos long, slender, aS
236 Transactions.—Zvology.
arcuate. Same organ smaller in female, with the palm more transverse,
and dactylos relatively shorter. First, second and third pairs of pereiopoda
subequal; fourth and fifth longer; all with crests of short setw at the
joints, Telson deeply cleft, smooth. Colour yellowish, marbled with red.
h.
Rock pools at Taiaroa Head (Otago Harbour).
10. Nicea fimbriata, nov. sp. Fig. B.2.
"Eyes round, Inferior antennæ about one-third as long as body;
peduncle more than half as long as flagellum, penultimate joint crowned
with a ring of short setze, ultimate with a dense fringe of long, slender hairs
on its inferior margin; flagellum from 17-22-jointed, each articulation
with a dense bunch of long hairs on its inferior margin, diminishing
towards the extremity. Superior antenne half as long as inferior; flagellum
13-15-jointed, slender, minutely setose. First pair of gnathopoda with the
carpus dilated; propodos broadly oblong, the palm very oblique, furnished
with numerous sete, and defined by two stout teeth. Gnathopoda of
second pairlarge; propodos ovate, tapering to the extremity, lower margin
densly fringed with long hairs, an excavation marking the very oblique and
not well-defined palm. Pereiopoda subequal, second and third pairs rather
the shortest. Telson cleft almost to the base, minutely tuberculated.
Colour pale yellow. Length :8 inch.
Dunedin.
11. Nicea rubra, nov. sp. Fig. B.B.
Eyes round. Inferior antennæ half as long as body; flagellum four
. times as long as peduncle, with over fifty articulations, sparingly and
minutely setose. Superior antennæ nearly half as long as inferior;
flagellum 18-jointed, joints slender, with their apices expanded, minutely
setose. Gnathopoda of first pair with the carpus rounded; propodos
oblong-quadrate, setose on the inferior margin, palm extending along half
its length, obliquely transverse, defined by two teeth, and furnished with
two rows of sete. Gnathopoda of second pair with the propodos ovate,
palm extending obliquely along half of its inferior margin, furnished with
two rows of stout sete, but without any defining spines; dactylos long and
curved, with two tubercles at the joint. Fourth and fifth pairs of
pereiopoda longer than those preceding. Telson deeply divided into two
acute, smooth lobes. Colour pink. Length :4 inch.
Dunedin.
Fam. II. Gammaride.
Genus Lysianassa, Edwards, Hist. Nat. Crust., iii, p. 20; Dana, U.S. Explor.
Exped., p. 908; Spence Bate, Brit. Mus. Cat. Amphip., p. 64.
Superior antenne pyriform, very short, stouter than the inferior, and
furnished with a secondary appendage, Mandibles having an appendage ;
G. M. Taomson.—New Zealand Crustacea, 287
the incisive edge not furnished with teeth; armed upon the anterior margin
with a stout tubercle ; secondary or moveable plate wanting. Maxillipeds
with large squamiform processes attached to the third and fourth joints,
First pair of gnathopoda not subchelate. The second pair subchelate,
imperfectly developed, long, and membranous, Ischium and carpus long.
Dactylos rudimentary. Coxe of the gnathopoda and the two anterior pairs
of pereiopoda deeper than their respective segments of the pereion; those of
the second pair of pereiopoda produced inferiorly and posteriorly. Coxe of
the fourth pair much shorter than the third. Pereiopoda subequal.
Posterior pair of pleopoda double-branched. Telson single, er
entire.
12. Lysianassa króyeri, Spence Bate, Brit. Mus. Cat. Amphip., p. 66.
Ephippiphora krüyeri, White, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 2, vol. i., p. 226,
d Zool. Erebus and Terror, pl. 5.
Animal not much compressed, smoothly ae a dorsal sinus in the
fourth segment of the pleon. Eyes reniform. Superior antenne having
the first joint of the peduncle reaching scarcely beyond the ocular process
of the cephalon, the second and third joints very short; the flagellum not
longer than the peduncle. Inferior antenns three times as long as the
superior, the peduncle not extending beyond the peduncle of the superior
flagellum. First pair of gnathopoda having the propodos nearly three
times as long as the carpus, and armed upon the under side with a strong
curved spine near the base of the dactylos. Second pair of gnathopoda
having the propodos a little shorter than the carpus, and both inferiorly
covered with minute denticles ; the propodos furnished upon the superior
margin with tufts of long hair, serrated on both margins; palm short,
inferior angle produced into a tubercle ; dactylos not so long as the palm.
Coxe of the second pair of pereiopoda having the lower half of the posterior
margin greatly produced. Posterior pair of pleopoda having the rami much
longer than the basal articulation.
Dunedin.
This species was originally described from Tasmania, where it was
obtained by Sir J. C. Ross. Its length is stated at 1 inch, but none of the
specimens examined by me exceeded *8 inch.
Genus Dexamine, Leach, Edin. Encye. vii, p. 483; Sp. Bate, Brit. Mus.
Cat. Amphip. Crust., p. 180.
Antenne long, subequal, slender; superior*not appendiculated ; peduncle
consisting of only two joints, the third not being distinguishable from the
first of the flagellum. Mandibles without an appendage. Gnathopoda
subequal, feeble, subchelate. Coxe of the third pair of pereiopoda about
half as deep as the preceding; dactyla of all the pereiopoda generally
238 Transactions.—Zoology.
directed posteriorly. Posterior pair of pleopoda biramous, Telson simple,
divided, squamiform.
18. Deramine pacifica, nov. sp. Fig. B.4.
Cephalon without a rostrum, but produced into an aeute tooth between
the bases of the antennsz. Pereion smooth; segments of pleon dorsally
and posteriorly three-spined, and with the inferior margin produced
posteriorly into an acute tooth. Eyes ovate-reniform. Superior antenna
about as long as the body; basal joint stout, with a spine at its lower
anterior margin; second joint about twice as long; flagellum 40-50-
jointed. Inferior antennse about two-thirds as long as superior, slender;
basal joint very short; second joint as long as corresponding joint of upper
antenne; ultimate joint of peduncle just half as long; flagellum about
25.-80-jointed. Gnathopoda of first pair larger than second, with the
inferior margin of the carpus and propodos crenulated and hairy; palm
oblique, dactylos nearly straight. Second gnathopoda similarly toothed and
hairy; propodos shorter, dilated, with two spines at the base of the palm;
dactylos curved. Pereiopoda slender, thickly setose, all having the dactylos
directed posteriorly, except the last pair, which also are much the longest.
Penultimate pair of pleopoda reaching to extremity of ultimate; ante-
penultimate much shorter. Telson bifid, apex of each division with two or
three small teeth and a few short hairs. Length ‘25 inch. (No locality).
Genus Atylus, Leach, Zool. Miscel., ii., pl. 69; Edwards, Hist. des Crust.,
iii., p. 67; S. Bate, Brit. Mus. Cat. Amphip. Crust., p. 188.
Iphimedia, Dana, U. S. Explor. Exped., p. 926.
Animal compressed. Antenne subequal; superior without a secondary
appendage. Mandibles with an appendage. Maxillipeds unguiculate, having
a squamiform plate developed from the bases and isehium. Gnathopoda
subchelate. Pereiopoda subequal. Posterior pleopoda biramous. Telson
single, squamiform, divided.
Differs from Dewamine in having the third joint of the peduncle of the
upper antenne distinguishable from the flagellum, and in having an
appendage to the mandibles.
14. Atylus dania, nov. sp. Fig. C.1.
Cephalon produced into a short rostrum. Segments of the pleon
slightly elevated posteriorly, fourth segment with a deep dorsal sinus, none
prolonged into teeth; margins smooth. Eyes large, round, black. Superior
antenne about a third shorter than the inferior; joints of the peduncle
short, subequal, produced into three teeth on the lower margin; flagellum
with over 25 artieulations, which are broader than long, every third or
| fourth joint produced on its inferior margin into a tubercle, bearing several
| m and a crown of short hairs, Inferior antenne half as oe as
G. M. Taomson.—New Zealand Crustacea. 239
body, also with fascicles of hairs on the under surface of the peduncle;
flagellum with between 40 and 50 articulations. Gnathopoda rather small,
subequal; carpus somewhat produced on its inferior surface; propodos
ovate, with several transverse rows of spines on the infero-posterior
margin; palm imperfectly defined; dactylos slender, smooth. Three
posterior pairs of pereiopoda having the basa increasing in width. Ante-
penultimate pair of pleopoda reaching to the extremity of the penultimate,
smooth; penultimate pair with a few spines; ultimate pair with the rami
about twice as long as the peduncle, thickly studded with short spines and
fringed with long cilia. Telson divided to nearly half its length, with a
minute spine somewhat remote from the apex at each side. Length :8
inch. Semi-transparent in colour, with dark blueish spots.
Rock pools, Dunedin.
(Named after Prof. Dana).
Genus Pherusa, Leach, Edin. Encye., vii, p. 432, ete.; Spence Bate,
Brit. Mus. Cat. Amphip. Crust., p. 143.
Antenne subequal; superior without a secondary appendage. Mandibles
with an appendage. Maxillipeds unguiculate, and furnished with a squami-
form plate. Gnathopoda subchelate. Telson single, squamiform, entire.
15. Pherusa nove-zealandie, nov. sp. Fig. C.2.
Cephalon produced into a small, acute rostrum between the bases of the
superior antenne. Eyes oblong-reniform. Two posterior segments of the
pereion and two anterior segments of the pleon produced dorsally into two
teeth. Antenne about as long as body. Peduncle of the superior pair
about one-fifth as long as the slender flagellum ; basal joint very short,
buried in front of the cephalon, second joint stout. Gnathopoda small.
First pair very long and slender; carpus and propodos subequal, linear ;
daetylos minute, transverse. Second pair short; propodos expanded above,
palm obliquely transverse, defined by a tooth. Three last pairs of pereio-
poda much longer than preceding; their cox: with comblike teeth on their
posterior margins. "Third segment of pleon with the sides produced pos-
teriorly, and ending abruptly in a serrated margin (almost smooth in young
specimens). Posterior pair of pleopoda reaching to the extremity of the
penultimate pair. Length about *8 inch.
Genus Calliope, Leach, MS. Brit. Mus.; Speuce Bate, Brit. Mus. Cat.
Amphip. Crust., p. 148. —
‘Superior antenna without a secondary appendage. Mandibles furnished
_ with an appendage. Gnathopoda having the propoda in the second or both
. Pairs largely developed, and the carpi inferiorly produced. Telson not
240 Transactions.—Zoology.
16. Calliope didactyla, nov. sp. Fig. C.3.
Cephalon without a rostrum; the whole back of the animal smooth.
Superior antenne two-thirds as long as inferior ; joints of the peduncle
subequal ; flagellum about 17-jointed, each articulation with an auditory
cilium and a few short hairs. Lower antenne with the peduncle extending
to middle of flagellum of upper; basal joint very short, next two subequal ;
flagellum about 15-jointed. First pair of gnathopoda small; carpus pro-
duced posteriorly into a large acute projection; propodos subquadrate,
bulged posteriorly, with an ill-defined palm, and bearing a double-clawed
dactylos. Second pair of gnathopoda large, carpus triangular, acute, its
inferior portion separated into a narrow, arcuate projection, ciliated on its
lower margin, and curving slightly round the base of the propodos; pro-
podos dilated, ovate, with an oblique and tolerably well-defined palm,
marked by a double row of long teeth, and its base by two stout spines ;
dactylos arcuate, with a double row of very short, sharp, equi-distant teeth.
First and second pairs of pereiopoda slender ; other pairs somewhat larger.
Penultimate pair of pleopoda reaching slightly beyond the ultimate ; rami of
all the pleopoda spinose. Telson foliaceous, truncate, slightly produced at
the apex. :
Female. Both pairs of ngathopoda small, subequal; carpus developed
posteriorly into an obtuse projection, which has a small fringe at its apex;
propodos with a transverse palm; dactylos single and slightly toothed.
Whole body of a rich brown colour, with greenish grey eyes. Length,
about °3 inch.
Among kelp washed upon the beach at Taieri mouth.
(When preserved in spirits the body becomes yellowish-white in colour,
and the eyes jet black.)
17. Calliope fluviatilis, nov. sp. Fig. C.4.
Cephalon without a rostrum. Body slender, compressed. Eyes large,
black, rounded. Upper antenne about one-fourth shorter than lower ;
peduncle—with apparently only two joints—not reaching to extremity of
penultimate joint of peduncle of lower. First pair of gnathopoda rather
smaller than second; carpus triangular, developed posteriorly into a rounded
lobe, ciliated at the extremity; propodos oval, palm transverse, dactylos
acute, nearly straight, half as long as propodos. Second pair of gnathopoda
apparently reversed ; carpus produced anteriorly (posteriorly) into a narrow
obtuse lobe. Last pair of pereiopoda much longer than preceding. Pleo-
poda long and slender; antepenultimate and penultimate pairs reaching to
extremity of the ultimate. Telson squamiform, rounded, entire. Colour
greyish, more or less marked with dark spots, and frequently covered with
circular, wart-like markings. Length '2 inch.
Common in fresh water round Dunedin,
G. M. Tuomson.—New Zealand Crustacea. 241
Paramoera tenuicornis, Miers, Cat. N. Z. Crust., p. 127. Fig. C.5.
This species, of which I have examined perfect specimens, must be
replaced in the genus proposed by its original describer Dana, viz., Melita.
It differs from Paramvera in having the superior antenne furnished with an
appendage, and from Moera—in which it is placed by Spence Bate in the
British Museum Catalogue—in having the posterior pair of pleopoda very
unequal, with the inner ramus quite rudimentary, and not subfoliaceous.
There are several points in connection with the specific description
which require amending. Thus the flagellum of the inferior antenne only is
terete, that of the upper pair having the joints wider at the apex than at
the base; the appendage to this pair consists of 4 joints, and springs from
the apex of the last joint of the peduncle. The fifth segment of the pleon
is furnished on the dorsal posterior margin with a crest of spinose sete.
The antepénultimate and penultimate pairs of pleopoda only reach to the
extremity of the peduncle of the ultimate. The external ramus of the last
pair is very long, while the internal is a mere rudiment.
The specimens examined by me were taken in the Taieri River in fresh
water, but they had probably come up with the tide, which is felt 15 miles
from the mouth.
Genus Gammarus, Fabricius, Ent. Syst. iL, p. 514.; Spence Bate,
Brit. Mus. Cat. Amphip. Crust., p. 208.
(The generic characters are taken from the latter authority quoted).
Slender, laterally compressed. Cephalon not produced into a rostrum.
Pereion and pleon subequal in length. Three posterior segments of the
pleon having each two or more fasciculi of short stiff spines. Eyes
reniform, oval or linear. Antenns long, slender, filiform, having the
peduncle subequal with the peduncle of the inferior, and carrying a
secondary appendage. Mandibles having an appendage. Maxillipeds
having a squamiform plate, arising from the basos and ischium. Gnatho-
poda subequal, not largely developed. Pereiopoda subequal; cox of the
three posterior pairs much shorter than those of the anterior. Posterior
pair of pleopoda biramous. Telson double.
18. Gammarus barbimanus, nov. sp. Fig. D.1.
Segments of the body smooth. Eyes small, oblong, with dark coloured
blotches between and posterior to them. Superior antenne with the
peduncle longer than the flagellum ; basal joint with a spine on its inferior
margin; appendage 5-jointed, less than half as long as the flagellum, which
is about 10-jointed. Inferior antenne somewhat shorter than superior, but
stouter ; peduncle extending to the extremity of the peduncle of the upper
antenne ; flagellum stout, short, about 6-jointed. Maxillipeds with a dense
al
242 Transactions.—Zoology.
fringe of hairs on the lower surface. First pair of gnathopoda with carpus
and propodos subegual, straight, and densely clothed with long, feathery
hairs. Second pair with the carpus long, straight, and flat on the under
surface, which is fringed with a double row of similar plumose hairs;
propodos tapering and hairy ; dactylos minute. Fourth and fifth pairs of
pereiopoda longer and stouter than preceding pairs. Antepenultimate and
penultimate pairs of pleopoda reaching to extremity of ultimate ; all three
pairs fringed with short spines. Telson short, reaching to extremity of
peduncle of ultimate pleopoda, and furnished with a few short spines.
(No locality). Length :8 inch.
Sub-tribe. Hyperidea.
Fam. I. Hyperide, Spence Bate, Brit. Mus. Cat. Amphip. Crust. p. 287.
Superior antenne, with a peduncle of three joints, and a variable
flagellum. Inferior antenns, with a five-jointed (?) peduncle, and multi-
articulate flagellum. ^ Gnathopoda more or less complexly subchelate.
Four anterior pairs of pereiopoda subequal, normal. Three anterior pairs
of pleopoda normal; three posterior pairs, broad, flat, and biramous.
Integument thin and free from hairs.
Genus _Themisto, Guérin-Méneville, Mém. de la Soc. d’Hist. Nat.
de Paris, iv., 1828; Edwards, Hist. des Crust., iii, p. 84; Spence
Bate, Brit. Mus. Cat. Amphip. Crust. p. 811.
Cephalon transversely ovate. Pereion not largely distended. Pleon
slender. Eyes occupying the entire cephalon, dorsally separated. An-
tenne subequal, as long as the cephalon is deep; superior pair having the
flagellum not articulated ; inferior pair having the flagellum more or less
articulated. Mandible having an appendage. First pair of gnathopoda
short, tolerably robust; carpus not having the anterior margin inferiorly
produced ; second pair having the carpus on the inferior angle anteriorly
produced. First pair of pereiopoda having the carpus dilated; propodos
narrow, and capable of being inflected against the carpus ; second pair like
ihe first; third pair twice the length of the second; carpus very long;
propodos longer than the earpus, fringed along the anterior margin with &
comb-like series of teeth, and capable of impinging against the anterior
margin of the carpus ; fourth and fifth pairs subequal, of the same form as
the third, but not more than half the length. Three posterior pairs of
pleopoda subequal, the last being the longest; rami double, lanceolate.
Telson small, squamose.
The above description is taken from Spence Bate’s catalogue, and from
the examination of a great number of specimens I can vouch for its cor-
rectness as far as females are concerned, from which indeed all the descrip-
tions appear to have been taken. The males, however, differ in the
G, M. Tuousos.—New Zealand Crustacea, 248
superior antenn:; in a very striking manner, this being furnished in this
gex with a multi-articulate flagellum of about 18 joints.
19. Themisto antarctica, Dana, U.S. Explor. Exped., p. 1005, pl. 69, fig. 1;
Spence Bate, Brit. Mus. Cat. Amphip. Crust. p. 812.
Male, Eyes reddish. Superior antenna with the peduncle 8-jointed ;
second joint extremely short; third long, slightly arcuate, tapering to the
extremity, fringed on the lower margin with fine comb-like teeth and
numerous hairs; flagellum of twelve or thirteen articulations, which
lengthen towards the extremity, Inferior antenna half as long again as
the superior; peduncle 8-jointed; flagellum of seventeen slender articu-
lations, basal one long, those succeeding short, but lengthening to the
extremity. First pair of gnathopoda with a broad carpus, fringed poste-
riorly with numerous hairs; propodos about half as broad as carpus, taper-
ing to the extremity, furnished on the anterior margin with a row of stiff
cilia. Second pair of gnathopoda having the carpus infero-anteriorly
produced nearly to the extremity of the propodos, with the inferior margin
furnished with a few hairs; propodos slightly tapering, and furnished with
afew hairs on the superior margin; dactylos short and straight. First
pair of pereiopoda twice as long as the gnathopoda, having the meros short,
expanded below; carpus stout, with a few hairs on the infero-posterior
margin; propodos as long as carpus, slender, arcuate, inner margin double,
the most prominent, and fringed with closely-set, straight, minute cilia, the
outer with long straight hairs; dactylos subulate. Second pair of pereio-
poda resembling the first, but having the carpus slightly larger. Third pair
of pereiopoda nearly twice as long as first two; basos stout; meros short;
carpus long, and furnished on its anterior margin with equi-distant comb-
like teeth, and minute, close-set thick cilia between ; propodos long, slightly
curved and slender, similarly furnished on its anterior margin; dactylos
short, slender, sharp, and slightly curved. Fourth pair of pereiopoda
about half the length of the third, and resembling it in form: fifth pair
like the fourth, but not armed with fine teeth along the anterior margin of
the propodos. Ultimate pair of pleopoda having the peduncle more than
four times the length of the telson, and the rami half as long as the
peduncle, with the margins scarcely serrated; penultimate pair reaching a
little beyond the extremity of the peduncle of the ultimate; antepenulti-
mate reaching a little further than the extremity of the penultimate. Telson
lanceolate.
Female. Superior antenne with the basal joint of the peduncle nearly
covering the second; terminal joint (flagellum, according to Sp. Bate)
elongated, tapering to the point, which is curved like a hook, furnished on
its lower margin with a row of comb-like teeth. Other characters as above.
Length about 3 of an inch,
244 Transactions.—Zoology.
The young, taken from the incubatory pouch of the female, differ some-
what from the adult. The back is smooth and rounded, whereas in the
adult it is sharply keeled, and the segments of the pereion are produced
posteriorly into teeth. The pereion is very broad and expanded. Antenne
subequal; superior stout and conical, three-jointed, terminal joint with a
few short sete at the extremity and two longer ones projecting at right
angles from near the middle of the inferior margin ; inferior pair somewhat
more slender, and with very minute sete. Some of the appendages also
. are either wanting or are not fully developed, probably the first or second
pair of gnathopoda. Pleopoda normally developed.
These minute creatures approach in form and general appearance to
Hyperia cyanea much more than Themisto. Every adult female had several
of them in the ineubatory pouch under the pereion.
Frequently washed up on Ocean Beach, Dunedin.
Fam. ITI. Platyscelids.
Cephalon round. Eyes large. Antenne attached to the inferior surface.
Epistoma proboscidiform; oral appendages rudimentary. Gnathopoda
complexly subehelate. First two pairs of pereiopoda simple; two succeed-
ing pairs having the basa largely dilated; fifth pair imperfectly developed.
Posterior pleopoda foliaceous.
Genus Platyscelus, Spence Bate,
Brit. Mus. Cat. Amphip. Crust., p. 329.
Cephalon transversely ovate. Pereion distended ; first segment narrower
than the cephalon. Pleon much narrower than the pereion, having the
fourth and fifth segments coalescing, the fifth and sixth pairs of pleopoda
being attached to the posterior margin; sixth segment and telson fused
together, the posterior pair of pleopoda being attached to the under surface
near the middle of the segment. Superior antenne short, consisting of a
peduncle and a flagellum. Inferior antenne not longer than the cephalon,
consisting of four joints, concealed beneath the cephalon, not folded.
Mandibles without an appendage. Third pair of pereiopoda having the
basos largely dilated, and the remaining joints shorter than the basos ;
fourth pair having the basos twice as large as the third, the remaining
joints not half so long as the basos; fifth pair membranous, a small
tubercle representing the PORE joints. Three posterior pairs of
pleopoda biramous, foliaceous, Telson obtusely triangular.
20. Platyscelus intermedius, nov. sp. Fig. D.4.
Cephalon rounded in front, First two segments of pereion very narrow;
succeeding broader, subequal. Eyes very large, oceupying nearly the whole
~ eephalon, with a large triangular red pigment spot on the outside of each.
Epistoma triangular. Antenne placed quite underneath the epistome.
kaa KA TA WS aa a R ia L hee a aa tuii e i a a a
G. M. Taomson.—New Zealand Crustacea. 245
Superior pair consisting of a stout peduncle, bearing a crown of cilia and a
small tuberculate appendage, with a flagellum of two long slender articula-
tions. Inferior antenns four-jointed; first three joints subequal, with
numerous cilia ; fourth joint very short and furnished with a few long hairs
at its extremity. First pair of gnathopoda with the carpus antero-inferiorly
produced to an acute point almost to the extremity of the propodos, serrated
on both margins, with numerous slender spines surrounding it near the
base of the propodos; propodos narrow-oblong, serrated on both margins,
with a small dactylos which antagonises with the extremity of the carpus.
Second pair of gnathopoda similar to first, but rather larger, and with the
carpus produced slightly beyond the extremity of the propodos. First two
pairs of pereiopoda with the basos somewhat dilated; meros, carpus and
propodos diminishing uniformly in size and quite smooth; dactylos very
small, acute. Third pair with the margin of the basos quite smooth, and
the distal extremity sub-acute ; ischium articulating subapically within the
posterior margin ; remaining joints about half as long ns the basos; meros
and carpus quite smooth; propodos slender, slightly longer than the pre-
ceding joints, and serrated on the posterior margin only. Fourth pair of
pereiopoda with the basos posteriorly arcuate and anteriorly excavate,
rounded at the extremity; ischium articulating within the posterior margin
near the centre; remaining joints about one-third as long as basos ; meros
very small; carpus long; propodos half its length, both serrated on the
posterior margins; dactylos long, nearly straight, sub-acute. Fifth pair of
pereiopoda membranous; basos curved forward nearly to a right angle ;
remaining joints represented by a small tubercle. Three last pairs of
pleopoda foliaceous; ante-penultimate pair having a short pedunele, the
rami somewhat unequal, margins smooth; penultimate pair with a long
peduncle and rami subequal, outer ramus finely serrate on its outer margin ;
ultimate pair with the peduncle rather short and rami very unequal;
external ramus minute, lanceolate, with smooth margins; internal ramus
oblong, oblique, finely serrate on the distal half of both margins. Telson
iriangular, obtusely pointed.
Colour yellow, nearly transparent, with small red spots. Length :5
inch. Can roll itself almost into a ball.
Washed up on the Ocean Beach at Dunedin.
I have named this species as above, from the fact that it is almost inter-
mediate between the only two species hitherto described— P. rissoine, Bate,
and P, serratus, Bate.
Spence Bate remarks of this genus :—“ It appears to me to be not
improbable that Platyscelus may prove to be the female of Typhis(Thyropus), —
from which it differs, only in the form of the superior and length of the -
inferior antenne.”
246 Transactions.—Zoology,
Group ABERRANTIA.
Coxe of the pereiopoda not squamiformly developed, some, or all,
being fused to their respective segments. One or more segments of the
pleon absent.
Fam. Caprellide.
Pleon rudimentary. Oral appendages normally developed. Cox fused
with the pereion. Branchial sacs attached to the first two or three
segments of the pereion.
Genus I, Caprella, Lamarck, Syst. des. Anim. sans Vert., p. 165;
Edwards, Hist. Nat. Crust., iii., p. 105; Spence Bate, Brit. Mus.
Cat. Amphip. Crust., p. 353.
Body cylindrical. Cephalon and first segment of the pereion confluent.
Pleon rudimentary. Gnathopoda subchelate. First two pairs of pereiopoda
represented by the branchis attached to their respective segments only ;
three posterior pairs of pereiopoda subequal. First and second pairs of
pleopoda rudimentary in the male ; the rest obsolete.
21. Caprella caudata, nov. sp. Fig. D.5.
Female. Body rather robust. Cephalon smooth, not toothed nor
tuberculate, short; four succeeding segments of pereion subequal. Eyes
round. Superior antenne more than half as long as body; first joint of
peduncle with an acute spine on the antero-superior margin; second joint
longest; flagellum about 15-jointed (first few fused together), as long as
peduncle, and spinose at the articulations. Inferior antenne more than
half as long as the superior; two basal joints short and smooth; the rest
fringed on their lower margin with long hairs. Maxillipeds well developed,
unguiculate, ciliate on the lower margin, with the carpus distended. First
pair of gnathopoda small and fringed with hairs; carpus with a deep
transverse incision; propodos ovate, dactylos long and slender. Second
pair of gnathopoda large; propodos narrow-ovate, with the palm extend-
ing along the greater part of the lower margin, with a large tooth
surmounted by two spines to receive the point of the dactylos, and two
smaller teeth nearer the hinge corresponding to two indentations in the
dactylos; dactylos stout, curved. Branchie narrow-oblong. Ovigerous
pouches nearly circular, thickly ciliated on their inner margins. Three last
pairs of pereiopoda increasing in size posteriorly, similar in shape; in all
the propodos is narrow, excavate along its anterior margin to receive the
slender curved dactylos, point of impingement of which is marked by two
serrated spines. First pair of pleopoda rudimentary, represented by minute
tubercles. Pleon prolonged into a slender flat expansion.
Dunedin, in rock pools. Length -4 inch,
ee aa ae gps nis qi get
G. M. Tuomson.—New Zealand Crustacea. 247
Genus Caprellina, nov. gen.
Body cylindrical. Cephalon confluent with first segment of pereion.
Pleon rudimentary. Gnathopoda sub-chelate; branchiw attached to second
pair. First two pairs of pereiopoda represented by the branchism attached
to their respective segments; third pair feebly developed; two. posterior
pairs well developed, subequal. First and second pairs of pleopoda
rudimentary in the male, rest obsolete.
This genus appears to be intermediate between Cercops and Caprella.
From the former, it differs in not having the pleopoda developed, but agrees
with it in having branchig attached to the second gnathopoda. In respect
to this latter character it differs from its nearer ally Caprella, and also in
having the third pair of pereiopoda feebly developed.
The genus contains only the following species :—
22, Caprellina nova-zealandie, nov. sp. Fig. D.6.
Body slender. Second and third segments of pereion shorter than the
three following; last segment very short. Superior antenne nearly half as
long as animal; basal joint of peduncle stout, two succeeding joints long
and slender; flagellum setose, semi-articulate at the basal end, ending in
about ten articulations. Inferior antenn very short, reaching to middle of
penultimate joint of peduncle of superior. First pair of gnathopoda with
the propodos ovate, the palm extending along the inferior margin, fringed
with eilia, and with two spines at the base; dactylos sparingly ciliated on
inner margin. Second pair of gnathopoda much larger than first, and
having the basos very long. Propodos long, narrow ovate, palm extending
along half the inferior margin, hollowed out, and with two or three small
spines at the-denticulation which receives the point of the dactylos, and a
tooth near the hinge; dactylos slender, arcuate. Third pair of pereiopoda
very small, but with well-developed carpus, propodos and dactylos. Fourth
and fifth pairs of pereiopoda long; propoda well-developed, narrow-
ovate, with slightly excavated palms fringed with strong spines; dactylos
minutely ciliate on inner margin. Two pairs of pleopoda present, one-
jointed, filiform, fringed with minute, comb-like cilia. Colour pale red,
with dark spots and markings. Length :8 inch.
Dunedin, in rock pools.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE X.
Fig. A (all enlarged)—
1. Crangon australis: (a), head viewed from above, magn. 2; (b), leg of first pair,
. 6; (c), leg of second pair, magn. 3.
2. Leander fluviatilis, magn. 1}: (a), rostrum, magn. 4.
3. Oniscus punctatus, magn. 2: (a), caudal stylet, magn. 10.
4, Ligia quadrata, magn. 13: (a), tail and caudal stylets, magn. 4,
248 Transactions.—Zboology.
5. Amphoroidea falcifer, magn. 2.
6. Dynamena huttoni, magn. 2.
7. Nesea caniculata, magn. 13: (a), abdomen viewed from below, magn. 23.
Fig. B (all enlarged)—
1. Nicea nove-zealandie, magn. 2: (a), superior antenne, magn. 22; (b), inferior
nne, magn. 22; (c), first gnathopod, magn. 11; (d), second gnathopod
(female), magn. 11; (e), second gnathopod (male), magn. 11; (f), telson,
2. Nicea fimbriata, magn. 2: (a), superior antenne, magn. 22; (b), inferior antenna,
magn. 22; (c), first gnathopod, magn. 11; (d), second gnathopod, magn. 11;
(e), telson, magn. 11
3. Nicea rubra, magn. 2: (a), superior antenne, magn. 22; (b), inferior antenne,
magn. 22; (c), first ions ge magn. 11; (d), second gnathopod, magn. 11;
(e), telson, magn. 1
4, Dexamine pacifica, magn. 4: (a), segment of pleon viewed dorsally, magn. 11;
(b), first gnathopod, magn. 11; (c), second gnathopod, magn. 11; (d), telson,
agn. 22
Fig. C (all enlarged)—
1. Atylus danai, magn. 3: (a), portion of superior antenne, magn. d (b), first
gnathopod, magn. 22; (c), telson and posterior pleopoda, magn.
2. Sa nove-zealandie, magn. 3: jisi first bod: magn. ae ; a —Y
gnathopod, magn. 11; (c), telson, m
8. Calliope didactyla, magn. 24: (a), first d (female), magn. 11; (b), second
gnathopod (female), magn. 11; (c), first gnathopod (male), magn. 11; (d),
second gnathopod (male), magn. 11; (e), telson, magn. 11.
4. Calliope fluviatilis, magn. 4: (a), first gnathopod, ions 11; (b), second gnatho-
pod, magn. 11; (c), telson and pleopoda, magn. 1
5. Melita tenuicornis : posterior segments of pleon, magn. “i.
Fig. D (all enlarged)—
1. Gammarus barbimanus, magn. 3: (a), superior antenne, magn. 11; (b), inferior
antenne, magn. 11; (c), maxillipeds, magn. 11; (d), first gnathopod, magn. 11;
(e), second gnathopod, magn. 11; (f), telson and pleopoda, magn. 11.
2. Themisto antarctica: superior antenne, magn. 11, (a) male, (b) female.’
3. Young of Themisto antarctica, magn. 11: (a), superior antenne, magn. 37; (b),
inferior antennæ, magn. 37.
4. Platyscelus intermedius, magn. 2: (a), under-surface of epistome, with superior
antenne, magn. 73; (b), inferior antenns, magn. 74; (c), firs nip ers
magn. 74; (d), nens gnathopod, magn. 74; (e), first (and second) pereiopoda,
magn. 73; (f), third pereiopoda, magn. 13: (g), fourth pereiopoda, magn. 13;
(h), fifth pereiopoda, magn. 73 ; (i), telson and pleopoda, magn. 23.
5. Caprella caudata, magn. 4: (a), superior antenna, magn. 11; (b), inferior antenne,
. 11; (c), first gnathopod, magn. 11; (d), second gnathopod, magn. 11;
(e), posterior pereiopoda, magn. 11; (f), pleon, magn. 20
6. Caprellina nove-zealandie, magn. 1}: (a), first gnathopod, magn. 73; (b), second
gnathopod, magn. 73; (c), third pereiopod, magn. 73; (d), pleopoda (1, last
segment of pereion ; 2, basos of posterior pereiopoda; 3, pleon), magn. 15,
can Pa, e uu
y : | KA
WE
MAS
\
jo)
TRANS NZ INSTITUTE. VOLXLPLX.
CRUSTACEA
G. M. Tuomson.—On a Crustacean from Auckland Islands. 249
Arr. XIX.—Description of New Crustacean from the Auckland Islands.
By George M. Tuomson.
[Read before the Otago Institute, 10th September, 1878.)
Fam. Oniscide. Sub-fam. Scyphacine.
Genus Actecia, Dana, U.S. Explor. Exped., XIV. Crust., p. ii., p. 784.
Antenne very stout, not distinctly geniculate at the fifth joint; flagellum
indistinctly 5-6-jointed, exclusive of the minute apical joint. Terminal
joint of maxillipeds broad and serrately lobed. Feet of the seventh pair as
long as the others.
After his description of Scyphax ornatus, Dana describes and figures a
smaller specimen which was found at the same time and in the same
locality, and which he suspects may be the young of that species. Besides
many minor points of difference, however, it is quite distinct from the
generic character of Scyphax, in possessing the seventh pair of legs of
normal size. He remarks, that if this is a new species, it is also a distinct
genus, and suggests that it may be named Actecia euchroa as designated in
his earlier MSS. The species found by Mr. Jennings on the Auckland
Islands, being evidently an Actecia, I have drawn up the above generic
character. The genus therefore contains the following species :—
1. Actacia euchroa, Dana.
Body elliptic, abdomen not abruptly narrower than thorax. Head short,
transverse. Eyes rather large and prominent. Antenne short, curving
outwards, surface minutely spinulous. Last thoracic segment not shorter
than the preceding. Abdomen filling the concavity below the last thoracic
Segment, and forming a semicircle beyond it. Third, fourth and fifth
abdominal segments much produced backward on either side. Last seg-
ment smallest, not projecting between the stylets, which are placed close
together. Large branch of stylets very short and obtuse; smaller branch
quite slender and arising from a point far anterior to the base of the larger
branch.
Surface of thorax and abdomen with a few "T short scattered spinules.
Length 2 lines.
Bay of Islands—Parua Harbour (Dana).
2. Actecia aucklandia, nov. sp.
Body narrow-oblong, abdomen. narrowing ; gradually from the thorax.
Head triangular, widest in front; anterior margin nearly straight, rounded
at the corners; eyes situated above the angular projections. Segments of
thorax subequal, more or less acutely produced posteriorly. Two first seg-
ments of the abdomen partly covered by thorax; last segment (sixth) much
narrower than preceding, broadly triangular, and with obtuse apex. Caudal
stylets subequal, only about half as long as abdomen; inner ge placed
250 Transactions.—-Zoolo gy.
close together between the two external, completely exposed. Antenne
hirsute towards the extremity; basal joint short; fifth joint expanding
posteriorly; flagellum short and thick, all the joints together not so long as
preceding. Colour brown. Whole body more or less covered with minute
granules,
In the female each segment of the body is furnished with a row of stout,
obtuse spines, which are longest towards the side of the thorax. In the
male the whole body is nearly smooth. Length :8 to 1:2 inch.
Auckland Islands (Mr. Jennings).
Art. XX.— Description of a New Species of Isopodous Crustacean (Idotea).
By George M. Tuomson.
( Read before the Otago Institute, 2Gth November, 1878.)
Tar animals forming the genus /dotea are readily distinguished from other
Isopods by having the segments of the abdomen more or less coalescent,
and fewer than the normal number, seven, and particularly in having the
“terminal segment very large, its appendages greatly developed, covering
the whole inferior surface of the abdomen, and closing like doors over the
branchial appendages.”
Of the three species described in Miers’ Catalogue of N. Z. Crust.,
pp. 92, 93, the first, I. argentea, Dana, is a doubtful New Zealand species,
having been obtained by Dana near New Zealand. It is found on the
Australian Coasts, and also at Borneo, and is probably common in the West
Pacific. The second species I. affinis, M. Edw., is common on our coasts,
and seems to be the same as a species found on St. Paul's Island, and at the
Cape. The third, I. elongata, Miers, has only been found hitherto at the
Auckland Islands. The species which I now propose to add, is chiefly
remarkable for its habitat, being the only species, as far as I can find out,
occurring in fresh water. Numerous specimens were found by Prof, Hutton
in the Tomahawk lagoon, near Dunedin. They were creeping about under
stones, and appeared to be feeding on the ova of a fish, probably Galaxias,
sp., which was found abundantly in the same locality. Whether they occur
permanently in the fresh water, or only come up when a very high tide
renders communication with the lagoon possible, I cannot say. The species
is a distinct one, and has not hitherto been found on our coasts.
WAA or sg
G, M. Txuomson.—On the New Zealand Entomostraca, 251
Genus Idotea, Fabr.
Idotea, Miers’ Cat. N. Z. Crust., p. 91.
Idotea lacustris, nov. sp.
Body narrow-elliptical, little more than twice as long as broad. Front
of head excavate, not toothed. First segment of thorax somewhat longer
than those succeeding, which are subequal; epimeral pieces nearly square,
the last three slightly produced posteriorly.
Abdomen 3-jointed, terminal joint (formed of three coalescent segments)
hardly narrowing to the rounded extremity. Inner antenne not half as
long as base of the outer, 4-jointed, joints subequal. Outer antenna
one third as long as the body, flagellum 9—11-jointed, with a dense fringe
of very short sete on the outer margin. Colour dark gray, mottled with
brown, with a darker median band extending from the head to near the
extremity of the abdomen. Length :6 inch.
In numerous females, an ineubatory pouch extended along the whole
under surface of the thorax. The young animals, taken out of this sac,
have their bodies somewhat elongated in shape, with all the segments
developed, and appendages present, but having the outer antenne furnished
with a flagellum of only one joint and a few short sete.
Art. XXI.—On the New Zealand Entomostraea. By Gzoncz M. Taonson.
(Read before the Otago Institute, 26th November, 1878.) i
Plate XI.
Tue study of the lower orders of Crustaceans is, as a rule, confined to a few
specialists, hence it is only now and then that they form the subject of
communications to societies. In regard to this colony, the fact is that till
the publieation of Miers' Catalogue of the New Zealand Crustacea in the
British Museum, our knowledge of the whole class was fragmentary and
scattered throughout numerous works. Now, however, that all the infor-
mation on the subject has been thus collected and published in a condensed
form, it becomes more easy to fill up the existing gaps.
The Entomostraca are an interesting and but little studied division of
Crustaceans, and from their abundance are of considerable importance.
The species enumerated here have been collected chiefly within a few miles
of Dunedin, and the marine forms only between tide marks ; so that we are
as yet only on the threshold of the subject.
252 Transactions.—Zoology.
Examination of other portions of the Islands, and particularly the use
of the dredge at various depths of the ocean, will certainly reveal many
other forms.
For subsequent reference, I have here tabulated the characters of the
whole family.
Sub-class Entomostraca.
Legion I. Lophyropoda. Branchie attached to the organs of the mouth ;
legs few, not exceeding five pairs, serving for locomotion; articulations
mostly more or less cylindrical; antenns two pairs, one pair used as organs
of motion.
Order I. Ostracoda. Shell consisting of 2 valves, entirely enclosing the
body ; feet 1-3 pairs, adapted for progression ; no external ovary.
Sect. I. Podocopa. Inferior antenne simple, subpediform, geniculate,
clawed at the end.
Fam. 1. Cypridze. Superior antenne mostly seven-jointed, with a
dense brush of long setze; eye single; feet two pairs, the last bent up
between the valves ; abdominal rami two, elongate, clawed at the end.
Genus I, Cypris, Müller.
Upper antennz seven-jointed, with numerous long plumose sete.
Lower antenne five-jointed, furnished with a brush of sete, and termi-
nated by four long, serrated claws. Second pair of jaws possessing a
branchial plate, and a sub-conical obscurely-jointed palpus, ending in three
long sete. Post-abdominal rami long and slender, terminating in two
strong, curved claws. Animals free-swimming, mostly found in fresh or
slightly brackish water.
1. Cypris nove-zealandia, Baird.
Cypris nove-zealandiz, Baird. Dieffenbach’s N. Z., vol. ii, p. 268.
“Shell ovate, elongated, both extremities of the same size, somewhat
turgid and slightly sinuated in the centre of anterior margin, white, smooth
and shining, perfectly free from hairs.”
This may be the species described next, as the valves bleach after the
animal dies, and lose their hairs. The shape, however, is not quite the
same, and the whole description is too meagre to found any identification
upon.
The following three species belong to Brady’s Section a, and agree in the
following characters :—
* Sete of lower antenne plumose, subequal, reaching about as far as,
or only slightly beyond, the apex of the terminal claws. Second foot
terminating in a short, hooked claw, and one or more moderately long
sete,”
SE ID p Pee eee eae
G. M. Tuomsox.—On the New Zealand Entomostraca, 258
2. Cypris ciliata, nov. sp. Fig. A.1 a-g.
Valves oval-elliptical, slightly narrowing anteriorly, high in the middle,
very convex; greatest height less than two-thirds of the length. Margin
finely denticulated on the inside, thickly fringed with fine hairs. Surface
more or less hairy, minutely granular; when examined under a high power
it appears closely reticulated. Colour very variable, ranging from whitish
yellow to dark brown, more or less marked with brown, and sometimes with
irregular black dots, varying chiefly with the nature of the mud of the
pools in which the animals occur. Valves rather opaque, seldom semi-
transparent. Sete of second pair of legs about as long as terminal joint.
Post-abdominal rami long and slender; their claws long and pectinately
toothed ; the uppermost seta nearly as long as the claw next it, terminal
seta about half as long.
Length 4, inch; height 41. inch.
Very common in all stagnant fresh water near Dunedin. Wellington
(T. W. Kirk). Probably the most abundant form in New Zealand. I have
not found it in running streams. October to April or May.
9. Cypris viridis, nov. sp. Fig. A.2 a-g.
Valves broadly reniform, rounded at the extremities, slightly hollowed
on the lower margin, elevated in the centre of the upper margin; greatest
height about equal to three-fourths of the length. Viewed from above the
valves are very convex posteriorly, broadly ovate in form, and tapering to
the anterior extremity. Margins and surface clothed with hairs. Colour a
dirty green, varying in intensity; substance of the valves quite opaque.
Under a high power the surface appears to be minutely granular. Sets of
second pair of legs short. Post-abdominal rami very slender; the claws
unequal, and also very slender. Length j; inch; height 3 inch.
Not uncommon in pools about Dunedin and Taieri Plain.
To be found all the year round. I have taken it in blocks of ice, and
found it quite lively as soon as its covering was thawed.
4. Cypris littoralis, nov. sp. Fig A.8 a—b, and B.1 a-d.
Valves narrow oblong, compressed; lower margin nearly straight, upper
evenly aud slightly arched, highest in the middle; greatest height equal to
less than half the length. Surface and margins quite smooth. Colour
yellowish-grey, dotted with irregular black or brown spots. Valves semi-
transparent. Terminal sete of second pair of legs very long and glumose.
Post-abdominal rami long, slender and smooth; the two large terminal
claws bearing three stout teeth near their apex.
Length jjin.; breadth jin.
This minute and very distinet species was found in pools of brackish
water at Blueskin, north of Dunedin. The specimen figured was a male ; e T.
254 T'ransactions.—Zp oology.
owing to the transparency of the shell the mucus-gland (testis ?) could
easily be seen.
Fam. II. Cytheride. :
Superior antenne five- to seven-jointed, armed with sete or spines;
inferior antenne four- to five-jointed, without a brush of sete. Three pairs
of feet, all very much alike, adapted for walking. Post-abdomen rudimen-
tary, consisting of two very small lobes.
Genus I. Cythere, Müller.
Shell usually thick and strong, with a more or less rough and uneven
surface. Superior antenne five- to six-jointed, spiniferous ; inferior antenna
four-jointed. Mandibular palpus three- to four-jointed, and furnished with
a tuft of from two to five sete. Internal lobe of first maxille well developed.
1. Cythere atra, nov. sp. Figs. A.2 and C.1.
Valves subreniform, highest behind the middle, narrowing anteriorly,
rounded posteriorly; when viewed from above, narrow-oblong, evenly
convex, tapering to a subacute apex anteriorly, more obtuse posteriorly.
Examined under a high power, the shell is seen to be sparsely covered with
circular translucent spots, which appear black when the animal is within.
Margin fringed with very short close cilia. Colour nearly black, opaque,
except near the margins. Limbs yellowish. Superior antenne 6-jointed,
last joint small, three preceding subequal in length, sete short; second
joint fringed with minute hairs on lower margin. Inferior antenne stout,
with the last joint very short; terminal claws short and uneven ; urticating
seta bi-articulate, reaching to the extremity of the antenna. Limbs similar
in shape, lengthening posteriorly. Length jj inch; height 4, inch.
Among Alge in shallow water. Otago Harbour.
2. Cythere truncata, nov. sp. Fig. 0.2 a—c.
Valves sub-quadrilateral, highest in front, lower margin slightly hol-
lowed in the middle, anterior extremity very wide and rounded, middle of
upper margin falling slightly away ; posterior extremity with its upper half
hollowed out into a deep oblique notch. When viewed from above, the
valves are elongate-quadrilateral in outline, obtuse in front, sides nearly
straight, and about even in width to the posterior angle, where they sud-
denly fall away to the margin. Whole anterior margin fringed with broad,
curved, and flat teeth, the rest all smooth. Surface irregularly pitted and
grooved, marked with cireular dots. Greatest height barely equal to half
the length. The limbs of the animal are brownish-yellow in colour. Last
joint of upper antenrz only half as long as preceding; terminal sete stout.
Urtieating seta of lower antenna short, only reaching to middle of third
joint, uniarticulate. Mandibular palp bearing three curved and pectinately
*
Anania Ba ua aa ee ee ee
ee
NENNT Ce ee ee eee eS ee ee TA
G. M. Tuowsox.—On the New Zealand Entomostraea. 255
fringed setze. Terminal claws of the legs long and curved, those of last
pair pectinately toothed. Abdominal lobes terminating in two short,
unequal, fringed sete.
Length 4 inch ; height s inch.
In Alge along with preceding species. Otago Harbour.
Genus 2. Loxoconcha, G. O. Sars.
Valves sub-rhomboidal in shape, surface usually marked with fine con-
centric pittings and circular papille ; ventral margins forming a thin and
more or less prominent keel behind the middle; posterior dorsal margin
obliquely truncate. Limbs of the animal slender and colourless. Upper
antennz very slender, six-jointed, last joint very long, linear and bearing
long, simple sete; lower antennz four-jointed, third joint long and narrow ;
flagellum long and bi-artieulate. Mandibular palp three-jointed, bearing a
distinct branchial appendage. Lowest seta of the branchial plate of first
pair of jaws deflexed. Abdomen terminated by a hairy, conical process;
postabdominal lobes bearing two moderately long, subequal setae.
“The genus is well characterised by the oblique * peach-stone' outline
of the carapace, and by the very slender setose, but non-spinous limbs of
the animal."
1. Loxoconcha punctata, nov. sp. Fig. B.8 a-k.
Valves of the male sub-rhomboidal; greatest height less than two-
thirds the length ; extremities obliquely rounded, whole lower margin more
orless flattened and keeled, minutely ciliate. Viewed from above, evenly
convex, widest in the middle, and tapering to both ends. Surface marked
with dark spots and numerous translucent punctations. Colour greyish,
shining and somewhat translucent. Valves of the female rather longer,
more reniform in outline and usually much more opaque; keel not so
prominently flattened. Hinge processes well marked ; intervening portion
of margin crenulated. Eyes distinct and separate. Superior antenne very
sparingly setose: sete long. Third joint of inferior antenna with two
sete above the middle of the posterior margin, and pectinately toothed
towards the extremity. Urticating sets reaching to extremity of antenne;
glands large. Terminal claws of all the feet long and curved. Length 4,
inch; height 4, inch.
Among seaweed, along with the two preceding species of Cythere, in
Otago Harbour. ?
This appears to be a very variable species, particularly in the texture of
the shell. In some the valves are nearly translucent, while gradations can
be traced up to complete opacity.
Sect. II. Myodocopa.
Inferior antenne two-branched; one branch rudimentary, the other
powerful, many-jointed, with long natatory sets; pue palp very
256 Transactions.—Z oology.
large, sub-pediform, geniculate, not branchial. Post-abdomen with two
broad plates, clawed.
Fam. I. Cypridinide.
Superior antenne large, many-jointed, setiferous at the extremity.
Inferior antenne with the natatory branch nine-jointed, and furnished with
ciliated setze. Mandibles rudimentary; palp large, pediform, four-jointed.
Second pair of jaws with a large branchial plate. One pair of feet, vermi-
form, annulated and armed with prickly spines at the apex, oviferous. Two
compound eyes, and one large simple eye.
Nore.—In the Zoological Society Proc. for 1850, at p. 255, Mr. Baird
has described, from the dried and bleached valves, a species of Cypridina (?)
Not having seen his drawings, I am unable to say whether it is the same as
the species described by me, as Philomedes agilis. The following is Baird’s
description :—
** Cypridina zealanica, Baird.
Carapace valves of an oval form, somewhat flattened, but convex in the
centre and striated; the strie are numerous, close-set, and of a waved
appearance. Surface of valves covered with minute punctations, which
probably give origin in the fresh state to short hairs, though they are not
visible in the dried specimens. The anterior extremity is slightly narrower
than the posterior. The whole carapace is of a uniform white colour.
Natural size one-fourth of an inch long, and one-fifth of an inch broad.
Hab.—New Zealand. Two specimens were sent to the British Museum
by the Rey. R. Taylor of Waimate in New Zealand, along with a collection
of marine and freshwater shells, but without any history attached to them.”
At p. 102 of the same volume this species is described as C. zealandica.
Genus I. Philomedes, Lilljeborg.
Cypridina, Baird. Brit. Entom., p. 176.
Philomedes, Lilljeborg; G. O. Sars; Norman; Brady, Zool. Soc., Proc. 1871, p. 291.
Shell of moderate strength and density. Superior antenne six-jointed ;
in the female short and thick, and bearing several subequal terminal setze
of moderate length ; in the male more elongated, two of the terminal sete
of excessive length, the antepenultimate joint bearing a stout and densely
setose auditory filament. Natatory branch of lower antenne nine-jointed ;
in the female having the first joint very long, the rest short and subequal ;
in the male the first and third joints long, the second much shorter, the rest
> short and subequal; secondary branch in female indistinctly jointed, setose ;
in the male long, three-jointed, cheliform. Mandibular feet nearly alike in
both sexes; in the female armed with mandibuliform processes and spines,
in the male bearing on the basal joint a small tubercle with two short hairs;
second pair of jaws in the female armed with mandibuliform processes.
Eyes of the female small and pale-coloured; of the male large, deep-red,
G. M. Taoxsox.—On the New Zealand Entomostraca. 257
1. Philomedes agilis, nov. sp. Fig. 0.8 a-e, and D.1 a-
Male.—Valves, when viewed from the side, oblong; greatest height about
two-thirds of the length, obtusely rounded posteriorly, beak not greatly pro-
duced anteriorly ; superior and inferior margins evenly and slightly arched ;
oral notch wide, margins more or less setose. When viewed from above the
valves are narrow, sides nearly parallel, almost truncate posteriorly, tapering
to an obtuse point in front. Surface marked with numerous circular pits,
and several translucent spots in the centre of each valve. Behind each
prominent eye-spot, is a more or less deep transverse sinus or depression,
extending nearly across the whole valve. Colour of shell yellowish-brown.
Terminal setz of upper antenne nearly half as long as the antenne itself.
Natatory branch of inferior antenn:e (exclusive of sets) exceeding in length
the basal portion, second joint very short, bearing a straight plumose seta,
equal in length to the third joint, which again is longer than the next six
joints; terminal sete about as long as the branch itself. Secondary branch
with the basal joint short and stout, bearing short plumose sete; second
and third joints subequal, former with two sete in the middle of external
margin, latter curved, external margin denticulate and with a single seta on
its inner margin near the base. Last joint of mandibular foot slender,
twice as long as preceding, terminal claw subequal to it; all the joints
bearing several plumose sete. “Oviferous feet" terminating in a vermi-
form toothed extremity, bearing a pair of long spinose sete above and
three beneath; about five pairs of shorter spinose sete on the annulated
portion near the extremity. Post-abdominal laminæ terminated by three
large jointed and doubly-serrated claws,—the first very long, second only
half as long, and third about half as long as second,—and about five
smaller spines. Eyes large black.
Female.—Valves somewhat larger, and much more circular in outline,
with the beak small and very slightly produced; oral notch nearly rectangu-
lar; height about three-fourths of the length; easily distinguished externally
from the male by the small size of the eye-spot. Superior antennz with
the setze at the extremity of the antepenultimate joint beautifully plumose.
Natatory branch of the inferior antenna with the first joint very long; all
the rest short and subequal; no sete on the first three joints, those on the
fourth, fifth, and sixth joints about as long as the basal joint and bluntly
toothed ; the remainder (seven in number) very long and densely plumose ;
— branch rudimentary, with a few small sete. Eyes reddish.
Length 4', inch ; height . inch
Swimming actively in ro bols on the Taieri Beach.
' II. Copepoda
Shell jointed, fortüing a buckler dina the head and thorax ; legs |
five pairs, mostly adapted for doped ded external,
AB
258 Transactions.—Zoology.
Fam. I. Cyclopide.
Head consolidated with thorax; foot-jaws two pairs, generally small;
fifth pair of legs rudimentary ; eye single; both of the superior antenne in
the male furnished with a swollen hinge-joint.
Genus I. Cyclops, Müller. Fig. D.2 a-l.
Foot-jaws large and strong, branched; inferior antenne simple;
external ovaries two.
1. Cyclops nove-zealandie, nov. sp.
Female.—Cephalothorax greatly exceeding in length the three following
segments, produced downwards in front into an obtuse beak. All the body
segments rounded on their postero-lateral margins; segments of the
abdomen slightly produced posteriorly above and below, last segment with
the whole posterior margin finely serrated.. Superior antenne fourteen-
jointed ; last five articulations long and slender. Each joint furnished with
one or more setze, which are most abundant on the basal joints ; terminal
joint with one long and four shorter sete. Inferior antenne four-jointed ;
first joint bearing at its extremity a long plumose seta, which exceeds the
rest of the antenna in length; second nearly smooth ; third with the inferior
margin sinuously curvéd and bearing about eight sete ; last joint terminated
by seven unequal sete. Mouth organs as in C. quadricornis. Last pair of
legs two-jointed ; basal joint very short; second sub-triangular in shape
and bearing three sete, the longest of which is plumose. Caudal lamelle
about four times as long as broad, with a line of serrations down the outer
margins. Sete sparingly ciliated near the base, but becoming beautifully
plumose towards the middle and extremities; inner seta longer than the
abdomen, about eight times as long as the lamelle ; outer seta about five
times as long as lamellie ; a short-toothed seta on the outer margin at the
extremity; two more on the inner margin. Ovaries usually of a slate blue
eolour, broadly oval, only about half as long as the abdomen, and diverging
somewhat widely from it.
Male.—Smaller than the female and more active, similar in shape, but
readily distinguished by the shape of the superior antenne. These have
the joints much more crowded together, and very flexible. Antepenultimate
joint not setiferous; ultimate joint having about eight setæ on one side, the
last (and longest) being somewhat removed from the smooth extremity.
These last two joints have an extremely flexible hinge, and ean be bent
completely back so as to lie against the io joints. Fifth pair of legs
as in the female.
AH
brown oil globos: sometimes so encrusted with Foe and confervoid
DNE SESS EE Slat ride M LIE
G. M. Taomson.—On the New Zealand Entomostraca. 259
growths as to be bright green. Eye usually red, sometimes brown or nearly
black. Length, exclusive of caudal sete, about zy inch. Occurs all the year
round.
This is a very common species, occurring in every little pool, and even
in brackish water affected by the tide. It is extremely lively in its move-
ments, and avoids danger with much more alacrity than the majority of the
Entomostraca, darting away on the approach of a dipping-tube or other
large object.
From the figure in Dana’s Atlas of Crustacea (U.S. Explor. Exped.),
this species appears to be very near C, vitiensis, Dana. I have not seen
any description however.
Genus II, Arpacticus, Baird.
Foot-jaws forming strong cheliform hands; inferior antenne simple.
Ovary single, :
' L, Arpacticus bairdii, nov. sp. Fig. D.8, and Fig. E.1.
Body indistinctly ten-jointed. Cephalothorax produced downwards into
a beak. Eye usually crimson. Superior antenns stout, composed of ten
articulations, the last seven subequal in length, but greatly narrowing,
earing numerous sets, which are particularly abundant on the third,
fourth, fifth, and sixth joints ; one very long and stout seta from the fourth
joint ; last joint terminated by about five sete of different lengths. Lower
antennæ two-jointed; basal joint with a two-jointed, setiferous appendage ;
ultimate joint with about nine long sets. Mandibles strong. Posterior
foot-jaws three-jointed ; second joint ovate, with a broad, flat margin
furnished with two rows of small teeth; third joint in form of a strong
hook. First pair of feet with both branches three-jointed, external branch
having the first joint short, bearing one strong seta, second much longer,
with seta on each side, last joint very short and terminated by about five
somewhat curved sete, the largest of them being somewhat serrated on its
inner margin ; internal branch with first joint very long, second short, and
third in the form of along, slender hook. Second, third, and fourth pairs of
legs somewhat similar in shape, with the external branch in each longer
than the internal, and all furnished with numerous set, the longer of which
are beautifully plumose. Fifth pair with both branches formed of a single,
nearly circular joint, bearing five sets at the extremity. All the legs more
or less serrated on the margins. Abdomen cylindrical, tapering posteriorly ;
posterior margins of segments minutely serrate. Bilobed extremity bearing
on each side one seta, which exeeeds the abdomen in length, one about a
third as long, and four short ones. Ovisae large, usually exceeding the
abdomen in diameter, and reaching to about the penultimate segment,
Length 4; of an inch.
Occurs abundantly among shore-algz in Otago Harbour.
260 Transactions.—Zoology,
Legion 11. Branchiopoda.
Branchie attached to the legs; legs from four to sixty pairs.
Order I, Phyllopoda.
Legs from eleven to sixty pairs in number; joints foliaceous and
branchiiform, chiefly adapted for respiration and not motion; eyes two or
three, sometimes pedunculated; antenn: one or two pairs, neither adapted
for swimming,
Fam, I. Apodide.
Feet sixty pairs. Antenne—only one pair—short, styliform. Eyes two,
sessile. Body multi-articulate, the greater part covered by a shield-like
carapace.
Genus I. Lepidurus, Leach.
Last segment of the body produced into a lamina, which projects to
some distance between the caudal filaments. First pair of legs short,
1. Lepidurus kirkii, nov. sp. Fig. E.4.
Carapace very broadly oval, covering nearly the whole abdomen, very
membranous. Keel visible along the whole back, becoming more prominent
at its posterior extremity. Posterior notch with from eleven to thirteen
acute teeth, inter-dental portions smooth. Edges of the carapace very
slightly serrated towards its posterior angles. Appendages of the first pair
of feet more developed than is usual in the species of this genus, external
branch being about one-fourth as long as the carapace. Segments of the
abdomen studded with a row of numerous, stout, curved spines. Caudal
lamella oval, evenly rounded at the extremity, margins finely and acutely
serrate; dorsal row of spines extending about two-thirds of its length.
Caudal setz more than half as long as the body, densely hirsute. Colour
pale olive green. Length, including caudal lamella, 1:25 inch; breadth of
carapace (about) :75 inch.
Wellington, T. W. Kirk, junr.
2. Lepidurus compressus, nov. sp. Fig. E.5.
Carapace oval, not spreading, but somewhat arched, hardly covering the
abdomen, keeled only at the extremity. Posterior noteh very deep, with
about twelve very small teeth, and minute serrations between. Lower
margin of carapace smooth. Appendages of first pair of feet short, hardly
extending beyond edge of carapace. Segments of abdomen with a row of
small, straight spines. Caudal lamella as in the previous species, but with
the keel extending to its extremity, and sparingly toothed. Caudal setze
densely hirsute, not half as long as the iir Colour dark olive green.
Length ‘8 inch; breadth only about :3 ine
Collected by Prof. Hutton in pools at Waikouaiti, and at Queenstown
(Lake Wakatipu.)
ka meza di
7r aca ua AA ie eran menie Den
G. M. Txromson.—On the New Zealand Entomostraca. 261
It is with considerable hesitation that I advance the above as distinct
species. As Sir John Lubbock states (Linn. Soc. Trans. Vol. XXIV., p. 206),
the relative length of the carapace and the form of the caudal lamella vary
so much in different individuals, even when taken from the same pool, that
they do not constitute good characters on which to found new species.
Though the specimens examined by me were sufficiently distinct to be
readily recognised and separated into two lots without any close investiga-
tion, yet Iam inclined to think that both constitute only varieties of a
wide-spread species. In fact, I should be inclined to include under one
species, L, productus, Bose., from Europe, L. viridis, Baird, from Tasmania,
L. angasii, Baird, from South Australia, and perhaps even L. glacialis,
Kroyer, from North America.
Order II. Cladocera.
Legs four to six pairs, chiefly branchial; eye single and very large ;
antenna two pairs, inferior large, branched, and adapted for swimming.
Fam. I. Daphniade.
Superior antenna small; inferior large, two-branched; legs five (or six)
pairs, all enclosed within the carapace.
Genus I. Daphnia, Müller.
Head produced downwards into a more or less prominent beak. Superior
antenne exceedingly small, one-jointed, and situated under the beak;
inferior large and powerful.
1. Daphnia obtusata, nov. sp. Fig. E.2 a-e.
Carapace (viewed laterally) oval, broadest below the middle, obtusely
pointed below, infero-anterior margin oblique; anterior margin rounded,
finely ciliated. When viewed dorsally, the valves are narrow-obovate in
shape, tapering downwards. Head small, produced into a very obtuse
eak. Inferior antenn® comparatively small as compared with European
species, not more than one-fourth the length of the carapace. Superior
antenne very minute, thick and slightly curved, with a few very delicate
cilia at the extremity. Eye moderately large. Abdominal segment bearing
two slender filaments. Caudal claws long, slender and curved, serrated
below. Lower edge of abdomen with numerous curved tee
The whole carapace is semi-transparent and closely striated.
Length > inch. Occurs in great abundance in still water in neigh-
bourhood of Dunedin from October to May.
The young are very abundantly produced, over thirty sometimes occur-
ring within the valves of the parent. Before leaving this shelter they are
remarkably well-developed and able to swim about freely. At this early
stage the carapace is subquadrate in shape, and both pairs of antenne are
relatively large, the inferior being nearly as long as the animal.
262 ; Transactions.—Zoology.
This species is very distinct in general shape from any European form,
which are all more or less acutely produced inferiorly, and it also has the
antenne very much shorter than is usual in the genus,
Fam. IT. Lynceide.
Superior antennz very short; inferior of moderate size, branched, each
branch three-jointed ; legs five pairs; eye single, with a black spot in front;
intestine convoluted, having one complete turn and a half,
Genus I. Chydorus, Leach.
Nearly spherical in shape; beak very long and sharp, curved downwards;
inferior antenns very short.
1. Chydorus minutus, nov. sp. Fig. E.3 a.
. Carapace broadly oblong in young specimens, becoming more spherical
in adults, dorsally rounded ; antero-inferior margin oblique, fringed with
rather long cilia. Beak long, very acute. Eye rather small; eye-spot not
half as large. Superior antenne very small, blunt, with a few very delicate
sete. Inferior antenne short; lower branch with two sete from extremity
of last joint; upper branch with one seta from the penultimate joint, and
three from the last jomt. Abdomen strongly serrated on the inferior
margin, with the terminal claws short and curved. The postero-dorsal
border of the abdomen furnished with two filaments. Length about zty of
an inch.
Very common in ditches, ponds &c., near Dunedin, from October to May.
In the larger specimen figured, a solitary young one was inside the
carapace of the parent. This was well-developed, having the eye and eye-
spot prominent, and apparently all the limbs perfect.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Baird’s British Entomostraca. Micrographic Dictionary. G. S. Brady
on Ostracoda, Zool. Soc. Proe., 1871; Zool. Soc. Trans., Vol. V., p. 859;
and Linn. Soc. Trans. XXVI.. Dr. Baird (Apodidæ), Zool. Soc. Proc.,
1850-52 and 1866. Sir John Lubbock, Linn. Soc. Trans., Vol. XXIL.,
1860.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE ZI.
(The small numbers represent the linear magnifying power." )
Fie. A.1. Cypris ciliata: (a) superior antenne; (b) inferior antenne; (c) portion of
mandible; (d) first pair of feet; (e) second pair of feet; (f) bot abdominal
ramus; (9) portion of valve.
2. Cypris viridis: (a) superior antenne: (b) inferior antenne; (c) portion of
mandible; (d) first pair of feet; (e) second pair of feet; (f) post-abdominal
us; (g) portion of valve.
3. oki littoralis : (a) mucus-gland (of Brady); (b) post-abdominal ramus.
ve '. * These numbers should be reduced by one-half, as the original plates have been reduced to
that extent.—Ep,
VOVYLSOWOLNS
KA bed oe
E sb yea
X DC TOA 3ERLUSNLZN SNYL
*
PowELL.—On Desis robsoni. 263
Fig. B.1. Cypris littoralis: (a) superior antennz; (b) inferior antennæ; (c and d) first
and second pair of legs
"al
Cythere atra: (a) portion of valve ; (b and c) legs of first and second pairs.
e
. Loxoconcha punctata: (a) superior antennæ ; (b) inferior antenne; (c) man-
dible; (d) maxille; (e) third pair of legs; (f) outer margin of valve; (g)
hinge-line ; (h) abdominal lobe; (k) post-abdominal ramus
Fig. C.1. Cythere atra : (a) superior antenne ; (b) inferior antenns.
be
Cythere truncata: (a) superior antenne ; (b) inferior antennz ; (c) mandible.
oo
. Philomedes agilis: (a) central portion of valves showing lucid spots; (b) por-
tion of seta on natatory branch of lower antenn:s, female; (c) second
joint of lower antenne, male; (d) same, female; (e) extremity of oviferous
foot
Fig. D.1. Philomedes agilis: (a) superior antennæ, male; (b) same, female; (c) natatory
branch of inferior PENA male; (d) same, female; (e) mandibular foot ;
(f) post-abdominal laminæ ; (g) second maxillæ ;
- Cyclops nove-zealandie, iet : (a, b) superior and inferior antenne; (d) second
foot-jaws, outer branch; (e) inner branch; (f) leg of third pair; (g) leg of
fifth pair; (A) caudal lamelle and set»; (k) second segment of abdomen
with triple spines; (J) superior antenne of male.
bo
o
. Arpacticus bairdii, female: (a) foot-jaws; (b) first pair of legs.
Fig. E.1. Arpacticus bairdii, female: (a) inferior antenna; (b) superior antenne; (c)
cephalothorax from above; (d) third pair of legs; (e) fifth pair of legs; (f)
abdominal segments and caudal sets.
Daphnia obtusata: (a) head, seen from a ; (b) superior antenne; (c)
mandibles; (d) extremity of abdomen; Ui NENE taken from carapace of
‘as
arent.
3. Chydorus minutus: (a) inferior antennæ ; (b) superior antenne ; (c) extremity
of abdomen
. Lepidurus kirkii: (a) foot of the first pair.
5. Lepidurus compressus : (a) foot of the first pair.
d»
Art. XXII.—On Desis robsoni, a Marine Spider, from Cape Campbell.
By Luewettyn Powell, M.D.
[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, Tth November, 1878.]
Plate XII.
Ix the tenth volume of the Transactions, p. 299, is a short description of
& spider, discovered inhabiting old Lithodomus holes, beneath the surface
of tidal pools, by Mr. C. H. Robson, at Cape Campbell. Dr. Hector in a note
states that this spider is allied to the genus 47gyroneta, and proposes for it
the name Argyroneta marina,
264 Transactions.— Zoology.
It scarcely needs more than a glance, however, at the lip and maxille to
decide that this interesting spider does not belong to Argyroneta, but,
indeed, that in the form of these appendages it differs very strikingly from
that genus. Dr. L. Koch deseribes two closely allied species (Arachniden
Australiens, p. 345-351, plate xxix., figs. 1 and 2) referring them to the
genus Desis, founded by Walekenaer on a single species, Desis dysderoides
from New Guinea.
The following are the characters of the genus Desis, as given by
Walckenaer.*
“Eyes eight, in two lines, the anterior very close to the anterior margin
of the cephalothorax, curved backwards, and forming an open crescent; the
eyes forming the intermediate square, larger than the lateral eyes, which
are situated on a-slightly raised tubercle.
** Lip elongated, with parallel sides, deeply notched at its extremity.
* Maxille straight, diverging, dilated at their base, pointed at their
extremity.
** Legs strong, suited for running; the anterior longer than the posterior ;
the first pair the longest, the second next, the third pair the shortest.”
The above characters are supplemented in the description of the species
Desis dysderoides, which I subjoin.
«Abdomen oval, convex above and below, of a uniform pale grey. Cepha-
lothorax, mandibles, sternum, legs and palpi coral red. Mandibles long
and strong, directed forwards.
“New Guinea. Quoy and Gaimard.
** Aspect of Dysdera erythrina. Cephalothorax as long and as large as the
abdomen, sides almost parallel, scarcely at all narrowed anteriorly, flattened.
Sternum without spots, without eminences, and clothed at the insertion of
the legs with yellow hair. The mandibles are very strong, directed forwards
as in Dysdera, as long as the cepthalothorax, eylindroid, with the claws of
a red brown, elongated, half opened and not completely folded back in the
groove, which last is toothed. The teeth are prominent and number eight
or nine as in Dysdera erythrina. The legs have the tarsus provided with
three claws, of which one is very short and almost hidden in the hairs." +
The agreement of our spider with the above characters is so close that
there can be no doubt as to the propriety of placing it in this genus.
= Desis robsoni, nov. sp.
Male.—Cephalothorax moderately dark mahogany brown, darkening
towards the facial border, paling towards the sides and posterior border of
the thorax, Map clothed with short hairs. Angle of the caput bor-
dered with
——
* Histoire des Aptéres, Vol. I, p. 610, plate iv., figs. 15 a and b.
+ Histoire des Aptéres, Vol. I., p. 611,
AA Ua LESSONS MEESCIBVEE E AE EE E EEEN N EE E I EE A SS LEA A AAR A RE O BDE OEE EAEE E
|
|
|
|
Powzrr.—Oa Desis robsoni. 265
Falees a rich red brown, glabrous above, hairy beneath, inner and
upper border fringed with long coarse dark hairs. Fangs very dark red
brown, nearly black proximally.
Sternum yellowish brown, with a dark edge, clothed with yellowish
white hairs.
Lip and maxille reddish brown, both with a pale border anteriorly,
clothed with yellowish white hairs, inner border of maxille fringed with
long coarse dark hairs.
Abdomen greenish grey, in some specimens yellowish grey, paler beneath,
thickly elothed with yellowish white and dark hairs intermixed.
Coxal joints of legs yellowish brown. Legs otherwise same colour as
abdomen but yellower, anterior pair inclining to brown, in some specimens
much browner than in others.
Palpi yellowish brown.
Cephalothorax nearly one and two-thirds longer than broad, sides nearly
parallel, scarcely contracted anteriorly, and cut off nearly square, sides of
thorax only slightly rounded; longitudinally a very flat uniform convexity
above, becoming somewhat more abrupt anteriorly, transversely only
moderately convex. Normal grooves of thorax feebly indicated by darkish
lines. A short deep median groove to thorax.
Mandibles equalling the cephalothorax in length, directed nearly straight
forwards, cylindroid and robust, immediately beyond their origin on upper
and outer side is a small prominent ovoid boss.
Upper border of groove for fang, armed with six teeth, the first small
and rather remote from extremity, the second the largest of all, the other
four smaller and regularly diminishing. Lower border armed with two
teeth, the first close to the insertion of the fang, moderately large, the
second quite small and on a level with the first of the upper border.
Fang long, rather straight. Eyes of very uniform size, the posterior middle
pair being the smallest; disposed in two rows, the anterior straight or
curved very slightly indeed, the opening of the curve being forward. The
posterior. row nearly straight, but in consequence of the small size of the
middle pair a line touching their posterior margins would be slightly concave
backwards.
Anterior middles less than own breadth from border of face, lateral
middles almost on border. Anterior middles separated from one another
by own diameter, and from laterals by more than twice own diameter.
Posterior middles more than own distance from anterior middles and nearly
four times own diameter apart, the same distance from posterior laterals. -
Lateral eyes barely their own diameter apart. Anterior middles situa
on a slight common eminence, they look directly forwards; anterior laterals
a4
266 Transactions.—Zoology.
situated on a very slight eminence common to them with the posterior
laterals, they look forward and slightly outwards. Posterior middles look
upwards, posterior laterals upwards and outwards.
Sternum a long heart-shape, flat, with concave emarginations opposite
the coxe.
Lip twice as long as broad, tongue-shaped, sides nearly parallel, but
narrowing somewhat anteriorly, towards its origin it is pinched in and then
widens to its insertion. Its anterior border is notched.
Maxille cut obliquely away from the lip and running to a sharp point
anteriorly, outer border rounded, pinched in anteriorly to the insertion of
the palpi, flattish, but becoming more convex towards their insertion.
Abdomen ovoid. Spinnerets short, diverging, the upper and lower pair
rather longer than the middle pair. Legs long, slender, clothed with
yellowish white hairs intermingled with bristles at distal end of third and
fourth tibial joints.
Tarsi have three claws, the two principal claws deeply combed, the
posterior claw small, inconspicuous, not combed, and abruptly bent just
beyond its origin.
Male palpi long, slender. The radial joint has on its outer side a
bifurcate process, the lower segment thin, broad, and flattened, yellowish,
with the upper border thickened, and dark brown, the upper segment thick,
very much narrower than the lower segment, from which it is slightly
turned away, blunt at its point, dark brown. The digital joint ovoid, pro-
longed, and tapering distally, and provided at its extremity with short, stout
spines; the palpal organ has a coiled cirrhus about three-fourths the cir-
cumference of the organ in length. The palpi are clothed with abundant
long hairs.
MEASUREMENTS,
Totallength .. Rs F 0-015
ephalothorax .. M .. 0:0042
Falces .. NA oe .. 09-0042
Abdomen X Vs xs UU
Leg of 1st pair ap .. 00145
: us : ^ i o verified exact in a second eponimen,
4th. ,, is ss 0-0105
Male palpus | .. 0:0075
Female.— Colouring as ERA Cephalothorax more convex above.
Falces slightly shorter but more massive. Fang thicker and stronger.
Epigyne pale-yellowish. A small concavity with a denticle on either side
pointing inwards, posteriorly a short blunt process directed backwards.
Desis robsoni is excedingly like Desis martensii (Koch, Arachn. Austral.),
which it also resembles in its marine habits. This is so interesting that I
~ make no apology for quoting Dr. Koch's remarks in full ;—
NEN ees SMR ae ee chen AA
Powzrr.—0On Desis robsoni, 267
“I received from Dr, E. v. Martens, of Berlin, a third species of this
interesting genus (Desis martensii). It was collected by him on coral reefs
at Singapore, and kindly given to me for examination. This species is
remarkable in that it has established itself in these reefs which are only
temporarily uncovered by the sea; Herr v. n has "e gen speci-
mens of the spider in this locality. * *
* * That the species discovered by Dr. E. v. Martens and Dr. Johswick,*
can really, like our indigenous Argyroneta aquatica, Ol., live under water,
is to me doubtful in the highest degree, for it is wanting in the outward
visible signs of the breathing apparatus which corresponds to such sub-
marine mode of life, and which has been anatomically demonstrated in
Argyroneta aquatica]. It also speaks against it that yet another species of
spider, an Atta, was found on the same coral reefs, and we may assume
with all certainty that this is a true terrestrial form. I opine that these
spiders, perhaps, in former times, were floated in an accidental manner
from the land to these reefs, and now live in the holes of the coral bank,
within which they withdraw at the time of flood, and which they close
against the entrance of the water with a thick web. * * When once
both sexes had been transferred to the coral reefs, Desis martensii would
increase and form a colony there.”
I take the liberty of quoting a further valuable communication from
Dr. E. v. Martens on the discovery of this interesting spider, as follows :—
“During my residence at Singapore, in October, 1861, I repeatedly
visited a coral bank in the neighbourhood of New Harbour, of which large
tracts were exposed above water during the ebb, at the times of new and full
moon. My attention was chiefly directed to Crustacea and Mollusca; I tore
off pieces of coral and broke them up to get at the ereatures hidden within.
To my astonishment I several times observed spiders hurriedly escaping,
the idea occurred to me at first that we ourselves had brought them from
the shore in our clothing. I generally went with the late staff-surgeon, Dr.
Johswiek, in a little skiff pulled by a Chinese from the frigate * Thetis '
which lay in the roadstead, or from the town, distant about half-a-league
from the coral reef. This suspicion was rendered unlikely by the frequent
repetition of the event, and conclusively disproved, as Dr. Johswick found a
web of undoubtedly one of these spiders in an old dead mussel shell, between
the coral, stretched sheet-like in the cavity of the shell.” {
* Sitzungsbericht der Gesellschaft Naturforschender Freunde zu Berlin vom Mai 24,
35.
1864
t ruie “ Einige Resultate aus Untersuchungen über die Anatomie der Spinnen,"
in Müller's “ Archiv. für Anat. und Physiologie," 1842, p. 300 ; und Menge “ Ueber die
Lebensweise der Arachniden,” *' Neueste Sc Boite der xni aeta Gesellschaft,”
in Danzig, IV. Band Hit. i, p. 23.
1 Koch, Asi Aui: pp. 349, 350, - |
~ extremity of radial joint.
268 Transactions. —Z oology.
The discovery of Desis robsoni, and its highly aquatic and marine habits,
clear up Dr. Koch’s doubts as to the voluntarily aquatic habitat of Desis
martensit,
In reply to some enquiries of mine, Mr. Robson gives the following
additional information as to the mode of life of this interesting spider :—
** The nests of this spider do not, in my opinion, occur below low water;
but it is difficult to state positively. The mouth of the Lithodomus hole in
which the nest is made is often, if not always, under low water in a tidal
pool, and the nest is only to be got at by breaking up the rock with a heavy
hammer. The spider, when going to the bottom of a pool, on being dis-
turbed, does not take down an air-bubble so far as I could see, and is able
tolive a considerable time without air or only the small amount to be found
in sea-water. I have kept them alive for several days in a bottle quite full.
The cocoons of eggs are found at the end of the hole and always quite dry.
Ihave not seen these spiders at any place but Cape Campbell, and there
not far above low-water mark, there being many feet of water over the
rocks in which they live at high tide."
Further observations on the habits of this spider are desirable. An
examination of their nests might disclose the nature of their food. Also, if
Mr. Robson is correct in stating that the mouths of the holes in which they
live are always below low water, how are they supplied with air? A careful
comparison of Desis robsoni with Koch's description and figures of Desis
martensii, shows that these two spiders differ very slightly. The posterior
pair of legs are much shorter relatively in Desis robsoni. The posterior row
of eyes in Desis martensti are concave anteriorly, in D. robsoni very slightly
concave posteriorly. The process on the radial joint of the male palpus
differs in form in the two species, and there are only six teeth to the upper
border of the fang groove in Desis robsoni, there being seven in Desis
martensii. Walckenaer’s diagnosis of the genus founded on a single species
needs revision now that three more species have been discovered. The
arrangement and relative proportionate size of the eyes and the length of
the legs vary from the characters as laid down by him in the Histoire des
Aptéres.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XII.
Desis robsoni.
1. Male, showing form and relative proportions of cephalothorax and falces.
2. Lateral view to show elevation of cephalathorax, female.
8. Anterior view of caput showing arrangement of eyes.
4. Sternum, lip, maxillz, and falx, female.
5. Epigyue, female.
6. Radial and digital joints of palpus, male, as from beneath, b from outer side, ¢
—————
INOSEGOY SISTO
TX TEDCTONFINUSNIZN-SNYHL
PowELL.—On Anatomy of Regalecus pacificus. 269
Art, XXIII, — Notes on the Anatomy of Regalecus pacificus, von Haast.
By LunEgwELLyN Powerr, M.D., F.L.S.
[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 21st February, 1878.]
Dr. Haast, in the description of Regalecus pacificus,* speaks of the silvery,
or rather, to my eye, steely coating which contributes so greatiy to the
beauty of this splendid fish. It is impossible to reproduce it either in a
drawing or to perpetuate it by any mode of preservation, as it is detached
by the slightest touch, leaving a slimy, silvery patch on the finger. This
coating has been described as consisting of minute scales by one observer,
and by another as scales resembling those on a butterfly’s wing. Such is
not, however, the case. It is evidently a secretion similar to the slimy
mucus which many other fishes secrete so copiously. The microscope
resolves the steely layer into myriads of exceedingly minute crystalline
needles, or elongated tabular prisms with oblique ends. The largest have
a length of 41, inch by 4454 inch in breadth. These crystals show a
beautiful metallic lustre, are not perishable, do not polarize light, are
immediately dissolved in liq. potass., but are insoluble in strong acetic
acid. I cannot ascertain the nature of the silvery coating found in the
swim-bladder of certain fishes, such as Atherina, which was formerly used
in the manufacture of artificial pearls, It is not improbably of a similar
nature.
The scales of the lateral line are peculiarly formed, being very long in
proportion to their breadth. Their length slightly exceeds } inch, while
their breadth does not exceed j inch; one extremity is slightly expanded
or spoon-shaped, the other duran uude abruptly to a point which
articulates firmly with the dilated extremity of the following scale. These
seales appear to me to be tubular, but I cannot be ceriain of this as they
shrivelled in drying.
I noted a few points in the internal anatomy. I regret that as daylight
was closing, and it was necessary from the extremely soft and watery nature
of the integument and the flesh to use despatch in order to save the skin in
good condition, I was unable to make a more thorough examination of this
interesting fish.
The gulle& terminated at 2ft. Tin. from the snout in a remarkably
elongated muscular stomach, prolonged backward as a kind of cecum to a
length of 4ft. and about 2in., extending 2ft. 7in. beyond the vent in a
diverticulum from the peritoneal cavity, and becoming narrower and more
and more attenuated until it becomes so exceedingly thin and delicate that,
with the utmost care in dissection, the extremity was torn and imperfect.
The pylorus was seated immediately by the side of the cardiac orifice, -
being provided with a strong muscular ring, the duodesma, if one may æ had :
*Hü Sans NX Ind X O46 ORD ni vu NC
270 Transactions.—Zooloyy.
speak of the commencement of the intestine, passed directly forwards,
Plunged immediately into a cylindrical mass of densely packed pyloric
pancreatic ceca. These were short, adherent to one another, and so closely
massed that the intestine appeared to have no proper wall, appearing more
like a broad glandular duct; on cutting into the pancreatic mass, a white
chylous fluid exuded abundantly. The glandular mass was 15in. long by
more than 3in. broad. At its extremity the thin-walled intestine emerged
from the pancreatic mass and turned abruptly backwards, passing without
any convolution to the vent. It was full of a gruelly fluid.
The stomach exhibited, in its anterior part, strong longitudinal
muscular bundles becoming more and more attenuated as they proceeded
backwards. It was empty, being merely coated with a layer of mucus,
stained of a pinkish hue, with dark red particles here and there. A
microscopic examination of this mucus made with the object of determining
the nature of the food of this deep-sea fish, discovered myriads of minute
conical calcareous bodies, some of them perforated longitudinally, having a
very uniform size of about 41, inch by 441,4 inch broad at the base. I do
not know what these may be, but am inclined to think that they are the
cutaneous species of some echinoderm.
The fish was a female, the ova exceedingly minute and undeveloped. A
single oviduct, divided 12 inches anteriorly to the vent into two cylindrical
ovaries, these ran forward to a point 17 inches posteriorly to the snout, the
right being somewhat smaller than the left, they each terminated in a
strong suspensary ligament.
The large liver, of a most beautiful vivid orange tint, weighed 41b. 12302.
It was cleft into two longitudinal lobes posteriorly; there was also some
minor lobation, one smaller lobe overlapping the large gall bladder which
was full of dirty watery fluid. The liver overlapped the pyloric mass which
was entered by the ductus choledocus.
The kidneys had the usual situation and appearance ; their length was
2ft. 6in. There was no swim-bladder, and of the dorsal bladders spoken
of by Mr. Travers I need hardly say there was no trace. It is evident that
the curious spaces left by the detachment of the strong longitudinal
intermuscular septa were mistaken for bladders by that gentleman.
The skeleton consisted of the softest cartilage; it would have been &
matter of the greatest diffieulty to isolate and preserve it.
Artuur.—On the Brown Trout introduced into Otago. 271
Art. XXIV.—On the Brown Trout introduced into Otago. By W. Anruur,C.B.
(Read before the Otago Institute, 9th July, 1878.)
Plate XIII.
Tue principal object of this paper is to put on record those facts which have
been ascertained, connected with the acclimatization of trout in Otago. The
present time is in many respects peculiarly suitable for observing how exotie
plants and animals adapt themselves to the conditions of life in New Zealand,
into which they have been recently introduced. It is equally true, and has
been advoeated before now, that observations eonstant and careful should
be undertaken by all the friends of science, on the effects of colonization
upon the native flora and fauna; because the existing circumstances under
which these are placed are in a state of progression and change, while the
old conditions will soon be things of the past. So also with our trout, for
in twenty years hence the banks of many streams, which at present in a
state of nature supply certain food, will be cultivated and probably yield a
totally different description of food, while-the trout themselves will be much
more numerous and, I am afraid, of a smaller average weight. The
opportunity can only occur once, of observing the immediate results of
stocking any stream with trout. Therefore it seems to me a reasonable
precaution to publish periodically an aecount of the progress of our know-
ledge, and as a contribution towards this object I have selected the special
subject of this paper, being one in which I have always taken much
interest.
1. Distribution and Growth of Trout in Otago.
The first successful hatching of trout (Salmo fario) in Otago was in
October, 1868. This was achieved by Mr. Clifford, then Curator to our
Acclimatization Society, who went to Tasmania, and got from the natural
spawning-beds at the breeding-ponds of the Plenty, 800 ova, whereof 720
were hatched out as above at our Opoho breeding-ponds. Part of this lot
was sent to Lake Wakatipu, but all the young fish died on the road. The
remainder seem to have been sent to Mr. Young, at Palmerston, and were
turned out in the mill-race on that gentleman’s property. A year after-
wards one of these fish was caught, and found to be seven inches in length.
In October, 1869, the second shipment of 1,000 trout ova was brought from
Tasmania by Mr. Clifford, and placed in the breeding-boxes at Opoho, the
water having a temperature of 44° Fah. The fish from these two lots of
trout ova form the original stock, which were liberated in our streams in
November, 1869, and from these and their descendants the ova for stocking
the rivers in Otago have been obtained. I append a table published
by our Acclimatization Society, showing the rivers into which young trout
272 Transactions.— Zoology.
have been put, their number, and the years in which this was done.
Altogether, 64,810 young trout have been liberated in 134 rivers and
streams in Otago up to December, 1877.
As showing how soon and easily confusion may arise for want of a few
precautions, I may here mention that beyond the general fact that our
breed of trout is believed to be from a Thames tributary, we really do not
know much about them. It is true that the trout in Tasmania, whence
ours were brought here as their ova, were got from England, but
what particular stream to trace them to seems from all I can learn to be
now impossible. From notes kindly given me by Mr. Howard, of the
Wallacetown salmon-ponds, it appears that three lots were sent to Tasma-
nia, which turned out more or less successful. Of these, Mr. Francis
Francis sent one from the Weycombe, Bucks, and another from the Wey
at Alton, Hants, and Mr. Buckland sent one lot from Alresford, on the
Itchen, Hants. If I am not able to say, therefore, to which place the
descent of our trout is to be traced, or if each of the places named has not
a joint honour in their parentage, I think you will agree that we have got a
very handsome and valuable variety of Salmo fario.
Growth of the Trout.—I will now proceed to lay before you such facts as
I have been able to collect, teading to show the probable rate of growth of
trout in our rivers, under the conditions of the state of nature which existed
when these fish were first turned out and which still hold good for most of
our streams, and particularly that no trout are ever known to have pre-
viously inhabited these waters. The rivers that I shall refer to are the
Shag, Water of Leith, Lee Stream, Deep Stream and Upper Taieri, not
because we have not information of the success of trout in other streams,
but because such information is as yet rather general and indefinite.
Shag River —In the year 1868, young trout, 75 in number, appear to
have been put in Mr. Young’s mill-race at Palmerston, as already men-
tioned, and in 1869 there were 53 liberated in Shag River. The mill-race
has communication with the river. After this, the first specimens I am
aware of, caught in this river, are those taken in 1874, and which are now
preserved in the Otago Museum. The male fish (one of these) was taken in
June of that year, and weighed l4lbs. The female (the other) was taken in
July, and weighed 163ibs. Now, comparing the above dates, we find that
the greatest possible age of these fish could not exceed six years. This
indicates an average growth for the male fish of 21Ibs. a year, and of 231bs.
a year for the female. But I am inclined to believe that for the first year
or eighteen months trout do not attain that average in our streams, or at all
events in the Shag River. A certain amount of corroboration arises from
Vue fact I have alluded to above, of Mr. Clifford catching one of the 1868
na
Artuur.—On the Brown Trout introduced into Otago. 273
trout in 1869, and finding it measure seven inches, which would represent a
weight under half a pound. If we say then that the above two trout
attained a weight in the first year of even one pound, then their subsequent
average growth must have been 221bs. and $ lbs. respectively, yearly.
Water of Leith.—In 1869 the first trout were put in this stream, 75 in
number, and additions have from year to year been made to this and other
rivers to keep up the stock. In the end of 1874 and beginning of 1875 the
Leith was opened for angling, when the largest trout caught weighed 8lbs.
In August, 1875, among a number of spawning fish taken, I saw one
which must have weighed 7lbs. Mr. Deans, the curator of our Acclimatiza-
tion Society, informs me of a male trout taken in the Leith, in 1877, which
weighed 121lbs.; and in February of this year a gentleman caught a female,
while fishing with artificial minnow, which weighed 10lbs. This latter fish
I saw; it was a very well-shaped specimen and in excellent condition. It
is certainly astonishing that trouts can attain such weights in so small a
stream running through a city like Dunedin! The average yearly growth
of the largest of these trout—viz., the male fish—is a little over 141bs.—on
the same supposition as I used regarding the Shag River fish—viz., that it
was one of the fish put in in 1869. Any other theory will, of course, give a
more rapid growth, but I do not consider it safe to err in that direction.
Lee Stream.—Trout were, to the number of 98, put into this (which has
become the favourite angling stream of Otago) in the year 1869. No other
lot of trout has ever been added, yet these 98 young fish have stocked the
stream throughout its whole course of some twenty miles from near the
Lammerlaw mountains to the Taieri River into which it flows. It was open
for angling in 1875. In October of that year a well-known angler killed
some very fine fish with fly. The heaviest of these weighed 5lbs.—this is
equal to a yearly growth of 4 of a 1b., or say 11b.
Deep Stream.—In 1869 there were 100 young trout turned out in this
stream. This is the only lot ever put into the Deep Stream, where fish are
now plentiful. It was opened for angling in 1875, but no fish over 2 to 4lbs.
was taken till 1876, when one of 8lbs. was caught with grasshopper. This
gives ljlbs. as the known yearly growth, on an average, of the trout in
the Deep Stream.
Upper Tateri.—In 1870 a few dozen young trout were put into this river
at the Styx, and in 1875 there were 425 more turned in. At the beginning
of this year it was fished for the first time, when several large trout were
taken, weighing from 3 to 6lbs., the largest which was caught with the fly
being 6Ibs. Gozs. in weight. This gives the greatest possible yearly growth
at 13 ozs., or say 11b.
Of other streams we have not so much information; but I may mention
that large trout have been seen in the Kakanui, Waitati, Lovell’s Creek,
Ad
274 Transacitons.—Zoology.
Fulton's Creek, Waipahu River, Mimihau, and some of about 10lbs. in
weight in the Wakatipu Lake at Queenstown. In the Kuriwao a trout
6ilbs. was killed in the beginning of this year. Trout were first put
in this stream in 1874, but into the Waiwera, into which the Kuriwao
runs, in 1878. So that the average yearly growth may be taken at about
1iibs. As regards the Waikouaiti River, I have had, from two different
sources, tolerably reliable evidence that the trout put into it have lived and
thrived, but this requires confirmation.
In the above I have, as explained, regarded the average weight on the
theory (which is a safe one), that the fish actually eaught and weighed, may
have been individuals of the first stock put into each stream. Of course there
still remains another, but more laborious, method for the future, of determin-
ing the rate of growth, viz., marking young fish when eaught, and returning
them to the river for future observations. Two summers ago I began this
plan in the Lee Stream, by removing the posterior half of the adipose fin ;
but as yet I have not been fortunate enough to recapture any of those
so marked. These fish would run from four to seven inches in length, and
in number about one dozen. In the Southland rivers young trout were
turned out from 1870 to 1877, as shown by a list appended, which Mr.
Howard has sent me. As yet, however, I have not been able to get any
positive information as to how they have succeeded.
Comparing now the growth of our trout with river trout of England and
Scotland, I find that Stoddart, in his Lochs and Rivers of Scotland, gives
the following as his opinion. The fry are hatched out in April, and by the
month of October stop growing for that season, having attained a length of six
or seven inches, and weighing a quarter of a pound. "There is no perceptible
growth till the following spring, when food again becomes plentiful. They
then resume growing, and before winter have increased in length by two
inches, and in weight up to half a pound, by which time a certain number are
in spawning condition. It is four years before these fish reach one pound
weight, when many cease growing, but some from favouring conditions of
locality and feed reach a greater weight. These latter live almost entirely
upon ground and surface food—not minnows. In well sheltered waters and
when the feed is particularly good, as in the Leet and Eden, in the course
of five or six years trout have reached two pounds weight and upwards. *
Again, Yarrel, in his British Fishes, says:—“ An acutely observing friend
of mine * * * has for years kept trout in a kind of store stream,
and having fed them with every kind of food, has had some of them increase
* Stoddart says that in South of England an experiment with trout in three tanks
.. fed respectively with worms, minnows, and large water-flies, was tried, when those fed on
| flies attained twice the weight of the others,
a ee oe ERIT eer AAA ee ee
Arraur.—On the Brown Trout introduced into Otago, 275
from 11b. to 10Ibs. in four years, I found, says he, that one of the trout I
had fed and weighed regularly for the last six years was not improving in
size and colour. I therefore killed it. The fish is a female and weighed
exactly seven pounds. The accompanying schedule will show its gradual
increase :—
Date of weighing .. .. 1835 1836 1837 1838 1839 1840
Ib.oz. lb.oz. lb.oz. Ib. oz. Ib. oz. Ib, oz,
April 1st. 0 12 1 12 34 5 4 10 7 4
October is. .. .. 1 4 2 0 5 0 5 12 1 9 T. 9
Littlecot, October, 1840." This latter experiment shows, under careful
artificial feeding, that trout are capable in England of a growth, according
to this gentleman, of 12 lbs. yearly to 23lbs. when they have reached their
full growth. But trout, in a state of nature, as described by Stoddart, may
more properly be eompared with the results I have given of our Otago
trout. “Stoddart’s remarks therefore amount to this, that under the most
favourable circumstances at home, river trout will attain up to maturity, a
yearly average increase in weight of Hb., while our experience here shows
they have reached an average yearly increase of from 11b to 23Ibs! In no
river of Otago have these fish grown so rapidly, are so fat, or have become
so heavy as in the Shag, some individuals having been seen in Mr. Rich's
property supposed to be 20lbs in weight. They abound from the estuary to
the “second gorge,” a distance I should think of 15 miles by the river,
The banks of the Shag are partly cultivated and partly covered with native
grass and flax. Surface food cannot therefore be plentiful, but at all
seasons there are in the pools and shallows numbers of Galaxias or native
minnows, bullheads, and during summer immense shoals of smelts and
silverfish.* On one occasion I killed a trout below Palmerston, 6}Ibs.
weight, in the stomach of which I found about three dozen smelts. It is
rather against the trout, that during summer the Shag River runs low and
clear, so low as to be easily erossed in the fords with watertight boots
without the feet getting wet. The growth of trout in the Leith may also
be attributed chiefly to the great numbers of smelt which frequent its lower
waters. But it is different witM the Lee, Deep Stream, and Upper Taieri
rivers, where the great staple of food is made up of flies, gnats, grass-
hoppers, cadis-bait, fresh-water shell-fish, beetles and cray-fish—the small
kinds of native fish are not very numerous in these streams. Before
leaving this part of my subject, I may mention a curious circumstance
regarding the Lee Stream which anglers have discovered. Painfully lean
trout have been caught there, which took the fly or grasshopper greedily
* This fish is called Silverfish by Mr. Powell, but Smelt (Retropinna richardsoni)
by Dr. d fe Oe a called ee
whitebait,
also known
276 Transactions.—Zoology,
and were apparently in good enough health. In December, 1875, I killed
one of these which, though about 24 inches in length, only weighed 41058.
It ought if in good condition to have been about 7 Ibs. Several other similar
or worse-conditioned trout have since then been taken. But the worst speci-
men I have seen was caught at the beginning of this year, in a feeder of the
Lee, the Broad Creek, which surpassed all others in its poverty. It was
about twenty inches long and weighed only 1lb. or thereby. There was
really no substance on its body, it was literally a skeleton. It is difficult to
account for such a phenomenon, particularly when equally large trout have
been killed in the Lee, which were in excellent condition.
2. Habits of the Trout.
In dealing with this part of my subject, [ propose to offer a few remarks
under the heads of Spawning Season, Differences of External Appearance,
and the Habits of our Trout as observed during the open season. _
Spawning Season.—From actual observations, trout are known to have
spawned in the several streams named as follows :—
Shag River my Ap zi from June 20th to July 31st
Water of Leith ..
Hillond (m S. Pillans) .. exl uu A Per v Hm S00 ..,
sland Rx AB |... sg 3 iu za zi .
+ pein Hals Creek SOR anaka) ; o > un ba i 33 ; 109 a
akanui .. è DIL. sc YA x ^ "e YA á
Kaihiku Ne za x elu 5s Ed gi 150| 250; 6 50 .
Kaikorai .. YA Be as Las Ee SC NE 2 200. a =
Kaiw Se un x ke us EE 100 i ke .
Kaitangata Cree «T ks (xd ae za 804 .. ve
Kilm E eek, or Wathein B Gliese lli $1. : ina 2
Sows el re sels ax c DUET. dO. .. 00
dirige a is IU. * aw ae Pe e t 305) ..
Lake Ohou si * Ae pue a 5 Iu. 2221 300 ..
Lauder i . b us wA es fast 006 px : i:
Lees Canal WA «lc seo ee fo 00 200| .... .
Lee Stre . D ae 98 .. ee . oe oe .. os ..
Lindis River .. SER ep elabi s ; s% E t620
Lin B i. .. oe oe LE oe oe ee ee 30 on ..
Lei .. .. LE .. .. LE LE LI 100 LI of oe
Carried forward .. ac | DOBI iy | oa | os 1,670 1,940 | 5,512) 4,485) 2,921
* All died on journey, + All died on journey but 60,
Arruur.—On the Brown Trout introduced into Otago. 289
List or Youna Trout—continued.
NAME oF RIVER. 1969. | 1870. | 1871. | 1872.) 1878. | 1874. | 1875. | 1876. 1877.
mete A ran B a (> BOG .. .. | e+ 11,579 1,940] 5,512) 4,485) 2,321
dad petites home wear ka 49|.300| 500) . m
nos ?
—M—— À——
Lovell's C
Manuherikin (Upper). ou poe podes PRMD] coe) oU pes
Mar saN Creek (Clinton) as es és QUE. bass ds 210 ;
M. Pheri s Creek i (Waipoii Lake) ee ees ss ee we ei -
elec ion SAA KAA [es pee . 122) ..
Mecosé Baro (Waho -ea logs As eh edes leuc] selon MEUM
Merton Creek .. EN vu Eo sk E ANI PARA i Pe e^
u j i 300
Cree : 75
Okapua (Mataura) ; x b 00} ..
Oamarama (Waitaki) oe i 200 -
Otakaik Ulo botub lb 4e qoo MI AMA ND
Otara (Matanza) > sa froe Ja due Lee ya PA 200)...
Otam ki NRI. clu i Mente d MAR o
ka (Waitaki) UI LECT Maa aa bose Dr [o 2
Otepopo River .. oT ORE bud ea a ji $3
Owake * (Uppen | Ni a ui CON ANG Pe ES IL
pia Sick wm. R2 eee Pre run m d
Owiho (N. E ey) . Op es bie das bow e 100
Peat Bog Creek ‘Pomabaka) | zi ya died ae oe 50 ed s es
Pl t Riv QBUS COUTE 28 v i EA
P Aso priedi WAA a E E D d 2001 Dee S Bee
i 100
Purua ii - - "lotbzt] cbr. b deg a00] 1000 1162 700
Puker eo of .. . oe .. .. LE
nail Burn (W aki) . c du corn COEM IN e ibn 100 xs
( eia [ete Wanaka)” e re is (dd ss es "e ys x
à onal’ Oei (Pomahaka) . 2s wa AI OR eae BO! ss kė -a
mbling Burn dd aka) PE du is r ..
key er's Bay is ST rade oe
beer en shay P 55
+ eee i.
*—-* .
ag tied [o ; 2 = 2s oe el wee I0 i
oc e fft ^ LI WERL. do ePae ore d onn ; »
ung's Pon 224 T5 UR Paus tents EUN IB mS
eo Creek (Benmore) i2 d d. ex arena Veh pea g^ 110.53
to . . E . oe of .. .. ..
wift Aue :y 24 ; ; zi 50] .. $ ʻi
win urn .. oe ee . 250 . L LI oe
t. Leonards .. zi drl si a exo "e 60 VR .
i i * .. .. 2 LEO .. .. oe LJ
am (Upper) .. s ' 220
alla *» .. .. .. ..
wove WE cee Pb goog bast me epe
Cosi pb d Miu a
rotter's Ck. Hampden dh ms. ix wA ce $ a 30001 oe i
enirn 's Sube: AA AA AA
Vaikoikoi 2$ col ve ro Se we 150] >:
Waikouaiti River LE .. 61 2? .. .. .. .. of
Carried forward .. ++ | 913, 25) j| | 4,095 3,947|13,649
awa.
290 Transactions.—Z oology.
List or Young Trovur—continued.
NAME oF RIVER. | 1869. | 1870. | 1871. | 1972.| 1873. | 1874. | 1875, | 1876. | 1877.
“Brought forward.. ..| MBI .. | .. | .. 4,095 8,947 13,649 11,663] 7,651
Waitapeka : aed dI. na
Waihemo, or Kilmog 1 n * A M 500 Ad
Wairuna.. » uu defe 125| 500 oe
Waitahuna s : ds : SP BSEC i 500| . 800
MEN. UU. ce o1] I ERINFISIi-Lel]| 989 41 «
Waitati (Upper).. i ed cA L|] 1001 x bes ;
Ower). . a x 57 g g E E 250 500| . 820
Water of Leith . "d Ni 75 3 Boe 450 š 650
Waterworks Reservoir 5 2 lt 2s : i =
Waikaka . à dis LU EE 84 i BA .,,
Waikouaiti M Es s e 2 E: 80| 350| .. M
Waim YA eil d NA 3 "n 30 ;
(To op waters ne à n alB]l- is es ;[- 4,000
Waipahi e s pe eae 42) 83i)8 300} 1,100 1,300
Low we T 5 4? le 76| 401 700
Wall. uu ve ES A | A |^ | 150| 450| 900 1,000
an (top)... HA APA ux 4 s um gem is za WA 600
ms zm m e Piai as a DUO: ... 410
eng ae s other Creeks Or teen ae eae Peas Wis se Hs YA ya
.. oe ee .. .. .. a” 100 .. LI
n tcl (Peninsula) Se Dodd sp 58 tas A 150
ji Heid (Elderslie) ee la. Ll er E LM
3» nlove dar we Pu). WA exea. xe ex 150
$ Matters A R M a en Ii... 500
a Heed w PE RS ** sjaj ae ee 500
Wheatley (Kakanui) uM ates EX 2. ay ol aoe wa ee 800
Totals .. —.. {1,085|1,000 2,000) .. |4,841 |6,228 119,799115,626114,231
List or Young TROUT DISTRIBUTED ma THE MEMBA Salmon Ponds, SOUTHLAND
y Mr. How.
NAME OF RIVER. 1870. | 1871. | 1972. | 1873. | 1874. | 1875. | 1876. | 1877.
Benmore Creek "t <4 YA 4 = | BLO .. ka ae
Centre Creek .. ja i 50] X K : à
Cintha River - ea ik ix YA BIDI ie x ix d
Eyre Cree ks ee B .. bs si e e^ za os
bas (Upper za ee EA vs m YA YA Ms a
5 E E 82 Ug 220a | 500 | 125 (41a, 929 25a, 11b
Mataura (pier) H sel e. .. px. |] ADU YA YA ya An
Mimihou River A id YA xe du WE MA Hm 500 YA
mes Creek .. .. sho ^. X us 500, 800| .. s
— a em zA ae x 60 DOi s AM Bm de Wa
Oreti- River ae as "i wA WA . xs 450 |1,000 |1,500 | 75
Otamaite reek .. P 100 EI ae ae ae >. ae
en (Upper Makarewa) PI AS x B i [LOD s. 4s
Puni C .. . .. 100 LE .. .. .. ae
ya E O a. 2$ A ax e nm da is 250 ka
iver .. a P £5. 2 aw 500 3 ss n ;
Wakatipu Lake " 100 | -> 5 $e se WA ;
River rae 3 WA ; x * 350 +é
ai = NA bá Gri a II .. ix s x» n
» i ar IW & ^ de sx x
Waimatuku River .. He ae x Ra 147 e 500
a, yearlings ; b, old fish, some 10lbs, weight,
CLARKE, —On some new Fishes, 291
Art, XXV,—On some new Fishes, By F, E. Oran.
Plates XIV. and XV.
[Read before the Westland Institute, 16th July, 1878.)
Trypterigium dorsalis, Pl. XV.
B.6, D.4-19-12, P. 8 branched, 7 simple, V.2, A.25, C.18.
Head is to total length as 4 is to 19.
Total length, 5:1 inches; length of caudal fin, *65 inch; length of head, 1:1 inch.
Length of 1st portion dorsal, ‘6 inch—extreme height, 3rd ray, :85 inch
n 2nd ” ” 19 ” " ” wo ”
n js ” ” 9 ” ” " 4th ” 63 ”
” nal ” » 19 ” ” ” 22nd ” 48 y
fs peto, 9th ray 118 ,,
entrals, 1st ray 55 ,,
Ludi dans orbit of m^ 4 ere
Shortest d.
Distance WA commencement AE to do. anal, 1:2 in.
Termination of bases 8rd portion of dorsal and anal fins in same vertical,
and 0:4 in. from commencement of caudal fin; commencement of 1st
portion of dorsal fin slightly behind vertical from posterior margin of pre-
operculum, at terminal portion fin-membrane connected half-way up 1st
ray of 2nd dorsal; fin-membrane at termination of second dorsal connected
with 1st ray of 8rd dorsal; gill openings very large, branchiostegous rays
very strong; rays of ventral exceedingly fleshy; lower simple rays of
pectorals also strong and fleshy ; body covered with small etenoidal scales,
arranged in well-marked transverse series; lateral line running low
down on side with concavity towards dorsal aspect, plainly marked from
commencement to caudal fin. Head, throat, base of pectorals, gill-covers,
and cheeks scaleless. Summit of head dotted with numerous papilla ;
portion of back, of a breadth of 0:1 in. on each side of and along base of
dorsal fins, devoid of scales, division between scaled and scaleless portion
being very harshly marked; eyes, oval medium, with strong supra-
orbicular ridges; portion of forehead between eyes, narrow and grooved ;
profile almost vertical, cheeks wide and deep, and slightly flattened; body
broad, rounded, thick, and fleshy, but elongate; mouth small, underhung,
with fleshy lips, upper protruding beyond lower; nostrils single, very
minute, close below eye, and with tubular orifice; no crests; tongue fleshy.
Female fish, ova fully developed.
Ground colour of body, head and fins, brownish ; and sides with yel-
lowish tinge, mottled and spotted with darker, verging into banded appear-
ance near tail; pupil of eye black, iris brown, with yellow ring round pupil.
Captured at mouth of Hokitika, 26th January, 1871, and presented by
Mr. Moss Levy.
292 Transactions.—Zoology,
Trypterigium decemdigitatus. Pl. KV.
B.6, D.3-19-14, P.8-6-9, V.2, A.29, C.13,
Scales: lin. lat., 48; lin, trans. 4
Lateral line, convex, very prominent and plainly marked to near caudal
(over 84 scales), when it ends abruptly, it follows general slope of dorsal
aspect, high up on body; head is to total length as 1 is to 5; depth is to
body and tail as 5 is to 27.
Teeth recurved, small, with row of larger (cardiform) outside on upper
and lower jaws; teeth on vomer; tongue thin, sharp-pointed ; caudal fin
large, rounded; scales large, ctenoid, continuous to base of dorsal fins;
none on head, cheeks, gill-covers, bases of pectorals or throat; eyes large
and round; orbicular ridges hidden in substance; a supra-orbital fringed
palmiform, tentacle—decemfid—on simple base stalk; trifid tentacle at
nostril; upper jaw protrudes slightly beyond lower when mouth is closed—
when open, lower jaw is longest; head small, profile sharp and sloping,
top of head and snout very much rounded, muzzle pointed ; commencement
of first portion of dorsal fin in vertical with margin of pre-operculum and
base of ventrals, terminating membrane of same joins with second portion
at base of first ray; commencement of second portion in vertical with base
of pectoral fins, terminating membrane of same joins first ray of third
portion a little distance up ray; ventral fin rays slight but long; a strong
papilla at anus; bases of rays of first portion of dorsal fin very close
together, and far separate from the commencement of second portion of
dorsal; termination of third portion of dorsal in vertical with termination of
anal fin; head and gill-covers with numerous pores; nostrils double, one
close to edge of orbit, the second lower and with tentacle; back and belly
rounded, sides and tail flattened.
Total length, 3:2 inches; depth, -42 inches; length of head, “65 inches; diameter
of eye, '15 inches
— of Ist portion of dorsal +35 ee gaa height of 3rd ray .45 inch
)nd u il y = + TU y *8D 45
» ua i 53 g Be ua 4th ,, uu
i anal T35 24th,, BB 4,
) caudal 45 distance tin snout to ventral fins 5 ,,
» pectorals (12th ray) — :65 ditto from ventrals to anal do 4
ditto from end of anal and dorsal
ventrals (2nd do. :5 pied the commencement of} :2 ,,
Colour (preserved in carbolic solution), sooty black; tips of anal fin rays
and membranes between (central) caudal fin rays, almost immaculate.
Collected by Mr. Wm. Docherty, Dusky Sound, March 1877.
Trypterigium robustum. Pl. KV.
B.6, D.6-20-14, P.1-9-7, V.2, A. 28, C. 16.
Head is to total length as 1 is to 4,
——€—— ZOP 2440719 TY
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CrankE,— On some new Fishes, 293
Scales large, ctenoidal ; head, cheeks, gill-covers, scaleless ; eyes, large,
oval; with trifid supra-orbital tentacle ; nostrils double, one close in front
of eye, simple, the other lower down, tubular; lips fleshy; profile of head
high, but round; top of head round, nose round, blunt; supra-orbital
ridges not very prominent, but fleshy; lateral line prominent, following
dorsal profile, high up on sides, and terminating suddenly under last third
of 2nd portion of dorsal; 1st portion of dorsal, very low; bases of 1st and
2nd rays close together, terminating portion of membrane joins 1st ray of
2nd portion of dorsal a little above base; 2nd portion of dorsal high
anteriorly ; membrane at termination does not reach to commencement of
8rd portion of dorsal; 8rd portion of dorsal high ; belly tumid; body,
thick fleshy, sharp on back, rounded below :—
Total length, 3:35 inches ; length of head, ‘8 inch.
Length, 1st part dorsal, :45 inch—extreme height, 4th ray, 25 inch.
” ” 1:25 LE] ” ” 2n ” :38 ”
” 3rd ” ” "5D ” ” ” 3rd ” 4 ”
” anal, ” 1:27 9 ” ” 17th ” 33 ”
pe caudal, ,, 45 ,, ext. ht. of pectoral, 1lth,, :76 ,,
Longest diameter eye, ‘2 ,,
Shortest 2 im
Distance from snout to ventral fin, :55 inch
” » ventral fin to anal fin, ‘8 inch
i >> end of anal (in vertical with end of dorsal) to beginning of caudal fin,
7 ine
between 2nd and 3rd portion of dorsal fin, ‘05 inch.
Ground colour (preserved in carbolic solution) brownish, with dark
brown blotches on back, surrounding seven light patches or spots, four of
which run up on to base of second portion of dorsal; upper part of first
portion of dorsal very dark, anal fin greyish, with dark brown free margin;
belly grey; pupil of eye black, iris brown.
Collected at Jackson's Bay, December, 1874, and presented by J. S.
Browning, Esq.
Acanthoclinus taumaka, Pl. XV.
B.6, D.20-4, P.1-17, V. 1-2, A.9-4, C.19.
Head is to total length as 5 is to 21.
Total length, 4:3 inches; length of head, 1 inch; depth of Pres '8 inch
Length of dorsal, 23 inches—extreme height, 21st ray, ‘55 inch
E anal, i 7 » o Da a (0
$ auum (2nd m s 3”
5 eaudal
Teeth on tongue, vomer, MIWA upper and lower j jaws.
Lateral lines as in generic distinctions. Head small and pointed, but
with nose (in profile) slightly truncated, rounded above, flattish below;
294 Transactions,— Zoology,
sides very flat; tail compressed flat; caudal fin large, rounded; eyes
round; lips very thick and fleshy; cheeks fleshy; head, cheeks, gill-covers
and throat, sealeless; body, sides and belly covered with small, smooth,
close-set scales; fins thick; terminating membranes of spinous rays of
dorsal and anal fins slightly produced in fleshy appendages; pectorals
small, round; no simple rays to pectorals; anal with one spine and two
rays only.
Ground colour, brownish-grey, mottled with black; dorsal and anal fins
with large black spot on rayed portion; base of spinous portion of dorsal
with irregular blackish bands, and both dorsal and anal margined with
black; summits of spinous appendages pink, with lower membrane imma-
culate; two black streaks on cheeks.
Collected and presented (with 5 of the same species) by Mr. J. N.
Smyth, Jackson’s Bay, December, 1874.
Lepidopus elongatus. Pl. XIV.
B.6, D.155, P.12, V. {minute i eb 4.25, C.18.
Total length, 27-6 inches; greatest depth, ^7 inch; width (at vent), '2 inch; vent,
9:6 inches from tip of snout; 6:5 inches from end of head; diameter of eye, ‘5 inch.
Body scaleless, but covered with a delicate, deciduous, silvery pigment,
adhering to fingers on handling; length of gape 1 in.; body long, narrow,
and compressed ; cheeks flat; dorsal fin long and low, extends from top of
head above gill-opening to half an inch from base of caudal fin ; extreme
height, near termination, almost equals half the depth of body; pectoral fins
with lower rays longest, length 1 in.; ventral fins, minute rudimentary,
placed in vertical with posterior termination base of pectorals ; length of
anal 4:5 in., equals height of dorsal and terminates in vertical with end
of same; caudal fin deeply forked; tail, before commencement of caudal,
very slender and slightly carinated ; nostrils situate *2 in. in front of orbit,
simple and single; gill-openings large ; mouth large, gape extends to under
nostril; teeth in single row (eight in number) on each intermaxillary bone
(laneet-shaped and inclined slightly forwards), five long recurved fangs at
extreme end of upper jaw, two on each side and one at symphysis; on
lower jaws, single row of incurved lancet-shaped teeth (eleven in number on
each side) with two small recurved fangs at end of jaw; no teeth on tongue
palate or vomer; pharyngeal teeth very fine, brush-like; lower jaw (at
symphysis) praised in a strong conical point, or quasi- ere *5 in, in
length ; lateral line strongly but evenly marked—yellow.
Colour, a uniform bright metallie silver; fins, yellowish ; caudal with
pinkish hue.
Collected by self, Hokitika beach, 12th October, 1874, and the only
perfect specimen of some eight or ten which have come under my observa-
Cranxz.—On a new Fish found at Hokitika. 295
tion. All were in the same proportion as the one above described, and
varied but little in size; but were generally much mutilated by attrition on
the sand and shingly beach.
Art. XXVI.—On a new Fish found at Hokitika. By F. E. CLARKE.
Plate XIV.
[Read before the Westland Institute, 8th January, 1879.)
Tur fish, hereafter described, and thé occurrence of which on the West
Coast of New Zealand I have the honour to bring under your notice this
evening, is interesting on account of its being the first of its genus dis-
covered in the seas of the southern hemisphere, or, in fact, in any other but
European waters.
Hitherto they have been found off the coasts of Norway, Scotland and
islands (very rarely), and the Mediterranean, in which sea 2 common
variety occurs, which is notable as affording the silvery pigment formerly
used in the manufacture of artificial pearls.
The first British specimen was noted by Yarrell in 1837, and was caught
off Rothsay in the Isle of Bute, and British specimens have been but few in
number since then. It is stated that all specimens obtained there, and off
the coast of Norway, occur usually after severe and cold wintry weather,
and this kind of weather ushered in the arrival of our species which was
found washed on shore on the South Spit, Hokitika, 6th August, 1878, by
W. Duncan, waterman, and was kindly brought under my notice by Capt.
Turnbull harbour master, under the impression that it was one of the
young Californian salmon lately liberated in the river. It turned out to be
one of the Salmonide, though not the one wished for.
As far as can be arrived at, by comparison with descriptions, ete., our
specimen agrees very well, except some ill-defined peculiarities, with the
Hebrides variety, and it would be of excessive interest to have more proof
than mere imagination, that our antipodean species had gradually worked
its way “sub mare” in those cold lower strata of water to our coasts.
The specimen has been forwarded as a “type” to the Colonial Museum,
Wellington.
Argentina.
Seales rather large; cleft of mouth small; intermaxillaries and maxillaries
very short, not extending to below the orbit; eye large; jaws without teeth,
an arched series of minute teeth across the head of the vomer, and on the
fore part of the palatines; tongue armed with a series of small curved teeth
on each side (except in one species); dorsal fin short, in advance of the
ventrals; caudal deeply forked,
296 , Transactions.—Z oology.
Pseudo-branchise well-developed. Pyloric appendages in moderate num-
bers; ova small.
Marine fish which never enter fresh waters, and hitherto found only in
some parts of European waters, i.e., coasts of Norway, rarely coasts of
Scotland and islands and the Mediterranean.
Argentina decagon, nov. sp.
D.10, 2nd adipose; P.14; V.12; A.11; C.19; B.5; L. Trans. 1;
L. Lat. 51. *
First dorsal situated in depression on back ; adipose dorsal high ; pectorals
small, fragile; ventrals rather large, fragile, large axillary scale; caudal
large, deeply forked; eye large, round; mouth very small, and protractile
to some extent; anal fin very high anteriorly (this fin and adipose dorsal
placed close to caudal; cheeks and head scaleless, top of head flat, head
small, snout pointed; operculum, suboperculum and preoperculum covered
with thick transparent (immaculate) glossy flesh (showing colouring pig-
ment on bony plates in a very beautiful manner) ; lower angle of preoper-
culum and interoperculum free from fleshy substance; nostrils small,
double, one placed before vertical of front of orbit, the other near tip of
snout; back, belly and sides rather flattened, but body thick.
No teeth on superior or intermaxillaries or on inferior maxillaries, but
the front edge of vomer is produced and bare and crenulated, forming dental
apparatus ; edges of palatines bared, forming cutting apparatus; tongue
long, thin, narrow, and round, with four long recurved fangs at tip; gill-
arches armed with long rakers; gills four and one pseudo- gill; upper jaw
projects slightly over lower.
Head rounded under throat; eye large; gill-opening large, section
through body shows same to be an irregular decagon in shape.
Scales (in beautifully arranged series) very large, thin, and covered with
silvery pigment on lateral band, very bright, duller on series superior and
inferior to same. Scales along lateral line high and narrow, with large
core, the opening of which is directed towards head. At the angles of the
irregular decagon the scales are large, squared in front, rounded at back,
and bent in an angular form with an opening or slit extending some
distance into scale. These scales overlap in the centres of the facets of the
decagon, and over these, and extending nearly from angle to angle, are, on
the dorsal, second, third lateral band and ventral facets superposed, large
deep rounded scales filling up intervals between angles of decagon, and
causing the ribbed appearance of body; the depression at lateral line is also
caused by these large scales overlapping in unbroken marginal line, above
and below same,
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CauPBELL.—ÓOn a new Fish. 297
The substance of back and top of head, when first out of water, guite
transparent; belly white; iris of eye silvery, pupil black, upper and lower
sides silvery, but lateral band bright polished metallic silver.
Total length za ad i "P .. 6:9 inches.
Length of head id acq v
Length of head, body sid tail MLAWA oi DER fin) ws uu ED Hs
Distance from snout to commencement of dorsal aa zs Cu : »
yA i » ii ventrals ae VI: ui sper
s H e i anal YA V pU t
Width of eye, horizontal diameter, 45 inch; vertical diameter, "4 inch
Greatest depth of body (under commencement 1st dorsal) vic. 4
Length, base, 1st dorsal, '5 inch; height, 1 inch
is ventrals, ED s
ji pectorals, 75 5
base of anal, ‘55 ,, height, 55 in
Distance between commencement ist dorsal Aw adipose „e 200
n = ventrals and anal TA se ED
js A diis. dorsal and commencement caudal wo’
commencement anal and commencement caudal 1:18
Short ki of eye (vertical), 4 length of head
Length of head is to body and tail as 16 is to 61
» is to total length as 16 is to 69 m
Greatest depth of body is to total length as 10 is to 69
» is to total length of head, body, and tail, as 10 is to 61
Distance in snout to commencement ventrals, 3-1 inches
» » Commencement anal to end of tail, 3:1 inches.
Arr. XXVII.—On a new Fish. By W. D. Caurszzzr, C.E., F.G.S.
(Read before the Westland Institute, 8th January, 1879.]
Tue following description is of a new genus of fish, four specimens of which
were obtained by myself on the 18th of May last, on the Hokitika beach.
It has very marked peculiarities. The single dorsal, and the stout spinous
rays in both it and the anal, connected by a perforated membrane, presents
entirely distinct characters from any previously described genus. The most
nearly allied appears to be the genus Drama. There is a possibility that
the specimens obtained are young, but the characteristic points described
below appear uniformly in them all. "E
Fam. Scompripz.
Group 5. Coryphenina.
Genus nov. Discus.
Body compressed and elevated ; general form circular-pointed at snout
and tail. Head and lower portion of body scaleless, minute scales on
5d
298 Transactions.—Zoology.
upper portion of body and tail; cleft of mouth very oblique. A single
dorsal, which, like the anal, is composed of stout spinous rays connected at
their mid-length by a membrane having a breadth of one-third of their
length, leaving apertures between the base of the rays. Caudal forked,
ventrals slender; a single series of minute teeth in the jaws, finely
pectinate ; branchiostegals four; air-bladder large.
Discus aureus, sp. n
B.4, D.26, A.21, V.T, Q/10/5 EJ
The greatest height of body is two-thirds of length, and is vertical to the
origin of the dorsal and ventrals; head equal to half height; snout equal to
half, and interorbital space equal to one quarter
greatest diameter of orbit, which is equal to
half length of head; a depression extends down
the snout; greatest thickness of body above
the pectorals, and equal to greatest diameter
of orbit; the upper maxillary extends to the
vertical, below the centre of the eye; colour
silvery, with minute bronze spots, with a dorsal margin of a similar
colour, extending from behind the orbit, where the depth equals half
orbit, to the caudal; pectorals yellowish brown, others dirty white.
Total length, 23in.
Four specimens cast up on Hokitika beach.
Arr. XXVIIL — Notes on the Genus Callorhynchus, with a Description of an
undescribed New Zealand Species. By W. Corzwso, F.L.S.
Plate XVII.
[Read before the Hawke Bay Philosophical Institute, 12th August, 1878.]
Ix a “Catalogue of the Fishes of New Zealand with Diagnoses of the
Species," compiled by Captain Hutton and printed for the Colonial Museum
in 1872, only one species of the genus Callorhynchus 1s mentioned as belong-
ing to our seas—C. antarcticus ; but, as I take it, there are several other
species, two of which I have seen, viz., C. australis, Hobson, and an
undescribed one, which I believe to be a species nova (C. dasycaudatus,
mihi), of which I shall give a fair diagnostic and specific outline in this
paper.
It was in December, 1844, that I first saw this fish. I was leaving
Poverty Bay in a brig, bound for this place, when, on passing the heads,
we saw some Maori canoes fishing, one of which paddled alongside and sold
us some of their fish they had just taken ; among them was one that I had
Corzsso,—ÓOn the Genus Callorhynehus. . 999
never seen before; I knew it was of the genus Callorhynchus, and, as I
thought, distinct from C. antarcticus (the only species of that genus then
known to me), so I took a sketch drawing of it, with notes of its dimensions,
ete., which I now give.
Callorhynchus dasycaudatus, mihi.
Total length, 8ft. 8in.; girth, (belly) 1ft. 5in.; length of pectoral fin, 9in.;
first dorsal fin, 5in.; of attached bony ray, 7in.; length of tail, from angle
in upper surface, 19in. ; length from snout to anterior base of first dorsal
fin., 94in.; the bony ray in front of the first dorsal fin is partly separated
from that fin, it is a little curved, and barbed slightly on the posterior edge; *
the extremity of the tail is free and feathered, which. being such a great
peculiarity and so very characteristic of this species, has given rise to its
pecific name, Whole fish silvery white, but highly iridescent; the fins of
dark grey colour. It had no teeth, only palatal bones; a crayfish was
found in its maw, Be
In its produced whip-like tail and barbed dorsal spine this species
approaches more nearly toits northern congener, Chimera arctica, Linn.,
formerly the type of the genus, before that Callorhynchus was separated from
it by Cuvier.
Captain Hutton, in the work above cited (p. 74), gives as a character of
this genus, ‘extremity of the tail distinctly turned upwards:" I scarcely
understand this; such is certainly not the case in the one species mentioned
by him as belonging to these seas, C. antarcticus; neither does any such char-
acter belong to C. australis,—another of our species, which I have also seen,
Both of those species also differ widely from C. dasycaudatus,in the very
. large size of their pectorals, which overlap the base of their ventrals,
Drawings of the tails of those two species I also give in the subjoined plate.
I also note that Dr. Richardson, in a paper on some new Tasmanian
fishes, read before the Zoological Society in 1839, has another new species,
C. tasmanius, which may also be found here in our seas; I have, however,
never seen it. It differs from those two species last mentioned in the size
of its pectorals; in which respect it approaches to C. dasycaudatus. Dr.
Richardson gives the following characters to distinguish it from C. antarcticus
(probably at that time C. australis was unknown to him)—* pinnis pectoralibus
ad ventrales haud attingentibus; pinná dorsi secundá pone ventrales incipienti,
ante lobum anteriorem inferiorem pinne cauda desinenti." And then he adds :
“ This species agrees with the Callorhynchus smythi of Benne, figured in
Beechy's Zoological Appendix, in the distance between the pectorals and
ventrals, but is so unlike that figure in other respects that it is impossible to
assign it to that species.” Of this last mentioned species (C. smythi), I
know no more than what I have here quoted; should it be found in our
seas, then, we may probably count on having five species of this genus,
500 Transactions.—Z oology.
Dr. Hobson, of Tasmania, has given an admirable deseription of C.
australis, which he dissected and described in 1840 (Tasmanian Journal of
Natural Science, Vol. I.) This species is near to C. antarcticus in the size
of its pectorals, ete., but widely different in the shape of its tail. Its length
is said to be 2 feet 6 inches. His whole paper is replete with valuable and
interesting information relative to the viscera, and other organs and parts
of this peculiar fish. One short sentence only can I guote:—“ The inferior
extremity is especially interesting from its quadruped-like form; here is, in
reality, the pelvis of the fish.” I quote this the more willingly in hopes
that some of our young anatomists (to whom that circumstance quoted may
be unknown), may also be led to dissect and describe other species of this
curious genus; seeing, too, that they are not uncommon here on our shores
during the summer,
———
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XVII.
1. Callorhynchus dasycaudatus, Col.
2. Callorhynchus antarctieus, Cuv. (tail only).
8. Callorhynchus australis, Hobson (tail only).
(N.B.—The figures are drawn to one scale).
Art. XXIX.—Notes on the Metamorphosis of one of our largest Moths—
Dasypodia selenophora. By W. Corrwso.
[Read before the Hawke Bay Philosophical Institute, 10th June, 1878.)
Ox the 21st January, 1878, my attention was called to an unusually large :
caterpillar, apparently asleep on the trunk of an Acacia tree (silver wattle).
At first sight, it seemed so much like the bark of the tree in hue, that it
was not readily distinguished from it. 'The larva was stretched out to
its full length, nearly 3’ 6’; it was elongate, and of the ordinary form,
pretty evenly cylindrical throughout, though thickest in the middle and
tapering towards its head and tail, and skin smooth. In colour, it was
peculiarly mottled or finely speckled (irrorated) with very minute points
of black, red (carmine), and ash eolours—the latter predominating—which,
combined, and at a little distance gave it the colour of the reddish-grey
bark of the tree above-mentioned. It had two minute bright red (carmine)
spots close together on its back, near the tail, and when in motion two
large triangular dark splashes were displayed on its back ; the colour of the
belly of the larva was pale (dull white), with several Void olive spots in
pairs, corresponding to its belly feet. Its head was small, of a pale Indian-
“exes otour; ; its hind feet were doe and it had also two broad anal feet,
S '09220/7) E
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TAXU KION LALISNI ZN SUL
Cotznso,—On the Metamorphosis of Dasypodia selenophora. 801
On being touched, it coiled itself up very rapidly and closely. This it
did many times, so that it was difficnlt to get to see its under parts. It did
not seem inclined to crawl, and was very quiet. I put it under a large bell-
glass, and tried it with various leaves, but it would not eat anything; so I
left it, thinking it would shortly undergo its transformation.
The tree on which I found it was a large old one, and it was on its main
stem about 4 feet from the ground ; how it came there was a mystery, for
there were no shrubs nor plants nor even grass near,—it being the very
middle of our dry season (which this year was extreme), and while the upper
overhanging branches of the tree were several feet above my head.
All that day and part of the next it remained very quiet, still keeping
stretched out to its full length, but not moving; it ate nothing, though on
the 22nd it discharged several large pellets (feces), of an obtuse cylindrical
shape.
I kept watching it daily, and on the 25th January I found it had spun
a small white web (cocoon) with which it had managed to bring together
and curl down around it the edges of a large leaf of the common red
geranium, fastening also the leaf pretty closely to the sheet of paper below,
so that I could not get a single glimpse of the larva, although I tried many
ways; but as the weather was so hot and dry, and the leaf quickly
withering, I soon left off making any further attempts to observe it,
fearing I might injure the larva.
Several weeks passed and no sign of its change appeared; and I was
almost getting tired of making so many diurnal visits, when, on the morning
of the 21st of March, I found it had emerged a perfect insect, a large moth
of wondrous beauty! Ido not think that it had left its pupa-case during '
the night, as there was but a very small amount of its long downy covering
about the glass; for had it done so, being a nocturnal creature and of a
large size, it would surely have knocked itself about a good deal in its vain
attempts to get out.
I may truly say that I gazed on it with pleasure and astonishment; for
though I had pretty largely known our New Zealand Lepidoptera (having
collected many hundreds of species some 25-40 years ago)” I had never
before seen one like this. It differs too, very considerably from our British
species, although I thought I had formerly seen something not altogether
unlike itin books. There, however, it was, a handsome large black moth,
forming almost an equilateral triangle of 1:6” as it remained at rest. I
* I may here mention that the moth described in Dr. Dieffenbach’s work on New
Zealand, Vol. IL, p. 284, ( Hepialus; was also raised by me from larve which I had fed
on kumara leaves, much to the annoyance of the Maoris in those times, who made a
great fuss and objection to my so doing. (See note at end.)
802 Transactions.—Z oology.
knew that it belonged to the Noctuina group, but that was all. So I sent
an outline of its appearanee to Mr. Fereday, the celebrated entomologist
residing at Christchurch, enquiring if there were any such specimens in the
Museum there, or if he knew of such a moth. From Mr. Fereday I
received a very kind and full reply, that, while there were no specimens of
this moth in the Canterbury Museum, he had one (a female) in his own
possession, which had been taken some years ago at Nelson; and that,
though rare, the perfect insect had been described, and was the Dasypodia
selenophora of Guenee.*
And now for a brief description of the perfect insect.
Its size across, with wings extended, is 9' 8"; length of body, 1’
9": the body thick, with 7 segments, but tapering downwards rapidly
from its second segment almost to a point at the tail (not unlike, in this
respect, those well-known British species of the Sphingide family, Smerinthus
tilig, and Cherocampa porcellus), and densely covered with very long
down. Antenne, nearly l' long, slender and evenly attenuated, but not
smooth, being apparently very finely and regularly ringed and serrulated ;
legs, large and stout.
Its colour, on the other side, when living, was a sooty black ; but after
death it changed to a dark umber colour, with dark zig-zag and other
markings on its wings (somewhat resembling those on the wings of the
Emperor Moth, Saturnia pavonia-minor), and with a peculiar large and
lustrous ocellated spot on each fore wing near the costa—in a line with the
anal angle; all the wings are ciliated, bearing minute whitish dots at the
extremities of the nerves or rays just within the margin. Its colour on the
under side was ochrous or fulvous; the legs, amber-coloured below the
knee, but its thighs were ochrous, and thickly covered with excessively long
and waving down; its horns also were ochrous coloured but darker at
their bases.
While living, it was a truly superb, rich, velvety-looking creature ;
presenting, too, when at rest, such a regular and graceful equi-triangular
outline. The eyes on its wings had (if I may so express myself) a living
look, much as the irises of the eyes of men and animals are sometimes
drawn when represented under bright light. Those spots, or eyes, were all
alike, black, but the two circular rims round each, and the lunate or
triangular iris-pupil-like part within were shining lustrous and Waxy, Or as
if strongly gummed. What with its fine moony eyes on its wings, and its
long wavy down on its thighs, it well deserved its expressive name, both
generic and specific. I could not help thanking its describer, for it is not
often that we find so fit and distinguishing a name given in these modern
* In Spécies Général des Lépidoptéres Nocturnes.
anaua
Corrxso.—On the Metamorphosis of Dasypodia selenophora. 203
times, either to an animal or to a plant. Much, however, of its surpassing
beauty quickly faded after death, which I attributed to the fumes of the
sulphur I had used in killing it, not having any chloroform at hand, and
leaving home on that very day by train to visit the country schools. ;
The pupa-case (after the moth had emerged) is nearly cylindrical, very
obtuse'at the head, and tapering regularly downwards from end of folded
wings at 4th segment, and pointed conical at the tail; length, 1" 8", and
diameter in thickest part 6” ; suspended slightly by tail; well-marked in
front with folds of wings and antenns, eyes and head of imago, and very
strongly with 7-ringed segments, each having two long spiracle marks, one
on each side. Colour dark red (garnet), with a blueish or violet bloom
(dust), but smooth and shining on its prominent parts.
Cocoon very small, white and coarse, almost woolly; just sufficient to
hold the edges of the leaf down to paper, where, however, it was strongly
fastened ; fecal pellets emitted after enclosure.
The imago had made its exit by a small round hole at the top of pupa-
case, back of the head, the case having also slightly given way down the
costal marking of the wings on each side.
Norz.—Dr. Dieffenbach saw the moth I had raised from the larva referred
to (in the note, p 301), at my house in the Bay of Islands, where he was a
frequent visitor during his stay there in the summer of 1840-1841; and
from me the doctor obtained not a few specimens and much information
(like many other visitors of that early period), which, however, he never
acknowledged.
As it may be of some little interest I will just quote what I then wrote
about that larva and imago, in a letter to Sir W. Hooker, dated **July,
1841," and published by him in the London Journal of Botany (1842), vol.
L, pp. 304, 805.
* In a phial you will find specimens of what I believe to be the true
larve of Sphaeria robertsii.* These larve are abundant in their season
on the foliage of Batatas edulis (?) +, the kumara of the New Zealanders;
_ to the great distress of the natives, who cultivate this root as a main article
of their food, and whose occupation, at such times, is to collect and destroy
them, which they do in great numbers. They vary a little in colour, as
may be observed inthe specimens sent. The New Zealanders call them
Hotete and Anuhe (the same names which they apply to the Spheria
robertsii itself), and always speak of them as identieal with that Fungus.
The common belief is, that both (those living on the kumara and those
which bear the Fungi) alike descend from the clouds! this opinion doubtless
arising from their sudden appearance and countless numbers.
* Cordiceps robertsii.—Hand-Book, Fl. N.Z.
t Ipomaa chryssorhiza.—Hand-Book, Fl. N.Z.
a
304 Transactions:—Zoologyj.
* À moth from the larve also accompanies the above, for I have fully
satisfied myself of their identity. In 1836 I kept the larve under glasses,
and fed them with the leaves of kumara (much to the annoyance of the
natives), until the perfect insect was produced. There cannot reasonably
exist a doubt that this insect deposits or drops some of her eggs on the
` branches of the raataa (Metrosideros robusta, A.C.), beneath which tree
alone the Spharia robertsii has hitherto been found, when they (the larve)
fall to the earth beneath, die, and the Spheria is produced.
“ I think I can offer a fact for consideration relative to their being only
(or chiefly) found beneath Metrosideros robusta. One fine evening last
summer, when enjoying, as usual, a promenade in my garden, just as the
. sun had set, I was admiring the splendour of some plants of Mirabilis,
which had just unfolded their scarlet petals. Suddenly several of these
moths made their appearance, darting about the plants in every direction,
pursuing one another, and eagerly striving to obtain the honey which lay at
the bottom of the perianths of the Mirabilis. From this plant they flew
upwards to the flowers of a stately Agave (A. americana), where, being
joined by other moths, their congeners, their numbers soon increased ; and
thus they continued to enjoy themselves every evening during the whole
season. The inference I deduce is this, that the M. robusta, blooming at
this season, having scarlet flowers which abound in honey, becomes the
centre of attraction of these insects—increased, too, by its densely crowded
coma of inflorescence, more particularly so from the blossoms being always
at the extremity of its branches; by which, and by their colour, this tree
may at once be distinguished from the other denizens of the forest, even at
a great distance.
** The larva whereon the Spheria is found, when first taken out of the
earth, is white internally, and appears solid and succulent. A finely-cut
slice, when held against the light, presents a beautiful appearance.”
I may further add that, 25-30 years back, I had a honeysuckle (Lonicera
periclymenum ) trained round the doorway of a house in my garden. This
plant flowered abundantly in the summer, and it was interesting and curious
of an evening to sit on the step (as I have often done) and watch those large
moths (Hepialus); they would visit the plant in great numbers, and
unrolling their long probosces, probe the flowers to get at the honey, pass-
ing quickly from flower to flower, and continually coiling and uncoiling their
long trunks with great rapidity; they never lighted on the plant, and all the
time kept up a tolerably loud humming noise from the quick and incessant
vibrations of their wings, which, indeed, drew the attention of the cats, who
often, in consequence, captured them,
Srurm.—Further Notes on Danais berenice. 805
Art. XXX.—Ferther Notes on Danais berenice, in a letter from Mr. F. W.
C. Srurm to the Honorary Secretary, Hawke Bay Philosophieal Institute.
[Read before the Hawke Bay Philosophical Institute, 9th September, 1878.)
* Hawke Bay Nurseries, 17th February, 1878.
“ Drar Sm,—In regard to the butterfly, Danais berenice, or a closely-allied
species (as per your paper on the same),* the first time I saw it was at the
Reinga, up the Wairoa River, in Hawke Bay, in December, 1840, or January,
1841. In 1848, I captured a number at the Waiau, a tributary to that river,
the Wairoa; I cannot recollect how many, but it must have been eight or
nine at least, as I sent some small collections of insects to several of my
friends and correspondents in Europe, and all, or nearly so, had one or two
of the Danais included. Again, in 1861, I captured three on the Rangitikei
River (near to the Messrs. Birch’s sheep-run), one of which I have still in
my collection, although in a very imperfect state. About twelve years ago
Mr. Brathwaite captured one in his garden at Napier; this he sent to
England, and it came into the hands of the Rev. H. Clarke, who mentioned
it to me in a letter, as we corresponded. Four years back I saw three or
four in my garden here, and two years ago there were a great number in
my gardens, always keeping about the Lombardy poplars and Houheria
populnea. Mr. Duff, of Kereru, also informed me that he had captured one
pretty high up on the east side of the Ruahine range, about ten years ago.
I certainly believe the butterfly to be indigenous and not introduced; and
my observations of it fully coincide with yours, that while, in certain years,
it is plentiful, in other years it is not to be seen.—I am, dear sir, yours, etc.,
F. W. Srurm.”
Art. XXXI.— Notes on some New Zealand Echinodermata, with Descriptions
of new Species. By Prof. F. W. Hurron.
[Read before the Otago Institute, 8th October, 1878.]
Amphiura parva, sp. nov.
Small, dise pentagonal, covered with rather large imbricating scales,
and a pair of large, nearly semi-circular, radial shields at each corner.
Rays two or three times as long as the dise, tapering; upper plates broader
than long with the outer edge convex; under plates laterally constricted,
with a blunt tooth on each latero-anterior margin, and with the outer edge
slightly emarginate. A single broad tentacle scale. Side plates with a row
of three or four nearly equal spines, which are almost as long as the breadth
” Trans. N. Z. Inst., Vol, 5 P. 276.
AQ
306 Transactions.—Zoology.
of the ray. Mouth shields triangular. The whole animal is of a pale
brown colour. The distance between the tips of the rays is about three
quarters of an inch.
Dunedin Harbour.
Asteracanthion graniferus, Lam.
À specimen of what I take to be this species is in the Otago Museum.
It was found in Dunedin Harbour. :
Asterias rupicola, Verrill, Bull. U.S. Nat. Museum, No. 8, 1876, p. 71.
À specimen of this species, found near Dunedin, has been presented to
the Museum by Mr. A. Montgomery.
Echinaster fallax, Mull. and Troch. — Othilia luzonica, Gray.
The Henricia occulata of my Catalogue of the Echinodermata of New
Zealand (1872) is the same as this species.
Echinaster (?) sp.
Rays seven; five and a half times as long as the diameter of the disc.
À specimen 18in. in diameter from Waikouaiti, presented by Mr. Orbell. I
cannot identify it.
Chetaster maculatus, Gray (Nepanthia).
I have placed with great doubt under this species a,starfish that I have
received from Wellington.
Pentagonaster dilatatus, Perrier, Arch. Zool. Exper. 1876, v., p. 88.
Asterina nove-zealandia, Perrier, l.c., p. 228.
I have not seen any description of either this species or the last.
Asterina regularis, Verrill.
| Ihavea variety of this species, from Dunedin, with six rays, which can
hardly be distinguished from 4. australis.
Goniocidaris canaliculata, A. Ag.
During a late visit to Sydney I was able to examine specimens of both
G. tubaria and G. geranioides, and found that our species differed from both.
It is, however, I think, identical with G. canaliculata ; but the ocular pores
are at the external angle of the plates, and Mr. Agassiz does not mention
the trumpet-shaped secondaries surrounding the abactinial system. It has
ten primary tubercles in a row.
Norr.—Since reading this paper, I have seen the figure of Goniocidaris
canaliculata in Sir Wyville Thomson's “ Atlantic,” and find that it is not
our species. Our species may be called Goniocidaris umbraculum.
Salmacis globator.
Specimens sent to the Otago Museum, by Mr. C. Traill, from Stewart
Island, appear to belong to this species. But there are eight or nine
tubercles on a plate of the interambulacral system at the ambitus. The
Hutton,—0n some New Zealand Echinodermata, 307
test is white with pink tubercles; the integument a pale brownish yellow.
The spines on the upper portion are reddish purple with white tips; on the
lower portion they are white, getting yellow towards the base.
Diameter 2 inches. Height 1:4 inches.
Echinocardium australe.
A specimen of this species, presented to the Museum by G, Joachim,
Esq., from Northport, Chalky Inlet, measures 23 inches in length.
Molpadia coriacea, Hutton.
This is evidently not a true Molpadia. It is probably a Caudina or an
Echinosama, but as the type is in the Wellington Museum, I cannot
re-examine it.
Cucumaria thomsoni, sp. nov.
Body fusiform, scarcely subpentagonal. Skin rough, wrinkled. Ambu-
lacra with the tubercles densely crowded in about 5 or 6 rows. No feet
on the interambulacral areas. Tentacles—?
Rich brown, the white tips to the feet giving the ambulacral areas a
spotted appearance. Length, 14 inches.
Stewart Island. Presented to the Museum by G. M. Thomson, Esq.,
after whom I name it. A single specimen in spirit.
Echinocucumis alba, Hutton.
The receipt of another specimen of the Chirodota (? ) alba of my catalogue
has enabled me to dissect it, and I find that it has five well-marked
ambulaera, and should be placed in the genus Echinocucumis.
Labidodesmus turbinatus, sp. nov.
Body rounded, suddenly contracted posteriorly into a short-pointed tail,
and anteriorly into a rather long cylindrical neck; skin smooth, slightly
transversely wrinkled ; the two dorsal ambulacra, with two rows each of
rather distant feet; the three ventral ambulacra either like the dorsal or
with more crowded feet in several rows. Tentacles—. Body white, covered
with a brown epidermis, which easily peals off, except round the ambulacral
feet. Length, 21 or 3 inches.
Stewart Island. Presented to the Museum by G. M. Thomson, Esq.
Two specimens in spirits.
PENTADACTYLA, gen. nov.
Feet evenly spread over the greater part of the body. Tentacles five,
peduneulated, frondose ; dental apparatus very large.
Pentadactyla longidentis, Hutton.
In the Catalogue of the Echinodermata of New Zealand (1872), p. 16, I
described a Holothurian under the name of Thyone longidentis, It is, how-
808 Transactions.—Z oology.
ever, evident that it is not a Thyone, but belongs to the family Aspidochirota,
and must form the type of a new genus, distinguished by having only five
tentacles and scattered foot-papille. I therefore propose the name Penta-
dactyla for it.
Holothuria mollis, Hutton.
This species in many respects approaches Stichopus. I have had no
specimens for dissection, and cannot therefore say whether the reproductive
organs are in one or two bunches. A knowledge of this will settle to which
genus it should be referred.
Holothuria robsoni, sp. nov.
Elongated, rather slender. Skin, smooth. Feet, scattered sporadically
over the ventral surface, apparently none on the back. Pentacles, 20.
Anus, round. Back, pale purplish brown; ventral surface, dirty white,
with scattered brown spots. Length, 4i inches.
Cape Campbell. Presented to the Museum by Mr. C. H. Robson, to
whom I have much pleasure in dedicating it.
Art. XXXII.—The Sea Anemones of New Zealand. By Prof. Hvrrox.
(Read before the Otago Institute, 11th June, 1877.]
I sgovrp not have chosen such a pretentious title for this paper, but that I
wished to include in it descriptions of the three New Zealand sea anemones
that have not been found near Dunedin. The sea anemones are animals
that can only be described from living specimens; they must be collected,
brought home alive, and placed in water before their structure and colour
can be seen, and when they are dead there is no known means of preserv-
ing them so as to be of any use. To enable observers, therefore, in any
part of the colony away from libraries, to describe these animals, I have
included in this paper not only descriptions of all the New Zealand species
not described in our Transactions, but also an analysis of all the known
genera.
ZOANTHARIA-MALACODERMATA.
Analysis of the Families.
Base adherent at pleasure.
Tentacles all compound... ses -. Thalassianthida,
Tentacles both compound and simple ie -- — Phyllactide.
Tentacles all simple
Hutton,—0On the Sea Anemones of New Zealand. 809
Column pierced with loopholes 5 .. — Sagartiade,
Column imperforate.
Column smooth
Margin simple xis wee . — Antheade.
Margin beaded ids wi .. Actiniade.
Column warted ... ee T .. Bunodide.
Base non-adherent.
Lower extremity rounded, simple ... e. _Llyanthide.
Lower extremity enclosing an WA oe . Minyadide,
THALASSIANTHIDE.
Analysis of the genera (after Milne-Edwards).
The tentacles of one kind only,
The trunk ramified.
The branches long and four-fingered ... Thalassianthus.
The branches inflated and with scattered TATA Actinodendron.
The trunk simple.
The trunk with scattered branched filaments Actinaria.
The trunk with groups of rounded papille ... ^ PAymanthus.
The tentacles of two kinds.
The internal with globular papille, the external
laciniated Sarcophianthus.
The internal "—— the pee — i Heterodactyla.
PHYLLACTIDE.
Analysis of the genera (after Milne- Edwards).
Compound tentacles on the margin of the disc.
Column smooth WA v Hi sso Phyllactis.
Column warty . Oulactis.
Compound tentacles on the diso, pend two ae of
simple tentacles — ... m sl nes .. Rhodactis,
BAGARTIADE.”
Analysis of the genera (after Gosse).
Tentacles moderately long, slender.
Disc perfectly retractile.
Column destitute of suckers ... a .. Actinoloba,
Column furnished with suckers s .. A Sagartia,
Column clothed with a rough epidermis ^ ... Phellia.
Disc imperfectly retractile.
| Base annular, parasitic on shells — ... e. Adamsia,
| Base entire, not parasitic ^... .. Gregoria,
Tentacles mere warts; set in radiating desde m -. Discosoma.
* Nemactis (Actiniadæ) has also the column pierced.
810 Transactions,—Zoology,
ANTHEAD2,
Analyis of the genera,
Mouth normal.
Tentacles not fully retractile,
Column long, trumpet-shaped...
Column normal.
Tentacles conical
Tentacles fusiform
Tentacles retractile.
Tentacles subulate.
Tentacles sub-equal va
Tentacles very unequal ... YA
Tentacles not subulate,
Tentacles club-shaped
Mouth elevated
Mouth depressed
Tentacles moniliform
ACTINIADE,
Analysis of the genera.
Tentacles not retractile.
Column short and cylindrical
Column long and conical
Tentacles retractile,
Skin smooth.
Column pierced
Column imperforate
Skin warted
Bunopiwz.*
Analysis of the genera (after Gosse),
Tubercles conspicuous,
Dise and tentacles retractile,
Tubercles of one kind only.
In the form of rounded warts.
Irregularly scattered
Arranged in vertical lines
Arranged in wavy horizontal Sei:
Arranged in a single horizontal Wie:
In the form of queer blisters ...
Tubercles of two kinds,
and erectile cie papille
Disc and tentacles not retractile |...
Tubercles obsolete
-» rounded ati
Aiptasia,
Anthea,
Eumenides,
Paractis,
Dysactis,
Melactis
Corynactis,
Heteractis,
Comactis.
Ceratactis,
Nemactis.
Actinia.
Phynactis.
Aa
Cystactis.
Echinactis.
Bolocera.
Stomphia,
* Phymactis vetitis has also the column warted,
Hurron.—On the Sea Anemones of New Zealand. 311
ILYANTHIDÆ.
Analysis of the genera (after Gosse).
Tentacles of one kind ; marginal
Column thick, pear-shaped.
Mouth with a papillate gonidial tube .. A Peachia.,
Mouth simple ... d ies d -. — Dlyanthus,
Column slender, long, worm-shaped
Invested with an epidermis ... ded „Edwardsia.
Without an epidermis es ... _Haleampa,
Tentacles of two kinds; marginal and pum
Naked ; idis swimming . es -. Arachnactis,
Padling in a membranous ihe: sedentary
Column inferiorly perforate ... --- Cerianthus,
Column inferiorly imperforate .... Saccanthus.
Minyadida
Analysis of the genera (after Milne-Edwards.)
Tentacles simple.
Column smooth ees ERE e .. Plotactis.
Column warty MA is ses 2; Minyas.
Tentacles compound ... s de: Pid .. Aautactis,
Descriptions of the New Zealand Species,
PHYLLACTIDA.
Tentacles of two kinds ; simple and compound.
Oulactis (M. Edwards).
Column with warts. Compound tentacles placed round the margin of
the disc, and outside the simple tentacles.
Oulactis plicatus, sp. nov.
Column cylindrical, not much expanded at the base, about as high as
broad; warts arranged vertically in numerous (80 or 100) rows. Brownish
yellow, with the warts dirty white. Disc circular, concave; the margin,
when expanded, thrown into five deep folds. Crimson, radiately streaked
with yellow near the margin. The simple tentacles are conical, about two-
thirds of an inch in length, and arranged in two rows. They are trans-
parent, of a violet or greenish colour, and often with opaque whitish
transverse bands on the interior aspect. The compound tentacles are in a
single row, and about two-thirds the length of the simple tentacles. They
are white, and multi-lobed, the lobes being subcylindrical and rounded at
the ends.
Height about 2} in, when extended. In rock-pools on the coast, near
Dunedin,
312 Transactions.—Zoology.
The animal fastens pieces of broken shells, small stones, ete., to its
column, and when retracted looks like a small heap of gravel. The com-
pound tentacles are not sensitive. Its nearest ally is Metridium muscosum
Drayton, from New South Wales, which Milne-Edwards and Haime have
placed in their genus Oulactis. Occasionally some of the lobes of the
compound tentacles are pink or orange.
SAGARTIADE,
All the tentacles simple. Column pierced with loop-holes.
Gregoria, Gosse.
Disc imperfectly retractile ; column smooth, without suckers, perforated
by a few large loop-holes.
Gregoria albocincta, sp. nov.
Column cylindrical, broader than high; yellowish-orange, vertically
striped with yellowish-green, each band having a central line of darker
green. Dise circular ; reddish orange or brick red, radially streaked with
darker; margin not beaded ; mouth elevated, round; throat ribbed. Tentacles
in four indistinct rows round the disc, short, about half the diameter of the
disc, conical with blunt points, and often much swollen at the base. Their
colour is opaque white. Diameter, about ‘3 or “4 of an inch.
Common in rock-pools near Dunedin. Sometimes the column is vertically
streaked with red and white.
ANTHEAD.
All the tentacles simple. Column imperforate, and smooth. Margin of
disc not beaded.
Paractis, M. Edwards.
Column naked. Tentacles retractile, subulate, sub-equal.
Paractis monilifera.
Actinia monilifera, Drayton in Dana re AM Zooph., p.136.
Paractis monilifera, M. Ed., Corall. I., p. 2
Column broader than high, dilated i Ld extremities, where the exterior
surface has moniliform rugosities, of a pale brown with deeper lines.
Tentacles longer than the dise, in three rows ; ringed with brown and white.
Disc yellowish.
Bay of Islands.
Anthea, Johnstone.
Column short, expanded at the base, surface wrinkled. No suckers,
warts, nor loop-holes. Tentacles numerous, submarginal, scarcely retractile.
Anthea olivacea, sp. nov.
Column short, broad, and expanded at the base, slightly horizontally
wrinkled; of an olive green colour down to the base. Disc circular, concave,
with the mouth slightly raised; of a darker green than the column and
be.
b T us :
E o »
Hurron.—On the Sea Anemones of New Zealand. 313
tentacles ; mouth plaited, pink inside. Tentacles in four rows, much longer
than the disc, tapering, not perfectly retractile, of the same colour as the
column.
Diameter, about half an inch.
In rock pools near Dunedin.
In small specimens the tentacles are quite retractile.
There is also a variety in which the column is longitudinally streaked
with yellow.
ActTINIADA,
All the tentacles simple. Column imperforate, smooth. Margin of the
disc beaded.
Actinia, Linn.
Column short, much expanded at both ends, the margin separated by a
broad but shallow fosse from the tentacles. Tentacles subequal, retractile.
Actinia (? ) thomsoni,
Actinia thomsoni, Coughtrey, Trans. N.Z. Inst. VII., p. 280.
Port Chalmers.
Ihave not seen this species, and as Dr. Coughtrey has not mentioned
any marginal beads, I doubt its being a true Actinia.
Actinia (? ) striata.
Actinia striata, Quoy and Gaim., Voy. Astrol., IV., p. 1
“Small, cylindrical, elongated ; pale blue iios pem reddish ; tentacles
numerous, acute, yellowish ; mouth brownish yellow. Height, half an inch.
Bay of Islands.”
I have not seen this species, and cannot say to what genus it should
be referred.
Phymactis, M. Edwards.
Column with suckers, but no loop-holes ; margin of disc beaded.
Phymactis polydactyla, sp. nov.
Column short, cylindrical; suckers raised on warts, crowded at the upper
part of the column, but arranged in vertical rows lower down; whitish,
with the warts olivaceous brown. Dise circular, concave, of a deep crimson ;
a row of round white beads round the margin. Tentacles numerous, in
three rows, conieal, much shorter than the diameter of the dise; the
exterior rows generally pink, the interior yellowish, or whitish, or greenish ;
sometimes with opaque white transverse bands interiorly.
Diameter, about one inch.
In rock pools near Dunedin.
Phymactis inconspicua, sp. nov,
Column cylindrical, as long or longer than broad, with vertical rows of
suckers on warts. Olive brown above, passing into yellowish white below;
alo |
314 Transactions.—Zoology.
the warts brown, often pale-centred. Disc round, concave, olive brown,
sometimes marked with grey, marginal row of beads white.
Tentacles moderate, nearly or quite equal to the diameter of the disc,
quite retractile; olive brown margined with white, and often white-spotted.
Diameter about :3 of an inch.
In rock pools near Dunedin, abundant.
In some the warts are obsolete near the base, owing to the animal
having lived in a narrow crack in the rocks. There is also a variety in
which the tentacles are purplish grey, and the dise even is sometimes the
same colour.
Mmyadida.
Base not adherent; lower extremity enclosing an air-chamber. Floating
on the ocean.
Minyas, Cuvier.
Tentacles simple ; column warty.
Minyas (?) viridula.
Actinia viridula, Quoy and Gaim., Voy. Astrol., IV., p. 161., pl. 18, f. 15-21.
Minyas ? viridula, M.Ed., Corall. L, p. 229.
Shape variable, discoid or elongated, longitudinally ribbed. Ribs
twenty, tuberculated, and with a median row of white suckers. Mouth
plicated. Greenish, mixed with bistre upon the ribs, and of a deeper green
in the intervals. |
Pacific Ocean, between New Zealand and the Friendly Islands.
ArT. XXXIIL —Catalogue of the hitherto described Worms of New Zealand.
By Prof. F. W. Hvrrox.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 10th January 1879.)
Class TURBELLARIA.
Unjointed, ciliated, leaf- or ribbon-like worms.
Order Ruaspocena.
Intestine a simple pouch ; pharynx protrusible or not; usually one sex-
Meum Genus Chonostomum, Schmarda.
Mouth central; pharynx infundibuliform ; eyes two.
C. cRENULATUM, Schmarda, Neue Wirbelloser Thiere (1861).
Body oblong, subrounded, green. The two eyes purple. Pharynx
infundibuliform, margin crenulated. Penis cirriform.
In still fresh water near Auckland.
Order Denproceata.*
_ Intestine tree-like, aproctous; pharynx protrusible; body broad and
flat; sex-openings double.
Hurron.—Catalogue of the Worms of New Zealand, 815
Genus Polycelis, Hemp. and Ehr.
Mouth subcentral ; pharynx cylindrical. Eyes numerous, occasionally
in a heap on the neck, also in lines on the margin.
P. AvsrRALIS, Schmarda.
Body flat, oblong-oval, brown; eye-clusters irregularly surrounded by a
halo,
Auckland, and New South Wales. Marine.
Genus Centrostomum, Schmarda.
Mouth central, orbieular ; pharynx multilobed, divided or crenated.
C. potysorum, Schmarda.
Body oblongo-oval, truncated anteriorly ; ; light brown; eye-clusters
many.
Auckland.
Genus Thysanozoon, Grube.
With frontal pseudo-tentacles, Back with numerous papille, Eyes
numerous.
T. eruciatum, Schmarda.
Body flat, elliptical. Papille conical. Two bands at right-angles to
each other, destitute of papille. Eye-clusters cervical; two semi-circular.
Port Jackson and Auckland. Marine.
Genus Geoplana, Schultze.
Body long; mouth central; eyes numerous, anterior, and marginal.
Terrestrial.
G. traversu, Moseley. Q.J. of Micros. Science, Vol. XVIL., p. 284.
Body elongate, flat beneath, slightly convex above, bluntly-pointed
posteriorly, more gradually attenuated anteriorly ; broadest in the centre;
generative aperture a little less than half the distance between the mouth
and posterior extremity; ambulacral line absent, the whole under-surface
acting as a sole; eye-spots forming a single row of ten or so on the front of
the anterior extremity, and an elongate patch composed of two or three
rows on the lateral margin of the body, just behind the anterior extremity ;
also present, sparsely scattered, on the lateral margins of the body for its
entire length ; body of a pale yellow on its lateral margins, with a broad
mesial stripe on the dorsal surface, extending for its entire length, of a dark
chocolate colour; and four narrow, ill-defined, and somewhat irregular
similarly eoloured stripes on either side of it, extending to the lateral
margins of the body ; under-surface, pale yellow.
ellington.
Order NEwERTIDEA.
Long Sao e mostly marine, diccious, proboscis-bearing ; body
sometimes transversely striped,
316 Transactions,— Zoology.
Genus Ommatoplea, Ehrenberg.
Abranchiate; head entire; eyes many; proboscis terminal; mouth,
subterminal; appendix none.
O. HETEROPHTHALMA, Schmarda.
Body depressed, tape-worm-like. Median line white, rest of the body
red. Head indistinct, apex acuminate. Eyes in transverse lines.
Under stones on the shore, Auckland.
Genus Meckelia, Leuckart.
Respiratory fissures two, longitudinal. Eyes none. Proboscis terminal.
Mouth subterminal.
M. macrostoma, Schmarda.
Body depressed, greenish blue. Head attenuated. Fissures sub-
terminal, short. Proboscis subterminal. Mouth oblongo-ovai, very broad.
Auckland.
M. macrorruocuma, Schmarda.
Body rather flat, brownish olive. Head distinet, oblongo-lanceolate.
Respiratory fissures as long as the mouth.
Shores of New Zealand.
Class GEPHYREA.
Body cylindrical, with a thick coriaceous skin, often indistinctly ringed.
Head not distinct from the body, often produced into a proboscis.
Family Sipunculide.
Cylindrical, mouth at the tip of a retractile proboscis, surrounded with
tentacles, and often with hooks; anus dorsal; teeth none.
Genus Sipunculus, Linnzus.
Skin netted with anastomosing muscular fibres; proboscis short, with
simple tentacles.
S. mnzvs, Baird, P.Z.S., 1868, p. 81.
Body eylindrieal, slender, attenuated anteriorly, posteriorly thick, fusi-
form, retieulated, in the anterior portion corrugated, then smoother and
minutely granulated ; caudal apex oval, smooth, shining; proboscis short,
smooth, the anterior portion thicker than the body; colour white, shining
bronze. Length, 64 in.; thickness of anterior part, 14 lines ; of posterior
part, 4 lines; length of proboscis. 6 lines; thickness, 2 n New Zea-
land (Mr. Cuming).
Class ANNELIDA.
Body composed of numerous, more or less similar, segments; limbs
none, or rudimentary ; skin generally with chitinous bristles.
Order Oricocmgr. 5
a rudimentary; ño branchiæ; hermaphrodite ; mostly land or fresh
Hvrrox.—Catalogue of the Worms of New Zealand. 817
Genus Lumbricus, Dinngus.
Sete in four double rows.*
L. uLiginosus, Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst. IX., p. 851, pl. VIL, f. A.
Cephalic lobe large and rounded, completely dividing the buccal segment
superiorly into two parts, and with a transverse sulcus on the posterior
superior portion, between the divided halves of the buccal segment; anterior
margin of buccal segment deeply emarginate inferiorly. Colour, reddish.
Length, eight or nine inches.
L. camrestris, Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst. IX., p. 851, pl. VIL, f. B. -
Cephalie lobe large, subeonieal, completely dividing the buccal segment
superiorly into two parts; anterior margin of buccal segment entire, or
slightly eroded inferiorly. Colour reddish, or olivaceous green, paler
below. Length, two or three inches.
L. vevis, Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst. TX., p. 851., pl. VIL., f. C
Cephalic lobe small, conical, simple ; anterior border of buccal segment
slightly emarginate superiorly, entire inferiorly, Pale flesh colour or
greenish. Length, three to four inches.
L. annunatus, Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., IX., p. 852, pl. VII. f. D.
Cephalie lobe small and flattened, divided into anterior and posterior
divisions inferiorly ; anterior border of buccal segment emarginate
superiorly, entire inferiorly; colour pale brownish-red, each segment with
a dark reddish-brown transverse band in the centre, paler below. Length,
about three inches.
Genus Megasolex.
Sete in numerous rows all round the body.
M. antarctica, Baird, P.L.S., XI., p. 96.
Body consisting of about 180 rings ; sets surrounding the body, short,
black, rather distant; rings not keeled, larger and more distinct at the
anterior extremity, closer at the posterior end, amd all smooth. Length,
seven inches.
M. syuvestris, Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst. IX., p. 852., pl. VIL, f. E.
Cephalic lobe small flattened, with a deep transverse groove superiorly,
and divided into anterior and posterior portions inferiorly; anterior border
of buccal segment deeply excavated superiorly, entire inferiorly; sete in
about 80 double rows. Colour dark red-brown. Length, one and a-half to
two inches.
M. uinzatus, Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., IX., p. 852, pl. VIL, f. F.
Cephalic lobe small, rounded, completely dividing the buccal segment
superiorly into two parts; anterior border of buccal segment slightly
s, i orthoetiehon Sehmarda, is stated to come from New Zealand by mistake ; " |
proper habitat is Tasmania.
818 Transactions,—Zoology.
emarginate inferiorly ; sete minute in single rows; colour reddish-brown,
finely longitudinally striated with lighter ; length two inches,
Order CHÆTOPODA.
Body not presenting distinct regions; branchiw dorsal; sexes distinct ;
limbs tubular, setigerous, Marine.
Family ApHropitips.
Segments unequal, with dorsal, shield-like elytra ; head lobes developed,
with a single tentacle and lateral antenne and palpi; eyes sessile or
stalked ; gills small, simple; epipharynx generally with two upper and two
lower teeth and jaws.
Genus Aphrodita, Linnseus. ;
Head with three antenns, two eyes, and a median earunele or tubercle;
buccal segment rudimentary without appendix; all the feet more or less
covered with hairs, no barbed bristles ; elytra 12-15 pairs alternating with
the superior cirri; proboscis unarmed, or with rudimentary cartilaginous
teeth.
A. TALPA, Quatrefages, Hist. Nat. des Annelés, I., p. 196, pl. 6, f. 2.
Median tentacle very short, laterals long; body of 82 segments; feet
enveloped in hairs; elytra 80, rounded, small; the whole back covered
with dirty, brown hairs.
A. squamosa, Quatrefages, l.c. I., p. 201.
Head small, distinct, hidden by the prominent elytra; median antenna
short, thick, truncated (?); laterals twice as long, slender ; tentacles short;
body of 27 segments, moderate, elongated; feet apparently one-oared,
prominent; elytra 24, large, rugose, robust, covering the whole body;
superior cirri longish, on a thick, compressed, swelling; hairs short, not
covering the elytra; branchiæ more or less conical, and separated tubercles.
| Genus Polynoe, Savigny.
Head distinct with 9 antenne and 4 eyes; buccal ring indicated by the
presence of two pairs of tentacles, the superior of which are bifurcate ; the
inferior longer, thicker, and simple. Feet more or less evidently biramous ;
the setigerous tubercles on a common peduncle; elytra alternating with
the superior cirri of the feet, covering the whole length of the back; pro-
boscis with two pairs of horny jaws.
P. avuckLANDICA, Schmarda, Neue Wirbelloser Thiere, p. 158.
Body long, greyish-yellow ; segments 60; tentacles 7; elytra oblique,
P. uacnoLePIDATA, Schmarda, le., p. 155, pl. 86, f. 306. .
| Body flat, brown; elytra 15 pairs, large, oval, or suboval, greyish-
"
ccu. OW
Hurron.—Catalogue of the Worms of New Zealand. 319
yellow, spotted with brown, margin fimbriated with conical spines. Ten-
tacles smooth; dorsal cirri spinulose. *
Auckland.
This species belongs to the genus Antinoe of Kinberg, in which the bases
of the antenne are fixed under the margin of the emarginated cephalic lobe,
close to the tentacle.
P. rorycHRowa, Schmarda, l.c., p. 153, pl. 86, f. 807.
Body flat, yellowish-red; elytra 12 pairs, oval, yellowish, spotted with
greyish-blue or greyish-red on the inferior external margin. Tentacles and
cirri smooth.
This species, and the next, belong to the genus Lepidonotus of Leach,
in which the bases of the antenna are produced from the anterior ERU
of the cephalic lobe.
P. sixcramir, Baird, P.L.S., Zoology, VITI., p. 184.
Head lobe rather small; palpi stout white, setaceous, smooth; dta
12 pairs, pale coloured, mud with black ; rounded, thin, covered all over
with minute points, with some larger raised and rounded punctations
intermixed ; ciliated on outer margin. Back completely covered. Feet
biramous; ventral branch the larger, with a fascicle of yellow bristles, stout,
slightly curved at the point, and serrated a short distance below the apex.
Dorsal branch small; bristles short, slender, sharp-pointed, and minutely
serrated nearly their whole length. Dorsal cirri conical, setaceous, smooth;
anal cirri rudimentary. Length, about 9 lines; breadth, 2 lines.
Genus Pelogenia, Schmarda.
Body vermiform, long; elytra in all the segments. Suctorial feet in
the back and abdomen ; oars biramous. Tentacles seven, their external
. bases coalescing.
P. antropa, Schmarda, l. c., p. 160.
Back convex, blackish in front, reddish-yellow behind. Abdomen
ferruginous, with a deep median sulcus. Suctorial feet disposed in four
systems on the abdomen ; two at the margins of the sulcus, the others at
the bases of the ventral cirri. Dorsal suctorial feet behind and between
the elytra. Dorsal elytra hardly covering, brownish-red, the margins
undulating. Setæ golden, articulated, the superior part longer than the
inferior, thin ; superiorly short and broad.
Family Evnicema,
Rounded, long, flattened ventrally ; head lobes notched in front, with
1-5 tentacles; several separate upper, and two, often united, lower jaws ;
feet simple with acieula. Living in sand-burrows.
320 Transactions.—Zoology.
Genus Eunice, Cuvier.
Head with two eyes, and five antenne placed in a single transverse row;
buccal segment with two tentacles; branchis pectinate, or laciniate, on
one side; sete composite, with short spoon-shaped appendage.
E. camari, Quatrefages, l.c. I., p. 821.
Head moderately notched ; antenne apparently moniliform ; buccal
segment rather long; tentacles moderate, subarticulated ; upper jaws
slender, lower six-toothed; border of denticule undulated ; labrum
narrow, slightly notched; body composed of 120 segments; upper cirri
of feet thick longish, the lower smaller; branchie 6-fimbriate.
E. australis, Quatrefages, l.c. I, p. 821.
Head short, broad, deeply notched ; antenne long, moniliform ; buccal
segment long. Tentacles longish, subarticulated. Upper jaws robust;
lower 10-dentate ; denticule toothed ; body of 120-130 segments ; upper
cirri of feet thick and longish, the lower small, fixed to a thick base;
branchie 7-fimbriate.
Genus Notocirrhus, Schmarda.
No eyes nor antenne; feet with a superior cirrus and simple sete, or
the sete simple and composite.
N. sPHEROCEPHALUS, Schmarda, l.c., p. 116.
Head globose. Body rounded, ochraceous. Branchie (dorsal cirri) sub-
cylindrical. Sete few, two-haired, border fringed, apex short and with
five uncinate spinules.
Family AMpHINOMID=.
Angular or flat; segments equal, few; head small, usually with five
tentacles; toothless; branchie dorsal comb- or tree-like; bristles hair-like
serrate, not acicular; head lobes often compressed.
Genus Chloéia, Savigny.
Head with three antenne, two eyes, and a caruncle; buccal segment
with two tentacles. Body more or less oval, with two thick, short,
cylindrical cirri at the posterior extremity. Feet biramous, the branches
distinct. Branchie bipinnate, two on each segment, remote from the feet.
C. mermis, Quatrefages, lc., I., p. 389.
C. gegena (?), Grube Beschr., neu. od. Wen. bek. ann., p. 91.
Head small. Lateral antenne about equal to the tentacles, median
larger. Caruncle crested, broad, and with a narrow margin. Body oval,
elongate. Sete of both feet simple; branchie small.
C. srecrasnis, Baird, P.L.S., X., p. 234.
Body rounded-fusiform, attenuated at each end, of about 34 segments.
Colour pale, dotted all over with numerous small white round spots varying
Hurton.—Catalogue of the Worms of New Zealand. 821
in size. Caruncle long, narrow, extending over 4 or 5 segments. Ventral
cirri white; dorsal cirri long and subulate, of a beautiful purple colour.
Branchie simply branched. Bristles of both feet capillary, slender, and
simple, those of the dorsal tuft longer and stouter than the ventral.
Family Nupuruyipa.
Body long, many-jointed; lateral feelers small; peristome without
cirri, but with parapodia and papille in place of teeth.
Genus Nephtys, Cuvier.
Head small, with four small antenna. Body terminated by one anal
curus. Branches of feet separated; the superior carrying a cirriform
branchia on its inferior border.
N. macroura Schmarda, l.c., p. 91. Quat., I, p. 480.
Body prismatico-cylindrical, greyish-yellow. Head trapezoidal. Eyes
large. Tentacles four, distinct; jaws two on a horny base. Branchie
short; inferior lamellar process large. Ventral cirrus obsolete. Caudal
cirrus filiform long.
Family NEREDA.
Body long, with two anal cirri; head flat, small, with four eyes, two
small middle and two large outer antenne ; peristome with eight feelers ;
epipharynx protrusible, with two large horizontally moveable jaws, armed
with denticles; parapodia double, with acicula, and no hair-like bristles.
Genus Nereis, Lamarck.
Head with four eyes and four antenne; latero-external antenna very
thick terminated by a small distinct joint ; buccal segment very distinct with
4 pairs of subulate tentacles; proboscis short, divided into 8 regions, of
which two are exsertile, always armed with two strong curved jaws, and
generally with very small and numerous denticles ; feet biramous ; superior
branch with two tongue-like accessory branchie, inferior kadh with a
single similar one ; both branches with bristles and a cirrus.
N. Robusta, Quatrefages, l.c. I., p. 544, not of Kinberg.
Head broad, elongated, anterior suleus apparently bipartite; lateral
antenne very thick, broad, shorter than the head; the median small
conical; buccal segment short. Tentacles shorter than the head; jaws
broad, internal margin straight, 5-6-dentate. Denticles numerous, large,
disposed in balls ; body broad, of 107 segments ; feet very short, appendices
rounded, each with a short cirrus.
N. praoca, Schmarda, l.c., p. 107, pl. XXXI., f. 246. Quat., lc., I., p. 546,
not N. pacifica, Quat., from Peru.
Back obscure green; belly greenish-yellow ; segments 180; head
rounded; external tentacles rounded, short; branchiæ and ventral cirri
all
322 Transactions.— Zoology.
Shorter than the feet; jaws with short apices; teeth five, rounded,
irregular.
Auckland.
Genus Heteronereis, (Brsted.
Head, body, and anterior feet like Nereis; posterior feet very different
from the others, carrying a foliaceous ibe, and the bristles sometimes
single, sometimes mixed.
H. AUSTRALIS, Schmarda, l.c., p. 101, pl. XXXL,- f. 242. Quat. 1., p. 577.
Body flat, 96-ringed; jaws tridentate ; appendices of the feet tongue-
shaped and leaf-like; branchie (dorsal cirri) longer than the feet; upper
tubercle subglobose ; green in front, yellow behind.
Family GLYCERIDÆ.
Segments many-ringed ; proboscis club-shaped, protrusible; bristles with
acicula; branchie short or none.
Genus Glycera, Savigny.
Head small, conical. Branches of the feet approximated, on a common
peduncle, bristles simple and composite, with two acicula in each branch.
Proboscis with four hooked teeth, with no points.
Q. ovicERA, Schmarda, l.c., p. 95, pl. 80, f. 239. Quat. II., p. 188.
Body yellowish or brownish-green; bipartite segments of the jaws
with a broad base, external process quadrangular,; pedicelled ; proboscis
ringed at the base, with a double series of papille ; branchie (dorsal cirri)
short, conical; feet notched; pectiniform ovaria at the base of the feet.
The body of this species is greenish, the feet yellow.
Family Puyrropocrp.
Body long, many-jointed; head lobes small; antennes 4 or 5; eyes 2-4;
epipharynx with papille ; ventral cirri leaf-like.
Genus Eulalia, Savigny.
Head with five antennz and two or four eyes; buccal segment simple,
double or triple, with four pairs of tentacles; body long, linear, narrow,
always composed of a large number of rings; feet one-branched, armed
with composite bristles, generally with a leaf-like cirrus.
E. cmoa, Quatrefages, lc., IL., p. 123.
Head small, rounded; antenna small, the median behind; eyes none (?);
buccal segment triple; tentacles very short, thick, disposed 1,2,1 on each
side; body roundish, of 250-270 segments ; feet small, exposed; upper cirri
thick, hardly leaf-like, small, lanceolate; lower small mamilleform ; bristles
simple, short, straight, deciduous,
This very common species is of a dark green colour—(F.W.H.)
Hurton,—Catalogue of the Worms of New Zealand, 323
Genus Porroa, Quatrefages.
Head with five antenne ; buccal segment with only two tentacles.
P. mrcropuyiia, Schmarda, le., p. 86, pl. 29, f. 280. Quat: E., p. 128.
Back very convex, blackish green; branchim rich green, small, ovalo-
cordate ; eyes four. Tentacles (antennæ) two frontal, two lateral, dissimilar,
cervical. Tentacles two; ventral cirri tubercular.
Family Svrrma.
Body elongated; head with tentacles, often with eyes; peristome with
2-4 cirri, often united to the prostomium ; pharynx not protrusible, some-
times toothed, or with a chitinous tube, which bears a boring spine; feet
one-branched, with two aciculate bristle clusters; ventral cirri short or
none,
Genus Sph rosyllis, Quatrefages.
Head not distinct from the buccal segment, with two frontal lobes, five
antenne or tentacles, and eyes.
S. macrura, Schmarda, l.c., p. 70 (Syllis). Quat., l.c. IL, p. 58.
Body yellowish, convex above; below flat; frontal lobes conical ; eyes
four, disposed in a trapezium; branchise (upper cirri) short ; 30 articulated.
Family CrggnarTULIDAE.
Body rounded, fusiform; head with no teeth, antenne, nor tentacles ;
feet in two series, on the lower hooks; thread-like gills on many of the
segments,
Genus Cirratulus, Lamarck.
Head conic, mouth inferior; body cylindrical; first and last segments
only without branchie.
C. ancuytocnatus, Schmarda, l.c., p. 58. Quat., IL., p. 458.
Body ochraceous; branchi red; back convex, belly flat; sides narrow,
angulated.
Order CEgPHALOBRANCHIATA.
Worm-like marine animals, mostly protected by a tube; body presenting
distinct regions; respiration by branchie placed near or on the head.
Sexes distinct ; no teeth, nor epipharynx.
Family Purrvusips.
Free; peristome without bristles; branchism of simple threads surrounded
by a girdle of long, yellow, thick bristles; segments not ringed; feet with
upper linear and lower hook-like bristles; sometimes with terminal suckers.
Genus Chlorema, Dujardin.
Mouth subterminal, placed between the two antenne ; body elongated,
iform, covered with long hairs,
824 Transactions.—Zoology,
C. sicotor, Schmarda, l.c., p. 21, pl. 20, f. 169. Quat., le., I., p. 477.
Segments 50; body rounded, attenuated behind, greyish-yellow, anterior
portion blue; the whole surface covered with a hyaline jelly ; upper bundles
of bristles 4-haired ; the lower with hooked seta.
Genus Siphonostomum, Grube.
Head distinct; body naked, attenuated behind ; feet with simple bristles
on both feet.
B. antarcticum, Baird, P.L.S., XI., p. 95.
Sete surrounding the head numerous, very short and fine; branchism
short, numerous; body covered with an enveloping substance like that of
most of the known species (shaggy). Sete of the inferior ramus of feet
single, crooked or hooked at the point, and of nearly a black colour.
Colour of body varying from a very dark to a light brown, and of a trans-
parent look. Length of longest specimen nearly three inches.
Family HERMELLIDÆ.
Tubiculous; segments of two or three kinds, the hinder thread-like
with no appendages ; head lobes fleshy, with a circlet of yellow pales on
the prostomial border, which acts as an operculum; tube built up of
cemented shells.
Genus Pallasia, Quatrefages.
Tentacles joined upon the upper face; operculum formed by two con-
centric rows of sete ; body divided into three regions.
P. quapricornis, Schmarda, l.c., p. 25, pl. 20, f. 174 (Hermella). Quat., l.c.,
., p. 924.
Body reddish-yellow ; head and branchie violet; dorsal branchis blue;
papille short; external pales aculeate at the sides; internal geniculate,
aculeate; occipital spines four. :
Family TEREBELLIDA.
Inhabiting soft, fragile tubes; body with two distinct regions; head
without pales and lobes, but with large, moveable, ciliated, branchis,
serving as touch- and prehensile-organs.
Genus Terebella, Linneus.
Three pairs of arborescent branchiæ.
T. puaciostoma, Schmarda, l.c., p. 41, pl. 24, f. 196. Quat., l.c., IT., p. 366.
Body reddish-yellow ; cephalic branchis pale, short; laterals cinnabar-
red, short; pinnule in the last segment; mouth transverse.
T. HETEROBRANCHIA, Schmarda, l.c., p. 42, pl. 94, f. 197. Quat., le., IL., p. 966.
Body yellowish-grey ; cephalic branchiw clear; first lateral branchia,
consisting of many equal branches, the others with one branch longer;
mouth obsolete quadrangular ; pinnule,
Hurton,—Catalogue of the Worms of New Zealand. 825
Family SABELLIDÆ.
Tubiculous ; body with two distinct regions; cephalic branchiæ pinnate,
in two circlets or spirals, one of which may be rudimentary.
Genus Sabella, Savigny.
Head indistinct; branchie equal, more or less fan-shaped; anterior
region not very distinct, scarcely broader than the posterior region ; tubes
membranous, open at one end only.
S. ARMATA, Quatrefayes, l.c., IL., p. 453.
Head indistinct; branchie short, base produced into 22 free cirri;
antenne two pairs; collar dilated, six-lobed; anterior body segments
light ; sete dissimilar, uncinate and crested,
S. CERATODAULA, Schmarda, l.c., p. 33, pl. 22, f. 186. Quat., Le., IL., p. 459.
Branchi# hardly one-fourth the length of the body, striped with yellow
and brown ; body brownish-yellow.
B. arandis, Baird, P.L.S., XIII, p. 160.
Collar rather broad, and deeply bilobed; thoracic feet seven pairs;
segments belonging to them smooth, not grooved on the upper dorsal
surface; back dark brown, rather yellow underneath; feet numerous,
about 100. Peduncles large, well developed; anterior and posterior divisions
separated by a groove, in the centre of which are situated the feet; a deep
groove along the dorsal surface, except the seven thoracic segments; sete
short, slender, smooth, setaceous, sharp-pointed. Length, without branchis
iinches. Case, a leathery-looking tube, covered externally with a thin
coat of mud.
Family SERPULA.
Tubieulous; two ciliated skin-folds on the front segments; branchis
with a spiral basis, with one or two opercula with chitinous or calcareous
discs. "Tubes calcareous, attached to stones, etc., or free.
Genus Serpula, Linneus.
A single cartilaginous or horny operculum; base of the branchie
circular. Tube calcareous, fixed.
B. anrarctica, Quatrefages, l.c., IL., p. 503 (1865).
Branchie short, cirri 24-25. Operculum infundibuliform, sub-concave,
margin denticulated ; body of 70-80 segments, anteriorly 7; anterior sete
filiform, rounded; laminæ denticulated; tube like that of S. vermicularis,
S. zeananpica, Baird, P.L.S., XL, p. 21, pl. IL, f. 9 (1864).
Animal unknown; opereulum white, small, sub-concave, margin with
20 denticulations ; tube slender, white, creeping, nearly round, longitudinal,
dorsal keel small, transversely flexuously striated.
Probably the same as the last (F.W.H.)
326 Transactions.— Zoology.
S. (Buromarus) Bonroxr, Baird, P.L.S., XI., p. 12, pl. L, f. 2.
Animal unknown. Operculum horny, infundibuliform, external margin
densely crenated, internally with 20 calcareous pointed teeth. Tube red,
three-angled, adherent, transversely rugose, back canaliculated.
Genus Vermilia, Lamarck.
A single operculum terminated by a calcareous plate, conical, or with
various appendages; base of the branchie circular; tube calcareous, fixed.
Sub-genus Placostegus, Philippi.
Operculum terminated by a calcareous, disc-like plate, with an entire
margin.
V.canmmirERUS, Gray. Dieffenbach’s New Zealand, IL., p. 242.
(Vermitus), Baird, P.L.S., XL., p. 12.
Tube thick, irregularly twisted, opaque white, with a high compressed
wavy keel along the upper edge; mouth orbicular, with a tooth above it,
formed by the keel; operculum orbicular, horny. (Gray).
The whole animal is of a fine blue colour, and the elegant tuft of
branchial filaments intensely azure, banded with white. (Baird).
V. cxRULEA, Schmarda, l.c., p. 29, pl. 21, f. 178. Quat., l.c., IL, p. 512.
Tube trigonal, blueish ; operculum clavate, border smooth. Peduncles
short, irregularly three-sided.
New Zealand and the Cape of Good Hope.
No doubt the same as the last (F.W.H.)
V. cnEYI, Quatrefages, l.c., IL, p. 510.
Branchie short, cirri 24-26; operculum sub-infundibuliform, flat,
roughish; body 70-80-ringed ; anterior sets rather short, curved, slightly
margined ; laminæ striate; tube rough, keeled ; aperture wide and obtusely
dentated.
Sub-genus Podioceros, Quatrefages.
Opereulum terminated by a flat surface, Mcr ter: or cartilaginous,
carrying a large number of short thick spines.
V. uanonn, Quatrefages, l.c. II., p. 520.
Branchis very short; cirri 20; operculum margined, bidentate behind ;
body of 50-60 rings, anteriorly 7; anterior sete curved, fringed ; lamina
obtusely denticulated. Tube like that of V. greyi.
V. STRIGICEPS, Morch, Rev. Serp., p. 66. Quat. l.c. IL, p. 621.
Opereulum orbicular, flat; tube agglomerated, creeping, trigonal ;
dorsal keel compressed, acute, laciniated, beaked, with a series of punctiform
impressions on either side; laterally convex; lines of growth often lami-
nated, crowded.
North Australia and New Zealand,
Ei
KA
|
ZA
b
Huvrrox.—Catalogue of the Worms of New Zealand. 327
Sub-genus Vermilia, Lamarck.
Operculum terminated by a calcareous prolongment, generally in the
form of a simple cone, entire or truncated.
V. Homsront, Quatrefages, l.c. II., p. 527.
Branchie short, cirri 28 ; apex of the operculum irregularly spirovform ;
body of 40-50 rings, anteriorly 7; sete elongated, curved, fringed ; laminæ
serrated. Tube unknown.
Sub-genus Galeolaria, Lamarck.
Operculum terminated by a calcareous plate more or less flat, often
composed of several juxtaposed pieces, carrying a large number of variously
shaped spines, delicate, and elongate, disposed either on the circumference
or on a more or less considerable tract of the operculum.
V. uystrix, Morch, Rev. Serp., p. 24, pl. 21, f. 8,4. Quat., le., IL., p. 584.
Bottom of operculum excentric, anterior border sloping, composed of
eleven diverging pieces, posterior border erect, composed of hexagonal
pieces, bearing externally a long spine, from whence the surface of the
operculum is hidden by crowded prostrate spines. Spines subulate, the
upper layer ornamented with about 20 scales. The rest naked, apices
slightly bent. Tube sub-solitary, creeping, above with two approximated
keels, often vanishing towards the aperture; lines of growth strong,
unequal; aperture circular, entire.
Genus Cymospira, Blainville.
Operculum single, corneo-caleareous, more or less complicated ; base of
the branchim spiral; horny lamine instead of uncini.
C. INCOMPLETA, Quatrefages, l.c., IL., p. 543.
Head indistinct ; branchial cirri very numerous, on a quinquespiral
base; operculum (?); collar large, trilobed; body with about 100 rings,
anteriorly seven; anterior setæ large, fringed, curved; laminæ finely
crenulated.
Genus Spirorbis, Daudin.
Basal leaves of the branchie rolled in a circle or semi-circle; one or
two opercula, not united together when two; tubes generally isolated,
entirely attached, twisted into a flat or nearly flat spiral.
S. zELANDICA, Gray. Dieffenbach’s New Zealand, Il., p. 295.
Tube reversed, whorls two or three, rapidly enlarging ; the last with
three spiral ridges, the middle rib most prominent.
328 Transactions.——Z00l09y.
Arr. XXXIV.—List of the New Zealand Cirripedia in the Otago Museum.
By Prof. F. W. Hurrox.
[Read before the Otago Institute, 8th October, 1878.)
1. Baranus pecorus, Darwin, Monograph of the sub-class Cirripedia,
Balanide, p. 212, pl. 2, f. 6.
Dunedin, generally attached to the peduncle of Boltenia. The Museum
also contains specimens from South Australia.
2. BALANUS AMPHITRITE, Var. variegatus, Darwin, Le., p. 240, pl. 5, f. 2.
Dunedin, on seaweed and shells.
. Baraxvs porcatus, Da Costa. Darwin, l.c., p. 256, pl. 6, f. 4.
Campbell Island, on rocks.
e
4. Barawus vestitus, Darwin, l.c., p. 286, pl. 8, f. 8.
Stewart Island, on shells.
TETRACLITA PURPURASCENS, Wood. Dana, l.c., p. 337, pl. 11, f. 1b.
Wellington and The Bluff, on rocks.
All the New Zealand specimens that I have seen are like fig. 1b of
Darwin, which is probably the Conia depressa of Gray (Dieffenbach's
New Zealand, II., p. 269). The Museum also contains specimens
from Sydney, which are like fig. la of Darwin, as well as some like
fig. 10.
uh
6. Ermmıvus modestus, Darwin, l.c., p. 350, pl. 12, f. 1.
Auckland, on rocks, abundant.
7. EnwiNIUS SINUATUS, sp. nov.
Smooth, conical or depressed; parietes of each valve with two
broad rounded folds, and faint transverse striations; white; sutures
always distinctly defined. Scuta with the occludent margin smooth;
adductor ridge obsolete; basal margin longer than the tergal margin.
Terga with a long spur continuous with the scutal margin; crest for
depressor muscle prominent and rounded.
Wellington, on shells.
Although the opercular valves are almost identical with those of
E. modestus, the wall valves are so different and so constant that I
cannot doubt the distinctness of the two species.
8. Eruiwivs puicatus, Gray. Dieffenbach’s New Zealand, IL, p. 269;
Darwin, l.c., p. 951, pl. 12, f. 2.
Auckland and Dunedin, on rocks, abundant.
9. ErwrNIUS RUGOSUS, sp. nov.
Rugged, deeply folded, the folds of the parietes often meeting and
growing together, conical, sutures only distinct in young shells.
Horrox.—List of N.Z. Cirripedia in the Otago Museum. 929
Dirty white or greyish. — Seuta with a prominent adductor ridge;
the articular furrow deep and strongly grooved ; basal margin larger
than the tergal margin. Terga stout, the articular ridge straight;
carinal and basal margins confluent; spur short and broad.
The Dluff, on rocks, not common.
Distinguished from all varieties of E. plicatus by the straight arti.
cular ridge.
10. Conoxura piapema, L. Darwin, l.c., p. 417, pl. 15, f. 3.
Waikouaiti, on a whale. —
There are also in the Museum specimens from South Austra'ia and
Sydney.
11. CHAMÆSIPHO cotumna, Spengler. Darwin, l.c., p. 470, pl. 19, f. 3.
Dunedin, on rocks and shells, abundant.
There are also in the Museum specimens from Sydney.
12. Lepas Huu, Leach. Darwin, l.c., Lepadide, p. 77, pl. 1, f. 2.
Wellington and Dunedin, on floating timber.
18. Leras PEcTINATA, Spengler. Darwin, l.c., p. 85, pl. 1, f. 8.
Auckland, on Spirula levis, common.
14. Lepas AusTRALIS, Darwin, l.c., p. 89, pl. 1, f. 5.
Dunedin, on sea-weed.
15. Lepas rascrcuLARis, Ellis and Solander. Darwin l.c., p. 92, pl. 1, f. 6.
Dunedin, on seaweed, North Cape on Velella pacifica.
16. ScarPELLUM viLLosUM, Leach. Darwin, l.c., p. 274, pl. 6, f. 8.
Dunedin, on rocks. Mr. R. Gillies. Mr. Darwin gives no certain habitat
for this species.
17. Porrrciezs spinosus, Quoy and Gaimard. Darwin,l.e., p. 824, pl. 7, f. 4.
Wellington and Dunedin, on rocks.
18. POLLICEPS DARWINI, sp. nov.
Capitulum with one or more whorls of valves under the rostrum.
Scuta triangular, as broad as high, not reaching half-way up the
terga. Terya oval, elongated, more than twice as long as broad.
convex. Carina curved, internally deeply concave, reaching more
than two-thirds of the length of the terga, and with its apex close
to the terga. Rostrum short and broad, much less than half the
length of the carina. Scales of the peduncle unequal and unsym-
metrieally arranged.
Dunedin, on rocks. Mr. A. Montgomery.
Easily distinguished from P. spinosus by the projection of the terga
beyond the scuta, and from P. sertus by the short rostrum, and the
short rostrum and the apex of the carina not projecting.
—
330 Transactions.—Zoology.
APPENDIX.
The following additional species are said to occur in New Zealand:—
Balanus trigonus, Darwin, l.c., p. 223.
Coronula balenaris, Gml. L. balenaris, Gray, in Dieffenbach’s New Zealand,
II., p. 269.
Tubicinella trachealis, Shaw. Gray, in Dieffenbach's New Zealand, II., p. 269.
Anatifa elongata, Quoy and Gaimard, Voy. Astrol. IIL., p. 635, pl. 93, f. 6.
Darwin, l.c., p. 374.
Bay of Islands.
Anatifa tubulosa, Quoy and Gaimard, l.c., III., p. 643, pl. 98, f. 5. Alepas
tubulosa, Darwin, l.c., p. 169
Tolaga Bay, attached to a living Palinurus.
Dollicipes sertus, Darwin, l.c., p. 327.
Art XXXV.—On a new Infusorian parasitic on Patella argentea.
By Prof. F. W. Hurron.
[Read before the Otago Institute, 8th October, 1878.)
Lasr month, while investigating the structure of Patella argentea, Quoy and
Gaimard, I discovered numerous specimens of an infusorian attached to the
branchiz, of which the following is a description :—
Body campanulate, naked, devoid of cilia, hyaline, highly contractile ;
sessile or subsessile; mouth surrounded by a spiral ring of rather coarse
cilia, which are Sp of being moved or held motionless at the will of the
animal. Length, zl, inch. These little animals were attached to all parts
of the branchie, and closed up suddenly, in the manner of Vorticella, when
touched by any foreign body.
The absence of a carapace and of a stalk would appear to put this
species into Trichoda, Ehr., but the disposition of the ciliaround the mouth
precludes this; and I am inclined to regard it as a Cothurnia, in which the
lorica has become obsolete owing to its commensual habits. I therefore
propose to call it Cothurnia patella.
Hurron,—Description of some new Slugs. 881
Art. XXXVI.— Description of some new Slugs. By Prof. F, W, Hurron.
[Read before the Otago Institute, 26th November, 1878.]
LIMAX MOLESTUS,
Mantle short and flatly rounded behind, smooth and sub-concentrically
wrinkled when alive, rugose and not wrinkled in spirit. Pulmonary
opening in the posterior third of the mantle; back rounded behind the
mantle, pointed and keeled posteriorly ; body with irregular longitudinal
rib-like protuberances; colour variable—greyish or reddish-brown variously
marbled with dusky. Tentacles of the same colour as the back; foot
yellowish-white. Length, about 1} inches, Shell slightly concave. A
rather common variety is quite black.
Dunedin, Wellington, ete. Abundant everywhere.
The radula has 88 rows of rachis teeth, and about 20 on each side of
lateral teeth.
This species is closely allied to L. agrestis of Europe, but is larger, the
keel is not oblique, the pulmonary opening is placed more posteriorly, and
the ovo-testis is more elongated. In Dr. Knight’s paper on the Bitenta-
culate Slug of New Zealand (Trans. Lin, Soc, XXII., p. 381) figures 8, 11,
12, and 15 belong to this species.
MILAX EMARGINATUS.
Mantle slightly shagreened, short and emarginate behind ; pulmonary
opening a little behind the centre. A depressed line runs from this opening
forward over the back, and backward again to a point on the left side
opposite the pulmonary opening. Back sharply keeled up to the mantle ;
body smooth, with depressed lines radiating from the mantle. Colour dark
grey or olive above; foot and lower sides of the body yellowish-white.
Length 1 inch. Shell small, nearly flat; length 08 inch.
Dunedin; common in gardens, etc.
Distinguished from M. antipodarum by the shape of the mantle and
smooth body. I have M. antipodarum from Wellington. The radula has
27 rows of rachis teeth, and about 25 on each side of lateral teeth. The
transverse rows are curved, the convexity being in the direction of the
apices of the teeth.
ÅRION INCOMMODUS.
Mantle rugose, short and rounded behind; pulmonary opening in front
of the middle; back rounded, not pointed posteriorly ; colour dark lead-
grey, a lateral stripe on the mantle, and a longitudinal band on each side,
black; sometimes the whole upper part of the body greyish black; foot
yellow. Length 1 inch; shell rudimentary.
Dunedin, Not uncommon in gardens, etc,
332 Transactions.—Zoology.
This species has the form of Geomaleus, but the genital organs open
below the pulmonary opening; the ovotestis is small and globular, the
albumen gland very large; the penis is long, and, when retracted, lies
across the renal organ; the spermatheca is large and flask-shaped; there is
no prostate gland, and the retractor of the penis is attached to its anterior
end,
The retractor muscles of the tentacles are two—one on each side, and
the retractor of the buccal mass is quite distinct from them, and originates
much further back, on the right side. The teeth are arranged in slightly
arched transverse rows; they are 32:1:32 on each row. The central tooth
has a cusp on each side; the other rachis-teeth a cusp only on the outer
side; the laterals decrease in size outwards. The laterals change gradually
into the rachis-teeth, but there are about 10 rachis and 22 lateral teeth on
each side.
JANELLA PAPILLATA.
Like J. bitentaculata, but with small papille on the back, between the
oblique grooves,
Wellington and Dunedin. On trees.
Konophora, gen. nov.
Like Janella, but the eye peduncles short and conical.
KoxoPHORA MARMOREA. r
Body smooth, rounded above, scarcely distinct from the foot; tail
rounded; back with a central groove with lateral branches sloping obliquely
backward ; colour blackish, marbled with pale brown on the back; an
indistinct black lateral line; region round the pulmonary opening yellowish.
Length, 1 inch.
Dunedin. In the bush.
I have only seen a single specimen, which was collected by Mr. F. J.
Browne, Articulator to the Museum.
[Nore.—Both Limax cinereus and L. flavus have been introduced into
Dunedin, but at present they are rare.]
Arr. XXXVII.—On Phalacrocorax carunculatus, Gmelin.
By Prof. F. W. Hurron.
[Read before the Otago Institute, 10th September, 1878.)
Domo his voyage with Captain Cook, in 1778, J. R. Forster described a
shag, which he said was found in New Zealand and Terra del Fuego, under
Hvrrox,—On Phalacrocorax carunculatus. 333
the name of Pelecanus carunculatus, distinguished, among other things, by
having red caruncles, or elevated papillæ, behind the nostrils.
Dr. Latham in his “General Synopsis of Birds,’’* (1878), using the
unpublished manuscripts and drawings of the Forsters, appears to have
divided this species into two, which he called the carunculated =e and
the tufted shag respectively.
Subsequently (1788) Gmelin, in editing Liunsus' ** Systema Natura"
took these two species out of Latham and named them Pelecanus caruncu-
latus and Pelecanus cirrata, the last being Latham’s “tufted shag." Both
are said to come from New Zealand only. P. carunculatus is said to have
the face naked and *'earunculated red," and to be about 20 inches in
length.
P. cirratus is said to have the crown erested, the tail composed of
fourteen feathers, and in length to be about 84 inches.
In 1828 Latham published his ** General History of Birds," in which he
adopts Gmelin's scientific names.
Graculus carunculatus is said to be about 30 inches in length, and to have
the space between the bill and the eye much carunculated, and over the eye
a tubercle much larger than the rest. It is said to be rare in Queen Char-
lotte Sound (New Zealand) and abundant in Staaten Land. Graculus
cirrhatus is said to be 34 inches in length; no caruncles are mentioned, but
the skin round the eye is said to be bare. Evidently following Gmelin
doubtfully, he remarks—* tail rounded and said to have fourteen feathers.”
Queen Charlotte Sound is given as the only habitat.
Captain King, R.N., deseribed in 1830 (P.Z.S., Part L, p. 80) under
the name of Phalacrocorax imperialis, a shag, from the Straits of Magellan,
which has the head crested. No mention is made of any caruncles, but the
tail-feathers are said to be twelve in number. Brandt (Bull. Sei. Acad.,
Petersburg, 18371) not only gives all these three species, but adds another,
Carbo purpurascens, from Chili and the Falkland Islands, characterised by
the absence of any white on the wing-coverts.
Mr. G. Gray in the “ Zoology of the Voyage of the Erebus and Terror”
(1844) united Gmelin's two species under the name of G. cirrhatus, and
said that G. carunculatus was the young, “ wanting the crest, the long
linear feathers over each eye, and the oblong spot on each wing." He gives
P. imperialis, King, as a synonym of P. cirrhatus, Gmel.
Bonaparte in his ** Conspectus Generum Avium"' (1857) separates
cirrhatus from carunculatus, and puts them in different genera, on account
of the supposed difference in the number of the tail-feathers. Hypoleucus
* This book I have not seen
t I take these from the edition of 1806. The length is probably a mistake for "e.
t This publication I have not seen
834 Transactions, — Zoology,
cirrhatus is said to come from Chili, to be 27 in. in length, and to have 14
feathers in the tail. | Leucocarbo carunculatus is also said to come from Chili
and the Straits of Magellan. The base of the bill is said to be carunculated,
and in the breeding season the bird is said to be crested, and to have a
broad band of white on the back. He gives P. imperialis, King, as a
synonym of L. carunculatus. Dr. Finsch says in 1870 (Jour. für Ornith., p.
915) that he has compared a specimen of G. caruneulatus, Gm. from the
Crozet Islands with those from the Straits of Magellan in the Leyden
Museum, and finds them to belong to the same species, Dr. Buller in his
Birds of New Zealand (1878) keeps both species together and gives Carbo
purpurascens, Brandt, as another synonym. In 1874 Dr. Finsch (Jour. für
Ornith., p. 213) having received a specimen from the Chatham Islands,
again separates P. carunculatus from P. cirrhatus, pointing out that the
South American birds have the gular and chin regions totally naked, while
in the Chatham Island bird there is à central feathered strip, and the sides
of the head and neck are dark. He considers the Chatham Island bird to
be G. carunculatus, Gmel,, and the Magellan Strait bird to be G. cirrhatus,
Gmel.
Mr. R. B. Sharpe, in the appendix to the Birds of the * Zoology of the
* Erebus' and * Terror'" (1875), aecepts Dr. Finsch's views; but in the
same year Dr. Coues (Bull. U.S. National Museum, No. 2) identifies the
shag from Kerguelen's Land as G. carunculatus, although pointing out that
it has no white band on the wing, and considers G. cirrhatus as a synonym.
Dr. Kidder, in the same publication, remarks that in this bird the caruncles
at the base of the bill are brilliant yellow.
Such, in short, is the history of the nomenclature of these birds. The
first statement (Forster) was that there is one species found both in New
Zealand and South America. Then (Gmelin) that there are two species,
both found in New Zealand. Then (Latham) that there are two species,
both found in New Zealand, and one of them (carunculatus) in South
America also. Then (Gray) there is said to be only one species, inhabiting
both places. Then (Bonaparte) there are said to be three species, all
inhabiting South America. Then Dr. Buller again considers them all as
one species, inhabiting both places. Then Dr. Finsch and Mr. Sharpe
consider that there are two species—G. carunculatus, inhabiting New Zea-
land and the Chatham Islands, and G. cirrhatus inhabiting the Straits of
Magellan and the Crozet Islands; at the same time Dr. Coues, who has
probably never seen a specimen from New Zealand, thinks that there is
only one species.
During a late visit to Melbourne I had, through the kindness of Prof.
McCoy, the opportunity of examining a specimen in the Museum, named
P. cirrhatus, from the Falkland Islands, and of comparing it with specimens
Hvrrox.—On Phalacrocorax carunculatus. $35
from Kerguelen’s Land, the Chatham Islands, and New Zealand, in the
Otago Museum, and I have no hesitation in confirming Dr. Finsch’s opinion
that there are two quite distinct species.
The Falkland Islands and the Kerguelen’s Land birds have the gular
pouch naked ; the white of the throat extends over the sides of the upper
part of the neck, and the caruncles at the base of the bill are large, project-
ing considerably above the line of the front, the two meeting, or nearly
meeting, in the median line above the bill. In the Chatham Island and
New Zealand birds, there is a band of white feathers along the centre of the
gular pouch; the sides of the upper neck are dark, and the caruncles are
reduced to small papillæ, which do not project above the line of the front,
and are divided by the feathers of the front.
But, although it is easy to show that there are at least two species, it is not
easy to say which name should be applied to each. Forster, no doubt, first
described the New Zealand bird, and afterwards erroneously identified the
South American bird with it, but it is doubtful whether he had applied the
name carunculatus to the New Zealand bird before he had examined those
in Terra del Fuego, and as his manuscripts were not published until 1844,
it is immaterial for the present enquiry whether he did or not. Gmelin was
the first to name the birds, and he gave the name carunculatus to the smaller
carunculated bird without a crest, and cirrhatus to the larger and crested
bird.* Gmelin says that both birds come from New Zealand only, but he
took his birds from Latham, and Latham says that cirrhatus occurs in New
Zealand only, while carunculatus is rare in New Zealand, and common in
South America. The smaller size, the caruncles, and the locality would all
point to carunculatus as the South American bird, but, on the other hand,
the New Zealand bird appears never to get a crest.
Dr. Kidder gives the length of a Kerguelen's Land bird at 231 in. ; the
specimen in the Otago Museum is rather larger. Dr. Buller gives the
length of birds from New Zealand as 32 in., and of birds from the Chatham
Islands at 26 in. (Trans. N.Z. Inst., IX., p. 339). The Chatham Island
birds are evidently smaller than those from New Zealand, but neither
Latham, Gmelin, Brandt, nor Bonaparte had seen birds from the Chatham
Islands. Brandt or Bonaparte appear to be the first to state that both
species came from South America, and when Dr. Finsch had to transfer one
back again to New Zealand, he took carunculatus. The evidence is, how
ever, I think, in favour of the New Zealand bird being cirrhatus; and, as
the Magellan Straits bird truly merits the name carunculatus, while the New
Zealand bird does not, I think it would be better to change Dr. Finsch's
nomenclature,
* The number of tail-feathers can be omitted, as both species have 12 tail-feathers, —
586 Transactions.— Zoology.
The idea that the South American bird is P. cirrhatus was probably
stated by Mr. Gray, who no doubt had seen Captain King's specimens,
giving P. imperialis, King, as a synonym of P. cirrhatus, Gml.; but Mr.
Gray included P. carunculatus with P. cirrhatus, and Bonaparte gives
imperialis as a synonym of P. carunculatus, Gml.
The synonomy will therefore be as follows :—
PHALACROCORAX CARUNCULATUS
Caruneulated Shag, Latham (1775).
Pelecanus carunculatus, Gmelin (1778). Habitat wrong.
Graculus carunculatus, Latham (1828).
Phalacrocorax imperialis, King (1830).
Carbo carunculatus, Brandt pani
Carbo purpurascens, Brandt
MPH bo a PEPERIT oes (1857).
aparte (1857).
Graculus caricata. oe (1870).
Graculus carunculatus, Hutton (Cat. Birds of New Zealand, 1872, ex Layard)
Hab. wron
Graculus cirrhatus, Finsch (1874).
Graculus carunculatus, Coues (1875).
b.: Straits of Magellan, Falkland Islands, Crozet Islands, Kerguelen's
Land.
PHALACROCORAX CIRRHATUS.
Tufted Shag, Latham (1775).
Pelecanus cirrhatus, Gmelin (1778).
Graculus cirrhatus, Latham (1828).
Carbo cirrhatus, Brandt (1837).
Graculus cirrhatus, Gray (1814).
Hypoleucus cirrhatus, Bonaparte (1857). Habitat wrong.
Phalacrocorax carunculatus, Buller (1873).
Graculus carunculatus, Finsch (1874).
Graculus carunculatus, Sharpe (1875).
Hab.: New Zealand and the Chatham Islands.
The next question is, are there more than two species? The Kerguelen's
Land birds differ from those of South Ameriea in having no white bar on
the wing, and in the caruncle being yellow instead of erimson. If constant
these differences are sufficient to distinguish the Kerguelen's Land species,
to which the name of P. purpurascens, Brandt, should be applied, unless that
is only the immature P. carunculatus, which is most likely.
Dr. Buller has also suggested (Trans. N.Z. Inst. IX., p. 388) that P.
cirrhatus may possibly include two species, the birds of the Chatham
Islands being distinguish:d from those of New Zealand by being smaller
and crested, and he formerly proposed to call the New Zealand bird P.
finschi, but found that that name had been appropriated by Mr. Sharpe.
Hurron.—On Collections from the Auckland and Campbell Islands. 887
The statement that the Chatham Island birds are crested, while the New
Zealand birds are not, must be taken with caution. I have certainly never
seen a crested bird from New Zealand myself, but they are very rare, and I
have not seen many; and P. cirrhatus appears to have been founded on a
crested bird from New Zealand. The bird also appears to be scarce in the
Chatham Islands, for although Dr. Buller quotes Mr. H. Travers as saying
that “he met with P. carunculatus in large numbers in the Chatham
Islands" (l.c., IX., p. 339), Mr. Travers himself states that it is “not
common "' (l.c., V., p. 221), and the specimen sent to Dr. Finsch from the
Chatham Islands was not crested. Consequently the question as to the
crest must be considered as unsettled. However, it appears that the
Chatham Island birds are decidedly smaller than those from New Zealand ;
but if Dr. Buller decides on considering this difference as of specific value,
it is to the Chatham Island bird that he must apply the new name, and not
as he supposes to the New Zealand bird.
DIMENSIONS OF THE THREE SPECIMENS IN THE ÜTAGo Museum,
Kerguelen's Land. | Chatham Islands. Otago.
Crested. Crested. Not crested.
jo Me DE EET M 115 11:5 12:5
Tail dE v. x ve 5:5 5:5 6:0
Bill (culmen) .. ne ee 2:25 2:5 2:8
Tarsus ., A 2 eR 2:0 2:0 24
Outer toe and claw .. vx 425 4:3 50
Art. XXXVIII.—Notes on a Collection from the Auckland Islands and
Campbell Island. By Prof. F. W. Hvrrox.
[Read before the Otago Institute, 10th September, 1878.]
Lasr June, Captain Townsend, R.N., was kind enough to agreeto take Mr.
E. Jennings, taxidermist to the Museum, to the Auckland and Campbell
Islands in H.M.S. Nymphe, in order that he might collect specimens of
natural history for the Museum. The Nymphe arrived at Port Ross on
13th June, 1878, and left again on the 17th, but as the 16th was Sunday,
Mr. Jennings only had two days and a half for collecting. On the 19th
they arrived at Campbell Island and left again the same day, Mr. Jennings
going on shore for an hour and a half only. It was during these short
times that the collections referred to in these notes were made.
No seals were seen during the trip. ET
338 Transactions.—Zoology.
BIRDS.
Anthornis melanura, Sparrm.
A single male individual from the Auckland Islands, which in colour
quite resembles specimens from New Zealand. The following are its
dimensions in inches :—Length 8:5, wing 3:6, tail 3-5, culmen “57, tarsus
1:8, outer toe (without claw) *55, middle toe ‘7, inner toe ‘45, hind toe “47.
Phalacrocorax magellanicus, Guil.
Head, neck, back, rump, thighs and upper tail-coverts blue-black ;
shoulders, scapulars and wing-coverts green-black, except a very narrow
bar of white formed by some of the upper wing-coverts; chin, throat, and
whole under surface of body, except the neck, white, wings and tail
brownish-black. Head crested, a few linear white feathers above the eye
and on the upper part of the neck. Irides brown. Skin in front of the
eyes dark blue, the minute papillæ crimson, sparingly clothed with small
feathers. Bill dark brown passing into orange at the base of both man-
dibles, gular skin bright orange. Legs and feet flesh-colour, with the soles
and the joints on the upper surface black; webs flesh-colour shading into
black towards the margin. A narrow strip of white feathers runs along the
centre of the chin pouch.
Immature.—The whole of the upper surface, neck, wings and tail dark
brown, in places glossed with greenish, no white alar bar; chin, throat and
belly white. Skin before the eye dull orange with crimson spots; bill
brown passing into orange at the base of the mandibles, gular pouch
orange. Feet as in the adult, but not so pink.
Length 28 inches, extent 39, wing 10:5, tail 6, culmen 2:2, bill to gape
8:1, depth at nostrils -52, breadth -48, tarsus 2:4; outer toe (without claw)
9:8, middle toe 2:85, inner toe 1:85, hind toe 1:25.
Two individuals, both females, from Campbell Island.
This species is allied to P. carunculatus, but is at once recognised by its
black neck. The white alar band is also much smaller.
Stercorarius antarcticus, Lesson.
A single female from Campbell Island.
Larus dominicanus, Licht.
A young female from Campbell Island.
Larus scopulinus, Forster.
Three specimens from the Auckland Islands and three from Campbell
d.
Five of these birds are adult (four males and one female) and all have
the breast beautifully tinged with rose colour, as is often the case with
Sterna frontalis, I have never seen this colouring in the New Zealand
*
Hurros.— On Collections from the Auckland and Campbell Islands, 839
Fis
Notothenia angustata, Hutton, T.N.Z.I. ani p. 213.
Five specimens of this fish were brought from the Auckland islands, It
may be identical with N. maoriensis Haast, T.N.Z.I., 1872, p. 276; but
that species is said to have only three spines in the first dorsal, and to
have scales below the eyes, It is no doubt the same as N, coriiceps of
the ** Fishes of New Zealand ” (1872), and most probably Sir J. Richardson
confused it with his N. coriiceps in the Ichthyology of the Voyage of the
“Erebus” and “Terror.” The type of N, coriiceps, according to Dr.
Giinther, comes from Kerguelen’s Land,
Notothenia arguta, sp. nov.
B. 5; D. 4| 80; A. 24; L. lat. 52.
Height of the body goes 41 times into the total length ; T of the
head four times ; posterior limb of the preopereulum perpendicular ; top of
the head flat, not concave, scaleless, roughened with small rounded papille;
above purplish black, lighter and pinkish below; gill membrane marked
with orange. A single specimen 7} inches in length from Campbell Island.
In general shape it approaches N. microlepidota, but is easily distinguished
by the fin formula,
Notothenia microlepidota, Hutton, T.N.Z.I., 1875, p. 218.
D.7|27; A. 22.
Two specimens from the Auckland Islands.
Notothenia parva, sp. nov.
B. 6; D. 6 | 28-29; A. 23-25; L. lat. 62.
Height of the body goes 51 times into the. total length ; length of the
head five times; top of the head scaleless, flat, with scattered papillæ.
Colour, gebiaiih: black, belly white, vertical fins black.
Four specimens from the Auckland Islands; 8 to 31 inches in length,
This species approaches N. sima, but has no scales on the top of the
head, and differs in its fin formula.
Tripterygium jenningsi. sp. nov.
D. 6 | 20-21 | 15-16; A. 28.
A simple tentacle above the orbit, and another at the nostril; teeth on
the vomer, none'on the palate. Colour, very variable; greenish-brown,
reddish-brown, or black, marbled with darker.
Sixteen specimens from the Auckland Islands, the largest 33 inches.
in length.
The lateral line is as in T. nigripenne, to which species it is closely allied,
but differs in having constantly 28 rays in the anal fin
Note.—Notothenia arguta, N. parva and Tripterygium jenningsi were taken
840 Transactions.—Zvology,
in rock pools, N. angustata and N. microlepidota ina net. Not a single fish
was caught with a hook. Most of the fish at the Auckland Islands are
attacked by parasites in a most remarkable way; in some cases the whole
of the lateral muscles being full of a round worm about an inch in length,
So bad are they that nothing but sheer necessity would induce any one to
eat fish at these islands,
CRUSTACEA,
Prionorhynchus edwardsii, Jacq. and Lucas.
Six specimens from the Auckland Islands, all mele.
Nectocarcinus antarcticus, Jacq. and Lucas.
Six specimens from the Auckland Islands, of which five were obtained
from the stomach of a large specimen of Notothenia microlepidota.
Halicarcinus planatus, Fabr.
À great many specimens from both the Auckland and Campbell Islands.
Munidia subrugosa, List.
Three specimens from the Auckland Islands; two adult and one young.
The young specimen is quite as small or smaller than Grimothea greyaria,
so abundant round the South Island in March, and yet it does not show
the slightest approach to the foliaceous maxillipeds of Grimothea. The
habits of the two species are also quite different. Grimothea is pelagic and
floats on the surface of the sea, while Munidia lives at the bottom. Mr
Jennings caught these specimens in a baited net.
Squilla levis, sp. nov.
Rostral-plate semi-lanceolate, acute ; carapace smooth, without crests,
slightly expanded and rounded behind; inner antenne reaching nearly as
far as the outer, second joint extending as far as the eye, third joint as
long as the second. Prehensile finger with 12 teeth (exclusive of the
extremity) ; penultimate finely toothed internally and with three spines at
the base; externally quite smooth ; abdomen smooth, without longitudinal
ridges, scarcely broader than the carapace, without lateral spines except on
the penultimate segment; last segment with about 10 spines alternately
large and small, while on each side of the central line there are six very
small spines ; internal lateral caudal plates oval, not passing the marginal
spine of the basal joint. Length, 13 inch
A single specimen taken from the onik of a specimen of Notothenia
microlepidota, caught at the Auckland Islands.
- Cirolana rossii, List.
Many specimens from the Auckland Islands.
Spharoma gigas, Leach.
Several specimens from the Auckland Islands.
Hurron.—On Collections from the Auckland and Campbell Islands, 841
Spheroma obtusa, Dana.
A few specimens from Campbell Island, and two from the Auckland
Islands.
Actacia aucklandie, G. M. Thomson.
For a description of this species see Mr, Thomson's paper in the present
volume of Transactions. (Ante p. 249.)
MoLLusca,
Euthria lineata, Chemnitz.
Many specimens from the Auckland Islands,
Euthria littorinoides, Reeve.
Two specimens from Campbell Island.
Polytropa striata, Martyn.
single specimen from the Auckland Islands.
Diloma, sp.
Two specimens from the Auckland Islands. There are specimens of
this species in the Museum from Campbell Island, presented by Dr. H.
Filhol, who will doubtless describe it. It is something like D. nigerrima,
but smaller, bluer, and not so depressed. `
Cantharidus episcopus, Hombron and Jacquinot.
Several dead shells from the Auckland Islands. It is also in the
Museum from Campbell Island.
Tectura pileopsis, Quoy and Gaimard.
Several specimens from the Auckland Islands.
Patella magellanica.
Several specimens from the Auckland Islands, and one or two from
Campbell Island. I believe that P. inconspicua, Gray, is only a small variety
of this species.
Patella redimiculum, Reeve
Several specimens from the Auckland Islands.
Chiton cireumvallatus, Reeve.
Several specimens from Campbell Island.
Chiton lineolatus, Frembly.
Several specimens from both the Auckland Islands and Campbell
Island. It varies much from black to gaily painted. It is also found near
Dunedin.
Chiton longicymba, Blainville. |
A few specimens from the Auckland Islands. There are also in the
Museum specimens from Campbell Island, presented by Dr, H. Filhol,
842 Transactions.-—Zoology.
Plaziphora biramosa, Quoy and Gaimard.
Two specimens from Campbell Island. When drying, this species often
gplits longitudinally.
Onchidium patelloides, Quoy and Gaimard.
Seven specimens from the Auckland Islands.
Siphonaria redimiculum, Reeve.
Four specimens from the Auckland Islands. This curious species will
probably form the type of a new genus, It is of on olive brown outside and
dark purple inside.
Mesodesma nove-zealandia, Chemnitz.
A single specimen from the Auckland Islands.
Venus oblonga, Hanley.
A single specimen from the Auckland Islands.
Chione stutchburyi, Gray.
Eight specimens from the Auckland Islands.
Mytilus magellanicus, Lamarck.
A few specimens from both the Auckland Islands and e Island.
Mytilus dunkeri, Reeve.
Several specimens from both the Auckland Islands and Campbell
d.
Nots.—In addition to the foregoing there are in the Otago Museum the
following shells from the Auckland and Campbell Islands :—
Euthria bicincta, Hutton, Auckland Islands.
Neptunea, sp., Auckland Islands.
Cominella maculata, Martyn, Auckland Islands.
Turbo granosus, Martyn, Auckland Islands.
Diloma @ethiops, Gml., Auckland Islands.
Diloma nigerrima, Chemnitz, Auckland Islands.
Haliotis iris, Martyn, Auckland Islands.
Haliotis rugoso-plicata, Chemnitz, Auckland Islands.
Haliotis gibba, Philippi, Campbell Island.
Patella radians, Gml., Auckland Islands.
Patella imbricata, Reeve, Campbell Island.
Patella rubiginosa, Hutton, Auckland Islands.
Tapes intermedia, Quoy and Gaimard, Campbell Island.
Modiola areolata, Gould, Auckland Islands.
Terebratella rubicunda, Sow. ?, Auckland Islands,
^
Warre.—0On the Black Rat. 348
ANNE
Several specimens of Chetopod worms ae both the Auckland Islands
and Campbell Island are in the collection, but they cannot be determined
until the New Zealand Chetopods have been examined.
ECHINODERMATA.
Asterias rupicola, Verrill, Bull. U.S. National Museum, No. 8, p. 71.
var. levigatus, Hutton.
Spines of the back obsolete.
Several specimens from the Auckland Islands.
I should have regarded this as a new species if one of the specimens had
not shown a row of spines along the back and traces of a lateral row on
each side, thus connecting the two forms.
Art. XXXIX.—Note accompanying Specimens of the Black Rat (Mus rattus, L.)
By Taytor Warre, Esq., of Glengarrie, Napier.
Communicated by Prof. Hurron.
[Read before the Otago Institute, 26th November, 1878.)
Two of the rats were caught in 1876 in a field of oats which I was
cutting, eighteen miles from the shipping, and so might be called country
rats. Ithink I killed four. The two kept were an old male and a young
female not quite full grown. I have found no others since. The skin I
picked up at Napier port, alongside the shipping.
It may be of some interest for me to state that the rats on the Canterbury
plains in 1855 had regular warrens, and lived in communities. I have
taken six and eight from one warren. The warren was not raised above
the surface of the ground, but could be detected by the unusual greenness
of the grass. There were a number of bolt holes within a circular radius
of about four feet. At the time I was under the impression that they were
ordinary rats; but not having seen this habit since or elsewhere, I now
think that they must have been peculiar. In colour, I think, they resembled
the common rat (Mus decumanus). We used to dig them up for the fun of
seeing the dogs catch them.
I was witness to the first migrations of the common mouse (Mus mus-
culus) on three separate occasions. First, from about Christchurch to the
plains at Oxford; second, from Oxford onwards over the first range of hills
to country through which the Hokitika road now passes; and third, to the
country bordering Lake Wakatipu. In all three places I lived a consider-
able time, and never saw such a thing as a mouse, but the rats were legion,
344 Transactions.—Zoology.
After a time the sight of the first mouse was reported as seen in the grass.
In the course of a week the grass country and the houses were plentifully
supplied. It is most remarkable that the rats immediately cleared out
before them, and from that time were much scarcer.
In Otago, formerly, I used to kill a great number of rats living singly
under plants of the Spaniard, the old leaves of which made them a nice
thatched roof, and the root was eaten if nothing better offered. Once in
the early days of settlement in Otago, when I was snowed in, and could get
nothing to feed my fowls on, I caught large numbers of rats near the house
(getting them from under the Spaniard bushes) and roasted them for the
fowls. I noticed that the stomach of these rats was generally full of a white
wire-like worm, about two inches long, which I considered a parasite, as they
were always perfect ; but, if I remember right, there was no appearance of
other food in the stomach, and very little room for it, as the worms were
knoited together into a mass that about filled the cavity.
Nore sy Pror. Hurron.
The skin from Napier belongs to Mus rattus. It agrees perfectly with
the description of the specimen in the Colonial Museum, from Wellington,
(Trans. N.Z. Inst., IV., p. 183), and with Dr. Buller’s description of his Mus
nova-zealandi@ (Trans. N.Z. Inst., IIL, p. 1). The two specimens caught
in the oat-field had been put into kerosene, and were not fit for stuffing.
They both presented, externally, the same characters as the skin from Napier.
I have examined these two skulls, and find that they agree with Mr. Salter's
description of the skull of M. rattus, except in being smaller and more
elongated. Consequently, they differ from the Maori rat skulls, from Shag
Point, in the partieulars that I have already pointed out.
There can, I think, be no doubt that these rats belong to the Polynesian
variety of Mus rattus, and consequently the Maori rat must be regarded as
a distinct species, for which I propose the name of Mus maorium.
The following are the measurements of the skull of the adult male
specimen. I have added measurements of M. rattus from England (from
Mr. Salter’s drawings), and of M. decumanus from New Zealand :—
M. rattus, M.rattus, | M. decumanus,
: Napier, England. Dunedin.
Length we a a pH .. 1:43 1:64 1:78
Width at zygomatic arch* st Pe “59 “82 “75
Foramen magnum, height =: ie 19 14 20
a by width ee es :25 "28 28
* In the measurements of the skulls fr i i i d
bes and qaare orn Shag Point, the width at the zygomatic atch should
Tenison- Woops.—On a new Species of Millepora. 845
Arr. XL.—On a new Species of Millepora. By the Rev. J. E. Tzxisox-
Woops, F.L.S., F.G.S., Corr. Mem. Roy. Soc. Victoria, Tasmania,
Linn. Soc. N.S.W.; Hon. Mem. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., Adelaide Phil.
Soc., etc., etc. Communicated by Prof. Hurron.
[Read before the Otayo Institute, 10th September, 1873.)
Tue specimen to which I have the honour to call the attention of the
Society was sent to me by my friend Captain F. W. Hutton, of Otago, and
was stated to have been found in Foveaux Strait; but the depth at which
it occurred and its station were not stated. It is a tufted zoothome of
highly reticulate structure, but hard and compact. It grows apparently
in a solid mass, from which pencil-like cylindrical stones grow out verti-
cally, to a height of two or three inches, but not more than a third of an
inch in diameter. On examining the surface with the microscope, it is seen
to be covered with minute rounded pores, which have an exact, thiekened,
very slightly raised margin. These pores are very close to one another,
but there are interstices which are oceupied by much smaller pores, which
are in fact nothing but the polygonal spaces left between the closely-
crowded tubes. When a fragment is broken across, two different kinds of
structure are observed. One is a kind of outer ring, on which a radiate
arrangement of the tubes is preserved, that is to say radiating from the
axis to the circumference ; the other is a central cancellous tissue, made up
of tubes exactly like the surface, but the walis more delicate. The outer
radiate ring of tubes is about one-fifth of the diameter; the remaining four-
fifths is occupied by the central tissue. The latter is of different colour,
or blueish white, while the outer ring is a reddish-brown. The tubes, which
open on the outer surface, are not more than half a millimeter in depth,
but it is not at first very clear whether they are closed by tapering to a
point or whether they curve downwards or upwards, and so join the
cancellous tissue or pith, as it.might be termed, of the centre. ‘lhe tubes
of the centre seem to be continuous. A hair can be easily passed down
them for half an inch or more. When a section is made it is then clearly
seen that the tubes curve downwards, and are crossed from time to time
by tabule or partitions, which are few in number and wide apart.
All these details point very decidedly to the nature of the organism with
which we have to deal. It is a Millepore, but of an exceptional and peculiar
type. Until very lately these singular corals were ranged amidst the
Madreporaria tabulata. Their true character was, however, discovered by
Agassiz on one of his cruises to the reefs of Florida, Prof. Dana says that
he often had Millepore corals under study in the Pacific, and waited long
for the expansion of the animals, but was never gratified by their making
al4 :
346 Transactions.—Zoology.
their appearance.” Agassiz observes that they are very slow in expanding
themselves. When espanded they have no resemblance to true polyps.
There is simply a fleshy tube with a mouth at top and a few small rounded
prominences in place of tentacles, four of them sometimes largest. The
corals of the Millepore are solid and strong, as much so as any in coral
seas. They have generally a smooth surface, and are always without any
prominent calices, there being only very minute rounded punctures over
the surface from which the animals show themselves. The cells in the
coralline are divided parallel to the surface by very thin plates or tabies.
The Millepore are very abundant corals. They extend outside the tropics
in Australia as far south as Moreton Bay. In the West Indies they con-
tribute largely to the formation of the reefs.
According to Professor Verrill, there are thirteen species of the genus
Millepore known, but two of these, M. monilifornis and complanata, are sup-
posed to be varieties of M. alcicornis and plicata respectively. Without any
exception they are all tropical and living. They occur, as already stated,
in the West Indies, and also in the Indian Archipelago, the Red Sea,
Mauritius, and the Fiji Islands. The occurrence, therefore, of a species in
New Zealand, and in so cold a latitude as Foveaux Strait, is most singular
and interesting. Such facts have a tendency to make us doubt some of the
geological conclusions at which we sometimes arrive. A few years ago,
the discovery of two reef-building genera of corals in the tertiary beds of
Tasmania was looked upon as the evidence of an almost tropical climate.
Indeed, a discussion ensued at the Geological Society of London as to
whether it might not be presumed that the axis of the earth had shifted
since these beds were deposited. The coral to which I am now drawing
attention is truly of a reef-building kind, but I am not aware whether it
forms reefs. This would be a very interesting subject of enquiry. I have
named the species Millepora undulosa, from the peculiar undulating character
of the surface of the branches. It is thus described :—
Millepora undulosa, n.s.
Corallum arborescent, very much branched, branches crowded cylindrical,
spreading in all directions, generally somewhat flattened at the extremity
and with a short bifurcation, often coalescent, either along the whole side
of the branch or just at a point of contact, or by sending out a short small
branchlet from one stem to another. The whole surface of the branches
undulating with broad but not deep rugosities; cells exceedingly small,
crowded, giving a spongy appearance; colour, dull reddish-brown. Alti-
tude of specimen described 80; width at farthest extremity of branches
* Qorals and Coral Islands, by James D. Dana, English Edition, p. 79.
Gosser.—Notes on the Life History of Charagia virescens. 847
52; diameter of branches from 33 to 6; diameter of extremity of branch
at bifurcation, 7 millimetres.
It is nearest in shape, dimensions, etc., to M. tortuosa, of Fiji, the only
known Pacific form.
Norz.—Millepora undulosa is obtained not uncommonly by the Stewart
Island oyster dredgers, in from 14 to 20 fathoms of water, along with
Cinctipora elegans, Pustulipora purpurascens, Idmonea radians, and other
polyzoa, Iam not aware that it forms anything like reefs,—F, W. H.
ArT. XLI.— Notes on the Life History of Charagia virescens. By the Rev.
C. H. Gosser. Communicated by Prof. Hurron.
[Read before the Otago Institute, 8th October, 1878.]
Tur larva lives chiefly on the extremely hard wood of the Black Maire
(Olea apetala ), but I have also found it in a tree known to the settlers about
Masterton as the wine-berry or New Zealand currant tree (Aristotelia
racemosa). The wood of this last differs widely from the Maire, being very
soft and white. I believe I have once or twice found the larva in other
trees. C. virescens passes certainly three years in the larval state, probably
four. In this stage of its existence it is extremely plentiful wherever the
Black Maire abounds. It is not easy to find a single tree of this species
that is not more or less honeycombed by its ravages; the imago, however,
is far more rare. Of the larva I have obtained twenty specimens in about
an hour, notwithstanding the loss of time in getting them out, whereas I
have only come across seven specimens of the perfect insect in four seasons.
I believe I have once seen it on the wing, but I am not positive about it. I
have generally come across it half dead, partially stiff and much faded
and frayed. I have also found the wings, the insect having evidently fallen
a prey to some bird.
When newly emerged the perfect insect is very beautifully markedswith
blackish markings, but these soon fade, or get rubbed off, and the insect
then presents a pretty uniform green with a few whitish markings.
Although the larva is so plentiful, it requires a little practice to detect
its burrow readily. If the limbs or trunk of a Black Maire be carefully
examined, a more or less diamond-shaped mark, two or three inches in the
side, may often be noticed, which varies slightly in tint from the surrounding
bark; and if this patch is pressed with the finger it gives way; if the patch
is torn off it is seen to be composed of yellowish or greyish silk, covered on |
the outside with scraps of bark, lichens, excreta of the larva, etc., the whole
848 Transactions.— Zoology.
forming a wonderfully close imitation of the natural bark of the tree.
Beneath this covering is seen a cavity, the depth of which varies from a
quarter to half an inch, and rather above the centre of the cavity is the
entrance to the burrow. The cavity around the entrance of the burrow is
used by the larva to turn itself in. The burrow at first takes a course
inwards and upwards for one, two, or more inches ; this upward inclination
preventing the entranee of water. Then the burrow turns downward ina
nearly vertical direction. This vertical portion of the burrow varies in
length according to the age of the larva. That of a full-grown larva is about
four or five inches long. I have seen them eight inches and proportionally
wide. I have ascertained positively that the larva frequently inhabits the
same burrow for more than two years, and I am of opinion that they
generally keep to the same burrow during the whole larval stage. But I
have occasionally found larve in terminal shoots which would not admit
of their attaining full growth, and consequently they must in these cases
change their ground.
When the larva has attained its full size, it spins, at the top of the
vertical portion of its burrow, a contrivance very much resembling that of
the Trap-door Spider, as an additional security against its foes during the
pupa state.
The imago emerges in October and.November. The best time to obtain
the pupa is in September and the early part of October. It is easy to
ascertain if the insect in a burrow is in the larval or pupa stage, for, if the
exterior web is torn off, the larva, if inside, will replace it by the next day.
The larva is flesh-coloured, tinted with purple; head dark brown, with
a few strong bristles ; spiracles black; segment next the head darker than
the rest, horny, with a large black mark on each side, just above the spiracle.
The pupa is flesh-coloured, inclining to brick red; head and thorax deep
chestnut brown. The semi-transparent wing-cases show the markings of the
future imago.
I have examined these larve and pups in their different stages up to
the time when by stripping off the pupa case, just before the insect was
ready to emerge, the easily recognised Charagia virescens was disclosed.
I do not think that the larva of C. virescens is the larva which is
attacked by the fungus Cordiceps robertsii. Not only do the two laive differ
in the size of the head and shape of the body—the larva cf C. virescens
being more cylindrical and with proportionately a larger head— but I do not
see how C. virescens could get into the ground, which is the position in
which the larva, which is attacked by the fungus, always is found. I tLink
that the fungus-attacked larva is probably a Purina,
Burrkn.— Further. Notes on the Habits of the Tuatara Lizard. 849
Art. XLIT.— Further. Notes on the Habits of the Tuatara Lizard.
By Warrer L. Burren, C.M G., Sc.D., F.L.S.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 8rd August, 1878.)
In Vol. TX. of the Transactions I gave an account of a number of
tuatara lizards (Sphenodon punctatum ) which I had received from the Island
of Karewa, in the Bay of Plenty, in April, 1876, to which were afterwards
added an adult pair of my Sphenodon guntheri and a young one of the same
species, obtained by exchange from the Colonial Museum. It is now nearly
two years since I received these lizards, and I have a few nbtes to add to
the observations so fully recorded in that paper.
For many months my captive lizards ate nothing, although I tempted
them with all sorts of savoury morsels, A small tree lizard / Naultinus)
which I placed in the cage with them disappeared; but whether it was
devoured by the tuataras or effected its escape I was unable to determine.
They were sluggish in their movements, and usually appeared to be asleep
with their eyes partially closed, even when lying in the trough of water with
their bodies submerged. As the summer approached they showed more acti-
vity and began to feed, evincing a decided preference for flies and the large
brown locust (Cicada), of which latter they sometimes devoured as many as
fifty in the course of a day. But as it was necessary to catch the locusts
on the garden trees before they could be supplied, for many days together
the tuataras were compelled to fast, as they stubbornly rejected the minced
meat which we continued to place in the cage. As winter came round
again they relapsed into their former languid state, although never
absolutely torpid, and for two or three months did not eat a morsel of any
thing. In November last we tried them with earth-worms, of which they
partook freely, When the supply of worms ran out we gave them fresh
meat again. Sphenodon punctatum refused it, but (strange to say) Sphenodon
guntheri devoured it greedily, gorging themselves to repletion. Apparently
from this cause (following so immediately on the prolonged fast). the
largest of them died. About this time also they developed a new phase of
character by attacking and biting one another. One lost an eye, and
another had a portion of his under lip torn off, completely altering the
expression of his face. The half-grown Sphenodon quntheri suffered most.
First of all he had the end of his tail bitten off, and ultimately he was killed
outright, the whole of his tail consumed, and one of his hind in much
erunched and lacerated.
A temporary change of residence made it difficult for a time to obtain
locusts, and the lizards (with the ent © of the surviving L. MA eoa :
850 Transactions.— Zoology.
refusing the ordinary fare of fresh meat, from December to February they
were on very short commons- indeed, and practically ate nothing. In
March a new feature of character came to light, and one likely to affect
most favourably their future prison life. My son, Percy, having brought
home one day a basket-full of sea-minnows, for the purpose of feeding a
tame skua, out of mere curiosity I offered one of them to the tuataras; it
was instantly pounced upon by the nearest of them, and a few minutes
afterwards each of the lizards was crunching and swallowing a fish three or
four inches long with evident relish. Some more were placed in the cage
and were eagerly devoured. Seeing how very difficult it is to induce the
tuataras to take other than their natural food, it is sufficiently manifest
that fish-eating is nothing new to them. Their evident fondness for water,
. basking as they do in the tin reservoir for the most part of the day and
often with the head submerged, raises the question whether they are not, in
point of fact, amphibious animals, subsisting in their wild state, to some
extent at least, on fish and other marine life. I have experimented by
filling their trough with sea water, and they have taken to it just as readily
as when the bath was of fresh water. I have not yet had an opportunity of
trying them with alarger vessel, containing live fish. But feeding our
tuataras plentifully with small fish in the manner described, we have
succeeded in advancing their education another step, for they wil now
partake freely of fresh meat, in almost any quantity, if minced up and
offered at the end of a fork or pointed stick. It is amusing to watch this
operation. The lizards climb up the inclined floor of the cage, and then
clinging to a projecting stone they elevate the head and watch in a stupid
way till the food is offered, when they deliberately snatch it away, and then
proceed very slowly to crunch it between their jaws before swallowing.
While thus feeding they remind one of a tame bear at the top of his pole.
When a live fly or locust is thrown into the cage, the tuatara approaches it
in the same cautious way, then turns his head so as to bring his vision in à
line with the object, which he eyes intently for a moment, and then seizes
with a rapid movement, the tongue being protruded.
Having kept and closely watched both species of tuatara, I am satisfied
that they not only differ in their superficial characters but also in habits
and disposition. The Museum examples, all of which, except the two
received from me, belong to Sphenodon guntheri, feed readily on fresh meat,
soaked bread, and indeed almost anything edible that is offered to them,
and they have done so from the first. Till very recently all my specimens
of S. punctatum obstinately refused the fresh meat, were always more
lethargie than the other form, and when roused appeared to be more shy
and timid. Both species are equally fond of basking in the water.
BurrER.—On the specific Value of Prion banksii. 851
Note on the Tuatara from East Cape Island.
In a paper* read before this Society last year, I described a new form of
tuatara / Sphenodon guntheri, var.), from East Cape Island, in the posses-
sion of Mr. John White, of Napier. Referring to this specimen, Mr. White
writes me :—“ The tuatara which my son Arthur has, was obtained in the
year 1878 from the island called Whangaokino at the East Cape. The
native who got it informs me that he saw on this island tuataras green in
colour, and others like the one in question."
Art. XLIII.—On the specific Value of Prion banksii. By W. L. BuLLER,
C.M.G., Se.D.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 3rd August, 1878.)
Iw treating of Prion banksii, in my “ Birds of New Zealand" (page 811), I
made the following observations :—‘‘ The propriety of retaining the above
specific distinction appears to me very doubtful; but I am unwilling to
dismiss the supposed species till the subject has been further investigated.”
In an article which I afterwards contributed to our Transactions,+ I
expressed my belief that the species would stand, and pointed out what
appeared to me good distinguishing characters.
A recent visit to the West Coast, after very stormy weather, has enabled
me to settle this point beyond all doubt. A north-west gale had been
blowing for several days, and large numbers of Prion had been washed
ashore. In travelling by coach from Waikanae to Otaki, a distance of only
ten miles, I counted no less than twenty-seven lying on the strand, and
there were probably many more. As I performed the rest of the journey
to Manawatu in a buggy, I was able to stop and pick up specimens.
In this way I was fortunate enough to obtain, during one day, twenty fresh
birds. Of these, twelve were referable without hesitation to Prion turtur and
eight to Prion banksii. The difference in the size and form of the beak
was constant, and among individuals of each species there was only a slight
variation. I selected the smallest of Prion banksii for the purposes of
comparison, and I beg now to exhibit it together with an ordinary
specimen of Prion turtur. It will be seen that the two birds are very
readily distinguishable.
Thinking that the difference in the size of the bill might possibly be a
* Transactions New Zealand Institute, Vol. X., p. 220. t Vol. VII, p. 208,
352 Transactions.—Z oology.
sexual character, I dissected the whole of the twenty specimens, with the
following result:—Of P. banksii there were four males and four females ;
of P. turtur there were seven males and five females. In some cases, owing
to the state of the productive organs at this season of the year (first week
in July), I was unable to determine the sex with absolute certainty.
In others, however, the testes were sufficiently conspicuous; while in two
females of P. turtur and in one of P. banksii I was able to detect a bunch
of undeveloped eggs. The examination in this respect was therefore con-
clusive, and I have now no hesitation in admitting P. banksii into the list of
well established species. Diagnosis :— Similis P. turturi, sed rostro latiore,
pileo saturatiore et cauda nigro latiüs terminatad distinguendus.
All the specimens picked up by me on this occasion were dead, with the
exception of the Prion banksii, now exhibited. I found this one on the
sandy beach, where the surf had left him, sitting up in wet and draggled
plumage, looking the very picture of abject misery. Beside him stood a
seagull (Larus dominicanus) patiently waiting for his victim to succumb
before commencing his savoury feast, when the unbidden guest appeared in
the guise of a naturalist!
Dr. Finsch refers the Prion vittatus, and P. banksii of Hutton’s “ Cata-
logue,” to P. banksii, Smith, and P. turtur, Sol., respectively, and he is
certainly right in doing so; for Prof. Hutton gives his P. banksii a bill only
the decimal part of an inch broader than that of P. turtur, while he makes
that of P. vittatus only -6. On reference to the figures accompanying my
paper in Vol. VIL, it will be seen that the width of the bill in the true
P. banksii is “55, and in P. vittatus 85.
Dr. Fiusch agrees with me in sinking Gould’s Prion ariel, as it cannot
be separated from P. turtur; and he unhesitatingly refers the bird described
by Mr. Potts under the name of Prion australis to D. vittatus, Dr. Hector
having forwarded him a specimen for examination. Not having seen the
type of P. australis, I accept Dr. Finsch’s determination; but it must be
borne in mind that Mr. Gould, who was quite familiar with P. vittatus,
declares positively that there is another and broader-billed species, adding,
however, “the precise latitudes in which this fine bird flies are unknown
io me."
BuLuer.—0n Eudynamis taitensis. 353
Art. XLIV.— Remarks on the Long-tailed Cuckoo (Eudynamis taitensis).
By Warrer L. Burzrn, C.M.G., Sc.D.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 3rd August, 1878.]
Terk is a remarkable phenomenon in the animal world known to naturalists
as '* mimicry,” or the law of protective resemblance. It is developed chiefly
among insects, and particularly among the Lepidoptera. Mr. Wallace des-
cribes, at page 205 of his enchanting book on the ** Malay Archipelago,” a
butterfly which, when at rest, so closely resembles a dead leaf as almost to
defy detection. The varied details of colouring combine to produce a disguise
that so exactly represents a slightly curved or shrivelled leaf as to render
the butterfly quite safe from the attacks of insectivorous birds, except when
on the wing. The flight of the species, on the other hand, is so vigorous
and rapid that it is well able then to protect itself. Mr. Wallace adds that
in many specimens there occur patches and spots, formed of small black
dots, so closely resembling the way in which minute fungi grow on leaves,
that it is impossible not to believe that fungi have grown on the butterflies
themselves! This protective imitation must obviously favour the species in
the common struggle for existence, and may of itself be sufficient to save it
from extinction. But there is another kind of ‘ mimicry” where one
insect which would, on discovery, be eagerly devoured, assumes for similar
protective purposes a close resemblance to some other insect notoriously
distasteful to birds. and reptiles, and often belonging to a totally different
family or order. Numberless instances might be given in illustration of
this singular fact, every department furnishing examples of adaptation more
or less complete, and all being explainable on the principle of variation
under natural selection or the “survival of the fittest." Mr. Wallace,
when exploring in the Moluccas, was the first to discover similar instances
of mimicry among birds, although the law of protective colouring had long
been observed to exist in-the case of birds’ eggs. He gives two very curious
examples of external resemblance, co-existing with very important struc-
tural differences, rendering it impossible to place the model and the copy
near each other in any natural arrangemeut. In one of these a honey-
sucker has its colours mimicked by a spevies of oriole, and the reason is
thus stated ;—** They must derive some advantage from the imitation, and
as they are certainly weak birds, with small feet and claws, they may
require it. Now, the Tropidorhynchi are very strong and active birds,
having powerful grasping claws, and long, curved, sharp beaks. They
assemble together in groups aud small flocks, and they have a very loud,
bawling note, which can be heard at a great distance, and serves to collect.
ald
354 Transactions.—Zoology.
a number together in time of danger. They are very plentiful and very
pugnacious, frequently driving away crows and even hawks, which perch
on a tree where a few of them are assembled. It is very probable, there-
fore, that the smaller birds of prey have learnt to respect these birds, and
leave them alone, and it may thus be a great advantage for the weaker and
less courageous Mimetas to be mistaken for them. This being the case,
the laws of Variation and Survival of the fittest, will suffice to explain how
the resemblance has been brought about, without supposing any voluntary
action on the part of the birds themselves; and those who have read Mr.
Darwin's ‘ Origin of Species’ will have no difficulty in comprehending the
whole process.’
Among the many minor instances that have attracted notice, the
English cuckoo (Cucubus canorus) is supposed to derive protection from the
resemblance of its markings to those of the sparrow-hawk / Accipiter nisus),
but the resemblance is far more strikmg between our long-tailed cuckoo
(Eudynamis taitensis) and a North American species of hawk (Accipiter
cooperi). In the fine specimens of the former which I exhibit this evening, it
will be observed that the markings of the plumage are very pronounced,
while the peculiar form of the bird itself distinguishes it very readily from all
other New Zealand species. Beyond the general grouping of the colours there
is nothing to remind us of our own bush-hawk, and that there is no great
protective resemblance is sufficiently manifest from the fact that our cuckoo
is persecuted on every possible occasion by the tui, which is timorous enough
in the presence of a hawk. During a trip, however, on the Continent, in the
autumn of 1871, I found in the Zoological Museum at Frankfort, what
appeared to be the accipitrine model, in a very striking likeness to our bird.
Not only has our cuckoo the general contour of Cooper’s sparrow-hawk, but
the tear-shaped markings on the under parts and the arrow-head bars on
the femoral plumes are exactly similar in both. The resemblance is carried
still further in the beautifully banded tail and marginal wing-coverts, and
likewise in the distribution of colours and markings on the sides of the neck.
On turning to Mr. Sharpe’s description of the “young male” of this species
in his Catalogue of the Accipitres in the British Museum (p. 187), it will be
seen how many of the terms employed apply equally to our Eudynamis,
even to the general words “deep brown above with a chocolate gloss, all
the feathers of the upper surface broadly edged with rufous.”
The coincident existence of such a remarkable resemblance to a New
World form, cannot of course be any protection to an inhabitant of New
Zealand, and I do not pretend in this instance to apply the rule; but in the
light of natural selection, to which at present no limit can be WA the
fact itself is a suggestive one, the more so when we remember that this
BS i a an ota cg A a lO e re
BuLLer,.—0n a Species of Lestris. 855
euckoo of ours is not a permanent resident, but migrates every winter to
the Society Islands. Of this annual migration, across 1,500 miles of ocean,
Captain Hutton has well remarked “there is nothing in the whole world so
wonderful |”
Art, XLV.—Remarks on a Species of Lestris, inhabiting our Seas.
By Walter L. Burizr, C.M.G., Sc.D., eto.
(Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 17th August, 1878.)
I mave the pleasure of exhibiting this evening, in illustration of the remarks
I am about to offer, the only four known examples of the small Skua yet
obtained in New Zealand. The first of these is the adult bird described in
my ‘ Birds of New Zealand ” (p. 268), and shot by myself at Horowhenua,
on April 30th, 1864; the second is Dr. Hector's young specimen, noticed
by me in the Transactions, Vol. VII, p. 225; the third is another young
bird, shot in Wellington Harbour in January, 1877, and mentioned in my
paper in last volume of Transactions, p. 200; and the fourth, and most
recent, is a specimen in more mature plumage, for which I am indebted to
Mr. C. H. Robson, who picked it up at the beach at Cape Campbell, in a
perfectly fresh state, in the last week of November, 1877.
In my work I referred the first-named example to Stercorarius parasiticus,
Linn., and added the following remarks :—‘ Dr. Finsch, to whom I sub-
mitted the skin, is of opinion that it is an immature bird; and Mr. Howard
Saunders, who has made the Laride his special study, expresses his convic-
tion that it is a new and hitherto undescribed species. I am rather disposed,
however, to consider it an aged female of the species known as Buffon's
Skua, with the plumage much faded and worn, indicating a sick or exhausted
condition of body. I may add that the two middle tail-feathers are only
partially developed, being encased in a sheath at the base. They extend
only about an inch beyond the rest, and are much abraded, having a
peculiar filamentous appearance,”
Mr. Howard Saunders, who, as Lord Walden justly says, may be con-
sidered the “first authority” on the family of birds to which the Skua
belongs, communicated to the Zoological Society on the 8rd March, 1876,
a paper ‘On the Stercorariine or Skua Gulls,” in which he deals chiefly
with the synonymy and geographical range of the members of that group.
In his list of synonyms of Stercorarius crepidatus (Riehardson's Skua)
Mr. Saunders includes my Stercorarius parasiticus, and in his account of the
species he observes that he can refer to no other the example recorded, as -
above-mentioned, in my book, adding—‘ His general description suits m ! ; »
856 Transactions.— Zoology.
erepidatus; and he expressly states that the shafts of the primaries are
white, the characteristic which particularly serves to distinguish it from
Buffon’s Skua, with which he has identified it, At the time that I
examined the specimen in question, I was not aware of this distinctive
feature; the skin, also, had been badly preserved; and, to make matters
worse, the plumage was so worn and abraded that it is a marvel that the
bird was able to fly at all.”
Mr. Saunders has evidently, in this case, trusted more to his memory
than to the notes which, we may assume, he would make on examining a
novel specimen—one which, in fact, he took to be a ** a new and hitherto
undescribed species.” It will be seen, at a glance, that the specimen now
before the meeting (which passed through Mr. Saunders’ hands in the
same condition) instead of being a “ badly prepared skin ” is a first-class
cabinet specimen, and that, instead of having “the plumage so worn and
abraded as to make it a marvel that the bird could fly at all,” the wings are
in perfect plumage, the only abraded feathers being about the head and
neck, which could not well affect the flying capabilities of the bird.
It would almost seem that Mr. Saunders has not the courage of his
opinion, although, as it turns out, his first expressed conviction on seeing
my specimen is not unlikely to prove the true one after all.
Of Stercorarius crepidatus Mr. Saunders says:—' Dr. Coues follows
those authors who have chosen to divert Linneus’s name of L. parasiticus
to this species—-a supposition utterly negatived by the description in the
Syst. Nat., p. 226, which is based upon that in his ‘ Fauna Suecica,’ p. 55,
No. 150. Nothing could well be clearer than this statement :—‘Rectricibus .
duabus intermediis longissimis, which can only apply to Buffon’s or the
Long-tailed Skua; but, as if to make assurance doubly sure, Linnæus adds
*remiges nigre, rachi 1. 2. nivea’? The natural inference, from drawing
especial attention to the fact that the shafts of the first and second primaries
are white, is clearly that those of the other primaries are not white. Now
the particular characteristic by which Richardson’s Skua may be dis-
tinguished, at any age beyond that of the nestling, is that the shafts of the
other primaries are conspicuously lighter than in those of Buffon’s Skua, in
which only those of the first and second primaries are white, those of the
third and successive primaries being dark. I am indebted to Mr. R.
Collett, of Christiania, for pointing ont to me, some years since, this
excellent distinction. The Lestris parasiticus of Linneus is therefore not S.
erepidatus, but the Buffon’s Skua; and so is, according to my view,
Catharacta parasiticus of Brünnich, but it is needless to discuss the latter
name as it is out of date.”
If Mr, Saunders is right in making this character of the shafts a specific
BULLER.—On a Species of Lestris. 857
test, itis sufficiently evident that our bird is not Stercorarius parasiticus,
as Dr. Finsch and myself had supposed; for it will be seen that in all
the specimens now exhibited the whole of the primaries have white shafts.
The next point to be considered is whether Mr. Saunders is right in
referring it to Stercorarius crepidatus. He says :—“ Dr. Coues considers
that the Larus crepidatus of Gmelin is in all probability based upon the
young of the Pomatorhine Skua, to which Brisson gave the name of
Stercorarius striatus. It is true that Gmelin (who translated from Latham)
identifies S. striatus of Brisson with his L. crepidatus; but although S.
strialus is certainly a young Pomatorhine, it was by no means easily
recognizable by the naturalists of that day. * * * On referring to
Hawkesworth's Voyages (1773) Vol. IL, p. 15 (not Vol. L, p. 15, as
erroneously cited by Latham, and of course duly copied by Gmelin,
without reference), we find in the narrative of Lieut. Cook's Voyage in the
‘Endeavour ' that ** on the 8th Oct., 1768, when a little to the South of the
Cape-Verd Islands, Sir Joseph Banks shot the black-toed gull, not yet
described according to Linneus’s system; he gave it the name of Larus
ereptdatus.« The black-toed gull is described in Pennant’s British Zoology
Vol. IL, p. 419 (1768); and plate 2 is an excellent representation of
Richardson’s Skua of the year, the feet of this species at that age having the
upper parts of the webs yellowish, and the posterior portion black, giving the
bird the appearance of being ‘shod’ or ‘ sandalled,’ whence Bank's some-
what quaint Latin rendering.” (The italics are mine).
If this character of the coloured feet is reliable, then it is pretty evident
also that our bird is not Stercorarius crepidatus ; for it will be seen that in
the young examples exhibited, the feet are similar to those of the adult—-a
uniform greyish-black—if we except a dull spot of yellow at the inner angle
of the toes. There is nothing of the ‘ sandalled’ appearance described by
Sir Joseph Banks, though possibly a still younger bird might exhibit more
of the yellow.
I do not care to pronounce any distinct opinion till I have received
specimens of the European bird for comparison with ours; but it seems
to me that the nearly adult example of the New Zealand bird, now
exhibited, is readily separable from the adult of S. crepidatus as described
in the books of reference. The ‘burnished acuminate feathers" on the
nape are wanting in our bird, and the points of the two narrow, over-
lapping tail-feathers extend only two decimal parts of an inch beyond the .
rest, as shown in the accompanying sketch (fig. 1) :—
558 T'ransactions.—Zooloqy,
On a eomparison of these
specimens it is perfectly
elear that the one originally
described by me in the
‘Birds of New Zealand’ is
an adult bird, and not
* immature" as Dr. Finsch
supposed. It is in the con-
dition of those described
Reduced to half the natural size. by Mr. Saunders from
Layard's collection, “all of which were in the act of losing and renewing
the central tail-feathers and the outer primaries, which are the last to be
moulted." The remarkable filamentous appearance of the central rectrices
in my first bird is shown in the second sketch (fig. 2) :—
9 There is an ob-
vious difference in
p the colouration of
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P. Taomson.—Our Fish Supply. 883
Of the regular food fishes the following notes may be of interest :—
The Hapuka or Groper was in pretty regular supply from the close of
September till towards the end of June. The demand for this fine fish is
not half so great as it should be. It wasin the market 157 days.
Ling has been in rather irregular supply during the year. For a few
days this fish would be quite common, and then for a week or a fortnight
there would be none at all, and this quite irrespective of the weather. Was
79 days in the market.
Kahawai was in good supply for a few days in January, and occurred
again in March,
Snapper was brought to town in summer and autumn, but the catch
was limited to a few individual specimens, all of good sizes.
Moki was constantly to be found in the market, a few days at a time, all
through the year, though most numerous in the summer months. Was in
the market 105 days.
Trumpeter was in rather short supply during the year, very few having
been received from the southward. 29 days in the market.
The Barracoota made its appearance on the 29th October, when a
solitary specimen was caught, followed by abundance on the 81st. It
continued in season till the end of May, although one was caught by net in
the Lower Harbour on the 19th of June. Was 109 days in the market.
A few Frostfish were caught (I should rather say picked up, for the fish
is never caught in the ordinary sense of the word) in August, and again in
April; but towards the end of June and nearly all July large numbers of
this fish were brought to town, one dealer passing no fewer than 109
through his hands in a fortnight, mostly brought from the vicinity of
Purakanui. On all the beaches to the west of the Heads, and away to the
north, particularly about Moeraki, large numbers were got. Nothing is
yet definitely known as to why this fish comes ashore in the peculiar way
it does, but I may give you the latest theory as it appeared in one of the
papers here a week or two ago. The writer said:—‘‘ The stranding of
these fish is accounted for from the fact that, not being well supplied with
fins, they swim with an undulating motion, like that of the leech, the head
being elevated. In cold weather they follow their prey into shallow water,
and when the tail touches the ground they become helpless, and are
washed ashore.” The writer was very easily crammed. It is a noticeable
fact that all the fish are about the same size—4} feet to 5 feet in length.
In the market 28 days, being the longest known.
Blue Cod.—This staple fish was in fair supply nearly all the year, with
the exception of some weeks in winter, when there was some severe
weather, which put a stop to outside fishing. The supply Tr Stewart
Island was very irregular. Was 65 days in the market.
884 Transactions.—Zoology.
Red Cod.—Both from inside and outside fishings ; was in very regular
supply, the shops being seldom without a few. Indeed, this fish is always
to be had, and is in finest condition during the winter months, when pretty
large takes of good-sized specimens are got from the outside fishery, those
caught by the seine-net in the harbour being as a rule much smaller. Red
Cod was in the market 267 days.
Sandling or Sandeel.—This delicate little fish is never very plentiful,
but a few are generally caught in the seine-nets. Properly cooked, this is
one of our finest food fishes. Was present 35 days.
. Garfish was pretty plentiful during the spring and summer. In October
immense numbers were brought to town, large shoals being present in the
Lower Harbour for several days. In the market 39 days.
The true Butterfish was more frequently brought to town during the past
year than ever before. Some of them were of pretty large size, and mostly
netted among the rocks along the coast, and near Moeraki. 28 days in the
market.
Wrasse, Parrotfish, and Spotties were often in the market, the latter
especially being a regular seine-fish, and got along with Flounders, etc.
There are two sorts of Spotty—a big and a little. The Wrasse and Parrot-
fish are mostly caught outside among the kelp, and with the Spotty are
indiscriminately named Kelp-fish by the fishermen, though the term Butter-
fish is also given to the smaller sorts. Spotties in market 154 days.
The Mullet or Herring is to be had almost constantly, and is present in
greater or less quantity the whole year round. At very irregular periods
large shoals of the fish congregate in the Harbour, when they are caught
by the net in immense numbers. This fish gives good"sport with rod
and line. Was 147 days in the market.
Trevally.—This excellent little fish is also a constant visitor, and may
be had in quantity all the year round. Some pretty large ones are now
and then to be seen. Was 110 days in the market.
That favourite fish the Flounder was in full supply nearly all the year.
Latterly, I notice that the Flounders brought to town have increased in size
a little; it is to be hoped that this will continue, and that the new Act will
have some influence with those who catch them. 282 days in the market.
Soles are not very common, only those caught by the seine being
brought to market. If trawling were introduced in suitable localities along
the coast, the fish would be more plentiful. Was 11 days in market.”
Skate was brought to market on 23 days. Those exhibited were mostly
of small size.
I subjoin the following notes on the weather, incidents, etc., for the
twelve months :—
August was characterised by cold and dull weather, with two or three
Our Fish Supply. 985
storms. Fish, with the exception of small Flounders and Mullet, were
generally scarce.
September had very stormy weather at the beginning, which moderated
gradually towards the end. The supply of fish sympathised with the weather,
being very scarce at commencement, and improved towards the close.
October.—The weather was fine at the beginning, but stormy and
irregular towards the close. There was a good supply of fish about the
middle of the month. Butterfish were pretty numerous. On the 25th,
very large hauls of Garfish were made in the Lower Harbour, and this fish
was very abundant for some days. On the 29th, a solitary Barracoota was
caught in a net in the harbour, and next day the fishermen were out for
miles off the coast, looking for the expected shoal, but were unsuccessful.
On the 81st, they were met with in abundance. A new curing work was
started this month in Horseshoe Bay, Stewart Island, to employ about
20 men, two large cutters, and several smaller boats. :
November was a month of full and pretty varied supply, the weather
mostly fine, with some dull and showery days.
There was some stormy weather during December, but the supply of
fish was pretty liberal. A well-boat started to work the reefs off the coast
between Waikouaiti and Moeraki, the intention being to bring the fish alive
up to the town jetty.
Fish were in full supply during January, save during one or two days
of rough weather, which kept the boats from getting out. On the 24th, a
fine Snapper was caught, rather larger than the ordinary run of these
visitors to our coast. It was 131bs. in weight, 29 inches long, by 24 inches
in girth. On the 29th, some Tarakihi were brought to market, accom-
panied by some fine large Trumpeter. ;
February, except for a few days at the beginning of the month, was a
time of full supply, both large and small fish being plentiful. On the 20th,
a large Stingaree (Trigon thalassia) was caught and brought into town; and
on the 22nd a Conger-eel ( Conger vulgaris), 6 feet 2 inches long, weighing
40 lbs., was on exhibition.
During March there was a fair average supply of all varieties. For
some days near the beginning of the month a number of Horse Mackerel
were brought to the market. On the 14th a Snapper, and on the 18th a
Kahawai was caught.
At the beginning of April fish were abundant, but the supply fell off
towards the middle, when severe cold weather prevailed. On the 20th two
Frostfish were brought to town, and on the 23rd a big Snapper. An
incident of the month was the imposition of a license fee, under the
authority of the new Act, of £1 for each net in use, :
A19
886 Transactions.— Zoology.
Fish were in fair supply during May, except during a few days of
stormy weather. Some exceptionally large Flounders were caught on
the 7th; on the 8th, a fine Snapper; and towards the close of the month
Trevally were very plentiful.
June was a month of very severe weather all through, but with the
exception of a few days the supply was good and sometimes plentiful.
On the 19th, a solitary Barracoota was caught in a net in the Lower
Harbour. A market for the sale of fish, etc., was the subject of some
discussion during the month.
July was characterised by a continuance of fine clear frosty weather
nearly all through the month, winding up with a snowstorm on the last
day. The great feature of the month was the abundance of Frostfish which
were brought to town in greater or less number for 20 days. They were
mostly brought from the beaches between Blueskin and the Heads, and
formed quite a small harvest to the younger settlers along that line of the
coast, as pretty fair prices were given for them by the dealers, who resold
them at prices ranging from five to ten shillings each.
In accordance with the wish of the President and others, expressed at
the time I read the paper last year, I wrote to Mr. Traill, of Stewart
Island, for particulars as to the state of the trade there, but I never
received any reply. However, I am able to give the following statistics as
to the number of boats and men engaged in the trade at the present time,
August 7th, 1878 :—
There are engaged in the fishing, outside of the Heads, 9 whale-boats
and 2 cutters, employing about 30 men. In the Harbour or seining branch
there are 16 boats and about 40 men engaged. At Port Chalmers there are
two smoke-houses with four men to each. At Stewart Island I have
learned there are two smoke-houses, and about 80 men engaged in
boating, ete.
Hoping that the figures and facts I have drawn together may be of
some use to the members, I now bring my three years’ task to a conclusion.
Art, LITL—TAÀe District of Okarito, Westland. By A. Hamilton.
[Read before the Westland Institute, 16th July, 1878.]
Tae Okarito district comprises a large area of comparatively unknown
ground, as the whole of the settlements which have at one time or another
existed on it, have been either on the sea-coast or on the river-beds. The
sole attraction to settlers having been the “ Auri sacra fames," agriculture
has been comparatively neglected, though many excellent areas of groun
EE ii ia
Hamruton.—0On the District of Okarito, Westland, 887
exist, quite eqfal to much land in the North Island, that amply repays the
capital investeck The opening of the Okarito-Bowen Road will, no doubt,
cause more land to be taken up for boná fide settlement. Communication
will then be of a more certain character, and travellers will be enabled to
avoid the difficulties and dangers of the rivers and rocky bluffs on the coast
line. One of the most interesting sights in New Zealand, the Franz Josef
Glacier, will then attract more visitors to its beautiful scenery and wondrous
masses of ice and snow.
In what are generally known as the “early days,” Okarito was a
flourishing township, and the diggings on the various beaches north and
south of it, were swarming with busy workers, washing from the sands the
particles of gold brought down by the rivers from the hills ages ago, and
since divided into small particles now found. The geology and mineralogy
of the hill-country, towards the main range at the back of the district, is
not known with accuracy, owing to the difficulties of penetrating the inter-
vening bush. As far as can be judged from the materials composing the
terraces which form the undulating ground between the hills and the sea, a
number of valuable minerals are stored in this part of the country, and it
is not too much to express an opinion that, when fully explored, the ranges
south of Mount Tyndall will prove to be the Cornwall of New Zealand,
Owing to the deficiency of good harbours on this part of the West Coast,
it may be very long before a trade can be established. Hitherto the only
mineral sought for has been gold, and many are the places in which it has
bzen found—in fact, it never having been found in the river Waitaki (or
Waitangi) renders it a remarkable river, running as it does through the
same kind of country, and having rivers and creeks on each side of it that
have yielded heavy amounts of gold. I have not the opportunity of exam-
ining areturn of the total amount of gold procured in the district, but it
must be very large, as the different diggings at the Forks, the Three-Mile
and Four-Mile Beaches, the Waio and Wateroa rivers and McDonald's
Creek, have proved at one time or another very rich. Very few are now
working on the beaches, for, though far from being exhausted, the sand
shifts so much with every gale of wind and heavy sea, that it mixes the
sand from which the gold has been taken with that still containing the
metal. Thus to extract the gold requires more labour than previously, as
much sand has to be washed that has already been impoverished. Very
curious and beautiful this black sand looks under the low powers of a
microscope, heaps of rubies and diamonds appear to be mixed with ** patines
of fine gold ” and stones of less brightness and beauty, with here and there
thin laminz of mica and pearly-looking quartz.
Unfortunately for Okarito no reefs have yet been found showing any
E
888 Transactions.—Zooloiy.
signs of gold, though there is plenty of quartz near MeDon Creek, and
quartz has been found adhering to gold got at the Forks, «ad also in the
Wateroa. lf good reefs were to be discovered they would be of great use in
opening up the back country and restoring the now fast-decaying town of
Okarito.
Leaving the consideration of the inanimate productions of the district, if
we consider the eonformation of the country, sloping away from the main
range in hills and terraces to the sea-level, we perceive that it is a favourable
spot for the occurrence of those.forms of animal and vegetable life for which
this * Bird and Fern Land’ is noted.
In the sub-alpine, and even alpine regions, are found large numbers of
those curious birds, commonly ealled kiwis and rowis, now the last repre-
sentatives of that peculiar struthious avi-fauna that once roamed over these
islands. Although moa bones have been ‘found in places all over the South
Island, their occurrence in Westland is unknown to me. I should be glad
to learn if any remains were ever obtained in the neighbourhood of the
Haast River, as there seems to be no very great obstacle to their passage
from the eastern plains in that direction. Two other birds are peculiar to
the alpine regions, the kakapo ( Stringops habroptilus) and the kea ( Nestor
notabilis) ; the former is getting very scarce now, in consequence of its
falling an easy victim to dogs and eats that have taken to the bush. In the
centre zone or lower hills we find a larger number of perching birds, pigeons
and kakas, etc., and also along the river-beds swarms of Maori hens
( Ocydromus australis), ete. This impudent and inquisitive bird furnishes a
much-prized article of food to diggers and prospectors. A good dog will
sometimes catch sixty or seventy in one night. The bodies of the birds are
split open and smoked, and will then keep along time. Their oil is much
valued, and is used for as many purposes as Holloway’s pills, being an
ingredient in many a damper, and an infallible remedy for bruises and
rheumatism, besides being used for the general purposes of fat and grease.
Attached to this paper will be found a list of all the birds I have seen since
I have been here, together with those that are, no doubt, found here, but
which are only included from trustworthy report; these have a mark
affixed to them.
From this list it appears that the district contains representatives of
almost every species of land bird found in the South Island, with few
exceptions. Many of the petrels, puffins and other sea birds are doubiless
seen off the coast in bad weather, but few come ashore. This district
claims, as pre-eminently its noblest bird, the beautiful white heron (Ardea
alba), formerly remarkably numerous. I regret to say that since certain
miscreants destroyed a quantity of nearly hatched eggs, they have slightly
Haurprox,—0On the District of Okarito, Westland. 389
diminished in number, though many still ornament the upper waters of the
lagoon and the river on which they breed, on which river there is also 2
shaggery (C. brevirostris and carbo). Another very handsome and remark-
able bird, the crested grebe / Podiceps eristatus) is tolerably plentiful on the
lagoon and smaller lakes. The Okarito Lagoon has been formed from a
large bay by the silting up of successive bars of sand and shingle, through
which the river and streams flowing into it have had to force their way.
Within the past month a succession of heavy southerly winds raised a huge
bar of sand and shut up the mouth of the river. The consequence of course
was that the water rose till a channel was cut through the bar and the
water liberated. It is six or seven miles from the town of Okarito to the
head of the lagoon, by a tortuous channel, now winding amongst the mud
flats, uncovered at low water, and abounding in pipis and cockles, small
crabs and other animals peculiar to brackish water; and now flowing
between bushes and shrubs with a channel ten or twelve feet deep, and
wide enough to have admitted a steamer, the Woodpecker, I think, once
upon a time. Amongst these bush-covered points and islands are quiet
nooks in which you may come suddenly upon a flock of black teal ( Fuligula
nova-zealandia ), or a party of grey ducks will rise with a great commotion,
increased by the harsh scream of the paradise duck (C. variegata). Iam
glad to see that the black swan ( C. atrata) is now well established in this
district; they have increased very rapidly within the last two or three
years. I have seen as many as fifty, with a lot of young cygnets, in sight
at one time. Some of them occasionally go down south somewhere, in
flocks of six or eight, for a few days. Seeking their food on the mud flats at
low water may be seen pied redbills (H. longirostris), curlews, plovers, dot-
terels, and the pretty lake gull (Larus bullerij. On going inland tho
silence of the bush is broken by the peculiar notes of the bell-bird YA. mela-
nura) and the tui ( Prosthemadera nova-zealandiz), especially where the rata
shows its crimson flowers, frorn extracting the juices of which, with their
brush-like tongues, they are often disturbed by the kaka who forsakes the `
grub-infested log for the honey of the flower. The demand for feather
trimmings and kiwi skin muffs has caused the slaughter of a great number
of birds in this district and further south. Though the poor kiwis have a
slight respite from their former persecutor, there is another on their track
with large orders from London houses, and no doubt he will considerably
reduce their numbers. I must now apologise for the superficial manner in
which I have run over the subjects I have brought before your notice, and
I trust when my collections are more complete, that I shall be able to
present to the Society a list of the plants, etc., found in the neighbourhood,
and to supplement this paper with further particulars of other objects of
interest,
390 Transactions.— Zoology.
Since the above was written I paid a visit to the well-known
heronry on the Waitaki-tuna, and I regret to say that the birds have
abandoned the spot in which they formerly bred. In 1876 six broods were
reared, and the nests, as well as remains of numerous old ones, still remain.
There can be no doubt that the way in which the saplings were torn down
to procure the eggs was the cause of the disruption of the colony, The
small shag (G. brevirostris) has also disappeared simultaneously. It is to
be hoped that the white herons will find a more secure place for their new
home, and thus arrest for a few years their extinction.
—
List of Birds found in Okarito District.
I. AcorPrrRES.
Falconide. Hieracidea nove-zealandia, Lath. Circus gouldi, Bp.
Strigide. Athene nova-zealandia, Gml.
II. Psrrract.
Stringopide. Stringops habroptilus, Gray.
Platycercide. Platycercus nove-zealandie, Sparrm. P. auriceps.
Trichoglossidæ, Nestor meridionalis, Gml. N, occidentalis, Buller. N. nota-
bilis, Gould
III. Proarre.
Alcedinide. Halcyon sanctus, Vig. et Horsf.
Cuculide. Chrysococcyx lucidus, Gml. Eudynamis taitensis, Sparrm.
IV. Passeres.
Menuride. Orthonyx ochrocephala, Gml. Certhiparus nove-zealandie, Gul.
Meliphagidg. Zosterops lateralis, Lath. Prosthemadera nove-zealandia, Gray.
Anthornis melanura, Sparrm.
Muscicapide. Rhipidura flabellifera, Gml. R. tristis, Homb. et Jacq.
Turdide. Keropia erassirostris, Gml.
Sylviade. Gerygone flaviventris, Gray. Petroica macrocephala, Gml.
Motacillidæ. Anthus nove-zealandig, Gml.
Certhiidæ. Acanthisitta chloris, Sparrm.
Maluridæ. Sphenæacus punctatus, Quoy et G.
Sturnidæ. Creadion carunculatus, Gml.
Corvidæ. Glaucopis cinerea, Gml.
V. CoLumba.
Columbidæ. Carpophaga nova-zealandia, Gul.
VI. Gatuwa.
Tetranoide. Coturnix nove-zealandie, Q. et G.*
* I have not obtained these,
|
Rozson.—On the Breeding Habits of the Katipo: 891
VII. Gaarux.
Rallide. Ocydromus australis, Sparrm. O. fuscus, Dubus.* Rallus pectoralis,*
Less. Ortygometra affinis,* Gray. O. tabuensis, Gml. Porphyrio
melanotus, Temm.
Scolopacide. Limosa uropygialis, Gould.
Charadriide. Charadrius obscurus, Gml. C. bicinctus, Jard. Thinornis nove-
zealandie. Hematopus longirostris, Vieill.
Ardeidæ. Ardea alba, L. Ardea pusilla, V. Ardea poiciloptera, Wagl.
Nycticorax caledonicus, Lath.*
VIII. AxszEnES.
Anatide. Casarca variegata, Gml. Querquedula gibberifrons, S. Müller.
Hhynchaspis variegata, Gould. — Fuligula nova-zealandie, Grol.
Hymenolaimus malacorhynchus, Gml.
Laride. Larus dominicanus, Licht. L. scopulinus, Forst.* L. bulleri, Hutton.
Sterna caspia, Pall. S. frontalis, Gray. 8. antarctica, Forst.
Pelecanide. Graculus carbo, L. G. brevirostris, Gould.
Ptilopteri. Eudyptes pachyrhynchus, Gray.
Podicepide. Podiceps cristatus, L. P. rufipectus, Gray.
IX. SrRuTHIONES.
Apterygide. Apteryx australis, Shaw. A. oweni, Gould. A. mazima, Verr.
Art. LIV.— Notes on the Breeding Habits of the Katipo (Latrodectus katipo).
By C. H. Rozsox.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 3rd August, 1878.)
Tar Katipo is found in great abundance all along the coast of the South
Island, from the mouth of the Wairau river to the Kaikoura peninsula.
They are all of the variety so well described by Dr. Buller and Dr. Powell,
in Vol. III. Trans. N.Z. Inst., pages 34 and 56, and all have the bright
scarlet band with yellow border on the abdomen; the other markings are
distinct on some individuals and faint on others. The black variety without
a red dorsal stripe, and which is mentioned by the Rev. M. Taylor and
Mr. Wright does not seem to inhabit this part of the coast, nor have I ever
seen it. The above writers having made no mention of the number of
young which these spiders produce from a single cocoon, or the time
occupied in doing so, I determined to try and settle these points by actual
experiment, with the following results:—On November 4, 1877, I put a
* [ have not obtained these.
392 Transactions.—Zoology.
female katipo in an empty, clear glass bottle; she at once began to make a
fine irregular web, and, on the morning of the 8th, I found that during the
night she had constructed and suspended near the neck of the bottle, a
spherical cocoon, composed of a pale yellow silky web, through which one
could see the purplish eggs; for the next two months the spider remained
on or close to the cocoon ; I put several flies and other insects into the
bottle, all of which she at once killed and threw down to the bottom without
eating. Early in January she shifted the cocoon close to one side of the
bottle at the shoulder, and took up a position for herself three-quarters of
the distance from it to the bottom of the bottle. By this time she was
reduced to half the original size and was very inert, and, on the 7th
February, 1878, sixty young katipos issued from the cocoon. Next morning
the mother lay dead at the bottom of the bottle; it must not be supposed
that the old spider always dies in this way, for I had one which ate the
greater part of her family before doing so. The young ones are of a semi-
transparent white, with two lines of black dots on the abdomen, and black
joints to the legs, the underside of the abdomen being brown, with an
irregular whitish centre.
Art LV.—On Additions to the Carcinological Fauna of New Zealand.
By T. W. Kurs, Assistant, Colonial Museum.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 31st August, 1878.]
Tur publication of a * Catalogue of New Zealand Crustacea’ by the Geolo-
gical Survey and Colonial Museum Department, has proved a great boon to
students and collectors in the colony, by bringing together, in a convenient
form, descriptions of all the species known to inhabit these shores, thus
enabling them to pronounce, with some degree of certainty, upon any speci-
men which may be under discussion.
The remarkable resemblance which our fauna bears to that of England
and California has been pointed out by many authors. I have now to
record the occurrence here of at least two additional European and tho
same number of Californian species.
Three of the species mentioned in this paper, viz., Caprella lobata, C.
nova-zealandiz, and Ebalia tumefacta, were obtained in Cook Strait, in
January, 1876, whilst dredging for the telegraphic cable.
Group ABERRANTIA.
The coxæ of the pereiopoda are not squamiformly developed, some or
all being fused to their respective segments. The pleon has one or more of
the segments absent,
T. W. Kirz.—dddittons to Carcinological Fauna of New Zealand. $98
Fam. 2, CapRELLIDA.
Pleon rudimentary: oral appendages normally developed; coza fused
with the pereion ; branchial sacs attached to the first two or three segments
of the pereion.
>
Caprella, Lamarck, Syst. des anim. sans vert., p. 165.
Leach, Linn. Trans. II., p. 363.
Edwards, Hist. des Parii n, p. 105.
Króyer, Nat. Tidskr. IV., p. 496, 1842-8.
Mgina, Kroyer, Nat. Tidskr. IV., 1843.
Podalirius, Króyer, Nat. Tidskr. V., 1844.
Body cylindrical; cephalon and first segments of pereion confluent;
pleon rudimentary ; gnathopoda sub-chelate; first two pairs of pereiopoda
represented by the branchis attached to their respective segments only;
three posterior pairs of pereiopoda subequal; first and second pairs of
pleopoda rudimentary in the male; the rest obsolete. (Spence Bate, Cat.
Amphip. Crust. Brit. Mus., p. 858.)
Caprella nove-zealandie, sp. nov.
Cephalon furnished with a spinous tooth directed forwards; first segment
of the pereion rather short, second long, third and following gradually
decreasing ; superior antenne two-fifths the length of animal; flagellum
with the infero-distal extremity of each articulus produced, but without cilia ;
inferior antenne not so long as the peduncle of the superior by one joint ;
second pair of gnathopoda articulating behind the centre of second segment
of pereion; propodos ovate; palm armed with a prominent posterior tooth,
against which the closed dactylos impinges, and a smaller but distinct
anterior tooth (not lobe); dactylos very much curved; three posterior pairs
of pereiopoda have the anterior margins excavate and ciliate; the parts
against which the closed dactylos impinges, armed with a strong tooth.
Length 1 in.
Hab : Cook Strait.
This species approaches C. geometrica, Say, (Cat. Amphip. Crust. Brit.
Mus., p. 857), from which it differs, however, in the form of the spine on the
cephalon, in the length of the antennæ, and in the articulation and arming
of the second pair of gnathopoda.
Caprella lobata, Guérin.
Squilla lobata, Müller, O. Fabr. Faun. Grónl,, p. 248.
Caprella lobata, Guérin, Iconogr. Crust., pl. 28, f. 22,
" » Kroyer, Voy. en Scand., pl. 25, f. 3.
” » Stimpson, Nat. Hist. Invert. Grand Manan., p. 44,
ZEgina longicornis, Króyer, Voy. en Scand., pl. 26, f. 3.
Caprella levis, Goodsir, Edinb. New Phil. Journ., XXXIII.
" » White, Hist. Brit. Crust., p. 215.
Caprella linearis, Leach, Edinb. Encycl., p. 404.
394 Transactions.—Zoology.
Body carrying a few minute tubercles, the most conspicuous being the
one on the cephalon, and the most constant those upon the posterior seg-
ments of the pereion. First segment of the pereion long; second scarcely
longer than the first; the three succeeding rather shorter, sub-equal.
Superior antenne not half the length of the animal; inferior scarcely
reaching beyond the second joint of the peduncle of the superior. Second
pair of gnathopoda articulating with the pereion posteriorly to the centre
of the second segment; propodos long-ovate, palm defined by one and
armed with two teeth, the anterior one being often less perfectly defined
than the posterior. Three posterior pairs of pereiopoda having the propoda
with the anterior margin excavate; the part against which the closed
dactylos impinges armed with two stiff corrugated spines.
Hab: Cook Strait.
The only examples of the genus Squilla yet recorded from New Zealand
are S. nepa, Cat. N.Z. Crust., p. 89, and S. armata, M. Edw., Trans. N.Z.
Inst., IX., p. 474. It is with very great pleasure I now add a third. In
addition to the specimen exhibited, which was obtained at the Chatham
Islands, another, unfortunately mutilated, was secured by H. B. Kirk while
on a visit to Kapiti.
j Squilla indefensa, sp. nov.
E SS Rostral plate semi-oval, and pointed at its
V distal extremity. Carapace retracted in front,
\ SU WA A expanded and rounded behind, smooth, the
/l (1M antero-lateral angles rounded and slightly
produced forward; large prehensile limbs wi
terminal joint as long as preceding one, and
Ñ armed with nine spines; abdomen smooth,
ZN terminal segment with six marginal spines,
| and three depressed longitudinal ridges which
terminate posteriorly in spines.
Length, 24 inches.
Hab: Chatham Islands and Kapiti.
This species is easily distinguished by the
absence of carine on the abdomen, and by
the absence of the antero-lateral spines of the
carapace,
Ebalia.
Ebalia, Leach, Zool. Misc. IIÍ.
External antenne extremely minute, inserted in the inner canthus of
the orbit; internal antenne lying in oblique fosse, which are entirely
separated by a small process of the epistome, and concealed by the front ;
external pedipalps elongato-triangular, reaching forward to the margin of
————————————— ———
T, W. Kmx.— Additions to Carcinological Fauna of New Zealand, 896
the epistome; the internal footstalk gradually acuminated, the third joint
internally palpigerous ; anterior legs large, equal, the hand inflated, those
of the male larger than those of the female; the other legs shorter than
the first pair, diminishing gradually in length, terminating in a slightly
curved, rather strong claw; abdomen seven-jointed, but with several of
the middle joints confluent; that of the male narrow; of the female very
broad, the last joint very small, abruptly narrower than the preceding ;
carapace rhomboidal, with the angles more or less truncated or rounded ;
front produced, elevated ; eyes very small; orbits with two small fissures
on the superior margin,
Ebalia tumefacta, Bryer’s Nut Crab.
Cancer tumefacta, Mont., Trans. Linn, Soc. IX., p. 86, T. IL, f. 8.
Ebalia bryerii, Leach, Mal. Podoph. Brit., T. XXV., f 12-13.
Carapace slightly and minutely granulated; lateral margin entire, some-
what revolute at the angles; two tubercles on the cardiac region, and one
on each of the branchial in the male; these parts very tumid in the
female; abdomen in the male with the third to the fifth joints united; in
the female the fourth to the sixth ; arm not more than twice as long as it
is broad. (Bell’s Brit. Crust., p. 145.)
Hab: Cook Strait. A single female, and the right anterior leg of
another specimen.
Elamena producta, sp. nov. New Zealand Spider crab, *
Carapace flat,
broader than long,
x margin with two teeth,
which, however, vary
much in size; ros-
irum very promi-
nent; anterior legs in
male large and equal,
hand and wrist
much swollen ; fingers
curved and armed
with hairs along their
inner margins ; in the
female these legs are
slight, and the fingers
almost straight; suc-
ceeding legs very flat,
the anterior margin `
896 Transactions.— Zoology.
of the first joint produced so as to form à very prominent point, almost
a spine; claws half the length of preceding joint; whole animal destitute
of hair, except on the fingers. Length, $in.; breadth, $in. First three
pairs of ambulatory legs very long, more than twice the length of the
carapace.
Hab; Wellington.
Petrolisthes elongatus, Miers.
In the ‘ Catalogue of New Zealand Crustacea,’ p. 60, this species is said
to be of a *'reddish-yellow " colour. The specimens from which the
description was drawn up must have been preserved in spirit. This change
of colour is usual in specimens so treated, The following is taken from
living examples.
Above dark blue, greenish-blue, or sometimes even black. Below green,
getting much darker towards the posterior margin of the anterior legs,
anterior face of wrist a bright red, mobile finger and antenns deep brown,
Porcellana rupicola, Stimpson.
zm A single specimen of this species was
recently obtained by myself at Lyall Bay,
living apparently upon terms of intimacy
with a large family of Petrolisthes elon-
gatus. Upon a comparison with the foreign
Crustacea in the Colonial Museum, I find
it to agree in every particular with a
Specimen contained in the collection
lately received from Prof. Button of the
University of California, and labelled as above.
Unfortunately I have not been able to obtain the description either of
this or the next species, but there can be no doubt respecting their identity,
as those forwarded by Prof. Button are duplicates of the U.S. Exploring
Expedition's collection.
This species may be easily distinguished from Petrolisthes elongatus by its
having the posterior margin of the wrist produced, so as to form one strong
tooth, by its more drooping front, and by having the lateral margins
obtuse instead of thin and sharp. Length, 3 in.; breadth, 4 in.
Xantho spino-tuberculata, Lockington.
A fine pair of this beautiful little crab was procured at Porirua Harbour,
in January of last year, and although only about half the size of the Cali-
fornian specimen, there can be'no mistaking their identity.
The carapace is much broader than long, the front armed with spinous
tubercles; regions well defined; anterior legs strong, equal, the outer and
a
T. W. Kmx.—On some New Zealand Aphrodite. 897
upper surfaces covered with very prominent tubercles; fingers brown,
tipped with white, smooth, except theirinternal margins, which are armed
with 3 or 4 tubercles. Ambulatory legs densely covered with hairs,
Male, length ,° in., breadth 4$ in.
Female, length 45; in,, breadth 4$ in,
———————
Arr. LVI.—On some New Zealand Aphrodite, with Descriptions of supposed
new Species. By T. W. Kir, Assistant in the Colonial Museum,
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 30th October, 1878.)
Aphrodita.
Halithea, Savigny, Syst. Annel. 11 and 18. Lam., An. s. Vert., v. 306.
Aphrodita, Leach, in Suppl. Encyclop. Brit. L, 452; Aud. and M. Edw., Litt. de la France,
IL, 63; Blainville in Dict. des Sc. Nat. LVIL, 455; Fleming in Encyclop. Brit.,
Edit. 7, XL, 221; Johnston in Ann. Nat. Hist. IL, 427.
Body ovate or oblong, the back convex, covered with fifteen pairs of
scales, either concealed by a felt or exposed ; the venter distinctly separate,
flat, marked with the dissepiments and a longitudinal mesial furrow;
antenna one, mesial, small; the palpi two and long; segments 89, with
scales on the second, fourth, fifth, seventh, and every alternate segment to
the twenty-fifth, and on the twenty-eighth and thirty-second ; the inter-
vening segments with a dorsal cirrus; feet stout, biramous, with three
fascicles of bristles, two on the dorsal and one on the ventral branch; and
each foot has a ventral setaceous cirrus ; bristles various, simple or com-
pound, with a spine in each fascicle; no anal styles.
A. aculeata.
Aphrodita aculeata, Linn. Sys. X., 655; XII., 1084.
Body from 8 to 8 inches long, oval, narrowest behind, convex dorsally ;
the back of an earthy colour; roughish, with a thick close coat of hair and
membrane, forming a sort of skin, which entirely conceals the scales; the
sides clothed with long silky green and golden hairs clustered in fascicles,
and glistening like burnished metal, with blackish-brown spiniform bristles
intermixed ; ventral surface flat, often light coloured and dotted, sometimes
dark brown, obsoletely ribbed across; head small, entirely concealed,
roundish, with two round clear spots or eyes on the vertex ; antenna
minute; palpi large, subulate, flesh-coloured or dusky, jointed at the base,
where they approximate, but are separated by a black membranous crest ;
mouth with a large edentulous proboscis ; the orifice encircled with a short,
even, thick-set fringe of compound penicillate filaments divided into two
898 Transactions.—Zoology,
sets by a fissure on each side; each filament has a short stalk, with a tuft
of numerous forked papille on its summit; exterior to the orifice of the
proboscis there are four fleshy tubercles placed atthe angles; scales fifteen
pairs, roundish, smooth, thin and vesicular, blotched with black stains and
specks, the first pair small, laid over the head, the anal pair oval; feet
thirty-nine pairs, largest and most developed near the middle of the belly,
very small and approximate at the anus, biramous, the branches wide
asunder ; the superior carries, in a sort of crest-like fashion, the long,
flexible, brilliant-coloured bristles which form the silky fringe on each side
of the body, and above them some still more delicate hairs, which, by their
intertexture, constitute the membrane covering the scales, and with which
the strong spiniform bristles are intermixed, placed in a sort of cross series ;
the inferior branch is armed with three rows of stout, short bristles; in
the upper row only two or three, which are longer and stouter than those
of the next row, in which there are five or six, and which again are
stouter but less numerous than those in the lower row; spine golden-
yellow, conical, smooth ; superior cirrus long, subulate, bulged at the base;
the inferior short and conical; anus large, with a dorsal aspect, encircled
with several tentacular cirri.
* The very vivid iridescent hues, which the hairs of this remarkable
worm reflect, render it an object of wonder and surprise to the most
` incurious ; they are not equalled by the colours of the most gaudy butterfly,
and rival the splendour of the diamond beetle. It creeps at a slow pace,
and in its progress a current of water is ejected at short intervals, and
with considerable force, from the anus. When placed in fresh water, the
creature gives immediate signs of its painful situation, and soon dies, first
ejecting a white milky fluid, and in the agony of death, a large quantity of
blackish-green turbid liquor. The size and strength of the proboscis is
remarkable, and not less so the structure of the filaments which garnish
the orifice. The esophagus is short; the stomach and intestine seem to
be alike and inseparable; together they form a straight intestine, some-
times with a wide dilation in some part of its canal, with a velvety inner
surface folded into longitudinal plaits near the termination at the anus.”
(Cat. Worms, B.M., p. 104.)
I have quoted Dr. Johnston's descriptions and remarks at some length
in the hope that the attention of local collectors being called to this branch
of our fauna, we shall soon possess better specimens of this very interesting
` group than are at present to hand.
Unfortunately our specimen, which is very young, does not show the
brilliant iridescent colours mentioned above; it is of a uniform dull brown,
but after a very carefyl examination and comparison with two specimens
T. W. Krrr.—On some New Zealand Aphrodite. 399
from Europe contained in the collection of Annelids in the Colonial
Museum, I have not the slightest hesitation in referring it to this species;
it was obtained, together with specimens of the following species, amongst
a mass of tangled seaweed, thrown up in August last, at Worser Bay.
Lepidonotus.
Lepidonotus, Leach in Ann. Phil. XIV., 205 (1819), and in mm Encyclop. Brit. I., 452.
Lepidonote, Oersted, Annul. Dan. TE 12; Annul. Dors
Poly E nisi Syst. Annel. 20. Lam. An. s. Vert., V. di dui and M-Edw. Litt. de
nce, IL, 74. Cuv. Régn. Anim., IIL, 207. Johnston in Ann. Nat. Hist., IL,
i^ im 431. Williams, Rep. Brit. iia 1851, 217.
Eumolphe, Blainville in Dict. des Sc. Nat., LVII., 457.
Body oblong, flattened, obtuse and rounded at both ends, composed of
a definite number of segments, the back covered with two rows of scales ;
head distinct with two pairs of eyes on the sinciput; proboscis fringed with
simple tentacles at the orifice, and furnished with two jaws; antenna 3;
palpi 2; tentacular 2 on each side; these are similar in structure, and
jointed only at the base; scales naked, 12 placed over every alternate
segment, so that the 12th is on the 23rd; if there are more scales, the
succeeding are on every third segment; feet well developed, biramous, but
the branches are almost connate, furnished with two fascicles of bristles,
the superior in a spreading tuft, the inferior in a flattish brush, a spine on
each fascicle; bristles simple, stout, the superior tapered to a serrulate
point ; the inferior with a claw-like point, and flattened underneath on one
side of the shaft, where it is roughened with spinous tentacles in claw-set
transverse series; anal segment with styles.
** Lepidonotus is easily distinguished from Aphrodita by the number of
the antennes, by the more powerful armature of the mouth, and by the part
of the body at which the scales cease to alternate with the cirri. The back
is either entirely covered with scales, or naked in the middle, the scales in
the latter case being less developed, and not meeting on the mesial line.”
* The Lepidonoti are carnivorous. They prey on living invertebrates,
and the strong do not hesitate to kill the weak of their own and allied
species; they live in obscurity on rocky shores, and can move with
considerable quickness. Some of them swim easily in a wriggling manner,
but they hasten to find the bottom. They have the power of renewing the
scales, which are frequently removed by abrasion and injury.”
Lepidonotus squamatus.
Aphrodita squamata, Linn. Syst. X. 655; XII. 1084.
epidonotus squamatus, Johnston, Cat. Worms B.M.,
* Body generally about one, rarely two inches iol depressed, linear-
oblong, of equal breadth at both ends, of a uniform cinereous colour, rough;
scales twelve on each side, rather large, ovate, imbricate, rough with brown _
400 Transactions.—Zoology.
granulations, ciliated on the external margin, the overlapped smoother
than the exposed portion, for the granules on the former are more minute
than on the latter; the anterior scales are smaller and rounder than the
others, and completely cover the head, which is a sub-triangular pink or
purplish corneous plate, furnished with four small eyes; antenne three,
the central one largest, bulbous near the point ; palpi two, longer than the
antenne, swollen near the apex; the tentacular cirri similar to the superior
cirri of the feet, these are white, with a blackish ring at the bulb where the
acumination commences, retractile, originating from above the dorsal branch
of every alternate foot, and under the scales; the last three pairs of feet
each with a cirrus; feet twenty-five pairs, obtuse, sub-bifid, the dorsal
branch shorter and less than the ventral, each terminated with a brush of
stiff brown bristles, and under the ventral branch there is a small setaceous
cirrus, and also a fleshy spine at its junction with the belly ; bristles when
removed golden-yellow, those of the dorsal branch slenderest, gently
curved, pointed, and serrulate for about half their length, those of the
ventral branch stouter, slightly bent near the top, and serrulated with a
double series of teeth on the outer side of the bend, each tuft of bristles
enclosing a dark brown straight spine, the inferior stouter than the upper
one; ventral surface straw colour, prismatic, marked with the viscera, and
sometimes spotted with black near the base of the feet.” (Cat. Worms,
BiM., p. 107.)
Two very fine specimens of this species were obtained at Worser Bay in
August last.
Lepidonotus yiganteus, sp. nov.
Body elliptieal, rather broader posteriorly than in the front; convex
dorsally, of a brown colour, tinged with slate; scales ovate, imbricate,
coarsely granulate, projecting beyond the sides of the body, towards the
posterior and lateral margins of each scale the granulations assume the
character of short stout spines, external margins ciliated, the overlapped
smoother than the exposed portion ; anterior scales smaller than the others,
sub-circular, very coarsely granulous, completely covering and projecting
beyond the head; twenty-five pairs of feet, sub-bifid, the dorsal branch
much the smaller, and carrying a bunch of silky hairs, while the ventral is
armed with a bundle of coarse bristles of a deep golden colour. Under the
ventral branch is a fleshy cirrus. A very obtuse fleshy spine marks the
junction of each foot with the belly ; ventral surface a pale yellowish white.
Length, 4 inches ; breadth, 1,4 inches.
Hab: Wellington.
T. W. Kirg.—Notes on some New Zealand Crustaceans. 401
Art. LVII.—Notes on some New Zealand Crustaceans. By T. W. Kmr,
Assistant in the Colonial Museum.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 11th January, 1879.)
Squilla, Fabr.
Squilla armata, M. Edw., Hist. Nat. Crust., IL., p. 521; Gray, Hist. Chile,
Zool., Vol. IIL, Crust., p. 228; Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. X., p. 474.
Several very fine specimens of this species were recently obtained in
Wellington Harbour.
At the same time a specimen was procured differing from S. armata in
having a high median crest on the carapace; no spines on the ophthalmic
segment; only five spines on the terminal joint of the prehensile limbs,
and a nearly square rostral plate.
The specimen is much broken, the whole of the thoracic segments aro
missing. Length about 5 inches.
Squilla indefensa, Mihi.
A third specimen of this species was shown to me a short time since; it
was procured at Waikanae by Mr. J. Taylor, a student of the Wellington
College, and is now preserved in the Museum of that institution.
Calocaris, Bell.
Calocaris macandree, Bell; Brit. Crust., p. 231.
Two specimens of this remarkable Crustacean were obtained by myself
a few weeks since, on the Otaki beach, near tho wreck of tho ‘City of
Auckland. Although they must have been lying on the sand for somo
hours at least, one of them showed distinctly the delicate pink colouring
mentioned by Prof. Bell in his description.
Callianassa, Leach.
Callianassa. sp. ind.
A specimen undoubtedly referable to this genus has been obtained by
Mr. H. B. Kirk, at Island Bay. The carapace is much broken ; right claw
the largest. Total length, 14 inch.
Gebia, Leach.
Gebia hirtifrons, Dana; U.S. Explor. Exped., XIII., Crust., part I., p. 611.
A specimen in the private collection of Mr. H. B. Kirk appears to belong
to this species. It measures 24 inches in total length, ** the hand slender,
hairy, and not dentieulated below; the wrist has a spine at its upper apex
and one on the inner margin, but none at the lower apex;" legs hairy;
“front hardly, if at all, three-lobed.”
The specimen agrees well with the figure of G. hirtifrons, in tho Zoology
of the Voyage of H.M.SS. ‘ Erebus’ and * Terror,’
A21
402 Transactions.—Zoolony.
There are also in the collection specimens agreeing well with the descrip-
tion of G. danat, Miers.
Portunus, Leach.
Portunus pusillus, Leach, Malac. Brit., t. IX., f. 5-8; Edwards, Nat.
Hist. Crust., I., p. 444; Bell, Brit. Crust., p. 112.
Three specimens agreeing well with Prof. Bell's description are in the
Colonial Museum ; the only difference being that the New Zealand speci-
mens have a prominent spine on the anterior margin of hand.
Female, length, 7; inch; breadth, inch. Male, length, 45; inch;
breadth, +5; inch.
Hab. : Cook Strait.
Podocerus, Leach.
Podocerus cylindricus, Say, Jour. Acad. Philad., L, part 2; Edwards,
Hist. des Crust., III., p. 64; Cat. Amp. Crust. B.M., p. 256.
Three specimens were obtained at Worser Bay, in tangled seaweed.
Pleustes, Spence Bate.
Pleustes panoplus, Kroyer, Grön. Amf., p. 42, pl. 2, f. 9; Edwards,
Hist. des Crust., t. IIL, p. 41: Cat. Amp. Crust. B.M., p. 63.
Seven specimens at same time and place as last species.
These are both arctic species, and their occurrence on our coast is
somewhat remarkable, j
III.—BOTANY,
ArT. LVIIT,— Further. Observations upon certain Grasses and Fodder Plants,
By 8. M. Curt, M.D,
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 17th August, 1878.)
Ix addition to those grasses and fodder plants I had the honour to recom-
mend, in papers read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, in the
years of 1876 and 1877,* there are others which I have tested, and which I
would now desire to bring before this scientific society,
All who have experimented in the introduction, culture, and growth of
plants in New Zealand, will have been struck with the wonderful way in
which plants from very differont climates seem to acclimatise themselves
and do well in this country; and when looking through my notes upon the
growth of hundreds of genera and species of grasses under test culture, it
is interesting to find how many there are that have done not only more
than was expected of them, but that have proved themselves fully worthy
of being introduced here into the systems of farming and grazing in the
several localities of this colony.
The moderate range of temperature between the extreme heat of summer
and the worst of our cold weather in winter, with the frequent occurring
rains, seem to enable those plants that can be generally raised from seed to
accustom themselves to this country, although they may be indigenous to
very different climates.
And as grasses and many fodder plants may be frequently removed from
seed sown, the succeeding are more acclimatised than the preceding genera-
tion, so that in a few years a race of plants are produced that have become
accustomed to the climate, and whilst possessing their several characteristics
have become hardy here, and have developed qualities that are not found in
other species, and these various differences make them valuable to those
requiring such particulars in the plants they cultivate.
In growing grasses and fodder plants, not only is the constant succes-
sion of growth in the diverse species a matter of much importance, as
growing greater apania of herbage, but as cach species takos up and
* Trans. N.Z. Inst. IX., p. 581; TUNE 345,
404 Transactions.— Botany,
changes into its tissues, structures or parts, elements different from the
others, the animals fed thereon will not only eat the fresh food with greater
avidity, but they will digest and assimilate it better than if fed upon ono
kind alone, and some will grow, thrive, and fatten quicker upon it. And
further, from the peculiar habits of growth, and their root and leaf action,
the different species of grasses will, either in mixed pastures or alone, extract
from the soil, the water, and the air, exactly such qualities and quantities of
the elements as will build up their own tissues and products, and which
they alone will be able to present in that peculiar form to the animals fed
thereon; thus, from the very same fields and farms, the many different
varieties, species, and genera of grasses, will not only grow and give larger
quantity than one kind alone, but will present to the animals fed on
this field or farm, a far larger number and amount of chemical
elements than ean any one or two species, and it does not require a
very profound knowledge of physiology and dietetics to understand that
varieties of food are very beneficial, for though to men and women a beef
steak, or a vonsion haunch, may be very delightful occasionally, yet if
they had only these all their lives for every meal, they would have to be
starved into eating them; and precisely so with our sheep and cattle cating
rye-grass and clover ali their lives, yet they would thrive much better, and
pay their owners more quickly, if fed on forty or fifty different species of
grass and fodder plants. It is well known that the cheese made in certain
parts of the world, cannot be made elsewhere, and this is because the
animal cannot obtain the same food and assimilate its elements in other
places. For while botanists have found over forty kinds of plants in the
fields of Leicestershire, Gloucestershire, Huntingdonshire, and Cheshire,
besides other places, and upon any of them the pedigree sheep and cattle
can feed at their pleasure, it is hardly likely that they will thrive and pay as
well when forced to live on two or three kinds. And while in the several
parts of the earth, whether upon the Swiss mountains, the Dutch water
meadows, the wild pastures of the Cape, America, or Australia, the animals
fed there develope certain qualities and excellences, without you can provide
them with the same grasses and fodders they will not do the same else-
where. But in this favourable land of ours here we can, if we will, make
these plants grow and thrive upon our fields and pastures, and our sheep
and cattle will benefit by these introductions and being fed thereon. Now
that population is pouring into this Colony, and the land will have to be
more highly tilled and fully worked, it will be necessary to make the same
quantity of land more profitable and yield a larger return per acre, and
therefore the pastoralist must sow down fifty or sixty species of grasses,
where before he has sown only one or two, and the farmer, if he wishes to
Curt.—On Grasses and Fodder Plants, 405
grow meat as well as grain, must largely increase the number of his
fodder plants; not only must he grow several kinds of Sorghums, Maizes,
Millets, Holcus, Andropogons, Panicums, and other such plants in the hot
weather of summer, and feed his live stock therefrom, but he must bury
them in silos, as the French farmers do, for feed in the winter, and at that
season he will have the advantage over other parts of the world of growing
feed in the winter itself, by planting those things that will grow favourably
in the late autumn, the winter itself, and the very early spring. The Sugar
Beet, the Prickly Comfrey, Cabbages, Turnips, Swedes, Kohl Rabi, various
kinds of Vetches, winter Oats, Cape Barley, Prairie Grass, and other
Brome grasses, with some of the best of the indigenous grasses of New
Zealand added thereto, supplemented by Italian Rye, Devon evergreen Rye,
several Poas, Anthovanthums, and many other grasses. While the several
kinds of Achillea, Pentria virgata, the various salt bushes, Apiums, Carrots,
Menthas, Thymes, and Taraxacum will act as condiment and medicinal
herbs to the sheep and cattle depastured on the places where they grow.
And here we must remember the writings and experiences of persons in
England and countries with as severe a climate, will not serve us, as tho
conditions of our colony and climate are altogether different. The orange,
the Eugenia, the guava, and the olive, which cannot bear the winter climate
of the places round Great Britain, will here grow in the open air, and stand
our winter frost, as they have done for some years in my experimental
ground, is a proof of our milder climate. We must therefore experiment
for ourselves, and thus build up a system of agriculture and grazing suit-
able for the peculiarities of this colony. But without further dwelling upon
the difference of climate in this country, and the necessity of a different
procedure for farmers and graziers to that adopted in Great Britain, we
will now consider a few more grasses and fodders that might be grown in
our fields and farms with great advantage.
Agrostis solandri.—This grass is a native of Eastern Australia, is there
spoken of very highly as of a nutritious quality, it grows there a quantity of
herbage during the winter season, and my experience of it in my test
cultivation was, that it was not only good as a winter grass during the cold
weather in New Zealand, but that from the greater moisture here, it grows
further into the summer season as well. It may, therefore, be described as
a very good permanent pasture grass for autumn, winter, and spring
growth, and thus is a valuable addition to our permanent mixed pasture
gasses. There are several varieties which I received from Australia, some
much better than others.
Agrostis stolonifera.—A grass found indigenous in Great Britain, which
Sinclair, and other writers on grasses, brought into prominent notice as a
406 Transactions.—Botany,
grass that would cause cows to produce very rich milk, and was then called
“butter grass.” It was much sown and cultivated in Ireland, and was
there called “ fiosin,” and highly valued; but during the past fifty years
the extensive drainage operations have made it less esteemed, and this has
been brought about by the drains drying the land, and rendering it less
guitable for its growth, but on damp lands it is very valuable, as my experi-
ments prove to me. Wherever I sowed it, upon damp or swampy lands, it
gave a very large amount of exceedingly valuable herbage, and was eagerly
sought for by the animals, who fattened upon it rapidly. It has proved
itself a good grass for damp, undrained, or swampy lands, also along the
edges of streams, or creeks near ground too moist for other nutritious
grasses to succeed.
Bromus emarginatus.—This excellent grass should be introduced into all
mixed pastures, as it grows all through the winter season and withstands
the ground-frosts that bring so many other grasses to a standstill, while
its abundant foliage gives an amount of feed during the cold wet weather
that live stock seem greatly to relish. We may look upon this as a very
valuable winter grass in these latitudes, and a most useful introduction into
all moderately open alluvial or loam lands.
Andropogon laniger.—This fine grass is indigenous in the various parts
of Eastern Australia. When growing it here, I found it began to shoot
when the warm weather set in, and continued to grow during the summer,
and seeded in the autumn ; its short thickly set leaves were much relished
by sheep, horses, and cattle, and analysis showed they were nutritious and
fattening.
Dasuta grass.—The seed of this grass was sent me to test, and upon
sowing itin tilled loamy soilit eame up freely, and shooting out formed 2
thick sward; its seed ripened in abundance; this was sown down and
rapidly covered the ground, showing that this climate suited it. It gives a
large quantity of herbage, and is green here summer and winter, and if not
too closely fed or eut down, always shows rapid growth; stock like it. I
think it would be of great benefit mixed with other grasses as it holds its
own place amongst them.
Bromus ciliare.—This fine fattening grass produces an abundance of
seeds that are as large as those of prairie grass, and though it is of a more
spreading habit than prairie grass, it resembles it in general character, but
possesses the merit over prairie grass, that it will bear feeding by stock
better, and is not so casily destroyed, still it is not so well adapted for close
feeding as some other grasses named, but proves itself an excellent grass
forhay. lt grows all the winter and during summer, if the drought is not
too long continued, and starts afresh after the least rain.
WA AA AAA AA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AAA AA AAA AWA AAA AA AWA AWA WA WA WAA AAA AA AA AA
CurL.—0n Grasses and Fodder Plants. 407
Ceratochloa exaltata.—A strong-growing perennial grass; is useful for
introduction into perennial mixed grasses, as it possesses a peculiar tasto
that causes live stock to select it from other kinds, gives a variety constantly
growing for them to choose from, and, as it is nutritious, it is well adapted
for sowing with other kinds, as it grows late in the autumn and in the early
spring, when other grasses are not growing.
Dactylis altica.—This grass has the habit and general character of the
cocksfoot, but is better suited for stiffer soils, where the Dactylis glomerata
does not so well succeed. It grows all the year, but least in the driest
weather; makes quicker growth than the Dactylis glomerata in winter. It
is a good grass for permanent pasture, and should be sown when the cocks-
foot is not suitable.
Festuca aquatica.—This is a grass that should be sown down along the
banks of rivers, creeks, streams, and other waters, as it will grow and
thrive where no other grasses would succeed. It is much liked by stock,
being fattening and nutritious; horses and cattle will eat it down to the
ground, so that during summer not a blade can be seen, but the moment a
shower comes the grass springs, and on all wet or occasionally wet ground,
this grass ought to be sown.
Festuca billardiert.—An indigenous Australian grass, which I have found
to be an excellent grass for permanent mixed pasture. It grows in tho
winter, spring, and autumn, and after every shower in the summer, at all
seasons of its growth, will send up an abundance of highly-nutritious herb-
age, and is a grass all stock thrive on; it should be widely introduced. It
is 2 producer of abundant seed, and will readily propagate itself if onco
fairly sown and fairly treated.
Glyceria aquatica.— This fine grass has proved itself with me a largo
producer of seed, by which it sows itself along tho water-courses and
swamps, sending out an abundance of green leaves all the year in all damp
situations, so that the stock, in places where before only rushes and sedges
grew, are able to keep themselves in good condition upon it. It is therefore
& very desirable introduction into suitable places, as one of a mixture with
others recommended for such situations, and where grasses suited for dry
localities would fail.
Elymus arenarius.—'This grass is an admirable introduction for all sandy
lands, as it will help to fix shifting sand, and, with a little trouble at first,
will make land available that otherwise would be useless ; having procured
seed of this Elymus, I sowed it, and having read the statement of writers,
that it was worthless as a herbage plant, was surprised to learn that the
cattle and sheep had eaten it down, and this they have continued to do, _
whenever they have been allowed to get at it. Upon analysing it, I was
403 Transactions.— Botany.
astonished to find that it contained a considerable quantity of materials that
the digestive organs would be able to convert into sugar and peptones, and
that it would pass into their systems as nourishment, so that it is here not
only a useful grass to fix sand, and grow where other grasses would not, but
the conditions of this climate had made it a useful grass for live stock
on places where other grasses would not live.
Poa aquatica.—This strong-growing water-grass is another of the useful
grasses for wet, damp lands where other grasses will not grow, and should
be sown as a mixture upon such wet places, as its season of greatest
growth differs from that of others here described.
Poa aquatica of Australia.—This Australian water-grass is very different
to the European Poa aquatica, but, having received the seed under this
name and grown it, I found it a grass that, in damp situations, grew very
fast in the hottest summer weather; it is therefore good to introduce it, as
its season of strongest growth is different to the other water-grasses. It
grows scarcely at all during cold weather in this colony.
Fanicum longistylum.—This is a grass that should be introduced into
permanent mixed pasture, as it grows during the autumn, when many other
grasses are at rest, and continues here to throw up its singular seed-heads
far on into the winter.
Paspalum scrobiculatum is also another very useful Australian grass, |
which grows well with me during the summer, and it would do well if intro-
duced into permanent pasture; both stock and sheep like it. The Australian
variety differs in several respects from the Paspalum scrobiculatum indi-
genous to New Zealand.
Phalaris bulbosa or P. minor.—This excellent perennial grass produces
a large quantity of fine sweet foliage, very readily eaten by stock, and which
quickly puts them in good condition. It keeps green far into the winter,
even ripening its seed-heads in the late autumn. It is well worthy of
introduction into permanent pastures, and its seeds, which are quite as
large as the Phalaris canariensis, will, if this grass is made into hay, add to
its nutritious qualities.
Danthonia penicillata.—A narrow-leaved native grass of Queensland, that
seems in this climate to have changed its habits, and grows well through
the autumn and winter, during which seasons its fine green foliage is picked
out from the other grasses and eaten readily by cattle and sheep, and is
useful in mixed pasture from its growing during the season when the many
other grasses are at rest.
Festuca dimorpha is another of the grasses that it would be advisable to
“introduce, from its habit of winter growth, which makes it of value when
feed is less abundant,
EDT EE ET TNNT RET ES WA AA UWA N WA
Cvnr.—On Grasses and Fodder Plants. 409
Festuca drymija.—This is also a grass that may be sown with advantage,
as in the late summer rains, and in the autumn and winter, it disregards
the frosts in these parts and goes on growing, sending up its leaves that
supply a nutritive feed to the animals that are evidently glad to get it, and
which thrive thereon.
Bromus giganteus.—I received seed of this grass from two different
sources, namely, Great Britain and Australia. They appear to possess
somewhat different habits of growth, although their botanical characters
are similar, the British variety growing better in the late winter, and the
kind from Australia best in the autumn, but both throwing up large
quantities of tender succulent feed, bearing feeding by cattle well, but must
not be too closely cropped by sheep. When sown down in permanent
pasture they add greatly to the quantity of hay, both to its bulk as well as
its nutritious qualities, and can therefore with advantage be introduced into
permanent pastures.
There are several other bromes, and many other varieties of grasses that
are suitable for the pastoralist to sow, and which I should like to mention,
but must wait for another opportunity; and I will now pass on to those
plants that will yield fodder to the farmer and others who may require
them.
The Symphytum asperrimum (prickly comfrey) has of late years again
received considerable attention, and wishing to test its value in New
Zealand, I obtained roots of the different kinds from England, France,
Australia and other places, and having got them, subjected them to test
culture. They have grown and thriven well, and I have no doubt that this
climate and the conditions it will find here, will suit it very well. I believe
it will be a very valuable plant for using as fodder for cows to increase their
milk, for feeding bullocks, horses, and sheep. There are several varieties
have been sent me, some are more vigorous growers than others, they can
be easily brought hero in wardian, or such-like cases, with very few failures.
My last consignment was a case containing one thousand small roots, they
were four months before I could get them iu their case. I had them put
in the ground by common labourers, and yet over cight hundred of them
are now growing, they have had no watering during warm weather, or other
artificial care, as I wanted to try what they would do if planted out and left
to themselves, and the result has been that they stood the driest, hottest,
coldest, and most windy weather, and grew through it all, so that, bearing
this rough treatment without any digging, manuring, hoeing, or other
cultivating, and yet growing vigorously, they must be regarded as able to
stand unfavourable conditions well, and if, with this treatment, they prove
that they can keep a large number of live stock to the area upon which
A22
410 Transactions.— Botany.
they grow, and make them improve in condition quickly, they may then be
regarded as a useful and good addition to our fodder plants, but as I never
think much of any plaut until it has had five or six years testing, it is too
soon yet to say much in favour of this plant.
The Prosopis pubescens, or screw bean tree. As soon as I heard this
plant was considered to be a useful one for fodder, I procured specimens
and seed. The seeds vegetated, and the plants are growing slowly, so that
in a few years we shall be able to learn whether it will grow freely in this
country. I read of a strange test which was applied to try the use of this
tree. A horse was given all he liked to eat of the pods with the seed in
them, and he liked them so well that he ate about four pounds of the dry
husks or screw pods. The result was what might have been expected. The
horse was found dead the following morning. No doubt the same event
would have occurred had the horse been fed with any other such dry
material, and, although the horse’s death was attributed by the writer to
the poisonous effect of the screw bean, I think it was rather to be ascribed
to the large amount of dry husk swallowed, as a horse has often killed him-
self by eating too treely wheat chaff, bran, or even whole wheat itself; so the
death of this animal does not prove that the screw bean is poisonous, but
that too large an amount of dry food becomes injurious to any animal
partaking too freely of it. But there are better trees of this Prosopis genus
. than the screw bean, and some of them are found most excellent fodder for
horses, and other live stock where they grow, and I intend to get them as
soon as possible and try them here.
There are also among the plants that are worthy of culture as annuals
by farmers for fodder to cut green, or to dry and make into hay, several
of the millets that will do well here, and yield a large crop of herbage and
seed, and that are readily eaten by horses, cattle, and sheep.
A millet from Queensland I tried. It began to grow in the aina
coming up very guickly; by the autumn it had ripened its seed; the herbage
is tender, succulent, and relished by all stock; it grows about three feet
high, shooting out thickly.
A millet from France much resembles tho preceding, but bears 2
larger and more abundant seed; it sends out branches from the joints,
which also seed ; from the large quantity of seed and its succulent green
stems and leaves, it proves itself a useful fodder-plant.
Milium effusum is another plant that gives a large quantity of seed, and
as it will grow under trees or bush, it might be sown there in the place of
other kinds not suitable; it also does well if grown with tares or vetches,
and when cut together can be used as a fodder with great advantage.
Hungarian millet also does well here, and ripens its enormous heads of
CurL,—0On Pituri, a new Vegetable Product, 411
seeds, and although if left to ripen, its seed-stalks are dry, and not so
nutritious as the Milium effusum, yet the very great quantity of seed and
heavy crop produced to the acre, makes it a plant worthy of culturo for
fodder in suitable places, and in rotation.
A large variety of Vetches, some of which I obtained from Malta, have
proved themselves more prolific and of greater forage value than cither the
summer or winter vetches more usually grown, both for cutting when
green and in the autumn cutting, and burying in pits or silos, as managed
in France, and in the winter digging out and feeding stock on the farms.
The farmers might greatly increase the numbers of live stock kept and
fattened on the farm by adopting this plan.
Chicklin vetches I have found abundant bearers of seed, and a useful
forage plant that all live stock will eat whenever they can get them, and it
would fatten them quickly.
Having extended this paper to as great a length as I dare venture to
trespass upon the Society’s time, although there are so many other plants
that deserve to be noticed and introduced, yet a notice of them must await
a future opportunity if the Society should desire it,
Art. LIX.—On Pituri, a new Vegetable Product that deserves further Investi-
gation. By 8. M. Curt, M.D.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 31st August, 1878.]
Tae Wellington Philosophical Society being the recognised medium of
bringing before the scientific and general public any scientific matter, I
venture to urge upon its experimenting members the desirability of further
investigating a peculiar vegetable substance called Pituri, that has lately
been studied and investigated by myself and others.
Pituri consists of the dried leaves and other parts of plants that contain
organic elements, and when swallowed by individuals, appears to enable
them to sustain a severer and more continued exertion than they would be
able to bear without its use.
It has been long known to those acquainted with the habits of the
aboriginals of Australia, that they used a substance bearing in the different
tribes different names ; that when they were going upon long journeys over
desert tracks, where they would not be able to get food or water, or when
they were about to undertake any unusual exertion, or when any question
of moment to them would require more mental exertion than usual, or
412 Transactions.—Botany.
when in short they would be called upon to sustain any severe strain upon
their mental or physical power, they would then take out of a bag, in which
they carried it, some dried vegetable substance, and would chew or masticate
small quantities of it, aud would at intervals during their desert travel
masticate and swallow small portions of this substance, and they could thus:
for days sustain themselves without food, until they could reach places
where food, ete., was again procurable.
It is further known that the individuals of the several tribes valued this
material very highly, and that they obtained it from a distant tribe, paying
for it by a kind of barter, and that the users did not know the plant from
which it was gathered.
The knowledge of these facts had caused various scientific persons in
Australia—Baron von Müeller, Dr. Bancroft, and others—to be very
desirous to learn more about this material, and to investigate its properties.
When Mr. Gilmore upon one occasion was travelling, he came across a
tribe who, being remarkable in other respects, claimed to have certain of
their old men who knew where the Pituri was procured, and the plants from
which it was obtained. Mr. Gilmore was afterwards fortunate enough to
procure specimens of the dried Pituri, and gave portions to several scientific
persons to experiment with.
Dr. Bancroft made several very interesting experiments with this
material, both in its dried state and also with an extract prepared from it,
Baron von Miller, having received a portion and examined it
microscopically and otherwise, believed that a considerable part of the dried
substance was the leaf of a small tree or shrub, which he defined as Duboisia
hopwoodii, which is indigenous in several of the warmer parts of Australia.
Having procured, through the kindness of Mr. Barley, a supply of the
dried Pituri, I was able to investigate it, and to confirm the results obtained
by Dr. Bancroft to some extent, which results shall be as briefly as possible
related hereunder, with a view to inducing all who have the means to
further investigate this very curious, and as it appears, very important
substance, which promises not only to be a very valuable medicinal remedy,
but to be what it is claimed the coca of the Peruvians is (the dried leaves
of the Erythorylon coca), a nervine and stimulant that sustains function,
and retards tissue waste.
Before giving the results of my experiments with Pituri, it will be well
to see what Baron von Miieller and others say of it.
“ The natives of Central Australia chew the leaves of Duboisia hopwoodit,
just like the Peruvians, and Chilians masticate the leaves of the coca
( Erythorylon coca) to invigorate themselves during their long foot-journeys
through the desert. Iam not certain whether the aboriginals of all districts
CurL.—On Pituri, a new Vegetable Product, 418
in which the Pituri grows are really aware of its stimulating power. Those
living near the Barcoo, travel many days’ journey to obtain this to them
precious foliage, which is carried always about by them broken into small
fragments and tied up in little bags. It is not impossible that a new and
perhaps important medicinal plant is thus gained. The blacks use the
Duboisia to excite their courage in warfare; a large dose infuriates them.
| ** (Signed) Ferp. von MUELLER.
“ 15th February, 1877.”
Mr. W. O. Hodgkinson, writing to Dr. Bancroft on February 15, 1877,
after giving a description of the localities where he found the plant, ete.,
says :—“ The resident natives carry on a considerable traffic in this plant,
representatives of tribes from other quarters coming to procure it. It is
used, after being sweated beneath a coating of fine sand, as a narcotic
stimulant, strictly kept for the solace of the old men, or for occasions when
long privations have to be endured, or some solemnity performed. *
* * When used on the march, a portion is put into the mouth chewed,
until it assumes the form and consistency of a sailor’s quid, passed round
YA one of the party, the saliva promoted by its use being swallowed. *
* * When with Burke and Wills’ expedition, subsequently with
Mr. John McKinlay, and recently in the North West Expedition, I used
Petchere, or Petury, or Pituri, habitually when procurable, in default of
tobacco, and have very often chewed it both in its raw and prepared state."
Dr. Bancroft tried experiments upon dogs, cats, rats, and frogs, and
gives the results of its effects upon them :—
* 1st. Period of preliminary excitement from apparent loss of inhibitory
power of the eerebrum, attended with rapid respiration ; in cats and dogs
with vomiting and profuse secretion of saliva ; in dogs there is retraction of
the eye-ball.
** 2nd. Irregular muscular action, followed by general convulsion.
“ 8rd. Paralysis of respiratory function of medulla.
* 4th, Death; or
* 5th. Sighing inspirations at long intervals.
* 6th. Rapid respiration, and returning consciousness.
“7th. Normal respiration, and general torpidity, not unattended with
danger to life.
* Death is caused chiefly as in tetanus, by excessive contraction of the
respiratory muscles and suffocation. Pituri does not dilate the pupil when
applied locally, though dilation is seen to some extent. When given by
subcutaneous injection, the extreme retraction of the eye-ball in dogs is
very remarkable." He goes on to say it! In small medicinal dosia a we
d This was in a letter to the Editor of the Australian Medical Journal.
414 Transactions.—Botany,
may expect to find the period of excitement and the torpidity to be the only
marked symptoms," And further he adds :—‘‘ Of the medicinal uses of
Pituri little at present can be said. I have given it in some cases of
extreme debility, but in doses much too small to enable me to speak of its
value. I would expect it to be & tonic nervine, that could be used along
with alcohol.”
My experiments with Pituri were made with the leaves themselves, with
the infusion, and with the extract of the leaves, and were performed upon
domestic animals and myself. The results were somewhat similar to those
of the gentlemen herein referred to; but as I had not a sufficiency of the
Pituri for a very extensive series of experiments, I used up what I had, and
am waiting for a further supply before continuing others. The results I
have at present arrived at are: When the leaves are chewed by a man
unaccustomed to its use, it excites increased flow of saliva; a slight dilation
of the pupil; the heart’s action is accelerated, the beats being increased in
number by from five to eight in the minute; a pain in the hind part of the
head is felt ; the respirations are reduced in volume ; there is slight nausea.
These symptoms pass off after a short time. Then is felt increased
museular irritability ; a feeling of greater power; an inclination exists to
move the museles in some vigorous manner; the heart beats stronger; the
diaphragm acts more forcibly; respiration is performed slower; muscular
exertion is more easily done, and greater exertion can be made without
fatigue; a desire for muscular movement continues for a long time; partial
anesthesia of the skin is felt for some hours; sense of touch is lessened ;
no feeling of hunger or thirst is felt, if food or drink is not taken for twenty-
four hours; the excretions are decreased in quantity, and chemical con-
stituents altered ; there is less carbonic acid in the air expired than normal.
If the extract or infusion is given to animals so that it enters their
system by the digestive organs, much the same train of symptoms is
observed; but if it is injected subcutaneously, then the symptoms more
nearly approach those described from the observations of Dr. Bancroft.
From such experiments as I have hitherto been able to make, I have
no doubt that the active principles of the Pituri, acting as it does upon the
great nerve eentres and ganglions, and also on the muscles, increasing the
irritability of their muscular fibre elements, and while it is acting upon the
nerves and muscles, the growth of cells is retarded, and thus tissue change
is modified and lessened, the individual under its influence being thus able
to undergo exertion without food, which without it, he could not sustain.
It is, therefore, one of the few active agents that hereafter will be of
considerable serviee to the physician and others, that when properly given
or used, will prolong and preserve life, by carrying on the organie functions
G. M. Tuomson.—On Cleistogamic Flowers of the Genus Viola. — 415
over the crises of diseases, or enable exertion or effort to be sustained, when
withoutit death or very severe disease would ensue. But it will be well
here to insist that it be in all cases swallowed, and not used by sub-
cutaneous injection, as it thus acts quite differently in some respects, and
is modified in others, and would always be better given medicinally in that
way, than when subcutaneously injected, as when swallowed it is mixed
with the saliva and gastric fluids, which modify its action, whereas if
injected under the skin it is absorbed, and acts in a differ ent, as well as a
more sudden and violent manner. I am not now able to speak as to the
doses that will be most beneficial, as my supply of Pituri is exhausted, but
small and repeated doses of the leaves, or a powder thereof masticated, or
mixed with some linctus, or in the form of lozenges, so that it will be well
mixed with the saliva, are the best forms of using it. But as it can be more
fully studied, no doubt other facts will reveal themselves with regard to it
and to its uses and proper place in the materia medica. At all events, if
these observations cause others to examine this important agent, and when
it is better known, and health is gained or life is saved by this drug, my
object in bringing this matter before the Society will be gained.
Art. LX.— Notes on Cleistogamic Flowers of the Genus Viola.
By Grorcr M. Tuomson.
[Read before the Otago Institute, 14th May, 1878.)
Ir is a well-known fact that, owing to the poverty of insect life in these
islands, the number of entomophilous plants, i.e., those requiring insect aid in
securing fertilization, is small in comparison with most other parts of the
world. Hence, also, the comparative want of gaily-coloured flowers, and the
prevalence of white, green, and inconspicuous flowers. As every fact
bearing on the question of fertilization of flowers gives us additional insight
into the relations of the indigenous fauna and flora, I make no further
apology for communicating the following notes to the Institute.
There are many plants which produce two kinds of hermaphrodite
flowers, viz., tolerably large and conspicuous flowers, fitted for cross-fertili-
zation by means of insects, and small, closed ones, more or less depauperated,
and sometimes produced underground, fitted only for self-fertilization. These
last are known as Cleistogamic (Gr. kleistos, closed; gamos, union). In Dar-
win's latest botanical work, “On Different Forms of Flowers," there is
given & list of fifiy-fivo genera, certain species of which produce these
flowers, Of the genus Viola, fifteen species are named, which produce,
416 Transactions.— Botany.
more or less completely, cleistozamie flowers. V. tricolor, the parent plant
of our garden pansy, does not produce them, and we find in the above list
a gradation in the amount of depauperation, which appears to reach its
maximum in the Indian V. nana. This species, though producing perfect
flowers in its native habitat in the Sikkim Terai, produced only cleistogamic
flowers in Calcutta, and in Mr. Darwin’s greenhouse, and this for many
successive seasons.
Three species of Viola have been described as occurring in New Zealand.
Of these I have not seen V. lyalli, but have examined the other two. The
presence of cleistogamic flowers on these plants has long been known, but
their structure has not been minutely deseribed, and most people take them
for buds.
Viola filicaulis, Hook. f.
This species bears exceedingly variable flowers, some being only slightly
depauperated, while others are completely closed. I am strongly inclined
io think that those plants which grow in open, sunny spots, produce more
of the conspieuous flowers than those growing in hidden and out-of-the-way
corners. Clumps of the plant were in many cases gathered from deep
clefts among rocks, and these were found in most cases to be covered with
cleistogamie flowers, but to have few or none of the conspicuous ones.
The ordinary flowers of this plant are produced on slender peduncles
from three to six inches in length.
The petals, which are about twice as long as the sepals,
are white or pale blue, elegantly streaked with brown and
yellow ; the lower one being furnished with a very short,
obtuse spur. The stamens are well developed, with a
_ thin, broad connective, which extends considerably above
the anther lobes, and the two lower stamens are furnished
with short, truncate spurs. The style is long and curved,
and terminated by a quadrangular stigmatic aperture.
The cleistogamie flowers are borne on curved peduncles,
very close to the root, from 3 to 1 inch in length. The
flowers themselves are very small, seldom exceeding a
si agree of an inch in length. The sepals are similar in
dun and development to those of the ordinary flowers.
1h. The petals are shorter than and included in the sepals,
La urred stamen and are all regular in shape. The stamens appear to be
anche negem all represented, but none have the spur. The filaments
caulis x 25. are narrow, not extended laterally, but prolonged shortly
1, E ollen quor above the anthers to a short, acute hood. The anthers
x 225, are applied closely to the pistil, and the pollen grains,
G. M. Taomson.—Notes on Cleistogamie Flowers of the Genus Viola. 417
while still in the anther cells, may be seen emitting their tubes to the
stigma. The style is nearly as long as that of the conspicuous flowers,
but in order to bring the stigma within reach of the
pollen, it lies coiled and twisted on the summit of the
ovary. In some of the flowers all the stamens were
reduced to mere filaments except one; in others there
occurs one stamen with both anthers; another with a
single anther, the rest being represented by filaments ;
while others again had the rudiments of anthers, but
no pollen. The size of the pollen grains varied some-
S9 what in the two kinds of flowers. In the large, con-
> Q spicuous flowers, the grains appeared uniform in size and
in shape, and averaged about byth of an inch in length;
2, a. Si ves from in the cleistogamic flowers, the larger grains were similar
ar. end X 36. in shape and length to those of the larger flowers, while
2, b. Pollen grains the majority were rounder and thicker, and not more than
uu WA | T tooth of an inch in length.
Viola cunninghamii, Hook. f.
This species, as a rule, flowers earlier than the preceding. When
examined by me during the month of January, it bore abundance of cleisto-
gamic flowers, while the empty valves of their capsules showed that the
other flowers had already ripened and shed their seed. The ordinary
flowers are very similar to those of V. filicaulis, and are produced on pedun-
cles of similar length. The cleistogamic flowers are produced on very short
peduneles, which lengthen in fruit to or 3 of an inch. All the parts
in these flowers are very small. The sepals are all present, and of the
normal form, but the petals are wanting; their disappearance seems to be
complete, as there was no trace of their presence.
The stamens are very feebly developed. Two of them have both
their anthers developed, but these are very small and do not contain
much pollen. The filament is narrow below, but has its
upper part extended into a hood. These two stamens are
placed on opposite sides of the pistil, and their hoods com-
pletely overlap and enclose it, their anthers being in contact
with the short, obtuse stigma.
In all the flowers examined by me, there seemed no
departure from this type of structure, nor was there the
variability which I noticed in the cleistogamic flowers of V.
f filicaulis.
ab
8, a. Hooded stamen from cleistogamic flower of V. cunninghamii x 25.
9, b. Rudimentary stamen from the same x 26, 429
418 Transactions.— Botany.
Arr. LXI.—On the means of Fertilization among some New Zealand Orchids.
By G. M. Tuomson.
[Read before the Otago Institute, 11th June, 1878.]
Tre following notes drawn up from jottings made during the past spring
and summer, are by no means exhaustive, but may rather be looked upon
as a small contribution to our already existing information on this interest-
ing subject.
Of the eleven genera which are represented in this part of the island, I
have made more or less lengthened observations on ten, viz.: Karina, Den-
drobium, Corysanthes, Microtis, Caladenia, Pterostylis, Chiloglottis, Lyperan-
thus, Thelymitra and Prasophyllum. I was not fortunate enough to obtain
specimens of Gastrodia, which is a very readily overlooked plant.
Some of my specimens were cultivated, and thus yielded more certain
information than those which were examined in the wild state.
One fact which has struck me during these investigations is, that I have
hardly ever been able to capture insects carrying pollen on any part of their
body. Only when examining beds of Corysanthes have I found insects with
pollinia. It is possible that the general coldness of the past season, and
the remarkable scarcity of all kinds of insects, have had a good deal to do
with this. If this is the case, of course a disturbing element has been
introduced to some extent into my observations.
Tribe EPrpexpREZ.
(1.) Earina autumnalis,
I have had a large clump of this species in cultivation all summer, but
owing probably to the want of warmth it only came into bloom towards
the end of March. It produced abundance of flowers, however, having
about 1100 on it when examined on 6th April.
The flowers are only about 3 of an inch in diameter, white in colour,
with a yellow centre, and with an almost over-poweringly sweet perfume.
The labellum is 3-lobed, stands nearly erect in front of the column, and has
its lateral lobes produced forward at right angles to it. It bears two
strongly marked longitudinal ridges on its surface, which almost touch the
sides of the column, and leave a minute nearly square passage to its base.
There is no nectary, but the tissue at the base of the labellum is easily
punctured, and exudes beads of moisture. The column is short and erect,
the stigmatic surface very concave, with the viscid rostellum projecting
prominently forward above it. The anther is termitial and deciduous, and
encloses four pyriform pollinia attached in pairs to a short caudicle.
From the position of the parts it appears to be impossible that self-
fertilization could take place. The pollinia are remarkably coherent, and
G, M. Taomson,—0On the Fertilization of some New Zealand Orchids. 419
lie very closely ensconced in the anther case. For fertilization by insects,
however, the parts are very simply fitted. The rostellum with the attached
caudicle projects to a small point, and is viscid on the edge and under-surface.
An insect visiting the flower would insert its head or proboscis into the
small square aperture between the labellum and the column, and in with-
drawing would inevitably touch the viscid surface. The slightest touch
brings away the pollinia, usually all four, but sometimes only two. Were
they to be withdrawn just as they lie on the summit of the column, they
would hardly be in the position to strike the stigmatic surface of another
flower; but in being withdrawn, the cap of the anther pulls them slightly
downwards and depresses the caudicle considerably. I repeatedly imitated
the action with the point of a pencil or needle, and found in every case that
the pollinia came away readily, and were depressed considerably below a
right-angle to the surface to which they adhered. In this position they
were easily placed on the stigma of a second flower. I carefully examined
91 flowers, and found that the pollinia had been removed from the anthers
in 41 cases, and remained intact in 50; this too in bright, warm weather.
Of course the plants were not in their native habitat, which might account
partly for lack of the usual bush-frequenting insects. Those spikes pro-
minently placed on the plant usually had the pollinia of their flowers more
or less removed, while those which were buried among the leaves had not
as a rule been visited,
Tribe Maraáxr.
(2.) Dendrobium cunninghamii,
This beautiful orchid has its flowers evidently fitted for cross-fertiliza-
tion. The upper sepal is lanceolate in form, and is the smallest in the
whorl. The lateral sepals are broad at the base, and adnate to the
produced base of the column. The lateral petals are linear oblong.
The labellum is widely expanded above the middle, with two small lateral
lobes, and bears on its face five elevated ridges or plates, It is attached
to the base of the column by a short and very elastic claw. The column
stands in the flower exactly like the letter J, being produced forward at the
base, and terminated by a large green glandular swelling. en the
flower is open, a small drop of nectar is always found at the base of
this swelling. The erect portion or limb of the column is rather long.
The anther is terminal, and encloses four narrow and flattish pollen
masses, attached in pairs to a strap-shaped caudicle. The stigmatic
surface is placed slightly below it, and is nearly square. When in the
bud, the lower surface is hollowed into a deep pit, and on its summit,
standing directly in front of the bases of the pollinia, is the rostellum,
which at this early stage is membranous, As the flower opens, the cells
420 -~ Transactions.— Botany.
of the rostellum become converted into & milky and excessively viscid
substance, while the whole surface of the stigma secretes abundantly a
clear, viscid matter, and a drop of sweet fluid is secreted at the base of
the column.
The action of the parts is exceedingly simple. An insect alighting on
the labellum weighs it down very easily, and thus gains access to the nectar
at its base. The elasticity of the labellum, however, tends to keep it press-
ing against the column, and thus compels the insect to brush against the
viscid rostellum. The pollinia are very easily withdrawn by an upward
movement, as can be seen by introducing a needle or pencil point, and
touching the rostellum in withdrawing it, when one or more of the pollinia
will be withdrawn with it. The lateral lobes of the labellum and the guiding
ridges on its surface would prevent an insect reaching the nectar without
touching the rostellum when leaving the flower; and any insect entering
another flower with pollinia on its head, could not fail to leave these on the
stigma. By inserting a fly, this action was easily seen, all four pollinia
` being withdrawn, with their eaudicle glued over the insect's right eye. Out
of twenty-two flowers examined, only five had their pollinia removed from
the anther cases, but as the plant was growing on a veranda away from
its native habitat, this was no criterion. I regret that I did not fertilize
any of the flowers on this plant with their own pollen. Those fertilized by
pollen from other flowers on the same plant produced fine capsules.
Tribe ARETHUSEA.
(8.) Corysanthes macrantha.
Both this species and C. rivularis were examined by me, but the flowers
are almost identical in structure, the difference not affecting the relations of
the parts. They are very striking in appearance, owing to their lurid
purple colour, and the long twisted sepals and petals, which give them an
extraordinary resemblance to a large spider sitting on a leaf. The upper
sepal is large, prominent, and helmet-shaped, and projects forward over the
flower. The labellum is large and involute, almost semi-cylindrical, with
its external margin fimbriated and expanded downwards into a longish tip.
It is not attached continuously at its base. On each side of the flower,
when in bud, a small slit is seen, which widens by an expansion of the
margin (which is thus caused to arch slightly outwards) into a small circular
aperture. By the contact of the in-turned edges of the labellum, and the
overlapping of the upper sepal, a horizontal aperture is left in the mouth of
the flower, which bends at right-angles a little way in, and opens into a
tolerably large cavity. Placed quite at the bottom of this is the short,
thick column, lying almost horizontally in C. rivularis, and somewhat more
erect in C, macrantha, The stigmatic cavity is deep, and on its posterior
G. M. Tuomsox.—On the Fertilization of some New Zealand Orchids. 491
margin is the rostellum. This is formed of large cells, covered with a very
delicate membrane. If this be touched with a bristle, it is almost instantly
ruptured, and a small, very viscid drop of matter exudes, In withdrawing
the bristle the pollinia are brought away with it. The anther is terminal
(posterior), and has broad lateral projections. The pollinia are four in
number, in two pairs, and in the form of plates. The flowers do not appear
to secrete any nectar, but when the surface of the labellum is slightly
punctured, a considerable amount of sweetish purple juice exudes, which is
probably grateful to insects. From the shape of the flowers, it is necessary
to cut them longitudinally to see the parts. Looking at the position of the
anther and stigma, it appears to me almost impossible that self-fertilization
can take place; at the same time it is somewhat difficult to suggest any
satisfactory way in which an insect could accomplish either this or cross-
fertilization. I presume that any insect entering the flower would have to
back out again by the same way as it entered, and in doing so it would
come in contact with the rostellum, and would remove the pollinia on its
head. It is also probable that, in endeavouring to obtain from a second
flower any of the sweet juices from the tissue at the base of the labellum, it
would slightly advance its head, so as to bring the pollinia attached to it on
to the stigma. Again, it is possible that self-fertilization might be secured
by an insect thus getting the pollinia on its head, and then endeavouring to
push its way down through the small lateral apertures. In doing so, it
would almost certainly smear the stigma with pollen from the same flower,
and I have sometimes been inclined to think that such did take place. At
the same time, this would seem like putting an unnecessary difficulty in the
way of what is usually a very simple process, and therefore no great value
is to be attached to this idea.
For a time I could not understand why spiders frequented these flowers
so much, but I soon found a sufficient cause. The only insects capable of
removing pollen which were found about the flowers were small Diptera—
probably a species of Culex. In several cases these small flies had penetrated
into the tube of the flower, and, in their eagerness after the sweet juices
found there, brought their heads in contact with both rostellum and stigma,
and partly owing to the viscidity of these parts, and partly to the narrowness
and bending of the tube, were unable to withdraw backwards. In some
flowers insects were thus found still alive, in others they were dead, while
in many others only portions of them, such as legs, wings, etc., were left,
the spiders having devoured the rest. In every case in which a captured
insect was withdrawn from its trap, the pollinia were removed also, securely
attached to the front of the head. ;
I closely examined 143 flowers, and found that in 47 the pollinia were
422 Transactions, —Botany.
still in the anther cells; from 90 they had been removed, while in 6, dead
or living insects were found glued to the stigma. Of the whole number
examined, only a small proportion ultimately produced capsules,
The flowers of this genus will well repay examination,
(4.) Microtis porrifolia.
In the flowers of this species the column is protected by a broad, flat
hood, formed by the posterior sepal and the two lateral petals. The lateral
sepals are completely reflexed, and lie back against the ovary. The
labellum is large and pendulous, hanging out from the front of the flower
like a tongue, It is rectangular in shape, rather longer than broad, with
the margin crimped and curled, and bearing three glandular projections on
its surface. Two of these are situated together near the base, and enclose
& small depression or pit. This, from its position and appearance, I take
to be a nectary, but I was unable to detect any liquid in it. The third
gland is formed by an irregular wart-like mass of cells, and is situated near
the apex of the labellum. I have not investigated its functions, nor do I
know how its presence can be accounted for. The column is very short,
and stands almost square, this appearance being caused by the wings or
auricles which stand up on each side. Beneath these is the hooded anther,
enclosing four pollinia, which lie very loosely in their cells. They present
the appearance of two masses, but each is composed of a large outer and a
smaller inner sheet, of a reniform shape, united by their threads to a short
caudicle. In front of and somewhat below them is the viscid rostellum,
towards the apex of which a minute white point is visible, which marks
their point of attachment. The rostellum projects considerably outwards,
so that the stigmatic surface is placed in a recess. The slightest touch on
the viscid dise suffices to bring away one or both pollinia, the matter being
excessively viseid. An insect alighting on the rostellum, and advancing its
head to examine the glands at its base, would be certain to touch the
rostellum and bring away the pollinia. These fall slightly by their own
weight, so that on entering 2 second flower, they would be in such a posi-
tion on the front of the insect’s head as to touch the stigma immediately
underthe rostellum. In the first spike examined by me, 39 flowers were
fully opened, and all but the top one had their pollinia removed.
Even when not fertilized by insects however, these flowers are readily
self-fertilized, and during the past season this appears to have been the
case with the great majority. After a time, the pollinia appear withered
and brown, and somewhat dragged forward from their anther cells, while
the ovary begins to enlarge, showing that pollination has taken place. If
such flowers are examined carefully, it will be found that the pollen grains
have emitted a great mass of tubes, which penetrate the upper margin of
G. M. Tuomson.—On the Fertilization of some New Zealand Orchids. 423
the stigma, thus ensuring fertilization. I found this to be the case in
several hundred flowers which I examined. The position of the labellum
on the underside of this flower is caused by the usual twisting of the pedicel
or ovary, which is so common in many orchids. But in young buds the
posterior sepal is lowest and placed on the side farthest from the axis of the
spike ; and it is during the gradual maturing of the flower that the twisting
takes place, so that, by the time it opens, the labellum and posterior sepal
have changed places.
This species, as might be expected from its facilities for reproduction, is
one of the commonest plants of the class.
(5.) Caladenia bifolia.
Chiloglottis traversii, Müeller.
This is a most abundant orchid in upland districts at an elevation of
1500 to 8000 feet. The flower is solitary on an erect scape, three to four
inches in height. The upper sepal is obtuse, somewhat arched forward, and
slightly keeled. The lateral sepals are placed under the labellum, and
extend forward almost horizontally. The labellum is broad; on each side
of the expanded portion is a yellow-coloured patch bearing two or three
brownish spots, while extending from the middle to the base are two rows
of yellow glands. The column is long and erect, slightly winged above,
and bearing a terminal anther which encloses four pollinia. The stigma is
rounded and slightly hollowed out, and is placed in close contiguity to the
anther. The arrangement of the parts is so simple that an insect alighting
on the labellum and advancing its head into the base of the flower could
hardly fail to remove the pollinia; nor could one entering with pollen on
its head fail to leave these on the stigma, for in withdrawing pollinia
from a flower they are always slightly depressed by the cap of the anther.
The pollen of this plant is very incoherent, and the lower surface of the
stigma projects a little, so that I am inclined to think self-fertilization takes
place in flowers which have not been visited by insects. The majority of
the flowers appear to set good capsules, and flowers which I fertilized
artificially, produced good full seed-vessels. I examined one sunny day
twenty-two flowers growing in the open; of these only three had both
pollinia removed; in one the pollinia were removed from one anther lobe;
in five others the pollen masses appeared more or less disturbed; while in
the remaining thirteen the anthers were untouched.
(6.) Pterostylis banksii.
The fertilization of the flowers of this genus has been so well described
by Mr. Cheeseman, in the Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. V., p. 852, that I cannot
well add to it, but my observations on them more than ever induce me to
consider that there has been an unusual scarcity of iusect life during the
424 Transactions.—Botany.
past season. Out of all the flowers of the above species, and of P. graminea,
examined, not one had the pollinia removed. The flowers are incapable of
self-fertilization. Certain experiments made by me to test whether they
were fertile with thcir own pollen were rendered useless by being conducted
in the open, where the flowers were liable to be destroyed.
The rostellum of this orchid, when examined in bud, lies in front of and
between the bases of the pollinia, but quite separate from them. At this
early stage it consists of an oblong, pearly-white body, composed of large
rounded cells, filled with granular fluid. The pollinia stand in a small
hollow on the top of the column, and at this stage are attached only by a
small posterior ligament at their base.
(7.) Chiloglottis cornuta.
In this species the flower is solitary, on a short scape, which lengthens
after flowering, and is partly covered by an acute, sheathing bract. When
fully developed, all the parts stand nearly erect, and thus leave no landing
place for insects. The labellum is acutely trowel-shaped, with one broad
central, and several narrow, lateral, longitudinal, purple glands. The
column is curved back at the base, and then ascends in front of the upper
sepal. The stigmatic surface is large, almost circular, quite flat and exces-
sively viscid, there being no distinct rostellum. The anther is terminal,
and encloses four plate-like pollinia, which are coherent, and are attached
by their bases to the upper margin of the stigma (rostellum). Before the
flower is open, and while yet almost sessile, and sheathed by the bract, the
stigmatic surface becomes excessively viscid, and smears all the portion of
the labellum immediately opposite to it. I could not ascertain how the
pollen got on to the stigma, but in the few flowers I was enabled to examine,
all four pollinia were on the stigma, and the anther cells were empty.
From the position of the flower when the parts are ripe for pollination,
viz., low down between the two leaves, from its inconspicuous greenish
colour, and the fact that viscidity is strongest in the unopened flowers, I am
of opinion that this species is exclusively adapted for self-fertilization. The
subsequent lengthening of the scaps is probably only to aid in the dispersion
of the seed.
(8.) Lyperanthus antarcticus.
In this orehid the flowers are solitary, or two on a scape, partially
covered by a relatively large concave bract, and of a green colour through-
out. The posterior sepalis large and broad, arched forward, and covering
the column like a hood. The labellum is flat, broadly ovate and acute, quite
glabrous, with two lateral and four median ridges. The column is broad,
somewhat arched forward, and terminated by the acute anther. The ros:
tellum placed directly above the stigmatic chamber, impinges on the base
G. M. Tromson.
On the Fertilization of some New Zealand Orchids. 495
of the anther, and is slightly viscid. The pollen-masses, four in number,
are very incoherent. From their inconspicuous colour, the fact of their being
very frequently closed, and the extreme incoherence of their pollen, I am
inclined to think that the flowers of this plant are always self-fertilized. I
examined 89 flowers, and found that the pollinia were present in all of
them, but in the more advanced some of the pollen was scattered over the
stigmas, and the ovaries appeared well-developed.
Tribe Nrorrez.
(9.) Thelymitra longifolia.
The fertilization of this orchid is treated of in Fitzgerald’s “ Australian
Orchids,” and quoted by Darwin. All the parts of the perianth, including
the labellum, are similar in colour and shape. The column is nearly erect,
and slightly hooded at the apex. On its front margin, and a little below
the apex, a projection occurs on each side, bearing a tuft of exquisitely
beautiful feathery hairs. These are the auricles or staminodia which
represent two out of the three stamens of the inner whorl, the third being
the only stamen fully developed. In this flower they form a very con-
spicuous feature, but I do not know their function, if any. Placed quite in
at the back and near the base of the column, are the two persistent anther
lobes. In very young buds these contain the pollinia, but as they approach
maturity they become attached to the back of the stigma, which stands
forward a slight distance from the column. The pollinia are composed of
four sheets or plates of white, powdery, very incoherent pollen. The
rostellum is hardly viscid at all, nor would this be of any use to the plant,
as itis seldom, if ever, visited by insects. The flowers are seldom found
open, and as a rule are probably self-fertilized. I presume that the pollen
grains emit their tubes to the upper surface of the stigma, but I never
succeeded in detecting this,
(10.) Prasophyllum colensoi.
The flowers are small and greenish-brown in colour. The base of the
ovary is sheathed by a short truncate bract; the very short pedicel is not
twisted, so that, as in Thelymitra, the labellum appears in its normal position
above the flower. All the parts of the perianth are similar in form and
colour. The column is very short and erect, with the anther placed at tho
back. At each side rises a small two-lobed appendage, representing 2
staminodium or imperfect stamen about half the height of the column.
The stigmatic surface is broadly triangular, and is protected in front by the
labellum, and latterly by the staminodia. The pollen grains are usually
found adhering to the back of the stigma, some on its upper edge. When
examined under the microscope, some of these were found to havo
emitted a mass of short tubes. The pollinia are two in number, and the
A24
426 Transactions.— Botany.
pollen grains forming them are bound together into small wedge-shaped
masses. The flowers are somewhat sweet-scented, and though dull-coloured
are tolerably conspicuous, but there appears to be no trace of a nectary.
Nor from the position of the parts is it very probable that an insect could
remove the pollinia, so as to place the loose, incoherent grains on the
stigma of another flower. The species is evidently well fitted for self-
fertilization. In nine spikes examined by me, containing altogether 75
open flowers, only four appeared to have the pollinia partially removed,
and, even in these, pollen grains were adhering to the stigma and anthers.
Imperfect as the foregoing notes are, they still point to the correctness
of the general principle that where it is advantageous to a plant to have its
flowers cross-fertilized by pollen from another plant, there we find agencies
for attracting suitable insects. Thus Farina has conspicuous flowers, sweet
scent, and succulent tissue at the base of the flower; Dendrobium has showy
flowers and a tolerably perfect nectary ; while Corysanthes has conspicuous
flowers and sweet juice. In all three, assistance from insects appears to be
absolutely necessary. Again, Caladenia, which appears to be fitted for both
means of fertilization, has tolerably conspicuous flowers, while Microtis,
which is similarly favoured, has the rudiments of a nectary, but the former
would seem to be more dependent on insect aid than the latter. In Ptero-
stylis there seems to be nothing to attract insects, as the flowers are green,
and, as pointed out by Mr. Cheeseman, do not appear to secrete any nectar,
nor do they have any decided scent. Yet in none of the New Zealand
orchids are the appliances to secure the desired end so perfect or so complex.
In this plant only one species of insect appears adapted to each particular
species of the genus. It would be interesting to discover whether this
applies to other New Zealand genera. In those genera which are almost,
if not altogether, exclusively self-fertilized, no special provision for attracting
insects occurs, if we except the handsome perianth of TAelymitra.
Art. LXII.—Description of a new Species of Coprosma,
By D. Perrm, M.A.
[Read before the Otago Institute, 8th October, 1878.]
Coprosma virescens, Petrie.
A compact shrub, six to ten feet high, with numerous interlaced, slender,
tortuous branches and twigs and greenish glabrous bark; leaves glabrous,
membranous, elliptico-spathulate, quarter of an inch long or less, in
tichous fascicles on the twigs; stipules connate, forming a short two-
lobed tube around the twigs,
Buowanan.—-On a new Species of Celmisia, 497
Male flowers terminal on the short lateral branchlets, in fascicles of
three or sometimes more; each fascicle enclosed at its base by a cupular
involucel, apparently formed of metamorphosed stipules ; calyx short,
cupular, with four or fewer short blunt lobes; corolla bell-shaped, four-
partite almost to base; stamens exserted ; the fascicles of male are often
on twigs destitute of leaves.
Female flowers terminal on the short lateral branches, usually solitary,
but sometimes two or three together, with a four-lobed tubular more or less
ciliated involucel enclosing the calyx ; calyx tubular, indistinctly four-
lobed at the ciliated margin; corolla four-partite to base; the lobes narrow,
oblong ; styles papillose, twice as long as the corolla lobes; drape not seen.
Habitat: Dunedin, Water of Leith, Vauxhall, Saddle Hill, where it was
first gathered by Mr. A. C. Purdie.
The species belongs to the group with fascicled female flowers, and is
very distinct and well marked in its characters. It appears to be closely
allied to another undescribed species growing near Dunedin, and forming a
link between it and C, rotundifolia,
Arr. LXIII.—Deseription of a new Species of Celmisia. By J. BUCHANAN.
Plate XVIII
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 11th January, 1879.)
Celmisia cordatifolia, n.s.
Leaves entire, with the petiole 6-8 inches long, 2 inches broad, obtuse or
acute at tip, and cordate at the base, thickly covered below with rusty
brown tomentum, glabrous and dull green above in old leaves, and in young
leaves sprinkled with white silky hairs, which are more abundant at base
and on midrib; petiole and petiolar sheath ribbed, covered and fringed with
pale brown tomentum ; inner surface glabrous, purple. Scape 10-12 inches
high, with long linear bracts, the whole covered with rusty brown
tomentum, which often disappears on the bracts after flowering, leaving
terminal tufts. Head 14 inches in diameter; involucral scales numerous, in
two series, outer series with terminal tufts of rusty-brown tomentum; rays
narrow, 3 inch long; pappus 1 inch long; achene large, glabrous.
Collected by. Mr. A. McKay, January, 1879, on Mount Starvation,
elson, :
428 Transactions.—Botany.
This species, in its general appearance, shows an evident relationship
to Celmisia traversii, but the cordate leaves which present the first depar-
ture from the normal leaf-form of Celmisia, is thought sufficient to constitute
a new species,
——
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XVIII.
Plant two-thirds natural size; head past flowering.
1. Female floret of ray.
2. Hermaphrodite floret of disk, with achene and pappus.
8. Pappus hair more magnified,
Art. LXIV,—Notice of a new Species of Pomaderris (P. tainui.)
By Dr. Hzcros.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 11th January, 1879.]
Tar tree which I have to introduce to the Society was discovered during
my recent visit to the Mokau district, under circumstances of some interest
beyond the mere botanical importance of a new addition to the flora of the
country. Itis a very local plant, being confined to about an acre of ground
on à spur of the low sandy hills that extend along the coast, between tho
Mokau and the Mohakatina rivers.
The peeuliar habit of the treo first attracted my attention, having 2
resemblance to a clump of apple trees, so that at first glance I thought it
to be an old orchard or cultivation. I afterwards was much interested in
hearing from the natives that a peculiar tree was growing on the spot where
their ancestors first camped when they abandoned the Tainui canoe, in
which they came from Hawaiki, and that this tree had sprung from the
rollers or skids and the green boughs that were brought as flooring to the
great canoe. On my doubting this, they offered to take me to the place,
and if I could not recognise the tree as being found elsewhere in New
Zealand, they would consider it as proof that the tradition was correct.
To my surprise they took me to the clump of trees I had previously
observed, and as it is certainly quite distinct from any plant hitherto
described from New Zealand, the tradition receives a certain amount of
confirmation ; and I need hardly point out that if it were true, and we
could hereafter determine the original habitat of this ‘tree, it might give
us a clue to the whereabouts of the mythical Hawaiki, or the place whence
the Maori originally migrated to New Zealand,
TRANS.N.Z.INSTITUTE, VOL. XLPLXVITE.
CELMISIA CORDATIFOLIA, 7:8.
CoLengo.—0On new Ferns, 429
The following description of this plant indicates it to be closely allied
to Pomaderris apetala, Labill., which is a native of Australia and Tasmania;
but as it differs in its growing to a much larger size—that species being a
mere shrub like the kumera-hau /P, elliptica) of New Zealand, whereas
the tree now described grows to a height of 20 feet, with large stems 5 or 6
inches in diameter—I have thought it better to distinguish it by a specific
name, and have adopted that by which it is known to the Maoris.
Pomaderris tainui, n.s.
A small shrubby tree, 20 feet high, with numerous irregular branches;
smooth brownish-grey bark; young branches and under side of leaves
covered with white stellate tomentum ; leaves 2 to 8 inches long, elliptic-
oblong, obtuse at both ends, irregularly crenulate, glabrous and dark
green on the upper surface, with distant stellate bases on young leaves,
principal veins very prominent, buff-eoloured. Flowers small in open thyr-
soid panicles, leafy at the base, buds nearly globular; calyx about 1} lines
long with stellate leaves, the tube being very short; petals 0; anthers tipped
by a small gland; styles divided to the middle with club-shaped, almost
capitate stigmas ; capsule not seen.
Habitat: Sea Coast, south of Mokau River. In flower 5th Dec., 1878.
Art. LXV.—A Description of two New Zealand Ferns, believed to be new to
Science. By W. Couenso.
(Read before the Hawke Bay Philosophical Institute, 14th October, 1878.) >
. I. CYATHEA,
Cyathea polyneuron, sp. nov.
Trunk stout, 19-15 feet high (garden plant 12 years old, 6 feet high, 8
feet in circumference under bases of fronds, and 2-6 at one foot above
ground), densely covered with long black hairs, and marked with scars of
fallen fronds.
Fronds (garden plant), 10-12, ample, grass-green colour above, paler
below, gracefully drooping, 10-12 feet long, 4 feet 6 inches broad (in
middle), oblong-lanceolate, membranaceous when first expanded, afterwards
sub-coriaceous, tripinnate, glabrous above, floccosely hairy and woolly on
veins and veinlets below. '
Stipes stout, 12-15 inches long, 8-9 inches in girth at base, muricated,
of a dark mahogany colour below and light yellow-green above, regularly
marked with a light-coloured straight yet broken line ranning on both sides
430 Transactions.—Botany,
from pinna to pinna the whole length of the stipe and rachis, each mark or
dash, 6-8 lines long, having an interval or break of 1-2 lines; densely
covered with long brown shining linear scales 13-2 inches long and nearly
1 line wide at the base, curved transparent acuminate and pointed,
beautifully and regularly marked, with finely serrulate edges, and having
beneath them a thick rough plush-like undergrowth of blackish-brown
shining finely barbed or jagged hairs.
Rachis and subrachis muricate, also densely covered with a thick coating
of short dark plush-like hairs, which easily rub off; above, together with
the coste and costules densely hirsute (dark) and woolly (light-coloured),
Pinne alternate, 23-26 jugate, oblong-lanceolate, petiolate, (central)
2 feet 6 inches long, 10-12 inches broad, 6-7 inches distant (lower 10
inches) on rachis.
Secondary divisions or pinnules alternate, 30-32 jugate, linear-oblong
acuminate and sub-caudate, 5-6 inches long, 1-14 inches broad, petiolate,
pinnate, thickly covered below with jagged acuminate shining silky light-
coloured scales, each being curiously sprinkled with very long dark-brown
hairs.
Segments alternate, 80-32 jugate, close set, linear, sub-falcate, crenately-
serrate, 9 lines long, 2-3 lines broad, widest at base, lowermost sub-
pinnatifid petiolate and auricled downwards, barren ones broader, deeply
serrate or sub-pinnatifid.
Veins very numerous, conspicuous and translucent, bi-pinnately branched;
venules 10-12 in each lower lobe, and running quite out into the margin.
Sort numerous, crowded, 12-16 on a segment, one on each lobe; invo-
lucre globose, transparent green and hyaline at first, afterwards light-brown,
«splitting irregularly.
This tree-fern is a fine and graceful species; one that at first sight, and
without examination, may be easily mistaken for C. medullaris, which it
much resembles,—but differs from that species in its general hairiness and
and woolliness, in its larger size of frond (breadth, etc.) and richer appear-
ance, in its pleasing grass-green colour, its truly pinnate segments, its
peculiar hairy scales and its numerous pinnate veins,—these last two marks
being its specifie characteristies, and its very numerous veins or venules in
a lobe, the origin of its trivial name.
I have known this fern for some 10-12 years at least. In 1865-6 I
found a young plant growing here on my ground (Scinde Island, Napier)
among the common fern ( Pteris esculenta), and removed it to my garden,
where it has done exceedingly well, although last summer it suffered from
the very long drought. At first, and for some years, I had supposed it to
be Cyathea medullaris, but for the last four years, during which it has borne
fruit abundantly, I have believed it to be a new and distinct species; having
Corzxso.—On new Ferns. 481
also obtained specimens of similar plants from the eastern slopes of the
Ruahine Mountain forests, as well as from smaller woods near the sea on
the east coast.
In general appearance this species is by far the handsomest of our
(known) New Zealand Tree-ferns, its ample fronds having much less
rigidity than those of the other larger species. Of my garden-plant the
fronds shoot early in spring, and grow remarkably fast, at the rate of about
4} inches longitudinally per diem; the outer ones, however, die rather early
in summer, owing, I believe, to the extreme dryness of the soil on the
limestone hill where it is growing; and, in dying, their very large and thick
stipes bend down abruptly at a few inches above their junction with the
trunk, but not so as to bring the withered fronds near to the plant.
II. HYMENOPHYLLUM.
Hymenophyllum erecto-alatum, sp. nov.
Plant terrestrial, sarmentose; rhizome glabrous; roots and rootlets densely
villous with long dark-brown hairs.
Frond membranous, bright grass-green colour, 3-4 inches long, 2-3 inches
broad, mostly decurved or bent, somewhat ovate, tripennatifid ; main rachis,
and also secondary rachises winged throughout; wings very much crisped and
narrowly undulated and vertical, situated nearer to the upper surface and
so giving a sulcated appearance.
Stipes distant from each other on rhizome, cylindrical, stout, woody,
wiry, irregular, bent and curved, 4-5 inches long, always longer than the
frond, light coloured, slightly winged above, wings decreasing gradually
downwards for 1-2 in.
Segments pinnatifid ; lobes narrow, very close together, obtuse and entire.
Involucres on lateral segments, rather large, sub-orbicular, open, free, '
lips toothed ; sori semi-exserted and coloured red.
This fern is naturally allied to H. demissum (although that is a very
much larger species), but in several respects it differs from it,—not even
belonging to the same (artificial) section; of which Sir J. Hooker says :—
“ Frond pinnate below, stipes not winged, rachis winged above only."
(Handbook). In all which characters our fern widely differs; also, in its
smaller size, colour, closeness of segments, involucres, clusters of sori, etc.,
etc. The peculiarity of its being almost vertically winged gives it a striking
appearance, which, together with the bright light-green of its frond, and the
red colour of its large clusters of prominent sori, catches the eye at first
sight, in its fresh state. Fruitful fronds, however, are rather scarce.
Hab: oe anei EP dien of eio dry forests near Norse«
432 Transactions.—Botany.
Art. LXVI.—On the Occurrence of the Australian Genus Poranthera in New
Zealand. By T. F. Cuzzseman, F.L.S.
[Read before the Auckland Institute, 10th June, 1878.)
A rew months ago, while examining the vegetation of the upper part of
the Maitai Valley, near Nelson, I observed in one or two localities a small
Euphorbiaceous plant, which, on examination, proved to belong to the
Australian genus Poranthera. On referring to Bentham’s “ Flora Austra-
liensis,” it became evident that P. microphylla, Brong., the most widely-
diffused species of the genus, approached in most of its characters to my
plant; but asit, with all the other species, was described by Mr. Bentham
as having the leaves alternate, while my specimens all had opposite leaves,
I concluded tbat I had before me a new species of the genus. My friend
Baron Müeller, however, who has done me the favour of examining a series
of specimens, informs me that although all writers describe the leaves of
Poranthera as alternate, P. microphylla “has not rarely some, and very
seldom all the leaves opposite," and that he can find no characters to dis-
tinguish the New Zealand plant from the Australian. In this opinion, after
examining a number of Australian specimens kindly forwarded by Baron
Müeller, I now concur. As some little interest is naturally attached to the
addition of a new genns to the New Zealand flora, I subjoin the following
short diagnosis :—
Poranthera microphylla, Brong. in Duperry Voy. Coq. Bot. 218, t. 50 B;
Bentham, Flora Australiensis, VI., 56.
Perfectly glabrous; stems slender, branched, prostrate at the base,
ascending towards the tips, 6-9 inches long; leaves opposite, or rarely the
upper ones alternate, linear-obovate, obtuse, gradually narrowed into the
rather long petiole, } to 1 inch long, margins usually slightly recurved.
Inflorescence composed of terminal, short and dense bracteate racemes;
bracts linear-subulate, lower ones longer than the flowers; flowers minute,
white, monecious. Male flowers: calyx divided into 5 segments; petals 5,
minute, linear-subulate, each with a large green gland at its base ; stamens
5; rudimentary ovary composed of three clavate bodies. Female flowers
rather larger and on longer pedicels; calyx and petals the same as in
the males; stamens 0; ovary depressed, 6-lobed, 8-celled, each cell with
two ovules; capsule separating into three 2-valved cocci, the whole falling
away from the persistent axis; seeds granulate.
Hab: Among clumps of Pimelea gnidia in the Fagus forest, Upper Maitai
Valley, Nelson—J. Adams and T. F. Cheeseman. In Australia the species
ranges from Port Darwin to the south of Tasmania,
Had my specimens been gathered near to cultivation, or had they been
found associated with naturalised plants, the species might have been looked
CurrsEman.—On Juncus tenuis. 433
at as an immigrant merely. As it is, the retired nature of the locality, and
the absence of naturalized species, save one or two of early introduction and
wide diffusion, are altogether against this view. I also searched in vain for
the plant in the immediate vicinity of Nelson, where introduced species are
so abundant. A further argument in favour of its being indigenous lies in
the fact that in Australia opposite-leaved forms are decidedly rare, and
would be by no means likely to be introduced.
The Maitai Valley appears to be well worthy of a careful exploration.
Among the plants noticed were Metrosideros colensoi, Myrtus ralphii, Myrsine
montana, and Phyllocladus trichomanoides, I have been unable to find any
previous record of the occurrence of these species in the South Island.
Olearia forsteri occurs in the lower part of the valley. Pittosporum rigidum,
Myrtus obcordata, Scutellaria nove-zealandie, Pimelea gnidia, are all not
uncommon. Among ferns Aspidium oculatum and Botrychium ternatum
var. dissectum deserve special mention.
Art. LXVII.—Notice of the Occurrence of Juncus tenuis, Willd., in New
Zealand. By T. F. Cuzzseuas, F.L.S.
[Read before the Auckland Institute, 7th October, 1878.)
Since the publication of the “ Handbook " several species of Juncus have
been added to the New Zealand Flora—two of which, J. glaucus, L., and J.
lamprocarpus, Ehr.—are well-known European plants. I have now to
record the discovery of Juncus tenuis, Willd., also a common Central
European and North American species. My specimens were collected in
January, 1875, near Omano, about 25 miles above Kaihu, on the Northern
Wairoa River. The plant was abundant in some marshy ground not far
from the bank of the river; but curiously enough, during the hurried
examination I was able to make of the Wairoa district, I did not observe it
either higher up or lower down the river, although suitable localities are
sufficiently abundant.
So many European plants are becoming naturalized in the colony that
additional evidence will be required before Juncus tenuis can be included in
the list of our indigenous species. It certainly seems improbable that a
plant with such a wide range in the northern hemisphere should be found in
New Zealand alone in the southern; but too much stress cannot be placed
on this argument, as a precisely similar case exists in Carex pyrenaica, which
no one doubts being a true native of New Zealand. It must be borne in
mind that our plant is not a native of any part of the British Islands, from
whence the majority of our naturalized species are derived ; and the locality
A25
434 Transactions.—Botany.
in which it was found cannot be said to be one in which new introductions
would be sought for, or even expected. In any case, whether native or
naturalized, its occurrence in New Zealand is remarkable.
Juncus tenuis can be distinguished from any of the New Zealand species
by its slender, wiry culms, 12-18 inches high, leafy at the base only; short,
channelled, almost setaceous and flaccid leaves; open terminal panicles ;
and lanceolate acute perianth segments, which are one-third longer than
the broadly ovoid obtuse capsules.
Agr. LXVIIL.—Notice of the Occurrence of the Genus Kyllinga in New
Zealand. By T. F. Cuensemay, F.L.S.
[Read before the Auckland Institute, 18th November, 1878.]
Mz. Tuos. Barr, of Mongonui, bas kindly forwarded to me for determination
some specimens of a sedge which I identify with Kyllinga monocephala,
Rottb., a species of wide distribution in tropical regions, but not hitherto
recorded from any part of New Zealand. Mr. Ball informs me that the
plantis abundant in some marshy ground on the north side of Mongonui
harbour, but has not been noticed by him elsewhere in the district. So far
as I can judge from the information supplied to me, the plant appears to
be truly indigenous ; indeed, it is precisely one of those species which might
naturally be expected to occur in the northern extremity of the island, not
yet completely explored in a botanical point of view. Its existence there
is quite in harmony with what we know of plant distribution in New
Zealand, there being several tropical forms confined to the distriet between
Whangaroa and the North Cape, as Hibiscus diversifolius, Cassytha paniculata,
and Zpomea tuberculata.
Kyllinga ean be distinguished from the other genera of Cyperacee
indigenous to New Zealand by the compressed one-flowered spikelets,
densely clustered in globose, usually solitary heads, surrounded by a leafy
involucre. The following description will enable the species to be recog-
nised :—
Kyllinga monocephala, Rottb.
Rhizome creeping; culms erect, 8-12 inches high, leafy at the base
only; leaves narrow linear, flat, scabrid towards the points; involucre
8-4-leaved, spreading. Heads solitary, globose, pale; spikelets compressed,
1-flowered ; two lower glumes minute, two upper nearly equal, ovate-lanceo-
late, sharply keeled, mucronate, about 7-nerved; stamens 2; nut broadly
ovate, finely punctate, much shorter than the glumes ; style 2-fid.
WAWA AA AA WA
Hamittox,—On Plants collected at Okarito, Westland. 435
K. monocephala has a wide range, It is found in the warmer parts of
Australia, and is abundant in the Fiji, Tongan, Samoan, and Society
Islands, and elewhere in Polynesia, It also ranges through tropical Asia
and Africa, and probably through a considerable portion of America, Iam
not aware that it occurs in Europe,
Art, LXIX.—List of Plants collected in the District of Okarito, Westland.
By A. Hamrox,
(Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 11th January, 1879.)
Tus area over which the following plants were collected may be defined as
- lying between the Waitaki and the Waiho rivers, and extending back to the
foot of the ranges. I mnch regret that I was unable to devote any time to
the Alpine flora, the highest point on which I collected being a short dis-
tance up the Francis Joseph Glacier. Most of the specimens were collected
on the shores of the lagoon, which extends from Commissioner’s Point to
the town of Okarito, and round whieh are found many plants of interest,
many of them apparently very local. The only place where I found Hymeno-
phyllum minimum was on the rocks round Commissioner’s Point, and H,
armstrongii, and Lycopodium ramulosum appeared confined to a small cluster
of gullies at the back of the town. Ferns were most plentiful in the low
damp bush at the head of lake Mapourika and on the line of the Okarito-
Bowen Road, above the forks of the Okarito river, the most attractive being
the magnificent Leptopteris superba. Although cattle have now been for
some years in the bush, the general character of the vegetation is unaltered.
Mr. Kirk has very kindly identified my specimens, a list of which is
subjoined, and I trust that at some future day it may be supplemented with
a more complete one, as I was compelled to leave the best parts of the
district unvisited. The collection was made in 1877.
RANUNCULACEX.
Clematis peo A. Cunn., var.
rilobat
hex zaspala, DO.
Ranunculus rivularis, Banks and Bol.
uitans
subscaposus, Hook. f.
hirtus, Banks and
Sol.
CRUCIFERÆ.
Cardamine hirsuta, L.
Lepidium... 2
TM vilicaulis, Hoo
Melicytus ramiflorus, Forst.
CaRYOPHYLLACE
Spergularia rubra, Pirs., var. marina.
* Silene poe
* Cerastium visco
* Polycarpon tetr ptu. L.
PorTULACER.
Montia pan, L,
436
Mar
Forse bii A. Cunn,
llii, Hook. f
Tiura
Eleocar, vis YE ianus, Raoul,
Aristotelia colensoi, Ho
GERANIACEE,
Oxalis our L.
OLACINER.
Pennantia corymbosa, Forst,
CorIARIER,
Coriaria egoa. B Humb.
aay
Lecuminosz.
II Volum minus, Sm.
ophora tetraptera, Aiten.
panel odor ate, Col.
wajua
Rubus australis, Forst,
Potentilla anserina, L.
Geum parviflorum, "Cunn.
Acana sanguisorbe, Vahl.
BAXIFRAGEJE.
Weinmannia racemosa, Forst.
Quintinia serrata, A, Cunn., var. fl.
DrosERACER.
Drosera oo Labill.
athulata, Labill.
Har m.
Baa prene Hook. f.
alata soot.
micrar r
Morem arsch ? Hook. f.
unculatum, Hook. f.
elatinoides, Gaudich.
Gunnera 1e , Raou
ens iflora, Hook. f.
MxnraAcEz.
Leptospermum mdr. Forst.
Metrosideros scand
lucida, ag rea
Myrtus pedunculata, Hook. f.
ONAGRARIER.
Fuchsia excorticata, Lin. f.
Epilobium e oM Forst.
alsinoides, A. Cunn.
nummularifolium, A. Cunn.
melanocaulon, Hook.
pallidiflorum, Sol,
ens, Banks and Sol.
Transactions, — Botany,
UMBELLIFER
Hydrocotyle Garten, Forst., var.—
asiatica,
-z a-sealandia, DC., var.—
Crantzia Keith Nutta
Eryngium vesiculosum, Lsbil.
ngelica gingidiun, Hook,
Apium filiforme, Hook,
ARALIACER.
Panaz "Te Forst.
lensoi, Hook. f
Pec yi, Hook. 1. (young)
erassifolium, Dene and Planch,
sp.—(young state),
CORNES.
Griselinia Ron Raoul,
Rusrace
Coprosma Tatidissima, xen
a, Raou
crew ae f,
ucid set orst,
p ora, Hook. f.
Nertera depres Banks and Sol.
ndrefolia, Hook. f,
Asperula s "pes, Hook. f,
Comp
Olearia PEEP Hook,
vin hem Hook. f. (var.)
tida, Hook. f
Celmisia. ingoa, Cas
ellidioides, Hook. f.
Lagenophora forsteri, DC., et var.
Cotula iac tae olia
usilla, Hook.
Cranena fomir: lata, DC.
Cassinia vauvilliersii, Hook. f.
aoulia tenuicaulis, Hook.
Gnaphalium luteo- album, A
nvolucratum, Forst.
bellidioides, Hook. f.
Jilicaule, Hook. f.
Senecio lautus, Forst.
Taraxacum dens-leonis, Desf.
CAMPANULACEA.
Wakakaa sazicola, A. DC.
Lobelia anceps, Thunberg. -
Pratia angulata, Hook. f.
Selliera radicans, Cav.
Erceg.
Gaultheria antipoda, Forst., v,
Se E T AA
Haurrrox.—On Plants collected at Okarito, Westland, 487
CEJE.—continued.
Cyathodes acerosa
Leucopogon ipo A. Cunn.
RIMULACE
Samolus repens, Pane
* Anagallis arvensis, Ti.
APOCYNEJE.
Parsonsia rosea, Raoul
albiflora, Raoul.
CONVOLVULACEÆ.
Convolvulus parigi Forst.
1, Linn.
Cuscuta drS, "Hook. f.
SorANEE.
Solanum Z e Forst.
SCROPHUL
Glossostigma p a Benth.?
oubtf ul identification i in the absence
of flow wers or
Veronica lyalli, Hook f.
linifolia, Hook. f.
vis, Benth.
Mimulus repens, Br.
Euphrasia revoluta, Hook. f.
LENTIBULARIEÆ.
Giaa monanthos, Hook. f.
VERBENACEÆA.
Myoporum latum, Forst.
Lasn TEE.
Mentha cunninghamii, Benth.
PARONYCHIEX.
Scleranthus biflorus, Hook. f.
PoLYGONES.
Muhlenbeckia complexa, Meisn.
adpressa, Lab.
Rumez acetosella, L.
Lavurine&.
Hedycarya dentata, Forst.
THYMELE.
ntm prostrata, Vahl.
UPULIFERE.
eh fusca, Hook. f.
solandri, pore £
PrreRacEEÆ.
Piper excelsum, Forst.
CONIFERE.
Podocarpus totara, ed Cunn.
acrydium cupressinum, Bol.
Phyllocladus alpinus, Hook. f,
ORCHIDEÆ.
Earina autumnalis, Hook, f.
Dendrobium cunnin għami, Lindl,
Bolbophyllum pygmaum, Lindl,
Corysanthes rivularis, Hook. f,
oblonga, Hook. f.
Microtis porrifolia, Spreng.
Prasophyllum song Hook. f,
Pterostylis banksii,
Spiranthes austr alis; Lindl,
Thel ymitra pulchella, Hook. f,
IRE.
Libertia micrantha, A. Cunn,
PANDANEE.
F m banksii, A. Cunn,
Nar
Tr iglochin tr MD um, AN
Ruppia maritima, Lin
Zostera nana, Roth., var. müelleri
LirrcEE.
Rhipogonum scandens, Forst.
Callivene parviflora, Hook. f.
Cordyline banksii, Hook. f.
Dianella intermedia, Endl.
Astelia fa and is, Ho
ninghami, Hook. f.
dubia peer Somu 80,
Phormium m Fors
nsot, Hook: f
JUNCER.
Juncus pores Ln
nifolius, Br.
Luzula AA DC.
REsTIACEE.
Calorophus Kei Lab.
CYPERA
Cy ee stat, A. Rich.
Sche xillaris, Hook. f.
igi Hook. f.
Scirpus triqueter, L.
lacustris,
Eleocharis acuta, Br., var. platylepis
sphacelata, Br.
Isolepis prolifer, B
aria, Br.
aucklandica, Hook. f.
fluitans, Br.
Desmoschenus spiralis, Hook. f.
Cladium gunnit,
Lose tetragona, Labill,
cæspitosa, Boott.
438
CyprracE£.—continued.
Uncinia pareot ersoon.
EA Br., var. divaricata
ksii, Boott.
Carex Fic Boott.
Boo
gaudichaudiana, Kunth. (small
sta
lambertiana, Boott.
sp. allied to C. testacea, Sol.
Sp. nov.
GRAMINE
Zoysia pungens, Willd.
Dichelachne erinita, Hook. f.
Agrostis veh des
adriseta, Br.
Danthense cunningham Hook, f.
mi-annularis, Br.
var. 8. pilosa
Deschampsia caspitosa, Palisot.
Hierochloe redolens p Br
alpina, Roem, and Sch.
Poa breviglumis, Hook, f.
mm aba orst.
ar. B. foliosa
aust ralis, var. levis, Br.
Minn Hook. f.
nsoi, Hook. f.
F. a duriuseula, L.
* Briza minor, L.
* Holcus lanatus, L.
* Festuca m yurus oe
* Anthozanthum odoratum, L.
* Dactylis glomerata, L
“Lolium perenne, L.
temulentum, L.
FriricEs.
Gleichenia aaa, wartz.
snicnpAum, Heward.
Cyathea Daliai, wart
Hemitelia smithii, Hook.
Dicksonia lanata, Col.
Hymenophyllum tunbridgense, 8m.
B i bà cupres-
aiiai Willa.
Transactions,— Botany,
Finicrs.—continued,
PNE ane vus. Br.
pulcherrimum, s
demissum, Swartz.
scabrum, ich.
flabellatum, Labill.
@ruginosum,Carmich,
rufescens, Kirk, ;
Trichomanes reniforme, Forst.
strictum, Menzies.
colensoi, Hook.
venosum, Br.
lyallii , Hook.
Davallia nova-zealandie, Col.
Lindsea trichomanoides, Dryand.
Pteris incisa, Thunb.
scaberula, A. Rich.
Ta L., var. esculenta
Lomaria nigra, Col
alpina, Spre s
procera, nd
vinor.
fst, Spreng.
, Will
vulcanic
Asplenium peerage Forst.
s, Fo orst.
fale catum, Lam.
bulbiferum, bara
ccidum,
Aspidium Porro "iii
var. iris Hook.
se, Willd.
Naked PRES Cunn.
Polypodium australe, Mett.
Leptopteris superba,
pincel costatum, Br.
Lxco CER.
ampa Villardieré, Spreng.
ramulosu i
sum, Kirk, MS.
magellanicum.
um, Forst.
le, Br.
Tmesipteris et Endl,
Maren racem.
T. Kmx.—On Plants collected at Okarito. 439
Art. LKK.— Notes on Mr. Hamilton’s Collection of Okarito Plants.
By T. Kmx, F.L.S.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 10th January, 1879.]
Dure a few months’ residence in Okarito, Mr. Hamilton made a collection
of plants found in the immediate vicinity, and kindly placed it at my disposal
for examination. The results show that his work is of great value, not
only throwing light upon the botany of a district of which previously we
were entirely ignorant, and adding one or two species to our flora, but
especially in extending our knowledge of the geographical distribution of
certain local species, and clearing up doubts entertained with regard to
others. I gladly comply with his request to summarize the chief points of
interest brought out by his labours, in order that they may accompany the
useful catalogue of Okarito plants, which he has prepared for publication in
our Transactions.*
Mr. Hamilton informs me that the collection consists entirely of lowland
plants, none of the specimens having been obtained at a greater altitude
than 1,000 feet. In addition to alpine plants, many lowland species of
general distribution are omitted from the collection ; amongst these are
Podocarpus dacrydioides, P. ferruginea, P. spicata, Olearia cunninghamii,
Convolvolus soldanella, C. sepium, Panax arboreum, Eleocarpus dentatus,
E. tetragonum, Epilobium pubens, Ranunculus acaulis, and other common
lowland forms ; also such forms as Dacrydium colensoi, Libocedrus bidwillii,
and others of a subalpine character, which doubtless attain their lowest
limit in the district at or below one thousand feet. Amongst genera not re-
presented in the collection are Pittosporum, Colobanthus, Geranium, Aciphylla,
Schefflera, Erechtites, Dracophyllum, Rumex, Chenopodium, Atherosperma, Pota-
mogeton, Gahnia, Triticum, and Echinopogon, all of which must occur in the
district, although at present'they have not been collected, while many large
genera, as Ranunculus, Carmichalia, Epilobium, Coprosma, Olearia, Cotula,
Pimelea, Juncus, are represented by not more than from one to three species.
At present, therefore, no conclusions based upon the apparent absence of
certain species would be trustworthy, and I can do little more than point
out the most remarkable species, and indicate the additions made to our
knowledge of the geographical distribution of others.
Alectryon excelsum, DCand., and Quintinia serrata, Cunn., both of which
may be expected to find their southern limit at or near Okarito, are not
represented in Mr. Hamilton’s collection.
Lepidium, sp.
A fragment of an erect plant belonging to this genus is in the collection.
The branches are long and somewhat spreading ; leaves half inch long,
* Vide Art, LXIX:
440 Transactions.— Botany.
sessile, toothed ; flowers in terminal racemes. The specimen 1s in an imma-
ture fruited condition. The habit of the plant is exactly that of Camelina
dentata, Pers., which it closely resembles in general appearance.
Viola filicaulis, Hook. f.
Mr. Hamilton points out that the flowers are sometimes produced in
pairs from the same axil.
Panax simplex, Forst.
À small specimen, not more than 3 inches in height, is doubtfully iden-
tifed with the young state of this species. It has 5-foliolate, membranous
leaves, with long slender petioles, and pinnate or pinnatifid leaflets; the
segments sharply toothed.
Panaz, sp. nov. ?
Two specimens in the young state, 6-8 inches in height, appear widely
different from any described New Zealand species. They are characterised
by simple linear leaves, similar to those of P. crassifolium, but membranous,
narrow, and not more than from 8 to 5 inches long, on slender petioles,
with sharp distant teeth. One specimen has at the base deeply tripartite
leaves, the middle segment being much the longest. The lowest leaf is
trilobate, with short broad teeth, so that it closely resembles the leaf of the
hawthorn.
Celmisia bellidioides, Hook. f.
Mr. Hamilton does not mention the precise locality where he collected
this plant, probably in the vicinity of the lower part of the Francis Joseph
Glacier, which would explain its occurrence at so low an elevation as 1,000
feet or less.
Cuscuta densiflora, Hook. f.
The discovery of this remarkably local plant at Okarito shows a marked
extension of its western range. Elsewhere it occurs in Nelson, Port Under-
wood, and Otago, but appears to be confined to a single locality in each
district.
Euphrasia revoluta, Hook. f,
Not previously observed at so low an altitude as 1,000 feet ; the remarks
respecting Celmisia bellidioides apply to this plant also.
Euphrasia longiflora, MS.
I apply this name provisionally to a remarkable plant of which Mr.
Hamilton’s specimens are scarcely sufficient to enable me to offer a com-
plete description. It will be seen that in some respects it differs from
Euphrasia, although perhaps not to a sufficient degree to warrant generic
distinction.
Stems weak, procumbent, matted, tetragonous, 2-4 inches long, and
with the leaves sparingly covered with scattered retrorse hairs; leaves
T. Kmx.—On Plants collected at Okarito. 441
opposite or verticillate, quite entire, 1-3 inch long, shortly pctioled or sessile,
lanceolate, acuminate, 8-nerved. Flowers on short curved peduncles,
solitary, axillary, erect, calyx 4-toothed; corolla tube narrow, greatly
elongated, 4-3 inch long, tip short, broad, bifid, projecting ; capsules oblong,
slightly beaked, ovules solitary. 7
This plant differs from all other Euphrasie in the entire leaves, greatly
elongated corolla tube, and solitary ovules. A further supply of specimens
is desirable in order to establish the permanence of the last character.
Spiranthes australis, Linde.
The Okarito specimens of this local plant mark a considerable extension
of its western range. Specimens mixed with Microtis porrifulia, apparently
collected on Banks’ Pevinsula some years back by Mr. Armstrong, junr.,
arein the herbarium of the Christchurch Museum; the credit of its first
discovery in the South Island is therefore due to that gentleman.
The other known localities for this species in New Zealand are Waikato,
where it was originally discovered by Mr. Colenso ; St. John's Lake, Auck-
land, whence I have a fino specimen collected by Mr. Cheeseman; and
Kaitoke swamps on the Great Darrier Island, where I had the pleasure of
collecting it some years past.
Zostera nana, Roth., var. müelleri.
This discovery marks a great extension of the southern range of our
plant, and is the first instance of its having been observed in the South
Island.
Ruppia maritima, L.
wo forms of this plant are represented, one with narrow slender sheaths,
and elongated spirally coiled peduncles; the other is a more robust plant
with much broader sheaths, and may be R. rostellata, Koch, but the
specimens are not in flower or fruit.
Astelia cunninghamii, Hook. f.
The Okarito habitat for this species shows a marked extension of its
southern range,
Areca sapida, L.
Mr. Hamilton informed me that the occurrence of one or more specimens
of the nikau in the vicinity of Okarito is commonly asserted, but although
he made enquiries from the diggers, he failed to find it, nor did he meet with
anyone who had actually seen the palm growing in the distriet. I was
assured that on the opening of the goldfield at Ross, the nikau occurred
sparingly, but was soon destroyed; the most southern habitat known to mo
on the West Coast is between Greymouth and Hokitika, in latitude 42° 30’,
On the East Coast it is said to occur on Banks’ Peninsula; I did not
Observe it at Akaroa, but have no reason to doubt its occurrence < tho
442 Transactions.—Botany.
north side of the peninsula, which would fix its extreme southern limit, on
the main land, in latitude 48° 40’ $; and itis found on the Chatham Islands
in latitude 43°46’ S. The latitude of Nice, the extreme limit of the northern
palm, Chamerops humilis, is 48° 44’ N, so that the actual limits of palms in
the northern and southern hemispheres are identical, instead of exhibiting a
difference of five or six degrees, as stated in our botanical text books.
Eleocharis sphacelata, Br.
The discovery of this plant on the West Coast of the South Island
renders its occurrence on Bluff Island more probable than I have hitherto
deemed it.” Its apparent absence from the extensive district between the
Taupo country and Okarito is most remarkable.
Isolepis fluitans, Link.
The identification of the Bluff plant referred to this species being doubt-
ful, owing to the imperfect condition of the specimens, its occurrence at
Okarito is of some interest, as showing the most southern station at present
known.
Carex, SP.
Three small specimens of a form differing from any other described New
Zealand species were picked from amongst grass; although in an imperfect
condition, they may be thus characterized :—
Tufted ; leaves almost filiform, keeled, erect; culms 2 to 3 inches high,
equalling or shorter than the leaves ; the lowest bract overlapping the culms.
Spikelets 2-8, the uppermost male; female 3-5-flowered; glumes ovate-
acuminate with a stout nerve; stigmas 2; utricle ?
Carex, sp.
A doubtful plant, probably not uncommon in both islands; presents
rather close affinities with C. testacea, but differs in the broader, spreading
leaves, more slender culms, and in having all the spikelets, except the
uppermost, on slender peduncles.
Zoysia pungens, Willd.
Okarito is the only locality at present known for this grass on the West
Coast of the South Island. It will probably be found to attain its extreme
southern limit on the West Coast, possibly at or near to Jackson’s Bay.
Cyathea dealbata, Swartz.
This species becomes very local on the West Coast, south of Greymouth,
being absent from extensive areas. Its place is oceupied by Hemitelia
smithii. Mr. Hamilton gives no information as to its occurrence at Okarito.
Hymenophyllum minimum, Swartz.
This species evinces a decided partiality for shaded rocks near the sea.
It is easily distinguished from its New Zealand congeners by the solitary
* See Transactions N.Z, Inst., Vol. X., p. 412.
T, Kmx.—On Plants collected at Okarito, 443
receptacle terminating the rachis, and by its pale green colour, In the
North Island it appears to be confined to the vicinity of Cook Strait.
Hymenophyllum cheesemanni, Baker,
Mr. Hamilton is the first discoverer of this plant in the South Island.
Recently it has been collected near Hokitika by Mr. Tipler.
Hymenophyllum armstrongii, Kirk.
This shows a considerable extension of its southern range. Mr. Hamil-
ton’s specimens suggest the great probability of the identity of this and the
preceding species, as many fronds are entirely destitute of the stout marginal
nerve which forms the only prominent distinction between the two, The
same rhizome sometimes exhibits fronds with the marginal nerve, arrested
at different stages of development, from the typical condition of H. arm-
strongit, in which the marginal nerve is fully developed, to that of H. cheese-
manni, in which it is entirely wanting. The marginal nerve may even be
developed on one side of a segment, as in H. armstrongii, while the other |
side exhibits no trace of it, as in H. cheesemanni, Not unfrequently it is
reduced to a slight thiekening at the base of each tooth. At present I am
unable to satisfy myself whether its absence must be considered due to
simple non-development or to absorption.
Hymenophyllum villosum, Colenso.
This habitat is at a lower altitude than is usually affected by the species,
although I am not certain that it is the lowest yet observed.
Hymenophyllum pulcherrimum, Col.
Mr. Hamilton's specimens are the finest I have seen, some of them
being twenty-seven inches long, but remarkably narrow in proportion.
Hymenophylium rufescens, n.s.
At present only known from this locality and from another in the North
Island. See Art. LXXIV.
Davallia nove-zealandig, Col.
The fronds of this plant also are of unusual luxuriance, a solitary pair
of pinne in the collection, measuring nineteen inches from tip to tip.
Lomaria, sp.
Two fragments of a plant which may be Lomaria attenuata, Willd., are
comprised in the collection. They are about four or five inches in length;
one specimen is the acute apex of a barren frond, the lowest segments of
Which are apparently pinnate, with an aeute narrow sinus, and attached
by very broad bases; segments acute, margins uneven. The other speci-
men is the basal portion of a fertile frond, pinnules sessile, 14 inch long,
With broad bases, acuminate, the two lowest deflexed. The specimens are
too imperfect to admit of positive identification, but the plant certainly differs
from all deseribed New Zealand forms.
444 Transactions.— Botany,
Polypodium grammitidis, Br.
On the West Coast of the South Island this plant exhibits a greater
range of variation than usual. Mature sporiferous specimens collected by
Mr. J. D. Enys are from 2 to 3 inches long, and not more than 4 inch
wide. The lower portion is cut into deltoid pinnules or lobes } of an inch
long; the upper part is deeply toothed. In this state it closely resembles
the Cingalese P. eucullatum, Nees, but the pinnules are broader at the base.
Some of Mr. Hamilton's Okarito specimens have the pinnules lobed and
Worked to an excessive degree, in others the fronds are 8 to 10 inches long,
pinuatifid, with simple entire piunules. In others again the frond is
similar, but the pinnules are slightly toothed. When in this state I am
unable to distinguish this plant from P. subfalcatum, Blume, of the Malay
Archipelago.
Lycopodium ramulosum, Blume.
Only known at present from this locality, and the vicinity of Hokitika.
See Art. LXXIII.
P.S.—Since the above was written, Mr. Hamilton has informed me that
Celmisia bellidioides and Euphrasia revoluta were collected near the face of
the glacier, at an clevation of between 700 and 800 fect,
Art, LXXI.— Notes on the Botany of Waiheke, Rangitoto, and other Islands in
the Hauraki Gulf. By T. Kırg, F.L.S.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 28th September, 1878.]
Ix few localities is the importance of atmospheric moisture, as a factor in
the distribution of vegetable life, more forcibly demonstrated than amongst
the small islands in the lower part of the Hauraki Gulf. Most of these
islands consist of sandstones, clays, and slates, and are watered by springs
and small streams. In every case the islands of this class exhibit a luxu-
riant vegetation, more or less copious in the number of species, according
to the variety of soil, situation, and aspect. One or two of the smaller
islands are composed of basaltic scoria, and are entirely destitute of water,
except such as may be collected in rock-cavities during rainy weather,
and are therefore entirely dependent upon atmospheric moisture for the
maintenance of vegetable life. While both classes exhibit marked pecu-
liarities in their botanical features, the most striking are those to be seen on
islands of the latter class, destitute alike of surface soil and a perennial
water supply,
a
T. Kmx.—On the Botany of Islands in the Hauraki Gulf. 446
In this paper I purpose to offer a brief account of the chief characteristics
of the vegetation of these islands, and to draw attention to those features
which have been most strongly developed by their respective physical
peculiarities,
The largest island of the group is Waiheke, about thirteen miles in
length, with a mean breadth of three and a-half miles, although in some
places much wider, It is estimated to comprise 23,200 acres, of which
1,500 are laid down in grass. It consists chiefly of stiff clays, sandstones,
and slates, and in its altitude and general characteristics bears considerable
resemblance to the island of Kawau. The hills are low, nowhere exceeding
750 feet in altitude, the valleys are chiefly of an open character, and there
are few deep ravines ; most of the coast line is rocky; in fact, there are
only one or two short pieces of sandy beach on the entire coast, and there
are no extensive swamps. Manganese crops out on the surface in several
localities, and is now worked in one or two places, forming an article of
export. At the present time, partly from actual clearing of forest land and
laying down in grass, and partly from the destruction effected by the
constant browsing of cattle, coupled with frequent burning of the fern and
manuka in the open country, the relative proportion between different
species has become greatly altered, but there is no reason to suppose that
even a single species has been extirpated.
The forest vegetation is usually of considerable luxuriance, although, as
a rule, not remarkable for timber of large dimensions; to this however there
are some notable exceptions. The kauri ( Dammara australis) was formerly
plentiful in several localities, but has become extremely rare; as on tho
Great Darrier Island, so on Waiheke, it specially affected soils derived from
the older rocks. The tooth-leaved beech (Fagus fusca) occurs in con-
siderable quantity at the sea level, occasionally of large size; the rimu
(Dacrydium cupressinum ) also frequently attains large dimensions, but the
totara ( Podocarpus totara) is rare and always small; the maire (P. ferruginea)
is rather more plentiful, and the matai ( P. spicata) decidedly rare; I did
not observe a single specimen of large size. The tawa ( Nesodaphne tawa)
forms a large portion of the forest in many places, while the taraire ( N.
taraire) is comparatively rare; the pukatea (Atherosperma nova-zealandig ),
white pine (Podocarpus daerydioides;y, and tanekaha ( Phyllocladus tricho-
manoides) are not infrequent; puriri /Vitev littoralis), rata (Metrosideros
robusta), hinau ( Eleocarpus dentatus), kowhai / Sophora tetraptera), ma-
ngiao (Tetranthera calicaris), kohe-kohe ( Dysoxylum spectabile ), titoki ( Alec-
tryon excelsum), toro (Persoonia toro), tipau (Myrsine salicina), mapau
( M. australis), and others affording useful woods are found in most forest
districts, although nowhere abundant. Que of the most strongly marked
446 Transaotions.—Botany,
features in the sylvestral vegetation was the occurrence of large tracts
of tea-tree forest (Leptospermum ericoides), these were so extensive and
afforded such excellent firewood that for many years the chief portion
of the Auckland firewood supply was derived from Waiheke. It is said
that in addition to the supply from land in the possession of settlers,
Government reserves wers illegally denuded of thousands of tons by
squatters, who considered it a violation of first principles to pay any
thing in the shape of royalty, or acknowledge the authority of a govern-
ment that did not consider the assertion of its rights a matter of importance.
The value of this tree for small piles and for fencing purposes tended
largely to accelerate its destruction, so that notwithstanding its former
abundance there is now very little to be seen in the island, and the trivial
amount of firewood still exported is of inferior quality. |
Amongst the ornamental trees and shrubs which abound on the island
are Quintinia serrata, with its handsome peach-colouredblossom, Weinmannia
silvicola, the flowers of which are much more showy than those of its
southern ally, the ngaio, (Myoporum latum), Fuchsia excorticata, Olearia
cunninghamii with its numerous corymbs of white flowers so well known
throughout the colony; and O. furfuracea restricted to the north; Carmichalia
australis, Metrosideros florida, Clematis indivisa, and many other species
characteristic of the Northern forest. Two plants, however, require special
notiee. Coprosma arborea, the largest species of the genus, forms a consider-
able proportion of the less luxuriant forest growth in several localities, but
as the wood of this tree gives off an unpleasant odour when burning, it is
usually left standing by the firewood cutters, although occasionally sought
after by the inlayer on account of its peculiar yellow colour. Alseuosmia
macrophylla, so characteristic of the undergrowth of the Northern forest
generally, is abundant in some parts of the island, its pendulous crimson
flowers diffusing their grateful perfume over a considerable area. The so-
called kauri grass (Astelia trinervia), is abundant in several of the forest
districts.
On the cliffs, and on the margin of forests by the sea, the splendid
pohutnkawa (Me/rosideros tomentosa) attains a large size and is still plentiful,
although often recklessly destroyed. Sapota costata occurs in a few sheltered
bays, but itis rarely of large size, Pittosporum crassifolium is occasionally
seen, but only near the beach; Hymenanthera tasmanica was observed on
the Onitangi sands, and most of the ordinary maritime plants may be found
by careful search.
The open ground is covered with fern ( Pteris esculenta) or with scrubby
manuka (Leptospermum scoparium), intermixed with a sparse growth of dwarf
shrubs, grasses and other herbaceous plants: amongst the former, Poma-
-
T. Krex.—On the Botany of Islands in the Hauraki Gulf. 447
derris phylicifolia is, perhaps, the most abundant; Dracophyllum squar-
rosum, Leucopogon fasciculatum, L. frazert, Cyathodes acerosa, Gaultheria
antipoda, Coriaria ruscifolia, etc., are common. The more frequent grasses
and herbaceous plants are Sporobolus elongatus, Agrostis emula, A. quadriseta,
Triticum multiflorum, Poa anceps, Dichelachne crinita, Microlena stipoides.
Glyceria stricta was collected in a single locality on the coast. Geranium
molle, G. microphyllum, G. dissectum, Oxalis corniculata, Pelargonium clandes-
tinum, Acena sanguisorbe, Halorayis alata, H. diffusa, Epilobium pubens, F.
junceum, E. rotundifolium, E. nummularifolium, — brachiatus, Gna-
phalium collinum, G. luteo-album, G. involucratum, Wahl yia gracilis, etc.,
ete. In most places Cladium sinclairii, C. gunnii, Schenus tendo, S. tenax,
etc., with a few orchids, of which the most frequent were Microtis porrifolia,
Thelymitra longifolia, and Orthoceras solandri. Phormium tenax, with several
species of Juncus, Carex, Gahnia and other sedges, occurred in marshy
places, especially on the borders of forests, but, as a rule, paludal plants
were poorly represented. |
Arborescent ferns are represented by Cyathea medullaris, C. dealbata,
Dicksonia squarrosa, and very rarely by Hemitelia smithii; none of the rarer
kinds were observed. The ferns and allied plants generally were remark-
ably few in number; besides the tree ferns, the most striking are Lomaria
Jraseri, and Lygodium articulatum.
I have already mentioned the general resemblanee between the chief
physical features of the Kawau and Waiheke. Although the total number
of ferns on the latter island is greatly below that of the Kawau, the resem-
blance between the Phenogamic portion of the flora” of both is remarkably
close. I can only enumerate three plants as occurring on Waiheke, which
are not also found on Kawau: they are Hymenanthera tasmanica, Pimelea
arenaria, and Melicytus micranthus; the first and second of these are
extremely rare, the third occurs in several localities, and in all probability
is to be found on Kawau, although not observed either by Mr. Buchanan or
myself,
The kauri and tooth-leaved beech, both of which are rare on Kawau,
occur or rather have occurred on Waiheke in considerable quantity.
Coprosma arborea is also more plentiful on the latter island than the former,
and the same remark applies to Metrosideros robusta, of which only a single
specimen is known in Kawau. The large tea-tree, although plentiful on
that island, never occurred in such great abundance as on Waiheke. On
the other hand, one of the most characteristic plants of the Kawau flora,
* Of course excluding numerous species, such as e Jilicaule, Juncus nove-
zealandie, Uncinia rubra, Eryngium vesiculosum, etc., etc., erroneously recorded as
indigenous wau. See Trans. N.Z. Inst., IX., pp. 625-527,
448 Transactions.—Dotany.
Cordyline pumilio, is extremely rare on Waiheke. Sapota costata attains its
greatest dimensions on Kawau, but is small on Waiheke; while Pittosporum
tenuifolium, D. crassifulium, and other species are not nearly so frequent on
Waiheke as on Kawau. |
Waiheke may be considered to possess a moderately copious flora,
exhibiting a great amount of luxuriance and vigour, although its most
important species are far from attaining extreme dimensions, the greatest
amount of variety as well as the most luxuriant growth being found in the
deeper portions of the forest, or in sheltered bays by the sea. The least
amount of variety is found on the open fern or tea-tree lands on the higher
parts of the island.
The other islands are of smaller size than Waiheke, the largest not
comprising more than one-fourth of the acreage of that island. Ponui
contains 4,726 acres, and presents similar geological features ; its flora is
less copious than that of Waiheke, its most noticeable feature being the
abundance of Brachyglottis and other low-growing shrubs.
Motutapu has an area of 3,728 acres, more than half of which is laid
down in excellent grass, most of the remainder being manuka or open fern
land; yet, notwithstanding the unfavourable conditions which exist upon
this little island, upwards of two hundred and forty species of phenogams
and ferns were catalogued; about forty-five of these were naturalized plants,
chiefly of agricultural introduction, the most noteworthy being Myosotis
colina, Hoffm., which has not been observed elsewhere in the colony, so far
as I am aware. Nothing in the shape of arboreal vegetation is to be found,
except in sloping places on the cliffs, and in one or two bays, where magni-
ficent specimens of the pohutukawa are still to be seen, rarely associated
with Sapota costata and Corynocarpus lavigata. Ferns are extremely rare,
and the bulk of the native vegetation is either littoral or ericetal in its
character. Two native grasses, Trisetum antarcticum and Triticum multiflorum,
are more plentiful than in other parts of the Auckland district. Motutapu
consists of sandstones and clays, the former sometimes so regularly strati-
fied as to present an artificial appearance.
Motuihi contains about 460 acres, more than half of which is pastu-
rage. The open, uncleared portion is chiefly covered with manuka or
fern, and patches of large arboreal vegetation are to be found on the slopes,
the most important member being the pohutukawa, which attains large
dimensions. On a charming miniature sandy beach, Dichelachne stipoides,
Pimelea arenaria, Paspalum distichum, and Sicyos angulatus are plentiful.
The last-named has not been observed on any other of these islands.
Of the vegetation of Little Motutapu (Rukino), containing only 450
acres, and of Pakihi, containing 280 acres, nothing is known,
T. Kmx.—On the Dotany of Islands in the Hauraki Gulf. 449
Te Ratoroa contains 204 acres. Its fora is chiefly remarkable for the
profusion of Entelea, associated with Brachyglottis, Coprosma, Veronica, and
other small shrubs. The plants of Motuora are of a similar character.
Motukorea, or Brown’s Island, has an area of 150 acres. It is chiefly
voleanic, and contains one of the most perfect craters to be found iu tho
Auckland system. With the exception of the lava field, which forms a
large portion of the lower part of the island, the whole has been laid down
in grass, and presents no botanical features of special interest. In a few
places, where water accumulates in spaces amongst the blocks of lava, or
percolates through them from the sea, Typha latifolia, Scirpus maritimus,
and other uliginal plants are found in some quantity. In other parts of
the lava field a dense growth of bushy shrubs attracts attention. Olearia
furfuracea and Metrosideros tomentosa occur sparingly, but the latter is
usually of small size.
The volcanic island of Rangitoto, which forms so prominent a feature in
the scenery of the Hauraki Gulf, possesses greater interest to the botanist
than any other island in the group. This arises less from a copious flora
although the number of species is comparatively large—than from the
remarkable state of the ligneous vegetation, which exhibits the utmost
luxuriance of foliage and flowers on the most diminutive specimens, and
from the peculiar conditions of growth, most of the plants springing
directly from the face of the rocks or from the crevices between them. A
brief description of the island will enable us better to understand the pecu-
liarities presented by its flora.
Rangitoto is roughly circular in outline, with deep indentations; its
greatest diameter is about four miles; its least two and a-half miles; it is
estimated to contain 5,044 acres, and is next iu size to Waiheke. Its base
consists of an irregular lava field, rising towards the ceutre at an angle of
four or five degrees. From near the centre the scoria cone, which forms
the crater, rises at an angle of about 85 degrees to the height of 980 feet.
The cone is double, but the outer one has been carried away in places; the
inner and more clevated cone forms the largest and best preserved crater
to be found in the Auckland system. It is considered to be the latest
manifestation of voleanie activity in the Waitemata district. Although
ouly 200 feet higher than the highest point of Waiheke, its isolated peak is
frequently surrounded by clouds, while the whole of the adjacent isthmus
is suffering from want of rain.
The lava fiell, which forms the chief portion of the island, is extremely
rough aud difficult of examination, being broken up into chasms, ravines,
and irregular depressions ; for the most part progress can only be made by
leaping from one sharp-edged block of scoria to another, or by scrambling
a27
450 Transactions.—Dotany.
up cne side of a ridge to descend on the other. The central cone, which
forms but a small part of the whole, consists of loose cinders and ashes, into
which the feet sink at every step of the ascent. The island may therefore
be regarded as a huge filter, through which the rain percolates, so that a
perennial stream or even a spring is an impossibility ; in fact, the island is
entirely destitute of water, except the small quantity that during rainy
weather accumulates in rock-cavities, and which is speedily evaporated. The
formation of surface soil is impossible under such conditions, since the
comminuted particles of rock or ash are washed into the interstices of the
rocks by every shower, or blown away by every breeze.
Yet under these antagonistic conditions, less favourable on the whole to
vegetable life than even the pumice-covered plains of the Taupo district, we
find a flora comprising fully one-seventh of the entire number of flowering
plants and ferns indigenous to the colony always exhibiting extreme luxu-
riance of foliage, although its larger members are greatly dwarfed in stature,
and at certain periods of the year presenting an amount of floral splendour
which finds no counterpart in the southern portions of the colony.
In many places the chasms and depressions are occupied by a most
luxuriant growth of Mosses, Hepatice, and Lichens, the most frequent of
which are Hypnum furfurosum, Chandonanthus squarrosus, Dolyotus claviger,
Trichocolea tomentella, Sendtnera flagellifera, Cladonia rangerifina, C. cornu-
copoides, ete. On the dry exposed rocks, Racomitrium lanuyinoswn forms
large patches, which become brittle during intervals of dry weather, but
revive with the first showers : this is the only locality in which it descends to
ihe sea-level in New Zealand. Growing amongst the cool mosses are several
delicate ferns, Hymenophyllum sanguinolentum, H. rarum, H, multifidum,
and especially Trichomanes reniforme. Other ferns of coarser growth are not
uncommon, while Cheilanthes sieberi, a characteristic plant of the Auckland
volcanic district, is plentiful on the driest rocks. One of the most interesting
plants on the island is the tropical Psilotum triquetrum, which occurs in
abundance, usually springing from the face of rocks. Dendrobium cunning-
hamii produces its beautiful flowers in greater profusion and of larger size
than I have seen them elsewhere, and the fragrant Karina mucronata i8
abundant. There is a sprinkling of grasses comprising cight or ten species,
with a few common herbaceous plants, but the most interesting feature of
the flora is the occurrence of Metrosideros tomentosa, M. robusta, Griselinia
lucida, Pittosporum crassifolium, Knightia excelsa, and other trees, often in a
diminutive condition, but laden with glossy foliage of the greatest luxuriance,
and flowers of deeper and brighter tints than are produced under ordinary
conditions,
On the clay cliffs of the adjacent islands, Metrosideros tomentosa attains 8
AA AA nti ib
MM AA Wa a
T, Kirg,—On the Botany of Islands in the Hauraki Gulf. 451
height of from fifty to eighty feot, with a trunk from two to three fect in
diameter; in its natural condition it rarely flowers before attaining tho
height of from twenty to thirty feet, but on Rangitoto compact charming
specimens one to three feet high were covered with brilliant flowers; scarcely
m plant was to be seen over twelve feet in height, but nearly all were
splendidly in flower. Near the base of the cone I observed two specimens
of a peculiar form of this species, with the leaves and flowers of smaller
size than in the typical form; the leaves glabrous and coriaceous, closely
approaching AM. polymorpha, Griselinia lucida exhibited a similar pheno.
menon, specimens of the staminate plants being covered with panicles of
yellow flowers, much more deeply coloured than I have seen them elsewhere, `
and forming a strong contrast with the fiery crimson of the pohutukawa, `
Metrosideros robusta was less common than its close ally, but occasionally
attained a larger size, being only exceeded in height by Pittosporum crassi-
folium, Other trees occurred in a similarly dwarfed condition, as Alectryon
excelsum, Tetranthera calicaris, ete., but all were cast into the shade by tho
bright flowers of the ratas and Griselinia. The vegetation of the cone itself
is extremely meagre, diminutive specimens of Leptospermum scoparium and
Pomaderris phylicifolia are mixed with species of Geranium, Gnaphalium,
Epilobium, Erechtites, and especially with Vittadinia australis, a plant deci-
dedly rare in the vicinity of Auckland, The whole presented but few
points of interest.
I append a list of the plants catalogued on this remarkable island, and
with a few observations on the cause of the peculiar coudition of its ligneous
vegetation will conclude this paper.
It has been pointed out that while the plants of this section are
depauperated as to size, yet in other particulars they exhibit the greatest
possible luxuriance; pigmy specimens of pohutukawa, Griselinia and others,
develope foliage and flowers of larger size and brighter colours than those
Produced under the most favourable circumstances.
This result can only be attributed to the joint operation of two causes :
the large amount of moisture present in the atmosphere, and the extremcly
comminuted condition of the small modieum of soil from which the plants
extract their nourishment. The latter condition admits of a freer circulation
of air, saturated with moisture, about the roots than is possible iu stiff
soils, and facilitates the absorption of the mineral constituents which are
requisite for the growth of the wood, while the limited quantity in which
these elements are available, and the brief occasional checks to growth
during periods of drought, have a direct relation to the reduced size of the
plants. The influence of atmospheric moisture is shown in the luxuriant
and glossy foliage, thus affording another proof, if such be wanting, of the
452 Transactions. — Botany,
absorbing powers of leaves, a fanction of late years overlooked, or altogether
denied, by physiologists.
The lava fields of the Auckland Isthmus afford proof of the correctness
of these conclusions. Although not more than from six to ten miles
distant in a straight line their ligneous plants do not exhibit the same
peculiarities as those of Rangitoto. Owing to the longer interval that has
elapsed since their formation, a much larger quantity of soil is found
amongst the rocks, so that in many places the titoki, mangiao, kohe-kohe,
rewa-rewa and other trees attain their average dimensions. The largest
specimens of Griselinia lucida that I have met with grew amongst the rough
scoria near Mount Eden, but owing to the comparatively small amount of
atmospheric moisture the leaves present an ordinary appearance, and the
extremely luxuriant foliage so characteristic of the woody vegetation of
Rangitoto is not developed.
Catalogue of Phenogamie Plants and Filices collected on Rangitoto Island.
I have to express my indebtedness to Mr. T. F. Cheeseman, for my
knowledge of several interesting plants not observed by mo, aud havo
distinguished them by affixing his initials in cach case.
* Naturalized plants are distinguished Ey an asterisk,
DrcorvrEDoss.
Clematis indivisa, Willd. T.F.C. Sophora tetraptera, Aitin.
mae ene Br. iubus australis, Forst., B. and y.
s, Banks and Sol. TE
ar pier Banks and Sol. Acena sanquisorle, Vall.
Cardamine hirsuta, * 4myudalus persica, L.
Lepidium oleraceuu, Forst, Tillea verticilluris , DC.
Melicytus ramiflorus, Forst. Drosera auriculata, Backh. T.F.C.
Pittosporum crassifolium, Banks and | Halorayis TA.
aeq.
Sy Labill., 6. dif-
Stellaria pers “Banks and Sol.
T.F
.C. Leptospermum web Forst.
* Silene guingueruluera, L. ericoides, A, Rich
Playianthus divaricatus, Forst. : Metrosideros florida, Sm
Linum monogynum, Forst. robusta, A. Cu n.
Geranium dissectum, L., var. caroli- tomentosa, A. re
nianum, a. and s ar.
Pelargonium australe, L., var. elandes- scandens, Danke: and Sol.
tinum. Fuchsia excorticata, Là
Melicope ternata, Forst. Epilobium mimmularifolium, X Cunn.
Dysoxylum spectabile, Hook. f. tetragonum, L.
Fomaderris phylicifolia, Ladd. junceum, Forst,
Dodonga viscosa, Forst. pubens, A. Rich.
Alectryon excelsum, DC. Mesembryanthemum australe, Sol.
Corynocarpus lariyata, Forst. Tetrayonia expansa, Murray.
Coriaria ruscifolia, L. Hydrocotyle akilia; ii GE. e
Carmichelia austr E Hook. f, Apium australe, Thouars,
T. Kmx.—Catalogue of Plants collected on Rangitoto Island,
Dicorytepons—continueid.
Apium filiforme, Hook.
Daucus brachiatus, Sieber,
Panax
Coprosma robusta, Raoul,
lucida, Forst.
ueriana, Endl,
Galium umbrosum, Forst.
Olearia haa ea, "n f,
V Hook, f
occ, seid A. Rich.
Layenophora forsteri, DC,
Bidens pilosa, L
Cassinia leptophylla, Br.
foetal hu album, L.
solusi, Forst.
collinum. Labill.
Senecio glastifulius, Hook, f. T.F.C.
US,
au
Erechtites aryuta, DC.
Brachyglottis Shea Forst.
Sonchus oleraceus, L., B. asper
x , Hehmimhia ec tae, Gert.
Lobelia anceps,
Selliera radicans, Cav.
Gaultheria antipodo, bos
Cyathodes ac
kaa |
Leucopogon jore A. Rich.
453
Myrsine urvillei, A.DC.
Samolus repens, Pers.
* Anagallis arvensis, L.
Parsonsia albiflora, Raoul. T.F.C,
Geniostoma ete ifolium, A. Cunn,
zrythrea centaurium,
Convolvolus sepium, L.
tugquriorum, Forst,
soldar
Dichondra repens, ta faina
Solanum ores, Forst.
p^
yrum, L,
* Physalis pisk uviana, L,
eronica salicifolia, Forst.
Vitex littoralis, " Cunn,
Avicennia officinalis, L.
Myoporum letum, ca
Chenopodium ylaucum, L., var, ambig-
FEC,
uum
Sueda maritima, Dumortier,
Salicornia australis, Soland,
Scleranthus biflorus, Hook. f.
Muhlenbeckia adpressa, Labill.
complexa, Meisn,
* Rumex viridis, Sibthorp.
Tetranthera calicaris, Hook. f,
Hedycarya dentata, Forst.
Knightia excelsa, Br.
Pimelea prostrata. ahl.
virgata, Vahl.
Euphorbia glauca, Forst.
Parietaria debilis, Forst.
Peperomia urrilleana, A. Rich.
Piper excelsum, Forst.
T.F.C.
MoxsocoTYLEDONS.
Farina mucronata, Lindl.
Dendrobium cunninghamii, i
Dolboyhyllum pygmaum, uu
irii, He
rst.
Prasophyllum eurem d t
single specimen
0
Orthoceras SER ME i, Lindl.
Ti ochin triandr um, Mich.
Zostera
Cordy vitae australis, Hook. f.
Dianella intermedia, Endl.
Asielia cunninghamii, Hook. f.
A
sE Vey
TEC.
Astelia pei i, A. Cunn,
sii, A. Cunn
eec irk,
Phormium ces, Forst.
Luzula campestris, DC.
Cyperus ustulatus, 4. Rich.
Isolepis nodusa,
Gahnia pee Steudel.
enaria, Hook. f.
Carex lucida, Boott.
brerirulmis, Br.
éáoalii: Boott.
dissita, Soland.
TPC.
lambertiana, Boott.
Paspalyin tit ava L. T.F.Q.
454 Transactions,—DBotany,
MonocoryLepons—continued.
Panicum imbecille, Trin
* Juthovanthum od. sehen, L
* Phalaris canariensis, L.
Dichelachne stipoides, Hook. f.:
crinita, Hook. f.
sciurea, Hook. f.
Agrostis emula, Br.
in c "i Br.
Arundo ae
Danthonia ndi Br.
E chinopoyon ovatus, Palisot.
“Uynodon dactylon, L.
* Dactylis glomeraia, L.
Doa imbecilla, Br.
Apc F orst.
a minor,
"Evo sterii, Ji
arenarius.
* Festuca myurus, L.
ütoralis, Dr.
CRYPTOGAMIA.
Hymenophyllum multifidum, Swartz.
rarum, Dr.
polyanthos, Bwa
artz,
. sanguinolentum
demissum, Swartz.
Trichomanes reniforme, Forst.
humile, Forst. T EO.
Adiantum ‘ies Wild. T.F.C.
Cheilanthes sieberi, Hote,
Pellea rotundifolia, For
"teris equite, L., var. geared
a, Br.
epar. poss À. Cunn.
Doodia media, ar
wwa
Asplentum ‘text, Porat,
lucidum, Forst.
Asplenium flabellifolium, Cav.
alcatum, Lam.
bulbiferum, Forst. T.F.C.
Jlaccidum, Forst.
pA edu richardi,
Nephrodium ylabellum, Dunt:
l 'ulypodium grammitidis, Br.
serpens, For
cunninghamii, " Hook.
pustulatum, Forst,
illardieri, Dr.
Nothochlena distans, Br. T.F.C.
Botrychium ternatum, Swartz. T.F.C.
Lycopodium billardieri, Spring.
T'nesipteris forsteri,
Psilotum triquetrum, Swartz.
un
et
Arr. LXXII.—On the | eee of Fungus from New Zealand,
By T. King, F.L.8.
{Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 11th January, 1879.)
In several striking characteristics Fungi bear a similar relation to all other
plants to that borne by Insecta to all other animals. A larger number of
plants 1s included in Fungi (regarded as a single order) than in any other
group of similar value.* The largest number of similar animals is com-
prised under Insecta. Each group exhibits a large amount of polymorphism
and parasitism. Each contains many species injurious to man, aud but
few from which he derives direct benefit. While other large groups of
* This assertion is at variance with the comparative estimates of the number of
mprised under different natural orders as stated in Botanical Text Books, but
i warranted by the known results in countries where Fungi have been investigated with
gome approach to completeness. In Great Britain, for instance, over 3,000 species of
Fungi are known, considerably more than twice the number of Phænogams and Filicales
put together.
T. Kire.—0n the Export of Fungus from New Zealand. 455
animals and plants are constantly yielding additions to the catalogue of
organic substances directly or indirectly utilized by man, Fungi and
Insecta, notwithstanding their vast numbers, but rarely assist to swell the
roll Any addition to the useful species of either is therefore of special
interest, and on this, as well as other grounds, it is desirable to draw atten-
tion to the export of Fungus from this colony. It is practically restricted
to a single species—Hirneola polytricha, Mont.,—which is plentiful on
decaying timber in all our forest districts.
Prior to 1872, it was exported only in small quantities, but in that year
the amount declared at the various ports in the colony was 57 tons 14 cwt.,
valued at £1,927 ; in 1877 it had increased to 220 tons 5 cwt., valued at
£11,318; the total amount exported during the seven years ending 1878
being 838 tons, valued at £37,812. Its gradual increase will be seen from
the following return, for which I am indebted to the Collector of Customs.
Fractions are omitted for convenience :—
Year Tons. Value,
1872 58 £1,927
1873 95 1,195
1874 : 118 6,226
1875 112 : ia 5,744
1876 iis ds 122 “4 " 6,224
1877 yA ie 220 á nx ee
1878 “a S 103 ER a
From this it will be seen that the declared value is about £44 per ton,
or more than four and a-half times the nominal price of one penny per
pound paid by the merchant to the collector. As the fungus does not
require to undergo any process to prepare it for market, the actual outlay
connected with it is confined to the cost of collection and spreading in the
open air or in sheds for a few days to get rid of moisture. This, however,
is rarely necessary in the summer. At any rate, we have, in round num-
bers, the sum of £8,000 to represent the actual remuneration of the
collectors, while the merchants’ profit is represented by the disproportionate
figure of £29,000. China is the sole market for our fungus. In 1878, at
the suggestion of Mr. Seed, Commissioner of Customs, the Colonial Secre-
tary made enquiry as to the purposes to which it was applied by the
Chinese. The Colonial Secretary at Hong Kong stated in reply that it was
“much prized by the Chinese community as a medicine, administered in
the shape of a decoction to purify the blood, and ‘was also used on fast
days, with a mixture of vermicelli and bean-curd, instead of animal food.”
Later information shows that it is largely used in soups as ordinary food.
It was farther stated that it was sold retail at about 10}d. per lb. As tho
price paid to tho collector in New Zealand doos not exceed 1d, per Ib., it ia
456 Transactions.—Zvology,
clear that a high rate of profit must be realized by the merchant and retailer
alike.
Specimens of our plant, from Christchurch and Wellington, were exhi-
bited at the Vienna Exhibition under the name of Jew's-ear Fungus,
Hirneola auricula-jude, an allied species which occurs in the colony, but
which is decidedly rare when compared with H. polytricha. The two plants
may be easily distinguished, H. polytricha being greyish or cinereous, while
H. auricula-jude is usually of a pinkish tint.
Another species of Hirneola is collected in Tahiti for export to China,
and a larger species, found in Northern China, is said to be extensively
collected for home use.
We have thus before us the singular phenomenon of a product, utterly
useless in the countries where it is found, being utilized by one of the least
progressive people on the face of the earth, thus reversing the ordinary
condition in which the civilized race utilizes the natural products of others
less favoured.
Arr. EXXIIL--Decriptton of a new Species of Lycopodium.
By T. King, F.L.S.
Plate XIX., fig. B.
(Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 11th January, 1879.)
Lycopodium ramulosum, n. s.
A PnocuxszNT plant forming compact masses; stems 2-4 inches long,
rather stout, repeatedly dichotomously branched; leaves crowded all round
the stem, imbricated or spreading 1-l inch long, narrow subwiate, coria-
ceous above, acute or pungent; spikes numerous, terminal J-2 iuch long,
bracts small, sessile, ovate, abruptly acuminate, slightly tdothed.
Hab.—South Island: Hokitika, W. Tipler! Okarito, 4. Hamilton!
This plant differs trom all other New Zealand species in its dense, com-
pact habit; in some respects it closely approaches L. laterale, B. diffusum,
but that form is always erect, or sub-erect, and never grows in compact
masses; moreover, it is but sparingly branched, and never has terminal
spikes. In all these points our plant is strongly marked, and may easily be
recognized at sight. It was originally discovered near Hokitika by Mr.
Tipler, and subsequently at Okarito by Mr. Hamilton. I am indebted to
both gentlemen for a supply of specimens.
The spikes of our plant differ but little from those of L. laterale, Br.,
except in their greater number and smaller size. In the young state
TRANS. NZ INSTITUTE, VOL ALPL AIR.
Wy VA
Nop X)
YA
YA
MY
y
We
| A 4 MY
^ ph T N m
NA^ a = YN 7 T.
ha a 3S Y =
ty / Ag w SY ^
TUI Y 4 V À
Y Yu M S udi
‘4 4 7 f Wy bv | y N j ur
UNA NM 7 A Ni S > WA
WY E "n VA MW es RANG (b
^. y E
B. LYCOPODIUM PAMULOSUM, Kirk.
T. Kirz.—On a new Species of Hymenophyllum. 407
catkins are closely appressed, and ascending, but when the sporangia dis-
charge their contents the tips of the scales become patent or even reflexed.
The points of the young shoots are often of a reddis colour, and when
growing in exposed situations the leaves become harsh and pungent.
Not unfrequently two spikes are produced from the apex of a branch,
and rarely the fertile branch is overtopped by a luxuriant “ usurping shoot,”
so that the spike appears to be lateral, showing its close affinity with
L. laterale, which is still further strengthened by the fact that in that species
the spikes are not invariably sessile, Lut occasionally are developed on very
short leafy peduncles.
It is worthy of noto that in L. laterale the spikes are frequently confined
to one side of the stem.
Our plant has affinities also with L. clavatum, ¢ magellanicum.
L. laterale and L. divulsum are considered distinct by Bentham, in Flora
Australiensis (Vol. VIL, p. 675.] In New Zealand the latter form is not
confined to alpine districts, but occasionally occurs in peaty bogs, from tho
sea level upwards, and notwithstanding its rigid appearance passes by
insensible gradations into the typical form of L. laterale.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XIX., Tig. D.
Lycopodium ramulosum, n. 8.
Old spike, with empty sporangia, enlarged.
2. Bract, outer face, magnified.
8. Bract, inner face with sporangium, magnified.
4, Spores, highly magnified.
Ant, LXXIV.—Deseription of a new Species of Hymenophyllum.,
Kier, F.L.8.
Plate XIX., fig. A
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, Ilth January, 1879.
Hymenophyllum rufescens, n.s.
Rarzoxme creeping slender; stipes, costa and veins when young
sparingly clothed with deciduous curved hairs; stipes, very slender, 1-2
inches long, longer than the frond; frond 1-1} inches long, deltoid,
sometimes cunoato at tho base, pinnate, rachis winged abovo the second
458 Transactions.— Dotany.
pair of pinne; pinne twice pinnatifid, unequally rhomboid, the lowest
pair divided nearly to the mid-rib; the basal pinnules spreading; capsules,
terminal, small, half immersed, divided nearly to the base, hairy when
young, margins entire or erose.
Hab: North Island—near the source of the Orua, Ruahine Mountains;
2,000 to 3,000 feet, H. Field, junr.! South Island—Okarito, A. Hamilton.
The affinities of this fern are with H. eruginosun, Carm. (H. subtilissi-
mum, Kunze), and with H. flabellatum, Swartz. From the former it differs
in the deltoid frond, in the form of the pinnae, in the long and slender
stipes, as well as in the delicate texture and partial hairiness. It resembles
the latter in the shape of the pinnules, but differs in the stipes being longer
than the frond, which is never ovate or linear, and the pinnules are never
crowded. In habit our plant differs widely from both; in texture and
colour it resembles Trichomanes lyallii.
The stipes, rachis, costa, veins and involucres are usually hairy, at
least when young; but hairs are rarely produced from the surface of the
frond ; in H. eruginosum they are developed from both surfaces, and from
the margins of the frond as well as from the veins; they are usually
straight, and never deciduous as in our plant, my oldest specimens of
which have very few hairs. The valves of the capsule are minutely erose
in my young specimens from the Ruahine mountains, but this character is
not developed in the mature specimens from Okarito.
This species was originally discovered by Mr. Field in the Ruahine
mountains, and I was indebted to Mr. H. C. Field of Wanganui for a single
young frond as far back as the early part of 1877, but it was not until the
receipt of a supply of specimens from Mr. Hamilton, that I was able to
satisfy myself of its specific validity.
ESCRIPTION OF PLATE XIX., Fig. A.
Hymenophyllum rufescens, nat. size.
1, 1. Pinna with capsule from old frond, enlarged.
2, 2. Pinna and capsule from young frond, enlarged.
- Art. LXX V.— Notes and Suggestions on the Utilization of certain neglected New
Zealand Timbers. By T. Kg, F.L.S.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 9th November, 1878.]
Tuere is probably no other British colony in which the vegetable products
are wasted to so great an extent as in New Zealand. I do not now refer to
the wanton destruction which, in the North Island especially, accompanies
T, Kmz.—On the Utilization of New Zealand Timbers. 459
the utilization of timber, and for which the next and succeeding generations
will suffer, nor yet to that necessary destruction over areas in process of
settlement, so much as to the general neglect to utilize timbers which would
command aconstant market at remunerative prices in Britain, and in the
common use, in the Northern districts at least, of best timber for purposes
that would be equally well served by timber of an inferior quality, In the
former case the evil is the result of ignorance; in the latter of wantonnesss,
The magnificent kauri forests of Auckland have often enabled that
district to pass through periods of difficulties, with comparative ease, by
finding employment for numbers who would otherwise have been destitute.
But at the present increasing rate of consumption, this source of wealth
will have become exhausted within thirty years; the export of kauri will
have ceased long before the expiration of that period, and there is no
timber in the colony by which it can be replaced. The suggestion of any
means by which this period can be retarded is therefore a matter of general
interest, and from this point of view the utilization of certain neglected
timbers, which, although inferior to kauri, are still valuable for general
purposes, is one of considerable importance.
Again, there are many neglected timbers of great value for general
cabinet work, marquetry, or other special purposes, which might assist to
swell our catalogue of exports, and for which a constant market might be
secured, In most cases these timbers have been neglected from simple
ignorance of their value, but the excessive cost of land or water carriage to
the port of shipment has too often proved an insuperable obstacle; this,
however, thanks to the public works policy of the last few years, is
being diminished almost month by month. The high cost of labour has
also contributed towards perpetuating the neglect. The owner of a saw-
mill, after clearing his bush of kauri or other marketable timber, has not
cared to incur the cost and risk of converting timber of unknown qualities
and comparatively small dimensions for an uncertain market. Some of
these timbers when growing are of solitary habit, which to the ordinary
timber merchant would present an increased difficulty.
Although no class in a community can derive benefit from the extension
of an industry without the community at large benefiting to a greater or
less extent; yet it must be admitted that the small settlers in forest,
districts would benefit more largely than any other class by the utilization
. 0f these neglected timbers. Commencing with little or no capital, our settlers
would gladly weleome the opportunity of converting a large portion of their
timber into hard cash instead of ashes, and would thus be enabled to tide
over the first years on their land with less difficulty than at present,
400 Transactions,—Dotany,
Let us suppose the caso of a forest settler on tho lower flanks of tho
Rimutaka, or in many parts of tho Wairarapa, the Kaipara, ete. In
clearing his land he finds trees of honeysuckle or rewa-rewa (Knightia
excelsa), the timber of which is almost useless for out-of-doors work, on
account of its perishable nature, while, as it is difficult of combustion, it is
worthless for firewood; yet, placed in the English market it would fetch a
much higher price for cabinet work than tho so-called American Birch,
which is retailed by the timber merchant at from 6d. to 12d. per superficial
foot of inch thickness, The timber should be prepared by cutting into from
10 to 14 feet lengths, so as to be easily moved to a rough saw-pit, when it
could be reduced to planking, say from three to six inches thick; or, if in
the vicinity of a saw-mill it might be converted at a still lower rate, or
perhaps sold in the log, When converted it should be “perched” or
* stripped " in such a way that no two planks would be in contact, and a
constant circulation of air should be maintained between them. In this
condition it could be sold to local eabinet-makers or consigned to a merchant
or agent for export. But itis necessary to offer a word of caution with regard
to two points of considerable importance, for the neglect of either would lead
to loss and disappointment. First, the timber should not be sent on board
ship until it is thoroughly dry, or it will inevitably become foxey and tainted.
Secondly, it is imperative that the consignee in England should be someone
thoroughly acquainted with the timber trade, for it is certain that many
valuable timbers and other products endure continuous neglect simply from
their not finding their way into the proper channels of distribution in
Britain. Dr. Hector informed me that the object most admired in tho
New Zealand Court of the American Centennial Exhibition, was a cabinet,
constructed chiefly of rewa-rewa, which, after lying in the London docks
for an indefinite period, had been picked up by a cabinet-maker, who
recognized its value for his purposes, but who had been unable to learn from
what country it had been brought, although striving to procure a further
supply.
It is not casy to form an exact idea of the cost of conversion and delivery
at the port of shipment, so much depends upon situation; the following
may be taken as a sufficiently liberal estimate :—
Falling, 1d. per cubic foot,
s [Nh pie
Cartage, 3d.
Railway charges, ad
Say tenpence per cubi: foot, or saven skiltings per 100 superficial feet.
The settler would th»reforo obtain not morely romaaration for his labour,
but a direct profi; by solliog tha p'aniking at so low a rat» as one shilling
”
ical ii c Gn natant e
T. Kme, On the Utilization of New Zealend Timbers. 461
per cubic foot, and might expect to obtain from one shilling and sixpenco
to two shillings per foot cube. Freight to England would cost another
shilling, so that while yielding a handsome profit to the settler, the rewa-
rewa could be sold in London at rates equally low with those of other
woods of similar or even inferior quality, Buta still higher rate of profit
might occasionally be obtained; in all ornamental woods exceptionally
figured planks fetch higher prices than the ordinary forms, and this would
often be the case with rewa-rewa, and timbers of a similar quality. There
can be no question that, in a large number of cases, timbers of this kind
would defray the first cost of the land and leave a considerable surplus,
instead of being simply a source of expense as at present.
I would venture to suggest that some of our leading merchants might
render good service to the community, at little or no risk to themselves, by
shipping a marketable parcel of rewa-rewa and similar woods to London;
doubtless, many persons could be found who would gladly supply planks at
a much less price than I have named; for example, the Karori settlers
engaged in cutting firewood, either leave rewa-rewa on the ground to perish,
or deteriorate their general sample of firewood by mixing rewa-rewa with it,
and selling the whole at about sixteen shillings the half-cord, or threepenco
per cubic foot. An offer to purchase all the planking they could bring, at
about one shilling per cubic foot, would ensure a sufficient supply to enable
the market to be tested with but little risk to the shippers. Possibly, a few
settlers might combine to prepare a parcel for shipment, and divide the
profits; but in either case it would be advisable to have the parcel, on its
arrival in London, submitted at a minimum price to some well-known
wholesale furniture manufacturer, or have it offered at one of the large
periodical timber sales, taking care to have the qualities and uses of the
woods clearly stated.
It is unnecessary to offer a complete listof the various local timbers
adapted for furniture work or other special purposes, as particulars may be
found in the report on the durability of native timbers published by the
Public Works Department, as well as in Captain J. Campbell Walker’s
report on the organization of a forest department for New Zealand. I
would, however, especially draw attention to the toro, tipau, mapau, and
ngaio as valuable timbers, plentiful in certain districts, but at present only
utilized for firewood.
But we have vast quantities of timber which do not possess sufficient
durability to allow their being used for out-of-door work, although capable of
being saturated with some preservative solution at a small cost, and thus
made available for general purposes. Conspicuous amongst timbers of this
class are the kahikatea and the tawa, The former is common throughout the
462 Transactions.—Botany,
colony, attains large dimensions, and, under the name of white pine, is used
in the southern part of the colony for inside work and other purposes where
great durability is not required, but by no means to an extent commensurate
with its actual merits. Unfortunately, in the converted state it is liable to
the ravages of a small boring beetle. The tawa forms fully one-fifth of the
entire forest of the North Island, but can scarcely be said to be utilized in
any way except for firewood. i
It would be difficult to over-estimate the advantages to be derived from
the utilization of so large a quantity of neglected material; and with this
view of the importance of the subject, I venture to suggest the desirability
of experiments in this direction being undertaken by the Publie Works
Department, the more especially that they may be made at small cost, A
cistern containing a solution of chloride of zinc, pyrolignite of iron, chloride
of lime or kreosote, all of which are suecessfully employed in Europe, might
be elevated some eighteen or twenty feet above the ground, The logs to be
operated upon should be placed in front, and a cap firmly attached to the
end of each, the cap being connected by a pipe with the tank above, when
the pressure of the solution from the higher level would be sufficient to
drive out any sap that might remain in the timber, which would then
become charged with the preserving agent.
Our white pine is greatly superior to the American spruce, and would
successfully compete with the best Baltic white deal in the English market,
if it could be supplied at a low rate, say to sell retail, at from 12s. 0d.
to 13s. per 100 superficial feet. It should be shipped in the form of 23
by 7, 8 by 7, 8 by 9, or 8 by 11-inch planking, or in bulk. Wider
planks, say 14 to 20 inch, would fetch proportionately higher prices. It
would, however, be impossible to pay the present high rate of freight, but
as ships not unfrequently leave our ports in ballast, it is possible that lower
rates might occasionally be óbtained. A gentleman engaged in supplying
the Kaipara mills with kauri, informed me that he should be glad to deliver
kahikatea logs at 1s. 6d. per 100 feet superficial; so that, allowing for
waste and cost of conversion, the planking might be turned out at the mill
at 4s. 61. per 100 feet, but even this would require a very low rate of freight
to allow of a fair profit to the consignee.
I may be permitted to mention a singular instance in which the develop-
ment of our railway system has promoted the utilization of our neglected
resources. In all parts of the colony, except Auckland, the rimu, or red
pine, has long formed the chief timber used in the manufacture of furni-
‘ture, but in most parts of the Auckland district it has been completely
neglected. Even within twenty or thirty miles of the city of Auckland,
hundreds of noble trunks, from forty to sixty feet in length, and of large
Sie chek IUE E NIS IURATI ICE EA Ku EMT IUDICEM o RS
T. Kinx.—Deseriptions of New Plants. 463
diameter, have been destroyed by fire every year in the process of clearing.
This has arisen from the difficulty of conveying the timber by land, water-
carriage not being available as in the case of the kauri; so that rimu, tho
cheap timber of the south, could only be obtained in Auckland at a higher
rate than kauri, and as kauri has the advantage of being more easily worked
than rimu, the latter has been rarely used by the cabinet-maker, notwith-
standing the advantage it possesses in colour and “figure.” But, since the
construction ef the Waikato Railway, I am assured that a change has taken
place in this respect. Rimu is abundant at Drury, Pukekohe, Pokenoe,
and other places along the line, and the settlers have taken advantage of
the facilities for carriage placed at their disposal—they have converted their
rimu into boards instead of burning it, and rimu furniture is much more
common in the workshops of the Auckland cabinet-makers than was the
case prior to the formation of the railways. We may fairly expect that
similar results will take place with regard to other neglected products.
Art. LXXVI.— Descriptions of New Plants. By T. Kx, F.L.S.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 1st March, 1879.]
ComposiTz.
Olearia oleifolia.
A wvcH branched shrub 5 to 8 feet high; branchlets crowded, strict,
ascending, angular, clothed with short velvetty pubescence; leaves 2" to 9"
long, 4" to 4” wide, coriaceous, shortly petioled, narrow lanceolate, acute,
erect, minutely reticulated above, white beneath with matted appressed
hairs forming an even surface, veins obscure; corymbs on slender pedun-
cles twice as long as the leaves; heads numerous on slender pedicels,
involucre narrow, 1" to 1" long, cylindrical, scales few, inner membranous,
linear, ciliated, pubescent; florets 4-5, two or three with a broad obovate
ray; pappus hairs white, scabrid at the tip; achene furrowed silky.
Hab: South Island—Ashburton, T. H. Potts! Bangitata, 4,000-
5,000 feet, J. F. Armstrong! Preservation Inlet, Otago, J. D. Enys!
For my first knowledge of this plant, Iam indebted to Mr. Potts, who
showed me specimens under cultivation several years ago, and expressed his
belief in its specific distinctness, although he had not seen flowers. A
living plant kindly given me by Mr. Armstrong in 1873 flowered for the
first time in February, 1878, Its affinities are with O. avicenniafolia and
0. albida, from both of which it is distinguished at sight by its strict habit,
464 Transactions.—Dotany.
excessively crowded branchlets, and narrow leaves. In the inflorescence it
approaches most closely to the former, but differs in the narrow involucral
scales with green tips, and the longer involucres. The leaves are less
evidently reticulate on both surfaces.
Raoulia apice-ni7rc.
A small densely-tufted plant, forming compact masses, 2-5 inches in
height. Leaves densely imbricated, ovate spathulate, obtuse, covered with
snow-white loosely appressed hairs. Heads l'-1'long; involucral scales
linear with scarious margins and black tips. Pappus hairs white, scabrid
near the tip, but more thickened. Achenes glabrous,
Hab: South Island—Mount Monro, Awatere, 5-600 feet, P. McRae
and T. Kirk. Ben Lomond, Otago, 5,500, D. Petrie.
A singular plant: immediately before flowering the heads are black and
glossy, presenting a marked contrast to the snow-white leaves. It is most
closely allied to R. australis, from which it is distinguished by tho black-
lipped involucral leaves.
ScRoPHULARINEZ.
Veronica armstrongit.
A dwarf much-branched shrub, 1-8 feet high. Leaves minute, dimor-
phic. 1, linear, patent, or sub-patent ,!;’-1” long, acute. 2, closely ap-
pressed, tumid and coriaceous, adnate with the branch for half their length,
broadly ovate, sub-acute, margins faintly ciliated. Flowers in terminal 3-8-
flowered heads, sessile ; sepals ovate-lanceolate with a strong median nervo
ciliated. Corolla tube short, limb }"-}" in diameter, whitish. Capsulo
ovate acuminate, longer than the sepals, slightly tumid and notched at the
apex.
Hab: South Island—Nelson, Upper Wairau and Amuri 8-4,500 feet,
T. Kirk. Source of the Rangitata, 4-6,000 feet, J. F. and J. D. Armstrong.
Our plant presents the appearance of a hybrid between V. salicornioides
and V. hectori, and must, I think, be considered of doubtful specific validity.
In its robust habit and subacute appressed leaves, it resembles V. hector? ;
it is more closely allied to V. salicornivides by the inflorescence and capsule,
as well as by the arrangement of the appressed leaves, the upper portion
being free and widened out, so that cach pair of leaves forms a minuto
funnel-shaped cup surrounding the branch, and presenting a curious articu-
lated appearance resembling some corallines.
The appressed leaves are not constantly ciliated in any of tho forms
belonging to this section, and in this respect vary greatly even on the samo
branch. The same remark applies to the glandular dotting of the leaves,
which is characteristic of V. hectori, V. armstrongii, and V. salicornioides—at
least I do not find tho leaves truly connato in eithor plant, although in closo
contact for the length of their baso,
EIU E OE
T. Kmx.— Descriptions of New Plants. 465
All the Otago specimens of Veronica hectori that I have seen are more
robust than those from the Canterbury and Nelson mountains; the length
of the capsule varies considerably.
Notwithstanding the doubts I entertain of the claims of our plant to
specific honours, I have great pleasure in describing it under the name by
which it has become known to hortieulturists. As it adapts itself to
artificial conditions more readily than any other species belonging to the
section (except perhaps V. cupressoides), and is easily recognized by its
flabellate branches, it will probably retain its name even if it should ulti-
mately be considered a form of V. salicornioides ; but it would have afforded
me greater pleasure to have attached the name of its discoverer to some
form more likely to prove of permanent specific value.
The dimorphism in the foliage of all the species characterized by
appressed leaves has not received the attention it merits, The spreading
leaves are easily produced under cultivation ; if the plants are kept in a
cool, shaded situation, they will be developed from the tips of branches
bearing appressed leaves as well as from all newly formed branches. In
V. cupressoides the free leaves are ovate, lobulate or nearly pinnatifid. There
can be little doubt that the free leaves are equally characteristie of the
seedling state of the plant, although I have been unable to find them in a
wild condition.
Many of the New Zealand species of Veronica comprise a series of forms
capable of being recognized by the eye, especially when their minute
differences are exaggerated under the luxuriant growth induced by cultiva-
tion, but they pass into ’each other by insensible gradations, and are not
capable of rigid definition. In this respect they resemble Rosa canina,
Rubus fruticosus, and Salix repens of Northern Europe; and the trivial
varieties and sub-varieties of our Veronicas are no more worthy of being
elevated to specific rank than the varieties and sub-varieties of these
variable European plants.
PLANTAGINEE.
Plantago hamiltoni.
Stem very short. Leaves rosulate, }'-1}" long, more or less clothed with
scattered jointed hairs, linear lanceolate, toothed or nearly entire, narrowed
into a broad petiole, with shaggy hairs at the base. Scapes 1-flowered,
crowded amongst the leaves, at first very short 44'—,, long (always ?)
elongating as the fruit matures; sepals short, broad, obtuse; corolla tube
narrow, lobes acute, spreading, ovary large, ovate. Capsule (always ?)
when ripe on an elongated scape 3'-1' long, very large, fully $’~'5’ broad,
ovate, apiculate, glabrous, imperfectly 4-celled, cells 2-seeded.
A29
466 Transactions.— Botany.
Hab: South Island—mouth of the Grey River, A. Hamilion. Stewart
Island (specimens not in flower, and identification therefore uncertain),
D. Petrie.
The nearest ally of our plant is Plantago uniflora of the Ruahine
Mountains, which at present has only been collected by its discoverer, Mr.
Colenso. P. hamilioni is distinguished by the ovate, obtuse sepals, pro-
minent midrib, the flowers on abbreviated scapes which elongate as the
capsule approaches maturity, and especially by the capsule, which is the
largest in the genus.
Mr. Petrie’s specimens, from marshes on Stewart Island, are less
hairy than those from the Grey, and the leaves are not so strongly toothed ;
but these characters vary greatly in all species of Plantago, and in this case
are partly due to difference of habitat, Mr. Hamilton’s plants having been
collected on shingle.
I have great pleasure in associating the name of its enthusiastic dis-
coverer with this interesting species.
Art. LXXVII.—Notice of the Discovery of Calceolaria repens, Hook. f.,
and other Plants in the Wellington District. By Harry Borrer Kirk.
Communicated by Mr. T. Kins, F.L.S.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 1st March, 1879.)
Dure a walking excursion from Wellington to the Wairarapa, returning
by the coast, I was fortunate enough to find in a small gully on the Rimu-
taka mountains, several plants of Calceolaria repens, hitherto, I believe,
unknown in this district. The plants grew on the side of the gully, on a
mass of loose, crumbling rock, covered with dead leaves and rotten twigs.
C. repens is a small, creeping plant, with slender stems and alternate,
ovate, deeply serrate leaves, the whole slightly pubescent. The flowers
are distant and borne in three- to six-flowered panicles. They are small
and white, with a few purple spots on the throat. The two lobes of the
corolla are nearly equal.
The plant was first discovered by Mr. Colenso, in the Ruahine moun-
tains. My father’s herbarium contains specimens from the East Cape,
collected by the Venerable Archdeacon Williams. It has, I believe, been
collected at Mount Egmont by Mr. J. Buchanan, but is not mentioned in
his list of Taranaki plants. As these were its only known habitats, its
occurrence in the Rimutaka range shows a great extension of its limit
southward,
LI
H. B. Kmx.—Occurrenee of certain Plants in Wellington, 467
During the excursion several other plants were collected, which appear
to have escaped Mr. Buchanan’s notice, as they are not Mankanya i in his
list of South Wellington plants. The following are the most kable ;—
Ranunculus hirtus, Banks and Sol. Mungaroa.
Oreomyrrhis colensoi, Hook, Mungaroa. This plant occurs also on Mount
Victoria.
Loranthus tetrapetalus, Forst. Mungaroa.
i decussatus, Kirk. Mungaroa.
Nertera ‘cunninghamii, Hook. Wairarapa Lake. Occurs also on Mount
Victoria.
Haloragis micrantha, Br. Mungaroa. Found also close to Wellington.
Olea montana, Hook. Pakuratahi.
» n.s. Mungaroa.
Urtica incisa, Poiret. Maungaroa; common,
Gunnera monoica, Raoul. Mungaroa.
Rumex flexuosus, Forst. Wairarapa Lake. The absence of this plant from
the immediate vicinity of Wellington is not easily accounted
for.
Tillga moschata, DO.
» debilis, Col.
Cassinia retorta, A, Cunn. Mungaroa.
Raoulia glabra, Hook. Rimutaka.
Chiloglottis cornuta, Hook. Wainui-o-mata.
Corysanthes oblonga, Hook. Mungaroa.
is macrantha, Hook. Okiwi.
Pterostylis trullifolia, Hook. Okiwi.
Carex breviculmis, Br. Mungaroa; common.
» lambertiana, Boott. Mungaroa.
Gahnia hectori, Kirk. Mungaroa ; common.
Cladium gunnii, Hook. Mungaroa.
Uncinia ferruginea, Boott. Mungaroa.
Cyperus buchanani, Kirk. Waiwetu.
| Palliser Bay ; also at Miramar.
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IV.—CHEMISTRY.
Art, LXXVIIT.— Preliminary Note on the Presence of one or more Hydro-
carbons of the Benzol Series in the American Petroleum, also in our
Petroleuns. By Waua Srey, Analyst to the Geological Survey
Department,
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 17th August, 1878.)
Ir is generally supposed that the benzol series of hydro-carbons is not
represented by any constituent of American petroleum, nor even as far as I
know in any true petroleum at all Any way, so far as the American oil
is concerned, we have it reported in the special report on the Petroleum of
Pennsylvania by the Geological Survey there that Dr. Genth “believes
that the series of hydro-carbons characteristic of those which furnish
aniline, etc., do not exist in our American oils.” And, again, Dana informs
us in his latest edition of System of Mineralogy that “none of this series
were detected by Pelonze and Cahours in the Pennsylvania petroleum."
However, some time ago I had, on behalf of the Customs authorities
here, to examine some of our so-termed benzine for what is chemically
known as benzol—hydro-carbon ; and for this I employed the test recom-
mended by Prof. Hoffman—a test which is based upon the fact that benzol
loses a portion of its hydrogen when warmed with nitric acid; the re-
mainder combines with a portion of decomposed acid to form intro-benzol,
and this product, when placed in contact with nascent hydrogen, is by
the loss of oxygen transformed into the alkaloid aniline—a substance
which is by certain easy oxidizing processes converted to others which
are remarkable for their intensity and variety of colour, forming the well-
known coal-tar colours.
The results of his test were, that I entirely failed to get any colour
reaction; but I obtained a quantity of nitro-oils, from which I succeeded in
separating one which by deoxidation yielded a substance which exhibited
all the general properties of an alkaloid ; thus it is soluble in water, com-
bines with acids, and, when dissolved in either, gives precipitates with tannic
acid, mercuro-iodide of potassium, and sulpho-cyanide of zine. It is an oil,
at common temperatures, possessing a dark brown colour, and, like aniline,
it gives an intense yellow colour to pine-wood.
470 Transactions.—Chemistry.
As this substance, though clearly an alkaloid, does not yield any colour
reaction with oxidizing agents (such as chloride of lime), it is neither aniline
nor naphtha-aniline, and therefore is not derived from either benzol or
naphthaline, and so does not indicate the presence of these hydro-carbons in
the oil tested. The alternative is, then, that it is derived from a hydro-
carbon or some hydro-carbons of the series which benzol heads and typifies,
and which is in all probability either touluole or xylole, or a mixture of
the two.
Having obtained this result I extended my researches, and so have
ascertained that all the brands of American kerosenes which we have here,
together with the so-termed benzols, also contain hydro-carbons, which are
capable of yielding alkaloids to the process I have described (the aniline
process), but still give no colour reaction to oxidizing agents.
Our own petroleums, both the heavy (Taranaki), and the light one
(Poverty Bay), as well as their distillates light and heavy, also behave in
this respect like the American oils.
In the case of the Taranaki crude petroleum in particular, this series of
hydro-carbons is well represented—that is, quantitatively.
The nitro-oil of this petroleum (the first product of the process employed),
when cleansed from the unaltered oil by repeated solutions in aleohol and
precipitations by water, has a sweet and powerful odour much resembling
that of nitro-benzol.
The facts detailed above lead me to suspect that every petroleum contains
one or more representatives of the benzol series of hydro-carbons. Which
particular member of this group (or which members, if more than one)
is present in the several oils I have cited, I eannot inform you until I have
ascertained the composition of their respective alkaloids, a labour of so
tedious a kind, that I cannot promise to perform it for some time to come.
Art. LXXIX.—On a Property possessed by Essential Oils of whitening the
Precipitate produced by mixing a Solution of Mereuro-iodide with one of .
Mercuric-chloride. By Winuiaw Srey, Analyst to the Geological Survey
of New Zealand.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 17th August, 1878.]
Ix article 88 of the last volume of our Transactions,* I showed that
solutions of certain alkaloids and albumenoids, made so weak that they will
not give any precipitates with mercuro-iodide of potassium, will give them
immediately that a little mereuric-chloride is mixed therewith, in addition
* Trans. N.Z.IL., IX., p. 553,
Sxzy.—On the Production of Alkaloids from Fixed Oils. 471
to the first-named mercuric salt, and that such precipitates are of a pale
yellow colour, which is in striking contrast to the full red colour which the
precipitate would exhibit were neither of these organic substances present,
since this precipitate would be iodide of mercury alone.
Continuing my researches in this field, I have ascertained that there is
another class of organic bodies, besides alkaloids and albumenoids, which
determine a yellow colour to the precipitate, which is formed when aqueous
solutions of mercuro-iodide of potassium and mercuric-chloride are mixed,
and this is that of the essential oils. I therefore hasten to inform you of
this fact, and to acquaint you with a knowledge of the means which I find
may be used to discriminate, for toxicological purposes especially, the
mercurial precipitates so coloured, from those which are coloured by the
presence therein of an alkaloid or an albumenoid.
The yellow mereurial precipitates, which are formed by this means in
presence of these oils, volatilize entirely when gently heated, and their
sublimates preserve their yellow colour, even when kept cool a long time.
This reaction distinguishes such precipitates from those which are formed in
part of a fixed alkaloid, also of an albumenoid; while from those formed in
part of a volatile alkaloid they are distinguished by not reddening when
treated with mercurie-chloride.
I find that a very minnte quantity of any of these oils is effective for
the production of the phenomena I have described; for instance, one part
of lemon oil to 10,000 parts of water will produce it.
The nitro-oils behave in this ease in the same way as the essential oils.
The nature of the mercuro-precipitate, which is thus formed in presence
of an essential oil, I am unable as yet to determine for lack of time..
Art. LXX X.— Preliminary Note on the Production of one or more Alkaloids
from Fixed Oils, by the Aniline Process. By Wurm Brey, Analyst to
the Geologieal Survey of New Zealand.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 17th and 31st August, 1878.)
Mx late suecessful production of alkaloids from our petroleums* induced me
to apply the same process I used in that instance to the fixed oils, that is
the process I name in the title of this paper, for brevity, the ‘Aniline
Process;" one which, I may remind you, eonsists in first warming the
petroleum, etc., to be treated, with nitric acid, by which numerous nitro
compounds are produced; and, in the second place, deoxidizing these by
nascent hydrogen, by which any hydro-carbons of the benzol series present
* Vide supra, Art. LXXVIIL,
472 Transactions.—Chemistry.
have a portion of their hydrogen replaced by the elements of nitrous acid,
and subsequently, a portion of the oxygen of this acid removed, the ulti-
mate result being that a nitrogenous substance is produced which is a true
alkaloid, in fact an amide, that is, a substance constructed upon the
ammonia type, and which, in case of those produced from petroleum, has
one equivalent of hydrogen of ammonia substituted by a hydro-carbon.
Now, so far as I know, this process has not been applied with any
success to a fixed oil or fat, if applied at all; every constituent of such
substances is indeed held to be constructed so differently to the petroleums
and their allies, that we should not expect results upon them at all similar
to those we get by the same means as applied to the petroleums.
However, by employing this process very carefully upon the purest olive
oil I could get, I obtained as a resultant a liquid which manifested, to all
the tests I could apply, the reaction of one containing an alkaloid.
By employing Stras’s process to this liquid I separated an oily body
which was in great part dissolved by weak acetic acid; the solution in this
acid afforded dense precipitates with tannin, mercuro-iodide of potassium,
sulpho-cyanide of potassium and zinc, a reddish precipitate with free iodine,
and when evaporated with platino-chloride of potassium a granular yellow
precipitate ; this precipitate, when washed well with alcohol to dissolve any
oil present in a free state, partially fused when gently heated, and then
blackened, and as the heat was raised the black matter was consumed, and
a grey mass of platina left.
These results clearly show that an alkaloid had been obtained from the
oil used.
Several other vegetable oils gave similar results to these, and among
the animal oils, cod-liver oil and sperm oil. The former oil was obtained
from the fish by steam, so that the alkaloid produced is not to be referred
to any product of decomposition made by securing the oil. That this
alkaloid is not to be referred to the glycerine of these oils is proved by my
inability to obtain an alkaloid in this way from glycerine itself; and further
by the fact that Price’s stearine, as sold in his candles, also affords me this
alkaloidal substance. These candles do not contain glycerine, and are the
best representation of a pure fat which I can at present get.
These facts open up a very interesting field for research, as they show
one of two things, viz. :—First, that there are one or more hydro-carbons of
the benzol or naphthaline series in our fixed oils and fats :—second, or that
the acids of these substances are in part capable of furnishing alkaloids to
the aniline process.
Whichever way it may prove to be, the matter is of an equal interest,
for that there should be pure hydro-carbons mixed with the fixed vegetable
and animal oils named, would be just as important a fact to know, as that
Sery.—0n the Movements of Camphor on Water. 473
our oxygenated oils yield alkaloids to a process which hitherto has been
considered applicable to hydro-carbon oils alone, and even of these but
very few.
I should inform you that none of the oils, etc., cited above, when tested
for alkaloidal matter gave any indication of its presence, although I operated
in each case upon the same quantity of oil as that I used for the aniline
process.
The constitution and precise character of the alkaloid or alkaloids I
have thus formed I cannot at present describe to you, as I have not yet the
leisure to prosecute this investigation to the end. I hope to take up this
subject on some future day, but in the meantime I shall be glad to hear of
any one continuing the research, as it can hardly fail to give results of
great interest.
Posrscnrer.—I have further pursued my investigations of this subject,
and of the two alternatives I have submitted to you in respect to the
derivation of the alkaloid I produce by this process, I accept that which
assumes it to be a product of some hydro-carbon or hydro-carbons present
in the oil or fat employed. I have produced alkaloids by this process from
well-washed butter, the purest’ sperm, and olive oils; and I now make the
general statement that there is present in all the fixed oils or fats, whether
of vegetable or animal origin, whether in the organism or removed from it,
a small quantity of one or more hydro-carbon oils, and that these, or at
least some of them, are homologous with benzol.
Art. LXXXI.—On the Cause of the Movements of Camphor when placed upon
the Surface of Water. By Wmm Srey.
(Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 31st August, 1878.)
Ir has long since been known that camphor in small pieces describes rapid
and very eccentric movements when placed upon water, the surface of
which is free of oily matter. This phenomenon is so singular,* and is,
besides, so striking to him who for the first time witnesses it, that such an
one can hardly help feeling anxious to become acquainted with its cause,
* I have since discovered that the liquid bi-sulphide of camphor behaves in this
respect like camphor. If the water used with it is quite clear from greasy matter, it
spreads in various directions by a series of explosive efforts; but if the water contains a
minute quantity of grease (as it will do if especial precautions are not taken), the sulphide
of camphor, after a little while, rotates slowly round its centre, then rotating progressively
aster, it at last strikes off in a straight line, leaving a greasy narrow streak behind,
which is permanent. -
a80
474 Transactions.—Chemistry.
and the more so when, on enquiring into this, he learns that no one has yet
published anything in explanation of this phenomenon which is backed
either with any kind of authority or, what is more, by a weight of evidence
sufficient to recommend it for his unqualified belief.
It was just under these incentives to research that, a little while ago, I
commenced investigating this phenomenon, and with the additional one of
ultimately finding something in common between it and that of the motion
of minute particles in certain liquids—one known by the appellation of
“ Browinian movements "—the Pedetic movements of Prof. Jevons.
After I had made a great number of experiments with camphor, how-
ever, I could find nothing which gave any proof in favour of a common origin
for the two phenomena. Neither could I find anything in support of the
theory popularly assigned for the explanation of that exhibited by camphor,
but instead, evidence of a very decided character, pointing, as I think,
very clearly to quite a different origin for it than that which is assigned
y the theory in question. This I now ask leave to submit to your
inspection, and, if you will allow me, I will do this in the same order, or
nearly so, in which it was educed.
First, I will remind you what this theory is, which is thus endorsed by
popular opinion. Itis based upon the fact that camphor gives off vapour
at common temperatures, and it is to the unequal impingement of this
vapour upon the water around it that the movements in question are
ascribed, the camphor being held, as I suppose, to move in the direction of
least evaporation.
Now this does, I allow, appear at first thought quite explanatory to
anyone who will observe the effect which camphor vapour, or vapours,
generally have upon water, the surface of which is prepared so as to
indicate any modification it thereby undergoes. Such a surface, in the case
of water, is easily got by dredging a little very finely-powdered resin evenly
upon it.”
Camphor suspended close to a surface of this kind produces, as you see,
an instantaneous recession of the resinous particles from the point imme-
diately under it; the same effect is also produced by those substances
generally which give off vapour in suitable quantity at the temperature at
which they are used; for instance, alcohol or ether.
It does, indeed, appear from this, that the popular theory which we are
attacking is, after all, correct. One sees the resin quickly dashed away from
the camphor, etc., and in consequence conclude that, as action and reaction
* This surface so well indicates (by the displacement of resin) the presence of oily
matters that these can readily be detected, as they escape from the finger applied thereto,
pyen immediately after a thorough wash.
Srey.—On the Movements of Camphor on Water, 475
are equal, each of the substances whose vapours we are operating with, is
at such times subjected on all sides to a force tending to drive it in, that is,
towards its centre; a force which, as it cannot be persistently equal around
it, will certainly move it from its normal position.
This is, I allow, a conclusion which one is at first inclined to tdm; but
I wil now show to you an extension of this experiment yielding results
which will, I think, at once prevent anyone previously so inclined from this
conclusion, :
The camphor is now only one-sixth of an inch above the water, and the
diameter of the cleared space below it is about half an inch; I now lower
it to within one-fortieth of an inch of the water, but you observe that the
area of cleared space is not perceptibly increased, thereby showing that
this is very closely upon the maximum of that which can be got by placing
the camphor at an infinitesimal distance from the water. I now allow it
the slightest contact with the water which I possibly can, and you observe
that there is instantly a very large increase of cleared space, whose
diameter is certainly not less than four inches, representing, therefore, an
area no less than sixty-four times that which we had before.
Here, then we have, in one moment, an accession to our knowledge of a
kind which teaches us that, whatever the direct radiation of camphor vapour
may have to do with the production of the cleared space last got, there is
some reaction of camphor with water of quite a different nature which has
very much more to do with it; so great, indeed, is the effect produced by
the merest contact as compared with that obtained by suspension in the most
favourable position, that it really becomes a moot point whether any space
at all is cleared by the direct impingement of this vapour on the water
surface.
To settle this point by a demonstration I now reproduce certain experi-
ments of mine :—This small sphere of camphor I suspend over water (pre-
pared as above) within one-sixth of an inch of its surface, and across
the cleared space produced, close to the camphor and closer to the water
than the camphor is, I place this thin bar; now this clearing should have
its shape materially altered, and its area much curtailed if it has been
produced by the mere impingement of vapour on water; but you cannot see
that any variation occurs whether in shape or area.
Again, I place a small piece of camphor on this prepared surface,
and puta wide bar close to one side of it and very near to the water;
now, action and reaction being equal there should occur a marked
recession of the camphor from the bar if the evaporation theory is correct,
for in the direction of this bar is the greatest resistance to the escaping
vapour; but you cannot observe that anything of this kind happens,
476 Transactions.—Chemistry,
Evidence of this sort, indeed, is to be had in every exhibition of these
movements of camphor, for whenever the camphor gets to the vessel's
side, it remains there motionless, whereas it should (according to the theory
we are gxamining) rebound therefrom, with great force.
But apart from and independent of these results, it is, as I conceive,
very questionable whether any vapour emanating from a substance which is
of the same temperature as its environment, and in presence of air, has &
direct repellent effect thereon, However, this is a question of so general a
character that I cannot well extend the scope of this paper so far as to
take it into consideration now, but if you will allow me I will trench upon
it so much as to inform you of a few very interesting facts which are con-
nected with it, and also in an especial manner with the particular phenomena
we are considering.
Experiments.—Two pieces of camphor swung in air in close contiguity,
at the ends of very fine and long threads, do not manifest any repellent effect
in regard to each other, while, if placed upon water, though at first there is
an appearance of a mutually repellent force in action, there is, after a short
time has elapsed, an appearance of a mutually attractive force—they actually,
as you see, move toward each other and close together. Now, you will allow
that these results are not consistent with the theory which credits vapour
with direct repulsive effects. The case of turpentine is something similar
to the above. It is a substance which gives off vapour more freely
than camphor, yet when one sprinkles fine particles of cork upon it and
applies its vapour thereto, one cannot observe that the cork is at all
affected thereby. But not only this, one can get the very reverse of
repulsion during the emission of vapour; thus, upon either turpentine or
kerosene a small piece of cork is placed, and a rod moistened with ammonia
is then brought to within about half an inch of it, when the cork may
be observed to positively rush to the rod and follow it about as obediently
as a needle can respond to the movements of a magnet.*
Taken as a whole, the results which I have just described or exhibited
to you, do, as I conceive, indisputably show that this recession of particles
under the influence of camphor is, appearances notwithstanding, not due to
the direct impingement of vapour on them, but rather to some effect follow-
ing thereupon ; and it seems therefore necessarily to follow that the move-
ments of this substance (camphor) on water, are also not the direct result of
impingement, but the result of something which follows it.
And now, with the popular theory thus disproved before you, it may
occur to some one here, as it did to me, that possibly these movements of
* Volatile acids, also water, applied in this way have the reverse effect, while tur-
pentine is neutral. The rod alone, if warm, has also an apparent repulsive effect on
the cork,
Sxzv,— On the Movements of Camphor on Water, 477
camphor are the effect of electrical reactions, but that this is not so appears
from the fact that neither of the poles of a six-pair Grove battery, in full
action and in good working order, at all effects these movements when
applied close to the camphor. The poles were pointed in order to be i in the
most favourable condition for effect.
The ground being thus cleared, it remains for me to tender for your
approval a theory which, in my opinion, explains the phenomena in
question. This I will do, and along with it I will describe or demonstrate,
as the case admits, the experimental results upon which, in conjunction
with those related above, this theory is based.
You will perhaps remember that in the introductory part of this paper
Is tated to you the well-known fact that, for the exhibition of the movements,
which I now desire to explain, it is necessary to have the water-surface free
from oily matters. Now a knowledge of this is highly suggestive ; it is as
you will find the key to the question before us. A drop of oil (as you
observe) stops in a peremptory manner all camphor movements, and it
is now our proper course to enquire how it effects this. It can only, so
far as I see, effect this in two ways, either by enfilmning the camphor
and so preventing evaporation, or it is not as a suspensive medium favour-
able to the continuance of such movements; that this last is the case is
shown by the following experiment.
I float a small piece of cork upon turpentine, on this cork I place
camphor, and you observe that we get no camphorie movement.” Clearly
then it appears that whether we are to get the phenomena or not
depends upon the nature of the surface of the liquid which we use for
flotation, and this independent of any effect it may have upon the solid
camphor in preventing its evaporation. The knowledge of the fact that
oils generally are, in this particular respect, antagonistic to camphor-
movements I sought to amplify, and in this I have succeeded. Thus I
find that besides them alcohol, ether, bi-sulphide of carbon and ammonia,
applied even as vapours, and only in minute quantities, arrest camphoric
movements very quickly. I further find that such movements are very
much less rapid and prolonged if the water used is charged heavily with
either acids or salts.
Being thus acquainted with the fact that so many and such diverse sub-
stances as those just above cited, render water unfavourable for camphoric
* This fact, by the way, is corroborative of the correctness of the opinion I have
ventured above, viz., that camphor movements are not caused directly by the impinge-
ment of its vapour upon the liquid which floats it.
t I have since found that, in singular opposition to these vapours, etc., gasoline not
only refuses to stop or retard camphorie movements, but even starts them in case of
camphor rendered stationary in this way.
478 Transactions.—Chemistry,
movement, it occurred to me to try camphor itself. I placed a large piece of
it upon water in a vessel closed from the air, and found, after the lapse of
about four hours, that it was stationary, and that fresh pieces put therein
would not move. I then took out the camphor and exposed the water
freely'to the air for a short time, when I found that camphor would then
describe very lively movements upon it. The same kind of effects are not
produced if the camphor is kept wholly immersed in the water, not even if
the time of contact is prolonged to a week. I further found that a water-
surface, which has been rendered unfavourable for these movements by
camphor, is also in a very unfavourable condition for the spread of oils
thereon, so much so that some of them, when so placed, that is, of course,
when used in small quantity, keep nearly to the drop form,
The very pertinent facts are, then, now distinctly shown, that many
vapours are obstructive to camphoric movements when condensed within or
upon the upper stratum of any water on which camphor is moving, and
that among these substances is camphor itself. Now we have already seen
that all the substances just named above (and this includes camphor) are
capable under certain circumstances of giving very decided and rapid move-
ments to solid particles when they occupy a water-surface; and we have
also seen that these vapours do not effect this directly by what I may here
designate vapour force, but rather by surface modification. The conclusion,
therefore, which one is led to by a consideration of all this is, that the
movements of camphor in question are the effect of surface modification and
modification which it produces itself.
The analogy is, I hold, complete between resin upon water moving away
from that which has been modified by vapour, and camphor upon water
moving away from the water it has modified, except that we have one sub-
stance less in the latter than in the former case—thus, camphor placed
upon water gives up a part of its substance to the upper stratum thereof ;
this part represents the vapours, whether of alcohol, ether, or camphor,
which are resident in the clearing they have made amongst the particles of
resin with which the water has been laden ; the remaining part of the
camphor represents the resin which has been removed to make this clearing.
Such is the theory which I submit to you as explanatory of the pheno-
mena we have been observing. Ithink you will readily allow that it is at all
events the most probable of any which you have now had for this purpose,
and now it only remains for me to state to you what I conceive to be—
1. The precise nature of the surface modification which I have
eredited camphor with producing.
2. The manner in which a surfaee so modified forces camphor to
move.
Sxey.—On the Movements of Camphor on Water. 479
First then in regard to the nature of this modification. Camphor, I
should remind you, has properties affecting this question as follows :—It is
soluble in water, and so without doubt combines with it; it is not decom-
posed by water, even in conjunction with air that is at common temperatures,
and it is a resin slowly volatile at such temperatures.
Now camphor, as we have seen, modifies a very much larger extent of
surface when placed in contact with water than when suspended over it.
We may, therefore, be certain that the modification in question is not
occasioned simply by a deposit of condensed camphor vapour upon the
water surface, but rather by some combination of it with water. This
combination, however, is not that which is obtained by saturating water
with camphor in the ordinary way (a compound containing one part of
camphor to one thousand parts of water), as is shown by the fact I have
already stated to you, that a saturated solution of camphor in water allows
camphor to describe movements upon its surface; this compound, therefore,
is one new to us, it can only exist as a thin surface film, and is therefore
doubtless one far richer in camphor than that which we already know of,
a compound indeed so highly camphoretted that it, in all probability,
partakes in an eminent degree of the characters of an oil.* However, it is
impossible for me as yet to obtain direct evidence as to the nature of a film
so exceedingly thin as this. We must therefore for the present rest content
with the indirect evidence which we now have.
Granted, then, that the modification effected upon a surface of water by
camphor is owing to a combination of the two for the production of a highly
camphoretted oil, I have only now to show the precise manner in which
this compound induces camphor to move.
For this purpose I will refer you to the effect which a drop of oil has
when placed upon water laden with an indicatory substance, such as clay
in fine particles; the oil spreads quickly and regularly around, and in the
act urges the clay to the side of the containing vessel, where it becomes
stationary. Now the clay and the oil here are, I hold, fairly representative
of the camphor and its oily compound; there is this difference, however, in
the movement of the oils, and it is an important one, it is a difference upon
which all camphor movement depends,—the spread of oil in the case of
camphor is not even around it, as is that of the other oil; were it so there
would be no such phenomenon as that we are investigating. Regularity of
spread is in this case impossible, because the production is irregular, owing
to the highly crystalline nature of camphor, and its great fragility, whereby
* I have lately observed that water thus modified, when compared side by side
with pure water, exhibits a higher lustre than the pure water does, a fact greatly in
favour of this view,
480 Transactions.— Chemistry.
one cannot obtain a homogeneous sphere of it for use, or if one could it
would at once lose its character and shape. The oil then being of necessity
produced irregularly around the camphor spreads unequally from it, and in
the act urges it in a direction which is away from that side on which there
is the greatest output of oil; thus the camphor breaks through the oily
film at its weakest part, and sets itself upon the edge thereof, which posi-
tion it retains so long as there is motion produced. The movements of cam-
phor are, in short, the joint results of the outward spread of oil along the
water surface—the inertia or adhesiveness of this oil as regards what
surface it thus occupies—and, lastly, the antipathy, as it were, which exists
between the two, the camphor and its oil, whereby they refuse to associate.
But the questions will now without doubt present themselves to you—
Why should the oil spread so determinately over the water and retain the
position thus gained so obstinately? and why should it appear to repel
camphor? Unto such questions I might with propriety reply, that to
entertain them here is not incumbent upon me, as I have now completed
the task I set myself in this paper, by showing that camphor moves, as we
have seen, upon water, for the same reason that solid particles occupying a
water-surface move when oil is added. To treat such questions is really to
take up another subject, and one which includes within its scope the
behaviour of oils generally with water when in presence of it—a subject,
moreover, which I had reserved for a further communication to you; but
rather than leave the matter in hand in a state which may to some appear
unfinished, I will trench upon these subjects so far as to make a few general
observations thereupon in elucidation of these questions. It is, however,
proper that I should premise these observations with a short statement of
the prevailing opinion as to the reason of the extensive spread of even
minute quantities of oil upon water under favourable circumstances, and
their refusal to mix under other circumstances.
According to these opinions, and these are both the popular and scien-
tific ones, the spread of oil upon water is simply the result of gravitation in
conflict with the cohesiveness of the oil, and the apparent antipathy which
they manifest towards each other, is the result of an exertion of a repul-
sive property innate in one or the other, or in both. Thus it seems to me
that the possibility of chemical reactions being concerned in each of these
operations has not been contemplated, and so, as I am persuaded, an
important factor in both these problems has been left out of consideration.
In opposition, then, to such opinions, I will maintain here that both the
spread of oil upon water in thin films, and the apparent repulsion which
may be seen to occur between the two, are brought about mainly through
the satisfaction of chemical affinity,
a anneal
Sxry.—On the Movements of Camphor on Water. 481
I will only now take to task, in a direct way, the idea that oil and water
mutually repel each other.
If any one will put a slender stick of some solid fat into water and
then remove it so that the lowermost point thereof is about one-twelfth of
an inch above the water-line, he will upon due examination find that a
portion of water adheres to the fat and joins it to the remaining water.
Some fats may be lifted out of water to a much greater distance than this
before connection therewith is broken. Now, you will perceive that these
effects are quite incompatible with this idea of repulsion ; could fats repel
water, they would rather depress water when applied thereto than raise it.
A cohesiveness so strong as this can, as I believe, only be explained* by
assuming that a chemical combination has taken place between the fat and
the water, a combination not of masses but of surfaces, because of the
insoluble nature of the product in relation to both the substances furnish-
ing it.
What is true here of fat will undoubtedly be true of the oil it furnishes.
Allowing, then, that oil and water have affinities for each other, these
will certainly come into play to a very great extent as regards the oil when
a very thin film of it has contact with water, such as obtains when a drop
of oil is suffered to extend itself upon water unchecked, and the fact that
oils. thin out in this way, and so rapidly as they do, upon water, I would
attribute in largest measure to successful exertion on their part to satisfy
this affinity. Corroborative of the truth of this opinion is the fact which
I have ascertained that oils spread far more rapidly and extensively upon
water than upon mercury, a substance which as far as we know has not
any affinity for them; and in further corroboration of this, oil, as we have
already seen, does not spread at all when applied in small quantity to
water which is covered with hydrated camphor; still, each of these sur-
faces—the metallic and the camphoretted—may appear to us as smooth as
that of the purest water.
And now applying the knowledge of these results and the deductions
they seem to allow us to make to the elucidation of the questions which
I have proposed on your behalf, I would maintain that this camphor oil,
though in part composed of water, has still an unsatisfied affinity for water
by which it is urged to extend itself around in search of it; it occupies
firmly the surface it has thus overrun by reason of its internal cohesiveness,
its inertia, and its affinity for water.
It forces the parent piece of camphor into movement, because being
saturated with camphor there is no unsatisfied affinity existing between
* That this effect is not produced by atmospheric pressure is certain from the fact
that the whole of the portion wetted may be open to the air, idi
482 Transactions.— Chemistry.
them, so each of them— that is, the oil and eamphor—ean only respond to
their affinities for water; to the water therefore they both keep, for its
possession they fight. It is a running fight, in which the oil having a
motion of its own communieates a part of this to the camphor, and so
appears as the pursuer.
Summarizing, now, all that we have here arrived at, by way of
emphasizing the points I consider as fundamental to the theory I have
proposed, you perceive that I have maintained upon evidence, much of which
has been experimentally demonstrated, that the movements described by
camphor occupying a surface of pure water, are neither due to the direct
impingement of vapour upon such surface, nor yet to any electrical effect,
but to the production of a compound of camphor with water, which, being
of an oily nature, spreads upon the surface of the water, and, in the act,
forces the camphor to describe the movements in question, precisely in the
same manner that oils generaly, in their flow along the same kind of
surface, can urge away from them any solid particles resident thereon. In
the actual process, directly that the camphor touches the water there is 2
considerable but unequal output of this oil therefrom, and as this does not
dissolve in the water, nor volatilize, at nearly the speed at which it is
formed, it spreads principally upon the water, and retaining for the time
possession of all it thus overruns, it urges and keeps the solid camphor
away.
As I have already stated, were the production of this compound equal
around the camphor, we should not see the camphor move as we have done;
but this is in the nature of things impossible, as there is certain to be more
of it made at the instant of immersion upon one side of the camphor than
upon any other of equal extent, and so an initial movement and direction is
given to the camphor. When this direction changes, as it frequently does,
the output of oil has become greater upon a different side, or the cam-
phor, in its course, has got into contact with its trail; when all movement
ceases, the whole surface of the water, or at least that within a considerable
distance of the camphor, has got enfilmed with the oily compound, and the
camphor thus becomes oil-bound.
As to the reason why the oil of camphor when in motion, or, indeed,
any oil in motion, should thus urge camphor about, I have attempted to
show that this is due to the fact that they have no affinity for each otlier,
but that each has an affinity for water, and so they have both a tendency to
keep in contact with it—in fact, they are adhesive in relation to the water,
but neutral in regard to each other, hence the appearance of direct repulsive
effect—a kind of effect, which by-the-way, I believe to be always due to
secondary action,
Sxey,—On the Movements of Camphor on Water, 483
Now, if the conclusions stated above are in the main correct, any
substance floating upon a clear surface of water and discharging oil thereon,
should describe motion, and motion of the same character as that which you
have seen camphor make, Well, this is, I find, precisely what does happen
when the experiment is performed,
I rub this small piece of cork with a very little turpentine oil; it has
now absorbed this oil, and appears but little different from another piece of
cork I have here, which has not been oiled, I place both upon water, and
now you can see that while the clean piece of cork remains stationary
thereon, the oiled piece moves about in a very vigorous and eccentric
manner, imitating the motion of camphor so closely that, except for the
difference which exists between the colour of the two (the camphor and the
cork), one would take them as they move for the same thing,
Like effects follow when any non-volatile oil is used in place of turpen-
tine. These experiments are surely crucial tests as regards the correctness
or otherwise of the theory I have proposed to you.
I will only add to this by stating that, should further research prove
that the several deductions I have here made to you are correct, a decisive
blow has been given to the popular theory that vapours are directly repellent,
as they are emitted in presence of air, from substances at the same tem-
perature and pressure as that of their surroundings*; and also, as I believe,
to the theory that a repulsive property is innate in our oils, and that it is, as
it were, developed into action whenever water is placed nearly in contact
with them. I say nearly in contact, for the contact which ensues on collision
of bodies may also cause repulsion, but not repulsion in the sense I use it
here, viz., that in which it is used and to which it is limited by physicists
when they deal with this particular matter.
In this connection I cannot refrain from stating to you my belief that
repulsion and its correlative attraction, whether in reference to electricity,
magnetism, or the movements of masses in relation to each other, are not
direct results indicating the action of two properties, but are secondary ones
brought about by and indicating modification of matter.
Postscript.
I have lately been successful in getting results which, in the first place,
demonstrate that the surface of water is chemically affected by camphor, and,
in the second place, I got results which completely explodes the current idea
that vapours in their emission drive solids away from them, as per se.
I. Water which has had camphor moving over its surface a long time,
refuses to gyrate camphor; its surface acquires a somewhat
resinous lustre, being, in fact, more refractive of light than
* Vapours, of course, are always in a repellent condition as they rush into a vacuum,
. 484 : Transactions, —Chemistry,
before, as I think (this is, however, for measurement), and such
surface will not allow kerosene or turpentine to flow over it; i.e. a
drop of either put on keeps in nearly the drop form; in pure
water they would flow over instantaneously. I have got the
surface to refuse olive oil even, a very searching oil though a
slow mover. This shows that such surface is a combination
of camphor with water; and I am now enabled to fill up a
break you would observe in the continuity of my paper. I
now show how camphor forms some compound with water,
which will not allow oil to flow over it. This compound
is not camphor, because camphor is soluble in oil. I think it
is probably the hydrate. If it is the hydrate, the surface should,
by continued exposure, again rotate camphor, or allow oil to flow
over it; and I find that two hours’ exposure of a non-rotating
surface does restore to it the property of rotation.
That vapour does not necessarily repel, seems shown by the fact
that cork, on turpentine, or kerosene, is attracted by ammonia
vapour. Now, ammonia is a substance which, being rapidly
evolved—far more so than camphor—should repel cork on tur-
pentine strongly. (Camphor, I may say, and ether, and alcohol,
do repel cork on this liquid).
Again: Turpentine vapour does not repel cork on turpentine,
but it repels cork on water; and water offers more resistance to
the movements of substances swimming on it than to substances
swimming on turpentine.
Clearly the idea that vapour in transit (molecular movement)
can move masses of matter visibly to us, does not receive any
support from such results as these.
I am led to hold by researches here, and by thought on the matter, that
the generally received idea that vapour exercises a direct repellent force, is
entirely erroneous ; it appears to do so, but it in reality forms a compound
with the liquid it appears to repel. A compound being lighter, or having -
greater diffusive power than the normal liquid, rolls like a wave away from
the supply, and carries any dust mechanically with it, giving the apparent
repulsive effect observed.
Repulsion by direet force of vapour is, I hold, an optical illusion, and
one whieh physieists should long since have exploded by force of pure
mathematical formule, and not left it as a job for chemists.
I shall in a future paper take the larger subject, that no kind of matter
can be visibly repelled while intercepting vapour in transit so long as a
common temperature is observed and the pressure is not notably irregular.
t
E
Sxey.—Osomose, as the Cause of Suspension of Clay in Water, 485
Lastly: I get a decided attraction (apparently) of camphor for camphor
when this substance occupies the surface of water upon which it
has rotated for a time sufficient to give a surface about half
charged with the camphor compound,
Art. LXXXII.—On Osomose, as the Cause of the persistent Suspension of
Clay in Water. By Winam Srey, Analyst to the Geological Survey
of New Zealand.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 9th November, 1878.)
Tuar certain waters can and do persistently suspend clay is a fact which
has been known from time immemorial, and the fact has also been known
for a time nearly as long that when alum is added to water thus employed,
the clay thereof is first coagulated, then precipitated, leaving the bulk of
the water quite clear. This effect of alum has always been attributed to
the fact that in a relatively large quantity of water it partially decomposes,
producing a nearly insoluble basic salt which, as it precipitates, carries the
clay down with it, entangled therewith, an effect which is therefore simply a
mechanical one. In the year 1868, however, I showed* that the same
effect could be produced chemically. I then brought under public notice
the fact “that several neutral salts having their component parts so strongly
combined among themselves as to render their decomposition by clay-water
impossible, are individually capable of precipitating clay from suspension in
water.” I further showed that such precipitates re-acquire a property of
persistent diffusion, if well washed in pure water;+ and I then main-
tained, and do still maintain, that these salts thus affect clay so suspended
solely by the exercise of their affinities for water, by which means the clay
is partially de-hydrated, and so has its density increased to such an extent
that gravity soon markedly asserts its influence, causing the observed
coagulation.
* London Chemical News, No. 435.
+ My claim as the discoverer of this effect of neutral salts has, to use a digger's
phrase, been * jumped” by several investigators working independently of each other,
but all, of course, in happy ignorance of the fact, that it was already properly “ pegged
out.” One of these (Dr. Sterry Hunt, formerly of the Geological Survey of Canada), has
even unconsciously followed me so closely and so far as to make the same damus of
vus seem d this property of "h salts as I Pa ue to the explanation of
tah
viU VYA Facta Wee a a eA
486 Transactions.—Chemistry.
This theory has been combated by eminent scientists, as will shortly
appear ; but whether it be true or not, it is certain that the mode of action
of such salts is quite different to that by which alum is always supposed to
operate, although they have been, for want of due consideration, undis-
tinguished from each other. It is, moreover, certain that clay, so coagu-
lated, is de-hydrated, and the knowledge of the two cognate facts—
simultaneous coagulation and dehydration of clay under such circumstances
—is, as will shortly be seen, one step towards the solution of the question
before us (the cause of the persistent suspension of clay in certain water),
as it is thereby shown that clay must be hydrated to an extent at about its
maximum in order to manifest this property.
Induced by a knowledge of this fact, I ventured (in the communication
referred to) in explanation of this persistent suspension, the opinion that
clay can hydrate to an indefinite extent, so that it can even take up in a
combined form the whole of the water in which it may be diffused, making
a kind of jelly with it, very weak but still having enough consistence to
retain in a comparatively fixed state the clay particles of which it is in part
composed. But having lately taken careful cognizance of the remarkable
fact that particles of clay when persistently in suspension are as persistently
in motion (describing the so-named Browinian movements), I have now
perceived that hydration of clay never does occur to this extent; these
movements of such particles proving the presence of free water in their
neighbourhood, which, of course, is against the theory of indefinite hydra-
tion, and so left the question as to this persistent suspension of clay still to
me unsolved.
Upon casting about in our scientific works and periodicals for a solution
of this phenomenon, I came across various theories professing to account for
it. Notably, one by Prof. Jevons, ascribing it to electricity; one by Dr.
Hunt, ascribing it to the viscidity or cohesiveness of pure water; and
another by Mr. Dancer, who attributes it to the effect of heat unevenly
distributed. Upon mature deliberation I concluded that each of these
theories is as unsound as the one which I had discarded, and it then
occurred to me that in the action of Osomose we have the solution sought
for, i.e., the cause of the persistent suspension of clay, and after a careful
consideration of this view of the case, I am so impressed with the idea of
its accuracy that I now venture to submit it for your criticism.
In order to present this view to you in as favourable and clear a light as
possible, I will first briefly state the principles of Osomose.
Any colloid (that is, a substance which cannot be crystallized, and
which, though insoluble in water, is capable of largely combining with
it) has the property of allowing water to pass through it, and crystalloids
aa
Sxey.— Osomose, as the Cause of Suspension of Clay in Water. 487
also, but to a less extent than water, that is, for equal times of contact
therewith.
When, therefore, a colloid, say of albumen, is formed into a stiff dia-
phragm, with water on the one side and an aqueous solution of a crystalloid
upon the other side, having about the same height as that of the water, the
level of the liquids is altered by their unequal diffusion through the dia-
phragm, that of the water is gradually lowered, while that of the saline
solution is raised, until after the lapse of a day or two a very marked
change of level is observable.
These effects are far greater in the case of weak saline solutions than
strong ones, and for alkalies and acids than for salts. It is the mechanical,
the lifting effect observable in the apparatus described, that I have noted
for the elucidation of the phenomenon of clay suspension.
I make the application as follows :—Exchange the fixed diaphragm of
albumen for a highly elastic one of the same material, and for the change of
level before observed in the two liquids there is a change in the position of
the diaphragm. The albumen will move in a mass transversely away from
the saline solution.
Hence we may be certain that were a fragment of this diaphragm,
especially a minute one, placed in a liquid containing some salt unevenly
distributed, such fragment would also move, and move in the same direc-
tion as the diaphragm itself should.
Again, we may be equally certain that we should obtain similar move-
ments by charging the all fragment with a salt unequally, and placing
it in water, pure or nearly so. Lastly, movements of a similar nature,
but not so rapid, would ensue, were these fragments charged with the salt
equally throughout, as some part of their exterior could scarcely fail to be
of more angular construction or to be more porous than the remaining
parts, and so would take up water at a greater speed than the other parts,
thereby causing a recession of the fragments from the liquid at such points
of contact, precisely in the same way that I have shown the movements of
camphor upon water are produced.”
Thus by progressive changes in the common form of dialytic apparatus,
we have at last an apparatus of this kind consisting of a vessel of pure
water in which are minute homogeneous fragments of albumen, evenly
charged with a salt, one by which all the motion produced by dialysis thereby
is communicated to the dialyzing material itself, that is to the minute
albuminous fragments. The same result would of course follow were the
albumen pure and the water saline.
MEE “Vide supra, Art. LXXXI.
488 Transactions.—Chemistry.
It is therefore quite certain that any substance capable of dialyzing will,
when swung clear of all attachments in pure water, describe movements
of great persistency which are due to osomose, and in order to complete
the evidence which is yet required to show that osomose is the cause of
the persistent suspension of clay in water, it only remains to be shown
that this substance (clay) is capable of dialyzing.
For this purpose I adduce Prof. Graham’s opinion of the mode in which
osomose is effected (an opinion in which I fully concur). This able chemist
(the discoverer, by the way, of osomose) attributes it entirely to the exertion
of chemical affinity. Any dialyzing diaphragm having water on the one
side and saline water on the other, is, he holds, constantly absorbing, that
is combining with water towards the side which is in contact with water
alone, and giving it up to the other side, that is, to the saline solution there.
Thus it appears that any substance which, while insoluble, or nearly so,
in water, can still weakly combine with it, and in various proportions, is
competent to dialyze.
Now, clay is most certainly such a substance; it hydrates readily, and
is as readily de-hydrated, that is in part, and the proportion in which it
hydrates manifestly varies, and under the very conditions it is necessary
that it should do so for my argument, that is, as placed in pure water and
saline water, as is manifest to the eye even when clay in water is coagulated
by salt.
Indeed, Prof. Graham has shown that porous earthenware dialyzes; he,
however, attributed this property to the alumina present therein; but I fail
to see how alumina could be liberated from the earthenware in his experi-
ment. I should rather attribute the effect he observed to that portion of
the ware which had been hydrated to clay. |
It is therefore, I think, now clearly shown that clay is capable of
dialyzing, and so is competent, under conditions already named, to describe
movements due to osomose. ;
The principal cause, then, if not indeed the sole cause, of the persistent
suspension of clay in water, is undoubtedly motion communicated to it by
osomose ; and as osomose is the more rapidly produced in saline solutions
the weaker they are, and further, as the motion thereby derivable should be
applied with greater effect to clay particles the more hydrated and, con-
sequently, the lighter they are, it follows that suspension of clay in water
will be the more persistent the less saline the water is—a fact which, as
you may remember, I have long since demonstrated.
In water saline to a certain extent, clay particles by de-hydration acquire
& density too great to allow of their remaining sensitive to the motion proper
to osomose; they therefore coalesce, and gravity soon asserts itself,
Sxry.—Osomose, as the Cause of Suspension of Clay in Water. 489
There is, perhaps, one point in respect to this, about which you may
require further information ere you would be prepared to give an opinion
respecting the accuracy of my theory. It may be asked whether, in all
instances of persistent clay diffusion, there is sufficient soluble saline matter
present of such a nature, and which is, besides, so unevenly distributed, as
to enable dialysis to be carried on to the necessary extent ?
In regard to this, I would reiterate the statement which I have made,
that dialysis is best produced by very weak saline solution, and I would,
besides, remind you that by far the most effective solutions for this purpose
are those of the alkalies, and it is precisely matter of this kind, which, as it
happens, is certain to be present and unequally distributed in any clay
water we may ever prepare.
In all clay, as you are aware, some alkaline matter is present, and in
such a form that it gradually passes into solution. Again, ammonia
can, as we know, scarcely be excluded from the water through which clay
may be diffused, and it signifies not where the alkalies are, whether with
the clay or the water, so long as they are not equally diffused throughout
both.
In this connection it is proper to note the fact which has been recently
discovered * :— That the power which water possesses of sustaining clay in
suspension is increased by the addition of small quantities of the alkalies or
their carbonates,” and that water, whose power of sustaining clay had been
destroyed by an acid, had this power restored in great measure by any of
the alkalies. Now precisely the same kind of thing would happen in the
case of albumen, and conversely salts in large quantity retard or prevent
the alkalies acting in this manner. The analogy therefore between clay and
albumen in respect to my subject, is obviously of so wide and general a
character that we may safely assume them to be alike capable of assisting
in osomotic action and its results.
In conclusion, I would state that I have thus singled out the persistent
suspension of clay for explanation in place of the persistent suspension of
substances of a like nature generally, because the question of clay suspen-
sion is to me of particular interest as being one I have had in my mind for
a long time past, and I obtained by experiment results thereon which I am
persuaded are of some value in regard to its settlement.
Granted, however, that this attempt of mine at the explanation of the
persistent suspension of clay is a successful one, the principle thus involved
„is so easy to make a general application of, to the explanation of those
* Suspension of Clay in Water, by William Durham, F.R.S.E. Read before the
Physical Society of Edinburgh, 28th January, 1874. F^
490 Transactions.— Chemistry.
numerous cases which are analogous to the present one, that I need not do
more than point out to you the fact that such a kind of application would
then be both right and necessary to make.
Arr, LXXXIII.—On the Nature and Cause of Tomlinson's Cohesion Figures.
By Winzuw Sxey.
(Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 9th November, 1878.)
Ir has long since been known that when any oil is suffered to flow on water
in very thin films a beautiful play of colours is produced ; but it was not
till the year 1868 that it was observed certain figures were at the same time
formed at a rate and of a pattern varying according to the kind of oil used.
These figures are made up of small annular spaces, set in a ground of a
different shade, and are known as Tomlinson's cohesion figures, after Prof.
Tomlinson, the discoverer of them. They are employed by Dr. Moffat,
lecturer on chemistry, at Glasgow, to base thereon a system of olegraphy
(that is, one by which oil may be identified), and it is their precise nature
and more immediate cause which I now wish to discuss before you, as I
have been led by recent investigations of mine upon oils, to believe that
neither the one nor the other have been heretofore in the least apprehended,
and this, because the possibility of chemical reactions being involved in the
production of these figures has not been contemplated.
Thus, as far as I can gather from the statements of Prof. Tomlinson
and Dr. Moffat (the only scientists who have, within my knowledge, inves-
tigated this subject), the annular spaces are “ perforations ” or “holes,”
bottoming, as it necessarily follows, upon the water-surface used, and set in
a ground which is presumedly formed of oil. Now I think the annexed
account of observations made by me, will show to you very clearly that all
this is directly opposed to the facts of the case.
First, then, in regard to the annular spaces (the so-termed “ perfora-
tions" or “ holes”). A careful inspection of them showed me that the
surface in these parts is not at all depressed as compared with that of the
rest of the patterns, but is, on the contrary, raised, either in flat or round-
topped hills according as these spaces are of large or small extent. I
further found that the liquid occupying these parts—that is, the hills—
burns completely away, and without the least spluttering, showing that it
is an oil,
Sxzv,—On Tomlinson’s Cohesion Figures. 491
Secondly, as to the ground of these figures, i.e., the part in which these
annular spaces or markings are set. I found that when a small quantity of
any oil is gently placed thereon it does not spread to any notable extent,
but keeps nearly to the drop form; and it was further manifested to me
that this part breaks into angular fragments, which are possessed of such
rigidity that they keep to a tabular form no matter how they are dashed
about. Now, as oils indiscriminately flow over oils, and as none of them
can indurate to such an extent as would determine angular shapes to their
fragments, it is clearly demonstrated that this part, ie., the ground of the
pattern, is not an oil,
The current idea, then, as to the nature of this di of the figure, being
fallacious, it is necessary that we should adopt another.
What this ought to be, a full consideration of the case will, I think,
clearly show. Thus, owing to the great proneness of oils generally to oxidize
to substances of a resinous nature when exposed to air, it is certain that in
no instance do we, for the production of these figures, operate with an oil
that is not, to a small extent, charged with such matters; and further, it is
also as certain that the quantity of resinous matter therein must be very
largely increased by the time that any cohesion figure made with it has
passed to its final form. It being, therefore, undeniable that resinous
matter forms one of the principal constituents of the cohesion figure in its
ultimate condition, the conclusion forces itself upon us that of such matters
is the material of their ground alone composed. This is really the only
alternative, as it is one which meets all the requirements of the case. So
attenuated, indeed, and so exposed are the thinner portions of these figures,
and so rapidly is the kind of change indicated wrought upon oil under these
conditions, that it is only reasonable to conclude that these portions are
wholly composed of resin, to the exclusion consequently of any trace of oil.
As being corroborative of the truth of the supposition that the presence
of resin in the cohesion figures plays an important part in their production,
I would inform you that the addition of about ten per cent. of resin to a
good oil very much quiekens the production of cohesion figures, and also
passes them through their various phases to the ultimate figure with &
speed which is far greater than is to be observed in the case of the oil.
And now I think the foregoing statements of facts and observations may
be fairly held to demonstrate—
1st. That the annular spaces or markings of Tomlinson’s cohesion
figures are not depressions but protuberances, not holes but hillocks,
and are not composed of water, but of oil.
2nd. That the plane part of these figures the ground às it were of the
pattern, is not oil (as heretofore quiescently allowed), but either a
492 Transactions.— Chemistry.
highly resinoid substance or a pure resin according to the time
it has been exposed to the air.
It only remains for us now to discuss the subject of the cause of the
production of the figures in question, and for this I need not do more than
point out to you, that if the nature of these figures is as I have just
described, their cause—that is of course their more immediate cause—can be
no other than the oxidation of a portion of the oil employed to produce
them, and the aggregation of the remainder into annular patches to form
the markings which characterize them.
How oil and resinous matters do thus dissociate, is a question which is
scarcely within the scope of this paper to discuss. It is, however, one of
such interest, and is moreover so intimately connected with my subject, that
I cannot refrain from doing this in a brief manner, although to do so some-
what trenches upon a subject which I intend soon to treat of in a further
communication to you.
According to ideas now in vogue, one word wala be sufficient to name in
answer to this question. Why do these two substances dissociate? And
that word is repulsion. The resinous parts of these figures would be held in
accordance with these ideas to repel the oily part.
But from several observations I have recently made, I have reason for
asserting that this appearance of repulsion is at bottom due to the effects
of cohesion. One of these observations is that greasy matters generally,
contrary to present scientific and popular opinion, instead of repelling water,
adhere thereto when placed in juxtaposition with it.*
The phenomenon of dissociation then has, I consider, to be explained by
a hypothesis in which the property of cohesion only has to be taken into
account, and I would form it as follows:—Oil has a certain degree of
cohesion for itself, also for water; but the products arising from its oxidation
have a greater cohesion both as among themselves and for water, and
it is in direct proportion to the degree in which they are chemically
removed from the oil which furnishes them; until, as the final products of
this process are reached, a notable affinity for water (that is an intense
cohesion) developes ; but this great cohesion for water on the part of such
products is attained only by a corresponding loss of cohesion between them
and the oil, that is the unaltered or less altered oil. These products
therefore have a constant tendency to monopolize the surface of the water
upon which they are formed, and the unaltered or but slightly altered oil,
* If solid grease is placed in contact with water, the water-surface in the immediate
vicinity of the grease is not depressed below the general surface of the water; and if the
grease is lifted just above this surface, the water in its vicinity is also lifted moore it,
showing very clearly that the two substances cohere,
Sxry.—On Tomlinson's Cohesion Figures. 493
in consequence of this, exercises the property of adhesion to the greatest
extent in respect to its own parts, hence it coalesces in those annular
elevations which form the principal feature in the cohesion figures of Prof.
Tomlinson.
I will conclude this paper by informing you that I consider this change
of oil into resinoid substances helps largely to produce those rapid changes
of colour which oil exhibits when exposed to the air upon a surface of water ;
indeed, it appears to me that the effect of those chemical changes which
must take place in certain liquids when exposed to the air or brought into
contact with each other, has been ignored by.those persons who have
hitherto investigated the subject of the flow of liquids upon each other.
V.—GEO LOGY.
Art. LXXXIV.—On the Geological Structure of Banks Peninsula, being an
Address by Prof. Jutrus von Haast, PH.D., F.R.S., President of the
Philosophical Institute of Canterbury.
[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, Tth March, 1878.)
GENTLEMEN, —Being called again by your vote to the honourable position of
presiding at your meetings, the agreeable duty devolves upon me to address
you to-night at the opening of the session 1878. It has been the custom of
your newly elected President either to offer you a review of the progress of
science in New Zealand, to treat of some special branch of scientific
research, or to lay before you the results of his own investigations into the
zoology, geology, or ethnology of these interesting islands.
With your permission, I shall follow the latter course, and venture to
offer you some remarks upon the geological features disclosed to us by the
piercing of the Christchurch and Lyttelton Railway Tunnel, a gigantic
work, ever creditable to the energy and forethought of the Provincial
Government of Canterbury in those days when only a small population had
settled here, and the work to be undertaken was looked upon by many as
far beyond our means. I shall preface the description of the tunnel, of
which a section on a scale of one inch to twenty feet hangs at the wall, by
some observations on the genetic history of Banks Peninsula, and upon the
remarkable system of dykes, by which the older caldera walls have been
intersected.
When standing on the Canterbury plains the most striking feature in
the landscape is Banks Peninsula, rising so remarkably above the sea
horizon, that its regular form at once attracts our attention. First we
observe a series of mountains, of which the summits are all nearly of the
same altitude, which, as it appears to us, as far as our eye can follow their
outlines, form nearly a circle, from which a great number of ridges slope
with a nearly uniform gradient towards south, west, and north. Above
them, in the centre, stands conspicuously a higher truncated mountain with
precipitous escarpments, assuming, according to the position of the traveller,
a different aspect. The rim of the lower mountains in front rises to an
average height of 1,600 feet, whilst the central system attains an altitude of
8,050 feet, On reaching Banks Peninsula from the sea, we find that several
496 Transactions.—Geology.
deep indentations, forming splendid harbours, enter far into the outer rim
of the mountains, passing for a considerable distance along the higher
central range. Similar indentations are also found to exist towards the
Canterbury plains, but they have either been already filled by alluvial
deposits forming fertile valleys, such as the Kaituna valley, or they appear
in the form of a lake (Lake Forsyth). In examining the nature of the rocks
of which the system under consideration is composed, we find that, with
the exception of a small zone at the head of Lyttelton Harbour, the whole
is composed of volcanic rocks ; that the deep indentations are ancient crater
walls, so-called calderas, into which a channel with precipitous walls, the
barranco, leads; and that they consist of a series of lava streams, with
agglomerates consisting of scoriæ, lapilli, ashes, and tufas interstratified
with them. These beds have alla qua-qua versal dip, that is to say, they
all incline outwards from the centre of the cavity. The higher mountains
in the centre consist also of voleanie rocks of a similar composition, which
appear either horizontal or, when the direction of the lava-streams com-
posing them can be ascertained, are found to flow into the calderas
previously formed, from which we can at once conclude that they are of
younger origin. Finally, we find mostly in or near the centre of these deep
cavities, or calderas, either a small island or a peninsula stretching so far
into these harbours. They consist also of voleanie rocks, having been
preserved above the last centre of eruption. This last sign of vuleanicity is
on a smaller scale than the previous ones. The whole of Banks Peninsula,
measuring along its longest axis from north-west to south-east, has a length
of 31 miles, with a greatest breadth of 20 miles, and if we do not take the
numerous indentations into account, it has a circumference of 88 miles,
which corresponds closely with that of the base of Mount Etna.
Having thus given an outline of the general features of the volcanic
system under consideration, I shall now proceed to offer a short history of
its origin.
The oldest rocks in Banks Peninsula form a small zone of paleozoic
sedimentary strata, possessing a slightly altered structure, many of them
forming beds of chert, others, peculiar light-coloured brecciated schists ;
however, sandstones and dark clay-slates are also represented. This zone
has a north and south direction, and reaches to the southern watershed of
McQueen’s Pass, which leads from the head of Lyttelton Harbour to Lake
Ellesmere. Near this pass, slates appear as high as 600 feet above the
sea-level. On the western slopes of Castle Hill, the south-western cotinua-
tion of Mount Herbert, 2,900 feet high, which rises so conspicuously above
Lyttelton Harbour, they reach an altitude of nearly 1,000 feet, where they
are overlaid by the older lavas, forming the Lyttelton Harbour caldera,
NL ML V MM RL ie or ca eR EI Mari ca
RR bene Carer Se re ee ee D d
Haast.—On the Geological Structure of Banks Peninsula. 497
Thus a sub-marine hill stood here in the young mesozcic sea, of which
portions of the summits and the slopes were gradually covered by agglo-
merates and brecciated beds. These beds were formed during and after the
eruption of quartziferous porphyries, of which here and there portions of
the coulées have been preserved. Some of these quartziferous porphyries
resemble in every respect those from the Malvern Hills and Mount Somers.
They are also accompanied by pitchstones, porphyritic from the presence of
numerous well-formed crystals of sanidine or glassy felspar, and occasionally
of garnets. Other portions of the quartziferous porphyries, as for instance,
the whole coulée of which Manson's Peninsula is formed, have a rougher,
more trachytic matrix. They are full of grains and small crystals of white
greyish or smoky quartz. The brecciated beds have a hard felsitic matrix,
and the angular fragments of rock enclosed in them belong to a variety of
eruptive rocks of many colours, and of different texture, often forming a
rock of striking character. They appear conspicuously on the summit of
Gebbie’s Pass, having been washed into cliffs of picturesque forms, and
covering the paleozoic sedimentary beds from one side of the pass to the
other. After the formation of the brecciated agglomerates, new eruptions
of acidic rocks took place, now in the form of rhyolites, the highly liquid
matter reaching the surface through broad channels, of which one has been
preserved as a large dyke, forming a beautiful section on the northern side
of Gebbie’s Pass, not far from the summit. The dyke is here about 100
feet thick, half of which is formed by the central portion, consisting of a
whitish rhyolite with a fine laminated structure, breaking in prismatic
blocks; the rest on both sides, where in contact with the agglomerates, has
cooled more rapidly, and has assumed the character of an obsidian. This
obsidian is greenish or brownish-black, very brittle, and imperfect crystals
of sanidine are enclosed in it. This dyke can be traced for a considerable
distance upwards. Where overflowing and covering the agglomerates it
forms the highest peak on the western side of Gebbie’s Pass, well visible
from Lyttelton Harbour. The rock here is divided into small pentagonal
columns, with a vertical arrangement; lower down the pass, the same
coulée has a tabular structure.
The oldest crater, of which the principal boundaries can be traced at the
present time, is the Lyttelton Harbour caldera, having a general diameter
of about two miles, the centre of which is situated a little to the south of
Quail Island. . The general structure of this crater, even before the Christ-
church and Lyttelton Railway tunnel was entirely pierced through, could
easily be made out by studying the numerous sections exposed in many
directions, and by ascending the steep escarpments of the caldera wall,
where a succession of streams of stony or scoriaceous lava, interstratified
4883
498 Transactions.—G cology.
with beds of agglomerates, ashes, tufas, and laterites can be traced to the
very summit. Still clearer sections are open to our inspection if we follow
the barranco or entrance into the harbour, forming sometimes vertical
cliffs of considerable altitude, and where the whole series of beds can easily
be followed. However, the most interesting and complete insight was
obtained in the railway tunnel passing through the caldera wall, and of
which, as the work gradually advanced, I prepared a careful section. The
succession and dip of the lava streams and the intervening beds can also be
made out by following the slopes of the ridges between the deep valleys
washed out on the outer side of the crater wall, where it will be found that
the lava streams forming the lip of the crater have generally a slighter
inclination than those lower down, the dip of the upper ones being only nine
degrees on the average. In the tunnel the dip is greater, an inclination of
twenty degrees not being uncommon. It is evident that the building up of
such a huge system during numerous eruptions, often of great magnitude,
could not be accomplished without a great destruction of portions of the
beds previously formed taking place, the point of eruption in the crater
shifting continuously about the centre. If, at the same time, we examine
the lava streams and the interstratified agglomerate and ash beds along the
water’s edge, we have to come to the conclusion that all the eruptions by
which the caldera wall was formed from summit to bottom, occurred under
the same physical conditions.
Examining into the formation of the Lyttelton caldera, and beginning
our observations in the harbour, we find that many lava streams have been
preserved which have cooled in their ascent; others lie horizontal for a
short distance, and are then seen to descend, conforming to the gradient of
the underlying lava streams or agglomerate beds. In many instances we
have also clear evidence that considerable destruction of the beds previously
formed had taken place before new streams flowed over the lip of the crater,
or before beds of ashes, scorie and lapilli, were deposited anew. The
tunnel section in this respect is also very instructive. Thus, in course of
time, the great crater wall was formed, rising to an altitude of nearly 2,000
feet, and having a diameter of more than five miles at its crest. It is clear
that close to the vent, from which scorie and ashes were thrown out in
large quantities, the greatest thickness of the agglomerate beds ought to be
formed, and this, in fact, is the case, as the largest beds, having sometimes
a thickness of several hundred feet, are situated within the inner side of the
caldera wall. The lava-streams here between these agglomerates are irre-
gular in their direction, and mostly of small dimensions. The more we
advance towards the outer slopes of the caldera wall, the less frequent
become these agglomeratic or tufaceous layers, whilst the lava-streams,
Haast,—On the Geological Structure of Banks Peninsula, 499
which towards the centre have the greatest bulk, and are very stony and
compact, become now gradually more and more numerous, but of smaller
size and more porphyritic or scoriaceous, according to the laws by which
the flow, dimensions and cooling of the lava-streams are regulated. It is,
moreover, evident that many of them, owing to want of material, scarcely
reach half way down the slopes of the caldera wall, that others rapidly thin
out, and that many which, for some distance after flowing over the lip of
the crater, had been of large dimensions and stony, become, long before its
outer edge is reached, thin and scoriaceous, so that here streams of five feet
in thickness are not uncommon. Although the tunnel does not offer us the
necessary data to judge of the breadth of the lava-streams, we have for that
purpose ample evidence in Godley Heads, the sea-wall near Sumner, and
many other localities. There are streams which are 500 feet broad, others
only 30 to 40, but all without exception are somewhat scoriaceous on the
bottom, where the lava flowing over cold ground cooled more rapidly. In
many instances this is well exhibited by the existence of a small bed of
laterite, a brick-red coloured rock, sometimes only a few inches thick, which
doubtless was a layer of soil on the decomposed upper portion of the lava-
stream or agglomerate bed exposed for a considerable time to atmospheric
action before the new eruption took place. The lava in the larger streams,
and in its central portion principally, very stony and of a blackish colour,
gradually becomes, as we approach the surface, more porphyritic, with a
more open texture, and assumes pinkish or lilac tints, till it changes into
scorie. The decomposition or alteration is here often so great that it is
impossible to trace the top of the line of contact between the surface of the
stream and the bottom of the overlying bed, both forming a layer of coarse
agglomerate. In other instances the rough, uneven scoriaceous surface of
the lava-streams has been well preserved, the hollow spaces being filled up
by ashes and ejecta, in which case they resemble many of the recent lava-
streams which I examined in Mount Vesuvius and Mount Etna shortly
after they had issued from the crater.
The lava of which the caldera wall under consideration has been built
up, consists of basic rocks, changing from a dolerite to a fine-grained basalt.
Some of the lava-streams, however, as previously pointed out, show also a
remarkable difference in the structure of the rock of which they are com-
posed, the central portion being a compact basalt with a few crystals of
augite, basaltic hornblende, labradorite, whilst the upper portion consists
of a lighter coloured porphyritic dolerite, sometimes so replete with good
sized crystals of labradorite that the greater portion of the rock is formed
of that mineral,
500 Transactions, == Geology.
Returning to the orifice or orifices from which the material for the for-
mation of the caldera wall was ejected, and to which also the numerous dykes,
mostly having a vertical position, intersecting it, can be traced, it appears
that the principal focus of eruption was situated a little to the south-wést of
Quail Island, as the greatest portion of the dykes radiate from here, and
tho eastern and southern sides of Quail Island, and the shores near
Charteris Bay, are formed of tufaceous agglomeratie and brecciated beds, in
which a number of angular blocks of rock are enclosed, having all a very
bleached appearance.
It would go beyond the limits of this address were I to follow the further
genetic history of Banks Peninsula in all its details. I can, therefore, only
indicate here in a few words how the whole, in course of time, has been
built up. Simultaneously with, or shortly after, the Lyttelton caldera, the
Little River caldera, of which only a small portion remains, was formed in
the same manner. The formation of the largest of the whole series, the
Akaroa caldera, is next in age, which, with the exception of a small portion
of its northern rim, is perfectly well preserved. After their formation, new
eruptions, and of a different form, took place south of the Lyttelton caldera
and north of the Little River and Akaroa calderas, during which the highest
portion of Banks Peninsula was built up—Mount Herbert, 8,050; Castle-
hill, 2,900 ; and Mount Sinclair, 2,800 feet; only portions of the craters of
these younger systems are still affi but easily recognized when
standing on the summits of these mountains. The southernmost portion
of the Lyttelton caldera was partly destroyed or covered by lava-streams
belonging to the Mount Herbert system, also of a basic (basaltic) nature, of
which a whole series flowed into it, now forming the huge spurs descending
from the summit of Mount Herbert into the harbour between Charteris
and Rhodes Bays. The last eruption, of a submarine character, took
place in the centre of the Lyttelton caldera, by which Quail Island was
formed.
I shall now proceed to offer you some observations on the system of
dykes, which are so well developed in the Lyttelton caldera. The most strik-
ing facts in connection ud wA system of dykes of the caldera, and to
which I have devoted id ttention, are their size, longitudinal extent,
and constancy in direction. From the Wi of numerous observers,
it has been proved that all the dykes of Mount Vesuvius and Mount Etna
do not extend much beyond the centres of eruption, so that they advance
only a short distance, and, rapidly thinning out, soon disappear, a fact
which my own observations along the crater walls of both mountains have
amply confirmed. However, I have no doubt that other volcanoes similar
in construction to Banks Peninsula, and differing as considerably from
Haast,—On the Geological Structure of Banks Peninsula, 501
these two European voleanie mountains, will be found to possess their
systems of dykes developed in the same manner. During a number of
years, it has been well ascertained by me that the dykes radiating from the
several centres of eruption situated not far from each other, continue in
many instances without notable interruption from the former mouth of the
erater to the outer slopes of the caldera, where they disappear below the
sea, or under the deposits now forming the Canterbury plains, Very often
the principal dykes rise nearly 2,000 feet above the sea level. They are
well visible from the harbour to the summit of the rim of the caldera wall,
above which, in some instances, they stand prominently as a wall, often six
or eight feet high. Where proper measurements of the same dyke can be
obtained for a long distance, it has been found that generally, as it advances
towards the outer circle, it diminishes in breadth; however, in other
instances this is not the case, as repeatedly I have found some which, after
narrowing on their outward course, considerably enlarge again before
reaching the foot of the caldera. Thus to give a few examples, the large
dyke of trachyte, which is crossed in the railway tunnel, about 29 chains
from the Heathcote end, is first seen west of the town of Lyttelton, near
Naval Point, where it is nearly 40 feet thick. On the summit of the
caldera wall, not far from the top of the Bridlepath, it has narrowed to 23
feet 9 inches, after which it gradually gains in proportion, so that in Thomp- `
son’s quarry it has enlarged to 26 feet, a breadth which it still has in the
tunnel, A mile beyond the quarry the spur along which its course can be
followed runs out in the Heathcote valley, where it disappears below the
Loess.
Two remarkable dykes, reaching the summit of Dyke Hill, about 2,000
feet high, west-south-west of Castle-hill, are very conspicuous. They both
project boldly from the mountain, with a space of 35 feet between them.
The eastern one is 18 feet, and the western 12 feet broad. Two similar
dykes exist on the opposite side, and run up the caldera wall behind Rau-
paki. To mention a few others, there are some important dykes south of
Dyer’s Pass, which, after crossing Manson’s Peninsula, are again met with at
Ohinitahi (Governor’s Bay), and of which several, after ascending to the very
summit of the caldera, reach to the foot of the peninsula near Cashmere,
being extensively quarried in different localities along their course. These
dykes, like many others which cross the caldera wall towards the Canter-
bury plains, mostly all radiate from a point lying in the centre of the bay,
formed by Manson’s Peninsula on the one side, and Potts’ Peninsula on the
other, both of which consist of quartziferous porphyries, and between which
this newer focus has been formed after the greatest portion of the caldera
wall had already been built up. There is also the large dyke which crosses
502 Transactions,—Geology,
the Lyttelton-Sumner road at right-angles, on the very summit of Evans
Pass, and which is repeatedly passed by the road winding in and out of the
different bays before reaching that pass. It can be followed to Taylor’s
Mistake. Everywhere along the sea cliffs at and near the entrance of
Lyttelton Harbour, numerous dykes, mostly all in a vertical position, can
be seen pointing towards the centre of that harbour. A few, however,
stand in a slanting position, and others have a tortuous course, As one of
the remarkable changes which some of the dykes have undergone since their
formation, I may also mention one which is well exposed in the sea cliffs at
Ohinitahi, Governor's Bay ; here a dyke of domite, about nine feet broad,
crosses in a nearly vertical position the so-called trachyte sandstone de-
posited on the slopes of the quartziferous porphyry. After its solidifica-
tion, a new fissure, about three feet broad, has been formed parallel to its
direction, and running along its centre, which has been injected from below
by domitie matter, but slightly different from the former ; however, instead
of continuing to the top of the cliff, about twelve feet above the sea level, the
dyke is seen to turn from its vertieal to a nearly horizontal position, and to
thin out considerably at the same time, disappearing altogether when it
touches the side wall of the bed-rock. The older dyke, above this change
of direction, is considerably shattered and broken.
Before proceeding, it wil perhaps be useful if I offer a few remarks on
the eauses which led to the formation of these remarkable dykes. I con-
sider this the more important, as nowhere, as far as I am aware, do they
exist in such great numbers, nor do they possess such a large longitudinal
extent, as in the volcanic system under consideration. It appears to me
that the immediate cause of the formation of a radiating system of dykes
may be traced to the choked-up vent or chimney of a volcano, the mouth
of which, after an eruption of considerable dimensions, is thoroughly filled
up, either by its sides falling in, by the cooling of ascending lava-streams, or
by both causes combined. When, from abyssological origination, masses of
steam and gases have collected below this vent, and new matter is ready to
be erupted, an enormous effort of nature will be necessary to clear out the
old, or form a new chimney, which cannot be accomplished without a series
of violent earthquakes, succeeded by an enormous explosion, by which the
mouth of the voleano is cleared out or newly formed, and of the magnitude
of which we can scarcely form a conception. A similar effect, on a gigantic
scale, must have been produced repeatedly by the compressed masses of
gases and steam during the formation of the Lyttelton caldera wall, when
the upper portion of the closed-up voleano was not only removed, but vast
quantities of ashes, scorie, and lapilli were thrown out, together with lava-
streams which flowed in various directions. Before, or during these
Haast.—On the Geological Structure of Banks Peninsula. 503
eruptions, molten matter in a high state of fusion generally rushed up in
the fissures which had been formed at the time, radiating from the focus
like the spokes of a wheel. An examination of these dyke rocks will show
at a glance that most of them are quite different in composition and
character from those of which the lava-streams have been formed. The
latter, as already explained, with one notable exception,* all consist of true
basic rocks—basalts often assuming a doleritic texture, the dyke rocks
being generally acidie, having either the composition of a trachyte or
domite. We are able to judge of the more or less high state of fusion in
which the molten matter ascended the open fissures from the effect pro-
duced on the walls on both sides. The trachytic matter forming the dykes,
which are principally developed on the eastern side of the caldera wall, has
evidently been in such a condition that it could exercise a most powerful
effect on both walls of the fissure, the rocks often, for several inches, being
changed to tachylite, a peculiar basic voleanie glass, quite distinct from
obsidian. This change in the character of the rock is most observable
when the dykes pass along tufaceous or agglomeratic beds. Here the
reddish orlight purple rocks have been altered to a black vitreous mass,
containing small crystals of felspar. The domitic dykes, mostly confined
to the western half of the caldera wall, seem not to have exercised such a
great influence as the former, as in most instances the walls on both sides
of the dykes are only slightly hardened. However, there is no constant
rule; large dykes, as for instance the huge domitic dyke at Governor's
Bay, running for a considerable distance parallel to the coast, and forming
such a conspicuous object along the picturesque beach road lately con-
structed, have scarcely made any alteration on either side, whilst smaller
dykes of the same rock, only a few feet in thickness, are sometimes
accompanied by a well-defined selvage of tachylite. The same may be said
of the basaltic dykes, of which, however, by far the greatest part has caused
no visible alteration along the walls on either side. The trachytic varieties,
* This exception consists of a trachytic lava-stream of considerable size, and having
an average thickness of eighty feet, which is interstratified between two others of a basic
character. This peculiar stream occurs between Lyttelton and the pass to Sumner. It
is the only trachyte lava known to me as having flowed from any of the different centres
of eruption of Banks Peninsula, all the other acidic rocks, as I shall show in the sequel,
having been ejected into fissures of more recent date. This lava-stream consists of a .
white vesicular trachyte rich in quartz, resembling closely some of the domites of the
Auvergne, from which, however, it is distinguished by its larger amount of silica,
although it approaches it again in its considerable percentage of potash. A vertical
dyke, about eight feet thick, of a peculiar flaky silky trachyte, passes through this lava-
stream, narrowing, however, in its upper portion. Although this acidic lava is rather
soft and friable in small pieces, it has nevertheless resisted the disintegrating agencies at
work far better than the hard basaltic lavas and agglomerates in its neighbourhood,
504 Transactions.— Geology.
of which most of the dykes on the eastern side of the Lyttelton Harbour
consist, are formed generally of a peculiarly lustrous and flaky rock, some-
times vesicular, with small crystals of sanidine. This rock has a light
greyish colour, and its small cavities are lined by spherosiderite. On both
sides of the dyke the rock is generally tabular—parallel to the direction of
the flow, and is massive in the centre with polyhedrie joints, of which the
principal ones appear at right angles to the flow. There are also a few
trachytic dykes, principally small ones, where the sides, for half an inch to
one inch, consist of a rather brittle obsidian, doubtless the effect of rapid
cooling. Some very thin thread-like dykes, about one to two inches thick,
consist entirely of that peculiar form of acidic voleanic rock
In studying the position of the dykes it becomes manifest that they have
been formed at different times; however, the altitude of their uppermost
portion does not indicate their age. I have no doubt that many of them,
which scarcely reach above high water-mark, are not older than others of
ihe same petrological nature, which reach to the very summit of the caldera
wall In the present state of our knowledge it is impossible to solve this
interesting question in all its bearings, and I can therefore only suggest
that dykes containing rocks of exactly the same lithological character
have most probably been formed during the same eruption. It is also
evident that a number of dykes were formed long before the whole of the
caldera wall was built up, and that they were partly destroyed during one
of the next eruptions. One clear instance of the occurrence of such older
dykes is to be found near Cliffs Cove in Lyttelton Harbour, where several
irachy-doleritie dykes were injected when the rest of the caldera wall was at
least 1,000 feet lower than at present. They pass through a basaltic lava-
` stream, which latter was afterwards partly destroyed along with them, the
whole possessing now nearly a straight surface, upon which a large bed of
agglomerate has been deposited. However, what is of the greatest interest
in the history of the voleanie systems under consideration is the predomi-
nating acidic character of the dykes when compared with the basic lava-
streams. In Vesuvius and Hina all the dykes are formed by the same kind
of rock as the lava-streams are composed of, but they are generally more
compact, having, as Lyell suggests, cooled and consolidated under greater
pressure. It is evident that they owe their existence to the same subter-
ranean efforts by which the lava-streams were ejected from the mouth of
the crater, the fissures in which they were formed being evidently filled up
from the same focus, and about the same time as the eruption of the lava-
streams took place. But such a simple process cannot be admitted for the
greater portion of the dykes of Banks Peninsula, which must owe their
existence to paroxysmal perturbations in the earth’s crust, distinct from
Haast.—On the Geological Structure of Banks Peninsula. 505
those during which the caldera walls were built up. It is evident that a
great portion of the lava-streams and agglomeratic beds which once formed
the crater of the volcanic system of Lyttelton Harbour, must have been
blown away, or at least removed during one of those violent outbursts of
subterranean forces necessary to clear the choked vent of the volcano,
similar to those by which in recent times the upper portions of active
voleanoes have repeatedly been destroyed under the eyes of the trembling
population in the neighbourhood.
For an explanation we might go back to Durocher’s views, that all
igneous rocks, even the most modern lavas, are derived from two distinct
magmas which co-exist below the solid crust of the globe, each of them
occupying a well-defined position. According to this distinguished French
chemist, the uppermost portion is occupied by the acidic magma, which, be-
sides being of lighter specific gravity, possesses a larger amount of silica
and less iron oxyde than the other or basic magma. From the upper layer
the granites, porphyries, and trachytes, according to his views, are derived,
he zone of contact producing rocks of an intermediate character, such as
trachydolerites. If this theory is correct, we have to admit that not only
the dyke rocks were injected in rents formed during earthquakes, or imme-
diately before volcanic eruptions had taken place from the opened chimney of
the volcano, but thatin each case the molten matter was furnished both from
the upper and lower stratum of incandescent matter below the hard crust of
the globe. There is, however, one great difficulty which crops up here, and
which I wish to point out, and that is the presence of dykes of basic rocks
and of others of an intermediate character. If all the radiating fissures
without exception had been filled up by acidic rocks, this would go far to
prove the existence of such an upper acidic incandescent magma; in which
case we should be forced to the conclusion that the chimney of the voleano
reached lower down to the lower or basic layer, But it is difficult to under-
stand how all the radiating fissures over an area of 12 miles in diameter
could pass through the solid crust of the earth and through the fluid acidic
magma, and how the lower basic rocks could be injected into them from
below without disturbing the acidic magma, which certainly should havo
been forced up before. This difficulty might, however, be met by the sug-
gestion that the radiating fissures in this instance did not reach so far down
as the fluid acidic magma, and that the material for the formation of the
dykes had been furnished from the crater itself, but it is scarcely conceivable
that for a distance of six miles and for an altitude of several thousand feet the
molten matter would have been forced in all directions from the central axis
of eruption along these fissures, often only a few feet wide. Mr. R. Mallet,» |
* Transactions of the Royal Society. Phil. Trans. 1873.
*
506 Transactions.—Geology.
has proposed another theory, namely, that the principal cause of vulcanicity
is to be sought in the compressing and crushing action taking place beneath
the crust of the earth, and by which such a great amount of heat is
generated that a fusion of rocks, often on a large scale, is easily produced.
This theory would so far explain very well the difference in the composition
of the rocks varying according to the depth where the crushing action was
actually taking place; thus, if the same action were to act upon granites,
trachytes, and other acidic rocks, the result would be the production of
trachytes, whilst if basic rocks were fused, basalts would ascend towards or
to the surface. Here, however, another great difficulty presents itself in the
fact that, although the number of volcanic eruptions during which the
caldera walls were built up must have been very great, no trachytic lava
streams, with one single exception, have made their appearance, the whole
series being of a basic, whilst most of the principal dykes are of an acidic
nature. In such a case, the crushing of acidic rocks would have exclusively
taken place when the dykes were being formed, and never when lava-streams
issued from the crater’s mouth, which is altogether improbable.
Although I have carefully read every work accessible to me in English,
German, French, and Italian, treating on vulcanicity, I have not been able
to find either any account of the existence of dykes in other volcanic regions
converging so regularly to a few centres close to each other, or continuing
over such a large area (always keeping the general direction with which
they set out), as do those of the Lyttelton caldera; or again, offering an
explanation for the difference in the composition of the dyke rocks when
compared with the lava-streams or agglomeratic beds through which they
pass. Mr. R. Mallet’s excellent paper on the “ Mechanism of Production
of Volcanic Dykes,"* and of those of Mount Somma, in which an
exhaustive account of the physical features of the dykes in the old caldera
wall of Mount Vesuvius is given, unfortunately does not contain any
physical theory to account for the mode by which fissures are produced,
forming, when filled, voleanic dykes. If we take the heterogeneous nature
of the material of which the caldera wall has been built up into account, it
is astonishing that the dykes show such a remarkable regularity, always
starting from a few points not far from each other, from which they radiate
in all directions. It is still more remarkable to observe that all dykes
which are cut by the Christchurch and Lyttelton railway tunnel have such
8, constant direction that they all, with one or two exceptions, appear to
converge to one single axis behind Quail Island, a fact worthy of note if we
consider the distance, which is more than four miles, measured to the most
distant dyke in that tunnel. The only dyke with which I am acquainted,
= * Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, No. 128, Nov., 1870.
Haast,—On the Geological Structure of Banks Peninsula, 507
showing some remarkable irregularity, is the one in which the so-called
Ellis Quarry is situated.. This dyke, which strikes nearly east and west,
goes out about 400 feet below the summit, where a saddle intersects the
spur. Shortly above its lower termination it sends off a smaller branch in
a south-west direction, also ceasing after a short course. Whilst the main
dyke does not appear any more above the surface, the smaller south-western
branch crops up again on the other side of the depression, now gradually
changing its direction, so that, in its lower course, about 800 feet above the
plains, it crosses the spur in a south-east and north-west direction. The
whole system of dykes in the Lyttelton caldera wall is thus very different
from the dykes of Mount Somma, of which, in his paper, Mr. R. Mallet
gives us such a lucid and suggestive account, and of which many are
fractured, displaced, and crushed, and have at the same time a wedge-
shaped form. We can, therefore, assume that the fissures and dykes in the
Lyttelton caldera were only formed after the latter had been so thoroughly
consolidated that, after the formation of the fissures and their filling up by
the principal dykes, no more changes of any importance took place in them ;
and that, moreover, the forces by which the walls of the volcano were
starred from top to bottom, must have been far deeper-seated and more
effective than the agencies by which Mount Somma was rent,
In conclusion, I wish to lay before you a few notes on the geological
features of the Lyttelton and Christchurch railway tunnel, of which I made
a careful survey during a number of years, as the work of the miner
advanced. I watched this interesting and instructive work with great
attention, this being the first time that a caldera wall of a large extinct
voleano was to be pierced through. I prepared at the time a section on a
scale of lin. to 20ft., which I have great pleasure in laying before you.
The direction of the tunnel is N. 14° W. The first trial shaft was
commenced in January, 1860, and the permanent works under contract
with Messrs. Holmes and Co., began in July, 1861. The tunnel was laid
out, and its execution solely superintended by Mr. Edward Dobson, C.E.,
Provincial Engineer. It was brought to a successful termination on May
25, 1866, when both adits met near the centre. The opening for railway
traffic took place on December 9, 1867. The total length of the tunnel is
8,598 feet, and if we deduct from this 365 feet on the northern or outer
side, and 105 feet on the southern or inner side, formed by slope deposits
and loess, there remains 8,128 feet of rock of voleanic origin, of w.
caldera wall has been built up. Classifying the rocks according to their
lithological character, we find that the crater above the present waterline
61 lava- , haying the character of a stony compact c or me T
Miro fuss p
508 Transactions.— Geology.
54 lava-streams formed of a scoriaceous basaltic and doleritic lava,
some of them changing so gradually into agglomeratic beds
that the line between them cannot be clearly defined.
89 beds of agglomerates, a few of them changing into scoriaceous
lava, but most of them consisting of scoriæ, lapilli, and other
ejecta, imbedded in ashes, A few of them have a brecciated
appearance.
19 beds of laterite, clays, and slope deposits, partly or wholly burnt
by overlying lava-streams, and
1 small layer of bolus—together 174.
These beds are intersected by 82 dykes, 18 consisting of trachyte lava
(of which five do not reach to the roof of the tunnel), and 14 of a basic
nature (five of them being intermediate in character, trachy-dolerites). One
of them comes from the top of the tunnel.
Beginning at the southern or Lyttelton side of the tunnel, we observe
that a large bed of loam has been deposited upon the volcanic rocks, being
thickest on the lowest third of the caldera wall. This peculiar rock, which,
when in small pieces, is easily pulverized between the fingers, has a re-
markable consistency and solidity when in large masses, and is of sub-
aerial origin. It may be designated as loess, an expression now extensively
usedin Europe for similar deposits. It owes its origin to various processes,
of which rain, wind, and vegetation are the principal factors. This bed of
loess, which in some localities is more than 100 feet thick, changes
gradually before we reach the volcanic rock to a true slope deposit,
consisting of fragments of rock more or less rounded, the lines of junction
being often impossible to trace, owing to the decomposition of the volcanic
rocks immediately below the slope deposits. The greatest amount of
agglomerate, consisting of scoriæ, lapilli, and ashes is, as might be ex-
pected, congregated on the inner side of the caldera wall, not far from the
focus of eruption. These more or less incoherent beds, of which each was
probably formed during one eruption, have generally an inward as well as
an outward dip, of which the beds 282 to 241 close to the entrance of the
tunnel at Lyttelton form a notable instance. They were without doubt
deposited on the lip of the crater. Near the Lyttelton end they are much
disturbed. Two stony lava-streams cross these agglomerate beds, and we
have to assume that after No. 231 was formed, the lava-stream 233,
ascending from the mouth of the crater, had consolidated over it, being in
its turn covered by a new talus of ejecta sloping inwards to the crater's
mouth. After these latter beds 234 and 2344 were formed, a new stony
lava-stream, No. 237, ascended, in which case Nos. 231, 234, and 238 to
241 were three distinct agglomerate beds, covered and preserved on their
Haasr.—On the Geological Structure of Banks Peninsula. 509
inner slope by stony lava-streams, consolidated during their ascent. Or,
to offer another explanation, we might regard these two stony lava-streams,
233 and 237, as having broken through the huge accumulations of ejecta
which were heaped up all round the craters mouth—a phenomenon
frequently observed during violent volcanic eruptions, when a huge cinder
cone is formed in a short time. A similar occurrence seems to have taken
place more towards the centre of the tunnel, about 60 chains from the
Lyttelton side, where a large stony lava-stream, No. 167, is seen to ascend
through the agglomerate bed or beds, Nos. 166 to 168. The lava-stream,
163, in close proximity, might be considered to be the continuation of the
former, which here flows down the steep side of the cinder cone. Gradually,
as we retreat from the focus of eruption, the agglomerate beds decrease in
number and size, but they still are occasionally present even close to the
mouth of the tunnel near to the Heathcote entrance. Some of them con-
sist in their lower portion of fine ashes, or lava d’aqua, and above of scorie
and lapilli, so as to suggest that first fine ashes had been thrown out or
had been brought down the side in the form of a mud stream, on the top
of which large ejecta were afterwards deposited. Another agglomerate bed
having an anticlinal or saddle arrangement is 224, 17 to 20 chains from the
Lyttelton end; it was evidently deposited on the rim of the crater, of
which the uneven surface is well visible in its lower portion. After its
formation, two more agglomerate beds were deposited over it, 216 and 227,
and 211 and 228 in the section, each being separated from the other by a
bed of laterite. Moreover, it is clear that, whatever may have been its origin,
the lowest portion of this and several other agglomerate beds must have
been deposited when in a state of high temperature, as the argillaceous bed
below it has been burnt red, so as to take all the characteristics of a laterite.
All round Banks Peninsula agglomerate and ash beds are visible in the
cliffs, but they are like the lava-streams of small vertical extent only, and
we have to approach more towards the centre of eruption when we wish
to see them in their greatest dimensions.
The largest and most numerous stony lava-streams are met with towards
the centre of the tunnel, where the basalt of which they are composed
possesses the greatest hardness and crystalline texture. More towards the
boundaries of the volcanic system, the lava-streams are much thinner and
at the same time more porphyritie, amygdaloidal or scoriaceous, and it is
very instructive to follow some of the lava-streams which form clear sections
in the deep valleys radiating round the peninsula, from the summit of the
caldera wall to their termination at its foot, and to note the gradual change
in their size, and in the texture of the rocks of which they are composed. I
have already alluded to the lava-stream 237, nine chains from the Lyttelton -
510 Transactions,—Geology.
end, but in connection with it I may here mention that the first shaft sunk
by Messrs. Smith and Knight, the English contractors, unfortunately
reached it soon below the surface of the ground, and continued all the way
through it to the roof of the tunnel. This was one of the principal causes
that the firm, being unacquainted with the formation of the crater wall,
abandoned the contract so soon. ‘The first stony lava in the tunnel, flowing
down the slopes of the crater wall,is a smail stream, No. 214, about 22
chains from the Lyttelton end. Several others of similar dimensions follow,
till we reach stream 206, which might be the continuation of No. 237, 114
chains from the Lyttelton end. This stream throws a great deal of light by
its configuration on the manner of the flow of liquidlava. After flowing
down the slopes, we see it shortly afterwards ascend again (No. 202) over a
bed of agglomerate, and, after having reached the apex of the latter,
descend again (No. 200), diminishing rapidly in size, the rock now becoming
highly porphyritic and lighter in colour. The largest stony lava-stream of
the whole series begins about 41 chains from the Lyttelton end, and con-
tinues without interruption to 52} chains. Consequently, taking its angle of
dip into account, itis more than 500 feet thick. More or less porphyritie on
both sides, the whole central portion consists of a very hard basaltic rock,
ringing to the hammer, irregularly jointed, with here and there a tendency
towards spheroidal structure. This huge stream gains an additional interest
from the existence of three caves in its centre, which, however, have partly
been filled up with thin plates of basalt of the same texture as the lava-
stream, and which lie more or less horizontal. They are coated over and
often cemented together by spherosiderite. Sometimes they lie in such
regular order, and so loosely upon each other, as if they had been artificially
placed in that position. The open space, or cave proper, is always on the
southern side of each cavity. The only explanation I can offer as to their
formation is that gases have been enclosed in this portion of the lava
stream, which in course of time were absorbed, and that liquid matter
from the upper portion of the stream found access to the cavities, gradually
filling them up, but that the channels of commnnication were stopped before
the whole of the gases still dues in the southern parts of each had
been absorbed.
Another stream of large dimensions is No. 14, beginning 20 chains from
the Heathcote end. It is over 100 feet thick, has a jointed structure, the
central portion being spheroidal, with concentric layers. All the stony
streams in the tunnel above the latter are very thin, but it is possible that
the scoriaceous basaliie lava (the violet beds of the section) which overlie
them, are only their upper portion, the bottom of the streams, owing to
their thinness and to the distance from the centre of eruption, not having
Haast.—On the Geological Structure of Banks Peninsula. 511
been able to cool to the stony compact form. I may, however, observe
that the boundary line between both kinds of rock is, in many instances,
very distinct and clearly defined. These scoriaceous beds occur throughout
the tunnel; they are sometimes of considerable dimensions, some of them
being over 100 feet thick. In speaking of the formation of the Lyttelton
caldera, I have already pointed out that it has been built up by volcanic
rocks belonging to two distinct divisions, of which the basic rocks have
furnished all the material for the lava-streams, agglomeratic and tufaceous
beds, whilst the principal portion of the dykes owe their origin to the acidic
division. As might be anticipated, the dykes are most numerous near the
focus of eruption; thus we find the greater portion of them near the Lyt-
. telton side, several of them not reaching to the roof of the tunnel. Of these
dykes, No. 29 is the most important. It consists of a soft flaky and
‘lustrous trachyte, and possesses, like most of the other acidic dykes, the
characteristic feature that it is accompanied on both sides by a selvage of
tachylite, sometimes two or three inches thick. This change in the charac-
ter of the bed rock is especially visible when the dykes pass through
agglomeratic or tufaceous beds. It shows clearly that the voleanic matter
ascending by these fissures was in such an intense state of fusion that it
was able to alter the rocks on both sides so thoroughly for such a distance.
In some instances the dyke rocks themselves have a selvage of tachylite, the
bed rock being unaltered. It is worthy of notice that the basaltic dykes
have not produced the same effect, the rocks on both sides being generally
unaltered. Large beds of loess, similar to those deposited on the inner
side of the caldera wall, have also been passed through on the Heathcote
side. Of minerals of secondary origin found in the tunnel, the most diffuse
is spherosiderite, which usually coats the pores and cavities of scoriaceous
lavas. Of others, calcareous spar and aragonite are the most conspicuous.
The latter is younger than the former, having often been deposited on the
surface of the calcareous spar coating the small geodes. In a few localities,
hyalite fills small clefts, or is found in a stalactitic form.
I shall close this address by offering a few observations on some other
physical features of the beds through which the tunnel has been excavated,
and as I noted them on the large section during the survey. Forty chains
from the Heathcote end, a scoriaceous lava-stream, fifteen feet thick, and
accompanied on both sides by beds of laterite and agglomerate, was passed,
which was so loose and full of water that the ground had at once to be
heavily timbered. All the cavities in the lava are lined with spherosiderite,
on which crystals of calcareous spar have been deposited. At 403 chains
on the same side, in a bed of laterite, four feet above the floor of the tunnel, -
n small spring was struck, drying up a few months after; 353 chains from : pu
512 Transactions.—Geology.
the Lyttelton end, the lava-streams, when first passed through, were so wet
that the workmen could scarcely continue the work. In these streams all
the cellular cavities were either lined with spherosiderite or filled with calcite.
Sixteen chains from the Lyttelton entrance, in the agglomerate bed No.
228, and from a fissure reaching from the roof of the tunnel, a copious
spring flows Which has a constant temperature of 65-20 degrees Fahrenheit,
consequently 12-20 degrees above the mean temperature of Christehurch—
about 53 degrees. Several eels have been caught near this spring in the
drain which runs from here to the mouth of the tunnel. There being no
conneetion with any other watercourse, these eels must have ascended by
the spring; they belong to the species Anguilla aucklandii, Rich., and have
properly developed eyes. During the construction of the tunnel it was
frequently observed in the north, or Heathcote end, that the water rose in
the floor before a south-west gale, and subsided before the gale lulled; no
observations could be made to ascertain whether the state of the tide had
anything to do with this. The height to which the water rose was some-
what under halfan inch. After the earthquake of August 17, 1868, this
spring in the tunnel increased to such an extent that it laid the rails slightly
under water; after a few days it decreased again to its former volume.
Art. LXXXV.—Notes on a Salt Spring near Hokianga. By J. A. Pond.
[Read before the Auckland Institute, 9th September, 1878.)
Ix looking over the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, just to
hand, I read with pleasure the paper by W. Skey, on the Mineral Waters of
New Zealand, in which he gives the analyses and description of waters from
all known springs in the Colony. As we might expect, the North Island,
and partieularly this district, has supplied the large majority of samples;
but though much has been done in this respect there are very many springs
containing mineral salts, and having medicinal properties, which still remain
unexamined, and leave a rich field for those having the will and capacity to
bring them to light, or rather to the Transactions.
Some months 'ago, Judge Monro first mentioned the existence of a salt
spring to me, and on a later occasion kindly placed a few ounces of the
water at my disposal, too small an amount to make a complete analysis of,
but as its especial characteristic was its saline nature, I have made a partial
quantitative analysis, which I give below.
UA Kaa AA etm
Pond.—Notes on a Salt Spring near Hokianga. 518
The spring in question is situated in dense bush, on the dividing range
between the Wangape and Waihou rivers, the latter of which runs into
Hokianga Harbour. The distance from the sea in a direct line is about
nine or ten miles, and is at a considerable elevation above sea level; hence
the presence in large quantity of chloride of sodium is highly interesting,
showing, as it does, that there must be in the locality a deposit of salt,
probably some distance below the surface, which I should judge from the
fact of its not being more highly impregnated. As will be seen by the
analysis, this water contains about the same percentage of chloride of
sodium as ordinary sea water, but differs therefrom in the absence of sul-
phates. The following gives the chief constituents, so far as the small
quantity of the sample at my disposal would permit :—
The solid matter equals 2937-558 grains per gallon, composed of—
Organic matter su P 51:115
Soluble silica uis iv vs ba 49:562
Carbonate of Magnesia ae ES be 18'710
Chloride of Potassium we eh ae 1:9
3 Sodium m S .. 27914
Lime and Iron a ya P .. traces
Mss Acid
Los 18- 871
The sample was MEN Ce. k a very eR amount of fine sedimentary
deposit, which proved to be silicate of alumina, with a trace of iron and
lime. After standing some days the water was opalescent, acid reaction
and strong saline taste. From the appearance of the deposit, and a few
fragments of gravel brought separately, I should judge the locality from
whence the water was taken to be of a clay-slate formation ; but during the
coming summer I hope to make an examination of the place in which this
spring is situated, and a further one of the water. Spectroscopically I could
not detect lithia. As I have already mentioned, this spring ranks higher
than any other in this Colony, so far as records show, in regard to the
amount of alkaline chlorides present.
While speaking with respect to springs not included in Mr. Skey's
report, I will add some information respecting two other mineral waters
from our district which have been analyzed. The first is located near
Whangarei, and is highly charged with carbonic acid gas. The springs
are surrounded with a vitreous-looking silica, and in places with large
quantities of a very light porous rock, presumed by the residents at first
to be meerschaum, but this I find on examination to be incorrect, the
chemical tests showing it to be a silicate of alumina, and the microscope
resolving it into an infusorial earth, well worthy the consideration of our
A90
514 Transactions.—Geology.
microscopists. Mr. Cheeseman, to whom I am indebted for the samples
just alluded to, forwarded some of the water to Mr. Skey, of Wellington,
whose report, just received, I will now read.
The other sample I have now to mention is a hot spring at Motuhora
(Whale Island), in the Bay of Plenty. Here the water flows out of a valley
in large quantities into the sea, the heat being so great as to cause volumes
of steam to rise as the water flows over the sand. The temperature of this
spring, where it rises from the ground, is 198? Fahr., the taste being
extremely acid, and the water very clear. Tam indebted to Mr. Tunny for
the analysis, which is as follows —
Sulphate of Soda .. és à 17:60 grains per gallon.
$5 Lime * 7:52 ay
à Manus A «x OO j »
Alumina
si Iron . wA b
Sulphuric Acid, free oe tr - 190:02
Silica.. rH 2d «i x S100 "7,
Art. LXXXVI.—Notes of a Traditional Change in the Coast line at Manukau
Heads. By S. Percy Surrg.
[.Read before the Auckland Institute, 18th November, 1878.]
Some thirteen years ago, when encamped one night with a party of natives
on the long beach which extends from Manukau to Waikato Heads, the
conversation over the camp fire turned upon some old tribal boundaries,
one of which ended at a place said by Aihepene Raihau, the narrator (who
was then living at Waiuku, but who now, having married the Princess
Sophia, resides in the King's country), to be now covered by the sea. Upon
enquiring further of him as to this particular place, he informed me that
many generations ago the coast-line extended much further seaward than it
does at present, projecting in 2 curved line from Manukau Heads to the
aikato River. This point he described as a low, sandy country, with
numerous sand-dunes, fresh-water lakes, with clumps of tall manuka trees
scattered over its surface.
The lakes were much resorted to by the natives in those days, on
account of the great number of eels found in them.
He further stated that it was a three days’ journey at that time for a
man following the beach from Manukau to Waikato Heads, whereas the
present coastline is a very nearly straight line, and the distance may be
AA Wa aa AA eS
Smrru,—On Traditional Change in the Coast-line at Manukau Heads. 515
walked by an ordinary pedestrian easily in one day, being only about
twenty-five miles,
Aihepene also told me that the Manukau bar, even within the memory
of those living, was dry land ; and that he himself, when a boy, had accom-
panied his parents to the bank on which H.M.8. ** Orpheus" was wrecked, for
the purpose of fishing and collecting birds' eggs. The natives did not, as I
understood him, live upon these banks, but used to make periodical visits to
them in their canoes, for a few days at a time for fishing purposes, living in
houses which they had constructed there.
I much regret that I did not at the time make further enquiries of the
old natives living at Waiuku and its neighbourhood, with a view of getting
corroborative evidence of these changes. With respect to that part of the
story, however, which relates to Manukau bar, I think there could be no
mistake, as my informant said he had himself visited the place, and I can
conceive of no possible reason for his imposing on me, especially as the
information was volunteered. That such changes do take place in the
coast-lines of various countries, without the aid of submergence or elevation,
is well known, as, for instance, on the east coast of England, where, within
"the historical period, vast changes have taken place; villages, the names
only of which are now preserved in old records, have entirely disappeared—
swallowed up by the ever-encroaching waves.
As for any evidence remaining of such a low, sandy country having once
existed, I think we could scarcely expect much. The Admiralty chart of
that part of the coast is very bare of soundings, and those given do not differ
much from soundings at the same distance from the shore for many miles
both north and south, until the great “ bottomless pit” is reached, north of
Kaipara Heads. The present coast is an almost continuous line of steep
cliffs, with, at their bases, in some few places, a small strip of sandy flats,
generally covered with high manuka ; but even these are fast disappearing,
as I learn from a settler resident in that locality. These cliffs are covered
on top by a range of sand-dunes, which extend uninterruptedly from
Manukau to Waikato, and are the source from whence is derived the strip
of fertile land lying immediately to the east of them. The origin of these
sand-hills, occurring as they do on top of perpendicular cliffs, is often
obscure, for we cannot suppose the sand to have been blown perpendicularly
upwards from the beach, in direct opposition to gravity, although in the few
gaps or gullies breaking through the cliffs down to the beach, the sand
undoubtedly gradually is forced upwards by the strong westerly winds, and
then accumulates in dunes on top. But on the supposition of the existence
of the submerged country as described, occupying a position at the foot of
an older coastline now represented by the present cliffs, a probable origin
is suggested, thus :—
616 Transactions,—Geology.
In a low sandy country exposed to the full force of the westerly winds,
the light materials would continually be driven easterly until brought up
by the cliffs, against which they would be piled until a sufficient slope was
formed to allow of their finally mounting the top, and then forming the
sand-dunes we now see. Those who are acquainted with the strip of
country lying on the South Kaipara head, and extending thence to Muriwai, :
will at once recognize that the above supposition is applicable as a descrip-
tion of that part of the country. Here the cliffs are present at from one to
three miles from the beach, but generally hidden by a sloping bank of sand,
partially covered with vegetation, with a line of sand-dunes forming the
highest parts of the range. Even the traditional lagoons, forming a long
interrupted line of fresh water, and celebrated for their eels, are also there,
completing the similarity between this country and that described by
Aihepene. The north head of Kaipara furnishes perhaps a better illustra-
tion than even the south head, for here we have in close conjunction the low
sandy tract with its moving sand-dunes, lagoons, and scattered thickets of
manuka, with the inland line of hills, covered by sand; and to the north, a
few miles, the same line of hills rising perpendicularly from the beach with
the long and broken range of sand-hills capping the cliffs.
The natives of Kaipara have a tradition that the banks at the bar of
that harbour were once dry land upon which their forefathers lived and
cultivated; but this must have been at a much earlier age than that in
which part of the Manukau Bar was dry, for here we find that this tradition
is mixed up with one of their old myths, inasmuch as this is given as the
locality in which Tinirau’s pet whale, Tutunui, was killed by Kae as related
in Sir George Grey’s “ Mythology and Traditions of the New Zealanders.”
We need not seek far for sufficient causes for these alterations in the
coast-line. The known alternations in the level of the sea-line, caused by
elevation or depression of the land giving rise to and altering the
directions of currents, is ample to account for the disappearance of such a
strip of land as is described in Aihepene Raihau’s tradition as above.
}
i
j
|
Aa alla
WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
First Mzerine. 18th July, 1878.
A. K. Newman, M.B., Vice-president, in the chair.
New Members.—D. Climie, C. E. Macklin, T. _W. Kirk, T. King, E. P.
Field, Herbert Rawson.
Attention was called to several additions to the Museum and library, which were
placed on the table for the inspection of members.
1. “ On some of the Terms used in Political Economy," by John Car-
ruthers, M. Inst. C.E. (Transactions, p. 3.)
Mr. Maxwell said that as regards Mill's definition of wealth, that “it is anything
useful or agreeable which possesses exchangeable value," he concurred with Mr. Car-
ruthers that the word ‘ exchange " should be omitted, because if we regard the community
in the world as a whole, sinee there is no one without the world with whom this com-
munity can exchange its possessions, it would follow from Mill’s definition that iba
community as a whole possesses no wealth, and this is manifestly absurd. Regarding
the divisions proposed by Mr. Carruthers of wealth into direct wealth and im iain
he did not think a distinct line of demarcation can be drawn. It is impossible to define
the point at which bread, for instance, may be described as useful for its own sake,
although bread is stated to be an article which is direct wealth; the whole of the com-
binations of circumstances and things which go to produce bread, from the plough to the
process of digestion, are so involved that it seems almost impossible to state at what
particular period the bread is useful or not useful for its own sake. A chair may be direct
wealth while occupied for rest, ages if its use be made subservient to the purpose of
listening it becomes an implemen
Mr. Martin Chapman ea that the controversy was principally owing to the
ambiguity of our common language. Few people know how ambiguous our ordinary
language is. Lawyers know it, and are always trying to guard against it, with very
indifferent success. That this does not cause trouble is pare owing to the fact that
we usually converse with persons whose minds have been train a manner somewhat
similar to our own. When this is not the case trouble ensues, as, aa instance, when a
soldier and a sailor converse they soon think each other fools, because one talks pipeclay,
the other pitch. The present difference may be due to a similar reason, viz., that the
critic and the criticized do not look at the matter from the same standpoint. This
oo appeared in the paper; it did not appear at ali clearly what Mr. Carruthers
ant by a “man;” was it the individual, the family, community y, or all mankind,
Mau to each of these a different test would have to be applied? The stone which a
lunatic thinks will transmute gold cannot be called sig eed ss ihe posson giver him
comfort, So the torpedoes used by
the happiness of one nation, Pu pichably nd of the whole world; yet they would be
520 Proceedings.
probably called wealth by most. Again, it did not clearly appear in what sense Mr.
Carruthers used the words “ wealth of the world” as different from simply wealth. Mr.
Carruthers spoke also of “ capital” and “ capital of the country.” Mr. Chapman wished
to know the difference between capital of the country and wealth of the country.
Mr. Carruthers, in reply, said it was not necessary to go into metaphysical nicety in
definitions of political economy; that it certainly was impossible, as remarked by Mr
Maxwell, to strictly define the boundary between implements and wealth which is useful
for its own sake. Bread might be said to be an implement for satisfying hunger, and the
satisfaction of hunger an implement for procuring happiness. But the division which he
had suggested of wealth was useful, and quite accurate enough for the purposes of the
science. He said, in reply to Mr. Chapman, that by man he meant any one man, and
that the stone which pleased a lunatic was wealth as fully as the diamond which pleased
people who were not lunatics. A torpedo was wealth, because it was useful to the user ;
he did not recognize any algebraical minus sign which would make the discomfort which
the torpedo caused to the person against whom it was used neutralize the advantage
which it gave to the user; The wealth of the world meant the sum total of useful things
at any time in existence. He said he did not use the word capital as meaning wealth at all;
he considered it a word which should be altogether given up by the political economist,
as being too likely to suggest meanings different from the definition.
The Chairman proposed a vote of thanks to Mr. Carruthers, not only for his present
paper, but for the great assistance he had always rendered to the society. He regretted
that the society should lose such a valuable member, and he had hoped to see Mr.
Carruthers one day president, as he had no doubt he would have been had he remained in
Wellington.
The vote of thanks was carried by acclamation, and Mr. Carruthers briefly returned
thanks for the good wishes of the society towards him.
Second Mrzrmo. 8rd August, 1878.
T. Kirk, F.L.S., President, in the chair.
New Members.—Rev. Father Sauzeau of Blenheim, A. P. Stuart, J. G. Fox.
In opening the proceedings, the President remarked that the Society had entered
upon the second decade of its existence as a society affiliated to the New Zealand Insti-
tute. Looking back to the close of the first volume of Transactions, he found that the
number of members had increased from 102 to 225, and that the total of affiliated
societies had increased from four to seven, numbering considerably over 1,100 members, a
fact which was exceedingly gratifying, as showing that the taste for scientific pursuits
was widely diffused through the colony. The ten volumes of Transactions had been con-
tributed by about 200 workers, and contained a vast amount of information of great value
on the zoology, botany, and geology of the country, but not in a shape fully available for
the general public. It was therefore advisable that a united effort should be made by the
various societies to provide funds for the publication of a Fauna of New Zealand as
complete as the present miaka our knowledge would allow. He referred to the recently
rcu parts of Mr. Buch: 's work on the indigenous grasses of New Zealand as a
in this direction, and characterized the plates as creditable alike to the author, the
edid Survey Department, and the colony, and expressed his regret that the plan of
the work had not been so extended as to admit of its being brought fully abreast of the
botanical knowledge of the day.
AE
"vem
SER WE nee eR SE a OE ae REIN RE eee
Wellington Philosophical Society. 521
1. “How New Zealand may continue to grow Wheat and other Cereals,”
by J. C. Crawford, F.G.S. (Transactions, p. 149.)
Kirk considered the remarks in the paper regarding the sterile nature of the
Auckland soil required modification. He had seen very fair crops grown in that locality
with little or no manure.
Dr. Hector agreed with the author that a good deal of potash was taken out of the
colony in the grease of wool, and he knew that this potash grease is saved in England,
and used in the after manufacture of wool. With regard to the Auckland soil, he con-
sidered it was inferior in some places chiefly owing to the want of drainage or breaking up,
Soluble silica is the constituent most essential, and therefore a clay soil is, on the whole,
the best, as it retains manure longer. Altogether he thought Mr. Crawford’s remarks
were valuable
Dr. Newman considered that possibly a time would come when it would be difficult
to procure sufficient food of the ordinary kind, and the wisest plan would be to manufac-
ture the various constituents mentioned directly into food for consumption. He did not
see why they could not be as easily manufactured into food themselves as used to assist
in producing food from other sources.
Young thought with Mr. Crawford that much could be done with the assistance
of chemistry in keeping up the quality of the soil. The most economical and best agent
to employ would be phosphatic guano, which he thought could be procured in large
quantities from numerous islands.
Dr. Buller pointed out that, in the neighbourhood of the hot springs, there was
a quantity of nice, soft mud, sometimes eaten by the natives, which might serve the
purpose indicated by Dr. Newman
Mr. Kirk said that the sulphur works at Auckland would supply sulphuric acid, which
would be most useful for our soils. He stated that nitrogen only formed a very small
proportion of the dried plant, frequently less than 1 per cent., and rarely so much as 3 per
cent., and therefore could be more easily supplied.
2. “ Additions to List of Species, and Notices of rare Occurrences, since
the publication of ‘The Birds of New Zealand,'" by Walter L. Buller
C.M.G., Se.D. (Transactions, p. 861.)
9. * Remarks on the Long-tailed Cuckoo ( Eudynamis taitensis)," b
Walter L. Buller. (Transactions, p. 853.)
4. “On the specific Value of Prion banksii, by Walter L. Buller.
(Transactions, p. 351.)
5. “Further Notes on the Habits of the Tuatara Lizard," by Walter L.
Buller. (Transactions, p. 849.)
Dr. Hector considered Dr. Buller's papers were most interesting, and no doubt some
new species would yet be added to the birds of New Zealand—instancing a red wattle-bird
in the western pipe of van he had a With regard to the tuatara, he
agreed with Dr. Bull itum and S. guntheri—would
hold good. As Aa their feeding habita, he found that thay would cat almost anything -
that mov
'The President :3 234 24b. Pa oos da 2H tkt, yh ba accoun ated for by
differen Att we nk WA 4 Gee LAN Y i
oY? biana A w
522 | Proceedings.
Dr. Newman remarked that few reptiles cared to devour any object that was
stationary, they require to see it move. He did not agree in thinking that so slight
a difference as indicated by Dr. Buller in regard to the birds mentioned could make
a distinct species.
Dr. Buller, in reply, pointed out that the great test as regards species was to ascertain
whether the differences were constant. As naturalists understood the term he considered
his examples were distinct species.
6. ““ Notes on the Breeding Habits of the Katipo (Latrodectus katipo ),"
by C. H. Robson. (Transactions, p. 891.)
Dr. Buller called attention to his paper, in Vol. III. of the Transactions, on this
spider, which gave a good deal of information regarding its habits. A professor in Sweden
had since pointed out that the Katipo was the representative of an entirely new genus;
and Dr. Smith, a celebrated homceopathist, considered the extract from the spider in
question would produce a most valuable drug in homeopathy. He had requested him
(Dr. Buller) to forward a quantity to England for experiment.
The President said that it was strange that this was the only poi imal in New
Zealand, and also that only two plants were known to be poisonous.
Tarp Meeting. 17th August, 1878.
T. Kirk, F.L.S., President, in the chair.
New Member.—W. G. Rutherfurd.
1. “On the Deflection of Shingle-bearing Currents and Protection of
anks by Douslin's Floating Log Dams," by H. P. Macklin. (Trans-
aho. p. 144.)
Mr. Maxwell said that this plan had been successfully carried out in many places
He did not think there was anything new to engineering in the paper.
Dr. Hector explained that the author did not give this as a new invention, but
merely wished to point out how successfully the plan had worked as applied to the Opawa
River, in protecting the town of Blenheim.
2. “ Remarks on a Species of Lestris inhabiting our Seas," by Walter L.
Buller, C.M.G., Sc.D., etc. (Transactions, p. 855.)
The author exhibited specimens in illustration.
Dr. Hector pointed out the difficulty of obtaining many of the oceanic birds,
naturalists having to depend on stray specimens cast ashore by the waves or blown
inland by a storm, and he expressed a hope that members of the society would never lose
an opportunity of securing such specimens and forwarding them to the Museum for
critical examination. He mentioned another larger species of Lestris known as the sea-
hen, of which he obiained some examples in Otago soon after he came to the colony.
The President said that Dr. Buller’s paper would form a valuable contribution to the
Transactions. The sealing parties visiting the various islands might be arranged with to
collect such specimens. y
8. “ Further Observations upon certain Grasses and Fodder Plants," by
S. M. Curl, M.D. (Transactions, p. 403.)
Wellington Philosophical Society. 523
The President remarked that persons engaged in testing the properties of plants
adapted for feeding stock in this colony were engaged in work beneficial to the whole
community, and therefore he welcomed the paper now contributed by Dr. Curl. At the
time he observed with regret that no mention was made of the condition under which Dr.
Curl’s experiments were performed, such as quality of soil, time requisite for the matura-
tion of the plant, mode in which fed off, and other elements necessary in order to form a
correct opinion of the value of each kind. Not more than two or three of the species
mentioned in the paper were adapted for mixed pasturage, although most would doubtless
be found of value as fodder. He remarked that Agrostis solandri, recommended by Dr.
Curl, was a collective species, chiefly consisting of two New Zealand grasses, Agrostis
emula and A. billardieri. Poa aquatica was merely a synonym for Glyceria aquatica,
although the two are given by the author as distinct plants. Glyceria fluitans was a grass
of undoubted value, as was proved by the condition of horses and cattle feeding upon it,
wherever naturalized in the colony. Referring to Dr. Curl’s use of the term ‘“acclima-
tized,” he stated that a fallacy was involved in the popular acceptation of the term, as
there was no evidence to show that plants or animals possessed the power of gradual
adaptation to peculiarities of climate or soil other than those for which they were originally
tted. This was generally recognized by scientific men, who used the term naturalize
ou of acclimatized
4. ** Preliminary Note on the Presence of one or more Hydro-carbons of
the Benzol Series in the American Petroleum, also in our Petroleums," by
W. Skey. (Transactions, p. 469.)
5. “ On a Property possessed by Essential Oils of whitening the Preci-
pitate produced by mixing a Solution of Mercuro-iodide with one of Mer-
curie-chloride," by W. Skey. (Transactions, p. 470.)
6. ** Preliminary Note on the Production of one or more Alkaloids from .
Fixed Oils, by the Aniline Process," by W. Skey. (Transactions, p. 471.)
7. “On the Production of Platino-iodides of the Alkaloids,” by W.
Skey.
8. “On a further Occurrence of the Australian Tree Swallow
( Hylochelidon nigricans) in New Zealand," by Walter L. Buller, C.M.G.,
D. Se. (Transactions, p. 860.)
The author remarked on the extraordinary fact of such a bird performing a journey on
the wing of upwards of a thousand miles without a break or rest.
Dr. Hector wished to be informed whether this bird was gregarious in its native
country, and whether it had come over singly or in flocks ?
Mr. Martin Chapman gave some interesting partieulars of the breeding habits of the
tree swallow, as observed by him in Australia, where it is not gregarious like the €—
He advocated its introduction and naturalization in this country.
Dr. Buller stated that a flight of these swallows had been seen at Wakapuaka, near
Nelson, in 1856, when specimens were obtained by Mr. ln one of which is now in the
ncs useum.
The President said that he believed the bird waa of more frequent occurrence ia New
Tana 4h atan
shot at Auckland some time ago. WA pA olds annes ima
524 Proceedings.
swallow, he doubted very much whether, if brought here, it could be induced to remain
with us, the migratory instinct being very powerful.
9. Dr. Hector exhibited a telephone and two forms of the microphone, made by Mr.
John Kebbell, and explained the principles of their construction, The microphones were
placed on the lecture table, and connected by wire laid to different parts of the Museum
with several telephones in circuit; the marvellous transmission of faint sounds was readily
illustrated. The experiments performed were to some extent marred by the extreme sensi-
tiveness of Mie aaa as the irregular noises produced by the rustling movements
t
ly overpowered the sounds that were intended to be transmitted,
is sounds of iex voice, wt tuning forks, and slight friction of the sounding boards of the
microphones were, however, rendered distinctly audible throughout the complete circuit.
A cordial vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Kebbell for his kindness in exhibiting to
ihe Society these interesting inventions.
FovnarH Merrine. 31st August, 1878.
T. Kirk, F.L.S., President, in the chair.
New Members.—G. Morton, J. R. W. Cook, William Berry.
Additions to the library were laid on the table, and Dr. Hector drew attention to the
following fishes lately added to the Museum collection, viz., Holocanthus arcuatus, Mono-
canthus hippocrepis, and Serranus trutta (the latter being a new species) from Fiji,
colleeted and presented by Lord Hervey Phipps; also, Ceratodus forsteri, from Queens-
land, presented by Sir C. Wyville Thompson.
1. ** On some of the Causes which operate in Shingle-bearing Rivers in
the Determination of their Courses and in the Formation of Plains," by
J. P. Maxwell, A.I.C.E.
ABSTRACT.
The author contended that the Canterbury Plains were formed by the
action of the rivers in conveying shingle from the ranges and depositing it
in their lower courses and at their mouths; that continual changes in the
courses of the streams were effected by these deposits, thus giving rise to
the distribution of material over extended areas; that this process was still
going on, and that the elevation and extension of the plains would pro-
ceed while the supply of detritus from the ranges continued; that the features
were largely modified by the action of the sea in distributing the shingle
along the coast-line; that examination of the river beds showed that they
are sometimes elevated along the middle lines of their length, and that
streams flowed on either side, cutting notch-like channels in the older plain
formation ; that the evidence of these channels on both sides of the river
beds is a sufficient. refutation of the theory of the supposed effect of the
influence of the earth’s rotation in causing erosion on one side only.
Dr. Hector said he agreed with the views of the author as far as they went, but he
thought that the formation of the great fan-like deposits of shingle that go to make up
Wellington Philosophical Society. 525
the surface at least of the Canterbury plains was not so simple a process as stated. As
stated, it might suit the conditions of a small deposit, but these fans were twenty to
thirty miles m diameter, and could only have been built up by successive changes in the
courses of rivers as they gradually raised their beds and then broke away from them.
The resulting fan was made up of many river beds, radiating from one point or gorge. A
most important feature not mentioned by the author was the formation of secondary fans
in front of those earlier ones formed by the gradual erosion and deepening of the notch or
gorge in the rocky bed through which the river was finally liberated from the mountains.
As this notch was lowered the river became confined to a deep terraced valley excavated
in the shingle of the earlier fans, the shingle removed going to raise the bed in a lower
part of its course. This, in his Mr cun gave rise to the apparent coneave surface of the
plains in the author's section.
Mr. Travers pointed out that the essential point in the fan-like arrangement of
detritus was the diminished velocity of the river after escaping from the upper part of its
course whence the detritus was derived. He described the prodigious effects of the great
flood of 1867 on the valley deposits of the Wairau River, high level terraces of gravel
having been completely swept away by lateral tributaries, leaving shelves of bare rock,
while the rocky and previously impassable bed of the main river was converted into a
smooth surface or plain for miles. That was the effect of one short flood, and he
thought that it was evidence that no flood of similar magnitude had occurred since the
terrace skirting the valley had been formed.
. Hector stated that the amount of detritus carried out to sea on that occasion had
added ten chains width to the beach for miles along the coast, so that the fences running
out on the shore had to be lengthened
Mr. Maxwell, in reply, considered the remarks made did not conflict with the
views expressed in this paper, but only extended their application. His object was to
refute the idea that the changes in the direction of such rivers could be controlled by the
rotation of the earth, as suggested by Dr. Haast and Mr. Baines in the last volume of
** Transactions."
2. “Some Notes on the D'Urville Island Copper Mine," by S. H.
Cox, F.C.8., F.G.S., Assistant Geologist,
ABSTRACT.
The mine is situated at the southern end of D'Urville Island, the copper
occurring in a belt of serpentine, which may be traced from the Dun Moun-
tain, at Nelson, to the Croixelles, and again throughout the length of
D'Urville Island. This belt of serpentine is in contact with certain coarse-
grained green sandstones and banded slates of the Maitai series, in which
veins of quartz with nests of pyrites occur, the strike of the slates being
about N.N.E.
Outerops of cuprite, coated with malachite and azurite, have been traced
at intervals over a distance of 900 yards, or thereabouts, in a N.E. and
S.W. direction, these outcrops generally occurring on a bare ridge of
serpentine, which is about the centre line of the piece of ground which has
been leased from the Maoris for mining operations, and four small shafts
have been sunk to prove the ore at different points, These shafts do not
526 Proceedings.
appear to be in the same band of ore, but on at least three different ones,
and the author thinks it probable that there is yet another.
The surface prospecting has been attended with exceptionally good
results, rich deposits of ore having being traced for a considerable distance ;
and on visiting the mine, the author could not but form a favourable opinion of
the mineral wealth occurring on D'Urville Island. At the present time the
prospects of the mine look most encouraging, and had it not been that a
tunnel had been put in to intersect the ore-band, and had failed to cut it,
one might have been led to form a most extravagant idea of the wealth
which would accrue to the shareholders in the speculation ; but this tunnel
proves, what has frequently been demonstrated elsewhere, that ore deposits
in serpentine are not as continuous and well-defined as the poorer lodes
which occur in sedimentary deposits. This fact points to the necessity of
keeping exploratory workings well ahead, and even closer attention will
have to be paid to this class of work here than in ordinary metalliferous
mines.
Dr. Hector remarked that Mr. Cox had not specified the value of the ore. When pure,
cuprite contained about 89 per cent. of metallic copper, and copper glance about 79 per
cent.; but the value of the ore raised at D’Urville Island at present was about £11 per
ton. He pointed out that the serpentine belt could be traced at intervals from D’Urville
Island to Nelson, and thence through the ranges to Jackson’s Bay, where Mr. Macfarlane
had noticed its occurrence, and from this point it split into two belts. He also referred
to the occurrence of copper ore in the North Island, and said that the copper of Great
Barrier Island was probably not in the same formation, but that the relations at this point
are more obscured by newer formations than in the South.
Mr. Travers said that he unfortunately had considerable experience of the patchy
character of ore deposits in serpentine, having been one of those who worked the Dun
Mountain ore. His advice was to take all the copper which could easily be found, and
not to sink any large amount of capital in trying to open up regular mines in such uncer-
tain deposits, as the ore occurred merely in bunches, which were disconnected, and which
appeared only to occur on the surface.
Mr. Waterhouse was glad to have the information conveyed in Mr. Cox’s paper. He
had some experience on the subject in South Australia, and quite agreed with Mr. Travers’
remarks, and he would be surprised if the D’Urville Island copper mine paid in the long run.
He did not consider that the fact of rich specimens of copper being obtained from the
mine in any way guaranteed the success of the undertaking, for there were innumerable
instances in South Australia where quite as rich specimens were obtained, but no induce-
ments offered to open up mines with reasonable prospect of success, as where the ore was
patchy, and the country hard, these deposits never turned out well. He stated that
copper which would pay to work in England would not do so in the colonies, but that to
prove a success here the following were necessary :—1st. The ore must be near the sea.
2nd. It must be in very large quantity. 3rd. It must be in soft country, where it could be”
worked with comparative ease. He pointed out that the only mines in South Australia
which have paid have been those which have been started without any capital, instancing
the Bulla Bulla and Moonta mines, &e., which yielded large quantities of ore from the
very first, and were in soft ground, and stated that all the other mines which were in hard
Wellington Philosophical Society. 527
ground did not pay.. He referred to the South African mines, where large deposits of ore
had been found recently, yielding as much as £60,000 worth of copper in six months. He
advised caution in opening up the D’Urville Island mine, and said that only those who
could afford to lose the money which they invested should take shares in this mine.
Mr. Kirk said that we were indebted to the speakers for very valuable remarks on this
subject. He thought that the Great Barrier copper had been worked and abandoned, but
that very probably there was yet much ore to be extracted from the mine.
Mr. Cox, in reply, said that the colonial mines were generally extravagantly worked,
and that although, in Cornwall, ore yielding as little as 3 to 4 per cent. of copper could
be worked, the miners there were content to make £3 per month, with the chance of a
good month’s pay now and then, in consequence of rich deposits being found, all the
mining there being let to tributers; but that at D’Urville Island the miners were getting
as much as £3 a week. Also, the ore in Cornwall is in well-defined lodes, whereas here
it is in irregular deposits, and, as he had pointed out in his paper, it would be necessary
to follow the ore very carefully, and ensure a considerable output before sinking capital
in tramways to get the ore away, or smelting works to reduce it.
3. “On Additions to the Carcinological Fauna of New Zealand,” by T.
W. Kirk. (Transactions p. 392.)
Dr. Hector pointed out the value of such papers, and hoped the society would have
many others from the author of equal interest.
- * On the Cause of the Movements of Camphor when placed upon
the Surface of Water," by W. Skey. (Transactions, p. 473.)
This paper was illustrated by experiments to show that the true cause for this
movement is not that hitherto stated, but is due to the solution of the camphor and the
formation of a hydrated oil, which is rapidly absorbed. The motion is due to the
tendency of the particles of camphor to slide off the elevated surface of the pellicle of oil
that forms on the surface of the water. It was shown that small fragments of cork or
other light substance moistened with oil, either a fixed oil or an essential oil, or a drop
of bisulphide of carbon, exhibit the same phenomena, and that it is therefore not due to
the property which camphor possesses of giving off vapour in the solid state. The
experiments exhibited by Dr. Hector to demonstrate this view were extremely interesting
and beautiful.
Mr. Travers stated that he remembered to have observed the same phenomena when
a drop of iodized collodion was accidentally dropped on the surface of water.
Dr. Hector said that Mr. Skey wished him to state with reference to his discovery
mentioned at last meeting, that hydro-carbons exist in many fats and oils not hitherto
supposed to contain them, and that they can be transformed into alkaloids by the aniline
process ; that in pursuing his investigation he had obtained an alkaloid from butter,
thus ae the general statement that both animal and vegetable fats contain =
0-carbons
Firts Mezerrine. "UB Da aai 1878.
A. K. Newman, M.B., Vice-president, in the chair.
New Members.—Dominick Browne, Rev. Philip Walsh, of Waitara.
1. “Memorandum of the Kea,” by the Hon. Dr. Menzies, MLO.
(Transactions, p. 376.)
528 Proceedings.
Mr. Travers said that the first report of this proclivity in the Keá was from the head
of Lake Wanaka, but it was discredited. He had been aware of the fact himself, and
it was now beyond a doubt. The kaka also fed on flesh, but never attacked the living
animal.
Dr. Newman remarked that it was strange that these birds should prey upon such large
animals, when it was considered that before the introduction of sheep they had not pro-
gu seen anything larger than a rat.
** On Pituri, a new Vegetable Product that deserves further Investi-
Du " by S. M. Curl, M.D. (Transactions, p. 411.)
Dr. Newman said that very little was known as to the real merit of this plant. Ii
was no doubt, to a certain extent, à stimulant, but he thought a great deal was due to
imagination. He could not agree with many of the author's statements as to the power
of this product, especially in critical cases of disease.
Mr. Kirk explained that Dr. Curl only suggested that the plant might prove useful in
critical cases, not that it had done so. If what the author said was correct, it would be
a most valuable drug to travellers and explorers in New Zealand.
` Mr. Field would like to have the Chairman's opinion as to whether the experiments
on animals referred to could be attributed to imagination.
Dr. Newman said that no doubt the plant had an effect on animals, as it was an
unusual food for them. It was only in the case of experiments on human beings that
at all reliable results had been obtained, and these latter were to him unsatisfactory.
8. “Some Remarks on Dr. Curl’s “Notes on Grasses and Fodder "
Plants, suitable for Introduction to New Zealand,'" by Henry Blundell.
ABSTRACT.
The author paid a high compliment to Dr. Curl for his work. He
thought that though rye and clover were often selected as the best known
grasses for the cultivator, the pasture grown from them is mixed with other
grasses, owing to the difficulty of getting pure seed. Several grasses thus
get root in the ground, and in course of time the pasture, though nominally
of one or two varieties, is actually composed of many. The author thinks a
variety of food for cattle is most beneficial, if not essential, and says the
effect of their food is especially noticeable in dairy produce. In this country
Phormium has a great influence in the flavour of milk, and is largely chewed
by cattle, especially the lower end of the leaf. The author has known acres
of swamp land to be cleared of Phormium by cattle tearing off the leaves.
He says “there is one exotic plant which I think is deserving of more
than the passing notice it receives at Dr. Curl’s hands in his paper
published in Vol. IX. of the Transactions. I allude to the burnet,
which grows luxuriantly in swampy soil, and thrives well in soil of
a much drier description. Some of it was sown at the rear of the
homestead, on a run where it throve wonderfully, but never spread,
for the simple reason that the sheep never gave it the chance, for though
naturally wild and timid they would brave a good deal to get a taste of the
DOE eh EAE ee REY RON Se a, Sy aie Re aS Oe ee RED E
Wellington Philosophical Society. 529
burnet. Having grown some in a garden, I was anxious to introduce it
among the native grasses in a low-lying paddock, which had never been
ploughed, and was never likely to be, on account of the floods which peri-
odically submerged it, and with that object I transplanted a few roots to
different spots, and also sowed some of the seed in small patches, which
were carefully marked. The roots struck readily, and the seed soon sprang
up, and I congratulated myself on the success attending the experiment ;
but I failed of my object in substituting burnet for inferior plants through
the sheep feeding it down close to the ground so that it could not seed.
The author concludes with a suggestion to the Society to publish a pamph-
let on such exotic grasses as have been proved suitable for specified soils
and climates.
Mr. Travers remarked that Mr. Blundell could get a great deal of the information he
mentioned as to grasses, etc., from the catalogues published in England. What we
wanted here was the feeding value of grasses and character of soil. As to the disap-
pearance of flax, he considered that the opening up of the swamps where it grows, by
cattle, and the introduction of other plants, did more to make it disappear than merely
the cattle eating it. It was, no doubt, eaten for the pleasant bitter it contained
Mr. Kirk remarked that some confusion existed with regard to the burnet; there are
two plants well known to agriculturists under the names of the greater and the lesser
burnet respectively. The former flourishes best in cool and rather moist soils, the latter
in those of a dry character; and he had observed the latter in a naturalized condition
near Castle-rock and in other parts of the colony. Both plants are of great value. He
considered the consolidation of the surface of swampy ground by cattle, and the conse-
quent establishment of exotic weeds, to be more destructive to Phormium and other
swamp plants than the direct injury caused by cattle in feeding, etc. He regretted that
he could not agree with the author in his estimate of the value of Dr. Curl's writings.
His statements were for the most part wanting in the necessary data for testing their
value. He trusted Dr. Curl would furnish the results of the analysis to which he referred,
with particulars as to the nature of soil in which the grasses were growing, course of
culture, and quantity of food furnished by each, in precise terms, at some future time.
ewman agreed with Mr. Kirk that the information contained in Dr. Curl’s
papers on these subjects was scarcely full or complete enough to be of much practical
value.
Mr. Blundell, in reply, said he did not think it necessary for him to defend Dr. Curl
He still thought he was right in what he said about the disappearance of the Phormium.
4. “Notes on the Botany of Waiheke, Rangitoto, and other Islands in
the Hauraki Gulf," by T. Kirk, F.L.S. (Transactions, p. 444.)
Mr. Travers said that it would be impossible not to remark the peculiar vegetation of
Rangitoto as described by Mr, Kirk. The cause of the luxuriance of growth is no doubt
due to the moisture of the climate.
Mr. drew attention to a paper by Professor Houghton, of Dublin, on
“ Physical Geology," lately published in Nature, which bore out certain remarks made in
a paper on the same subject written by him (Mr. Travers) last year, and eh) in
Vol. X. of the Transactions. '
el
530 Proceedings.
Sixrg Meeting. — 9th November, 1878.
John Carruthers, M. Inst. C.E., Vice-president, in the Chair.
Dr. W. L. Buller, C.M.G., was chosen to vote in the election of the Board of
Governors for the ensuing year, in accordance with clause 7 of “ The New Zealand Insti-
tute Act."
The nomination for the election of honorary members of the New Zealand Institute
was made in accordance with statute IV.
1. “An Account of Improvements on Miramar Peninsula," by J. C.
Crawford, F.G.S.
ABSTRACT,
The author stated that in 1840 the Peninsula was covered by a thick
vegetation of fern, flax, toitoi, and shrubs, a few patches of bush being still
on the ground. Burnham Water was then asheet of water about 200 acres
in extent.
In 1846 he decided to drain Burnham Water, and in 1847 accepted a
tender to drive a tunnel through the ridge between Evans Bay and the
Lagoon, since any drain made towards Lyall Bay would have been liable to
be choked by blown sands during southerly weather. When the tunnel was
completed drains were cut through the swamp.
The land when drained was very sour at first, and the sandy parts
required time to gather vegetation before further operations could be carried
on to advantage; but as the drainage proceeded, grass-seed was sown, and
a good sward has now been obtained in most places. He estimates the cost
of drainage, from first to last, at £3,000.
With regard to fixing the sands, the author states that he sowed seeds of
Ammophila arundinacea and Elymus arenarius, and for several years believed
the experiment to have been a failure; he, however, eventually found a
few plants of Ammophila, and by continual planting succeeded in fixing a
good deal of the sand. He states that the Elymus which he sowed was a
failure, but that some plants subsequently procured were in some respects
superior to the Ammophila for fixing blown sands.
Mr. Martin Chapman said that no doubt the drainage would in time be of great use,
but at present he had noticed that in dry weather there was a thick deposit of salt on the
land
: The Chairman remarked that several drainage schemes of a similar kind had been
undertaken in New Zealand, but few had succeeded. He only hoped Mr. Crawford would
be more fortunate. :
Mr. Kirk considered that the information given regarding the fixing of the sand would
be most useful. Mr. Crawford had paid partieular attention to the planting with a view
to its spreading. If he could now sow wheat or some other plant between the grass a
thick sward would in time form. He thought the salt deposit mentioned only occurred in
that portion where the lake had been. He was of opinion that the work performed would
be highly remunerative.
Wellington Philosophical Society. 531
2. “Further Contributions to the Ornithology of New Zealand,” by
Walter L. Buller, C.M.G., Sc.D. (Transactions, p. 366.)
Dr. Newman said he would like to be informed whether the New Zealaud harrier was
in the habit of catching fish. Dr. Buller had referred to its repugnance to water; but he
wished to state that in Hawke Bay District he had frequently found this hawk devouring
large eels in the neighbourhood of the swamps. Others had observed the same, and it
was evident that this bird, which was constantly hovering about the swamp vegetation,
was in the habit of catching eels, As to the kingfisher, he was surprised to hear that
Captain Hutton had ever contended that this bird did not feed on fish. Everyone who
had observed its habits would agree that it was most active in pursuit of small fish.
Mr. Martin Chapman said that in regard to the kakas which perished in their
passage across the Strait, he believed it would be found that it was the lean-conditioned
bird, and not the fat one, that succumbed. He instanced the case of wild turkeys in
America. They were known sometimes to cross rivers on the wing, and on these occa-
sions the thin emaciated birds often fell into the water and were drowned. As to the
piscivorous habits of our kingfisher mentioned by Dr. Buller, he could aver from personal
observation that the New Zealand bird was an undoubted fish-hunter. He had actually
seen one, after dropping a fish that it had captured, return and pick it up again.
Dr. Buller, in reply, stated that the harrier, like many other birds, is very averse to
wetting its plumage, and never hunts in the water. But, being a carrion-feeder, it may
constantly be seen hovering over the sea-beach, and devouring the dead bodies of cast up
fish, ete. Eels are known to travel considerable distances overland in search of new
ponds, and during such migrations would, of course, be exposed to the attacks of the
hawk. He thought that the circumstance mentioned by Dr. Newman might be accounted
for in that manner, for the helpless eels on dry ground would be very apt to fall a prey to
this ever-vigilant hawk. As to the kakas cast ashore in Golden Bay, he could state on
the authority of his informant that in every case the birds picked up were excessively fat,
and it was a well-known fact that at certain seasons of the year the kakas became so
incommoded with fat as to be scarcely capable of flight. A correspondent informed him
that on one of these occasions he actually caught with his hands in the course of a single
day eight of these over-fed kakas, as they were positively unable to fly at all.
Dr. Newman said that his experience of eels was that they only travelled when their
pools became dry, and in the district to which he referred the lagoons were always full of
water. He thought one of the most interesting facts in New Zealand ornithology, brought
out in Dr. Buller’s papers, was the frequent recurrence of albinoes. Almost every species
showed a tendency in some degree to albinism, and this was certainly a very remarkable
and inexplicable thing.
8. “On Osomose as the Cause of the persistent Suspension of Clay in
Water,” by W. Skey, Analyst to the Geological Survey Department.
Comm p. 485.)
4. “ On the Nature and Cause of Tomlinson' s Cohesion Figures," by
b P ae: (Transactions, p. 490.)
* On some New Zealand Aphrodite, with Descriptions of supposed
new pode by T. W. Kirk, Assistant in the Colonial Museum. ro
actions, p. 897.)
Ms Fit wit to know wher s ond clou utaoa vus per
after death; and th »xhibited o i Le prove
het 4k hd d NA uh edad CT Tio
BUBU they ained to a great extent,
532 Proceedings.
Dr. Buller said that it was gratifying to find one of the members taking up this
branch of zoology, and he hoped the author would continue his useful work.
6. ** Notes and Suggestions on the Utilization of certain neglected New
Zealand Timbers,” by T. Kirk, F.L.5. (Transactions, p. 458.)
Mr. Field was glad that attention had been drawn to this subject. He had been
assured by a French gentleman now preparing a work on the subject, that a ready market
could be found for these ornamental timbers in Paris.
Mr. J. T. Thomson considered that great difficulty would be experienced in preserving
our timbers. The settlers do not care about moving in the matter, and if done at all it
must be done by Government. It would, he thought, be difficult to utilize these timbers
to the extent pointed out. He did not think the destruction to our forests was so great
as was supposed; the blue gum would in a great measure replace them
Dr. Buller gathered from the paper that what the author particularly wished to
advocate was the establishment of a trade in ornamental timbers between New Zealand
and Europe; and from his experience he thought there would be no difficulty whatever
in carrying this out. The conservation of the forests would follow as a matter of course
Mr. Knorpp stated that he had been enabled to bring these timbers prominently
before the continental people, as he had exhibited a piece of work at the Paris Exhibition,
made by Mr. Seuffert, of Auckland, and he understood that it had been so much admired
that it had been awarded a medal. He had a considerable quantity of rewarewa and
totara knots now in Wellington, which he would gladly give up to anyone who woul
ertake to send them either to Paris or London as an experiment, and he would assist
them in any way he could in opening up a trade in this direction
R. E. Brown asked if the white pine cut fresh here, and sent away, would
still be subject to the destructive insect ; and the author explained that he was of opinion
that the insect only attacked white pine that was cut out of season. Mr. Kirk further
stated in reply that he did not think any amount of planting we could do should prevent
us from conserving our forests.
There were no forests of blue gum that he knew of to
make up for the destruction.
No opposition on the part of settlers should prevent the
forests being protected. It must be done sooner or later, and the sooner the better for
all concerned.
The aE admitted that the destruction was great, but agreed with Mr.
Thom the difficulty of stopping it. An able report had been made on
the sack by aroi Campbell-Walker, but nothing had come of it. If it were looked
at as the property of the whole colony, then something might be done. He did not think
dry rot could be stopped, unless the timber were floated; he found that answer in
None of the plans for preserving timber mentioned would, he thought, be Peseres
except the applieation of creosote, and that was too expensive. The beauty of New
Zealand timber had been exaggerated. None P it could compare with mahogany, walnut,
and several others. He did not think so much of the kauri as others did. The high rate
of interest is against the establishment of a timber trade, as proposed, between this and
other countries.
e Chairman drew attention to casts of 2 Maori idol, procured from the natives in
the North by Sir George Grey, which was very interesting owing to its bearing such &
resemblance to idols found in other islands far from New Zealand.
Mr. John Kebbell also explained the working of a gas-lamp which he had constructed
with a view to enabling one uniform temperature to be kept up in any room.
The lamp in question had been prepared for the clockroom at the Observatory. =
ee
crt araa
am ner
Leer cipes ni ASSUM SI nite iln
Wellington Philosophical Society. 583
Sevento Meerine. 80th November, 1879.
J. Carruthers, M. Inst. C.E., Vice-president, in the chair.
1. “On the Cleansing of Towns," by J. Turnbull Thomson, O.E.,
F.R.G.S., F.R.S.8.A., Surveyor-General of New Zealand. (Transactions,
p. 38.)
Mr. Field thought that credit was due to Mr. Thomson for bringing before the New
Zealand public in a concise and handy form the opinions of Sir John Bazalgette and
other eminent English engineers. He regretted, however, that the Surveyor-General had
not made any allusion to the sewage farm and irrigation works of Bedford, a town
which in point of size as well as in many other particulars closely resembled the
City of Wellington. As was well known, Mr. Climie had, in his report, recommended
that the sewage of the whole city should be ciegos on the low land at the south-west
corner of Evans Bay. Mr. Clark also had, in general terms, agreed in this opinion. But
various objections were raised, and hitherto nothing had been done. He remembered,
when he was last in Bedford, in the autumn of 1876, carefully going over the sewage
farm, and being much pleased with the excellent system of drainage in that town.
Previous to the year 1868 the beautiful river Ouse had been poisoned by imperfect drains ;
but for the last eight or nine years a complete system of water, sewerage, and irrigation
works had been in existence, with highly satisfactory results. Through the centre of the
town ran one main sewer, receiving in its course the discharge of the lateral drains, and
emptying the whole into a tank 17 feet deép, from which it was pumped up and distributed
by pipes over the irrigation farm. This farm of 180 acres was rented by the Corporation
at the high rate of £1,000 (about) per annum, but this charge was more than repaid by
the produce, which, on the lowest average, would sell at more than £1,500, in addition
io which some grass land was sublet for £200, thus bringing the total annual receipts to
£1,700 odd. Italian rye grass and roots of various descriptions formed the principal
crops, and grew with a remarkable luxuriance. As to what had been said with regard to
the stench arising from sewage farms, he could from personal observation assert that Mr.
Thomson was entirely mistaken, and that, except in very rare instances, no offensive
odour could at any time be detected l
Mr. O’Neill considered the paper a very valuable one, but hoped there would be an
opportunity afforded of renewing the discussion ; the subject was a very wide one, and
he was not prepared to enter upon it on the present occasion.
Dr. Newman said that very little real progress had been made in the last ten years
in our sanitary knowledge. A great deal was talked and written about the subject, but
no fresh light had been thrown on the matter for some years past. He thought the
subject was talked threadbare. All our experience had taught us was that there were
only two systems—the wet and the dry. In the Sahara and similar districts the wet
system was impossible, but where, as in Wellington, there was abundance of water and
good outlet, there was no question but that the only way was to cast it into the sea. A
sewage farm had never yet been made to pay. It was a great error to suppose that
sewage was very profitable; it was really almost valueless, and the products of precipi-
tation not worth the cost of carting. Food, such as bread and meat, ete., if buried, might
sewage was almost worthless. One modern improvement was the use of ement pipe
instead of earthenware pipes.
534 Proceedings.
Mr. J. P. Maxwell asked if the cost of the sewage farm at Croydon, which was stated
to be about £1,000 per annum, included interest on the outlay incurred in carrying out the
drainage of the town? He thought it did not, but that it was in addition to interest.
It was important to make this doubtful point clear. The table attached to the paper
gave the cost of irrigation at Banbury, a town of 12,000 inhabitants, at about £150
per annum. This of course could not include interest.
The Hon, Mr. Waterhouse thought Mr. Thomson’s paper of great value. In spite of
Dr. Newman's P seas he believed the time was not far distant when people would look
back with surprise at the present extravagant and wasteful system of dealing with
sewage. He thought the chief objection to sewage farms was the small scale on which
they were managed. Not being large enough, they very soon became “ manure sick," and
consequently proved a failure.
The Chairman said he thought it could not be said there were two systems of sewage,
the wet andthedry. There is a certain quantity of water brought into a town clean, and
nearly the same quantity goes away foul; it is necessary to have a system of sewers to
carry it. As the water-closet ejecta only constitute one per cent. of the nastiness of
sewage, there is no advantage in having a separate dry system for the sake of it, and if
there is one it does not lessen the need of having a wet system too. All the dry systems are
objectionable on account of smells, and should be as much as possible avoided. The
value of sewage for agricultural purposes was nearly nil, and none of the chemical pro-
cesses, and not even the irrigation process, d get what there was out of it. The
effluent water was quite as valuable as the s He therefore recommended when
possible to throw sewage into the sea. As regards the sewage of Wellington, he thougbt it
would be waste of money to incur cad expense in taking it to the sea, as it would not
create a sensible nuisance in the harbou
Mr. J. Thomson, in reply, gels that the subject could not be done with, but
would call for continuous attention. With regard to excreta as a manure he could bring
forward 17 years' experience in support of its value, as he had seen it used and applied by
the Chinese in Eastern Asia. He could not agree that no improvement had taken place
during these-last ten years in sanitary science, the better condition of cities being the
proof to the contrary. He had indicated where the separate systems were applicable,
and held a different estimate of the value of the labours of the Glasgow deputa-
tion to what one of the speakers did. Even that gentleman had supported their deduc-
lions in reference to the utilization of sewage. The evidence was that the poorer classes
of Europe could not be brought to use the water system; it conld therefore not be
universal. At Crossness he found the water of the Thames very filthy. He agreed with
Mr. Carruthers in his report as to the outfalls for Wellington, viz., that they should be at
points in the harbour not over one mile from the outskirts. But in his paper he purposely
avoided bringing in local topics, as tending to deteriorate from an unbiassed position.
Eigara Meetme. 11th January, 1879.
A. K. Newman, M.B., Vice-president, in the chair.
New Members.—J. Brown, W. France, G. J. Binns, George Ashcroft.
1. “ List of Plants collected in the District of Okarita, Westland,” by
A. Hamilton. (Transactions, p. 485.)
2. “Notes on Mr. Hamilton’s Collection of Okarita Plants," by T, Kirk,
= 2 F.L.S. (Transactions, p. 489.)
Wellington Philosophical Society. 535
3. “Note on a curious Duplication of Tusks in the common wild Pig
(Sus scrofa)," by A. Hamilton.
My attention was drawn the other day to a curious jaw, with double
tusks, of a pig that had been killed at the Waipapa Creek, near Mohaka.
As will be seen by the accompanying sketch the development has not been
symmetrieal, the two tusks on the left side being of normal shape, and
measuring from tip to insertion, three inches, and total length seven and
three-quarter inches.
On the right side the lower tusk is only two inches from point to
insertion, but the basal portion has been displaced and turned inwards by a
most peculiarly shaped tusk, which turns inwards and upwards till the
point is as far as the central line of jaw. The end has been worn down to
the shape of a finger nail by the roof of the mouth, and, judging by the
rounded surface of the incision, the animal must have been unable to close
its mouth properly.
Unfortunately the upper jaw was not preserved; it must have been
curious, as the lower molars are very irregular and worn entirely on the
inner side.
There is a small supplementary tooth under the second incisor on the
right side.
Dr. Newman thought more notice should be taken of such monstrosities. Evolution
taught us that such monstrosities were nearly all reversions to some old type, showed the
ancestry of the animal, e.g., children who breathed through their necks, branchial elefts,
like Ane amphibious ancestors. Everyone at a certain time of life had two sets of
teeth in his or her jaw, and one specimen in the Hunterian museum had three sets.
p odd, useless structure had never been explained, viz., the corn on the inside of a
horse's forelegs
Mr. T. Kirk pointed out that the monstrosity described by Mr. Hamilton was an
instance of duplication combined with distortion, and could hardly be explained by the
supposition that it was an instance of reversion to a remote ancestral type—a theory
which was now being pushed to extreme lengths.
4. “On the Export of Fungus from New Zealand," by T. Kirk, F.L.S.
(Transactions, p. 454.)
. “Description of a new Species of Lycopodium,” by T. Kirk, F.L.8.
(Transactions, p. 456.)
6. “ Description of a new Species of Hymenophyllum,” by T. Kirk, F.L.S.
(Transactions, p. 457.)
Specimens illustrating these papers were exhibited.
7. * Note on Mr. Howard Saunders’ Review of the Larine or G
by W. L. Buller, C.M.G. (Transactions, p. 859.)
8. * Notes on a new Species of Pomaderris po tainui)," by Dr. Hector.
(Transactions, p. 428.)
536 Proceedings.
Mr. Kirk spoke of the discovery as being of great interest, but was inclined to believe
- plant would prove identical with an Australian species, notwithstanding its larger
size. In other parts of New Zealand the natives had traditions that certain trees were
the paddles or canoe poles which had been fixed in the ground on landing, and had
taken root; and as the genus Pomaderris was restricted to Australia and New Zealand,
he feared that we could not expect to find the plant discovered by Dr. Hector in other
countries.
Mr. Buchanan thought that if the plant was a new species we were as much in the
dark as ever, and that if it proved to be identical with the Australian species, it would
upset many pet theories with respect to the “ Whence of the Maori.”
9. ** Notes on some New Zealand Crustaceans,” by T. W. Kirk, Assistant
in the Colonial Museum. (Transactions, p. 401.)
10. “ Description of a new Species of Celmisia,” by J. Buchanan, F.L.S.
(Transactions, p. 427.)
11. **On the Fossil Flora of New Zealand," by Dr. Hector, Director of
the Geological Survey.
ABSTRACT.
This paper gave a prodromus of a work on the fossil flora of New Zea-
land, containing descriptions and figures of about a hundred species. The
earliest traces of plants found in the New Zealand rocks are in the upper
Silurian formation, but these and also the plant remains found in the
Devonian and lower Carboniferous strata are very obscure, and no structural
features have yet been identified.
The earliest recognized forms are Glossopteris and Schizoneura, which
occur about the middle of the Kaihiku formation, overlying marine fossils
that have a mixed Carboniferous and Permian facies.
In the Wairoa formation of Triassic age, fragmentary plant remains are
abundant. Dammara occurs, the wood having been identified from its
peculiar structure by Prof. Unger*; also, fronds that are referred to—Zamites
and Neuropteris.
The next horizon with plants is in the Flag Hill series, which is the
lower of the three divisions of the Jurassic, and the following forms indicate
an extension of the Indian flora of the same period far into southern
latitudes. Macrotenopteris lata, Paleozamia mataurienis, Oleandridum vittatum,
var., Alethopteris (two species), Pecopteris (three species), Neuropteris stricta,
Camptopteris nove-zealandia, Cycadites, and Echinostrobus. A closely-allied
flora to this re-appears in the Mataura series, which is the upper member
of the Jurassic formation.
The Neocomian strata (or Amuri series) which are so rich in the remains
of fossil reptilia, are interesting from their affording the earliest specimens
of a true Dicotyledonous leaf, associated with the foliage of Dammara and
Araucaria.
* Hochstetter’s New Zealand, p 57.
BA ron Laici
Wellington Philosophical Society. 587
In the Cretaceous formation occur the great coal deposits in New Zea-
land. The associated flora, which is very rich in forms, has a large
preponderance of Dicotyledonous plants some of which have been referred to
generic representatives of the existing flora of this country, forty different
species being distinguished.
The upper Cretaceous and Eocene formations (Cretaceo-tertiary) are
blended and continuous in sequence and altogether of marine origin ; but in
some distriets the sections are incomplete in their lower sub-divisions, and
the eoal series, if present, is overlaid immediately by one of the upper
sub-divisions, indicating a probable continuity of land surface in some parts
of the area throughout the entire period.
In the Miocene there is again evidence of wide-spread land surfaces in
the South Island, at the base of the great gravel deposits that represent all
the subsequent formations in that area; but in the North Island the
Miocene and lower Pliocene formations are marine, the upper Pliocene
being a lignitiferous series, associated with pumice sands. The flora of the
tertiary period is badly preserved, and the collections are scanty ; but as far
as yet studied, it bears a very close affinity to the recent flora of the
country.
12. “ On the Fossil Brachiopoda of New Zealand," by Dr. Hector.
ABSTRACT.
The lower, secondary, and upper Paleozoic formations of New Zealand,
afford a remarkable abundance of Brachiopoda belonging to the family
Spiriferide, and the examination of them has led to the discovery of several.
forms, possessing characters hitherto undescribed, and has, besides, proved
that several well-known genera have a much greater vertical range than has
hitherto been assigned to them.
Thus the peculiar sub-genus of Terebratula represented by the typical
Epithyris elongata, which has previously been recorded only from Permian
and Carboniferous strata, is abundant in the Liassic (Bastion) series, and
extends downwards to the upper Silurian formation.
In dealing with those Spiriferide distinguished by the possession of a
punctate shell structure and a strong mesial septum in the ventral valve, it
has been found convenient to restrict the genus Spiriferina to the middle
secondary forms, having rounded cardinal angles, and a moderately extended
hinge-line as in Spiriferina walcoti, and S. rostratus, while Professor Kónig's
name of T'rigonotreta has been revived for the Permian species, in which
the hinge-line is greatly produced, and forms acute processes, as the New
Zealand forms clearly support the generic distinctions relied on in Professor
King's monograph on the Permian Fossils of England. Thus, while the —
general form is that of Spirifera, the shell shows a distinctly punctato ———
ABB uds
538 Proceedings.
structure, and the internal casts show that a strong septum divided the
prominent ventral beak into two cavities.
A third form related to Spiriferina in having a punctate shell-structure,
differs so essentially as to require separation as a genus, to which the
name Rastelligera has been applied, from the peculiar character of the.
hinge-line, which is enormously long in proportion to the height of
the shell, and along the hinge-margin both valves are minutely denti-
culate, with rake-like teeth that appeared to interlock. The proper
dental processes are only feebly developed, if not altogether absent,
. and both valves are nearly equally convex. The genus Rastelligera, of
which there are several species, is limited to the Wairoa series (Triassic),
and the Otapiri series (Rhetic).
The next form, which is like Spiriferina in general outline, although
in different species it varies greatly in the extension of the hinge-line,
has a marked peculiarity in the arrangement of the dental plates,
which spring from the sides of the mesial septum, so that a horizontal
section of the beak, or the fissures seen in the natural internal cast, show
the interior processes to have been arranged like the Greek character V,
from which the name Psioidea has been given to the genus. Some of
the species are remarkable for the great development of a concave triangular
area, overhung by a strongly projecting dorsal umbo. This genus has been
discovered in the Silurian formation, and finally disappears in the upper
part of the Rhetic beds.
Besides the above, which are all allied to Spiriferina, true forms of
Athyris (Spirigera) are not uncommon from the Triassic formation down-
wards; but in the same formation, and in the overlying Rhetic (Otapiri)
series, Athyris is only represented by an allied genus, having also a
lamenellate shell-structure, but possessing characters that have required
its separation under the generic name of Clavigera.
This form agrees with Athyris in having the ventral beak foraminate
and in the apices of the spire-cones being central and directed to the
middle of the lateral margins, and not to the cardinal angles as in
Spirifera. But it differs in the possession of a distinct area and fissure
under the beak, and a long, straight hinge-line, in which respect it
resembles the Spirifera. Its most obvious peculiarity is that both valves
are almost equally convex, and that both are suleate in the median line,
and that both a foramen and a fissure are present in the ventral valve, which
is a most exceptional character among Spiriferide. The name has been
given on account of the strong stud-shaped cardinal boss, which in the
cast gives rise to a singular hood-like process, owing to the matrix that
lodged between the interior surface of the dental-plates and the boss having
been preserved after the shell has weathered out.
NS see ee
Wellington Philosophical Society. 539
The genus Spirifera proper is met with in the lower Carboniferous
(Maitai) series and downwards, but its description does not fall within the
scope of this paper.
These two papers will appear in full in the reports of the Geological Survey Depart-
ment, now in the press.
13. ‘Catalogue of the hitherto-described Worms of New Zealand,” by
Professor F. W. Hutton, C.M.Z.S. (Transactions, p. 814.)
ANNUAL GENERAL MzxrIiNG. 1st March, 1879.
T. Kirk, F.L.S., President, in the chair.
Minutes of last Annual General Meeting read and confirmed.
New Members.—D. M. Luckie, G. Beetham, M.H.R., W. Kemp, M.R.C.8.,
W. H. Triggs,
ABSTRACT REPORT OF COUNCIL.
During the year nine general meetings were held, at which 43 papers were read.
Two conversaziones were held, at each of which about 400 visitors were present, and:
the Council acknowledge the assistance of many gentlemen who lent objects of interest,
and especially the Governors and Manager of the New Zealand Institute for lending the
colonial museum.
The total number of members is 252, of whom 31 were elected during the year.
Eighty volumes have been added to the library.
It is with regret that the Council record the death of Mr. W. Lyon, F.G.S., and Mr.
John Kebbell, both very old and valued members of the society. The late Mr. Lyon
contributed largely to the library by donations, and until lately took an active part in the
work of the society. The late Mr. J. Kebbell has been a frequent exhibitor of ingenious
adaptations of scientific apparatus, and during the past year brought before the members
several modifications of the telephone and microphone, and an excellent arrangement for
T regulating the temperature of vapour pictae 8.
The statement of accounts showed tl pts of the year were £314 7s. 2d.,
and that there is a balance in hand d £103 5s. 9d., while a sum of £35 17s. 6d. (being one-
sixth of the nett income) has been handed to the New Zealand Institute in compliance
with the statute.
ErzcrroN or Orricers ror 1879.— President—A. K. Newman, M.B.,
M.R.C.P.; Vice-presidents—Dr. Hector, Martin Chapman; Council—W. L.
Buller, C.M. G., Sc.D., etc., C. R. Marten, F. W. Frankland, S. H. Cox,
F.C.S., F.G.S., Hon. G. Randall Johnson, W. T. L. Travers, F.G.S.,
T. Kirk, F.L.S.; Auditor—Arthur Baker; Secretary and Treasurer—R. B.
Gore.
The retiring President then delivered the following Anniversary
ADDRESS.
It is expected that your President, on the expiry of his term of office,
shall lay before you some account of the scientific work effected by the
members of the society during the past year. Unhappily, circumstances,
over which Ihad no control, prevented my attendance at several maling,
540 Proceedings.
so that I am not in a position even to form an opinion on several papers.
Moreover, amongst the titles of those papers, simply taken as read, are one
or two which doubtless belong to the most valuable portion of the year's
work. I refer more particularly to those on Fossil Brachiopoda, and on
the Fossil Botany of New Zealand, by the Director of the Geologieal Survey
Department ; for these and other reasons Ishall request your permission to
depart from the usual course, and to occupy a portion of the evening with a
few remarks on a single subject—the connection between the Floras of
New Zealand and Australia.
On the Relationship between the Floras of New Zealand and Australia.
The vast difference between the area of these two countries necessarily
involves a great disproportion between the number of species in their
respective floras, so that no great amount of surprise is experienced on
finding the attention at first arrested by the series of strong contrasts which
they present rather than by prominent proofs of affinity. Nearly three-
fourths of the Australian forest consists of Eucalypti, of which there are
fully 140 species, comprising the loftiest trees in the world, but the genus
is not even represented in New Zealand. Again, 600 species of Proteaceous
plants, Banksia, Grevillea, Hakea, Isopogon, Persoonia etc., impart a pecu-
liar character to the scenery of many Australian districts, but only two
species of the order are known in New Zealand. Australia possesses nearly
1,000 species of Leguminosse, which contribute largely to the physiognomical
character of its landscapes, or add to its floral beauty. New Zealand has
only some thirteen species, none of which are important. On the other
hand, the characteristic genera of the New Zealand flora are either absent
or but sparingly represented in Australia, so that they do not form pro-
minent features in its flora. The extensive forests of Nesodaphne, Fagus,
and Podocarpus, so characteristic of this colony, are rarely met with in
Australia, and none of the species are identical. Coprosma, which forms so
large a portion of the undergrowth throughout the colony, and comprises
some twenty-five species, is but sparingly represented in Australia, where
the genus is limited to five species, its place there being partly occupied by
Opercularia, Dacrydium, which is more highly developed in New Zealand
than in any other country, and ranges from the sea-level to the extreme
limit of ligneous vegetation, is restricted to a single species in Australia, the
famous Huon pine of Tasmania. Celmisia, a remarkable genus of Asters
comprising some thirty species, distributed from the North Cape to the
Bluff, and ascending from the sea-level to the highest limits of vegetable
growth, is represented in Australia by a single species common to both
countries, Metrosideros, which, in one form or other, is an important factor
in all forest vegetation, is limited to a single species of no great importance
in Australia,
Wellington Philosophical Society. 541
This contrast might be carried much further, but my object is to show
the relationship between the two floras rather than their dissimilarity. Before
proceeding with this subject, however, it will be convenient to state two
facts which it is desirable to keep in mind. The superficial area of New
Zealand is rather less than 100,000 square miles; that of Australia, in-
cluding Tasmania, is upwards of 3,000,000 square miles. No part of New
Zealand extends north of the thirty-fourth parallel of latitude, while fully
two-fifths of Australia are within the tropic of Capricorn. Further, it
cannot be doubted that a much larger proportion of new species remains to
be added to the flora of Australia than to that of New Zealand, and it is
chiefly among the species yet to be discovered in this colony that we must
expect to find further indications of an ancient connection between the two
floras.
Both assemblages of plants now under consideration have one broad
feature in common. The great majority of species in each is endemic, and
consists of plants that have originated within the geographical limits of
either New Zealand or Australia, as the case may be; but notwithstanding
this there is a direct relationship between them. Not only are many plants
common to both, but others plentiful in one country are represented by
closely-allied species in the other.
The number of species known to be common to both countries is—Dico-
tyledons, 143, belonging to 92 genera; Monocotyledons, 95, belonging to 60
genera; Filicales, 87, under 80 genera. Of these 120 species are not known
to occur elsewhere. ;
If, however, we look at the total number of genera common to both
countries, we shall see that the relationship is much closer than it appears
to be from a simple consideration of the number of species common to both.
Here we find :—
Dicotyledons. E dons. Filicales.
169 . 33
Gen
Bo that in addition to the 181 genera Red species common to both
countries, there are 96 genera represented in each country by different
Species. Leaving the Filicales out of consideration for the present, nearly
five-sixths of the Phenogamic genera of New Zealand are common to both
countries. I do not at present draw attention to those genera in one
eountry which take the place of closely-allied genera in the other, but will
simply state that all the natural orders represented in the New Zealand flora
are also represented in Australia, with the exception of Coriariee and
Chloranthacee.
It would, however, as was long since pointed out by Sir Joseph Hooker,
be wrong to infer from this that the flora of this colony is little more than
an offshoot from that of Australia, since there is no other instance za iach T
542 Proceedings.
two contiguous countries exhibit such wide differences between their respec-
tive floras. Many of the characteristic genera of Australia are represented
in New Zealand by one, or perhaps two, species common to both countries,
but not found elsewhere ; but exactly the same phenomenon is exhibited in
Australia by characteristic New Zealand genera. Amongst the former may
be named Pomaderris elliptica, Leucopogon richet, Leptospermum scoparium,
Poranthera microphylla ; amongst the latter Coprosma pumila, Celmisia longi-
folia, Senecio lautus, Pimelea longifolia. It is evident, therefore, that a
portion of the Australian flora has been derived directly from this country.
It will be advisable to indicate the chief points of interest connected
with the species and genera common to both countries without going into
detail to any great extent.
Ranunculaces.—Clematis is common to both countries, but the species of
each are endemic. In Myosurus, a genus of two species, it is worthy of note
that the European form is found in Australia ; the American form in New
Zealand. Ranunculus is represented by twenty-six species in New Zealand
and eleven in Australia, of which five are common to both countries. Three
of these are not found elsewhere. Caltha is represented by a single endemic
species in each country. The larger order Crucifere which is sparingly
represented in this colony, contains three species common to both countries,
but of wide distribution, and a fourth not found elsewhere. One of our
violets extends to Tasmania, and Hymenanthera is represented by a single
species in each country. Pittosporee, an order of which all the genera,
except Pittosporum, are restricted to Australia, is represented in New Zea-
land by sixteen species of Pittosporum, all of which are endemic. Caryophyllee
comprises three genera and four species common to both countries. In
Malvacee, Plagianthus is restricted to these countries, but has no species
common to both. Both countries possess two species of Hibiscus of wide
distribution.
In Lines, Linum marginale is the only common species, and does not
occur elsewhere. Geraniacee has three species of Geranium, one of Pelar-
gonium and two of Oxalis, common to both countries. In Rutacesm all our
species are endemic, but belong to Australian genera. Meliaces is repre-
sented m both countries by a single endemic species of Dysoxylum, and
Olacineæ by one of Pennantia.
In Rhamnes, Pomaderris, a genus restricted to Australia and New
Zealand, and specially abundant in cool regions of the former, is represented
here by five species, three of which are common to both countries. Discaria
has a single species in each country. Of Sapindacem only a single species
of Dodonea is common to both countries. The genus is more largely
developed in Australia than elsewhere, but the New Zealand species is the
most widely distributed of all,
Wellington Philosophical Society. 543
Looking at the points of contact bétween the two floras afforded by
Leguminose alone, the relationship appears but slender. This order,
which stands second only to Composite amongst flowering plants in the
number of species it contains, includes more than one-eighth of the
Phanerogamia of Australia, where it comprises nearly as many species as
are found in the entire Phanerogamic flora of New Zealand; yet, amongst
the thousand Australian forms not one is common to both countries, a fact
which is the more remarkable as the seeds of most plants of this order
suffer less than others when drifted by marine currents. The seeds of
Entada scandens are drifted from the shores of Northern Australia to the
coast of New Zealand, and have been picked up even on the East Coast as
far south as Tauranga. It is certainly matter for remark that no sea-borne
seeds of Acacia or other large Australian genera appear to have germinated
on the New Zealand coasts.
Three genera of this order, however, are common to both countries, and
the first two are not found elsewhere. Clianthus, of which a single species
is endemic in the extreme northern portion of New Zealand, and another in
Australia, the first being a glabrous undershrub, the second a pilose herb.
Swainsonia, which is represented here by a single species confined to the
Southern Alps, and by numerous species in Australia. Sophora has two
species in Australia and another in this colony, but belonging to a different
section of the genus. Carmichelia and Notospartium, the only additional
genera in New Zealand, are endemic, and have no near allies in Australia.
Both countries are characterized by a great paucity of Rosacem. In
New Zealand we find four genera and thirteen species; in Australia, seven
genera and seventeen species; four genera and four species being common
to both.
In Saxifragezm, the relationship is generic only. Quintinia and Ackama
not being found elsewhere, and Weinmannia having a wider distribution.
Drosera is largely developed in Australia, where it comprises forty-one
Species, five of which extend to New Zealand, but with the possible excep-
tion of D. spathulata, are not found in other countries. In Haloragesm, four
genera and eight species are common to both countries.
Myrtaces ranks next to Leguminoss, in the extent to which it imparts
2 peculiar character to the Australian flora, but has only a single species
common to both countries. Metrosideros, Myrtus, and Eugenia are repre-
sented by different species in each country.
Epilobium, a genus developed in New Zealand to a remarkable extent,
has six species common to both countries, four of which are not known to
occur elsewhere.
Of umbelliferous plants, eight genera and six species are common to
both countries. The trimorphic araliads of New Zealand have nothing to
represent them in Australia.
544 Proceedings.
Coprosma, which forms so large a portion of the shrubby vegetation of
this colony is but sparingly represented in Australia, two species are
common to both countries, one of them however only occurring in Lord
Howe's Island, on the Australian side. A species of Nertera is common to
both countries.
Composite, the largest order of Phenogams, is less developed in Australia
than might be expected; it comprises over five hundred species ; in New
Zealand it contains one hundred and fifty-five—nineteen genera and twenty
species only are common to both countries; one-third of these are plants of
wide distribution, and ten are not found elsewhere. Celmisia, a fine genus
of mountain asters containing about thirty species, is restricted to New
Zealand, with the exception of C. longifolia, which extends to the Australian
mountains. Olearia, another large genus restricted to Australia and New
Zealand, contains sixty-five species in the former country, and nearly thirty
in the latter, but no form is common to both. Brachycome is restricted to
these countries, but has no common species, and is most highly developed
in Australia. The important genus Senecio, which is largely developed in
both countries, has only one common species.
The remarkable Australian genus Stylidium is not represented in New
Zealand. Donatia nove-zealandig is common to both countries, and Forstera
is represented in each by endemic species.
Of Heaths and Epacrids, eight genera and seven species, none of which
are found elsewhere, are common to both countries.
A single olive is found in Australia, but does not belong to the section of
the genus which comprises the New Zealand species.
* Of Scrophularinee, Australia has thirty genera and over one hundred
species. New Zealand has ten genera and sixty species, eight genera and
nine species being common to both countries, but not found elsewhere.
Veronica is represented by fifteen species in Australia, and forty-eight
here ; one of the Australian species belongs to the section with appressed
imbricating leaves.
Nesodaphne, which enters so largely into the composition of the northern
forests in this colony, is represented in tropical Australia by a single endemic
species.
Tetranthera, Atherosperma and Hedycarya, are represented in both coun-
tries, but have no common species.
Proteacew stand next to Myrtacee with regard to their influence on the
Australian flora; but of the six hundred species known to occur there, not
* I should perhaps mention the recent discovery in this colony of Liparophyllum, a
monotypic genus of Mengantheg, hitherto supposed to be restricted to alpine lakes in
Tasmania, but the iden rests at present upon fruited specimens only.
WAA Wa WA WA AA AA AA Aa Wa wa aa Aa WA Aa AA AA an
Wellington Philosophical Society. 545
one is indigenous to New Zealand, which, however, possesses two endemic
species, one representing the nucumentaceous section of the order, the other
the folliculaceous section ; the former belongs to Persoonia, a genus largely
developed in Australia, but not known elsewhere ; the latter to Knightia, of
which one other species is known in New Caledonia. The large genus
Pimelea, restricted to New Zealand and Australia, comprises nearly seventy
species in the latter country and ten in the former, but except P. longifolia,
which extends from this colony to Lord Howe’s Island on the Australian
coast, no species is common to both floras.
Fagus, which forms so large a part of the mountain forests in New
Zealand, is represented in Australia by three species, all of which are
endemic.
In Conifers there is no species common to both countries; the common
genera Dammara, Podocarpus, Phyllocladus, and Dacrydium; except Podocar-
pus, each is represented by a single genus in Australia, but Phyllocladus and
Dacrydium are especially characteristic of New Zealand, the first having
three species, one or other of which is found scattered throughout the colony
except in the driest districts; the other contains seven species, some of
which occur in all districts. In this, as in many similar cases, the Australian
flora has been influenced by that of New Zealand rather than the reverse.
A much larger proportion of Monocotyledons is common to both countries,
chiefly owing to the wide distribution of many species of Cyperacew and
Graminez.
In Orchidaces there is a close generic relationship, no fewer than sixteen
genera being common to both countries, but not more than six species, two
alone of which are found elsewhere ; the restricted distribution of the species
of this order is strongly marked all over the world.
Astelia, a liliaceous genus largely developed in New Zealand, is repre-
sented in Australia by a single endemic species. Juncem has eight species
common to both countries, six of which are found nowhere else.
Twelve genera of Cyperacez, and thirty-two species, are common to both
floras; many of the species exhibit a wide distribution, and not more than
twelve are restricted to Australia and New Zealand.
In Graminew the relationship is still more strongly marked, more than
half the New Zealand species, and twenty-five genera out of twenty-seven,
being common to both countries; only ten of the species are restricted to
these countries, many of them having a wide distribution.
In ferns and allied plants, the proportion of species common to both
countries is still larger. Australia exhibits two hundred and thirty-two
Species, comprised under forty-seven genera; New Zealand has thirty-
nine genera and one hundred and fifty-three species. ga me genera
546 Proceedings.
and eighty-seven species are common to both countries. All the genera are
represented by identical species, with the exception of Lygodium, Isoétes and
Pilularia, but only twenty-one species out of the eighty-seven are restricted
to the two countries. No endemic genus is found in Australia, but in New
Zealand the beautiful Lozsoma is limited to the country north of the Hauraki
Gulf. Hymenophyllacee are sparingly distributed in Australia, but owing to
the humid climate of New Zealand, are abundant and luxuriant.
I purposely avoid going into detail on the various matters of debate
raised by the statement now made, but wil briefly summarize the chief
conclusions to be drawn :—
1. That the New Zealand flora is more closely related to the Australian
than to any other.. Five-sixths of the genera, one-fourth of the species of
Phanerogamia, and more than one-half of the ferns being identical.
2. That few or no Australian species have been added to the New Zea-
land flora, by means of aerial or marine currents.
9. The direct connection between Australia and New Zealand must have
ceased (as stated by Professor Hutton from considerations based upon the
distribution of Animalia), not later than the cretaceous period, or a larger
proportion of Myrtaces, Proteaces, and other Australian types, would be
found in the New Zealand flora.
4. The paucity of Rosaces and Labiate in both countries affords proof
of the ancient isolation of both floras.
5. The occurrence of single species of the characteristie genera of either
country in the other :—e.g., of Celmisia longifolia in Australia :—of Epacris
purpurascens in New Zealand—affords direct proof of the great antiquity of
the species, and of its having attained a maximum of stability under the ©
conditions which existed before the disruption of the connection between the
two countries. |
Dr. Newman, the President elect, thanked the meeting for the honourable position
in which it had placed him, and assured the members that the new office-bearers would
endeavour to do their best for the society during the coming year.
1. “On Barat or Barata Fossil Words," by J. Turnbull Thomson,
F.R.G.S., F.R.S.8.A. (Transactions, p. 157.)
2. “ Notice of the Discovery of Calceolaria repens, Hook. f., and other
Plants in the Wellington District," by Harry Borrer Kirk; communicated
by Mr. T. Kirk. (Transactions, p. 466.)
9. “ Descriptions of new Plants,’ by T. Kirk, F.L.S. (Transactions,
p. 468.)
AUCKLAND INSTITUTE.
First Meeting. 10th June, 1878.
The Rey. Dr. Purchas, in the chair,
New Members.—P. Dufaur, R. Horne, J. Horne, ©. A. Robertson, G.
Smith.
1. “On the Histeride of New Zealand," by Captain T. Broun.
According to the author, New Zealand possesses at least eight representatives of
this family of Coleoptera, of which all, with one exception, differ from their congeners in
other parts of the world in not being coprophagous in their habits.
2. “Notice of the occurrence of the Australian Genus Poranthera in
New Zealand,” by T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.8. (Transactions, p. 482.)
3. “The Maori Canoe,” by R. C. Barstow. (Transactions, p. 71.)
Second Merete. 15th July, 1878.
His Honour Mr. Justice Gillies, in the chair.
New Member.—S. M. Herapath.
The Secretary read the list of donations to the Library and Museum since the last
meeting.
1. “The New Zealand Anthribide,” by Captain T. Broun.
The author gave a list of the species known to occur in New Zealand, and also some
information respecting the geographical range of the family.
2. “ The British Arctic Expedition of 1875-76,” by F. G. Ewington.
This was a short history of the expedition, together with a summary of the principal
results obtained.
8. “ Education as a Science.” Part I., by C. A. Robertson.
Tump Meretine. 12th August, 1878.
The Rey. Dr. Purchas, in the chair.
m Member.—T. Cooper.
1. * The Cossonide of New Zealand," by Captain T. fron:
2. “ Education as a Science.” Part IL, by C. A. Robertson.
Mr. Ewington spoke at some length on this paper. He objected to the author
borrowing so largely from an article by Prof. Bain, in “ Mind," without acknowledgment.
8. ** Æolus Vinctus,” by J. Adams, B.A.
This paper pointed out the serious faults existing in the present system of female
education. In the opinion of the author, the course of study now adopted led to an
undue cultivation of the emotional part of woman's nature, the intellect being com-
paratively neglected, ;
———
548 Proceedings.
Fourta MrzrmG. 9th September, 1878.
* TT. Heale, President, in the chair.
New Members, —Rev. S. Edgar, E. A. Plumley.
1. Mr. Robertson made a lengthy defence of his paper, ‘‘ Education as a Science,”
read at the last two meetings.
2. Mr. Heale spoke on Mr. Adams’ paper on Female Bava read before the
previous meeting. In a boy’s education, the training should be al purely intellectual.
It is likely to be necessary for the success in life of every boy that he should be quick
and apt at figures, that he should speak and write his own language with reasonable
facility and correctness ; and if his education is to be carried beyond mere rudiments
it is obviously necessary that he should have a grounding in mathematics, and in the
elements of literature, which is necessarily based on classics; and also, some initiation
into the elements of Physical Science. But with girls this sharp limitation of school
teaching, to purely intellectual knowledge, has not been adopted. It has apparently been
felt that the development of a moral character, and the cultivation of the esthetic
faculties, are generally of more importance to the well-being of a girl than the hardening
and bracing of her reasoning powers; that elegance of language and demeanour, a nice
tact in the avoidance of all that is base and sordid, a quick appreciation of and relish for
what is beautiful—in short “accomplishments,” even if of a somewhat flimsy and
mechanical charaeter,—are likely to be more appreciated by those she will associate
with in her career, and therefore be more useful to her, than proficiency in classics or
mathematics. Nature appears to have clearly assigned to the sexes distinctive mental,
quite as much as physical characteristics, to have cast the intellectual powers of men
and women not in the same mould, but rather in their counterparts; to have framed
each with qualities imperfect by themselves, and only capable of becoming complete by
being supplemented and modified by the opposite ones; and it follows as a corollary that
the faculties of each should be cultivated so as to supply the defects of the other—the
one perfected in his hard matter of fact, logical and working pursuits—the other in the
elegancies of life and literature.
Mr. Adams explained that he would by no means banish the emotional from a girl's
training, but simply give a greater amount of time to the intellectual
8. “ The New Zealand Anobiide," by Captain T. Broun.
According to the author, this group possesses ten representatives in New Zealand,
nine of which had been recently discovered by himself.
4. “Notes on a Salt Spring near Hokianga,” by J. A. Pond. (Trans-
actions, p. 512.)
5. Dr. Purchas then proceeded to exhibit a number of Telephones and Microphones,
giving a full account of their construction and mode of action
Frrrg Meetine. Tth October, 1878.
T. Heale, President, in the chair.
New Member.—D. Hearn.
The Secretary read the list of donations to the Library and Museum since the last
meeting,
Auckland Institute. 549
The President informed the meeting that advices had been received of an intended
presentation to the Museum of an extensive series of casts from the gems of antique
sculpture, the donor being Mr. T. Russell, C.M.G. In order that this handsome gift may
be rendered fully available, their townsman, Dr. Campbell, had liberally arranged to
defray the expenses attendant on the establishment of a School of Design within the
Museum Buildings. Dr. Campbell had also taken upon himself all expenses relative to
the placing of the statuary in the Museum.
A vote of thanks to Mr. Russell and Dr. Campbell was unanimously agreed to.
1. “The Dascillide of New Zealand,” by Captain T. Broun.
2. “Notice of the Occurrence of Juncus tenuis, Willd., in New Zealand,”
by T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S. (Transactions, p. 488.)
Mr. Heale said that considering that the plant had been found in a remote portion of
the Northern Wairoa, a district which had no foreign trade save with Australia, of which
Mr. Cheeseman informed them Juncus tenuis was not a native, he should certainly be in
favour of considering it truly indigenous.
8. “High Schools for Girls," by J. Adams, B.A.
In this paper the author endeavoured to lay down certain rules that should be
adhered to in the establishment of girls' schools, and in the adoption of the curriculum
for them.
Sista Mzetine. 18th November, 1878.
J. Adams, B.A., in the chair.
New Members.—W. Berry, J. M. Brigham, H. T. Pycroft, S. J. Williams.
1. On the Telephoride of New Zealand,” by Captain T. Broun.
2. “ Notice of the Occurrence of the Genus Kyllinga in New Zealand,"
by T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S. (Transactions, p. 434.)
3. “Note on Traditional Changes of the Coast-line at the Manukau
Heads," by S. Perey Smith. (Transactions, p. 514.)
4. ** Notes on the Rising Generation," by D. C. Wilson.
ABSTRACT.
The author remarks on the small number of Maori children, and thinks
that the Maori population is dying out. He gives a short description of
their former mode of life, which he considers to have been better adapted to
prolong life than their present semi-European habits. He thinks the only
chance of preserving the Maori race is intermarriage with Europeans; and
cites as a remarkable fact that when half-eastes and Maoris intermarry,
their offspring are numerous, and that even the smallest trace of European
blood seems to have a good effect on the stamina of the children.
With regard to white children, he considers that the climate is in their
favour, and that they will be perhaps an improvement on their fathers. He
thinks that emigrants to the colony live longer than if they remained at
home, and cites as an instance a community of Highland birth and descent,
Lad
550 Proceedings.
who came to this colony en masse from North America, and now reside in
the vicinity of Waipu and Whangarei, numbering with children about 1,000
souls. Out of this small population two have died at the age of 96, and in
addition to a considerable number who reached various ages between 80
and 90, three have died within the present year at the ages of 90, 88, and
86. There are other five men and women with whom the author is well
acquainted, now alive and in good health, at the ages of 92, 89, 87, 85,
and 83. The number of those living and dead, who have reached fourscore,
is also considerable; in fact, it is with them a common age, and calls
forth but little comment.
Annuat GENERAL Meeting. 17th February, 1879.
R. C. Barstow in the chair.
New Members.—J. L. Bagnall, W. C. Breakell, C.E., W. Burton, A. D.
L. Hammond, T. Lindesay, J. MeColl, S. Vaile.
The Secretary read the minutes of the last annual meeting, held 18th February, 1878.
ANNUAL REPORT,
The Couneil of the Auckland Institute, in presenting their report for the past year,
have again to congratulate the members on the steady progress made by the society, and
on the increasing interest manifested by the publie in its operations. Twenty-five new
members have been elected during the year. The Council regret to have to record the
death of five members. There have also been a few withdrawals, principally caused by
removals to other parts of the colony. The total number on the register is now 281. Six
meetings have been held during the winter session. The attendance on the whole was
satisfactory, although there is room for improvement in this direction.
It is satisfactory to be able to state that the additions and donations to the Museum
have been far greater than in any previous year. The Council have especial pleasure in
irme attention to the truly magnificent donation made by Mr. T. Russell, C.M.G., of
a series of full-size KUOA from the most celebrated statues of antiguity. The
importance of this can hardly be over-estimated; not only is it valuable from the
beauty of the figures themselves, but more especially from affording to art-students an
opportunity—hitherto entirely wanting—of studying and working from accurate copies of
the unegualled productions of ancient Greece and Rome. The number of full-sized
figures is twenty-two, of busts eleven. In addition to these, Mr. Russell has forwarded
terra-cotta busts of the Prince and Princess of Wales, modelled by the well-known
sculptor Count Gleichen. Mr. Russell’s communications were, in the first instance, made
through Dr. Campbell. This gentleman, well aware that the funds at the disposal of the
Institute are little more than sufficient to meet current expenditure, most kindly offered
to defray all expenses connected with the preparation of the pedestals and the unpacking
of the casts and their erection in the Museum. Thanks to this timely and welcome
liberality, bin whole consignment has been visócd d in the Museum without any expense to
the Institu
It also Don to Dr. Campbell that the advent of Mr. Russell's presentation might
Buen orbe ien quin amos: ot dig, He , addressed
Auckland Institute, 551
the Council on the subject, offering, on his part, to provide a competent instructor and to
bear all the expenses of the school if the Institute would grant the use of their lecture-
room for the purpose. This proposal was accepted by the Council, and the school has
now been in operation for some time. From twenty to thirty students have been in -
attendance, and the results promise to be in every way satisfactory.
A complete list of all additions to the Museum will be found appended, so that it will
only be necessary to mention here those of special importance in the different classes.
1. Mammalia.—The only additions in this class are an interesting collection of bats,
made by Mr. Parsons in the Friendly Islands, tps some eis specimens of Ornitho-
ares and a few Marsupials, presented by Mr. H. A. H. Monr
. Birds.—Four hundred and thirty-five ibis have been SA during the year.
Of re about 200 are of New Zealand species, collected partly to supply deficiencies in
the type collection, and partly for exchanges with foreign museums. From the Australian
Museum, Sydney, 103 skins have been forwarded, principally of Australian species. A
` collection of 60 European species has also come to hand from the Geneva Museum. Mr.
Parsons has presented 61 skins, all obtained on the island of Vavau, one of the Samoan
Group. Under the head of Oology should be mentioned a series of European birds’ eggs,
forwarded in exchange by the Geneva Museum, and some of New Zealand species contri-
buted by Mr. T. H. Potts, of Canterbury.
3. Fishes and Reptiles.—The most noteworthy addition is from Mr. Parsons, of
Vavau, and is especially valuable, not only from the number of species, but also from the
large number of duplicate specimens which will be useful for exchanges. The Institute
is also indebted to Captain Fairchild, of the s.s. Hinemoa, for a number of Tuatara
lizards (Sphenodon), obtained on Karewa Island, near Tauranga.
4. Invertebrata.—The collection of New Zealand Mollusca in the Museum has been
largely inereased during the year, and a few small parcels of foreign species have also
been received, principally from the Polynesian Islands. A series of Swiss Coleoptera,
also of Crustacea from the south of Europe and the Mauritius, are among the exchanges
received from the Geneva Museum. An excellent collection of butterflies from New
Britain and New Ireland, forwarded by the society's old friend, the Rev. G. Brown, must
also not be overlooked.
5. Ethnology.—A set of plaster casts of the heads of Polynesians of different races,
taken from models obtained during the expedition of Dumont D’Urville, has been received
from the Paris Museum of Natura] History. From Mr. H. N. Rust, of Chicago, U.S.,
comes a very interesting collection, including crania of the Flat-head Indians, also of the
ancient Mound-builders of the Mississippi Valley, with specimens of their peculiar
pottery, stone adzes, flint arrow-heads, etc.
6. Geology and Mineralogy.—A type sotiestion of 400 specimens of rocks, purchased
in London from the well-known mineralogist, Mr. I. R. Gregory, has been received, but
still remains unpacked, there being no cases available in which to place it. Several
small contributions of New Zealand rocks and minerals have been made, but nothing
calling for special mention,
New Fittings.—Additional accommodation for stuffed birds and mammals has been
obtained by the erection of a large show-ease along the south side of the Museum Hall.
The cost—£106—has been liberally defrayed by a friend of the Institute, who, however,
desires that his name should not be made publie, About 300 birds and 30 mammals
have been mounted and placed on exhibition during the year, but nearly all the skins
received during the past twelve months still remain packed up in cases, the funds of the
552 Proceedings.
Institute not being sufficient to keep a tazidermist continuously at work. The most
urgent requirements in the Museum are now table cases, through the want of which the
greater portion of the mineralogical collection has to be stowed awayin bozes. A large
show-case for the collection of New Zealand birds is much needed, as also fittings for
packing away duplicates, specimens selected for ezchanges, etc.
Library.—The Council have to acknowledge the receipt of a grant of £95, under the
Public Libraries Subsidies Act. This amount has been expended in the purchase of
standard scientific works, and the books are now on their way from London. The Pro-
vincial Library still continues under the care of the Institute, under the very unsatisfactory
arrangement first made with the Government, as mentioned in the last report. The
number of readers has been large, and is still increasing.
No action has been taken by the Government in reference to the endowment of the
Museum. The Council very much regret that this is the case, for they cannot conceal
the fact that the revenue of the Institute—always much too small for the proper fulfil-
ment of its duties—does not increase in nearly the same proportion as the demands upon
it. There can be no doubt that if Auckland is to possess a public museum and library
worthy of the name, an assured and stable income must be granted for its support, and
that in no case should either the museum or library depend entirely for its existence
upon the precarious and fluctuating revenue derived from annual subscriptions. The
Council trust that the Auckland members of Parliament will, during its next session,
endeavour to obtain some permanent source of revenue for the institution.
The annual balance-sheet showed the receipts to be £525 17s. 2d, (including the
balance of £74 16s. 8d. carried from last year’s accounts). The expenditure amounted to
£496 8s. 1d., leaving a balance of £29 9s. 1d.
Erection or Orricers ror 1879 :—President—Rev. A. G. Purchas,
M.R.C.S.E.; Council—R. C. Barstow, Rev. J. Bates, J. L. Campbell, M.D.,
J. C. Firth, His Honour Mr. Justice Gillies, T. Heale, Hon. Col. Haultain,
G. M. Mitford, J. Stewart, M. Inst. C.E., T. F. 8. Tinne, F. Whitaker ;
Auditor—T. Macffarlane ; Secretary and Treasurer—T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.8.
On the motion of Mr. Ewington, seconded by Col. Haultain, it was resolved —
“That the thanks of this meeting be accorded to those gentlemen, whose generosity
to the Institute during the past year has enabled the Council to lay before it such a
gratifying report."
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PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY.
First Meetine. Tth March, 1878.
Professor von Haast, F.R.S., President, in the chair.
The President read his opening address. (Transactions, p. 495.)
Second MzzriNG. 4th April, 1878.
Professor von Haast, President, in the chair.
New Members.—G. L. Mellish, W. Kitson, A. Lean, N. K. Cherill, C. W.
Adams.
1. “Further Observations on Banks Peninsula,” by Professor von
Haast, F.R.S. (Transactions, p. 495.)
2. “On the Rock Paintings in the Weka Pass," by A. Mackenzie
Cameron, Interpreter of Oriental Languages to the Government of New
South Wales; communicated by Professor J. von Haast, Ph.D., F.R.S.
(Transactions, p. 154.) ;
8. * Remarks on Mr. Mackenzie Cameron’s Theory respecting the Kahui
Tipua," by J. W. Stack.
Tump Meeting. 2nd May, 1878.
The Rev. J. W. Stack, Vice-president, in the chair.
New Members.—Henry Sealy, H. M. Lund.
Fourra Meeting. 6th June, 1878.
Professor von Haast, President, in the chair.
New Member.—J. Broham.
1. “On some Coccide in New Zealand," by W. M. Maskell. (Trans-
actions, p. 187.)
Firta Meeting. 4th July, 1878.
Professor von Haast, President, in the chair.
New Member.—W. E. Ivey.
1. “On some Coccide in New Zealand" (second paper), by W. M.
Maskell. (Transactions, p. 187.) A40
554 Proceedings.
2. “On a Hymenopterous Insect parasitic on Coccide," by W. M.
Maskell. (Transactions, p. 228.)
8. * On Temporary and Variable Stars," by Prof. A. W. Bickerton,
F.C.S., Associate of the Royal School of Mines, London. (Transactions,
p. 118.)
SixrH MEETING., 1st August, 1878.
Professor von Haast, President, in the chair.
New Members.—G. Grey, G. Wilkinson, J. W. Bruce.
1. “On some Coccide in New Zealand" (third paper), by W. M.
Maskell. (Transactions, p. 187.)
2. *Partial Impact: a possible Explanation of the Origin of the
Solar System, Comets, and other Phenomena of the Universe," by Prof.
A. W. Bickerton. (Transactions, p. 125.)
SEvENTH MzzTING. 12th September, 1878.
Professor von Haast, President, in the chair.
New Members.—Dr. Doyle, Dr. Ellis, W. P. Cowlishaw, A. Reischik.
1. * On the Calculation of Distances by Means of Reciprocal Vertical.
Angles," by C. W. Adams. (Transactions, p. 182.)
Eicurg Mretinc. 8rd October, 1878.
Professor von Haast, President, in the chair.
New Members.—J. von Tunzleman, A. D. Dobson, G. McIntyre.
ANNUAL GENERAL MxzgrING. Tth November, 1878.
Professor von Haast, President, in the chair.
Exection or Orricers ror 1879 :— President—Professor Bickerton ; Vice-
presidents—J. Inglis, R. W. Fereday ; Council—Rev. J. W. Stack, Professor
Cook, Dr. Powell, Professor von Haast, Dr. Coward, G. W. Hall; Auditors—
W. D. Carruthers, C. R. Blakiston; Hon. Treasurer—W. M. Maskell; Hon.
Secretary—J. S. Guthrie.
ABSTRACT OF ANNUAL REPORT.
The Council congratulate the Institute on the increase of their numbers, nineteen
new members having joined during the session, The Council have had under their con-
sideration the propriety of establishing monthly popular lectures in connection with the
Institute, but were unable to make any arrangements for the past session. They, how-
ever, strongly urge upon their successors the desirableness of making some definite
arrangements for such lectures during the next session.
Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. 555
The microscopical section has held thirteen meetings during the year, and the attend-
ance has been most satisfactory. As this has been the first year's work of the section, it
could hardly be expected that more than preliminary work could be done. A large
number of preparations—nearly 200—have been exhibited at the meetings, and the
members have been assiduous also in private work. The work of the different meetings
has embraced marine and fresh-water Alge, anatomical and botanical specimens, in great
variety. Original research in entomology has been undertaken by one member, and four
papers resulting therefrom have been read before the Institute.
e Council, feeling that one of the great aims of this Institute is the encouragement
of Art, and the spread of its knowledge amongst the people of this district, have decided
to obtain the principal publications of the Arundel Society.
The Treasurer’s report shows a balance in hand of £136 2s. 7d.
1. * On Desis robsoni, a Marine Spider from Cape Campbell,” by
Llewellyn Powell, M.D. (Transactions, p. 263.)
OTAGO INSTITUTE.
First Meeting, 14ih May, 1878.
W. N. Blair, President, in the chair.
New Members.—Prof. Ulrich, J. H. Pope, A. Y. Smith, F. Howlett, Jno.
Allan, J. D. Walker, J. Galloway.
1. Prof. Hutton exhibited specimens of Graptolites fruticosus, Hall, and (apparently)
G. gracilis, Hall, from the Nelson District, which had been presented to the Museum by
Prof. Ulrich. Both these species occur in lower silurian rocks in Australia and North
America.
Prof. Hutton also exhibited a specimen of the rare six-wired Bird of Paradise (Parotia
sefilata) from North New Guinea.
2. “On Antarctic Exploration," by C. W. Purnell.
p. 81.)
8. “ Notes on Cleistogamic Flowers of the Genus Viola,” by Geo. M.
Thomson. (Transactions, p. 415.)
(Transactions,
Second Meeting. 28th May, 1878.
W. Arthur, Vice-president, in the chair.
New Member.—M. H. Aikman-Gray.
Mr. Petrie, M.A., gave a lecture on “ The Science of the Weather."
Tamb Meeting. 11th June, 1878.
W. Arthur, Vice-president, in the chair.
New Members.—Maxwell Bury, P. G. Pryde.
1. “The Sea Anemones of New Zealand," by Prof. Hutton.
(Trans-
actions, p. 908.)
2. “ On the Means of Fertilization among some New Zealand Orchids,”
by Geo. M. Thomson. (Transactions, p. 418.)
FovarH MzrrmG. 25th June, 1878.
W. N. Blair, President, in the chair.
New Member.—A. Buechler.
Prof. Hutton gave a lecture on ** The Fauna of New Zealand."
Otago Institute, 557
Frrrg Mertinc. 9th July, 1878.
W. N. Blair, President, in the chair.
New Members.—Dr. Ferguson, F. Jeffcoat, junr., J. Morrison, R.
Sparrow, J. Cormack.
1. * On the Brown Trout introduced into Otago,” by W. Arthur, C.E.,
(Transactions, p. 271.)
— ——
Srxta Meeting. 15th July, 1878.
W. N. Blair, President, in the chair.
The Hon. Robert Stout, Attorney-General, gave a lecture entitled “ A
Plea for the Study of Politics.”
Sevento Meeting. 18th August, 1878.
Prof. Hutton, Vice-president, in the chair.
New Members.—R. H. Leary, Wm. Taylor, J. Forsyth, Jas. Arkle.
1. “Our Fish Supply," by P. Thomson. (Transactions, p. 880.)
2. ** A Description of inexpensive Apparatus for measuring the Angles
of Position and Distances of Double Stars, and the Method of using it," by
James H. Pope. (Transactions, p. 141.)
3. "New Zealand Crustacea, with Descriptions of new Species,” by
George M. Thomson. (Transactions, p. 230.)
4. “ Descriptions of two new Crabs," by Prof. Hutton.
5. “ Notes on the New Zealand Shells in the ‘ Voyage au Pôle Sud', "'
by Prof. Hutton.
Ersmru Mrerine. 10th September, 1878.
W. Arthur, Vice-president, in the chair.
New Members.—R. Peattie, A. Herdman.
Prof. Hutton exhibited two eggs of the Nelly or Stink-pot (Ossifraga gigantea) from
Macquarie Islands, which had been presented to the Museum by Mr. John Cormack
1. “On a new Species of Millepora (M. undulosa), from Foveaux
Strait,” by the Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, of Sydney; communicated by
Prof. Hutton. (Transactions, p. 345.)
2. * Notes on a Collection from the Auckland Islands and Campbell
Island," by Prof. Hutton. (Transactions, p. 337.)
8. “On Phalacrocorax carunculatus, Gmelin,” by Prof. Hutton. (Trans-
actions, p. 882.)
558 Proceedings.
4. “ Description of a new Crustacean from the Auckland Islands,” by
George M. Thomson. (Transactions, p. 249.)
Ninto Meetine. 24th September, 1878.
W. N. Blair, President, in the chair.
New Members.—C. H. Robson, A. Moritzson.
The Rev. A. R. Fitchett gave a lecture on “Domestic Aisthetics, and
the Higher Education of Women.”
Trento Meeting. 8th October, 1878.
Prof. Hutton, Vice-president, in the chair.
New Members.—Mrs. Edwards, Miss V. Edwards, W. G. Jenkins.
1. ** On Magnetic Dip," by A. H. Ross.
ABSTRACT.
After describing the nature of magnetic dip and the circumstances that
led to its discovery, the author proceeds to state that “the first magnetical
observation taken on the shores of New Zealand of which I can find any
record was taken by Captain Cook at Dusky Bay in May, 1773, one hun-
dred and five years ago. He then found by three different needles the
variation or declination to be 18° 49’ E., and the dip or inclination 70° 5’ 45".
The next observation, in the same place, was taken by Captain Stokes in
1851, the declination then being 15? 34' E., and the inclination 69? 47', the
decrease in the angle of inclination having been 18' 45” in seventy-eight
years. lt is not at all improbable, however, that the inclination was
inereasing in 1778, and having attained its maximum at some period of
which we have no record, had decreased to the amount observed by Captain
Stokes in 1851.
** The inclination of the needle is also subject to diurnal variation, being
in the morning of each day 4' greater than in the afternoon ; it also changes
when the needle is elevated to considerable heights.
“I have made these few remarks in reference to the inclination with a
view of compensating for the dryness of what is really my paper of to-
night, and which consists solely of a tabulated statement of observations
made by me during a recent voyage from England, chiefly with the object
of ascertaining the position in reference to the geographical equator of the
point in the magnetic equator over which our vessel passed, and which is
shown to have been situated in latitude 8? 80' S. and longitude 25? 30' W.
The observations were taken whenever practicable by means of an instru-
ment specially constructed for the purpose by Mr. Casella, of London. At
the commencement of the voyage, the case containing my instruments was
Otago Institute, 559
unfortunately by mistake placed in the hold, so that about a fortnight
elapsed after starting before any observation could be taken. It was also
impracticable, through stress of weather, to take observations for several
consecutive days, during which the southern dip had increased from 85°
to 569."
OBSERVATIONS or THE DIP or THE Macnetic NEEDLE, TAKEN DURING VOYAGE FROM
ENGLAND to NEW ZEALAND.
Moy Long. Dip pcr Long. Dip. M Long. E.| Dip.
30? 19' 19° 41’ W. | 63° 30/| 21° 55’ 30? 21’ 19° || 44° 26’ | 52° 30'| 69°
7 15 21 30 62 26 94 32 38 0 || 44 16 | 54 02| 6
23 50 er 60 30|| 30 35 31 34 3 | 44 25 | 57 23| 70
20 46 23 56 57 00) 33 32 27 b5 0-1 44 63 95 )
18 46 25 32 55 00| 34 98 22 46 31 44 : 68 30 )
15 33 25 43 51 00 37 20 : 44 20 | 74 07 )
14 50 25 48 49 30|| 36 22 16 : 43! 79 17 )
10 42 25 00 32 0| 39 24 0 98 W. 45 ( 15
8 08 28 14 26 0| 39 35 2 05 E. 44 18 |107 40| 1
61540" | 21 59 22 30| 39 49 > 20 45 22 |117 59 )
4 19 19 18 21 0) 40 37 3 05 46 19 |194 30
2 52 19 34 10 Oj 41 16 06 46 130 181 82
0 3 20 45 0| 42 12 30 > | 47 09 |137 00 )
7318 22 47 0| 42 26 22 30 46 143 30
6 02 24 58 N. || 42 8 27 00 46 56 |150 30
8 3 25 30 Nil 49 4 81 £ ( 46 28 |155 €
94 25 47 43 4 86 41 64 45 ] 158 4 f
18 13 27 33 0) 42 5 39 03 69 45 10 |160 3 ;
15 10 27 46 0|| 41 4 40 36 66 | 47 12 |164 12] 1
16 16 27 42 10 0) 42 29 44 1 68 || 48 30 |167 30| 80
18 22 98 19 17 0| 43 0 48 0 68 = —
2. ““ Notes on the Life History of Charagia virescens,” by the Rev. C. H.
Gossett; communicated by Prof. Hutton. (Transactions, p. 347.)
3. “ Description of a new Species of Coprosma,” by D. Petrie, M.A.
(Transactions, p. 426.)
4. ““ List of the New Zealand Cirripedia in the Otago Museum,” by
Prof. Hutton. (Transactions, p. 328.)
b. ** Notes on some New Zealand Echinodermata, with Descriptions of
new Species,” by Prof. Hutton. (Transactions, p. 305.)
6. “On a new Infusorian parasitic on Patella argentea," by Prof.
Hutton. (Transactions, p. 880.)
ErzvgxrH Meeting. 22nd October, 1878.
W. Arthur, Vice-president, in the chair.
The Hon. Robert Stout, M.H.R., was chosen to vote in the election of the Board
of Governors for the ensuing year in accordance with clause 7 of * The New Zealand
Institute Act."
560 Proceedings.
The nomination for the election of honorary members of the New Zealand Institute
was made in accordance with Statute IV.
Prof. Scott gave a lecture on “ The Mechanism of Voice and Speech.”
Tweurtu Meetinc. 26th November, 1878.
W. N. Blair, President, in the chair.
1. ** On the Scientific Form of Harbours," by W. G. Jenkins.
2. ** Note accompanying Specimens of the Black Rat ( Mus rattus, L.),”
by Taylor White; communicated by Prof. Hutton. (Transactions, p. 948.)
. * Descriptions of some new Slugs,” by Prof. Hutton. (Trans-
actions, p. 331.)
4. “ Description of a new Species of Isopodous Crustacean (Idotea),"
by George M. Thomson. (Transactions, p. 250.)
. “On the New Zealand Zntomostraca,' by George M. Thomson.
(Transactions, p. 251.)
ANNUAL GENERAL Meeting. 5th February, 1879.
W. N. Blair, President, in the chair.
New Members.—T. B. Low, — Williams, of Shag Point.
The Report of the Council was read and adopted.
ANNUAL REPORT.
The Council has much pleasure in presenting its Annual Report to the members of
this Institute, and in congratulating them on the progress made.
During the last session, thirteen General Meetings have been held. At five of
these, lectures were delivered to large and appreciative audiences, and the Council
would take this opportunity of recommending the continuance of these popular lectures,
as tending to foster a more general interest in the success of the Institute. The other
eight meetings were devoted to the reading of papers, and were fairly attended. At
these, twenty-five papers were read by twelve authors, of whom two are resident in the
North Island, and one in Sydney. This is the largest number of papers yet read in one
year before the Institute, the numbers for 1875, 1876, and 1877 being respectively = =.
and 16. Of these papers, sixteen relate to Zoology, three to Botany, and six
cellaneous subjects.
Since the last Annual Meeting, 29 new members have joined the Institute. Against
this addition, however, 41 names have been removed from the list, of members who have
died, retired, or left the district, leaving a total membership of 212. One member has
become a life-member
e balance- alesis shows that the receipts for the year amounted to £264 2s. 11d.
(including a balance from last year of £64 2s. 11d.), while the expenditure was £205
15s. 9d., leaving a balance in the Treasurer’s hands of £58 7s. 2d. There is also a sum
of £79 8s. 5d. in the Government Savings Bank to the credit of the Institute.
Otago Institute, 561
ELECTION or OFFICERS ror 1879 :—President—Prof. Hutton; Vice-
presidents—W. N. Blair, C.E., Prof. Scott; Council—W. Arthur, C.E.,
Robert Gillies, F.L.S., Dr. Hocken, A. Montgomery, D. Petrie, J. C.
Thomson, Prof, Ulrich; Hon. Secretary—Geo. M. Thomson; Hon,
Treasurer—H. Skey ; Auditor—J. S. Webb.
The retiring President read the following
ADDRESS;
It has become the custom for the retiring President to address you on the work of
the session, the aims and prospects of the Institute, or the prominent scientific topics of
the day. I cannot do better than follow in the same strain, but instead of confining
myself to one of these subjects, I shall glance shortly at all of them in succession. So
far as the last head is concerned, anything of a general character that I can say on
current scientific questions must be second-hand. You can get it in a more attractive
form in the thousand-and-one addresses and articles that flow annually from the scientific
press throughout the world. I shall therefore only consider it in so far as it applies to
the material progress of the colony.
The Otago Institute has now entered on the tenth year of its existence. Its career
can scarcely be characterized as brilliant; it has not brought to light wonderful dis-
coveries in science, nor propounded strange doctrines in philosophy; still its progress has
been steady, and it has done useful work in promoting the cause of science and th
general well-being of the state.
The work during the last session has been up to the average of previous years.
Twenty-five papers were read at the ordinary meetings, and five lectures were delivered at
what are called the popular meetings. Of the twenty-five papers nineteen were on subjects
of Natural History, nine of them having been contributed by Professor Hutton, and six by
Mr. G. M. Thomson. Those of us who heard these papers read or commented on, could
not help being struck by the scientific skill and care displayed by their authors, in investi-
gating the subjects under consideration, and the exactness with which every minutia of
form and organism was delineated and described. I have no doubt many of the facts thus
recorded will be highly prized by the scientists of the old world. Specialists here and
there will perchance find among them the clue to some great truth that otherwise might
never be revealed.
The ERE Jl bjects. My absence from Dunedin
srs. Pope and Ross but I
prevented me hearing the two relating to Navigation by Mes
understand they formed a valuable contribution to the literature of Nautical Science.
Mr. Purnell’s paper on Antarctic Exploration opens up a world of speculation as to
the direction in which the adventurous spirit of the New Zealander of the future will find
an outlet. Doubtless the discovery of the South Pole will some day become as much an
object of ambition to the Briton of the South as the North Pole now is to his elder
brother.
Two interesting and valuable papers on kindred subjects—acclimatized and native
fish—were read by Messrs. Arthur and Thomson; the former described the steps that have
from time to time been taken to stock the Otago streams with brown trout and the success
that has been achieved. We trust that Mr. Arthur will supplement his contribution of
this year by a similar treatise on the other acclimatized wild animals. Mr. Thomson’s
labours, in having for three successive years taken a daily note of genes 4 fish in
562 Proceedings.
the market, in ume io emi e mem oach kind is in season, deserve great praise.
What are now llington and Auckland. A comparison
of the results at the three places would give data cae which could be deduced a tolerably
correct idea of the habits and peeuliarities of the common native fishes.
Thelast of the miscellaneous papers is by Mr. Jenkins, on the scientific form of
harbours. Although some of the conclusions may not be considered orthodox from
an engineering point of view, it contains much valuable information on a subject of
popular interest, consequently the paper is well deserving of a place among our records.
The five publie lectures given on the alternate fortnights during the session were well
attended. They are useful adjuncts to our means of disseminating information, and tend
to popularize the Institute. The lectures were all of a high class, interesting and instruc-
tive, and elevating in tone and character. The ^A who delivered them have
earned our best thanks for the trouble they took in the matter
In looking back on the career of the Otago Institute, * am interested in comparing its
actual work with what I expected from it. Although I had no immediate share in estab-
lishing the Institute, I claim to have at an early date suggested its formation. In
September, 1866, a year before the New Zealand Institute Act was passed, and three years
before the Otago branch was established, the ** Daily Times" published a letter of mine
on the subject. This letter defined what I considered should be the objects of such an
association in a new country, and the means by which they were likely to be attained.
Briefly the objects were to be :—The investigation of the natural resources of the country
from an industrial point of view, and their fitness to our everyday wants; the develop-
ment of manufactures; the” encouragement of the construction of labour-saving
machinery; and the consideration of engineering works Mec in their application to
the requirements of the eountry.
The means suggested for attaining these objeets were what are now followed in the
papers, discussions and Transactions of the Institute, together with the establishment of
an Industrial Museum
Thirteen years have passed away since the above ideas were crudely expressed, but
they have brought no material change in my opinions. As shown by Sir George Bowen,
in his opening address to the parent society in Wellington in 1868, I hold that the
Principal object in the establishment of the New Zealand Institute is to facilitate the
practical work of colonization
I do not for one moment deprecate the efforts of those who devote all their energies
to the investigation of purely scientific subjects; New Zealand, from its geographical
position at the extreme end of the habitable globe, its peculiarities in Natural History,
and its newness in almost every sense, will long remain an object of the greatest interest
to scientific men. What I regret is that practical science should occupy far less of our
deliberations than its theoretical confrere, whereas their positions should, in my opinion,
be reversed. I would not, however, like to see the number of scientifie men reduced.
What is wanted is, that a somewhat more practical bias should be given to their studies—
a great increase in the number of workers in applied science, and increased enthusiasm
amongst the few that do exist. If half the energy that is sometimes displayed in con-
sidering the microscopic distinction between two species of animaleules was only applied
to the investigation of our mineral resources, the result would be an inealeulable benefit
to the whole community.
The present state of things is probably caused by the fact that the prizes in the arena
of pure science are greater than in the more praetiealfield. A comparatively unimportant
Otago Institute. 568
discovery at once brings the theoretical searcher into communication with the whole world
of science, but the practical worker may spend a lifetime in developing the resources of
the country and promoting the interests of his fellow-colonists, without being known or
recognized outside the narrow sphere of his labo
Instead of occupying his time in the study of abstruse theories which may well be
left to the master minds of the old world, I think the labours of our scientific men of all
kinds should be confined to the recording of observed facts in pure science, and the fuller
investigation of such subjects as have a direct bearing on the practical work of coloniza-
tion. Instead of speculating on the causes of earthquakes, the oscillations of land and
sea, and the age of the moa, geologists, if they do not actually search for our minerals
themselves, should at least define the age, extent and direction of the various geological
formations, so as to indicate the localities in which minerals are likely to be found.
Instead of investigating the peculiarities of some minute lichen found only on Mount Cook
or Mount Egmont, our botanists should first exhaust the study of the forest trees, their
rate of growth, general habits, and facility of reproduction.
We might in this way run round the “circle of the sciences,” giving the positive
and negative duties in each case, but it will be better ifI simply refer to what has already
been done in the cause of industrial science throughout the colony and what remains to
be done within the jurisdiction of our Institute.
The New Zealand Exhibition of 1865 was the first and only systematic attempt made
to investigate our resources. Considering it was collated at such an early stage of our
history, and in a comparatively short time, the information contained in the jurors’ reports
is wonderfully complete and correct. The collection of 1865 has never undergone a
general revision. Several of the subjects have been taken up individually by subsequent
observers and the information amplified, but the results are diffused through so many
varied publications, and so mixed up with extraneous matter, that they are scarcely
available. To this day the reports, as they originally stood, form the only compendium
we have of the resources and industries of the colony. Nearly all the important additions
that have lately been made to our information on these subjects have been contributed by
the Native Industry Committee of Parliament, and by Dr. Hector, Professor Hutton, Mr.
Kirk, and the staff of the Colonial Museum; there are few amateurs in the field of practical
Science.
The prineipal subjects that have received special attention are :—Deposits of gold
and coal; conservation of forests; qualities of soils; properties of native grasses ; edible
fishes; cultivation of Phormium, together with a few others of less importance. Dr.
Hector’s assistants—Messrs. Skey and Buchanan—haye each in his own department done
great’ service to the cause of science, theoretically and practically. Mr. Skey’s original
researches in the chemistry of our native products deserve more than the passing notice I
can give, Each successive volume of the Transactions bears testimony to his untiring
application.
What is now wanted is that the information already obtained on each subject should
be collected and arranged in a systematic form, so as to be readily ayailable to all.
Blanks should be filled up where possible, and when this cannot be done, their existence
should be pointed out, so that future observers may explore new groun nd.
In Geology much yet remains to be done ; the Government geologists fip the
colony have accomplished as much as could reasonably be expected of the ti
and with the means at their disposal. But it amounts to little more cue a general
indication of the locale of ihe different formations; the details of strike, inclination,
564 Proceedings.
faults, mineral veins, and the hundred other particulars that constitute a complete survey
are still wanting. It will be many years before the State can supply them. Why should
the work not be done, to a great extent, by amateurs, for its own sake? It seems to me
as interesting as fern-hunting, or the other botanical pursuits that are so popular. There
are few districts in New Zealand that present greater inducements to geological research
than the one immediately surrounding Dunedin. Every square mile speaks a volume,
still there is not one page written. It is difficult to enumerate specifically the subjects in
economic geology, about which information is most wanted, as there are so few about
which our knowledge is in any way complete. Professors Hutton and Ulrich have given a
concise summary of the present information in the ** Geology of Otago,” but it is mainly
useful in showing that the field is practically unexplored.
The labours of Dr. Hector, Mr. Kirk, Capt. Campbell Walker and Mr. Buchanan,
have thrown great light on economie botany so far as Phormium, timber-trees, and grasses
are concerned, but the subject is by no means exhausted. We are still in the dark as to
the habits, age, growth, habitat in relation to soil, elevation and climate, reproduction and
eultivation, and numerous other partieulars regarding the useful plants of the colony.
e chemistry of our native produets is perhaps less known than any other of their
attributes, As already stated, Mr. Skey's incessant labours have determined the consti-
tuents and properties of many of them, and Professor Black has also done good service in
the same direction. But the field is so extensive, and the labourers are so few, that we
ean only consider the study as begun. The work already done bears about the same
proportion to what is required as the meridian lines do to the other markings on a
map. We want to ascertain the constituents of almost every product of the three natural
kingdoms before they are utilized. It is chemists that tell us if our ores are payable; if
our soils are productive; if our building stones are durable ; if our mortars are tenacious ;
and if our food is wholesome. Without the information they can furnish, our material
progress would be slow indeed, a mere groping in the dark.
In addition to the service he can render in analysing raw materials, the chemist in a
new country has a wider field for original research than his compeer at home. He has
before him every day substances to which chemical tests have never been applied, conse-
quently his chances of being a discoverer are greatly increased. This alone should be an
incentive to perseverance in every student of chemistry.
ublication in a systematic form of the analyses of native products, made at the
various kisii throughout the ecg would be a great boon to all who are interested
in the promotion of applied scien
Turning now from natural science to the sciences that affect our interests as com-
munities, we have numerous subjects worthy of a place in our deliberations. For instance,
the sanitary condition of our towns; water supply; drainage and cleanliness in general.
Intereommunication—postal, telegraph—and by means of roads, railways and steamers ;
the construction of harbours, and devastation by flood. All of these subjects are of vital
importance to the community, and their consideration comes fairly within the functions
of the Institute, still they are seldom discussed.
The development of manufactures is one of the most important, intricate and uncer-
tain of the many subjects with which a new country has to deal; so much is it dependent
on Free Trade and the other considerations of political economy. The all-important
question ‘ will it pay” comes in at every step, and each case is influenced by surrounding
circumstance, consequently it must be settled on its merits. No general rule can be laid
down on the subject. For these reasons the question of establishing manufactures is
Otago Institute. - 565
one that can legitimately be discussed by the Institute. Many of the failures that have
taken place might have been averted and thousands of pounds saved, had the matters
been fully investigated beforehand; for example, the Taranaki iron-sand. It is well-
known among scientific and practical men that, although repeatedly tried in other places,
these sands have never been profitably reduced to metal in large quantities. If the
existence of this fact had been generally known throughout New Zealand, the chances are
that the great Taranaki experiment had not been made—an experiment that has caused
much heart-burning and loss to the shareholders of the company, and brought discredit
on the whole colony in the eyes of the scientific world.
There are negative benefits that would be conferred by the discussion of questions
relating to manufactures. On the other hand such diseussions would confer positive
benefits on the community by indicating the channels into which these industries could
be turned. There are many articles of manufacture which could be profitably produced
in New Zealand with native materials, now lying dormant, and nothing but a full know-
ledge of the case is wanted to establish the trade.
To summarize the position, a wide and intelligent investigation and discussion of the
question, such as an Institute of this kind should be capable of bestowing on it, is sufficient
to make or mar any scheme of colonial manufacture that is proposed.
In connection with this part of the subject, Tam often struck by the comparison
between my ideas of manufactures in 1866, already referred to, and what the realization
is in 1879. I then talked of, as in the future—manufactures to produce the necessaries of
life— flour, beer, leather, and woollen goods.” We have long passed that stage; we
produce more of them than we can consume, consequently they are becoming articles of
export. If our progress in this direction for the next thirteen years is in proportion to
the past, the question of manufactures will become of vital interest to the colony at large.
One of the most powerful aids in the development of our resources, and their utiliza-
tion in the arts, is the establishment of an Industrial Museum in Dunedin. The one we
have is practically a Natural History Museum. As such it is an invaluable and necessary
adjunct to the machinery of the University; consequently the one I suggest does not
come into competition with it, their objects being quite distinct. An Industrial Museum
in New Zealand should constitute a complete compendium of our information on the
economic resources and manufacturing progress of the colony, inscribed not only in
written records, but in a systematic arrangement of specimens and samples of all kinds
and from every locality; and in order to facilitate comparison, each class should be
accompanied by types from other countries.
In addition to the information usually given, such as analysis, weight, strength, nna
other inherent properties, the extent of supply and cost of production, as compared w
the imported type, should be shown on each article.
An objection may be raised to such a museum on the ground that it might degenerate
into an advertising medium. Possibly it would be used by producers and manufacturers
as such, but that isa minor evil. While the community is benefited to however small
an extent, the question of personal profit may be disregarded. And if we analyse critieally
the moving power in the great exhibitions of all nations in older countries, it will be
found that advertising and individual preferment generally are the main springs in those
grand machines whose pulsations vibrate through every artery in the industrial world.
In addition to raw materials and ordinary manufactures, the museum would contain
models and drawings of mines, machinery, and engineering works.
One great drawback hitherto to the establishment of an Industrial Museum in
Dunedin was the want of a director, but that want has lately been supplied in Professor
566 Proceedings.
Ulrich. I have no doubt the seed will now be planted, and his skilful care and guidance
will train it into a goodly tree whose fruit is knowledge and wealth to the community at
large.
I have taken up so much of your time in the consideration of the two first heads of
my subject that a passing reference only can be made to the last—the state of applied
science in the colony. It might have been interesting to trace our material progress in
intereommunieation within the last few years, the facilities that now exist for the
exchange not only of commodities, but of ideas, as compared with what they were when
the Institute was founded. And to speculate as to what the future will bring forth. The
astounding discoveries made every day in practical electricity alone are sufficient to enlarge
our expectations to the verge of the impossible. Already the heavenly bodies are rivalled
in the brilliancy of artificial light, and I believe the day is not far distant when man can
convey his thoughts to his fellows through a thousand miles of ocean without the inter-
vention of his senses by the mere force of volition conveyed along the electric wire, or
perchance even without that medium.
onclusion, I would impress on all the members of the Otago Institute the desira-
bility of observing and recording whatsoever may seem to them new facts, no matter how
trivial they appear. Considering the opportunities we enjoy as residents in a new country
we are woefully remiss in this duty, and no class is so culpable as my own professional
brethren—engineers and surveyors. Much of this apathy is probably due to a want of
confidence in our own knowledge or judgment. The amateur is afraid of appearing
ignorant in the eyes of the expert. What he considers new and unique may turn out to
be old and commonplace. In the old world, where every path of scientific knowledge is
trodden bare by ages of research, such a danger exists, but it is not the case here. All
the recorded observations on any particular subject can be mastered in a few days, so the
remainder of the field is equally free and open to all comers.
By exercising their observant faculties to a moderate extent, embracing the oppor-
tunities they have of observing and afterwards recording the result in a systematic
manner, the members of the Otago Institute would gain credit to themselves, and confer
an inestimable benefit on all their fellow-colonists.
HAWKE BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE.
First Meeting, 13th May, 1878.
S. Locke in the chair.
1. “A Memorandum of my First Journey to the Ruahine Mountain
Range, and of the Flora of that Region " (Part I.), by W. Colenso, F.L.S.
ANNUAL GENERAL Meeting, 8rd June, 1878.
J. G. Kinross in the chair.
New Members.—The Right Rev. the Bishop of Waiapu, Dr. Wood, Dr.
De Lisle, Mr. W. J. Miller, Mr. J. W. Thomson.
ELECTION or OFFICERS ror 1878-9 :— President —The Hon. J. D. Ormond,
M.H.R.; Vice-president— The Right Rev. the Bishop of Waiapu ; Council—
Messrs. Colenso, Kinross, Locke, Miller, Smith, Spencer, and Sturm;
Hon. Secretary and Treasurer—W. Colenso ; Auditor—T. K. Newton.
Resolved—That for the future the annual meeting shall be held in February instead
of June
ABSTRACT OF ANNUAL REPORT
During the past year three ordinary meetings have been held, at which five papers by
members were read.
Of the sixty-nine members whose names were printed in our last year's report, one
has since died (our former esteemed vice-president, the late Bishop of Waiapu, Dr.
Williams, whose death the Council regrets to have to record) and five have removed from
Hawke Bay, leaving sixty. three on the roll. To these will have to be added the names of
five new members lately admitted, making a present total of sixty-eight.
The books for the library, mentioned in last year's report, were duly sent out per
*Queen Bee, which ship, however, was totally lost in Cook Strait. Those books were
insured, and were re-ordered, and have subsequently been received here. An additional
lot, to the amount of £65, has also been selected and ordered by the Council.
During the past year a few desirable objects and botanieal speeimens have been
collected by a few members for the Museum.
The statement of accounts shows a balance of £120 15s. 5d. to the credit of the
Institute, besides the sum of £100 placed in the Bank of New Zealand as a fixed deposit.
Second MEETING. 10th June, 1878.
The Right Rev. the Bishop of Waiapu, Vice-president, in the chair.
1. “ Notes on the Metamorphosis of one of our largest Moths, Dasypodia
selenophora,” by W. Colenso, F.L.S. (Transactions, p. 300.)
The reared moth was also shown.
,
568 Proceedings.
2. ** On the Moa (Dinornis, sp.)," by W. Colenso, F.L.S.
This was part I. of the author's paper on that extinct genus, comprising (1) the
original paper written by him in 1841-42, and published in * The Tasmanian Journal of
Natural Science,” Vol. IL, and (2) illustrative notes.
Several very fine specimens of Bones of the Moa from Poverty Bay, in excellent
preservation, were also exhibited, and a considerable discussion followed.
Tum» Meerine. 8th July, 1878.
Owing to the severity of the weather, very few members were present, and so the
meeting was adjourned for a week.
FovgTH.MxxrING. 15th July, 1878.
There being but a very few members present no papers were read; but new Scientific
Books, Plates, and Specimens were examined.
Firra MzzrING. 12th August, 1878.
T. K. Newton in the chair.
1. * Notes on the Genus Callorhynchus, with a Description of an
undescribed New Zealand Species," by W. Colenso, F.L.S. (Transactions,
p. 298.)
2. ‘Contributions towards a better Knowledge of the Maori Race," by
W. Colenso, F.L.S. (Transactions, p. 77.)
This paper was illustrated by many ancient Maori specimens; and by the plates in
Cook's Voyages (original 4to edition), by plates in Parkinson's Journal, and also by
sketches taken by Mr. Colenso when travelling on the East Coast of the North Island
in 1837-38
BixrH Meeting. 9th September, 1878.
S. Carnell in the chair.
1. “On the beneficial Raising of Trees suited for Timber and Firewood,”
by F. W. C. Sturm.
I beg to make a few remarks on the production of a most necessary
article of daily want, that is, Firewood and Timber, both of which this
part of New Zealand at least will feel the want of in a few years, as our
indigenous forests, such as are easily approachable, are rapidly disappearing.
It is therefore necessary that provision should be made to guard against
such a want; itis of course the duty of a Government, or those to whom
the management of a State is entrusted, to provide not only for the present,
but likewise for future generations’ wants. It may be no easy task for the
present Government to find blocks of land suitable, and of easy access, near
the centres of population for such purposes, as nearly all, if not all the
land in such localities is in the possession of private parties; if, therefore,
our large land-owners would assist the Government, and set aside a few
Hawke Bay Philosophical Institute, 569
acres for forest plantations on their lands, it would greatly enhance
the value of their estates, and benefit both the present and a future
generation. The expense of planting a few acres would not be great, and
the benefit thereof would no doubt be very remunerative,
I will now point out a few varieties of such trees as are of rapid
growth, and suitable for this part of the country, I will say from the sea
coast to the foot of our mountain ranges, both North and South, from
Napier (on hills), either under grass or slightly covered with fern,—the
various sorts of pines, of which the seed could be sown where they should
remain, without transplanting, such as Pinus austriaca, or Austrian pine,
Pinus halepensis, Aleppo pine, P. maritima, P. lariceo, pinea, jeffreyi,
insignis, sabiniana, torreyana, and ponderosa; various sorts of Gums, as
Eucalyptus globulus or Tasmanian Blue Gum, Stringy Bark, etc., Robinia
pseudo-acacia (the thorny acacia), a tree of rapid growth; the timber is
very strong and durable, particularly suited for fencing-posts. Of the
following varieties the seeds should be sown in nursery beds, and when one
or two years old, transplanted; this would be more expensive than when
the seed can be sown where the trees are to remain, but as these are of
slow growth for the first year or two, the labour of keeping them clear of
weeds in open plantations would be too expensive. The following would
be suitable, and are of rapid growth after the first two years :—Abies
douglasii, menziesii, and excelsa, Californian and European Spruce, Laria
or Larch Pine, Ash, and Mountain Ash. The seeds of all those mentioned
are cheap and easily obtainable. Cuttings of the Elm, Plane, and Poplar,
which grow very freely, should be planted. The Alder, Almus glutinosa, is
likewise of rapid growth and makes good timber, and is particularly suited
for wet or swampy grounds, A mixed plantation of the various trees
mentioned would yield a good return in twenty or twenty-five years.
I will now give the size and age of a few varieties of some trees in my
grounds near Clive. All the trees are measured two feet above the surface
of the ground, the seeds of all were sown by myself; dates taken from my
diary,
Thuja knightii, 80 inches in circumference, or 10 inches in diameter;
about 20 feet high ; age, 8 years and 11 months.
Cupressus macrocarpa, 68 inches in circumference, or 21 inches in
diameter ; about 30 feet high; 10 years old.
Pinus maritima, 87 inches in circumference, or 12 inches in diameter;
26 feet high ; 7 years old.
Pinus austriaca, 88 inches in circumference, or 11 inches in diameter ;
18 feet high ; 7 years old. |
Pinus insignis, 46 inches in circumference, or 15 inches in diameter;
about 40 feet high ; 8 years and 11 months old. " 9e -
570 Proceedings.
Cryptomeria japonica, 29 inches in circumference, or 9 inches im
diameter; 24 feet high ; 7 years old.
Wellingtonia gigantea, 30 feet in circumference, or 10 inches in diameter ;
16 feet high; 4 years old.
Eucalyptus globulus, Blue Gum, 8 feet 10 inches in circumference, or 1
foot 8 inches in diameter; about 60 feet high ; 6 years old.
Platanus orientalis, Plane, 21 inches in circumference, or 7 inches in
diameter; 3 years 10 months old.
Poplus dilatata, or Lombardy Poplar, 3 feet 7 inches in circumference,
or 1 foot 2 inches in diameter; about 50 feet high ; 9 years old.
The last two sorts were grown out of cuttings. In the measurement of
the various trees I have omitted fractions.
. * On the Ignorance of the Ancient New Zealanders of the Use of
Projectile Weapons," by W. Colenso, F.L.S. (Transactions, p. 106.)
Mr. Sturm remarked that he personally knew of the first introduction in (the East
Coast of) New Zealand of the very toy-arrow described by Mr. C. Phillips in his paper,
which took place at Poverty Bay in 1850, where Mr. Sturm was then (and for some time
previous) a resident. In that year a young man," who had been a great voyager and
traveller, and who spoke several languages," joined Captain Harris’ whaling station party
in Poverty Bay, and he first made there this toy-arrow forthe Maori lads, and taught
them its use—as a plaything. The idle Maoris took to the novelty (as they mostly do)
and made many. Mr. Sturm had not yet seen Mr. Phillips’ description of the toy-arrow,
but fully described the same and its manner of use, offering, indeed, to make some of
them, and his whole account closely agreed with the description given by Mr. Phillips,
with one exception, that Mr. Sturm never knew of any set mark having been struck
by it
8. “ Further Notes? on Danais berenice.” In a letter from Mr. F. W.
O. Sturm to the Honorary Secretary, Hawke Bay Philosophieal Institute.
(Transactions, p. 805.)
Sevents Mretinc. 14th October, 1878.
The Right Rev. the Bishop of Waiapu, Vice-president, in the chair.
1. “Memoranda of a Journey in which he succeeded in crossing the
Ruahine Mountain Range, with Notes on the local Botany and Topography
of that District," (Part IL.) by W. Colenso, F.L.S.
At the close, Dr. Spencer proposed, and Mr. J. A. Smith seconded, a unanimous vote
of thanks to Mr. Colenso for his very interesting paper, which was also earnestly
supported by the Right Rev. Chairman, and warmly accorded by the meeting, with &
further particular wish, that the same should be recorded.
2. “On certain New Zealand and Australian Barks useful for Tanning
Purposes," by J. A. Smith.
* See Trans. N.Z.L, Vol. X., p. 276.
Hawke Bay Philosophical Institute, 571
With regard to tanning barks in New Zealand, I beg to remark on the
indigenous trees, and also the imported, the cultivation of which would
prove highly remunerative, a desirable industry for the Colony, and a good
export,
The native trees which contain tannin are (1) the Tawero, synonymous
with Towai (Weinmannia racemosa, Forst). (2) Whinau, (8) Toatoa, (4)
Tawai, (5) Makomako, Yellow Kowai, and others.
The tannin in our New Zealand Trees certainly does not abound, but
it is amply made up for by the introduction of the numerous varieties of
the Acacia from Australia.
The whole tribe of Acacia medicinally contains a valuable astringent,
consequently tannin more or less in the various species of which now more
than 300 sorts are known to science. Those of which the bark for
tanning is used in Australia are but few sorts, such as are large growing
trees, and of easy access. The undermentioned are commonly used in
different parts of Australia and New Zealand, and exported in considerable
quantities to England :—
The first is generally known as the Silver Wattle (dealbata), now so
plentiful in the North Island; also the falcata, the melanoxylon, or black-
wood, and the mollissima, woolly-leaved. All these are to be seen in
Napier gardens.
I am informed that in Victoria, the Silver Wattle seed is sown there as
a speculation; that in three years the trees are worth £5 per acre—the
bark for tanning purposes, the wood for fuel. The great advantages of
these trees is, that when the seed is once sown, it does not require renewal,
as it is supplied in the future by suckers from the roots and falling seed.
The value of Acacia bark for tanning purposes in New Zealand is
&bout £8 per ton.
If these trees were planted along our railway lines where they are
fenced, it would no doubt be a large source of revenue, and amply repay
the outlay ; they would also prove shelter from the sun, the wind, and the
dust. The Acacia has already been tried with advantage in Algeria, and the
Home authorities intend cultivating it in the island of Cyprus.
at the Bay of Islands, and often travelling in that district. This was the first place in New
Zealand where hides were tanned for leather, the whole process was particularly primi-
tive. Extracts of those several barks there used, with specimens of the trees producing
them, he had sent to Sir W. J. Hooker, the Director of the Royal Gardens at Kew, long
before New Zealand became a British Colony.
572 Proceedings.
9. * A Description of two New Zealand Ferns, believed to be new to
Science (Cyathea polyneuron, and Hymenophyllum erecto-alatum)," by W.
Colenso, F.L.S. (Transactions, p. 429.)
4. Several novel and curious specimens, both Zoological and Botanical, and all
indigenous, were then shown by Mr. Colenso, and minutely examined. Among them
were (1) the peculiar long flat aquatic worms (Gordius aquaticus, Gml.), obtained from the.
waters of the “ Forty-Mile Bush,” which, when living, were very elastic ; collected by Mr.
Thomson. (2) A small sea-fish, C. sprattus, var. antipodarum, Hector, (* Edible Fishes
of New Zealand," p. 133), obtained on the south shore of Hawke Bay, at a time when they
were observed to bein large shoals; collected by Mr. W. J. Miller. (3) A Marine Spider,
from the Bay of Islands, captured by the exhibitor (Mr. Colenso) in 1836, in deep water,
and believed to differ from the one recorded at p. 299, Transactions, Vol. X
(4) Specimens of several elegant Ferns, among them were those of the two new
ones (C. polyneuron and H. erecto-alatum) to illustrate the paper read.
Counc, Meeting. 22nd November.
The Hon. J. D. Ormond, M.H.R., President, in the chair.
New Members.—Miss J. Herbert, Sir Thomas Tancred, Bart., Rev. F. E.
T. Simeox, E. H. Bold, H. Campbell, W. Heslop.
on. W. B. D. Mantell, F.G.S., of Wellington, was chosen to vote in the
election of the Board of Governors for the ensuing year, in accordance with clause 7 of
the New Zealand Institute Act ;
The nomination for the election of an honorary member of the New Zealand
Institute was made in accordance with Statute IV.
WHE TLAND INSTITUTE
First Meeting. 16th July, 1878.
R. C. Reid, Vice-president, in the chair. `
1. “On Beach Protection,” by W. D. Campbell, F.G.S., Assoc. Inst.
C.E. (Transactions, p. 146.)
This paper was accompanied by diagrams. ;
2. “Notice of a Tadpole found in a Drain in Hokitika,” by F. E. Clarke.
The embryo amphibian was found in a small pool of water left in the
bottom of the drain, after being cleared of rubbish, ete., by the Corporation
labourers.
It had suffered considerable injury, either from being trodden on or
from being cut by the shovel of the labourer, its bowels protruding through
the wound. Although alive when captured, this soon caused its death.
From its appearance, it would be about three weeks old, the lungs and
hind-legs being well developed, but the fore-legs were merely rudimentary.
From its size it seemed to be the tadpole of a very large frog.
No frogs or frog-spawn having been introduced nearer to the West Coast
of New Zealand than Nelson or Christchurch (in both of which places,
I understand, the “musical amphibians " are rapidly increasing), it is
puzzling to conjecture in what manner the little stranger arrived in a terri-
tory having a climate so thoroughly congenial to its kith and kin.
No others have been discovered since, although the drains and creeks
have been many times carefully examined,
Total length, 2:3 inches; length, from head to hind legs, 85 inches ;
diameter of eye, ‘1 inch; width of mouth, :15 inch.
3. ** On some new Fishes,” by F. E. Clarke. (Transactions, p. 291.)
This paper was accompanied by drawings of the fishes described.
4. * The District of Okarita, Westland,” by A. Hamilton. — (Transac-
tions, p. 886.)
Mr. Clarke stated that moa bones had been found in several places in Westland, and
in one instance in large quantities.
Second Meeting, 8th January, 1879,
His Honcur Judge Weston, President, in the chair,
1. * On a new Fish,” by W. D, Campbell, C,E,, F.G.8. (Transactions,
p. 297.)
574 Proceedings.
2. “ On a new Fish found at Hokitika,” by F. E. Clarke. (Transactions,
p. 295.)
3. Mr. W. D. Campbell gave a short account of the discovery of moa
bones near Marsden.
ÁNNUAL GENERAL Meeting. 13th December, 1878.
R. C. Reid, Vice-president, in the chair.
ELection or Orricers ror 1879.— President —His Honour Judge Weston
Vice-president —R. C. Reid; Committee—Dr. James, Dr. Giles, James Pear-
son, R. W. Wade, E. B. Dixon, John Nicholson, H. L. Robinson, D.
MeDonald, W. D. Campbell, Robert Walker, A. H. King, T. O. W. Croft
Treasurer—W. A. Spence ; Secretary—John Anderson.
ABSTRACT OF ANNUAL REPORT.
The Committee held eleven ordinary and three special meetings during the year.
Nearly 200 volumes of standard works have been added to the library, and the
Committee acknowledge numerous donations to the library and museum.
At the last annual meeting the liabilities amounted to £74 7s, 2d.; now, however, a
small credit balance is shown. Among the receipts was a sum of £96, being part of the
sum voted by Parliament for public libraries.
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.
Tenth Annuat Report, 1877-78.
Meetings of the Board have been held during the past year on 29th of
August, and 8th September, 1877; and 2nd January, 29th of May, and
28th June, 1878.
In accordance with the Act, the following members retired from the
Board :—Mr. W. T. L. Travers, the Hon. Mr. Waterhouse and the Hon,
Mr. Stafford. The two former gentlemen were re-appointed, and Mr.
Thomas Mason was appointed in the room of the Hon. Mr. Stafford.
In compliance with clause 7 of the Act, the Incorporated Societies
elected the following gentlemen as Governors of the Institute :—Mr. J. C.
Crawford, F.G.S., Mr. Thomas Kirk, F.L.8., and the Bishop of Nelson.
The honorary members elected under Statute IV. of the rules of the
Institute, are :—His Excellency Governor F. A. Weld, C.M.G., Tasmania ;
Professor Spencer Baird, U.S.A.; and Dr. D. Sharp, Scotland.
The following is a list of members now on the roll of the Institute,
showing an increase of 113 during the past year :—
Honorary Members vis ie YA fs um LL ME
Ordinary Members :
Auckland Institute e. m v» ATO
Hawke Bay Philosophical fube sii iv DIE
Wellington Philosophical Ma WA ». Mae
Nelson Association ... seh zai 0
Westland Institute ... («s s+ LI
Canterbury Philosophical LI. JA .. 99
Otago Institute Vet "3 = ose son, eer
Total "n sé ..1,148 ,143
Volume X. is now being issued * sinas and also i the various
Libraries, Societies, and persons mentioned in the list appended.
The publication of the yolume was commenced on the 2nd January, and
the first copies were received from the publisher towards the end of May.
The large accession of members to the affiliated Societies, not having .
been notified to the Manager at a sufficiently early date, the number of
copies of Volume X. was not increased, so that the edition will be at once
exhausted, and no spare copies of this volume will remain on hand.
a43
578 Proceedings.
Volume X. contains 78 articles besides several short notices which appear
in the Proceedings, 28 plates, and 629 pages of letter-press.
The following is a comparison of the sections of the work, with last
year's volume :—
1878. 1877.
Miscellaneous... YA ... 190 pages 316 pages.
Zoology E IM HB gee
Botany .. zio xp Gi 2
Chemistry m M EM goca I
Geology ae ie al A a
Proceedings he ves "E 63 4, 0.
Appendix ao cua E oO 3 S0
629 ,, rr RA
The number of Volumes of Transactions now on hand, is as follows :—
Volume I., 2nd edition, 448; Volume IL, none; Volume III., 10;
Volume IV., 8; Volume V., 74; Volume VL, 80; Volume VII., 169;
Volume VIIL, 86; Volume IX., 177; Volume X., 80.
The appended statement of accounts shows a balance to the credit of
the Board of £37 1s. 10d.
The annual reports of the various departments attached to the Institute,
are also appended, together with a list of the additions to the Library.
James Hector, Manager.
Approved by the Board, 4th September, 1878. -
W. B. D. Maxrgrr, Chairman.
Museum.
The number of names entered in the Visitors’ book at the Museum
during the past year has been 15,000.
Since the 7th July the Museum has been opened to the public for two
hours on Sunday afternoons, and the large attendance, varying from 800 to
800 persons, indicates that there are many who are glad to take advantage
of the opportunity thus afforded for examining the collections.
There have been 9,880 specimens added to the collections during the
past year ; 7,519 of which are mineral and fossil specimens obtained during
the geological survey of the colony which is in progress, and 185 specimens
deposited on loan.
. . Herbarium.—The collections in this department have received only
inconsiderable additions, and the arrangements for the thorough preserva-
tion of the dried plants are quite insufficient. It has, therefore, been con-
sidered inadvisable to unpack the large herbarium of foreign plants until
New Zealand Institute. 579
proper cabinets have been provided for their reception, so that this special
gift from the Trustees of the British Museum, which numbers 28,000 species
of plants for reference, is still inaccessible to students.
Natural History Collections —The detailed study and classification of the
collection is rapidly advancing, and arrangements have been made with the
Education Department to secure the services of a wood engraver, so that
the illustrations for the new editions of the Natural History Catalogues,
which are now out of print, may be obtained in a form that will admit of
their being also used for the illustration of elementary text-books for the
use of schools.
Mammalia.—The classification of the New Zealand Cetacea has under-
gone revision, and the results, so far as they relate to the larger forms, have
been published in the Transactions of the Institute (“On the Whales of the
New Zealand Seas,” by Dr. Hector. Vol. X., p. 331).
The most important addition to the collection of this section has been a
fine skeleton of the Whale-killer (Orca pacifica), presented by the Royal
Bociety of Tasmania.
Birds.—' The principal additions to the collection of birds during the
year, was obtained by exchange from the private Museum of Mr. Macleay,
F.L.S., at Sydney.
Fishes.—Very extensive additions have been made to the alcoholic col-
lections in this department, 860 specimens having been received, including
a typical collection of the Australian sea and river fishes; a small collection
of Polynesian fish made by Lord Hervey Phipps; and a series of the fishes
of the Atlantie Coast of the United States, contributed by the Smithsonian
Institute.
The collection of New Zealand fishes has been greatly extended and
improved by the substitution of fresh preparations.
Invertebrata, —' The additions in this section number 887, and consist
chiefly of Australian Crustacea, Echinodermata, and Mollusca, and a large
series of preparations of the New Zealand Mollusca to facilitate the study of
the soft parts of the animals.
Mention has also to be made of a valuable collection of New Zealand
Insects, 87 in number, collected and presented by the Rev. Father Sauzeau,
of Blenheim.
Ethnological.—The only important addition has been a collection of the
weapons of the Isle of Paris (New Caledonia) natives, the most interesting
of which are sling-stones made of steatite, which are projected from a sling
made of cloth spun from the hair of the flying fox.
Minerals.—In addition to the various mineral and rock specimens
obtained by the Geologieal Survey, a very valuable series, n ing 400
580 Proceedings.
specimens, illustrating the geology of Canada, from Mr. A. R. C. Selwyn,
F.R.S., the Director of the Geological Survey of the Province, have been
added, and a few ores of interest, collected in Cornwall, have been received
from Mr. J. D. Enys, F.G.S.
The collection of New Zealand minerals and ores has been re-arranged
and catalogued, and the volcanic and metamorphic rocks are now under-
going a more thorough chemical and microscopical examination than they
have hitherto received, while, at the same time, duplicate specimens are
being selected for exchange.
Palaontology.—The most important collection of foreign fossils added to
the Museum during the past year, is a series illustrating the carboniferous
rocks of New South Wales and Tasmania, obtained by the Director during
a visit to Australia. This series has proved of great service in comparing
the equivalent formations in New Zealand.
Geological Survey Collections.—These have been very ample and im-
portant in their bearing on the geology of the Islands, and especially in
relation to the Lower Mesozoic rocks, which have, until now, been very
imperfectly understood.
The chief field-work of the year was the detailed survey of the Hokanui
range in Southland, which has, for many years, been known to present the
most typical development of the formations from Jurassic to Permian.
The results obtained are fully detailed in the Geological Reports for the
year, but it may be stated here, that the above formations form a strati-
graphical sequence, but were divided into 76 well-defined beds, the outcrops
of which were traced and studied in section, over an area of 82 square miles
_ The fossils, which number over 5,000 specimens, were collected from
twenty-five distinct horizons, and form a very large and important addition
to the paleontological data now in the Museum, which are only partially
arranged and worked out :—
The total thickness of the strata represented in the sections is 21,000
feet, viz. :—
Upper Oolite ... ds ss ke TS ... 8,500
Middle Oolite 850
Lower Oolite TT zi ve os es OO
Lias and Rhetic wa "e see bad 2. A D00
Permian Triassic iN T "n idi oo SAO
Permian Carboniferous.. ih GO
The most remarkable baies is the Pen icd of our Infra-
Triassie Marine formation, characterized by a great profusion of Brachio-
poda, several of these forms being generically distinct from any hitherto
described, while there is a total absence of any true Spirifera. It is thus
New Zealand Institute, 581
rendered probable that we have in the New Zealand area, developments of
Lower Mesozoic strata, representing gaps in the record elsewhere.
A further examination of the Mount Potts Spirifer beds, during the past
year, has afforded a large number of fossils and proved the existence of
three marked horizons in that locality,—the Upper Plant beds; the Spirifer
beds (although no true Spirifer is present) corresponding to the Lower
Triassic of the Hokanui section ; and at the base, beds containing Glossop-
teris, which is a characteristic fossil of the New South Wales Coal Fields.
A thickness of 2,000 feet separates the Glossopteris from the Spirifer
beds. From the bone beds associated with the latter, a good series of the
Saurian bones was also collected, some of the vertebral centra having
enormous proportions, being 18 inches in diameter, and 33 inches in length.
Besides vertebrs, rib and limb bones were also obtained, and what appear
to have been dermal plates; but the large blocks in which these interesting
remains are embedded are not yet worked out sufficiently.
A further discovery of great interest, is the determination by Mr. McKay
of the age of the Maitai calcareous slates near Nelson. These underlie
unconformably the whole of the beds that are developed in the Hokanui
section, and contain the true Spirifer bisulcatus and Productus punctatus of
the Middle Coal-measures of New South Wales.
The discovery of Graptolites in the strata of the Collingwood district
during the past year, is also an important advance in New Zealand paleon-
tology.
In Upper Mesozoic formations, the most interesting novelty is the
discovery by Mr. Cox of an extension of the West Coast Coal-measures
towards the limit of Te Anau lake, while the heavy bedded grits and
conglomerates enter into the structure of lofty mountain ranges.
The additions to the tertiary fossils have chiefly been from the East
Coast of Wellington, while the evidence of the relative position of the
Greensands and Chalk marls to the Miocene strata of the Taipos and the
Pliocene Tertiaries of the Wairarapa, have received support by ample
collections.
The New Zealand Fossils now accumulated in the course of the
Geological Survey, represent collections from 450 different localities, and
comprise about 6,200 trays, which have been thoroughly classified, and
1,200 specific types withdrawn into a separate collection for publication. A
large number of types have been figured and their publication will be
proceeded with as rapidly as the other work of the Department will permit.
Publications.—The volume of Geological Reports for the past year, is
now in the press and will contain the progress reports of the Survey,
and in addition descriptions and figures of the most imporsi of the
Lower Mesozoic fossils,
582 Proceedings.
METEOROLOGY.
The number of Meteorological Stations is now 14, namely ;—Mongonui,
Auckland, Taranaki, Napier, Wanganui, Wellington, Nelson, Cape Camp-
bell, Christchurch, Bealey, Hokitika, Dunedin, Queenstown, Southland.
The returns made by the Observers are published in the usual form, but
it is very desirable that the re-organization of this branch should be effected,
with the view of reducing the present number of stations, and substituting
a few thoroughly equipped observatories, and a large number of stations
where only rainfall, direction of wind, and temperature would be observed.
By this means the same expenditure would give more valuable results.
TimE-BALL OBSERVATORY. _
The necessity for certain additions and repairs to the Observatory have
been represented to Government, and, in particular, the desirability of
having a second rating clock, as at present, when the single astronomical
clock is under adjustment, intervals occur during which the time-ball
cannot be dropped with accuracy.
LABORATORY.
The following is a summary of analyses performed in the Colonial
Laboratory during the past year :—
1. Coals i ds xs esis
2. Rocks and Murals ZA a He azi
3. Metals and Ores i ai iad PB
4. Examination for Gold and Silver ee Tit
5. Waters v T de iit wort 92
6. Miscellaneous T Tr T ME Bh
Total
À full account of these analyses will be kud: in F xn Report on
the work performed in the Laboratory, published separately.
Accounts or New ZEALAND Institute, 1877-8.
REcEIPTs. EXPENDITURE.
S x p d
Balance in hand, 23rd August Expenses "i Printing] pee:
1877 a bs 123 9 4 s s ol. IX., of Index,
Vote for 1877-8 zi ^e Wo 9 0 ng 91 16 11
ontribution from Wellington arse ot Printing Vol. X. 510 8 1
Philosophical Society .. 31 10 0 | Miscellaneous Items .. 21 1
Sale of Volumes re eia 8 ES 37 1 10
£601 5 4 £601 5 4
3 ARTHUR STOCK,
Hou. Treasurer,
September 4th, 1878.
APPENDIX.
= TET E MERE er e TET EN
THE CLIMATE OE NEW ZEALAND.
METEOROLOGICAL STATISTICS.
The following Tables, etc., are published in anticipation of the Report of
the Inspector of Meteorological Stations for 1878.
TABLE IL-— TrwPERATURE of the Arr, in shade, recorded at the Chief
Towns in the Norra and Sourm Israwps of New ZEALAND, for the
year 1878.
Mean Mea: Mean Mean Aes Extreme |
Mean | Temp. for Temp. Yos Tena. d for Temp f for i — |
PLACE Annual) (SPRING) oan (AUTUMN) | (WINTER) Fp of
Temp. |Sept., Oct.,| Dec., Jan.,|Mar, Apl, June, ee for Temp. me
OU E b. May. July, Aug. yea |
|
Nortu Isuanp. Degs. | Degrees. | Degrees. | Degrees. | Degrees. | Degrees. | Degrees,
Mongonui . | 615] 61-0 68:1 62:3 54-7 17:8 53-0
Auckland oe | 588 57:9 65:2 60:7 51:6 13:8 46:8
Taranaki.. 56: 55-7 62:5 T9 50-0 15-4 50:0
Napier 597| 61:0 65-9 60-6 51:4 15:1 54:0
Wanganui 555 | 558 62-4 55-4 48:3 20-4 61:0
Wellington 55:1 54:7 60:9 56:9 47:8 13-0 48:2
Means, eto, for)! k^ 8| 57-6 641 58-9 50-6 159 | 610
North Island
SovurH ISLAND.
Nelson 54:2 55:8 60:8 547 45:7 21:9. 52-0
Cape Campbell 56:3 6:4 61:5 57:8 49-3 10-4 41:8
Christchurch ., 2-8 54:8 59:6 53:6 43-2 19-4 66:5
Hokitika .. ‘ 51:6 51:6 57:9 52-9 44-2 11:9 43:2
edin . .. | 49:9 51:9 544 51:0 41: 14-4 60:0
Queenstown sv OOI 50:2 BIA 55:2 39:0 16:7 62-4
Southland 4 4 489 51:0 5 49:6 40:6 17:3 60-0
4 fou] ; . 5 43:4 16:0 66-5
Means, etc.
North an ed 548 55:3 61:0 56:2 47-0 15:9 66:5
Islan
* For 11 months only.
xxii : Appendix,
TABLE I[.—BAROMETRICAL OssERvATIoNS.—hArINFALL, etc., recorded for
the year 1878.
Mean Range Mea Mean Mean
PLACE. Barometer of Elastic | Force Degree of Total Amount
reading | Barometer| of Vap Moisture for} Rainfall. of
for year, for year. for year. year. Cloud.
NonrH ISLAND Inches Inches. Inches Sat.—100. Inches 0 to 10
Mongonui E 29-961 1317 419 40:140 6:0
ckland » 95 1:291 :889 78 37:160 6
an 5 29-952 1:430 -886 79 56:780 69
Napier .. «|. 29:890 1:587 :354 69 21:100 2:6
Wanganui xs 30:002 1:500 :810 69 40-920 5:3
Wellington ..| 29:873 1:775 ‘851 80 54:602 54
Means for North * F
ae } 29945 | 1483 368 . 75 41-775 | 54
Souta ISLAND.
elson .. .» | 29-826 1:357 816 74 51:900 51
pe p <. | 29:964 1:630 844 75 16-480 57
Christchurch .. 9-804 :919 280 69 13:54 56:7
29:876 1:382 337 86 154:446 JA
edin +t. 29:080 1-685 262 72 45:23 6:0
Queenstown .. | 29-713 1:760 :243 66 60-020 6:1
Southland oo | 29:726 1:960 :293 83 54-020 70
Means for South
seis } 29-798 | 1670 296 75 56520 | 61
"Booth lands] 29-871 | 1576 332 75 49147 | 57
TABLE IIL—Wixp for 1878.—Force and Direction.
i Number of Days it blew from each point,
Miles, | NM. | NE | E. | SE. | 8 | S.w.| W. | N.W. |Calm*.
Monyonui 153 22 35 28 17 32 56 63 23
d 299 29 34 18 12 84 | 118 84 41 0
Taranaki 239 47 28 18 50 6 | 130 47 39 0
Napier ai 20 77 14 13 56 63 60 9
Wanganui ..| 263 3 8 0 27 1 53 70 | 147 56
Wellingt 243 1 40 2 84 1 6 5 | 224
SovTH ISLAND
N 0 60 65 8 87 122 3
elson GT LIT 9 61 0
Cape Campbell 479 8 2 1 47 46 8 52- | 167 34
Christchurch 6 0
Wa 232 103 28 9 23 15 26 26 90
ealey
Hokitika .. — TE 32 67 7 Tf 145 41 49
Dunedin ..| 170 8 65 15 6 18 | 113 28 8 | 109
Queenstown..| — 5 15 2 8 5 59 89 | 156
Southlan: 244 23 41 23 19 6 90—1 193 40
hours, and only show t
fer to the particular time of observation, and not to the whole twenty-four
Meteorological Statistics, , ' xxiii
TABLE IV.—Beatey (Interior of Canterbury), at 2,104 feet above the sea.
1878
|
Mean Extreme| Mean | Range Me:
Mean Daily Range} Range agi of Ela atio Fere of Peers
Annual o of ing | Barome- | Force = Moisture | p Total moves
Temp, | Temp.for |Temp. for or ter for wabo for Ratau, one d.
year, year, yea. year. ge year. h
F j !
Degs. Degs, Degs. Inches. Inches, | Inches. |Sat.—100.| Inches. 0—10.
45:7 13:8 78:0 29°621* 1:849 :203 64 155:891 9
* Reduced to sea level,
TABLE V.—EanrHqQvuakEs reported in New Zzarnawxp during 1878.
|
| : els
E poe ieee 2
PLACE E g aN | £|8 8 E s j
B > > = o » 5 + [] o
AESESERIEIEHEIEIEIESEHSIHIE
sim |e | E E selina lal nal}olasiata
|
| |
Taranaki | ant | 8 ; 1
: | 5* |
Napier { ae es | 23 YA ds 9
aei scc lere 4 | 28*| 20"| 8° 21 ar
donus A 2j AA Cotas E A R 4 iat SA E qus ; 1
Fi
Wellington { ge eg Se ee eee ae et 12 | 10
91* :
Cape Campbell { ix] vw tS ae Be 14* = "pus we Eg
Blenheim ; sac posd Fon HIT. UA KANALI 1
Kaikoura . : : $* A ore o [MEL AI
Nelson : wl. ] ee s.e LISSI" 14
Westport : . efa "Aet 4451-3
Hokitika : Bes E b io $ Zo Id s] 3
Lyttelton . > .. o [14 Mop WA
hristch : í 3 oo 14 1.21 c1»
angio: oe t. . .. B A 0 .. LE .. i
Lawrence x " YA 3 s .. |24 í ae Oe D.
ow : Su «bos es licec MEME wx Y wes dri
Queenstown ..|15|12] ..|25*] .. |e. | e+ fogs] -- 21 — mii
Wallace-town xcd LA ee os AAA l1
The figures denote the days of the month on which one or more shocks were felt.
Those with an asterisk affixed were described as smart; those with a dagger as severe
shocks. The remainder were only slight tremours, and no doubt escaped record at most
stations, there being no instrumental means employed. for their detection. This table is
therefore not reliable so far as indicating the distribution of the shocks,
i
L]
1
Append
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: *KTenorA0dd SInoy pg 105 BUTUIOW UT
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‘savoX snonexd pus GLET 10; LOVULSAV WHALLVUVdWOO- IA S'IGViL
NOTES ON THE. WEATHER DURING 1878.
—
JANUARY.—The weather throughout for this month has been unusually cold, wet, and
boisterous for the time of year; frequent S.W. gales of violence have occurred, accom-
panied with thunder and hail, and the temperature has been considerably lower than the
average, generally 4° and 5° below; altogether it was a very unseasonable month, Earth-
quake at Queenstown on 15th, at 8:45 p.m., slight.
FrsnvaAnY.—Fine weather generally throughout, with small rainfall at most places ;
strong winds were experienced at some of the stations, but no very violent gales; high
barometer readings prevailed, but temperature below the average. Earthquake reported
by Observer at Queenstown on 12th, at 3 a.m., slight.
Marcu.—Except at the Southern stations, the rainfall was much below the average,
and fine weather experienced; in the South, however, it was at times severe, and
excessively wet and stormy. An earthquake was reported at Hokitika on 11th, at 9:35
p.m., slight.
Aprit.—The weather was exceedingly fine during this period, except at Bealey, where
the rain was in excess, with strong westerly winds; also at Hokitika very wet, but win
moderate; and in the extreme South the rain was over the average, with cold stormy
westerly weather. Earthquakes occurred at Wanganui on the 4th, at 12:50 a.m.; at
Wellington on 28th, at 6:25 p.m., lasting six seconds, N. and S., very slight; at Cape
Campbell on 11th, at 9 a.m., sei: and Blenheim 11th, at 8:55 a.m., sharp, N. to E. ;
at Pario on the 25th, at 3:30 a.m., smart. A meteor was observed at Ora
on 27th, in
May.—On the whole, rain rather below the average; the temperature was lower
than usual for time of year ; very cold stormy weather experienced at most of the stations,
with snow, and a good deal of thunder. A meteor seen in South on 7th, very brilliant.
June.—A very cold, wet, and severe month throughout. The rainfall at nearly all
places in excess, and frequent thunder storms, with hail and snow, and prevailing S.W.
winds; very low atmospheric pressure throughout. Earthquakes at Napier on 5th, at
11:15 p.m., sharp, and on 23rd at 3:15 p.m., not so marked ; at Wellington on 23rd, at
7:38 am., slight, direction S.E.; at Wanganui on 23rd, at 4:50 a.m., strong shake; at
Nelson on 24th, at 8:30 a.m. ; at Cape Campbell on 3rd, at 12-15 a.m., smart.
Jury.— Tolerably fine weather for time of year, though heavy rain at some of the
stations, with strong us chiefly from westward; very heavy snow-storms, with hail
and severe frosts, occurre the South. Earthquakes occurred on 5th at Wellington,
at 10-18 p.m., slight; at Pork 10-20 p.m., sharp, with loud noise; at Greytown, 10.17
p.m., smart, with noise; on 20th, at Wellington, 11:39 p.m., very slight; and at Wanga-
nui, at midnight, smart, and on 21st a lighter shock at 3 a.m. ; at Hokitika, 29th, at 12
a.m., slight. |
August.—The weather was generally wet and stormy, principally from S.W.; fre-
quent gales occurred, also snow and storms; low atmospheric pressure preria,
and temperature below the average for same month in previous years. Earthquakes—
Taranaki, 8th, at 8 a.m.; at Wellington, on Sth, at 7:53 a.m., slight double mee. caf
XXVI Appendix.
nui, on 8th, at 8:10 am., heavy; at Lawrence and Arrow, on 24th, rather severe; at
Queenstown, on 23rd, at 7°35 p.m., slight, and a heavy shock on 24th, at 2°38 p.m.; at
uthland, a sharp shock on 25th, at 2:40 p.m.
SzPrEwBER.— Very high barometer readings throughout, and high temperature; in
the North rain rather below the average, but in the South in excess, which, combined
with the flooding of the snow rivers, owing to the hot N.W. winds and warm rain, caused
considerable damage to several districts in the South. Earthquakes—On the 14th, at
Wellington, 5 a.m., slight; Kaikoura, 4:45 a.m., smart; Nelson, same time, smart;
Westport, 4:40 a.m., smart ; Lyttelton, at 4:50 a.m., also smart ; Cape Campbell, at 4:30
a.m., smart; Christchurch, at 4°30 a.m., S. to N.; also on the 30th, felt at Rangiora,
from E, to W.
Ocrosrn.— Wet, stormy S.W. and N.W. weather generally prevailed throughout
this month. Earthquakes— Wellington, on 21st, at 10-55 p.m., sharp, followed by
lighter shocks; at Wanganui, on 21st, at 11 p.m., slight rumble; at Nelson, on 21st,
sharp shock, at 10°55 p.m., also at 11:45 p.m. another movement; Cape Campbell, on
21st, at 11-15 p.m., sharp, and on 27th, at 3:30 a.m., slight; Christchurch, on 21st, at
11 p.m.; Hokitika, on 21st, at 11 p.m., slight; Queenstown, at midnight, slight.
Meteors observed at Mongonui on 31st, and at Christchurch on 30th.
NovgwBER.—Rather a wet stormy month, wind generally from S.W. and westerly;
temperature on the whole about the average; frequent thunder storms occurred. Earth-
quakes reported at Queenstown on 8th, at 3:20 a.m.; on 14th, at 12:8 p.m., smart; and
on 27th, at 6:40 a.m.
Drcrwsrz.—Generally fine, dry, warm weather at Northern stations, but in the
South excessive rain and frequently stormy cold weather experienced for time of year.
Earthquakes felt at Wellington on 6th, at 9 p.m., slight; on 7th, at 5 a.m., slight; on
12th, at 11:39 a.m., slight, followed by a smarter shock. Meteors observed in North
on 15th, and in South on 20th and 25th.
+
Record of Papers on N.Z. Natural History. xxvii
Norz.—It is intended that a complete record of the titles of scientific papers pub-
lished during each year, which have reference to New Zealand, shall be issued with
future volumes of Transactions. The following list for the past year, which has been
kindly compiled by Professor Hutton, will be of some use to students in the section of
Natural History.
RECORD OF PAPERS ON NEW ZEALAND NATURAL HISTORY, 1878-9.
ices australiensis compared with Balena biscayensis. M. F. Gasco. Ann. Nat.
eries 5, Vol. 2, p. 495.
On the Genus p em W. H. Flower. Trans. Zool. Soc. of London, X., p. 415.
Cyanoramphus nove-zealandie distinct from C. saisseti. E. Layard. Ibis, 1879, p. 110.
Anas gibberifrons probably identical with A. castanea. E. P. Ramsay. P.L.S. of N.S.W.
ILL, p :
On the Larine. Howard Saunders, P.Z.S. of London, 1878, p. 155.
Number of cervical Vertebre in Dinornis. F. W. Hutton. Ann. Nat. Hist. 5, 1, 407, and
Two new Fishes from New Zealand. F. W. Hutton. Ann. Nat. Hist., 5, 8, 53.
The Dascillide of New Zealand. D. Sharp. Ann. Nat. Hist. 5, 2, 40.
Additions to the Geodephagous Fauna of New Zealand. H. W. Bates. Ent. Month. Mag.,
XIV., p. 191; and XV., pp. 22, 57.
New Species of Coleoptera from New Zealand. D. Sharp. Ent. Month. Mag., XIV., pp.
7, 39; and XV., pp. 47, 81
List of the Hemiptera of New Zealand. F. Buchanan White. Ent. Month. Mag., XIV.,
p. 274; and XV., pp. 31, 73, 130, 159, 213.
New Crustacea from New Zealand. T. W. Kirk. Ann. Nat. Hist., 5, 2, 465.
Notes on the Structure of Peripatus nove-zealandie. F. W. Hutton. Ann. N.H., 5,1,
On Spirula australis. T. Owen. Ann. Nat. Hist., 5, 3, 1.
On some Fresh-water Shells from New Zealand. Rev. J. Tenison-Woods. P.L.S. of
N.S.W 35
The Genus Lymneus in Australia. A. Brown. Ann. Nat. Hist., 5, 2, 493.
New € of WA Mollusca from New Zealand, T. F. Cheeseman. P.Z.8.
275.
London, 1878, p
Revision des Coquilles de la Nouvelle-Zélande. F. W. Hutton. Journal de Conchyliologie
1878, p. 1.
Pentagonaster dilatatus and Asterina nove-zealandie, Perrier. New Species from New
Zealand. Arct. Zool. Exper., V., pp. 33 and 228
Nematoid Worm from Campbell Island. J. Chatin. Ann. Nat. Hist., 5, 2, 40.
New Hydroids from Australia and New Zealand. D'Arcy W. Thompson. Ann. Nat.
Hist., 5, 3, 95,
xxviii Appendiz.
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MEMBERS.
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Hooker, Bir J, D, K.C.S.L, O.B.,
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Sha
rn. Alfred, F.R.S.
i e, F.R.S.
olleston, G., DLM., F.R.S.
F.B.S.
ae R
Sclater, Philip wai M.A., Ph. D.,
1876.
| Berggren, Dr. 8.
1877
| ‘Bard Prof. Spencer F.
rp, Dr. D.
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XXX Appendix.
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Kin
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ight
mbe EB.
Leckie, Colonel
EE en
fen
eae a Napier
Logan, H. F.
Lomax, = A., Wanganui
Lowe, E. W.
Ed
cKay, Alexander
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antell, Hon WB. D. , F.G.8.
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Horn
Appendix,
Howard, J.
Howden, G.
Hughes, S. E.
Hunt, R. R., Ngaruawahia
Hunter, A A3
| Kinder, 3. J., D.D., St. John's
College
*Kirk, T., F.L.S., Wellington
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issling, T
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Larkworthy, F. te ed
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po W., E
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Mus T.
MacLaughlin, W., ede
Maclean, E., Ca mbrid
illan e C.
Mair, Capt. G- Fl. NE Rotorua
Mair, R. , Whangare
Maunsell, Yen. Archdeacon W.
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List of Members. xxxiii
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, 3
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xxxiv
Adams, C. W.
Blakiston, x. F. N.
Bowen, C. C.
. Buckley, Hon. G.
Bickerton, Professor
Gould, George.
e thrio r4. ph
y, G.
Hall. "Hon. Folin
Hall, GW;
Harper, Bishop
Hew S.
Harper, Leonard
anmer,
Haast, Profossor von
Hart, George
Hennah, H
*
Appendix,
Hall, T. W.
Habens, Ber. W.J
Holloway, John
Hart: J; T,
Inglis, John -
Inwood, A. R.
Jollie, Edward
Johnston, HB.
Jackson, Rev. BR. B.
Ivev W. E.
Kitson, Walter
H. W.
Lee,
Lean , Alex
sand, . M.
E E
Parker, Robert
Penny, Rev. E. G.
Rolleston, W.
Veil, J. ibai
We bb DEHE
Williams, Mr. Justice
ES ue F. E.
Wilk LR
Wakefield. C. M.
Wason, Cathcart
Worthy, E. A.
Wilkinson, J. R,
+
List of Members.
Abel, H. J., Lawrence
Arthur, W., C.E.
Alexander, Dr. E. W.
Allan, Jno., Greytown
Arkle, Jas., Palmerston
Armstrong, Alex.
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Bannerman, Rev. W., Clutha
I., C.E.
chelor,
Bathgate, Judge J.
Bathgate, A: d.
Brent, 8.
Brown, G. :
Brown, Tho
Brown, J. E, Milton
Brown,
Brown, Dr. W., Palmerston
Buchanan, N. i
Buckland, J. C., Waikouaiti
Bur, Mrs.
B
Jg
XXXV
OTAGO INSTITUTE.
Douglas, J., Palmerston
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Fergusson, Dr.
Ferrier, G.
Fish, H. §., jun.
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V
CE
ipud J., R.M., West Taieri
Gallow y; J.
Gibbs, T J., London
SE
Harvey, Judge G.
T zd |o
J effcoat, F., jun., Fairfield
Jenkins W. G.
J ennings, E.
*Joachim, G.
Low, T. B
Lubecki, A. D.
Macassey, J.
' Xxxvi
Macgregor, Prof. D.
Rev. L.
Memo G.
MoKerrow, J Wellington
McLare
0’ Meche. J., Oam
Orbell, McL. C., Waikouaiti
Pa ulin,
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*Petrie, D., M M.A.
Petre, F. W
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Prentice, N., Invercargill
Prosser, E.
eynolà s, Hon. W. H.
BD Moe
Rolland, " Waa Hill
menn v Dr.
LH
Boss Rev. C. H., Anderson's Bay
Ross, D.
Appendix.
Sale, Prof.
Scott, Prof.
Shand, Prof.
Shaw,
Shrimpton, ‘J. G., Albertown
Simpson,
Sinclair, J. R.
Sise, G. L
Skey, H.
Smith, A. W
Smith, A. Y
mith, J
Smith, C
Sparrow, R. S
Spence, J,
Squires L., Lawrence
es, H.
Stanford, Rev. R. L., Orakanui
Stevenson, G., Palmerston
Stevenson, T
Wilkins, Dr.
*Wi lliams, His Honour Mr. Justice
Williams, —, Palmerston
Wilson, A. M. À
Wilson, J.
*Wohlers, Rey. J. F. H., Ruapuke
Young, G.
Young, W. A.
;
3
ud
a
D
5
ya
List of Members. -
xxxvii
F1
NELSON ASSOCIATION FOR THE PROMS TION OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.
Atkinson, A. 8.
Blundell, F.
Bamford,
E.
Boor, Leonard, M.R.C.S.
Broad, Charles
Brown, Alexander
Brown, C. Hunte
Carter, ogg W airau
Catley, T.
Dobson A. D.,
Farrelle, W. K. GR
Fell, C. Y.
Gabb, C. P.
Grant, A
C.E., Westport
C.S.E.
Greenwood, J. D., M.D., Motueka | 8
Giles, Joseph, M. D., Westport |
Huddleston, F
Allen, Thos.
Atkinson, Jas
Anderson, Gideon
WESTLAND
ig d
Lowe, J. T.
Mackay, A.
M Jo Joseph
Mackay, Thomas, C.E.
Sealey, W. B., M.D.
Bishop of Nelson
Tatton, J. W.
Thorpe, The Ven. Archdeacon R. J.,
Webb, Joseph
ells, William
Williams, George, M.D.
INSTITUTE.
a45
xxxviii E Appendix.
Harris, Saml. Paterson, Thos.
Hawkins, J. G. Paul, Robt.
Horgan, C. 2
Hansen, J. H. E Plaisted, Jno
Hendersen, W. Pearson, Jas.
Harker, Geo. Perry, W.
Hankins, J. H. Peake, J.
olly, J. Price, M.
Johnston, W. G. Pizzy, Samuel
ames, Purkiss, W ]
James, Dr Potts, Thos
Kenny, Patrick, Miss
teen, W. C. J. Parkhill, Jno
Kellock, J. Park, Jas
ing, A. H. Robinson, E. T
, Alex. Robinson, H. L
King, A. edgrave, A
Kerr, U. B Rae, H. R
Learmonth, F. A, Reynolds, W
Learmont, Thos. Roberts, G. J
uemming, Geo. Stennard, —
uange, Jno. South, T. M
Martin, Rev. — South, M. F
Morris, Rey. — Sammons, E. B
Mueller, G | Somerville, A
Manson, Jno | Spence, W. A
Malfro Smith, Jno
Maunders, J Spence, Alex
] wc Scott, Arch
) t En Henry
Mainwaring, J. . undy, R.
McDonald, D. bei Leslie
McBeth, Jas. Smith, Rev. Jno
McRae, Alex. Strachan, Jno
McGregor, D. Turnbull, Capt
McKenzie, W. S Virtue,
McFarlane, D. Williams, Joseph
Nicholson, Jno Walker, Ro
Northeroft, L. Weston, Judge
Ouimette, Geo. Williams, W
O'Connor, C. Y. Wade, Robt. W.
Paterson, J. A.
HAWKE BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE.
Balfour, D. P., Mangawhare Chambers, W., Poverty Bay
Birch, A. S., Patea | oiio , W.
Birch, W. J., Stoneycroft CA R. L., England
Bold, E. n Colenso, W., junr., Englan
Brandon, 8 -Q De Lisle, F. a
— H., Poukawa Doa, 3. , Springfield
Carlile, J. W. Ferris, C. P., Poverty Bay
Carnell, 8. Frood.-J - N., Waipukurau
Carter, "E. Wairoa Gannon, M. J., Pove Bay
Chambers, J., Te Mata Gibbes, J. M., Hay d
List of Members.
Gollan, D.
Gollan, K., Tarawera
Gosnel Mrs. L., Wairoa
ng, R. Mo ant Vernon
Ha irm 8. W., Cliv
Hekk Miss, Wabakaji
Heslop, W., Chesterhope
itchi T.
9, 4. UN
peed A., West Clive
Levy, A. , Norsewood
ngla
Macleod, A., Hampden
McLean, R. D. Douglas
Maney, R. D., Wairoa
May, Mis. C.
y»
Meinertzhagen, F.H., Waimarama
M. R.
airn, H., Pourerere
Nairn, J. C., Pourerere
XXXİX
Nairn, J., Pourerere
bee
Newton,
Oliver, E A Puketapu
d, J.D
ae s
tpi Å. , England
L W. R,, yua SIA
., Porangahau
., Porangah
Tanner, T., Riverslea
r OB
Williams, J. N, Frimley
Willis, G.
Witty, J. W., Wairoa
LIST OF PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS AND INDIVIDUALS
Appendix,
THIS VOLUME IS PRESENTED BY THE GOVERNORS OF THE
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.
His Excellency the Governor, President of the Institute.
Governors of the Institute (eleven).
Honorary Members (thirty).
The Prime Minister.
The Colonial Treasurer.
The Native Minister.
The Under-Secretary for the Colony.
The Legislative Council.
The House of Representatives.
The Colonial Office, London.
The Agent-General, London.
Messrs. Trübner & Co. (Agents), 57, Ludgate Hill, London.
British Museum, London.
Linnean Society, London.
Royal Society, London.
Royal Geographical Society, Longs:
Royal Asiatic Society, London.
Royal Society of Literature of the United Kingdom.
Royal Colonial Institute, London.
Geological Society, London.
Zoological Society, London.
Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, London.
Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, London.
Geological Magazine, London.
Geological Record, London,
Zoological Record, London.
Philosophical Society of Leeds, England.
Literary and Philosophical Society, Liverpool, England.
Literary Institute, Norwich, England.
University Library, Oxford, England.
University Library, Cambridge, England.
School Library Committee, Eton, England.
School Library Committee, Harrow, England. r
School Library Committee, Rugby, England,
List of Free Coptes. xli
Natural History Society, Marlborough College, England.
Royal Society, Edinburgh. :
Royal Botanie Garden Library, Edinburgh.
Geological Society, Edinburgh.
University Library, Edinburgh.
Philosophical Society of Glasgow.
Royal Irish Academy, Dublin.
Royal Society, Dublin.
Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta.
Geological Survey of India, Caleutta.
Geological Survey of Canada, Montreal.
Canadian Institute, Toronto.
Literary and Historical Society of Quebec, Canada East.
Royal Society of New South Wales, Sydney.
Linnean Society of New South Wales, Sydney.
Public Library, Sydney.
University Library, Sydney.
Royal Society of Victoria, Melbourne.
Public Library, Melbourne.
University Library, Melbourne.
Geological Survey of Victoria, Melbourne.
Legislative Library, Adelaide.
South Australian Institute, Adelaide.
Public Library of Tasmania, Hobart Town.
Royal Society of Tasmania, Hobart Town.
Free Public Library, Capetown.
Smithsonian Institute, Washington, D.C.
Geological Survey of U.S. Territory, Washinglon, D.C.
American Geographical Society, New York.
American Philosophieal Society, Philadelphia.
Ameriean Institute of Mining Engineers, Philadelphia.
Franklin Institute, Philadelphia.
Academy of Natural Sciences Library, Philadelphia.
Academy of Natural Sciences, Buffalo.
Academy of Natural Sciences, San Francisco.
Academy of Natural Sciences, Davenport, Iowa.
Harvard College, Cambridge, Mass.
Royal Society of Literature and Arts of Belgium, Brussels.
Royal Imperial Institute for Meteorology and Earth Magnetism,
Hohe-Warte, Vienna.
Jahrbuch der Kaiserlich-koniglichen Geologischen Reichsanstalt, » E
Vienna.
feda
Appendix.
Imperial German Academy of Naturalists, Dresden.
Physico-economie Society of xa hates E. Prussia.
Abhandlungen, Bremen.
R. Accademia dei Lincei, Rome.
Imperial Museum of Florence.
Royal Geographical Society of Italy, Florence.
Tuscan Natural Science Society, Pisa. -
Editor of Cosmos, Turin.
Royal Academy of Science, Stockholm.
Libraries and Societies in New Zealand.
Library, Auckland Institute.
Library, Hawke Bay Philosophical Institute.
Library, Wellington Philosophical Society.
Library, Nelson Association.
Library, Westland Institute.
Library, Philosophical Institute of Canterbury.
Library, Otago Institute.
General Assembly Library.
Library, New Zealand Institute.
Publishing Branch.
Editor.
-Assistant Editor.
aftsman (two copies).
Lithographer.
Government Printer.
Photo-lithographer.
mo
ERT ae ee onem d MU Ie
LYON AND BLAIR, PRINTERS, LAMBTON QUAY, WELLINGTON, NEW ZEALAND,