JOURNAL

AND

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

OF

NEW SOUTH WALES,
1898.

oy ee

EDITED BY

THE HONORARY SECRETARIES.

THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE STATEMENTS.
MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN.

1896.
SYDNEY:

PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, 5 ELIZABETH STREET NORTH.
LONDON :

GEORGE ROBERTSON & Co.,
17 Warwick Squarz, Paternoster Row, Lompon, E.C.

NOTICE.

Tue Royat Soctery of New South Wales originated in 1821 as
the “Philosophical Society of Australasia”; after an interval of
inactivity, it was resuscitated in 1850, under the name of the
“ Australian Philosophical Society,” by which title it was known
until 1856, when the name was changed to the “ Philosophical
Society of New South Wales”; in 1866, by the sanction of Her
Most Gracious Majesty the Queen, it assumed its present title,
and was incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New South
Wales in 1881.

NOTICE TO AUTHORS.

The Honorary Secretaries request that authors of papers (to be
read before the Royal Society of New South Wales) requiring
illustrations by photo-lithography, will, before preparing such
drawings, make application to the Assistant Secretary for patterns
of the standard sizes of diagrams &c. to suit the Society’s Journal.

CORRIGENDA.

Page 114, In value of R read + instead of —
»» 116, In value of ¢ read 2 R,», in denominator
», 182, Note 4, read Rodger for Rodgers.
» 523, Footnote for page 532, read 530.

PUBLICATIONS.

oO

Scceopars ny of the Philosophical Society, N.S. W., 1862-5, sae 374, out of print.
L. Transactions of the Royal Society, N.S. W., 1867, pp. 83, ei
1 ;

33 ” ” > pg ’ a

3 iil ” ” 29 ” 2” 1869, 7) 173, ”

” ty. ” ” ” ” ” 1870, ” 106, ”

” ™, ” ” 2? ” ” 1871, ” 72, ”

” vi ” » ” ” ” 1872, ” 128, ”

> Vil ” ”? ” ” ey 1873, ” 182, ”

” vill 2” ” ” ” ” 1874, ” 116, ”

oe) ” 1875, ” ’ ’

iy X. Journal and Proceedings s a 1876, ,, 333, 5

” ” ” ” ” ” ” 3

” XIl 7 ” ” ” > 1878, 3° 324 price 10s 6d.
3? XIII 99 ” ” ” 3° 1879, LP) 255, 3?

»” XIV. 2” ” 2 ” ” 1880, ” 391, 29 10s. 6d.

” XV. ” ” > ” ” 1881, ” 440, ” 10s. 6d

” XVI ” 2” ” ” ” 1882, ” 327, ” 10s. 6d

2” XVII 2 ” ” bby ” 1883, 2? 324, ” 10s. 6d.
” XVIII ” ” ” ” ” 1884, ” 224, ” Os. 6d.
” XIX 0 ” ” ” ” 1885, ” 240, ” 10s. 6d.
” XX ” 29 ” ” ” 1886, ” 396, ” 10s. 6d.
” xXXI ” ” ” ” ” 1887, > 296, ” 10s. 6d.
” XXII ” ” ” ” ” 1888, ” ” 10s. 6d.
” XXIII ” ” ” ” ” 1889, ” 534, ” 10s. 6d.
” XXIV ” ” ” ” ” 1890, ” 290, ” 10s 6d.
” XXV ” ” ” ” ” 1891, ” 348, ” 10s. 6d.
” XXVI. ” ” ” ” ” 1892, ’ ” 10s 6d.
” XXVII 7 ” ” ” ” 1893, ” 530, ” Os. 6d.
»XX VII 2? ” ” ” ” 1894, ” 368, ” 10s. 6d.

CONTENTS.

VOLUME XXIX.

Orricers FoR 1895-96 ... ee sa cis aad cis pee
List oF print &e.

ART.

I.—PRESIDENT’S is DRESS. os B. Threlfall, » M.A., Professor
of Physics in the University of Sy dney

. IL—A —— to the oe of Aisstondiien Mie
Pears Kinos. By J. H. Maiden, F.1.s., and H. G. Smith

—Paper on » Aeronantiel Work. sid Lawrerioe nr a

‘Nine Plate gt
IV.—Not S hee. Mi vara Substances toon the
Aceteuas Broken Hill Consols Mine. By E. F. Pittman,
A.R.8.M., Government Geologist, Sydney...

. V.—The Cuibhe Parabola as applied to the Wasa of Circular
Curves on Railway Lines. By C.J. Me ld. (Communi-
eated by Mr. G. H. Knibbs). 1 Oni Plat :

.VI.—The History, Theory, and jes of ‘the Vis-
e ae |

. VII.—On the Physiological A of the Venom of the
ns

ek Black Sn — rae porphyrinen ws). me
C. J. Martin, B.Sc., M.B.

en Considerations 9 on ur Baveiving ‘Cahigees in see

s of Ancient Antarc nae Some By C. patent gh
ceccbenks in Zoology to the tralian Museum

go eg in oo Sonthern a By H. C. ‘Russell,

M.G., F.B [One Plate] .

4 ame ” ome hb joa cy haps ie Minecats, Note
No. 7. A. Liversidge, M.A., F 7, Profiesat of a
in the Guivéenity ‘of Sydney ...

. XI.—On a Natural Deposit of Aisa Succinate in the
Timber of Grevillea robusta, R. Br. bes AH. oe F.L.S.,
and Henry ith

ae on ok Amount of Gola poe ahve in Sea-Wate

Liv M.A., Professor of Chemistry,
Duiveieny Of peaney, N. sv ales
UII.—The removal of rope and Gold pene Nei wrabe be
Muntz Metal Sheathi A. Liversidge, M.A., F.R.S.,
Professor of Chemistry, S niveraity of Sydney, N.S. "Wales

. XIV. agen — and sec chars from Samoa. staf John

XV. ust hie
“ae No. 1. “bd ve a ‘laden, » ¥.L.805 _ _—
G. Smith ...

o*

Arr. XVI yes age smeetaha niet Notes, No. 1. By Rev. J.
Milne Cur

Art. XVII.—On — occurrence ‘of Kikai Brabuct in oaks iar
By

than Cretaceous Edward F. Pittman, a.R.s.m., Govern-
i ist

ogist ...
Art. XVIII.—Note on the Grint of Malach ite—Observations
made in an abandoned Coppe sabaust By sian ca Hall. (Com
municated by Professor Liversidge
Arr. XIX.—A comparison of the Languages of Pennie sae
Hawaii.:'By the late: Rev. E. T. Doane; with additional
notes and illustrations fe Sidney i. as Memb. Anthrop.
Inst. London
Art. XX.—The Tensile ‘aa [Compressive Stechoth: of Magnesium.
By 8. H. Barraclough,
Art. XXI.—Note on some i santa pat thes Fruit of 3 Piltosporum
ee and from the leaves of the Pepper Tree ( Schinus
We). By R. Threlfall, M.A., Professor of Phyeles in the
Univernts of Sydney
Art. XXII.—Notes on a ae Rocks acta, by Mr.
we By T. W. E. or
of Geology; W. F. Smeeth, m.a., Page A.RB.S,M., Lecturer in
ese dae and Demonstrator” in Geology; and J. A.
Schofield, peels in Chemistry,
eee, of Spies Three “Plates es |
ArT. XXIII.—Notes on the Rainfall of the Soatheen : Riverina,
ie to 1894. By Hugh Charles Kiddle, F.R. Met
Art. XXIV. ere a ee Meteor of wed 7th, 1895. “By H. C.
Russell, 8
ART. oui oo Climate of Lord Hiawe too By H, ©. Tasieil:

ART. et. cds ty ‘hisralinn Weathe er. = Heirs A. Hun
Second Meteorological Assistant, sila Olhervatory
[Forty Diagrams. |

Arr, XX VII.—Timber Bridge Construction in ese Souths Wales.

Allan, A. M. Ins

By Percy
Art. XX VIII.—Fas ak as curio oe ‘Gy ae Public Works
Department of "New South Wal By T. E. adits L.S.
chats: d by J. W. cinta: M.1.C,E.) ue
PROCEEDINGS

PROCEEDINGS OF THE itiusiiies guorit .
PROCEEDINGS OF THE MepicaL SEcTION
ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY ... per ac ae abs
DEX TO VOLUME X XIX. ts ee
EXCHANGES AND Publi MADE BY THE ‘Rovar Socrety
or New SoutH Wags, 1895.

Pace.

453

456

Rovul Society of New South elales.

——— |
OFFICHRS FOR 1895-96.

Honorary President:
HIS EXCELLENCY THE RIGHT HON. HENRY ROBERT
VISCOUNT HAMPDEN.

President:
Pror. T. W. E. DAVID, B.A., F.G.8.

ee
F. B. KYNGDON. ROF. ANDERSON STUART, m.p-
CHARLES MOORE, F.1.5., F.Z.8. Pror. THRELFALL, m.a.

. Treasurer:
Ay GAs sane M.R.C.S. Eng., L.8.a. Lond.

Hon. Secretaries:
J. H. MAIDEN, F.u.s., &e. | 4. WwW, GRIMSHAW, M. Inst. C.E.

embers of Council:
H. A. LENEHAN, F.&.a.s.

W. CHISHOLM, m.p.
Pror. LIVERSIDGE, M.a., F.R.8.

Cc. W. DARLEY, M. Inst. C.E.

HENRY DEANE, u.a.,M. Inst. CE.| E. F. PITTMAN, Assoc. 8.8.M.
|
|

H. C. RUSSELL, B.a.,0.M.G., F.E.8.
| ALFRED SHEWEN, m.D.

W. M. HAMLET, F.c.s., F.1.c.
G. H. KNIBBS.

Assistant Secretary:
W.H. WEBB.

NOTICE.
Members are particularly requested to communicate any
change of address to the Hon. Secretaries, for which purpose
this slip is inserted.

Correct Address.

Name

Titles, &c

Address

Date

To the
Hon. Secretaries,
The Royal Society of N.S.W.,
5 Elizabeth-street, Sydney.

LIST OF THE MEMBERS

OF THE

Hopal Society of Ae South Wales.

. P Members who have contributed pavers which have been published in the Society’s
Far pra ns or Journal; papers published in the Transactions of the Philosophical
weg are ro so pera to The numerals indicate the number of such contributions.

t Life Mem

Elected,
1877 | | Abbott, The Hon. Sir Joseph Palmer, Knut. m.u.a., Speaker
of the at eared Assembly, Castlereagh-street.
1877 | P4 pio W. E., ‘ Abbotsford,’ Wingen.
1864 Adams, P. F., ‘Casula,’ — rpoo
1895 Adams, J. H. M., heap m Club, Castlereagh-street.
1878 Ale ny Geor » Grosvenor Hotel, Church Hill.
1890 | Pl Allan, P, ercy, ice = te ape Roads and Bridges Branch,
ai | orks Departm Sydne
1885 | Allworth, "Joseph Witter, gore! Barvapee. East Maitland.
1881 | s, Robert, ‘ Kin -_ geo
1877 | haterons a 61 Macquarie-street.
1890 : Anderson, William
|
|
1878 gee shorn oe P., u.a., District Court Judge, ‘ Melita,’
| zabe reg ie
1877 'B
1894 Reker Hhara = F.L.s., Assistant Curator, Techno-
lo
1814. | {Ralslle, George Sandymount, Dunedin, New Zealand.
1895 | r Some roft, T. L ., Deception Bay, vid Burpengary,
Brisbane, Ginsensin nd.
1895 | Pd} Barraclough, 7 , Lecturer on Applied Physics,
Technical College, Pa 16 Poxte th Road, Glebe Point.
1876 Bassett, W. F., Eng., George-street, Bathurst.
1894 | =e xter, William Caen, Chief Sur rveyor Existing Lines Office.
| Railway Department, p.r.‘ Hawerby,’ Carrington Avenue,
Strathfie
1888 | ‘Bedford Alfred Perceval, Manager Permanent Trustee Co.
16 O’Connell-stree
1877 | Belfield, "Algernon He; ‘ Eversleigh,’ Dumaresq.
i | Belisario, John, M p., Lyons’, Terrac page Park.

1876 ' Benbow, Cle eae A 263 Elizabe re eet.
1869 | P 2! aes 8. L., op 0" Gouceliatwant, "Box 411 G.P.O.
1895 _Bensusan, A. J., A.R.8.M., F.c.s., Laboratory, 12 O’Connell-st.
Berney, pening 74 Alberto Terrace, =, Dating h Road.
1889 | | oa George Augustus, 74 Alberto Terrace, v Daclinghurat
{ Road.

Pot

err Herbert, m.x.c.s. Eng., u.R.c.P. Lond., Hospital for
e Insane, Callan Park, Balmain
Pe Resayy Meee. F.R.C.8. Eng., Leon. ] Lond., Broken Hill.
“om —- Charles E., B.c elb., Water _ Conservation
nch, Public Works De pate anend Hillst
tBond, aback, 131 Bell’s Chambers, Pitt-stre
relgeeti oat James W., Superintendent of Pala Waterin
Plac —_ cas Dorie, Dapackiins of Mines ind
rinesrsd ciate
a Archer - c.z., The Boulevarde, Strathfield.
Bowman, John
Sowa, Reginald, M.B. et Ch. M. Edin., Parramatta.
Brady, Andrew John, Lie. K. - oT Phys. [rel., Lic. R. Coll. Sur. Trel.,
3 Lyo

enr
market Branch, City.

{Brooks, Sas F.R.G.S., F-R.A.8., ‘ Hope Bank,’ Nelson-st.,
Woolla

ra,

Brown, David, ‘ Kallara,’ Bourke.

Brown, Henry Jo Joseph, Solicitor. Newcastle.

parang Anthony a olling, M.B.,Ch. B. Melb., 285 Elizabeth-

Par
Bruce, Soho Leck, Teaknical College, Sydney.
Bundock, W. C., ‘ Wyangarie, Casino.
Bu oe py ra Ormsby, M. Inst.C.E., Engineer-in-Charge of
Railway Surveys, Fitz Johns, Alfred:st N.. No abies ee
Burne, "De a ate ntist, 1 Lyo s’ Terrace, Liverpool-st
Bush, Thom Engineer’s 3 Office, Australian Gas-
Light rte 163 Kent-street.

Cadell, Alfred, Dalmor
Cameron, Alex lagen Walgett, N. S. Wales.
Campbell, George S.
Campbell, John Honeyford, vm Mint, se baa 5
Campbell, Rev. Joseph F.G.8 . St. Nicola’s
C

w

Campbell, W. Duga ald, Assoc. M, Inst.C.E,, Assoc, King’s Coll. Lond.
F.q.s., 46 Leinster-street, Pad ington.

Cape, Alfred us ., M.A. Syd., ‘ Karoola,’ Edgecliff Road.

Carleton, Henry R., gree * Alameda,’ ackak. Bondi.

eT David, F.1L.A. Gt. Brit. & Ir vel. » PF. - — Australian

tual Pro vident Society, 87 Pitt stre

Chambers Thomas, F.R.C.P., F.R.C.8. Edin., i Lyons! Terrace, ©

Hyde Par
Pt tChard, 5. 8, Licensed pe ding —
E

le.
Chisholm, Edwin, A. Lond.,
Chisholm, William, i as ei 3 Mac ecoarie athe Work.
larke, Gaius, c.E., Boro car Baceoe, Town Hall, Rockdale.
a = P. B., u.x.c.p. Lond., M.R.c.s. Eng., 195 Macquarie-

Codrington, John Frederick, m.z.c.s. Eng., u.R.c.P. Lond.
L.B.c.P. Edin., Orange.

8 bg!

P4

Sagat

P8

Cohen, Algernon A., m.s., M.p. Aberd., M.R.C.8. Eng., 71a
Darlinghurst Road.
Collingwood, David, m.p. Lond., ¥F.R.c.8. Eng., * Airedale,’
Hill.

conueee te eorge, Crown Solicitor, *Rossdhu,’ Belmore
Road, Harstville.
Colyer, J. U. C., Australian Gas-Light Co., 163 Kent-street.
Comrie, Pee ‘Northfield, Kurrajong Heights, vid Rich-
on

Cor bes Samuel, Australian Brewery, Bourke-st., Redfern.

Cottee, W. Alfred, 2 a

Coutie, W. H., M.B., Ch. I v. Melb., ‘ Warminster,’ Canter-
bury Ro Road, Peter shine

Cowdery, George R., Engineer for Tramways, p.r. William-
street, Burwood. .

Cox, James, m.p. Edin F.L.S., 39 Hunter-street.

Cox, The Hon. a 5 ssc i. L.c., Mudgee

Cr: — a ae ge M.R.C.S. Eng., L.R.C.P. Lond., 34 ‘College-street,

Oxsodt The Hon . J. Mildred, M:L.C., M.B.C.8. ase Edin.,
‘ Ravenscraig,’ bil neh gpa Woollahra
reiehoseg Thomas ton
urran, Rev. J. ‘Milne Lec eology, Technical
College, Ryaaeg p.©: BBT en ae City.

sree Fred. H., c/o Messrs. Dangar, Gedye, & Co., Mer-
antile gone Cheagt pe eel sis street.
Dare, Henry H M.E., Assoc. M. I E., Roads and Bridges
Branch, Public Wicks Dapertoss

Darley, Cecil ~~ Fm Inst. C.E., Sis -Chief, Public
Works Departm

Darley, hing Hon. ay Frederick, Knt., B.A., Chief Justice,
Supreme Cou

David, T. Ww. Edge rth, B.A., F.G.8., Professor of Geology
wot box tga “ncography ‘Sydney University, Glebe.

eis. omen M. Inst. C.E., pe antag ha Engineer, Sewerage
Branch, Department of Public Works.

Dean, Alexander, 3.P., 54 Castle sna star Box 409 G.P.O.

Deane, Henry, MAM. Inst. CE., Engineer-in-Chief for Railways,
Railwa Construction Branch, fhm ‘Works Department

p.r. ‘ Blanerne,’ ie alena Road, Hill.

Ded, Joke serosa p. Univ. St. And., mene Lond., M.R.C.8.

Eng

De Salis, The Hon. Leopold Fane, M.L.c., ‘Tharwa, Quean-
n.
Dick, Ji ames Adam, ™.D., ¢.m. Edin., ‘ Catfoss,’ Belmore-road,
wick.

P 12 Dixon, w_ A.,F F...c., Fellow and Member eee of

Chemistry 0 of G reat Britain and Ireland,
Chemistry, The Technical College Laboratory, mace hi

xii.

Elected
1880 Dixson, Thomas, M.B. eae Mast. Surg. Edin., 287 Eliza-
| ‘pat dtacst, Hyde P
1879 | Docker, Wilfred L., ‘ Pri bla,’ Darlinghurst Road.
1876 | Docker, Ernest a M.a. Syd., District Court Judge, ‘ Car-
hullen,’ Granville
1873 Du Faur, E., r.z , Exchange Buildings, Pitt-street.
1891 |P 1) Dunstan, iced ae F.a.8., Techni y “i ese, Sydney.
1892 Dymond, Edmund R., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., t. Elect, Eng. of Gt-
Brit., King’s College, Parramatta.
1890 Eddy, E. M. G., Assoc, Inst. C.E., A ce Commissioner of Rail-
ways, ‘Colebrook,’ Double
1894. | oa ee Gordon Reade ’ Bridges, and Sewerage
h, Public Works Department.
1874 | Biohler, ” Chacien F., m.p. Heidelberg, m. B.C.S. Eng., 56 Bridge-
1876 | Eldred, W. H., Consul General for Chili, ‘Flinton,’ 186
| Glebe Road.
1879 |P3 Head es Robert j ee Curator, Australian Museum
1876 orge, ‘ Glen Ayre,’ Glenmore Road, Paddin ngton.
1881 a ans, Tho mas, M.R.¢.8. En ng. ., 211 Macquarie-street, North.
1892 Everett, W. Frank, Roads and Bridges Oftice, Muswellbrook.
1877 ‘{Fairfax, Edward Ross, 8. Ds ya Office, Hunter-street.
1868 "Fa airfax, James R., S.M. Herald Office, Hunter-street.
* 1887 | ham ar £39 L., m.p. New Yok ig "Phys. & Surg.) L.R.C.P.,
Lond., 5 Lyons’ Terra
1889 Farr mage shua J. ns. Be, te nie Evan, Addison Rd., Marrickville.
1881 Fiaschi, Thos., m.D., M.Ch. Univ. Pisa, 39 Phi li ip- sreterie
1891 Firth, Thomas Rhodes, Principal feces t Engineer, Rail-
way £ggcagantag Department, Sydney; p.r. ‘ « @lenevin,’
rncliffe.
1891 Fitzgerald, Robert D., Roads and Bridges Branch,
Department of Public. Works, Sydney
1888 Fitshardinge, Grantly Hyde, m.a. Syd. District Court Judge,
‘Nunda,’ Birchgrove, Balmain.
1894 Fitz Nea, A. = Roads and Bridges Branch, Public
Works Department, p.r. ‘Thaluya,’ ve go N. woth
1892 Flint, and "Alfred, M. es King’s School, Parrama’
1879 \fForeman, Joseph, M.R.¢c.s, Eng., L.R.C.P. Edin., 315. "Mac-
Bat quarie-street.

Foster, The Hon. Mr. Justice (W. J.) 9.c., Enmore Road,
ewtown.

1883 | P5| Fraser, John, 3.a Edin., Délégué ep aaa Bee"
’Océanie), Al Reais Seiontifig ue de Paris ; te of
tbe. viene (Philosophical) “institute of hecat B Britains

Elected
1890

1881

|
ww

xii.

sag rs Francis B., m.a. Syd., Solicitor, ‘Carmena,’ Wya-
-street, Burw
Forbes oT. Bs Surveyor General’s Office, 218 Victoria-street.

Gale, ridge ge F.R.A — & BAA, Savings’
Bank of N. 8. Wales, Barracks

Garran, ged ob M.A., LL.D. Syd, noinigr sien Square, Eliza-
beth Bay bigs

Garrett, Henry Edward, m.x. * s. Eng., c/o Messrs. Sly and
Russell, Solicitors, Pigs. va eet.

Garva 1 Ca slereagh stre

Gedye, Charles perro) cjo M = Dangar, a & Co.,
Mer pr le Bank Chambers, Mavealet-a

George, W. R., 318 George-street.

Gerard, Francis, c/o Messrs. Du Faur & Gerard, Box 690

Gill, ‘Rev. William Wyatt, B.a. Lond., Lup. St. Andrews,
‘ Persica,’ Illawarra Road,. Marek: lle.
Gill. Robert J., Resident eager, Rinks and Bridges,
layne
Gilliat, Henry A., Australian Club, Sydney.
Gipps, F. B., c.z., ‘ughenden,’ Cheltenham Road, Bur
M.

N
So ey ; Mew. Brit. Med. Assoc.; Lecturer on Medical
Ju apruiaies, University a Sydney, 159 Maequarie-st.
Goodlet, John H., terbury House,’ Ashfield.
Gordon, Charles ray + Ber latie? East Crescent-street,
North Sydne.

¥

Graham, spi ‘ei M.B., C.M. Edin., M.L.A., 4 Hyde
Park Ter a Livee ae et.

Griffiths, G. Neville, 869 George-street.

Grimshaw, cape Walter, M. Inst.C.E., M.I. Mech. E., &c., Australian
Club, Sydney. Hon. Secretary.

Gundlach, pois Richard, a.m.1.c.z., Whistler-street, Manly.

Gurney, T. T., ma. Cantab., Profes sor of Mathematics,
Sydne y University, 149 0 Micequarie-tree

Guthvie, ps eat kb. F , Department of Agriculture,
Sydney.

Halligan, Gerald H., c.£., ‘ Riversleigh,’ Hunter’s Hill.
Halloran, Henry Ferdinand, t.s., 28 Castle srage hgirm ee
Hamlet, William M., F.C.8., F.1.C., — ber of the Society of

Public Analysts; Government Analyst, Governmen ernment
aboratory, Kesainily Buildings. :
Hankins, George Thomas, m.k.c.8. Eng., ‘ St. Ronans,’ Allison
Road, Ran as

Elected
_ 1891 | | Hanly, Charles, t.s., Resident Engineer, Roads and Bridges
Office, Crookw ell.
1890 | Harris, Rev. Edward, m.a. Oxon. and Syd., D.pD. Oxon.
1881 | \tHarris, John, ‘ oh Sogo any -street, Ultim
1877 P13tHargrave, Lawrence, J.p., Sta ~~ pony Otfora,
1884, = elt, — Abhi, 404, DS Professor of
and Comparative Anatomy, "Univelaity. Sydney.
1890 | | Hagaone ‘timo — Cc, ueen’s Univ. Irel., Assoc. M. Inst.
| ‘ Fontenoy,’ gree street, Woollahra
1876 | | Heaton, J. ¥ Henniker, u.P., St. Stephen’s Club, Westminster,
1891 aa 1| eige Charles, F.L.S., Assistant in Zoology, Australian
useum, Sydne oy
1893 | ‘Hendenon, sche.
1890 | ‘Henry, Arthur p Ber M.B., Ch. M. > Resident Medical
| | Owce r, Callan Park Asylum alm.
1884 | Henson, Joshua B., c.z., Hu nter District Water Supply and
Sewerage Bo ard, Neweas e.
1891 | | har a Robert, M. Inst, C.E., Under Secretary, Public Works
| bane; por. The e Pines,’ Bondi.
1876 pe 2) Hirst, Otetks e D., 377 George-street
1891 | | Hood, Alexander J arvie, M.B., Mast, peng: Glas., 2i9 Macquarie-
| | street, City.
1892 | Hodgson, Charles George, 157 Macquarie-street.
1886 (Holme es, she r Harrison, ‘The Wilderness, Allandale.
1891 Houghton, Thos. . Harry, A.M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., 12 Spring-street.
1879 | Houison, Andre “ne A MB, M. Edin., 47 Phillip-street.
1891 |P 1) peers “William F. lust. CE, ™ I. Mech, E., Wh. Se, Mutua: 1 Life
uildinge, : vacates
1877 Hume, J. K., ‘ Beulah,’ Cam pbel llto
1894 |P2 Hunt, "Hen ory fg Second cticellosivel Assistant, Sydney
Observatory.
1882 Hurst, George, m.a. Syd., m.B. Univ. Lond., u.B., o.m. Univ.
Edin., Bathurst.
1886 Hutchinson, W. A., Bond-street, p.r. oo Glebe Point.
1891 Hutchinson, William, M. Inst. (.E., Supervising Engineer, Rail-
bie: Construction Branch, Bnblis Works Department. —

1895 Jacob, Albert Francis, a.m.1.c.z., 8 The Terrace, Shepherd’s
Hill, Newcastle.

1891 Jamieson, Sydney, B.A., M.B., M.R.C.S., L.B.C.P., 157 Liverpool-

street, Hyde Park.

1884 Jenkins, Edward Johnstone D. Oxon., M.R.C.P., M.R.C.8.
L.8.a. Lond., 213 Macauscie-treek, North.

1879 Johnson, James W., Norwich Ch eed poems

1887 Jones, George Mander, m.R.c.s. Eng., i Pp. Lond., * Viwa,”

Burlington Road, Homebush
1874 Jones, James, ‘ Miltonia,’? Randwick.
¢ 1879 Jones, John Trevor, c.z., ‘Tremayne,’ North Shor
1884 Jones, Llewellyn Charles Russell, m.u.a., Solicitor, 130 Pitt-st.

Elected
1867
1876

1891
1875

1874
1883
1872

P3

P2

rs

P 45

XV.

Jones, P. Sydney, u.v. Lond., 8. Eng., 16 College-street,
Hyde Park, p.r. ‘Llandilo,’ "Boulevard Strathfield.

Jones, Richard Theophilus, m.p. Syd., u.R.c.P. Hdin., ‘ Caer
Idris,’ Ashfield.

Jones, RibetE, M. Inst.C.E., Roads Department, Muswellbrook

—— Js Percy, Assoc. M. Inst, C.E., ‘ Moppity,’ George-st.,

J Poe "N uma, Hunter’ s Hill.

Kater, The Hon. H. E., m.t.c. sige Seam Los vation Bay Rd.

Keele, ae William, M, —_ C.E., Dis Engineer, Har-
bours and ives s Department, Ballina, "Ric hmond River
Keep, Hog Bronghton Hall, tas hhardt.

Kendall, Theodore M., — lbs L.R.C.8. Lond., u.M., 28

ollege-street, ee
oe alter MacD 2% enc, L.B.C.8. Hdin., L.F.P.8.
, 265 Eli ma Re
Souk Hoces Oi ed ig s Chambers, aty Pitt-street.

Kiddle, Hugh "Cha . Public School, Seven
Oaks, ehh sane ite River.
ae Christopher Watkins LC 8., Roads and Bridges

Public Works gr aay e* dne
King, re a Philip G., M.u.c., ‘ fextek William-street,
Double
Kirkaldie, Davia, Chief Traffic Manager, New South Wales
overnment eg Sydney.
Knaggs, Samuel T., Aberdeen, ¥.8.0.8. Irel., 16 College-
street, Hyde Pa Peg
Knibbs, G. H., r.n.a.s., L.s., Lecturer in Surveying, University
Sydney, p.r. ‘Avoca ‘House,’ Denison Road, Petersham.
d W i f

Knox, The Hon. Edward, m.t.c., O ‘Sree or

Kopsch, G., re Boulevard, Petersha

Kyngdon n, F. B., ¥.B Lond., Deanery as Bowral.
Vice-President.

Lenehan, ar ed Alfred, F.R.A.8., ee, aor aitoari
Lingen, J. T., M.A. Cantab., 167 Phillip-s
Archibald, - . ee +f Sa

Min

aie . Roy. Sch,
s Lond.; F.E.G.S. ; Fel. Inst. Chemiaiey
of Gt. Brit. ple, Soak: Han Fel. Roy. Historical Soc. Lond.;

Mem. Phy. Soc. Loni: Mineralogical Society, Lond. ;
Edin. Geol. Soc.; Mineralogical Society, France; Cor. Mem.

Edin ; Roy. as.; Roy. 3
Sen berg Institute, Frankfurt ; . @ Acclimat.
Mauritius; Hon. Mem. - Vict.; stitute ;
K. Leop. Carol. Acad. Halle a/s; Professor of Chemistry

Cc
in the University of Sydney, The University, Glebe ; p.r.
‘The Octagon,’ St. Mark’s Road, Darling Point.

Xvi.

| Lloyd, Lancelot T., ‘ Eurotah,’ William-street East.
| Lloyd, 'The 4 George Alfred, M.u.c , F.R.G.8., ‘ Scottforth,’
Elizabe h Bay

P 2} Loir, Adri

Long, Alfred Parry, Land Titles’ a bamentcorh ee
Low, Hamilton, H. M. Customs, Sydne

MacAllister, eden ta M.B., B.S. Melb., ‘ Ewhurst,’ Stanmore
R
MacCarthy, Shicdaa W., M.D., F.R.¢.s. Ivel., 223 Elizabeth-
t, Hyde

ark.
McCormick: Alexander, M.D., c.m. Edin., M.R.c.s. Eng., 125
Macquarie-street Nort a
| MaoCullock,: Stanhope H., c.M. Edin., 24 College-street.

| M‘Cutcheon, John Whence, ‘Saeneee to the Sydney Branch

| of the Royal a nae

eD sag crs hn M., M.D, M.R.C.P. Lond., F.R.c.8. Irel.,

| 173 acdaniatnect No rth.

| MacDonald, Ebenezer, ‘ Kamilaroi,’ —' Point.
MacDonald, John A., M. Inst. C.E., M. Ins , M. Am, Soe

MacDonnell, William J., eae ojo M Vis Ok Goddard,

N ey

amber
MacDonnell, Samuel, Cape’s and na 3 Bond-street.
MecDo ‘oa Herbert Cx ae M &.C.8. Eng., b.B.c.P. Lond,
Hospital for 8 eines ag
McKay, Charles Univ. St. Andrews, t..R.c.s. Edin.,

y
McKay, Robert Thomas,
McKay William J. Siawaek: BSe., M.B. Ch.M., ‘Glengower,’
Fae street, Petersham
Mackellar, The Hon. Charles innard, M.L C., M.B., C.M. Glas.,
183 Liverpoo “nla Hyde P
Mackenzie, John, r Cp tails Club, 8 Sydne
Mackenzie, Rev. P. r. "The Manse, Fohnston-st, Annandale.
M‘Kinney, Hugh Giffin, m.z. Roy. Uni M, CE.
Chief tee re for Water prom cots vol A itiaaa Club?
Castlereayh-street.
ss "The | ee Henry Norman, , M.A., M,D. Edin.,
s. Edin D. Univ. St. Andr 3° 155 M acquarie-st.
McMillan, William, » MLA; f St. Albans,’ ‘Allison-st, Randwick.
adsen, Hans. F., ‘Hesselmed House,’ Queen-st., Newtown.
Maiden, moar H. 1» PES, 20.8 ne orr. Memb. Pharm. Soe.
Great ot and of Roy. Soe. .,8.A.; Hon. Memb. Phila.
Coll. of Pharm. and Royal Netherlands Soc., (Haarlem);
Superintendent of Technical Education, Sydney. Hon.

Seer gi ae
Maitland, Duncan Mearns, a ee of Lands, Ss ;dney.
oe G. E.. haar Square, Be rrima.
nfred, Edmund C » Montague-street, Goulburn.
pests John F., ‘ Ferepanu, ” Neutral Bay.
ae Frederic Norto m.D. Univ. St. And., M.R.c.8. Eng.) _
A. Lond., Hunter’s Hin.

P3

P3

x7

Et

XVii,

— G. —— Martin Chambers, Moore-stre
o, G. V., m-p. Univ. Naples, Clarendon Pee Eliza-

of P logy. “Sydne y University, * ¥, 986 Macquavi-st
iieoncas "Robert t Chr., She a by
Ma — . ‘ ae LB sii Fi by i”
Meggin mu. Edin., 147 P ailaabeits atre et.
Millard, Reginald Jeffery, oa ch. M, Syd., Hospital for Insane
Callan Park, Balmai
Miles, oe E., 1.8.0. : “ Lond., M.R.c.S. Eng., Hospital for

s astle

— ss u.D. Heid elbe ergs 3 k.c.s. Eng., 3 Clarendon Ter-

e, 295 Blizabeth- stree

Milson, Jam et ‘Elamang,’ North Shore.

mis 23 Jo .H., F.c.s., M.AI.M-E., oo and Analyst
o the Department of Mines, Sydne

Mollison, James Smith, m.t1.c.z., Roads, kaon 5 Sewerage

Branch, Department of Public Works, Sydne
Moore, prsnetes ye Fe Be irector of the Saas Gardens,
ydney. Mie Presiden
Moore, Frederick H.., ilawarea pe Co., Gresham-street.
Moir, James, 38 ae

Money, Angel, M.D., F.R.C.P. 340 Hunter-street.
Morris, William he Pg tee and Surg. Glas., F.R.M.S8.
ond., 5 Bligh-str

Moss, eens a fee Kalool, ; besos et Seetag Shore.
nilba

{Mullens, Josiah, F.R.

Mullins, John Francis Sue M.A. Syd., * : Killoonten,’ Challis
Avenue, Pott’s Poin

Mullins, George Lane, Mm... p. Trin. Coll. Dub., u.v. Syd.,
F.B.M.s. Lond., ‘Murong,’ ‘Aibion-street, Waverley.

Munro, William John, m.B., . Edin., M.B.C.8. Kak Bea 8

Glebe Road, Glebe.
Myles, Charles Henry, ‘ Dingadee,’ Burwood.

Nangle, James, Architect, t, Australia-street, Newtown

Neill, Leopold Edward Flood, M.B.,Ch.M. Univ. Syd., No. 3
Bay mater Houses, Double

Nicholls, "William Hawkins, Roads ; Ole. Muswellbrook. :

N — — George, 60 Louisa Road, Longnose Point,

Norton, Th The Hon. ‘aioe, M.L.C., LL.D., Solicitor, 2 O’Connell-
street, p.r. ‘ Beclesbourne Double y:

Noyes, Edwar rd, ¢.E., ‘Waima,’ Wentworth Road, Point

Piper, Sydney.

Ogilvy, James L., cert Hote Melbourn
O’Neill, G. tant. & ., CM , 291 Rlizabeth-strest.

Oram, Arthur Mu cine M.D. nv, Edin., 213 Macquarie-st.,
North.

1876

P 4

P4/P

1 ahi *

P3

XVlii.

O’Reilly, W. W. J., M.D. M.ch.Q. Univ. Irel., m.nz.c.s. Eng.,
197 oe t,

Osborne, Ben. M., ‘ Hopewood,’ Bowral.

Osborn thes F., Assoc, ie Inst.C.E. Roads and Bridges Office,

Cowr
Owen, inne Percy Thomas, Assistant Engineer, Military
Works, Australian Club.

Palmer, J. H., ‘ Hinton,’ aa te Burwood.

Palmer, Joseph, 133 Pitt-st., p.r. Kenneth-st., Willoughby.
Park, Archibald John, Own Local Land Board, rece
hepkabewengaee enry W., pened eee Brisban

Paters erokty ander, din., 146 Gryntal-atseeks

Pe eae
Paterson, Hugh , 197 Liverpool-street, Hyde Park.
Pedley, Berooval, R., 227 Macquarie-stree
Perkins, Henry A ‘ ore Saag Cov ventry Road, Homebush.
Philip, Alex., L.K.Q.C P. Irel., u.R.0.8. Irel., 574 Crown-street,

Surry Hills.
Piskbarn, Thomas, M.D., c.m. Aberdeen, m.p.c.s. Eng., 22
College-street.
a ai ei Geologist
Department 3 peice
eps Frederick, District Surveyor, Toiawe rth.
Pockley, Francis Antill, m.s., u.c. Univ. Edin., m.x.c.s. Eng.,
"Mac acqu ac ge? eet.
Pockley, Thomas F. G., Commercial apie a on
Pollock, James ee thur, B.e. Roy. Uni BSc. Syd.,
Demonstrator in Playas, Sydney Uni ie
burs William dr., ter soe at Sach, Depart-
ent of Public Woke Bou

—
Pringle, Adam Thompson, Government Inspector of Vine-
yards, ‘ Albma Villa,’ Barramatta Road, Concord.

Purser, Cecil, B.a., M.B., ¢ Valdemar,’ Boulevard,
Petersham

Quaife, Frederick H Mas
‘ Hughenden,’ is p cons evi Wooll

ERTS Edward P., uu.p. Univ. St. And. beter F.R.S.E+>
» c/o Australian Museum, College-s
eae i: Mem. Odon ogee ” Hileaheth- peel Hyde
Park, p-r. Fullerton- aout ees llahra
Ng.» L.B.G.P. Lond., L.D.8.

g. a
Rennie, Edward Syd., D.Se. Lond., Professor of
Chemistry, Duvokey Adelaide.

ter of ipa ane Glas, .
ahra s

P4
rik

P 57

P3

Rennie, George E., a mu.D. Lond., u.R.0.8. Eng., 16
College-street, ityde e Par

marks he Hon. Sir ferion M.L.C., B.A. Syd., M.D. F.R.C.8.

., 295 scape!
Roberts, ‘Sir Alfr ed, M ,» Hon. Mem. Zool. and Bot.
oc. Viennr, 125 Macquarie-sérect North.

pee W. S. de Lisle, c.z., Sewerage Branch, Public Works
Department, Phillip-street.

Rolleston, are C., c.g., Harbours and Rivers Branch, Dept.
of Public Works.

Rossbach, William, Assoc, M. Inst. C.E., Chief avian ese
bours and Rivers Branch, Public Bie ks Depar

Ross, Chisholm, m p. Syd., u.B., c.M. E Atal 9 ‘the
Insane, ‘ peg near Goulbur

Ross, Colin John, B.Sc., B.E., Assoc. M. Inst. . Ez, Borough Engineer,
Town

a Herbert E., yee, 17 ; Mining Engineer, 121 Pitt-st.
s, J. Grafton, * O’Connell-st
oem W. H., Colonial Sugar Pee O’Connell-st., and Union
Clu

Rowney, George Henry, A.M.1 Water and Sewerage

ard, oo p.r. 12 alinceiecek. Dachiohnesk
Russell, Hen » BA A. Syd., C.M.G., F-B.S., F.R.A.S., P.R. Met. Soc.,
Me oy. Soc South Australia, Cece

on. in
onomer, Sydney Observato ory.
Rygate, Phillip W., m.a., B-£ . Syd., 14 O’Connell-street.

Sahl, Carl L., German Consulate, . gee otgie
ag te James Alexander, F.C.s., s.m., Sydney Univer-
y. Gle

tSoott, one. Willia , M.A. Cantab., Kurrajong Heights.
Scott, Walter, nis ’ Oxo ONn., Professor of Greek, University,

Sydney.
Seaver, ba s Whitchurch, B.c.z. Roy. Univ. Irel., Water

Conservation Branch, Pu “ at Works Department, p-r.
Underclife-strost North
Selfe, Nor 0.5. M, oe or ae Victoria Chambers, 279
eo. ners

Sellors, R. P., B.a. Syd., ¥.R.A.8., Sydney Observator,

Selman, D. Codrington, Wh. Sc., St. James’ Chaisbeta ‘King-
street, City.

Shaw, — William, c.z., ‘Seswell,’ Torrington Road,
Stra

Shellshear, ‘Walter, M. Inst. C.E., Divisional Engineer, kane
Departme oulburn

Shepard, A. D., Box 728 G. P. oO. ey

Sheppard, Rev. G., B.a. Syd., ‘

Shewen, Alfred, m.v. Univ. tak per c.s. Eng., 6 Lyons’

Park.

errace,

Simpson, Benjamin Crispin, M. Inst. C.E., 113 Phillip-stree'

Sinclair, Eric, m.p., c.m. Univ. Glas., Hospital for the ak
Gladesville

XxX.

Elected ' ; ‘
1893 sear Russell, m.1.m.n. &c., Consulting Engineer, 97 Pitt-
1884 | Siivcieg, Robert Scot, m.B., cm. Edin., Elizabeth-street,

H Park.
1877 | rRltone Frederick Evans, 94 oe Paddingto
1891 P | Smail, J. M., M.Inst.©.E., Chief Engineer, Metropolitan Board

| f Wat er ete y and ey ny ‘34 Pattatreet
1893 | |? 3| Smeeth, William Frederick, M.A., B.E., ev A.R.S.M., Demon-
| rator in at Sydney Universi
1893 | P 7 Smith ya G., MEicteahoa lee, Technological
Mus

| edac
1874 1 P P 1 \{¢Smith, sera Rea. Denison-street, Woollahr
® |

"8 mith, Robert, m.a. Sydney, Marlborough Diasistaie 2
et.

°C
1886 — Smith, Walter Alexander, M. Inst.c.E, Roads, Bridges and
Sewerage Branch, ra pao Department, N. Sydne
Speak, Savannah J., Assoc

1892 | |

1893 | | Spencer, Photnds William: Taube: Resident Engineer,
| ds and Bridges, Armidale.

1879 | | Spry, James Monsell, Union Club.

1892 P 1: Statham, Edwyn Joseph, assoc. M. Inst.C.k., ‘ Fenella,’ Frederick-
| street, Rockdale.

1892 | | Statham, nso Pipa gy — cage Blayney.

1882 | | Stee . = - BS. Univ. Melb., 3
| Taek ‘Beas Pa a

1889 | Besphee: Arthur Winbourn, t.s., Mulgo

1879 | Stephen, sie Hon reas bees s A., M.L.c., 12—14 O’ ee

1891 | | Stilwell, A C.k., ‘ ‘Strathroy,’ "ast Ora

1892 | St rest poste ‘MaDouncil, B.E. Queen’s Univ. fiers va Inst, C.E.
* Dunsevirick,’ Pymble.

1883 P3| oO Pi = P. Anderson, Univ. Edin., boo ase of

logy, University ¢ of Sydn ae coe a

1892 | ‘Sturt, Clifton 2 8. Edin., .F.P Wistaria,
Bulli.

1883 | Styles, George Mildinhall, Commercial Bank, George-street.

1887 | Sulman ——

1876 'P 1| Sutter, The Hon be ears , 264 N orwood Villa, Ocean-
| street, Paddington
ag
Eo

1893 | ‘fTaylor, James, B.Sc, A.R.8.M., Government Metallurgist,
ba ol Adderton Road, Dundas.

1862 9 Tebbutt, John, ¥.z.a.s., Private Observatory, The Peninsula,
| | Windsor, New South Wales

pet oy | Thomas, F. a unter River N. S. N. Co., Sussex-street.
Thomson, gald, m.u.a., c/o Messrs. Thomson Bros., 9

sok Castle ni eet.

Thompson, oe 159 see jatar cnn Woolloomooloo.
Thompson, Thom es, Eldon Chambers, 92 Pitt-street.
1885 | P2 Thompson John Aabeerte on, M.D. Bruz., Health Departed

acquarie-s
1892 Thow, William, Locomotive Department, Eveleigh.

Elected
1886 |

FA

Threlfall, Richard, m.a. Cantab., Professor of Physics, Uni-
versity of Sydney. hem President.
Thri see Rees <a T., F.R.c.8. .Eng., L.R.c.P. Lond., 225 Mac-

Tibbits, ‘Walter. Hugh, M.R.C.S. meee ., Gunning.
Tidswell, st M.B., M. hp? nai
Toohey, The Fal i Noi ? Burwood.
Tooth. ilfeed ecakes ah Ohaahans: 68} Pitt. street.
Tooth, Arthur W., petheonty: Club, Bent-stree

W.,

WwW
Traill, Mark W., L.R ae bese M.R.C.S. Eng., ‘ Coolabah,’
my

e

Trebeck, Prosper N., s.p., 2 O’Connell-street.

Trebeck, P. C., : bedtntgas fac aes et.

tTucker, G. A., Ph. D., c/o Perpetual Trustee Company, 14
O’Connell- rise

Van de Velde, Clement, c.z., (Diploma University Ghent),
Wynyard my City.
agg a John, M.B., c.M. Edin.,.‘ Bay View House,’

Viwlast Capitaine ras, Ing. me Via Fazio 2, Spezia, Poi
lai

Vicars, Jam » A.M.I.C , City Surveyor, Ade

Vickery, Gadten B. "48 Pitt-street.

Voss, Houlton H., s.p., c/o Perpetual Trustee Company,
14. O Cohnalbahvent.

Walker, H. O., Commercial Union Assurance Co., Pitt-st.
Walsh, ‘Henry De ane, B.E., T.c. Dub., M. Inst. C.E., Supervising
Engineer, Har rs and Rivers jeparanaa Newcastle.
Ward, James Wenssan: 271 span sr et.
eet, St. ———

Ward, Thomas William fica - 0% B.c.E. Syd., ‘ Roslyn,’
Toxteth Road, eee Point.

Wardell, W. W., F.B.1.B.A., M.Inst.C.E., ‘Upton Grange,’ St.
Leonards.

Warren, William Edward, m.p., sg ch. Queen’s University Irel.
265 Eliz aboth-strve t, Sydne
h, Se.,

arren, M. Inst. C. 4 Professor of Engineering,
University of Sydney, p.r. ‘Undoona,’ Albert Road,
Strathfield.
bag iers a Leo, B.A. Cantab., M.A. sige iran
Draftsman, 5 Richmond Terrace, Dom

Watkins, Brass C., M.B.c.8s Eng., Manly. :

Watson, C. sir sell, M.R.C.S. pve «Woodbine? Erskineville
otha xh)

| Watt, Charles, Parramatta. Lieanae

‘Wau gh, Isaac, c. Dub., T.c.D., Parramatta.

1879

get!

Xxil.

Webster, A. 8., a, acne reeves Co. 16 “gga ye
We pane James P hilip, Ass Inst.C.E., LS. New Zea
ough Enginee Sen: Ha 11, Marrickville
Weigall, Albert Betheoon a, B.A. Ozon., M.A. Syd., Head Master
of the Sydney Grammar School, Crlicne obckt.
{Wesley, W. H.
Westg ri Gi e;, peep as p.r. 59 Elizabeth Bay Road.

{Whitfeld, Lewis, M.A. ‘Oaklands,’ Edgecliff Road,
White, Harold Roget, Aststant — and Analyst, Dept.
ines, p.r. Brown’s Road, Kogarah.
tWhite, . W. Moore ap Ms DE “ ; ar

e 5 'F.0.D-

White, Rev. James §., m.a., Lu.p. Syd., ‘ Gowrie, ’ Singleton.

Mates The Hon. Robert rt Hoddle Driberg, m.u.c., Union Club,
‘ Tahlee,’ pl: Stephe

Biles dis 4 George-street.

ee Rev. rere ‘Regent House,’ ee ee
rsham

Wilkinson, Ww. Camac, u.p. Lond., m.R.c.p. Lond., M.R.C.8.
» Liverpool-street.
Williams, Sete Edward, The ee.
hides ne s Thompson, H.8., J.P., ‘Coolooli,’
iB dere ; ‘Road, Shell Cére, Neutral Bay
R.

Wils hit e, F.

Wilson, Robert (Archibald, M.D. Glas. of “Mast. Surg. Glas., 2
a Balm

Wilson, _ sT., MB Ma st. att Univ. Edin., Professor
of A tomy, University of Sydn

Wood, is, ‘ Beverle a lene Mansfield, Glebe Point.

Wood, Percy Moar, L.R.C.P s. Eng., ‘ Redcliffe,’
Liverpool Road.

Woolrych, F. B. W., ‘ Verner,’ Grosvenor-street, Croydon

Wright, Frederick, mr. s.,¢/o Messrs. Elliott Bros., Limited,
O’Connell-street, p.r. ‘Harnett- -street.

Wright, Horatio G. A., u vam ie Eng o. Roms Lond., 4 York:
street, Wynyard Squ

Wright, John, c.z., Sf rach eos uke Point.

Young, John, ‘ Kentville,’ Johnston-street, Leichhardt.

Honorary Mempers.
Limited to Twenty.
M,— Seep ap of the Clarke
Agnew, Sir James, sr » Hon. See ae "asad Society of
Tasma mania, aoe
Bernays, Lewis A.,

, Bris
‘Buns mony Profs Robert Wilhelm, 3 “ii poe R.S., Heidelberg.

Elle » F.R.S., F.R.A.8., Government Astronomer
of bru. Melhourne

Foster, Michael, m.p., P.R.S., Professor of Physiol Uni-
versity of Cambridge. ee oe

1886

PS

Xxiil.

Gregory, The Hon. Augustus Charles, ¢.M.G., M.L.C., F.R.G.8.,

risbane

Hector, Sir James, K.c k.s., Director of the
Colonial rear and Geclogical Racaes of Now Zealand,
Wellington, N.Z.

fone: od Jose ph Dalton, K.c M.D., C.B., F.R.8., &¢., late
Director of the Royal Ganens, Kew

Hoesen ‘William, D. oy L., LL.D., F.B.8., &e., 90 Upper Tulse
Hill,. London, 8.V

Hutton, ike om Pred ick Wollaston, F.a.s., Curator, Can-

r m, Christchurch, New Zealand.

M‘Coy, Peed,” O.M.G., D.Sc, F.R.S., toad Hon, M.C.P.8.,

C.M.Z.8., dapevrairte en Natural Science e Melbourne

ational amon: Mel urne.

apenas Baron Ferdinand von, Pons M.D., Ph.D., F.R.8.)
8); ab dee wre Botanist, Melbou

Spencer, W. Baldwin, m.a., Professor of Biology, University
f Melbourne.

Tate, Ralph, F.G.8., F.L.8., Professor ra Natural Science,

University, poner South Austra
hd! ar ei ed Russel, . Oxon., “eee Dublin, F-.R.8.,
one, Datect.
Walécheuse F. G.,F.¢ s., c.m.z.8., Adelaide, South Australia.

CoRRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Limited to Twenty-five.
Marcou, Professor a F.a.s., Cambridge, Mass., United
States of Ameri

OBITUARY.
1895.
Hon, President.
His Excellency Sir R. W. Duff, p. oe G.C.M.G.

Honorary Members.
Cockle, Sir James, F-.R.8.
Huxley, Rt. Hon. "hater F.B.S., P.C.
Pasteur, Louis, m.p., For. Mem. R. 8.

erempenres * Member.
Clarke, Hyde, V.P. kup Inst

Ordinary Members.
sas Allan

Digh

Mevillivray. ‘Dr. te: 9

anning, Sir William Montague
Nolan, John
Ollif, |
Sager,

Sedeiok mr Wa G,
Rian delete Dr. G. W.

.

JOURNAL & PROCEEDINGS |

OF THE

NEW SOUTH WALES,

EDITED BY

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS.

By Professor THRELFALL, M.A.,

Professor of Physics in the University of Sydney.
[Delivered to the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, May 1, 1895.]

On looking back through the goodly list of twenty-eight volumes
which form the Journal of the Royal Society of New South Wales,
I find that it has been customary for your President in vacating
the chair, to address you in the first place on the affairs of the
Society, and in the second on such matters of general scientific
interest as may have attracted his attention. I propose to follow
the example which my predecessors have set, and shall accordingly
commence with some notes on the history of the Society during
the past year. In this matter I have had the advantage of the
assistance of our indefatigable Assistant Secretary, Mr. W. H.
Webb, for which assistance I desire to thank him.

Tt is a matter of congratulation, that in spite of the bad times,
our numerical strength has only fallen from four hundred and
forty-five to four hundred and twenty. During the year we
have elected eighteen members; we have lost twenty-seven by
resignation, seven through default in payment of subscription’;
ten ordinary and one honorary member through death ; the com-
plete list of the last is as follows :—

Ordinary Members :

Dixson, Craig, m.p., elected 1880,
Hall, R. T., elected 1878.
Hills, Robert, elected 1879.
Jones, E. L., elected 1877.
Low, Andrew 8., elected 1880,
Manning, Hon, Sir W. M,, m.t.c., elected 1881.
Montefiore, E. L., elected 1875.

A—May 1, 1895,

2 R. THRELFALL.

Murnin, M. E., elected 1865.
Nowlan, John, elected 1878.
Quodling, W. H., elected 1876.

Hon. President :
His Excellency Sir R. W. Duff, p.c., c.c.me.

Sir Rosert Wi.iiam Durr accepted the office of Honorary
President of our Society soon after his arrivalin the Colony. His
official duties prevented him from taking an active share in the
_ conduct of our affairs; we can only add our share to the tribute
of sympathy and regret which came from the whole Colony at
the death of a kindly gentleman.

The financial position of the Society may be regarded on the
whole as satisfactory. Our total receipts during the year ending
March 31st, 1895, were £1,234 10s., and we commenced with a
balance of £63 12s. 3d., making in all £1,298 2s. 3d., of this we
- spent £1,140 17s. 4d.; we have transferred £106 14s. to the
building fund, and carried forward £50 10s. 11d. to next year.
Of the amounts expended we have only been able to devote about
£100 to the purchase of books and periodicals, though the general
library expenses, including binding, may be put at about £200.
The publication of our Journal has cost us a little over £300;
and we may look forward to this source of expense increasing as
time goes on and the influence of the University extends. ‘Those
whose business it is to consult the proceedings of learned societies
must have noticed the enormous rate at which the bulk of these
works increases year by year, and our own journal has swollen
with the rest. It willwsoon ‘become a matter for consideration a8
to whether we are to go on increasing our expenditure in this
direction, or limit it by publishing papers of exceptional interest
only. No great saving can be made in the preparation of plates
and engravings, for we have always employed cheap processes |
reproduction ; financial stress appears to have driven the Royal —
Society of London to reproduce plates in a manner similar to that
which we adopt, but this must always be aisource of regret to

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 3

those who have been used to the artistic beauty of their engravings,
and is in my opinion quite unworthy of the leading scientific
society of a great country.

The prize essay awards have cost us £50, and in my mind the
time has now come for us to reconsider the whole question of
spending any part of our limited means in this direction. In spite
of the possibly valuable papers which the offer of rewards has
brought us, I am inclined to think that scientific investigation
might be more efficiently assisted by devoting the money at
present spent on awards to the purchase of apparatus or material
for those who require such assistance, or in improving our library.
It is right I should add that this is my individual opinion only,
and that I know my views are not shared by several members of
the Council, whose opinion I value.

An inspection of the Society’s house discloses the fact that con-
siderable repairs will be required during the current year, and we
must expect to have to meet a heavy charge on this account. The
matter is engaging your Council’s attention.

Turning to our building fund, we find that it is increasing
slowly, and now reaches the sum of £1,286, which is invested on
fixed deposit at the Union Bank. The Council has devoted a
considerable time to the question of the investment of this fund,
and it is possible that it may be found desirable to vary the mode
of investment, provided that an eligible security can be found. It
must not be forgotten, however, that our present premises are
becoming too small for the accommodation of the library, which
even now makes the conduct of the office work difficult by trench-
ing on the Assistant Secretary’s room. Some temporary relief
has been afforded by storing books behind the dais in our meet-
ing room, but the time is not far distant when the building fund
will have to be employed in providing us with the actual space
which we require.

The Clarke Memorial Fund and the Abercromby Fund stand
respectively at £360 and £68, and require no special comment.

4 R. THRELFALL.

During the year we have held seven general meetings, at which
thirty-two papers were read. This is an average of about four
and a-half papers per meeting. On several occasions, if not om
all, the time at the disposal of the writers of papers has not been
sufficient for an adequate presentment of the results of their
labours, and discussion has had to be compressed within very
narrow limits. It appears therefore, that in the event of our
continuing to receive so many valuable contributions, we must
either refer more of them to the sections, or hold more meetings.
The former course is in my opinion rather undesirable, for it must
mean the banishment of perhaps the most important and interest: _
ing communications to sectional meetings, while the full meetings —
would be occupied in dealing with those subjects only for which —
no sections are appropriate. If we increase our general meetings
to two per month, it would I think be easy to arrange for the.
division of subjects into two groups, and apportion one meeting ©
per month to each, in this way an engineer would not require to |
sit through a paper on anthropology, etc., in order to hear one —
in which he was interested, or vice versa. |

I do not propose to append a list of papers read during the year
for out of the thirty-two, twenty-eight will be found published in
the journal, and the other four may be published with those we
shall receive during the current year. The list of exhibits will
also be found in its proper place.

During the year the average attendance of members was ae
seven, and visitors four, so that our meetings have certainly not
lost in interest. The activity shown in the sectional meetingad
especially on the Medical and Engineering sides, forms a subject
for congratulation. The engineering section held eight meetings
and the medical three meetings. The interest shown in the
engineering section may be judged of by the fact that only two
papers were read at the sectional meetings, the whole of the rest : )
of the time being devoted to discussion. It is not too much to
say that the engineering section is certainly the most or
meeting-ground of engineers iti the | Colony.

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 5

With regard to the conversazione held at the University on
December 5th last, we may congratulate ourselves on having
achieved a success. At no previous time were the exhibits more ,
numerous or interesting, though the removal of many of them .
from the Great Hall of the University to the Laboratories, natur-
ally rendered the exhibition so large that few people could have
seen everything. Amongst a number of most excellent exhibits
perhaps Mr. Russell’s magnificent stellar photographs, exhibited
by means of a magic lantern, were the most striking. About six
hundred visitors and members were present, and the cost was
only £70

Library.—It was stated above that the cost of the library
might be put at about £200, excluding superintendence. The
actual outlay was £173 9s. 10d. We exchanged our journal with
three hundred and ninety-five kindred societies, receiving in
return one hundred and ninety-six volumes, one thousand and
fifty-eight parts, fifty-nine reports, one hundred and fifty-two
pamphlets, one atlas of geological charts, fourteen hydrographic
charts, and fifty-four meteorological diagrams, a total of one
thousand five hundred and thirty-four publications. The “Institut
de Carthage” of Tunis has been added to the exchange list.

Clarke Medal.—At the meeting of the Council on the 31st
October last, it was resolved that the Clarke Memorial Medal
for 1895 be awarded to each of the following gentlemen :—Mr.
Robert Logan Jack, F.G.8., F.R.G.S., Government Geologist,
Queensland, and Mr. Robert Etheridge, Junr., Government
Palxontologist, Department of Mines, Sydney.

Hon. Member.—At the General Monthly Meeting of the
Society held 3rd October last, on the recommendation of the
Council, W. Baldwin Spencer, m.a., Professor of Biology, Univer-
sity of Melbourne, was unanimously elected an Honorary
Member of the Society.

Original Researches.—In continuation of the practice originated
in 1881 to publish yearly a list of subjects peculiar to Australia,

6 ' &, THRELFALL.

the investigation of which would be of great interest and value
to the Colony, the Council invited original contributions and
offered its medal, together with a grant of £25, for the best
original paper on the following subjects, viz.—

Series XIII.—To be sent in not later than 1st May, 1894.

No. 43—On the Timbers of New South Wales, with special
reference to their fitness for use in construction,
manufactures, and other similar purposes.

No. 44—On the Raised Sea-beaches and Kitchen Middens
on the Coast of New South Wales.

No. 45—On the Aboriginal Rock Carvings and Paintings in
New South Wales.

One paper was received on subject No. 43. Two papers were

sent in on No. 44, the first of which could not be received the
writer having failed to comply with the conditions laid down,
and the Council did not consider the second one of sufficient
merit to receive the reward. One paper was received on No. 45.

At the meeting held 25th July, the Council awarded the prize _
of £25 and the Society’s medal to the writers of the following |

papers :—1l. “On the Timbers of New South Wales” by
“« Experto crede,” Mr. J. V.de Coque, Roads and Bridges Branch,

Public Works Department. 2. “On the Aboriginal Rock — |
Carvings and Paintings in New South Wales ” by ‘Cesar aut 1

nullus,” Mr. R. H. Mathews, u.s., Parramatta.
The list of subjects for prizes now offered is, as follows :—
Series XIV.—To be sent in not later than 1st May, 1895.
No. 46—On the Silver Ore Deposits of New South Wales. —
No. 47—On the Physiological Action of the Poison of any
Australian Snake, Spider, or Tick.
No. 48—On the Chemistry of the Australian Gums and
esins.
Series XV.—To be sent in not later than Ist May, 1896.
No. 49—On the origin of Multiple Hydatids in man.

ee ii pais eee
eM ee TTA eR ee ee Se TEEN es

Soo NE SS Crete ep Rea ey

Maite ere are

—

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 7

No. 50—On the Occurrence of Precious Stones in New
South Wales with a description of the Deposits
in which they are found.

No. 51—On the effect of the Australian Climate on the
Physical Development of the Australian-born
Population.

Series XVI.—T7o be sent in not later than the Ist May, 1897.

No. 52—On the Embryology and Development of the
Echidna or Platypus.

No. 53—The Chemical Composition of the Products from
the so-called Kerosene Shale of New South Wales.

No. 54—On the Mode of Occurrence, Chemical Composition,
and the Origin of Artesian Water in New South
Wales.

Abercromby Fund.—The prize of £25 offered by the Hon.
Ralph Abercromby for the best essay on “Southerly Busters”
was awarded by the Committee to Mr. Henry A. Hunt, Second
Meteorological Assistant, Sydney Observatory.

During the past year considerable activity in the pursuit of
knowledge has been exhibited. Much of the work done has
been reported in the Journal by our Society, and in the pro-
ceedings of the Linnean Society. The following particulars are
appended, but the list does not profess to be complete, as some
difficulty has been experienced in obtaining information.

In the observatory the regular astronomical and meteorological
work has been fully maintained, owing to the increased sensi-
tiveness of the plates now used, which make it possible now to
do in one minute what used to take eight minutes, when this

_ Work was begun in 1890, thus virtually increasing the size of

the camera eight times. One thousand one hundred and forty
Photographs of astronomical objects have been taken. Nine
hundred and forty-six of these were devoted to the photographic
Survey of the heavens, and complete the Sydney section of that
work for catalogue purposes. Seventy-nine photographs have
been devoted with very satisfactory results to the investigation

8 R. THRELFALL.

of nebulae and nebulous places, and star clusters, comets, etc.
The transit of Mercury was satisfactorily observed. A valuable
series of cloud photographs of typical forms has also been taken
for the more accurate study of weather conditions in Sydney.

These show that the clouds here come under the usual classifi-

cations, but have a distinctly local stamp.

During the year the original Kater pendulums were swung
in the observatory by Mr. Love, Demonstrator to the Professor
of Physics at Melbourne, acting for the Gravity Committee of
the Royal Society of Victoria, and the opportunity was taken
to carefully test the stability of the frame on which they are
swung with extremely satisfactory results. The apparatus was
sufficiently delicate to show a flexure in a massive cement-
concrete floor produced by a 14lb. weight, but did not show the
slightest flexure in the pendulum supports when the pendulum
was in motion.

The ten feet standard bar of Queensland has been fully com-
pared with the two standard ten feet bars of New South Wales.
A new chart of southern circumpolar stars has been prepared

and published, and an Act of Parliament providing for the ©

adoption of standard time on February Ist, 1895, was carried
into effect on that day ; and now New South Wales, in common
with Victoria and Queensland, use the time of the 150° Meridian
east of Greenwich.

The results of the study of ocean currents on the coasts of
Australia during the past twelve years have been published, and
a special effort made to interest captains of ships trading to
Australia in ocean currents and meteorology with much success.

At the Technological Museum the Director and his staff have
been engaged chiefly on the following works :—Additions to the
systematic botany of the Colonies, investigation of the chemistry
of some of the vegetable products of the Colony, especially the
eucalyptus oils and the barks of certain trees from Queensland ;
classification of the collections of economic geology ; economic

oi baile Ps Mel

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 9

entomology ; literary work dealing with the flowering plants of.
the Colony.

At the University the following subjects have been investi-
gated, or are in progress of investigation :—

Biology.—Development of marsupial teeth.

Physics.—Magnetic properties of bismuth, gravimetric work.
Electrical properties of selenium.

Chemistry.—Investigations on occurrence of gold and allied
chemico-mineralogical matters. On the specific gravities of some
gem stones. On the separation of gold, silver, and sodium from
sea water by muntz metal sheathing. On certain new minerals,
On the occurrence of gold in the Hawkesbury Rocks about
Sydney. On variations in the amount of ammonia in waters on
keeping. On the corrosion of aluminium. On crystallised carbon
dioxide. On the waterproofing of bricks and sandstones with
oils. On the porosity of cements and plasters.

Engineering.—Tests of the strength of materials, chiefly
colonial timbers and cements.

Geology.— Examination of volcanic glasses of the Tweed district.
Geology of the Macdonald Ranges. Evidences of the Palzozoic
Ice Age in Australia.

Physiology.— The physiological action of snake venom. Coagu-
lation of the blood. Colouring of wool by micro-organisms.

As one of what I may, perhaps, be permitted to call the
current generation of Physicists, I feel that no account of the
history of physical science of the last few years would be adequate
Which did not place the death of Helmholtz in the foremost place.
It is, perhaps, impossible for the present generation of Physicists
who have been born and bred in the doctrine of the conser-
vation of energy, to estimate at its true value the assistance
they bave received at all stages from this all-embracing
Seneralization. The physics presented to us from our earliest
youth was already a definite structure of which the ‘‘ Erhaltung
der Kraft” was the very corner stone. It is not true to say that

10 R. THRELFALL.

the principle was discovered by Helmholtz—but for some reason
on other his essay seems to have had greater persuasive powers
than the work of other and earlier labourers in the same field.
The reason of this was in my opinion—and I offer it with the
utmost diffidence and every possible reservation—that he was
the first to recognise that change of the potential function is in
a certain aspect the measure of a distinct entity, viz.—that
knowable, but unknown thing potential energy—thus christened
by Rankine. But Helmholtz’s claims to immortality, rest on a
broader basis than is afforded by any one discovery. He laid the
foundation of that science of Bacteriology, which promises to
assist mankind in coping with his environment more powerfully
than any discovery since the steam engine. It is understood
that Ophthalmic surgery is based largely on his work on Physio-
logical optics. Electrical theory is indebted to him not only for
many notable discoveries but for the training and inspiring of
Hertz. To his mathematical powers we owe the theory of vortex
motion, and many important advances in Hydrodynamics. His
great “ Tonenempfindungen ” in which he appears as Physicist,
Physiologist, Anatomist, and Psychologist might well have been
the life work of an ordinary mortal, to him it was a mere
episode. There was a time when we hoped that he had built the
bridge leading from the physical and mathematical theory of
sound to the doctrine of harmony, but fate has been against
this courageous and ingenious effort, and at the present time it is
very doubtful if it can be said to have materially advanced the
position. The energies of Helmholtz’s later life were partly
absorbed in the councils of his country ; and partly devoted to

the organisation of the great testing and standardising Laboratory
at Charlottenburg. |

Though it is generally desirable to subdue the personal element
as far as possible ; on an occasion of this kind I feel that perhaps
the members present might like to know something of the
personality of this, probably the most versatile and learned philoso-
pher that ever lived. In the winter of 1888 I presented myself at

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 11

the house attached to the Physical Laboratory of the University
of Berlin, armed with an introduction to Von Helmholtz. I was
contemplating devoting many years, perhaps all my life, to the
investigation of physico-chemical problems, and [ wished to hear
what Helmholtz would have to say as to the utility of such an
undertaking. I presently found myself in a study of extra-
ordinary neatness and of a sumptuous yet forbidding aspect, and
in the presence of a soldierly-looking old man. I should have
taken him for an officer of engineers had I not often seen his
portrait. I stated my business without preamble. He con-
sidered awhile, and then declared it to be his opinion that the
next advance must be made in the border Jand of chemistry and
physics, especially on the electrical side, and that I could not
hope to advance our knowledge better than by doing as I
proposed. He spoke in German, and I in English, for our
mutual convenience, and gave me an indescribable impression of
being before all things a man of business-like habits and rapid,
decisive action—a soldier, in fact, in the best sense of the word.
It was with something not unlike relief that I bowed myself out
of his presence, and, as I walked away, I thought I understood
the man who many years ago criticised the English University
fellowship system, and regretted that so much money produc

80 little scientific work “amongst the well-nurtured youth of the
British Isles,” His theory was that English students had not
during their training been brought in contact with the “living
spirit of research,” and he recognised that in physical science
stagnation means retrogression, and that the man who has not
the curiosity to attempt to widen our common knowledge is not
fit to set himself up as a teacher, nor are the pupils of such a
man likely to receive any lasting benefit. If Helmholtz’s words,
80 fruitful first through Germany and France, and then through
England and America, could find even at this late date some
echo in the Colony, we might be gradually educated up to seeing
that the commercial value of a teacher is not to be measured by
the number of hours of lecture that can be dragged out of him,

12 R. THRELFALL.

nor is a laboratory to be regarded as an expensive luxury to be
blown away at the first breath of retrenchment. The time when
the “Geist des Forschers” will be reverenced as the supreme
weapon in the fight of mankind against the forces of nature is
not yet, but it will surely come, and woe to that nation that
learns it last.

I turn toa very different personality in approaching Helm-
holtz’s great pupil, the simple, gentle, kindly Heinrich Hertz.
Nearly all the electrical work of importance of the last six
years—for I do not include such things as dynamo making, or
transformer testing—has been on the lines laid down by Hertz
in his study of electro-magnetic waves. I do not propose to
detain you here by referring to those researches, for I gave an
account of them before the Australian Association for the
Advancement of Science in 1890 at the Melbourne meeting, and
shall have something to say about them again presently ; rather
will I refer to the man himself. Hertz began life as an
engineer, but his taste for physical work was too strong, and
he gradually drifted into Helmholtz’s laboratory, where his
powers were soon appreciated, and where he began that study
of electro-magnetism which ended in persuading Continental
philosophers of the truth of Maxwell’s mechanical theory of
electricity. I say Continental philosophers advisedly ; for in
England and America (for in this matter America is Rowland),
the theory had taken firm root, and though Hertz supplied much
interesting confirmation and opened up an experimental road of
vast interest, it cannot be said that he did more then confirm
what we had always believed. In character Hertz was probably
one of the most kindly and gentle men that ever lived, and just
as his work has that peculiar directness and simplicity that
characterises the work of Faraday and of Darwin, so was he
himself a man of much the same character—i.e., the highest
reached by the human race. He died on New Year's Day, 1894,
the brightest and best beloved of physicists.

: On May 21st, 1894, there died August Kundt, Professor of
Physics in Berlin, formerly in Strassburg. Though I expect his

_ ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 13

name is unknown to many present here to-night, that must be
regarded as a mere local misfortune. Kundt was one of the most
brilliant of modern experimentalists, and made great advances
in acoustics, optics, and magneto-optics. It is of interest to
note that the monatomic and probably elemental character of
argon discovered during this year was established (in so far as
it is established) by a method invented by Kundt. Exact inform-
ation has not yet come to hand as to the method employed,
but as Kundt’s method is probably the best available in dealing
with small quantities, it is pretty safe to assume that it was
employed in this instance. To Kundt the rapid rise of the
University of Strassburg is in great measure due, and to his
energy we owe one of the finest physical laboratories in the
world. Before all things, Kundt was what the Germans call
“gemiithlich ”—a jolly fellow. His method of teaching was
copious and admirable conversation in the laboratory, and there
probably never was a teacher who had so strong a hold upon his
pupils—a hold both of heart and head. There was nothing in
the way of experimenting he could not do; his spirits were
always at boiling point ; he was never seen without a smile on
his face, or heard to breathe an unkind word. He had a magnifi-
cent adoration for the work of Faraday; in all things he was
eager—a great human lion with flowing hair and beard, and
inexpressible good humour. He was a thorough German, too.
His surprise at seeing me, a man who had been to Australia
and actually returned, was exquisite. He was even late for
lecture to celebrate the event. ‘“Eheu fugaces”—the least of
all thy servants bids thee adieu dear master, there is no other
man like thee. Helmholtz, Hertz, Kundt—-what a gap their
loss makes !
% * - ~

I now propose to give a brief account of some of those
advances which have been made in physical science since I last
had an opportunity of compiling a report, viz. in 1889. It
must be understood, however, that I do not profess to refer to
every research of importance, for no address could contain more

14 R. THRELFALL.

than a bare enumeration of them, nor do I claim anything
except indulgence for the choice I make. I can only deal with
those matters coming under my immediate notice which seem to
me individually to be of the most importance, and I have given
a preference for work done within the last year.

Commencing with electricity, the road marked out by Hertz
has been followed by a host of observers who have devoted them-
selves to the examination of both stationary and progressive
wave fields. The general results up to last year are contained in
a work on “ Recent Researches in Electricity and Magnetism,”
by Professor J. J. Thomson, of Cambridge—a work intended as
a supplement to Maxwell’s immortal volumes, and forming, in
fact, a “third volume” worthy of the other two. The pro-
duction of this work is probably the most important electrical
event of the last five years.

In order to take up the story of electrical developments I must
briefly refer to the state of the subject where it was left by
Hertz. Maxwell had given sound reasons for believing that
electric force is a quantity propagated, not instantaneously
through space, but at a finite though very rapid rate. If a
conductor, therefore, could be charged, discharged, and charged
again in an opposite manner each feature of the process could be
followed at a distance—a sufficient interval of time being allowed
to elapse for the propagation from the source to the point in
question. If this process can be repeated regularly, we shall have
a succession of corresponding states at the point of observation,
in every essential similar to the succession of states as to vertical
position passed through by a cork floating on water over which
a train of waves is passing. If the regular process be repeated
very rapidly, we have according to Maxwell, a series of electric
waves—or periodically varying electric conditions—propagated
outwards with the velocity of light and, in fact, constituting light
itself. Now this electrical theory of optics, the electro-magnetic
theory as it is generally called, was found to fit in with observation
on light, very well indeed on most essential points, but it

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 15

undoubtedly seemed to be opposed by other results, almost
equally trustworthy and important. In consequence of this
discrepancy—for without it the theory must have been only read
to be accepted—many philosophers waited for “‘ more light ” and
in the meanwhile worked at matters not immediately depending
on any theory, such for instance as the exact fixation of the
electrical units. I will not detain you by referring to the process
of thought by which Hertz was led to study electrical waves
produced by purely electrical means, and of a length enormously
greater than the vaves of light: suffice it to say that he discovered
a means of producing such waves and was able to show that they
actually existed and behaved as Maxwell had indicated. At the
same time, being anxious to establish the main points, Hertz,
with that rare insight which in experimental work is the chief
test of genius, laid aside a number of anomalies and unexplained
results. His followers naturally took up these points and ran
them down. The first thing was to get some means of detecting
the nodal points more simple and convenient than the spark gap
used by Hertz, and accordingly we now have an abundance of
such means. The latest, the simplest, the most delicate is
probabably a tube of filings regarded as constituting part of an
electrical cireuit and whose resistance, viz., that of a large
number of bad or “ microphone” contacts is found to be affected
by electrical waves. It was observed by M. Edouard Branly in
1890* that a bit of glass covered with ‘‘ porphyrised ” copper had
its resistance enormously diminished if it was placed near to a
discharging Leyden jar. Avsimilar observation as to the improve-
ment of a shaking contact under the influence of electrical waves
had been noticed in 1889 by Prof, Lodge.

Tf a tube of filings be arranged as one arm of a Wheatstone’s
bridge, then it is found that the resistance is diminished by the
impact of even feeble electrical radiation. On tapping or
shaking the tube, the old resistance approximately reappears.
Ht has Jong been known that commercial selenium in the

*C.R. 111, page 785,.and 122, page,90. :

16 R. THRELFALL.

crystalline or dull grey form, has its resistance altered by the »
incidence of light waves and recovers somewhat slowly, and that
it is sensitive to radiation of somewhat limited range as to wave —
length. Curiously enough, Professor Lodge has noticed that —
tubes of filings are sensitive also to waves of a more or less
definite wave length, but of course on a much larger scale. This
gives us incidentally a hint as to a possible cause of the light
sensitiveness of selenium.

In addition to the loose contact method we now have a large
number of others, some on the “trigger principle,” in which
small spark precipitates a greater from a convenient source, some
involving the use of a galvanometer, some an electrometer, some
using vacuum tubes, others the heating of wires—a whole host of
methods whereby the study of electrical waves may be facilitated.

Among the phenomena discovered by Hertz, none have given
rise to so much uncertainty as the apparently contradictory
results obtained by different observers as to the velocity of waves
concentrated in space by means of wires. These doubts have
practically been set at rest by investigating the expectedly large
influence of the walls and floor of the rooms in which experiments
have been made. The ambiguity from this cause was removed
before Hertz’sdeath. Another trouble arose as to the question
whether the waves observed had a wave length depending on
the natural period of the oscillator, or on that of the receiver.
These questions have been considerably elucidated by a consider-
ation of the general conditions of a vibrating system subject to
damping, whence it appears that a heavily damped oscillator oF
exciter—or, in other words, one which emits energy very fast—
can only give one or two waves appreciably affecting the resonator,
whose “free” period then becomes of chief importance.
wave length observed in experimental work accordingly depends
on whether the exciter or receiver is the more heavily damped.

If we look at the matter from the point of view of the resonator,
we see that a resonator will respond almost equally well to vibra-

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 17

tions of widely different periods if only it be of such a type that
when speaking itself it is heavily damped. The sounding board
of a piano or the body of a violin, or indeed the air in the ear
passages of any animal, is such a body. If on the other hand the
resonator be only slightly damped, it will require much greater
accuracy of tuning to set up resonance, but when once this is
attained the resonance will be much stronger. In acoustics a
tuning fork or closed organ pipe is a resonator of the class to
which I allude. In the electrical case, so far as I understand it,
the matter is made more complex by the fact that both electric
and magnetic energy are radiated, and one kind of radiation may,
and generally does, proceed faster than another, so that a vibrator
may be heavily damped as far as electrical radiation is concerned,
and only slightly so far as magnetic energy is concerned, and
vice versa. Ultimately the energy per unit volume of both kinds
will be equal in the wave field, but meanwhile the effects may
become too attenuated for observation. We owe a good deal to
Bjerknes* in this connection. A clear but brief account is also
given of the leading results in the Archives des Sciences Physiques
et Naturelles de Gentve—a most useful and pleasant publica-
tion. By the application of the principles just referred to, the
study of electro-magnetic waves as produced by resonators of
varying form is greatly assisted, and most if not all of the out-
Standing difficulties have now been removed. This brings me
naturally to a consideration of the brilliant work of Nikola Tesla.
in this field—work which exhibits the highest genius at every
Step. The advance made by Tesla is briefly this. Hertz worked
with comparatively short waves which damped down after a very
few vibrations, occupying a time perhaps in all of the order of the
ten millionth of a second. With the apparatus used by Hertz
the phenomena only occurred perhaps forty times a second, so
that the time occupied by the phenomenon itself was only a very
small fraction of the whole time involved, just as if one were to
ring a bell for a minute every year and endeavour to deduce
ee ai Un i eae

* Wied. Ann. 44, p. 74.
B—May 1, 1895,

18 R. THRELFALL.

acoustical principles from its performance. Tesla, with immense

experimental resources behind him, succeeded in constructing —

apparatus which, while emitting longer waves, and waves which

were less damped, repeated the process much oftener, so that —
yeferring to the analogy again, the bell might be supposed to be —
kept ringing a considerable fraction of the time. With this radi- —

ation Tesla was enabled to perform experiments of a quite neW
order—especially in high vacuum lamps—where an electrostatic
discharge (in old fashioned language) was caused to converge on

infusible bodies, such as carbon or carbon silicide. Incidentally —

it turned out that air ceases to act as an insulator for such high
frequencies, and this is probably the greatest drawback to the

utilisation of such radiation for lighting purposes. Within the —

last two or three years the matter has been taken up by E.
Wiedemann and Ebert, who find that in a high vacuum the dis-

charge produced by almost continuous but individually feeble :

oscillations is capable of exciting the phosphorescence of certain
substances ina most remarkable manner. As I believe that it
is legitimate to hope for improved means of illumination in this
direction, and as I know that this is a subject interesting to most
people, I will refer to Ebert’s arrangements rather more closely.

A description of the apparatus employed is given in Wiedemann’s
Annalen, Vol. ui, fig. 144, and it may be regarded as a simple

arrangement of a Tesla apparatus for small output combined with —

an arrangement for securing very persistent oscillation. It may

be mentioned in passing, that though the energy of an electrically —

vibrating system is greater, the greater the capacity—still the
damping is in general greater* also—so that if one wants to

keep the oscillations going, one must not use too great capacities;

while on the other hand too small capacities must not be employed,
or the energy available becomes too small. This is independent

of the frictional damping or loss in the apparatus itself which —

depends directly on the resistance. The apparatus on the table is —

an exact copy of that described by Ebert. It consists of a “spark —

gap” fed in any suitable manner, (by a Wimshurst machine in this

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 19

case) and two primary condensers arranged in Lodge’s manner, the
“outer coatings” forming the terminals of the primary of a small
induction coil. The secondary of the coil terminates in another
condenser, from which the leads pass to the lamp. All the con-
densers are adjustable. Another point about it is that in order
to secure a minimum of damping, the primary and secondary cir-
cuits are turned to respond as closely as possible, as indeed must
follow from the general principles laid down above. The oscilla-
tions are produced by the discharge of the primary air condensers
arranged in the most symmetrical fashion. Ebert considers that
the loss observed in condensers having dielectric materials other
than air is due to what is now generally called the “ hysteresis”
of the dielectric. I do not think that this is necessarily the case,
but it may pass. The ends of the secondary circuit are connected
to external electrodes surrounding or partially surrounding an
exhausted globe in which is placed the phosphorescent substance.
This substance is then excited by the radiation from the electrodes
or rather by the kathode rays starting from inside the glass under
the electrodes and falling on the luminous paint.

The phosphorescent substance which Ebert uses, he describes as
the “blue-green luminous paint,” made by a firm of German
chemists. The most interesting point in connection with the
matter to the general reader, is the extraordinary efficiency of
such a lamp, as claimed by Ebert. Everybody who pays for
his electricity by meter knows that an ordinary 16 C.P. lamp
uses up energy at a rate of about sixty watts ; or say one-twelfth
ofa horse power. In other words, if no energy were wasted
between an engine and the lamp, each horse power developed by
the engine would keep about twelve lights of 16 C.P. going ; of
this energy however, vastly little affects our eyes—not more than
Say five per cent. But all energy affecting the eye does not affect
the eye equally; it takes, according to Langley, about one
hundred thousand times as much energy to produce perceptible
Vision with red light as with yellow-green light. The ordinary
incandescent lamp however is rather poor in yellow-green rays,

20 R. THRELFALL.

so that not only does ninety-five per cent. of the energy coming
from such a lamp refuse to affect our eyes at all, but the greater
part of what does so affect them does it by means of rays to which —
they are only slightly sensitive. That a much higher efficiency is —
attainable we know by Langley’s study of the glow worm, the
most efficient lamp in existence, for the heating power of the |
energy emitted is too small to be measured by ordinary means, or
a glow worm “burns cold.” Ebert claims that his lamp will give
a ‘serviceable’ light for an expenditure of a millionth of a watt.
Suppose ‘a serviceable light’ means half a candle power, then for —
a fifteen candle power lamp we should require only three
hundred thousandths of a watt, instead of the fifty watts say we
require at present ; of course further experience may show that
this estimate of Ebert’s is too smal], but it is possible, and in any
case there is no doubt that an enormous efficiency is gained. This
is not quite new by the way, we always knew that phosphorescence
was an efficient form of illumination, but the figures given, are
I believe, the first to have been anything like fairly estimated.
In connection with this I might remark that incandescent burners —
of the Welsbach type, using gas, probably work in virtue of the —
substance of the mantle being rendered phosphorescent by rise of —
temperature. Whether anything will come out of Ebert’s lamp! —
cannot say, for the practical difficulties appear insuperable at
present.

Before I leave this subject, I will mention a result I got some ;
years ago in a discussion on sensitive galvanometers. I found —
that I could make an instrument so sensitive that a definite
motion. of the mirror corresponded to an energy supply of 10
ergs per second. This I have now increased so that an effect =
produced by a supply of 10 ergs per second, or, say, 10° ;
horse power. Langley’s numbers for the ee efficient light
required to produce vision are about 10° ergs per second.
Consequently, the human eye must look to its laurels, or its claim —
as the most sensitive mechanism will have to be rejected.

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 21

Though not exactly a matter of the last year or two alone, I
feel I ought to refer to the work done by Wiener and by
Lippmann in photographing the effects of standing waves, by
which I mean the interference effects produced near to a
reflecting surface by the incident and reflected trains. The
objects of the two experimenters were by no means identical.
Wiener deliberately tried to reproduce the experiments of
Hertz, using light waves and a photographic film, instead of long
electro-magnetic waves and a resonator. He succeeded in
making a sensitive collodion film with a thickness of only one-
thirtieth of the wave length of sodium light—i.e., about one five
hundred thousandth of a centimeter. By tilting this film with
respect to the reflecting surface, Wiener was enabled to obtain
evidence of the nodes and anti-nodes of the chemically active
Vibrations, in the form of interference strie ; and, moreover,
was able to show that the strie were standing wave effects, and
not the ordinary interference effects of thin films. By applying
' the results of Trouton on the laws of reflection at the polarizing
angle of electro-magnetic radiation, and assuming that the
chemical effects are the outcome of the electric rather than the
Magnetic vibration, Wiener has been able to show that the view
taken by Fresnel as to the “ direction” of vibration refers to the
electric vector. It has been suggested that the photographic
film may be affected by the magnetic component, but most
physicists would, I think, take Wiener’s view of the matter, as
being the more probable.

Lippmann, on the other hand, uses ordinary thick but trans-
parent films, and obtains many nodes and antinodes in the film
thickness. In this way he is able to produce a photograph of
the nature of a diffraction grating, and by a train of reasoning
which is exceedingly acute, though a good many hypotheses
are involved, he shows that this grating photograph will yield by
reflected light a colour which will correspond more or less closely
with the colour of the light falling on the film originally, and this
whether the colour was pure or not. Success is the only test of

32 R. THRELFALL.

work of this kind, and M. Lippmann appears to have had a
fair share of it, and has actually photographed simple objects—_
such as a pot of geraniums, the photographs (negatives in the
ordinary sense) exhibiting the colours of the original. So far as
IT know, he has not succeeded in printing in colours. The
suggestion of the method appears to have been due to Zinker in
1868, and so is of considerable antiquity. I see no reason why
we should not have coloured photographs of some kind within 4

reasonable period.

The next point on which I will touch refers to the use of
the electric furnace, for within the last few years a magnificent 4
series of researches has been carried out with its aid by
Moissan on hitherto infusible substances. The simplest form of 1
electric furnace merely consists of a lime block hollowed out and —
provided with a lid. Two carbon poles meet in the centre of the
cavity, and are the seat of an arc light whose power is only
limited by the engine power available. The end result is that
a considerable fraction of the energy of the boiler fire is eon
centrated in the space of a few cubic inches, and the temperature
attained is correspondingly high. By this furnace Mr. Moissa
has not only been able to produce small diamonds, but he has —
been able to prepare considerable quantities of the metals of the —
chromium group, (and lately with an improved furnace of titanium); —
which, it is not too much to say, were unknown hitherto in any 4
thing approaching an ingot form. The latest development appears |
to be the manufacture of calcium carbide from lime and coal dust.
This process we owe to Mr. Willson, an American, and it appears
likely to have some influence in the arts; for the massive
calcium carbide, when acted on by water, yields acetylene in @
very pure state, and this either asa means of enriching gas, or a5 le
starting point for organic synthesis is a very valuable substance
Some years ago Mendelejeff advanced a theory of the production
of petroleum from its elements under the influence of high te”
peratures, so that Mr. Willson’s discovery will come as cheering

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 23

news to those who still think that rock oil is of organic origin,
and therefore not likely to exist in unlimited quantities.

A good deal of work has been done recently in improving our
means of measuring temperatures. Many people think that as
temperature measurements have been made for so many years
they must necessarily have been carried to a high point of accuracy.
In special cases such as the experiments of Regnault this is no
doubt true, but the temperatures investigated did not lie much
outside the ordinary range—i.e. up to 300° Centigrade—and the
apparatus was quite unmanageable under ordinary conditions of
work. Improvements have been made in two ways. The electrical
resistance of platinum has been accurately determined as a fune-
tion of the temperature, and it has been shown that different
samples of commercially pure wire behave similarly. Platinum
wire resistance thermometers are now articles of commerce. The
thermoelectric couple has also been investigated by Le Chaletier
for hizh temperatures, and a junction of platinum and a ten per
cent. alloy of rhodium and platinum has been made to yield reliable
results. On the other hand a most extraordinary improvement in
the detail of correcting ordinary thermometers has been achieved
by M. Guillaume of the Bureau International des Poids et Mésures:
with the result that thermometers can now be made by a skilful
Parisian maker, which after passing through the hands of M.
Guillaume’s assistants, will give correct readings on an actual
scale of temperature to within one two-hundredth of a degree
centigrade. I have such instruments in my possession.

The crowning discovery of the year however, has been that of
& new component of the atmosphere by Lord Rayleigh. This gas
ey virtually discovered some two years ago and has now been
isolated by Lord Rayleigh and Prof. Ramsay. About 1885 Lord
Rayleigh began to redetermine the density of gases with a view
to testing Prout’s hypothesis, As a result there is now no doubt
that the ratios of the atomic weights of oxygen and hydrogen do-
hot accord with the hypothesis in question ; a result which had
been provisionally established by Stas for other substances.

24 R. THRELFALL.

While weighing nitrogen Lord Rayleigh found he got one density

when the nitrogen was taken from air, and another when it came —

from chemical sources. The results of each set of observations

were consistent, and after trying to explain the discrepancy in —

every way, Lord Rayleigh fell back on the conclusion that there

must be some constituent of air hitherto unrecognised. An
investigation of the basis of our knowledge of the composition of
air showed that there was a possibility of a small quantity of —
some other substance existing in it, besides those usually considered. —

Accordingly the nitrogen and oxygen, water vapour, and carbonic

acid were successively removed, and Raleigh and Ramsay isolated

the new substance, to which they have given the name of “argon.”

It appears to be a singularly inert gas, (to which property it owes —

its late discovery), heavier than nitrogen, and most probably an

element, since there is strong evidence that it is monatomic. —

Should this be the case, room will have to be made for it in

Mendelejeffs’ series—one can only pray that it may fit a vacant ©

place and not turn the whole of chemistry upside down by refus-

ing to come in under the periodic law. It would come in if its —
atomic weight were twenty, but the discoverers think it is forty. —
However, out of such catastrophes, advances are apt to be made, —
and if we have to amend our periodic law we shall probably get :
something better in its place, perhaps some light on the dynamics ;
I cannot close this brief notice without directing —
your attention to the magnificent triumph which this discovery
has obtained for the method of enquiry by means of prolonged, i
laborious, and exact measurement, as opposed to the method of
Contrary to the popular idea, the vast :
majority of discoveries have been made by the methods employed 7
by Lord Rayleigh, of which the essence is that no obscurity, —

underlying it.

happy inspiration.

however small, is to be passed over until it is completely sifted.

Another reflection is as to whether this discovery does not illus: —

trate the deleterious effects of scientific instruction out of text
books, from which all of us have suffered. It is impossible to go

into full detail in a text book, and consequently investigations a8

CS Se fie aaa i
ee —
ll

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 25

reported therein are usually made to appear much more absolute
in their results than is actually the fact, and a reader gradually
gets to accept their conclusions as quite beyond question. In
England there is a rare white butterfly which is seldom or never
captured, except by little boys, for it cannot be immediately
distinguished from the ‘ white cabbage’ butterfly, and so is only
taken by those who are inexperienced in butterfly hunting.—
Verbum sap.

I have hitherto spoken entirely of matters involving new prin-
ciples and capable of enlarging our general ideas. I now turn to
the humbler task of referring briefly to some of those applications
of science—which too frequently pass for science itself. No
mistake is more fatal to progress than the idea that the discovery
of application is as important as the discovery of principles, or
of facts of general significance. The first matter I shall refer
to is one on which an enormous amount of scientific knowledge
has been brought to bear. I refer to the polyphase current.
Within the year we have witnessed not only the approximate
completion of the first instalment of the Niagara Electric Works,
but the successful introduction of two and three phase plants
elsewhere. Happily for the inventors, the greater number of
the problems had been already worked out for optical purposes
and form a part of the theory of “ harmonic motion.” The
works at Niagara will always be remarkable for the extreme
care which has marked every step of the undertaking. The
Corporations involved have from the beginning spared no pains or
money in calling to their assistance the best advice available, both
for their hydraulic and electric works. Most of the machinery
is novel at all events in its magnitude and in its structural detail.
The most interesting point to me was the arrangement for “ float-
ing” the long vertical turbine shaft, and so dispensing with a step
bearing. Prof. George Forbes, who has had to stand a rather hot
fire of criticism, is to be congratulated on the success of the under-
taking. Though on a very much smaller scale, a transmission of
power works is now almost completed within this Colony. In

26 R. THRELFALL.

this case arrangements have been made for the transmission of

about five hundred horse power from the falls of the river Gara to _

the mining town of Hillgrove, distant some seven miles. The
system adopted in this case is the three wire direct current system,

but the voltage employed, 1600, is such as has never been used

before with currents of the magnitude here involved. The mere
fact that a contractor was found willing to guarantee the perform-
ance of machines yielding, say 250 h.p. at over 1,600 volts, is the
strongest evidence of the immense advance which has been quietly
going on in the design of direct current dynamos. One of these
developments of great interest is. what is known as the “ Sayer’s
winding,” by which means practically no field winding is required
_ —a most original idea.

Late last year (too late for reading at our last meeting), @

paper on Cellular Kites was sent into us by Mr. Lawrence
Hargrave, and I cannot let this opportunity pass without
expressing my strong conviction of the importance of the work

which Mr, Hargrave has done towards solving the problem of —

artificial flight. Mr. Hargrave’s work is so well known here
that I need do no more than allude to it with the remark that

we may expect to see Mr. Maxim adopt the cellular principle,

and thus reduce the space occupied by the aeroplanes of his —

machine. The problem of flight is one which requires for its
solution not only a great deal of inventive capacity, but a sound

knowledge of the properties of materials, and the fact that both —

these qualifications appear to be possessed in a high degree by
those working at the subject, allows us to indulge in the most
Sanguine anticipations. In connection with this matter the

soaring of birds has for many years formed an interesting :
subject of speculation. A solution of the problem has been —

recently obtained by Mr. Langley working on a suggestion made
by Lord Rayleigh. I can Say nothing about it here, except that
the essence of the explanation lies in the fact that even in what
one would call a steady wind there are much more important
fluctuations than is generally supposed—zi.e., that all winds are

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 27

gusty to an unexpected degree. Lord Rayleigh supplied the
idea of the use of intermittent wind, and the evidence showing
that winds are, in fact, extremely intermittent has been put
together by Langley, if not indeed originally discovered by him.

Before I conclude I should like to make a few remarks on that
particular branch of physical chemistry in which I am chiefly
interested. I refer to the electrical properties of substances.
Both electricity and chemistry are in this state. Neither science
can make much progress in fundamental principles without the
assistance of the other. It has long been a truism that when we
know the nature of electricity, we shall know a little about the
fundamental mechanism of chemical action and vice versa. The
extraordinary definitness of the relation between the time integral
of an electric current and the amount of decomposition in an
electrolytic cell through which it passes, shows how necessary a
theory of electricity is to chemistry. Within the last few years
a number of experimenters have been busy on the passage of
electric currents through gases, with the result that there is now
little or no doubt but that gaseous conduction is also electrolytic.
We have no means of deciding at present whether conduction
through metals is electrolytic or not, and I shall show, if time
permits, that with bad conductors the probability is in favour of
electrolysis, We, therefore, have the fact that, setting metallic
conductors aside as ambiguous, whenever we get a conduction
current we get, not only magnetic effects, but chemical effects as
well ; and any respectable theory of electricity must embrace them.
We see, therefore, that this road, like all others, leads to our
requiring to examine the relation between ether and matter, or,
in other words, all physical roads in the long run lead equally to
chemistry. It has been my endeavour, therefore, for many years,
to elucidate some of the relations involved, but I was stopped on
the threshold of enquiry by the difficulty that the electrical
Properties of elemental substances with the exception of metals
Were unknown. With the assistance of Mr. Pollock and two of
my students, Messrs, Allen and Brearley, I made a beginning by

28 R. THRELFALL.

examining the properties of sulphur—a substance chosen for —
reasons I do not need to go into here—but which ultimately —
turned out to have the immense practical advantage of being f
commercially obtainable in a state of extraordinary purity. Most :
Leblanc alkali makers now recover their sulphur by the Chance
process, which consists in liberating sulphuretted hydrogen from
the waste and then half burning it, so as to oxidise the hydrogen
and deposit the sulphur. This sulphur is generally pure to about |
one part in ten thousand, the residue consisting of a trace of water —
and dust. By melting and filtering, the dust may be removed, —
and then a single distillation yields a substance so pure that no
tests I have been able to devise will indicate any impurity. It
is well known that sulphur exists in two main modifications ; one
of them is the form in which it is deposited by the electrolysis of |
sulphides, the other by the electrolysis of its chloride or bromide.
This important observation we owe to Berthellot.’ I considered
it of the first importance to examine the relations of these two
forms of sulphur, and to make a very long story short I found
that one modification certainly and the other probably, refuses
to conduct electricity at all. On the other hand a mixture of
these substances conducts, not well, but distinctly, and the
evidence, so far as it goes, tends to show that the conduction is
electrolytic in a sort of way—for it is accompanied by the
phenomenon of electric absorption, which is most satisfactorily
explained on the whole by asort of electrolysis. There are a large —
number of subsidiary phenomena also tending to support this view:
We are then in this position. The two sorts of sulphur insulate
separately but conduct when mixed, that is they combine, for
the mixture has different properties from either of its constituents.
If this is granted, what is there to prevent us from assigning t0
each of the two modifications something of an elemental character?
Similar results have been attained by totally distinct means by
chemists working on the metals of the rare earths and 0D
Beryllium. Is it possible that the idea of an absolutely hard and
fast element may have to give way, and that we shall have to

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS. 29

modify our views as to elements by ‘correcting terms”? Long
ago, Faraday drew attention to the supposed absolute similarity
of molecules in the phrase that they behave like ‘“‘ manufactured
articles.” This phrase has been worn rather bare in the course
of its use in theological argument, and was long ago shown by
Clifford to be a statement going beyond what is known of the
facts. In the case of sulphur, so far from the molecules being
almost identical, they have no more than a family likeness, and
form groups with properties gradually changing from the most
stable amorphous variety on the one hand, to the quite stable
crystalline variety on the other. I am persuaded that the high
and dry view of the absolute similarity of molecules as roughly
taught in text books has done much harm as well as good, and
the science of chemistry is now sufficiently advanced to allow
the more correct view to be habitually used without disadvantage.
One consequence of the chemical theory of electricity—we will
not quarrel as to the name, though, as a matter of fact, there
must be a new science lying equally behind both electricity and
chemistry—is that the possibility of charge without the interven-
tion of free atoms cannot be admitted. It was for this reason that
in 1889 I suggested a purely chemical theory of the action of the
ordinary frictional machine, in which I postulated the decom-
position of glass or water or both as a consequence of mechanical
friction. The idea was new to me at the time, but it has probably
been advanced before. At that time I had made a few experi-
ments on the change of composition produced by pressure on
complex substances, with the result that the majority of the
substances I examined had their melting points changed when
pressed with as high a pressure intensity as soft steel will bear.

Since then I have made a good many more experiments which

I have not published hitherto, as they were perhaps too informal
and intermittent, but the general result has been with some
exceptions the same. Since then Mr. Carey Lea, in America,
succeeded in decomposing substances by rubbing them in #
mortar, and that in at least one case where rise of temperature

30 R. THRELFALL.

would not account for the ‘result. Consequently, the chemical
theory of the frictional machine may be said to be placed on 4
sound basis. At the same time it is only fair to say that Mn —
Lea’s experiments have not yet been confirmed. A year ago rT ;
began to conduct a check series of experiments by another method,
but I have not had time to carry them through. |

T ought perhaps to have curtailed my remarks on my own —
work rather more, but I wished to show that problems of the —
very first importance are to be approached in the domain of
physical chemistry, and I naturally took that part of the subject :
with which I am best acquainted, to form a basis for my
remarks,

A Conrrisution to tore CHEMISTRY or AUSTRALIAN
MYRTACEOUS KINOS.

By J. H. Marpen, F.1.s., &c., and Henry G. Situ.
[Read before the Royal Society of N. 8. Wales, June 5, 1895.]

In the investigations that have been carried out at the Techno- |
logical Museum during the last few years, on the exudations of
the Australian Myrtacex, it has been found that these substances /
known as kinos fall into three classes, which have been respec”
tively named the Ruby, Gummy, and Turbid groups. The —
members of the first of these are soluble both in alcohol and water; —
giving a ruby coloured solution, those of the second are practically ;
insoluble in alcohol, and the third, when treated with hot water —
and allowed to cool, contain a body or bodies which render the
liquid turbid. |

We now deal with kinos belonging to this last group, the present
investigation having been carried out with the view to identify
the substances causing the turbidity already referred to.

ciccoubechy Sahulice ara saline ta i aba enue

CHEMISTRY OF AUSTRALIAN MYRTACEOUS KINOS. 31

In the papers already published* it was suggested that this
body was catechin for the following reasons—it was mostly
dissolved in boiling water but separated again on cooling, it gave
an intense purple colour with concentrated sulphuric acid (in the
precipitate of the Eucalyptus kino tested), it gave a yellow colour
with caustic potash; for these reasons, which are admittedly
inconclusive, the substance was at the time considered to be
catechin. Work on these kinos has been since proceeded with,
though slowly, in consequence of other demands on our time.

At the recent meeting (January 1895) of the Australasian
Association for the Advancement of Science, held at Brisbane,
Dr. Lauterer of that city, read a paper on “Queensland native
astringent medicines,” and the paper has since been published. {
The most interesting observation in this paper from a scientific
stand point is where the writer seeks to show that the substance
causing turbidity in kinos is ellagic acid. As the presence of
ellagic acid had not been detected by us in kinos, we considered
that the time had arrived when the results of our experiments in
this connection might be usefully published. It is with pleasure
that we place the results of our investigation before this Society,
and announce the separation of two new organic substances, to
the presence of which, either singly or in company, the turbidity
of some kinos is due.

As the work of classification has already been dealt with by
one of us, in three papers read before the Linnean Society of New
South Wales,t we have restricted our researches to a typical
Eucalyptus kino belonging to the turbid group, namely that of
Eucalyptus hemiphloia, F.v.M., and also that of Angophora
lanceolata, Cav.

iT Pree. Linnean 8 Society, N. s. W., ‘{2ys vi 1, 389 (1891).
+ Chemist and Druggist of Australasia, May Ist, 1895, p. 1
t Proc. Linn. Soc,, [2] 1v. 605-18 (1889); [2] rv. 1277-87 pets [2] vie
389 (189 1).
§ The exudations of the Angophoras closely resemble those uf some
— of the Turbid Group of Eucalyptus kinos. See “ Angophora
'"—Proc, Linn, Soc., N.S.W. [2] rv. 253 (1891.)

32 J. H. MAIDEN AND H. G. SMITH.

Eupesmin (C,,H,, O;) :

We give this name* to one of the substances causing the —
turbidity of solutions of kinos of the turbid group, and proceed to :
give an account of the method adopted for its isolation, prior to
dealing with its properties and composition.

It is not necessary to enumerate the many methods adopted to
isolate this substance. We will at once proceed to describe what
we at present helieve to be the best method for its extraction, —
and by this process it can be easily obtained crystallized, and in
@ pure state. |

When the kino is finely powdered and treated with ether ina
dry state, practically nothing is taken into solution, but if a small
quantity of water is added to the fine powder and gently heated,
a thick paste is formed. If on cooling, this paste be transferred
to a separator, ether added and well agitated, it partially goes
into solution, the ether presenting a yellow colour. By repeated
agitation, removal of the ethereal layer, addition of fresh ether,
and repetition of the process for about two days, the greater portion
of the substances soluble in ether are removed, no emulsion being
formed. The ether used in these successive extractions is mixed,
distilled off at a low temperature, and the residual mass, partly
resinous looking and partly crystalline, is digested in absolute
alcohol, (in which it is readily soluble with the aid of heat), trans
ferred to a beaker and allowed to cool. If only a very small
quantity of the alcohol has been added, nearly the whole of the —
“‘Endesmin” will crystallize out; these crystals can be transferred
to a filter, washed with rather dilute alcohol to remove the 7
amorphous resinous looking body, and transferred to a porous —
substance to drain. Recrystallization is all that is now needed —
to obtain these crystals in a perfectly pure state. The appearance —
of the body as thus obtained is that of a pure wh

war

an aes Sie
4 i BS = Ss = ei de id RT Ay oe SON ee a EP a Te oe
Bee Te ema ST Lr FES ae at shat BG RE Rea NS Gy aR YEE Uae cer tC wi Si ae =e

ite mass with a —

pied, we accepted the suggestion 4
of the name Eudesmin, from Eudesmi@, :

CHEMISTRY OF AUSTRALIAN MYRTACEOUS KINOS. 33

lustre resembling spermaceti. It is necessary that the successive
filtrates obtained from these crystals be placed in a vessel to allow
of the slow evaporation of the alcohol, so that the remaining
crystals of eudesmin may form and so be removed, or the filtrates
may be evaporated to dryness, and again treated with absolute
alcohol with the aid of a gentle heat, and the previous process
repeated. If care is taken in the manipulation, it is possible to
almost entirely remove eudesmin from these solutions, and so
Separate it from the resinous looking body, which is readily
soluble in even dilute alcohol. A special reason why it is necessary
to endeavour to obtain this substance as free as possible from
eudesmin will appear presently.

Eudesmin has been found in the kino of Eucalyptus hemiphloia
F.v.M., (a typical turbid kino); in what other kinos it is contained
will form the subject of a separate investigation. The kino of

£. hemiphloia used in these investigations was all obtained from
one tree,

Puysica, Properties AND REActTIONS oF EUDESMIN.
The crystals which are however obtained by slowly evaporating
an alcoholic solution are rhombic prisms ; larger crystals are

obtained by slow crystallization from amyl alcohol; these crystals
extinguish parallel to the principal axis and polarize at times in

. E bright colours. They show faces of the right rhombic prism with

brachypinakoids. The termination planes are mostly macrodomes,
_ Pyramidal faces not having yet been detected. The formula
therefore is

(oP +a Po+ Po )

Eudesmin is soluble in hot water but crystallizes out again on
ooling, it possessing but the slightest solubility in cold water.
Tt melts on the surface of mercury at 99°C. (result of several
determinations), As it melts below the boiling point of water,
“are must be taken not to raise the temperature too rapidly or
too high when determining its solubility in water, as it fuses into
lobular masses as 100° C. is approached.

C—Jane 5, 1995,

34 3. H. MAIDEN AND H. G. SMITH.

It is soluble in cold alcohol (not too dilute), readily on warming;
also in amy] alcohol, ether, acetic ether, chloroform, but not nm
benzole, petroleum spirit, or bisulphide of carbon. It is neutral
when in solution in either water or alcohol.

Eudesmin when obtained from absolute alcohol is anhydrous
(whether one or more molecules of water are found in crystals
otherwise obtained has not yet been ascertained). When fused
at 100° C. and allowed to cool, no loss of weight takes place. It
melts into a whitish resinous looking mass partly transparent.
When ignited it readily burns with a very smoky flame.

When eudesmin is dissolved in hot alcohol, water added until
the slightest precipitate appears to form, and the solution left to
stand for some hours, beautiful acicular crystals are obtained, ©
having a length, in some cases, of nearly half an inch.

Eudesmin is soluble in concentrated sulphuric acid with a dark
colour ; after a few minutes the edges of the drop of acid becom?
purple, and in about half an hour the whole acid in the watch
glass becomes of a beautiful purple colour; after some time the
colour fades and a dark precipitate separates, this is also the cas?
when water is added to the purple liquid.

Eudesmin is soluble in strong nitric acid with a beautiful yellow
colour ; after a time dendritic forms make their appearance, and
continue to increase until the alteration is completed ; these a!
light yellow and insoluble in water. These two reactions with
H,SO, and HNO, appear to be characteristic.

Eudesmin dissolves with explosive violence in fuming nitri¢
acid, forming a yellow liquid after the lapse of a minute, and with
the same insoluble alteration-product as obtained with strong
nitric acid. It is to these alteration and decomposition products

that we must eventually look, to determine the molecular co
stitution of eudesmin.

Eudesmin is but slightly soluble in aqueous or alcoholic potash
in the cold or on warming.

CHEMISTRY OF AUSTRALIAN MYRTACEOUS KINOS. 35

Eudesmin is soluble in glacial acetic acid, but separates on the
addition of water.

Eudesmin is odourless and almost tasteless, being very slightly
sweetish.

CHEMICAL CoMPOSITION.

Two combustions were made, the results obtained being practi-
eally the same in both cases, as will be seen from the following
figures :

No. 1. ‘2253 gram gave °1338 H,O and -5464 CO,
or 66°142 per cent. carbon
6-598 rf hydrogen
27-260 a oxygen

100-000

No, 2. °2494 gram gave -1447 H,O and -6060 CO,
or 66-268 per cent. carbon
6°447 = hydrogen
27-285 x oxygen

100-000

Mean of the two combustions :—
66-2050 per cent. carbon
6°5225 » hydrogen
27-2725 - oxygen
100-0000

From which we may deduce the formula C,,H,;,0,

The pecentage composition of a compound having the above
formula is

66-383 per cent. carbon

6-383 me hydrogen
27-234 7 oxygen
100-000

Seeeeeeemeemmeemell

36 J. H. MAIDEN AND H. G. SMITH.

As this shows a loss of less than two-tenths per cent in the
carbon, and less than one and a-half tenths per cent. excess in the -
hydrogen, on the mean of the two combustions, and as these —
differences are allowable, and in correct order as errors of experi:
ment, we may consider C,,H,,O, as the correct empirical formula. —
The molecular formula is a matter for future consideration, when
decomposition products of a satisfactory nature shall have been
obtained. ;

Do “Tursip” Kinos contain Extacic Acip?

As eudesmin is soluble in hot water and but slightly in cold

water, this property of course indicates that it assists to give

turbidity to aqueous solutions of kinos, but the large proportion |

of a resinous looking body extracted by ether, and left on removal —

of eudesmin, points to the fact that eudesmin is not the 7
substance that causes this turbidity.

:

As before mentioned, it has been stated emphatically that the
substance causing this turbidity is ellagic acid. We will submit
that ellagic acid is not present in either the kino of Hucalyptus .
hemiphloia or in that of Angophora lanceolata, (the only two
turbid kinos exhaustively examined). The ready solubility 2
boiling water of the precipitated substances on cooling from a hot

substance cannot be ellagic acid, as this acid is practically a
in water even on boiling.* Its ready solubility in alcohol als0 |
tends to indicate that it is not ellagic acid. As the precipitated |
powder causing the turbidity when the kino of Angophora lance
lata is treated with water, has been particularly mentioned as
consisting of almost pure ellagic acid, and as the kino of Angophor@ —
lanceolata does not appear to contain eudesmin, a portion of the —
above precipitated powder (from cold water) was taken and |
decomposed by fusing with potash. The products of decompositio® —
were found to be protocatechuic acid and acetic acid; these :

re

* Vide Watt's Dictionary of Chemistry, (Morley & Muir) Vol. 1., pag?
430, where the properties of ellagic acid are given as “minute yellowish
prisms, insol. water and ether, sl. sol. alcohol,” &c.

CHEMISTRY OF AUSTRALIAN MYRTACEOUS KINOS. 37

decomposition products at once point to the fact that the powder
was not ellagic acid.

The protocatechuic acid is readily obtained in a crystalline state
by removing the volatile acids from the acidified solution (using
H,SO,) by petroleum spirit, and then agitating with ether. An
aqueous solution of these crystals gives the reactions for proto-
eatechuic acid in a most satisfactory manner.

We subjoin a tabular statement of the reactions obtained with
ellagic acid freshly prepared from “Divi Divi” (pods of Cesalpinia
coriaria), and with the precipitate from Angophora lanceolata,
prepared exactly in the same way, namely, by concentrating a
solution of the material in alcohol, pouring into water, filtering,
washing, dissolving in alcohol, again filtering and evaporating to
dryness,

Ellagie Acid from Divi Divi Reputed Ellagic aa 33 cca Angophora

rong HNO, slightly dissolves

PSURs mer
Strong HNO, — with Str
forming a light yellowish colour.

reddish to crimson colour; on add-
ing H,0 light yellow is Seetieed.

Fuming 3 dissolves, form- Fuming HNO, dissolves, form-
ing a red colour not so crimson as ing a dark reddish brown colour;
Preceding. on adding H.0 a —_— resin-

ous coe body separa

a dissolves dark yello

280, dissolves in

— purple, bec santly i
plish-black = standing.

—" iled with H,O a ire
ssolves ; the ie

treated with Fe. SS eaireae apary

colour changing to blackish (ink),

ote dried powder placed in

a. solution, soon becomes

moro ack. on standing becomes
olution in alcohol is

qeporated ao a crystalline hecpsints

ssa Y seen under the

He 80. abe gost! form-
inga dba colour, which becomes
dark bro gc i

Boiled "with H,O dissolves en-
tirely, ppt. again o: on cooling ; when
heated with Fe2Cle dirty green
colour and dirty green abe are
fo:

The dried powder placed in
Fe.Cl¢ solution becomes greenish-
brown, becoming greener on stand-
in.

Solution in alcohol dries pape 4
as an amorphous varnish or
powder not crystalline, as bee
under the microscope.

As ellagic acid has as yet only been detected in substances
which give pyr ogallol on decomposition, the substances (tannates)

38 3. H. MAIDEN AND H. G. SMITH.

obtained by precipitating the aqueous solution of Zucalypius _
hemiphloia kino, (from which the bodies soluble in ether had been
removed) with neutral acetate of lead, and also that obtained by
adding basic acetate of lead to the filtrate from the first precipitate, _
(which precipitates substances not thrown down by the neutral |
salt), were taken. The lead from these precipitates was removed
by sulphuretted hydrogen and the filtrates evaporated to dryness.
By heating these two tannins in glycerine for half an hour *
200° C. the decomposition product was in both cases catechol and
not pyrogallol, and a yellowish resinous looking body, difficultly
soluble in cold water, but soluble in boilin g water, was also removed |
by the ether at the same time. :

3

|

This reaction shows that the tannic acid was not one likely
give ellagic acid as a decomposition product. When portions of :
these same tannins were heated in a closed tube for one hour at
100° C. with dilute hydrochloric acid, a body in appearance allied -
to one of the red decomposition products known as kino red, elm
red, hemlock red, &c., &c., is obtained as a product of decomp —
sition. From these shciiee: although we might be inclined to look
for two tannic acids, yet from the products of decomposition we
must conclude that there is but one tannic acid in the kino of
Eucalyptus hemiphloia.

As the whole of the tannin of Angophora lanceolata is precipi:
tated by neutral acetate of lead, we may infer the same also of |
this kino, the decomposition products of the tannin obtained — ;
from the lead precipitate being catechol when decomposed by heat :
ing at 200° C. for half an hour, and protocatechuic acid and acetic | :
acid when decomposed by fusing with potash. The reactions for
the protocatechuic acid obtained from this tannin are most cleat
and distinct, no other product appearing to be present to interfere.

From the decomposition products of the tannins from Eucalyptes ;
hemiphioia kino and from Angophora lanceolata kino, we conside?
that these tannins are identical.

CHEMISTRY OF AUSTRALIAN MYRTACEOUS KINOS. 39

Tue Seconp Bopy IsoLareD From THE Kino or Eucalyptus
hemiphloia, F.v.M.

As already stated, there is a resinous looki h extracted
with eudesmin by ether from the kino of £Z. hemniyhioibe As this
is soluble in boiling water (with difficulty, as it melts into greasy
looking masses), but separates again on cooling, we must consider
that this substance also plays a part in the turbidity of this kino
as well as eudesmin. This body, when allowed to precipitate from
boiling water is removed from the aqueous solution by ag*iating

with ether, the liquid becoming quite clear, demonstrating tnat
the whole of the bodies causing this turbidity have been removed.
As the ether slowly evaporates, crystals form at the junction of
the ether and water ; these fall through the liquid to the bottom
of the vessel, either by themselves or when the vessel is gently
agitated. We have only just succeeded in crystallizing this sub-
Stance, and a subsequent communication will be made to the
Society when its chemistry has been worked out.

As seen under the microscope the crystals are plates. In the
early state of crystallization the rhombus is the principal form,
but as they become larger they form six sided plates. These
polarize most beautifully in bright colours.

One determination was made of the melting point, it was found
that the crystals melted on the surface of mercury at 162° C.

Its colour reactions are as follows, and from the results at
present obtained it appears that the characteristic colour reaction
Previously given to ellagic acid, of forming a crimson colour with
fuming nitric acid, will have to be modified, as the body of which
we now write, gives this crimson reaction most beautifully clear
and pure, not only with fuming nitric acid, but with nitric acid,
and also when the nitric acid is slightly diluted.

KHO gives a bright yellow colour, which colour is permanent
in the air even until it is dried up. Sulphuric acid dissolves it
yellow, becoming brown on standing. Fe,Cl, solution has but
little colour reaction with these crystals.

40 J. H. MAIDEN AND H. G. SMITH.

It erystallizes from boiling water in plates. Ether dissolves it,
although not readily; the ethereal solution dries into an almost
amorphous substance. Alcohol dissolves it easily. a

The distinctive colour reactions given by eudesmin and this
body serve at once to distinguish them in the absence of ~
determinations of crystalline form. We have provisionally named
this substance Aromadendrin.

The chemistry of the substance causing the turbidity in bee
kino of Angophora lanceolata will form the subject of a later com
munication. We have succeeded in isolating a few well developed
erystals of the body, after numerous failures, and hope now . ye
successful in crystallizing it readily for purposes of investigation.

PAPER ON AERONAUTICAL WORK. 2
By Lawrence Harcrave.
[With Plates I. -IX.]

[ Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, June 5, 1895.)

THE paper read before this Society, Vol. xxvit., p. 75, on Flyime :
Machine Motors and Cellular Kites concluded with some remarks ’
about a motor that was exhibited on that occasion. The ath
was No. 21, and Plates I, 2, 3, show three views of it. The
weights are remarkably low, but the thrust chronograms made
by the apparatus show that to attempt a free flight with No. 7
would be to court disaster.

The burners and spirit holders that have been tried fail ig
Produce uniform results. ‘The fault is now thought to be in the
method of discharging the spirit vapour into the mixing chambel
The amount of the vapour depends on the heat under the holder, .
and this again on the amount of air that is admitted to the *

AERONAUTICAL WORK. 41

ing chamber, which is determined by the pressure in the holder
causing the induced current of air for combustion. This cycle of
events is readily disarranged. The cure that suggests itself is to
make the holder of large capacity, and charge it with about one
of spirit and four of compressed air by volume, placing a cock
between the holder and the discharging orifice. The vaporising
must be effected between the orifice and the cock, preferably by
means of a few turns of the pipe at the point where the mixed
air and spirit vapour begins to burn. That is, on the principle
of the Wells, Doty, Denny, or Moeller and Condrup lights and
burners,

The twin-screws and gear weigh 3°75 ounces, which is the same
as the single screw, shaft, and crank shaft coupling. The best
results have been produced by the single screw. The screws have
flat blades and the pitch is varied by twisting them in the tin
sleeve that represents the boss. The long blade and fine pitch is
thought to be most effective ; but this may not be true, as the
back pressure on the pistons prevents a high piston speed being
attained.

A weight driven thrust measuring and recording apparatus for
comparing the screws was tried and showed, amongst other things,
that the effective pressure on the pistons, necessary to produce ‘64
pounds of thrust and 340 revolutions per minute, was only 10-9
pounds per square inch.

The lubricator is unscrewed, partly filled with oil, and replaced
before each trial. Live steam condenses in the lubricator, and
the oil overflows into the valve cover and thence through the
engine,

The valve in the first instance was made of brass ; it used to
©ut up the cylinder face and valve cover. The steel valve now in
Position works satisfactorily. A spring was on the back of the
valve cover and made it in effect a safety valve. The spring has
been removed, and the bridge now holds the valve cover by two
hooks to the steam pipe of the top cylinder and the post that
“upports the engine on the top of the water tank.

42 L. HARGRAVE.

The feed pump is the exact thing required. There is a pestle
shaped knob on the lower end of the pump rod. This works in 4
cup at the bottom of the hollow pump ram. The ram is held
against the pump rod by two springs. When the fire is fairly
lighted and the pump crank on the top centre, the ram can be.
worked by hand till the engine starts.

The following table shows the approximate capabilities of No. |
21 motor. The revolutions are only recorded when the engi’
causes sufficient vibration to give a tremor to the pen of the :

chronograph.
Results of some of the Trials of No. 21 Motor.
3 ae 7 eo
Pa eee ae Na: . | 26 pa
Sal ai] 2 12 | aa S| 584|
3 g soe . Sg 523 Screw Propellers. 2 23 3 :
gz| 22 | BS | 83 | Bee 3 | geo)
Z| oa OF Gn | 46a Pant eS
2| 1°78 | 10°81 80 “4 Twin screws 39° e
3 | 173 5 95 "5 Twin screws ... ro OO fe
4| 2 11245 | 128 5 Twin screws ... | 30°
5 | 26 | 11:245 | 107 | -75 Single screw, 31” diam.) 30°
6 | 26 | 11-687 | 100 ‘625 |Single screw, 31” diam.| 30°
| 7| 26 | 1884 |145 | 1-0 |Single screw, 31” diam.| 30°; 300 |
8| 26 | 1557 | 130 | -64 [Single screw, 27” diam.| 39°} 329 |
10| 26 | 12°64 85 fi Single screw, 34” diam.| 36° 300
11| 26 | 908 | 66 | 15 — |Single screw, 34” diam.| 30° 7
12| 26 | 144 | 106 | +75 [Single screw, 34” diam. 30°| 30 |

The experiments are now being carried out at Stanwell Park, .
situated about thirty-two miles south of Sydney. This somewhat :

isolated locality is favourable for kite flying when the wind is
from the eastward, between S.S.E. and E.N.E. In spite of
unavoidable delay and interruptions some progress has been made.
The kites are expected to provide a handy means of lifting the
experimenter and flying machine from the ground, and to afford
a safe and easy descent. :

The cellular kite is the germ that has been modified amd

developed, and in all probability it wili prove to be the permane™™

ABRONAUTICAL WORK. 43

type of the supporting surfaces of flying machines. A single
experiment will show anyone that absolute stability and certainty
of action may be relied on ; and that the careful adjustment and
balancing of single planes and affairs with a diedral angle is
wasted labour.

The earlier forms of cellular kites had the planes altogether
edged with wood, and they needed much diagonal staying. Pin
and eye joints would have been necessary at all the corners if they
had been made to collapse, and want of space for storage began
to be felt. The distance between the cells has been greatly
reduced ; the exact distance that they can be apart without im-
pairing the efficiency of the after cell is not known ; but, as far
as stability is concerned, a single cell is in stable equilibrium.
There is a single celled kite in the collection, measuring two feet
six inches long, two feet six inches deep, and six feet wide, and
it flies quite steadily.

A number of experiments have been made with curved wooden
cellular kites. Efforts have been made to induce them to soar to
windward of the peg to which the string was fastened. Plate 6
shows the nearest approach to soaring that has been attained.
There is a wedge and screw that secures the forward cell at an
angle with the stick and tail cell, so that various degrees of tilt
may be tried.

Plates 4 and 5 show a variety of stable forms of kites. Some
&re probably new and may be useful to the readers of this Journal.

‘ A great deal has appeared about Mr. Otto Lilienthal’s long
Jumps from an eminence on an apparatus weighing about forty-
four pounds, and spreading one hundred and fifty square feet of
Wing surface. The weight seems very high for a structure intended
for aeronautical purposes, but doubtless it is skilfully designed and
the material found to be requisite. The writer put together and
made several jumps with a trussed affair having four wings eight
feet by four feet nine inches, equal to a total area of one hundred
8nd fifty-two square feet of arched surface; it weighed under

44 - L. HARGRAVE.

: . : as
twenty-five pounds. This line of experiment was discontinued :
it was seen that an accident might readily occur without making :
any real progress with the flying machine.

The three decked type of cellular kite has disappeared, Plate r
being probably the last that will be made. This was the .
kite that any attempt to raise the experimenter was ma
with. A screen fifteen feet by eight feet was erected on the 4
beach. It was thought that a comparative calm week €
behind the screen ; this proved fallacious, the eddies being wa
embarrassing than the unchecked wind, which was ble
20°1 miles per hour. However, the kite was expanded, and pe ;
the screen was lowered the upper deck collapsed, and with it
course the rest of the booms.

The second attempt at making an ascent was also a Se
caused by one of the booms of A, the highest kite, (see Plate 9
. bending and breaking. The booms were not pinned at the cross
ing as they should have been. The kite of course fell and damaged
B, the one underneath. This left only C and E, having 4
surface of one hundred and fifty-nine square feet undamaged; #

on
as the wind was 16°5 miles per hour no ascent could be made ©
that day.

Plate 8 shows kite D with all details. This is the last pe
celled folding kite constructed, and of course contains all ™ 4
improvements that experience has shown to be necessary- 4
shoes A slide along the top and bottom members of the main ine
towards D : this allows the corners to come inwards, and et a
to fold to eight feet six inches, by 2 feet 3°75 inches, yer
thickness of about 1-5 inches. The nails at the crossing of
booms need not be removed when furling, in fact they facilita’®

AERONAUTICAL WORK. 45

surfaces are made of very inferior calico. The timber parts are
of American red wood.

For the third trial the five kites tabulated on Plate 9 were
taken to the beach. A, B and C were flown on forty-three fathoms
of log line, which they broke. © was dragged through a lagoon
and B caught on the branch of a dead tree. B was released
undamaged ; and, with assistance, A and B were dragged back to
the anchorage ; the moorings consisting of a sack of sand close to
the sea,

A stronger line was bent on to B; and then D and E were
flown, the sling seat being attached below E. The strain on the
line was about eighty pounds, and the distance of E from the
ground, eight or nine feet.. The line was then slacked away to
forty-two feet, when the pull reached a maximum of one hundred
and sixty pounds.

The velocity of the wind on the beach was 16°8 miles per hour,
and falling lighter ; so that the result of the third trial was that
two hundred and thirty-two square feet of kites pulled two
hundred and three pounds: that is, one hundred and sixty pounds
on the spring balance plus forty-three pounds weight of gear aloft:
the slope of the kite line being about 65° with the horizon. The
velocity of the wind on the beach, might be, and most probably
was, very much less than at A or even at E.

The distances between the kites were A to B, ninety-six feet ;
BtoD, seventy-eight feet ; D to E, eighty-four feet.

After a tedious delay, waiting for a suitable wind, the fourth
_ trial took place on November 12th. The five kites were the same
: used on the last occasion, with the exception that the wires used
for the chords of the bending battens had been removed. Plate7
> shows the method of curving the surfaces on the supposition that
tore lift is obtained thereby, which is very doubtful with a calico

of After A, B, Cand E had been successfully flown, a rather flimsy
joint at the right hand lower corner of the forward cell of C gave

46 L. HARGRAVE.

way, this necessitated hauling down E and C, and toggling on D
in place of C. Two gentlemen assisted and it was safely accom
plished. A, B, D and E were now flying, E being about six feet
from the ground, the lot pulling one hundred and eighty pounds
E was secured by a guntackle purchase to the spring balance and
the spring balance to two sacks of sand.

The sling seat was toggled on and the writer got aboard with ®
hand anemometer and a clinometer. James Swain, the assistant,
slacked away the tackle fall to the end. The apparatus was then
forty-two feet to leeward of the sand bags and veering with the
wind round an arc of 40°.. This was unexpected, as the wind bs:
well to the eastward of S.S.E., and the coast trends N NE. and
§.S.W. At this stage there were only a few pounds weight u» : ’
supported by the kites. The velocity of the wind was 14-7 miles |
per hour. The pull on the spring balance one hundred and twenty q
pounds, and the slope of E with the horizon was 15°. |

In about a quarter of an hour the wind freshened and raised
the experimenter, when he found the velocity of the wind to be L
18-6 miles per hour, the spring balance reading one huner® —
and eighty pounds maximum. The wind falling lighter, kit®
and experimenter came down. Several more ascents were q
but not of sufficient duration to read the anemometer, which a
& two minutes and glass. However, a long and strong pu
eventually came and sent everything up like a shot. A careful 4
reading showed the wind velocity to be twenty-one miles pe
hour, with two hundred and forty pounds maximum pull o@ oe :
spring balance, the total weight aloft being two hundred and
eight pounds five ounces. The angle at which A, B and D we” —

flying above was measured from E to be about 60°, and also te z
height from the sling seat to the ground, sixteen feet. The upP™
kites and E were sloped to the horizon at about the same angles 7
so that the forward ends of the cells were open to view from Es J

ees

On coming to the ground, the -writer, whilst still on the sling
seat, was just able by the aid of the guntackle purchase to bal —
himself and the kites to the moorings. ‘The descent in every ©

AERONAUTICAL WORE. 47

was of the gentlest description. D was the most difficult kite to
haul down. ‘The kite line used is common Manilla clothes line,
and is not easy to handle when strained. A small winch on the
sling seat will make an ascent possible without any assistance
whatever.

From experiments previously made with the three cornered
calico kite in Plate 4, it is gathered that an increase in the velocity
of. the wind on this occasion would have brought A, B and D
nearer and nearer to the zenith, when a point would have been
reached where the kites and line would begin to lean over side-
ways and come nearer to the ground, making @ considerable
azimuthal angle with the direction of the wind. Supposing the
twenty-one mile wind to have a force of two pounds per square
foot : then two hundred and thirty-two square feet of kite at 15°
slope would exert a lift of two hundred and seventeen pounds and
a drift of fifty-eight pounds. If the line were moved further for-
ward so that the slope became 10°; an equa! velocity of wind would
only produce one hundred and fifty-three pounds of lift, and the
drift would be reduced to twenty-seven pounds. So that, if the
kites are merely to lift weight, the line might with advantage be
moved aft. If the kites are to be driven by a motor on board the
lowest one, the weight must be moved forward when the thrust
of the motor exceeds the drift.

It is thought that this experiment marks an epoch in the series
of aeronautical contrivances recorded in our Journal. Although
the altitude attained was trifling, the conditions would be identical
if the kites had been held by a mile of piano wire instead of
the clothes line.

The particular steps gained are the demonstration that an
extremely simple apparatus can be made, carried about, and flown

one man ; and that a safe means of making an ascent with a
flying machine, of trying the same without any risk of accident,

and descending, is’ now at the service of any experimenter who
Wishes to use it,

48 E. F. PITTMAN.

By E. F. Prrrman, a.R.s.M., Government Geologist, Sydney.
[Read before the Royal Society of N. 8.. Wales, June 5, 1895 }

Ix November 1893, a new mineral named Willyamite from the
Australian Broken Hill Consols Mine was described at a meeting :
of this Society, and the following notes relate to two new mineral :
substances, which are somewhat remarkable in their composition, —
and which are from the same interesting mine, having been for —
warded to me by Mr. Geo. Smith, the General Manager. Although

both these substances differ materially from anything hitherto —
described, neither of them is regarded as a distinct mineral species. ‘
They appear to be merely mineral mixtures and may be described
as alteration products, the one having evidently been derived —

from the mineral dyscrasite and the other from argentiferous :
galena.

I.—The first substance was found at a depth of from one hundred
to one hundred and forty feet (vertical) in a limonite gangue and
was associated with stromeyerite, bindheimite, volgerite, and
azurite. One specimen found by Mr. Smith was encasing a kernel of
dyscrasite. The substance is massive, the colour is greyish-brows
but when a surface is cut and polished on a lapidary’s wheel, OF
when a thin section is examined under the microscope it is see?
to have a finely banded structure, the bands having a somewhat
metallic lustre. The substance is sectile. The specific gravity
of the specimen on the table is 4-9. Two analyses of the substance
were made in the Geological Survey Laboratory, No. 1 being bY —

Mr. J. C. H. Mingaye, r.cs., and the’ other by Mr, Harold P- :
White, F.c.s. a

:
Norres on two New MINERAL SUBSTANCES rrom THE
AUSTRALIAN BROKEN HILL CONSOLS MINE.
:
;

TWO NEW MINERAL SUBSTANCES. 49

Ey ii,

Moisture at 100° C. aie D6 sid ‘13
Combined water... ee 4-04 Ue 4°37
Silver in vis 1 = 47°46 igee 45°87
Antimony . 16°87 20°72
Copper 11 48
Lead 62 31
Arsenic trace trace
Gold dis trace
Lime (CaQ) sie 3°78 va 4:25
Magnesia (MgO) ... mee 117 ai 20
Ferric Oxide (Fe,0,) ike 2-11 me “45
Chlorine... a a5 ee ae 12°27
Insoluble matter (gangue)... 1-01 se ‘90
Oxygen (by difference)... 8:58 a 10-05

100-00 100-00

Mr. Mingaye added that the silver is present as chloride, and
also in combination with antimony, as antimoniate (with possibly
Some antimonite) of silver. The lime, copper, lead and magnesia
are also probably present as antimoniates.

The analyses taken in conjunction with the somewhat banded
_ §ppearance which polished sections of the substance presented,
- Pointed to the probability of its being a mixture and not a mineral
of definite chemical composition, and with the object of settling
” question it was suggested to Mr. Mingaye that he should
s digest Some of the finely powdered mineral with strong ammonia.

was done with the result that practically the whole of the
chloride of silver was dissolved, only a trace remaining at the end
of forty-eight hours.

An analysis by Mr. Mingaye of the residue insoluble in
“mmonia yielded as follows :—

Silver a Hoe ac ke
| Gold... ae vel ... trace
D—June 5, 1995,

Mo. Bot. Garden,

50 E. F. PITTMAN.

Antimony ... ao ee 3642
Arsenic hee ae a i traes
Lead... ate mes aoe 2-79
Copper is eo ads 52
Tron ... oe ea ae 5-18
Calcium Se But sae 4°84
Magnesium .. , “Xs
Insoluble matter (g Se i 5-20
Chlorine ke Fre 14
peer 6-0] ( mean of va
eee eee eee experiments | q
Oxygen ae ae ee yt by direct |
weighing. —
99-37

At the suggestion of Professor Liversidge a polished surface of | |
the substance was then etched by allowing a solution of strong |
ammonia to stand on it for some hours. ‘The result clearly shows |
that the chloride of silver has been removed leaving the am
moniate of silver in relief.

II.—The second substance is clearly an alteration product
derived from argentiferous galena. It is dark grey in colour—
has a cubical structure, being in fact pseudomorphous after gale
It is sectile—has a variable specific gravity—that of the specimen
on the table being 6°38. Its chemical composition is chiefly
sulphate of lead and sulphide of silver in widely varying propor
tions, with small quantities of sulphide of iron, sulphide of cop
and sulphide of lead.

Altogether four analyses of this interesting substance have P*
made in ihe Geological Survey Laboratory, Nos. I., IL. and!

being by Mr. J. C. H. Mingaye, and No. IV., by Mr. Harold
White.

I. IL. II. IV.
Moisture ws 08 'S8b,8, -44 Moisture -14 FeO.
Ag.S Sulphide of Silver77-99 7662 13-25 1068:

Cu u,S_ ” Copper 62 32. 1°82

THE CUBIC PARABOLA. 51

Li Ti. iit. IV.

FeS, SulphideofIron 1°42 “45 “42
PbSO, Sulphate of Lead 19°36 19°80 77°60 84°61
PbS Sulphide of Lead ... 710) 2-20 ‘96
Insoluble matter °30 1:60 4°50 1:00
99°77 99-73 99°93 99-93

see a

It will be seen from these analyses that the composition of the
substance is too variable to allow of its being classed as a mineral
species. A polished surface of the substance was treated for some
hours with a solution of acetate of ammonia with the result that
some of the sulphate of lead has been removed, Jeaving the
sulphide of silver in relief.

_ Tue CUBIC PARABOLA As APPLIED TO THE EASING or
CIRCULAR CURVES on RAILWAY LINES.
: By C. J. MERFIELD.
(Communicated by Mr. G. H. KNIBBs. )
[With Plate X.]

[Read before the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, June 5, 1895.]

Tue cubic parabola having been adopted by engineers and
Surveyors of this Colony, as an easing curve to the circular arcs
railway and tram lines, exact and extended tables will be
: Fequired. The following investigation and tables are intended to
supply this want. Many of the methods that have been published
are defective, and unsuited to the requirements of the engineer.
The use of the cubic parabola, as a transition or easing curve,
is by no means new. The American and Continental Railways
are mostly so located, that a curve of varying radius may be

52 C. J. MERFIELD.

applied to the circular arcs. The advantage of such a system
cannot be overestimated. It is however not the object of this
paper to discuss these matters.

Mr. Shellshear in his paper read before this Society, has given
nearly all that can be desired about this particuiar curve, and his
method of location is carried to a fair degree of approximation.
For transitions of from one to two chains in length, his procedure
is practically exact, provided that the radius of curvature be large
at the point of contact with the circular arc. Increasing the
transition to say four chains, the error becomes noticeable, and
seems to require a more exact method of location.

In the following pages the necessary equations are deduced, -
which upon solution, will give data for the location of the cubi¢
parabola to any circular arc, so that the radius of curvature will
be equal to that of the circular are at the point of contact. Table
No. 1 gives the offsets, and other quantities, according to this
exact method, in several useful cases.

This degree of accuracy may not always be required, it depends
upon the solution of an awkward equation, which would perhaps
deter some engineers from employing the formule.

During the author’s duties in the Railway Construction Branch
Public Works, N.S.W., he was called upon to prepare tables of
the offsets to this curve, for several cases, to be used by the
surveyors of the department.

The method adopted in their preparation, was to comput?
the offset, at the point of contact, from the equation Yor
3 { R- / R?— ) . \ the intermediate offsets being varied as the
cube of the distance along the axis of X. This would represent
a cubic parabola, but the radius of curvature is in error, de
small extent, at the point of contact with the circular are. This
error is however not sufficiently large to injuriously affect the
usefulness of this approximate method.

To many the method of locating curves by a system of offsets
is tedious. Tables of the angles, contained between the radius

THE CUBIC PARABOLA. 53

vector and the axis of X, for every ten links from the origin
along the curve, have been computed. Other useful data are
added. Table No. 3 contains these quantities, computed by the
exact method.

Table No. 4 is similar to the above, and corresponds to the
parabola given by the offets tabulated in Table No. 2. The values
of log ““m” for various cases are given in Table No. 5.

The deduced formule will not only be found useful in the pre-
paration of tables, but will be advantageous in many of the
problems that beset the engineer or surveyor, in the location of
this curve. For this purpose the equations are collated, so that
a selection may be made for particular cases.

NorarTIon.
p= Radius of curvature at any point.
R= Radius of circle =p at point of contact C.
“z= Values along axis of X.
y= Values along axis of Y.
%:= Value of x at point of contact C.
Ye= Value of y at point of contact C.
O= Origin of curve.
K=c=Constant.
«=Length 7 K=E B.
y=LengthCK. (See fig. 1)
H = Distance of parallel tangent.
$= Angle contained between the tangent to the curve, and the
axisof X=C DB. (Fig. 1)
9= Angle contained between the radius vector and the axis of X.
= Particular value of 6.
Length of cubic parabola =O C.
*= Any length along curve.
*=AngleOL0O'. (See fig. 2.)
A= Area contained between x, y, and the curve.
9= Angle 0 C B. g = Gauge.

*,=O B= 2, — x.

4
:
"

v = Velocity.

54 C. J. MERFIELD.

Where differential or integral calculus is employed the usual
notation.
THE Cusic PARABOLA.
To overcome a train’s centrifugal force, the outer rail of all ©
railway curves should be elevated, Every change of curvature —
should have a corresponding alteration in the cant of the rails.
_As this alteration can be made only gradually, changes of curva- )
ture should be gradual. The cubic parabola, owing to its easy :
application, seems to be especially suited for this purpose. In |
the following pages, data necessary for their location are deduced.
Let the gradual superelevation of the outer rail be taken
uniform, for distances from 0 along the axis X, or let + be the
rate of rise, then the rise at any distance « will be “. (See fig. !)

If p be the radius of curvature at the corresponding point om
the curve, we have the superelevation equal to

gauge x velocity”

32:17 x radius ” |

the gauge being expressed in inches, the velocity in feet per second,

and the radius in feet.

2 o

Therefore

Now for a given velocity and rate of rise +, the quantity a7 a
becomes a constant, let it be represented a Be

te a eee Ee eer

Therefore ¢ = ie, and
a !
41+(5%)" 53
a oe ee a d s*
But 5 s dae dy

Let us for simplicity ne d s=d « then we have

vhs ey ee = rr
“. = = integrating twice we ar
=

-. eae
This is an eciiadion to the cubic parabola, which may be written
y= m o*

ica ag Mt ey
Tog cae

THE CUBIC PARABOLA. 55

in which m = . It is in this form that we will use the equation,

to deduce the formule necessary for the location of the curve.

In the equation to the curve, the constant “m” may be fixed
at pleasure, according to the requirements of the case. Now it
is necessary that the radius of curvature at some point, shall be a
particular value, so that we must give to the constant a numerical
value, so that when placed in a particular equation, the desired
result will be obtained.

The radius of curvature in any curve equals

d
f {1 + sty" (3) 38
i da?
Cubic Paiabola y= mx
oy = om ee 3
d= 4
2 Behar 6 Mm 2
da :
Therefore p = (149m? 24) :
6me

From this equation we may find m, if we know p and a, by a
method of approximations, until the correct value is obtained.
The method adopted is as follows :—

tan ¢ = £4 3 m ae?
eee. CNet ater ealgy
6m tan
Reducing we ep
5% = Sin $ Cos? ¢ cieseeeenes S
_ A value of the acer ¢, such that its sine multiplied by its cosine
_ “Mared, will equal 5% can soon be found. If the tangent of this
angle be placed in the equation
tang = 3mz
We obtain the value of m required. (See table 5.)

Produce the arc CC’, which has the same radius as the curve

*t C, to the point 7, until its tangent becomes parallel to the axis
of Zz, (See fig VY

CB=y, =m ae?

56 Cc. J. MERFIELD.

The co-ordinate y varies as the cube of the distance A: tho
axis of X.
Angled =CDB=CFG
tan d = 3m 2,?
= EB = R Sin ¢
y =GT=R- RCos¢
H=TH=y,-GT
EO=2, — 2 :
The preceding investigation is an exact method of locating the
cubic parabola, as applied to the easing of circular ares. .
Before explaining an approximate method, we will deduce some —
useful formule from the equation to the curve.
y=m saa 2'

tan ¢ = =3mz2,? 3

From equation 2’, m = = ; and by substituting this value of m
in equation 3 we have i

3
tan ¢ = — 6

Therefore the tangent at C, if produced to D, makes an angle
with the axis of X, the tangent of which equals ove Further —
than this we see from equation 6, that D B= 4 xc, and O D=3te
Again DC = y, Cosec
Tec
Cot 4 ~s
Therefore DC = Ye/ Lee, os v 208 ed Se § a
Let the angle contained nitheae reg radius vector, and the 4
axis of Y be denoted by @.
tan 9 =
¥=me*
Therefore tan 6 = m x?.. 8

The tangent of the sates varies as the square of the distanc® —
along the axis of _Y.

tan ¢ = 3 m 2? 3

eee eee

Comparing this last equation with number 8 we have

THE CUBIC PARABOLA. 57

tan ¢ = 3 tan #6.

| tan 6 tan d
4 a = ye SATE Se
Jom peers 1
Length of Parabola
y= moi. m = —,
dy ae ae
is = 3m 2x
ds / dy \2
tat Sg tte)

Therefore $s age & af 1 +9m2a2*t de

Expanding, and integrating the individual terms we find

8=2+ +5; m’ «* — $m* x” ete Qa
Remembering that m =
we find
2 4
reer E 2%

Dividing both sides of equation by x we obtain
© ih cided te
Remembering that tan 6 = 4, we have
s=a (1+ 5% tan?0— 2 tan*d...) 10
The first two terms of any of the above expressions will give
the length of the curve approximately. In the computation of
the tables, the third term has been taken into account.

The area A contained between the co-ordinates, «, y and the
curve is easily obtained.
Area A = f/ydx = /m2° dx
, integrating, and remembering that m = —";, we find that
9 A=2¥ it

oy 4
‘The area therefore equals, one fourth « multiplied by y

Length of Circular Are.
The length of circular arc CC’ is obtained in the following
manner, (See fig 2

58 _ C. J. MERFIELD.

If the circular measure of the angle ¢ is now taken, and —
multiplied by the radius of the circular arc, we obtain the length —
of are 7’ C or 7’ C’.

Now length of are 7’ 7" equals the circular measure of the angle —
w multiplied by the radius. Hence the following formula

CC'= R§[o—2 (Sin —1 £)]}-0002909 12

The angle within brackets being expressed in minutes.

Approximate Method of Location.
We shall now proceed with the investigation of an approximate —
method

2
pas = ga: 1

6 me

1
Therefore x = eI ead OF

In the preparation of the tables (excepting table la and 16) #
has been taken equal to four chains, this being the value adopted —
by the Railway Construction Department. But really « could
be varied inversely as the radius.

That is to say, if we use four
chains as the length of transition to the ten chain radius arc, W —
would obtain the same result, by taking two chains as the length ‘
of easement to a twenty chain radius are, providing the velocity —
is the same. However it is perhaps as well to keep « a constant
value, and so avoid complexity.
To locate the position of the parabola. Let the circular are ¢ C
be produced to 7, where its tangent becomes parallel to the axis
of X. Then the angle
CDBe Crt =>
Now tan > = aes == au om 3 7 Be"
¥o = | 5" 7% = Be
Therefore tan ¢ = ee 6
The tangent at the eh C, if ~— to the axis of X, cuts
it at D making O D = 3,, and D B= ia, (See fig. 1)
AgainCG=EFB=(R- GT) tan ¢

Approximately H B= FR tan 4, taking G 7’ as a small quantity

THE CUBIC PARABOLA. 59

Substitute for R the value ,— on es 12

Also for tan > the cages 3 mm @,*

Therefore E B=°* 7 fe = “5 approximat tely hates 13

From equation 13 we find that the point Z at right angles to Ya
divides O B into two equal parts nearly.

To find 7 FE = H

OD 2 ¥,
( °
and G 7 = \2 approximately, taking G 7’ as a small quantity

‘eres

4 1 oa &o*

eo ean.
Therefore G T = jy, ...- 14

TE =H = Yo — i¥e

Therefore H = } y¢....---- 15

| Again 7 FE = KB=}CB
} Pe CB + CA

; Therefore K B= 1CK
Now C K = R - £0
Therefore C B = =#{2 = 2) de = (2)? \ oe 16

*

This completes the arenehanene method of location. The
length of the curve can be found by equation 9 or by 10.

Length of are C . ' may be found from the equation number il.

_‘Ifwe take EB = 5 this equation may be written

oO = Rife- 2(8in 2) ] } -0002909.......--ser \7

: The radius of curvature may be obtained approximately by the
following

ba
P = 6me
Substitute for m the value = and we obtain
c
Be Se eon Oo 18

6 Ye

60 C. J. MERFIELD.

To find the exact radius of curvature in terms of « and y.
ie 3 +9 m? nett

means 4
6m2z
substitute for m its value —**, “3 and we obtain
sotaye V (ae? +9 ye?)®
p= R= JES x“) = < fae. ieeeks 19
ee ci

To obtain p at any point on the curve, it is only necessary to
place the values of the co-ordinates x and y in equation 19.

TABLES.

Table 1 contains the data necessary for the location of the
transition by the exact method. The first column gives the dis-
tance x’ = EF B,EO =x —EB. H equals the distance TL
of the parallel tangent, this quantity is to be set inwards, after
the lines O LZ, L O', have been fixed. This latter distance 18
obtained in the following manner

LH=LE' = tan © (R+H)

LO=L0O = tan > (R+H)+£O (See fig. 2.)
The angle ¢ is also tabulated.

The offsets at various distances then follow. OC equals length
of transition. equals twice the circular measure of angle ¢, |
this quantity is taken from the circular measure of the angle %
the result is the circular measure of (o — 2¢). This quantity
being multiplied by the radius, gives the length CC’, All dis
tances are in links, except where mentioned.

Table la and 16. These tables are constructed in the same
manner as above, and will be found useful to the tramway engineer.
Comparing these two tables with Table 1, it will be found easy
to extend, as may be required.

Table 2 is similar to Table 1, but by taking « = 2, we
eliminate the first quantity given in Table 1. The angle ¢ is not
tabulated, but may be obtained from the equation tan ¢ = sa

a ak a a a a a a pe

THE CUBIC PARABOLA. 61

Table 3. Extending over several pages, contains the angle 4
for every ten links along the curve. Also other data necessary
for the location of the parabola. The radius of curvature to the
nearest chain is also tabulated.

The following example will illustrate its use.
Having decided upon the radius of the arc C C’, (See fig. 2.)
compute the length LO = LO’ = tan o(R+H ) + (@_—@’).
Say & = 10 chains
Angle w = 50°
“~L0= L10' = 66014

Set instrument at O and for the further illustration, say that
the mileage of the point O is 320 m. 4.¢. 14:51. The next chain
to be set out is therefore at a distance 85:5 links from 0.

Consulting the table we find at 80 links the angle is 9’ 48".
To obtain the angle corresponding to 85-5 we must multiply the
difference 15-6” by 5:5 = 1’ 25:8". Adding this to 9’ 48” we
obtain 11’ 14”, neglecting the decimal, this is the angle to be laid
out. In a similar manner we obtain the angles corresponding to
the mileages

320 m. 6c. = 52’ 43”

320m. 7c. = 2° 4’ 33°

320 m. 8c. = 3° 45’ 38”
The angle 4° 4’ 40’, and the distance 401-818, brings us to the
point C.

It will now be more convenient to move the instrument to 4.
(See fig. a)
DA = Sec> (R+H)-R .
The are C ’ can then be located in the usual manner.

We may set out the arc C C’ from the point C. Having set
the instrument at C, sight to 0. Revolve the telescope, towards
the axis of X, through the angle = (¢—6), the telescope will
then point in the direction of the tangent to C. The curve C Cc’
may then be located.

62 C. J. MERFIELD.

Table 4 is similar to Table 3. The value of y used in the”
equation to obtain the angles, is found by the formula No. 16.

This table may be called the approximate as it is exactly the |
same parabola, as that given by Table 2. The radius of curvature ;

being in error to a small extent at the point of contact C.

‘Table 5 contains the exact value of log “‘m,” to be used in the
rigorous method. These values have been computed from equ® —
tions 3 and 4.

Table 6. This table gives the log cubes, also the log squares |
of the distance along the axis of X for every ten links. The us? —
of these quantities will be made apparent by the following
examples. :

Required the offsets to the transition to the ten chain radius
arc at the distances 3-50, 3-60 and 3:70 from O along the axis of X.
= me: takes = 4<
log m. = 7°6489271 (See table ‘. )
log x, = 1-8061800

log y, = 9°4551071

Yo = 0°28517

Yo = 94551071 = 9°4551071 = 9-4551071 :
en 50) =9-8260240 (3-60) = 9:8627275 (3-70)= 9°898425!
[log offset = 9-2811311 9-3178346 9-3535322
offset = 0:19104 0-20789 0-22570

Again required the angles 6’, for a transition to the twelve chai |
radius arc, %, = 4. The distances along the axis of X being 3:60,
3°70 and 3-80,

We find from the equation tan @ = ma,? = ° that
log tan 9 = 8-7477807 approximate — ;
log tan CO B=8-7477807 = 87477807 = 8-7477807
Table (3-60) = 9-9084850 (3- 70) = 9-9322834 (3-80) =9- 9554472
log tan 6’ =8-6562657 8-6800641 87032279

@ =2° 35’ 41-0” 9° 44’. 26-4” 9°, 53’. 260°

THE CUBIC PARABOLA. 63

The angles for every ten links along the curve are not so easily
obtained.

In the computation of their values, the method adopted was a
mechanical one. After computing the values as above, for dis-
tances along the axis of X, also the corresponding distances along
the curve, take the difference (x-s) and interpolate. To be
more exact, this difference should be multiplied by the cosine of
some angle, the tangent of which is about equal to 3, before the
interpolation is commenced. Table 3 has been eccieal in this
way.

Table 4 has been calculated, having no regard to the cosine of
this angle, the angle is small, its cosine is nearly unity, so that it
can be eliminated, without having much effect on the result. The
second difference has been taken into account in the interpolation.

It may be found impossible to locate the whole curve from the
point 0. In sucha case, the curve may be laid out from the point
C. Let ZO = 2, OB = x, asbefore. 6 = angle BC O.

Then we have tan 625,

let
m ta ~@,*)

Appended will be found a list of the formule collated.

FoRMUL.
yu me
1+9 m?2+)? erase ee 2
p= * cele a yee p = ——.(nearly)
« 6zuy oy

R = p at the point C.
tand = 3mz2,? or tan ace
PBattn OD = 4
% = Sin ¢ (os? 4
= RSind. FEO=2, - x’.
GT =R-— RCos¢
Pape ey OP
DC = y, Cosec . or DC = EN Te

tan G= mag. = os

64

Cc. J. MERFIELD.

tan ¢@ = 3 tan 6

tan @ or | tan ee
(ren .
m
Peg cc ae
tan 0 = iat Area A = |.
2 4
g= a+r - 4% .; etc.
x x
s = (1+ 1% ma* — § m*x* etc.)
a= 20 + o tan? § — 2% tan* @ etc.)

s = «(1+°1 tan® ¢- -0138 tan* ¢ etc.)
CC' = R{[o-2 (Sin *)]t -0002909
CC = Ri [w-2 (Sin 2, lt 0002909 taking a’ = *

3

CB om al By Et (*@) \ taking 2’ =“
and a, = /6Ry. — 2 y”

L O' = tan ie (R+H) + (a, - “)
LB =LE = ton” (R+H)

DA= Sec © (R4+H) -— R
LV=LV'=tan“ H

Lo =

2|

wo

THE CUBIC PARABOLA.

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| SLOFZ0G.| BPVEETZ-| SOSSEEE-

308

| Z1F-00F | 8SP- 00% | rasp OOF LLG. 00% | GS9.00F | OL: 00% | 898- 00% | 810: TOF | O18: = LO¥- si 818-108 | PEE-ZOP | TOT-8OF
PSST 8z2-FT OT-ST €0-9T 80-LT 82-8T | 19-61 08-16 | ¥S-E% | 09-3 Zo-82 L2-88 8-18
CG.21 €6-E1 00-FT 98-FL €8-ST | %6-9T Pe-81 PL-61 | GS-16 | ZL-8S F-96 16-62 09-98
T9-1T PZ-eL G6-6L PL-ST ~9-FT 49:ST | £8-9T 92-8L | 86-61 | F616 “P-7e | (L9-L6 00-28
22-01 | O81 | $6-IT | 89-8L | 9-81 | LP-FT | 1¢st | 98-91 | OF8T | 92.08 | 29-28 ¥9-9% | 9-66
18-6 TF-0l | 10-1f | 89-IT | G¥-8T | 88-81 | FE-FT | SST 6-91 | 99-81 | 64-08 89-86 | T8-LB
10-6 99-6 61-01 | $01 PV-IL G26 | 81ST LOFT | LGST | STLT OL-61T | 89-12 00-93
18-8 L138 16-6 8-6 6P-0L €¢-1T | 80-61 80-8T LG-¥T 6L-ST TS-41 68-61 BG-26
09-4 20-8 8F-8 | 00-6 69-6 | L46-0T | 0-11 ; 96-11 $0-8T | 12-71 | TO-9T | 8t-8T | 96-02
£6-9 8-4 eL-4 18-8 8 | 986 | 40-01 | 16.01 , 06-1 | OT-€T | O9-FT | 89-91 | IT-6I
08-9 79-9 £0-4 | 9F-4 c6-4 | 198 | 916 | 266 68-01 16-11 16-81 60-21 8e-L1
TLS 30:9 | 8-9 94-9 16-4 TZ | 088 | 66:8 18-6 08-0T 0-61 19-81 91ST
OF-F 19-4 | 16-4 12:¢ cG.G P6-S 68-9 26-9 Go.4 18-8 LB-6 6F-01 | SL2l
18-8 6h | 69-8 16-8 LLP OF. 08-% 08-S 19-9 | $8.9 96-9 8s-L IL-6
re) foe) Oe | See | Oe | ee 648 | FF | 99+ | 209 | PLE | 19-9
69-1 64-1 68-T 00-2 €1-2- | 68-3 OFS 99-6 162 | 088 99-8 £0-F 19-8
14-0 GL-0 08-0 8-0 06-0 | 960 | *OT | SLT 21 | 98-1 G1 OL-T L6-1
12-0 26-0 2-0 2-0 26:0 | 600 | TO | 88.0 98-0 OF-0 SF. 08-0 89-0
£0-0 £0-0 £0-0 | 80-0 20:0 | 70-0 | 70.0 | 70-0 | 900 | 90-0 |! 90.0 | 900 10-0

‘SLAUSAIO See OS ere eran

og ly 9 jer 9 9 [e 9 er Le 9 or 1g 9 te Lb 96 SF 4 |9€ £7 8 Orr 6 |
Tee ‘Ld: e 1 eee” é ae re coe r 89. oe ee 1s. o rae 202 ET ae
90-80% [oa z0z | 99.706 68. a3 Be. Ee QL. as 98-60% | TT-90%_| 80-908 8.208 o1-608 84:1 11z_| 89- 99-918

0 81 | as P ene NES ed i

See

sow 40D jo (U10g 9¥ SHIpUsy
“(pouTe ee GAvoo NOLLISNVUL SIV HOES & SLA.

C. J. MERFIELD.

TABLE Ia.—Taste or Orrsets Two-CHaIn TRANSITION CURVE.
(Exact Method).

} Radius at Point of Contact.
age | 2 . el ee ee Ee ee
*82 [e| 1078s | 10468 | 10304 | 10218 | 10164 _
Bee |H| 385 a 2°06
aA ee ree ° ? 7 fe) 7 7 s) 7 W os
ANS || 1538 25|12 421 | 9 5319 | 8 23 36 | 717 57
| Seg es NE ae
20 0°02 0-01 O01 | O-OL 0°01
ed ead O11 | O09 | 0°08 0:07
50 0°22 O18 | 0-15 0°13
60 0°50 0°38 0°31 026 0°23
70 | 0°80 0°61 0-49 0-4 0°37
80 1:20 0-91 O74 - 0°63 0°55
90 re; Ye 1:06 0-90 0-78
100 S385 | 1-78 1°45 1-23 07
110 3°10 | 2°37 | 1:93 1-64 1-42
120 403 3-08 | 2°51 2°12 1:84
130 eis oer 19 2°70 2°34
40 6°40 4°89 | 3:98 3°37 2°93
150 7-87 | 601 | 490 415 3°60
160 9°55 730 | 5:95 5°04 4°37
170 11°46 8-76 - | 7°14 6°04 5:24
13°60 10°39 8°47 717 6°22
190 1600 | 12°22 9-96 8°43 7°32
200 1866 | 1426 | 11°62 984 ie
OC | 201-551 | 200-909 | 200-605 200-434 200°328 ~ 200-328
K | 054594 | 042141 | 0-34517 029298 | 0° “025479_

Footnotes same as on Table I.

TABLE Is.—Tastez or Orrsets ONE-CHAIN
TRANSITION CuRVE (Exact Method

i Radius at Point of Contact.

dee tBu 8 oe

9 Eg @| 6892 | 5152 —-Bu"s2

| BRE ddl ae eye Te ae A

| @SsZ Fg? Sones” SSR AGREE NRA SRN

| AAS $15 38295| 95819 71757

}

or eee ee | OOS
40 0°60 0°37 0°27
50 1°17 072 0:53

/ 2-02 125 | 0-92

0 Fs ea 1:99 1-46
Ob ey 2:97 2-18
90 6:30 4° pe i

; 100 9°33 5°81 4°27

|

| “Od 100-775 | 100-303 | 100°164

__K | 054504 | 084517 | 0-25479

Footnotes same as on Table I.

THE CUBIC PARABOLA.

oq [ITM surper Aq partdryynu Sureq szopurvmed 94} ‘m of

‘TIPBI OT} 4ooxS SUIT UI OAV S]TOMOINSvETT [TV ‘TF SPIVMOZ O WOIJ JF CO O} SOTSUB 4TLS1I 7B JNO 4Os OG 07 8}O8FO
“0 © PATO JO YASUOT [2407 OT} OG TA DO+008 *,0 0 9x8 Jo YyBUET ONY

“moTpIsuRsy Jo YASUE = 9 O

Suv oy JO oINsvaM IV[NOATO MIOTJ poqovayqns oq 0} JUBISMOH = YF
‘spuesuey joyeaed Jo soueysiq = H

8FSE00Z-| TL160TB-) 0Z89ZZS-| COPSGES-/ 9E9908- ZEIFLOT.796998Z- | ZETG80E-| CIGBPEE-| 8219298. GITLEOF-| GOBTSPF-| SO9ESOS-| |
OF-00F | SF-00F| 09-00F| 99-00F| £9-00F 21.008 | 28.008 | £6.00F | ZI-10F | &8-T0F €9-T0F | 10-20% | 99-20¥ | 90 |
Ze-et | 80-FT | 98-4T | PL-91 | S491 | 98-L4T | ST-6T | #902 | 88-22 | SF | 6-92 | 00-08 | 48-86 | OOF
62-21 | GOST | L480 | 6S-FT | T¢-ST | $¢9-9T | G4-4T | €1T-6L | ¥2.08 | 99-28 | 16-52 | 18-46 | 68-18 | O68
9F-IT | 20-21 | 4-8E | OS-ST | G8-FT | TEST | THOT | 69-21 | GI-6T | 96-02 | OT-€¢ | 4:93 | 40-62 | 088
83-01 | FLIT | 9411 | OFT | PS-ET | SIFT | ST-ST | S8-9T | TL4I | S86T | 28-18 | S488 | 18-98 | O18
$L-6 92-01 | 28-0t | SPIT | O@ZT | ZO-8T | 96-8T | #O-ST | 18-91 | @8-LT | $9-6T | 148-18 | 69-76 | 098
96-8 &h-6 96-6 GG.ol | 12-11 | 96-IT | 88-21 | 28-8 | 66-FT | 88-9T | GO-8T | OT-0 | 69-26 | OS8
12-8 #9-8 &1-6 19-6 9-01 | 46-01 | 94-11 | 29-20 | FLT | TO-9t | #9-9T | eF8T | ‘08-08 | OF8
Tg-4 06-4 g8-8 $8:8 OF-6 €0-01 | SZOT | 69-IT | Z29-8E | 824-81 | SI-ST | $8-9f | 0-61 | 088
58-9 13-4 19-4 90-8 13.8 P16 08:6 19-01 | 9F-IT | 29-2T | G4-8T.| 98ST | %8-2T | O68
26.9 99-9 C69 e624 61-4 1&8 16:8 19-6 CP-OL 88-11 $9.61 16-81 41-90 | O18
#9-G P6-¢ LE-9 9-9 90-2 g¢-2 80-8 14:8 PPG T8-0T 48-11 99-281 62-FL | 008
PEF Lo.¥ £8-F 61-9 PPG 08:9 2-9 11-9 LBL P6-L ¢L-8 CL.6 TOIT | 922
92-8 PPS €9-8 P88 60-F 98-F L9-% ¥0-9 9F-G 169 89-9 68-4 46-8 | 083
88-3 19-3 G9-8 08: 86-6 sI-e | Th8 19-8 86-8 cE. 6L-F FE 609 | 9%
19.1 94-1 98-T L6-T 60-2 £2-3 68-2 89.3 6L- 90-8 18-8 GL-8 £2-F | 008
04-0 FL-0 84-0 €8-0 88-0 PG. 10-T 60-T 8T-1 62-1 aP-T 89-T 6L-T | OST
12-0 3-0 £2-0 GZ.0 9@-0 82-0 08:0 ze.0 98.0 88.0 BF-0 Lv 0 €9-0 | OOT
£0-0 80-0 £0-0 £0.0 £0-0 #0-0 $0-0 0-0 #0-0 0-0 0-0 90-0 40-0 | 0g
‘SLESLAQ | se
|¥8-8= H| 9-8=H | 8L-8= H|6-8= H | StF = 1 | 9%- = H | 6L-=H | 91-9 =H [69-9 = H | 11-9 =H | €49=H|09-4=H |468=H i
| ome Co Me eR Aa ee $I $I ar II or .. 4; m8 Z
‘SUIvVY,Q UL SNIPB ee eee el

*(poyqeyy opemrxoaddy) TANNOO NOLLISNVGL NIVHO'ANOT SLASAAO FO aTaVL— Il ATAV

‘68 C. J, MERFIELD.

TABLE III.—Four-CHain TransitTION CuRVE VALUE OF
AN LO CURVE.

GLE @ ror EVERY TEN LINKS ALONG :
(Exact. Method.) sae
8 .
Radius 8 Chains. Radius 10 Chains. | 5 Bag
bbe Sg ie oo
Diff ; : Diff 2a5
S’ a for 1 Link, R 6 for 1 Link. f = i
A Secs
° , “a ” ° , ” u” a Pty ee
B Cc: 0° 36 1-2 CSA 20 Oo 0-9 ree) rd
0 |0 oO 12 3-6 0 0 9 28 8 Pee
20 |0 0 48 an, 0 0 37 ac @ 8 og
30 |0 1 48 re 92° 3 no oe
4.0. 3 1B 168 077327 $3 qsee
50 [0 & Is} yao | 68 O~ B-60-| 404 | 7) 4 aime
ee Se Re ser oY ace. Foe > 35:
7. | Oc 92 4 Toy 7 ae esi
08. | 0-98 let aes 0---0--48.-| Fae oi BAe
90/9 16 14 | O59 0.12 2% | ie $yee
is : ee - 35-3 | 29 }9 25 19 | 359° | 871 Be ge
; 0 18 32 ; ; |
ee ae See ee ee ota
iso | 0 $3, 63 | 30% ae a 8. SAE
149 |0 39 17 | 326 OnMek Tylon oS ue
150 [0 45 6 | 575 | 20/0 36 27 ae |e gM
ee car eee 0 30 12 | 908 one |
oer 0 44 15 cul oe
180 | 1 55 0-40-3874 Be cea
19 11 12 19 | 444 4 33°9 <a fe!
46°8 0 55 16 85:8 = See
200 | 1 20 potas ao ae ae 37-6 | 19 o.% gay
210 1 28 18 | 15 age ga es ge" Suet
mo |1 46 62. | 589 =a eds ee =P e sgt
i Sea e pad oe Bs OB lec ged Boma
a0 | 1 55 14 eae ae SL Be Bee © S3o8
30/2 4 5 60g | 22] 1 85 35 | foe | 15) ween
270 |2 25 63°1 1 B82 we: | 12 oe
Se te ore b ten + eS in ag 93
300 ‘ 69'9 ee ee a dy 04
3 50. 26 | 255. | 10] 2.17 24 | gee | 18 $3 °4
810 [8 11 27 | 43 2 26 30 | BO Aguas
aS he ae oa | 964 2 36 11 | 58-9 n ae
340 |3 49 89 | 205 Ser Tee og
360 |-4 16 51 | 826 | ®| 8 48 9 evo | 2 $3.
970. |4 80 57 | &*6 $ 3 6 | 88 Bo
380 |4 45 24 | 867 ms oS
390 |5 0 10 | 88% Bao ae bs OL? 323
400 |5 15 14 | 4 a a os | 8 a
sila 2 10'!% a
: 5
S 403°1 401° a3
a 5° 19' 53! 4° 4! 40'' > ay
d 15? ° 38’ 35" 12° 4' 21" io
b a! 215°68 15 wm
) 7-71 6°40 a
0° 0°4214090 "

THE CUBIC PARABOLA.

TABLE III.—Continued

Radius 12 Chains. Radius 14 Chains.

s’ Y erriim |S fort tanke| JR”
° ’ “ “ °o , “” ”
ee ee

210030] 23 oo ii, <2
Sela. i) 4. to Sf 0 0 87 33
4010 2 0 2 oo ae Pe
M10. 6 ela? o> Sth

8 |0 7 59 | ll? 0 6 4 o6

9 |0 10 7 | 128 o0 s 34 | 108

100 |0 12 29 | 1*2 |aglio 10 34 | 120 | 54
10 1/0 15 6 | 157 6°13 47. | 283

1200 }0 17 59 | 173 0 15 13 | 1*6

130 |0 21 6 | 187 0 17 52 | 29

140 | 0 24 28 | 202 0 20 43 | 171

10 |o 98 5 | 27 | 31/0 46 | 283 | a6
170 |0 36 4 | 247 0 30 32 | 22?

180 |0 40 26 | 262 0 34 14 | 22

19 |0 45° 3 207 0 38 8 23:4
200 |o 49 55 | 272 |ogiio 42 15 | 247 | a7
210 |0 55 2 | 30°7 Site mi | ee

2200 |1 0 ag | 821 om YY. | eee
ise ~@ 33°7 0 55 62 28°5
ar FT: gp, | BOT : BS | 208

250 |1 17 57 | 366 | ag iia 6 |: ote tae
260 |1 24 17.-| 380 ¥°Sy: gac {oes

270 | 1 52 | 395 1 56 or. | Be

280 |1 37 43 | 421 y Ss ab tree

200 |1 44 48 | 425 oe

WO ji-se og: |: $82 bas tee by: | 222 lade
310 |1 59 41 | 454 '°sa SB, sees

820 |2 7 29 | 268 1 ay 8. |.

330 |2 15 31 | 482 "ss 4 |

80 (2 35 48: | 8 hie Be:

80 |2 32 19 | 511 jigs 9 4 | He | 16
360 2 41 4 52°5 2 16 30 44-6

70 |2 bo 3 | 589 cums @ | ae
380 2 59 16 55'3 2 31 58 47-0

380 3 8 42 56°6 2 40 0 45°23
1400 | 3 18 a2 | 80 |isiia 48 14 | ** | 16
° 1:21 .

3° 19’ $3"! 9° 48! 56"!

Be 9° 58! 19” s° 93’ 36"

| = Pit rink
ie St 0°3451738

Cc. J. MERFIELD.

TABLE III.—Continued.

Radius 15 Chains.

Radius 16 Chains.

s’ 6 fforttink| BR’) 6’ for ttn)
ieee. e job | bel or & fo OS om
20 |0 0 | 38 G0 310 ge
3 10 0 63 | 3% OG 0 oe iiss
1G; 1 sees BS O51 8 lo oe |e
So /o 227 | gs |u7/o 2 18 | go |!
3 32 as iects s

77 72
sleet Vase lee
oO 10.7 1-209 G7 96 luce
wo1g 6 40: (ots bea! o°'9. 1021/20) te
110 | 0.31 68. | step oh 6 7ang
Siesta) len te
140 |0 19 15 | 74 017 9 | 59 | 4
oe tag ots Sagal Brg
170 10 38 a: | 225 6°56 mh fosce
190 |0 31 49 | 276 6°39 a8: fate
190 |0 35 a7 | $35 Owe 7 toes
200 |0 39 16 | $29 | 29/0 36 41 5; |e
210 |0 48 17 | S28 6: © ieee
Sige Slay | [oe S| ae
240 | 0 56 82 | 588 0 62 40: | seq | Go
~ : 1 20 | go9 | 2319 57 18 | geo |
0 1th 3 ob Hie - ob
280 |1 16 54 | 328 10h hi 1s
200 | 1 22 2 | 34-6 107 | e504
ee ie | me [|i B & | St |

: 128 2

370 34°6
soo (ous a et ;oee te | 988
900 | 1 Be 16: |e 1 45 5o | 368
= Ln @ me itt ee ee
$70 |3 14 o | Se care oo 39'9
380 |2 21 18 ks 212 3 jot
390 |2 28 47 | {49 $0 & ne
400 |2 36 26 15/2 26 13 16
8 400-750
0 a7 - -' 4"
? a Aa
a’ * 203°
H 4°38 411
K 02725225 0-2547898

sy ecg BSS lid ala Bec eb ce bee DN

THE CUBIC PARABOLA.

TABLE III.—Continued.

Radius 18 Chains. Radius 20 Chains.
' : “Difference, py | Dit ‘
S A for ; I Link. R 7 for oral R
° , ” ” ° t ” uw
met OO : eros" oe : Dn
Bee ore tte ee ee
mio. 0 19 | 36 a Oat ae
mG Os | 3. 61 0°80 7 has
mie reise | 2, 6) 140 | pas
@ jo sis | 5: lio 1:40 | ogg |e
O10 2°55 | oes 0 2 37 os
70 10 8 58 nt O° 861 oe
gio 5s 1 _ ‘to ne
9 |0 6 34 ae 0 5 58 i
Meo gy | OS, (AO P88 | opel eo
wi io 940 | 0. 6a | ang
1200 |0 11 41 me 0 10°88 | aug
30 |0 13 42 ra Ss Te
| ee 16°ts | a4 6 1 oS | cae
; Bio -18-34 | 8?) | a0 16°88 | age | ©
| » 10 20 45 er 0.16087 | sua
| ris 39 | Se. Gera.) See
6 eee | ito 0 23 oe
Pie sie | 355 0 9°15 | see
0 | 0 32 26 0 | 35 || 0 5 oD
310 |0 35 46 | 20° jag
290 |o 39 15 | 209 pea | Soe
m6 se | 3{* 6 30558 | eer
4166 a | 5 6 a | we
250 |o 50 40 | 28 | 298]/0 45 27 | O99 | 32
260 |0 54 48 24°8 0 49 #9 ‘ :
270 |0 59 6 | 28 g 16a eee
280 3 38 6.568 | wee
10 oe: :
300 |1 12 56 | 3S |oai1 5 2% | 3eg | 27
310 ww | 2 1 9-80 | Oa
820 we | le 114 % | gas
330 28 138 re i 198% ;
350 30 12 | 33°4 | 29/1 28 58 9 | 2
90 11 tw 2 | 3 cai
<0 1/1 seo | 33 ime | oe
400 [2 9 | 8! | isi 06 5 rigid
400°4
1° 56' 19"
6°. 47’ 86"
331
(2024078

71

72
i C. J. MERFIELD.

TABLE IV.—Four-Cuain Transition Curve VALUE OF
Anete @ ror Every Ten Links ALONG CURVE.
A

pproximate Method.) e332 ;
Radius 8 Chains. Radius 10 Chains. £ ie
ee ee ee —| —| 2 oe
S' OW lori tink| R | 4 fori Link| & Zes
| a8o8 |
° , ” u" t o , ” “ ‘3 Ag vd
oj}0 0 0] yo |e lo 0 0} of |» | Sear
1,0). Oe) Te 0 0:9 26 [Aa
20 |0 O 43 5:5 0 0 35 43 a
Se Se 7 ae tae | oF 2 9
SO} 0: a gs | ee ae tae 1
mip ae lo Po. Bae oe oe
ag Ke ve a ee ie ak | abo hel
9 0 | es ce eer | hee , oe
ie ie ee ae (Oo 11. @ | ‘je. Aaa
18 12 | 59.9 | 82/0 14 28 : 40 | On 98
110 |0 22 1 18°2 ef)
120 0 26 251 0 17 30 19°0 | asaqts
1 te oo a | st 0 20 50 | gir Soe
ae eo ae ae 0 24 87 -| Soa 2 wes |
150 [0 40 65 | 18 fog oo 33 | 282 | oy | Beas |
i |0 ome | ms [7/8 ee | eo or | Sala
te: 0 oe 33 38-2 0 41 48 ei Ak we 3
foo he : er 40°3 0 46 52 | 364 _ oan
210 |1 29 9 | 446 | 26) 9 57 51 | 35.5 | 20] . oBae
220 |1 97 56 | 467 , a 1 are 3 ee
230 |1 36 5 | 489 ice | SRO woe az
240'|1 44 36 | 511 eae 2 ze ee
; j 3 O80
we (h Oe a8 | eee dali 90-19 Sl ae er
ao |e ma | ore | [2 8 1 St | | Bnd
0 |g ee | oes tO 8 9 oe | C8) ie ee
go |a gee} re 2 18 35 be 542
s00 ke ia ae | 22 i oem
340 [3 28 42 | 716 2 | Br > Aasa
350 |3 40 57 | 735 2 46 28 | 59.0 ofa
a00 | sh ne | teen 72 ae | el $228
870 (4 6 27 | 775 : = | ert Boe
380 | 4 19 79:3 5 16 4 | ps6 at
390 | 4 33 9 | 809 oe) eee S oM%
0 1a 82:3 3 12 : Ae
4652 sis 49 30 | 8 |10/ SS,
; aie
- f
0 4° es tt 033
«i 24 3° Bl! 10! bd
H
8°47 -
K

THE CUBIC PARABOLA.

TABLE IV.—Continned.

Radius 12 Chains.

Radius 14 Chains.
Ditference'

i af

| 8’ | ve for Link | R' 7 for 1 Link.
° ! u” " ° , | uw
le 3 ol oles 8 ol es
oib oo | 2. oe
ms l\ecy. et 3? ere ae ye
me Os. 1 8 sabe 41 ei oe
a ee ae 65 jogo 2 34 ond
6 10 4 19 79 b's a 1 RE
7 |0 5 58 9°4 bss Se
io: > a fee oc em oe
my loro a6 |. 128 |. Les le
i006 |} @:) 42 3 ce | ae ee wea ;
bo (eas ee U8 | Vl ecas Boe
10 10 17 19 | 166 pits ae toe
130 |0 20 19 | 180 oeny, ge | eee
140 0 23 33 19°4 i 0 20 16°6
150 |0 27 2 | 209 | s2i0 23 ts
160 |o0 30 46 | 224 |o 26 19
170 |0 34 44 | 238 lp as ee
180 |0 38 56 | 222 lovms & | ote
1909 |0 43 93 | 267 lV ocay oy eee
900 |o 48 4 | 2) |oslo 41 7 |. Sop
no |o 52 69 | 275 |” |o 45 20 | See
wo togs 9 | 8° | lego 2.1
20 |12 3 a3 | 824 | lo ne oo | 227
oy lacce ty | S88 1. Sore me [fee
Gor tava es (SO Tyg ace oe bee
260. }a-9) io 38% | backs ae oes
s70 faee7 ay | S22 | Vase 8 826
280 |1 34 6 | 395 too a | ee
200 [2040 sp | 2? | 1 26 2 ol
300 | 47 58 | 423 |ag ia 32 24 | 302
WO laces ig | OY | 1 38 39 | 325
330 |2 10 31 | #5 | 1-61 46 |
a0. lace ao (oa? a ae ee
3590 |2 96 42 | 492 lyuaie 5 38 | 222
870 |2 43 46 | 519 e390 1s | “2
380 |2 52 39 | 533 pcey BB | oes
0 feo a | 88 a65 a6 one
13 1 § | ©? fils 2
8 401°1 400°8
0 3° 12! 8'' 9° 44,' 25!'
x 200 200
H 5-59 4°79
pe 0-3348962 0°2866951

Cc. J. MERFIELD.

TABLE IV.—Continued.

Radius 15 Chains.

Radius 16 Chains.

* U Ditter , ,
| s 6 Sig ener "| Re 6 hag ig rary
° , ” a { o , u” a
Cte Oo: vB ; e710. 0 0
10 |@, 0 6 pid }0 O 5 05
20 10 0 28 |
30 |0 0 52 29 : : pe a4
40 | 3:8
40 |0 1 32 ao bat pe
50 |0 2 24 2 iy0| 0. 2 15
60 |0 3 27 63 lo 3 14 59
70 | 4.48 | 7S Lae a we tt 7S
80 |0 6 | 5 :
iol ig p 9-8 Oo & 45: | 9-2
10°9 0 y ellie yy 10°2
106/019 Be 1 5c, | solos 9 | ts
no 10.11 99 0 10 52 am
120 | 0 13 49 | 133 12%
an oT
130 |o 16 13 | 144 18%
nin Gas 0S
140 |0 18 48 | 0 17 387 oo
150 |o 21 35 | 167 |apllo oti
ee 20 18 ”
160 |0 24 33 | 0 23 be
170 |0 27 43 | 190 ge [328
0 25 58 :
ie [ora 4 [202 0 29 tied
190 |0 34 37 | 213 0 32 ode
22:4 | piece 0
200 | 0 38 21 30 |0 35 57
23-6 21
210 10 42 17 | =
0 39 38
2200 |0 46 24 | 247 23'1
0 43 29
230 |0 50 43 | 209 10 ass
pa |0 47 31
240 |0 55 18 7 edie
et at
sia 56 8
260 4 47 : 126 £& 27°5
270 |1 9 52 | 305 1 g | 285
ry 316 5 28 ef
280 |1 15 8 , 1 0 oe | ee
290 |1 20 35 | 327 Lois HO}?
349 | 20||1 20 48
310 32 2 9 ice ve (8S?
340 co ae | 888 po ae Hee
350 57 18 | 875 | wy ly gy | 370
370 |2 10 55 | 416 $3 gg Oe
330 |2 18 9 | 427 2 pte
390 | 2 25 21 . . 16 wf
» % :
2 32 50 16 1.2.28 17 43
r; 400°72 400°
: 2° $3) 22! 2° 23! 43!
- 4°46 4°18
0°2674632 0:

ca

THE CUBIC PARABOLA.

TABLE [V—Continued.

Radius 18 Chains.

Radius 20 Chains.

@ | @ Bruel BR]. leet ee
| 9 ‘ a“ “ut fo} 7 “ vy
iO a One : oe) i eae | hie i : a)
11/0 0 5 Ma fs « pi
20 0 oO 19 24 ao 4 2-9
30 |0 oO 48 94 0 oO 39 3-0
40 |0 1 17 43 ae ee 3-9
56 Og CO pe «|i44/0 1 48 4-7 | 160
60 |0 2 52 6-3 0 2 35 5-6
70 |0 83 55 79 oe te 65
cai a UME a J 81 0 4 36 3
99 10 6 28 91 0 5 49 g-3
100° 0 °7 69 | 49, | 72} 0 °% Al 9-9 | 80
110 |0 9 40 110 On Bat 9:9
120 |0 11 30 120 |; 0 10 20 10:8
130 ;0 13 30 12-9 oe -4a>"'s 116
140 |0 15 39 13-9 Gan” wea 12°6
150 |0 17 58 is ||| 16 9 a4: | o
160 |0 20 26 158 9: 18. 2 14-3
170 |0 23 4 168 0 20 45 151
180 |0 25 52 7-7 0 23 16 15°9
199 |0 28 49 18-7 0 25 55 168
200 |0 31 56 19-6 | 36] 0 28 48 17-7 | 40
210 |0 35 12 20-6 0 31 40 18-5
220 |0 38 88 21-6 0 34 45 19°4
230 | 0 42 138 23-5 0 37 59 20'2
240 |0 45 58 23-4, 0 41 21 21-1
250 |0 49 52 244 | 29||0 44 52 sig | Of
260 |0 53 56 5-4 0:48 St 29-8
270 |0 58 10 26:3 0 52 19 23-7
280 } 1° 2 38 27-9 0 56 16 24-6
290 | 1
7.6 28:9 1 21 25-4
800 |1 11 47 29-1 | 24 || 2 35 aa ee
310 | 1 16 38 30'1 1 57 27-0
320 | 1 21 39 31-0 1 2837 27-9
330
1 26 49 31-9 : is 6 38-8
340 | 1 32 8 32-9 1 22 54 29'6
350 | 1 37 387 33-8 | 20| 1 27 50 305 | 23
360 | 1 43 15 : 1 32 55 :
370 | 1 348 313
Oe | 957 1 38 8 | 391
380 | 1 55 0O é 1 48 29 0
We cg | 368 1s @o | =
37°5 33°38
400 12 7 21 18 || 1 54 37 20
J aera eteetiesnee pe soos mecca
s 400°
6 2° 7! 40!! 1° 54! 50!
x 200 200
H 372 3°34
ee Sd 0-2226820 0:2003348

Cc. J. MERFIELD.

TABLE V.—Va.vues or Loe *m.”’

ee
MEER SAR OW HOODIATHWL bs)

(Argument R and z.)
|z=4|e=3|e=2|e=1)
| 89699750
642285
ehh 8°6303900
509871 | 8°5295623
80157325 : ie 1686
7197 8 thd
7°76585. "028:
, 7026316. 7 8099861 pit
6489271 | 7°7602863 | 7-9275024

oe 76761475
75222665 | 7639761
748769 60680:
Ls 7°57538197

7
76019691 | 7-7160541 3

TABLE VI.—«=4 CHaltiy

Dist. in| Log Cube of
Chains,

10

Log 84 a
Distance. | of Distam F
"51938200 se :
6.0969100 | 7°39798) |
6°6251839 | 7°750128)

0000000

7: 8.00000 |
7-2907300 | 8193820),
Bi Li 8 ais
777201140 496070)

900

9
8°7220939

88061

8°8851667
89596375
9-0300808
9-0969100
9:1604779 \9
9°2210881

9:2790034 | 9

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. 17

Tue HISTORY, THEORY, anp DETERMINATION oF THE
VISCOSITY or WATER sy tHE EFFLUX METHOD.
By G. H. Kyrsps, Lecturer on Surveying, University of Sydney..
[With Plate XI]

[Read before the Royal Society of N. 8. Wales, July 3, 1895.)

I.—History.

II.—The Theory of Efflux.
III.—Determination of the Viscosity.
IV.—Indications for a further Determination.

I.—Hisrory.

1. The recognition of the existence of internal friction in fluids,
and of its physical importance, was naturally followed by investi-
gations to determine its amount. Each observer's measurements
are in general, fairly consistent among themselves, but when
compared with others, discrepancies are found ranging over some-
what wide limits. This is true, even where the schemes of
observation have been identical: where they have differed the
divergence of results is very marked.

In the case of water, the measure of the internal friction,
expressed by the coéfficient of viscosity, has been deduced from
observations of the following types, viz. of—

(a) the decrement in the oscillations in U-shaped tubes :

(6) the decrement in the oscillation of submerged dises :

(c) the volumes of efflux from capillary tubes :

(a) the decrement in the torsional oscillations about an axis of

spheres filled with water :

() the tangential force on the inner one of a pair of coiixial
cylinders, exerted by the liquids lying between, when the
outer one is rotated :

(f) @ method similar to (e) the cylinders being replaced by

sph

In regard to the third method, (c), with which we are here
more immediately concerned, it may be said, that although the

78 G. H. KNIBBS.

general theory of flow in small tubes, which contributed the —

formule employed in its analysis, leaves little to be desired, that

of the application of important corrections to the experimental —

data has been considerably improved, and the whole problem been
brought more into line with rational mechanics. This, ~ less
than the fact that former reductions are sometimes not entirely
free from error of principle, indicates the desirableness of a more
rigorous analysis of observations by the efflux method, and an
inquiry as to the most suitable disposition of apparatus when
accurate results are desired. It will be shown also, that to reach
the highest possible degree of precision obtainable from expert
mental data, corrections heretofore ignored must be considered,
and that the magnitudes of corrections already recognised
theory, are to some extent uncertain, so that for measurements of
great precision recourse must be had to methods of observation
permitting of their elimination. The manner in which this may
be effected will be illustrated, and a new reduction of the numer-
ous observations will be undertaken, in which so far as the data
permit, all the necessary corrections will be made.

2. History and Literature.—The recognition of the importance

of a measurement of the viscosity of water seems to have originated

in the practical requirements of hydraulicians ; the efforts of
Mariotte,! Guglielmini, Daniel Bernouilli,? Couplet,? D’Alembert,’
Bossut,> and Dubuat,® to establish a satisfactory theory of the flow
of water compelled their attention to the subject. Prony’ expresses

1 Traité du mouvement des eaux—Paris, 1686,

* Theoria nova de motu aquarum per canales quécunque fluentes.—
pes St. Petersbourg, 1726.

echerches sur le mouvement des eaux.—Hist. Acad. roy. des —

Poco 1783.
ssai sur la résistance des fluides, 1752.

5 Traité élémentaire d’hydrodynamique—Paris, 1775; and Nouvelles
expériences sur la resistance des fluides, 1777.
§ Principes @’ hydraulique, verifiés pair un grand nombre d’ expériences+
—Paris, 1779.

7 Recherches physico-mathématiq la théorie d arantes:
—Paris, 1804.

VISCOSITY OF WATBR BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. 79
his regret that Euler, who in the course of his great labours often
directed his attention to physico-mathematical problems, failed to
treat the theory of the motion of fluids having regard to molecular
cohesion and to some sort of internal friction (quelque espéce de
frottement).

The first attempt to measure the viscosity of water, so far
as I am aware, was Lambert’s,! about 1784, and was made by
observing oscillations in U-shaped tubes. _Coulomb’s* celebrated
measurements by means of oscillating discs followed about 1799
or 1800. He expressed the frictional resistance under the form
au +bu*, w denoting lineal velocity and a and 6 constants depend-
ing upon the physical constitution of the liquid, a form earlier
employed by Newton,’ Bernoulli, and s’Gravesande* to express the
resistance of the atmosphere. Coulomb practically ignored the
influence of temperature in -his experiments, stating that between
the limits 10° and 16° Reaum.’ its effect was insensible. Gerstner®
however, had in 1798 noticed that the flow of water in small tubes
varied very perceptibly with temperature, demonstrating the fact

: by a series of experiments at Prague. In 1816 Girard’ continued

the observation of flowin capillary tubes and deduced a formula,

which however had no generality and must be regarded as errone-

_ ous. Nothing in the way of experiment seems then to have been

_ Made till about 1840, but it should be remembered that in this
© PSS gems ye ne a a

1 Ny j ci eae : me
ae relativement 4 l’hydrodynamique.—Mém.
3 ale ss! ey "

. miences destinées & déterminer la cohérence des fluides et les lois

tio resistance dans les mouvements trés lents.—Mém. de I’ Institut
: a t. 3, Pp. 261.
gp en teed au} but + cu*.—Vide the Principia Lib II. Prop. xxxt,
by deere Newtonaniz Institutiones. 5 Loc. cit. p. 349.

Peraturen, — die Fliissigkeit des Wassers bei verschiedenen Tem-

th. p. 14] 78 dhm Gesell. der Wiss. Prag Bd. 3, phys-math.
~160, 1798

Filia 3, Mouvement des fluides dans les tubes capillaires et

188-274, température sur ce mouvement.—Mém. I’Acad. t. 1, p.

80 G. H, KNIBBS.

interval Navier' published his celebrated memoir in which the
theory of the motion of a viscous fluid is mathematically treated
The memoir was read in January 1817 at the French Academy
of Sciences. Shortly before 1835 the attention of Poiseuille? was
strongly directed to the subject of venous and arterial flow, to
establish the laws of which on a rational basis,’ he undertook,
about 1838, a lengthy investigation of flow in capillary tubes
This enabled him to correctly enunciate the law of flow for such
tubes, and to furnish an expression for the efflux therefrom
between the temperature limits 0° and 45° centigrade. His
experiments remain, I venture to think, unrivalled even to-day, %
regards their general precision. Girard’s formula previously
mentioned, and Navier’s intrinsically identical therewith, bub
theoretically established, were shown to be inapplicable in regard
to efflux from capillaries. These researches were published in
great detail in 1846, in the Mémoires des savants étrangers, and,
as we shall see later on, supply material for determining the
viscosity with a high degree of precision, and for testing the
validity of and evaluating the constants of necessary corrections
to be applied to the immediate data of any observation. Poiseuille
himself did not, however, deduce the viscosity coéficient, not
recognize the necessity for the corrections, and his enunciation of
the law, though accurate, left the matter in the empirical stage-
Before the above mentioned publication tolerably complete
information had already appeared from time to time in the
‘Comptes rendus’ as to the scope and results of these researches
and in April 1845, that is before the detailed results had appeared)
Stokes,* in his contribution to the mathematical theory of internal

iyi i
eo Mémoire sur les lois du errant des fluides.—Mém. de ro
Sane Coe 440, 1

2 Recherches e Rabe sur _ mouv
ement des a
tubes de trba.petit diiecae —Mem. des Sav. étrang. t. 9, P

% Physiologists and pathologists had A * tame
ous movement to blood mits iach apiegreny the power 0 a

n the theories of the internal friction of fluids in motion and of ti
equilicinen and motion of elastic solids,— Cambridg®
Vol. 8, p. 287 - 319, 1849. Denon tl Bers

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. 81

friction, gave I believe, the first rational interpretation of the law
of flow in long narrow tubes.

In 1847 Moritz followed with some observations on Coulomb's!
method. Seven years later (1854) Hagen” attempted a more
general solution of flow in narrow tubes, following much on
Gerstner’s lines. In 1858 Ludwig and Stefan* made an important
contribution to the theory of this subject, but it was not until
January 1860, that the viscosity coéfficient appearing in the
equations of Navier was included in an exact and general formula
for the efflux from tubes: it then appeared in Jacobson’s* contri-
bution to haemodynamics. This furnished the results of a some-
what extensive series of efflux experiments, and gave an exposition,
credited to Neumann, of the theory of flow in cylindrical tubes of
circular section. The date of the first publication of this expo-
sition I have not been able to ascertain, but it must have been
prior to 1860. It contained an accurate and complete deduction
of the law of velocity in a right circular cylinder, on the assump-
tion of a velocity at the boundary of the liquid ; employed terms
to represent the internal friction and that at the boundary ; and
showed that when the boundary velocity was zero Poiseuille’s law
was obtained. It dealt moreover with the fall in pressure at the
entrance to a tube, basing the formula for its amount on Newton’s
value for the coéfficient of flow for short cylindrical adjutages. It
is also worthy of remark that the viscosity is expressed in the
absolute system in Jacobson’s treatise, and that he experimentally

showed that the law held for larger tubes than were used by
_ Poiseuille,

OEE EEN
a 1 Einige Bemerkungen iiber Coulomb’s Verfahren, die Cohiision der
lissigkeiten zu bestimmen.—Pogz. Annalen. Bd. 70, p. 74—85, 1847.

2 Ueber die Bewegung des Wassers in ges cy ee Rohren.—

Abhandl. d konigl. Akad. d Wiss. zu Berlin, 1

ichtung ausiibt.—Sitzber. Akad. Wien., Bd. 32, p. 25 - 42, 1858.

bate zur Haemodynamik.—Archiv fiir Anat. und Physiol. 1860,

* Vortriige itber Hydrodynamik.
F—July 3, 1895,

82 G. H. KNIBBS,

Hagenbach’s! memoir was published in March 1860. He
deduced the general formula for flow in indefinitely long narrow
tubes of circular section, in which the velocity is zero at the sides |
of the tubes, and considered the fall of pressure occurring at the |
entrance of the tube, for which he furnished a formula. This |
formula, though somewhat inexact, has been used for correcting
observed differences of pressures, at the tube terminals, by nearly
all subsequent observers.

Almost contemporaneously with Hagenbach’s memoir, the date :
of publication being but one month later, the results of Helmholtz’
and Piotrowski’s? researches appeared, the latter dealing with the |
experimental, and the former with the theoretical side of the
subject. In their joint memoir Helmholtz developed an expression
for flow in narrow tubes of circular section intrinsically identical |
as regards its first term with Hagenbach’s, but containing 1
addition a second term representing the influence of friction ab j
the boundary of the flowing liquid. This Helmholtz and his :
colleague deemed necessary in a complete formula, in view of the
fact that their experiments pointed to the existence of a relative
movement and’ consequent frictional effect at the boundary com

mon to the liquid and the containing vessel, at any rate as betweel
a polished gilt surface and water, and their formula is substantially
identical with the earlier formule of Neumann or J acobsom
Neither Hagenbach wor Helmholtz refer to any earlier corte
expression for steady rectilinear motion in pipes of circular sectio!
and it is somewhat remarkable that it is generally credited tot
latter, although so far as I can ascertain, Stokes, Neumann,
Hagenbach all have a prior claim to this credit. A second 4
very valuable discussion by Jacobson? of the theory of rectilineat
flow and evaluation of viscosity was communicated in Septe”t

ay Ueber die Bestimmung der Zihigkeit einer Fliissigkeit durch de?
Ausfluss aus Rohren. —Pogg. Annal. Bd. 109, p. 384 — 426, 1860.

* Ueber prise. sesganiel Flissigkeiten—Sitzber. k. k- aia
‘Wien., Bd. 40 sag

3 Zur Bialng in die a anena —Archiv. fiir Anat. und Page| a
1861, p. 304 -

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. 83

1860 to a meeting of physicists at Kénigsberg, and in this the
results of measurements of efflux for temperatures up to 71°5 a

were given.

Magnus? experiments in 1850 and 1855 should perhaps have
been mentioned as affording physical illustrations of viscosity ;
they contributed however nothing of moment in regard to its
numerical evaluation. At this period the general significance
and importance of the viscous property of fluids was forcing itself
strongly upon the attention of physicists, particularly perhaps in
the direction of chemical physics, and in 1861 Graham’s* essay
appeared “On liquid transpiration in regard to chemical compo-
sition,” an early contribution in that department of research.
Graham’s work is of interest to our present purpose mainly
because in his measurements of flow through capillary tubes he
also greatly extended the range of temperature beyond Poiseuille’s
limits, carrying it as far as 70° C.—i.e. 25° beyond Poiseuille—

and also because he made measurements for every degree up to 5°.
Had his experiments been more accurate they would have afforded
an opportunity of examining whether the mathematical expression
of the law of viscosity showed any peculiarity at the temperature
of maximum density.

a the same year (1861) Meyer's’ first contribution to the theory
: of internal flnid friction, and to experimental research therein,
Was published. Seven years later (1868) at Bonn, Rellstab’s*
dissertation on the transpiration of similar fluids traversed the

subj
oa ject, and gave also the results of some new measurements by

i ee
1
- ong die Bewegung der Fliissigkeiten.—Pogg. Annal. Bd. 89, p
ca "§ eg Hydraulische Untersuchungen.—Pogg. Annal. on i
OD.
a
: gem Roy. Soc. Lond., Vol. 151, p. 373 - 886, 1861.
e ‘sie die Reibung fed siovear ets (Theoretischer Teil). —Crelle
é ‘s ay h. Bd. 59, p 1861, and ee title, Pogg. Annal. Bd.
tu 86, ie: oo are 383 - 245,
ber die ce homologer eg —tnaagucadioser

ah

84 G. H. KNIBBS.

the efflux method. In 1876 Sprung! made a series of experiments 5
with water in connection with his physico-chemical resent
The following year Meyer communicated the results of ie
cranz’s? observations, the latter having died at Breslau in Febru ;
of that year, i.e. in 1877. Rosencranz’s investigation, ce which |
measurements up to 90° C. were made, had for its object tt
extension of the values of the viscosity coéfficient beyond Poiseuille |
limits, with the view of ascertaining how far Poiseuille’s formtly )
accurately expressing the effect of temperature under a 7
algebraic form, could be safely extrapolated. a
The viscosity research in the department of chemical alas |
was continued by P¥ibram and Handl? in 1878 and 1879, s08¥am
Grotrian* in 1879, the latter furnishing further observations y
the efflux method, and drawing attention to an analogy aie 7
fluidity and electric conductivity. Slotte® in 1881, and. Wag? ]
in 1883, the latter continuing a line of physico-chemical research
commenced by him in 1876, both supply efflux measurements foe

3
:

: ; ‘ corte eas intern |
water made in connection with their investigation of the 1 :
frictions of chemical solutions.

In the year last mentioned, Reynolds’? demonstrated afresh : 7
the law of flow in capillary tubes held also for larger tubes, provi 4
Oe ee

| Experimentelle Untersuchungen iiber die Flissigkeitsreibums ©
Salzlosungen, Bd. 159, p. 1- 35

Meyer.—Wied. Annal. Bd, 2, p. 387-406, 1877. ?

$ Ueber die specifische Zahigkeit der Fliissigkeiten und ihre Bezieb"
zur chemische Constitution.—Sitzber. k. k. Akad. Wien. Bd. 78, AP
p. 113 - 164, 1878, and Bd. 80, Abt. 2, p. 17 - 57, 1879.

* Analogien zwischen der Fluiditit und dem galvanischen Lett™’
vermigen.— Wied. Annal ; 29 — 554, 1879

5 Ueber die innere Reibung der Lisungen einiger Chromate.—W*
Annal. Bd. 14, p. 13 — 22, 1881.
6 Ueber die Zihigkeit von Salzlésungen.—Wied. Annal. Bd. * :
259 - 289, 1883

7 An experimental investigation &c., &c., and of the law of resistal™
in parallel channels.—Phil. Trans. Vol. 174, p. 935, 1883.

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. 85

the velocities were sufficiently small. He was under the impress-
ion that this had not already been done, but as previously pointed
out Jacobson had anticipated him. Although Reynolds’ experi-
ments are not suitable for the derivation of an exact value for
viscosity, it may be observed that his results are consistent with
Poiseuille’s. In 1884, Réntgen' and Warburg and Sachs’ examined
the influence of pressure and density upon this coéfficient and the
year following Kénig® ascertained that there was no sensible
difference in the time of efflux when it took place in a powerful
magnetic or electric field. He made some further measurements*
in 1887 but not by the efflux method.

The next important contribution is Couette’s® whose experiments
embrace two methods, viz. that of measuring the tangential force
on an internal cylinder exerted by liquids lying between it and a
coaxial outer rotated cylinder—method (e)—and that of efflux (¢).
In regard to the latter it may be said that he considerably advanced
the theory of the correction of the pressures registered by the
manometers in the vessels at the terminals of the tubes, and
indicated a method of observation by which the corrections may
be entirely eliminated. Couette’s correction for the fall of pressure
at the entrance of the capillary, though more exact than Hagen-
bach’s 8 (1860), and very much more exact than Reynold’s s (1883)
i evenetroted hy Bonstinesn’ in 1891 to be true
sr “pig Einfluss des Druckes auf = ——, der Fliissigkeiten,

—Wied. Annal. Bd. 22, p. 510-518, 1884.

Ueber den Ristiks der Dichtigeit si ae Vinsostt tropfb
Flunigte pfbarer
ote iten.— Wied. Annal. Bd. 22, p

vee ok einiger Reibu Sait HT rad View tiber den
|-Plissigk, sas Magne tisirung und Electri: rey! auf die Reibung der
eee oy 0 eee al. Bd. 25, p. 618 — 625, 1885.

: bien mi ung v n Reibungscoéfiicienten tropfbarer Fliissig-
: mittelet de Sateanes Schwingungen.— Wied. Annal. Bd. 32, p. 193

vat eee me SS de liquides.—Annal. de Chim. et de Physique

§ Su
tireulaine " sais oe a iteesée dans un tube cylindrique de section
AUX ¢ Pe aboot ’son entrée, se distribuent depuis cette entrée jusqu’
vit se trouve établi un régime uniforme.—Comptes Rendus,

; Ulaire, évasé 4 son : bl t
: entrée eg qu’ un régime sensiD! emen
Bement dee reese’ tt de Ia dépense d e charge qu’y dniaaine V8 établis-

PA Ne Te Teste FIL Asean ee rs ae Perea

Mee

86 G. H. KNIBBS.

only to a first approximation: a higher approximation require
that it be increased about one-eighth, and it will be shown that :
Boussinesq’s theory is experimentally vindicated. In the same
year (1891) Brodmann! published the results of his researches 4
with the sphere and cylinder methods—(/) and (e)—and showed |

were obtained for the viscosity according to the size of the sphere
or of the cylinder, confirming Elie’s? observation that values for |
the viscosity deduced from experiments with concentric spheres
by Kirchhoff’s formula, increased with the velocity of rotation. —
In 1892 Cohen,? employing the efflux method, continued the —
research in respect of the influence of pressure on the coéfiicient, 4
for the temperatures 1°, 15°, and 23° C., and for pressures up t
atmospheres. His results therefore add to the material for
comparison.
Many other contributors either to the theory or observation of
the viscosity of liquids, or cognate matters, might be mentioned~
as for example, Hiibener 1873, Baumgartner ’74, Guerout 74 and
76, Villari 76, Koch ’81, Grossmann 783, Graetz ’88, Wirtz 89, :
Whetham ’90, Briickner 90 and ’91, and Rayleigh ’92—but the
above sketch of the course of the investigation embraces its main
historical outlines and subsequent references will be made only
such of the above as especially bear upon the particular cme
of any question under review. 4

Ii.—Tue Turory or Erryvux.

fluid be established in a long cylindrical capillary tube, mee see

1Un ntersuchungen iiber den Reibu ungscoéfiicienten von " Fliissighe! 5
Le Gottingen, 1891,—Wied. Annal. Bd. 45, P- 1” :
nee a

4 Sitzber. Akad. Wiss. Wien. Bd. 40, p. 653, 1860.

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. 87

a circle of radius R, and the pressure in a length L of the tube.
fall from p, to p,, the volume q flowing in a unit of time across
any right section of the tube is expressed by the equation :—

T(Po—- Ps) 4 : 3
G2 aa i: (R* +46 R*)

in which &? is a constant determined by the internal resistance
of the fluid, b one depending on the friction at its boundary, and
x is 314159 etc. In recent treatises on hydrodynamics’ the
equation is usually written

q = “RP (Rea 4t eee (1).

y, or Helmholtz’s k?, being the coéfficient of viscosity, and B that
of sliding friction. This latter form is the earlier and the better,
and is essentially that deduced by Neumann some time prior to
1860. The reciprocal of the viscosity, f = 1/7, has been called
the coéfficient of fluidity and 1/8 that of slipping.

Limitation of the Equation of fluz.—The movements of
liquids may be ciassed under two régimes, a fact clearly recognized
by Darcy? in 1857, and since illustrated in a striking manner by
the experiments of Reynolds? in 1883, and confirmed by those of
Dometic! in 1888. In the first régime no eddies are formed, and
the liquid, if limpid, has what has not inaptly been called a

“plate-glass” appearance. In the second, eddies or vortices are
lanes and the « sheet-glass” appearance may be noted, the
‘Tefraction of the liquid being varied by the eddies. It is to flow
‘under the first régime, that is to flow without vortices, that the

1Ki
Bante oo iiber mathematische Physik (1883 edit. dit.) p. 373.
reatise on Hydrodynamics, 1888 Edit. Vol. 11.,p. 305. Lamb—

tp his pf or ree ike of fluids, 1879 Edit. p. 224. Lamb uses p/p for

- Matical cous, ett’sy, being what has been called by Maxwell the kine-
cient of viscosity, i.e. 1 /p, p denoting the density of the fluid.
twa relatives au mouvement de l’eau dans les
857. See also Mém. des Savants étrangers t. 15, p. 215

go
emacs Vol. 174, p. 935 - 982.
de Chimie, 6 Sér. t. 21, p. 464.

88 G. H. KNIBBS.

above equation applies. The physical characteristic of such a
flow in a cylindrical pipe, is that the motion of all particles i

parallel to its axis, and points of equal velocity lie, if the section :
bea circle, in the circumference of a circle concentric therewith, the |
velocity of course diminishing with increase of distance from the |
axis. The liquid may therefore be imagined to be divided into a |
series of coiixial circular cylinders, and the internal friction tobe
the sum of the resistances exercised by each cylindrical stratum
upon the interior and more rapidly moving cylinder. It is this
conception, viz. that of steady rectilinear motion, which, together
with the consideration of the boundary condition, leads to “
formula written. ‘4

5. Definition of Viscosity.—Navier,! in his treatise, gives an
explanation rather than a definition of the meaning of 4 (€ 12 bis
equations), which may be thus expressed :—If we imagine 4 ful
to be divided into a series of planes parallel to some fixed plane
the motion in each being identical in direction, and in velocit] ’
equal to its distance from the plane, then the constant 7 repre
sents in units of weight, the resistance per unit of surface to the
sliding of one stratum on another. Hagenbach’s? definition 18:—
By viscosity we denote the force necessary to move with unifor |
velocity and in a unit (second) of time a stratum of fluid on
molecule in thickness and of unit surface, the distance of sais

the latter being moreover dependent upon a particular concep?”
as to the physical constitution of a fluid. The following is ptr
posed as obviating these objections :—The coéfiicient of vise :
expresses the ratio, per unit of surface, of the tangential resista
between parallel strata of a fluid moving with different velocities
to the rate of variation of their velocity measured perpendicul
to the direction of movement. The resistance is ge
supposed to vary as the difference of the velocity, an assump

1 Mém. Phd des Sciences, t. 6, p. 416,
* Pogg. Annal. Bd. 109, p. 425. The translation is nearly literal.

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. 89

which has been experimentally justified between somewhat wide
but ill-defined limits.

6. Coéfficient of sliding friction for glass and other tubes.—
Navier assumed that a flowing liquid would glide or slip with a
finite velocity at its bounding surface, and Piotrowski’s experi-
ments—by method (d) § 1—interpreted by Helmholtz,” confirmed
this view to a limited extent, for although there was no slipping
in the case of ether and alcohol in contact with polished gilt
surfaces, with water and some other liquids slipping apparently
occurred, and values for the coéfficient were deduced.® Piotrowski’s
experiments did not include cases of flow through tubes under
pressure, but Helmholtz, after developing the theory of Piotrowski’s
method, turned his attention thereto, and deduced the formula to
which we have already referred. He concluded from an examina-
tion of Girard’s observations that sliding friction, the assumed
existence of which seemed to explain Piotrowski’s results, must
also be postulated in the case of flow through tubes, at any rate
when their dimensions were somewhat larger than those used by
Poiseuille, and when they were of copper instead of glass. He
further deduced a value for his coéfficient 6—in our first equation
—by applying the formula on the assumption that the motion
might be deemed steady.*

The legitimacy of these conclusions was questioned by Whetham
in 18905 who judged, from his experiments by an efflux method,
that no slip occurs, at any rate in the case of surfaces which are
wetted by the liquid. But Brodmann—in 1892—has demon-

_ Strated, I think beyond doubt, that water in contact with a gilt

surface does not adhere thereto and that under such circumstances
‘siege oC eae na kes aa BBE SE ge ee eee a ree ne a

L Mém. de l’ Académie, t. 6, p. 389.

* Sitzber. Akad. Wien., Bd. 40, p. 607 - 658.

3 Loc. cit., p. 621.

* Thid, p. 656, where = b in the equation previously given.

5 On the alleged slipping at the boundary of a liquid in motion.
Trans., Vol. 181, p. 559.

* Thid, p. 582.

—Phil.

90 G. H. KNIBBS.

slipping does occur, so that Whetham’s conclusion must ie
restricted. That it occurs in cases of flow in glass tubes hag
certainly not been shown, but in regard to copper tubes the inter- —
pretation of Girard’s experiments seemed to require that slipping
be postulated,” and it is somewhat singular that a recent deter —
mination by Brodmann of the value of 7/8 for water by the
sphere and cylinder methods gives a result?—7/ = 0- 0409-—very
nearly identical with Helmholtz’s value‘ = 0:03984—deduced from :
the efflux observations of Girard. On the other hand it has Be ;
pointed out by Jacobson that Helmholtz in criticising Girard’s
experiments failed to apply any correction to the pressure, and :
that his own—Jacobson’s—experiments with copper tubes lend 1
no support to the opinion that slipping occurs.6 The general
theory of flow in tubes being however beyond the scope of this 4
discussion, it will suffice to show that Helmholtz’s view is unsup |
ported by experimental results in cases of steady rectilinear *
in glass tubes, such as are used in observations of efflux having
for their object the determination of the viscosity.

If we put

. _ TP - pps

1) 2

anda = 46 = te
then we shall have from Be by transposition,

7 = m (1+ =)
the term a/R depending on the existence and influence of sliding |
friction, so that, if the viscosity be computed without reference?
thereto, we shall obtain the results 7» instead of », and these will: 4
show a variation with widely different values of /, since ais
constant.

From the results hereinafter quoted, obtained from Poiseuilles
experiments on the assumption that slipping does not occur WO

1 Wied. Annal. Bd. 45, p. 184. oie |

2 As against this view see Couette’s memoir Annal. de Chimie, 6 9% :
t. 21, 1890, p. 492 - 494, :
' § Wied. Annal. Bd. 45, p. 179.

* Sitzber. Wien. Akad. Bd. 40 40, p. 656.

5 Achiv. fiir Anat. u. Phys., 1861, p. 306.

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. 91

take the mean values for Poiseuille’s tubes the ratio of whose
radii varies between the limits 1 and 47.

Glass Tubes. Meanof. Rapprox.c.m. 4,at10°C. Authority.

M M, (2) 0007 01313 Poiseuille
EE, (2) 0015 01341 do
D-D, (4) 0022 01305 do
C-C, (4) 0042 01308 do.
B-B, (4) 0056 01310 do
A-A, (4) 0071 01308 do
F-F, 3) 0326 01315 do

The constancy of 1, shows that it must be supposed identical with
7, that is to say @ is zero for cases of efflux through glass tubes,
as indeed is admitted by Helmholtz.1 Nor does a more extended
comparison of values similarly deduced lead to a different con-
clusion. In the table hereunder tubes of different materials are
included, and of larger radius, that of the greatest being 907 times
that of tube M above.

Tube. No. Expts. Rapprox.c.m. 7 at 10°C. Authority.”

Glass 1 0140 01400 _Hagenbach
” 0172 701320 Grotrian

D 0182 01318 ‘

; 2 Q198 01311 Konig

3 0199 01291 ‘

ss 4 0290 01331 Slotte
Copper 2 0297 01356 Couette
Glass 4 0302 01319 Wagner

z 1 0309 01400 Hagenbach
White metal 3 0504 01341 Couette
Inge 1 “0525 01324 Hagenbach
m 1 0550 01287 ‘s
Paraffine 3 0685 01360 Couette

Sait On ee eee

1 Sitzber. Wien. Acad. Bd. 40, p. 654.

2 These values I have reduced from the data published by the investi-
gator whose name is appended. The same remark applies to the preced-
"2 values obtained from Poiseuille’s experiments.

92 G. H. KNIBBS.

Tube. No. Expts. Rapprox.c.m. 7 at 10°C. Authority.

Glass 8 ‘0877 01323 Jacobson
5 1147 01334 ”
Brass Z 1433 ‘01313 ‘y
Lead 8 3075 01360 Reynolds
: 8 6350 01365 .

These results give no indication of slip, for though the final —

value is somewhat larger than the mean, the difference is infini-
tesimal in relation to the supposed magnitude of the slip cosfiicient.’

It may be remarked that Coulomb’s experiments also appeared
to indicate an adhesion of the liquids to the submerged oscillating

discs,’ and that despite considerable alteration in the nature of the

substances with which they were covered: so also did Meyer's
But what is more to the point, is that when the motion is
undoubtedly steady and rectilinear, all experiments by the efflux

method with glass tubes—and it appears from the above that there —

is but a doubtful necessity even for this qualification—agreé in
negativing the idea of slip, not only in the case of water which
wets the tube, but also in the case of mercury which does not.
The observations of Warburg,‘ Villari,> and Koch® on the efflux
of this latter substance, may be taken as determining the question

of slip in regard thereto in the negative, and a fortiori in the cas? :

1 Taking the values for tube M and for the largest lead tube, in ordet

to caleulate the supposed slip, we would obtain for 7, ‘0136 5+ and for 8,
1 This is sensibly infinite as compared with its value in Helmholtz s.

remo ih preies to that authority n/B is 03984, whereas
ly -00000'
pias in en several values of 7 may be hig On eines” for.

2 Mém. l'Institut National, t. 3
a ee die Reibung der eld seks —Pogg. Annal., Bd. 113, P- e
* Ueber den Ausfluss des Quecksilbers aus gliisernen Capillarrébrea—
Fogg. Annal. Bd. 140, p. 367 — 379, 1870.

5 Sull ’efflusso = as per tubi di vetro di —— diametro—
Mem. dell ’Accad. d. Sci., Bologna, Ser. 3, t. 6, p- 1

° Ueber die Abhingigkeit der Si abeniante. he Quecksilbers =

der Temperatur.—Wied. Annal. Bd. 14, p- 1 - 12, 1881.

ail oe er Sate = ie Sis a ig EGE AO, Se

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. 93

of water. But apart from such theoretical deductions from
experiments, it may be noticed that the strong adhesion of the
bounding film to the tube was visually demonstrated in the
experiments of Duclaux.!_ We may therefore in dealing with the
theory of flow in glass capillary tubes, when the motion is recti-
linear confidently assume that the coéfficient 8 in equation (1) is
infinite—or in other words that there is no slip—that the velocity
at the boundary of the section is consequently zero, and that the
term in &* vanishes, and this assumption will generally be correct
for any tube whatsoever for steady rectilinear flow.

LT. The reduced equation of flua.—Denoting by P’ the difference*
Po —Px, the original equation (1) becomes for zero velocity at the
boundary

a formula first given by Neumann, then by Jacobson, Hagenbach,*
and Helmholtz. If K be substituted for x/(2'y) and D the
diameter for R the radius, Poiseuille’s formula*—
inca! “te

derived experimentally about 1840, is obtained. The earlier
formule viz. Girard’s (1813), and Navier’s (1822) were erroneous,
making the efflux proportional to the third instead of the fourth
power of the diameter.

8. The determination of the fall in presswre.—In large tubes, in
which flow is established, the fall in pressure due to viscosity or
other resistances between two cross sections any distance apart,
may be measured manometrically, or by observing the vertical

1 Recherches sur les lois des mouvements des liquides dans les espaces
capillaires.—Annal. de Chimie, 4 Sér. t. 25, 1872

? We use P’ instead of P as the latter is hereinafter used to denote a
Pressure directly observed but subject to certain corrections.

3 Pogg. Annal. 109, i ‘a is
p. 397, 400, 401. In our notation ' = 7/9

Hagenbach’s k/n o

* Com; hina t. 11, p. 1046, 1840. Mem. des Savants étrang. t.9,
cara The relations of K, P » for arbitrary or for absolute units are
to hereafter: here we regard only the form of the expression.

94 G. H. KNIBBS.

height to which the liquid will rise in tubes attached normally to”
the surface of the pipe,! the connecting orifices being very small _
in relation to the sectional area of the flow. Such an arrange
ment cannot be realized with capillary tubes so that the fall in
pressure must be deduced from measures of the pressures in the —
reservoirs supplying and receiving the flowing liquid. The sectional
areas of these should be, and will be assumed to be, very large in
relation to the sectional area of the capillary. 3

In Fig. 1, in which A denotes the supplying and B the receiving
reservoir—i.e. the flow being supposed to take place in'the direc
tion A B—the points A and Blie in the axis of the tube ZH’ FP,
supposed horizontal ; to these points the measures of the pressures
in the reservoirs are referred, P being the difference of those
pressures. It is immediately evident from the principle of col
servation of energy, that, neglecting losses from frictional resis
tances, the pressure at the section ee’ where the régime of
parallelism of flow is established, is less than the pressure in the
reservoir A, owing to the change from potential to kinetic energy
in the effluent liquid. This was not overlooked either by J acobson
or by Hagenbach as already pointed out. The latter divided
the head, or charge as it is often called, as measured by the
difference of pressures, and expended in overcoming resistance
into two' parts, the velocity-head (Geschwindigkeitshéhe) and the
head due to frictional resistance within the tube (Widerstandhihe).
Hagenbach’s formula? may be written, if we adopt an absolute
notation, or C.G.S. units? }

1 This is a called the piezometric measurement of the prewar
by hydraulici

2 Pogg. ‘ear Bd. 109, p. 408, 1860.

* Using C.G.8. units we shall express P in dynes per square centime
thus P= pg, if p be the pressure in grammes per square centimetre, and

the unit o ntly
in dessin the prunmaea the portalatios ¢ tiles of | the viscosity 7 me

erred to the above by the equation 7’ = yig- The absence of the §
term in the quotation of Hagenbach’s equation is thus explained.

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE.EFFLUX METHOD. 95

1
93 7? ia 5 seed p g”
Q's « L q
p being the absolute density—grammes per cubic centimetre—of

1) oles

the effluent. This will more clearly exhibit the reduction of the
pressure if put in the form
ay a { Pe
| Shel” (ka: RK)
so that the term in brackets denotes, according to Hagenbach,
what might be called the reduced pressure,! say P,. Hagenbach
justly observed that this correction more particularly applied where
the end of the tube is in the form of a conoidal adjutage. Since
we propose to consider the value of the coéfficient of the correction,
the reduced pressure P, may with greater generality be written—

PG Py £22 (3)
T

According therefore to Hagenbach the value of the factor m for
@ conoidal terminal is,
m = 2-5 = 0-79370

‘ Reynolds,’ remarking that Poiseuille, though he measured the
_ pressures in the vessels supplying and receiving the flowing liquid,
-“hevertheless neglected the correction, states that, if U denote the
Mean velocity in the pipe and g the acceleration of gravity, it will
~ either U* (2g) or 1-505 U? /(2g) according as the entrance
; pemial of the tube is trumpet-shaped or cylindrical. He also
ys that, as Poiseuille definitely affirmed the latter condition to
v5 been realized in his experiments,? the application of the
“orrection would have made them consistent,' a dictum however

Se ——
It is hereinafter show

n that Po, may be generally supposed to be
; (2), but that this su ition may be set aside b
— evidences of its : 7 . y

; a ’s treatise, p. 439. La soudure est faite de telle sorte
avee du + utube D (the capillary) se dilatant ex abrupto, est en rapport
enflement G (a bulb at the end of the tube forming the reservoir

_ fIse ct, p. 981,

96 G. H. KNIBBS.

which must be received with considerable limitation. Reynolds 3
proposed correction is evidently based on the results of experi
ments with sharp-edged cylindrical adjutages of 2 or 3 diameters |
length applied to orifices, the effect of which is to cause a discharge _
of about 0°815 of that theoretically due to the pressure on the |
supposition that frictional and other resistances may be’ neglected.
This loss of head, arising from the contraction! at the entrance dt
the adjutage, and the subsequent expansion to its full diameter, |
together with the loss from slight frictional resistance and that
involved in establishing the flow, gives according to treatises
practical hydraulics U?/[2g (0:815)?] = 1-506 U2/(2g). Tf the
edges of the cylinder be rounded off at the connection with the
discharging vessel at Z’, Fig. 1, the value becomes very nearly |
U? |(2g), the coéfficient 0-815 increasing almost to unity, a according
therefore to Reynolds, for the condition assumed by Hagenbath,
m=0-500, or for the reduction of Poiseuille’s work m= 753.
This statement is not justified hy an analysis of the experiments
referred to. The objection to unconditionally assuming that ~
Square of the mean velocity in the section may be regarded a |
equivalent to the mean of the squares of the velocities at diferet
points throughout the section, in estimating the loss of
necessary to establish flow, is obvious. Couette,” treating the
problem more exactly, deduced for m the value unity, obse
that it is just double that obtained by the application of Da
Bernoulli’s theorem, which attributed to all the molecules of
fluid a velocity equal to the mean velocity. He proposed tn
fore the more rigorous formula

P,=P 5,

This had eae previously given under another form by Jace

Bienes Kirchhoff’s Vorlesungen (22nd) for a solution in two dimens
his treatise on Hydrodynamics, Vol. 1, p. 139. -
solution of the problem in three dimensions exists so far as he was 8”
afapand whi —_ by Boussinesq in 1872, see his “‘ Essai sur la™
: courantes.”—Mém, des Savants étrangers, t. 23, p- 562, }
Annal. de Chimie, 6 sér. t. 21, chap. iii., p. 494, 1890.

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. 97

in September 1860, in his Introduction to Hemodynamics, the
development being credited, as I have previously said, to Neumann,

whose formula may be written in our notation,’ m however being
assigned the value unity,

gh = mU*+

8 7

OR
h denoting the pressure at die entrance to the tube expressed as
height of a column of liquid of the same density as the effluent,
and U the mean velocity in the transverse section. Couette was
evidently unacquainted with Neumann’s or J acobson’s work, but
in this respect he is not singular.”

Boussinesq? has attacked the problem with greater rigour, and
—while admitting that Couette’s solution, which is the same as
Neumann’s, is legitimately derived, and to a first approximation
is accurate—shews that a higher approximation gives for m the
value 1:12. Thus according to the several authorities mentioned,

m = 0:50 Reynolds (after Bernoulli) 1883

m = 0°79 Hagenbach oe ... 1860
m = 1:00 Neumann prior to ... 1860
m = 1:00 Couette ... ies ... 1890
m = 1-12 Boussinesq Kae “4 nee

Poiseuille’s series of measurements, at different pressures and at
10° C., for a number of tubes afford a means of ascertaining the
value of this coéfficient for each series : and it may be remarked
that, a priori, one would expect the deduced values, if not identical
with, to be somewhat greater than Boussinesq’s coéfiicient, inas-
much as it is said that the tubes retaining their cylindrical form

a eee
: } Archiv. fur Anat. und Phys. Reichert’s, 1861, p. 321. Jn the original
— both sides of this equation is multiplied by 2.

That Hagenbach’s correction should have been so invariably

used, is
‘in itself an indication of how little is generally known of Neumann’s fine

exposition of the theory of flow in a tube.
rere Rendus, t. 110, p. 1160—1166, et p. 1238 - 1242, 1890. Ibid
18, p. 9-15 et p, 49 ect. 1801. ‘Théorie du régime permanent gradu-
filets varié qui se produit prés de l’entrée évasée d’un tube fin ot les
@un liquide qui s’y écoule n’ont pas encore me lour inégalités.
Bormales de vitesse, etc,

G—July 3, 1896,

98 G. H. KNIBBS.

throughout, terminated abruptly, and in such cases the resistances
are greater. Poiseuille in each series, measured the time necessary
for a certain volume to flow at different pressures. If this volume
be denoted by Q, and the total efflux time by 7, gin the preceding
formuls—being the volume per unit of time—is equal to Q/T for
each pressure. Hence m denoting general value of the coéfiicient,
i.e. 1°12 theoretically, and supposing that the value P, in (3) may
be substituted for P’ in (2), we obtain the following expression
for the viscosity, viz.
4

In this formula Q/7' may be substituted for q, that is we may
write 7’ in the numerator, and @ instead of qg in the denominator,
and in this way may obtain by transformation an expression for
what may be called the corrected time of total efflux, viz.

oe a OTe

x | eee Pate :

C=P,T=PT, =Pii mee pe
A very large number of experiments have been corrected, as bela
stated, by means of the equivalent of formula (5), Hagenbachs
value for m however being used. The time 7’, is the total efflas
time, when the loss of head at the entrance to the tube divided ©
the product of the pressure into the time is negligible, and equa
tion (6) shews that we may correct either the pressures, OF os
times. Reverting to Poiseuille’s work, if the pressures in a, series
of observations made at a uniform temperature with the one tube,
be multiplied by the corresponding times of efflux, the series ©
products P7' is obtained, which, since the right hand member a
(6) under the supposed conditions is a constant, differ only by ye
1 See also formula (40) § 21 hereinafter. .

2 For the calculation of 79 when Q is unknown see § 21, formula (43).

a TES rea eres ee

Wwe have from (6)

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. 99

corrective term whose factor is 1/7, the other part being also a
constant. Hence (6) may be written
Coro (6a).
y a

To determine C, the number must be found towards which PZ’
approaches when 7’ is increased without limit, and therefore P
diminished without limit. The equation

PT =C+—7 (6b).
is that of a straight line, such that if the several values of 1/7’ be
regarded as abscisse and the corresponding values of PT as

ordinates, the line passing through the points so determined will
intersect the axis of ordinates at the distance C from the origin,
and make with the axis of abscisse an angle whose tangent is ¢.
This value C corresponds io the value 1/7’=9, or T=, the
corrective term therefore vanishing.| Fig. 2 shews the plot for
Poiseuille’s tubes A, A, B, and C;. Should the products PT shew
no progressive increase, as is sometimes the case,” no value can be

assigned to c, nor consequently to m, for, when c is found, m is
determined from (6) and (6a) by the equation

m= 6 ae ia ree (7)

for absolute units. If the pressures be ees by the lengths in
centimetres of the columns of liquid in the manometers, h, it will
be generally convenient to form the products h 7’ instead of PT.
Let » denote the density in grammes per cubic centimetre of the
liquid in the manometers, and g the acceleration of gravity in
centimetres per second, then from the relation
P=pg = phg
ae fe ig! Ae ig ae -as-(8)

: 4 no +
and writing 3 idee gh Me,

ae
1
Ao a zero when 1/T = 0, or T= %.
£0 great es of the members of the series may be, and often are,
ee obliterate, as it were, all evidence of the progression. —

100 G. H. KNIBBS.

in which therefore c’ =c/(ug), we obtain

4
m=c B gee: (9)

If the density of the liquid in the manometers (2) be identical
with that of the effluent liquid (p), /p will be unity. ;

By formula (8a) and (9), I have ascertained where possible, the
values of m from Poiseuille’s measurements with tubes A tof —
Those given hereunder are derived from a combination of numerical —
and graphic methods. Through the points whose codrdinates 1/7
and P 7' were drived from Poiseuille’s series, as for example, the ”
series A,, A;, B;, C;, shewn in Fig. 2, a mean line was drawn. —
Two members of the series most nearly agreeing with this line
were usually then selected and the values of ¢ and C found by the

formule

Se Fa kale a0
~~
C=P,T, - 7 (11)

When for each tube designated by the one letter as Ay, 4s,
c — been determined, its multiplication by the fractional fact

in (9)—a constant for the tubes so designated—gave the values of i
m. The radius used was not the mean for the whole tube but tht
mean radius’ at it entrance. '

Values of m deduced from Poiseuille’s experiments.
Length i Leng

abe, Mengt Madina) Valnon ing, Length Satan |
A, 255 00708 104 3B, ‘39 00567 i
yes S 5 102 C, 60 00427 Pera
Ppa e 115 F, 20:00 -03267 :
ie eee

Ay AO Tk
LR Ol ee Fig ke 8 re

y, Pgeaee F, 0

Mean 1-14 : ad rejecting C.P.,P. 113 :
eager t

1 Actually h,c' and C’ were used. Thus in (10) c’ replaced c, and hyP :
In (11) C', hh and ¢' replaced C, P and c. .

greatest and least radii. If the section be truly an ellipse the ™
radius so defined will be that of a circle of equal area. ;

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. 101

Tubes A, and A,, B, to Bs, C to C,, D, to Dy, H to L,, and F
give no satisfactory indication as to the value of this factor, For
tubes A and D the following results were obtained, viz., 0-4 or
0:5, and 1-2, these values however are entitled to but little con-
fidence inasmuch as they depend on lines the directions of which
are determined by the positions of three points only, two of these
being close together so far as the abscisse are concerned, but in
regard to the ordinates, not sufficiently concordant to warrant
confidence. For tubes A, and B the results depend respectively
on 2 and 3 points: in the other cases on from 7 to 10.

It is difficult to assign a reason for the values 0°82 for /’, and
F; ; possibly the flow was turbulent ; the values for the viscosity
—see the table hereafter—point to that. But one would have
expected that A, would also have given similar indications, which
it does not excepting for the last member of the series. The
value is of course that for the fall of pressure known to occur in
efflux through a short adjutage. The value for C’, may perhaps
be accounted for by the presence of a particle at the entrance of
the tube interfering with the flow. The general result however
agrees remarkably well with Boussinesq’s deduction from kinetic
theory, and since in the instances of some of the tubes showing
discordant values the amounts of the corrections are much smaller
than the discrepancies among the observations themselves, no
doubt need be entertained as to the propriety of its application
where there is no evidence of the particular value of m.

It may here be noticed that in illustrating his theory of the
Correction to the pressure Couette selects series A, and A, to
exhibit the advantage of his formula over Hagenbach’s'. For
these tubes m is respectively 1-02 and 1-08. For the former the
factor is sensibly unity and therefore the agreement with Couette’s
wealt is Satisfactory ; in regard to the latter the progressive
merease of the corrected values of » is clearly a consequence of
the fact, that the correction factor is too small. This leads me
DUO eos ce ee

1 Annal. de Chimie, 6 sér. t. 21, p. 502, 1890.

102 G. H. KNIBBS.

to remark that this correction must be not only well ascertained |
but also small, for accurate measurements of viscosity, since there
is ample evidence that it is variable in amount even under con
ditions where one would anticipate constancy. In illustration of
this we take for data the results of several series of measurements
of pressure-heads and velocities at constant temperatures made
by Jacobson,' with his brass tube C, whose radius and lengths
were respectively 0-14328, 62-04, and 15-76 c.m., and which was
so fitted that its influx terminal was flush with the inner surface
of the large reservoir which supplied the effluent.?2. For measure
ments of pressure-head and mean ae | we have, sinceU/ = q/(7# E
— ater fi

in which c’ =8 ZL n/(pg R?), and is oes constant while the
temperature is so. The value of m was found by the graphic
method, the above being a linear equation.’

Values of m deduced from Jacobson’s experiments.

No. of experiments in series 5 i 7 5 9
Deduced value ofm .... 1:38 1:25 1-44 1:30 158
Another result from a series of five measurements with a tube of

0°12516 radius and 15-77 c.m. length,* was m= 1-08.

The fall in pressure at the entrance of the tube was also directly
observed by Jacobson,® his experiments being made with 4 brass
tube of 0-2545 radius and lengths as shewn, and the temperature
maintained constant for the measurements of any one series.
tube was bored through at a point 0°15 c.m. from its infos
terminal? and the fall in pressure ascertained from the differen

1 Archiv. fiir on u. Phys., 1860, p. 93 and 1861 p. 327.
2 Thid. 1860, p. §

3 Jacobson’s alle t. p. 94, said to be obtained from the sheet
tions by the method of least squares, should, when multiplied by ee
give values sensibly equal to these. They are nearly so.

* Ibid. 1861, p. 327. 5 Thid. p. 309. 4
6 It should be mentioned that the coéfficient ¢ p. 322 of the 1861 volume i
Archiv. f. Anat. &c., when multiplied by g and expressed in the one :
units 18 our m, and that its values for Poiseuille’s tubes, p. 326, are are ver :
nearly identical with those hereinbefore given. -

os

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. 103

in the height of the water in the reservoir, and in the manometer
attached at the bore near the terminal. I have computed the
coéfficient by the formula
g
m= 2%. (h-h
J, (hho)

h being the height, above the axis of the tube, of the water in the
reservoir, and fA, that in the manometer: the derivation from
formula (4) is evident.

Values of m deduced from Jacobson’s measurements of the
differences of pressure between the reservoir and within the tube
near its entrance :

b= 134". 71 7.912 10]. 10). 2a ee
m=1-06 1:09 1:22 1:10 1:38 91 93 1-09
O01 245.219. -3é 2-28-1700: Bh 6

131 £26: 04 (1-54.06 079 1288
89) «1-41 “82
1-40 1-42

The mean of these 28 results is 1-10, of these with the 6 pre-
ceding, 1:14; this average gives a general confirmation to
Boussinesq’s theory, but the individual results shew how, even

under circumstances in which uniformity might be expected, it is
not realized.

The differences are certainly not due to mere errors
of observation.

We see therefore that Hagenbach’s correction
must be increased 41%, Couette’s 12%, and that Reynolds’ dictum —
is negatived : and further, that if this correction be of sensible
magnitude, the deduced viscosity is to the extent of the uncertainty
therein unreliable.1

9. The correction to the length of the tube.—In the preceding
article it has been shewn how the product of the pressure and
time of efflux of a given volume of fiuid may be found, when the
loss of head at the entrance of the tube vanishes or is eliminated.
Following Hagenbach it has usually been assumed that this
Correction is the only one necessary, or that the corrected differ-
ences of pressures may be regarded as the differences at the
‘erminals of the tubes; and Reynolds tacitly admits this view

104 G. H. KNIBBS.

when he affirms that the correction 1:°505 U?/(29) will make ‘
Poiseui peri ts consistent. Clearly however the corrected
pressure for the entrance of the tube gives the value, not for the |
- section EE’, but ee’, Fig. 1, the distance between these, however 4
being unknown, and probably somewhat uncertain as to constancy.
It is however unlikely that it ever reaches two diameters where
the end is sharply cylindrical or even one where it is conoidal ot |
rounded off. Couette,! Boussinesq approving his view, with q |
greater rigour takes into consideration the features of the flow :
not only at the entrance but also at the point of efflux from the
tube. He recognises (a) that its length should be reduced for the 1
distance between the sections EZ’ and ee’; (6) that frictional |
resistance is suffered by the liquid before it reaches this latter
section—where parallelism of flow is fully established : (°) that
the effluent liquid penetrates that in the receiving reservoil, and
maintains for an appreciable distance its cylindrical form without d
sensible change: (d) and that the surrounding liquid offers
frictional resistance to this penetration by the effluent. If lengths
of tube whose resistances are equal respectively to the resistances :
(6), and (d) above mentioned, be denoted by /, and /4, and the
distances He=E'e' and Ff= F'f’ respectively by /1 and J, the q
corrected length Z, will be ‘
hoe be ite tablets c.. ee eae (12)
Couette argues that the part of the ‘charge’ expended by frictional 7
resistances in the vicinity of the extremities of a tube ought to be
at least approximately proportional to the efflux, as is the cai
with regard to the tube generally, and he therefore expresses
consequent reduction of the pressure under the form 84 lq/ («h
so that / will denote the algebraical sum of the terms /, to 12a
is affirmed by Couette! that this quantity / may be assumed to ys
always positive : we shall shew however that it appears sometimes
to be negative and therefore we consider its sign to be undeter
1 Annal. de Chimie, 6 sér. t. 21, chap. iii, p. 494. .
2 FF' to ff! Fig. 1. a
3 Ibid. p. 501.

4 Ibid. p. 500. :

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. 105

mined in the general case. Let P’, denote the pressure corrected
for these frictional resistances etc. at the terminals, then since
L, =L +1, we obtain from (2)
wR*P, _«R* 8 yl

8nq 8nq ah
I, as we have said being either positive or negative. Combining
this result with (3) and (4) and remembering that /, a function of
R, denotes a small length of tube producing an equivalent loss of
pressure to that arising from the friction at the ends, at the same
time taking account of the positions of sectionsee’ and //,;’ and .
therefore that it may legitimately be put under the form /=n &,
the general formula for the evaluation of the viscosity may be
expressed :—

bE A Sa (12a)

(Po -

w R*
y= Rathaus (P-—m
in which n may have a positive or negative value, since 1 may be
positive or negative. P'then in this formula, is the measured
differences of pressure in the reservoirs, and Z the actual length
of the tube. It remains to ascertain whether 2 has a constant
value as supposed, and if so what the value is.

(13)

Pg” \
aw? R*’

Assuming that C has been found from J’, reduced by (3), or
from 7’, reduced as indicated in (5), or preferably perhaps by
extrapolation of a series of measures (11), we have at once from (13)
crit C’ be used instead of C the numerator’ of the left hand
member will be x gC’ R*. Ifnow the values of R/L be regarded
48 abscissze and those of the first member of this equation as —
ordinates, aline passing through the points so determined will
‘ntersect the axis of ordinates at the distance 7 from the origin,
‘and this line will make an angle with the axis of abscisse whose
tangent divided by » is n, the required factor. The intercept on
the axis of ordinates corresponds to the values R=0, or de a
te, for the condition when the correction for resistances at the
terminals of the tube is infinitely small in relation to the resistance

106 G. H. KNIBBS.

of the tube itself. Fig. 3 illustrates the method applied to
Poiseuille’s series B and F, the former giving a negative and the —
latter a positive value for n, viz. about — 5°2 and + 11-2, these q
however, especially the latter, being subject to considerable
uncertainty, as is manifest from the figure. The opposition of
the sign of mis very evident in the following values for the |
viscosity (7) computed without regard to the corrective term a2. :

R .

Tube. . xX 10° (1) Tube. : x 10° (7)
B 56 013202—« CF t=«<HCité«“ OA
B 75 3134 F, 163 3065
B, 115 3070 F, 326 3249
B, 240 3002 oe 646 3967
BD, 630 2742 ¥, 1254 4891
Bb, 1455 2193 F; 3034 4851

These results challenge the propriety of Couette’s statement that |
1 may be always regarded as positive and taken as nearly three
times the diameter of the tube.2 His deduction seems to
entirely based upon the fact that the indications of Poiseuilles .
experiments with tubes A, and A,, happen to be in fortuitous
agreement with the results of his own ingenious method of simul |
taneous and equal flow through two tubes of equal radii, but of
different lengths. In order to adequately test the question, we

indicated hereunder, reducing them rigorously by the formul®
given hereinafter for flow in tubes elliptical in section and conical
longitudinally. Whenever possible the values of 17’, were found

taken as 1-12 for the correction, and these instances are indical

by an asterisk in the table hereunder. The results, arrang?

Dividing them therefore in parcels of eight, we obtain
identical mean values for the viscosity, whereas if Cou

So
1 Rejecting Fs: see the figure.
2 Ibid p. 504-505,

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. 107

dictum that n is about 6, were justified these means ought certainly
to show a progression.: We conclude therefore that no general
value, unless it be zero, can be assigned to mas assumed by
Couette, that his deduction has been based upon an insufficient
number of observations: hence no correction should be applied
to the length of a tube unless experiments therewith clearly
indicate its propriety. One would perhaps be hardly justified in
declaring that » is in reality always zero, for the theory of the
correction is rational, and there are experimental indications of,
at least, its occasional validity : nevertheless in the absence of
specific evidence as to its sign and magnitude in particular
instances, there is no alternative but to disregard it.

Viscosity of distilled water at 10° C. as determined from
Poiseuille’s experiments with glass tubes.

Tube. Expts. : x 105 R* X10" Length. - Tho
Si Las 22 24284 10-030 ‘013074
M* 37 002367 ~—-: 1850 3090
c* Ls 42 3:2504 10-0325 3028
D,* £8 44 23377 50225 3020
B 56 10-235 10-005 3202
Nae BO 57 «32659 7-495 3071
E* 1.3 64 04716 2-31 3242
A 70 = -24-941 ~—-10-05 3145

Mean -013109
e.g 75 10-276 7-505 3134
F 85 11207: 38-3825 3147
ee. ee 86 32980 4-97 3151
ee 87 22787 «= -2B75 3078
4,* 2-4 93 25059 7:58 3109
oe oe iis 080s a a8r8 3070
mee toe aS Gees OE 3119
Ff, 163 11187: —-20-000 3065

Mean -013109

ea eee
* We reject the last = as being uncertain in respect of the régime
der w the flow too’ place.

G. H. KNIBBS.

Tube. — Expts. : x105 R*X109 Length
#,* 1=3 174 = -04840 0°85
Gye 1=3 175 3°3394 2°44
D,* 1~% 219 22440 0-995
B,* 1~3 240 10-331 2-3575
A, 277 25-231 2-555
F, . 326 11233: 9:9725
Gar L=3 421 3°3394 1-015
A, 450 25°231 1°575
Mean
M,* 558 002367 0-125
B, 630 10-357 0-9000
F, 646 11290- 5-045
D,* 13 649 22331 0-335
E,* 1-3 706 = 048.40 0-210
C, 709 =. 33394 06025
A, 742 = 95-231 0-955
A, 1046 =. 25-231 0-6775
Mean
F, 1254-11316 2-600
Bb, 1455 10:368 0°39
Ff, 3034 11316 1-075
A, 7088 25-231 0-1! oo
General mean, rejecting last four 013107 :
Nore.—For an explanation of these experiments see § 19. :

10. Flow in @ right circular cylinder.1—The formula for

for

ro fe

ma right circular cylinder may be readily deduced directly zn 4
Navier's equations for a viscous incompressible fluid by ni
~~ * the axes, X say, coincident with that of the pipe * 4
assuming that the motion of all particles is parallel theret® a

sare EE “a
Pee Ms be assumed in this and the subsequent sections as far 4 ee |
nat slipping does not occur: so that the deduced formula must be mes

iti of zero velocity at the boun ptains in ev
bai dary probably o ec
of steady rectilinear flow through tubes or pipes. :

Se ye at a a Nac ia are lia

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. 109

other components of motion consequently becoming zero. The
equation
du dp
a ¢ nit kab a _ — fy = 0 ( a)
p( dt da ee ides
with similar expressions in Y, y, v, and 7, 2, w,—in which y*
denotes as usual Laplace’s operator, p the density of the fluid, X

ete., the components of the external impressed forces per unit of
mass and u, v, w the components of velocity in the directions a,
y, z—reduce under the circumstances indicated to one, viz. that
above written. The condition of the conservation of volumes or
the equation of continuity becomes du/dx=0, and that of steady
motion is du/dé=0. Ina circular section u is clearly a function
of r and ¢ only: using therefore cylindrical codrdinates, in which
case the operator, thus restricted, becomes

dr? ry "ar

o oe ae oe. er
The left hand side of this equation does not involve r nor the
right hand «, hence each must bea constant,—A say. If therefore
the difference of pressure in two sections the distance Z apart be
P, the left hand side of this last equation gives
1

Sar ot a

and the right hand side :
a = 1Ar?+B logr+C’

and ©’ being arbitrary constants, As the velocity at the
—_a of the pipe where r=0, is finite, B’ must be zero: substi-
tuting therefore the above value of A in the expression for u, and
remembering in regard to the constant C’ that when r= &, the
radius of the pipe, «=0, there being no slip at the boundary, we
have for the velocity at any point in the section at the distance r
from its centre

ai a ae a 2
—- bs a ae a aS (15) es
(2) is obtained by substituting the value of u in the

110 G. H. KNIBBS.

expression for the total flux q across the section and integrating: —
thus,—

R nF it”

— 9, oe

q = 2r 2h urdr SL

‘The expression for the mean velocity U in the section is found by |

dividing that for the total flux by the sectional area S=7?, :

thus ; ;

For this régime therefore the resistance to flow varies as 1/ R?

11. Flow in an elliptical cylinder.—Capillary tubes have usually {
been assumed to be right circular cylinders, and their radii have
been determined on that assumption by filling definite lengths
with mercury, ascertaining its weight, and from the weights the
volumes of the cylinders. Poiseuille however did not rely 00
this method but made direct measurements. Discs of about 1
millimetre in thickness cut from the tubes, and prepared ee
grinding and polishing, were mounted with Canada balsam :
between plates of glass.2 Under the microscope the contour # :
the cavity of the tube appeared asa slightly opaque line, permitting
the measurement of diameters. In thirty-four sections thus pre
pared only one instance is recorded of uniform diameter, ea 4
greatest difference of diameters being an instance in which ie
ratio was 1} to1—Tube F. On the supposition that the sect?
were ellipses Poiseuille used the mean proportional of the diameter
—t.e., the diameter of a circle of equal area—as the equivalent
mean. As however the mean velocity varies as the square of the
diameter, see (16), this procedure, it is easy to see, will be inexact
when the ellipse differs sensibly froma circle. We proceed theme
fore to determine the equation of the flow in an elliptical cy linder

1 This development is that of ordinary treatises or hy drodyn®
cleared of the irrelevancy as to a boundary condition apparently wee
realized, at any rate with glass tubes: qis of course the volume of the fo¥
across a section, in a unit of time.

2 Mém. des Savants étrangers, t. 9, p- 456 et 457.

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. 114

Navier’s equations (a) give for the flow in any cylinder—all
motion being parallel to its axis, X say,

If as before we put
DRG Hee Se
and write
u=¢ oe lee ce all Pee er te (c)
we shall have, for all points in the section, Laplace’s equation

tS an at |

the solution of which is

= Plytez) + fly - 02) + €' (1)
If there be no slipping, the boundary condition u = 0 is determined
by (c); hence, if we assume that in (d) each function F, f is the
Square,’ these two equations give for the boundary of the section

M (y? — x?) - + Pee GC On. wens (e)

in which VW and C’ are undetermined constants. If we further
Suppose the boundary to be an ellipse whose semiaxes are B and C
the remaining condition to be satisfied thereat is therefore

£m
BC
and these two equations completely determine the values of I

and C’, the solution giving
ee Oh iy are
ee ae Ld 2 B*+C?
Substituting these values in (e) and writing w instead of 0 we
obtain
A BC? 2 22}
ie. ey Ek ash, Le 17
2 Pro} Cpe tos) 5 an

The curves of equal velocity are homothetic ellipses, and the
Velocities are the same for homologous points on the radii vectores.
1 This

7 sg

is equivalent to supposing that ¢ = M yi +N s* +C': bot
equation requires that N= —M, therefore 6 =M(y*-#*)+C’.

112 G. H. KNIBBS.

The integral for the total flux across the section is therefore

B
tn he uy dy
in which w must be written as in (17) omitting the term nt
Making this substitution, writing P/(7Z) for A, and integrating
we obtain

3 3
ce a (18)
4 LB +C?
so that if we put
1
atee.2:)' (19
Re = (55) (19)

R, will be the radius of a circular cylindrical pipe of equal efflux.
From (18), since S=~BC we obtain for the mean velocity in tit
section
Weide te PO...
Mae RE: ae ae Be Fe |
The radius R’, of a circular cylindrical pipe of equal mean velocity :
is therefore

...(20)

a BO: (21)

1 {3(B? + 07)} | p |
When B= € these formule become identical with those for right |
circular cylinders, viz. (2) and (16). Poiseuille tacitly assum®
that R, = R’, = v(B C). The error of this is best seen bY
reéxpressing (18) in the form of a series,! and comparing “
result with B?C? similarly developed. Putting i

R, = $(B+C) ande = Boe

B+C
(18) may be recast in the form
.wPR; a
= e 1 Hee 2 ee Bat Ne ee 18a
q Ba (1 = 4e° + Te* — 8e* +...) 20... ( )

If the radius of the circle of equal area be used, we have
BC* = Bt (1 - 2c? +€*) ae
The difference in relation to the degree of precision to whieh
Poiseuille has expressed his results is sonietimes appreciable. al
example in the case of the tube F, assuming the differene®
See ne ee rere epee

1 This gives also a Practically useful formula for computations.

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. 113

semidiameters to be 1/16 and their sum to be 17/16, € will be 1/17,
hence the correction on Poiseuille’s value will be — 2? + Ge* — ete.
= 0:00685 or about 1/146.

12. Flow ina frustum of a right circular cone.—Not one of the
tubes used by Poiseuille was exactly a right circular cylinder, and
the assumption of a cylindrical form is doubtless always unsafe,
for capillary tubes are probably always more or less irregular in
section. We proceed to consider the law of flow in a frustum ofa
right circular cone whose generatrix is nearly parallel to its axis,
and more generally in a tube forming a series of conical frusta.

Since the motion of all stream lines is sensibly parallel—in the
case supposed—to the axis of the cone, it will be necessary to
have regard only to the variation of velocity with change in the
area of the right section, and thus to determine the fall in pressure
in terms of the radii of the tubes. Let R, Rm, Ry denote respec- .
tively the radius of the tube at the terminal of efflux, and pro-
ceeding toward the point of influx, the radii of the terminals of
any conical length of the tube ; and let also R, denote the radius
of a right section of this conical length at the distance 2 from Ryn»,
« being measured therefore toward to point of influx, z.e. towards
R,. Then if U be the the mean velocity at the efflux terminal
of the tube, the radius there being R, the mean velocity U, at the
transverse section whose radius is R,, will be
Cee oe 2 (22)
mw (hat key
in which & denotes the tangent of the angle between the axis and

side of the cone, may be positive or negative, and is expressed by
the equation

(f)

n
1, being the distance between the terminal sections of the frustum:
under consideration,

k= Ry ~ Rin
L
Equation (16) gives at once

“o that substituting for U, its value by (22), and for 2; its
H—July 3, 1895,

114 G. H. KNIBBS. 4

equivalent in terms of 2,,, k and x, we have for P,, the difference

of pressures at 2,, and R, 4
Tv

In
P, = 399 ['(R,, + ke) Ade
0

Remembering that for x = L,, R,, + kx = Rp, this gives i
integration and reduction fi

P, = 229 | In(Bmt Rula+ Pn) _ 8nq Vo Gage

sh 3 Rm Ry = Ry Rn 4

V,, being the volume of the frustum ; and similarly for any other
length of the tube. The formula for a tube forming a series Ls
conical frusta may consequently be written— 4

Se oe
: =* oe

RR RR
Tf the quantity in brackets be divided by wL, L being the total
length of the tube, it will give the reciprocal of the fourth pow —
of the radius, say R*, of a right circular cylinder of equal length
and efflux, hence R may be called the ‘mean radius of efflux’ of
the tube. This value is different to that used by Poiseuille, who @
neglecting variations of diameter between the terminals of a

computation. Putting

R=3(& - 2,) ande = R, - Rm

: Ley + Lin
(23) may be reéxpressed
3 8nqL Sing L © .
* : Ger m4 4 ee ig aes Joo*
DFR eae pe tte

The former of these is the more convenient expression for
comparisons. The greatest value of ¢ for any of Poiseuille’s tu?
is about 1/60—tube D: this produces an error of about 1/1080
Poiseuille’s method of reduction be followed.

13. Flow in a frustum ofa right elliptical cone.—The departar
from a circular form in the transverse section of capillaries
es

* Excepting the case of the tube F, see p. 484 of his memoit-

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. 115

doubtless frequently sensible: it has already been pointed out—
§ 11—that in those used by Poiseuille only one instance occurred
of uniform diameter. We proceed therefore to consider the flow
in a frustum of right elliptical cone.

The general considerations are identical with those of the pre-
ceding article. To determine the velocity for any section we
substitute in (22) BC/(B, C, ) for R? /R;: hence taking account
of the law of velocity expressed by (20), or otherwise directly from
(18), we have

= A ae i eee ()
The ratio of B and C will be the same for every section, let
therefore
8 = }(B+C) ande = ane
(g) then becomes

dp 8y 1+é
dz as * (1-<)?

R being the only variable in the right hand member. The
| solution of this is identical with (23), hence we write at once
a ee Bi Ln Bin tanks +8n) 1+e (25)
q SBnBe (1 -€*) ete
q The value of the ¢ term is

144249 <4 anc
me ae ea 7 a

This last equation may be expressed similarly to (23) since

~~ m+ BmBn+ Bn) (1-€?)
thus
Pets: . Vo, qs ‘ (25a)
e.. Base —é€*)

The expansion of the final ak is
iE — 5 2 } 4 ie Se hie me
_ e* + l4e* + {be + lie
volume V,, may be found by filling the tube say with mercury.
Practical application of the formula is obvious.

116 G. H. KNIBBS.

14. Flow in a tube whose right section is an ellipse varying m —
excentricity and area.—We now consider the case where the —
sections of a tube are ellipses or very approximately so, the ellipses —
being however dissimilar. The dimensions of the semiaxes for
any two sections do not, unless we know how the surface is
generated, determine the form or area of those intermediate; q
consequently in regard to these some assumption must be made,
We may suppose that the terminal ellipses are similarly situated 4
throughout,! and that straight lines joining the extremities of
their axes lie wholly on the surface, every section notwithstanding —
being sensibly an ellipse. Hence we may put :

By =Butkx and C, =Cm+t+ kx :

k and &’ being found similarly to (/)§ 12 substituting respectively
B and C for # in that equation. Then from (g) in the preceding
article we have 4
Patt?) In da opi ia q
= (Jo (Bmt+kx) (Cm +k x)? So (Bm+hx)*(C+ka))

The integration of this expression by the usual method of decom :
position” leads to unsuitable formule. It will be necessary there —
fore to adopt some value as a mean radius and express the result 4
in a series of corrective terms, whose magnitude depends o2 a
variation from the form of a right circular cylinder. Let ]
Rn=} (Bi+C, + Bo+C2)

2 pT (B, ay: C,)+(B, ae) C.)

ee 4 Bm C.=€
ed i vs Me
IR. and c i
The integration then leads to the following expression
8ngL
Pou 21m (1447? eo, 44094 Bho ki =. (26 |

The f, 6, and ¢ terms are obviously small. If their sum
denoted by 1+€ then instead of writing this quantity 7 “
peewee

1 If they be not similarly situated the formule are less rigorous:
correction for a slow rotation of the axes is probably quite insensible-

2 The integration by the usual procedure for rational fractions |
formule which are indeterminate in the limiting case, #.¢. when th?
ellipses become circles.

ie
:

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. 117

numerator it may be put in the denominator in the form 1—¢. The
general ‘mean radius of efflux’ R is of course determined by the
equation

2G) ten

15. Flow in a tube whose sections are ovals of unequal area and

uncertain contour.—Owing to its actual irregularities of form
perhaps the theoretically least exceptionable method of determin-
ing the volume of a capillary tube and its mean radius of efflux,
is to measure the former directly and compute the latter from
measurements of the greatest and least diameters of its sections.
The volume furnishes at once the radius of an equal right circular
cylinder, and this radius may then be corrected so as to give the
‘mean radius of efflux,’ the corrections involving terms depending
only upon the excentricities of the sections, and being therefore
small.
If in formula (25a) § 13 we put!

we may write “ is
Bin Bn = Rn (1 ~ p?)3 cdl
If now the excentricity of the terminal sections be nearly the
Same, or since we do not assume that the sections are ellipses if

bo Seema of the minor to the major axes be nearly equal for both

Th = L(+ &)
* Square of the radius R, of a right circular cylinder of equal
Volume will then be
2

V ; 2
P= > = Ra (l +5) (1—e*)

With sufficient precision. This last equation enables us to replace

er &.,, that is by the radius determined from actual measure-
t of the Capacity of the tube. After some reduction and

snag RTD NE Ne certs
: Bn in this formula has of course the same value as in (26) in the
Section and p=4(b+c). is

118 ‘ G. H. KNIBBS.

rejection of terms in p and « higher than the square, we obtain
P, = 8nq i Ln (1 + 2c? + 4p?) approx......... (28) .
T # ba
which may be used whenever «* and p* are negligible. This |
limitation is not so serious as might at first appear, for one would q
select for the purposes of a viscosity experiment a tube closely —
approximating in form the right circular cylinder, or, if an oval
and conical tube must perforce be used, one would be chosen in '
which the ratio of the axes was subject only to slight variation, _
and in which the axes themselves were of nearly constant magn-
tude throughout its length. |

The fall in pressure may also be approximately expressed of :
terms of the mean of the diameters by substituting the value of
R; in terms of R},. This gives

re = 8g ‘ af + 3e2 4p?) (29)
Rr

T 4
Tf the « and p terms be written in the denominator they must
have the negative sign. This formula will sometimes serve 354 -
rough check on (26). |

16. General result.—The equations of Sections 10 to 15 not ’
only supply the requisite mathematical material for an accurate 3
computation of the viscosity from experimental data, but “ i
furnish also ready means of estimating the consequence of eh
observed or hypothetical defect of form in a tube proposed t0 s :
employed for that purpose. And at the same time they indicate ;
that the method of measuring the mean radius of capillaries only
by contained volumes of liquid, is unsatisfactory when an ac a
determination is required, for if the tubes be even slightly elliptical 4
in section, or conical longitudinally, the volume of efflux pet 4
of time may sensibly differ from that of a right circular of equal
length and volume. The degree of precision with which gs :
"mean radius of efflux’ must be ascertained will always be fou
Pimes as great as that required in the deduced viscosity, that i8
say, if the latter is to be exact to say 1 in 1000, the mean radilS
must be accurate to 1 in 4000. For, if we put é for the ratio of

me

Seaitice eo se4 es: rie eRe es

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. 119

the uncertainty in the value of FR, so that the radius is # (1 + &),
we have

fR(1+€é)}* = Bt(1+4é+...)
The other elements in a measurement are involved only to the
first power, and therefore their determinations need be only to
one fourth the precision of that required in the case of the radius,
perhaps the most difficult of them all to accurately measure.

III.—DeErERMINATION OF THE VISCOSITY.

17.—General—Units.—C.G.8. units have been used thronghout,
and the viscosity is expressed in absolute measure, .e. it is related
to pressures expressed in dynes per square centimetre.

Density of Water—The relative densities of water are derived
from Mendelejeff’s table based on his formula!
rie ATS)

(94:1 +7) (703-51 —7)1°9

Pr denoting the relative density at the temperature 7 centigrade.
The absolute density at 4° C. has been taken as 1:000013
grammes per cubic centimetre.

pr=l

Density of Mercury’—The density has been computed on the
assumption that its value at 0° C. relative to water at 4°C. is
135956, and its absolute density at 0°—grammes per cubic centi-
metre—therefore 13-5958. The density at other temperatures has

derived through Broch’s value for the coéfficient x of total
cubic dilatation, viz.
_X= (181808 +0-175 + +.0-035125 72) 10... eeeeeeeee (31)
* being the temperature in Regnault degrees? z.e. the 1/100 part
of the expansion 0° to 100° C. ‘The volume for the temperature

; —— Russian Physical and Chemical Society, No. 5, 1891.
Prati ‘i - ormation concerning the density of mercury at 0° C. see Traité
37 Pa tau, thermométrie de précision: par Ch. Ed. Guillaume, p. 36,
‘s aris 1889,

“Sar veer et Mémoires du Bureau International des Poids et
following ; wie - The expansions 0° to 100° C. are according to the
tia... authorities Bosscha -018241, Wiillner ‘018253, Levy ‘018207 +

Ve coéfficients give -018217.

120 G. H. KNIBBS.

t, that at 0° being unity, is therefore simply 1+7 x. For the ait
thermometer the coéfficients are respectively 181792, 0°175, and
0-035116, according to the same authority. f

Dilatation of Glass.—Poiseuille adopted! for the coéfficient of

cubic dilatation for glass, £, Dulong and Petit’s estimate viz.,
€=0-0000258 (32)

to which, though somewhat less than later determinations,” I have

nevertheless adhered as being sufficiently exact for the purpose

in hand.

Thermometry.—The degree of rigour in the thermometri¢
element of the various measurements of viscosity has not beet
explicitly indicated by each observer. Most of the measurements 4
however are to an order of precision which rendered this of little
moment. In the future it is to be hoped that rigorous methods
of thermometry will be employed’ and that the determination will
be carried to a higher degree of precision: merely verificatory
Measurements are of little value at the present stage of the :
investigation. :
a

18. Poisewille’s experiments 1846. Volumes of the effin. the
volume discharged in a given time was measured by the content |
of bulbs, such as that shewn in Fig. 4, in which V denotes ™
bulb. These were filled with mercury and weighed with a precisio®
of about 0°5 milligramme,‘ the temperatures being recorded. The
results were then reduced so as to express the volumes at ee
Poiseuille assumed the density of mercury at 11°.5—the temp®
ture of one of the experiments, vide p. 515 of his memoir—to
13-569675. By the constants used by me this should be 13-567

: Mém. des Sav. étrang. t. 9, p. 515 et 526, 1846.
For the cubie dilatation of glass 0° - 100° C, Rossetti and Levy ®
B ai

0000262, “0000267, and the mean of Regnault, Wiillner, and Levy's
is 0000269 :

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. 121

The volumes given by Poiseuille have therefore been multiplied
by the factor 13-5697/13-5674 = 1-00017.

Pressures.—Pressures under 15 centimetres of mercury or 200
centimetres of water were measured by a water-manometer, those
above that amount by a mercury-manometer.’ The relative
density of mercury to water at 10° ©. was assumed by Poiseuille
to be 13:576981.2 I have taken it as 13°5746, and since the effect
is to make Poiseuille’s pressures under 15 centimetres too small,
have multiplied them by the factor 13°5770/13-5746 = 1-00017.
In the case of tube /’ the uncertainty of the times of efflux is
relatively so large that the application of this correction would
be futile.

The acceleration of gravity for the place where Poiseuille made
his experiments is given by him as 980°8 centimetres per second.®
Taking the absolute density of mercury at 10° C. to be 13-5711,
and of water to be 0:99975, we get for the absolute pressures FF;
by multiplying these numbers into the value of the acceleration

£2 138100 Ay = 98050 Ay icieicnsicas (33)
hm being the pressure expressed in centimetres of mercury, and
Aw in centimetres of water, both at 10° C.

Dimensions of tubes and bulbs at different temperatures.—The
dimensions of the tubes and bulbs used by Poiseuille were evalued
a the temperature 10° C.4 Four of the tubes were tested by
filling with mercury and finding the area of the section from the
Volume.5 The results were then compared with the direct
Measurements of the diameters of the sections, on the assumption
that their contours were ellipses, for it is on this assumption and

m the direct measurement alone that the dimensions of the
tubes, may be found. In the illustrative case given by Poiseuille

er

1
‘ay cit., p. 460 (note), and § 65, p. 4
id. p. 448~ 452: table 11, p. 475; i § 16, p. 532.
: Tid. p. 531,
This is oily stated by Poiseuille, vide § 83, p- 497 of his memoir:
See also § 32 457.

ips Pp. 457.

122 G. H. KNIBBS.

the volume method gave for the diameter of a circle of equal area :
00376 c.m., while direct measurement and the assumption of an
elliptical contour gave ‘00377. The difference 1/376 is small but
by no means insensible, for since the diameter is raised to the —
fourth power this difference will lead to an error of 1/94 in the —
deduced value of the viscosity.

Computation of mean radius of efflux.—Poiseuille used for the
mean radius the half sum of the geometrical means of the terminal
radii! But it has been shewn in § 11—formule (18) and (J8a)—_
that the geometrical mean is too great, and in § 12 and § 15—_
formulz (23a) and (29) that the mean of the terminal means is |
also too great. I have computed the ‘mean radius of efflux’ by :
the principle of formula (24) using formula (26) and occasionally
checking by (29). With regard to the neglect of small terms in
the computation dc., the condition has always been secured that —
the error shall be small in relation to the probable uncertainty
the data.

Dimensions of the tubes.—Poiseuille measured the lengths ds
the tubes used by him by means of a beam compass*—compas 4
verges—reading by a vernier to ‘005 em. and permitting, by
estimation, a record.to half this amount.

When a series of efflux experiments with a given length of vabe
was completed, a portion of the free end was cut off by means
of a file? a procedure that was several times repeated. This
permitted the measurement of transverse sections at different
distances along the axis, and the regularity of these gave &
general indication of the symmetry of the tube. The measure :
ments of each section are taken in account by me in the comp
tation of the ‘mean radius of efflux.’ ;

Effect of temperature on ‘dimensions. —When, as was the cast ‘
in Poiseuille’s experiments, the whole of the reservoir of supply—
the bulb V Fig. 4—the flowing liquid, and the capillary are mail
tained at the one temperature by immersion in a bath, or otherwi

. ‘Thia. § § 114, p.513. 2 Ibid. § 83, p.497. 3 Ibid.

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. 123

no correction is necessary for temperature, so far as the dimensions
of the apparatus are concerned, assuming that their original
evaluations are all for the one temperature. This is evident if
we consider the effect on the elements of the fundamental formula
(4). For supposing the factor (1 + ¢) to express the linear correc-
tion for expansion for the particular temperature to which all the
parts are subject, then, on substituting for ¢ its equivalent Q/T, we
shall have!

eee Cty rt hi ie

SL(I+He+O* 8Le

This indicates the desirableness of securing this condition.

7

Evaluation of the viscosity at 10°C. from Poiseuille’s experiments.
—The results of the computations for the values of the viscosity
at 10°C. are giyen in the table in§ 9. It is worthy of remark
that the satisfactory determinations depend on tubes whose radii
and lengths range between somewhat wide limits, viz.,

R=0:0006975 L=0125em. Tube 1,

£=0-032537 L=38-382 Tube /
that is, for the radii the range is from 1 to 47, for the lengths 1
to ‘$0. The whole series of observations given in one of
Poiseuille’s tables is involved in the determination of 1 wherever
the extrapolation method—formule (6a) and (6b) § 8—has been
used. These cases are distinguished in the table by the absence
of an asterisk. Those marked with an asterisk give the mean
result deduced from the first three members of the series,” as I
TEU ieeremeese ee a

oe uille’s method of reduction, vide his memoir, § 142 - 144, p. 526
rading =~ pn y unnecessarily operose, i oneous. He applies the
the } ange (1 + ¢)* and the volume correction (1 + ¢)*» but neglects
inten ee orrection (1 + (): see his note p. 525. He computes the mass

2 The
ASS cahelie three exceptions to this statement. There is only one
tem t each, in the case of tubes M, and Mi. In the case of 41 the
of the first experiment was not 10°, so that the following
ee were taken.

*

124 G. H. KNIBBS.

believe them to have the greatest weight. The corrections to the :
pressures in these instances have been applied on the ann 4
that m in formula (3) is 1°12. a

There are thirty-six tubes in the series, the flow in the last four q
is probably unsteady, and therefore the formula of reduction is of
doubtful application, as it applies only to the case of steady motion. :
The general result is F

9 = 0013107

and seems to be reliable to four significant figures.

20. Values of the viscosity and relative fluidities between 0 and
45° C. as deduced from Poiseuille’s experiments.—Interpolatioms. -
—Poiseuille’s measurements with tubes A, C, D, and Z, give, to q
quarter seconds, the times of efflux, for a volume constant for each —
tube—excepting in so far as it is modified by the expansion of the
apparatus—under pressures ranging between 77°3 and 77°6 cm.
of mercury at 10° C.,! and their reduction to a common pressure —
viz., that last mentioned. These reduced values I have taken a
data. The temperatures are about 0:5°, 5°, 10° ete. to 45°, but
frequently differ 0-1 or 0-2 from the whole number of degre
The efflux times have consequently been corrected by interpol
tion, having regard to second differences, so as to give their value
for flow exactly at each fifth degree from 5° to 45°. These agail
have been corrected for the fall in pressure at the entrance of the
tubes, by formula (5) assuming m to be 1°12,” the results bel
expressed to 0-1 second. The efflux times so corrected are ®
follows :—

sea aie ee a
1 I do not remember that this is explicitly stated by Poiseuille, but
may be observed that the values at 10° are those of the earlier e
coe moir, and the method of reduction indicates what I have
2 In § 8 it is mentioned that tube A indicated a value for m of 04a
0'5, and that C, D, andE gave no satisfactory indication whatorer A of its
value. Ihave not used this value for A because it depends on & 8"
mination by three points only, and in the case of the other three ! ‘hi
the correction mentioned is the most probable. :

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. 125

Corrected times of efflux (seconds ).

Temp. C. Tube A. Tube C. Tube Di. Tube £.
0: *2308°7 *2848-7 $3409°7 *2735°8
0:5 2327:0 2809-2 2697°3
5 2014-6 2416°1 2894°1 2314°6

10 1739°7 2087°5 2501°3 2000-7

15 1518-2 1830-2 2191-0 1751-4
20 1337°0 1607°9 1923-0 1542-0
25 1186°7 1427-6 1713-2 13718
30 1061-2 1279-7 1531:°0 1227°1
35 954-1 1148°5 1374°3 1101°8
40 862°3 1041°3 1243°8 998-4
45 782-2 947-4 1136°9 906°8

It happens, somewhat curiously, that if we take the reciprocals
of the efflux times their progression may be represented with
considerable exactitude by a curve of the second degree. Simplicity
_ of treatment, and a convenient comparison of the results obtained
from each tube, may be simultaneously secured by expressing the
fluidity for 0° C. as unity. We therefore divide the efflux times
for 0° by those for the other temperatures, the quotients so obtained
are entered in the following table.

two he value for 0° C. marked + is the mean determined by
... (a) and (b) the results differing, it happens, only 0-2 second.
iia od (a) was extrapolation through the points determined by the
efflux 8 sees oy, 15 and 20. The method (b) was:—the sum of the
the ha sat 0° for tubes A, C and E divided by the similar sum for
the OT between the limits 5° to 45° inclusive, was multiplied into
this ext ciara ve the times for tube D,. In regard to the legitimacy of
extrapolation see § 25 hereafter.

2 ig ;
Pm fluidity / has already been defined, § 3, as the reciprocal of the
constary,, the Pelative fluidity f’ will therefore be 1/1 multiplied by some

126 G. H. KNIBBS.

- Relative fluidities of distilled water, 0° to 45° C. as determined

y,

from Poiseuille’s experiments with glass tubes. F
Temp. Tube 4. Tube C. Tube Di. Tube E. Mean. Compu od
1:0000 1:0000 1:0000 1:0000 = 1-0000 4

05 10136 1-0141 10143 1-0140 10170 ©

BS Pius Ltrer 1782" 11820 PES 11756
10 1:3558 1:3647 1:3632 1-3674 1-3628 1:3630 ”
15 15536 15565 1:5562 15621 1:5571 1:5621 3
90 1:7642 1-°7716 1°7731 1:7742 17708 17m 4
95 19876 19955 1:9903 19943 11-9919 1-956 q
30 229297 22961 22971 2:2295 2-2264 2-2300 a
35 24721 24803 2-4816 2-4830 2-4793 2-4762 4
40 2°7354 2°7357 27414 27402 92-7382 2-734 4
45 30155 3-:0069 2-9991 3-0170 3-0096 30036 4

—
>

Taking out the second differences from the column of mea
values, we find no definite law of progression, that is to say the
third differences are irregular and variablein sign. As the second
differences are small, a curve of the second degree will express the
results with considerable precision. We therefore put ;

Sf’ =1+a7r+ Br? (35)
jf’ denoting relative fluidity, r temperature in degrees centigrade,
and a and £ the constants to be determined. The mean of he
second differences for the 5 degree intervals is 0-01174, s0 that |

28x52 =0-01174 or B=0-000235! ‘
By subtracting from each value of the relative fluidity the corre
ponding value Br? we eliminate the second term from the ¥ ue
of the function, and may thus obtain that of a. This is nee
conveniently effected by the process represented in the follo
—— a

1 More accurately 0:0002348. The change to 0:000235 is not wit
advantage, for when the first term is subsequently evaluated, the limi
number of figures used, more exactly expresses the observed values ®
if the change had not been made. I venture to think that for P
purposes the type of solution above indicated, together with the com
ation of the reciprocal effect of small changes in the coéfficients, with
view to securing a simple numerical expression that will repres* é
observed values, is preferable to the usual method by least squares

ns]

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. Par

formula

oe Mi B 207?

(36)

The application of this te to he case in hand gives a = 0-03395, The
fluidity is therefore

J’ =1+40-033957 + 0:0002357? (37)
The values in the final column in the above table of fluidities are
computed by this formula. With the exception of the values at
0-5° and 40° they lie between the extremes of the observed values.

The absolute values of the viscosity at 10° C. deduced from these —
experiments are!
Tube A 0013124
» - C...0°013026
» D, 0-013010
» £ 0-013252
This mean corresponds to the value 1°3628 in the relative fluidity:
in order to make it agree with the result from the whole of the
experiments it must be corrected so as to correspond with the
value 1:3630 of the computed curve. Multiplying therefore by
the factor 1-3628/1-3630 it becomes 0:013101, and this is the value
Of 719 best representing the whole of these experiments. The
mean of the thirty-two determininations at 10° C. in $9 gave
0013107. Taking the mean of the two we have for the value of
the viscosity at 0° OC.
No = 1:3630 x 0-013104 =0-017861
os and thus ir the general absolute value in C.G.S. units as deduced
from the whole series of Poiseuille’s observations? we obtain

Mean 0:013103

n of a number. The mean of the four

“ Sutaa oo. 581 of his memoir—a formula

= 1836-724 (1 + 0-0336793 7 + 0° 9002200086 7?) HD*/L

hy of remark that, accepting his results as pie vents the
simple expressio

q' = 1832'4 a + -0339 + -00022 7) HD*/L
more exactly expresses them.

It is aie
relatively

4
4
:
‘4
¢
‘a
:

128 G. H. KNIBBS.

0-01786 : (38)
It 79-0290 2 1 O00) 2F
1 +.0-03395 7 + 0-000235 72

The expression of the result to any higher order of precision wield
be misleading. The general exactitude of Poiseuille’s experiments
leaves little to be desired : it is to be regretted however that the
dimensions of the tubes were not obtained to a much higher degree :
of accuracy, and that the character of the thermometry has not been
more explicitly stated. That it was very good is manifest both
from an examination of his menioir and from a comparison of the
results. For from (37) and (38) we have for the relations ofa —
variation df” in relative fluidity and a variation bor of the vino
to a variation in temperature dr
df’ = (0-03395 + 00047 +) dr (39)

— dy = (0-000606 — 0:0000328 7) dz (39a)
hence a difference of 0°.1 will account for the difference between
the mean and computed values of the fluidity at 0°.5 and at 45°,
Moreover 0°.1 will alter the last figure in the coéfficient of viscosity
for 0° C. by its whole amount. To determine the viscosity t0
1/1000 the measurement of the temperature at 0° C. would have
to be to within 0°.03, and at 100° to much less than 0°.01, so that
to reach a higher order of precision than Poiseuille’s results seem
to indicate has been attained, will involve an attentive consider
tion of each element in a determination, and a complete discussion
of the attainable accuracy at every stage of the processes of
measurement.

21. Other measurements of viscosity. Jacobson, 1860:
Jacobson’s measurements of efflux were made with glass and
brass tubes, the pressure under which the flow took place being
that of the water in the reservoir of supply. His data in addi
to the dimensions of the tubes are the ‘ heads’ and velocities th
latter being computed from the weight of the efflux in a giv
time, Hagen’s values! of the density of water at different tempe™
tures being used and the expansion of the glass and brass being

oe

1 Abhandl. Axed: Berlin, 1855, Math. Abt. p. 1-28.

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. 129

taken into consideration.! Hagen’s values are so nearly equal to
those of later determinations that corrections were unnecessary.
The viscosity was calculated from the formula
ghop Rk?
ected ee

The variations of the dimensions with temperature have not been
taken into account, so that they are uncertain to the extent of
the correction + ¢ see section 18 hereinbefore : this however will
not materially affect the result, and the data are certainly not of
sufficient precision to make the matter worth consideration. The
results have been reduced from the temperatures quoted to 0° C.
by formula (38). The value of g for Kénigsberg, where these
measurements were made, has been assumed to be 981°44.

Hagenbach, 1860.—Hagenbach reduced his own and other
experiments by the application of a formula, which, for C.G.S.
units and an absolute value of », may be written

a ea aces ets RR (
1 FOL (40)

This was theoretically deduced and is identical with (4) if k =m/8,
hence & should be 0:140—see § 8. Hagenbach however used
y 24°, 4¢.0-0992, instead. The lengths of his tubes were measured
directly, and their radii computed from the contained volumes of
mereary.! The acceleration of gravity is not given, but I assume
| Wt to be about 981-0 centimetres. The value for n at 0° C, given

; yg is the mean of the results for four tubes of different

ii,

Graham, 1861 -—Graham measured the efflux times with two
—D and E—at frequent intervals of temperature, never
ates than 5°, from 0° to 70° C., recording generally to whole
amg a half second however being occasionally shewn. From
83 values he gives for (), Z and R, I have reduced his observed
‘eas formula (5), casting the results to 0°1 second. The two
en ee anything like identical values for », the results
: Archiv. fur Anat. u. Phys. 1861, p. 315. ie we
Pogg. Annal. Bd. 109, p.398. 8 Ibid. p. 400.

TJuly 3, 1995,

130 G. H, KNIBBS.

for 10° ©. being, for tube D -0112, and for tube Z -0081, instead
of ‘0131. Isuspect that the dimensions are in error, which if —
true, prejudices the correction of the times—the reduction of T' to
7’,—a correction of considerable magnitude in these experiments
Despite this, they are valuable as to some extent confirming— —
contrary to Rosencranz’s measurements—the propriety of extt
polating beyond its major limit, the curve expressing the results :
from 0° to 45°C. Both bulb and tube were immersed in the
heating bath, so that no dimensional temperature corrections
were required.

Rellstab, 1868.—According to the specific viscosities quoted by
Wagner,! Rellstab’s experiments give for the relative fluidities for :
each 5° from 0° to 50° the following values, that at 0° being 1000,
1000, 1172, 1361, 1587, 1802, 2053, 2222, 2500, 2688, 2899,
3205. These agree well with Poiseuille’s values, but in the absen®
of the experimental data I have been unable to apply the revised
correction for fall in pressure at the tube entrance. |

Sprung, 1876.—Sprung’s observations have been reduced 0B
the assumption that the dimensions of the tube and bulb are gi¥@ —

pressure in grammes per square centimetre. Sprung used
Hagenbach’s correction to the pressure.2 The reservoir and
capillary being both immersed during the experiments, dimens!
corrections were not required.®

Rosencranz, 1877.—In Rosencranz’s apparatus the reservoir |
supply, a bulb by means of which the volume of efflux bigs

capillary. This complicates the reduction. Let @ denote
volume of the reservoir at the temperature for which the dimen
sions of the tube are given, and p the density of water at oe
temperature, then the effluent volume Q’ at 7 degrees abo
temperature, the density being then p’, will be

1 Wied., Annal. Bd. 18, p. 263.

2 Pogg. Annal. Bd. 159, p. 6. 3 Ibid, p. 5, 6.

a Sa ities hn a calamea
sae Saenees :

pap y es Soap ial ee on

ES ee Oe ee ee Be ee eng on Lee Weert eR) ST Eee Re ean rm et Mater te Pee) th SN See eee am eR wey ey:

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. 131
ge Ry 7
= — = —_- —=E +7 .
"Soh ocd cli ore eg

& being the coéfficient of cubic dilatation. Thus, for measurements
of dimensions at all ordinary temperatures we have with ample
precision

4 . 2
ho T(1l+7ré+p'— p) - oo , ae \ Be ae (41)
The correction represented by the term ré is rejected by Meyer,
in his reduction of Rosencranz’s observations, as negligible!: its
maximum value is however about 1 /500, and it affects the com-
puted values of » from 4 to 7 units in the last place of figures, viz.
the fourth,

The pressure registered by the manometer was throughout 59°3
centimetres of mercury at 18°C. Meyer takes this to be of 13-415
density and equivalent to a column of water of 795-6 c.m. height :
to this has to be added 9-0 c.m., owing to the disposition of the
apparatus, thus making a total of 804-6 c.m.?. But this value for
the density is, I suspect, an error, and I have therefore recomputed
the pressure, obtaining the result 812-59 grammes per square
centimetre. The bulb measuring the influx contained 111-03
grammes of water, which [ take to represent a volume of 111-178
cubic centimetres at 18° C., the laboratory temperature.* The
capacities of the tubes were found by filling with mercury and the
mean radius so determined.‘ The reduced results can be expressed
in the form>

0
Ie Tear
but they do not appear to be satisfactory either intrinsically, when
Compared with Graham’s observed values, or with those obtained
by extrapolating the curve given by Poiseuille’s measurements.

1 .
in ag Annal. Bd. 2, p. 399—* doch kann diese Correction ihres ger-
2 Ths Bes Wegen unterbleiben.”
M =< P. 397. 3 Ibid. p. 397.
; See also Pogg. Annal. Bd. 148, p. 36, 1873. Tube ut.
To WAS “01854 and « -04635

132 G. H. KNIBBS. 4
The values given by me are obtained by interpolation: in the —
original work the temperature-intervals are irregular.
Phibram and Handl, 1878.—I have not reduced the observa-
tions of these investigators. The times of efflux are short, about —
84 to 199 seconds, the temperatures are at irregular intervals from _
13-9° to 56°4°.1 :
Grotrian, 1879.—The lengths of the two tubes used by Grotrian
were measured by a cathetometer to 005 c.m., at what temper —
ture is not stated, and their sections were derived from measure
ments of their capacity.2 The content of the measuring bulb was
40°3465 grammes at 16°.57 C.: its capacity was evalued by —

Grotrian for 28° the middle temperature in his efflux experiments. 3

Assuming however that the other measurements were also
made at about 16°.57 I have, as is requisite, found the capacity
for that temperature, the result being 40°390 c.cm. The apparatus
was wholly submerged in the heating bath.

Slotte, 1881.—With the one tube Slotte measured the efflux
four times at each of the temperatures 10, 20, 30 and 40 degrees
C., these being registered by a corrected (justirtes) thermometer,

graduated to tenth degrees.2 No information is given in the
account of his experiments as to the conditions under which he

dimensions of his apparatus was ascertained. The apparatus and
method of using it was similar to Sprung’s, hence dimensional
temperature corrections are not needed. Slotte proposed "7
formula by which the viscosity might be put in the form*

—C.

i B+r

He used Hagenbach’s correction.5
eee

1 Sitzber. Akad. Wien., Bd. 78, Abt. 2, p. 113 - 164.

2 Pogg. Annal. Bd. 160, p. 264. ti

3 Wied. Annal. Bd. 14, p. 13. 7 orp?

4 According to the Chemical News, Vol. 69, No. 1790, p. 123-—~""
and Rodgers in the Bakerian Lecture of the Royal Society, give Fer
for preferring Slotte’s formula n= e/(1 +br)". I have not ot

paper.
5 Loe. cit., p. 17.

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. 133

Wagner, 1883.—Wagner’s measurements of efflux were all with
one tube, four experiments being made at every 5° from 15° to
50°. His apparatus was similar to Wiedemann’s' and Sprung’s, I
assume, as I did in reducing Slotte’s work, that Wagner’s dimen-
sions are evaluated for the one temperature, though definite
information on the point is not given. He used Hagenbach’s
correction, In regard to the pressures, I conclude that H indicates
grammes per square centimetre.

Reynolds, 1883.—Two of the tubes used by Reynolds were
leaden pipes whose radii were 0°3075 and 0°635 cm. In these
the fall in pressure between two points 152-4 cm, apart was
measured by the vertical height of columns of water sustained
at those points, i.e. by the ‘hydraulic gradient’ of the pipe.
Though not exactly equivalent to the fall per unit of length
expressed in grammes per square centimetre, the agreement is
sufficiently approximate in relation to the order of precision in
the data, to render the application of a correction unnecessary,
In my reductions I have assumed the acceleration of gravity to
be 981: cm. The temperatures do not appear to have been
measured with great precision so that the deduced value of 7 must
be considered as merely approximate. It is worthy of remark
however that it does not differ more than 1/27 from the value
obtained from a tube (M, Poiseuille’s) the area of whose section
was only about 1/800000 of the larger of these tubes.

Rénigen, 1884.—The object of Réntgen’s experiments was to
“Scertain the effect of pressure on the viscosity. He measured
the times of the efflux under pressures varying from 19 to 29
atmospheres, as well as those under pressures of 1 atmosphere,
= temperatures being approximately 6° and 11°C. There is
Cae information to determine the absolute or relative

Sat these tem peratures, nevertheless the effect of variations

Pressure can be fairly well ascertained. The change in the

ite with such variations is so slight that the correction for

ip
_ *°88. Annal. Bd. 99, p. 221, 1856.

134 G. H. KNIBBS.

loss at the entrance to the tube is sensibly the same for efflux at
constant temperatures under any pressure,! for the times of efflux
are very nearly equal. The results have been reduced to their
values at 6° and 11° C. by formula (37), and the higher pressures
to the value for 24 atmospheres. |

Konig, 1885.—Using two tubes of nearly equal sectional area,
Kénig made five efflux experiments between the temperatures
155° and 18-1° C., correcting by Hagenbach’s formula. In my ~
reduction I have assumed g to be 980-95: its value was not
mentioned in Kénig’s account of his work. a

Couette, 1890.—In his interesting ‘Etudes sur le frottement des
liquides,’ Couette gives a method of observation by which the
corrections for fall in pressure at the entrances of tubes and fot |
their end conditions—see (12a) and (13)—are eliminated. By
means of selected capillary tubes of equal radii, but of vey ‘
different lengths, he connects three reservoirs, through which & 4
‘flow from a still larger reservoir is established under pressure, the
efflux through both tubes finally becoming equal. The pressures 4
in the three reservoirs are then measured by a manometer of ae 4
branches. Putting y =mpq?/(x? R*), / having the same significe 4
tion as in § 9, P, denoting the fall in pressure betweet the
reservoirs connected by Z,, and P, the corresponding fall betwee?
the reservoirs connected by Z,, we have ;

oe. Le eee ee? :
hence if, as there is reason to believe, y, =y. and 1, =ls, and if
also it were possible to employ two tubes of equal radius BW
should have

=-——, 1? (42
8 7 L, -L, i ) z that

Couette’s formula.? But more rigorously it may be assumed ae
this is not possible ; and therefore we are involved in considering
ea cinahmeettietatnleel hcl cree ai pa asia tg te pee
1 The difference in the correction will probably always be les* ans

-the unavoidable errors in the recorded times of efflux.
? Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 6 sér. t. 21, p. 468- 472+

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. . 135

the application of Couette’s method when an inequality in the
radii is known to exist. Let, as in § 12 and § 14, R, denote the
‘mean radius of efflux’ of tube 1, etc.—i.e. the radius of a right
circular cylinder of equal discharge—then putting, similarly to
our previous notation,

4 4 Ri ZK Ri
R* =} (R{ +R?) ande = RigRt
we obtain
8 0 P,- P,- Pith et sey | (43)

8q L,-L,

that is, the correction / is eliminated, but not y. The term 2ey
is probably however always negligible, but not so (2: +P,)e.
This result is important as shewing that when the radii are
unequal the deduced value of the viscosity depends not merely
upon the difference of pressures in the reservoirs, but also upon
their absolute amounts.

I have not from Couette’s data reduced afresh the values of the
viscosity, but accepting them for the particular temperatures of
his own observation, reéxpressed them for other temperatures by
formula (37).

Cohen, 1893.—Cohen’s extended series of experiments, by the
efflux method, to ascertain the effect of pressure on the viscosity
of liquids, cannot be used to obtain absolute measures, as only the
approximate dimensions of his tube,! and of the fall in pressure
therein,? are given. In his own reduction his times are uncorrected
ee although this does not sensibly affect the results, for the
Suestead pointed out in referring to Réntgen’s experiments, the
Boy of experiments seemed well worth rigorous reduction. For
~ purpose of the reduction of the times, the volume of efflux—
oumeh Was not given—may be computed from the known value of |
the Viscosity, so that instead of finding 7’, by (5) we must use®

Sole d. Annal Bd. 45, p. 666. 2 Ibid. p. 669.

cca formala is of course derived by substituting for Q? in (5) its

Only iin - equivalent in terms of the other quantities, supposed known
Sufficient accuracy for the purpose of the correction.

136 G. H. KNIBBS.
mpPT R*

64 L? 95
which is quite satisfactory since the corrective term is small.

Pen P (1 +ar+ Br?)? Pisisteacsenees (44)

22. The value of »o.—The value of the viscosity of water a Orc.
—viz. 79 = 0-01786 formula (38) corresponding to = 0-013103,
and deduced by a rigorous reduction of Poiseuille’s efflux measure —
ments—is among the smallest of those obtained from the exper:
ments of different observers, see the second table of § 6. This is
probably attributable to the fact that, of all tubes of equal 4
sectional area, the right circular cylinder gives the greats) —
discharge, whence it follows that where the radii have beet
computed from the measurements of capacity on an erroneous
assumption of that form, the departures therefrom must necessarily,
as shewn, in § 11 to § 16, give values greater than the true me —
Poiseuille’s tubes seem to have been the only ones whose sections —
were measured directly, and at several points along the ax
consequently it is to be expected that the value of », deduced 7
from his experimental data by the application of corrections fot 4
the departure from the circular cylindrical form, will be appros 7
mately the minimum. Its smallness, as compared with the resull
of other observers whose data do not include material for the
corrections, in no way diminishes our confidence in it as 4 relia!
value, and one really representing, in numerical form, a phys!
property of water; whereas in regard to the larger values one very
properly suspects that had such data been to hand, the appropriate,
corrections, then possible, would have made the results more
accordant, since they are always negative in sign. At the a
time we do not prefer the smallest value because errors ¢
measurement, either of dimensions, pressures or times, are aS likely
to be negative as positive.
For purposes of comparison the following values of the viscos!t]
at 0° C. have been recomputed from the original data using
Boussinesq’s value for m in (5), the reduction to 0° being
by multiplying by the relative fluidity f’—formula (37).
temperatures quoted are those of the experimnts.

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. 137

Viscosity of Distilled Water at O° C., computed from the efflux
measurements of various investigators.
Observer. Date. Expts. Tube. Temp. No:
Poiseuille 1846 series glass 0°- 45° 001786

Jacobson 1860 4 x 16°.7 1808
s > 4 : 15-2 1800

” ” 3 ” 11°3 1867

% iy 2 Z 122 1770

” » 3 brass 13°4 1755

” 5 3 7 15-7 1809

% s 1 ie 16-7 1806

” ; 5 : 15-2 1786

” i 4 ‘ 12°8 1778

” ; 7 ; 16-5 1794

Sg ” 5 ” 16°4 795
Hagenbach 1860 4 Pa 17°4 1844
Sprung 1876 21 eee Ty 1773
Rosencranz 1877 2 a 42°55 1797
Srottin 1879 2 14.9 —«:1798
Slotte Oo ea 10° 1814
Wagner 1883 4 . 15° 1797
Reynolds 22 lead 5° — 12° 1834
Konig O86... k glass 16°.8 1771
Couette 1890 2 copper 16-4 1819
3 ” 3 white metal 18-5 1817

3 paraffin 12-6 1853

23. The relative fluidities of distilled water at ordinary pressures

: temperature 0° to 50° C.—Small errors in the dimensions of

tubes prejudice but slightly the reduction of the relative fluidities,

IMasmuch ag they affect only the correction for the fall of pressure

at the entrance of the tube. That the dimensions given are, with

the exception of Graham’s, sensibly correct, is evident from the

that the absolute values of the viscosity derived from them

se nearly identical, The results however do not exhibit as

ms ect an agreement as one might perhaps have expected. The
ue for 0° C. has been taken as 1000 instead of unity.

138 G. H. KNIBBS.

Relative Fluidities of Distilled Water 0° to 50° C., computed fi
the efflux measurements of various investigators. |
Temp. Psl816. Gd186l. Gel861. 841876. Gil879. Gii1879. Sl41881. Walsh

o°c. 1000 1000 1000 1000... oes 1000"
5 ott. s2008 118s Hi6.... “i sk oe
10 1363 1364 1373 1366... -... 1363 3a
15 1557 1582s 1575 1566 15572 15632 ... 1568
20 1771 1802 1791 1775 17652 1767 1795
25 1992 2053 1990 1983 “sda 1996: a
30 2226 2272 2207 2218 2227s .. 2213 2263
35 2479 2535 2452 2457 95115 2494: 2509

40 2738 2781 2736 2705 27242 2728: 2719 2769 f
45 3010 3041 2985 2957 se A . .
50 3285* 3337 3279 3218 -
— * Denotes that the value is extrapolated. The small numbers :

4 etc., denote the number of experiments on which the value is based.

Pe Poiseuille: Gd=Graham, tube D: Ge = Graham, tube E: S=Sprung
Gi=Grotrian, tube 1: Gii = Grotrian, tube 2: Sl= Slotte : w= Wagner

24. The relative fluidities of distilled water for temperature
above 50° C.—So far as I am aware, only two observers have gre.
measurements from which the fluidity for temperatures above 50°C. ;
can be ascertained, viz. Graham and Rosencranz. Meyet, who
reduced Rosencranz’s data, concludes that above 50° the sui
is related to the temperature by a linear function, viz.

fr=fo (1+ 47) |
but Graham’s results do not tend to confirm this view. In#
table hereunder, the design of which is to illustrate this point,
first column Px contains the values of the fluidity obtained
extrapolation from the results of Poiseuille’s experiments, form
(37): the second and third columns those of Graham with tu
Dand E£, his measurements being made at the temperatures qu? :
the final column Rx, contains the values roughly interp®
from Rosencranz’s measurements. The fluidity at 0° C. is OEE
as 100.

e temperature ietareads- were irregular and as the rong
not be closely represented by a curve without PP ERE |
interpolations were possible

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. 139

Relative oi of Distilled Water, 50° to gt C.

Temp. Gd Ge
50° C. a 334 328 nie
55 358 360 349 354
60 388 387 380 372
65 420 415 418 398
70 453 448 444 421
75 487 443
80 522 462
90 - 596 546

The results indicate that the form of the curve best representing
the relative fluidity, is not well determined for temperatures above
50°, and that further experiments are required. Probably it will
be found that a in formula (37) 0 must be slightly increased and B
diminished.

25. Relative fluidity y of distilled water near the temperature of
maximum density—The curve of relative fluidity gives some
indication of an inflexion at about the temperature of maximum
density 4° ©. as will be seen from the following results for
temperatures 0° to 10° C.

temp. Pa Pe Pe Gd ss Ge Ss Mean.
0 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
me os. 4014 1014: =. cise _ 1014
pe 108e gs sy ce ms 1022
l ce au i TORR Tega 26 1050
1091 1076 .. 1084

: 1198°01168>. oe

4 Re es SS LA ae 1157

: £992-21179. 1189~ 1187°:1180: 1176 HA

1258 1265... 1261

'. 10 1356 1365 1367 1364 1373 1366 1365

Ga

Notr.—Pa, Pe and Pe, are results from Poiseuille’s tubes A, C and E; ;

and Ge from Graham’s tubes D and E; and S from Sprung’s.

oe the values obtained by assuming that the fluidities
m 0°

to 10°C. are given by the expression 1000+ 36-57, from

140 G. H. KNIBBS.

those in the last column—the means—we obtain
Tap © 00 06 1 2 3 4 5 Oe
Dif, O-4 04+13411+104+11-34+6 8
that is the differences are generally positive and are 8
The curve best representing the mean values must therefore t
the form
: F's = 1000 (1 + ar - f’r”)
between these limits, and since from 5° to 45°C. the
coéflicient 8, was positive—formula (37)—there is an inflexion :
the curve. To determine the point of inflexion, extremely accum®
measurements of the viscosity would be necessary. The chang
in the form of the curve from 0° to 5° somewhat vitiates
extrapolation—though it be for only a half degree—by bs
efflux time for 0° C. was obtained in § 20.

26. The variation of the fluidity with presswre.—The sna
pressure is to increase the fluidity or to diminish the viscosity, ¥
least for temperatures under 30°C.!_ This is best shewn by

method of expressing the value at each temperature for
atmosphere as unity: in this way the results become indepe!
of the relative fluidities for the different temperatures”
values for a pressure of 24 atmospheres are from Rantgen's ®
those for higher pressures from Cohen’s experiments.”

Effect of Presswre on Fluidity at 15° C., according to Cone

Experiments. :

Atmos. = 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
I. +0072 0127 0150 0219 0208 —— 0280

IT +-0051 0126 0161 0223. 0258 —— 024
ete. 60162 — 0239 =
Mean +-0057 0127 0154 0221 0233 0239 0237 ©

oe -—The flui idity under a pressure of one pers sigs is unity: #
at any other pressure is 1+ the decimal in the t

es A
1 Under 40° C. according to Cohen— Wied. Annal. Bd. 45, P- oak
2 The relative fluidity cannot be accurately determined from the ¢ .

* The figures are not alwa this h
ys identical with Cohen’s:
~ beta to the — of the small correction to the tim

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. 141;
The only anomalous result in the above table is that for 700
atmospheres ; the value is probably too small.

Effect of Pressure on the Fluidity at various Temperatures,
according to Réntgen’s and Cohen’s experiments.

Temp. Pressure in Atmospheres.
! 24 100 200 = 30 600 700 900
YY — 0215 —— 0327 —~— —— 0670 —— ——
— cine 9 Hines lS Crem
OO — ——
— 15° —— 0057 0127 0154 0221 0233 0239 0237 0277
23° —— 0047 0077 — 0100 —— ——

Nore.—The fluidity under a pressure of one atmosphere is unity for
nse temperature: that at any other pressure is 1 + the decimal in the
e.

The available information is insufficient for the deduction of a
general formula expressing the fluidity as a function of temperature
and pressure, for as pointed out by Cohen it is yet undetermined
whether at higher temperatures the viscosity instead of being
diminished by pressure, is increased.1

21. The value of the viscosity by the rotating cylinder method.—
The values of the viscosity of water as found by other methods
have differed greatly from that obtained by the efflux method. In
@recent investigation by Brodmann, this difficulty though not
completely is at any rate partially resolved. From experiments
_ of type (6) § 1, using three cylinders of different sizes,” he obtains
~ following values (i) and (ii) for the viscosity at 15° C. respec-
mrely from the smallest and middle, and smallest and greatest
Cylinders. Poiseuilie’s value (iii.) as deduced herein is indicated
also for comparison

(i.) a5 = 0-01265 + 0:00049 |
(ii) m5 = 0-01228 + 0-00011
(iii) 5 = 0-01143

7 ute ets p. 684,

Wied. Annal. Ba. 45, p. 178, see also p. 179.

142 G. H. KNIBBS.

1V.—InpicaTIONS FOR A FURTHER DETERMINATION,
28. Apparatus.—Some observations in regard to the gener
disposition and dimensions of apparatus for a further determin
tion by the efflux method of the viscosity constant, may notlt :
inappropriate in concluding this examination of the subject —
Fig. 4 indicates the general arrangement of the essential pa |
best adapted to the purposes of accurate measurement'—it i ;
essentially Poiseuille’s. The pipe P is connected with the sour
of pressure—compressed air contained in a large reservoir it :
Poiseuille’s' experiments,—continuous with it is the pipe Mf cm
municating with the manometer. When the cock-valves X and
are turned the pressure compels the contained liquid in the
reservoir bulb V, to flow through the tube JA, the capillary 44, |
and the efflux tube B HZ, whence it emerges into the water in 8 |
heating bath W, carefully maintained at constant temperature
and height, the temperature—that at which the viscosity is to be :
determined—being measured by the thermometers T, 7. boul
tubes JA and B E ought to be of the same diameter, and ee
terminals 4 and B of the capillaries may if possible be inset —
well within them. The small bulb U7 is intended to hold suffice
liquid to permit the flow to be thoroughly established under al
general conditions of an experiment, before the measure
actually commences, and, with the rest of the apparatus men ion
is wholly submerged in the heating bath. 2 is a micros¢
short-focus telescope—for noting the instant at which the !
of the concave surface of the fluid crosses the line J on the we
This microscope after the observation has been made should
lowered exactly the distance IJ, so as to observe the instant
passage across the line at J, the interval between the two ™
the time of efflux (7). A chronographic record of these inst
is the more satisfactory.
The valves X and LZ should be closed immediately on the term
ation of an experiment, so that impurities may not entet ©
- The figure is not even approximately to-scale; it is essentially oO .

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. 143

capillary. It is almost unnecessary to say that the water used in
the flow should be most carefully freed from organic particles.
The pressure and temperature, which should be sensibly constant,
ought to be read at intervals during the efflux, and also the height
of the surface of the water in the heating vessel above J and J at
its commencement and termination, the latter in order to afford
material for correcting the pressures registered in the manometer.
The terminals A B of the capillary must be set exactly horizontal,
say by means of a cathetometer, and the parts K to A and Bto #
firmly connected’ with the heating vessel, in such a way however
as to permit of their adjustment—not shewn in Fig. 4.

hd

The tube BZ serves to ensure constancy in the terminal con-
dition of the efflux. It should be mentioned that the method of
allowing the effluent to drop from the tube terminal is unsatis-

«

The corrections to the immediate data of an experiment are :—

(#) Corrections of the thermometers.

(6) Reduction of the pressure registered in the manometer on
account of the pressure conditions in the apparatus.

In regard to (a) if we propose a precision of a higher order than
lina 1000, we must read to -001 degree C., and therefore must

- follow the methods of rigorous thermometry. With respect to
{b):—if the bulb V be symmetrical in form, then since the general
height of the water in the bath is not sensibly altered by the
addition thereto by the efflux, we have—putting / for the height
_ of the water surface above J at the beginning of the experiments

_ 4nd Xi’ for the similar height above J at the end—for the mean
__ Pressure

Px fon te 1). ae ee sh sr

P=g (nH-p@*") (45)

H being the mean value of the sustained column in the manometer,
ee

* See Mém. des Say. é : tt
2 . . trang. t. 9, § 10, p. 440. Also Hagen, Abhandl.
Akad. Wiss, Berlin, 18,

P. 398. 54, p. 17 ete.: and Meyer, Wied. Annal., Bd. 2,

144 G. H. KNIBBS.

p the density of the mercury therein, and p that of the water, both —
at their own temperatures at the time of the measurement.’

As already pointed out no correction for change of dimensions
in bulb or capillary is needed, but these must be given for 4
common temperature.

The only further corrections then are :—(c) the correction for —
fall of pressure at the entrance of the capillary, (d) that for fall
in pressure producing the flow in the tube J A and B Z, and(@)a —
possible correction to the length of the tube to equate the terminal ‘
resistances—§ 9. Of these (c) and (e) have been already fully
discussed: (d) only requires attention. Let R and S§ denote —
respectively the radii of the capillary and supply tube, and Z and :
Z their lengths, then the fall in pressure p, in the tubes JA + BE

: a= ey =. (46)

This must be so small as to be practically negligible. ;
29. Dimensions of apparatus.—The general principle which —
determines the relation of the several parts of the apparatus is
that the resultant precision should be uniform throughout. The
following measurements are merely suggestions as toa suitable —
size for the essential parts : ‘they serve also the purpose ¢ of illus
trating the application of the above principle. We shall assum E
for g the value 980°6 c.m. and for p 13-5958. :
Pressure in manometer H = 100 cm. mercury: hence P= 1333200 :
Radius of capillary R=0 ‘Olem. Length 2=50 cm.
Bulb V in Fig 4 Q=50cem. Rad. bulb 2:28 cm, about
Supply tube not less than S=0-lem. Totallength Z= 25 cm. say a
In apparatus of these dimensions the fall in pressure in the |
supply tube J A+B a Z will be not more than =

pein ea ‘
3 i ae Sey aD le

(Fu)* x ae 133320 = 67 or 1/20000 th.
formula (46). The rate of flow even for 0° C. would be sulticiently
ee

1 The variation in the loss of pressure at the entrance to the tube is?
small that it may be computed from this mean pressure, without ici

VISCOSITY OF WATER BY THE EFFLUX METHOD. 145

rapid to allow of a record to a small fraction of a second,' whereas
the total time of efflux is more than 8000 seconds or over two
hours. The correction of the efflux time for fall in pressure at
the entrance of the tube is about 24900 sec./7’, or about 1/2700th
for 0° C.—formula (5)—or the correction to be applied to the
deduced viscosity about 0:0445/7'—formula (40)—-so that a small
uncertainty as to its proper magnitude will not greatly vitiate
the result.

The volume of the bulb V would be ascertained readily and
with sufficient accuracy from its capacity, by using quicksilver.
The measurement on the accuracy of which the result mainly
depends is the capillary radius, 0-1 millimetre.. To obtain its
value to considerably under 1/10000 th part? is not an easy task.
The whole volume of the tube represents only 0-214 gramme of
mercury, so that on this element of the work—zi.e, the evaluation
of the ‘mean radius of efflux’ of the tube—by far the greatest
expenditure of effort to attain precision will be required. This
applies when the absolute determination of the viscosity is

required

The following series of experiments seems to me to meet the
requirements of a thorough determination :
Temp. every 5°, 10°— 95°C.; H = 100; LZ = 50
every 0°.5,0°-10°C. H= 50; L = 50

and H = 100; ZL = 25
also at 4°C. H = 100, 50, and 25; Z = 50
and H = 100 LZ = 50, 25 and 125

Such @ series ought, with care as to dimensions, careful ther-
mometry and generally good manipulation, to satisfactorily settle

. MAREE SOR
‘1The supply tube may be of any convenient size, but it is always

“mad that at the points I and J the velocity shall be sensible when

ed by the microscope R. If constricted great care should be taken

that then nstricted diameters are equal so that the concavity of the water

may be the same at each point.

y ding to a precision of over 1/2500 th.
J—Iuly 3, 1895,

146 G. H. KNIBBS.

the value of the constant, and determine with precision the form
of its variation with temperature.’

1 J regret that the pressure of other duties prevents me from un
taking this task, and of availing myself of the very kind offer of the
Professor of Physled—Richand Threlfall, .a.—to place the resources of a
his laboratory at the University of Sydney at my disposal for this pur 4
pose. I may be permitted also to express my thanks to that gentleman
for some critical observations on the first two parts of this paper.

*

Ox raz PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION or raz VENOM or THB
AUSTRALIAN BLACK SNAKE (Pseudechis porphyriacus)

By C. J. Martin, B.Sc., m.B. Lond.
(From the Physiological Laboratory of the University of Sydney. ‘

[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, July 3, 1895.]

I.—Inrropuction. |
THe mechanisms associated with the life of higher animals are 8?
complicated and at the same time so interdependent, that it is :
always a matter of extreme difficulty to ascertain, with anything — 4
approaching to precision, which part or parts of the intricale :
machinery are influenced by the introduction of a disturbing
element from without. When such disturbing element in th? q
form of a poison is introduced, the observer can see without :
difficulty the end result, but the unravelling of the process requires | Z
the closest observation and the assistance of every met :
analysis known to the physiologist. Even then, how far wé are
from a complete understanding of the process! Our conception |
of the method of operation of any particular poison is necessarily a
limited by the present condition of physiological science, and the :
most an observer working in any particular corner of this great f
field can do, is to attempt to bring the level of knowledge eal,
particular phenomena he is studying up to that of the scienc? :
generally, and perhaps to elucidate in some small way by obser

ee

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 147

yations on particular cases, the larger problems with which
physiology is concerned.

The research, the results of which form the subject of this paper,
was conducted entirely by experiments upon the lower animals.
Conclusions as to exact physiological action drawn from the
observation of cases of snake-bite in the human subject, while of

oy PRE 4 -

great importance, owing to ignorance

and want of control of so many factors concerned. When con-
fronted with a case of snake-bite our principal duty is to treat
the patient, and although we may carefully observe clinical
symptoms, the employment of those more accurate analytical
methods which can be performed on the lower animals, is im-
possible. Another disadvantage is that no single observer can
hope to witness a sufficient number of cases of snake-bite, but
must base his conclusions to a large extent upon the observations
of others.
| On the other hand, it is true, that it is a mere inference that
results obtained upon lower animals can be applied to man.
Nevertheless when one considers the identity of mechanism which
underlies what differences do exist, together with the fact that the
higher mammalia react to snake poisons with striking similarity
_ to mankind, the inference would not appear to be an unfair one.

I.—Meruops or Inrropuction or THE VENOM.

Venom may enter the body by a variety of channels. The time
of ee and the train of symptoms vary according to the rapidity
“ its absorption. Usually in cases of snake-bite the poison is
deposited in the subcutaneous tissues, whence it reaches the
Seneral circulation principally by absorption through the blood-
oe In some experiments I made with the object of determin-
‘ing the relative absorption through the blood-vessels directly, and
‘“hrough the lymphatics, I found that the symptoms of poisoning
‘Were not appreciably delayed by previous ligature of the thoracic

: he poison was in each case injected into the subcutaneous
Missue of the thigh. The venom is more rapidly absorbed when

148 C. J. MARTIN.

introduced into a serous sac, such as the pleural or peritoneal
cavity, and its effects are most rapidly manifested when it
introduced directly into a vein. Absorption of venom takes a
from such mucous surfaces as the corneal conjunctiva.

Whether venoms can be absorbed by the mucous membrane of :
the alimentary canal has been much discussed. Weir Mitchell’
came to the conclusion from numerous experiments on pigeons,
that Crotalus-venom was not absorbed from the crop. If howevel
lly produced, symptoms of poisoning result
ing in death occurred. Fayrer? and Richards,® on the other
hand, found cobra-venom was absorbed to some extent, from the
alimentary canal. Mitchell has confirmed these statements of
Fayrer and Richards, but found that absorption through this .
channel was very slow.

Tie: Fed

abrasions were

I have repeated Mitchell’s experiments, to determine whether _
Pseudechis venom was absorbed from the alimentary canal. In ;
my own experiments I used rats instead of pigeons. 4

Two white rats were fed daily for one week on bread ad i
milk, containing one hundred times a fatal dose of vend,
supposing it to have been administered subcutaneously.
the end of the week both rats were in excellent health. Wi ;
half an hour after partaking of the last poisoned meal, ™

mucous membrane of the stomach of one of them was @ i

abraded. This rat died in two hours thirty-five minutes

wards with the usual symptoms of snake poisoning. :
abrasions produced in a rat on unpoisoned diet were fol
by no untoward symptoms. The whole of the feces of th
rats were collected and examined for venom. The filtrate
treated with a large excess (ten volumes) of absolute alcohol,
the precipitate which formed allowed to remain under
alcohol fourteen days. The precipitate was then extracted '

1 Researches upon the venoms of poisonous serpents. »_Smith
——— to Knowledge, Vol. xxv1.
“Thanatophidia of India.”—Churchill, London, 1872.
3 “On the nature of snake poison and its action on the blood.”

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 149

dilute saline solution. The extract which contained some

proteid’was quite harmless when injected under the skin of

frogs and mice.

If any quantity of the venom had been absorbed by the rats
from the amount contained in their meals, they must have shown
symptoms, and had the fceces contained any of the venom, symptoms
of poisoning would have occured in the small animals injected
with the last saline extract, for Psewdechis venom is unaltered by
sojourn under absolute alcohol. Accordingly, one must conclude
that the venom was either not absorbed, or if so only to a small
extent, and that the greater part was destroyed in the alimentary :
canal. The venom is destroyed by artificial pancreatic digestion,
and that the same happens in the intestine is extremely probable.
The toxic properties of this venom are however not destroyed by
artificial gastric digestion, and the results of the experiments on
the rats show that the poison exists in the stomach in an active

| condition. The walls of this organ are lined by a continuous
‘ layer of living epithelium cells, and cannot be reckoned with as
if they were composed of a dead membrane. Indeed there is
abundant evidence to show that in the process of absorption from
the alimentary canal physical processes (osmosis, diffusion) are
overborne by physiological ones,! and that the lining cells exere ise
4 selective control over the process of absorption.? The toxic
_ Proteids of some of the infectious diseases also, are not absorbed
from the alimentary canal, for Tizzoni has shown that the most
“irulent tetanus toxines produce no ill effects when administer ed
by the mouth, Absorption does however probably occur to 4
Small extent, for the remaining white rat, was after the lapse of
5 week, injected with one and a half times a lethal dose of venom,

— Jenaische Zeitschrift, Bd. xviii, 1885; Rohmann,
hi. 1894 v., Bd. xli. 1887; Heidenhain, ibid., Bd. xliii., 1888; Bd.

2 ‘ ‘hes
Tappeiner, Wien. Sitzungsberichte, Bd. Ixxvii., Abtheil. iii., 1878;
edkins, Journ. of Physiol., x1r., 1892; v. Mehring, Ver ——
Congress £. imnere Med. z. Wiesbaden, 1893, p. 471.

150 C. J. MARTIN.

This resistance may be accounted for by the immunising effect
the absorption of small quantities of venom from its food during
the previous week.

Before considering the experimental results obtained
animals it is necessary to emphasise the fact that the effects of
venom introduced directly into the circulation may be ver
different to those which follow subcutaneous inoculation. These
differences although no doubt essentially dependent upon tl
varying rapidity with which the poison reaches the blood, are from
the peculiar nature of its action on this fluid, of such a kind as to
be misleading, On reference to the portion of this paper devoted
to the consideration of the action of snake-poison on blood-plasma
it will be seen that the venom of Pseudechis if introduced with

adequate to cause thrombosis, either when directly introduced
into the circulation or if subcutaneously injected in sufficient

quantity in a situation favourable for absorption.

When one sees an animal, within a few seconds or minutes
after the introduction of the poison, seized with convulsions 0%
which artificial respiration has no influence, and closely follo
by death or a condition of profound depression, one might natur
imagine that the poison had exerted its influence directly
the nervous system. In the case of such symptoms following
introduction of the venom of the species of Australian snakes
have hitherto examined, such a supposition would be erro
for by opening the animal just prior to death, the venous SY
would be found to be the seat of more or less extensive throm»

Intravascular clotting is also in my opinion the exp.
the convulsions which have been observed by Wall’ and othe®
to rapidly follow the introduction of viperine venom into Ma" ws
and which form such a marked feature in the experiments

ip
os Wall, Indian snake poisons, their nature and effects.—Allen & ;
ndon, 1883; Proc. Roy. Soc,, Lond., Vol. xxx11., 1881.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 151

the venoms of this class of snakes. Such early convulsions must
not be confused with those due to failure of the respiration, which
immediately precede death from cobra poisoning.

With subcutaneous injection, the venom does not, as a rule,
reach the blood with sufficient rapidity to occasion any extensive
thrombosis, but under these circumstances the blood is found to
have its coagulability greatly diminished or lost. These opposite
conditions are in reality two phases of the same operation.

As thrombosis in different regions of the circulation produces a
great variety of sudden and surprising effects, which are generally
absent after subcutaneous injection of the poison, the comparison
of results obtained by the two methods of introduction of venom

must be made with a due amount of caution.

III.—Actioy or VENom on THE Bioop aNp Boop VESSELS.

Through whatever channel the poison may be absorbed it sooner :
or later reaches the blood stream, and is distributed thereby
through all the tissues and organs of the body. Accordingly it is
necessary to ascertain in the first place what changes it may
occasion in the blood itself. Without such knowledge it-would
be impossible to differentiate those effects produced on the various
organs of the body which are to be attributed to the primary
Sf Spération of the poison from those which are secondary to its
Interference with the normal constitution of the blood.

When the literature of this part of the subject is examined, one
Notices the entirely different results obtained by observers experi-
eating with various kinds of snake poison. Cobra poison would
‘Appear to exert little effect upon the blood, but that it does have
<n action is evidenced by the fluidity of the latter in the human
mbiect, after death from cobra-bite. Occasionally too, the mucous
‘ischarges from the body are stained with blood. These blood
‘Changes are however relatively unimportant, and if an animal
— the nervous symptoms it at once passes into a condition
of complete health, With the poison of the viperidw, and to a
tess extent with that of most colubrines, other than cobras, the

152 C. J. MARTIN.

blood and blood vessels are considerably affected. These changes
in the blood include both the corpuscular element and the plasma,
and also that little known relationship which normally obtains
between the blood and its containing vessels. ~

(a)—Effect of venom on blood corpuscles, in vitro.
Brunton and Fayrer! were unable to discover any change i
the blood corpuscles of mammalia, when their blood was mixed
with a solution of cobra poison in isotonic salt solution, except
an occasional crenation of the corpuscles which might have bee
due to some concentration of the salt solution by evaporation.
Ragotzi,” however, who has more recently experimented with
cobra venom, found that it produced considerable changes on the
corpuscles. He says—‘“Siugerthierbliit war stets verandert, sei
es, dass man das Gift subcutan injicirt hatte oder eine Giftlosung
dem Blite zusetzte. In beiden Fallen war die Tendenz 2
Rollenbildung vollkommen verschwunden. Die Blutkérperchen
waren nur zum geringeren Theil normal. Die meisten hatten
ihre biconcave Gestalt mit einer biconvexen vertauscht. Dies?
Veranderung trat augenblichlich ein, wenn man einer normalea
Blutprobe unter dem Mikroskop ein Trépchen Giftlésung (im 06
NaCl) zusetzte. Eine vollstiindige Auflésung der Siiugethier
blutkérperchen durch Zusatz von Najagift kam erst nach mebr
Stunden zu Stande.

Setzte man dagegen zu einer normalen Froschblutprobe e

stroma wurde vollkommen unsichtbar bezw. aufgeldst. Der !
blieb noch einige Zeit erhalten. Das aufgeliste Blut %¢
zunichst noch die oxyhiimoglobinstreifen, doch verschw®
dieselben nach einiger Zeit, wiihrend die Lésung noch ibre Fo
klare Farbe beibehielt (die zum Zusatze verwendete se a
reagirte vollkommen neutral).”

1 Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond.
2 Virchow’s Archiv. Bd. 122, s. 230.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 153

Weir Mitchell and Reichert! found that in a drop of mammalian
blood mixed with “(a minute quantity ” of crotalus venom the
activity of the leucocytes absolutely ceased. The red corpuscles
lost their biconcave form and became spherical and sticky, so that
they adherred together in strings. Ultimately the haemoglobin

_ dissolved out and they became invisible. When pigeon’s blood
was subjected to the action of the venom, the nuclei of the cor-
puscles appeared to undergo a rapid necrotic change, which finally
gave rise to a granular albuminoid material which was seen float-
ing in large quantities between the corpuscles.

Feoktistow? who worked with the venoms of Crotalus and Pelias
berus found that 2% solutions of these venoms produced dissolu-
tion of the corpuscles after 18 — 24 hours.

The first animal the blood of which I submitted to the action of
Pseudechis venom was the frog. A drop of frog’s blood was mixed
with an equal bulk of a ‘7% solution of NaCl containing ‘19/ of
venom. The mixture was made on a slide, and speedily covered
with a cover glass and the edges smeared with oil to prevent con-
centration of the salt solution by evaporation. Within a few
moments a disintegration of the red cells occurred. They lost
their shape, their nuclei became apparent, and the haemoglobin

dissolved out ; afterwards they appeared larger and circular, and

me more and more indistinct, until finally nothing could be

_ Seen of them, but shrivelled granular nuclei. These shrivelled

_ huelei soon began to swell, the granules became less distinguish-

able and eventually disappeared. The disappearance of the red
oe Was 80 complete that at the end of fifteen minutes there was
nothing except the slight colouration of the field, to distinguish

7 the preparation from one of lymph.

- The action on the white cells was much slower. For the first

minutes I could discover no change in them, but they
* Loe. cit. p. 143. |
: “ Ueber die Wirkung des Schlangengiftes auf den thierischen

Série pen Mémoires de l’Acad. imp. d. Se. de S. Pétersbourg, VII
Rs. > Tome XXXVL, .) .

154 C. J. MARTIN.

exhibited no ameeboid movements. At the end of this time #
nuclei in some of them were very distinct, as if fixed by

swell and their outlines to grow less distinct until they disappeared,
leaving a small heap of granules to mark their grave. D
this time, control specimens situated under similar circumstane
showed no change, and the leucocytes were exhibiting acti
amceboid movements.

The action of the poison on the corpuscles of pigeon’s bood
similar to the above, but the dissolution of the red cells, '

poison of this concentration proceeds more slowly.

The blood corpuscles of different mammals present remarkable
diversity in their power of resisting the destructive effects of
venom. Dog’s blood is much more sensitive to this action of the
venom than that of any other animal I have experimented Wi :
The readiness with which the corpuscles of this animal aré
troyed approaches that of the frog.

Some idea of the small quantity of venom which is neces
to determine the destruction of the red corpuscles of dogs m
gathered from the fact that if 1 c.c. of fresh defibrinated blot
be mixed with an equal volume of ‘9% NaCl solution con tal
"0000002 gramme of venom, and allowed to stand for four hou
at the temperature of the laboratory (15° C.) the serum w
covers the corpuscles becomes deeply stained with haemo
and if a little of the sediment be examined under the mic
numbers of crystals of haemoglobin are to be seen, togeth'
Some corpuscles. A control specimen under similar circums
except that the salt solution contained no venom, showed
corpuscles to be well preserved and the serum was only §
tinged with haemoglobin.

If the concentration of venom in the solution be im
the blood be kept at body temperature, the haemoglobin

out much more readily, and in a few hours no corpuscles
found.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 155

Haemoglobin which has been dissolved out of the corpuscles
under the influence of the venom possesses a more than ordinary
tendency to crystallize, as is exemplified by the following experi-
ment :—10 c.c. of defibrinated blood of a dog were poured into
a dry test-tube containing ‘0001 gramme of venom, and placed
in an incubator at 38°C. over-night. When examined in the
morning the contents of the tube were solid with haemoglobin
crystals, so that the mass could only be removed with a spoon,
The haemoglobin in the crystals was in part converted into
methaemoglobin. A solution of well washed crystals showed the
absorption spectrum of methaemoglobin as well as oxyhaemoglobin,
so that it would appear that both derivatives of haemoglobin were
present together in the crystals. As time went on, the amount of
oxyhaemoglobin in the crystals diminished and that of methaemo-
globin increased.

This conversion of oxyhaemoglobin into methaemoglobin does
not occur under the influence of the venom itself but is due to
organisms. It occurred in all the control tubes which were not
sterile, but took place in these much Jater than in those that con-
tained venom. This is probably to be explained by a much greater
growth of the organisms in the blood which had received a small
admixture of venom. I shall presently show that venom destroys
' the power possessed by normal serum to inhibit the growth of
Some micro-organisms, which would explain why they should
grow more readily in those test tubes to which venom had been
added.

: The process of corpuscle destruction can be observed on a warm
: Stage under the microscope, in the same way as with frog’s blood.
: When mixed with salt solution containing ‘017, of venom the
field is markedly coloured with haemoglobin after thirty minutes.
Tn two hours the corpuscles are largely destroyed, and in ten
hours have entirely vanished and crystals of haemoglobin
sabe — They do not swell up, but become globular, the haemo-
globin passes out of them and the stromata become less and less
distinguishable until they can no longer be discerned.

156 c. J. MARTIN.

As I shall presently point out the same extensive destruction
of corpuscles occurs when the venom is injected into dogs |
quantities of -0001 gramme per kilogramme of the animal’s weight
or even less. The lowest limit of concentration necessary to r0-
duce this destruction is about the same both within the body 3
in vitro, viz.:—-00001 gramme of venom per 100 C.C. of blood!

The corpuscles of rabbits, guinea-pigs, cats, and white rats: ae

my own blood, even when this was kept at body temperature
When the strength of the venom was increased much beyond this
amount, disintegration of corpuscles occurred, but proceeded slowly.

The disparity in the amount of blood destruction following
injection of the venom into animals of different species, products
a corresponding variation in symptoms, and is associated with
marked difference in their susceptibility to the occurrence of
intravascular clotting. Dogs are, weight for weight, about ten
times as sensitive to this action of the poison as any other mammal
with which I have experimented,

(6)—Ezxamination of the blood of animals after the injection Y
venom.
The injection of much above a minimum fatal dose of ve
produces some destruction of red corpuscles in every animal
which I have experimented. When dogs are the animals
however, destruction of red corpuscles is very considerable &
with one-fifth a minimum fatal dose, and the escaped haemog
presents the same increased tendency to crystallize as I have
cribed to be the case in vitro, The haemoglobin crystallizes
within the body. The urine nearly always contains such
and on three occasions an animal has died two or three days
the injection of the poison with suppression of urine, and !

Raa nea ey iE
_ =o at this conclusion I have assumed that on
animal’s weight consisted of blood.—(Welcker)

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 157

scopic examination of the kidneys has shown the tubules to be
completely blocked with haemoglobin crystals.

Haemoglobinuria is a frequent symptom with animals of other
species, except with minimal or sub-minimal doses.

Professor Halford and Dr. Ralph many years ago noticed
changes in the corpuscular elements of the blood of animals
which had died from the bite of the Australian tiger-snake
(Hoplocephalus curtus). Their attention was particularly drawn
to the enormous number of leucocytes together with granular
debris present under these circumstances. They described the
leucocytes as frequently heaped together like masses of grapes.
Halford also described some large transparent nucleated cells
which he found in the blood of animals eight to twelve hours
subsequent to death from snake-bite, but which were not present
immediately after that event. Halford at one time attached
considerable importance to these cells, which are indeed swollen
leucocytes, the condition of which must be attributed to post-
Mortem phenomena. ‘They are, moreover, as was ‘first pointed
out by Dr. Ralph, of Kew, Victoria, also seen in the blood of
animals poisoned by prussic acid, when it is examined at a similar
interval after death and cannot therefore be considered as patho-
gnomonic of snake poisoning.

On examining the blood of animals, immediately subsequent to
death from the injection of Pseudechis poison I have, except in
those cases which have succumbed within a few hours after the
injection, always found increase in the number of leucocytes and
the occasional gathering together of these in grape like masses.

(¢)—Observations on the Hone S corpuscles after injection of

nom

To obtain a measure of reg ‘Wan to which the red cells are
_ destroyed, and also of the progress of the leucocytes, under the
influence of Pseudechis poison, I have made a series of observations
: ~ the number of both the red and the white corpuscles present
in the circulating blood before, and at different periods subsequent
to the injection of the poison. :

158 - Cc. J. MARTIN.

The animals used were dogs and in all cases the number of the
red corpuscles was diminished. The diminution commenced
directly the poison reached the circulation, and progressed to such
an extent that in some cases the number of the red cells was
reduced within a few hours to less than one half of that originally
present.

As regards the leucocytes, I expected to obtain evidence of some :
degree of leucocytopenia immediately following the injection of
the poison, and preceding the onset of the leucocytosis which had
‘been observed in the later stages of poisoning. I was surprised —
however to find that when the venom was introduced directly
into the circulation a great decrease in the number leucocytes,
amounting in many cases almost to their complete disappearant
-occurred immediately after the injection. This disappearance of
‘the leucocytes from the circulating blood was, however, only
temporary, and, in a time varying from one-half to five hours,
their number in samples of blood slowly increased until it reached |
and often far exceeded the quantity originally present. I have
always observed this extensive diminution in the number of the
leucocytes in those cases where the poison was introduced directly
into the circulation. -

Such a sudden disappearance of leucocytes from the circulation :
is not, however, peculiar to snake venom. A precisely similar
result has been observed to follow the intravenous injection
peptone (albumoses), and Sampson Himmelstjerna,’ 4 pupil of se
Alexander Schmidt, attributed the diminished coagulability
peptone blood to this absence of leucocytes. Lowit? and Wrigh e
have also drawn attention to the same fact. Both of these authors
were of opinion that the diminution of leucocytes was tot

-accounted for by active leucolysis. Leucocytes are, however, no
-disintegrated in vitro by solutions of venom or of peptone of much
greater concentration than they would ever encounter in the OF

ae
-cumstances under which these bodies were injected into the vel” 2

* Inaug. Diss. Dorpat., 1882.
? Stud. zur Physiol. u Path. des Blutes, Jena, 1892. ws
3 Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., Vol. u11., 1893.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 159

Rieder! has, on the other hand suggested, and Bruce* has

_ adduced evidence to show, that these cells are not destroyed but

only temporarily withdrawn from the circulation, and are to be
found crowding the tissues of the liver, lungs, and medulla of
bone. A similar temporary disappearance has also been found
to follow the intravenous injection of a variety of other bodies
among which may be mentioned nucleo-albumens,’ nuclein,* tuber-
culin,® bacterial proteins,® and carmine in suspension.? With all
these bodies the leucocytopenic phase is soon followed by one in
which the number of leucocytes is increased.

The cause of this disappearance of leucocytes after intravenous
injections of venom, I am inclined for the following reasons to
attribute to their collection in the tissues, and not to their rapid
destruction :-— :

(1) Solutions of venom one thousand times as strong as any they
could possibly come in contact with in the blood-stream, under
the conditions of the experiment, exert no disintegrating effect
upon them in vitro.

(2) It is almost inconceivable that the rapidity of their dis-
Sppearance and reappearance can be explained, if one supposes
them to be destroyed. In one of my experiments, a sample of blood
taken immediately after the venom injection was so devoid of
white cells, that it was necessary to search through many hundred
‘Squares of the haemocytoineter in order to find one ; whereas a
oe mmple of blood taken fifteen minutes after from the same
Animal contained nearly as large a number as was found previous
‘to the injection,

(3) Sections of the organs especially the liver and lungs appear
to contain an excessive number of leucocytes. (I have not made
“@ny accurate quantitative observations. )

7: Beitriige z. Kenntniss d. Leucocytose, Leipzig, 1892.
th verte Soe. Lond., iv., 1894.
urton & Brodie—Journ. of Physiol., 1894.
5 Tehisto wski, M. f. Chem., Vienna, 1891, Vol. x11., p. 221.
4 witsch, Berlin Klin. Woch., 1891, p. 838.

chner. 7 Werigo, Ann. l’Inst’ Pasteur, 1892.

160 C. J. MARTIN.

(4) It occurs to a trifling extent only, when the poison is
cutaneously injected.
Sherrington! pointed out that most of the substances which
when intravenously injected occasion marked leucocytopenia
also lymphagogues. Bayliss and Starling? demonstrated
lymph flow was a function of capillary blood pressure and
the latter depends much more upon venous than on the arterial
pressure in the region concerned. The injection of venom intot
circulation produces an immediate diminution of blood flow,
low arterial and high venous pressures, and it appears to me
improbable that such a condition of diminished flow together WI
high pressure, is accompanied by greatly increased diapedesisa
corresponding decrease of circulating leucocytes. If the animal
continues to live, the arterial blood pressure, after an interval of
a few minutes, steadily rises and the number of leucocytes in the
blood concurrently increases. A mechanical - explanation
however, insufficient, for the introduction of fine particles
carmine produces no alteration in the circulation, but is never:
theless the cause of the collection of leucocytes in internal organs.
The experiments form two series: (1) In which the venom ™
introduced directly into a vein; and (2) In which the venom ™
injected subcutaneously.
Enumeration of the corpuscles was accomplished in the follo’
way :—0°5c.c. of blood just withdrawn from an artery, was
up in a carefully graduated pipette and mixed with 99°5 c.c.
8% solution of MgSO, slightly tinged with methy! violet.
drops of the mixture were placed in the cell of a haemocyt®
and the red corpuscles in ten squares and the leo
hundred squares of the instrument, counted by two 0D®
The numbers counted by each observer usually agreed ie
and the numbers given in the protocols are the means ns

1 Proc. Roy. Soc - Lond., tv., p. 197.

2 Journ. of Physiol. xvr., 1894.

3 The number of corpuscles in ten squares multiplied by ten tl
gives the number in one cubic millimetre of blood. a

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 161

observations. In those few cases where there was any marked
disagreement, two more counts were made, and the average of
the whole four observations was adopted.
Protocols of Series 1.
Ex. I.—Slut, weight 6-8 kilos. ; grain 1 of morphia acetate sub-
cutaneously injected.
4:10 p.m., samples of blood drawn.
4:20 000025 gramme of venom per kilo. of body-weight
injected into jugular vein.
4°35 ,, same quantity injected.
455 ,, same quantity injected.
457 ,, sample of blood drawn.
735 ,, sample of blood drawn.
100 ,, sample of blood drawn.

”

Number of Corpuscles.

Red in10 | White in 100
squares.

Time. squares.
Before injection of venom ... 540 24°5
87 minutes after first injection ve venom.. 466 35
hours 15 minutes, do. do. do. ... 296 2
A ee ee. ee ee

Ex. II.—Dog, weight 8-2 kilos.; 2 grains morphia acetate.
3°50 p.m., sample of blood taken.
40 ‘000025 gramme of venom per kilo. of body-weight
injected into jugular vein.
410 ,, sample of blood drawn.
420 ,, sample of blood drawn.
50 ,, ‘0001 gramme per kilo. injected.

”

60 ,, sample of blood drawn.
os sample of blood drawn.
: : Hamber of et
Time, | Red 2 10 | White in in 100

Defense. ‘ie ioctice ee ce =e 603 i 105
10 minutes after injection | 517 | be
20 minutes after injection | 497 15
Shoursafter injection .. | 414° | 7S
5 hours |» hours after injection ae 365 wae 5 a ee) 2 se

K—July 3, 1895,

162 C. J. MARTIN.

Ex. III.—Dog, weight 15 kilos. ; 2 grains of morphia 2
injected subcutaneously.
12°35 p.m., sample of blood drawn.
12-40 ,, -000025 gramme of venom per kilo. of body we
injected into jugular vein.
12:55 ,, sample of blood: drawn.
1:0 ,, :00005 gramme venom per kilo. injected. ~
1D so sample of blood drawn (coag. 38 mins.)
1:20 ,, 00005 gramme venom per kilo. injected.
1°22. ,, dead.

Number of Corpuscles.

{oh
0 | White in 100 |
squares.

Time, squares.
Before injection of venom __.... 684, 21
15 minutes after injection... 550 16°5
_35 minutes after injection... 604 | 1407

Ex. IV.—Dog, weight 10-3 kilos.; 2 grains morphia
injected subcutaneously.
12-50 p.m., sample of blood drawn.
10, 000025 gramme venom per kilo. of body '
injected into jugular vein.
110 ,, sample of blood drawn.
ey sample of blood drawn.

30 ,, sample of blood drawn.
40 ,, sample of blood drawn.
50 ,, sample of blood drawn.
Number of Corpuscles. :
ee ee *
Red in 10 | White in 100
Time. squares. squares.
Before injection... ...... 564 15
10 minutes after injection 483 1
1 hour after injection 421 65
2 hours after injection 369 35
3 hours after injection re 322 10°
4 hours after injection... ...) 297 155

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 163

I next made some observations on the number of red and white
corpuscles in animals which had received a much larger quantity
of venom, but in which the poison was subcutaneously introduced.
The amount given was such that some of the animals recovered,
while others succumbed. The experiments show the same diminu-
tion in the number of red corpuscles. The quantity of white
corpuscles increased almost immediately after the injection of the
poison. The leucocytosis reached a maximum on the second or
third day of illness, when the leucocytes were often present in
four or five times the normal amount. The number from this
time onward gradually decreased, but the leucocytosis persisted
to some extent, in the single case in which observations were
taken over so long a period, for a fortnight after the complete
recovery of the animal.

The number of the red cells was least, twenty-four to thirty-six
hours after the introduction of the poison, at which time they
were reduced to about one half their normal number. This
decrease in red corpuscles was associated with the passage of a
large quantity of haemoglobin into the urine. The urine often
had the appearance of blood, but contained few or none of the
red cells. .The bile also, in those cases which died contained
haemoglobin.

Series II.
In these experiments 5 cub. m.m. of blood were taken from the

_ ear and mixed with 995 cub. m.m. of the MgSO, solution and the
_ Corpuscles counted as before.

Ex. I.—Dog, weight 7:7 kilos.
Sep. 21, 11-25 a.m., sample of blood taken.

ae 11:30 ,, injected subcutaneously in lumbar region
with 023 gramme venom.

ie 12-0 ,, sample of blood taken.

és 30 p.m., sample of blood taken (urine pare
haemoglobin). ;

« 50 ,, sample of blood taken (walks with difficulty).

164

Cc, J. MARTIN.

Sept. 22, 8-30 a.m.,(more lively, had passed half a pint of haemo-

globin stained urine during night).
12:0 mid-day, sample of blood taken, (drank one pint
; of milk, diarrhea).
530 (lively, runs about, drinks plenty of milk,
urine contains haemoglobin).

”

= 12-0 mid-day, sample of blood taken.

eee (quite lively but weak, urine contains

haemoglobin; eats well), sample ds
blood taken.
» 25, ” (urine contains haematin and albumen),

sample of blood taken.
» 26, ” apparently well, urine albuminous, sample
of blood taken.

er ane

=
Nee eeee

» 27, 9 (urine albuminous), blood examined.
» 28, ” (urine contains a trace of albumen),
blood examined.
» 29, 9 urine normal, blood examined.
Oct. 1, oy blood examined.
Number of Corpuscles.
: Red in 10 | White in 100
Time, waeitils squares.
Peta
Before injection ... eee oc 583 | 20
30 minutes after ... ee os 503 18°5
urs after 427 36
5t hours after 365 | 48%
1 da 202 46°5
2 » 217 65
Be is 197 80
4 ” 237 | 73°35
. os 264 | 79
6 ”» a: 294 54
342 48°5.
8 ” 346 49
10 » 358 48
14 a 402 | 39

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 165

Ex. I].—Dog, weight 11-5 kilos.
11:25 a.m., sample of blood taken.
11:30 a.m., (0065 gramme venom injected in lumbar region,
10 p.m., sample of blood taken.
3°30 ,, sample of blood taken.

50 ~=,, sample of blood taken.
Number of Corpuscles.
ee Red in10 | White in 100
Time. squares. squares.

Before injection ... Be a 540 12

1} hours after... $e Se 492 15

4 hours after $6 if iB 441 31
Sthoursafter ... _... ae 402 33

Ex, III.—Dog, weight 11:2 kilos.
Sept. 29, 10-30 a.m., sample of blood taken.

” 10°35 ,, ‘Ol gramme venom injected in lumbar
region.
” 5°0 p.m., sample of blood examined (had vomited,

and passed urine stained with haemo-
globin).

» 30, 10-0 am., sample blood taken, (very ill, refuses
food but drinks eagerly; can walk

. with difficulty. Urine contains
haemoglobin).

Oct. 1, 10-0 a.m., sample of blood taken, (condition the same).

ss sample of blood taken, (condition worse, urine

intensely coloured by haemoglobin).
The dog died during the day.
Number of Corpuscles.

i Red in 10 White in 100

Time, ‘< squares,
SRE TAREE hans ere ee Ee
Before injection .. .., ...| 548 16
Shoursafter .. ... ...| 967 34
= Fs Hes ag Sosa 57
48 ‘ oe tec omer ree 67
| es oe ve
Retina ON TS A tae ane e

166 C. J. MARTIN.

Ex. LV.—Slut, weight 8°4 kilos.
10°0 a.m., sample of blood taken. oS
10:30 ,, 01625 gramme of venom subcutaneously injected — :

in lumbar region. :

11°50 ,, (very drowsy, vomited, shivering). a
12°30 p.m., sample of blood taken. '
3°30 ,, delirious, temperature 99-4, heart irregular.

60 ,, (comatose, temperature 95-6)
8:0 ,, sample of blood taken. |
90 ,, (comatose, temperature 90-3).

4:0 ,, sample of blood taken, (comatose). :
i

100, “hed,
Number of Corpuscles. |
| Red in10 | White in 100° :
= ian | oan
Before injection ... het aA 546 155 4
2 hours afterwards bs te 471 25
54 hours afterwards _ Bess 382 27°5
9: hours afterwards me 361 |

:
au
I have mentioned that venom, when mixed with blood on # (
slide prevents the display of amceboid activity on the part of _ .
white cells. That the same interference with the vital activity

experiment, which is one of a series with similar results.

Two small pieces of sterilised sponge about 1 m.m. cube were
aseptically introduced into the abdominal wall of a guinea-pis:
One of these little sponges had been soaked in a “77% solution
NaCl containing | %, of venom, the other in the saline without
the venom. Both sponges were pushed about a centimetre awa)
from the incision, which was afterwards drawn together by [
horse-hair suture, and covered with collodion. After two hours
swelling arose round the venom-containing sponge, whereas © |
other remained of the original size. At the expiration of five
hours the animal was killed and both sponges very
withdrawn and plunged into absolute alcohol.

AO je coat’
in eas ee z a

‘methods of handlin

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE, 167

Sections of the two sponges treated in the same way presented
very different appearances. The control was infiltrated with
leucocytes which stained well with ordinary nuclear stains; the
other contained leucocytes only near the margins, and many of
these were broken down and took the stain badly, or not at all.

From these sponge experiments I conclude that whereas into
the control sponge the leucocytes could by their amceboid move-
ments penetrate unharmed, in the other their activity was
paralysed, they succumbed, and were eventually disintegrated by
the solution of the venom.

To recapitulate : the effects of the venom when introduced into
the body on the blood corpuscles are :—

(1) More or less destruction of the red corpuscles, the haemo-

globin of which escapes by the urine.

(2) A great increase in the number of leucocytes which may be

preceded by a certain amount of diminution.

(3) Inhibition of the vital activity of those white cells which

come into contact with the venom in sufficient concentration.

Alterations in the blood-plasma after the injection of venom.

In the previous section of this paper I have shown that venom
exerts a destructive action upon the red blood corpuscles whereby
their disintegrated products are set free in the plasma. The
haemoglobin circulates in solution in the plasma and is eventually
discharged by the urine and bile. I do not know that there is
any evidence that haemoglobin exercises any baneful influence
by its presence in plasma, and I have not noticed any ill effects

to follow the injection of two or three grammes of well washed

crystals, dissolved in ‘9% NaCl solution, into the circulation of
: The remaining portion of the red blood corpuscle, the
Stroma, consists of a highly complex substance which by various
: g may be made to yield products which are not

80 Innocent,
By extraction with various solvents, stromata yield cholesterin,
lecithin, a globulin, and a proteid compound of nuclein, which is —

168 C. J. MARTIN.

compared by Wooldridge,' who first separated it from stromata,
to the substance found by Plosz in liver cells, and named by
nucleo-albumen. Wooldridge refers to this body as—*
Eiweisskérper der mit einem anderen an phosphor reichen moleeil
verbunden ist.” He came to this conclusion from the fact tha
by digesting this body with gastric juice, peptone, and a phosphor
ous-containing body which he compares with Miescher’s nuclei,
were formed.

It would be an unwarrantable assumption to suppose that when
venom is injected into the blood stream, it produces precisely the
same decomposition in the stromata as can be effected by extract
ing blood corpuscles with ether, alcohol and sodium chloride
solution outside the body. Nevertheless we have evidence, as will
be seen shortly, that bodies of the nature of nucleo-albumens are,
under these conditions the part result, and that some of the
changes which the plasma undergoes, after the introduction
snake venom into the circulation, are to be attributed to the
presence of these particular products of the disintegration of the
red corpuscles. : oe

Effect on the coagulability of dog’s blood.

In the general enquiry, I have frequently had occasion to Us
such methods as are commonly employed for obtaining grap!
records of the blood pressure in arteries and veins, and have P
struck with the remarkably satisfactory manner in which
blood has behaved as regards clotting. On more than one 00
a tracing of the venous pressure in.a dog has continued for
hours, without coagulation occurring in the cannula. :

This behaviour suggested some inhibition of the normal clot
power of extravascular blood. During several experiments,
accordingly drew samples of blood. In all of these coast
was retarded, the specimens clotting only after the lapse of -
to twenty hours, or not at all. At this time I was working ¥ as

1 Du Bois Reymond’s Archiv. 1881, p. 387-

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 169

the intravenous injection of very small quantities of the poison,
viz.—0-00001 to 0-00002 gramme per kilogramme of body weight.’

Tam aware that such an observation on the fluidity of the
blood, following the introduction of snake poison into the system,
is by no means new.

Fontana,? more than one hundred years ago, noticed that the
blood remained fluid in animals dead of viper bite, and Brainard,®
writing forty years back, states, that when death occurred im-
mediately (the italics are mine) in animals bitten by rattle snakes,
the blood was found at the post mortem examination to be clotted,
but if some time elapsed before the animal succumbed, the blood
remained fluid in the vessels. These observations of Brainard

“were confirmed by Weir Mitchell* in 1860, who explained the

difference by the hypothesis that in cases of very rapid death the
poison had not had time to affect the blood. A few years later,
Halford’ observed the same continued fluidity of the blood to
follow the injection of the venom of some Australian species.°

More recently Feoktistow’ has confirmed Fontana’s observation
on the condition of the blood after the injection of viper poison
(V.ammodytes and V. berus ). The continued fluidity of the blood
after death from the bite of the Indian viperine snakes, has been
frequently noted during past years by numerous observers in that
country, and contrasted with the negative results in this respect
following the injection of cobra poison in animals. In death from

rss rs
' The weights refer to the poison in the dry condition. The method of
acquiring the venom has been described in a previous communication in
eonjunction with Mr. McGarvie Smith.—Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W. 1891.
?“ Fontana on Poisons,” Translated by J. Skinner, London, 1787.
3“ Smithsonian Reports,” 1854.
: Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge,” Vol. xu.
: apa Times and Gazette,” 1873, Vol. 11.
dimi uite recently Dr. Skinner of Beechworth, Victoria, has recorded
— coagulability of the blood during life, in a case of snake bite
occurred in his practice.—“ Australian Medical Gazette,” March

170 Cc. J. MARTIN.

cobra bite in the human subject the blood is however very
frequently fluid, and non-coagulable.
On other occasions, when taking carotid pressure tracings during
the injection of larger doses of venom (0-0002 gramme per k
or above this quantity), within a minute of the time when the
poison was introduced, the record of the rise in pressure due to
the heart’s beat disappeared, but the pressure in the manometer
remained considerably aboye zero. On investigation it was found
that there were no clots in or near the cannula, but in each cas?
the artery, at some little distance from the cannula, contained ®
solid core of clot extending into the aorta, and left ventricle. On —
further dissection, the blood in the whole vascular system, except
ing only the pulmonary veins and the left auricle, was found to
be solid. The clot in the portal venous system was particularly =
hard. These experiments I have repeated very many times, in :
fact one or the other phase of coagulability occurs every time this . i
snake poison is injected into a vein of a dog. !
Pseudechis venom is not the only kind of snake poison which
influences the coagulability of blood-plasma. From the examine
tion of the literature of snake poison in the light of knowledge
gained from the above experiments, I felt convinced that some
the results obtained by other observers working with different
venoms, which results they attributed to quite other causes, ¥™
in reality due to intravascular clotting. Within the last :
also, [ have had the opportunity of reading a paper by Heidens
dealing with the same subject. This author found that Cro
venom first raised the tendency of the blood to coagulate,
that this increase was followed by a diminution in coagula
He was of opinion that an excessive increase of coagulability ¢
occasion considerable thrombosis and the death of the 90”
Heidenschild considers that the sudden death from large —
venom which has been-observed by so many experimenters ¥°
be explained in this way. :

1 Untersuchungen iiber die Wirkung des Giftes der

Brillen und def
Klapperschlange—Inaug. Dissert. Dorpat 1886. ee

esha i
Fs c

to observe it,

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. ye

Owing to the fact that Heidenschild’s results formed the subject

- of an inaugural dissertation, and were not as far as I am aware,

published in any journal, I had not the advantage until recently
of consulting his paper in Sydney, and I regret that on this
account I omitted to mention his work in a previous publication
of my own on this particular aspect of the physiological effect of
the injection of Pseudechis venom.! We were however, both
forestalled by Fontana,? who more than one hundred years ago
noticed that in those experiments which were followed by the
sudden death of the animal, the blood was solid throughout the
greater portion of the venous system, and who expressed his
opinion that the clotting of the blood in the living animal caused
death by arresting the circulation. Fontana, as previously
mentioned, also noticed the permanent fluidity of the blood in
other cases of viper poisoning, and he would appear to have
wondered greatly that two such apparently opposite effects could
be produced by the operation of the same agency.

Immediately after the introduction of the venom into a vein,
the coagulability of the blood increases, and this increase of
coagulability, in the case of moderate or large doses (more than

‘0001 gramme per kilo.), culminates in intravascular clotting of
greater or less extent. The smallest dose which I have found
to produce complete clotting in the systemic circulation was
9:00015 gramme per kilo. Such a dose, however, usually in dogs
gives rise to thrombosis limited to the portal vein and its branches,
and inhibition of coagulability elsewhere.

The injection of small doses,—i.e. below 0-0001 gramme per

Kilo.—also gives rise to a condition of increased coagulability of -

the blood. This increase however, only manifests itself for an
extremely short time, and samples must be drawn within two
minutes from the time of the introduction of the venom, in order
This transient positive phase is succeeded by a

Prone re:

Prepac na en
1
Journal of Physiology, Vol. xv., p. 380.
Stars -—This observation of Fontana’s was also unknown he Pe er
*eently, as a copy of his work was not procurable in Sy

172 C. J. MARTIN.

negative phase, for blood drawn three minutes after the injection,
either fails to clot at all, or does so only after the lapse of several
hours. The negative phase continues for one or two days aitet :
the introduction of the poison in dogs which have received a neatly :
fatal dose of the venom subcutaneously. .

It is interesting to note that the duration of the phase d
diminished coagulability corresponds under such cireumstant 4
with the period of blood cell destruction. When this cell destrue ‘
tion ceases, the coagulability of the plasma rapidly returns to the
normal. The blood in all parts of the vascular ‘system does not 3
exhibit the same tendency to clot in the vessels, When dogs .
are the subjects of experiment, coagulation, when present, always
occurs in the portal venous system, and the thrombosis 8
frequently confined to this area. It also occurs more readily :
with venous than with arterial blood.

Dogs evince varying degrees of susceptibility in this respech
the same dose per kilo. producing in one animal intravasculat
clotting, in another inhibition of the coagulation of the shed blood. .

Results with animals other than dogs. .

T have examined the condition of the blood after the intravenoe
injection of snake poison in rabbits and cats. In these
both positive and negative phases occur as with dogs. Cats apP
more resistant to the action of the venom than dogs and rahi ;

Conditions modifying the effect upon the blood plasma of the

injection of venom. :
(1) Influence of Respiration.

T have previously mentioned that I have on no occasion 05 :
the blood, which has just traversed the capillaries of the lungs
participate in an otherwise general thrombosis. Whatevt "=
may be effected in the plasma during its passage through :
pulmonary veins and left auricle, where it remains fluid, e oo
transient for the blood in the left ventricle and aorta is often ae

When complete clotting of the blood in both systemic om
and veins follows injection of the poison, respiration cont" a

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 173

often for a minute or more after the circulation is at a standstill.

If records of the arterial blood pressure and of the respiratory

movements be taken in these experiments, the moment of clotting
in the arteries is indicated on the tracing, by the disappearance
of heart-beats, and the straight line described by the style some
distance above the abscissa. I have in my possession a number
of tracings showing the continuance of respiration for periods up to
two minutes after the circulation must have been completely
blocked.

These experiments show that as long as the blood will flow
through the pulmonary artery and its branches, there is nothing
to prevent its normal gaseous interchange, as far as the respiratory
movements are concerned. That it takes up oxygen as usual is
seen by the colour of the blood in the left heart.

To ascertain whether the modification of the coagulability of
the blood during its passage through the lungs depended on its
altered gaseous condition, I followed the method which Wright
used, to determine the cause of the distribution of thrombosis
after injections of Wooldridge’s tissue fibrinogen. This observer
rendered animals dyspneeic by compression of the trachea previous
to the injection of doses, which, as he had determined would,
without this treatment, only give rise to a very limited intra-
Vascular clotting. The results of injecting “tissue-fibrinogen sg
into the circulation when in this venous condition were strikingly
altered. My experiments were performed on rabbits of like
weight. Several were intravenously injected, under exactly
similar circumstances, with gradually decreasing doses of venom,
until a dose was found which produced a very limited clotting or
hone at all. Other rabbits of the same weight were then rendered
dyspneic by compression of the trachea continued for one minute
before the subminimal dose of venom was introduced. These
Subminimal doses produced in every case complete clotting
throughout the whole vascular system.

1 e
Journal of Physiology, Vol. x1t., No. 2.

174 C. J. MARTIN.

Professor Wright has recently extended his observations an
shown that it is the increase in CO, and not the diminution!
the contained oxygen, which determines the greater tendency t
coagulate which occurs in venous blood.!

(2) Influence of Digestion. :
I find I have records of eleven experiments in which 0-0002
gramme per kilo. was injected into the jugular vein of ado
Seven of these animals died within eight minutes, from extensite
venous and arterial thrombosis. Three others died within two
hours, and one lived for upwards of four hours. The post mortél
examination of this last animal discovered no intravascular clotting
and the shed blood remained fluid until it putrefied. In the three
which lived from one to two hours after the injection, there a
more or less thrombosis of the portal venous system, but the
from the rest of the body remained fluid for several hours.
These experiments were not performed with the sole object af
observing the effect of venom on the clotting of the blood, aul
every one of them records, including one of arterial blood press
were taken on a kymograph. Consequently I have in each cas
the exact time and duration of the injection to refer £95 Inal
the experiments the above mentioned amount per
dissolved in 2 c.c. of a7 7% solution of NaCl, and the time occup
by the injection, as registered on the tracing, was from five
eight seconds. ‘The importance of the knowledge that the F
injection was fairly constant, I shall discuss later on.
At the time of these experiments I attributed the variation
results to idiosyncracies in the dogs. On reconsidering the ma ;
however, I am inclined to attribute them to the effect of ¢ di
The seven first mentioned experiments were performed i ine
and the four last also in sequence. During the former
was working in the afternoon, whilst the experiments form
latter series were performed in the forenoon, and I find that
dogs have always been fed at 11 a.m. Thus, for the first’

1 Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., Vol. Lv.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 175

dogs which had had a meal three hours previously were used,
whereas the last four experiments were made upon animals which
had fasted for nearly twenty-four hours.

(3) Influence of Rapidity of Injection.

The variations in effect caused by alterations in the rapidity of
injection are very marked. So much so, that it is impossible to
compare the results from different experiments, unless the rate
with which the poison is introduced is a constant factor. Intra-
vascular clotting is produced most readily if the dose be rapidly
thrown into a vein near the heart (e.g. the jugular). On increas-
ing the time of delivery of the poison into the circulation, either
by employing diluted solutions, or by pressing down the piston of
the syringe more slowly, the positive phase (increased coagulability
of the blood), is less and less pronounced. Tf the duration of the
injection be still further prolonged, the positive phase, if present,
is so rapidly succeeded by the negative variation that this latter
appears to be the only result. . The negative phase becomes more
and more pronounced as larger quantities of the venom are allowed
to slowly enter the circulation. For slow injections I have con-
nected a burette containing a very dilute solution of venom in

_ ‘TY, NaCl with the cannula in the vein, by a piece of rubber tube,
the calibre of which was controlled by a screw clamp. With this
arrangement I have been able to introduce large doses (0 005

gramme per kilo.), without producing intravascular clotting.

The discovery that the effects on the blood plasma after slow
: injections, are vastly different from, in fact exactly opposite to,
: those following rapid introduction of the venom, explains why, in
‘My earliest experiments, I did not obtain the same fluid condition
_ Of the blood as Halford,! who used either subcutaneous injection
of the venom, or else allowed a snake to bite the dog. By these
methods delivery into the circulation would necessarily be slow,
~ comparable with results obtained by intravenous injection
only in cases in which such injection was very gradually

1 Loc. cit.

176 C. J. MARTIN.

(4) Influence of previous injection of the venom into an animal, —
on the result of a subsequent injection.

If a small dose of venom (less than 0:0001 gramme per kilo.) be
introduced into a dog, the blood, as previously mentioned, exhibits a
for about two or three minutes after the completion of the injee —
tion, an increased coagulability. That is to say, samples drawn

i!
|
during this period clot sooner than control samples taken previous 4
to the injection. At the same time the arterial blood pressute
falls to one half or one third of its former height. After twenty 4
or thirty minutes the pressure begins slowly to rise, and thirly ‘
minutes to one hour from the time of the injection may have ;
reached or even exceeded its original height. During the whole
of this period, with the exception of the first two or three minutes
samples of blood taken from an artery show very marked retarda-
tion in coagulation.

If now, one hour or more after the first injection, a second
injection containing a much larger quantity (ten or twenty times
the first dose) be made, the introduction of this second dosé
increases the coagulability of the blood during the subsequent! ht
minutes, but samples of blood drawn five or ten nine after the a
second injection clot however only after the lapse of | bout
and in many cases spontaneous coagulation is altogether in abey-
ance. I have always introduced, at the second injection, a quantity
of the venom which would inevitably produce complete arterial
and venous thrombosis in an animal which had not beet pre
viously subjected to an injection of a dose sufficient to establish #
negative variation.

On other occasions I have given a dog yet a third injec
containing comparatively speaking, a very large dose, viz.i—
gramme per kilo. This amount, dissolved in 3 c.c. of 77, ™
solution was injected, as rapidly as possible, into the femoral
jugular vein. This third injection failed to produce any i ae
coagulability of the blood, and the samples drawn immediately
after the injection did not clot at all.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 177

It would thus appear that the establishment of a negative
variation confers an immunity, as far as intravascular clotting is
concerned, against further injections of the venom. This immunity
is very speedily produced ; how long it may last I am at present
not in a position to say.

These facts explain how it is that one can introduce large
quantities of the venom into the circulation, provided this be done
slowly, without producing intravascular clotting. The first portion
of the injection causes a transitory positive phase, 7.¢., increased
coagulability, but not sufficient to cause actual thrombosis. This
is immediately superseded by a negative phase and the establish-
ment of this inhibitory phase confers immunity against the
remainder of the injection.

Before discussing the bearings of these facts, I shall indicate
the results of an examination of shed blood which has been sub-
jected to the action of the venom, and of some of the reactions of
the non-coagulable blood, itself.

Action of a solution of venom on the coagulation of shed blood.

To determine whether a solution of venom were capable of
exerting any influence upon shed blood, I dissected out three
inches of the femoral artery of a dog, and bled from this directly
into a solution of the poison. The cut end of the artery was
immersed in a ‘9% solution of NaCl, containing 0°1% of venom.
’ By relaxing the compression of the fingers, a small amount of
| blood—equal to the volume of the salt solution—was allowed to

flow into the vessel. The two fluids were at the same time freely
mixed by agitating the end of the artery. The blood began to
thicken in fifty-six seconds, but clotting did not proceed in a
‘ormal manner. At the end of an hour, a small soft clot formed,
which on shrinking failed to entangle all the corpuscles. The
Vessels containing the mixture of blood and venom solution could
at no time be inverted without upsetting the contents, as could
be done to the vessel in a control experiment with salt solution

L—July 3, 1995,

178 C. J. MARTIN. 3

On no occasion have I been able to prevent coagulation altogether,
as was done by Weir Mitchell and Reichert! with the venomd
the rattle-snake. These authors drew the blood directly intos
vessel containing a solution of venom (a stronger solution than :
mine), surrounded by a freezing mixture. On allowing the
temperature of the blood to rise gradually they found it remained q
permanently fluid. , :

Examination of samples of blood exhibiting the negative :
variation. ‘
Negative phase blood always shows marked retardation in :
clotting. The delay is so great in some cases that putrefaction :
sets in before coagulation has occurred. The loss of coagulability
is the more pronounced the greater the amount of venom which
has been introduced. There is not the slightest difficulty in pro
ducing this negative phase ; it is only necessary to introduce the
poison sufficiently slowly at first, in order that the initial positive
variation may not reach the pitch when intravascular =
occurs.

a ae ey

The blood of the negative phase takes up oxygen and gives it
up in the usual manner, and with the exception of its loss of
spontaneous coagulability, and the fact that some of the heemog!¢
is dissolved in the plasma, does not obviously depart huge
-normal. In my examination of this blood, the corpuscles .
separated from the plasma by the centrifuge. The — a
which the coagulability of the plasmas was diminished %
according to the amonnt of venom which had been in eu
and also, to some extent, according to the time which had me
between the injection of the venom, and the withdrawal of
sample of blood. In most cases I found that the greatest of
in clotting occurred in blood drawn about an hour after the
duction of the poison. By increasing the dose of venom, be i
been able to obtain plasmas in which coagulability was m
to any degree, from slight delay in the onset of clotting, gett

=

1 Loe. cit.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 179

disappearance of spontaneous coagulability. Those samples in
which clotting is delayed for a few hours, but which subsequently
clot well, I shall refer to as ‘‘ weak negative phases,” while those
in which spontaneous coagulation is entirely in abeyance, and
which can only, be made to clot under a few special conditions, I
shall designate “pronounced negative phases,” but it must be
borne in mind that individual samples show every degree of loss
of coagulability between these extremes.

In plasmas which exhibit only a weak negative phase, clotting
can be induced more or less readily by the addition of the following

(1) Solution of nucleo-albumen (Wooldridge’s tissue-fibrinogen).

(2) Calcium chloride.

(3) Dilution.

(4) Passage of CO, through the liquid.

(5) Alexander Schmidt’s fibrin ferment.

These are arranged in the order in which they are most active.
As the negative phase becomes more and more pronounced, they
lose their capacity to hasten or occasion clotting usually in the
inverse order, although exceptions are not infrequent. Ina really
| Pronounced negative phase, each and all of these additions are
_ incapable of inducing coagulation.

Such plasmas contain fibrinogen, for by heating, after previous
< neutralisation, they yield a considerable precipitate at 55° C. The
: fibrinogen would appear, however, to be present in a somewhat

altered condition, for it is now no longer thrown out of solution
by half saturation with NaCl.

These plasmas although absolutely devoid of spontaneous
Seagulability, can be made to yield fibrin, though the amount
Fielded ®ppears to me to be very much less than that obtainable
from an equal quantity of blood plasma, previous to the injection
‘the Poison ; but as I have not made any quantitative determin-

on of the amounts, Iam unable to speak with certainty on

180 Cc. J. MARTIN.

Plasmas which have lost all spontaneous coagulability m
however be made to clot by the following means—

(1) Addition of a saturated solution of NaCl up to an

volume.

(2) Addition of an equal volume of a saturated solution a

MgSO, = é

(3) Addition of acetic acid, until the plasma is just faintly acil

(4) Similar addition of weak sulphuric, hydrochloric, or p

phoric acids. (Oxalic acid is ineffectual).

The addition of the saturated solutions of NaCl and MgS0.
occasions a faint turbidity, and the plasma clots on standing#
few minutes. The acids must be carefully added, just to acidif
cation, when turbidity occurs. Until this point is reached,
clotting ever occurs, and if too much be added, the fibrinogen s
precipitated. This precipitate readily redissolves in excess of the
acid, and when so redissolved I have never succeeded in producing
coagulation. The fibrin formed under these circumstances has
the appearance of ordinary fibrin. It is insoluble in weak sal”
solutions, or dilute HCl (-2%), but swells up in the latter,
digesting with pepsin it dissolves, leaving a perfectly clear sol

Since the observations of Arthus and Pagés! the influenc?
calcium in coagulation has been recognised to be of the )
importance. Blood, decalcified by drawing it into a solution
soluble oxalate, or fluoride (Arthus and Pagés), has lost its cap®
to clot, although this may be restored by the further addi
calcium salt. The intravenous injection of sodium °
(Halliburton and Brodie),? or soap (Munk), also renders the
incoagulable. Pekelharing® is of opinion that the din
coagulability of blood after the intravenous injection of :
and sometimes of nucleo-albumens is to be explained in the
way.

1 Archiv. de Physiol., Ser. v., T. 11., 1890, p. 739.
2 Journal of Physiology, Vol. xvir., 1894.
3 Centrbl. f. d. Med. Wiss., Bd. 45, 1892.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 181

As the fluid plasma of the negative phase after venom injections
presents, in many respects, the closest analogies with the plasmas
obtained by both of these means, I made a series of experiments
to determine the influence of calcium on the coagulability of the
blood of animals after injections of venom. The effect of calcium
salts on plasmas in vitro, has already been mentioned.

I found that the results of these experiments could be arranged

in three classes—

(1) The cases where only a very moderate negative phase has
been produced, and the clotting of the shed blood is delayed
from thirty minutes to two or three hours.

(2) Cases in which the negative phase is more pronounced and
the shed blood clots only after some hours or days.

(3) Very pronounced negative phases in which the blood never
clots spontaneously, and in which the addition of saturated
solution of sodium chloride etc. only occasions a very small
amount of coagulum.

The addition of a few drops of calcium chloride to a sample of
blood from the first class, causes almost immediate solidification
and if a few cc. of a 1% solution of this salt in ‘9% NaCl be
Injected into a vein, the coagulability of the blood is raised above
the normal, and very frequently the animal dies in a few minutes

from extensive thrombosis.

2
a
a
ah

With the second class, the calcium chloride is without influence
i the extravascular plasma, but raises the coagulability of the
ireulating blood towards the normal.
. ‘With the third class, CaCl, has no effect either when injected
or added to the plasma in vitro.

; = following three experiments, chosen from a large number,
illustrate these effects of calcium salts. In these experiments the
ala artery and jugular vein were dissected out, and cannule
lied in both. The former was used for taking samples of blood,
nd the latter for the introduction of the venom and calcium

182 C. J. MARTIN.

chloride solutions. -After the withdrawal of each sample of boo

from the artery, the cannule was carefully cleaned out.

Experiment I.—Dog, weight 4:8 kilogrammes.
11-45 a.m., 0-13 gramme of morphia acetate subcutaneously. —
12°30 p.m., 000025 gramme venom per kilo. of body weight
(dissolved in 5 cc. of -9% NaCl solution)
injected slowly into jugular vein.
10 ,, *00035 gramme venom per kilo. injected into eae
vein.
1:10 ,, sample of blood withdrawn. (A)

115 ,, 5 ce. of 1Y solution of OaCl, in 9% NaCl solution e

injected into jugular vein. This was fo
by immediate thrombosis and death.
Sample A centrifugalised.
(1) Plasma clotted alone in thirty-five minutes.
(2) Plasma + 4 drops of ‘5% solution CaCl, clotted almost
immediately.

Experiment IT.—Dog, weight 5-3 kilogrammes.
11 a.m., 0-13 gramme morphia acetate subcutaneously.

12 p.m., 000025 gramme of venom per kilo. of body Messe
5 cc. 9°% NaCl solution, slowly injected 2 iat

jugular vein.

1 p.m., 00035 gramme of venom per kilo. injected into
jugular vein.

2°45 sample of blood Srithideatii (A)

250 10 ce. 1Y solution CaCl, in ‘9% NaCl solution
into jugular.

2°55 sample of blood withdrawn (B), which clotted ip
minutes ; the clot was a soft one, and never 0°
a firm jelly.

i.

Sample A centrifugalised.

Tay eer ee ae =
peraine RNMae iee SSuidik Ce / all Meee nal

cask Whe

ate ae Pen

Pik Saye EO re see Lieto

4

Plasma A clotted slightly and spontaneously after 20 age

Plasma + CaCl,, clotted in the same time.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 183

Experiment I1I.—Dog, weight 14:4 kilogrammes.
11 am., 0:15 gramme morphia acetate.
12°10 P. m., 000025 gramme venom per kilo of body weight in
5 cc. 9% NaCl solution slowly injected into
jugular vein.
20 ',, ‘00035 gramme venom per kilo. injected into jugular.
215 ,, sample of blood withdrawn, (A
2:30 ,, -00035 gramme venom per kilo. injected into jugular.
30 ,, sample of blood withdrawn. (B)
310 ,, 10cc.1% solution of CaCl, in 9% NaCl solution,
injected into jugular.
3°30 ,, bled todeath. (0)

All the samples of blood were centrifugalised. The plasmas
A, B, C clotted under the following circumstances :—
A—Plasma clotted spontaneously in 4 hours 14 minutes

Plasma diluted with water, in 2 hours 30 minutes -
Plasma + CaCl, in 4 hours.
B and O—Plasma did not clot spontaneously, nor on dilution.

Plasma + CaCl, no clot.

Plasma + CaCl, and 1 ce. of nucleo-albumen solu-
tion (from testis)—precipitate, which next
morning was partially converted into fibrin.

Plasma acidified with acetic, hydrochloric, sulphuric
and phosphoric acids until turbidity was pro-
duced, clotted in less than fifteen minutes.

Plasma + equal volume saturated solution NaCl, clotted in
oe ten minutes.

Plasma + equal volume saturated solution MgsSO,, clotted in
twenty-two minutes.

As in those cases where the negative phase is well pronounced,

‘alcium is ineffectual in producing coagulation, both in intra- and
extra-vascular plasma, it cannot well be maintained, as Pekelharing,
Supposes to be the case with peptone blood, that this disappearance

184 C. J. MARTIN.

of clotting power is due to the absence of free calcium salts from
the blood.

The analogous behaviour of blood after snake venom snjootia ?
with peptone blood, is not however, in this respect departed from;
for I find that both peptone plasma and the plasma obtained after
the slow injection of nucleo-albumens, behave in a manner
identical with snake venom plasma, provided a sufficient quantity
of these bodies have been introduced to produce a complete
disappearance of all tendency to spontaneous coagulation. As
Pekelharing’s inviting hypothesis only explains the partial
phenomena of peptone injection, one cannot accept it as an inter-
pretation of the facts. 7

Significance of these phenomena.
These phenomena of intravascular coagulation exhibiting
positive and negative phases, together with the conditions W.
I have found to modify the result, show the closest parallelism
with the effects observed by Wooldridge, Wright?and Halliburton!
to follow the introduction of tissue-fibrinogen (nucleoalbune)
into the circulation. This parallelism is still further evident when
one compares the behaviour of the fluid blood, drawn from
animal poisoned with venom, in which the negative phase is pre

1 “On intravase. coag.”—Proc. Roy. Soc., 1886. “ Ueber intra’
Gerinnung ”—Du Bois Reymond’s Arch. 1886. is poate a
der Blutgerinnung ”—Ludwig’s Veatackerift, 1887. ‘On he
Infarction of the Liver”—Proc. Path. Soc. 1837. ‘‘ The Nata
Coagulation ”—Hainsworth & ee! London 1888. “ Ueber Schutaimh
= chemischem Wege ’—Du Bois Reymond’s Arch. 1888.
“On the conditions which determine the distribution of = c0
ie following the intravascular injection of Woo ldridge §
fibrinogen.” —Journal of Physiol., Vol. xm., No.2. “A na

fibrinogen.”—Proc. Roy. Irish Acad., 3rd Series, Vol. 1, i
tissue or cell fibrinogen in its relation to the pathology ‘a
Lancet, Feb. 27 and March 5, 1892. Vo
3 “ . . . 3° of Ph: peer a
The proteids of kidney and liver cells. —Journal
ee —— Number. “The chem. physiol. of the a
Goulstonian Lectures, lecture 3, B.M.J., March 25, 189

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 185

nounced, with the reactions which have been found to characterise
the blood drawn during the corresponding phase following the
intravenous injection of “ tissue-fibrinogen.”

Wooldridge in one of his papers' thus summarises the results
obtained by injecting tissue-fibrinogen :—“ If a solution of tissue-
fibrinogen be injected into a dog in varying quantity, the effects
observed are: with very small quantities no discoverable intra-
vascular clotting occurs, but the blood drawn off after the injection
clots very slowly, 1 — 2 hours intervening ; with larger quantities
intravascular clotting takes place, being, as a general rule, chiefly
confined to the portal venous system—the extent of clot being
greater as more tissue-fibrinogen is injected. The shed blood
(from other areas) will not clot. The more tissue-fibrinogen there

. has been injected, the more complete is this prevention of the
(extravascular) clotting —the interval between the drawing off
and the clotting varying from two to thirty hours. In most
eases the blood can be readily made to clot firmly by additions,
such for instance, as the ordinary fibrin-ferment, and in the great

majority of cases it clots firmly on standing.”

A few pages further on in the same paper, he says :—‘ Further,
the injection of a very large quantity of tissue-fibrinogen always
leads to the production of a shed blood entirely noncoagulable,
either spontaneously, or on addition of leucocytes or tissue-
fibrinogen. The only difficulty is this, that frequently the circu-
lation is arrested before the required quantity is got in, and then
only marked slowing of the shed blood is produced.”

A summary of my experiments, showing the effect on the
‘Seagulability of the blood from the intravenous injection of
different amounts of venom, could well enough be given in the
ape words as those used by Wooldridge, substituting only,

venom” for “ tissue-fibrinogen.”
2 Wooldridge also found that variations in the condition of an
_ animal were followed by alterations in the amount and distribution

1 “ Nature of Coagulation,” p. 31.

186 C. J. MARTIN.

of the thrombosis, and Wright,!in following up the researches of —
this observer, has very considerably extended our knowledge in
this respect, as regards both dogs and other animals.

One of the modifying conditions observed by Wooldridge was
that in fasting dogs, unless large quantities of the “ tissue
fibrinogen ” were injected, the intravascular clotting was limited
to the portal area ; whereas the same dose given to an animal in —
full digestion produced clotting extending to the general venous —
system, right heart, and even into the arteries. I have shown —
reasons for believing that the blood of animals in full digestion
exhibits the same increased sensitiveness towards the action of
the venom. om

Ihave previously had occasion to mention an experiment of :
Wright's, in which he rendered an animal dyspneic by compressioa
of the trachea before injecting tissue-fibrinogen. Wright fount
that the injection of an amount of “ tissue-fibrinogen ” which
would, in an animal not so treated, give rise to clotting only in :
the portal venous system, under these circumstances followed by
intravascular clotting throughout the whole vascular system.
Similar experiments with venom produced results corresponding,
in every case, with those detailed by Wright. |

Another experimental condition which influences in an eX
corresponding manner the results from injections of both “ iss
fibrinogen” and venom, is the rapidity with which they
introduced into the circulation. Wright! has already drav
attention to this factor as influencing the results from the inj
of “tissue-fibrinogen.” I have experimented with “tissue
fibrinogen” in order to determine this point, and I find that
I have indicated to be the case with vénom, one can produce §
will the positive or negative phase by the injection of the s#
amount of “tissue-fibrinogen,” simply by varying the -
which it is allowed to enter the circulation. Both “Hee®

1 Loc. cit.
1 Proc, Roy. Irish Acad., 3rd Series, Vol. 11., No. 2.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 187

fibrinogen,” and venom may be introduced in great quantity,
without increasing the coagulability of the blood, once the initial
positive phase is passed, and a negative phase established, if the
solution be allowed to flow very slowly into a vein.

In 1888 Wooldridge published a remarkable result he had
obtained with the injection of his “ fibrinogens” viz.—that the
injection of one dose conferred upon the animal immunity from
further injections. Exactly the same occurs with the venom.
The first injection produces an immunity, as far as the clotting
of the blood in the vessels is concerned, from the effects of

future doses, even when those are very large.

I have had many opportunities of confirming this statement of
Wooldridge. An analogous result has been obtained with the
intravenous injection of albumoses, although the effect of these
upon the blood is of the reverse order. Schmidt Mulheim? found
that when the coagulability of the blood had reappeared after it
had for the time being vanished owing to a first large injection of
albumoses, it was not influenced by a second injection. The
first injection must however be a full one or the immunity is not
complete.

The parallelism, as far as the coagulation of the blood is con-
cerned between the results of the injection of “ tissue-fibrinogen”
and of venom, is, as has been pointed out, maintained when one
examines the conditions under which the two kinds of fluid blood
may be induced to clot.

Both these kinds of blood remain fluid, or clot only after the
lapse of some hours, the time intervening before the onset of
coagulation depending in both cases on the amount of the agent
injected ; and by injections of nucleo-albumens and of venom, one
ean obtain a series of plasmas which, as regards the circumstances
under which they may be made to yield fibrin, exactly correspond.
ee eee

1«g. * * ’ .
1888 Schutzimpfung auf Chemischen Wege.”—Du Bois Reymond’s Arch.

2 ‘ A
Du Bois Reymond’s Arch., 1880, Se 52.

188 C. J. MARTIN.

So close is the parallelism between the two series of phenomena,
that one is inevitably driven to enquire whether after all there
may not underlie both an actual identity of process. But
in thus enquiring, one is confronted by the very striking fact that —
in the venom experiments, only an exceedingly small quantity of ;
the active agent is required to produce an effect negative or
positive on the coagulability of the blood. ;

Wooldridge stated that it required 1-5 to 2 grammes of his
“ tissue-fibrinogen ” to produce intravascular clotting, ina medium —
sized dog. ‘This I imagine, from my own experiments with
“ tissue-fibrinogen,” is a rather high estimate. However this may
be, it is certain that in the one case we are dealing with the —
injection of grammes, and in the other with thousandths, or ten
thousandths of a gramme. He also found that his “ fibrinogen”
disappeared in the process of coagulation and presumably took —
part in the formation of the clot.' :

On account of the minute quantity of venom required to pre
duce the intravascular clotting, it is hard to conceive that it cal
operate by any such direct action. An important differen 2
‘between the two series of phenomena which I have always noticed
is, that whereas with injections of “tissue-fibrinogen” the clotting ;
occurs practically instantaneously, so much 80, that it frequen®y
causes blocking in the vein before one has had opportunity “
finish the injection, with venom injections there is an interval of
at least 90-100 seconds before clotting occurs in the a
but notwithstanding this delay in onset, the clotting in ast :
venom injections is much firmer and more extensive than I ha
ever been able to obtain with “ tissue-fibrinogen.”

Pekelharing,? Wright,® and Halliburton,* have recently sho¥™
that the bodies Wooldridge designated <tisgue-fibrinogeD
largely of nucleo-albumens, and that these nucleo-albumens

the active agents in producing intravascular clotting-

a

yp
_ 1“ Nature of Coagulation,” and “ Ueber intravasc. Gerinnung:
2 “ Virchow’s Festschrift,” Bd. 1.
3 “ Proc. Roy. Irish Acad.” 3rd Series, Vol. I1., No. 2.
4 “ Jour. of Physiol.” Vol. x111., Supplementary Number.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 189

The venom of the Australian black snake does not contain any
body of the nature of a nucleo-albumen. If a clear solution of
venom be subjected to artificial gastric digestion, it is quite
unaltered in appearance (no precipitate of nuclein). Moreover,

by such treatment it is not deprived of its toxic properties.

The question has now to be answered whether, notwithstanding
this negative result, there is yet any source from which through
the direct or indirect action of the venom (e.g. the production of
this substance within the organism itself, under the influence
of the specific toxic activity of the venom), a sufficient supply of
nucleo-albumen could be derived.

T have already shown that this venom is a powerful agent in the
destruction of red blood corpuscles, and evidence exists that bodies
like ether and tannates,!sodium chlorate, glycerin, toluenediamine,
: arsenic and phosphorus,” which when injected into the circulation
disintegrate red cells, and occasion haemoglobinuria, also produce
thrombosis.

Wooldridge? and Nauck* produced intravascular coagulation by
injecting the stromata of mammalian blood corpuscles, and the
similar results of Kéhler® obtained by injection of the hzemaglobin-
stained fluid expressed from warm blood clot, may no doubt be
explained as due to broken up corpuscles. Kriiger has confirmed
Wooldridge’s results as regards the stromata of bird's blood.

Groth® and Kriiger? have found intravascular coagulation to
follow the introduction of a saline extract of lymph-glands, con-
taining leucocytes, into the circulation. Wooldridge ‘criticised
these results of Groth and Kriiger on the ground that well-washed

8G rene eT EC NRE
1 Naunyn, Ueber den neuen Standpunkt in der Lehre von Thrombose.—
Ber. Klin. Woch. No. 24, 1886.
? Silbermann—« Virch. Arch., Bd. 117, S. 288.”
3“ Practitioner,” 1886. 4 Diss. Dorpat. 1886.
Pcl Thrombose ete.” Inaug. Diss. D orpat. 1887. :
7 ten Schicksale der farblosen Elemente im kreisenden Blute.”
1

T«7.° ;
“Leitschr, f. Biologie,” Vol. xxiv.

190 Cc. J. MARTIN.

leucocytes have no such effect, and he ascribed the consequences
of their injection to the fluid and not to the cells. As nucleo
albumens are set free by the disintegration of cells, Wooldridge —
would by his washings separate the products of disintegration, ©
whereas Groth and Kriiger would inject them.

There is then abundant evidence that the disintegration of both -
kinds of blood cells outside the body sets free nucleo-albumens,
which if introduced into the circulation may give rise to intra
vascular clotting ; and also that some bodies which when injected
into the blood stream, cause destruction of the red cells, also
occasion thrombosis. I am therefore of opinion that the effect of
venom on plasma is a secondary one, and due to the presence of
nucleo-albumens in the circulation. This opinion is supported by
the fact that in two cases, after the injection of a comparatively
large dose of venom, in which the shed blood did not clot spon
taneously at all, I was able to separate from the plasma, a small
quantity of nucleo-albumen.

Five per cent. acetic acid was carefully added to the plasm
until the precipitate, which was at first produced, almost entirely
disappeared. This precipitate by acidulation with acetic acid ot
other weak acids has generally been considered to be fibrinoge
Lilienfeld maintains however, that Hammarsten’s fibrinoge? | :
by this means split up into two bodies : (1) “Thrombosin,” whiet
invariably clots in the presence of calcium, (2) @ proteid, wi
he regards as an albumose, and which itself, hinders coagulation:
“Thrombosin” is readily dissolved by excess of the acid. N
albumin is not dissolved by this strength of acid.

A few more drops of the acid were then added without i
ing what remained of the precipitate. This was then sep?
by filtration, and thoroughly washed with water. It was
insoluble in water or dilute saline solutions but dissolved readily
in 1% sodium carbonate solution. Five cc. of this solution ee
introduced into the jugular vein of a rabbit, and in jet ae .

* duces

1 “« Zeitschr. £. Physiol. Chem.,” Bd. ¥x:

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 191

minute the animal died with complete thrombosis of the whole
venous system. Another portion of the precipitate was dissolved
in ‘2% HCl, and pepsin added, and kept at 40° C. overnight. In
the morning there was a precipitate of nuclein in the vessel,

From experiments with ‘‘tissue-fibrinogen” which I have quoted
in this paper, it will I think be obvious, that if by the action of
this agent, the coagulability of the blood is to be so increased as
to cause intravascular clotting, it must first be present in the
blood in some quantity. Even when large areas of cells are
disintegrated, as in pneumonia, the rate of absorption is so slow,
that this condition is not usually fulfilled, though Wright has
suggested that it may explain the increased coagulability of the
blood which has been observed in this disease. The more or less
extensive ante-mortem clots which are so frequently found in the
right ventricle after death from pneumonia, are probably to be
explained in the same way.

It would be quite otherwise, were the nucleo-albumens the
product of disintegration of cells in, or in proximity to the blood
stream, as the corpuscles or the endothelial cells lining the whole
of the vascular system. In such a case the conditions would be

practically the same as if these toxic agents were injected from
without.

We have already seen that in disintegration of the red corpuscles _
by the venom, we may have an available source of nucleo-albumens.
Moreover, as I shall point out in the next section of this paper,
the venom also exerts a destructive action upon the endothelium
_ of the whole vascular system, whence a possible additional supply

_ Of these proteids may be derived.

Tam not aware of any instance in which sudden death from
thrombosis of an extensive character, has in the human subject
followed the bite of one of our Australian colubrines. To occasion
neg an event it would be necessary for the poison to be injected
— sly ina very considerable dose, or else for it to be
into a vein. The most rapid death of which I have

192 C. J. MARTIN.

obtained a record, occurred in thirty minutes after the in
of the bite. The patient was an adult, and post mortem exa
ation revealed decolourised (ante mortem) clots in the
ventricle with a fluid condition of the blood generally. In
case it would appear that death was directly due to intrava
clotting, and it is possible that thrombosis in smaller areas of
circulation may be responsible for some of the symptoms W
occasionally occur.
The fact that after death from poisoning in man the blood i
almost invariably fluid, together with the frequent occurrence 0
hemoglobinuria in severe cases, shows that the venom pro
similar effects on human blood as on the blood of the lower
animals; and though these blood changes are not so obvious
the human subject as in the dog, this fact is owing partly to the
relatively smaller doses inoculated, and partly to the lesser sens —
tiveness of the blood of man to the action of the venom.
When small animals, such as birds, rats, mice, and frogs,
bitten by Pseudechis, they run about for a period varying from®
few seconds to two or three minutes: their breathing
suddenly becomes dyspneeic, and convulsions and death speedily.
follow. If, just before death they be withdrawn from the cag
and opened, the whole venous system and right heart will ?
found full of clot. ~
The injection of a virus which occasions a sudden arrest of t
circulation is one of the means acquired by this reptile for s¢
its prey. It would be hard to imagine a quicker or more
method. After a small animal has been bitten by 4 snake,
latter would appear to recognise that it will not have long
for its meal. During the interval which precedes the 4
the bird or mouse, the snake carefully watches it, and as ’
the little animal is prostrate, proceeds, if hungry, to swallow
It is possible that the instances when an agitated bist of
been seen to “flutter from a bough, almost into the mouth -
snake,” which instances have frequently been mentioned
proof of the reptile’s power of fascination, may more correctly

ut

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 193

spoken of as cases in which the bird has been bitten, and the
snake is biding his time, until, from the sudden operation of the
poison, his victim falls dead beside him.

(e)—The gases of the blood after venom injections.

The analogy between the fluid condition of the blood which
may obtain after the injection of the venom, and its condition
subsequent to the intravenous injection of a solution of commercial
peptone has been pointed out. It must, however, be borne in
mind that this condition is produced in the case of peptone
injections only after the introduction of large quantities, eg., ‘3
gramme per kilogramme of body-weight ; whereas the amount of
venom required to produce the same result is 00005 grammes
per kilo.

It has been shown that after peptone injection, the quantity of
CO, in the blood is altered. Lahousse,! Salvioli,? and Blachstein®
have drawn attention to the fact that the total amount of CO,
contained in the blood of an animal after the injection of peptone
is very considerably decreased. (Grandis* has also shown that at
the same time the aétual tension of CO, is considerably increased.
The CO,, combined with the sodium carbonate of the plasma is,
to a very large extent, carried by the blood from the tissues as
Sodium bicarbonate. Solutions of sodium bicarbonate at the
temperature of the body very readily part with CO, to an
atmosphere in which the partial pressure of this gas is low.
Accordingly in the pulmonary circulation the CO, is to a large
_ Measure discharged. When the partial pressure of a gas in a
fluid is higher than usual, though at the same time the actual
quantity of such gas is diminished, the only explanation of the
facts is, that the capacity of the fluid to dissolve or combine the
as has been lessened. Salvioli® pointed out that the alkalinity
of the blood of an animal, injected with peptone, was less than

oa Bois Reymond’s Arch.,’’ 1888.
2 Spier Ital. de Biol.,”? Vol. xvi.
Ss Du Bois Reymond’s Arch.,” 1891.
Du Bois Reymond’s Arch.,”’ 1891. 5 Loc. cit.
M—July 3, 1895,

194 C. J. MARTIN.

that of the same blood previously ; and he indicated thea
between the effects of peptone on the amount of CO, combine
in the plasma, and on the alkalinity of the blood, with the resu I
obtained by Walter’ by the introduction of acids into the cireu
tion. Grandis’” showed that the decrease observed in peptone
blood was due to the diminution in that portion only of the C0;
which could be withdrawn by the gas pump, and that the amot
of fixed CO, was the same as in normal blood.

The conclusion arrived at is that peptone diminishes the capacity _
of the blood to carry away the CO, from the tissues.
impediment to the removal of CO, has been considered to be the
probable cause of the narcosis which invariably follows the intro 4
duction of peptone into the circulation. The general features
the narcosis which follows the injection of very small amounts of
venom into the circulation, present a striking similarity to this
effect of peptone injections. Moreover in those conditions W:
considerable destruction of blood corpuscles is occurring,
normal alkalescence of the blood has been found to be diminished.
In fever Geppert,3 Minkowski,‘ and v. JakscR® have recorded that
the blood is less alkaline than normally. Kraus® examined
alkalescence, and amount of CO, contained in the blood after
intravenous injection of pyrogallol, ether, glycerin and 0
substances which exert a destructive influence on blood corp’ usc
In every case he found a considerable diminution in both
alkalescence and the contained CO.. ,

T have already shown that venom does destroy blood co)
and that as regards the production of intravascular clotting
behaviour is analogous to that of the above mentioned col

1 Die Wirkung der Shares auf de thierische pas ‘
oe Path.,” Vol. vir, . 148.
2Du Bois eRe: koh. ” 1891, p. 499.
% “ Zeitsch. f. Klin. Med.,” Bd. 11., S. 355.
_*“ Archiv. f. Exper, Path.,”? Bd. xrx., 8. 209.
+ * Zeitsch. f. Klin. Med.,’’ Bd. xut., Heft 3.
“6 “ Archiv. f. Exper. Path.,” Bd. xxvr., S. 186.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 195

destroying agents, and it appeared to me advisable to ascertain
what the amounts and tensions of the gases in the blood of animals
poisoned by venom were. I have not made any direct quantitative
observations on the alkalinity of the blood under such circum-
stances, because the determination of this point presents in this
case especial difficulties, owing to the fact that the plasma is
invariably more or less coloured by the presence of hemaglobin
in solution, so that the range of experimental error is considerable.
This is not, however, a very serious omission, for the determination
of the amount of CO, contained in the blood is after all probably
the best indication we possess of its relative alkalinity.

Methods of Experimenting.

The experiments were made upon large dogs, which were pre-
viously rendered anzsthetic by the subcutaneous injection of
morphia. On two occasions about 30 cc. of blood was drawn ;
once previous to, and once at an interval after the injection of
the venom. For purposes of comparison the first sample was
employed to determine the amount of the gases in the normal
blood. As the blood drawn subsequent to the injection of venom
did not clot, the coagulation of the first sample was prevented by
drawing the blood into a suitable amount of 1% potassium oxalate
Solution, which had been previously boiled under diminished
Pressure. In order that the results from the two samples should
be strictly comparable, the same course was adopted with the blood
Withdrawn after the venom injection. 7

The samples of blood were collected over mercury in the usual
manner ; the connection between the blood vessel and the receiver
_ Was filled with the oxalate solution. In most cases the samples
_ Were taken from the external jugular vein, but occasionally from
the carotid or femoral artery. They were then transferred from
| the vessels into which they had been drawn, to the exhausted
receiver of a mercury pump, containing a small quantity of a
Solution of oxalic acid. During the exhaustion of the gases from
_ the blood the receiver of the gas pump was maintained at 37°C.

196 Cc. J. MARTIN.

by means of a water bath. The gases were analysed by Bunsen's
method, and the quantities found, reduced to their volumes ata
temperature of 0° C., and 760 mm. of mercury pressure. In the
tables of experiments the amounts of gas are expressed in volumes 4
per hundred volumes of blood. i
The determination of the partial pressure of CO, in normal
blood was not undertaken. The exhaustions, and analyses required 4
to ascertain the absolute amount of gases in two samples of blood,
and of the tension in the poisoned blood, together with the other
details of the experiment, occupied the entire day, and did not
allow time for any further aérotonometric observations. 5
The averages of the results arrived at by Strasburg! and
Nussbaum? for the tensions of CO, in arterial and venous blood
for the dog are—2-°8% and 4:5/ of an atmosphere respectively,
and I have used these numbers for purposes of comparison. .
In determining the tension of the gases in the blood of dogs
poisoned by venom, I have taken advantage of the fact that the
coagulability of the blood is under these circumstances sc
greatly diminished or altogether in abeyance. The method be
modification of that used by Léon Fredericq’® to ascertain
tension of the gases in peptone blood.
The apparatus consists of two glass tubes 4 and B of about
1 c.m. internal diameter and 25 cc.m. capacity. These tw? abe

~

are surrounded by a larger tube through which a current of

at 40° C. is kept circulating. At both ends the tubes
are attached by india rubber{tubing ‘to Y shaped glass
296.

1 Pluger’s Arch.,” Ba. vr., 8.65. 2 Ibid., Bd. vit ®
3 “Centrbl. f. Physiol.,” vir., N. 2.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 197

The third limb of the Y tube is connected in the one case to the
central, and in the other to the peripheral end of a vein by means
of another rubber tube and suitable cannula. At the end of the
instrument which is attached to the central end of a vein a piece
of glass tube bent in the shape of a horse-shoe is inserted in the
position h. Screw clamps ¢, c’; d, d’, are applied in the positions
indicated in the diagram.

Before using the apparatus, A and B were filled, one with air
and the other with a mixture of gases containing 5 vols. each of
oxygen and carbonic acid and 90 vols. of nitrogen, and all the
clamps tightened. The rubber connections between the clamps and
the bloodvessels were filled either with blood or salt solution, and
the cannnule tied in their respective vessels. 1 have found it
most convenient to connect the tube (a) to the peripheral end of
the femoral vein, and the tube (5) to the central end of the jugular
vein on the same side. The whole apparatus is inclined at a small
angle and by relaxing the screws dor d’ and c orc’ and then
removing the clamp forceps on the veins, blood is allowed to enter
the tube (2) and trickle down the glass tube A or B which contains
the mixture of gases, and eventually escape through (5) into the
tirculation again. The horse-shoe shaped tube of glass (4) is
necessary in order that it may be seen at once if bubbles of air are
earried along with the blood and that they may be prevented
from entering the circulation. There is after a little practice no
difficulty in preventing this accident. The rate of flow of blood
through the apparatus could be regulated with nicety by means
of the screw clamps d and d’. Throughout the experiments the
: loss of heat to the blood which took place during its passage
: errough the rubber tubes was minimised by enveloping these
_ tubes in cotton wool.

in the blood trickles through, it is spread in a thin layer over
the interior surface of the tube and so presents a considerable area
_ “gaseous interchange with the mixture of gases above. This
: ang : proceeds until the partial pressure of the gases in ane

oi’ 18 the same as that of the blood. When a sufficient time

198 C. J. MARTIN.

has elapsed for this to occur, the clamps (c) and (d) are tightened ;
and (c’) and (d’) opened and the blood allowed to flow through the
tube 4 for a similar interval of time. The screw clamps ¢ and dv
are now closed, the clamp forceps replaced on the veins, and the
whole apparatus disconnected and placed in a vertical position —
By connecting one of the Y tubes with a pressure bottle contain
ing mercury the gas first in A and then in B is driven over into
separate burettes and analysed. %
‘Sometimes however, instead of using the sip to obtain
two estimations of the tension of the gases in venous blood, the
Y¥ tube at the upper end of the instrument has been discarded
and the two tubes A and B connected with the femoral artery and
vein respectively. The procedure has then been exactly the same
as described above, but in these latter cases the tensions of the '
gases both in arterial and in venous blood under the same circum
_ Stances were determined. From a few preliminary experi
it was ascertained that the interchange of CO, between the blood
and the mixture of gases contained in the tube was complete it
five minutes when the mixture of gases contained 5 %, of CO;
the commencement of the experiment, and in ten to fifteen minut
when the tube contained air. In the accounts of individ
experiments the tension of CO, found is expressed in percent
of an atmosphere. The numbers found when the aéro onome
tube was filled with air at the commencement of the expel im
are marked (A), those in which the tube contained 5 i, of ies
begin with are marked B.
{n every experiment -000025 gramme of venom per kilogr™
of body-weight was at the commencement injected into the jv
vein. After an interval of one hour an amount of venom ¥
in individual cases from -0001 to -001 gramme per aie
further injected. The reason this particular procedure :
adopted was in order that the first small injection might PP”
a sufficiently marked negative phase of coagulability in the
and that the larger injection might not occasion sudden deaths
thrombosis,

*
¢ se

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 199

,

Experiment I.

| } | or
pe "ae Quantity of | vee Riad, 7G cis reduced - 00 |
: ae Condition. awed | vols. of arteri al blood. |
| | COs a 8
he i | Before venom injected | 0065 gramme = 38°43 | 21°30 |
| ‘lLhour after injection. | 8875 1 19°48 |
| Blood pressure fairly ee |
| | high, respiration shal- i | |
| lower than previously.
Experiment II.
: | | Vols. of gases at “at 0°
bien ig Condition sagen of 760 mm. in Hg-in 100v Py
animal, : Pe veri ry of blood from femoral vein
| Tr OO, fee
ee Before injection _..| 0105 gramme | 44°56 6°35
0 minutes after injec- 49°24 4°60
tion; circulation and
respiration much en- |
feebled

35 - 45 minutes after the injection the tension
of CO, in the blood from the femoral vein

was found to be a Ok Be 2 : of an atmosphere
45-55 minutes after — WAR © (J we Bol cad
‘iheecos 895°). ”

Experiment III.

ee ee
Vols. at 0° and 7!
oe Quantity of ov 100 vals, nit f blood
Condition. Pherae Aes: m femoral v'
injected. aime.
Before injection ..| °001 gramme 40°13 T7138
30 minutes after... es 40°40
2 da after a 39°92 9°25
Respiration and circu.
lation. ae main tainbal

“scaled after sie tension COs it in — vein ae 63 ong

= 282 5
5 3 is a re =403 \ 3-96
m minutes i 3 pe B=3-901
minutes : o A=3°63
after injecti c : B=3°78 e 3705

; in the sian of venom introduced v was ages nies ee :

200 C. J. MARTIN.

Experiment IV.

Z Vols. at 0° and 760 mm.
Weight Quantity of in 100 vols. of blood
of Condition. venom fem vein.
animal. injected
Kilos. | Before injection ...| (0001 gramme 40°23
65
40 minutes after sue aa 41°24
piration and circu-
lation fairly good.

aaa
1 hour after injection tension of CO, in femoral vein A =6°35 | oor.
70 minutes, * #8 B =5'30

Experiment V.
Vols. at 0° and 760 mm,
Weight Quantity of | °in 100 vols. of blood
of Condition. ! Mana from carotid artery.
animal, injected. CO; Os
Kilos. | Before injection ...| (005 gramme | 39°50
145
20 minutes after injec- sis 43°42
tion, respiration and :
circulation failing.
2 honrs 20 minutes after es 44°87
injection, respiration

very shallow and blood
pressure low.

apm are > 2 eae
1 hour after injection tension of CO, in femoral artery = 7 42") .
Ba vein = 8:58 i e

artery = 6°65"/ Ps

33 Bo ” ”> ed
1 hour 30 minutes
© Darine chi oye cL a we maintained. The
g this last determination artificial respiration was
were well inflated with warmed air 15 times per minute.

” ” >

In this experiment the aérotonometer tubes contained al
the commencement. .
With the exception of Experiment I. the absolute quantity
CO, contained in the venous blood was not decreased. *
contrary, the amount of CO, was, in those cases where the ES
was severely affected by the venom injections, conside aoe
excess of that found previously. Under the same circit”
the tension of CO, was very much higher than has been ®
for normal venous blood. In most of the experiments the ;
representing both the absolute amount and the tension he a
rose together as the condition of the animal became yee
worse. After peptone injections, whilst the tension of | me

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 201

the absolute amount of the gas contained in the blood was on the
contrary, decreased. I therefore conclude that although the
capacity of the blood to carry CO, may be, as one might expect
from the analogy to other blood-corpuscle-destroyers, somewhat
diminished, this is not a prominent feature of poisoning by the
venom, and is entirely masked by the operation of other and more
potent factors. The gradual increase in both the tension and
amount of CO, in the venous and also in the arterial blood of
the poisoned animal is to a large extent accounted for by the
enfeeblement of the circulation and respiratory movements.
Before this occurs it is not manifested, but afterwards it progresses
hand in hand with the circulatory and respiratory depression.
The exudation and hemorrhage into the lungs which is almost an
invariable sequel to the injection of the poison, and whereby con-
siderable areas are for the time being rendered useless, does no
doubt also contribute in some degree to the same end. The
existence of this factor is indicated in Experiment V., in which
artificial respiration was ineffectual in reducing the high tension
of CO, in the blood of the femoral artery to any great extent,
and it is interesting to note that examination of the chest of this
dog immediately after the experiment, discovered very extensive
edema and hemorrhages throughout the greater part of the lungs.
This pathological condition had evidently so curtailed the avail-
able respiratory surface, that the larger portion of the blood
passed through the lungs without an opportunity of coming in
contact with the air in the alveoli. So that although the alveolar
air was maintained of a high degree of purity by artificial inflation,
the blood was not enabled to rid itself of its contained COp.

a
ie

i
4
i

. (f)— Influence of the venom on the germicidal action of serum.

Weir Mitchell has drawn attention to the fact that the bodies
" animals dead from rattle-snake poisoning putrefy with extreme
rapidity, and that during life the local extravasations which are
istic of this class of snake poisoning, as 4 general rule

1 Loe. cit. 2 Loc. cit.

202 Cc. J. MARTIN.

into healthy animals produced no effect. Last year Dr. Ewing’
repeated some of Nuttall and Buchner’s observations on the
germicidal power of serum, and instituted a series of comparative
experiments with the serum of animals poisoned with Crotalus
venom. Ewing found that the normal germicidal power of serum :
was entirely lost after poisoning with Crotalus venom. :

To ascertain whether the same loss of germicidal power was”
occasioned by Pseudechis venom, the following experiments were
made :—A healthy dog, weight 10 Kilos., was injected under the
skin of the back with -0065 gramme of venom, dissolved in 2 ee
of weak salt solution, at 11°30 a.m. At 3 p.m. he was etherised
and Nese taken from the femoral artery. In the mean time he
had’ vomited considerably, and at 2-45 p.m. he was very sleepy
and weak, although he could still walk. The blood was draw
into a sterilised jar under conditions of the strictest asepticism. —

At the same time the blood of another dog was drawn under
exactly similar conditions, except that this animal had not received .
a venom injection. Both samples of blood were placed in an 10

contamination with any micro-organisms. 5 cc. of each kind
serum were then placed in two sterilised test-tubes.

The test organism employed to determine the relative germici
powers of the two serums was a twenty-four hours’ growth ¢
broth culture of Bacillus anthracis. This was a pure culture
the organism and contained no spores. Each test-tube —
inoculated with a platinum wire loopful of the culture and
shaken up. The serum tubes containing the organisms were
at the laboratory temperature 24-— 25°C. The effect pro

1 «* Med. Record,’ May 26, 1894.

SP te ee Ce Poe ee Cae eee ae eee

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 203

upon the organism by sojourn in the serums, was ascertained
from time to time by withdrawing a wire loopful and mixing this
with 10 cc. of nutrient gelatine and making a plate cultivation
of the mixture. An indication of the extent to which the growth
of the bacilli had progressed in the serum tubes was obtained by
counting the number of colonies appearing in the plate cultivations
after definite intervals. 2

The following notes represent some few of the results of these
experiments in tabular form, and clearly show that whereas the
growth of the organism was as usual hindered by the normal
serum, on the other hand the serum from the poisoned animal
formed an excellent culture medium. In this particular case the
damaging influence of the normal serum was less than is usually
the case.

The tables represent. the number of colonies of the organism
which developed in the plate cultures after various intervals of

time,!
I.—After Five Minutes Sojourn in Serum.

Number of Colonies after

18 hours. | 21 hours.| 48 hours.

Normal serum ....|_——-22 | 123
Venom serum _...|. 39 | 464 | 560 !

II.—After One Hour’s Sojourn in Serum.

Number of Colonies after

17 hours. | 20 snes 42 hours.

[i
|
sf
x

Normal serum 12 672 ge
. _ Venom serum _ 987 | 2000 | countless
ee TII.—After Two Hours’ Sojourn in Serum.
: Number of Colonies after
d 16 hours. 19 hours,| 41 hours.
Normal serum... 5 | 560
Venom serum 1450 | 2416 | countless |
: Sa a ent we teeretientinie ale nee Sa
1
For the of greater portion of the troublesome details

of the the performane
Mr. R. — I ses 1 indebted to my friends Dr. F. — and

‘

204 C. J. MARTIN.

IV.—After Three Hours’ Sojourn in Serum.

Number of Colonies after

15 hours. 18 hours. | 40 hours.

Normal serum i — | countless

19 |
Venom serum ...| 2420 | 4244 | countless

Other agents which cause destruction among the blood corpuscles
would appear to produce a similar result. Gottstein’ found that
the injection of pyrogallol and acetyl-phenyl-hydrazin into the —
circulation of animals naturally immune against definite micro
organisms rendered them susceptible to invasion. Under the
same circumstances pathogenic germs which locally affect the
organism are capable of spreading throughout the whole body.

ACTION OF VENOM ON THE BLoop VESSELS.

The situation in which the poison is injected is always the seat
of some edema. On cutting into the edematous tissues, a serous
fluid, more or less stained with hemoglobin, escapes. This -
itself is an indication of some alteration in the walls of the blood
vessels in the vicinity of the injection, by which the normal
transudation processes are affected. Rattlesnake venom produces
changes which are of a similar nature, but in which the degree of
damage to the endothelial lining of the vessels is much greater.
That this venom was capable of playing considerable havoc with
the cells lining the blood vessels, was demonstrated by War
Mitchell and Reichert.2. These authors moistened the mesentery
of animals with Crotalus venom and observed under the microscope
the rapid formation of extensive capillary hemorrhages. ©
few minutes the whole mesentery became by the coalescence of
the numerous hemorrhagic foci absolutely infiltrated with

I have repeated these experiments, using Pseudechis Y ,
and although the action of this poison is less rapid than isha:
case in Mitchell and Reichert’s experiments the results Bas
identical. The mesenteries of cats and dogs were od unt
the microscope so as to obtain a good view of the circulation ©

1 “ Deutsche Med. Woch., 1890, 24. 2 Loc. cit.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 205

the capillaries. A minute fragment of the poison was then placed

near to that portion of the mesentery in the field of the microscope.

|
.
'
7
i
at

In a few moments without any previous clouding of the field, or
stasis, small hemorrhages appeared. These invariably occurred
first in those positions where the hydrostatic pressure was greatest,
viz., from the wall of the capillary near to its origin from an
arteriole, and where these capillaries branched or joined one
another at right angles. These tiny hemorrhages increased in
number and extent until the whole field was one mass of corpuscles,
These appearances are very characteristic and altogether distinct
from the escape of corpuscles in diapedesis, and I think there is
no doubt that the venom first damages the capillary wall, and
that the pressure within causes an actual solution of continuity,
the blood escaping through this rupture.

One of the prominent symptoms in animals, after the intraven-
ous injection of a small dose of venom (i.e, so small that the
animal may live a sufficiently long time, for the full development
of the symptoms), is the occurrence of extensive hemorrhages. I
have often seen more than half the substance of the lungs solid
from hemorrhage into the alveoli and inter-alveolar tissue. If
such an affected lung have its blood vessel washed out with saline
solution immediately after removal from the body and be then
injected with some colouring matter such as indigo-carmine, the
fluid injected will not enter the hemorrhagic portions of the organ
to any extent, so that it is probable that thrombosis in the small
_ branches of the pulmonary artery plays some part in these lung ~
hemorrhages. Silbermann! has described an analogous condition
m the lungs after intravenous injection of various corpuscle
destroying agents. Ragotzi,? using the same method as Silbermann,
found small thrombosed areas in the lungs of animals poisoned by
cobra venom.

Hemorrhages of greater or less extent are nearly always to be
found in the kidneys, liver, and the walls of the alimentary canal,

1 Ueber das Auftre r} ‘ P LEE De : ch
Arsen treten multipler intravitaler Blutgerinnungen nac
Y Loe posPhor, und einige Blutgifte.—** Virch. Arch.” Bd. 117, 1889.
cit,

: a

206 C. J. MARTIN. e

and the intima of the aorta and large blood vessels. There is :
also another situation where a small hemorrhage is almost invari- _ ‘
ably found, viz.: under the endocardium of the left ventricle,

Feoktistow! mentions the constant occurrence of a heenion hana ce
this situation in his experiments with viperine venom. ,

The full development of all these hemorrhagic phan onicll
requires some hours. When venom is intravenously injected, the :
immediate great fallin blood pressure prevents for the time being ;
the damaged condition of the vascular walls being demonstrated. —
Subsequently, the escape of blood takes place more and noe i
the pressure gradually rises after the initial fall.

All kinds of snake venoms which have hitherto been examine(, ?
have been shown to contain in varying amount amongst their
albuminous constituents a proteid or proteids coagulable by heat.
It is of iderable i t that the viperine poisons which contain
coaguable proteids in largest amount, exercise this destructive —
action on blood corpuscles and the walls of blood vessels, to the
greatest extent, whereas cobra venom, which contains less than
2’of coagulable proteid, only exerts such action to a comparatively
slight extent. Boiling, or indeed raising the temperature of the
solution to 80 — 85° C. deprives venoms of much of their action ae
this direction, and at the same time largely does away with t
capacity of Psewdechis poison to produce intravascular clotting.
The power of this venom to both destroy blood cells and occasi
thrombosis is however not entirely lost, for by increasing
dose of heated venom to at least five hundred times that of the |
unheated poison which is required to produce instant oat:
thrombosis, the same result is attained. The whole toxle po”
of the venom is not however attenuated to this extent.
large series of experiments on rabbits I found that the min!
dose of Pseudechis poison which when subcutaneously i injee :
was sure to occasion a fatal issue, was ‘0005 gramme of:
per kilogramme of rabbit. When the solution of the veno™ "—

:
q

1 Loc, cit.

—-

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 207

previously heated to 85° C. for five minutes, the corresponding
amount required to kill was -0030 gramme.
These observations show that either
(1) Heating vo 85° destroys the component of venom which
possesses the power of destroying corpuscles to the greatest
degree, —or
(2) Heating attenuates the toxic properties of venom in this
particular direction to a much greater extent than it does
its toxic power generally.

Heating to 85° C. does indeed separate one of the proteid con-
stituents which at this temperature is coagulated and rendered
inert. It is therefore quite possible that the difference in the action
of venom before and after heating to 85° O. may be so explained.
We must however bear in mind that the action of heat on solutions
of toxic proteids is a twofold one—

(1) By converting some of the proteids into an inert precipitate.

(2) By impairing their toxic power, without influencing their
solubilities, or indeed changing them in any way recog-
nisable by chemical tests.

The first method of action is sudden. When the solution is
: aed to a definite temperature, some portion of the proteid con-
: : stituents is coagulated. ‘The second is gradual, and the extent of
attenuation depends on the duration of the heating, and the
Yemperature and dilution of the solution.

7 th the case of Crotalus venom Mitchell and Reichert have shown
“9 the coagulable proteids are the constituents which produce a
destructive effect on the blood cells and vessel walls to the greatest
es but I have not yet determined for Pseudechis poison to
“an ®xtent the difference in physiological action between venom
ett heated to 85° C. and unheated venom is to be attributed
ati “een of one of the constituents or to gradual attenu-
tae of its power in a particular direction.

208 C. J. MARTIN.

TV.—Errect or VENoM oN THE CrrcULATORY MECHANISM.

The poisons of all snakes with which experiments have hitherto
been made, depress the circulatory mechanism. Different venoms
however exercise this action in different degrees, so that whereas
interference with the circulatory apparatus plays a very important
réle in the general phenomena of poisoning by some species of
snake, with others such interference is, compared with its action

in other directions relatively unimportant.

In experiments with the frog’s excised heart, when the orgat
is fed with a solution containing defibrinated blood, by means ofa
Ludwig and Coat’s apparatus, the introduction of all kinds of
venom into the feeding mixture, soon brings the contraction toa —
standstill. If this has once happened, the further substitution of
fresh defibrinated blood for the venom-containing solution does
not effect a recovery.

By direct observation of the heart in the opened thorax of
mammals, in which artificial respiration was maintained,
Feoktistow! observed great diminution in the cardiac contrac:
tions, after the introduction of the venoms of Crotalus and
Vipera berus. When these poisons were intravenously introduced,
the contractions of the heart were at first diminished, and after:
wards increased in number, becoming at the same time weaker
and weaker until death occurred. S

The best indication we possess of the efficiency of the circule
tion is the arterial blood pressure curve. A variation in any
the factors concerned in the general circulation will sooner
later be manifested in this curve. It possesses the additions
advantage that it lends itself in an admirable manner to the
method of graphic record. A tracing of the pressure of ané
may be allowed to run for hours, and at the end of the eee :
are in possession of a record of every change of pressure which :
occurred. Of course the chart has to be interpreted, and into that
interpretation errors may creep, but by simultaneous ©

1 Loe. cit.

EAS aie ke Wi eee LR Whe une Se wet

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 209

of the volumes of abdominal organs such as the kidney and
spleen, and by judicious variation of the conditions of the
experiment, by means of which the operation of a particular
factor can be eliminated, one is generally able to ascertain to
which of the factors concerned in the maintenance of the blood
pressure the change is to be ascribed.

The effect of several kinds of snake venom upon the blood
pressure in the higher animals has been investigated. Brunton
and Fayrer,! and Ragotzi,? worked with cobra poison. Mitchell,
and Reichert? made a large series of experiments with the
venoms of species of Crotalus and Ancistrodon, Daboia russellii,
and also cobra. Feoktistow’st observations were made with the
poisons of Crotalus and Vipera berus.

Weir Mitchell and Reichert confirmed those results which had
already been obtained by Brunton and Fayrer, with cobra poison ;
and the more recent work of Feoktistow and Ragotzi entirely
Supports the older observations as regards the main characteristics
of the blood pressure curve after poisoning with either rattlesnake

or cobra venoms. The work of Weir Mitchell and Reichert is the

Most important as they pursued their investigations with the
venoms of a very large number of different species of snakes,
thereby giving us the opportunity of comparing the action, in this
respect, of a variety of poisons. The results of these observers
Possess the additional advantage of having been obtained from an
admirably varied and extensive series of experiments.

They found that when the venoms of all these species of serpents
Were intravenously introduced, there was a distinct lowering of
the blood pressure. It fell immediately after the injection, and
Indeed Sometimes before this was completed ; and the fall was
Benerally So marked as to indicate a most profound action of the
Polson upon some part or parts of the circulatory apparatus. If
the dose were not immediately fatal, the pressure gradually rose,
but finally underwent a more or less steady decline until death. At

1 ‘
MEW YF Loe. cit. 3 Lae clk ¥ Loe. HE
N—July 3, 1995,

210 C. J. MARTIN.

other times the pressure sank without subsequent rise until death
ensued. With subcutaneous injection of the venom, the primary
sudden fall was in most cases absent.

The tendency in cobra poisoning was to a decided rise of pressure,
following the primary fall. In five out of six experiments with
the venom, the primary fall was followed by a rise which went
above the normal during the asphyxial condition preceding death.
After section of the pneumogastrics, they found that the same
alterations occurred in the blood pressure as those observed in
animals in which these nerves were intact.

When the cord was severed in the cervical region, the primary
fall of pressure was not so marked, but the subsequent slow, y*
deadly fall occurred. ‘In experiments with cobra poison, 02 the
contrary, even under these conditions, a rise in blood pressute
usually preceded death,

Feoktistow found that when a very large dose of the venom of
Crotalus, or Vipera berus was subcutaneously administered, the
blood pressure fell as suddenly as when the poison was intr
venously introduced. After the pressure had been greatly lowerst
by the poison, he was unable to produce any effect by stimulating :
the peripheral ends of the splanchnic nerves, from which he con
cluded that the peripheral ends of these nerves were paralysed
This he considered was the explanation of the “ collosale
sinking of the blood pressure. |

Brunton and Fayrer found that the intravenous injection of
cobra poison, occasioned a sudden temporary drop in the arterial E
blood pressure, which, under most circumstances speedily regained
the previous height. Sometimes, however, this fall was a
recovered from, and the animal died in less than sixty . :
from the time of the injection, but the arterial blood
remained considerably above zero. This was considered noteworthy :
‘by these authors, and they thought it showed “that the — : :
or capillaries must have been much contracted, thus opposing |
barrier to the exit of blood from the arteries into the veins

pene Fy oth oe

ae a) 2 ees

eg Min Sach

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 211

In a previous section I have mentioned a similar occurrence in
many of my experiments with the intravenous injection of
Pseudechis venom. At first this maintenance of a considerable
pressure in the arteries after the sudden death of the animal
puzzled me greatly. There could be however only one explanation
of the phenomenon, viz.: that the blood cowld not empty itself as
usual into the veins. In my experiments the reason was that the
arterial system was blocked by the occurrence of intravascular
clotting, and it is quite possible that this was also the explanation
in Brunton and Fayrer’s experiments.

In the experiments made by these observers death usually
occurred from asphyxia, during which the blood pressure curve
exhibited the same rise of pressure above the normal as obtains
when an unpoisoned animal is asphyxiated.

Speaking of this maintenance of circulatory efficiency, Brunton
and Fayrer say,—‘ The long continuance of the cardiac pulsations
after apparent death excludes failure of the circulation as the
usual cause of death ; and we are thus brought, by exclusion, to
regard death caused by the bite of the cobra, or by its poison
introduced into the body in any other way, as death from asphyxi1.
The truth of this view is well illustrated by a series of experiments
which show that the vitality of the heart may be retained for a
considerable time if the respiration is kept up. It shows also
that the convulsions which have been remarked by Russell and
all subsequent observers as almost always preceding death are not
due so much to the action of the poison itself on the nervous
centres, as that they depend on the irritation which is produced
in them by the venosity of the blood.”

(0)—The effect of Pseudechis venom upon the excised heart of cold-
blooded Vertebrates.

Thave experimented with the excised hearts of frogs and turtles.
In the case of either of these animals a perfusion cannula was
mserted in the ventricle and tied. The cannula was connected
with a Ludwig and Coat’s apparatus, and the record of the heart-

212 C. J. MARTIN.

beat taken on a slowly moving cylinder covered with smoked
paper. One of the Marriott’s tubes of the apparatus was pre
viously filled with a mixture of defibrinated mammalian blood
one part, and “65% sodium chloride solution, containing 1 in
1,000 Na,CO;, two parts. The other tube was filled with a

similar solution containing a known proportion of venom. The —

amount of venom contained in the solution was either 0-1 or 1}.
The former appeared to at first stimulate the heart, but it speedily
began to beat more slowly, then became irregular and feeble, and
eventually stopped in diastole after about thirty mmutes. The
stronger solution of venom produced immediate slowing and
enfeeblement of the contractions, which became diminished i
rate and extent until in a few minutes the heart ceased to beat.

If the stronger venom-containing solution was allowed to flow
through the heart for only ten seconds, the substitution of the
unpoisoned feeding mixture failed to produce any recovery of the
cardiac contractions.

Two experiments were made with the hearts of small turtles by —

means of a Ludwig and Coat’s apparatus. In the former ‘17, of

venom was employed, and in the latter a feeding solution col

taining 1% of the venom was allowed to flow through the heart

for one hundred seconds, and then replaced by the blood solution ;
only. This had however, no effect, and the beats became rapidly
less and less apparent until they were imperceptible in twelve

minutes from the introduction of the venom.

(b)—Effect on Mammals.

I commenced my investigations into the action of f
the circulatory apparatus, by taking tracings of the pressure
an artery, both during and after the introduction of the poise
The venom was introduced by injection subcutaneously,

peritoneal cavity, or directly into the circulation through 4 Ye

th, becaus?

or artery. I chose intravenous injection to begin W!
the method of subcutaneous inoculation introduces 4?

the venom 02 :

ee Skat eh ey mea

into the

quantity—vie, rate of absorption. ‘This mothod bas MW =

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 213

the disadvantage that the injection of even very small quantities
of the venom directly into the circulation occasions so great an
increase in the coagulability of the blood, that this fluid frequently
clots in the vessels. When this occurs at all extensively the
circulation is speedily terminated and death ensues. It is indeed
very difficult to prevent intravascular clotting, and before we can
draw conclusions as to the action of the venom upon the heart or
other portion of the vascular mechanism we must be sure that
thrombosis has not occurred.!_ In wy earlier experiments I was
not aware of this action of venom upon blood plasma, and the
inconsistent results I obtained puzzled me greatly. The whole
matter was however cleared up when I discovered that the
extraordinary lack of uniformity in, and frequent sudden termin-
ation of my experiments, was due to the arrest of the circulation
by solidification of the blood.

The animals used were dogs and rabbits. The results were
substantially the same with both animals. The effect of the
poison on the blood pressure was investigated under a variety of
experimental conditions with and without curari. In some
experiments the vagi were previously severed, in others not.
Two experiments were made on animals in which the cord had
been divided at the level of the third cervical vertebra. In five
cases a simultaneous record of the volume of either the kidney or
the spleen was obtained, and in nearly every case the condition
of the respiration was recorded at the same time by connecting
the trachea with a Marey’s tambour and writing lever. The
records were taken on a Hering’s kymograph. In those experi-
ments which lasted many hours a continuous record was not taken,
ee the kymographion was stopped, and set going again for a few
minutes at intervals of fifteen or thirty minutes, or less as occasion
demanded,

: The general features of the blood pressure record following the
intravenous injection of Pseudechis venom are the same as those

ies : ee
esc Y of the results of previous experimenters with snake poisons
vitiated by their ignorance of this possibility.

214 C. J. MARTIN.

observed by Weir Mitchell and Reichert, and Feoktistow, to
follow the introduction of the venom of Crotalus, Ancistrodon,
Daboia russellii, and Vipera berus into the circulation. Directly
the venom reaches the heart there is a sudden great fall of the
arterial blood pressure. This fall is accompanied by diminution
in the extent of the accession of pressure due to each beat of the
heart, and is the more marked the greater the rapidity with which
the solution of venom is introduced, and the nearer the vein chosen
for its introduction is to the heart. The extent of this fall is
dependent on the degree of concentration with which the poison
reaches the heart. When its dilution with blood is accomplished,
by introducing it into a vein far removed from the heart, its effect
~ is lessened, and if the injection be carried out sufficiently slowly,
this steep descent is absent, and the pressure declines slowly and
steadily until death.

Also when the venom is injected into the carotid or vertebral
artery, so that it is carried away from the heart and well diluted
with blood before it is returned to this organ, the effect is
diminished, notwithstanding the fact that under these circum
stances the poison reaches the nervous system in the greatest :
concentration. If the fall in pressure is to be ascribed (a8
Mitchell and Reichert concluded was the case in their exper
ments) to the sudden relaxation of the arterioles in the abdominal
area, by paralysis of the vaso-motor centre in the medulla, one
would expect to obtain the most marked result when the poison
was enabled to operate upon the medulla in greatest concentration
and not the reverse result, as I have always obtained. .

The initial fall of pressure may be only temporary, ean
course of a few minutes to one hour may rise again to nearly
normal, as is shown in the majority of the experiments.

This recovery, when it occurs, does not however last long if
fatal dose has been injected. After remaining as high, OF pe
as high as before the injection, for a period varying from 4 ug
minutes to some hours, according to the dose whi |

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 215

injected, the pressure begins to slowly decline, and continues to
do so until it is only equal to a few millimetres of mercury, when
the enfeebled circulation is no Jonger adequate to support life,

and the animal dies.

This fatal fall of blood pressure also invariably occurs in those
cases where artificial respiration is maintained. Without this
assisted respiration the pressure declines more quickly as the
cardiac depression is accentuated by a diminished supply of oxygen,

due to simultaneous failure of respiration.

Up to within a very short interval before death, when the cir-
culation is almost ended, vagus stimulation produces the usual
slowing or stoppage of the heart. (of. Exs. 10, 11, and 14.)

The intravenous injection of the poison, however, neutralises
that normal retarding influence which is exercised by the vagus,
and is so marked in some dogs. In these animals the large slow
cardiac contractions are almost immediately superseded by con-
tractions increased in rate, and much diminished in force after the
injection of venom. Section of the vagi under these circumstances
is without effect.

When the venom is subcutaneously injected, the decline of the
blood pressure is more gradual, and the primary sudden fall so
characteristic of intravenous injection is absent. The time which
elapses before the pressure begins to fall depends upon the amount
injected and the rapidity of absorption. A small dose (-005
gramme per kilo.) when introduced under the skin, may not
materially affect the blood pressure for three hours subsequent to
the injection, whereas the same amount introduced into the
Peritoneal cavity may cause a marked fall in pressure during the
first fifteen minutes, Larger doses however act much more rapidly,
and if a sufficient quantity is injected the blood pressure often
falls to one half of its previous height in three or four minutes
after the introduction of the poison.

216 C. J. MARTIN.

(c)—Explanation of the fall in blood pressure.

Weir Mitchell and Reichert, who observed the same diphasic :

character in the blood pressure curve after intravenous injection
of various kinds of snake poison, were of opinion that the primary
fall was chiefly due to the depressant action of the venom upon
the vaso-motor centres in the medulla oblongata, and slightly
upon the heart, but that the ultimate fall of pressure was cardiac
in origin.

From the results of experiments the details of which are given
at the end of this section of the present paper, I have come tothe
conclusion that in both cases the fall in pressure is mainly due to
a direct action of the poison upon the heart. The most important
evidence which has led me to this conclusion is drawn

(1) From observations on the blood pressure in experiments in

which the cervical cord had been previously divided, and

(2) From those experiments in which observation of the volume

of the spleen or kidney were made at the same time as 4
record of the arterial blood pressure.

In experiments 16 and 17, the intravenous injection of 0009

and ‘0008 gramme of venom into two dogs with severed cervical 3
cord, produced precisely similar results to those which I ~~
frequently obtained with normal dogs. The only difference was:

that in the experiments in which the cord had been previo _
divided the blood pressure was reduced to almost one h

original height before the introduction of the venom. In exper

ment 16 the larger dose killed the animal in ten minutes, and the
pressure fell steadily until death, whereas in experiment li,
which the dose was smaller, the animal lived for nearly t

with moderate doses of the poison. Were the numbers ta

in these two experiments multiplied by two, they would ¢ respon

it te

in
wo hours, .
and the blood-pressure record exhibited the same temporary a
recovery as had been observed in the majority of the experme™”

“6 ice
pulated ;

ibe r radon
SS ED Otte ete aE eS EE ae on | ae eae DO at

exactly with those of experiments in which the cord was intact.

Experiments 30, 31, 32, and 33, in which a simultaneous Fe"

: or
of the arterial blood pressure and the volume of the kidney

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE, 217

spleen was obtained, show that both curves decline and rise
together. The fall in pressure is accompanied by a simultaneous
and equally abrupt diminution in the volume of the spleen and
kidney, and in those experiments in which the arterial pressure
recovered, the volume of these organs increased at the same time,
and again diminished as the pressure in the arteries finally fell.
Had vascular dilatation (provided it affected these organs), been
the explanation of the fall in pressure, the two curves would have
crossed one another and not run in a parallel direction.

I think these organs, and especially the spleen, may be taken as
fair samples of the area in which vascular dilatation due to vaso-
motor paresis would occur, and this evidence, taken in conjunction
with the results of the experiments on animals with divided spinal
cords, justifies the conclusion that the fall in blood pressure is
cardiac in origin, and that any result of vaso-motor paralysis is
insignificant in comparison with the direct weakening of the
cardiac contractions. Such a direct effect upon the heart would
not be unexpected, for, as I have mentioned, all venoms act as
cardiac poisons when supplied to the excised heart of cold blooded
vertebrates,

Diminished peripheral resistance, owing to vaso-motor paresis,
does no doubt contribute a share to this final fall in pressure, but
that vaso-motor action is not altogether in abeyance, and may
still be called into operation by sufficient stimulus is shown by
the effect of asphyxiation on a curarised animal in which the
Pressure has sunk to less than one-half its previous height. In
®xperiments 14 and 15, the pressure was in both instances, under
such circumstances, doubled by suspension of the artificial respir-
en. In other experiments upon rabbits, as soon as the respir-
ation showed signs of incipient failure, artificial inflation was
employed. Directly this was discontinued, and the animal had
to depend on its own inadequate respiratory movements for a
“upply of oxygen the pressure rose at once. The only cause of
ae : rise is that brought about by the vaso-motor mechanism.
This is stil capable of about doubling the arterial pressure for

218 C. J. MARTIN.

the time being, even within a few minutes of the death of an
animal.

Far from considering interference with the vaso-motor centre
important, in the phenomena of poisoning by this venom, I think
that the manner in which this centre, and also the vagus centre 4
escapes, when, as I shall presently show, the activity of a closely 4
situated group of cells, the respiratory centre is absolutely im
abeyance, is one of the most remarkable instances of the selective
operation of a poison, with which I am acquainted.

Ragotzi' has pointed out that the vaso-motor and vagus centres
enjoy the same comparative immunity from the action of cobra
poison.

That the enormous fall in blood pressure is not due to paralysis
of any peripheral termination of the splanchic nerves as Feoktistow
believed was the explanation of the corresponding fall in his expe
ments with Crotalus poison, is shown by Experiment 5, in which
stimulation of the peripheral ends of these nerves, produced in the
late stages of poisoning, as great a rise of pressure propor tionatel,
as under normal circumstances. Feoktistow does not givé *
detailed account of the experiments from which he drew his ee
clusions, but it is not improbable that he had occasioned extensiv?
thrombosis in the portal area by his intravenous injection, which
would be an excellent reason why any further peripheral resistance
in the same area, should not be manifest in the blood pressure
curve.

There is a further interesting point shown by the blood pressure
record, ia those experiments in which I have given at intervals
two or three injections of venom intravenously. The inject?”
a very small quantity of venom (00005 gramme per kilo.) pre
duces a very considerable and immediate fall of blood presi
which is, however, recovered from. If, after the lapse of 07° sat :
when the pressure has regained, or almost regained its fom

1 Virchow’s Archiy., Bd. cxxm., S. 232,
2 Loe. cit.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 219

height, a further injection, containing ten or twenty times the
former quantity be made, this causes.a second drop in the blood
pressure. The fall is, however, in no way so great as in the
first instance, notwithstanding the fact that the quantity injected
is so much larger, and whereas the recovery from the cardiac
depression due to the first dose, was not complete until from forty
minutes to one hour, the pressure regains the normal, or about
the normal, in fifteen minutes after the second injection. If, after
this second recovery, a third dose of the poison, of the same quantity
as the second injection (or even double that quantity) be introduced,
it has little or no effect upon the blood pressure. The only explan-
ations of such results are either that the cardiac muscle has
become much less sensitive to the operation of the poison, or that
in the meantime, some body possessed of properties which interfere
with the operation of the poison, has become present in the blood
plasma. This point, however, opens up the whole problem of
immunity and the protective reaction of the organism against the
poison, which I hope to discuss at some future time.

Precisely the same result was observed by Wooldridge when
nucleo-albumens were repeatedly injected, and the enormous fall
in blood pressure produced by injecting albumoses into a vein,
does not occur if a second injection be made after the animal has
recovered from the first. .
Protocols of Experiments showing the influence of the Venom upon

the Arterial Blood Pressure.

These experiments were performed on dogs and rabbits. The
Poison was introduced either intravenously, subcutaneously, or
Into the peritoneal cavity. Most of the experiments in which the
Poison was injected into a vein were made upon dogs, whereas in
those cases where subcutaneous injection was employed, rabbits
Were used. Graphic records of the blood pressure were taken
"pon a Hering’s kymograph by means of a mercury manometer. —
The time and duration of the injection was indicated by raising
the signal line. Underneath the signal line a time marker con-
nected with a seconds clock gave the value of the abscissa. In

220 C. J. MARTIN.

those experiments which lasted some hours, a continuous res
was not taken, but the kymograph was stopped and set going
again for a few minutes, at intervals of fifteen or thirty minutes
or less as occasion demanded. In tabulating the curves, the
height of the pressure tracing at any particular moment above the
abcissa was measured in mm. and this number doubled. In every
case the mean pressure between the limits of the respiratory and
cardiac undulations was taken.
(1) Experiments with dogs in which the vagi had been previously
severed.

Experiment 1—Dog, weight 4:1 kilogrammes, ‘065 gramme of

morphia injected hypodermically ; ether during operation.

Sra a “ae sade
hrs, mins, secs mercury =
f 4
n gacenn of 0002 gramme per kilo. 0
cue <i a eight into the external jugular vel
tageetidu lasted 5 minutes.

O:.. 5: 30 122

0 10 0 104.

OS 0 72

0 30 0 82

0 45 0 118

pts | SN 1 98

Beas te | 78

1 30 0}, 65

1 45 0O 37

2230 @ 30

Zoe O 34

2 4 O 15

Bo OO 13 |

ace 18 ‘dead _

eens Re ee ott $e %
xpépligans a Toe, weight 3:4 bce, 065 gramme morphia :
hypodermically ; ether during operation.

Time, v
me ra Pm ap Remarks.
hrs. mins. sees.) mercury. ¢ mcmmeremermere =
of -001 mme per
Normal 124 beer ete ‘oni pa ffeil
3} minutes.

02° S80 48

0. 5-0 34

0 8 0 44 dyspneic struggles

0:10 6 14

eet ee 10 dead shinee

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 221

Post mortem examination revealed clots in the vena cava
inferior and portal vein.

Experiment 3—Dog, weight 5-4 kilos. ‘065 gramme of morphia
hypodermically ; ether during operation.

vine cog on. of Remarks.

hrs, mins. secs.) mercury.

Normal 108 "00005 gramme per kilo. of body weight

oo ae mec A ugular vein. Injection
asted 4 a min

Bee ER 90

ee a 66 |

¢. 3:0 54

es . 0 ae

ee 64

es tO qe 204

om TO 78

.. 26 83

Se 90

es 6 94.

O15) 114

0 20 0 122

0 2 0 124

0 30 +O 116

0 35 O 113

0 40 0 112

| Re SNE 102 bled to death.

Experiment 4—Dog, weight 5:5 kilos., ‘065 gramme of morphia
hypodermically ; ether during operation.
tevin ee

Time,
i i waee” Remarks.
hrs, Mins. secs, mercury.
Normal 180 0005 gramme per kilo. “Zajected ta external
fagdlen $olie.. Injection lasted 50 seconds
34 0 118
0-3 6 94
0 56 Oo 90
9 10 0 12
7 0 178
0 30 0 172
0 45 0 156
> 2.0 114
1 16 0 80
yay 0 81
4 =? 64 | respiration greatly diminished in extent
30 *
_o° 14 | dead. Respiratory gasps after cessation of
— circulation.

222 C. J. MARTIN.

Experiment 5—Dog, weight 3-2 kilos., ‘075 gramme of morphia
hypodermically ; ether during operation.

When the pressure had been reduced from 136 to 38 mm,
stimulation of the left splanchnic at its entrance into the abdomen
by a faradaic current caused the pressure to rise to 61 mm.

Time, | Blood pressure
in mm. of Remarks,
hrs, mins. secs. |
Normal 136 = 0004 grammes per kilo. wi body Te
| injected into Soni carotid artery. I
| n lasted 3 onds.
0 O 30 120
A EF 96
ee 8 |
o 16 6 64 | heart beat very small
0 30 0 72 eart beat improved
0 45 =O 100 _ heart beat improved
aoe 8 108 _ respiration much slower
10:0 63 respiration very slow
£16: 0 48 | respiration very slow
a 6 38 _—_ left abdominal splanebis stimulated
3010 61
St -0 40 |
an 6 4
2 0 0 26
2 30 O 18
2 40 O 14 dead .
Experiment 6—Dog, weight 4 kilos., 065 gramme of morphia ;
hypodermically ; ether during operation. a
Time. _{ Blood pressure!
in mm. of Remarks. ee
hrs. mins. secs. mercury Ce
Normal 142 ‘0003 mmes per kilo. of body weight
i o ted i ected jugular vel. Injer
63 minutes.
Ee AR respiration slow and slight
dee | ae | 42 respiration slow and slight
: 0 respiration very vie oteht E
0 46 respiration very slow and slight | = =
0 30 O 49 10 2 2" /3 solutions of CaCle injected ‘
jugular vein, caused pense 7
bosis of the whole vascular syste™ _—

This experiment was terminated after thirty minutes by ie
ing a solution of CaCl, which occasioned extensive intra
‘clotting.

;
re
e
“
3
4
Bs

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE,

223

Experiment 7—Dog, weight 7:7 kilos., ‘1 gramme morphia
Spatioinically ; ; ether during operation

eo ood pressure
mm. o

Remarks.

hrs. mins. secs Panouty.
Normal 204 Sasa pee per kilo. injected. into -daohaaes
Injection lasted 14 minute
ie i 105 respiration i increased
0 3 0 139
9 10 0 181
0 35 0 194 respiration slower — normal
LoeOsi 0 160 respiration inspiratory in charactor
1 30 0 126 diminished respiration ringers in character
1 45 0 108 i Pe *
2. Or) 103 »
2 15 0 07 respiration nearly ce sed
2 16 0 95 esi mre Sonali: dating which pressure
0 143
2 17 0 135
2 18 0 21 dead

this experiment the respiration was affected to a much

In
greater extent than is usual wit

dogs under the experimental

nimal died of asphyxia. During the

xia the pressure rose considerably.

8—Dog, weight 15 kilos., -15 gramme morphia

hypodermically ; ether during operation.

Remarks.

conditions, and the a
asphyxi
Experiment
Time, Blood pressur
hrs, mins. secs a nanly “
a eaten ensines | binemtniaciein
Normal 186
0 20 127
0 30 114
oa) 6 99
6-0 89
0 10 O 92
9 15 0 105
0 30 0 127
7 a 0 158
1 00 164
1 20 101
2: 6 0 83
110 0 130
1 20 0 159
1 30 0 162
2-00 156
oe ee 142
= oo 140
2 10 0 148
= 16 6 148
2 30 0 151
3 0

:

“00005 gramme per kilo. injected into jugular
vein.

0005 gramme per kilo. injected

0005 gramme per kilo. injected

bled to death

224

(2) Experiments on dogs with vagi intact.

Experiment 9—Dog, weight 94 kilos., ‘1 gramme morphia —
hypodermically ; ether during operation.

J. MARTIN.

Exe
‘4 1 tthe stil -
Time. pressure et at : Remarks
in rt beat!
hrs, mins. secs. mm. | ;
Normal 95 21:0 | -00001 gramme per kilo. injected into
de sawed vein; injection lasted 2)
0 2 30 64 1:0
| aN Gee I 52 8
e170 8 65 10 | right and left vagi cut; no effect
0 10 30 65 1:0

The restraining effect of the vagus on the heart beat was vely
marked in this dog. It disappeared in one minute after the
injection of the poison, and when the vagi were severed this was
followed by no alteration in heart beat or blood pressure.

Experiment 10—Dog, weight 4 kilos. -065 gramme morphia
hypodermically; ether during operation.

Oe gp
loner: pressure ws rot : Remarks.
: in mm. heart beat
hrs. mins. secs, in mm.

Normal 152 8-0 8 grammes per kilo. of body weight
eet —— ne jugular vein ein. Injection
lasted 1 nut

0: 10:6 90 2-0 :

0 12 0 94 2:0 | right and left vagi cut. No effect. 3

0 13:20 94 20 | peripheral end peice vagus stimulated, 3
pressure fell to 3

0 22 0 116 2°5

+ 70-0 40 7

2, 380 41 7

be Se 18 lees {

1 56 0 14 less | dead a

Shortly after introduction of the poison the vagus beats dis:

appeared. Subsequent section of vagi produced n0

effect. —

Stimulation of peripheral end of right vagus stopped the >

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 225

Experiment 11—Dog, weight 13-5 kilos., ‘15 gramme morphia
hypodermically ; ether during operation,

Excursion
Blood ofthe style
_ hpi at each Remarks,
hea. ch beat

oc:
|
| 90 00008 a as kilo. injected into
jugular v

SES
me he

or

trachea clamped.

right and left vagus cut.

cooococoooso
bo
OUk
ies)
or
Aan WSs er

c8o8oS8wrcobSgwo SES
cooooococcooooooo ocoooeooose
~7
—_

—— end of right Mas dons (ponagee
pressure to fall t
-00045 | wenities per kilo. tee

0005 gramme per kilo. injected

ou
ror)
Cm How cree cr oth crt

OorPwWwWNnNNnW NNN HH Ree

Ht

31
19 Fae
ceptible dead

_
Oo

Vagus beats disappeared in two minutes after the injection
of the venom, Twenty minutes after injection of poison pressure
®qualled 68 mm., and clamping trachea raised it to 170 mm.
Severing both Vagi produced no effect. Stimulation of peripheral
- tnd of right Vagus stopped the heart.

O—~July 3, 1895,

226

Experiment 12—Dog, weight 15°8 kilos., ‘15 gramme morphia :
hypodermically; ether during operation. .

C.J

- MARTIN.

Remarks.

rs nc
Time. pressure ae rd 4
in mm., /heart beat
hrs. mins. secs. in mm.
Normal 110 28
0+ 0:20 146 32
Woe 96 22
3 camer ale & 83 4
OF.) 74 3
nian: a 66 ii
0 o 0 60 1
G10: 20 "25
G16. 0 59 “75
0 30 0 84 1
Ay 0 114 2
0 49 O 113 2
0 650 O 114 15
Ca 0 76 1
0 { 0 58 1
0 58 O 64 1
0 54 O 74 1
O 55 0 80 1°23
0 56 O 88 15
1 0-0 108 15
a es | 114 1°75
1 a OO 112 15
BO ate 15
+ .20...01°- 106 1-25
135 6)... 1668 15
1. 2-0 113 2

-00008 grammes per kilo. injected into
jugular vein. Injection lasted 1_
minute. :

oa

-0005 gramme per kilo. injected

0005 gramme per kilo. injected

Experiment 13—Dog, weight 6°8 kilos., ‘1 gramme morphia
hypodermically ; ether during operation.

jugular vein.

bled to death es
:

Curare injected into

Co ee
Time. Blood pressure|
in mm. of Remarks.
hrs. mins. secs.. mercury. SS
Normal 150 001 gramme per kilo. injected in :
vein. Injection lasted 10 seconds.
O20 90
et) 2..9 40
Oo .3-0 70 a
0 40 92 intravascular clotting occured
o 6.0 dead

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE, 227

~~

(3) EZuperiments on curarised dogs, with artificial respiration, and
vagi severed.

Experiment 14—Dog, weight 10-2 kilos., *125 gramme morphia

hypodermically ; ether during operation. Curare injected into

jugular vein.

Time, Blood pressure
in mm. of Remarks,

Normal 150 ‘000075 gramme per kilo. of body w
injecten § in jugular vein. Injection vsited
50 seconds.

CUNT OU Ne
8s
o

artificial respiration suspended
_ artificial respiration continued

re fell to 20m

SB oBPSeoSoBoSoSoSoRS
coo coocoocoocoooseeoocooSesSooSsSocoSoSsS
"
tw)
tb

41 view end of ini rhe stimulated,
press

laa~s TWAAMMNNKHEPWWNHNHROCOOCoOoCoCOoOSSSO

|

_
oo

dead

Suspension of artificial respiration for one minute raised the
Pressure from 48 to 101 mm.

228 C. J. MARTIN.

Experiment 15—Dog, weight 15-9 kilo., 2 gramme morphia
hypodermically ; ether during operation. Curare injected into f
jugular vein. .

Time. Blood pressure
in mm. of Remarks,
hrs. mins. secs. ercury.

Normal 136 ‘00005 gramme per kilo. Gf ee weight —
pct into jugular vei

0 O 30 100
Go T..8 78
2 | ae en © 62
CS St 56
20 40
Or 25:6 64
0 30 O 103
gS i a 128 0025 gramme per kilo. injected
jn? apa 76
ee OD 65
boos) 54:
Bes aa I 71
+ ee 62 artificial peupiesiias suspended
ae Oo 128 artificial respiration continued
ee ef 90
28 @ 53
2 0 37
2 40 O 28
2 43 -0 19 dead

a
Suspension of artificial respiration for one minute raised the
pressure from 62 to 131 mm.

(4) Experiments on dogs after severing the spinal cord in the —
cervical region. ;

Experiment 16—Dog, weight 6°6 kilos., -1 gramme of morphit
given hypodermically ; ether during operation.

Time, Blood pressure
in mm. of Remarks.
hrs. mins. secs. mercury oo
Normal 101 | cord rptanaote at level of 3rd cervical vertebra
0: 6. 6 50 + 00008 mme per kilo. injected into j
G § 30 42 pe
0 836 36
O72 6 30
G:. - 8. 0 29 slight inspiratory iit
oe: 2.6 20 oe :
18 8 14 deed a :

:

.

&
|
'
ae
ae
Ee

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE,

Experiment 17—Dog,

229

weight 7 kilos., ‘1 gramme morphia

hypodermically ; ether during the operation.

Remarks.

cord severed at level of 3 3.d cervi vical ve vertubra.
‘00005 gramme per kilo. injected into jugular
vein.

Time. Blood pressure}
in mm. of
hrs. mins, secs.| mercury.
Normal 127
ao 68
oS 80 54
[i one Seed) 47
oe CO 41
Oo hs. iO 34
0-10: 0 40
O° Ss 6 45
0 20 O 48
0 30 O 56
0 45 O 57
sae ee 44
oe ae 38
1 30 0 33
1 40 0 26
© 80-0 22
hi he 0 13 dead

(5) EZuperiments on rabbits, vagi intact ;

without artificial

respiration.

Experiment 18—Rabbit, weight 1 kilogramme ; ether during

Operation.
i
Time, Blood pressure

tre a in mm. of

. Mins, secs, mercury.

Normal 107

0 0 30 "0

Oe ae 29
At i 2 sina: |

ing Operation.
Rear ga OE

Remarks.

00006 kilo. of body weight
mjectad Mats extort jugular vein. In-
jection lasted 30 seconds.

intravascular clotting.
dead

Remarks.

Time Riaaa pressure
hrs. mings, secs, ‘Wire :
Normal 105

0 0 30

83
Sa 0 49
e820 53
ay 69
> a

00004 gramme per kilo. injected in jugular
vein. Injection lasted 30 seconds.

intravascular clotting. "
dead wf ee ee ee

230 C. J. MARTIN.

Experiment 20—Rabbit, weight 1 kilo. ; ether during operation,

Time. | Blood —
| in Remarks,
hrs. mins. secs. | oo caseg
Normal | 97 2 gramme per kilo. injected into jugular
vein. Injection lasted 30 seconds.
O70". 30) 76
LESAN Beta 1 64
Os 2 Ol 51
Coe Be 53
O10 70:4 60
0 15 O 74
0 30 0. 68 |
0 45-0 71 respiration increased in rate and extent.
1 0 0 62 ” >>
1 15 0 54 ” > »”
1 30 0 45 ” ” 3”
145 0] 44
2-0 0| 40 respir iration diminishi ng
e386 33 respiration still greater in both rate and
extent than no
2 30 O 27 convulsions.
2 38 OF 20 dead.

2 ee

In the next two experiments the amplitude and rate of the
respiratory excursions of the tambour-lever is placed opposite the
numbers representing the arterial pressure at the time being.
From these it will be seen that the fall in blood pressure is not
in any way dependent upon diminished respiratory efficiency.

eek Winans 21—Rabbit, weight 1:6 kilos.; ether during

opera :
Essai Near NOME ASR Mele es
a Bl Respiration. oh
Time. Picard RIT PEPE ; Remarks.
1 am rate i
hrs. mins. secs caaihauename reg —_. pe
el
Normal 126 15 58 -00002 2 gramme per kilo. oa
— a injected
jugular
oe eg 114 ry 72
O--) 30 06 16 66
: 15 0 124 52 52 kilo.
45 0| 130 42 84 | 00003 gramme per
jected into ate =
2 PR 9 fame 1 84 48 56
yes ies | 95 51 60
iL 46. 0 92 50 60
2 16° 6 65 45 55
as 8 a 9 | 40 40 53
2 42) 26 — pat convulsions,
2 48.0 21 65 12
2 43 30 16 27 21

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 231
In this experiment the respiration was well maintained for two
hours forty-two minutes, when asphyxial convulsions occurred,

due to the feeble circulation.

Experiment 22—Rabbit, weight 1°75 kilos.; ether during

operation.
Time, Blood ces clepaneeart
pressure amplitnc de rate per Remarks,
hrs. mins. secs. eure
Normal 107 13 72 ‘000005 gramme per kilo. in-
jected into jugular vein
0:58 0 96 1l 60
071830 84 ud 69
0 48 O 80 10 52
jee at) 82 9 4:4,
| Mae) enae 0 72 10 36
a 380 80 ll 40 5 grm. per a lepapiaie
1 40 0 55 1l 4d nice slow cme
a4 6 23 50 67 convulsi
1 41 10 58 65 val
1 41 30 20 12 52
1 12 2
1 48 20| 11 55 4
eee 6 | | heel

In this experiment the respiration showed signs of failure, but
the asphyxial convulsions must be attributed to the simultaneous
enfeeblement of the circulation.

Tn the next two experiments the venom solution was raised to
the temperature of 85° C. for a moment previous to injection.

}
5 a 23—Rabbit, weight 1-4 kilos.; ether during
Operation

Time. —_| Blood pressure!
; in mm. of ;
Ars. mins. secs, iiercusy. 4 ——
eh) he i ie pe ee
Mormal 106 pieetice of -0035 ome per kilo. into
0 19 os rnal jugular vein
aa 74.
er oe) 68
ak? 78
—? 104
30.0 112
pO 105
. 90 102
20 | 106 _| killed by bleeding.

232 C. J. MARTIN.

ae

Experiment 24—Rabbit, weight 1:8 kilos.; ether during
operation. Venom solution heated to 85° C. previous to injection —

Time. Blood pressure| -
in mm. 0: Remarks. le
hrs. mins. secs. mercury.
Normal 102 "01 gramme per kilo. injected into bo he
vein. Injection lasted 3 minutes
OS. 82
0.54" 80
OG. 6 0 79 2 atc doubled in rate and extent.
0 6 0 44 j
A ae 36 .
Go BO 40 respiration diminishin ng. ‘
a: 9 6 33 ee cence : but greater than :
r

0 10 0 56 | convulsi :
eee 8 eae 12 long cae csaviie respiration. 4
0 12 0 8 | dead. 4

In this experiment when the pressure had fallen to 33 mmy
asphyxial convulsions occurred, although the respiration at the ;
time was above the normal, both in rate and extent.

Observations on the blood pressure after subcutaneous injection of E

the poison.

When the poison is subcutaneously introduced, the effect aon
the blood pressure is complicated by the results of simultaneous 4
paralysis of the respiration, to a much greater extent than under i
the previous experimental conditions. The cause of this differ:
ence will be discussed in the section devoted to the consideration
of the effects of the venom on the respiratory mechanism, but it
is necessary to mention the fact now. Blood pressure records
taken from an animal into which the poison has been subeutane :
ously injected exhibit the effects of the primary asph
Seon of the vagus and — centres, and the 2

necessary to eliminate these secondary results due to its 0
at the same time upon the respiratory mechanism, by

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 233

artificial inflation of the lungs. The effect upon the blood
pressure without artificial respiration can, however, be seen on
reference to the experiments at the end of the section on the effects
of the venom upon the respiration. In the detailed account of
those experiments, the pressure in the carotid artery at intervals
during the course of the experiment, is enumerated, together with
the rate and amplitude of the respiratory movements. On com-
paring the experiments with and without artificial respiration, it
will be seen that life is only prolonged to a very short extent by
maintaining the respiratory efficiency of the animal by mechanical
inflation.

Tf death from asphyxia be prevented by such means, the animal
succumbs within a few minutes from heart failure. Experiments
26, 27 and 28, in which the artificial inflation was suspended for
a few seconds at intervals in order to ascertain the extent of the
action of the poison on the respiratory mechanism, show that
the heart ceased to beat within five minutes from the time when

natural respiration had completely ceased.

The animals upon which these experiments were performed
Were rabbits. They were anesthetised with ether, and the carotid
artery connected with a mercury manometer. The trachea was
connected with a Marey’s tambour and the artificial respiration
pump. The air was warmed by being passed through coils of
lead Pipe immersed in hot water before being pumped into the
lungs. The arrangement of these connections was such as to
admit of changing from artificial to.natural respiration or vice
versa by turning a tap, and without interfering with the registering
tambour. A tracing of the normal blood pressure was first obtained,
= then the poison dissolved in 1 cc. of normal salt solution,
injected, Further tracings were taken at intervals of fifteen
ae or less, during the course of the experiment. The poison
Was injected into the peritoneal cavity in two experiments and in
the others under the skin of the abdomen. The result of all the

234 C. J. MARTIN.

experiments was the same. The pressure fell slowly at first, and
rapidly at the end of the experiment. With large doses, Experi-
ments 25, 26, 27, it fell considerably, even during the first ten
minutes, but with the smaller quantities it remained nearly at the
normal for the first two hours and then fell rapidly until death. Y
At the same time the excursions of the style occasioned by each
beat of the heart were very greatly diminished until they became
imperceptible.

Experiment 25—Rabbit, weight 1-3 kilos.

Time. Blood pressure
in mm. “a Remarks,
hrs. mins. secs. mercwu
Normal | 90 ‘01 gramme of poison per kilo. of Pris: 7
| injected into peritoneal cavity.

USO GG ae | 61

0°25 0 59

0.35 0 25

0 40 0 22

0: 55.0 23

Oo Sr: | 81

Bo 628 24,

bs 536-70 | 13 | dead.

Experiment 26—Rabbit, weight 1-6 kilos.

ues
Time, Blood pressure
: in mm. of Remarks.
hrs. mins. secs.) mercury.
Slrsemigess LS
Normal 94 | -0075 gramme per kilo. of body weight it-
jected ‘aks peritoneal cavity.
G16 4 89
0-15 '@ 94
0 30°98 82
0 45 O 88
Beat 74,
1 10 0 50 artificial respiration pegs et i ee sooo
natural respiration slight
1 a0. 19 89 vagus beats.
he. 0 51
1 20 0 44, artificial respiration s
Na 1 respiration toe8 epi
1 30 0 28 artificial respiration suspenders 5
Natural respiration a
1 32 0 10 dead.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 235

Experiment 27—Rabbit, weight 1-25 kilos.

Remarks.

Time. | Blood pressure}
in mm. of
hrs. mins. secs.| mercury.
Normal 91
OB). 85
0:10 0 90
1p 0 94,
0 30 0 88
0 45 0 87
Pong 6 82
4 Sse 1 78
Eso oO vai
1 0 64
1 # 0 55
27:5 0..0 42
Y Giese 7b 28
2100 20
3-13... 14

‘0075 gramme per kilo. injected subcutane-
ously into abdominal wall.

pear respiration suspended during “i
conds. Natural cee very feeble.

— respiration suspended during 7
onds. Natural respiration absent.

dead.

Experiment 28—Rabbit, weight 1-75 kilos.

Remarks.

Time. Blood pressure

: in mm. of

hrs. mins. secs, mercury.
Sy NaeepmeereD
Normal 98
0 30 Oo 99
0 45 6 90
a 89
A 25. 0 88
2a 92
{Se Ce 92
en a 91
2.16 0 96
2 30 0 92
245 0 84
0 @ 56
3°15 0 22
a a 6

uy

0035 gramme per kilo. of na weight in-
jected under skin of abdome

artificial respiration suspended 5 seconds.
Natural respiration feeble.

artificial respiration suspended 5 seconds.
Natural respiration very feeble.
ificial respiration s

236 C. J. MARTIN.

Experiment 29—Rabbit, weight 1-2 kilos.

Time. Blood pressure]

; in mm. of Remarks.

hrs, mins. secs, mercury. :
Normal 102 ‘0035 gramme per kilo. of body weightim

jected under skin of abdomen.

Uo 75.00 100
9 30 0 97
0 45 0 97
poe, | Fae 93
bee 90
1 30 0 87
1 45 0 89
A | OBR A, 84
RS Sie 78
2 30 O 75
2 45 O 75
ps eae SL 69
& 15° 0 52
38 25 0 bl
3 30 0 26
3 35 O 22
3 40 0 17
3 44 0 15 dead.

Simultaneous observations on the arterial blood pressure and the : ?
volume of the kidney or spleen following the intravenous —
injection of the venom.

These experiments were performed on dogs. The animals wet®
given a hypodermic injection of morphia half an hour previously
and inhaled ether during the operative procedure. The carols
artery and jugular vein were dissected out. The former e
connected with a mercury manometer, and a cannula tied in 7
vein by means of which the venom containing solution was in’
duced. The kidney was reached through the loin, and placed _
a Roy’s oncometer and surrounded by hot cloths. I .
using oil as Roy originally did, hot water was used and =
membranes enclosing the organ were previously soaked py
The oncometer was connected to the piston-recorder by an ini
rubber tube with stout walls. Unfortunately the range of ma
ment of the piston-recorder I have worked with is insufficient ®
register the great variations produced in the volume of the kidney
by the injection of snake venom. The spleen was reached by ®

ES paso vret Vaat yeni ee

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 937

long incision at the outer border of the rectus muscle, and placed
in Roy’s spleen box. Hot water was used to surround the organ,
which was prevented from cooling in the same manner as before.
In these experiments, however, the piston recorder was discarded
owing to its insufficient range, and the end of the rubber tube
farthest from the spleen box was connected with a small burette
graduated in 34;ths of acc. The level of the water in the burette
was adjusted so as to be three inches above the level of the spleen
box, in order that the pressure on the outside of the organ should
approximately equal the pressure in the splenic vein. During
the progress of the experiment, the graduation opposite the level
of the water in the burette was read off by an assistant, and at
the same time an indication was made on the blood pressure record
by raising the signal line. An increase in volume of the organ,
due to increase in the capillary pressure within the organ, is
indicated by the water flowing into the burette. Diminution in
volume is indicated by a corresponding flow out of the burette.
By reading off the increase or diminution in the water in the
burette, a measure of the alteration in volume is obtained.

In tabulating the graphic records, the height of the arterial
Pressure curve has been measured as before, and in the spleen
volume experiments, the volume in cc. by which the organ was
diminished, has been placed opposite the value of the arterial
blood pressure at the moment. With the kidney experiments the
value of the ordinates on the curve in cc. was ascertained by
observing the extent of rise or fall of the lever of the piston
recorder which corresponded with the entrance or exit of | ce.
of fluid into the piston box. This tabulation is not quite accurate,
Owing to the lever moving in an are, and therefore the value of
the ordinates is not uniform, but this error may be neglected
for the present purpose.

Tn observing the volume at any particular time, the maximum
value and Minimum value of the respiratory undulations were
both recorded and the mean taken. With the spleen experiments
the Variations in volume caused by the rhythmic contraction of the

238 C. J. MARTIN.

organ itself, were accounted for in the same way. These contrac-
tions diminished or disappeared when the arterial pressure sank
greatly after the introduction of the poison, and reappeared in
those cases in which the pressure temporarily recovered, to vanish

again as the pressure finally sank.

Experiment 30—Dog, weight 13:5 kilos. ; curarised ; artificial :
respiration ; carotid connected with a mercury manometer; vag! —
cut; poison introduced through a cannula in the external jugs

vein ; right kidney placed in oncometer.

Time. Blood | Volume
pressure of
hrs. mins. secs.| in mm. | kidney.
Normal 146. | normal | °000035 a per kilo. injected into
jugular ve
0= 0° 30 103 -1 ce.
CO peas 0 81 — 21 ce.
Oe 0 64 °
Oa 55 *
Dich OD 52 *
O60 44 *
0: 16) =) 40 =
0 10 .0 32 ah
OG: 4626 30 *
ee oe 18 * dead

* Denotes that the diminution in volume of the organ is ~~

than the piston-recorder could indicate.

Experiment 31—Dog, weight 9 kilos.; hypodermic injection &
2 grains of morphia acetate ; ether ; vagi cut; carotid con
with mercury manometer; poison introduced through a canna :
external jugular vein ; right kidney placed in oncometer.

Time. Blood Volume
— | of

hrs. mins. sees. mm. | kidney. SS ee
SSRN ‘ected inte

Normal 120 | normal | -000015 Aare sag per kilo. inj

jugular vein

aa Seay i 96 -1'8 cc

OB. @ 73 *

0 10-6 75 *

0:20 0 90 *

0 25 0 106 —1°8 ec.

0 30 0 112

0 42 0

Remarks.

oli i lr

Remarks.

-6 ce. 7 ie
108 —7 ce. | animal bled to death. o

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE, 239

* Denotes that the diminution in volume of the organ is greater
than the piston-recorder could indicate. During this time its
lever described a straight line on the drum. As the pressure
again rose the piston recommenced to describe the characteristic
volume curve, exhibiting the cardiac and respiratory undulations,

Experiment 32—Dog, weight 3°6 kilos.; 4 grain morphia
injected hypodermically; ether; vagi cut; carotid connected with
a mercury manometer; poison introduced through a cannula in
external jugular vein; spleen placed in oncometer. Volume of
spleen when dead = 30 cc.

Time, Blood | Volume

pressure ° Remaris

hrs, mins. secs.| in mm. | spleen.

Normal 133 | normal | 0001 gramme per kilo. injected into

jugular vein.

0 O 30 112 |-0°8 ce

ee Se 1 82 |-18 ,,

Ws SO 68 |—2°1 ,,

ih :.0 s..i4st...

010 0 79 1-16 ,,

0 20 0 105 |-0°9 ,,

0) 198 |-94 ,

0 45 O 101 |-08 ,,

1 0 0 5 -08 ”

eeODHED 63 |-16 ,,

ee 41 |-1-9 ,,

210 0 $1 |-20 ‘,,

21 Oo 28 |-20 ,,
a2 17.0}. 23 |-2°0 ,, | dead.

Experiment 33—Dog, weight 4°3 kilos., 1 grain morphia hypo-
dermically ; ether; vagi cut; carotid connected with a mercury
manometer ; poison introduced through a cannula in the external
Jugular vein ; spleen placed in oncometer. Volume of the spleen
when dead = 36-5 ce.

Time, Blood | Yolume_
0

f
hrs, mins. secs. 38 mm. spleen.

Remarks,
| ic ae
Normal 120 | normal | ‘000075 gramme per kilo. injected into
jugular vein.

0 oO
eae

~2U yy
—31 »”»

240 C. J. MARTIN.

Time. Blood | Volume |
pressure | of Remarks.
hrs. mins, secs.) in mm, spleen.
ae
0 10 0| 102 |-08.,,
Oo 165.0 110 p08 x
G38 6 | 108 |-03 ,,
0 45 O 103 |- 04 ,,
Lo 8 96 |-09 ,,
a es! eee & | vi. |-0°9 ",
2 rO OF 91 |-1'0:',,
2° 307-0 | 65 |-2:2 ,,
240 0/ 68 |-29 ,,
2 50 O| 564 |-31 ,, P
3° O.. 0 OM |= oo 45 4
$ 80.°0| 1 48 1-40,
B40. 04 36 |-40 ,,
S80. 2 |-40 ,, |
4°00 | Si |-41-.,,
oe 8} 18 |-42 ,, | dead. :

V.—Errect or VENOM ON THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

The venoms of all snakes directly, or indirectly affect the nervous
system. The introduction of snake poison is followed by depression, :
faintness, loss of co-ordinating power, and ultimately by paralysis :
These symptoms point to alteration in either the nervous centres
or the peripheral nerves.

Brunton and Fayrer concluded, from their experiments, that 4
the peripheral termination of the motor nerves were actually
paralysed by cobra venom. These authors repeated Claude
Bernard’s classical experiments by means of which he demonstrated
that curare paralysed the peripheral terminations of motor nerve ’
The results with cobra venom showed that this poison exerted & ;
similar effect. They were however, of opinion that paralysis ¢ ;
motor nerves was not the only effect of cobra poison oP oe
nervous system, but that the spinal cord was also paralysed. a
some instances paralysis of the spinal cord appeared to cause
death, when little or no affection of the motor nerves could be
observed, but in other cases the peripheral paralysis was So? —
marked. They thought it was doubtful whether the ete
was directly affected by the poison, as the intelligence both = 7
man and in animals often remained unimpaired to the last, a a

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 241

the stupor and drowsiness which were sometimes noticed, might
have been caused indirectly.

According to Wall,’ the principal action of cobra poison on the
nervous system, consists of an extinction of functions extending
from below vpwards, of the various nerve-centres constituting the
cerebro-spinal system ; and though, no doubt, other parts of the
nervous system suffer, this poison acts especially on the respiratory
centre, and on those other ganglia allied to it in the medulla
oblongata, which are in connection with the vagus, the spinal
accessory, and the hypo-glossal nerves, and it is directly to this
destructive action that we have to attribute death in most cases
of cobra poisoning.

Wall found, however, that there were marked differences
between the actions of the poison of the cobra, and Daboia
russelii, (a viperine snake) upon the nervous system. The poison
of the latter almost always occasioned violent convulsions, which
were not due as in cobra poisoning to failure of the respiration.
They occurred quite suddenly, and were in no way obviated by
artificial inflation of the lungs. Sometimes the animal died at
Once, sometimes after a partial recovery. Wall thought these
convulsions were caused by the direct operation of the poison on
the nervous system and not by asphyxia. Nevertheless, I feel
convinced that they were in reality asphyxial convulsions, and due
to intravascular clotting, whereby the circulation was impeded, or
altogether stopped.

Another very interesting fact discovered by Wall was that if
Daboia venoin was heated to 100° C. its power of producing these
convulsions was abolished. Injection of the boiled poison caused
@ gradual cessation of the respiration, followed by a few convul-
sions, due to respiratory failure.

Exactly the same result is obtained by heating Pseudechis
venom to 85° C., and I have already shown that this is because
its capacity to occasion intravascular clotting has thereby been
aimost destroyed.

1 “Indian Snake Poisons.”
P—July 3, 1895,

942 C. J. MARTIN.

Feoktistow on the other hand, experimenting with the venoms :
of Crotalus and Vipera berus, found that even when complete —
paralysis of the extremities had occurred, faradisation of the —
peripheral end of a nerve produced perfectly normal contractions :
of the muscles, and he was unable to find any interference with ;
the passage of nerve impulses to voluntary muscles. (No curare :
effect). P

These venoms produced a gradual paresis, involving, asa rule, —
the hinder extremities first, and soon passing into a condition of —
complete paralysis. The reflexes disappeared either before, or at :
the same time as the onset of paralysis. He was unable to restore —
the diminished or lost reflex activity of the cord by even intra-
venous injections of strychnine ; nor could he produce any move

ment of the opposite limb by faradaic stimulation of the central
end of the sciatic nerve, even when the paralysis of the hind limbs
was still incomplete. During the later stages of poisoning he
observed dilation of the pupil.

Ragotzi' has-recently, by an extensive series of experiments —
frogs, confirmed the results obtained by Brunton and Fayrer, 8 4
the action of cobra venom on the peripheral termination of the

motor nerves. He has also by some ingenious experiments shown —

aoe 3 “ 5
Re mi i etl ti tT ns

that the same occurs in mammals, and is of opinion that to this —
peripheral paralysis the nervous symptoms are almost entirely due. :
In summing up the results of his experiments he says—“Ieh
glaube daher, dass durch das Najagift eine specifische primaire
Lahmung der nervésen Centra nicht hervorgebracht wird. Tn
sie irgendwo in die Erscheinung, dann ist sie wohl nur secundarer
Natur, d. h. die Folge von schweren Circulationstérungen.”

When Pseudechis venom is introduced into an animal, after?”
period of uneasiness which varies according to the amount injected,
it becomes sleepy and lethargic, and if a dog, it vomits. bret
lethargy increases, and is succeeded by weakness, which is at — )

most_manifest in the hind quarters. The animal remains quiet, —

20

I Loc. cit.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 243

and disinclined to move. If made to walk its gait is unsteady,
and accompanied by incoordination of movement. At the same
time it responds less readily to any form of stimulation, and its
senses appear dulled. Later it is quite unable to stand, the
pupils become dilated and insensible to light, and the breathing
shallow and slowed. In this condition it responds sluggishly to
painful stimulation, although the skin and corneal reflexes, and
movements evoked by stimulation of the sensitive hair of the snout,
are still rapidly produced. Eventually no response can be evoked
by stimulation from any of the surfaces, and the corneal reflex
disappears last. By this time the respiratory movements have
become very sluggish, and with the exception of occasional long
inspiratory gasps, greatly diminished in extent. The respiration
ultimately ceases when with or without a few feeble convulsive
movements, the animal succumbs.

[ have already shown that the venom paralyses the heart, and
thereby gradually depresses the circulation, and it is quite con-
ceivable that all these nervous symptoms could be produced by a
gradually diminished blood supply to the central nervous system.
Accordingly, before we can draw any conclusions as to how far
these results are due to a direct interference with the function of
the nervous system, it will be necessary to eliminate the operation
of this factor.

By varying the conditions of the experiment, it is however easy
to show that, although in many cases the circulatory depression
contributes to the gradual extinction of function of the nervous
system, the venom does itself exert a very powerful action upon
the medulla and cord, and more especially upon the respiratory
centre,

When the venom reaches the circulation in a considerable
quantity at one time, the heart is the more affected, whereas the
respiratory centre is sensitive in a higher degree to the continuous
°peration of the poison in small concentration. This conclusion
as arrived ut from the fact that in those cases where the poison
'S rapidly introduced into the circulation, as when small quantities

244 C. J. MARTIN.

intravenously, or large quantities subcutaneously, are injected,
the more obvious effect is that produced upon the heart, butif
the delivery of the venom be slower, as when it is subcutaneously
injected, in not too large amount, the function of respiration is the
one more particularly interfered with, whilst the circulation may be
well maintained. In fact, were two separate observers to experi-
ment, the one with intravenous, the other with subcutaneous
injections, the conclusion of the former would be that the principal
action of the venom was that of a cardiac poison, while the latter
might consider -that any interference with the circulation was
altogether subsidiary to the action of the poison on the respiratory
mechanism.

Different species of animals also exhibit some variation in the
relative degree of sensitiveness of their vascular and respiratory
mechanisms to the poison. In dogs the effect on the vascular
mechanism is, under similar conditions, generally more manifest
than in rabbits, whereas the latter appear to be particularly
sensitive to the influence of the poison in that portion of the
nervous system connected with respiration. It must, however, be
distinctly understood, that in all animals the venom produces @
profound paralysing effect upon the heart, and even in rabbits,
life can be prolonged but a few minutes by means of artificial 3
respiration. In those experiments in which immediately @Y
signs of diminished respiratory activity were obvious, artificial
inflation with warmed air was resorted to, the blood pressure fell
to within a few mm. of zero, and the animal died very shortly .
after extinction of ordinary breathing had occurred.

It would appear as if the poison must reach a certain proportion ‘
in the circulating blood, before it can seriously interfere bigs
cardiac contractions, but once this proportion is reached, the heat’ ;
is very speedily and profoundly affected. When the meee
of the venom is slow, it may however effect a gradual paralysis re
the more sensitive respiratory nervous mechanism, before aS
present in the blood in sufficient concentration to produce ~
appreciable diminution in cardiac activity.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 245

It is not, however, so easy to eliminate the influence of deficient
circulation, as a possible cause of the symptoms of general paralysis
of the cord which occur in poisoned animals, because the rest of
the nervous system does not exhibit the same degree of sensitiveness
as the respiratory centre. Nevertheless, one may infer that a
poison which produces so deadly a paralysing effect upon a special
group of nerve cells, will exert the same influence though in lesser
degree upon the rest of the nervous system. ‘There is indeed
absolute evidence of this, in the case of cold-blooded vertebrates,
such as frogs, and although with mammals the evidence is not so
completely satisfactory, it nevertheless leaves no reasonable doubt
that a diminution of the reflex activity of the cord, due to the
direct action of this venom on the nerve cells, exists after the
injection of the poison.

In the section devoted to the consideration of the effect of the
poison on the circulation, I stated that after the introduction of
venom into a vein, a great fall of blood pressure occurred, which
was accounted for by a direct paralysing effect of the poison upon
the heart. When, however the quantity injected was a small one,
the blood pressure very soon regained its former height, and the
circulation was as well maintained as previously. Nevertheless
the condition of the nervous system of the animal is very different
to that immediately preceding the injection. When removed
from the table it shows great weakness, and is often unable to
walk, or even to stand, but lies helplessly in any position in which
it may have fallen after a few incoordinate attempts to regain
4 normal attitude. Its tendon reflexes are feeble or altogether
aesent, and it reacts sluggishly to any form of cutaneous
stimulation,

Rabbits of about two kilogrammes in weight, which have
received “01 gramme of venom subcutaneously, die in from two to
three hours. The immediate cause of death, as I shall presently
om, is due in most cases to respiratory failure. If, directly the
respiration becomes shallow, artificial inflation of the lungs be
employed, they live some fifteen or twenty minutes longer. In

246 C. J. MARTIN.

three experiments in which under these conditions a tracing of
the arterial blood pressure was taken, this ‘was maintained at, or
a very little below the original height, for some ten minutes after
the power of the animal to breathe, had absolutely disappeared.

In these experiments shortly before the cessation of ordinary e

respiration the abdominal skin reflex which is so strongly marked
in rabbits could no longer be elicited, and its disappearance was
followed by that of the corneal reflex also, while at the same time
the efficiency of the circulation was maintained, as was shown by
the blood pressure remaining as high, or nearly as high as at the
commencement of the experiment.

(a)—Effect of venom on the reflex activity of the spinal cord in Frogs.
After the introduction of ‘01 gramme of venom into the dorsal
lymph sacs of frogs, the animals soon show signs of advancing
paralysis. In about ten to fifteen minutes after the inoculation,
the respiratory movements become slow, and eventually ceas
It now responds only sluggishly to cutaneous stimulation, and if
turned over on its back can with difficulty regain the prone
position, on account of the incoordination of its efforts. A few
minutes later the animal is quite unable to turn over, when placed
on its back, and responds slightly or not at all to every form

cutaneous stimulation. In about twenty minutes it is absolutely :
paralysed, and even stimulation of the central end of a divided a

Sciatic nerve is unable to produce the slightest reflex response. :.

Now it is obvious that one cannot draw any conclusions concert

ing the direct action of the poison upon the nervous system from
such an experiment, as suspension of the circulation produces the :

ae
ag
a

If a frog in this condition be opened, the heart may be beating :
feebly, but in most cases the whole circulation is thrombosed.

same result. Thrombosis may however be obviated, as I have :
previously mentioned by raising the temperature of the venom —
solution to 85° C. before injecting it. In the remainder of my

experiments on frogs this was done; ‘Ol gramme of this
venom never produced thrombosis, but the animals show

od the

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 247

same symptoms of gradual extinction of function of the nervous
system as those inoculated with the unheated venom. When the
animals were completely paralysed, the heart was found to be still
beating fairly strongly.

To test the effect of venom on the reflex activity of the cord,
Ture’s method was employed. The brains of seven frogs were
destroyed, and the animals were then hung up in a row by the
lower jaw. About every five minutes the foot of each frog was
dipped in a -4% solution of sulphuric acid. The moment the foot
touched the fluid a chronograph was started, and the moment
there was any movement of the leg, it was stopped. The
chronograph measured to one-fifth of a second.

The time intervening between the commencement of the
stimulation and the beginning of response, (latent period of
response ), was then noted, and the foot of the frog washed in a
beaker of water. The whole process was then repeated with the
next frog. Ags the activity of the cord diminished, the latent
Period increased. When the seven frogs had been tested three
times in this way, ‘01 gramme of venom dissolved in °5 ce. salt
solution, and previously heated to 85° C., was injected into the
dorsal lymph sac of three of them, and the hearts of two were
cut out, while the remaining two served as controls. The effect
of the poison, and also the effect of cessation of all circulation
upon the latent period of response is shown in the following
table, where the columns of figures represent this latent period of
response in seconds.

et: rk: Frog 2 Frog 3 Frog 4 Frog 5 Treg 7 | Frog 7
Seconds | S ds. | 8 ds. | Seconds, | S ds. | Seconds. | Seconds.
Se" 26 | is |" 26 | 20 | 20 | 16 bee
ob “1 +e 2°2 2-4. 13 ~~ 1-4 16
10 ,,/} © 28 26 Be 1:2 ‘8 1:8
es ag ee heartcuti/heartcut|'01 gramme heated venom
t u injected into lymph-sac.
: : P
bi a 6 30 28 1-0 1:4 1:0 18
3-30 it he 28 2-4 1-0 1-2 18 22
eo... © 22 26 1-2 46 3-4 40
349 ” 6 22 4:0 ~ |no response} 5 no respons?
345 8 3-0 10 response = no response ”
= 30 ee 10 response a ” a
Next day 3-4 4-9 oT or s : wee

248 C. J. MARTIN.

While with the control frogs there was no very marked altera-
tion in the reflex excitability of the cord until the next day, those
frogs in which the circulation was abolished failed to respond in
twenty-five and twenty minutes after the suspension of the cireu-
lation. For the few minutes previous to the absence of response
to stimulation, the latent period was increased. The poisoned
frogs whose hearts were still beating moderately after the cessation
of all reflex activity, however, ceased to respond after fifteen and 3
twenty minutes ; that is sooner than those in which the cord was
deprived of all blood supply. Under these circumstances the
effect on the nervous system must have been a direct one, and
wholly independent of any interference with the vascular
mechanism.

(6)—The effect of the venom on motor nerves.

The general features presented by an animal poisoned with the
venom are strikingly similar to those which follow the injection
of curari, The gradual cessation of all motor phenomena either
of a spontaneous or reflex origin might very well be due to the
poison operating in this way. The conclusion of Brunton and
Fayrer, and Ragotzi, that cobra poison paralysed the peripheral
ends of the motor nerves, lends additional support to such a view.

With the object of investigating this point, I made a number
of observations on frogs poisoned with the venom, in the same —
way as the action of curari was determined by Claude Bernard.
I also determined whether there was any evidence of such inter
ference with the terminations of the phrenic nerves, and also”
with the motor nerves of the brachial plexus of rabbits. Ragotat 4
found that the terminations of the phrenics were more sensitive :
to the action both of curari and of cobra poison, than the other
motor nerve endings ; and he sees in this increased sensitiveness
the reason why so many observers have attributed a selective
action upon the respiratory centre to cobra venom.

Ihave both with frogs and mammals been quite unable of ~
discover any indication that Pseudechis venom produces a0

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 249

upon motor nerve terminations. The symptoms of interference
with the nervous system cannot be accounted for in this way.
(i.)—Eaperiments with Frogs.

In all these experiments the sciatic nerve on one side was
dissected out fora length of about 1 cm. and a ligature passed
under it and tied around the limb, but so as to exclude the nerve.
The poison was then introduced either into the dorsal lymph sac,
or into the peritoneal cavity, and was unable to reach the ligatured
limb which was cut off from all circulation. As soon as all move-
ment either voluntary or reflex had ceased, the lower half of the
frog was cut off at the waist, the skin removed from the lower .
half of the body and the sciatics of both sides stimulated as they
lay beside the urostyle in the abdominal cavity.

The capacity of the nerve to conduct impulses to the muscle,
was ascertained by stimulating it with the induced current from
a Du Bois Reymond’s coil, and recording the greatest distance of
the secondary from the primary coil when a contraction of the
gastrocnemius was caused by breaking the primary circuit. This —
circuit contained one Daniel cell, and a moderately constant
rapidity in opening the circuit was obtained by allowing a rotating
cylinder to make and break a metallic contact. The cylinder was
kept rotating at a uniform speed, and made and broke circuit with
each revolution, The secondary circuit was short circuited by a
Du Bois Reymond key. This was opened, when it was wished to
stimulate the nerve, during one revolution of the cylinder, and
then closed again. As only the minimal stimuli requisite to pro-
duce * contraction were employed, the closing of the primary
circuit just previous to its opening, failed to cause any contraction
of the muscle.

Experiment I.—Large male frog, weight 21 grammes ; left leg
ligatured but so as to exclude the sciatic nerve.
237 p.m., -25 ce, of a 1% solution of Pseudechis venom injected
into dorsal lymph sac.

320 ., both legs kicked when foot was pinched.

areata
Oe iatectere a

250 C. J. MARTIN,

4-0 p.m., both legs kicked when foot was pinche

5-0 ditto ditto

70 ,, responds sluggishly to stimulation; recovers with
difficulty when placed on back.

Next morning the frog was quite lively.

In this experiment the condition of the nerves was not tried as
an insufficient amount of venom had been inoculated.

Experiment I1.—Sturdy male frog, weight 18 grammes prepared
as in Experiment I. |
12:2 p.m., 5 ce. of 1% solution of venom injected into dorsal
lymph sac.
12:20 ,, respiratory movements ceased ; pinching foot of un-
ligatured limb causes it to be drawn away slowly.
12-21 ,, when turned over on its back makes no attempt to
regain the prone position.
12:24 ,, corneal reflex gone.
12°25 ,, sciatic nerves prepared for stimulation.
Maximum distance of secondary from primary
coil when gastrocnemius contracted.

Electrodes on | Electrodes on

sciatic nerve. dorsal cord.
Ligatured limb... 47 cm. | 32 em. |
Unligatured limb 58 em. 88 cm.

Experiment I[1.—Large female frog, weight 19 grammes, prepare
as before. aioe:
12°40 p.m., 5 cc. of 1% solution of Pseudechis venom injected
into dorsal lymph sac.
12°56 ,, respiratory movements ceased.
10 ,, when turned over on back unable to recover prone
position.
» allreflex movements absent ; sciatic nerves P
Maximum distance of secondary from primary
coil when gastrocnemius contracted.

Electrod Electrodes on

iatic pes dorsal cord.
Ligatured limb.. 63 cm. 33 cm.
Unligatured limt 59 em. 33 cm.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 251

I found that the venom had occasioned intravascular clotting
in both these frogs. The blood in the whole vascular system was
coagulated, except in the ligatwred limb. It therefore appeared
quite likely that the venom had not been circulating sufficiently
long to produce any influence on the nerve terminations, In the
remainder of the experiments intravascular clotting was obviated
by using venom which had previously been heated to 85° C. for a
minute. Nevertheless the same paralysis followed, but it took
considerably longer to develope when the same weight of poison
was employed.

Experiment [V.—Large male frog, weight 20 grammes, prepared
as usual.

12°15 pm., ‘5 ce. of 1% solution of venom previously heated to

85° C. injected into dorsal lymph sac.

4:30 ,, respiratory movements feeble; recovers with diffi-
culty when placed on back.

5°30 ,, respiration ceased.

ro KS response to stimulation ; sciatics dissected out.

Maximum distance between coils when gastrocnemius
con ed.

| Blectrodeson | Electrodes on
| sciatic nerve. | dorsal cord.
Ligatured limb...| 22 em. | 19 cm. |
Unligatured limb| 62°5 cm. 27 cm.

Experiment V.—Lusty frog, weight 18 grammes prepared as usual.

3:20 p.m., *75 cc. of a 1¥% solution of venom previously heated

to 85° ©. injected in dorsal lymph sac.

330, respiratory movements ceased. Moves both legs
slowly when feet are pinched; turns over with
difficulty when placed on back.

334 ,, remains on back without attempting to recover.

$37 4, all reflex response gone ; sciatics dissected out.

Maximum distance between coils when gastrocnemius
contracted.

Electrodes on | Electrodes on
| ciatic nerve. | dorsal cord.
Ligatured limb...) 53 em. | 34 cn. |
Unligatured limb 60 cm. 39 cm.

252 C. J. MARTIN.
Experiment VI.—Frog (male), weight 20 grammes, prepared as

usual,
4°30 p.m., 5 ce. of a 2% solution of venom previously heated to
85° C. injected into dorsal lymph sac. 3
4:45 ,, respiratory movements ceased ; recovers with difficulty
when placed on back.
4:50 ,, all reflexes absent ; sciatics prepared for stimulation.

Maximum distance between coils when gastrocnemius
-ontracted.

Electrodes on | Electrodes on
sciatic nerve. dorsal cord.
| Ligatured limb... 75 cm. 37 cm,
Unligatured limb 79 cm. 34 cm.

Experiment VII.—Frog (female), weight 18-5 grammes, prepared
as usual.

4:30 p.m., ‘5 cc. of a 2% solution of venom previously heated

to 85° C. injected into dorsal lymph sac. a

4:40 ,, respiration shallow; reflexes dull; recovers with —

difficulty when laid on back.

5°35 ,, no reflex response ; sciatics dissected out.

Maximum distance between coils when gastrocnemius

| Electrodes on | Electrodes on

sciatic nerve. | dorsal cord. ;
| Ligatured limb... 61 cm. 32 cm. :
| Unligatured limb} 58 cm. 33 cm. ‘

In nearly the whole of these experiments the contraction of the
gastrocnemius was induced by a less stimulus in the poisoned is
in the unpoisoned limb. Had the poison exerted any acs
analagous to that produced by curari, the opposite result W si
have been observed. The diminished sensitiveness of the muscles
in the ligatured limb is explained by the fact that all cireulatio® L
had been cut off since the application of the ligature. The long?
the time which had elapsed since the limb was tied, the gre
was the difference in sensitiveness between the two sides.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 253

Experiments to determine whether the venom affects the motor
nerve terminations of mammals.

Ragotzi came to the conclusion that the terminations of the
phrenic nerves in the diaphragm were more sensitive both to the
action of cobra venom and curari than the endings of the motor
nerves in the muscles of the limbs. I accordingly chose the
phrenics for the purpose of ascertaining whether Pseudechis venom
in any way affected the passage of nervous impulses through
motor-nerve terminations.

When a dose of 005 to ‘01 gramme of venom per kilogramme
of the animal’s weight is injected either subcutaneously, or into
the peritoneal cavity of a rabbit, within a few hours the respiratory
movements are much diminished both in rate and in extent The
diaphragmetic contractions become progressively weaker, until
they disappear altogether, and after a few feeble convulsions, the
animal dies of asphyxia. If artificial respiration be resorted to,
the convulsions speedily cease. Nevertheless, artificial inflation
does not prevent the death of the animal, which occurs within a
few minutes from circulatory failure.

Thave already shown that this gradual failure of all respiratory
movement is not essentially dependent upon any alteration in the
circulation. It might however, be occasioned either by paralysis
of the respiratory centre, or by interference with the passage of
herve impulses along the phrenics to the diaphragm, as Ragotai
maintained was the case in cobra poisoning.

To test the latter alternative, I arranged a series of experiments
m which I determined the least stimulus which, when applied to
the Phrenic, would cause a contraction of the diaphragm, both

i before injection of the poison and at intervals afterwards, until

Spontaneous respiration had entirely disappeared.

_ As the venosity of the blood from the failing respiration would

Itself Produce a diminution in the excitability of the muscular
mres of the diaphragm, the complete aeration of the blood was

“cured by artificial inflation of the chest with warm air, and as

254 C. J. MARTIN.

enfeeblement of the circulation would also operate in the same —
manner, a simultaneous record of the blood pressure was taken in —
order to keep a check on this possible source of error.

Rabbits of about 1} kilogrammes in weight were used. The
carotid artery was connected with a mercury manometer, anda —
glass cannula tied into the trachea, The glass cannula communi —
cated with a Marey’s tambour, the artificial respiration apparatus,
and the external air by three taps. By means of the tap connected —
with the respiration apparatus, artificial inflation could be iy
on or off at a moment’s notice. The lever of the tambour and :
float with scribe on the mercury manometer registered ona travel:

ling surface, the respiratory movements and the blood pressure
respectively. The left phrenic nerve was dissected out inthe —
- neck, and placed upon electrodes. The nerve was prevented from s
drying by being, together with the electrodes, again covered with
the skin. The phrenic was stimulated by the induced current :
from the secondary terminals of a Du Bois Reymond’s coil, :
and the primary circuit was broken by the same arrangement, a
was used in the experiments with frogs, described above. In the ]
primary circuit was a Daniel cell. At the commencement da
each experiment a record of the respiration, blood pressure, and
the greatest distance between the coils of the inductorium vie
a contraction of the diaphragm followed stimulation of the phrenle,
was obtained. It was not found necessary to open the abdomen
and observe the diaphragm directly, as when a contraction of :
left half of the diaphragm occurred, there was an unmistakeable
sharp movement of the fur on that side, owing to the ue
retraction of the lower ribs. The same series of observations
were made every fifteen minutes after the injection of the eae
and as soon as the respiration exhibited any signs of filet
artificial inflation was brought into action by turning the 2
connected with the respiration pump. ‘The animal’s :
to breathe by itself was recorded every fifteen minutes by lei
off the artificial respiration for a few seconds. In the tabula’
account of experiments I have employed the extent of the resp

FT, Cone tl as SE NT nie Vee eR aes 5 a TA ¥

aoae
putes

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 255

ratory excursions of the tambour, as a measure of the condition
of its respiratory mechanism. This does not however, indicate
the total disablement, for the respirations were diminished in
number as well as extent.

Experiment I.

Distance pred ica of
between sor Remarks,
coils cord,
Before injection... 46cm. | 12 mm.
15 mi inutes after 1p 49
30
45 ”
l hour 10 ms 47 cm.
ete oe 49 ,, | 10 mm. | respiration slowed.
” 30 2” 49 ” 85 2 ” eed
a” 45 ”> 49 ” 6 3” 2” 29
2 hours 0 a pe 55s, ‘ very slow.
» 15 ve 45°, fe circulation began to fail.
” 30 ” 44 ” 2 2?
” 45 ” 42 ” 5 ”
8 hours 0 » 36 0 »

Experiment II.

SS es ST Sea
Distance 'Amplitude of
between | respiratory Remarks.
coils. record.
Before snore... Sem. | 14 mm.
5 minutes after me
30 * respiration much slower
45 ”» 36 cm 15 93 »” ”
Lhour 0 » 6 14°65. ;, yy very slow.
» 15 » 29°53, agen blood pressure fallen;
corneal reflex gone;
respiration very slow.
Ht 90 = 30 ,, "BD sy
oe | | 8

Experiment III.

re ee a ie CT) apie +) Tae el ae oe aks ee
zs mek Seb gs i a wee

Dista A litude of
between H respiratory Remarks.
Before injection... | 41cm. | 15 mm.
15 minutes after ih pao
4 ” 41 re vo ee
fe 40° 5, [26° S
» - ” 42 Sy De ver
» is 2» 42 ae 43 :
a * 68 5 AAD 24s r.spiration slowed.

256 C. J. MARTIN.

Experiment III.—continued.

Distance |Amplitude of
between | respiratory Remarks.
coils. record,
2 hours 0 minutes after | 42 cm. | 10 mm. | respiration slowed. —
» 15 > 42 ” 7 2”
”» 30 ” ” 4 ”
” 45 2” 41 ;; 35 2
3 hours 0 me 40 7 ee corneal reflex gone. ¥
15 fo rs Ee 0 blood pressure as high}
as at beginning of
experiment. a
Spe Re a6 0 blood pressure falling.| _
aE
Experiment IV. a
ict “ ee agey e
between | respiratory Remarks.
coils. record. ;
a
Before injection... ...| 42'¢.m.| 16 mm.
15 minutes after| 42 ,, | 19 ,,
30 ” AD 2? .
s iS blood pressure falling. |
lhour 0 6 UE Dee aes ee ” ‘
tage a ae ee abdominal reflex gone)
30 yy SOF: 5; 8 5 corneal reflex gome;| —
pressure fallen to half.)
2? 45 ” 30 ” 0 ay

Tn all of these experiments, the strength of the stimulus requisite Ss
to cause a contraction of the diaphragm, when applied to the :
phrenic nerve, was slightly greater at the end of some hours. big
difference was however, very slight, and it is noteworthy that!
the only case where the circulatory efficiency was maintained, tae
strength of stimulus required was the same as at the beginning
of the experiment three and a half hours earlier, whereas ®
spontaneous respiratory movement had ceased fifteen me
before. One would expect to find that the mere fact of ee
nerve on electrodes all this time would in itself have produced
diminished sensitiveness to stimuli. The experiments : “
show conclusively that Pseudechis venom in no way affects ee
transmission of impulses from nerve to muscle. |

VI.—Errect or THE VENOM ON THE RESPIRATORY Mucnanis® e

The effect of cobra poison on the respiration has ber
investigated by Wall who has published some interesting *

tethor -

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 257

metric charts, taken from animals injected with this venom. The
first change he noticed in an animal after the introduction of
cobra poison, was a decided quickening and deepening of the
respiratory movement. This increase was no longer to be seen
after the section of the vagi. The quickening was only temporary,
and after an interval of uncertain duration, the respiratory move-
ment, became slower, and less in extent. This diminution con-
tinued until the blood was no longer: oxy ted, when the animal

°

died with the usual symptoms characteristic of asphyxiation.
When a large dose (1 cc. of fresh venom), was introduced directly
into the circulation of a dog, Wall found that thirty seconds after
the injection, the animal was suddenly seized with asphyxial con-
vulsions, in which it died in about one hundred seconds. Wall
attributed these convulsions to a stimulation of the respiratory
centre prior to extinction of the function of the same. This may
be the correct explanation of the phenomena, but the injection
of Pseudechis venom directly into the circulation produces pre-
cisely the same series of events, and the explanation in this case
is that the whole vascular system is quite suddenly thrombosed.

The gradual extinction of all respiratory movement is, accord-
to Wall, due to paralysis of the respiratory centre. Brunton and
Fayrer! ascribe it partly to this cause, and partly to a curare-like
action of the poison on the terminations of the phrenics in the
diaphragm, whereas Ragotzi is of opinion that it is due to the
latter alone,

Wall’ has also investigated the action on the respiration, of
the poison of the viper Daboia russellit. Its action in producing
convulsions has already been discussed. If only small doses are
subcutaneously injected, or if the venom be previously boiled, the
respiration, after a preliminary acceleration, becomes slower and
slower, until death occurs,

Mitchell and Reichert? found that the venoms of Crotalus and
Ancistrodon caused a primary increase in the number and extent

1 Loe. cit. 2 Loe, cit. 3 Loc. cit.
Q—July 3, 1995,

258 C. J. MARTIN.

of the respirations, followed by a decrease in both. These

venoms affected the respiratory rhythm to a much greater extent
than the respiratory excursus in the majority of cases.

Feoktistow' found a tremendous increase in respiration, followed

by asphyxia, after intravenous injection of the poisons of Crotalus —

and Vipera berus. His conclusions as to the explanation of these
phenomena are not very valuable, as he was undoubtedly dealing

with cases of intravascular clotting, although he was quite —

unaware of such a contingency. He does not appear to have
made any observation on the respiration after the subcutaneous
injection of the poisons.

After injection of Pseudechis venom the respiratory movements
become less and less, and ultimately cease. As I have shown
that this action of the nervous system may occur independently
of any effect on the circulation, and also that the venom has n0
effect on motor nerves, or their endings in muscle, it must exert
its action directly upon the respiratory centre in the medulla.
Its action in this respect is best seen when the venom is sub-

cutaneously introduced in rabbits. Under these conditions, the :
paralysis is often preceded by a period in which the respirations:

are increased both in number and in extent. The period
increased respiratory activity is much more strongly manifested

in some experiments than in others, and is indeed not infrequently —

entirely absent.

Both Brunton and Fayrer? and Mitchell and Reichert’ state
that the primary acceleration of the respirations was absent after

cutting the vagi, and the first mentioned observers accordingly 4
attribute this increase in respiratory rhythm to the operation of :
the poison upon the peripheral terminations of the vagi in the

lungs. My results with Pseudechis poison are however not 12
accordance with such a view. The primary acceleration is often
absent both in animals with severed, and in those with intact vag,
but occurs with about equal frequency under both conditions. In

mes

1 Loe cit. 2 Loc. cit. 3 Loc. cit.

i

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 259

experiments in which the acceleration in rhythm and increase in
amplitude of the respirations have been very pronounced, sever-
ance of both vagi has had no influence upon the amplitude, and
only a slight retarding effect upon the rate. The diminution in
frequency of the respirations so produced, have not however been
proportionately more than occurs after severance of the vagi in
unpoisoned animals. I therefore conclude that the increase in
respiratory activity which so frequently occurs after inoculation
with Pseudechis venom, is due to a primary stimulating effect of
this poison upon the respiratory centre.

Sometimes these two phases of increased activity and diminished
activity alternate, but the latter gradually obtains the ascendency.
Eventually the respiratory movements become imperceptible, and
unless artificial respiration be immediately resorted to, the animal
dies of asphyxia. Just previous to the final cessation of all
respiratory movement, it is not infrequently the case that the
respirations occur in little groups separated by periods when the
breathing is in abeyance.

When the respiratory movements have ceased, the animal is
- usually seized with afew feeble convulsions during which it makes
Some inspiratory gasps of very considerable extent, showing that
although the respiratory centre fails to respond rhythmically to
the stimulus of blood of such venosity as to powerfully stimulate
both the vagus and vaso-motor centres, it does still respond when
this becomes excessive,

The more rapidly this cessation of the respiration is effected by
the operation of the venom, the more powerful are the convulsive
movements just preceding death. In cases of slow poisoning they
are altogether absent,

In Experiment 1 of this section, the respiration ceased before
the efficiency of the circulation was in any way diminished. This,
however, is not generally the case, and although suspension of the
Tespiration usually precedes cessation of the heart-beat, the activi-
es of both these mechanisms decline together. The gradual

260 C. J. MARTIN,

enfeeblement of the circulation contributes to the respiratory

failure, and vice versa, and the simultaneous paralysis of the

rest of the nervous system prevents in most cases any marked

ls

indication of its asphyxial condition.

pa

et ra Pa

Details of experiments to ascertain the effect of the venom upon the
respiratory mechanism.

The experiments with this object were performed upon rabbits
and dogs. The results were substantially identical with both —
animals, but the former are much more suitable for the determin _
ation of this point, as their respiration is, under normal circuth-
stances, more regular, and the individual respirations do not exhibit
the same variations in amplitude as is the case with dogs, Hight
experiments on dogs, in which the vagi were previously divided,
were made. Of these, only two are here tabulated; the remaining
six curves exhibit the same general characteristics as those tabu-
lated, but the respiration both before and after the injection of
the poison was so irregular, that although the general effect of the
venom is clearly enough seen on looking at the curves themselves,
these are unsuitable for reduction to a numerical form. This —
difficulty is chiefly owing to the fact that after the vagi were
severed the respirations occurred in groups. Four or five small
respirations occurred together and were succeeded by @ deep :
sighing respiration. In making a table it would be necessary —
to state the variations ‘in amplitude and rhythm of both kinds
of respiratory efforts. Such a table would be difficult to follow,
and I have therefore decided to omit the records of thes? :
experiments. ;

The animals were anzesthetised with ether, and the carotid artery —
connected with a mercury manometer, and the trachea with 9
Marey’s tambour. The style of the manometer and the lever of the
tambour wrote upon a Hering’s kymograph. The experiments a1?
arranged in three groups: in the first the venom was injected under :
the skin, in the second into the peritoneal cavity, and in the thimt
series it was introduced directly into the circulation through -

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE, 261

jugular vein. In some cases the vagi were previously severed,
in others left intact, or cut during the course of the experiment,
Graphic records were obtained in each case, both before and
after the injection of the poison, and these curves have been
measured and the numbers tabulated. Opposite the time
indicated in the first column are placed the amplitude of the
respiratory excursion of the tambour-lever, and the number
of respirations per minute, together with the blood pressure
for the time being.

(a)—Observations on the respiration after subcutaneous injection

of the poison.

Experiment 1—Rabbit, 1-6 kilos, ; vagi intact.

Time, ___ Respiration. ie
Amplitude| Rate per pong Remarks.
hrs. mins. secs.) inmm. | minute. | i#™m
CAAT MR ee
Normal 17 68 106 ‘005 gramme per kilo. injected
under skin of abdomen

0 15 0 15 84 106

0 30 0 10 68 101

0 45 0 9 32 6

Sh a Be ae 28 95

7-6 01m 21 108 _| large slow cardiac contractions

(vagus)

0 Or 4 28 96

2 15 0 12 32 91

= 80. 0°) TN 36 86

cw 9 |S 33 92
a0 0 2°5 24 113 | large slow cardiac contractions
3 5 20 112 ditto

a7 0 os 101 ditto, slight convulsions
<Ssie 68 dit convulsive inspiratory
3 movements _
23 0 : 33 di occasional inspiratory

a9 | 0 0 16 | dead

262 C. J. MARTIN.

Experiment 2—Rabbit, 1-1 kilo; vagi intact; respiration
artificial.

Time. Respiration.
Amplitude! Rate per | Pressure Remarks.
hrs. mins. secs. in mm. | minute. | 7? ™™-

Normal 11 72 94 005 gramme per kilo. injected
subcutaneously.

O15. 0 1 76 98

0,. 30.0 85 56 91

0 45 0 Sie 90 artificial respiration

iL 0 0 roa 88

T1450 9 48 92 ditto, suspended for 20 secon :

Ls 30. 0 8 40 92 ditto, ditto

Ly 4a O 6 40 92 ditto, dit

2-0-0 5 93 ditto, ditto

2150 4 35 91 ditto, ditto

2 30° 0 or 30 85 ditto, ditto

2 45 0 4 26 56 ditto, ditto

ae a O 0 0 23 ditto, ditto

aot 0 0 0 v4

In this experiment as soon as the respiration showed signs’ re
failing, artificial on was paces: This was dinconetas

the pump with the trachea.

Experiment 3—Rabbit, weight 1:5 kilos. ; vagi cut.

Time. Respiration. Blood
‘ldinpiitade Rate per | pressure Remarks.
hrs. mins. sees.) in mm wminute. | 12 sim.

Normal 14 44 -004 grammes per kilo. inject?
ws Laie skin of abdomen
0 30 0 32 86
0 0 20 28 94
P80 6 40 87
2 00 16 32 90
2 806 14 36
2 0 13 36 95
3 30 0 7 34. Pe
3 40 0 5 26
8 45 0 3 22 76
3 50 0 be 64 | convulsion’
_3 52 0 0 0 20 | dead

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 263:

Experiment 4—Rabbit, weight 1-4 kilos.; vagi cut.

Time. Respiration. Blood
aa ar per — Remarks.
hrs. mins, secs, nute. speek
Normal 18 | 40 | 88 005 grammes per kilo. injected
| under skin of abdomen
OG: 3026 20 34 89
A gore | ee 32 44. 89
1 30 0 38 40 90
a OO 28 36 89
2 30: 0 15 36 88
eo 00 13 | A5 92
Br 80 to) 889 | 94
38 35 0 rs $2 95
3 40 0 6 | 18 | 96
3 41 0 Seg 1 108
$42 0 3 | 17 118
3 43 0 2 | 16 92
3 44 0 1 20 | 74
3 45 0 es | .. | 64 | slight convulsions
3 46 0 0 (REN ees” | dead

(6)—Observations on the respiration after introduction of venom
into the peritoneal cavity.

Experiment 5—Rabbit, 1-6 kilogramme in weight; vagi intact.
Terme, ee

Time. |__ Respiration. | pisoa | :
ressure Remarks.
tn misc itn | ae | om |
es
Normal |. bs 94 005 gramme per kilo. injected
into peritoneal cavity
O° 16° 6 10 52 90
oO 165 101 88
eek 0 5 4A 83
ate 6 49 76
os 3 35 6L | large slow contractions (vagus)
a? < 32 55 | di
1 aie | st van 89 convulsion
<i 42 occasional convalive gasps
= coe 17 | dead

264 C. J. MARTIN.

Experiment 6—Rabbit, weight 1

kilogramme ; vagi intact.

Remarks,

Time. Respiration.
elena Rate per | Pressure
hrs. mins. secs.) in mm. minute, | 2mm.
|
Normal abr 52 94
BO 1} 56
20 8 44,
30 75 40
13 32
50 8

Hee F Oooo o
R

or
eoooooceo

“O01 ee sac per kilo. injected
into peritoneal cavity

artificial ee iY started
artificial respira
ditto

ditto
dead

Experiment 7—Rabbit, weight 1

‘3. kilogramme ; vagi intact.

Remarks.

Pine. Respiration. Blooa

Amplitude| Rate per | pressure

hrs. mius. secs.) in mm. | minute, | 1 ™m-
Normal 13 "6 90
©: 105-0 12 "4, 88
0 20 0 17 76 78
0 50 0 5 48 88
1 6.0 15 40 "6
1 15 0 3 31 50
: 25 i) 32 42
30 0 a 30 40
2 36°) ‘ ae 3
L387 0 0 8) 13

Se ee
‘Ol gramme per kilo. -
into peritoneal cavity

convulsions
dead

Experiment 8—Rabbit, weight 1

‘5 kilogramme ; vagi i
oo Ee ae

Remarks.

Time, | Respiration, | piooa

Amplitude! Rat pressure

hrs. mins. secs. erie : f sn in mm.
Normal 25 44, 110
O10 og 38 60 98
0: 20°76 54 76 96
0 60°06 9 40 143
OS). oy 10 SF 114
0 53 69 8 29 118
0 58 30 ee a 125
0 64° 6 S 30 51
0: 66° ° 6 0 0 10

| convulsions

e per hilo. inj
‘O1 Foto peritoneal aariih =

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 265

(c)—Observations on the respiration after intravenous injection.
Experiment 9—Rabbit, weight 1-1 kilogramme ; vagi intact.

Respiration.

Time. ood
Amplitude| Rate per | pressure Remarks.
hrs, mins. secs.| in mm. | minute, | 12 ™™.

Normal 15 37 98 ‘Ol gramme per kilo. of venom
previously heated to 85° C
injected into external jugu-
lar vein; injection lasted
three minutes.

O86 14 64 86

00426 6 48 80

Re Be 8 30 81 66

oes 0 35 86 44,

Dog = @ 15 56 36

a oy 10 40 40 heart beat imperceptible
ee | eee 6 11 28 34

eae ae Bod 42 convulsions

i AL 55 10 8

ts Th 80 or 5 dead

In this experiment the activity of the respiration was rhythmical
after the injection of the poison. It first became increased in

: m on the circulatory mechanism,’
amplitude and rate of the respiratory movements are recorded
together with the blood pressure.)

Experiment 10—Dog, weight 5:75 kilos., (065 gramme morphia
mn

hypodermically ; vagi uncut; ether during operation.
Time. ___ Respiration.
: : Amplitude| Rate per | pressure Remarks.
hrs. mins. secs, in mm, , minute, | a
‘oe eaten es
Normal 24 12 124 |-00075 gramme per kilo. injected
into jugular vein
nih de ae ae 12 32 |heart beat nearly imperceptible
a ° 16 12 44 ‘heart beat increased
lero gee Be
a 8 | 1g
1 30 0 10 4 Al
t 40 0 ll 3 38
1 S : 8 3 37
a. 7 2 33 ae
] on 0 tee hte 27 ~—‘joccasional inspiratory gasps
2 1 6 0 21 |dead

266

Experiment 11—Dog, weight 5:5 kilos., 065 gramme morp
hypodermically ; ether during operation ; vagi cut.

Cc. J. MARTIN.

ee Respiration. Blood
erg Rate et pressure Remarks.
hrs. mins. secs.| in minute, | 1 mm.
Normal 31 6 180 °0005 gramme per kilo. in
into external jugular
OC: Boe doe my 90
0 10 0 42 v4 112
OQ" 15.0 44, | 8 178
0: 30°60 46 | 8 1972
0 45 0 a | 45 156
a aa 47 | 16 114
1 0 34 13 80
1 30 0 23 | 10 81
1 45 0 15 : 64,
2 00 a | 30
2 10-0 | 14 PED respiratory gasps

cessation of the circulation

morphia NipEAicin ; ; ether during Siecle’ yagi

Time.

hrs. mins. secs.

Normal

DNDN NNNHHE OOOO
EBESao
SCeoeoc0CoCOCooOoOSCOSOS

sometimes a rise, at other times a fall in temperature is obs be
The explanation is that the poison influences sees tate in ;

Respiration. B
Amplitude| Rate per | Pressure ;
inmm. | minute, | 2 ™™-
22 7 163
into extern

50 5 90
40 10 110
41 6 151
44, 4 146
38 4 108
26 5 76
10 6 59
9 5 56
6 4 44,
5 4 33
5 3 28

ek 2 per convulsions
‘ep ' 22
ig 0 20

Remarks.

ee

0005 gramme per kilo. injected
jugular ¥

injection inate five

casional inspiratory g@8P5
Aout

|
|
|

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 267

ways, (1) there is a distinct thermogenic effect which is best seen
if a dilute solution of venom in a piece of sterilised sponge, be
aseptically inserted under the skin. Under such circumstances
absorption is very slow, and one obtains a maximum of local, with
a minimum of constitutional effects, and the temperature is
invariably raised a few degrees Fahrenheit.

(2) A diminished production of heat under the influence of the
profound depression and muscular resolution which usually follow
the injection of the poison, so that the temperature may often be
observed to be below 90° just previous to death.

As found by Sewall! with Crotalus poison, an animal rendered
resistant to this venom by repeated injections of small non-lethal
doses, is able to withstand the effects of a quantity which would
inevitably cause death in an animal not so treated. The injection
of the lethal dose may under these circumstances be followed by a
considerable rise in temperature instead of the depression, which
occurs in animals which have not been accustomed to the poison.
Calmette? has recorded the same fact from his experiments with
cobra poison.

VIIL.—Furrurr Parnotoaicat Errects.

If the nervous symptoms which result from cobra poisoning are
recovered from, convalescence is wonderfully abrupt. With the
exception of the local blood-tinged cedema in the subcutaneous
tissue, which does occasionally suppurate, there would appear to
be no further pathological effects. The excretion of the poison by
the kidneys does not excite pathological changes in these organs,
aS witnessed by the absence of albuminuria, and the fact that no
alteration in kidney structure has been observed.

With the viperine snakes the case is very different. After the
immediate danger of cardiac and respiratory paralysis has passed,
the animal suffers from great local and wide spreading hemorrhage
and edema, which almost invariably suppurates, or becomes gan-

ane |
: Journal of Physiology, Vol. viit.
Ann. de ’ Institut Pasteur, May, 1895.

268 C. J. MARTIN,

grenous. The victim is, in addition subject to hemorrhages in
nearly all the organs, and from all the mucous membranes of the
body, together with bloody effusions into cavities such as the
pleura and pericardium.

Weir Mitchell and Reichert, in their monograph on snake
poisons, have given an extensive record of the various situations — :
in which they have found hemorrhages after the injection of the -
poisons of Crotalus and Ancistrodon. Their observations on the —
mechanism of these hemorrhages have already been referred to.

In cases in which the animals died some days after the injection, :
the post-mortem examination disclosed extensive ecchymoses in
the viscera, and hemorrhages at the base of the brain, and into the —
serous cavities and lungs. :

Wall' found that even in rapid cases of Daboia poisoning,
hemorrhages into viscera, and from mucous membranes wele
exceedingly common. When small doses of the venom were sub-
cutaneously inoculated, it was not unusual for an animal to die
in consequence of these secondary pathological changes alone, and |
when not a single nerve symptom had occurred. In contrast (0 :
cases of cobra poisoning, albuminuria, or hematuria, usually —
resulted, if the victim lived any time. Speaking of poisoning by :
Indian viperine snakes, Wall says—‘‘ We may conclude then,
that in this form of poisoning, when the nerve effects have :
away, there remains a period of blood poisoning, as fatal bes =
as the nerve symptoms themselves.” Wall found that the pa
of the Bungarus fasciatus produced a form of chronic poisoning
which was remarkable for having an incubation period of =
two tosix days. After recovering from the immediate depressing
effect of the poison, the animal enjoyed a period of perfect bal
Then occurred loss of appetite, great depression, and diminution
of urinary secretion, with rise of temperature and great muscalst
weakness. Purulent discharges took place from the ey® es |
and rectum, but there was no tendency to hemorrhage ~~

1 “The Nature of Snake Poison, &c.”

i
‘
E
=)
fe
y
ee
a
_
Ms
:
2
uy

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 269

urine was albuminous, but contained no blood pigment. Death
occurred from exhaustion.

These observations of Wall are very interesting, and in no way
resemble the operation of any other snake venom so far recorded,
but as he points out, remind one of some infectious disease,
Perhaps they are indeed directly attributable to the operation
of some organisms, which have gained access, owing to diminished
resistance caused by the venom. _In this respect Ewing’s' obser-
vations on the disappearance of the germicidal properts of serum
after poisoning by Crotalus venom, are suggestive.

Feoktistow* confirmed Mitchell’s observations on the extensive
hemorrhages in many of the organs, after the introduction of
Crotalus poison, and he found the same conditions followed, when
the poison of Vipera berus was used. This observer never saw
any hemorrhages in the central nervous system, but the conditions
of the brain and cord were very seldom investigated. He came
to the conclusion that the severity of the hemorrhagic process was
dependent upon the quantity of venom introduced, and the time
which elapsed before death occured ; and he summed up his
remarks on this subject with the following statements :—

(1) “By poisoning with large doses of concentrated venom,
hemorrhages were very severe and extensive, even when
the animal only survived a few seconds.”

(2) “ By medium doses which killed in two to three hours, the
hemorrhages with cats were usually confined to the endo-
cardium and lungs; whereas with dogs, oe heemor-
thages were to be found in nearly all the organs.”

(3) “By minimal lethal doses the pathological changes are

greater the longer the animal lives.”

2 Intravenous injection is much more active in causing
hemorrhages than when the poison is subcutaneously
introduced, whereas, after the bite of the reptile (concen-
trated venom) the hemorrhages are as marked as
intravenous injection.”

_
=~
—

1 Loe. cit. .2 Loe. cit.

270 C. J. MARTIN.

The further pathological effects of Pseudechis venom arise in Ws
three ways— oo
(1) Those due to the direct action of the venom on the cells of

the affected part.

(2) Those secondary to hemorrhage.

(3) Those secondary to thrombosis.

As regards its power to induce anatomical changes in the victim,
Pseudechis venom appears to occupy a position about midway —
between cobra poison and the poison of the viperine snakes.

Its action in separating the hemoglobin from the corpuscles —
has already been described. The free hemoglobin finds its way —
out of the body, through the kidneys and liver, and so is found —
staining the urine and bile, in the former of which it is often
present in crystalline form. It also passes into the fluid contained
in the pericardium, and other serous sacs, and even into the
aqueous humour. The staining of all these fluids is independent —
of any hemorrhagic action of the venom, and has been of almost
constant occurrence in my experiments with different kinds of :
animals, whenever they have lived more than one to two hours.

I have already shown that this venom affects the endothelial e-
wall of the blood vessels, so as to permit of the escape of their me :
tents, and although it does not appear to be nearly so active
causing hemorrhages as that of Crotalus, or other viperine snakes,
extravasations of blood into important organs and hemorrhages
from the mucous surfaces, do however sometimes play an importan’
part in the symptoms of poisoning. The distribution and ex
of the heemorrhages vary under the different experimental io
ditions in exactly the same way as Feoktistow (whose description
I quote above), has observed the hemorrhages following Crotalus
poisoning to vary. As was found to be the case with the latter
poison, dogs are particularly sensitive to this action of the veno
Hemorrhages are most marked in those animals which live about
two days. The operation of the venom in other directions _ :
most favourable to the occurrence of hemorrhages, in addition

PON ee le REE ee eee NT eee Pe Ee aN Tp ae

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 271

~

the alteration of the vessel wall, the coagulability of the blood is
greatly diminished, or altogether in abeyance, so that the blood
which escapes clots slowly, or not at all. In addition, the veins
in some areas are often thrombosed, thus raising the pressure in
the capillaries of that area, and so increasing the extravasation.

I have elsewhere mentioned that when dogs are the animals
experimented with, the blood in the portal vein is particularly
liable to be coagulated by the action of the poison. When this
has happened the whole of the alimentary track is the situation
of extensive hemorhages, and during life the animal passes blood
by the rectum, and vomits blood-stained fluid. When the portal
vein has not been thrombosed, the alimentary tract does not suffer
more than the rest of the organs.

Unless the poison be injected subcutaneously in large amount,
or else introduced directly into the circulation, the extravasation
of blood into the organs does not play a very important réle in
poisoning by Pseudechis venom. There is however one organ
which has, in my experiments with mammals never escaped, viz.,
the lungs. These have invariably been the seat of hemorrhages
of greater or less extent. Sometimes a considerable portion of one
or both lungs has been found more or less solid from extravasated

lood. Microscopical examination of a hemorrhagic Jung of an
animal which has succumbed in a few hours from the injection of
the poison, shows portions of the organ infiltrated with blood.
The alveoli, interalveolar tissues, and small bronchi appear one
mass of blood corpuscles. A similarly affected lung from an
animal which had survived two or three days, shows patches of
lung, in which the tissues are barely recognisable, and are
imbedded in a mass of fibrin, and more or less altered blood
Pigment. These necrosed areas are surrounded by a ring of small
celled infiltration separating it from the healthy lung around.

; It is quite possible that some of the hemorrhagic extravasation

to the lungs is associated with thrombosis in the smaller branches
of the pulmonary artery.

272 C. J. MARTIN.

On two occasions I have seen some rather interesting patho-
logical changes in the liver following injection of the poison,
Wooldridge, in 1888, described some changes in the liver, which
he had obtained by producing thrombosis of the portal vein
through the injection of nucleo-albumens (tissue-fibrinogen). If
the animal was killed a few days after the injection, a clot was
found in the portal vein, and the liver showed more or les
extensive infarctions. When examined after a fortnight, the clot
in the portal vein had completely disappeared, and to the naked
eye there was no trace of the hemorrhages, but microscopical
examination revealed scattered patches of early cirrhosis of 4
greater or less extent.

Precisely the same result occasionally follows the injection of
venom. ‘Two dogs which were killed by a second subcutaneous
injection of poison fourteen days and twenty days respectively
after they had received the first, both showed interstitial cirrhosis
of the liver. I was not certain at the time of the first injection,
that the portal veins of these dogs had been thrombosed. Such
an event is, however a not uncommon occurrence in dogs after the
injection of the poison. There was unmistakable evidence that
hemorrhages had occurred in the liver, as the sections showed
quantities of altered blood pigment. The pigment was intra
cellular, and was scattered through the lobules, but was present
in greatest amount at their external margins. I think, from the
remarkable analogy between these experiments and those of

Wooldridge, one may safely conclude that the portal veins had — ;

been thrombosed. The dogs were very ill for two days and passed
bloody urine, and in one of them a large quantity of blood-
stained mucous escaped per rectum. They were both apparently

well on the fourth day, and the urine was normal again 0? eg

sixth,
There is some evidence to show that cobra poison “ae
the kidneys. Iam not yet satisfied that this is the case ™
his method

Pseudechis poison, but my experiments so far, point to t
1 Trans. Path. Soc., Lond. 1888.

oie ee

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 273

of exit. When a few milligrammes of venom are injected into a
rabbit, it is not an easy matter to find it again, even supposing it
has all passed through the kidneys, especially as in these circum-
stances the urine always contains albumen. The very simple
method which has been adopted with cobra poison of inoculating
frogs with the urine itself is open to the objection that ‘5 cc. of
rabbit’s normal fresh urine kills the frogs we have in this part of
the world with symptoms of paralysis, exactly resembling the
effect of venom. Moreover, these frogs are actually more resistant
to Pseudechis venom than rabbits, notwithstanding the fact that
the latter are nearly one hundred times as heavy. Accordingly,
even supposing all the venom to have passed into the urine, it
would, in most cases, be necessary to inject the whole amount of
this fluid, to produce a fatal result, and although one could easily
drown the frog in the urine, the other alternative would be an
obvious impossibility.

Whether the poison makes its exit through the kidneys or not,
these organs are always more or less affected. It is not uncommon
to find radial hemorrhages in the cortex, from the interlobular
vessels: The kidneys undergo a further important pathological
change which is confined to the cortical portion, and consists in an
acute necrosis of the epithelium lining the convoluted tubes. The
epithelial cells of these tubes become vacuolated, and then burst,
leaving the tubule to a large extent bare of epithelium.

Yet another affection of the kidney remains to be mentioned.
The hemoglobin from the disintegrated corpuscles exhibits an
abnormal tendency to crystallise, and this sometimes happens in
the tubules of the kidney to such an extent as to block the greater
number,

“= urine in animals poisoned with Pseudechis venom always
Contains albumen, Very frequently it contains hemoglobin, and
in the more serious cases, blood. Fibrinogen also passes through
the kidneys, and in

I three or four cases of severe poisoning in dogs,
have been able to

of cause the urine to clot solidly by the addition
"few drops of acetic acid. ‘The blood of these dogs, at the
R—July 3, 1995,

274 C. J. MARTIN.

time, had lost its spontaneous coagulability, and the fibrinogen in
the urine did not clot spontaneously, but only after the manipula
tions which I have already described to induce coagulation in the
blood itself under the same condition.

Brier SuMMARY OF THE AcTION oF Pseudechis Poison.

Pseudechis venom is comprehensive in its action. Tt affects
principally the three most vulnerable points ina higher organism;
the blood, the heart, and the respiratory centre in the medulla,

Its method of destroying life essentially depends upon the con-
centration with which the venom reaches the circulation. When
this concentration attains a certain limit, death may be almost
instantaneous, from coagulation of the blood in the vessels termit-
ating the circulation. This happens when small animals are
bitten, or when the poison is introduced in adequate amount
directly into the circulation. When the concentration falls short
of that necessary to raise the coagulability of the blood to such an
extent as to occasion thrombosis, the blood shortly afterwards
loses its capacity to clot when shed. In this condition any further
injection of venom is unable to produce thrombosis.

The action of the poison upon the heart and respiratory centre
is usually simultaneous. With higher concentration of venom the
heart is the more rapidly affected, but the continuous operation of
the poison in small concentration more quickly affects the
respiratory centre in the medulla ; so that, by varying the rapidity
with which the poison reaches the circulation, the death of an
animal may be compassed in any one of three ways: either by
clotting the blood in the vessels, cardiac failure, or respiratory
paralysis.

Further, if the victim escapes the three possibilities of a fatal
issue above mentioned, it may succumb to the effects of the patho-
logical changes in the lungs and kidneys. This last risk is se
ever, not a large one, except with dogs, and if the animal survives
the nervous and circulatory depression, it usually recovers with
wonderful rapidity.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE. 275

[TX —ComparRIsON OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS WITH THE
Symptoms oF Pseudechis PoisonInc In Man.

In comparing the results obtained by these experiments on
animals, with the clinical symptoms manifested by patients bitten
by this snake, the important fact which I have endeavoured to
emphasise, viz.:—that the symptoms depend to a large extent upon
the rapidity with which the venom reaches the circulation, must
be carefully borne in mind. If this is remembered, I think it will
be obvious that every observation from experiments on the lower
animals has its counterpart among the symptoms of some cases of
snake bite. Corpuscles are to some extent broken up, for I have
myself found hemoglobin in the urine. There are numerous
records of cases where the urine has been stated to be bloody, but
Tam not aware that the reporter has taken the trouble to ascertain
whether the colouration of the urine was due to hemoglobin or to
corpuscles. In the cases which I myself examined, there were no
red cells at all, but only pigment. The positive phase of the
effect of Psendechis venom on the coagulability of the blood of
animals, has been shown to be produced only when the venom
reaches the circulation rapidly, as when intravenously introduced,
or injected subcutaneously in large doses. In cases of snake bite
* man, such conditions are very rarely satisfied, for the poison
18 usually deposited in the subcutaneous tissue and not directly
into a vein, and in the former case is, relatively to the size of the
Victim, not sufficient in quantity to produce thrombosis. There
exist, however, records of cases where the individual has died in
less than half an hour, and in one of these cases there was a white
{ante-mortem) clot found in the heart at the autopsy. In this
case death was very possibly due to intravascular clotting. .
Although the conditions are unfavourable for the manifestation
of a Pronounced positive phase of coagulability which would
®ceasion intravascular clotting, the after negative phase is always
more or less present. It has long been known that the blood
stter death from the bite of this snake, clots only feebly, or else

276 C. J. MARTIN.

remains permanently fluid, and Dr. Skinner of Beechworth,
has also recorded the fact that the coagulability of the blood

appeared, during life, to be considerably diminished.

As regards the action upon the circulatory mechanism, exper-
mental results are in accord with clinical observations. Faintness,
feeble rapid pulse, with cold extremities, and blanched skin have
been usually recorded. The description of the nervous symptoms
coincides absolutely with the results of experiment. Thus the
respiration is usually described as being at first slightly quickened,
and then becoming progressively shallower. Sensation is blunted,
and eventually stimulation of the nerves of special sense fail to
evoke any reaction. The pupil is dilated, and insensible to light.
The patient becomes comatose, and death generally occurs from
failure of the respiration. All these symptoms occurred in those
experiments on animals in which the conditions are at all.

comparable.

Furthermore, hemorrhages from the kidneys, and from mucous
tracts, are not uncommon in severe cases of bite from this snake,
and are generally looked upon as very unfavourable symptoms
Experiments on animals show that the severity of these symptoms
varies with the concentration with which the poison reaches the
circulation. Albuminuria has been found when looked for,
has persisted for some few days after the apparent convalescence
of the patient, so that it would appear as if the venom exe
the same pathological effect upon the kidneys in man, a8 upd?
those of the lower animals.

T am not aware of any record of symptoms of lung complication.
Even in animals, the actual condition of these organs was Bs
suspected until after death. The lungs have however been
found after death from the bite of this snake to be the sea’
of hemorrhages.

1 Austr. Med. Gazette,” March, 1893.

3 a ies

as te ge a A eee Pe SIRS eta haan eis i. asc

ae

SS 5 Sha atene ots

PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF VENOM OF BLACK SNAKE, 277

Appenp1ix—Tue Toxic VALUE oF VENoMs.

Calmette' has worked out a table of the relative toxicity of
venoms, as Roux and Vaillard have done for tetanus toxines,
based on the number of grammes of an animal (rabbit) killed by
one gramme of dry poison subcutaneously introduced. He found
the toxic value calculated in this way was represented by the
following numbers :

Cobra. St ae ee 4,000,000
Hoplocephalus curtus ... 3,450,000
Pseudechis wae tee 800,000
Pelias berus ace ey 250,000

My own experiments with rabbits place the toxic power of the
two Australian venoms higher, viz.:—
Hoplocephalus curtus ... 4,000,000
Pseudechis en a 2,000,000
That is to say that -00025 gramme of the former invariably
kills a rabbit of 1 kilogramme weight, and ‘0005 gramme of the
latter is required to effect the same end. This is a very high
virulence, and much exceeds that of most of the poisonous proteids
of zymotic diseases hitherto separated, and is about the same as
the diptheria toxine of Roux and Yersin.? I append the toxic
values of albumoses from diptheria and anthrax toxine,’ and toxo-
Peptone* from cholera cultures, calculated in the same way for
comparison :

Diptheria toxine ... ... 4,000,000 (about)
Anthrax albumoses ... ee 80
Toxo-peptone a 3,000

: Suanl de Institut Pasteur, Tome. vur., 1894.

: Quoted by Sims Woodhead—Bacteria and their Products, p. 307.

‘ Sydney Martin—« Reports of Local Government Board,” 1890-91.
p. a ‘i, quoted by Vaughan and Norry—“ Ptomaines and Leucomaines”

C. HEDLEY.

b
oO

CONSIDERATIONS on tote SURVIVING REFUGEES
AUSTRAL LANDS or ANCIENT ANTARCTIC LIFE.
By C. HEDLEY, F.L.s.,
Assistant in Zoology to the Australian Museum.

[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, August 7, 1895.]

To ordinary readers the most desolate region imaginable is that
within the Arctic Circle. Yet the intrepid explorers who have
furthest penetrated into the northern wilds, encountered there
bears, wolves, musk oxen, walrus, seals and other mammals, and
saw flocks of birds steering northwards beyond the utmost limit
of discovery.

Infinitely more desolate is the mysterious and pehaps impen
trable Antarctic Continent or Archipelago. For aught we know,
here may tower loftier mountains than geographers have marked
in the Himalayas. From the ship’s deck, voyagers' have descried
volcanic peaks trending into an interior which extends as a2
unbroken sheet of ice and snow. Beyond the beach, its whole

surface hardly now nourishes a single animal or plant. For the —

lichen reported by Borchgrevink? from Possession Island and Cape
Adare alone constitutes the recorded terrestrial flora. Envelo
in an atmosphere of universal death, wrapped in its closely cling:
ing cerements of ice and snow, the one expression of the Antarctica
of to-day is that of lifeless silence.?

But it was once otherwise. Not only may a naturalist assert
that here stately forests once stood, streams once rippled and

green fields smiled, but he can picture what trees composed those |

1 M’Cormick—A sketch of the Antarctic Regions, embracing 4 er
Remarks, Geographical and Ornithological.—The Tasmanian Jo
Natural Science, 1., p. 246.

* The Geographical J ournal, Vol. v., June 1895, p. 583. ee

* For the best physical and geographical description of Antarctica

27 e

Murray—The Geographical Journal, Vol. 11., pp. 1 - 27.

vise

SURVIVING REFUGEES OF ANCIENT ANTARCTIC LIFE. 279

forests, of what kind were the frogs and snails they sheltered, and
of what form were the fish that swam in those streams.

Early scientific travellers' remarked that the converging con-
tinental masses of the southern world held as common stock certain
forms of life. Closer enquiry elicited that these common forms
were primitive, often isolated types, survivors of some ancient
population overwhelmed and slaughtered by invaders from the
north. South Africa was found to stand somewhat apart from
the closer bond which united Tasmania and Australia to New
Zealand and South America, while New Zealand is in turn poorer
actually, if not comparatively, than Tasmania in South American
_ affinities.

“Community of type,” writes Dr. Gill,? “ must be the expression
of community of origin . . . and recent paleontological finds
indicate that even the Thylacinids (or at least forms resembling
them) were formerly natives of southern America . . . The
freshwater fishes [of New Zealand] must have been derived from
the same common source as those of the isothermal portions of
Australia (of course including Tasmania), and southern America.
There may not have been a continuity of land at any one time
between South America, Australia, and New Zealand, but, at
Some remote period in the past, it is at least possible that there
Was a region in which Galaxids and Haplochitonids were developed,
and subsequently representatives of those families might have
found their way into the regions where they now abound.”

An enumeration of the genera common to South America, New
Zealand and Tasmania, and therefore probably of Antarctic origin
would exceed the limits of this paper. Forbes* quotes numerous
Instances, and for more exhaustive data monographs of imost

ate ee
: ee i ae
y J.D. Hooker, on the Huon Pine, &c.—London Journal of Botany,
Ol. Tv., 1845, pp. 187 —
A comparison of Antipodal Faunas—National Academy of Sciences,
Vol. v1., p. 108,
3
TI.

me |

Antarctica, 4 Supposed former Southern Continent—Natural Science
- 54-57,

280 C. HEDLEY.

groups of animals and plants of these countries may be
consulted.?

We may compare the shattered biological monuments of
Tasmania and South America to the broken columns found by
Oriental travellers in the ruined and deserted cities of a vanished
civilisation. And as an archeologist may restore from such frag-
ments the fallen temples or disused acqueducts, so may a naturalist
trace the missing arches of life that once spanned the gap. Some
of the efforts to do so may be here reviewed.

Prof. Hutton has conjectured? that such a bridge spanned the
South Pacific from Chili to Samoa and thence to New Zealand.
Claiming South American relations for the New Zealand fauna
and flora, he accounts for their entry into New Zealand by this
assumed bridge. Against Prof. Hutton’s arguments it may be
urged that though the relation of New Zealand to South America
is indisputable, it is less than between the latter and Tasmania ;
and that the demand for a former union may be satisfied by

supposing an approach but not a connection with Antarctica.

1 For ——. see Darwin, a Beagle, p. 236; mosses, Mueller, Trans.
N.Z. Inst., . 428: grasses, Buchanan, Indigenous Grasses ‘of New
Zealand ; set ‘Kirk, the Forest Flora of New Zealand ; lichens, Shitlep
Proce. oe Soc. Queensland, Vol. x., p. 54; earthworms, Bed rd, A

Inst., 1895, p. 177; diptera, Skuse, Proc. Austr. Asso Ad. Science, !
pp. 526-540 and Osten Sacken, Berliner elise? Zeit., Bd. x%#

likeness between southern faunas will grow more apparent.

2 On the Origin of the Fauna and Flora of New Zealand—New . 426.
Journal of Science, 11., p. 1-249; and Ann. Mag. N. H., (5) XUt» P.

SURVIVING REFUGEES OF ANCIENT ANTARCTIC LIFE. 281

The sole supports of the theoretical transpacific bridge are the
difficulties it is believed to explain. A biologist might object,
that had such a bridge existed, New Zealand being at the furthest
extremity, ought to contain fewer South American affinities than
do intermediate Polynesian islands, like Samoa or Tahiti, lying
nearer to the source. On the contrary, these islands are devoid
of such. Anda geologist might say that this supposed bridge was
discordant with the main orographic structure of the region. Its
relics are detected by Prof. Hutton in an abyssal area two
thousand fathoms deep, which only in strained language can be
termed a “plateau.” Of where he supposes that it lay, Geikie!
writes, “so abruptly does the continental plateau rise from the
ocean trough, that a depression of the sea level, or an elevation of
the plateau for ten thousand feet would add only a narrow belt
to the Pacific coast between Alaska and Cape Horn.” Much of
the biological and geological data, on which Prof. Hutton’s paper
was based, have since been refuted or withdrawn.

Another answer to the question at issue is tendered by Dr.
H. O. Forbes.2 After a lucid summary of the kinship of austral life
observed by earlier naturalists, and of facts collected by himself
in the Chatham Islands, he constructs an immense hypothetical
Antarctic Continent to explain these problems.
The impression left on my mind by acareful study of this paper
% that a foundation so slender is insufficient to bear a super-
structure So vast. No geological era is assigned for the map of
Ancient Antarctica accompanying the article. To this area the
Mascarene Islands appear to be attached chiefly upon the strength
of an extinct bird of dubious lineage. The difficulties of the
change from the climate of primeval Antarctica and the change
in the depth of circumpolar seas are not explained, or indeed the
changes Proved. The Antarctic fauna and flora, so far as surviving

sments allow us to reconstruct them, do not suggest that wealth

1 Address Geo

* The C
Vol. ur,

graph. Sect. British Association, 1892, p. 796.
hatham Islands, their relation to a former southern continent,
“ Supplementary Papers, Royal Geographical Society, 1893.

282 C. HEDLEY.

of forms which so wide an extent of land should have developed.
A much harsher climate would have prevailed over Forbes’ broad
continental area than over a chain of islands or a narrow strip of
land. Had the conditions indicated by Dr. Forbes once ewisted,
then each of the southern land masses should have preserved an
equal heritage of Antarctic life, which is not the case. A shar-
ing of population may not be invariably cited (as it is in this
paper) as indicative of former land passages, for it has been clearly
demonstrated in the case of the Azores and Galapagos that con-
siderable immigration may occur across wide expanses of ocean.
Mr. H. A. Pilsbry has remarked,! that “the presence of very
similar forms in southern South America and Tasmania and New
Zealand, has been accounted for by the hypothesis of a former
more extensive Austral continent or “ Antarctica,” which may
have been supplied with these snails, as well as with certain
marsupials, fishes, &c. from Australia, and subsequently became
united at Cape Horn, transferring the fauna. The connection
could hardly have been in reverse order, or why should not
Edentates and Hystricomorph Rodents have invaded Australia.”
The opposite view, viz. that Antarctica transferred a fauna
from America to Australia is favoured by the facts that the fossil
marsupials from the Patagonian Eocene antedate* any fossil

1 Guide to the Study of Helices, p. xxxix., Philadelphia 1895.

* This statement is derived from the eg data, for which lal
chiefly indebted to the kindness of my friend Mr. W. 8. Dun, Ass thor
Palwontologist to the Geological Survey 0 N.S. Ww. himself the au

ir b ect. fy

and Echi

e3

sta, Dun, (Records Geol. Aosta, rae W., bes 6 18) frm this Clee
: ; Co e (Pr

tology of Victoria, Decades I. - VII.) Pani omys mee McCoy:
ote . : n, an

f
on Eocene
list of the numerous marsu upia cle. a extention i trots the Upper 456.
of Santa Cruz, South America, see Zittel, Geol. Mag., X., p- 4

Ndr abe Sea fears

:
|
|

2
n
?
j
k)
”

Ulisae Soars Bid Ces Son eee elie ocr a Reon
3

SURVIVING REFUGEES OF ANCIENT ANTARCTIC LIFE, 283

marsupials recorded from Australia, that the marsupialia dawn
upon the Australian horizon as a highly differentiated group, and
that Prof. Spencer has demonstrated! “ that the diprotodonts had
their origin in the Euronotian region,” meaning that their centre
of dispersal lay to the south east of Australia. Von Ihering has
suggested? that a large area of South America was separated in
Mesozoic times from the remainder and maintained a distinct
fauna and flora. If from this tract, which he terms Archiplata,
were excluded, as he holds, placental mammals, it may have
peopled Australia with marsupials and yet not have transferred
thence Edentates or Hystricomorph Rodents.

The relation of Antarctica to African lands is a subject on
which an Australian student has little chance to form an opinion.
Perhaps the faint though real affinity (as shown in the distribution
of the molluscs Endodontide, Rhytidide, and Acavinz), would be
explicable on the supposition that before either America or
Australia had united with Antarctica, Africa had already been
joined to and broken from it, receiving a colony thence or leaving
one there to mix with American and Australian forms when the
Vicissitudes of continental growth permitted.

Inan inquiry’ into the distribution of the pond snail Gundlachia
[lately proposed as the simplest solution of the problem. That
DURING THE Mesozoic on OLDER TERTIARY, A STRIP OF LAND
WITH A MILD CLIMATE EXTENDED ACROSS THE SoUTH PoLE FROM
Tasmanta to TERRA DEL FUEGO, AND THAT TERTIARY NEW
ZEALAND THEN REACHED SUFFICIENTLY NEAR TO THIS ANTARCTIC
LAND, WITHOUT JOINING IT, TO RECEIVE BY FLIGHT OR DRIFT
MANY PLANTS aND ANIMALS, as the Galapagos received their
Population from America, or the Azores theirs from Europe.

This conclusion was built upon the following evidence. A mini-
mum of land extension, compared with that asked for by Hutton
or Forbes, was demanded. A milder climate is admitted by

z

aia Austr. Assoc. Adv. Science, 1892, p. 118.

1 a, New Zealand Institute, 1891, xxrv., p. 434.
- Linn. Soc. N.S.W., (2) vii., p. 508.

284 C. HEDLEY.

geologists, even by those who dispute its cause, to have formerly |
prevailed in Arctic regions; a mild Antarctic climate should there- ;
fore be admissible. Dr. Murray remarks! of the fossils collected
by Capt. Jensen, close to the Antarctic Circle, that they “are
probably of a Lower Tertiary age, and they indicate a warmer
temperature than now prevails in these high southern latitudes.”
A cursory survey of a collection of Eocene Mollusca from the
Muddy Creek beds of Victoria, suggests to me that warmer seas ne
then prevailed. Its wealth of Cyprea and Voluta point toa —
tropical climate. I observe there tubes of Kuphus, a genus now
ranging from Sumatra to the Solomons, whose evidence is corrob-
orated by extinct allies of Nautilus. That New Zealand once
extended very far south of its present position to or perhaps
beyond the Macquarie Islands, is granted by all who have investi-
gated the subject.2 Possibly this southward extension was
synchronous with the northward extension indicated? by the range

of Placostylus. That this southward extension of New Zealand
did not, during the marsupial exodus, actually touch the highway
between Tasmania and South America, I infer from the fact that
such passengers as the venomous snakes, extinct Palimnarelus
cystignathous frogs, monotremes and marsupials, failed to — r
in New Zealand. The southward prolongation of Tasmania ™
the direction of Royal Company Island is suggested by the
Tasmanian axes described‘ by Prof. David.

The evidence collected tends to show Antarctica as an wee
area, at one time dissolving into an archipelago, at another res ir
ing itself into a continent.

How this would affect the marine shallow water fauna has not
been previously considered. Under the circumstances | have

1 Notes on an important Geographical Discovery in the A
- Regions—Scottish Geographical Magazine, Vol. x., p. 195.

2 Vide Blanchard, Comptes Rendus, 1882, p. 386.

3 Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., (2) vit., p. 335.

* Presidential Addresses, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., (2) VIII» P- -
Vol. x., p. 155.

=

SURVIVING REFUGEES OF ANCIENT ANTARCTIC LIFE. 285

described, the South Pacific would stretch within a few degrees
of the Pole into a deep bight or gulf extending from Tasmania
to Cape Horn. Into the western extremity would open the long
and narrow tongue of what is now the Tasman Sea. When the
climate cooled, the fauna at the head of this Antarctic Gulf, as
I propose to call it, would be driven northwards to milder zones,
By diverging meridians a similar fauna would reach New Zealand,
New South Wales and Chili! In a precisely similar manner,
Darwin® has shown how the northern Glacial period drove the
same Polar flora by radiating paths to the Alps, Himalayas and
Alleghanies, where they now survive stranded on mountain tops.

If, when this northward migration occurred, continuous land
had reached from Australia to Chili, then none of the fauna of
the Antarctic Gulf could have entered either the Indian or the
South Atlantic Oceans. We have, however, no warrant for
believing that the Antarctic bridge long endured as continuous
and contemporaneous land ; and that it was pierced by channels
is proved by the escape of stray members of that characteristically
Antarctic genus Struthiolaria to Patagonian coasts (S. ornata,
Sowerby)? on the one hand, and to Kerguelen(S. mirabilis, Smith)*
on the other.

The destruction’ which the ancient fauna of the Antarctic Gulf
has endured and the length of time which has elapsed since its
expulsion, deprives us of much hope of reconstructing it. Since
that event, for instance, the genus Haliotis has probably altogether
srown up as a characteristic feature of the modern Australian

a aes — cenrence of Concholepas, recent only in South America, as
te ag Australia.—These Proceedings, ante, 1893, p. 171.
3 os of Species, Chap. x1.
, gine Geol. Obs. 8S. America, pp. 376, 618, pl. iv., f. 62.
: iran Roy. Soc., Vol. CLXVIII., p. 170, pl. ix., f. 3.

“We seem [in the Pliocene] to be dealing with the remains of an
ee fauna disappearing rapidly before the conquering host of ng
ia. which had invaded New Zealand some time previously.”—

» Macleay Memorial Vol., p. 36. a :

286 Cc. HEDLEY.

molluscan fauna. A search among the more persistent of living
types may produce some torn pages of its history. One such is
recognised by the writer in Lucapinella, whose occurrence in
Australian waters is noted.! But paleontology must be chiefly
called on to relate the story of the decline and fall of the Antarctic

marine fauna.

ICEBERGS IN THE SOUTHERN OCEAN.
By H. C. Russet, B.A., C.M.G., F.R.S., de.
[With Plate RIt.}

[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, September 4, 1895.]

I HAVE prepared this short paper upon icebergs, not because I
consider myself an expert on the subject, but because I entirely
agree with Lieutenant Maury, a great authority, when he said
that “a sudden accession of icebergs is a danger to navige
tion.” We have had within the last two years, oF rather
eighteen months, an extraordinary accession of icebergs betwee?
the Cape of Good Hope and Australia, and the danger caused
by innumerable icebergs in these waters is so real that the publi-
cation of the facts cannot be delayed.

The literature known to me on the subject of icebergs in relatio
to navigation is not very extensive, and very little is said about it
in the ordinary books of reference, and some of that little would
have been inaccessible to me but for the aid of Captain Bedford,
Examiner to the Marine Board, who has very kindly lent me &
book that covers a greater part of the ground, seeing that it has
discussed every record of icebergs in the southern ocean from the
time of Captain Cook to 1858, It is called a paper on “ Ieeberg®

airtel SRE SG
1 Proc. Roy. Soc., Vict., 1894, p. 197.

:
e
Pete see) 7 teeta ya

Ste ee ors eS

er

ICEBERGS IN THE SOUTHERN OCEAN, 287

in the Southern Ocean,” prepared by John Thomas Towson, F.R.G.S.,
and was published by the Board of Trade and Admiralty, London.
But for the period intervening between 1858 and my own work,
I find very little in print. Mr. Towson claims to have selected
the well-known ocean tracks for vessels coming to Australia in
1848, and he adds that for six years thereafter there were no
complaints of icebergs as a danger in the tracks he had laid down,
until the latter part of 1854, when alarming accounts of ice in
the southern ocean began to come in. In November, both in the
outward and homeward tracks, more particularly between Cape
Horn and Cape of Good Hope, many icebergs were seen; and
writing in 1858 he goes on to say, “Since April, 1855, however,
the only reports of icebergs sighted in this part of the ocean are
much farther south and confined to a small area.”

Noticing the frequent reports of icebergs recently I began to
collect them, and found in the Australian Shipping News of
August 5, 1893, two articles on icebergs, one copied from the
Nautical Magaxine, the other from the Sydney Morning Herald.
The Vautical Magazine says, “Since November, 1891, reports of
iee in the southern ocean have been very frequent.”

In addition to these, I have collected all the reports from the
daily press, and record here my obligations to the following gentle-
men who have very kindly furnished me with detailed reports of
leebergs : Mr. R. Woodget, master of the ship “Cutty Sark,”
Nos. 69 and 70 on list; Mr. Charles Dixon, master of the ship
“ Erin’s Isle,” No. 103 ; Mr. T. Messenger, master of the barque
{Hetias,” No. 89; Commander Burgess, R.N.R., sub-lieutenant
" “Bungaree,” No. 82; Mr. Thomas J. Cook, master of the
‘tip “ Oronsay,” No, 102,

The reports detailed in subsequent pages prove, I think, that
has been of late another remarkable outburst of icebergs in

Parts of the ocean where they are very dangerous to navigation.
Many years since, Lieutenant Maury studied this subject and
sed what he learned into the statement, ‘‘ We can only say

288 H. C. RUSSELL.

that to the north of latitude 50°, Antarctic icebergs most abound
between the meridians 15° west and 55° east. Mr. Towson, after
an elaborate study, repeats the statement, but alters the limits to
50° west to 10° east ; and the result of my own work would make
these limits 50° west and 110° east. This, in itself, shews the
greater area now affected and the necessity for some one to take
the matter up. (See Plate 12).

It is, I think, evident that for a convenient study of these
records, one must have a chart, and I have marked each record

in the same way, viz. by a small circle on the ship’s position

at the time, each circle is marked with lines which shew the g

the date. Thus: a circle with one vertical bar is for 1891; two
bars, 1892; three bars, one being across, 1893 ; four bars crossed,
1894; and a circle with a V in it, 1895; for 1888 a circle alone
is used. The convenience of this is at once obvious when we
come to use it. Each record also has a number, by means of
which the original report can be found in the letterpress.

T have had put on the chart another remarkable record—the
track of the abandoned ship “ Dumbartonshire.” This extends

from longitude 48° west to 14° 20’ east, nearly the whole of it

being in latitude 40° The starting-point is in the iceberg region,
and her progress therefore is the best possible guide to the direc

tion and rate of motion of the icebergs.

The several positions of the derelict are marked on the chart é 7
The centre of

possible over

by circles a little larger than the iceberg circles.
the ring has been in each case placed as nearly as
the position in which she was seen, and these have been
by a thick line. The derelict shews a very decided curren
a region crowded by icebergs in 1892, nearly due east.

icebergs followed the same course, their position in s
years about the Cape of Good Hope and thence towards A
would be fully accounted for.
AS TO THE LOCALITIES OF THE ICEBERGS.
It will be seen on the chart that a very large group of icebergs
found soon after passing Cape Horn northwards, are near: #

¢ from
If the
ustralia Z

: there

“

ICEBERGS IN THE SOUTHERN OCEAN. 2989

“

marked 1893, and the next group going northerly are marked
1892. At first sight this would look as if the icebergs had gone
southerly against the current, but that view is obviously improb-
able, for they must go with—not against—the current. I think
the relative positions would be satisfactorily accounted for thus:
The 1892 lot, being right in the fairway of vessels taking the
usual track round the Horn, would be avoided as soon as they
were reported, and ships would shape a course nearer the main
land in 1893 and find the icebergs recorded of that date. Mean-
time the whole lot were drifting eastward, like the “ Dumbarton-
shire,” and left a clear course near the Horn for homeward-bound
ships, and hence, so far as I can learn, no icebergs are recorded
there in 1894 and 1895,

From 1891 onwards, however, vessels bound for Australia vid the
Cape of Good Hope found icebergs east of the Cape. At first a few
Were seen, and the number has gradually increased, until now (July
26th, 1895) the chart is fairly strewn with record spots from the
Cape to the longitude of Perth, and from 40° to 48° south, 1895
having far the greater number to its credit. As a whole they are
more to the east than those of the preceding years ; and in con-
sidering their numbers, it is necessary to remember that it is not
one iceberg but one position of the ship that is marked on the chart,
and that in almost every instance great numbers of icebergs were
“ten. Many of the ships saw forty or fifty a day, and others still
more and up to one hundred and fifty.

Tdonot mean to assert that all these icebergs drifted over from
lee of Patagonia, but that many of them did do so I think
can be no doubt, in view of the very strong evidence of
drift which we find in the derelict “ Dumbartonshire.”
Fitzroy’s! experience also favours this view, for he says :—
mediately round Cape Horn and the Falkland Islands ice
™ Temains, as any that is drifted there is carried eastward

1“ Weather,” 1862, p. 149, and Maury, p. 467.
S—Ang. 7, 1895,

290 H. C. RUSSELL.

by the current that always sets around the great southern promon-
tory, and the south-easterly winds help this.”

From what little is known about the currents concerned in
transferring these icebergs, one would expect that such groups as
those of 1892 and 1893 under Patagonia would, when they began
to go eastward, separate and draw into lines as we find them in
1894 and 1895, because the current is more rapid from latitude
30° southwards, and therefore the most southerly icebergs would
travel fastest and also have fewer miles in a degree; and we
cannot overlook the effect of the wind, which would necessarily
be greater on icebergs presenting large flat surfaces than on those
presenting sloping sides. Simply as evidence on this point, it is
to be hoped that the ‘“‘ Dumbartonshire ” will be sighted again.

Although the evidence of easterly drift appears to me to be 80
strong, I do not mean to assert that all the icebergs seen recently
between the Cape and Australia came from the icefields under
the lee of Patagonia. The experience of the master of the
“Ladas” barque, bound from South America to Australia, shews
that in latitude 50° to 53° he passed enormous fields of ice, and
after passing the prime meridian they became so thick that he
had to'work northwards to avoid them, and it is more than
probable that some of these made northing and joined the others
drifting eastward.

Reference has already been made to the unusual position of

icebergs between latitudes 40° and 50°. - Maury, as we have seeD,

made the easterly limit 55°, Towson made it 10° east; the reports —

now under discussion make it 110° east.

Similar, but not so great uncertainty as to the extent of ice seems
to attach to the area between New Zealand and Cape Horm —

Admiral Fitzroy! says :—“ In the South Pacific, between 150° and
100° west longitude, and 50° to 60° latitude, every shi
risks a passage through it finds numerous and some enormous
masses of ice. Immense islands rather than icebergs have bee?

1“ Weather,” p. 160.

p that

ICEBERGS IN THE SOUTHERN OCEAN. 291
passed thereabouts, eight hundred to one thousand feet above the
sea and several miles in circumference.” And Towson! says :—
“On the homeward passage to the meridian of 80° west, a great
number of icebergs are met with in the lower rather than in the
higher latitudes. But from June to December inclusive, the
parallel of 57° south should be preferred, since in most cases those
who have adopted the higher parallel have been impeded or en-
dangered by pack ice.”

It will be seen in the accompanying chart that the limits of
this icefield in 1891 to 1895 was different from either of those
mentioned above, and lies between 172° and 109° west.

I find no record of icebergs to the east of New Zealand by |
Maury, Fitzroy, or Towson, and yet they form in this outburst a
conspicuous feature about the Chatham Islands.

Lieutenant Maury, as we have seen, refers to a sudden accession —
of icebergs, and Towson does the same, while we have now the
evidence of a third and more extensive outburst ; but, so far, I
have found nothin g to indicate a repetition in regular periods, and
if the views expressed later as to the cause of the increase in
numbers is correct, there is no reason to suppose that these periods
should recur at regular intervals. 3

The discussion of the records on which this paper has been

: Written, brings before us such untold numbers of icebergs, that it
. 1 difficult to believe that they have taken so many thousands of
Years toform as some authorities demand.? Vast as the Antarctic
Continent is, it does not seem possible that room could be found
: 3 - it for the building up gradually from pre-adamite times all
these multitudes of icebergs. When we trace them in the ocean,
Wis evident that they drift northwards, get into warmer water,
where they begin to break up with tremendous noise (see List
ae 70) and grinding, which, aided by the solvent power of the
Water, destroys the iceberg in a comparatively short time.
How then can they have taken so many thousands of years
Rt 4 OSs gies a) ot a Se

1
Towson, « Icebergs in the Southern Ocean,” p. 7. 2 Ibid. (Note) p. 3.

292 H. C. RUSSELL.

to make as some authorities demand? Were the Antaretic
regions as large as the whole world, there would not be space to
make the icebergs which we see in process of destruction in the
ocean, if the origin of each iceberg was away back in pre-adamite

days.

When we come to look at these reports closely, we find the
great majority of the icebergs are of moderate dimensions—five
hundred to two thousand feet in extreme dimensions—and such
icebergs might, I think, be formed in comparatively short periods.
Slow as the motion of solid ice is known to be, it does makea
measurable progress from year to year ; that progress depending
upon the amount of snow, and the decline down which it is finding
its way to the sea. But taking an average glacier, it progresses
a mile in from twenty to thirty years, and therefore the great
majority of icebergs of the dimensions just given could be made
in comparatively short periods. Some are, however, very much
larger, and the number of icebergs seem to be vastly greater in
some years than in others. As an explanation of this it has been
suggested that unusual falls of snow may account for it by acclerat-
ing the motion of the ice; but I.think the circumstances forbid
the acceptance of this view, because the motion of the glacier,
as we have already seen, depends mainly on the declivity down
which it is descending, and that does not alter, and the piling
up of snow could not in one year cause such a marked increas?
in the rate of flow as would be necessary to account for the
enormous increase in number of icebergs which appear from time
to time, as for instance in 1854 and 1891. _

There must evidently be a force sufficient to break off the ice-
bergs which are slowly forming on shore, and to do it at irregular
periods separated by many years. Such a force seems to reside
in the volcanoes of the Antarctic continent, when they burst forth
in eruption and earthquake, and so shake the foreshores, that the
icebergs are broken off from the glaciers and set adrift to flost
we know not where.

Vinnie ae pee os

j

y

| ICEBERGS IN THE SOUTHERN OCEAN. 293

| This view derives some support from the character of the ice-
bergs when outbursts occur, as at the end of 1854, and again
recently, for on each occasion there were great icebergs which
only some convulsion of nature could set adrift. One of these
was reported by twenty-one ships in 1855. It was a solid mass
of ice, measuring sixty miles on one side, forty miles on another,

_ and in the third side (for it was triangular), there was a great

7 bay, into which three vessels unconsciously sailed—two got out
by tremendous exertion, and the third became a total wreck,

Again, on January 17, 1893 (see No. 57 in List), the ship

“Loch Torridon,” in latitude 53° 51’, longitude 46° west, sailed

for fifty miles along one side of an immense ice island, and the

captain saw another estimated to be one thousand five hundred

feet high. Again (No. 55 in List) on January 11, 1893, the ships

“Wasdale” and “Strathcathro” sailed all unconscious of danger

. into a horse-shoe shaped bay in an iceberg; it was twenty miles

deep, ten miles across in the middle, and four miles wide at the

_. entrance. The similarity of this ice-bound bay with the one seen

in 1855, and another seen by Dampier in his voyages, is note-

worthy, for they were all alike. It would seem as if there were

Some forming place, or mould, in which these icebergs are built
up and held until some great eruption sets them free.

If we accept the suggestion of the cause of sudden accessions
of icebergs here put forward, we have a cause known to be in
operation there, and quite sufficient to account for the enormous
umber of icebergs, and also of the large dimensions of some of
them at these times of outburst. :

Thave endeavoured to prepare the chart of reported icebergs
that it should be easily read. The locality of every report is
e : ed on the chart: by a circle, the year in which the ice was
__ sm isshewn by the number of bars within the circle, a number
“added so that the report can be found in the following list and
up Particulars obtained. ‘The positions in which the derelict

~"nbartonshire” was seen, are marked in the same way, and

294 H. C. RUSSELL.

all particulars about her are given here. In cases where ice has
been seen day after day, the fact is indicated by a series of circles
all having the same year and number.

Norr.—Captain T. Messenger, in his MS., remarks that his
barometer frequently rose rapidly when nearing any vast quantity
of ice ; the thermometer remaining steady. See No. 89.

THE DERELICT ‘‘ DUMBARTONSHIRE.”

The “ Dumbartonshire ” was loaded with nitrate from the west
coast of South America. After having been dismasted ina heavy
gale, she was abandoned by her crew in August, 1894 (the day is
not given) in latitude 40° south and longitude 40° east. She
was next seen by Captain Prask, of the “Port Douglas,” about
January 18, 1895 (day not given), in latitude 40° south and 5°
west. Assuming the date of abandonment to be August 15, we
have above an interval of one hundred and fifty-five days. during
which the ship drifted one thousand eight hundred and fifty miles,
which is at the rate of twelve miles per day. The derelict was
next reported by Mr. William McFarlane, master of the “ East
Lothian,” who, in a letter to me on the subject, says: “At 5am.
January 27, 1895, I passed a derelict of about one thousand tons
register; her mizzen-mast was. standing. I hauled the ‘‘ East
Lothian ” as close to the derelict as was prudent, but 1 saw n0
life on board of her. The position of the derelict was 40° 30’
South, longitude 2° 20’ east ; this position was verified at 8 a.m.
and at noon.” Progress in nine days, three hundred and eighty-
nine miles, or forty-three miles per day, rate probably due to *
gale of wind. The “Dumbartonshire” was next seen by
master of the barque “Brenhilda,” on March 7, 1895, in latitude
40° 53’ south, and longitude 14° 12’ east. The interval in miles
here is six hundred and thirty in thirty-nine days, or sixteen =
per day. These are the only reports about the “Dumbartonshire
that have reached me.

295

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309

ICEBERGS IN THE SOUTHERN OCEAN.

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311

ICEBERGS IN THE SOUTHERN OCEAN,

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‘NVGO0O NYUHHLOOS AHL NI SOUAAHOI

314

~

ICEBERGS IN THE SOUTHERN OCEAN. 315

On reference to the chart of icebergs given with this paper
and the tabular statement, it will be seen that between January
and July 1895, a vast number of icebergs were reported between
the Cape of Good Hope and Australia, and it is remarkable that
from the end of July to the present time, (November 28th) no ice
has been reported in this region, except three icebergs sighted
on August 10, by the Gulf of Venice (No. 114), Lat. 45°S.,
Long. 54° E. The only reason for the sudden disappearance of
these vast fields of ice that I can suggest, is the prevalence of
strong North-west winds over the Southern Indian Ocean, this
is shown by the logs of ships traversing these waters.

It is noteworthy that the ice which came with the great out-
burst in 1854-5 also disappeared quite suddenly, as we are told by
Towson, writing in 1858, who says, ‘‘ Since April, 1855 however,
the only reports of icebergs are much farther south.”

In the reports of various ships in the foregoing list, the question
of change of temperature in air and water in the neighbourhood
of ice is left in a very undecided state, the reports being very
contradictory, (Nos. 29, 32, 34, 36, 38, 63, 69, 89, 103, and 113).

Icebergs more or less discoloured are reported in Nos. 14, 19,
19, 26, 27, 38, 46, 55, 63, and 86, and in No. 46 it is suggested
that “ Vigias ” may originate by the grounding of one of these
aig icebergs, thus giving rise to the report of an uncharted

d.

Very large icebergs are reported in Nos. 10, 13, 17, 24, 26, 27,
29, 33, 34, 39, 47, 48, 55, 56, 57, 58, 69, 70, 73, 80, 81, 83, 84,
86, and 103.

In the foregoing list of icebergs the one farthest north (No. 31)
was In 37°§. We learn from “Towson,” page 6, that in January

ey an iceberg was in sight from the Cape of Good Hope in
latitude 34° g,

316 A. LIVERSIDGE.

On some NEW SOUTH WALES anp otner MINERALS.
(Note No. 7.)
By A. LIvERSIDGE, M.A., F.R.S.,

Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney.
[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, November 6, 1895.]

ANTIMONITE—Queensland.
A hard splintery variety, breaking with a conchoidal fracture
with somewhat hackly surfaces; noticeable as containing silica
and barytes in thin veins or joints.

Analysis.

Antimony a oe : 64°47
Sulphur... a oth a3 aii 26°69
Tron ... ous wi i 1-00
Silica ao de ba bis i
Barium sulphate... da A a) ee
Undetermined and loss... vas leiee eee

100-00

The above is the mean of two analyses. Sp. gr. 4°43.

Apatite, PLumprrerous—Calcium fiuo-phosphate. Broken Hill.

Some specimens of apatite containing lead were forwarded
me by Mr. 8. Harris, from Block 14 Mine for examination.

The apatite is in the form of small grey imperfect erystals,
(some however are symmetrical hexagonal prisms closed by the
pyramid and terminal pinacoids) about js” long, in cavities ina
matrix of dark blue-black honey-combed crystalline zinciferous
galena ; the freshly fractured apatite has somewhat the lustre
and appearance of pyromorphite. It is probable that part
the calcium phosphate of the apatite is replaced by the isomorphous
lead phosphate.

+:

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ie eS Be RBI ena gO IU

SOME NEW SOUTH WALES AND OTHER MINERALS. 317

The crystals of apatite were separated as carefully as possible
from the galena, but this could not be done completely, as small
crystals of galena are seen within the apatite crystals, 7.¢., when
sliced and examined under.the microscope.

Mr. Harris states that pyromorphite was met with in the
shallower parts of the same portion of the mine in considerable
quantities. He found 3-97 of fluorine, -57/ manganese monoxide,
and 36:25 of phosphoric pentoxide, but as all the specimens I
examined showed enclosed lead sulphide, I do not quote his
amounts of lead and lime; the proportions of phosphoric oxide
and fluorine indicate that the mineral answers to the general
formula of $ Ca,P,0,, CaF, in which part of the Ca is probably
replaced by Pb.

BarkLyITE—Two Mile Flat, Mudgee, N.S. W.
Collected by the late Prof. A. M. Thomson, Sydney University.

The specimens were in small well rolled pebbles, not more than
¥' long. Most are of a kind of dull magenta colour and usually
show one or two light streaks or veins, in others, the colour
might be referred to that of lean beef. Hardness about 8°5, i.e.,
less than 9. Sp. gr. 3°738 at 18°5° C.

The mineral is tough, and the fracture granular and of a pink
tint, the powder is also of a pale pink tint. Before the blowpipe
it darkens a little and returns to its former colour on cooling.
After ignition it is a little more opaque, probably due to slight
disintegration, When strongly heated, it becomes brilliantly
luminous and gives a blue colour with cobalt nitrate. Large
quantities gave the chromium reaction with micro-cosmic salt and
borax beads. The precipitate of Al,O,3H,0, fused with NaKCOs
gave the Dianganese reaction in one case but not in others.

No full description of this mineral appears to have been pub-
lished ; the name Barklyite was given to it by Mr. Geo. Milner
Stephen, F.G.8., after the then Governor of Victoria. In a
Catalogue of his collection, and in a lecture, he refers to

318 A. LIVERSIDGE.

them as violet rubies, or barklyite, from the Ovens district in
Victoria.2 Apparently, too, it has never been met with in any
quantity, and the variety does not appear to be sufficiently distinet
to warrant a special name.

It consists principally of alumina, (Al,O;) but the analysis in
hand is not yet completed.

Curysoconta—Hydrous copper silicate. Broken Hill, N.S.W.

As incrustations and stalactitic forms, with mammillated sur
faces, of a sky blue and green colour. Vitreous lustre in parts.
Conchoidal fracture. Hardness 4. Streak, pale blue. Effervesces
slightly on warming with HCl, from the presence of a little copper
carbonate. Before the blowpipe, it darkens and breaks up slowly
with decrepitation. In tube it gives off much water and a nitro-
genous odour. Soluble in HCl and HNO, with a residue of silica.

Breryt— Vegetable Creek, New England, N.S. W.
Described in a paper read before this Society, December 2,
1891. Sp. gr. 2°80. Hardness, 7°5.

Analysis.
Silica Rs eh 1 OS eee
Alumina... ae as Ne pe
Beryllia —_... dis a ie eres
Tron sesquioxide ... sus es ove 6
Lime ais ‘ik we she ... traces.

99-4
Crocois1re—Dundas, Tasmania.

In brilliant crystals of a deep orange-red colour, about 3" 6
seated on a mangano-ferruginous matrix. The Dundas mne%
have yielded some fine groups of crocoisite crystals, with the
prisms several inches long ; associated with cerussite, galena and
occasionally anglesite and other lead minerals. Hardness, 2°5.
Sp. gr. 5-92,

1 Trans. Roy. Soc., Vict., 1865, p- 70.

en ee ee

SOME NEW SOUTH WALES AND OTHER MINERALS. 319

Analysis.
Lead monoxide ... on an aoe 66°86
Chromium tri-oxide aes ee Spe 30:99
Tron sesquioxide ... ay “as a 1-02
98-87

Which corresponds with the formula PbCrO,.
FaHLerz— Wiseman’s Creek, via Brewongle, N.S.W.
Occurs in quartz veins. Collected in September, 1888. No
crystals were obtained.

Analysis.

Copper iia oe 33004
ead 630
Tron 2-844
Zine ‘ ps a 2 s 3-693
Antimony ... ae nae ope oe £020
Sulphur. sul LL Pe
Nickel Aes a oe aye Fes trace.
Cobalt e65 os ee eG wae (OPBCS.
99-998

The above corresponds approximately to + CuS, + (FeZn) §,
Sb,S,.

Some silica was obtained in the analysis, but this was deducted
and an allowance made for it in the calculation, as it obviously
belonged to the matrix,

A special examination was made for gold and silver on a
larger quantity, when 31 ozs., 17 dwts., 0 grs. of silver, and
2 ozs., 13 dwts., 8 grs, of gold per ton were found.

ILMentrz—Cloncurry River, Queensland.
Black, with traces of crystal planes, breaks with well-marked
Metallic lustre,
: Analysis.
Titanium dioxide, TiO gw: ik .. 49°85
ilicon :

Si BiOy ak ee
Iron monoxide, FeO : 3576
Tron sesquioxide Fe,O, . 13-22

320 A. LIVERSIDGE.

Manganese and magnesium are usually met with, hut they and
other metals, although specially sought for, were not found in
this specimen. Dana gives the following extremes :—

TiO, = 59-20 to 3°55 /
FeO = 46°53 to 3:26 7
Fe,0, = 93°63 to 1:20 /%

ZINCIFEROUS GALENA.

This mineral was sent to me from Broken Hill as clausthalite,
the selenide of lead. Before the blowpipe it yielded the reactions
lead, zine, and sulphur, with a little arsenic, but I could not get
any reaction for selenium. Decrepitates strongly. It appears to
occur in nodular masses.

The mineral, in certain lights has a dull grey colour and scoria-
ceous appearance, but in other positions the light is reflected
from it brilliantly with a bluish-grey metallic lustre ; this is due
to the fact that the surface is covered with minute cubical
crystals, which have their planes more or less parallel, although
at different levels ; my specimens only exposed about two square
inches, but I think it would be found to extend over larger surfaces.
The effect is something like that of “shot” silk.

Under a 1” objective, the cubical character of the crystals are
clearly recognisable, so also are the well -.marked cubical cleavag?
planes, which have a strong metallic lustre. The mineral appears
to be homogeneous, and no separate portions of blende were detected
in it, so that the two sulphides seem to have been deposited t

gether ; thin tilms of arborescent copper pyrites occur on some ¢ 3

the surfaces, and within crevices. Sp. gr. at 18°6-72. Itis slightly
harder than galena.

The nodules only contain a little zine ; but they have not yet
been analysed ; On assay they proved to be very rich in gold,
gave me 5 ozs. 17 dwts. 4 grs. per ton, and 0 oz. 19 dwts. ‘=
of silver per ton; lead minerals are usually richer in silver than
in gold.

The vein stuff gave—

SOME NEW SOUTH WALES AND OTHER MINERALS. 321

Analysis.

LE IF. IlI
Insoluble... tc oc BG 3°47
ea 60-20 61:014
Zinc... 15°50 14:85
Sulphur 18-94
Iron ... 2°62
Copper 205
Arsenic traces
Antimony ... ... traces.
100-625

The proportion is about 3 PbS, 24 ZnS.

Tt seems to be related to the minerals huascolite and
kilmacooite! but with fairly well marked differences. I do not,
however, think it need be named ; the term zinciferous galena
describes it accurately without adding to the already excessive
list of so-called new Species of minerals.

LIMESTONE wiTH ConeE-1n-Cone Srructure—Picton, N.S.W.

Evidently very impure, of a brown colour, and argillaceous
appearance. An analysis of this was made in 1876, and for-
warded to the Mineralogical Society, but lost in transit.

IA a Vets on oe ee ee eee me ee? eee ee a

Composition.

Portion soluble in HGL wc
ee a
rem diets, 00, .. 4. . «S001
Silica, SiO... 1-63

Tron sesquioxide, Fe,0, ... 9 0. ss. 4°88
Manganese oxide, MnO... ... ws “BD
en NO is so ig eae

eo Pena eae gp OD ee ay a ye

Paes Ma O.552) 2x, i
Portion insoluble in HCl ai parene ew byt

aw Ghat, a

i‘ 10071
. _ nount of calcium carbonate being 68°20. The portion
“Mile in hydrochloric acid was not further examined.
- 1 Dana’s System of Mineralogy, 1892, p. 51.
U—Aug. 7, 1595,

PRE Pie ee eS ey eee, OES

one A. LIVERSIDGE.

The specimen was from a layer about three inches thick; the
cones are fairly regular in size and shape, and run right through
the deposit in vertical columns, like piles of small closely packed
conical paper sugar bags; the average diameter being about half-
an inch, and the length perhaps a little more, the angle of the
cone being between fifty and sixty degrees, and incipient crystal-

lisation is visible in parts. The upper surface of the deposit

presents pits with thickened edges over some of the columns of
cones,

Mr. A. J. Sach, F.c.s., published an account of this deposit
(with an analysis) in the Report of the Australasian Association
for the Advancement of Science, Hobart Session, 1892, p. 328.

MOLYBDENITE.

This was described in Note No. 6, read before this Society,
December 2, 1891, as occurring in large crystals 3 x 3} x 5} long
from the Eleanora Mine, Kingsgate, near Glen Innes, N.S.W.

Composition. ve
MNO oi es, oe BT SL
meee RO ee
Tron ee ee ae eo ae 39

100-81 100-28

Another specimen yielded about 6°%/ of manganese oxide ; but

this was probably mechanically enclosed between the plates of
molybdenite. Sp. gr. 4:6.

Proustite—Silver Sulpharsenide.

ee ere Ty ee oe eer ae eee ote

Mr. Edgar Hall, r.c.s., sent me, in August last, some specimens d

from his United Mine at Rivertree, in which he had found som?

minute red crystals. I have examined the crystals, and agree

with him in regarding them as proustite. They are quite micro”
scopic, and it is difficult to examine them and still more to separa?
them from the matrix.

Mr. Hall states that they occur in a narrow vein, about hal
an-inch thick on the hanging wall, and that they have been

SOME NEW SOUTH WALES AND OTHER MINERALS. 323

met with at seventy feet, one hundred and ‘twenty feet, and
one hundred and eighty feet levels, in fact all the way down
so far. The lode is a contact one, between a dyke of quartz
diorite and the massive granite of the country. ‘The fissure is
about eight feet wide at the one hundred and twenty feet level,
of which about four feet is quartz carrying argentiferous minerals ;
the yield of silver is found to be much greater where the prou-
stite crystals are present. :

The crystals are on a bluish quartz, containing mispickel ; they
are of a full red colour, translucent, with vitreous lustre, and
about 4; to + millimetre in length. I was able to obtain the
reactions for arsenic, sulphur, and-silver, but no attempt was
made to make a quantitative analysis as it was only with diffi-
culty that a few hundredths of a grain were obtainable.

Proustite is reported by Mr. C. Marsh! to occur also at Broken

ScuHEELirE—Calcium tungstate, CaWO,.
Lady Hopetoun Mine, Glen Innes, N.S.W.

Massive, coarsely crystalline, of a pale brownish stone colour.
Hardness, 5, Sp. gr. 5-93, another portion 5:3 only.

A fairly pure calcium tungstate, containing a little water,
223%, of Silica, 1:52 of iron sesquioxide, and a trace of
manganese, ‘

Tiystonz Crysrats—Elsmore Mine, Inverell, N.S.W.

In stout pyramids, usually about half-an-inch through, but
Some of them are much larger. Very slightly water-worn at the
edge, otherwise the crystals have the faces of the pyramid well

‘developed and of a high metallic lustre. Yielded a white powder.

Sp. gr. 6-68, Hardness, 6°5.
Analysis.

Tin oxide, SnO, wee 9
Silica, SiO, ... ds

1 a tent ree sea
Geology of the Broken Hill Lode, &c., by J. B. Jaquet, p. 90.
Sydney, ig94,

324 A, LIVERSIDGE.

Tron sesquioxide, Fe, wy ie aes mis?
Manganese oxide, nO ins 25
Tungstic acid, Wo, ‘a net “oe 06

98°58

Another specimen from the same locality, but water worn, was
found to be harder = 7, with a sp. gr. of 6°54. The powder of
this was brown.

. Analysis.
Tin oxide, SnO, ..... soe oe sii ee
Silica, SiO, i
Oxide of manganese, “Mn0.. ‘98

Tron sesquioxide, Fe,O, ... cn a0 oS
Tungstic acid, WO,. ve an a 36
98°75

The loss of 1-25 on this, and 1-42 on the previous specimen,
may indicate the presence of some of the rarer elements not
specially sought for, and that the specimens are worthy of further
examination.

Topaz—Shoalhaven District.

In the form of short columnar prisms, the terminal pyramidal
planes not well developed, seated on granite. Of a greyish tint,
more or less opaque, but translucent in parts.

Most of the crystals were about 4” to 3” in diameter, and about
3” long, closely packed together so as to form a solid layer of
topaz next to the supporting rock. The crystals are brittle, some
of the faces are slightly rough, as if etched. Hardness, 7°5 only.
Sp. gr. 3°56.

Before the blowpipe it decrepitates, darkens, but become —
nearly colourless again on cooling. Gives off a little water when
heated in tube.

a Analysis.
Silica ee a ea ee is
Alumina... 6% yes Si ... 62°66
Fluori 1401

uorine... oes es a
Water at 100° eve evi os vice cee

NATURAL DEPOSIT OF ALUMINIUM SUCCINATE IN TIMBER. 325

The above are the mean of the results of two closely agreeing
analyses. The oxygen equivalent to the fluorine must be allowed
for in the above analysis.

In the foregoing paper I was assisted by Mr. A. O. Black, &
student in the Chemical Laboratory, who, under my direction, made
several of the analyses ; Mr. C. Walker, another student, analysed
the ilmenite; Mr. J. A. Schofield, a.r.s.m., F.c.s., Demonstrator,
the zinciferous galena; and Mr. J. M. Petrie, Junior Demonstra-
tor, the fahlerz.

_ ON 4 NATURAL DEPOSIT or ALUMINIUM SUCCINATE
IN THE TIMBER or GREVILLEA ROBUSTA, R. Br.

: By J. H. Marpey, F.u.s., and Henry G. Smira.
(Read before the Royal Society of N. 8. Wales, November 6, 1895.]

a THE material upon which this investigation has been made was

obtained from a Sydney timber merchant who was engaged in
Cutting up the well-known Silky Oak (Grevillea robusta, R. Br.)
tnto planks. Finding a deposit in the middle of a log which
“looked like whiting,” as he expressed it, and thinking it curious,
he sent it to the Museum, but before the log could be examined
om whole of the deposit collected, the planks had been sent
_ 4Way from the mill, and further examination of them could not
ade. N evertheless, about six ounces of the deposit had been
_ ‘Secured, the examination of which forms the subject of this paper.
- large Proportion of the substance must have been lost ; what
fhe amount was that the cavity originally contained we have no
hen - knowing. The investigation of this deposit has proved
interesting, that we would like to take this opportunity of

“ting the attention of those who are likely to become p

sy ese Coes ;

S2G J. H. MAIDEN AND H. G. SMITH.

of like material, to the importance, from a scientific point of view,
of submitting for investigation earthy-looking deposits which may
be found in timber.

Physical Description.

The material is quite soft and almost white in colour, except
on the exterior of the lumps, where they are slightly stained
brown in places, by some organic substance. It has a sourish,
rather unpleasant odour, arising most probably from the presence
_ of acetic acid. The whole of the cavity appears to have been
filled with the material ; the largest lump measures in the thickest

part 2 cm. or about three quarters of an inch, and impressions of :

the tissue of the wood can be easily seen.

The original material is crystalline in part, minute acicular
crystals being seen between crossed nicols with a quarter inch
objective. The harder and more solid portion appears to contain
the crystals in very small quantity. © The very soft portion col-
tains them in abundance. The best method to observe them, is

to mount a portion on a slide under a cover glass with water, 10

other material answering so well for this purpose. These acicular

crystals were found to polarize when revolved between crossed
nicols, but were altogether too minute to determine their mode ot 4

crystallization. The material is thus not quite amorphous.

Determination of the Base.

The organic matter is with difficulty entirely removed from :
the original substance by burning, the last traces of carbon
requiring the heat of the blowpipe before being entirely removed: :
The residue is perfectly white in appearance, and shows 10 signs
of fusion with the greatest heat obtainable with the gas-blowpipe: :
The residue is, when thus ignited, insoluble in acids, and requires ;
fusion with bisulphate of potassium or other suitable substance —
before solution can be obtained. This residue contains no OMe —

— than alumina ; absolutely no trace of lime could be detecte
im several determinations, and only the slightest trace was obtaine

when testing for magnesia. Quantitative determination aie a

NATURAL DEPOSIT OF ALUMINIUM SUCCINATE IN TIMBER. 327

almost exactly one hundred per cent. of alumina in the ignited
residue, as the result of two determinations. The method adopted
was to fuse the ignited residue with bisulphate of potassium until
solution was effected, and to dissolve in water when cold; the
solution was then acidified, the alumina precipitated in the usual
manner, and ignited before the blowpipe until of constant weight.
The base therefore consists of alumina. Iron is absent.

Determination of the Acid.

In the systematic search for the acid, experiment showed the
absence of oxalic, tartaric, citric, malic and benzoic acids in the
solution obtained by boiling the acid solution of the original
material with carbonate of soda, filtering, and proceeding in the
Usual manner; succinic acid alone being indicated, exclusive of
a trace of acetic acid. The crystals obtained, as described below,
answered all the tests for succinic acid. When the original
substance is treated with a small quantity of nitric acid, it
wholly dissolves, (the trace of organic matter other than the
acid being destroyed); the solution is of a pale amber colour.
On cooling, a mass of crystals separates out. These were filtered
off, drained on a porous slab, and when dry, again heated with
4 small quantity of nitric acid, the crystals obtained by cooling,
filtering, and drying on a porous slab as before. These opera-
tions were repeated three times, and at the conclusion the
crystals were dissolved in water, a small quantity of animal
charcoal added and filtered. The solution thus obtained was
‘olourless ; this was evaporated in the air after concentration on
a the water bath, white crystals being thus obtained. Although
*pParently pure, yet, on ignition, a small residue was left, for it
*Ppears to be exceedingly difficult to remove the whole of the
lumina by solution and recrystallization of the acid. The
“Ystals thus obtained were used to identify the acid, and for the
{ualitative tests generally, but for material for combustion sub-
limation between watch glasses was resorted to, the sublimate
boiled With water for some time, concentrated, and allowed to
“rystallize at the ordinary temperature. (Of course this —

328 J. H. MAIDEN AND H. G. SMITH.

ment was not resorted to until qualitative tests had satisfactorily
indicated that the acid was succinic acid only.) By boiling the
sublimate with water, the succinic anhydride formed at the tem-
perature needed for sublimation is converted into the ordinary
acid, as is proved by the melting point, the sublimate before
boiling with water melting at irregular temperatures between
125° C, to 150° C., while the normal acid, as obtained in crystals,
melts at 177° C. to 178° ©. uncorrected. As the melting point
was determined in an open beaker in glycerol, the actual temper-
ature for the column of mercury could hardly be accurately taken
for correction of melting point, so the figures are given as obtained,
but the melting point may be considered as closely approximating
180° C. The crystals are acid to the taste. The adherent mois
ture was removed from the crystallized acid by ‘heating on the
water bath before taking samples for combustion. The combus-
tions were made of the acid obtained as pure as possible, absolutely
free from residue on ignition, and melting at 178° C. uncorrected.
2090 gram. gave ‘3097 gram. CO,
and -1000 gram. H,O
equal to 40°413 per cent. carbon
5°316 s hydrogen
54:271 o oxygen

100-000
equal to 3°368 C.

5-316

3392 O.

from which we may deduce the formula C,H,0,, whichis eet

succinic acid.

Another combustion gave almost identical results.
Theory gives for C,H,O,

54°238 0.

100-000 ©

NATURAL DEPOSIT OF ALUMINIUM SUCCINATE IN TIMBER. 329

Besides these results of melting point and combustion, the acid
gave perfectly all the qualitative reactions necessary for succinic
acid. When the succinic acid was crystallized in the most

. successful manner, good monoclinic crystals were obtained.

Solubility and other tests with the original substance.

Besides the property of solubility in nitric acid, taking advantage
of which was found the best method of isolating the succinic acid,
the original substance is almost entirely soluble in hydrochloric
acid, a small brownish residue being left, the succinic acid being
precipitated on cooling the solution, providing the hydrochloric
acid is not too dilute. The original substance is also soluble in
sulphuric acid, with the exception of a small brownish residue,
the succinic acid separating from this solution also on cooling.
It is also soluble in both potassium and sodium hydrate. When

boiled with solution of ammonia, a portion of the succinic acid is

PE a Ff oe te ee ee

dissolved, forming succinate of ammonium, a more basic salt being

left. The material acts in this way the same as ferric succinate
does when boiled with ammonia.

When the original substance is boiled with carbonate of
ammonium for a long time, filtered, ammonia added, to precipitate
alumina, and evaporated to crystallization, with the occasional
addition of ammonia as evaporation proceeds, good crystals of
Succinate of ammonium are obtained.

When the original substance is heated in a closed tube, succinic
acid is not given off, the water being in fact quite neutral at a low
temperature. When the temperature is raised, the water is found
to be acid, but when dried in the tube, no solid residue is left,
Indicating that the trace of acid given off is volatile. Sufficient
Material was taken to give a few drops of this acid liquid, which
Save the reaction of acetic acid with F e,Cl., but gave no precipi-
tate with that reagent in a neutral solution, showing the absence
of succinic acid, :

When the powder is heated with bisulphate of potassium, the
Suecinic acid sublimes, principally as the anhydride. When the

330 J. H. MAIDEN AND H. G. SMITH.

powder is directly treated with acids, the temperature rises con-

siderably as it goes into solution.

When the powdered original substance is boiled for a long time
in distilled water, practically nothing dissolves, nor is anything
dissolved when it is boiled with alcohol. There appears to be no
free acid in the material as determined by its insolubility in H,0
and C,H,O, and because it is not possible to obtain succinic acid
when distilled in a tube without previously adding to the powder
some bisulphate of potassium, or some suitable substance, so that
the whole of the acid is present in combination with the base.
Nitrogen was sought for in the original material but was found
to be absent.

Determination of the presence of Acetic Acid.

When the original substance was first received, it had a sour
and rather unpleasant odour, which diminished somewhat 0
keeping. In the systematic examination for acids, acetic acid
was detected in minute quantities. To determine the presence of
this acid, a portion of the original substance (between three and
four grams.), was dissolved in sulphuric acid and distilled ; the
distillate was distinctly acid to test paper, had a slight odour of
acetic acid,and gave the reactions for that acid with ferric chloride.
Only a small quantity was present, as the distillate was readily
neutralized with a very small quantity of an alkaline solution.

When the original material is dissolved in sulphuric acid,
alcohol added, and the whole boiled, the odour of acetic ether is
distinctly detected, especially on shaking as the liquid cools.
When dissolved in soda and the solution acidified with sulphune
acid, alcohol added, and boiled, the odour of acetic ether is more
readily obtained. The identification of acetic acid in the original
substance is of some importance, as perhaps indicative of the mode
of formation of the succinic acid by fermentation.

Composition of the original substance.

When heated in a closed tube much water is given off. A
Portion of the powder was heated at 100° C. to 110° C. for on®

See yee

a

NATURAL DEPOSIT OF ALUMINIUM SUCCINATE IN TIMBER. 331

hour; the loss indicated 25-089 per cent. of water. Heated again
for one hour from 110° C. to 120° C. no further loss was found to
occur, neither when heated for one hour from 145° C. to 150° C.
The powder was then ignited before the blowpipe until constant
in weight, when it was found that 43:464 per cent. had been
burnt away, leaving 31:447 per cent. of alumina ; 100 per cent.
of alumina being found, as stated above, in this ignited residue.
As no other acid was detected other than succinic acid, with the
exception of a trace of-acetic acid, we may consider the compo-
sition to be
Organic matter as
Succinic acid = 43:464 per cent.

Alumina 31°447 m
Water 25-089
100-000

From these figures we may look upon the material as a basic
aluminium succinate, corresponding to a ferric succinate, and

having the following formula :

Al, (0,H.O); ‘Al, GO.
On ignition we get 2 Al,O, and C,,H..0> removed by burn-
ing, which, calculated out and allowing the same percentage of
water as obtained by experiment as above, we have
Organic matter taken as (C,.H,,0.) =44484 per cent.
meee StALOs) ke ee SAT ay
Water’... e ote 25-089

100-000

(We take the atomic weight of alumina as 373)

It would appear that in no previous investigations on natural
salts of succinic acid found in vegetation has aluminium succinate
_ ' The water present has been ignored in the formula, as we do not know
8 ere form it is present, or whether it is an essential component of the

terial. The amount found indicates a quantity which, if combined,

vould Tepresent between nine and ten molecules of water.

pe J. H. MAIDEN AND H. G. SMITH.

been discovered, although succinic acid in combination with lime
has been detected as an exudation on the stem of the White
Mulberry tree ( Morus alba). In another reference’ to the presence
of succinate of lime occurring in this exudation, the statement is
made that the occurrence of succinic acid in the juices of a large
number of herbs had long been known, but that it had not hiterto
been found in liquids from trees. It was thought in this instance
that the presence of a brown, humus-like substance, pointed to the
fact that the succinic acid in this case was the product of a patho-

logical process and not a physiological secretion.

The occurrence of succinic acid was considered to be due toa
fermentation process, in consequence of which the malic acid
occurring in the juices of the mulberry tree (Gmelin, 10,206) was
converted into succinic acid, a metamorphosis which according t0
Fitz (Ber., 12,481) takes place somewhat readily in schizomyceti¢
fermentations.

The following formula represents the change
3C,H,O, = 20,H,O, + C,H,O, + 2CO, + H.0
(Malic Acid) (Suceinic Acid) (Acetic Acid)

As we have found acetic acid in the original substance from

Grevillea robusta, we suggest that the succinic acid in this case is

also the effect of fermentation of malic acid, as this acid is of very
common occurrence in plants, and is by fermentation readily con”
verted into succinic acid. We have not yet succeeded in obtall-

ing the fresh sap of Grevillea robusta, so that we are unable a

present to state whether malic acid is present or not in the grow

ing tree, and any more definite statement as to its mode of form
tion must be held over for the present. If malic acid be found to

occur in the sap of Grevillea robusta, we think there can be but

little doubt as to the origin of succinic acid contained in the
Present material. Not only is the material of interest from the
Presence of succinic acid, but that the base of the salt should be

* Gmelin, Handbook of Chemistry, Cavendish Soc., Vol. X., P- 108-
2 Journ. Chem. Soc., XLI., 602 (1882).

S iis PaaS |

oN aGg ee) Ca ae Sere eee Rene

Ne SS eo eae

NATURAL DEPOSIT OF ALUMINIUM SUCCINATE IN TIMBER, 333

aluminium makes it doubly interesting, because of the rare occur-
rence in plants of this element.

The following extract is from a recent work.! “In spite of the
wide distribution of clay in soil and in rocks, its chief constituent,
aluminium, is confined in its occurrence to very few plants (lichens
and club-mosses).” Another statement of the same kind is made
by G. Bunge,? as follows, “ Aluminium is one of the elements
most frequently met with. . . . It is therefore remarkable
that alumina has scarcely anything to do with the nutrition of
living beings. It has been shown positively to exist in any notice-
able quantity only in a few plants, especially in a few kinds of
Lycopodium.”

We have also failed to obtain any evidence from other sources,
of the presence of aluminium having been detected in material
similar to which we now bring under your notice. That a salt of
aluminium has been circulating through the vessels of this tree,
Grevillea robusta, appears evident, but in what form it was origin-
ally deposited in the cavity of the wood it is now impossible to
decide. The probability that it was as a malate, is indicated by
the perfect solubility of aluminium malate in water, and the total
insolubility of aluminium succinate in that liquid. We may also
here point out that no inorganic acid could be detected in the
portion taken for investigation.

In reference to the formation of artificial salts of aluminium
succinate little information can be gathered. “According to Gehlin
and Bucholz,t succinate of soda precipitates hydrochlorate of
alumina (not however according to Bansdorff from very dilute
Solutions), Wenzel obtained by direct combinations an insoluble
“alt which crystallized in prisms.” Chemical text books as a rule
are silent as to the existence of any aluminium salt of euccinic acid,

ae
__ Treatise on the Physiology of Plants—Dr. Paul Sorauer. (Weiss’ transla-
tion 1895) page 36,
2 . ,
; Physiological and Pathological Chemistry, p. 27, 1890 (Kegan Paul).
See also Text Book of Botany by Julius Sachs, 2nd Edition, p. 695.
* Gmelin, x., 108,

334 J. H. MAIDEN AND H. G. SMITH.

Attempt to prepare an artificial Aluminium Succinate.
When a neutralized solution of succinic acid is added toa
solution of aluminium hydrate dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and
‘ neutralized with ammonia as much as possible without causing 4
precipitate, a dense white amorphous precipitate quickly forms.
When this is thoroughly washed, dried at 120° — 125° O. until the ©
weight is constant, then powdered and ignited, it is found that
66-4 per cent. of this dried residue is removed on burning, leaving
33°6 per cent. of alumina. This does not correspond to the
theoretical quantity of either the normal or basic salt of aluminium
succinate. When this dried powder is heated in a tube, before
charring commences a liquid collects in the tube, which soon
crystallizes into prisms of succinic acid, showing that succinic acid
is given off in this way while the same experiment with the
natural succinate of aluminium failed to give off succinic acid
when thus heated as described above. The artificial salt also
appears more harsh and brittle than the natural one.

The three following percentage results obtained by various
observers! on succinic acid from various sources may be useful for
comparison with our results.

D’ Arcet. | Zwerger. Piria.

C = 41-22 C = 40°62 C = 40°34
H= 5°33 H= 5:28 H= 5°22
O = 53-45 O = 54:10 O = 54*44

D’ Arcet analysed the acid from Amber, Zwerger that from
Wormwood, and Piria the acid obtained by fermenting an impure
solution of Asparagin.

It is with pleasure that we place the results of our investigation
before you, because it enables us to describe a salt of an organ’
acid rarely found except in small quantities, and forming @ com -
bination with aluminium that does not appear to have ever bee =
found before in any tree, whether indigenous in Australia or not. :
Although it is quite possible that this is an accidental and rare
Fe ESTEE ES Gro ut ake

1 Gmelin, loc. cit.

GOLD AND SILVER IN SEA-WATER. 335

deposit in this particular tree, there appears to be no reason why
other trees of this and other species may not be found to contain
material identical in formation and composition, and all that
appears to be required is careful search now that attention has
been drawn to the matter.

Ox tae AMOUNT or GOLD anp SILVER 1x SEA-WATER.

By A. LiversIDGE, M.A., F.R.S.,
Professor of Chemistry, University of Sydney, N. 8. Wales.

[Read before the Royal Society of N. 8. Wales, October 2, 1895.]

In the following paper are given the results of some experiments
made with the object of determining the amount of gold in the
sea-water off the coast of New South Wales.

The only reference that I can find in Sydney libraries relating
to the presonce of gold in sea-water, are those of Sonstadt,' which
Will be made use of later on in this paper, and a reference by
Dr. T. Sterry Hunt? to a paper read before the American Associa-
yea for the Advancement of Science in 1866, by Professor Wurtz,
m which he expressed an opinion that gold would be found in
“water, but I cannot trace Professor Wurtz’s paper.

Then in 1894, Mr. E. C. C. Stanford, President of the Society
eo Industry, in his address to the membefs,’ stated :—

® Presence of gold has not been satisfactorily proved ; it was
“xpected it might accumulate in the copper sheathing of ships,
and Messrs, Muntz obliged me with specimens of old sheathing,
“opper and muntz metal. Mr. Inglis, who kindly examined
1 Chom EPR Pam ees ee

ical News, 1872, pp. 159, 160.
pe and Geological Essays, London, 1879.
eurn. Soc. Chem, Ind., x111., July 31, 1894, p. 697.

336 A, LIVERSIDGE.

these for me, found both gold and silver, but not in larger pro-
portion than usual.”
The results were, per ton :—

Copper Sheathing. Muntz Metal.
oz. dwt. grs. oz. dwt. grs.
LO Baas 3 eae ame 9 | U °°. ie
Silver £439 5 S28

Professor Judd, ¥.R.s., informed me that a paper upon this
subject was published in a Norwegian journal by Miinster, about
1891, but I can find no reference to it in our Sydney libraries.

Sonstadt, in his paper on the presence of gold in sea-water gives
various methods for the detection of the gold, and in a later letter
to the Chemical News, March 11th, 1892, refers to his previous
communication of 1872, and states that the amount of gold is
“far less than one grain per ton.”

His first process is as follows :—Two or three decigrammes of
pure ferrous sulphate are dissolved in the water, which is acidu-
lated by two or three drops of hydrochloric acid. The solution is
heated in a chemically clean well glazed porcelain dish, over #
small flame, so managed that the flame may touch the under part
of the dish without causing ebullition. Under these circumstances
a lustrous film of iron oxide forms in the dish, commencing from
tho portion directly heated by the flame. The heat is continued,
without boiling, until the sea-water is evaporated to about half,
or so long as the film increases in extent and in lustre. The
liquid is then poured off, the strongly adherent film is rinsed with
a little water ; and then about 50 cc. of strong chlorine water 18
allowed to stand i in the dish for an hour or two, after which it is
slowly evaporated down (over the film) to a few drops, # drop
dilute hydrochloric acid being added towards the end of the
evaporation. The liquid, which should be nearly colourless, -
then poured into a test-glass containing a few drops of solution’
stannous chloride, when, after a few minutes, the liquid takes #
bluish or purplish tint, which may be exactly matched by a drop
or two ofa suitably diluted solution of gold added to 4 corre
ponding portion of tin-salt in another glass.”

GOLD AND SILVER IN SEA-WATER. oor

The sea-water first examined was collected from the coast at
Coogee, away from any fresh water or other drainage. Eleven
trials of this water were made with 200 cc. as recommended by
Sonstadt, but no trace of a purple or even pink tint was obtained;
but, with 600 cc. a faint amethyst tint was obtained after stand-
ing some time. As a rule, after adding the stannous chloride, a
white or grey precipitate came down in the course of a few days,
and this precipitate in many cases became pink, purple or slate
coloured.

To check Sonstadt’s method, various experiments were carried
out. Gold chloride (from pure metal dissolved in chlorine water)
was added to Coogee sea-water in the proportion of one grain of
gold to the ton, and 200 cc. of this was treated by Sonstadt’s
process on March 19th, 1895, when a light brown precipitate was
thrown down by the stannous chloride; on the 27th the precipitate
was of a red colour below with a pale pink layer above; on the
3rd April the pink tint was more decided. Hence if allowed to
stand for a few days, the test will detect in 200 cc. the presence
of added gold in the proportion of one grain to the ton of sea-
water, the gold originally present only being recognisable in 600ce.

On December 11th, 1894, a litre of the Coogee sea-water was
oncentrated and the test applied, no trace of pink or purple |
*ppeared, but on February 8th, 1895, a slight brown sediment
had formed, which may have been due to gold.

Next two litres were treated on December 28th, 1894, and
allowed to stand until February 8th, 1895, when a faint pink tint
was observable on the surface of the white precipitate. The second
chlorine water extract of the film yielded a white precipitate which
also had acquired a pink tint on February 8th.

On August 14th, 1895, two more samples each of two litres of

ee water were tested. On the 15th the precipitates were
brownish, the brownish tint seems to be due to the presence of
gold. The contents of the two test tubes were mixed together,
dried and scorified with’ 250 grains of assay lead free from gold,
when a small bead of gold was obtained.
V—Oct. 2, 1895,

338 A. LIVERSIDGE.

Sonstadt’s second method was also tried, 7.¢., with barium
chloride as follows :—‘ From half a litre to a litre of sea-water
should be taken for the experiment. As much solution of pure
chloride of barium is added to the water as will give a grain of
precipitate. A day or two should be allowed for the precipitate
to settle. The precipitate is collected, dried, mixed with borax
and lead, and the button of lead obtained before the blowpipe on
charcoal is cupelled. The bead obtained is yellowish-white, of the

same colour as an alloy of sixty parts of gold to forty of silver, —
or thereabout. For confirmation of the presence of gold the bead —

may be dissolved in a very small test tube, in a few drops of aqua
regia, which is then evaporated, at a gentle heat, nearly to dryness.
A few drops of pure hydrochloric acid are added, and the solution
again evaporated, to destroy the excess of nitric acid. The solu-
tion is evaporated very nearly, but not quite, to dryness, a few
drops of water are added, and the mixture warmed, and when the

chloride of silver is settled, a drop of solution of stannous chloride —
is allowed to fall down the side of the tube into the liquid, when |

the characteristic gold reaction is obtained.”

Sonstadt’s barium chloride method was tried on sea water from

off Jervis Bay as well as from the coast at Coogee, but the yield

of gold was either much less than by the ferrous sulphate method

(see further on) or no gold at all was obtained, even when two %
more litres were used. Similar results were obtained from the

use of stannous chloride and mercuric chloride together. Mercurie ;
chloride alone and afterwards precipitated by hydrogen cup
gave fairly good results. It was thought that the prevmt 7

addition of sulphurous acid, oxalic acid and other reducing sub-
stances might increase the amount of gold obtained, but this was

not found to be the case, on the contrary the yield was reduce :
the

As the result of a very large number of experiments with ,
film test upon gold chloride in distilled water and in sea-wale
was found that :—

it

1, All the gold is not carried down by the film—not eve? oY :
repeating the process and obtaining a second film ; 4 little gold :

still being obtainable by a third film,

i
‘
es,
‘

5

We ee ae

GOLD AND SILVER IN SEA-WATER,. 339

2. Neither is all the gold extracted by one treatment of the
film with chlorine water.

3, Some of the gold is left on the dish in evaporating the
chlorine water solution.

4, Several days and even weeks were required, in many cases,
for the colour reaction to appear.

Gold in Sea-water along the Coast of New South Wales.

Next a set of experiments was made upon water collected out
at sea; twelve samples, two Winchester quarts of each, were
kindly collected for me by Captain Hutton, of the N. S. Wales
Government steamer “Thetis,” by direction of Mr. C. W. Darley,
then Engineer-in-Chief for Harbours and Rivers, to whom my
thanks are due for the ready assistance he has given me in this
and other similar matters. Prior to being sent out, the bottles
were carefully cleaned, numbered and packed in cases (each hold-
ing two bottles) so as to ensure purity and prevent error, and each
bottle was rinsed with sea-water when about to be filled.

Southern Sea- Waters.

In examining the southern sea-waters, in the first batch, a litre
(teach was treated and. the characteristic reaction for gold
obtained from Nos. 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6. In the next batch of two
litres each, 1, 2, 3, and 5, showed the presence of gold ; the films
were treated a second time with chlorine water, when Nos. 3, 4
and 5, gave the gold reaction. In the third batch, Nos. 1, 2, 3,
and 6 reacted for gold, and on a second treatment Nos. 3 and 6
again gave the reaction for gold. The details are as follows :—

No. 1, South—Collected 26th November, 1894, one mile east

of South Head Lighthouse. Latitude 33° 43’ 8.

Test No, 1. -Upon one litre. SnCl, was added on December
11th, 1894, a white sediment was formed; this, on February 8th,
1895, had changed toa slate colour: the slate colour was probably
due to the presence of gold.

Test No. 2, Upon two litres. December 22nd, 1894, the white

Precipitate on February 8th, 1895 showed a pinkish ringat upper a

340 A, LIVERSIDGE.

part evidently due to the presence of gold. The film from. the
ferrous sulphate was extracted a second time with Cl water, on
December 31st; the solution became opalescent on the addition
of the HCl and SnCl, and acquired a bluish tinge (probably due
to gold) but by February 8th, this blue tint had disappeared and
only a white sediment remained.

Test No. 3. Upon 1500 cc. June 12th, 1895. On the 21st
June the white precipitate showed a pinkish layer at the top }
deep, the pink colour was more decided on the 24th. On July 3rd
and 4th it began to turn violet, and on July 7th, was of a distinct
violet tint, and on the 10th July the upper part of the precipitate
had darkened to a purple colour, which was doubtless due to the
presence of gold.

No. 2, South—Collected 26th November, 1894, three miles off
Bulli. Latitude about 34°.
‘Test No. 1. Gave a slight white sediment, on the 8th February
this was yellowish with a dark reddish-brown ring.

Test No. 2. On two litres. Put up on December 22nd, 1894.
On December 31st, the sediment was white ; but had acquired
a pinkish tinge on the surface by February 8th, 1895. The iron
oxide film was extracted a second time with Cl water on Decem
ber 31st, this gave a brownish coloured solution and a white
precipitate, which had not changed by February 8th.

Test No. $. Upon 1500 ce. June 12th, 1895. On July 6th
there was a slight red tint on the sediment, and on July I
this had become brown.

No. 3, South—Collected 27th November, 1894, five miles from
Black Head, Shoalhaven Bight. Latitude about 34.

Test No.2. Upon one litre. Clear, bluish’ tinge; seam

slightly coloured.

Test No.2. On two litres. A slight amethyst tint within thre?
minutes after adding the SnCl,. On February 8th, 189,
sediment was bluish below with the pink colour above un¢

ol Spares etce :
et ae er Re ake Pa La cae ee

fee Coes
MEDC igin 5 Nr hae Fas tee

GOLD AND SILVER IN SEA-WATER. 341

The second Cl water extract of the film, on adding the SnCl,
became opalescent with a faint amethyst tinge; on February
8th, 1895, the sediment was white with light reddish-brown ring,

Test No. 3.1900 cc. June 21st, 1895. A buff sediment with
a pinkish tint at top; on the 24th the pink tint was deeper, a
pale violet on July 3rd, and on the 6th July had become a full
violet ; on the 10th July this had become purple—the buff below
remaining unchanged.

No. 4, South—Collected 27th November, 1894, from one mile

off Cape St. George Lighthouse, Jervis Bay. Latitude
about 35° 8.

Test No. 1. Upon one litre. December 11th, 1894. After
standing five hours the solution was clear with a bluish tinge ;
sediment slightly coloured. On 8th February, 1895, the white
sediment was marked by a reddish ring.

Test No. 2. Two litres, on 22nd December, 1894. No colour
on the 29th nor on the 8th February, 1895. Nor from the second
Cl water extract ; afterwards yielded a bluish tinge with pinkish
colour to sediment.

Test No. 3. 1900 cc. 21st June, 1895. A bluish tinge on top
of white sediment observed 5th J uly, 1895.

No. 5, South—Collected 27th November, 1894, from two miles

off Brush Island. Latitude about 35° 5’ S.

Test No. 1. Upon one litre, 11th December, 1894. Clear bluish
tinge ; on 8th February, 1895, the white sediment showed a bright
pink ring.

Test No. 2. Gave no indication of gold, neither did the second
Ol water extract.

Test No. 8. 1300 ce., 21st June, 1895. On addition of the
stannous chloride this gave a bluish tinge; on July 10th the white
sediment was almost black at the base.

No. 6, South—Collected 28th November, 1894. From twenty-

Seven miles off Broulee near Moruya. Lat. about 36° 5’ 8.

342 A. LIVEBSIDGE.

Test No. 1. Upon one litre, 11th December, 1894. No colour
nntil 8th February, 1895, when the light brown sediment showed
a reddish ring.

Test No. 2. Upon two litres. Amethyst tinge. Second extract
with Cl water gave a bluish tinge and the sediment had a slight
pink colouration.

Test No. 3. 1225 cc., 21st June 1895. On the 24th June, the
white sediment showed a pink tinge at top +3;" deep ; on July 10th

1895, the sediment was pale brown with an onyx-like layer near

the top, with faint purple tinge.

On April 3rd, 1895, the precipitate in each test tube of the

first batch of southern waters had changed to a dirty, almost black,
colour, 7.e,, after an interval of nearly four months from the
‘initiation of the experiment, viz., from 18th December 1894 to
3rd April 1895.

It was noticed, in some instances, that after long standing the
pink or violet tint gradually faded, especially on the side exposed
to the brighter light of the window, in some cases the colour
disappeared totally.

Northern Sea-Waters.

No. 1. Collected February 19th, 1895, about one and a half
miles off Sandy Point, Richmond River, Lat. about 28° S.

No. 2. Collected at North Solitary, Lat. about 29° S., February
19th, a strong southerly current.

No. 3. From about four miles off Smoky Cape, Lat. about 30°,
on February 20th.

No. 4. From two miles off Tacking Point, Lat. about 31° 30;
February 20th.

No. 5. From two miles off Cape Hawke, Lat. about 32° 2,
February 20th.

Wo. 6. About five miles off Port Stephens, Lat. about 3%
February 20th,

il ie i aoe ee ihe ei aie i enclave Lynn tia a Soa

Sapa naling sto

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GOLD AND SILVER IN SEA-WATER. 343

All six samples of northern sea-waters also gave the reaction
for gold; the details are omitted for brevity. As in the case of
the southern samples, some gave the reaction readily, others
required from one to several weeks. I should not however, like
to say that this is a sufficient indication of some being richer than
others, for the test appears to be wanting in precision.

QUANTITATIVE TESTS.

Unfortunately all the samples had been used up in making
qualitative tests for gold, but, in default of more water, the
chlorine-water solutions and precipitates yielded by the stannous
chloride from each batch of tests were mixed together and evapor-
ated to dryness and then scorified and cupelled so as to determine
the amount of gold. The assays were not done separately on
each test, as it was thought that the gold beads, if any, would be
too small to weigh.

Southern Sea-waters.—The first batch of tests, Nos. 1 to 6, 2.¢.s
the extracts from six litres, gave ‘003 grain of gold, 2.¢., 508
grain of gold per ton, or ‘38 grain per cubic yard, or ‘032 mgm.
per litre.

Second batch.—The precipitate from twelve litres used for the
second set of tests gave -009 grain, i.e., “76 grain of gold per ton,
or ‘57 grain per cubic yard, or ‘048 mgm. per litre. The film was
treated twice with chlorine water, and the two extracts added
together.

Third batch.—9-025 litres gave ‘0069 grain of gold, 2.¢., 1:09
grain per ton, or -58 grain per cubic yard, or ‘049 mgm. per litre.

Northern Sea- Waters.

8100 litres gave 0060 grain of gold equal to ‘75 grain per ton,
or “56 grain per cubic yard, or 048 mgm. per litre.

In calculating the amount of gold per ton or cubic et the
Specific gravity was in each case corrected to 1-026, i.¢., the mean
results obtained by the “Challenger ” Expedition, corrected to
155° ©. for Sea-water off the coast of New South Wales. :

344 : A. LIVERSIDGE.

Before proceeding with further determinations of gold in sea-
water, experiments were made to ascertain what loss of gold was
sustained in the case of solutions containing known quantities of
gold. .

EXPERIMENTS witH DistILLED Water AND ADDED GOLD.

The following experiments were made to ascertain whether
small quantities of gold in dilute solution could be recovered by
treatment with ferrous sulphate and other reagents. After adding
the ferrous sulphate the solution was exposed in large new shallow
photographer's developing dishes for some days, so that the ferrous
sulphate might be slowly oxidised and precipitated ; in some cases
glass cylinders were used and air blown through the solution. To
' complete the precipitation ammonia was added, the precipitate
collected, washed, dried, scorified, and cupelled.

From the following results it will be seen that there was but
little loss in some cases, but a good deal in others, partly due to
imperfect precipitation by the ferrous sulphate, and partly to the
loss during cupellation. In most cases the treatment with ferrous
sulphate, oxidation and precipitation was 2 upon the filtrate
from the first precipitate.

1000 ce. distilled water and 1 cc. of 01% AuCl, solution =
“00154 grains gold. ;

(1) Treated with -5 gram. FeSO, and NH, yielded 0015 gt.

(2) Filtrate treated with -25 gram. FeSO,& NH, ,, ‘0000 »

Gold = 0015 ,

1000 ce. distilled water (containing 30 grammes NaCl) and | &.
of 01% AuCl, solution = -0015 grain of gold.

(1) Treated with -5 gram. FeSO, and NH, yielded ‘0011 gt

(2) Filtrate treated with -25 gram. FeSO,&NH, ,, ‘0000 »

Gold = ‘0011 »
4.¢., a loss of -0004 grain gold or 266% The presence of the
N aCl Seems to increase the loss of gold.

POSTE SCD eR re ag et ee Ee Ue ae Re in MN ee eg BE Cor eae yo Regs MT oe PT ere Re Se

:
a

GOLD AND SILVER IN. SEA-WATER. 345
1000 ce. distilled water and 100 ce. of -01°%/ AuCl, solution =
1543 grain gold.
(1) Treated with 1 gramme FeSO, and NH, yielded -1253 gr.
(2) Filtrate treated with -5 gram. FeSO, & NH, ,, ‘0010 ,,

1963
i.e., @ loss of ‘0280 grain gold or 18-14%.
1000 ce. distilled water and 100 ce. of 01% AuCl, solution =
1543 grs. gold.
(1) Treated with 1 gramme FeSO, and NH, yielded ‘1327 gr.
(2) Filtrate treated with -5 gram. FeSO,&NH, ,, ‘0010,,

‘13ST. 6
1.. & loss of -0206 grain gold or 13-35%.
EXPERIMENTS with Sea-WaTER AND ADDED GOLD.

1000 cc. Coogee sea-water and 100 cc. of ‘01% AuCl, solution
='1543 grains of added gold.

(1) Treated with -5 gramme FeSO, and NH, yielded -1430 gr.

(2) Filtrate treated with -25 gram. FeSO, & NH, ,, 0020 ,,

1450 ,,

4.¢, @ loss of 0093 grain gold or 6-027%.

1000 ce. Coogee sea-water and 100 ce. of ‘01% AuCl, solution
='1543 grains gold.

(1) Treated with -5 gramme FeSO, and NH, yielded -1415 gr.

(2) Filtrate treated with -25 gram. FeSO, &NH, ,, °0020 ,,

: 1435 4,

*é5 a loss of 0108 grain gold or 7%.

500 ce, Coogee sea-water and 10 cc. of 01% AuCl, solution =
‘0154 grains gold.

(1) Treated with 1 gramme FeSO, and NH, yielded 0095 gr.

(2) Filtrate treated with -5 gram, FeSO,&NH, ,, 0000 »,

. 0095 3

“€y & loss of *0059 grain gold or 38°317%.

346 A. LIVERSIDGE.

500 ce. Coogee sea-water and 10 ce. of -017 AuCl, solution=
0154 grains gold.

(1) Treated with barium chloride yielded -0013 gr,
(2) Filtrate treated with 1 gram. FeSO, & NH, ,, 0069 ,,
0082 ,,

i.e. a loss of 0072 grain gold or 46°75%.
2000 cc. Coogee sea-water and 50 ce. of -01% AuCl, solution =
0771 grains gold
(1) Treated with 1 gramme lead acetate in
acetic acid and precipitated by sheet zinc, yielded ‘0708 gr.
(2) Filtrate treated with 1 gram. FeSO, & NH, ,, “0000
0708 ,,
i.¢.. a loss of (0063 grain gold or 8'17%.
2000 ce. Jervis Bay sea-water and 25 cc. of 01% AuCl, solution
_ ='0385 grains gold.
(lt) Treated with 1 gramme lead acetate and

precipitated by sheet zinc, yielded -0235 gr
(2) Filtrate treated with 1 gram. FeSO, & NH, ,, 0010»

0251 »
2.¢., a loss of ‘0134 grain gold or 34°8%.

It must be borne in mind that to the loss of gold sustained in
ld also :
tained :

the above experiments should be added the amount of go
present in the sea-water. The smallest loss seems to be sustal™
when the gold is precipitated by ferrous sulphate and ammonia,

but even that process is far from satisfactory.
Additional determinations of gold in sea-water from Coogee.
2000 ce, treated with -5 gram. FeSO, and NH, yielded 00198

=0°76 grains per ton.
(1) 9000 ce. treated with 2°5 gram.
of FeSO,, air blown through

NH, added, yielded 0028 gr.- 0-31 gr- PP

an
(2) Filtrate treated with 1 gram.

FeSO, and NH, added yielded -0035 gr. = 0°39 ge 2
Total -0063 gr. =07 gh =

Sy A en Ee alah ilies an Mf ale Lil 2a aaa os ae

GOLD AND SILVHBR IN SEA-WATER. 347

(1) 2000 ce. treated with i gram.

lead acetate and precipitated

by sheet zinc, yielded 0003 gr. = 0°152 er.
(2) Filtrate treated with 1 gram.

FeSO, and NH, yielded “0002 gr. = 0°101 gr.

”

”

Total -0005 gr. =0°253 gr.

+P

It was found when large quantities of Coogee sea-water, ¢.9.,
forty-five litres were treated with from 1:5 to 5 grammes of ferrous
sulphate, followed by exposure for oxidation, scorification, and
cupellation, that the amount of gold obtained was very much less
in proportion than that yielded by treating one or two litres.

Several trials were made, a larger quantity of ferrous sulphate
would doubtless have given results similar to those obtained from
two litres ; but I have not had time to repeat the experiments
with large quantities of ferrous sulphate—as dealing with large
quantities is slow and laborious with ordinary laboratory
appliances,

The inside of the thirty-six gallon cask which had contained
the Coogee sea-water was scraped; but very imperfectly, about
two ounces of scrapings obtained, they were incinerated, scorified
and cupelled when a bead was obtained containing—

0070 grain of silver = 5 dwt. 5°43 gr. per ton

we, po ey By
Only a part of the barrel was scraped, and that not deeply, but
the above results are quite sufficient to show that the gold and
river in sea-water are precipitated by the wood &c., hence water
Which has been kept in wooden vessels does not yield the full
amount of these metals, and the very small amount of silver found
(10 Sea-water by Malaguti may have been due to his keeping the
*a-Water in a wooden cistern,

All my experiments were made upon sea-water collected and
Coo n glass vessels, with the exception of the later ones on
Water, which had been kept in the barrel.

348 A. LIVERSIDGE.

Gold in Sea-water collected off Jervis Bay.
(1) 2000 ce. treated with 1 gramme
of FeSO, yielded ‘0001 gr. = 0-05 gr. per ton
(2) Filtrate treated with ‘5 gramme
FeSO, and NH, yielded 0002 gr.=07101 ,

Total -0003 0151 ‘4

(1) 2000 cc. treated with 1 gramme

lead acetate and precipitated

by sheet zinc, yielded -0020gr. = 1-016 gr. perton
(2) Filtrate treated with 1 gramme

FeSO, and NH, yielded 0000gr.=0°000 5,

Total -0020 1-016

1000 ce. treated with chlorine, and then with 5 cc carbon disul-
phide, to dissolve out any iodine or bromine which might have
been set free; decanted 1 gramme lead acetate added and
precipitated by zinc, yielded -0005 gr.=0°508 gr. per ton.

1000 cc. treated with two grammes mercuric chloride for four
days and then precipitated by H,S, yielded -508 gr. gold per ton.

Experiments with other processes are now being carried out;
but as they are not complete the results are deferred for a later
paper,

To test the ordinary Sydney water supply, collected over #
sandstone area, 124 ths. weight of the laboratory tap water was
tested for silver and gold by adding 100 cc. sulphurous acid, five
grammes ferrous sulphate and allowing to oxidise for several =
the iron hydroxide was then precipitated by ammonia
and cupelled—but neither gold nor silver was found.

The amount of gold obtained from sea-waters in the forge :

experiments must necessarily be less than the total amount of
gold present in the water, since it was found that know? quant

ties of gold chloride solution added to distilled and sea-wate™

and then estimated by precipitation, scorification and cu!

PARTS Ero TRE AE EM Sree Soy Cede ORES cea BOy] 2 ary gin aoe TR Pe or, aoe, kT hele eee OE SIREENY OO) aT epee OL nt tae neeeocee TEINS Se Een |

hs es ee Pt

GOLD AND SILVER IN SEA-WATER. 349

tion nearly always showed a loss, and sometimes a very consider-
able one.

All the above evidence is in favour of gold being present in sea-
water off the New South Wales coast in the proportion of about
‘D to 1 grain per ton, or in round numbers from 130 to 260 tons
of gold per cubic mile. This of course means an enormous
amount for the whole of the ocean, the cubic contents of which
used to be put down at 400,000,000 cubic miles, and if the gold
be uniformly present at the rate of 1 grain per ton the total
amount would be over 100,000,000,000 tons of gold; a later
estimate is 308,710,679 cubic miles, this even would mean over
75,000,000,000 tons of gold. But at the present day it would

‘probably not pay to extract the gold by itself, although it might

asa bye product in the manufacture of salt, bromine, &c. The
fnormous amount of gold in the sea is, however, probably very
small in comparison with the amount scattered through sedi-
mentary and crystallised rocks, i.e., apart from gold in veins and
other deposits,

SILveR IN Sea-WATER.

All the sea waters gave some silver, usually from one to two
grains per ton, but I consider the scorification and cupellation
Process lacking in the necessary precision for the exact determin-
ation of silver in such minute quantities as it exists in sea-water,
I have therefore omitted all the determinations of silver from
this paper, but I may publish them later on with the results of
other experiments now in hand.

Malaguti estimated the amount of silver in sea-water at 001
sramme per 100 kilos of sea-water, or at only ‘15 grains per ton;
- Thave quoted him more fully in the next paper in this volume

the removal of Gold and Silver from Sea-water by Muntz
Metal Sheathing.”

350 A. LIVERSIDGE.

Tut REMOVAL or SILVER anp GOLD rrom SEA-WATER
spy MUNTZ METAL SHEATHING.
By A. LIversIpDGE, M.A., F.R.S.,
Professor of Chemistry, University of Sydney, N. 8. Wales.

[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, October 2, 1895.]
Amoncst the writers upon the occurrence of silver in sea-water,

we have Malaguti, Durocher, and Sarzeaud in 1850, Fred. Field in
1856, and Forchhammer in 1865, and as it is difficult for many,

especially in this part of the world, to obtain or see the originals,

I quote the following extracts from their papers. None of them
make any mention of the presence of gold in sea-water of of its
removal.

The following extract is from a paper by Messrs. Malaguti,
Durocher et Sarzeaud, entitled—-Recherches sur la présence du
plomb, du cuivre et de Vargent dans Veau dela mer et sur Peaistence
de ce dernier métal dans les plantes et les étres organiques.”

“ Estimation of silver in sea-water.—A considerable quantity
of sea-water was taken from off the coast of St. Malo, 4 i
leagues from land, and preserved during the course of the expert
ments in a wooden cistern, from which it was taken out as occasion
required, in glass vessels. The presence of silver in this water
was first demonstrated by the sulphuretted hydrogen process above
described ; but in order to obtain a more exact estimation of the
quantity, fifty litres of the water were evaporated to dryness, and
the crude salt thence obtained, weighing 1,300 grammes, ¥%®
divided into thirteen equal portions, and each portion fused with
thirty grammes of pure litharge and 1:13 grms. of lamp-b oe
This mixture, which was made very intimate by long trituratio®
in a porcelain mortar, was gradually heated to dull redness 10 4

1 Journ. Chem. Soc. m1., 1851, pp. 69-70, extracted from Ann. Ch
Phys. (3) xxvirt., 129,

REMOVAL OF SILVER AND GOLD BY MUNTZ METAL. 351

crucible, and maintained at that temperature for fifteen or twenty
minutes; the heat was then gradually raised till the mixture
fused, and afterwards increased to whiteness; as soon as that
temperature was attained, the crucible was withdrawn from the
fire. Thirteen operations of this kind yielded 124 grams. of lead,
and the silver contained in this was found by cupellation (deduct-
ing that which was yielded by the lead alone, in a test experiment)
to amount to 0:0005 grm. Now, as this demi-milligramme of
silver was extracted from fifty litres of sea-water, it follows that
one hundred litres—or for simplicity, say one hundred kilo-
grammes of sea-water—contain one milligramme; hence the pro-
portion of salt in sea-water is, approximately, one part in

100,000,000, so that a cubic myriametre of sea-water contains
1,000 kilogrammes, or a cubic mile (English) contains about 23ibs.!
avoirdupois. This estimation must be regarded as a minimum ;
for all the preceding operations are attended with slight loss.”

- In the same paper, they refer to the presence of silver in certain
fuci, amounting to yov'svo; in various trees such as oak, birch,
beech and apple, also in the blood of an ox and the vegetables
upon which it had been fed. They also found it in rock salt and
in coal, but as the coal contained pyrites, they do not attach the
Same importance to its presence in this case.

“On the existence of silver in sea-water, by Frederick Field, F.C.8.”
He examined the sheathings of certain traders as follows :—
“Ana Guimaraens,” a Chilian vessel, trading up and down the
South Pacific for seven years. Yellow metal from the bottom of
Vessel ; 5,000 grains were dissolved in pure nitric acid and the
‘olution diluted ; a few drops of hydrochloric acid were added
and the precipitate allowed to stand for three days. A large
ee ee

“ada sea-water represents over 40 tons of silver per cubic mile, not
“ara » 48 given in the above translation. Malaguti is not respons!

r, as it does not occur in the original, where however, there
kilos op Crent CIFOR: since “0005 g. for 50 litres is said to be equal to 1000
. of silver per cubic myriametre instead of to 10,000,000 kilos.
Proe. Royal Society London, Vol. vitt., 1856-7, p- 292.

352 A. LIVERSIDGE.

quantity of white insoluble matter had collected by that time at
the bottom of the beaker. This was filtered off, dried, and fused
with 100 grs. pure litharge, and suitable proportions of bitartrate
of potash and carbonate of soda, the ashes of the filter also being
added. The resulting button of lead was subsequently cupelled
and yielded 2-01 grs. silver, or 1 lb. 1 oz. 2 dwts. 15 grs. troy per
ton. A piece of new yellow metal with which the vessel was
being repaired, yielded only 0 oz. 18 dwts. to the ton.

Nina,” a brig just arrived in the Pacific from England. The
experiments were performed as before with results:—1,700 ars. of
the new metal kept in the cabin for possible repairs gave ‘051 grs.
= 003% = 19 dwts. 14 grs. per ton.; 1,700 grs. from the hull,

where it had been three years, gave ‘400 grs. = 023% = 7 om.

13 dwt. | gr. per ton.

The amount of silver in the new metal for the “Nina” and
“Ana Guimaraens” are unusually low, being both under one
ounce per ton.

“ Bergman,” a piece from the hull gave 5 ozs. 16 dwts. 18 grs.
per ton ; a piece from the cabin gave 4 ozs. 6 dwts. 12 grs. per tol.

“ Parga,” 200 grs from a piece from the hull gave ‘072 grail,
and a piece of fresh metal -050.

“Grasmere,” only coppered a few months ; 610 grains from hull
gave ‘075 and from the cabin -072 grain.

Mr. Field remarks :—“ It will be observed that the amount of
silver in the above specimens of fresh metal is very high, and itis
probable that most of these are merely the re-rolling of masses
metal melted down from old sheathing, and have derived the
greater part of their silver from the sea on former occasions. It
is well known that the copper used in the manufacture of y ellow
metal is very pure, containing two or three dwts. of silver per
frequently not so much, and silver is very seldom associated
the other constituent, zinc. In order to arrive at more certalD
results, however, I have granulated some very pure copper, reser”

ing some in a glass stoppered bottle, and suspended the remainder

4

Me ee eps byte ee Tae

REMOVAL OF SILVER AND GOLD BY MUNTZ METAL. 353

(about ten ounces) in a wooden box perforated on all sides, a few
feet under the surface of the Pacific Ocean. When occasion offers
the box is towed by a line at the stern of a vessel which is trading
up and down the coast of Chili. It is almost too soon to expect
any decisive results at present, but in a few months I hope to be
enabled to send both the original copper, and that which has been

' exposed to the action of the sea.”

Ido not know whether Mr. Field ever published the results,
but I have not come across any reference to them.

“On the composition of sea-water in different parts of the ocean,
by Professor Georg Forchhammer.!—‘“ Silver—Malaguti first
showed that silver occurs in the organisms of the sea; I have
subsequently proved it to exist in a coral, a Pocillopora, and
several chemists have since tried to prove that silver is precipi-
tated by the galvanic current between the copper coating of a
vessel and sea-water. If the last determination is confirmed, the
existence of silver in sea-water is proved by direct experiment.
From the Pocillopora alcicornis I have separated it in the follow-
ing manner :—I dissolved the coral in muriatic acid, precipitated
the solution by hydrosulphate of ammonia, and dissolved the pre-
tipitate, which consisted of sulphurets, of phosphate of lime, and
fluoride of calcium, in very weak cold muriatic acid, which left
the sulphurets of silver, lead, and copper probably mixed with
those of cobalt and nickel. ‘These sulphurets were separated from
the solution, evaporated to dryness with a little nitric acid, to
Which were added a few drops of muriatie acid, and dissolved in
Water, which leaves sulphate of lead and chloride of silver undis-
‘olved. When the filter which contained the latter substances is
burnt, the silver is reduced to metal; a solution of pure soda will .
dissolve the sulphate of lead and leave the silver, which, when.
dissolved in nitric acid, can be tested with muriatic acid. I
obtained from Pocillopora alcicornis about scot ove, oF from &
‘lid cubic foot of the coral about half a grain of silver.” ‘

1 Phil. Transactions, 1865, pp. 211, 212.
W—Oct. 2, 1595,

354 A. LIVERSIDGE.

Old Muntz Metal Sheathings.

Mr. Cecil W. Darley, late Engineer-in-Chief for Harbours and
Rivers, was kind enough to obtain for me some pieces of old
muntz metal sheathing from the piles of wharfs undergoing repair.
‘These were examined for gold and silver with the results given
below.

The method used for assaying was as follows :—In each case ’

2,000 grains, except where otherwise stated, of the sheathing in
‘strips were dissolved in 1500 cc. of pure nitric acid (1 to 3 aq,),

free from chlorine. After being cut into strips, the sheathings —

were boiled in water, beaten, and scrubbed with a brass scratch
brush so as to get rid of the dirt and scale as far as possible ; this
probably also had the effect of removing part of the portion richest
in gold and silver, as the assays of the separated scale show that
it contains more of the precious metals than the body of the
‘Sheathing. In most cases, the residue was grey and contained
much lead. The clear nitric acid solution was decanted and
filtered off and some sodium chloride solution added to ensure the
precipitation of all the silver ; in the few cases where there was
_ an additional precipitate of silver chloride, this was added to the
gold and other insoluble matter on the filter. The solutions

varied from green to blue. The filter and residue were dried, —

wrapped in special assay lead free from gold, scorified, cupelled

and checked in the usual way. In certain cases, the sheathing —

was dissolved in sulphuric acid, (but, as the solution took place

more rapidly in nitric acid, the latter was preferred) when @ yellow

‘substance was generally found on the clock glasses used for cove

ing the beakers ; this was found to consist of sulphur containing

a little copper, the latter carried up mechanically by spirting»

the sulphur was doubtless derived from the sulphuric acid by part
of the acid being reduced by the nascent hydrogen given off from
the zine of the alloy or more probably by the reaction between

the hydrogen sulphide and sulphur dioxide evolved.

Sheathing from an old trader, purchased in Sydney about 1874.

‘The solution was made in sulphuric acid as already mentioned.

REMOVAL OF SILVER AND GOLD BY MUNTZ METAL. 355

Silver. Gold.

4 ozs. 15 dwts. 9-2 grs. per ton. 1 dwt. 2-4 grs. per ton.
This sheathing was referred to in a paper on the “ Origin of
Gold Nuggets,”! and was remarkable for containing a good deal —
of iodine, but none of the other sheathings, since examined, have

yielded any iodine.

(a) From pile in Mr. Thomas Nobbs’ wharf at Ballina, N.S.
Wales, between high and low water mark. Exposed four years
‘to sea water. Corroded but not so deeply as (d).

Silver. Gold.
2000 grains gave 6 ozs. 9 dwt. 8 grs. per ton. 11-8 grs. per ton.

Metallic copper 647.

(6) From longitudinal brace in Ballina Government wharf,
N.S. Wales, between high and low water mark, Exposed six
years to sea water.
Silver. Gold.

-2000 grains gave 2 ozs. 2 dwt. 22 grs. per ton. 4°7 grs. per ton.

Metallic copper 64°/,

(c) From piles in Government wharf, Ballina, N. 5. Wales,
between high and low water mark. Exposed six years to sea
water. Not much corroded and fairly thick metal.

Silver. Gold.

4 7 2000 grains gave 3 ozs. 19 dwt. 5 ors. 19-6 grs. per ton.

2158 grains gave 4 ozs. 5 dwt. 14 grs. Ldwt 7 grs. »
2394 grains gave 4 ozs. 12 dwt. Ogrs. 1ldwt. 22 gr

Metallic copper 60°3%/,

Th the last, the solution was made with sulphuric acid.

(2) From the pile of Mr. Fenwick’s wharf, Ballina, N. S. Wales,
wholly submerged for thirteen years in sea-water.

So brittle as to break readily between the fingers, with a copper

coloured granular fracture, hence in parts most of the zinc has

4,

1 Journ. Roy. Soc. N. 8. Wales, 1893, p. 331.

356 A, LIVERSIDGE.

apparently been dissolved out. The sheet is much corroded, and
very thin on the edge, stained green and brown.

Heated in a tube it emits a.“ sea-shore” odour, and gives off
water which has an acid reaction ; it also yields a fusible subli-
mate of tarry matter mixed with sulphur. Dissolves entirely in
nitric acid, one to three water. The metal when boiled with
water, yields a solution containing chlorine and a trace of sulphuric
acid from sulphates. After boiling with pure dilute sulphuric
acid, the metal acquires a copper-red colour and shows a granular
or crystalline structure ; a black residue is left, and the solution,
on cooling, deposits crystals of lead chloride.

Silver. Gold.
2000 grains gave 3 ozs. 14 dwt. 21 grs. 9 grs. per ton.

Metallic copper 62°27.

The scale, first treated with nitric acid.

227 grains gave 1 oz. 10 dwt.4-4grs. 15 dwt. 19-5 grs.

(e) From Irvington, N. 8. Wales. Exposed to fresh water;
very little corroded.

Silver. Gold.
2000 grains gave 5 ozs. 6 dwt. 8 grs. 19-6 grs. per ton.

Metallic copper 62:37.

The scale, extracted with nitric acid and the residue scorified
and cupelled—

70 grains gave 1 oz. 7dwt.23-10grs. 9 dwt. 8-22 grs. per to”

(f) From Coraki, N. 8. Wales. Exposed to brackish water,

Silver. Gold.
2000 grains gave 5 ozs. 6 dwt. 12 grs. 13 grs. per 00m

Metallic copper 63-5 ye

(g) From Newcastle and Hunter River Steamship Company ’
upper wharf at Morpeth, N. S. Wales. Supposed to have been
on piles about four years, exposed to brackish water. Very li
corroded.

Silver. Gold.
2000 grains gave 5 ozs. 15 dwt. 20 grs. 11 gre. pet OE

Metallic copper 62-57.

REMOVAL OF SILVER AND GOLD BY MUNTZ METAL. 357

(h) From Neweastle and Hunter River Steamship Company’s
upper wharf at Morpeth, N. S. Wales. Supposed to have been
on piles four years in brackish water. Clean, 7.¢., not coated with
green or red scale as usual, and but slightly corroded.

Salver. Gold.
2000 grains gave 5 ozs, 7 dwt. 10-2 grs. per ton,

Metallic copper 62°47/.

(1) From front of pile, No. 1 jetty, (between Nos. 4 and 5
cranes) Bullock Island wharf, N. S. Wales. Submerged about
twenty years in sea-water. Green, somewhat corroded, but still
fairly thick and solid.

Silver. Gold.
2000 grains gave 4 ozs. 1 dwt. 16 grs. 16-5 grs. per ton.

Metallic copper 61-6%.

(j) From Circular Quay, Sydney, N. S. Wales. Submerged
about forty years. The old Tank Stream, now a sewer, has its
outfall at Circular Quay, but I do not know how near to the
samples of sheathing examined. Much corroded, the sheets being
eaten into large holes,

Silver. Gold.
4000 grs. gave 7 ov, 19 dwt. 18 grs. 6-5 gr. per ton.
The following were treated with sulphuric acid :—
Silver. Gold.
2000 grs. gave 3 oz. 17 dwt. 8-4 grs. 11-90 gr. per ton.
0, 4 oz. 15 dwt. 8-5 grs. 8°62 gr.»

Metallic copper 61-6°/. Metallic zinc in the much corroded
Parts = 34-687, in the thicker parts 35-49%.
The Scale, extracted first with 500 ce. of nitric acid (1 - 3 aq.)—

viii Gold.

oz. dwt.

a grains gave 4 ‘16 ll per ton. 0. a 18-5 per ton.
me 6°12 191 4 0, a oe
8” 7 10165 ,, 0 S48.
150 ” RT ca es oO 7 186 ”
br b 2. 8 189! LE 0:8 1b2 B

; 7 10168 ,, 0:10 108) >

Average 7 618 v8: 19

358 A, LIVERSIDGE.

‘The loose easily removed scale of a second lot of sheathing from
Circular Quay was assayed, but was first roasted and then extracted
with pure sulphuric acid before scorification and cupellation. As
will be seen from the results, this scale was richer in silver, the
gold was very irregular, and was found to contain platinum derived
. from the H,SO,, hence the amounts are omitted. The H,S0,
had probably taken it up from the platinum stills used in concen-
trating it.

Silver.

oz. dwt. grs.
100 grains gave 25 12 5:12 per ton.
100 2 19-84 ”

99 2 17 19°8
200 : BS 8 56,
200 s Mm Vise <;
100 a 16 410-562,
100 ; 18 11 10-08 __,,

(k) Mr. Hickson forwarded to me a supply of sheathing from
the square piles of the original Queen’s Wharf, Newcastle, where
it had been exposed for probably thirty-five years.

The outer scale, which could be removed by a spatula, was
dissolved as usual in pure nitric acid and the residue scorified and
cupelled. Two assays of 150 grains each gave

2 oz. 8 dwt. 18 grs. per ton of silver, but no gold
1 oz. 3 dwt. 11 grs.

Then 200 grains of the hard and adherent scale a this, with

scrapings of the metal itself gave—
6 oz. 10 dwt. 16 grs. per ton of silver.
6 ” 1 ” 12:4 ” el

Next the metal sheathing itself, dissolved in sulphuric acid, a

after removal of the above two scrapings, gave—
6 oz. 8 dwt. 15-3 grs. of silver per ton.
134

? a
The amounts of gold are omitted since the ee were found .

contain platinum,

(/) Mr. Hickson also forwarded some of the old sheathing fro” a

the bottom of the lighter « Topsy ” which was built in 1881,
had been employed at Newcastle.

ee ier

REMOVAL OF SILVER AND GOLD BY MUNTZ METAL, 359

Two assays were made of the scale from this, and first treated

_ with nitric acid as usual ; unfortunately there were only sufficient

for seventy five grains for each assay. The results obtained were :
Silver. : Gold.
20z. 3 dwt. 13-2 grs. 0 oz. 1 dwt. 17°8 grs. per ton.
mee yy -.63.,, 0%, 0-8 ee ‘
The metal dissolved in sulphuric acid yielded—
5 oz. 4 dwt. 9:5 grs. silver per ton.
me 14 Is 7
The gold is omitted on account of its containing platinum ; but
an assay on 1000 grains dissolved in nitric acid gave 5 oz. 5 dwt.
12 grs. of silver and 15-68 grains of gold per ton.

Experiments with New Muntz Metal.

Mr. Darley was also kind enough to have plates of muntz metal
Placed for me on the piles of certain wharves, according to the
following list, so that they might be examined from time to time,
to ascertain whether they really do become richer in gold and
‘ilver; each plate was divided as shown by the accompanying

| diagram, the central stri 6” x 14” was sent to me for assay, and
Ps

the two other pieces 21” x 14”, were placed on a Southern and
Northern wharf respectively, numbered and marked so that they
can be readily identified when wanted for examination.
Poe

: :

& = 1 foot 9 inches, 6 inches 1 foot 9 inches. N
-

SE Spaeue apap et cco a

4 feet by 14 inches.
Os assays of the new muntz metal, before exposure to the sea-
§ » Were made for me in the University Laboratory by -
peak, A.R.s.m., lecturer in Metallurgy and Demonstrator 1n

Ch .
mistry, now of J ohannesberg.

360 A. LIVERSIDGE.

They were dissolved in nitric acid (one to three parts water) free
from hydrochloric acid; a few drops of hydrochloric acid were
afterwards added to precipitate the silver, allowed to stand, then
filtered, and the residue scorified with 500 grains of granulated
lead and cupelled.

No. 1. Richmond River.—Placed on back of fifth pile in middle
row from eastern end of twenty ton crane wharf, south training
wall, Ballina, Richmond River. Fixed 1st November, 1893; in
salt-water.

The assay of the new metal gave—

Silver Gold.
1000 grains gave 5 oz. 1 dwt. 6 grs. 11-8 grs. per ton.
1000 39 4 9 19 ”? 11 ” 4 re

The trial sheet No. 1 after exposure at Ballina, as above, from
November 11th, 1893 to September 30th, 1895. or about twenty-
months gave the following results—

Scale—Consisted mainly of organic matter, 211 grains gave
neither gold or silver.

Metal—Dissolved in sulphuric acid gave—

Stlver—4 oz. 17 dwt. 19 grs. per ton. Gold contained platinum.

No. la. Moruya.—Placed on the pillar pile of the crane at the
town wharf, say five miles from the heads. Fixed J 1th November,
1893; in salt water.

No. la. Moruya. The plate was taken off in October, 1895,
after being exposed to the sea-water for twenty-three months, and
on assaying, it yielded the following results. Four assays were
made, 1000 grains being taken ; two of these were first treated
with sulphuric acid and the other two with nitric acid, and the
residues scorified and cupelled separately.

By sulphuric acid, mean of two assays—

Silver. Gold.
5 oz. 0 dwt. 11-5 grs. 1 dwt. 1°8 grs. per

By nitric acid, mean of two assaysS—

4 oz. 8 dwt. 5:5 grs. Le te ”

REMOVAL OF SILVER AND GOLD BY MUNTZ METAL. 361

It is noticeable that the treatment with nitric acid gives a lower
amount than that with sulphuric acid. The scale from this
plate (110 grains) gave no gold, and under two ounces of silver
per ton, but as the scale was largely organic matter, and copper
oxychloride, much importance need not be attached to the per-
centage of silver, The inner scale from this (100 grains) treated
with sulphuric acid gave—

Silver—9 oz. 4 dwt. 5-76 grs. per ton. (‘old contained platinum.

No. 2. Clarence River.—Placed on No. 4 pile, Yamba wharf.
Fixed 3rd November, 1893, in salt-water.

No. 2a. Shoalhaven River.—Placed on back of second pile,
eastern end of public wharf, Nowra. Fixed 31st October, 1893,

in brackish water. The new metal gave—

Silver. Gold.
1000 grains gave 11 oz. 6 dwt. 17 grs. © 16 grs. per ton.
(Dup.) iy 8 eee 16 ”
(Trip.) hc So ee 16 ”

No. 3. Macleay River.—Placed on front tier of piles at back
side of pile from front of Belmore River wharf, and on second pile
on up stream of wharf. Fixed 20th November, 1893, in brackish
water.

No. 3a. Newcastle.—Placed on No. 5 pile, from west end of
Newcastle and Hunter River Steamship Company’s upper wharf,
Morpeth, at low water spring tides. Fixed 24th November, 1893,

in salt water. The new metal gave—

Silver. Gold.
1000 grains gave 10 oz. 10 dwt. 6 grs. 10 grs. per ton.
(Dup.) i. Se oS
(Trip.) 16 11 3 8 ,» :

No. 4. Richmond River.—Placed on sixth pile from easte
end of middle row of twenty ton crane wharf, south training wall
Ballina. Fixed 1st November, 1893, in salt water.

No. 4a. Shoalhaven River.—Placed on back of second pile,
*astern end of public wharf, Terrara. Fixed 31st October, 1893,

362 A. LIVERSIDGE.

in salt water. The new metal gave—
Silver. Gold.
1000 grains gave 6 oz. 3 dwt. 19 grs. 1 dwt. 7°3 grs. per ton,

No. 5. Clarence River.—Placed on No. 3 pile, second row,
Tluka wharf. Fixed 3rd November, 1893, in salt water.

No. 5a. Newcastle.—Placed on third front pile from end of
wharf at Pilot Station, Newcastle. Fixed 30th November, 1893,
in salt water. The new metal gave—

Silver. Gold.
1000 grains gave 12 oz. 18 dwt. 17 grs. 1 dwt. 4:1 grs. per ton.

No. 6. Macleay River.—Placed on fourth pile in second tier,
front of Jerseyville wharf, and on front of pile, Fixed 25th
' November, 1893, in brackish water.

No. 6a. Shoalhaven River.—Placed’ on back of corner pile of
Government wharf, Appletree. Fixed 30th October, 1893, in
salt water. The new metal gave—

Silver. Gold.
1000 grains gave 10 oz. 5 dwt. 3 grs. i dwt. 7°3 grs. per ton.

No. 7. Richmond River.—Placed on second pile northern end
of middle row, low level wharf, Coraki. Fixed 4th November,
1893, in brackish water.

No. 7a. Newcastle.—Placed on N o. 45 pile (front) near No. 11
Hydraulic Crane, Bullock Island. Fixed 30th November, 1893,
in salt water. The new metal gave—

Silver. Gold.
1000 grains gave 6 oz. 15 dwt. 10 grs. 1 dwt, 2°6 grs. per ton,

Plate No. 7 was taken off on September 25th, 1895, after having
been exposed about twenty-three months, and examined with the
following results—

Silver, Gold.
By H.S80, 5 oz. 19 dwt. 3-8 grs, Contained platinum.
BYHRNO.G, 6, 35 . 1 dwt. 15-2 gr. per ton.

The seale (30 grains) from the plate exposed at Coraki for

twenty-three months gave 4 oz. 13 dwt. 15-5 grains silver per ton-;

REMOVAL OF SILVER AND GOLD BY MUNTZ METAL. 363

2 dwt. 4:2 grs. gold per ton., but the amount available, thirty
grains only, was so small that the results are of but little value.

No. 8. Newcastle.—Placed on No. 11 pile from west end of
Newcastle and Hunter River Steamship Company’s wharf,
Morpeth, at low water spring tides. Fixed 24th November, 1893,
in salt water.

No. 8a. Moruya.—Placed on an iron bark pile (sleeper) western

_ end of Pilot’s Main boat-shed at the heads. Fixed 11th November

1893, in salt water. The new metal gave—
Silver. Gold.
1000 grains gave 6 oz. 7 dwt. 14 grs. 1 dwt. 2°6 grs. per ton.

No. 9. Clarence River.—Placed on No. 3 pile, Bushgrove
wharf. Fixed 3rd November, 1893, in salt water.

No. 9a. Moruya.—Placed on centre pile of third pier of Moruya
bridge, counting from Mullenderree side. Fixed 11th November,
1893, in salt water. The new metal gave—

Silver. Gold.
1000 grains gave 11 oz. 10 dwt. 2 grs. | 1 dwt. 41 grs. per ton.

No. 10. Moruya.—Placed on the pile of Pilot’s tide gauge at
the heads. Fixed 11th November, 1893, in salt water.

No. 10a. Shoalhaven River.—Placed on the back of third pile
from south end of wharf (front row of piles). Fixed 28th
October, 1893, in salt water. The new metal gave—

Silver. Gold.
1000 grains gave 5 oz. 18 dwt. 21 grs. 15°6 grs. per ton.

No. 11. Clarence River.—Placed on second row Lower South-
gate wharf, No. 4 pile. Fixed 3rd November, 1893, in salt water.

No. lla. Macleay River.—Placed on second tier of piles from
face of Stuart’s Point wharf, on second pile on up stream side,
also nailed on up stream side of pile. Fixed 18th November,
1893, in brackish water. The new metal gave—

Silver.
1000 grains gave 11 oz. 19 dwt. 18 grs. 1 dwt. 773 grs. per ton.

364 A. LIVERSIDGE.

No. 12. Richmond River.—Placed on back of fourth pile,
middle row from southern end of High Level wharf, Coraki,
Fixed 4th November, 1893, in brackish water.

No. 12a. Macleay River.—Placed on middle pile of outside tier
and on back of pile from front of Central Kempsey wharf. Fixed
21st November, 1893, in brackish water. The new metal gave—

Silver. Gold.
1000 grains gave 11 oz. 14 dwt. 5 grs. 23-5 grs. per ton.

Only three of the experimental plates have been removed and
assayed, viz., No. 1 Ballina, No. la Moruya, and No. 7 Coraki,
after an exposure of twenty-three months ; the others will be left
on fora longer period. In all three cases there was a loss in
silver and an increase in the amount of gold.

It is unfortunate that the presence of the platinum in the
otherwise pure sulphuric acid was not detected earlier, as T have
not the time now to repeat the determinations of gold which had
to be rejected on that account ; but even without them there are
perhaps sufficient assays to settle the question. ,

The average amounts of gold and silver obtained are :—

Silver. Gold.
‘ oz. dwt. grs. oz. dwt. grs.
12 specimens new muntz metal 9 4 7:6 0 0 23 per ton
~ » old 9 413 19 0 0 1627,
Average decrease ... £1 es 00 68 4

It is not quite satisfactory to have to compare the assays of old
Specimens of metal with those of new ones, but the old specimens
of muntz metal are not likely to have originally contained less

gold and silver than the new, in fact they probably contained —
very much more, so that the difference is all the more striking

The assays of the metals from the “ Topsy,” the second lot from

the Circular Quay and from Newcastle are omitted from the above :

because some of them were made with the sulphuric acid after-
wards found to contain platinum.

Tee A Ree ar ips sss agi re . bl
gee VB Pent S MAS Ree SEA Seen Sey A a ele ac a en a i See ee eae

REMOVAL OF SILVER AND GOLD BY MUNTZ METAL. 365

Next the scale from the ten old sheathings gave an average of
Silver. Gold
5 oz. 17 dwt. 8 gr. per ton. 8 dwt. 1°8 gr. per ton.
or an average increase in round numbers of over 7 dwt. of gold,
and an average decrease of 4 oz. 6 dwts. 23 grs. of silver as com-
pared with the new muntz metal.

The amount of gold yielded by the old metal and the scale is
probably understated, since the chlorides could not be entirely
removed from the old metal and they were very abundant in the
scale, hence on dissolving in nitric acid some of the gold passed
into solution as chloride and was lost.

The results do not altogether agree with the previously pub-
lished views nor with my own before I commenced the investiga-
tion. The silver has not accumulated, but on the contrary
decreased, the scale however, contains a larger amount of gold.
The increase of gold in the scale may be due to the deposition of
gold from the sea-water on to the surface of the metal, or it may
_ be due to the comparative non-solubility of gold in sea-water;
the muntz metal having been corroded and dissolved away,
together with much of the silver leaving the gold behind ; it is
probably due to both causes, 7.e., partly to deposition and partly
to accumulation, for the superficial parts of the experimental
plates Nos. 1; la and 7, obtained by scraping them, show an.
increase in the amount of gold and a decrease in the amount
of silver, the increase in the gold cannot in these cases, well be
due to mere accumulation, since the plates do not appear to have
lost sufficient weight to materially increase the proportion of the
residual gold.

Under the microscope some of the old sheathings show
minute specks of what looks like filmy gold, they may be particles
of bright muntz metal, which have been deposited on the crust of
oxychloride, oxide and other compounds forming the scale, for

Tass is deposited electrolytically ; on treatment with nitric acid
they disappeared in the effervescence set up by solution or other-

366 A, LIVERSIDGE.

wise—these filmy specks are quite distinct from the points of
bright muntz metal which are seen on the old sheathing, and

penetrating, as it were, the scale or crust, and I am inclined to

regard them as gold.

As I have pointed out elsewhere, under certain conditions gold
is thrown down from very dilute solution by the action of reducing
agents, in the form of bright particles or crystals—the amount of
gold in such a particle might be extremely small, for 300,000,000
grain of gold leaf is visible under the microscope, a piece of cor-
responding size set free from gold lace would of course be far less
in weight. I hope to investigate this matter further, and in the
course of another two years it may be desirable to complete this
series of experiments by examining the twenty-one plates which
have been left on the piles for a longer exposure.

SOME FOLK-SONGS ann MYTHS rrom SAMOA.
By Joun FRAsER, LL.D.
[Read before the Royal Society of N. 8. Wales, August 7, 1895.)

‘O LE TALA I LE SEGA.
“The story about the Senga bird.”

(Taree Versions, Nos. xXXv., XXXVI., XXXVII.)
ROAR Sine

Intropuction.—The three myths, which I now present to you, about
the Senga parroquet, again show us how intimately Fiji and Samoa wer?
connected in the minds of the early myth-makers. The incidents of the
story are laid in the time of Ta‘e-o-Tangaloa, the first king of the Samoa?
group, and the immediate successor of the gods who had previously ruled
there. And yet in this myth, as in several others, there is a coming
going between Fiji and Samoa—a black race and a brown race—#? :
there is a familiarity of intercourse which draws me to the opinion ~
+5 p pl £4) , es ad ae history- In another

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FOLK-SONGS AND MYTHS FROM SAMOA. 367

myth Tangaloa, the great creator-god of the Polynesians, is said to have
had two sons, the one black in colour and the other reddish. So it may be
that the brown inhabitants of the islands of the eastern Pacific are only
the descendants of a fair race grafted on to a black race, the original
‘occupants of these isles.

The Senga of the story is a parroquet, having a remarkably bright
crimson plumage. It is still common in Fiji and Samoa; its feathers
are used for personal and artistic decoration, but those from Fiji are the
most valued. This particular Senga, however, is the first progenitor of
the present breed, for it was born, not hatched, in the first heavens, and
was the child of semi-divine parents. So says this ‘tala.’ Nor let us
‘wonder at that; for such fables have a place in many old mythologies;
the classical scholar will remember the parentage of the Cretan Minotaur,
-and even Livy’s history has now and again chapters which tell of prodi-
gies of a similar kind. And from the Samoan Story of Creation and
other Samoan myths which I have read to you on former occasions, it is
evident that the Polynesians thought of the heavens as peopled by men
and women such as we are, all except the Ninth Heavens where Tangaloa,
the Supreme, sits alone in his Fale-ula, his ‘ Palace of Brightness,’ far
removed from the turmoil and storms and passions of earth and the lower
heavens. These heavens are occupied by the Sa-Tangaloa, the children
of the creation of Tangaloa; they behave there like ordinary men, for
they feast and chat together round the fire-light at night; they lie down
to sleep, and the cocks crow to tell them that the day is-coming; they
“narry and are given in marriage; up there they have the food of mortals,
but of a more excellent kind—‘taro’ and yams and bread-fruit to eat, and
‘Kava’ to drink ; they hold fonos or councils and talk there to their heart’s
‘content; they have visitors from the earth below; for, if you go round
by the north, Says this myth, you can easily get up to the sky; these
Visitors Sometimes cheat the Sa-Tangaloa, or rob them, or steal from
them ; sometimes they fight them and overcome them and carry off the
Spoils of victory, as is shown in the myth (No. 31) about Losi and Malae-
La, ‘the war of the gods and the giants.’ The heavens also have natural
features, such as those we see on earth; there is a vaitina, a pool in which,
it seems, the Sa-Tangaloa may bathe ; there is a puna-langi, ‘ a heavenly
Spring,’ which issues from a cave; near this there is a raised heap of
Stone, Something like an altar, on which offerings may be laid. In short,

"88 $0 on there in Tangaloa’s heavens very much in the same style as
on the Polynesian islands below. All these views of heaven show them-
Selves in this myth and in the others which I have published.

368 . J. FRASER.

Lhave said that the Senga bird has bright crimson feathers ; that
colour associates itself with sun-worship ; and besides its birth in the first
heavens where the sun is, the tenor of the rest of this story proves that
there was something divine in the bird; for, on one occasion, when buried
along with its master, it still lived on in the grave, and sprang up again
when it chose; it perched on a tree and nothing but the supernatural
power (mana) of Le-Folasa, ‘the prophet,’ could induce it to come down.
For these reasons I think that the Senga, to the Polynesian mind, was
an emblem of the sun and connected with sun-worship. In the Vedic
hymns, its colour isasun-colour. The sixth hymn of the Rig-Veda (first
book) has many passages to that effect; such as:—The red birds (of the
Asvins) came back by day; The red birds shield you (the Asvins) around
by day from the heat; The night retires from her sister the dawn, the
dark one yields the path to the red; May the winged beautiful horses,
may the red birds bring you (the Asvins) back near to us; Like the red
child of heaven [ie., the sun]; The red [i.e., the sun], with beautiful
wings; The red horses, the beautiful, are seen bringing to us the dawn;
Shine, O Agni, red among the dark ones; Powerful red horses, drawing
together, draw him, Brihaspati [i.e., fire, the sun], horses clothed in red
colour like the sky; Agni, born red in the place of the altar; They yoke
the bright red horse [i.e., the sun]; Agni yoked the two red horses; and
soon. Even the Fijian and Samoan languages tell the same tale; for
the Samoans, when the sun shines dimly say, ‘senga-vale’; in Fiji ‘ singa’
is daylight and ‘ mata-ni-singa’ is ‘ the sun.’

Having thus disposed of the surroundings of this tala, I will now give
you the gist of the narrative itself. Ua, the daughter of Tangaloa of the
second heavens, was the mother of the Senga. She expected a son, but it
was a bird—the Senga,—which at once took to the Heavenly Pool as its
place of abode. There Ua and her husband faithfully fed their feathered
child night and morning with ‘taro’ and breadfruit and . When
full-grown, it loved to wander about. One day it went down to earth
below and visited Fiji; there its brilliant plumage charmed Tui-Fith
‘the king of Fiji,’ and, like many a despot, he resolved to possess it.
he got two of his strong men to go up to the heavens to get hold of it by
craft and bring it to him. Thus it was brought to Fiji and lived there.
About this time Ta‘e-o-Tangaloa, the first king of Samoa, who, like some
of the Homeric heroes, was both Avorpéfys kai Avoyévns BactAevs, —_—
to visit his sister, the wife of Tui-Fiti. He too saw the bird and coveted
it; but, as the nobility of bis birth and rank made him disdain to steal,
he asked it from Tui and got it. He took it back with him to Manws
of Samoa.

ae | eee ee ee

FOLK-SONGS AND MYTHS FROM SAMOA, 369

A sneaking fellow of Tutuifla, a neighbouring island, next desired to
have it; for the fame of the bird’s beauty had spread far and wide. So
he came to King Ta‘e pretending disinterested friendship, and brought
him a present; for, in Samoa if you give a present, etiquette requires
that you get a present in return, especially from a king. But the stingi-
ness of the visitor was such that he thought to gain his end by present-
ing a superannuated hen, now quite unable to hatch. Tangaloa saw
through his craftiness and gave him like for like—some roots of kava so
stale as to be unfit for growth, when planted. Finding that the kava
roots did not grow, he came back to Tangaloa, and, on the confession of
his fault, he got the Senga and took it away to Tutuila.

Upélu, another island of the group, now wished to have the wondrous
bird, and a man whose name was End-of-the-Sugar-cane-leaf thought to
get it, but he stole a canoe—‘ the Rainbow,’ its name—to be the purchase
money for it. The beauty of this ‘ Rainbow’ canoe was too much for the
possessor of the Senga; so he gave the bird forit. But ill-gutten gains
do not carry a blessing with them; for the Upolu man had scarcely gut
home rejoicing in his success, when an aitu—‘a spirit-god’—struck him
dead because he had stolen the canoe. These old Samoans evidently
had some sense of the equity of divine justice. He died and was buried,
and they buried the Senga with him as part of his property. But the
Senga’s heavenly origin enabled it to live still in the grave, and soon it
was up among the trees again and flying about from island to island.
One day it visited the island of Savai‘i and king Malietoa saw it; the
usual effects followed ; he must have it; so he sent for the whole priestly
power of his island to charm the Senga to come down and be his bird ;
but they could not. Like the imperious Nebuchadnezzar in dealing with
his magicians when they failed to interpret his dream, Malietoa ordered
all these priests to be bound, ready to be slain and feasted on at the
bidding of the man who could prove himseif able to charm the Senga,

me one suggested that such a man could be found only in Manu‘a. So
an ambassador was sent to fetch Tangaloa who was the Tui-Manu‘a; he
readily came, and by his divine power soon brought the bird down and
Save itto Malietoa. ‘The Savai‘ian magicians were spared, but they were
Converted into courtly barbers and family-priests. And so ends this tala,

XXXV.—Tue ‘Sunca’—A ‘ Tala.’

1. The ‘Senga’ was the child of O and Ua. © was the son of
Tangaloa-pu‘u of the first heavens, and Ua was the daughter of
Tangaloa-lua-lua of the second heavens. Ua conceived, and

X—Oct. 2, 1895,

370 J. FRASER.

brought forth; it was not a man-child but a bird, the ‘Senga’; it
sprang into the fresh water of the Heavenly Pool. Then they
(two) gave it food ; in the evening they fed it before sleep ; in
the morning they went early to feed it. They used to go witha
tray, and cut up the ‘taro’ and bread-fruit and fish ; they placed
[the food] on the tray when they went to feed the ‘Senga’; they

laid it out on a raised heap of stones at the stream which sprang
_ from a cave at the end of the pool.

2. The bird was [soon] full-grown ; it sprang down ; it went
about [on earth] below. [One day,| it stood in the boat-opening
of Fiji; Tui-Fiti saw it, and desired it. He summoned the Fijians
to assemble; so Fiji held a council. ‘ Who is a strong man that
will get this bird for me’? Olo and Faua offered themselves.
Tui-Fiti showed them [what to do]: ‘ You two will go by way of
the north side’ [said he]. They went and found the road to the
heavens ; they arrived there ; it was fire-light [time]. The family
were talking [and said to them], ‘Have you two come”! ‘ Yes.’
“What is your errand’? ‘Is it true that there is a Senga sleep-
ing there’? ‘Yes, the child of Ua and O, which is fed night and
morning. ‘What isit fed on’? ‘It is fed on bread-fruit and taro
and fish, placed on a tray.’ Just then the Senga came gliding
down behind the cave [to be fed].

3. The family took their fish [to it]; but they two went off and
hid ; and thus they saw [where] the tray of the family [was put].
The cooks crew [that is, morning was coming on], and they ran off
with the tray. They placed it on the heap of stones at the pool,
along with the things which they had prepared. The bird came
gliding down [for ts morning food], and they at once seized it.
Then they ran away with the Senga. They took it to Tui-Fiti.
It remained with Tui-Fiti. - It was there at the time that Ta‘e
Tangaloa visited his sister Moe-u‘u-le-Apai. He saw the Seng
and desired it. And when the Fijians had gone inland [to work}
he told Moe-u‘u-le-Apai that he desired it. Then Moe spoke
Tui-Fiti, and he gave it to Ta‘e-o-Tangaloa. He came back to
Manu‘a and placed it in Fiti-uta.

FOLK-SONGS AND MYTHS FROM SAMOA. ye |

4, Langafua came from Sita or Nu‘v-uli in Tutuila. He
~wanted to become the bosom friend of Ta‘e-o-Tangaloa. He came
with a crowing-hen. Then Ta‘e-o-Tangaloa [guessed his errand
and] brought the ‘kava.’ He divided it and left the knot, but
he threw to Langafua the ‘ va-i-ata’ [rooty fibres ?] to pay for the
fowl which does not hatch. Langafua went to Sita with the
‘va-i-ata.’ He thrust them [into the ground] and they did not
grow ; the [roots] were rotten, for they were stale. Then he
came again. Tangaloa asked, ‘ What is become of your kava? is
itdead’? ‘Yes. «I gave you the ‘va-i-ata,’ because you brought
the hen that does not hatch ; but, come now, take the Senga if
you wish it.’ Then he went off with the Senga ; he took it to
Sita or Fanga-fu‘e. |

5. Then tidings came to Upolu that Langafua had the Senga
at Fanga-fu‘e. Then they greatly coveted it. Then a purchaser
came from Ua-fato [in Upolu]; it was the son of Le-Anga that
ame, whose name was Ngata-lau-tolo. He came with a canoe
‘that was stolen ; it was called Se-mata-e-‘emo. Then Langafua
‘coveted the canoe and he gave the Senga for it. Immediately
thereafter the Upolu man died, [for] the ‘aitu’ was angry because
the canoe was stolen. Then he was buried and the Senga was
buried with him ; but the Senga still lived. There is a Solo
{ie., song] about that ; [as follows | :—

The ‘Solo.’
Langafua entered into friendship with him.
He desired a family alliance with Ta‘e-o-Tangaloa.
He brought the bird that does not hatch ;
He brought the crowing-hen ;
He brought it and Tangaloa guessed his mind.
He gave him the ¢ vaiata,’ but left the knot in Manu‘a.
The ‘ Rainbow ’ canoe went out a-fishing.
[With it] Ngata-lau-tolo bought [the ‘Senga’] of his desire.
- Then the ‘Senga’ went [with him] to Ua-fato,
. “Malietoa, receive now your bird.”
- The son of Le-Anga was gone [i.¢., he died].

ww N De wh

Ded ft peel
SS es 2

372 J. FRASER.

13. They buried the Senga with him ; they two slept together ;
14. The bird lay [there] with rottenness—
15. [But soon] it sprang up with a desire to eat.
16. [Thus] the Senga hatched through Malietoa’s [care],
17. And overspread the whole group of islands.
18. ‘Malietoa, receive your bird.”
O!

The Narrative continued.

6. The Senga lived on in the grave, and fed on the body of
the man. But [soon] it went up into a ‘pua’ tree, among the
hollow roots of the tree; it sprang into the ‘pua.’ It moved
about from place to place; it wandered to Upolu ; it wandered
to Savai‘i, Malietoa saw it and greatly desired it. Then he
called a council; he collected the whole divine power of Savaiil
[to ascertain] whether the Senga would come down ; whatever
[person having] divine power should be able to bring down the
Senga, he shall have command and kill those who are not able.
[They tried, but] the Senga did not come down, and all the
priests were about to be put to death. Then Malietoa said that
I‘ite should come to this Manu‘a to seek for a priest to bring
down the Senga. So I‘ite came to Tui-Manu‘a. Then Tui-
Manu‘a said to Tangaloa-le-Folasa that they two should go with
Tite. They went, and were invited by Foisia, the god of Ofu, to
eallin. ‘Leave thy title and report to Pili-tafao.”

7. They got to Upolu. Malietoa was set on high on a seat ; &
great multitude of people was gathered together ; all the priests
were prostrate on the ground ; they were bound ; they were about
to be killed, because they were not able to bring down the Senga-
They were covered over with native cloth. They were lying down
for the blow at the direction of Pili-tafao.

8. Then Tangaloa-Tui-Manu‘a stretched forth his hand; it
perched upon his hand ; then first he saw its head ; the feathers
on its head were short. He said to Malietoa, ‘‘That’s your bird.”
Malietoa said, “Take the authority over these priests; if
decide that they are to be killed and eaten, it is well.” Tangalos

FOLK-SONGS AND MYTHS FROM SAMOA. 373

replied, ‘Don’t; but let them live.” Then Malietoa said, “Leave
them to be my barbers and my priests.”

Sea SS Swe

fed
oO

—

XXXVI.—TueE ‘Seneca ’—A ‘ Solo.’
Folasa came from Anga‘e ;
He was invited by Foisia to call in—
“Call in and signify your royal will
And report it to Pili-tafao,
Because I wish to be directed” [what to do].
The two guests [enter and] are pillowed on the threshold.
[Now by their power] the Senga that was borrowed is coming
The Senga that was so famed is coming. [down ]—

. The Senga wandered to the heights of Atua ;

. The Senga wandered to Tuamasanga ;

. The Senga comes down and perches on the cocoa-nut tree ;

. The Senga comes down and perches on the house’s ridge pole;
. The Senga comes down and perches on the house’s upper beams;
- The Senga comes down and perches on the middle beams ;

- The Senga comes down and perches on the lower beams;

- The Senga comes down and perches on lowest tier of thatch;
- The Senga is about to alight.

- “O Malietoa, there is thy Senga [says Le-Folasa];

- Let it suffice to turn aside thy wrath,

- And let these sacred priests live,

- And let the rain, the showers, and the sun still come on them,”
- He unloosed the priests that were bound ;

. The priests lived through Tangaloa

- From the wrath of Malietoa.

- “Change them [said he] into a band of barbers and house-priests
- To shave off your offensive [hair] and cut your beard.”

- O Savai‘i and Atua and A‘ana and Tuamasanga,

- You had Folasa afterwards ; I was first, I was first.

QO!
XXX VII.—Tue ‘Senca’—A ‘ Solo.’

* Va and O were princes of the Sa-Tui-Atua.

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COI ranrr wb

J. FRASER.

When you go to Atua seek for the land—an inland place,

. And you will find it ; [then] speak about O and Ua.

As to the Senga, they gave birth to the child ;

They grasped it [in their arms]; it was not there ;

It had been changed into a Senga and sprang into the water,
And became the god of the water,

Moe-u‘u-le-Apai [his wife] said,

- “O Tui-Fiti, do you bring the Senga here,”

. When [her brother] Ta‘e-o-Tangaloa came to visit them.

. It stood fast inthe Le-tau-potu of Fiji,

. And in the midst of their daily labour in fishing,

. And at the fresh-water where they went [to bathe].

. It bathed in the small boat-opening of Fiji.

. When it was noon, it flapped its wings ;

. The Senga did not come down ; it was cold.

. Tangaloa the chief took it [away with him],

. And let it go about over Savai‘i.

- “O I'ite, if you seek divine power, seek it in Taele-fanga.”
. Atua and A‘ana with Tuamasanga came [and their priests},
- [But] the Senga did not come down ; it was not familiar.

- [Then] it wandered over Fale-ata [in Upolu].

- “O Tite, if you seek power divine, seek it in Manu‘a ;

- When you come back with the divine power of Tui-Manu'’s,
- Upolu will laugh at the beaching of your canoe.

- To your right is the thing you are to look to ;

. Its hair is short ; it has been clipped.”

. The red bird is jumping up and down ;

. The divine power lies in the front part of the house.

. Tui-Manu‘a holds out his hand for the Senga.

- It stands on the back of his hand ; he places it on a perch.
- “ Malietoa, [says he,| there is your Senga;

- Tam going away, and shall not return ;

- Allow the Senga to wander about [at liberty] ;

- Hide it away when there is continual war.

- Look up to To‘elau, [for]

FOLK-SONGS AND MYTHS FROM SAMOA. 375:

37. From Fale-‘ula all honours come.

38, [If you donot, | you will put me in danger [of losing my honour},
39. For my honour will be scattered to and fro,

40, And, dispersed, will disappear ;

41, For, from this achievement comes my title of Pe‘a.

42. [So, I say,] unbind the wise men of the long hair,

43, But let the short-haired ‘ folasa’ have the divine power.”
44, Upolu, this is the [real] tale of thy ancestors,

45, [Although now] you are a troup of idle talkers.

46. So also is Tui-A‘ana—

47, The Tui-fa‘atu-Lalofata—

48. The child of the worm and the rotten ‘fue.’

49. [I assure you] this Senga grew up in Manu‘a;

50. ‘The Senga came down through my divine power.

61. Bring him along and place him on his perch ;

52. Put him to rest on his sleeping place.

53. [But] in vain do you contend with our Manu‘a ;

54, You will grasp at [the honour] in vain ;

59. [For] the Senga did grow up at Fiti-uta.

Notzs to No. XXXV.

Par. 1. Senga (pronounced saynga) is a small crimson parroquet, much
valued for its bright-coloured feathers which are used for adornment. It
Seems to have come originally from Fiji, but is quite common both there
and in Samoa. The feathers from Fiji are the most valued.

Child; fanau; son, ataliti, ‘a commoner’s son,’ but alo is ‘a chief’s son’;
short, pu‘u; second, tua-lua.

A man-child; se tagata; Heavenly Pool, puna-lagi, ‘the spring of
heaven.’

Tray; laulau, which is a plaited cocoa-nut leaf.

Cut up ; tofi-tofi, «to split up,’ ‘to divide’; the food is cut up for the
Parrot’s use; the islanders still feed birds thus on bread-fruit.

To feed the Senga ; ‘feed,’ taumafa, a chief's word, in honour of the
Senga. The Samoans often address their pet birds in chiefs’ language ;
oo is used here, I think, from a feeling of reverence for the

a. .

Spread it, &c.; the whole clause here is—‘ fofola i Je au tanu 0 le vai,
°30 Mai mai le ana i le mulivai.’ There seems to be something sacred

376 J. FRASER. .

about this ‘au tanu,’ ‘heap of stones’; it may have been an old altar.
Stream and pool are both ‘ vai,’ ‘ fresh-water

2. He summoned the Fijians to assemble; ‘ ua fond ia potopoto Fiti.’

Strong man; fita-fita, courageous.” There is something divine about
the Senga, and he who attempts to capture it runs a great risk.

Olo is a ‘fortress.’ Faua may be from fau ‘ to tie together, to build’

By way of the north; ‘i le itu i matu *; itu is ‘side’; ef. ‘the sides of
the north

It was fire-light; mumu afi, ‘ the fires were burning.

The family were talking ; ‘talatala le aiga’; that is, the Sa-Tangaloa
were seated round the fire and were chatting

Have you two come? ‘po ua ouluao mai.’ sh common Samoan welcome
is, ‘You are come’; 3 of. our welcome.

What is your errand ? ‘se & le feau’? Night and morning; ‘ po ma taeao.’

3. The family took their fish, &c. ; 3 ‘ua ave e le aiga la la i‘a, a ua la tun
ua nana; their, they; that refers to the two visitors.

The cocks crew; ‘ua iho moa,’ for daylight was now approaching.

Desired it; ‘mana “gone inland,’ that is, when they were gone off
to the piantations we or Gone ; liu, ‘turned.’
A crowing hen; ‘ ufa-u edie’, ; a crowing hen that does not breed,
feunks: as a present in expectation to get something in exchange

Left the knot; «tun le pona’; it is the knot that sprouts; divided #}

“vaea’; vaiata are the root- branches that do not sprout. For information

about the ‘ kava,’ see e Nos — XIV.

Were rotten; ‘ua pala’; stale, ‘mati,’ from being too long kept.

I gave; avatu. Anga, ‘ action ’; ioe ares end of a sugar-cane
leaf.’ Se-m mata-e-‘emo, ‘a flas

He died; a punishment for ae

THE Sond—1. Entered into Friendship; fa‘aud. 2. Family epee sie

3. The bird that does not hatch; ‘le manu e lé fofoa
8. ‘ Rainbow’; sti 0, the name of Langafua’s canoe

12. Gone ; maliu, ‘ e, dead ;’ son, ‘alo,’ a chief’s word.

14. Lay with fad ceceks “e toaga i le palapala.’ £
- Eat ; taumafa,‘to eat or drink,’ a shies word. This inciden
hows the divine power of the bird,

Par. 6. Among the hollow roots; ‘i a‘a 00 0 le laau.’

Moved about from place to place; eva-eva; wandered ;

ya.
nd

ine power ; mana; the ‘taula aitu,’ that is, ou magicians 4
priests are Summoned.

Kill all that are not able ;
the doings of despots ;
Put to death alt the
Tite means «

I
or

‘ma fasi ie ua 1é mafai.’ This is quite like
ef. the history of Daniel.
Priests ; ‘a fafasi mana uma.’
& seer, a prophet’; ite, ‘to know.”

T= Set eee ena A spel Ad Baca. ee a De

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FOLK-SONGS AND MYTHS FROM SAMOA. 377

God; aitu, ‘a spirit, an inferior god’; to call in; afe.

Leave thy title or signify thy will; the original here is,—‘ tuu lou ao sei
logo ia Pili-tafao.” The meaning is not clear. Pili-tafao or Mo‘otagao
was the sister of Ta‘e-o-Tangaloa and wife of Foisia, an aitu or god of
Ofu.

7. Sit on high on a seat ; ‘ua ti‘eti‘e i le nofo.’

All the priests were prostrate; ‘taatitia mana uma,’ waiting their doom.

Native cloth; u‘a; made from the bark of the paper mulberry.

8. And eaten; ‘e fai taumafa,’ a cannibal feast ; don’t; ‘aui.’

Notrs to No. XXXVI.

Line 1, Royal will; observe that a king was in a sense sacred; for,
where he sat, nobody else could sit; no one could touch his food. On
each side of a king sat a ‘tuafale,’ the head man of a family. Chiefs
were termed pa‘ia, ‘not touched by work, sacred.’ Folasa, ‘a prophet.’
Angae is a district in Manu‘a.

‘2. ‘Invited ; velaau-ina; as when persons are passing by and are in-
vited to come in and partake of food.

3-5. The text of these two lines is :—

v. 3. Afe mai sei tuu lou ao; v. 4. Sei logo ia Pilitafao; v. 5. Aua
ni tonu mo au; or T'autua na ni tonu mo au

6. Guests ; ‘tataluma,’ which is the front part of the house, and honoured
guests are set there; pillowed, ‘aluga a,’ used as a verb, There must be

and may thus be used like the wooden pillow of the natives; lago me
‘to raise on supports,’ 4 laai is ‘ to pass over.’ With this Skod:
Sleep, compare the superstitions in many countries about stepping on
and over the threshold; compare also I. Sam. v., 4
7. Borrowed ; nono; referring to its first coming from Fiji.
8. Reported ; logo; that is, ‘ much heard of, famous.’
- Wandered ; abe word thus translated here and elsewhere is the cau-
Sative ‘ faa-eva,
+= 16. These lines represent tie gradual descent of the bird under
the magic influence of the ‘ folasa
Perch; ‘tu,’ stand; ridge-pole, ‘au-au’; beams, ‘tausoaga’; upper, ‘luga’s 3
middle, * loto’; lower, ‘lalo’; lowest tier of thatch, ‘ lagolau.’
17. Alight ; & tapa; the translation of this word is conjectural.
19, 20, 21, 25. The text of these lines is :—
tau ane ai lou toasa; v.20. Ae soifua mana sa; v. 21.
Fa‘aua ma fa‘atimu ma fa‘ata; v. 25. Ina ’é liu falesoga ma
liu falemana.
26. Offensive ; soesa; the text i no word for hair.
°8. I was first ; Masi says this.

378 J. FRASER.

Notes ro No. XXXVII.

Line 1. Princes; tui; Sa-Tui-Atua is ‘the race of the princes of Atua.’ —

2. Land ; laumea—the land which is the birth-place of the Senga.

Water; vai, ‘fresh water’; ‘god,’ atua; ‘ changed,’ liu.

8. Moe, &c.; she hears of the Senga from her brother; she hears of the -
beauty of the Senga of Atua in Samoa and covets it; but when brought
to Fiji, it ‘stood fast,” it would not come down to them (v. 11).

12. Daily labour, &c.; faiva o tili; tili is the casting of the small net.

13. Fresh water; they bathe in a swamp or lagoon of fresh water.

14. Small boat-opening ; ava-ava

15. Noon; ao-uli; the original of this line is :—‘O ao-ulia sua taili;
which may also mean, ‘ At noon (or at full tide) a wind springs up.’

19. Bathing place; taele faga.

20. Atua, &c.; that is, all the priests of these districts in Upolu came.

pa Familiar ; lata; it did not feel at home.

- Power divine; mana; power to charm the bird, which the priests
of ean had been unable to do.

Laugh; ataina; as scoffers and unbelievers when you land there.

- To your right, &c.; this line may also be translated, ‘ Consider the
Sie ade mark it has,’ [for]

28. Jumping ; this is the effect of the Folasa’s mana.

29. Front part ; talaluma.

35. Continual war; utu tau; the Senga seems to be a bird of peace,
probably as an emblem of the Sun, the beneficent orb of —

37. All honours; ao; the line is ‘ Faleula e tutupu ai ao. Fale-ula is
the bright palace of Tonpktnn in the highest heavens; and To‘elau is &
group to the N.W. of Samoa, but it seems to mean something else here.

39. Scattered; e fa‘a-eva-eva, ‘made to wander about.’

40. Dispersed; that is, scattered to the winds; disappear; maulu, ‘dive
under.’

41. Pe‘a, ‘a bat,’—a title of SS in Samoa ; the line is, Tupu ai
tonu mai Pe‘a. 42, Wise

44. Opolu, &e.; the Niobe a sonalnas as usual, with some lines
to magnify the importance of his own islands

48. Rotten fue ; ge for explanation a ae read the Samoan
Story of Creation, No. xx 51. Perch; sunuaga.

XXX VIII.— Tur Story or Mor-u‘v-Le-APAI AND HER HUSBANP
Tur-Fitt, rue Kine or Fis1—A ‘ Yala.’
[S Seemed

IntTronr ki j,i SOS io ae ee £11 1 Paka te f the characters

who appeared in ec previous pee semi-divine Ta‘e-o-Tangaloa and

FOLK-SONGS AND MYTHS FROM SAMOA. 379

his sister, Moi-u‘u-le-Apai; and the time of the story is again the grey
dawn of Samoan history, when T'a‘e was the first king. Ta‘e was a
bigamist ; he had two wives at once, and they seem to have made the
family home so uncomfortable to poor Moi that she fled from it, and,
committing herself to the deep, she at last reached Fiji; here her charms
as a brunette captivated Tui-Fiti and he married her. To this hour the
Fijian princes like to marry brown Polynesian women, and, the Tongan
group being nearest to them, they get wives fromit. But in these myths
Tonga is of no account ; it is Samoa only that has intimate relations with
Fijii—a black race with a brown one. But this foreign lady was not ac-
ceptable to the subjects of Tui-Fiti; for, had her presence not brought on
that land this sore dearth of food from which they now suffered so much!
And so, in heathen lands, it is the stranger among them who is accused
of bringing the destructive epidemic, and he must be driven away that
it may be stayed. Some philologists say that the Latin word hostis,
‘enemy,’ originally meant only ‘a stranger,’—truly a striking glimpse
of the philanthropy of the time when every stranger was reckoned an
enemy. So poor Moi was again a wanderer ; for the king of Fiji had to
send her away to satisfy the clamours of his people. And yet, when she
Was gone, the famine still remained. We see her tramping on inland
towards the high mountain ranges of the island, carrying her own little
boy on her back, and leading by the hand Tui’s sister’s son, an adopted
child. At last they reached a spot where they thought to rest; they sat
down and wished for a house, when, lo! at the wish, a band of artificers,
‘tufunga,’ came down and built a house for them, sent for that purpose
by the great god Tangaloa, her ancestor, who hears all the wishes of his
own people. But he did yet more for her. Dwelling in that forest, how
was she to get food? The family of Tangaloa in the heavens consulted
together, and Ufi, ‘a yam,’ offered to go down and plant herself around
the house, and bear fruit. Next morning, the exiled queen saw the yam,
dug up a branch, took it into the house, roasted it and ate thereof, she
and her two children; thus they did for many, days—all through the
beneficence of the great god.

Meanwhile her brother Ta‘e-o-Tangaloa in Manu‘a had dreamed a dream,
also sent by the supreme god of the Polynesians—does not Homer also say
that dreams come from Zeus? kal yap 7 évap ix Alos éstwv—and by it
he knew that his sister in that far off land of Fiji was in distress. He
ag at once go to her help. A canoe belonging to a neighbour of his,
neo was about to start for Tutuila, with four oarsmen and Afono
self the fifth on board as steersman. Knowing what he meant to do,
was he not semi-divine ?) he took in his hand a stripped cocoa-nut

380 J. FRASER.

stem and a bread-fruit branch, and, reaching the spot just as they were
getting off, he hailed the canoe and said, ‘I want to go with you!’ Afono
churlishly refused and pulled out of the harbour. Tangaloa hurried by
land to two points which they had to pass in succession, and from each
of them repeated his request, but thrice in all he had the same refusal
‘The canoe now got out tosea; but Tangaloa, irritated by Afono’s repulses,
called to his sea-boys (mermen, [ suppose) and ordered them to bring the
vessel by force back to the rock where he stood; thrice this was done, but
to no avail; for Afono still refused ; until his men expostulated with him
on the danger they ran; then he yielded so far as to let one of them say
to Tangaloa, ‘Come here.’ So Tangaloa jumped on board.

But it did not suit him to let the canoe go on to Tutuila, for he wanted
to get to Fiji; so he enveloped that island in thick darkness and made the
light to shine clear upon Fiji in the far distance to the south-west. The
crew passed Tutuila as if it were not there and continued heading onwards
for many days. Food and water began to fail them. Hungry and thirsty,
Afono and his men cried to their miracle-working passenger. He bade
them look into the hold; there they found bread-fruit to eat, and young
cocoa-nuts from which they got water to drink. The branches which
Tangaloa carried in his hand when he leaped on board had been placed
in the hold, and they had speedily grown there, and now they supplied
food and drink to the weary crew!

At last the canoe reached the Fijian shore, but here fresh dangers wer?
before them. It was a charmed land, and three obstacles had to be over
come by those who would enter there; first, outside on the reef was #
snare called ‘ the coral-that-wrecks-canoes,’ probably something like the
Symplegades rocks which of old so bothered the Argonauts when they
essayed to sail between them; then inside there was a second danger
in the shape of shoals of mullet which, by some magic influence, were
made to leap on board with the intention of swamping the canoe; the
as a last and inmost bulwark stood on a promontory Tui-Fiti himself,
with his pointing finger, to lead astray and to destruction those who would.
steer by his directions. From all these daugers Tangaloa, by his
and foreknowledge, delivered Afono and the crew. At the last point, he
"laid his mana or divine power on Tui-Fiti for punishment; for he had o"Y
to point his finger upwards and the Fijian king fell prostrate and stu?
and the whole land of Fiji was scorched with heat. From this incident
it appears that he who possesses the mana is superivr to magic and p we :
and thus the wickedness of the wicked only recoils with double force up? 4
their own heads. :

:
i
a
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FOLK-SONGS AND MYTHS FROM SAMOA, 381

As Ta‘e had now no further need of the canoe, he dismissed the Tutui-
lans with the assurance that he would enable them to get back to their
own land in a few hours; but, if they wished to have prosperity and
happiness, they were not to clear out the hold of their vessel till they
were ashore; for the scales of the fish, and the skin and refuse of the
‘taro,’ bread-fruit and cocoa-nuts that they had eaten would be of much
valuetothem. Perversity and unbelief seem to be congenial to the mind
of men everywhere, for, although the crew said ‘ Aye, aye, sir,’ to his in-
junctions, the men were scarcely out of his sight than they threw the
whole lot overboard. And Tui-Afono thus missed having the plenty and
comfort which the fruitful growth of these things would have given him.

Meanwhile, Ta‘e was moving about on Fiji in search of his sister; at
last he found her; they fell on each other’s necks and wept. Next morn-
ing he commenced to plant her land with everything good to eat, and
while there was miraculous abundance there, Tui-Fiti and his people on
the coast were still pinched with the famine and dying of hunger. In
these circumstances, Moi resolved to return to her husband good for the
evil she had received at his hands, and, taking a present of food with her,
she went down to the coast, got the sick man to eat, and, as he was too
weak to travel inland, she had him carried up next day to her home; all
his people soon followed and settled inland there, and thus escaped the
famine. Then Tangaloa returned to his own Manu‘a, and, in memory of
his journey in search of his sister, he gave to a district in it the name of
Fiti-uta, ‘inland Fiji,’ and that name remains till this day.

The ‘ Tala.’
An account of the praises of the boy of Moi-ulu-le-Apai, the relation
by the mother’s side of Ta‘e-o-Tangaloa ; an account of his going to Fiji.

1. Probably Moi-u‘u-le-Apai went away [from home] at the
time when her brother, Ta‘e-o-Tangaloa, married Le-lau-lau-a-le-
Folasa and Sina, She travelled on and reached Fiji, and married
the chief of Fiji, who was called Tui-Fiti.

2. And so Moi, the daughter of Tangaloa-a-Ui, became the wife
of Tui-Fiti ; and she brought forth a son and he was called Le-
Ata‘ata-a-Fiti, There was a famine in Fiji at that time, and it
= very great. Then the people said to Tui-Fiti, ‘ What do you
think ¢ should we drive away the lady? for she is not a human
being but a god ; because, since she came, we have constant famine;
our food is gone.” Then she was sent away by the chief. —

382 J. FRASER.

3. Then the lady caught hold of her boy, and carried him on
her back; she went away also with her child whom they two had —
adopted ; it was the child of the sister of Tui-Fiti; Fili was the —
name of that boy ; these are the three that went. They walked
far inland to the backbone of the island, to the place called Tan-
potu of Fiji; they dwelt there ; they got a house because they
expressed a desire for it; thus they spoke as they walked :—

*O a‘u, ‘0 a‘u lava ‘o Moi-ulu-le-A pai;
Matou o atu lavaia, o tumai se fale;
Matou te nonofo ai, ma si a‘u fanau.
“Tam, I am indeed Moi-ulu-le-Apai ;
We came and a house appeared ;
We dwelt there, I and my child.

4, Then Tangaloa looked down from above. He appointed a
great many to hasten down to build a house for the lady. Then
the sons of the Sa-Tangaloa went down; they built the house; the
lady with her sons went there and the building of the house was
finished, and the Sa-Tangaloa went back to the heavens ; then the
lady dwelt there and her sons. When morning light was come, #
‘council was held in the heavens of those who built the house,
together with all the Sa-Tangaloa, about food for the lady. Then
Tangaloa said, ‘ Present an offering of food to her quickly, because .
the lady is hungry.’ Then Yam offered herself saying, ‘I here
{I this) am Uti-tolo-tie.’ .

5. Then the Sa-Tangaloa said, ‘How will you go’? She said
[the yam], ‘I will go and grow at the side of the house, spreading
there ; when the lady goes out to look for food, then will her foot
be pierced by me ; then shall I be observed ; she will look down
and perceive that I am good ; she will then take me to eat.’ The
Sa-Tangaloa were agreeable. Then the yam went down to the
‘Side of the house and spread itself along. When it was morning
light, the lady said to Fili, ‘Come here and stay with your young
brother," while I go and search for something to eat for us three;
it is doubtful if I shall get any in this great forest.’ When she
‘came behind the house, the yam was spreading there, and her
foot was at once pricked by the yam. The lady looked dow?;

!

FOLK-SONGS AND MYTHS FROM SAMOA. 383

the branch of the yam was broken ; it was scattered about ; she
took hold of it; broke it with her teeth and tasted it to see
whether it was sweet ; she perceived that it was good ; then she
dug it up. Then she went into the house, bearing the branch of
the yam in her hands. Thus she brought it and roasted it for
herself and her children. And they ate of it. Thus she did every
day ; that yam became food for the lady and her children for
many days.

6. Then it became known to Ta‘e-o-Tangaloa by a dream ; for
he dreamt that his sister had been ill-used by her husband, the
king of Fiji. Then he prepared to go there; but there was,
towards the east, a travelling party from Tutuila ; the travelling
party of the king of Afono had come to his friend, ‘O Le-puia-i-

Then came Ta‘e-o-Tangaloa at the time when the travel-
ling party was about to return to Tutuila ; he seized hold of two
things of his, a cocoa-nut stem from which the nuts have been
Picked and a bread-fruit branch with leaves and blossoms on it.

The travelling party of Tui-Afono went on board, and Ta‘e-o-
Tangaloa said, ‘I will make a sixth in your canoe.’ Tui-Afono

Was unwilling [that is, refused]. Then his canoe passed through
the boat-opening, and the chief (i.e, Ta‘e) went inland. The

“anoe passed through behind the breakers, but the chief went by

land ; the chief came and stood by Le-Loto ; that isa rock on the
Seaside of the Pu‘e-mapusanga. The canoe came there, and the

chief said to Tui-Afono, ‘ Let me be a sixth to your crew. He

Was unwilling ; Tui-Afono would not answer. The canoe went

on; but the chief went by land. He came and stood on a xeef-

Tock ; its name was the ‘to‘a’ of Tangaloa ; it is on the sea-side
of Ana-lefu in Fale-asao. The canoe went on and reached it.
angaloa said to Tui-Afono, ‘ Let me be a sixth in your canoe.’
fanoe went on ; for Tui-Afono was unwilling. It went on,
and Was far out at sea.
i. The heart of Tangaloa was pained. Then he called to his
— Who were there in the sea, Au-salia and Au-fanua-mai,
boys there give heed to me (Jit., turn your eyes towards me);

384 J. FRASER.

I am tired of this fellow, who has been fooling me; come now, do
you two bring him to me; bring him to the place where I stand,
Then his men went; they brought the canoe; notwithstanding
the sail and the paddling with oars; they brought the canoe to the
place where the chief stood. Then he called again, ‘ Tui-Afono,
let me be a sixth in your canoe.’ He was unwilling; and the
canoe went on; the chief let it goon. They went on and reached
the spot where they had been [a little before]; it was brought
back again ; it was brought to the place where the chief stood.
He called again, ‘O Tui-Afono, let me be a sixth in your crew.
Tui-Afono did not speak. Then one of the crew—Gai-uli-m-
gai-sina it was—said, to Tui-Afono, ‘Let us say the word that
the chief may come’ [on board]. He was unwilling and said,
‘Pull away.’ They reached the spot where they had been before;
then the canoe was brought back to the place where Tangaloa
stood. Then he cried, ‘Tui-Afono, let me be a sixth in your crew.
Tui-Afono was unwilling. Then stood up his steersman and said,
‘Tui-Afono, the chief, do you say the word to that chief ; for, in
consequence of your acting thus and your provoking ways; the
end of it will be that we shall all be made to suffer for it.’ Tut
Afono was unwilling, but answered, ‘One of you, call out.’ So
one called, ‘Come here.’ Then the chief came and jumped into
the canoe. .

8. Then Tangaloa performed a miracle; he covered the sky
and all the lands with darkness; only Fiji remained bright sky;
there was light there; and the prow of the canoe was directed
toward it; the crew and Tui-Afono were frightened; they thought
they were turned towards Tutuila. Then they voyaged on; they
continued to voyage on; the food was all consumed and the drink,
and the days of the canoe were ended. The crew grumbled ;
Tangaloa asked, ‘What is it’? Tui-Afono answered, ‘Tangalos
this crew is going to die; there is no food ; the food is all con-
sumed.’ Tangaloa answered, ‘Look into the hold of the cau%
towards the starboard side.’ Then they looked carefully; the
bread-fruit branch had fruited and become a live bread-fruit, and

|

.

FOLK-SONGS AND MYTHS FROM SAMOA. 385

now bore fruit. They brought it out and ate; for there was a
cooking place in the canoe. Then the crew murmured for water.
Tui-Afono again called out, ‘There is plenty of food; but this
crew is dying of thirst and there is no water.’ Then Tangaloa
bade them examine the port side of the hold. And when they
exaniined, the cocoa-nut stem had fruited ; it bore fruit well,
both the young cocoa-nut and the full-grown nut.

9. The canoe continued its course and reached Fiji; it reached
the back of the surf in Fiji. Then Tangaloa told them of the
might of Tui-Fiti. Tangaloa gave them his final instructions.
But he first said to the crew, ‘In this land are the spirit-gods called
the ‘ Wrecking Coral,’ and the ‘Leaping Mullet,’ and the ‘Fiti’s
Finger ; that is the pointing-hand that makes canoes to err and
be broken, and the men die, but they do not altogether die; they
only lie stretched out ; this implies the divine power of Tui-Fiti,
that a canoe should come safely to land,’ Then Tangaloa madea
last command, ‘When we reach the boat-opening and I say, ‘Pull
lustily,” see that you obey me at once ; for there, in the boat-
Opening, is the mullet that leaps, the ‘anae-oso’; when you see
that you have enough of [them for] food, do you bid me cover up
the hold, because of the pointing of Tui-Fiti; when you see me
paddling on the right side, do you paddle also on the right-hand
side ; when you see me paddling on the port side, do you also
paddle on the same side ; do you paddle as I do; thus will ye
paddle.’

10. So then the canoe entered the opening in the Fiji [reef].
Tangaloa stood on the half-deck and called, ‘ Paddle the canoe.’
They pulled stoutly ; the coral reef {that is the dreaded Panga-
Solo-va‘a| was at once pierced and broken through, and the canoe
Went through the middle of the opening. Then the ‘anae-oso’
fishes jumped up and the canoe was nearly swamped. The crew
shouted, ‘Tangaloa, cover the hold.’ Then the mullet jumped up
[on deck] and wriggled about, and fell back into the sea. ‘They
Went on, but there they saw the pointing [finger] of Tui-Fiti.
“nen Tangaloa paddled on the port side and all the crew paddled
Y—Oct. 2, 1895,

386 J. FRASER.

likewise. Then came the pointing of Tangaloa ; and Tui-Fiti fell
prostrate and was stunned. Then the Fijians directed their
attention to their chief and gave no heed to the boat ; they did
not stand and look towards it.

11. Tangaloa at once jumped ashore and placed the canoe on
the supports there; the Fijian supports were at once broken; and
now [the crew] turned the canoe seaward and went away. Hence
is the song about the voyage of Tangaloa, thus :—

“The fleet of Afono prepared to go a-fishing.
Tangaloa stood up with the food for the journey.
The ‘tusi’ of Fiti pointed down ;

Tangaloa paddled on the larboard ;

[The canoe] swerved with its crew and went too far;
The ‘tusi’ of Tangaloa pointed up ;

All Fiti was swamped by that.”

12. Then he said, ‘Now, you Tutuilans here, you will reach
land in this very hour ; you will not sleep [another night] on the
deep; don’t bale out your canoe; don’t remove the refuse from it}
you Tutuilans here, drag up the canoe at once and its cargo; bale
out the canoe for the first time when you reach the land.’ They
answered, ‘ Aye, aye; let it be so.’ He said also to them, ‘There
is great happiness in store for you, if ye do these things ; for that
[refuse] will produce fruit greatly—bread-fruit and cocoa-nut—
and fish will grow also from the scales.’ But they did not obey;
for they baled out the canoe and threw out the refuse at the back
of the breakers. Thus their happiness was wasted. Hence the
proverbial saying, ‘They have despised the good fortune of Tut
Afono.’

13. Then they speedily arrived at Tutuila. They were near
the land ; the surf was behind them; they rejoiced that they had
come so quickly, But they had baled out the hold and collected
the refuse and thrown it into the sea, before they beached the
boat. Then they reported to the people of Afono all the tale of the
journey, and the great usefulness of the food of Tangaloa, and the
final injunctions of Tangaloa ; and how they were grieved because

:

FOLK-SONGS AND MYTHS FROM SAMOA. 387

they had baled the canoe, and gathered up the refuse [to throw it
away |; because if they had brought these things with them, that
is, the scales of the fish and the skins of the ‘taro’ and of the
bread-fruit, and the stems of the cocoa-nut, they all would have
had great plenty. Therefore the people said, ‘Tui-Afono, you
have made light of your good-fortune’; hence sprang the proverb,
‘The good-fortune of Tui-Afono was made light of.’

14. But Tangaloa went on for the place where his sister was ;
it was far off, far off inland. He reached [a house| about fire-
light time, and went on early in the morning. When he got to
the place, they were having a dance to the praises of Moi-u‘u-le-
Apai and her son Le-ata-ata-o-Fiti ; thus :—

1. “The fleet of Afono prepared to go a-fishing.

2. Tangaloa stood up with food for the journey.

3. The fleet of Afono prepared to go a-fishing;

4. There was a search for Moi-u‘u-le-Apai ;

5. The whole lands were covered over [with darkness].

6. The Sa-Tangaloa voyaged ;

7. They voyaged and he stood up at the boat-opening ;

8. [There were] the mullet and the coral-that-wreck-canoes.
9. First the pointing of Tui-Fiti went down [7.¢., south];

10. Tangaloa paddled to larboard and so did the crew.
11. [Then] the pointing of Tangaloa was upwards [7.¢., north] ;
12. The whole of Fiti was scorched :
13. The Samoan group was covered [i.¢., protected ].”
They [brother and sister, | greeted each other and wept; he stayed
there, for it was night.

15. When the morning light dawned, Tangaloa said to Moi-u‘u-
Je-Apai, ‘Shut down the flaps of your house; let me prepare and
Plant your ground.’ Then he planted the land everywhere.
Bread-fruit lived there, and cocoa-nut and papaw-apple, and
banana, and taro, and yams ; everything grew abundantly. He
kept on planting, and very great indeed was the quantity of food.
They were free to use everything on the land ; only the bread-

388 J. FRASER.

fruit crop was forbidden until the first fruits of it were taken
to Tui-Fiti, who was oppressive to his lady. And Tangaloa’s
injunctions were obeyed.

16. In course of time, the crop became ripe, and the boy was
grown up. But the famine continued in the towns in Fiji; one
man was almost eating another; and Tui-Fiti was nearly dead
with hunger. Then said Ta‘e-o-Tangaloa, ‘ Gather some bread-
fruit at sleeping-time, and early in the morning go and take it to
Tui-Fiti.’ Then they went and gathered the bread-fruit ; four of
these were a burden for the one boy and the lady. And with it
they went down towards the sea to Tui-Fiti ; they made their
oven ; there were three of them; they made their oven; the fruit
was cooked and they took it down to the chief who was oppres-
sive to her; the chief and his family partook of it and were
strengthened.

17. Then the lady told Tui-Fiti that she was going back [home]
with her child ; and that if there were any who were still strong
in his land, that they should come with her and carry the abund-
ance of food that was inland—taro, bread-fruit, bananas. The
chief replied, ‘What does my lady think about carrying the sick
man inland to be taken care of there.’ The lady said, ‘ Please
yourself ; only your people will not be able to carry you, the sick
man, inland until to-morrow ; when to-morrow comes, you, the:
sick man, shall be taken; but to-day, if there are any that are
strong, let us go ahead to bring down food to satisfy the hunger
of the people.’ Then a great number crowded up and went
inland—men, women, and_ boys. They reached the plantations
and saw white bananas ; they ate, but did not gather burdens
take to the town ; they ate; they were gorged ; they were sick ;
then they slept inland and dia not go down to the town. When
the morning arrived, the sick man Tui-Fiti was brought up; thet
they remained inland; gradually all the houses of the Fijians
were brought up ; they took up all the town to the place where
Moi-u‘u-le-Apai lived,—to the abundance which grew in the plas-
tations of Ta‘e-o-Tangaloa.

FOLK-SONGS AND MYTHS FROM SAMOA. 389

18. They all went inland, and Ta‘e-o-Tangaloa was there still.
Then Ta‘e-o-Tangaloa said to Tui-Fiti and Moi-u‘u-le-Apai, ‘Come
now, set your country in order, but I will go away; I have got a
name for my country; it is Liu-Fiti-i-uta “ Changed-into-Fiji-
inland”; that was shortened into Fiti-uta. Then he came here
with that name for his land, Liu-Fiti-uta ; ; he came and dwelt in
it. I suppose that was at the time when Ta‘e-o-Tangaloa was a
young man.

Notes to No. XXXVII.

Par. 1. Moi-ulu-le-Apai ; sometimes the 1 is dropped and the name be-
comes Moi-u‘u; the praises of her boy is ‘faa-nana-aga,’ a ‘song of praise.”

At that time; ‘ po,’ night.

2. Le-ata-ata-a-Fiti ; ‘the after-glow of Fiji.’

Human being, tagata; god, aitu. 3. Backbone; a ridge of hills.

4. He appointed a great many, &c.; “tofia lea ni e toa-tele e nati-n a
€ toai se fale.” The word ‘nati-nati’ means ‘to be busy about;’
urgent, to be importunate.’

Present an offering of food ; ‘fe-ofoai mai ia ni ‘ai’; ‘ofo’ means ‘to
make an offer of food and services to visitors.’

Uji-tolo-ti‘e ; «the yam which spreads along on the surface of the ground.’

5. Morning light; malama. Scattered about ; pae-pae, lit., ‘piled up.’

It was sweet ; some are bitter. Every day; many days; aso-uma.

6. Afono is in Tutuila ; his friend; ud, ‘a bosom companion’; Le-puia-i-
lama, « Shut-up-torch.’

Cocoa-nut stem from which the nuts have been picked is au-loso-loso ;
only fit for firewood when the nuts are gone.

Bread-fruit branch with the leaves and blossoms on is tau-‘ulu-‘ulu.

: Le Loto; ‘the pool’; Pu‘e-mapu-saga, ‘ the pu‘e (a spreading tree) rest-
mg place.’ Reef-rock ; to‘a; Ana-lefu, ‘ cave-bad.’

7. Au-salia or Au-agae, ‘ cross-current to the east’; Au-fanua-mai, “cross- —
cote towards the land.’

eyes; pula, an abusive term for ‘eyes’; pula, ‘to shine,’ like ripe
fit Matos, playing tricks. Chief; ali‘i; the gods also are chiefs.

Gai-uli-ma-sina, ‘ Gai- black Pagers *; gat, as a verb, means ‘to be in-
jured internally’; gaigai, ‘to be exhausted’ as by work in the sun.

Let us say; lit., let your ase go aaa Pull away; that is, ‘paddle.’
Sites fa‘a-masei-sei; masei,‘to be uncovered as the body ’;

use words giving offence,’ epiads not so intended; masei (adj.)
Ungrateful, i Improper conduct

390 J. FRASER.

8. Hold; Lit., ‘ bottom.’

Young cocoa-nut is full of liquid; the full grown nut is full of food.

’ ht; lit., ‘troops’; parting command, ‘ tofiga,’ like the injunctions
which a dying father gives to his sons.

God; aitu, ‘spirit-god’; Punga-solo-va‘a, ‘ the coral (that makes) canoes
slip’; Anae-oso, ‘the mullet that leaps’; Tusi-a-Fiti, ‘the pointing of Fiji’;
this pointing is done to direct the steersman and the rowers in passing
through the reef, or coming inshore.

12. The refuse or rubbish; this is explained further on, Par. 13.

14. Fire-light time; about 7 p.m:; praises, ‘fa‘a-nana-aga,’ as in the title
of this ‘ tala.’

15. Flaps; these are moveable flaps, next the ground as in our canvas
tents, which are raised in the morning for ventilation to the house.

Prepare and plant ; chiefs work in their own plantations.

Papau apple; Eugenia malaccensis. Forbidden; tabu.

Sick man ; lit., ‘ your sickness.’

17. White bananas ; that is, thoroughly ripe.

Be able; ‘sava’ (a Tutuila word) for ‘ lava.’

Set your country in order; that is, appoint magistrates, &c., for orderly
government.

XXXIX.—Vanua anp Trapa—A ‘ Solo.’
fied ef

IntRopuction.—Some persons may perhaps say that there is no evi-
dence to show that these myths are not recent creations of the Samoan
mind. To that I reply that the general cast of the stories proves them
to be brethren of the ancient folk-lore tales of other nations, although
modified by the tale-teller to suit his Polynesian environment. A wine-
‘taster at once knows the quality of the wine offered to him and perhaps
also the district from which it comes; so likewise can a folk-lorist discer
from its very setting that a tale is genuine. Sometimes also there is in-
ternal evidence to the same effect ; the language is old-fashi d hard
to understand ; there are frequent allusions to old occurrences in the his-
tory of the nation, well-known to them, but scarcely intelligible to 85
national proverbs are quoted, and such sayings are usually of very ancient

date ; and conceptions of the gods and their doings present themselves,

which are quite foreign to the current modern ideas of the race-
Occasionally, however, we have a Folk-song like this, which looks jike &
charter of nobility taken from the muniment chest of some noble family.

Such a solo tells of the rival claims to precedence made by some islands ©

the group, and the song is of such antiquity and well-known authority

FOLK-SONGS AND MYTHS FROM SAMOA. 391

that mere quotation from it is enough. Of this nature is the following

song about Valia and Tiapa, founders of the tribes of Savaii. Some of

the people of that island deny the statement that Valua and Tiapa came
from Manu‘a, but to settle the dispute you have only to say ‘ Ia, fai mai
se soifua,’ ‘Come, tell us the story of a life,’ for this story is called a soifua
and decides the question. Some of the references in it are so old that
the present generation does not understand them.

The Solo.
1, O Manu‘a se nu‘u au mamala.
Manu‘a is a land bringing calamity [if slighted].
2. Folau aitu, folau tagata :
[From it] spirits go a-voyaging, men go a-voyaging
3. I Saua ma Sopo-Le-Malama—
To Saua and Sopo-Le-Malama
4. Ile atu Toga, ma le atu Fiti—
To the Tongan group, and to the group of F iji;
5. Folau i le atu To‘elau,
They voyage to the Tokelau group
6. Ma Sa-Vavau.
And to Sa-Vavau.
7. Fesili Nonoa le ava ;
_ Nonoa asks for the boat-opening ;
8. Ai la outou folauga na.
That, I think, is the place you have to go to.
9. A outou oi A‘ana;
You are about to go to A‘ana;
10. Tou afe a‘e i Aleipata ;
You will call in at Aleipata ;
11. I tua le Moso ma Le-Laulala,
Behind it are Moso aud Le-Laulala,
12 Ta mata‘utia i Utu-fala-fala.
Who are dreaded in Utu-fala-fala.
13. So‘n fesili po ua tonu.
Let me ask whether that is the correct [route].
14. Lo outou tali mua na.
That is your first answer.
15. Ai ia Savai'i lafa-lafa—
hen on to Savai‘i which is level—
16. Na ‘uuna Valua ma Tiapa.
[A land] which Valua and Tiapa took possession of-

392 J. FRASER.

i)
~I

. Se la‘i egase i luga ;—
[From it] a westerly wind rustles on high ;

18. E agi ma ofaga i Manu‘a.

It blows and nestles on Manua.
19, Ai lau tali mua ua uga.

My first answer is ended.
20. So‘u fai tala ia Manu‘a

Let me [now] tell the facts (‘tale’) about Manu‘a
21. I le Faletolu ma le Fiti-uta.

To Fale-tolu and Fiti-uta—
22. E te Aopo e, ma Asau,

You are a mixed travelling party ;
23. Tiga lou tala vavau

Notwithstanding your ancient tale
24, E te u‘u mai ia te a‘u

You will lay hold on me (i.e., Manu‘a)
25. E te fai matua i Manu‘a—

[For] your parents are in Manu‘a—
26. I Fongo-olo-ula ma Malae-a-Vavau,

In Fonga-olo-ula and Malae-a-Vavau,
27. Ma Sopoaga a le to‘elau.
And Sopoanga of the trade-winds.

O!

Such is the ancient Solo, but Tauanu‘u of Manu‘a the ‘fale-tala’ or
legend-keeper of Manu‘a gave the following as the popular way of
accounting for the name Savai‘.

“ Savai‘i and this Manu‘a are one ; for Le-Fatu and Le-ele‘ele peopled
this Manu‘a; they two begot I‘i and Sava—I‘i the girl and Sava the boy;
who peopled the island which ig called Savai‘i.”

He also stated that Fatu and Ele-ele were the first pair who came dow?
from heaven; that they alighted at the east end of the village of Tau at
@ place called Malae-a-Vavau, a few minutes’ walk from the teacher's
house there. They gave birth to a boy and a girl named Tidpa and
Valu‘a; these went and peopled the island of Savai‘i by giving birth to
girl I'i anda boy Sava; hence the name Savai‘i. Another acco :
Says that Fatu and Ele‘ele were the parents of Fai-malie and Fai-tama)
Vavau and Tele or Nu‘u and Tele, Mamao and Laveai or Ilu, Valu‘a and

|
.
|
|
|

AUSTRALIAN VEGETABLE EXUDATIONS. 393

Norges to No. XXXIX.
Line 1. Causing calamity; auma aaa causing mala’; that is, any one
am disrespect to this land will perish. -
ypo-le-Malama means ‘ Pf
ae: ae is one of the heroes of the ‘ War of the gods and Giants,’ q.v.
15. Level, lafa-lafa ; that is, the island has no chief of its own.
26. Fongo-olo-ula, ‘ face-of-the-red-fort’; Sopoanga, ‘ the passing over.’

CONTRIBUTIONS ro s KNOWLEDGE or AUSTRALIAN

VEGETABLE EXUDATIONS. No. l.
By J. H. Marve, F.L.s., &.,and H. G. Smira.

[Read before the Reyal Society of N. S. Wales, September 4, 1895. ]

Unper the above title we submit some notes on gums, resins, &e.,
which we trust will be of value, either because the exudations are
entirely new to science,! or because, if their existence has already
been recorded, their composition has not been determined. The
notes are of various degrees of fullness; in some cases the sub-
stances promise to be of such interest, that we hope at some
future time to deal more fully with them.
_ Exupations Deatt WitH—Guwms.

Bosistoa sapindiformis, F.v.M.; Rutacez. °

Melicope neurococea, Benth.; Rutacee.

Getjera Muelleri, Benth.; Rutacee.

Pentaceras australis, Hook. f.; Rutacex.

Capparis nobilis, F.v.M.; Capparide.

Acacia Oswaldi, F.v.M.; Leguminose.

Acacia retinoides, Schlecht ; Leguminose.

Acacia Bakeri, Maiden ; Leguminose.

ee
Ag the present paper all the exudations are new to science, except
of Eucalyptus Planchonia

394 J. H. MAIDEN AND H. G. SMITH.

Acacia Maideni, F.v.M.; Leguminose.
Albizzia pruinosa, Benth.; Leguminose.
Kinos.
Eucalyptus hemastoma, Sm., var. micrantha, Benth. ; Myrtacex,
Eucalyptus Planchoniana, F.v.M., Myrtacez.
Schizomeria ovata, Don, Saxifragew,
Gum-resin.
Medicosma Cunninghamii, Hook. f.; Rutaceze.
GuMs.
Bosistoa sapindiformis, ¥.v.M. (N.O. Rutacez).
Collected at Mullumbimby, Brunswick River, N. 8. Wales.

This gum, which is transparent and pale coloured, does not
wholly dissolve in water, although a large percentage goes into
solution after some time ; this is arabin. The insoluble portion
dissolves in a dilute alkaline solution, which becomes yellowish in
colour ; this is precipitated as arabin, thus the insoluble portion
consists of metarabin. There is no difference in the physical
characteristics of this gum and those of the other Rutaceous gums
described in this paper. Resin is absent. The amount of this
gum at our disposal was not large, so that it was not possible to
make further inquiries respecting it.

Gevjera Muelleri, Benth. (N.O. Rutacee).
“ Axe-breaker.”
Collected at Lismore, N. S. Wales.

This gum is in large tears of a light amber to light brownish
colour, transparent, with a very bright fracture. It is brittle,
and although somewhat tough, powders fairly well. The fine
powder, when placed in cold water, does not readily dissolve, nor
does much more go into solution on boiling. The aqueous solution,
when separated from the insoluble portion, has fairly adhesive
properties, although the viscosity is not very high.

The insoluble portion when treated with dilute soda solution
becomes yellowish and darkens slightly. On continued gentle
heating the whole slowly goes into solution. ‘The soluble portion

AUSTRALIAN VEGETABLE EXUDATIONS, ° 395

consists principally of the lime and magnesia salts of arabic acid,
as the arabin, when precipitated from its solution by alcohol,
heated with dilute sulphuric acid, the acid solution neutralised by
carbonate of lime, then precipitated with hot alcohol, yields a
filtrate which when evaporated to a syrup, gives arabinose.

The portion dissolved by dilute soda solution was metarabin, as
when dissolved it changes into arabin. This is precipitated from
the alkaline solution by the addition of alcohol. This precipitate —
when filtered off, washed with alcohol, dissolved in water, acidified,
and again precipitated by alcohol has all the appearance of arabin.
When this precipitate is heated with dilute sulphuric acid, treated
in the usual way (above described), a crystallized sugar is obtained
having the rhombic character of arabinose, and which when dis-
solved in water is dextro-rotatory. This gum may therefore be
considered as belonging to the arabin group, the portion not

soluble in water being metarabin.

This gum contained 17:23 per cent. of moisture, while the per-
centage of ash was only 1:94, which is low fora gum. ‘The ash
consisted of the carbonates of lime and magnesia, and a small
quantity of potassium; it also contained both sulphuric and phos-
phoric acids. The colour of the ash is white. It contains a small
percentage of albuminoids, as the presence of nitrogen was readily
detected by the ordinary method.

When heated with strong nitric acid a large quantity of mucic
acid is formed; as much as 29-98 per cent. was obtained from this
specimen. The method followed in estimating the mucic acid in
these gums, is to treat about two grams. of the powdered gum with
about 8 cc. of nitric acid in a beaker, gently heating until a clear
Solution is obtained. The heat is then slightly increased until
the greater portion of the acid is driven off; the remainder
becomes turbid. After standing some hours, to allow erystalliza-
tion to take place, about 5 cc. of nitric acid is added, the mucic
acid filtered off, washed with water, dried and weighed. The
filtrate (with the washings) is evaporated down, again treated

396 J. H. MAIDEN AND H. G. SMITH,

with nitric acid and the process repeated. A small quantity of
mucic acid is usually obtained in this second treatment.

The portion of the gum soluble in water gives only a small
precipitate with ferric chloride, nor does it give any marked
reactions with mercuric chloride, stannous chloride, or with a
saturated solution of borax.

The gum is interesting, primarily because it belongs to the
Rutacez, a Natural Order very few of whose genera have, up to
the present, been recorded as yielding gums. Commercially it
cannot be looked upon as a substitute for gum arabic or gums of
that class, as a Jarge proportion is insoluble in cold water. The
large percentage of mucic acid formed is very remarkable.

Melicope neurococca, Benth. (N.O. Rutacez).
Syn: (Bouchardatia neurococca, Baill.)
Collected at Lismore, N. S. Wales.

This gum is in large tears and globular masses of a light amber
colour, very bright and transparent looking. © It is brittle and
breaks with a very bright conchoidal fracture. It much resembles
the gum from Geijera Muelleri, except that this sample is more
bright in appearance. It also behaves in the same way in water,
a portion only going into solution, while the remainder is soluble
when heated in a dilute soda solution. The precipitates of arabin
and the formation of arabinose, are produced exactly in the same
way as described under Geijera Muelleri.

Our sample contained 14-68 per cent. of moisture and 2°54 per
cent. of ash; this ash is white, and consists of the carbonates of
lime and Magnesia, with sulphuric and phosphoric acids. Only 4
slight trace of nitrogen was detected, indicating the almost entire
absence of albuminoids.

The yield of mucic acid in this gum was very large, no less than
42°48 per cent. being obtained. This is remarkably high. Ferrie
chloride in the portion soluble in water gave no precipitate, and

only darkened the solution slightly. Other reagents gave 9°
results,

oh ee oe

os

Lee at al Oe oe ee ie i ahi OR ai ss Sgt Li Ca

f
.
x
.
;
:
.
:

AUSTRALIAN VEGETABLE EXUDATIONS. 397

Pentaceras australis, Hook.f. (N.O. Rutacez).
“Serub Hickory.”
Collected at Mullumbimby, Brunswick River, N. S. Wales.

The colour, appearance, and physical characteristics of this gum
almost exactly resemble the gum of Melicope (Bouchardatia )
neurococca, with the exception that the tears are slightly longer.
Tn water a portion only goes into solution, while the remainder
is soluble in dilute soda solution on heating. The solutions give
the arabin precipitates, with formation of arabinose when treated
with dilute sulphuric acid, as described already under Geyera
Muelleri. A soda solution when heated becomes quite dark. No
nitrogen was detected in two determinations.

The gum contains 11-12 per cent. of moisture, and only 1:73
per cent. of ash. The ash is white, and contains the same con-
stituents as that of Geijera Muelleri. Ferric chloride gives no
precipitate and only darkens the solution slightly. The other
usual reagents gave no marked reactions. The aqueous portion
possesses little adhesiveness. The yield of mucic acid is very
small, thus showing an important difference from the other gums
of the Rutacex here described.

These three gums belonging to the Rutacew, viz, Geijera
Mueller, Melicope (Bouchardatia) neurococca, and Pentaceras
australis, resemble each other in a marked manner, by their
solubility in water and soda, low ash, brittle nature, and bright
conchoidal fracture, the latter differing from the other two by not
Containing albuminoids and giving only a very small quantity
of mucic acid on treatment with nitric acid.

Capparis nobilis, F.v.M. (N. O. Capparidez).
‘Wild Lemon.”
Collected at Woodburn, Richmond River, N. S. Wales.

This sample is in small particles, or small vermiform tears,
Semi-transparent, and of a horny texture, does not dissolve in cold
water but swells up to an enormous extent. On boiling, the
‘Particles partly disintegrate but do not dissolve.

398 J. H. MAIDEN AND H. G. SMITH.

In dilute soda solution it does not dissolve, but partly forms a
mucilagenous thick syrupy liquid, which is precipitated by alcohol
as a slimy mass, but no arabin appears to form even on long boil-
ing, neither does the solution become yellow with alkali. This
precipitate when dissolved by boiling in dilute hydrochloric acid
solution, is precipitated apparently as arabin by alcohol. The
original swollen mass is also dissolved on heating with dilute
hydrochloric acid, forming arabin, and is precipitated apparently
as arabin on the addition of alcohol.

The amount of material at our disposal was too small to deter-
mine whether arabinose could be formed by treatment with dilute
sulphuric acid, but the mode of formation, appearance, and
behaviour of the gum to reagents, indicate that it consists almost
wholly of pararabin, which does not form arabinose when thus
treated. From the above it will be observed that this exudation
resembles in its properties the gums of the Australian Sterculiacez.?

Acacia Oswaldi, F.v.M. (N. O. Leguminosz).
“ Miljee.”
Collected at Nelyambo, Darling River, N. 8. Wales.

This sample has all the appearance of ordinary commercial gum
arabic ; some of the pieces are colourless. In appearance, taste, 4
solubility and reactions with reagents, it differs in no respect from
gum arabic. It is however very acid in aqueous solution, and is
perhaps deficient in adhesiveness and viscosity to the best gum
arabic. It is identical with the gums obtained from several other
species of Acacia growing in the dry western portion of New
South Wales, which have great commercial possibilities, providing
they are obtained in sufficient quantities. It gave no precipitate
with ferric chloride, nor did it form a jelly with that reagent.
It became of a lemon colour when treated with dilute soda, it gave
- ho reaction with HgCl, nor with borax solution. This sample
when examined contained moisture equal to 15-307 per cent. and
ash equal to 2-21 per cent,

1 Of. Sterculia gum ; its similarities and dissimilarities to Tragacanth-
Occurrence of Pararabin in Sterculia Gum.—Pharm. Journ. [3] XX» 35)

AUSTRALIAN VEGETABLE EXUDATIONS. 399

Acacia retinoides, Schlecht. (N. O. Leguminosw).
Sample from Victoria, kindly sent by Baron von Mueller,

This gum is in tears of an amber colour, transparent, bright
and somewhat brittle. It dissolves entirely in water, the solution
being slightly tinged with brown. It is fairly adhesive being of
good viscosity. It gives a slight precipitate with ferric chloride,
and slightly darkens to a lemon colour when heated with dilute
soda. It may be considered a promising specimen of the arabin
gums, unfortunately the specimen we have is too dark in colour
to be of first rate quality. The other tests, usual with a gum of
this class, were not carried out on account of the small amount
of material at our disposal, as a portion was required for permanent
display in the Gums Collection in the Technological Museum.

Acacia Bakeri, Maiden (N.O. Leguminose).
Collected at Mullumbimby, N. 8. Wales.

Our specimens of this gum are principally in tears, very bright
and transparent, dark amber coloured, very brittle and bright in
fracture, It is entirely and readily soluble in cold water, and is
in this respect one of the best of the coast Acacia gums of this
Colony ; it is very adhesive and its comparative viscosity is high.
Unfortunately our samples darken much in aqueous solution.
The solution is slightly acid to litmus paper. Ferric chloride gives
*cream coloured solid mass exactly resembling in bulk and colour
that from A. Maideni, and it behaves in the same way as that
gum with a saturated solution of borax, mercuric chloride and
basic acetate of lead. Both these gums belong to the arabin
Sroup, and if obtainable in quantity would be of some commercial
Value. As far as our samples show at present, the gum of 4.
Maiden has a better colour than that or A. Bakeri, but it is
inferior to it as regards its adhesive properties. When warmed
With dilute soda solution, the aqueous solution of the gum darkens
*onsiderably - The ash of this gum is remarkable in that it con-
icc large proportion of manganese. It contains 15-2 per cent.

and 3-6 per cent. ash. von

400 J. H. MAIDEN AND H. G. SMITH.

Acacia Maideni, F.v.M. (N. O. Leguminose),
“ Broad-leaved Sally.”
Collected at Woodburn, N. S. Wales.

Our sample of this gum is in small pieces of a light amber colour,
rather brittle, with very bright fracture, but without the dark
brown objectionable portions so common in the Acacia gums,
especially A. decwrrens. When treated with cold water, almost
the whole of the gum slowly goes into solution, forming a very
pale coloured liquid which is very adhesive, of good body or having
a high viscosity. It is however, rather tedious to dissolve. The
solution is slightly acid to test paper. It forms a solid cream-
coloured jelly with ferric chloride, thus showing absence of tannin,
It does not thicken with borax solution, nor does it undergo any
change with mercuric chloride. It gives a precipitate with basic
acetate of lead. It gives a dense white precipitate with alcohol
in acid solutions. It slightly darkens to a canary colour when
warmed with dilute soda solution. It contains 16:15 per cent.
water and 4:67 per cent. ash ; the ash consists principally of the
carbonates of lime and manganese and potassium, with sulphuric
acid, and only the merest trace of phosphoric acid. The ash con-
tains fusible salts and is difficult to incinerate, it contains only

a trace of manganese.

Albizzia pruinosa, Benth. (N. O. Leguminose).
Usually known as “ Stinkwood.”
Collected at Cumbulum, near Tintenbar, N. 8. Wales.

This sample is in small amber coloured pieces, and is very much
admixed with woody matter. It is fairly transparent and breaks
with a bright fracture. It is only partly soluble in water the
soluble portion being arabin ; it forms a fairly adhesive liquid. It
gives no precipitate with ferric chloride nor does it form a jelly,
and only slightly darkens when heated with dilute soda. ‘The
insolwble: portion.ia:scluble in dilate alkalis, andvie pocnueee
as arabin on acidifying with acetic acid and adding alcohol.

nM ae 2 ea a

Be wer

AUSTRALIAN VEGETABLE EXUDATIONS. 401
Kinos orn ASTRINGENT EXUDATIONS.

Eucalyptus hemastoma, Sm., var. micrantha, Benth.
(N. O.. Myrtacez).
“White Gum,” “Cabbage Gum,” “Brittle Gum.”
Collected at Bungawalbyn, Richmond River, N.S.W., July 1895.

This kino is freshly exuded for the most part. It belongs to
the ruby group of kinos, being practically identical with the kino
of the normal species described in the proceedings of the Linnean
Society.

Eucalyptus Planchoniana, F.v.M. (N. O. Myrtacez).
We have two small samples. The first was received from
F, M. Bailey, ¥..s., Colonial Botanist of Queensland, and is of
Queensland origin.

When received, this kino was rather dark in colour, evidently
through having been collected some time. It is in small pieces,
Principally in portions of tears, breaks with a bright fracture, and
is shiny on the outside. It dissolves in alcohol to a clear liquid,
bright but dark, it is very tough and difficult to powder. It
belongs to the ruby group.

Our second sample collected on the Evans River, N. 8. Wales, -
is unfortunately also nota good sample for complete examination,
since it is old and much dried up, while phlobaphenes have
formed to a very large extent. From experiments independently
made it falls in the ruby group, being another addition to that
fairly large group of Eucalypts giving exudations that entirely
dissolve when fresh in both alcohol and water. We hope to obtain
a better specimen for further examination.

Schizomeria ovata, Don. (N.O. Saxifragez).
Collected at Evans River, N. 8. Wales.

1 Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales, (2) 1v., p- 614.
Z—Nov. 6, 1895,

402 J. H. MAIDEN AND H. G. SMITH.

- This exudation has the appearance of kino." When treated with
alcohol the greater portion of the tannic acid goes into solution.
This tannin gives a brownish green colour with ferric chloride,
when a fairly strong solution of the kino is tested, but on sufficient
dilution (in a very dilute aqueous solution), it gives a purple colour
with the same reagent; an aqueous solution of the tannin was the
material tested. The insoluble portion has the appearance ofa
gum, but is insoluble in water on heating until a small quantity
of dilute soda has been added. When the original substances
treated with water the tannin dissolves, while the gum remains
insoluble, but much swollen. This insoluble portion is soluble in
dilute soda, and is precipitated on acidifying the solution, or on
the addition of alcohol. It is thus found to be metarabin. The
reactions and composition of this exudation show it to be identical
with that yielded by the Ceratopetalums® and the exudations thus
confirm the affinities of these trees belonging to different genera
-of the Saxifragez.
Gum Resins.
Medicosma Cunninghamii, Hook. (N. O. Rutacez).
The tree is locally known as “Glue Gum.”

‘Collected at Mullumbimby, N. 8. Wales.

This is a red, brittle, resinous substance with a very bright
fracture, in small transparent pieces, and of a bright rather light,
ruby colour. It is very brittle and readily powders, the colour
cee CG OU) Se

1 A number of our Eucalyptus and _ —_—- exudations of
variable composition have been called “kinos,” because of their rese™
blance, more or less strong, to the en eout Rae of Pter
marsupium, known in medicine as “kino.” The use of the term is co
venient, and is used in these papers “ without prejudice.” It seems to™
-quite ee a Snags to coin anORHEr: term ~~ astringent exudar

tions the original

kino; we aleo look upon it as cundedeable, until very many more have
been examined, and before those who lay stress upon nom menclatare of
this kind are in a nese to select a suitable eh or terms.

2 Ob tions on the gums yielded by two species of Ceratopetalum—
Proc. Aust. Assoc. Aas. Sci., 11., 381, (1890).

os

0 Se epee LAP ES erd Re 8

AUSTRALIAN VEGETABLE EXUDATIONS. — 403

of the powder being a dark pink. It was apparently very liquid
when exuding, as the adherent wood and bark are varnished with
it. It burns with a very smoky flame, resembling ordinary resin
in this respect, and burns away almost without residue. When
treated with ether the resin slowly dissolves, forming a lemon
coloured solution. The powder acts in a very peculiar manner in
ether, agglutinating itself at once into an elastic ball which can
be stretched in the same way as caoutchouc, thus preventing the
solution of the resin in the interior portions. In rectified alcohol
the resin goes into solution, forming a bright orange coloured
liquid, the residue not agelutinating. When the resin has been
removed and the residue dried, it powders readily to a light brown
colour. The resin is of an orange brown colour.

The gummy portion, after thoroughly washing with alcohol, is
much swollen and somewhat elastic. When dried until of con-
stant weight it was found to amount to 20-02 per cent. of the
whole. The original substance in powder on being heated in an
oven until of constant weight, 2°14 per cent. was lost ; this was
Probably moisture contained in the gummy portion, as no volatile
oil appeared to be present. The resin when evaporated to dry-
hess and heated till of constant weight equalled 77-2 per cent,
While the ash only amounted to -2 per cent., so that the proximate
Constituents may be stated as

meth thc: ... 77:20 per cent.
Gummy substance? 20-02

Moisture, etc. ... 214 y
Ash deh vane ‘20 ”
99-56

: The gummy portion contains some albuminoids, as indicated by

‘Presence of nitrogen. The dried portion after separating ie
— 18 not soluble in water on boiling in any degree ; when boiled

a = dilute soda it becomes brown, but only a small portion goes

to solution, nor is it soluble in dilute acids. From the above it

404 J. H. MAIDEN AND H. G. SMITH.

appears that this insoluble substance contained in this resin is
a body of some interest, and when sufficient of the exudation shall
have been obtained, it will be desirable for its composition and
constituents to be determined. For the present we are only able
to describe it as ‘‘gummy substance” ?

The collector (Mr. W. Biuerlen) says that, when fresh, this
exudation is exceedingly sticky, hence the local name of the tree.
Tt is not abundant, but is widely diffused, and well known locally
because of its brilliant colour. It readily stains the fingers 4
vermilion colour, and that, when dry, it reminded him of grass-
tree gum (Xanthorrhea).

GEOLOGICAL LABORATORY NOTES—No. 1.
By J. Minne Curran.

[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, November 6, 189%.]

I—On Senentum Associatep witH Gop aNnp BisMvT#,

. From Mount Hops, N. S. WALES. ©

Some twelve months ago I received a box of gold bearing stone
from the Mount Allen Mine near Mount Hope, in this Colony:
The stone was packed loosely, and on opening the case, @ peculiar
smell suggestive of selenium was easily detected. The same odour
could be produced at any time by shaking the stones together.
The material is being mined for gold, and is part of an auriferous
belt of slate, interbedded with Silurian slates to the north of
Mount Hope. The slate is of a rich red ale colour, and splits
readily into laminae, which correspond with, or are gene
parallel to the original bedding planes. Occasionally strings
knots of a harder clay-slate occur, not so bright in colour, ©”
rather inclining toa chocolate brown. Through this last nodules —
of quartz are sometimes developed. So far no sulphides =

ad
but

GEOLOGICAL LABORATORY NOTES. 405

been detected in the stone, although there can be little doubt that
this oxidised lode-stuff has been derived from some form of pyrites.
The gold is noted as occurring in three ways.

1. In plates and patches spread out along the laminae of the
slate, appearing bright and burnished-like in lustre, but in thick-
ness hardly more than a mere film. 2. In specks and grains
associated with quartz. 3. In grains and irregular masses enclosed
completely in an aggregate of bismuth oxide and carbonate.

The selenium is irregularly distributed through the stone.
There is no character that I could recognise, to guide one in
identifying the portions richest in this rare element. Heated in
a closed glass tube most of the stone gives a black sublimate with
the characteristic odour of volatilized selenium. When the
portions of the stone richer in selenium are so treated, the subli-
mate shows a red ring, inclining to crimson below the black.
Any samples of the stone when rubbed briskly together emit the

h 1

char: istic di le smell suggestive of bisulphide of carbon.

Oo

The oxide and carbonate have evidently been derived from
some mineral not now determinable. It is probable that the
selenium and the bismuth existed as a selenide or a sulphide of
bismuth. This sulphide or selinide of bismuth was probably
auriferous, as in the case of the telluride of bismuth described by
Professor David and Mr. Mingaye.! As work is progressing at
the Mount Allen Mine we may hope for further information in

regard to this occurrence of selenium. '

IL—Oy a Grapurric Stare From Yaucocrin, N.S. WALES.

Graphitic slates crop out at a point about twelve miles north-
west of Yalcogrin Station. They are interstratified with slates
of Silurian age. These are again succeeded unconformably by
Devonian Sandstones and quartzites. The lustrous and polished
‘Appearance of the slate would lead one believe that it contained a
high percentage of graphite. It marks paper readily when

eae
1 Records of the Geological Survey, N. S. Wales, Vol. 1. pp- 26,29:

406 J. MILNE CURRAN.

abraided in the direction of its cleavage. The cleavage surfaces
of some of this slate are pitted with obscure markings which may

prove of organic origin. On analysis the slate gives 12:57 of

graphite.

IIT.—Anatysis oF WATER FROM WYALONG.

A remarkable feature in the Wyalong goldfield is the great
depth to which the prevailing rock, granite, is decomposed. Shafts
have been put down to a depth of one hundred and fifty to one
hundred and ninety feet through a granite decomposed in situ. A
tract of country of this description must absorb a large percentage
of the rainfall, with little chance of an outlet underground to
completely drain the saturated decomposed rock. Mr. Farant
Cox found a very considerable supply of water sufficient for a six

foot Huntingdon mill without making any impression on the

available supply. The water was highly mineralised, and as one
would expect, holds in solution magnesia, lime, soda, and potash.
A preliminary examination showed that the water held close on
2,000 grains of total solids per gallon. <A careful analysis in
duplicate was made by my former assistant Mr. James Petrie
and myself.

Analysis of water from shaft at Cox’s Huntingdon Mill, Wyalong-
‘ ; es

Silica 268
Alumina a be 3°052
Lime... bes ae = in 343048
PO eh iege: es Oe
Soda... os iis as ... 651:236
Potash se oe a nie 6°188
Sulp. trioxide bed ... 192-430
Chlorine... ... 924-784

Water of crystallisation... ... 209°300

Less O equiv. of Cl. ve sae 208'38

hear ie

EE Re eb ES Oe eR ee Rigg ae SENAY FS Gea Wee ae gee <.

Rl eat ue xs

a ee TR, ee ee Oe Ne ee ee Cn eee a a pe ee re —_

_ GEOLOGICAL LABORATORY NOTES. 407

The water contained traces of zinc and large quantities of
“soluble” organic matter. The large percentage of sodium and
chlorine opens up the question as to whence this sodium chloride

—as it exists in the water—was derived.

TV.—On tue TRACHYTES OF THE CANOBLAS AND THE WARRUM-
BUNGLE MOoUNTAINS.

The first reference to a trachyte from the Warrumbungle
Mountains that I can find is a note by the writer.’ “This typical
trachyte was described as coming from Timor rock, Subsequently
a trachyte from the Coonabarabran district was described by Mr.
G. W. Card.2- I do not know that any record has been made
hitherto of a trachyte from the Canoblas near Orange. About
six miles west of Coonabararan there is an isolated hill some eight
to nine hundred feet in height. The weathering of the rocks on
its sides is quite suggestive of the trachytes of the Drachenfels.
The base of the hill is composed of a grey trachyte that in hand
Specimens shows a mottled appearance. Under the microscope
the rock shows an abundance of sanidine, and the mottling is due
to aggregates of ‘‘ blue hornblende ” that abound in the rock. An
exactly similar rock is found on the Canoblas near Orange, on the
eastern slopes of the mountain above Mr. George Plowman’s farm.
Both at Timor and on the Canoblas I have seen sufficient to con-
vince me that these trachytes are older than the basalts and more
basic lavas that abound in those districts.

About half way up Timor the character of the trachyte changes.
The rock is there of a dull green colour with a shade of yellow.
Abundant needles of sanidine are seen glistening in the rock.
The microscope shows a decided flow structure, and a constitution
corresponding to a typical trachyte.

About ten miles to the north of Coonabarabran there is a hill
of a compact trachyte that breaks with a fracture not unlike
quartzite. Under the microscope the rock shows as composed

Proceedings Linnean Society, N. 8. Wales, Vol. 1x., p- 467, Series 2.
2 Records of the Geological Survey of N. S. Wales, Vol. 1v., p- 115, pl. x-

408 J. MILNE CURRAN.

almost wholly of sanidine, so disposed as to be described as a pan-
idiomorphic sanidine trachyte. I exhibit micro-photographs of
the rock herewith. Some of the Canoblas rock resembles this
trachyte. On the western slopes of the Canoblas a wall of trachyte,
standing some fifty feet above the surface, can with difficulty be
distinguished from the same rocks at Coonabarabran.

Associated with the trachytes of Timor is a rock that I can
only describe as an enstatite-andesite. A rock similar to this
too is largely developed on the Canoblas. I am at present
engaged on an exhaustive examination, chemical and microscopical,
of the rocks mentioned herein, and take this opportunity to record
their occurrence, and exhibit characteristic photographs.

In addition to the rocks named, I exhibit a fine specimen of the
acidic lava known as rhyolite from the Canoblas. It is the first
example I have met of a rhyolite in situ amongst Tertiary rocks
in Australia. Rolled blocks of a somewhat similar rock are
found in the Tumberumba valley.

Ox THE OCCURRENCE or ARTESIAN WATER in ROCKS
OTHER THAN CRETACEOUS.
By Epwarp F. Prrraay, A.R.8.M., Government Geologist, N.S.W.

[Read before the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, December 4, 1895.]

In September last I had the honour to report, to the Hon. the
Minister for Mines, the discovery of paleontological evidence
proving that artesian water occurs in rocks of greater age than
the Lower Cretaceous sediments, to which it had hitherto been
supposed to be confined, and the object of the present paper is ©
place upon the records of this Society a brief account of the facts
referred to, together with some additional evidence gathered dur

i
.

ARTESIAN WATER IN ROCKS OTHER THAN CRETACEOUS. 409

ing a recent trip through parts of Queensland and New South
Wales.

The railway now in course of construction between Narrabri
and Moree passes over black-soil plains, on which there is no
permanent water supply which could be utilised for the locomo-
tives, and it was an enquiry by the Railway Commissioners as to
whether there were any prospects of obtaining artesian water at
Woolabrar, on Dobikin run, about midway between Narrabri and
Moree, which led to my making an examination of this country.
The rocks penetrated by wells on the Dobikin run were found to
consist of white and greyish sandstones, bluish-grey sandy shales,
brownish clays, and nodules of clay ironstone. <A characteristic

feature of these sediments was that they crumbled or became

disintegrated freely on exposure to the atmosphere, owing no
doubt to the quantity of water contained in them. In these rocks
were found numerous plant impressions, amongst which Z'eniop-

_ teris Daintreei, (McCoy), a fossil plant characteristic of the

Mesozoic coal measures of Victoria, the Clarence River series of
New South Wales, and the Ipswich coal measures of Queensland,
Was readily recognizable. Another plant from this locality was
identified by Mr. W. §, Dun, Assistant Palontologist to the
Geological Survey, as belonging to the genus Baiera.

: Similar rocks were observed on the Terry-Hie-Hie run, about
twenty-five miles to the north-east, and still further north at an
old shaft known as Moloney’s well, fourteen miles east of Moree,
Teniopteris Daintreei was again obtained. On arriving at Moree
40 examination of the drillings showed that, in their lithological
characters, the rocks penetrated by the bore very strongly
fesembled those met with at Dobikin and Terry-Hie-Hie, and a
Subsequent examination of the contents of the core-box in Sydney,
nabled me to detect Teniopteris Daintreet in one of the few
Solid pieces of rock which had been obtained by ‘ reaming,’—the
Sreater part of the drillings having been extracted in a fine
Hi of division, owing to the percussive action of the Canadian

410 EDWARD F, PITTMAN.

The evidence thus obtained proves beyond doubt that the Moree
bore, which yields about three million gallons per day of artesian
water of very good quality, is not in the Lower Cretaceous rocks
as was previously supposed, but in rocks of the same age as the
Ipswich beds of Queensland, the coal measures of Victoria, and
the Clarence River coal measures of New South Wales.

In subsequently examining the core-box from the Coonamble
bore, I identified, in a solid piece of ‘reamings,’ a specimen of
Teniopteris Daintreei, and one of Thinnjeldia odontopteroides,
Morris, another fossil plant characteristic of the Hawkesbury
series, which are regarded as homotaxial with the Clarence series.
The Coonamble bore yields a supply of about one million, eight
hundred thousand gallons of artesian water per day.

On the 20th J anuary, 1894, a paragraph appeared in the Daily
Telegraph, Stating that the Revd. J. M. Curran had furnished a
report to the Minister for Works to the effect that in his opinion
the rocks pierced by the Coonamble bore were Triassic and not .
Cretaceous, Enquiries recently made at the Works Department
elicited the reply that no such written report had ever been
received from Mr. Curran, but I understand that our respected
President, Professor David, questioned Mr. Curran at the time,
as to his reasons for supposing these rocks to be Triassic, and his
reply was that although he had no definite paleontological proof
of the age of the rocks, his opinion was based upon their lithological
resemblance to those of the Dubbo district with which he was
familiar, and upon the occurrence of a number of indeterminable
plant remains, similar to those common in the Dubbo beds.

Tn 1891, Mr. Robert Etheridge, Junior, identified a specimen
of Teniopteris Daintreei from the N yngan bore, and during the
present year, Mr. W. S. Dun recognized another specimen of the
same fossil plant in some rocks forwarded by Mr. W. L. R. Gipps
from Terabile Creek, four and a half miles from the Castlereagh
River. :

It is clear therefore that a large portion of the area hitherto
regarded as Lower Cretaceous, is in reality occupied by rocks of

ARTESIAN WATER IN ROCKS OTHER THAN CRETACEOUS, 411

Triassic or Jurassic age, and it is also proved that these rocks are
artesian-water-bearing, and that they extend much farther to the
eastward than the eastern boundary of our artesian basin, as
tentutively laid down on the geological map of the Colony. It
may here be remarked that it is only by information derived from
bores and wells that the age of the underlying formations can be
determined in most of the country hitherto referred to, for the
reason that it consists of plains, the surface of which is covered
by Plei$tocene and recent deposits.

Ihave recently returned from a trip through part of Queens-
land, and that portion of New South Wales lying to the north
and north-west of Inverell, the object of my visit being to trace
and map the eastern boundary of this newly discovered artesian-
water-bearing basin. I find that on the Dumaresq River (the
northern boundary of the Colony), it passes about fifteen miles to
the west of Texas, and [ have, so far, traced it in a more or less
south-westerly direction to the neighbourhood of Wallangra, the
dip of the beds being to the west or south-west. If this boundary
be assumed to continue so as to take in the Coonamble and.
Nyngan bores, it will easily be realized that a very considerable
addition must be made to the area of the New South Wales
artesian basin as hitherto shown on our geological map.

But if the discovery of artesian water in rocks of Triassic or
Jurassic age be a matter of importance to New South Wales, it
is, I think of still greater importance to the colony of Queensland.
mr Fe. 1, Jack, the Government Geologist of that Colony, and
his assistant, Mr, A. Gibb-Maitland, were engaged, during the year
1894, in mapping the outcrop of the basal or intake beds of the
Lower Cretaceous basin of Queensland. They found these beds
to consist of very porous (bibulous) marine sandstones which Mr.
: ack has named the Blythesdale Braystone, and which he described
in detail in a very interesting paper read before the Australasian
Association for the Advancement of Science, at its Brisbane
ieeting in January last. Specimens of this Blythesdale PRY:
also “ Artesian Water in the Western Interior of Queensland,”

! See
Bulletin No, 1—Geological Survey of Queensland, 1895

412 EDWARD F. PITTMAN.

stone are exhibited on the table. The outcrop of this rock was
traced from near Texas to Roma, following a more or less north-
westerly course, but overlaid in places by the Desert Sandstone,
(Upper Cretaceous).

The most southerly portion of this outcrop is described by Mr.
Jack as differing somewhat from the typical Blythesdale Braystone
as seen on the Weir River, and at Roma and other places further
northward. The rock to the west of Texas is a gritty sandstone,
and it contains cementing material, which appears to be absent
from the typical Braystone ; the latter is also, asa rule, much
finer grained.

I have inspected the Braystone beds in the neighbourhood of
Roma and Blythesdale, and I have also seen the sandstones fifteen
miles west of Texas, and am strongly of opinion that the latter
belong to freshwater beds of Triassic or Jurassic age—in other
words to the Ipswich measures, and not to the marine beds of the —
Lower Cretaceous (Blythesdale Braystones). I have, as already
stated, traced these gritty sandstones without any sign ofa break
in their continuity, from the point fifteen miles west of Texas to
Wallangra, and from the spoil heap of a well, ninety feet deep,
twelve miles south-west of Yetman, I have obtained impressions
of the fossil plant Teniopteris Daintreei. Samples of the sand-
stones from the west of Texas, and from the south of Yetman are
exhibited for comparison.

In his paper read before the Australasian Association for the
Advancement of Science, Mr. Jack describes the Blythesdale
Braystones as the intake beds of the Cretaceous basin, but he adds
that he strongly suspects they “‘ may be reinforced by the agency
of strata geologically on a lower horizon.” He goes on to S4J;
“Till lately the best information available led me to the belief
that the Trias-Jura formation, or Ipswich coal measures was aa:
ceeded conformably by the Lower Cretaceous or Rolling Downs
formation, but in the last trip I have seen unmistakable evidenc?
of an unconformability between them. It may be that the bibulous

ARTESIAN WATER IN ROCKS OTHER THAN CRETACEOUS. 413

lower members of the Cretaceous rest directly on sandy members
of the Ipswich coal measures which dip in the same direction. In
this case the sandstone beds above the Toowoomba basalts, and
the Murphy’s Creek beds below, would feed the Blythesdale
Braystones, and still further tend to equalize the supply by mak-
ing good the loss entailed by the supposed connection of the latter
with the ocean.”

Up to the present time, however, no bores in search of artesian
water have been put down in the Trias-Jura rocks of the Downs
to the north-east of the line of outcrop of the Blythesdale Bray-
stone. Two bores have been put down in the Ipswich coal
measures to the east of the Dividing Range, but neither of them
was very successful. The site of one of these bores was Eagle
Farm, near Brisbane racecourse, and here an artesian supply of
about eight thousand gallons of inferior water per day was
obtained. The other bore was at Laidley, fifty-one miles west of
Brisbane, and it did not result successfully, so far as obtaining an
artesian supply. It appears to me, however, that the positions of
both these bores were unfavourable. The coal measures at Eagle
Farm appear to be, to all intents and purposes, isolated from the
main body of the Ipswich coal measures which underlie the Downs;
fora large part of the city of Brisbane is built upon hills of
paleozoic schists, against which the coal measures thin out, and
which act as a barrier between those on the east, and those on
the west of Brisbane; the Laidley bore, also, does not appear to
be favourably situated, when its altitude and that of the intake
beds are taken into consideration.

With the country, however, to the west of Toowoomba, the
conditions appear to me to be very different. Murphy’s Creek
railway station, to the east of Toowoomba, is 788 feet above sea
level, and from there up to the top of the Dividing Range near
Toowoomba, are seen, at elevations increasing up to about 2,000
feet, outcrops of sandstones of the Trias-J ura formation, with some
Supposed interbedded lavas. Some of these sandstones, (samples
of which are exhibited) are very porous, and are therefore well

414 EDWARD F. PITTMAN.

adapted to act as intake beds for artesian water. Their dip is to
the west, under the Downs, at angles varying from 2° to 20°, and
_ the rainfall over the area of their outcrop is high, being about
forty inches per annum. Oontinuing now along the western
railway line we find that there is a gradual fall in the surface of
the Downs between Toowoomba and Roma, which is situated
two hundred and seventeen miles further west. Thus while the
altitude of Toowoomba railway station is 1,921 feet, that of Roma
is 978 feet! The altitude of Gowrie Junction, only seven miles
west of Toowoomba is 1,577 feet, or only slightly more than that
of Spring Bluff, where the porous sandstone, a specimen of which
is exhibited, outcrops.

It appears to me, therefore, that there is an area of country
having a width of about two hundred miles and lying to the east
of the outcrop of the Blythesdale Braystone, which, though
hitherto unprospected, possesses all the conditions which are
regarded as necessary to the occurrence of artesian water, and in
view of the recent discovery of a fine supply at Moree, in rocks
of the same age as the Ipswich coal measures, I am of opinion
that the probabilities of artesian water being obtained in large
quantities, to the east of the outcrop of the Blythesdale Braystone,
Are very strong indeed.

T have already quoted from Mr. Jack’s paper read before the
Brisbane meeting of the Australasian Association for the Advance
‘ment of Science, in which he drew attention to the porous nature
of certain beds in the Trias-Jura formation, and to the probability
of the water absorbed by them reinforcing the artesian supplies
of the Lower Cretaceous formation. I not only concur in this
' opinion but would even go so far as to suggest that the spi
Strata of the Trias-Jura formation may constitute the chief storage
beds of the artesian water supply of Australia.

I am inclined to think that many of the successful bores in
both New South Wales and Queensland may have obtained their
pnts Har or eee RE aes ee

1 Queensland Railways, Time Table.

Gere
uy

ARTESIAN WATER IN ROCKS OTHER THAN CRETACEOUS. 415

artesian water, not altogether in the Lower Cretaceous rocks, but
partly, and perhaps largely, in the underlying Ipswich coal
measures. Mr. Jack, in the interesting paper already quoted,
speaks of unmistakable evidence of an unconformability between
these two formations, and, in a sketch section, shows this uncon-
formability to be so strong as to interrupt the continuity of the ,
Trias-Jura formation ; but bearing in mind the very large area
which the Ipswich coal measures are known to occupy (with a
more or less westerly dip), in the eastern portions of New South
Wales and Queensland, and in view of the fact that at Leigh’s
Creek, near Lake Eyre, in South Australia, coal bearing rocks
have been identified by Mr. R. Etheridge, Junr., as the probable
equivalents of the Ipswich coal measures,! I consider that there
are good reasons for believing that these Triassic or Jurassic coal
measures may be con¢inwous under the Lower Cretaceous basin.

The occurrence of seams of coal in many of the artesian bores
in both Queensland and New South Wales, is also a matter which
appears to bear upon the probability that, in many cases, sediments
which have been regarded as Lower Cretaceous may really belong
to the Ipswich coal measures. So far as I am aware the Rolling
Downs formation, in those localities where undoubted sections
have been examined, is essentially a marine deposit, and it appears
More probable, therefore, that the coal seams intersected in many
of the bores, belong to the Ipswich beds, which we know to be
coal bearing, than to the Lower Cretaceous beds.

In the interests of geology it is to be hoped that bores will soon
be put down with drills capable of extracting a solid core, which
Would settle many of the vexed questions in connection with the
geology of our western districts.

' : rts on Coal-bearing area in neighbourhood of Leigh’s Creek,
WHY. L, Brown, Government Geologist of S.A., Adelaide 1891.

NOTE ON THE ORIGIN OF MALACHITE.
(Observations made in an abandoned Copper Mine.)
By Epear Hatt.

(Communicated by Prof. LiversipG£, M.A., F.R.8., &c,)

[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, December 4, 1895.]

Ir is now generally conceded by mineralogists that the oxidised
portions of mineral lodes represent merely the weathered condition
of the originals, and that the oxide, carbonate and sulphate
minerals contained therein have been formed by atmospheric
influences alone. Very few men of experience in the every day
working of mines now think those influences to have been abnormal
at any time. All the phenomena can be explained by the changes
which are still going on, and present atmospheric conditions are
ample to produce the weathering seen at the largest of mines.
Such being the case, abandoned mines offer an interesting field of
study to a mineralogist, as their workings expose large surfaces
to the action of air and water.

Numerous as are the abandoned mines of New South Wales,
the number available for examination and likely to yield valuable
information, is small. This is due to two reasons; one is, that
the mines have not been abandoned long enough, and the other,
that most of the mines are situated in the eastern coast ranges
where the rainfall is high, and consequently the mines get filled
with water to a point very near the surface. It is obvious that
8 comparatively arid climate, or one where long periods of dry
weather alternate with intervals of heavy rainfall, is required to
produce large masses of oxidised ore bodies. Such a climate
obtains in our far western districts, and accounts for the largé
bodies of oxidised ores found at Broken Hill, Cobar, and other
well known places.

In such a climate oxidation proceeds very rapidly. Iron py rites
where occurring in large quantity will, in four or five years, al

NOTE ON THE ORIGIN OF MALACHITE. AlT

duce such a plentiful crop of crystals of iron sulphate that the
sides and floor of a drive will be covered as if by snow ; so much
so that the sound of one’s footfall is muffled as one proceeds.

The writer had occasion, a short time ago, to visit the abandoned
workings of a copper mine, and the observations made there are
the subject of this note. The mine in question is situated at
Girilambone, in the western part of the Colony, about one hundred
miles from the Darling. The ore occurs as a copper-bearing schist,
and where unaltered-is a bluish micaceous rock, carrying strings
and blebs of a pyrite poor in copper. Permanent water stands at
adepth of one hundred and eighty feet; above this level the
rock is soft and weathered, and the copper occurs as azurite and
malachite, with a little oxide of copper. Copper glance is said to
have been found there in the early days.

The azurite and malachite occur mainly as nodules of varying
Size ; these are not pure carbonate of copper, but are earthy, and
consist of portions of schist which have been saturated with the
jmineral, Malachite occurs also as narrow strings of pure carbonate
of the fibrous variety. It is to this I wish to draw particular
attention,

Between the surface and water-level a great deal of excavation
has been made in the schist, and these excavations can now be
examined in safety. Most of them have been standing so for
thirteen years past. The workings are very dry and crystals are
not very plentiful, but in one crosscut, where there appears to be
4 drainage channel, the sides and roof are covered with particularly
fine and long crystals of sulphate of copper and sulphate of iron,
Some of the crystals being an inch and a half long.

Further investigation shewed that the schist in the crosscut was
fall of crystals of copper sulphate. The crystals had formed in
the foliation planes of the schist, and were closely packed bundles.
of very fine fibrous crystals, completely filling the fissure. In
most cases the crystals were at right angles to the sides of the
fissure, but in some cases the fibrous crystals had become curved
As—Dee. 4, 1895,

418 EDGAR HALL.

and had forced a layer of schist outwards into the drive. The
crystals were of a brilliant blue colour, and of course were very
brittle, but in other respects the resemblance to fibrous malachite
as seen in the schist at other places in the mine was complete.

The resemblance at once suggested the origin of fibrous mala-
chite, namely, that it is a pseudomorph after sulphate of copper.
The ordinary text-books of mineralogy seldom hint at the method |
of formation of minerals, and in the case of malachite the writer
has so far been able to find only one explanation of its formation.
Frank Rutley' suggests that the mineral ‘“‘has in most cases
resulted from the percolation of water through copper-bearing
rocks, and the subsequent deposition of the dissolved carbonate
in fissures and cavities.” This explanation seems improbable in
view of the insolubility of copper carbonate. Watt? states that
the basic carbonate requires a pressure of four to six atmospheres
for solution in water containing carbonic acid. Such pressures
are impossible under natural conditions at the short distance from
the surface within which malachite is found. The deposition from
solution also presupposes the formation of the carbonate from the .
chalcopyrite which must have formed its starting point, and this
presents equal difficulties.

The production of sulphate of copper from cupreous pyrites is
the first and simplest result of oxidation, and from sulphate of
copper any soluble carbonate will, at ordinary temperatures and
pressures, produce a basic carbonate of the composition of mala-
chite. Verdigris, the product of slow oxidation of metallic coppet
in moist air at ordinary temperatures, also has the composition of
malachite, but it is hardly likely that the alteration of cupreous
pyrites will follow that route,

Given the oxidation of cupreous pyrites by surface influences
and the formation of fibrous crystals of sulphate of copper -
cavities of a lode during a prolonged period of dry weather, it is
easy to understand that during an ensuing period of wet weather,

Co

1 Mineralogy, p. 211. 2 Dictionary of Chemistry, New Edition.

NOTE ON THE ORIGIN OF MALACHITE, 419

the descent of waters from the surface charged with carbonic acid
and carbonate of lime, will change the sulphate crystals into
malachite ; and that this alteration will proceed without change
of form is highly probable. That this has been the mode of for-
mation of the fibrous malachite in the cupriferous schists of
Girilambone the writer has no doubt whatever, and he believes
that the explanation will hold good for all occurrences of the
mineral.

The following is suggested as the series of changes which have
produced the carbonates of copper :—

I. A period of wet weather during which the rocks and ore
formations within surface influences become saturated with, and
all cavities full of, water.

II. A period of dry weather. At first the excess of water
drains off rapidly, leaving the rocks merely wet all through. As
the drying proceeds oxidation of the damp minerals goes on very
fast and sulphates are formed. The flow of water is insuflicient
to carry these far, so they saturate part of the adjacent earthy
minerals, and also effloresce in cavities, particularly where there
is a current of air. Finally at the end of the dry period the sul-
phates will be left as such, forming quite dry mixtures with other
substances, and incrustations or crystals in cavities and fissures.

{II. Another wet period arrives. At first the descending
water permeates slowly and is saturated with carbonic acid and
soluble carbonates, the slow soaking of which over the dry sulphates
converts the latter into carbonates. As the volume of water
increases, the CO, and soluble carbonates become less, but the
sulphates will have been already converted into carbonates, so
they are not dissolved. Finally the rocks become saturated with
water, the wet period passes away, and another cycle of change
‘commences.

Every cycle will add fresh layers of carbonate to the incrusta-
tions, and fresh crystals to the fibrous bundles in the cavities,
Until at last solid masses of concretionary and fibrous crystalline
malachite result. 7

420 SIDNEY H. RAY.

A COMPARISON or tue LANGUAGES or PONAPE
anp HAWAITI. :
By the late Rev. E. T. Doane;
With additional notes and illustrations by Srpney H. Ray,
Memb. Anthrop. Inst., London.

[Read before the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, September 5, 1894.]

Contents oF Parr [

1. Introduction. 6. La directive.
2. Sounds. 7. Prepositions.
3. Syllables. Nouns.
4. Accent. 9. Adjectives.
5. O emphatic.
Contents oF Part II.
10. Numerals. 14. Verbal directives.
11. Pronouns. 15. Syntax.
12. V 16. Comparative Vocabulary.

13. Participles.

Part I.

[This paper was sent to me by the Rev. C. M. Hyde, D.D., of
the Hawaiian Evangelical Association in Honolulu. It was
written by the late Rev. E. T. Doane, who was for many years &
missionary of the American Board of Congregational Foreign
Missions, not only in the Caroline Islands, but also in the Marshall
Islands. Referring as the notes do, to a portion of the Oceanic
world which is comparatively little known, they will probably be
found of some value. Mr. Doane’s language has in a few instances
been abridged, but without in any way altering the views he has
set forth. My own additions are in every case inserted either
within square brackets or as foot-notes. Quotations from Alex-
ander’s Hawaiian grammar are distinguished by inverted commas.

§ 1. Inrropvction. ‘
Ponape is one of the most important islands of the Micronesia2
Archipelago. It claims this eminence not in population or 8°

5 OE

LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII. 431

graphical position, for there are other islands more populous and
of greater commercial importance, but rather in the language,
which is in vocables the fullest, and in grammar the most
complete.

Micronesia is situated in the eastern portion of the great
Malayan island realm, lying there as in a broad gateway through
which it has received the population which now covers its sunny
atolls and volcanic islands. It embraces three important groups
of islands, the Caroline, Marshall, and Gilbert, with not a few
widely separated coral islets. A fourth group, that of the
Ladrones, would be added had not its pure native population,
and so its language, been exterminated. The enumeration of
these different groups may suffice for any more definite deseription
of the whole archipelago, yet if more be needed, we may say that
the whole is grouped between 2° 8. lat. and 20° N. and 130° and
178° E. long. Within these lines two important tongues are
Tepresented : the one Polynesian which may be called the Poly-
nesio-Micronesian, and which finds its habitat mainly in the
Gilbert Group, taking in some atolls near the line, with perhaps
@ preponderating influence in the volcanic islands of Yap, the
Palaus and the Ladrones. The other may be called Malayo-
Micronesian, and is represented mainly by the dialects spoken in
the Marshall Group and the islands lying west of this, and
throughout the larger part of the Carolines, from Kusaie to Uoleai.
A paper prepared some time since treated of the relationship of
the Ponape to the Malay tongue.’ In this paper it is proposed to
take the same Ponape dialect and note what are its relations to
the Polynesian tongue, and especially to that spoken by the
Hawaiian people. Probably the larger number of those to whom
this question may be put as to what is this relationship would
reply, ‘Just none at all, or only that of the most nebulous sort.’
They would reply that in the migration of the people either from
fast to west, or from west to east, there is no connection between

heey two languages. One is Polynesian, the other Micronesian,

1 This has apparently been lost.

422 SIDNEY H. RAY.

would be the conclusive answer. Let us see what other answer
can be found.

In this research we begin with the rulers of all language, the
sounds, or the characters rather by which those sounds are’ set
forth. And here it may be remarked that all through this dis-
cussion the Hawaiian Grammar of Andrews and Hale’s work on
the Polynesian tongue will be our authority."

§ 2. Sounps.

The Hawaiian Grammar gives us the characters representing
the pure sounds of the language when first reduced to writing,
and as further distinguished from characters afterwards intro-
duced to represent newer sounds brought in by a wider contact
with the civilized world. There are twelve of these characters in
all, seven for consonants and five for vowels. Those for the vowel
sounds are the common European a, ¢, i, 0, u; those for the con-
sonants are the English A, &, 1, m, n, p, w. The vowels are almost
uniform in their sounds, Mr. Hale remarking “the changes that
do take place are occasioned not by different shades of sounds in
the vowels themselves, but by the influences of the consonants.”

Of the Ponape sounds and characters it may be said that the
vowels are far from possessing such uniformity. There are the
usual five long vowels, then as may short, then of the vowel 0
there are three additional sounds, of a one, of ¢ one. The con
sonants, however, possess much the same sounds as exist in
Hawaiian, thus: ng, .j, k, 1, m, n, p, 17, t.

Tabulated the two systems stand thus :—

ONSONANTS. sp cero
Hawaii. Ponape. a

rade : a a (long), & X (short, a (asu in nut)

ity ] rb e | é (long), é ei e (as in there)

,n. | m, n, ng. i 1 (long), 1 (sh ort)

Guttural k. ° ra) (Iong), : lag tlgte o (in or), o (im
Aspirate h. g | A ghee
Sibilant. | j z wong —-

: : Os el
I have added where necessary, a few notes from more recent works.

LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII. 423.

On this table it is necessary to remark that Hawaiian h is h
aspirate. Ponape possesses no such character, but h lene is not
an unusual sound. Both tongues are alike in the use of h, save
that occasionally the Hawaiian presses on it ¢ dental, Kawai
becoming Tawai, while Ponape softens & to ng, especially when
the guttural is preceded by its own letter. Thus rok ki is pro.
nounced rong ki. Hawaiian J often becomes 7. There is no
change in Ponape. M and n hold their usual powers in both
tongues.’ The labial p is also common to both, though p of Ponape
is often softened to m when p precedes itself. Thus kap pul (yam
soft) is pronounced kam pul. W in sound is common to both
languages, but in Ponape is unsatisfactorily represented by w.
J, t, r, find no place among the pure Hawaiian sounds, though
afterwards introduced. In Ponape ng is manifest and common ;
but in Hawaiian has passed into n.°

In the vowels there is a wider diversity between the two
tongues. This may be accounted for by the finer ear of the
Ponapean. His language is vocalic, but this fact is not a radical

break between the languages.

§ 3. SYLLABLES.
In Hawaiian a syllable may consist of a single letter or vowel,
thus :

a, prep. of i, adj. stingy.
a, to burn, as fire o, prep. of
e, adv. yes 0, to stab
* _ @, to enter u, to rise on tiptoe
i, to speak u, grief

All this is purely Ponapean ; thus:
8, pron. his i, sail u, to rise up

1The writer has not noticed the nasal m, represented in Ponape at first
Pe and now by mu. This sound is common in Melanesia.
The P onape j represents sounds which may be represented by the
atid in jump, ch in chin, and is nearly sh or ts. ae
with Onape has also the sound known as the Melanesian q (really kpw, bu
one of the elements obscured). It was written pw, mpw, now Pu

494 SIDNEY H. RAY.

a, but i, pron. he 0, locative
e, pron. he, she, it o, and u, a hill
In Hawaiian, again, a greater number of words is formed by

the union of a consonant and a single vowel; as, ha, ka, li, me,
no, pu, wa’! But this again is Ponape, thus, ka, la, ma, ta, ud,
pa, re, po.2 The great majority of radical words consist of two
syllables both in Hawaiian and Ponapean.

Haw. po-no, good, i-no, bad, lo-a, long, etc.

Pon. tu-ka, tree, na-na, mountain, ma-tau, ocean, etc.

The Hawaiian Grammar discusses the various ways in which
words are formed, some by doubling the first syllable of the root,
others by doubling the second syllable. It shows also thata
numerous class of words are formed by repeating both syllables or
by reduplicating the root, thus :

pala, to paint, pala-nala —lawe, to carry, lawe-lawe
pulu, wet, pulu-pulu helu, to count, helu-helu.

This is also characteristic of Ponape.

koma, to punish, koma-koma tang, to run, tang-tang
monga, to eat, monga-monga pe, to fight, pe-pe.

We need not dwell further upon this point. The Hawaiian
Grammar, however, notices as “a peculiar trait” of the Hawaiian
language, that a majority of words can be used as nouns, adjec-
tives, verbs, or adverbs. This “ peculiar trait” is also found in
the Ponape tongue, and the same is true of its parts of speech.

§ 4. AccENT.

The tone syllable of most Hawaiian words is the penultimate
To this there are a few exceptions. In some the tone falls on the
ultimate, in others on the ante-penultimate. Sutlixed particles
possess great power in attracting towards them the accent. This
is also the simple law of the Ponape tongue in its accentuation.

eee

i eae at 3
1 Four; a baler; to strangle; with; to belong; trumpet; time oF
season.

? These ; away; storm; what ; flowers or fruit; hand; grass smell.

LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII. 425

In almost the opening sentence on word-making the Hawaiian
Grammar states, “Every Hawaiian syllable ends in a vowel,” and
further, “No Hawaiian without a special effort will attempt to
pronounce two consonants together,” the one following the other.
As this is a very striking feature of the Polynesian tongue, is
there any feature in the Ponape corresponding to it?

In the first place a large part of the two-syllable words in
Ponape, begin and end with a consonant :
pit, quick, pit-pit mat, soft, mat-mat
tik, small, tik-tik mot, to need, mot-mot.

Now for a Hawaiian to utter these words would be very difficult
ae. to utter them as they stand, and so would it also be for a
Ponapean. But the language delights in soft sounds, and the
Ponapean delights in the legato. For him to say tik tik, mot-mot,
mat-mat, with the full hiatus between the syllables would be almost
impossible, and he never attempts it. But skilfully throwing out
a string piece, a stretcher, as it were, or euphonic vowel, as tikitik,
motomot, matamat, he glides from point to point with the utmost
ease. Every Ponape word does not end in a vowel, as is seen in
some of those given above, but many Ponape words end in con-
sonants, which are largely semi-vowel, a great help to any vowel-
istic speaking people. From this we see how easy in a compara-
tive sense the Malayo-Micronesian dialects can be made to adapt
themselves to such organs of speech as the Hawaiian possesses,
and how near, too, the languages are in this ability to enunciate
them

§ 5. “O EmpHaric.

The Hawaiian Grammar opens the subject of etymology by a
description of the “O emphatic.” Its position in the sentence is
unique. Untranslateable as a particle, it is yet indispensable to
the language. Thus :

Make o kahekili ma Oahu. Kahekili died at Oahu.
Holo aku la o Lono. Lono sailed away.
Alaila malu o Maui. Then Maui will be at peace.

426 SIDNEY H. RAY.

This character without doubt is found in the Ponape dialect,
becoming not 0 emphatic, but.o locative, an office not very dis-
similar to its Hawaiian use. It is used to point out, or as one
may say to locate persons or things. Ofa canoe it would be said,
if far away, war o, the canoe yonder in the distance. So of a
man o/ 0, so of some subject under discussion which has been
remarked about, then dropped, the thought o. As a locative, in
the plural it is sutlixed to the root letter of the particle of plurality
kan, thus, k +0=ko or ako with prefixed vowel, and in use stands
thus: war ako, the canoes yonder, jop ako, the ships yonder, ran
ako, the days passed away.

In Ponape this particle often adds to its power of location and
becomes almost an adjective meaning ‘same,’ as war o ta, the
canoe yonder, the same one seen but alittle while before ; aramaj
o ta, the same person disappearing has reappeared ; ikaw ta, the
same cloth shown a little while since. Such are the offices to
which 0 locative is appointed in the Ponape dialect. Possessing
a little less or a little higher power than ‘‘o emphatic” in Hawaiian
no one would for a moment doubt but that the two are one and
the same particle. It was so recognised by the Rev. L. H. Gulick.*

[The Hawaiian particle o is of course the same as the common
Polynesian ko, Samoan ‘o, used principally with absolute nomin-
ative cases of nouns in an assertive sense. The only Melanesian
language which employs it in this sense is the Fiji, but as 4
demonstrative the word is very common throughout the Melanesian
region. Cf. N eugone, o re koe, the ship, a certain known ship 5
Aneiteum, aien aig ko, that same yonder is he, ko, an affix mean-
ing yonder ; Tanna, nadi igo, that thing, in igo, that there ; with
the Ponape examples above. Dr. Codrington? gives ko, ka or a8
a demonstrative particle in the New Hebrides, Arago and Santo;
in Bank’s Islands, Gaua, Vanualava, and Motlav. The Solomon
Islands Ulawa ho is probably the same. The Fiji has the particle

1 Ponape Grammar, p. 20.
? Melanesian Languages, p. 105.

LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII. 497

nasalized as nggo (qo) equivalent to “this,” or “here.” In Mota
it appears as an article o tanun, the man. |
§ 6. La Directive.
Closely allied to o emphatic, not in office but as an important
particle is the word Ja. In Hawaiian it is “‘a beautiful expletive”
accompanying all verbal directives. It is said also to have ‘a
slight reference to locality.” Its position in the sentence changes
the accent, 3
In Ponape the same particle meets us, not the same merely in
orthography but often in similar uses, as well as in dissimilar,
though the latter by no means negative its uses in similarity. In
Ponape Ja seems often in its uses to be merely an “expletive,” it
often has reference to locality, it largely affects the accent when
suffixed, but its more important use is as a directive, putting
things to the farthest extreme of time and space. It at times
seems to give to the verb a passive power ; thus, a me la, he is
dead, a o Ja, it is broken; but these passive sentences can easily
be referred to Ja as directive.
[The particle is of common use in the Polynesian dialects. In
Samoan /a is “ there,” and ra is used in the same way in Raro-
tongan and Tahitian. In Nukuhivan na is used like the Hawaiian
la, and the Mangarevan ara is used both of place and time. In
the Melanesian languages Ja is used as a demonstrative, chiefly
relating to place, pointing to an object as this, or that, to a place
as here or there. The degree of nearness or remoteness indicated
varies in different languages, but the demonstrative character of
the word is plain. In the following table I give a summary of the
forms found.
Simple—
1. Pointing near, (‘“this,” or “here”) Ja, Jo, le.
2. Pointing far, (“that” or “there”) Ja, lo, li.
3. Indefinite, Ja, lo, le, li.

Compounds with other particles—
1. Pointing near, ro-ne, ku-ri, ke-li.
2. Pointing far, ka-la, nia-la, ku-ra, re-k.

498 SIDNEY H. RAY.

The languages in which these forms occur extend from the Loyalty
Islands to the Solomons. In New Guinea and the Malay Region
* la is not apparent as a demonstrative, but is probably found in
the Malagasy iry, that afar, ary, there. |

§ 7. PREPOSITIONS.

The prepositions of Hawaii and Ponape have much in common,
though in form they widely differ.

The Hawaiian are: a, 0, ka, ko, na, no, 1, ma, me, mai.

The Ponape are: en, ong, ni, iang, ki, pa, pan, ren, jong.

The Hawaiian Grammar refers to two classes of these particles,
the “simple” and the “compound.” The “compounds” are the
simple prepositions joined to other words, generally denoting place,
and they may be regarded as “adverbs of place.” The Ponape
also possesses compound forms, but in these the simple prepositions
suffix pronouns rather than adverbs, and they may be called pro-
nominal prepositions rather than adverbs of place.

The “simple prepositions” possess in both tongues the mere
office of “showing a connection and relation between other words.”

There are three features to be especially noted as common to
the two languages.

1. The simple prepositions are used to decline the noun and
pronoun. The Hawaiian noun is spoken of as declined, but it is
not declined in the proper sense of the term, 7.¢., by possessing
terminals to denote its relation to other parts of speech, as in
Greek, Latin or German. There is nothing of this. But these
simple prepositions come in, or some of them, to denote the rela-
tion of the noun, whether in the genitive, or dative, or other cases
As these are well marked by the preposition, the noun is spoken
of as declined, an expression proper enough if it be understood.
It has not been usual to speak of the Ponape noun as thus de-
clined. It has been described as possessing the three general
divisions, nominative, possessive, objective, but the last case boa
made to include the dative, accusative and ablative. This eit
of expressing the noun or pronoun arose from the fact that it 5

LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII. 429

very generally found with a possessive particle suffixed or prefixed.
It is not in this respect, altogether like the Hawaiian free, or
largely so.

In the Ponape almost every noun takes, as we have said, its
possessive. But with these attached particles the preposition
enters to play its part, and gives the cases—the Hawaiian noun
possesses, the Genitive taking en, of, the Dative ong, to or for,
the Accusative ong, to, the Ablative ki or pan, meaning by, and
further taking iang, ren, denoting with.

If then the Ponape noun is arranged with the prepositions as
in Hawaiian, we shall have it much the same. And this, it will
be seen is not a mere form, but because the conditions as truly
make for it as those affecting the Hawaiian noun.

2. The second point to notice with regard to the simple prepo-
sitions or some of them is, that they possess the power of marking
a shade of difference among persons or things, a difference which
the native mind is ever disposed to make. The objects of nature,
persons and things, animate and inanimate, are often the subject
of the narrowest distinctions. The Ponape mind has gone still
further and made sharp distinctions in articles to be enumerated,
and appointed class particles to designate them.

In the Hawaiian the two prepositions a and 0, while performing
their prepositional office, take a further duty, a will denote one
class of object, o another. As the grammar puts it “ whatever
relates to instruction, learning, work, food (and it may be added,
children) requires a; whatever relates to one’s own passions, per-
son, residence, clothing, takes 0.’

Passing to the Ponape noun we find the same method of mark-
ing the shades of difference, but different articles will be included.

1 This use of classiticatory particles is found also in Melanesian lan-
Suages. Cf. Codrington, Mel. Lang. pp. 242, 305. In New Guinea also
the numerals are preceded by words showing the kind of thing counted.

* Though called prepositions by Mr. Doane, these words may be shown
to be really nouns. Cf. Codrington, Mel. Lang. p. 132. They are the
only nouns which, in the Polynesian languages have retained the posses-

es.

430 SIDNEY H. RAY.

What the Hawaiian would put into one category the Ponapean |
would put into another. This will be discussed further on.

3. The third point is the distinction inherent in the Hawaiian
prepositions ka and ko. Their office is to express the possessive
case, or that case expressed by the apostrophic ’s in English, ho
ka hale, the house’s or that which belongs to the house, ko ke kino,
the body’s, or that which belongs to the body."

The Ponape impresses much the same law on the particle en,
using one particle rather than two. ‘The first office of en is simply
prepositional, to denote the relation expressed by the preposition
of. But it has a larger use, to give forms or turns to the genitive,
similar to the ka and ko of the Hawaiian. It does not as dis-
tinctly denote the form of the apostrophic ’s, but it does give
another meaning to the simple possessive. This will be more
distinctly seen in the examples of declension.

The singular noun with the prepositions will sufficiently illus-
trate the points under discussion.

Hawaiian—Ka HALE, the house.
Nom. ka hale, the house.

Doe , 0 ka hale, aka hale, of the house.
' \ ko ka hale, ka ka hale, the house’s.
Dat. no ka hale, na ka hale, for the house.
fi ka hale, the house
Acc.
| ma ka a. at or to the house.
Voc. eka hale, o the house.
mati ka hale, from the house.
Abl. < me ka hale, with the house.
| ¢ ka hale, by the house.
Ponape—OL, man.
Nom.—Nom. ol, man.
nn Gen. ol en, man of
Gen. en ol, na, a, of the man.
Dat. on ol, for the man.
Ace. ong ol, ni ol, to or at the man.
Obj. + Voe. of la, man 0.
Abl. ren ol, iang ol, with the m

Abl. pan ol, ki ol, jong ol, of or from the man.

1 Ka and ko are abbreviations of ka a, ke a, or ka 0, ke 0, t.€ the article
with the possessive words a and o

LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII. 431

Looking at the Hawaiian noun as thus declined we see how
completely this is done by the prepositions, and notice that the
Ponape noun may be declined in the same way. We observe the
force of the preposition en, and its twofold use. The first simply
denotes of, as man of, while the second use, of the man; or the
man’s denotes that which more particularly pertains to, or belongs
tothe man. Here we get much that is analogous to the Hawaiian
ka, ko, yet as we have remarked, it does not denote simply and
solely the apostrophic ’s. It may do so, but the idea is rather to
give a new form to the genitive. At times it seems to be required
by the peculiar state of the noun with its suffix or prefix, and
sometimes seems to be demanded to satisfy the ceremonial form
of address. But we need not remark further, the two forms exist
and hold much that is analogous to the Hawaiian ka and ko.

Then as to that other very peculiar and marked characteristic
of the two tongues, to denote “the shade of difference between
things ” in the Ponape the law is as marked as in the Hawaiian,
but in the Ponape it is expressed by the two particles na, a,
personal pronouns, rather than prepositions." Na equals a in
Hawaiian covering the possessive of certain things, while @ in
Ponape also indicates the possessive and resembles in its shade
distinction the o of Hawaiian. These words will be further
referred to under pronouns.

§ 8. Nouns.

We cannot better present these than by following somewhat
closely the order of the Hawaiian Grammar.

1. The Hawaiian noun takes both the abstract and the concrete
state, so also does the Ponape, though in the latter the abstract
is the more common.

a

1 Since these words correspond to what Dr. Codrington has called
Possessives (Mel. Lang. p. 128), and are used in Ponape with suffixed
Pronouns, like nouns denoting relationships and parts of the body, 0.9
nai, nom, na, etc., ai, am, a, etc., it would be more correct to call them
Possessive nouns. A is of general use; na is used of kava, sugar cane,
banana, dog, child, fowl and is of more limited application.

432

Examples.

Abstract

Concrete

SIDNEY H. RAY.

Hawaiian.

ka owaio, the truth

ka pono, the justice

ke kaumaha, the weight
ka ino, the badness
elemakule, an old man
luwahine, an old woman
halau, a long house

oopa, a lame person

Ponape.
pirap, theft
lamalam, purpose
likak, grief
toto, weight
kirip, unmarried person
peneinei, a married couple
tanipaj, a chief’s house
pokolong, a cripple.

2. The Hawaiian noun is often formed by prefixing a syllable
to the “radical form.” The syllables so used are, ma, na, po, ho,

o, thus :—

malu, shade, mamalu, umbrella
hae, to break, nahaehae, rent, broken

ino, bad, poino, unfortunate.*

Ponape observes the same rule but with different particles:

pirap, to steal, li-pirap, a theif.

patak, to teach, joun patak, a teacher.”

porone, to send, wan-poron, a messenger.

The Ponape particles most generally used are /i, jou, wat, aii,

ka, kan.

3. In Hawaiian person, number, gender, and case are not indi-

cated by any change in the noun itself.

Ponape.

The same applies to

4. The singular, dual and plural numbers are distinguished in
both languages, but there is no change in the noun itself, particles
of peculiar form being used.

5. The signs of the Hawaiian dual and plural are, (excluding
numerals) na, mau, poe, pae, puu.

abe es
1 Examples of this formation are not very clear in the Hawauan
m e words given are verbs rather than nouns.

2 The word jou is the Melanesian ta or tau, man.

Cf. jou n patak, map

of teaching, with the New Guinea Motu, ahediba tawna, teaching its ma”

LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII. 433

In Ponape the particles are, a, ka an (or keen), kan, kat, ka, ko."
Hawaiian na denotes indefinitely large numbers, poe is a sign
of plurality as indefinite, but is restricted to the set or company
of things under discussion, and is used more in reference to per-
sons and animals than to inanimate objects. Pae and puu have
much the same office of plurality as poe, but refer rather to col-

lections of things inanimate.

In Ponape, kaan (or keen) gives plurality, but with the special
idea of “repetition,” ‘‘rows.” Kan denotes plurality, any number
above duality. Kat refers to numbers equally as large, but they
must be things “at hand” in close proximity ; the particle does

not notice the kind of thing, whether animate or inanimate. Ka

is much the same as kat, but refers to objects or persons ata little
further remove. o still expresses plurality large or small, above
the dual, but has no reference to persons, Or things distant in
time or place.”
Tabulated the particles would stand thus :— .
Hawallan.

Na, plurality indefinitely large.
Pae, plurality of objects under discussion and objects inanimate.
Puu, nearly the same as pae.
Poe, plurality, relating to things under discussion, excluding all

others, refers to animate objects.

PonaPE.

Kaan (or keen), plurality, but things in rows ; ‘repetition.
Kan, plurality, all above duality.
Kat, plurality, but only of things at hand.

1 In Gulick’s Ponape Grammar ka seems to be used as a noun of mul-
ttn de. Ka’n im a multitude or collection of houses, (Cf. Fiji vei vale) a
village. Kan is not referred to separately, but is given as a ——
eae ne es cs Be is givea as a pronoun and referred to a
demonstrative kao.

2In Mortlock Island kana is the usual sign of the plural. In Ebon,
Marsh all Island, ko is used for the plural, except with names of human

gs.

-Ba—Deec, 4, 1895.

434 SIDNEY H. RAY.

Ka, plurality of things under discussion but a little more removed.
Ko, plurality of things under discussion, far removed, but animate

or inanimate.

The Hawaiian Grammar gives all the above particles as also
signs of the dual, adding to them the mau, as an expression to
denote a few.

The table shows how each language is governed by a common
law in expressing the dual or plural by particles.

6. Gender.—* There is nothing in Hawaiian to mark the genders
of nouns.” The real difference, existing in animate beings is
denoted by words expressive of sex. This is denoted by the words
kane, male, wahine, female.! The same rule applies to the Ponape,
the words used being ol, male, and li, female. In both languages
different words are use to designate the gender, as the words for

parents, children, animals or fowls.

§ 9. ADJECTIVES.

There is much similarity in the use of the adjective.
1. The Adjective of Quality.

Hawaiian—He manawa loihi, a long time. ‘

He papa makolukolu,® a thick board.
Ponape—Anjou uarai, a long time.
Par en tuka mejul,? a thick board.

2. Adjective of Quantity.

Hawaiian—He makani oluolu, a pleasant breeze.

Ka la ino, the stormy day.
Ponape—Ang tik, a light breeze.

Ran katawin, a rainy day.

be
1 Sam. tane, fafine, et
2 These words makolukolu, and mejul are representatives of a more 0°
mon matolu. Cf. Samoan matolutol, thick (pork), pore matotoru, Efate
»-matulu, Malekula, metetir, Epi, mererolu, Mota, matoltol. All of these
-words have the cnn prefix ma. Cf. also 8 pois tolo, the thick
“part of the body or

TE eee ep me eee

Wie ag a Sag QS ee a aCe ae eae

LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII. 435

3. The Adjective of Number.
Hawaiian—Lehulehu na kanaka, numerous people.
Na kanaka umi, the ten men.
Ponape—Aramaj ngeter, many persons.
Ol rick, twenty men.

The general law of the adjective of both tongues is, that it shall
follow the noun qualified. It is exceptional when it does not,

In Hawaiian the numeral is allowed to precede the noun. This
is at times the case in the Ponape, though usually the numeral
follows the noun, thus :—

Hawaiian—Zha hale kula, four school houses.
Elima la papa ka oleo ana, five days perhaps
the discussion lasted.
Ponape—Fan limau, five days.
Im patak wonu, six school houses.

4, In both languages a particle prefixed to an adjective becomes

its copula,! to express or affirm the quality of the adjective. In

. Hawaiian the particles are wa, he, thus :

wa ino, it is bad; wa maikai, it is good.
he ino, it is bad ; wa loiho ke ala, long is the road.
In the Ponape this equally marked, but only one particle is
used, thus :-—
me juit, it is bad ; me mau, it is good.
. rie ame Ll - os rs
me rai rai, it is long ; me tikitik, it 1s small.”

YE
1In these we probably have the remains of former verbal particles.
Cf. wa with Banks Island we.—Mel. Lang. p. 276.

2 Gulick (Amer. Orient. Soc. Journ., Vol. x., p- 30) regards this me as
‘the same as the Polynesian mea, thing, substance, any person or
mentioned ; me mau, thing good, or the thing (or it) is beautiful. There
however, very little doubt but that it is the particle ma or me, which

-s thing is—(Mel. Lang. p. 169,188). It seems possible so to regard it in
onape. Gulick states “Lt very commonly takes the power of a personal

did (it). Ape me koto, such aone has come. In this affirmative use,
may compare me with the m, me or ma so common in elanesia as &
sign.

436 SIDNEY H. RAY.

5. Comparison of Adjectives.—The three degrees, positive, com-
parative, and superlative, common to all languages are here
expressed much in the same way, though by different agents.

Particles are used in both languages to form these degrees, the
two latter especially. |

In Hawaiian the positive degree is the simple expressed subject,
long, short, white, black. There is nothing in the adjective to
express comparison, thus :

Hawaiian Positive, poko, short

Comparative, poko iki, short a little
poko ae, shorter (Jit. short really)!
poko iki ae, shorter still.
Superlative, poko loa, shortest, very short.”

In Ponape the order is somewhat different, especially in the
comparative. The positive simply asserts the long or short, the
good or bad, the black or white condition of things under dis-
cussion. The comparative appropriates the preposition jong, from
to express its comparison, as, this is white from, or whiter than
that. The comparative as in Hawaiian is often expressed by
simply stating that one thing is different from another, as, this is
long, that is short; this is good, that is bad. The superlative is
formed by suffixing the particle ia, and by taking a heavy accent.

Ponape Positive, mau, good.

Comparative, mau jong, better than (Jit. good from)
puot jong, whiter than (lit. white from)
Superlative, maz ia, best of all, supremely good.
|“ puotopuot ia, whitest of all.

etch tipoi sos eee
: 1 Ae in Marquesan a the force of the word to which it is added
and forms a comparativ

2 Loa, really means ae (of time and measure), here it means very or
excessive.

3 This is the common Melanesian Method. Cf. Ex. in Codrington’s
Mel. Lang. Mota, 0 qoe we poa ran 0 gasuwe; Maewo, New Hebrides, @ 4¢
u lata dan na garivi; Wango, Solomon Islands, bo raha bania kasuwe, & pig
is big from a rat; New Britain, ingala tadiat, it is large from thew.

LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII. 437

[Mr. Doane has not discussed the use of maj in Ponape with
the superlative. This word intensifies the quality or number
expressed by the adjective, maj totova, very numerous indeed,

_ majapueka, exceeding afraid. It is the same as the Duke of

York Islands and New Britain, mat and the Florida, Solomon
Island mata, and in these languages it is used as an intensive in
the same way. Duke of York Jiralira mat, very white, New
Britain [ gugw mat, he rejoices very much. The word is probably
the common Oceanic mata, eye, face, front, also used as an adverb,
before. |
Part II.
§ 10. NUMERALS.

The numerals are distinguished in both Ponape and Hawaii as
cardinal and ordinal. Hawaii also possesses distributive forms.
The first ten numbers stand thus :

CARDINAL. ORDINAL.

Hawaii Ponape. Hawaii. Ponape.
l. kahi at ka mua ka ati
2. lua ari ka lua ka ari

3. kolu ejil ka kolu ka ejil

4. ha apong ka ha ka apong
5. lima alim ka lima ka alim
6. ono auon ka ono ka auon
7. hiku a 3y ka hiku ka ej

8. walu aual ka walu ka aual
9. iwa atu ka iwa ka atu
10. umi- katongaul ka umi ka tongaul

In the formation of the ordinal, particles come into use which
are alike in form and office. In the Hawaiian it is the definite
article ka, in the Ponape the causative. In what we may call
the infancy of things, both were no doubt one, but in the lapse
of ages and wide roaming of the people from the home land they
became possessed of different powers. One people has taken ka
ee a ee

_} This ordinal is often ka moa, the first, before all others, the first in
Precedence.—Rev. E.T.D.

438 SIDNEY H. RAY.

for the definite article, the other has appropriated to it, the office
of a causative.

[The names of the numbers in these decimal systems are sub-
stantially the same in both languages, but the Ponape words for
four and nine, apong and atu are uncommon. These agree with
the Palau Islands awang, oang, four, and ettew, etew, nine, which
are probably only forms of the common wa, fa, and sia, siwo.

The Hawaiian kahi by a regular change of ¢ to &, and s to h, is
the common Polynesian tasi, which, though probably formed from
the root ¢a or sa, common in Melanesia does not agree with it so
closely as the Ponape at. The change of ¢ to k, and f to hin
_ Hawaiian, and of ¢ to 7 in Ponape show kolu and eil, hiku and ¢
to be the common ¢olw and fitw.

The ordinals in Hawaiian appear to follow the ordinary Poly-
nesian rule and prefix the article as in Maori, te tahi, te rwa, te toru,
Samoan ‘0 le lua, ‘o le tolu. The Ponape ka prefixed though
identical in form with the causative prefix may not be really the
same. In Fijiand other Melanesian languages, and also in Malay,
the ordinal is formed by a prefix ka or ke, ¢.g., Fiji karwa second,
Efate and Nguna kerwa second, kelima fifth, Malay kaduwa
second. In these languages ka is not the causative prefix and
hence the Ponape ka (and possibly the Hawaiian) may be of
similar origin to the Fiji ka. In Melanesia the causative prefix
usually forms a multiplicative numeral as in Banks’ Tslands.
vaga-rua, twice, vaga-tol, thrice. This form is also found as*
ordinal in some parts of Melanesia, but usually with a substantive
termination. In Malagasy also the causative faha forms a0
ordinal faha-roa, second, The Ponape ordinal ka moa shows the
word moa or mua, used in many languages of Oceania for “front,”
“before.” Banks’ Islands moai, first. |

The Hawaiian Grammar notes that “ Formerly, in counting,
the Hawaiians, when they reached the number forty turned back
and commenced at one and counted another forty, and so on till
they laid aside ten forties ; these ten forties they called a law,

LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII. 439

four hundred. It is a modern improvement that the word kana
has been prefixed to lima, ono, hikw ete. to express fifty, sixty,
seventy, etc. “At the present time the Hawaiian enumerate by
units, tens, hundreds, thousands. The words haneri, hundred,
tausani, thousand, miliona, million, have been introduced from
the English.

The order of counting by fours was as follows:

aha kahi = four units = 1 kauwna =

umi kauna = ten fours = 1 kanaha = 40
umt kanaha = ten forties = 1 law = 400
umi lau = ten 400s = 1 mano = 4000
umi mano = ten 4000s = 1 hint = 40000
umikini = ten 40000s = 1 lehu = 400000!

Turning now to the Ponape we find the same method of fours
in use. It is less perfect than the Hawaiian, but though simpler
was probably derived from a common system. The terms are as
follows :

Four units are termed at
Another art =

ejil =

mm © bo

apong =
alim = 5
This order is followed till the tenth number is reached which is
called forty. This order repeated gives 40 + 40 = 80, this repeated
_ again =80+ 40, ie., 120 and so on ad infinitum.
~ The Ponape system is the simpler of the two, but it seems quite
impossible that two peoples should have such a system unless they
held much in common to both.

au, Rarotong , also meaning 100. Mano is 1090 in Maor!, 2000
tongan and Tahitian, 10000 in Samoan, Tongan, and 4000 in Hawanan
and Marquesan. The Hawaiian kini, Marquesan tiui is 40000, but Maort

440 SIDNEY H. RAY.

§ 11. Pronouns.

The personal pronouns in these tongues are :

Hawatian. PONAPEAN,
Singular. Singular.
au, wou I nga, % I
oe you koe (komui, chief’s lang.) you
ia he, she, it i, @ he, she, it
Dual. Dual. :
maua (exclusive) We two kita (exclusive) We two
kawa (inclusive) We two kit (inclusive) We two
olua you two koma you two
lawa they two tra they two
Plural. Plural.
makou (exclusive) We kit, je we
kakou we kitail we
oukou you komail you
lakou they trail they

Tn the second personal pronoun the Hawaiian oe is Ponape koe.
In the third person ia is bisected in Ponape but intact in Hawaii.
Both tongues have forms in the dual and plural to express the
inclusion or exclusion of the person addressed. All wear a strong
family look.

[The Hawaiian pronouns are substantially the same as in other
Polynesian languages. In the dual first and third persons wa is
an abbreviation of the numeral lwa, two. Similarly in the plural
kou, is an abbreviation of kolu, three, the common tolu.

The Ponape presents some differences which are worth noting.
Ngai is a Melanesian rather than a Polynesian form. In the
dual and plural %i, 7, may be regarded as demonstratives, and are
— similarly in many Melanesian languages.! In the plural @
1s an abbreviation of ejil, three.”

The root forms compared in che
two languages are thus :

peepee Spel 8

1 &. also the Tongan kimaua, kitaua, ete., Aniwa agimawa, agitawa. i
_? Cf. similar abbreviations in the Solomon Islands Languages.—
rington, Mel. Lang. P- 507, 512, ete.

LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII. 44}

FAs 1 .
Singular, Hawaiian aw, oe, ia Plural Hawaiian ma, ta, 0, la
Ponape i, koe, 2. Ponape f, ta, om, ra.|

With the prepositions the first personal pronouns are as follows: *

HAWAIIAN. PoNAPE.
Nom. au, wau I Nom. WVgaz, % a
Gen. o'u, au of me a (Gen. nat, ai mine
Gen. ko’u, ka’u mine [to me fy \Gen. en nai, en ai of mine
Dat. no’u, na’u for me, belonging Dat. ong ia for me
Ace. ia’u me, tome [of me Dat. ong, nai, ai for mine
Acc. mao'ula by me, by means Acc. ongia to me
Abl. mai o’u la from me Abl. rei with me
Abl. meau with me, like me Abl. pai by me as
Abl. ¢ aw by me as agent agent.

The chief features in the plural and dual are the distinction
between the exclusive and inclusive in the first person, but there
is no need to give here the full forms. The point to notice in the
declension of the pronoun is the distinction made in the use of the
genitive singular, and the agreement of the two languages. The
Ponape nai and ai of the first person, nom and am of the second,
na and a of the third, agree with the double forms of the Hawaiian
o'u, au, for first person, ow, aw of the second, ona, ana of the third.
The use of these may be sufticiently illustrated by the Ponape nat
and ai for the first person singular genitive. These words are
both suffix and prefix, at least ai is emphatically so, thus war a,
Canoe my, or ai war, my canoe; so also ai im, my house, im at,
ed house. The nai is more generally a prefix. It is doubtful if
* ever becomes a suffix, if so, only in a special sense. AS posses
Sive pronouns both are important, and it is in this pronominal
form that they carry the character of the Hawaiian prepositions
@and 0, and indicate the “shade of difference between things “s
which has been already spoken of (§ 7 Prepositions).

The Ponape a is the equivalent of the Hawaiian 0, and stands

as the exponent of all possessions, goods, lands, boats, canoes,
largely things with which to work, then relations, the brother,

442 SIDNEY H. RAY.

sister, uncle, aunt, parents, and wife. Ponape naz is the a of
Hawaii, and possesses a narrower range of service. It refers to
children, to servants, to trees and their fruits, to certain imple-
’ ments of work, and also to things which are highly prized. The
two pronouns stand thus in wide contrast, and may be thus illus-
trated : In what may be called the “stone and shell age” of this
people, the possession of a piece of iron hoop was of more worth
than its weight in gold ; and one getting possession of a knife, that
was a treasure indeed, at once addressed it as nai kapit, my knife,
but his wife at his side, a piece of property he could pick up at

any time or anywhere was addressed as ai paut, my wite.

We need not further illustrate this point, we only refer to it to
show how fully this idea of the different shade of things has
possessed the Ponape mind. It is as strong with him as with the
Hawaiian. But while the Hawaiian lets the preposition bear the
the office of expressing the “shade of difference,” the Ponapean
has passed it on to the personal pronoun.

We may perhaps say here all that is needed to be said on the
prefixed pronoun of the Hawaiian. It is simply the inferior
brought to the front, made to face about and take a new position;
he aina.o’u, the land of mine; he kapa o’u, the cloth of mine

become ko’u aina, my land; ko’w kapa, my cloth.

Now as we have intimated above in the remarks on nai and a,
Ponape possesses the same order, sometimes a prefix, sometimes 4
suffix. But the change cannot be so fully made as in the Hawaiian,
for certain articles are restricted to either the suffix or prefix, but
apart from this the idea is the same.

[The distinction made between nouns when used with the
possessive pronoun, or rather the difference made in the pronouP
when used with certain nouns, though obscure in the Ponape and
Hawaiian may be clearly understood by reference to the Melanesian
languages. In these certain nouns are used with a pronouD suf-
fixed, others require a particular form of possessive word to be
used with them, and the latter can always be shown to consist of

LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII. 443

another noun with a suffixed pronoun. Thus taking examples
from Mota of Banks’ Islands and from Fiji, we have :

1. Mota -%, Fiji nggu, used as suffixed pronouns to names of
parts of the body and relationships: gatu-k, ulu-nggu, my head,
tama-k, tama-nggu, my father. The Ponape suffixed pronoun is
also used with the same kind of nouns: mong-ai, my head, jam-ai,
my father. So also other Micronesian languages: Gilbert Islands
atu-ku, tama-ku, Marshall Islands bor-a, jem-a. No examples of
this construction are found in the Polynesian languages.

2, In Mota ‘my garment’ is no-k siopa, Fiji, no-nggu isulu,
where no is plainly a noun used with the same pronouns suflixed
asin the previous examples. If no be translated “ thing” or
“property,” the literal construction is my-thing (a) garment, and
the Ponape nai (na-ai) kapit, my knife is of the same form. The
Hawaiian ko’ kapa, my garment is in Maori toku kakahu, and
in these the wand ku are suffixed pronouns, being in fact of
identical origin with the Mota, Fiji and Gilbert Island forms given
above. The Hawaiian k, and Maori ¢ represent the articles ke
and te. Hence theo in Maori and Hawaiian may be regarded as
of the same use as the Mota and Fiji no or the Ponape na. The
construction is identical in the Melanesian, Micronesian and
Polynesian tongues.

3, It is probable that the Ponape prefix possessive a7 is distinct
from the suffix ai, and that the pronoun is really 7. (C/. the pre-
Positions rei, with me, ren, with him, pai, with me, pan, with

§ 12. VERBS.

1. The Hawaiian verb as shown in the grammar is certainly
elaborate when compared with that of Ponape. Possessing about
"8 Many moods, the tenses are more numerous and fuller, so are
the causative forms. The passive voice is more perfect. Whether
we may call it “philosophical for a language to agglutinate to
— SO many particles to explain the various shades of thought
needing to be expressed, when the same particles in their tense

444 SIDNEY H. RAY.

use often exchange themselves one for the other, may be question-
able.” But for the “philosophy of things we are not seeking.”
As a first remark upon the verb we may say, in almost the open-
ing sentence of the Author of the Hawaiian Grammar, “in com-
parison with European languages the Hawaiian verb has many
peculiarities. In every full sentence of these languages a verb is
necessary to complete the idea intended. No so in Hawaiian ;
some of the most common, clear, and strong affirmatives are fully
expressed without any verb.” This feature is also characteristic
of the Ponape verb.

2. We will here group as far as we can all that is said ina

preliminary way of the verb.

(1) The grammar states: In Hawaiian a verb is not necessary
to complete the idea. This, as stated above is true also of
the Ponape sentence.

(2) In Hawaiian there is no verb to express the idea of existence
or being. This is expressed by particles, and by the pro-
noun in the nominative or objective cases. Ponape has
the same use.

(3) There are no verbs in Hawaiian (and also in Ponape) to
aflirm the quality of a substance, this being done by
adjectives, nouns or pronouns.

(4) The verbs ‘to possess,’ ‘to have,’ in the Hawaiian are want-
ing, equally so in Ponape.

(5) The verbs to express duty or obligation are wanting in
Hawaiian and also in Ponape.

(6) There are no variations of the Hawaiian verb to express
number or person, neither are there any in the Ponape.
In both languages the pronoun expresses these, and more
distinctly than the noun.

3. We here reach what may be called the “accidents of the

verb,” and will now give the verb as affected by these. In the

three numbers, singular, dual, and plural, the paradigm ee
follows :—

Re ee

ee ee Oe SA ee ee ee

LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII. 445

HAWAIIAN. PoNnAPE.
Hele, go. Tang, run.
Singular. Singular.
Ist Person hele au, I went ngai tang, I ran
2nd Person hele oe, You went koe tang, You ran
8rd Person hele ia, He went a tang, he ran
Dual.
1st Pers. (excl.) hele maua, we two went kit tang, we two ran
Ist Pers. (incl.) hele kaua, we two went kita tang, we two ran
2nd Person hele olua, you two went koma tang, you two ran
3rd Person hele laua, they two went _— ira tang, they two ran
: Plural.
Ist Pers. (excl.) hele makou, we went kit tang, we ran
1st Pers. (incl.) hele kakou, we went kitail tang, we ran
2nd Person hele oukou, you went komail tang, you ran
3rd Person hele lakou, they went irail tang, they ran.

In this table we have the verb, simple, fixed and unvaried. In
the Hawaiian it is simply /ele, to go, in Ponape, tang, to run.
There is not the least change in the verb, but person and number
are entirely indicated by the pronoun.

4. Moods—In the Hawaiian there are four moods, Ponape
possesses five, thus:

Hawaiian—Indicative, subjunctive, infinitive, imperative.

Ponape—-Indicative, potential, subjunctive, infinitive, imperative.

5. Tense—It is the same with tense as with person and number,
there is no alteration of the verb which expresses this. Particles
Must come in, and it may be remarked generally, that when
Particles are appointed to express the tense of the verb, there is
not a little uncertainty about the whole matter. However as in
both tongues the particles of time are used, they answer their
Purpose very well.

6. The Hawaiian Grammar begins with the preterite tense, and
we follow the same order. There are five forms of this tense in
Hawaiian, but only three in Ponape. In illustrating this point
big will give the three Hawaiian corresponding to those of Ponape,
in the singular of each form.

446 SIDNEY H. RAY.

HAWAIIAN. PoNAPE.

First form of the preterite. The First form of ee Bpicoe
simple form of the verb. Simple form of the
1. holo au, I ran 1. Z tang, I ran
2. holo oe, you ran 2. ko tang, you ran
3. holo ia, he ran 3. a tang, he ran.

Second form; this form prefixes a Second aoe this form pre-
to the verb, meaning “and when,” fixes ap, meaning “and then” or
thus :— better, “ then” simply.

1. a hana au, and when I made 1. Z ap wia, I then made

2. ahana oe,andwhenyoumade 2. ko ap wia, you then made

3. ahana ia, and when he made 3. a ap uia, he then made
Fourth form; the verb prefixes ua.* Third form; this form uses the

This particle according tothe grammar particle er suffixed, and denotes
is more often used as the perfect tense. “‘ done, perfected, finished.”
1. wahunaau, have concealed 1. J wa er, I have brought
2. uahunaoe, youhave concealed 2. ko ua er, you have brought
3. ua huna ia, he has concealed 3. a ua er, he has brought

7. Future Tense—The Hawaiian possesses two forms of this
tense. The first prefixes ¢ to the root,” the second has an additional
é suffixed, thus :—

First Form. Second Form.
1. e lohe au, I will hear 1. e lohee au, I shall have heard
2. ¢ lohe oe, you will hear 2. ¢ lohe e oe, you will have heard
3. € lohe ia, he will hear 3. ¢ lohe e ia, he will have heard

Ponape also possesses two forms of this tense. The first is
denoted by the particle pan,® * will,” prefixed, the second by the
particle nok, meaning “shall, intend,” or “about to.”

First Form. Second Form.
1. I pan rong, I will hear 1. J nok wia, [shallor intend to do

»

1 This is the common kua of Polynesia, usually a perfect sign.
2 In Samoan, Maori, Tongan and Marquesan, e is both a present and
future parte In Rarotongan and Tahitian it is usually future, but

3 Panisa ae common in Melanesia as van, vano, togo. Hence Pa
pan rong Ineans © guiag So hone.” Of. Lifu tro deng, also meaning “
to hear.’’

LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII 447

2, kopanrong, you willhear 2. ko nok wia, you will or intend
to do
3. a pan rong, he will hear 3. anok uaa, hewill or intends todo
8. Present Tense—The present tense of the Hawaiian verb
differs so materially from the Ponape, that both are here omitted.
9, Subjunctive Mood—Particles are used to indicate this mood
in both languages, but the simpler use is found in Ponape.
10. Imperative Mood—The Hawaiian grammar shows two forms
of this mood, both indicated by particles. The first prefixes e to
the verb, thus: e nana oe, look you. The second form prefixes
mai, “do not,” to the verb, thus: mat huli oe, do not you turn.
The Ponape also possesses two forms, the first prefixing en, the
second ter: e.9., en ngar, do you look, or simply, look ; der tang,
do not run.

ll. Infinitive Mood—In the Hawaiian, the g notes that
this mood is not infrequently of the same form as the imperative,
and can only be distinguished by the sense of the passage. This
is also true of the Ponape verb. In Hawaiian, however, "
particle ¢ is prefixed to the root of the verb to indicate the “ to”
of the English infinitive.

; § 13. PanrTIcIPLes.

1 These are marked in the Hawaiian. Certain particles are
used to designate them, called the present and preterite, ¢.9.,
¢ lawe ana, carrying ; i lawe ia, carried. The same idea is not
indicated in Ponape by a particle, but usually, the simple form of
the verb is used participially. The reduplicated form of the verb
gives a present participle, tang, to run, tangtang, running ; alu,
to walk, alualu, walking.

The Hawaiian has a Gerund. “It takes the definite article
(ka) or a prefix pronoun ”; ka lawe, the bearing, ka papa, the
forbidding. Ponape possesses a part of speech similar to this, or
it may be called a verbal noun. It prefixes, ka causative, and
Suifixes a prepositional pronoun, thus: ka maua pa-t, “the making
Sood of me,”

448 SIDNEY H. RaY.

2. Other Verbal expressions—(a) The Hawaiian possesses a
passive voice, formed by suffixing ia to the root of the verb.
Ponape also possesses a passive, which exists in two forms. The
first, and more regular, prefixes the preposition pa to the root.

_ The other form is made by suffixing certain particles to the root.

(6) The Hawaiian. verb is reduplicated in the following ways:

(1) First syllable only : lawe, to carry, lalawe.

(2) Both syllables ; lawelawe.

(3) Second syllable only : lawewe.

(4) First syllable is repeated three times: lalalawe. This
gives a frequentative sense, “to carry often.”

The Ponape possesses some of these forms.

(1) The simple root is reduplicated: tang, to run, tangiang.

(2) First syllable only: naitik, to beget ; nainaitik.

(3) The root except the last letter: matang, to play, mata-
matang.

(4) A syllable is inserted, similar in sound : inta, to say,
inf tin )ta.

The reduplicated forms while somewhat numerous in Ponape,
do not possess the power of the Hawaiian, to beget new forms of
conjugation, nor is the meaning of the word so materially changed.
The Hawaiian possesses a causative form, made by pretixing the
particle hoo: hoo-lawe, to cause to carry, hoola, to save, to make
live. Ponape has also a causative, formed by prefixing ka to the
verbal root, ka-maur, to make live, ka-mela, to kill, make dead.

[Though so dissimilar in form these two prefixes are probably
of identical origin. Hawaii is exceptional among the Polynesian
languages in having the form hoo for the causative. The prefix
is the same as the Marquesan haa, which by the elision of & and
substitution of h for fis the faka of Tonga.

The prefix among the Melanesian languages takes similar vari-
ations. In Fiji it is vaka, in the New Hebrides, vaka or v79%

1 That the syllable ho is the representative of fa or fe is evident by
comparing allied words in the Polynesian tongues: e.g., words for land,
star: Hawaiian honua, hoku; Tongan fonua, fetuw; Samoan fanua, a:

q
)

LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII. 449

in the Solomon Islands it is faga or haa. A very common
Melanesian form is fa, va, wa or ha, in the Loyalty Islands a or o-
Coming to the Micronesian languages we find the same prefix.
As in Melanesia it is simplified by the suppression of the guttural
so in Micronesia it is usually wanting in the labial. Hence the
Kusaie ak, Ponape kuk, Ebon and Gilbert Islands ka. This is
further weakened in the Mortlock Islands to a.|

§ 14. VerBaL DIRECTIVES.

“ Verbs generally, in Hawaiian, are supposed to havea motion
or tendency in some direction. This motion or tendency is
expressed by several little words which follow as near after the
verb as the construction of the sentence will allow. The motion
is either towards the speaker or agent, or from him, up or down or
sideways, either to the right hand or left. Even those verbs
expressive of the most quiescent state, have this peculiarity. We
have something similar in the English phrases, drink up, drink
down, etc.” This paragraph from the Hawaiian Grammar applies
also to Ponape.

Hawaiian Directives are: Ponape Directives are:

Mai, hither, towards one

Aku, from the speaker

Iho, downwards

Ae, upwards

Ae, also means ‘sideways’ or
oblique motion.

To, towards one

We, from one, a short distance

La, from one, at the farthest
_ extreme é

Ta, upwards

Ti, downwards.

[The Hawaiian directives are those common in Polynesia; mai,
atu, ifo, ake. They are used also in most Melanesian languages,
the two last in the fuller forms of siwo and sake. In Micronesia
the Ponape directives seem to be limited to the Caroline Islands
languages, Ebon has tok, hither, Jok, thither. The Gilbert Isiands
have the Polynesian directives in the forms, ma?, hither ; 720,
downwards, rake, upwards. ‘The directive ‘thither’ is nako,
- is commonly used as a verb ‘ go’ in Melanesia. Of. Fiji

] i

Cc—Dee. 4, 1895,

450 SIDNEY H. RAY.

The following table illustrates the use of the directives:
Hawaiian—Jlawe au mai, I brought hither
lawe au aku, I took away
lawe au iho, I took down
lawe au ae, I took up.
Ponape—TI ua to, I brought here, to the speaker
I ua we, I carried from the speaker, a short distance
I ua la, I carried from the speaker, far off
I ua ti, I carried down 3
I ua ta, I brought up.

§ 15. Synrax.

Our remarks on this subject will be few, because in the main
there is so much of unity. In the Hawaiian the subject is rarely
the first member of a sentence—a verb may and often does take
its place. On this point the divergency of the two tongues is
marked. In Ponape the noun is usually the first member, and
it is rare to see the verb in any other position than following its
subject. Inall the minor parts of speech, the adjective following
the noun qualified, the adverb or directive its verb, the similarity
in both tongues is striking.

[The Ponape order is that common in Melanesia, except in
Fiji and a few other places. The Hawaiian is the usual Polynesian
order. |

$16. Comparative VOCABULARY.

[In comparing these lists it must be remembered that in com-
mon Oceanic words: ¢ is represented by j in Ponape, by kin
Hawaiian ; a common f is dropped in Ponape, and is h in Hawaiian;
& common / is retained in Ponape, but is dropped in Hawaiian;
the common ng is retained in Ponape, but becomes 7 in Hawaiian. |

ENGLIsH. PonaPeE. HAWAIIAN.
Animal man manu, bird. Common
et eke
Before moa mua. Common
Breadfruit mai iiad

LANGUAGES OF PONAPE AND HAWAII. 451

ENGLISH.
By (prep.)
Canoe
Cold |
Conjunction
Cocoanut tree
Die

Face

Father

Mili, one of the Mar-
shall Islands
under which is
the abode of the
departed

Moon

PONAPE.

majak

pet

ai, tar

man-tka

alim

long

mama

ua

lim (chief's lang.)
rong

mili

marama

HAWAIIAN.

z

uaa, Common vaka

hau, cold breeze

a

niu. Common

make. Common mate

maka, eye or face.
Common mata

tama, son. (tama ex-
presses the rela-
tionship between
father and son,
rather than the
persons. )

matau

papai, to strike

ahi

ia

lina. Common

nano. Common lango —

_ mama, to chew

hua

lima. Common

lono. Common rongo

milii, god of the in-
fernal regions

malama. Root lama,
shining.

lime

auha

po

452

SIDNEY H. RAY.

HAWAIIAN.

ENGLISH. PONAPE.

Outrigger tam ama. Melanesian sama

Oven um umu. Common

Powerful (super- manaman mana. Common.

natural)

Path, road al ala. Common

Pillow uilinga uluna. Banks Is. and
Solomon Is. wlunga

Rain ut ua. Common usa

Round ponopon poepoe

Scales of fish un unahi

Seven iu hiku. Common itu

Side (of precipice) pale (sideofhouse) pali, a precipice

Skin kili ali. Common

Sky lang lani. Common langi

Spirit ani uhani

Star uju hoku. Common fetu

Stand u ku. Common tu

Tooth ngi niho

Walk alu alu -

Want anane anoi, to covet

Weep jongi kani-kaw. Com. tangt

You ko oe.

Tue PARABLE OF THE SowER.—Luke viii., 5 - 8.

HawaltAn.
5. Hele aku la ka mea lulu hua
é lulu tho i kana hua; ai kona
lulu ana, helelei kekahi ma kapa
alanui ; a hehiia tho la, a ua aiia
tho la e na manu o ka lewa.

6. A helelei tho la kekahi
maluna o ka pohaku; a kupu ae
la, mae koke tho la ia, no ka
mea, aohe ona mau.

PoNnAPE.

5. Joumot men ko lan kamo-
roka ta uan tuka kai: am @
kamokamorok, akai mort tt pm
kailan al; ap tiaka la, 0 manpit
kai noma la.

6. A akai mori ti pon paip
a lao uoja ta, ap mongi ti pre
jota lamuilamuir.

EAS ee pe ee mn a EP eed ag eters ern aioe hal, ee iets

TENSILE AND COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF MAGNESIUM.

7. A helelei tho la kekahi
iwaena o ke kakalaioa; a kupu pu
he kakalaioa, a hihia tho la ta.

8. A helelet tho la kekahi ma
ka lepo matkai; a kupu ae la ia,
@ hua mai la ia pahaneri ka hua.
A pau kana hai ana ia mau mea,

453

7. A akai mori ti nan uel en
karer; a karer wang uoja ta
kajokia la.

8. A akai mori ti nan puel
mau, pia ta, kaparapar pan pak
meapuki, A er pena a kaueue
me pukat, ap majani, Me jalong

kahea mai la ia, Oka mea pepeiao a mia en rong uaja, t en rong.

lohe, e hoolohe ia.

Tuz TENSILE anp COMPRESSIVE STRENGTHS or
MAGNESIUM.

By 8. H. BarractouGu, B.E., M.M.E.
[Read before the Royal Society of N. 8S. Wales, December 4, 1895.]

THE amount of experimental data available regarding the physical
properties of magnesium is rather meagre, on which account the
results of the tests herewith described may be of interest since
there seems a possibility of the metal being in the future con-
siderably used for constructional purposes. The following extract
from an authoritative source will serve to indicate the most
hopeful view that may justifiably be taken of the extent and
nature of the future use of magnesium.! “Since the rolling of
Magnesium does not offer the slightest difficulty even in such
forms as T T or angles, round or four cornered rods, or plates
of 1 mm. thickness, and as pure magnesium is sufficiently resistant
to atmospheric influences, and can be polished and easily cleaned,

it lends itself on account of its lightness and relative strength to

the construction of apparatus required to be made of metal and

1 Journ. Soc. Chem. Indus., Vol. v1., p. 730.

454 S. H. BARRACLOUGH.

also to be light—e.g., nautical, physical and astronomical instru-
ments. The working of magnesium requires heat. At 450°C. it
~ ean be rolled, pressed, worked, and brought into complicated forms.
Screws and threads can be made from magnesium and these are
considerably sharper and more exact than those from aluminium.
Owing to its cheapness, magnesium can also be ae in the manu-

facture of a variety of useful articles.”

The present tests were made principally on rolled or drawn
rods, nearly half an inch in diameter, together with a few con-
*firmatory tests on specimens of the magnesian wire used for
illumination purposes before the now more usual “ribbon” was

introduced.

Tensile tests of six of the rods, made just as they were received
from the manufacturer, gave the following results :—

Bs No. | hic gi | Elastic s

Bek ome! Boab Eat ee]

| 1 483-3500 | -23,800 | 8,800} 42 2,040,000
2 433° «3250 | 22,050 ies 3 1,860,000

| 3 | -442 | 3200 | 20,900 10,780| 1:8 | 2,060,000

; 4 435 | 2900 | 19,500} 8,400| 2:5 | 1,830,000

| 5 ‘424 | 3500 | 24,800| 7,090] 3-1 1,930,000
6 “432 | 3300 | 22,500 5 2:3

The extensions were measured by means of a Thurston extenso-
meter, over a length of four inches. Two further tensile tests
were made on specimens turned in the lathe to the dimensions
stated, and with the following results. The metal can be turned

with great ease.

| Diam Breaking {| Elonga- | Contraction
ba ne pared Load ths. | tion per | of Area per
per sq.in.| cent. cent.
1 | “336 | 2502 | 28,399 | 2-67 | 74
2 | ‘351 | 2275 | 23,500! 3:00 1-76

In these tests an attempt was made to obtain an autographic
stress-strain diagram, but the apparatus ordinarily used for that

purpose proved unsuitable for such a material as magnesium.

Roe SI eg RES eee cee See ee ee
tee crt Sire el ae ER rgb yin Bea ee ae ee ee OP

aS whee Bay a

.

TENSILE AND COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF MAGNESIUM, 455

For the purposes of comparison several tests were made on
specimens of ordinary commercial magnesium wire, giving results

as follows :—

reaking | | Average Average Break-
| No. | anole. Load tbs. | Breaking | ing Fees Nog snd
|

|
|
| 0245 | 17-0 | 16:87 | 85,800

| 16'8

The compressive strength of three specimens was determined ;
the dimensions of the pieces and the stresses ii as follows :—

rae - | Maximum| Maximu:
N. Length | Diameter | ts
orl tiehes. | taches: Bers ~~ Load bs per |

1/148 | -415 | 5425 | 40,126
2 | 1465 | -415 5320 | 39,349 |
3 | 134 ‘414 | 5695 | 42,310 |"

Tt will thus be seen that the average tensile strength of the
Magnesium rods is slightly over ten tons per square inch, with an
elastic limit of four tons. per square inch. In the form of wire
the tensile strength of the metal is considerably higher, averaging
nearly sixteen tons per square inch. This is probably a parallel
case to the notable difference between the tensile strength of
ordinary steel rods and of steel wires. The average compressive
strength of the magnesium is about eighteen tons per square inch.

These figures differ slightly from those given as the result of a
Series of tests made at the Charlottenburgh Mechanical Laboratory."
There the average tensile and compressive strengths were 23°2
and 27-2 kilogrammes per square mm., or about 14:7 and 17°3
tons per Square inch respectively.

An interesting comparison may be made between the strength
as related to the density of magnesium on the one side and of

1 Journ. Soc. Chem. Indus., Vol. v1., p. 730.

456 S. H. BARRACLOUGH.

aluminium and steel on the other. These two metals are chosen
as aluminium is no doubt a rival to magnesium on the score of
lightness, and steel on account cf its strength.

The form in which the comparison is made is one very com-
monly adopted.

tper |‘T ie ee Aerial Length of a bar that just |
Metal. Bis ye: ths.| ths. | supports its own weight.
Magnesium ith 107-6 | 24,000 82,119 feet
Aluminium 168 26,000 22,285 ,,
|

Hard Struck Steel 490

78,000 | 22,922 °,,

The figures for the aluminium and the steel are taken froma
paper on “The materials of aeronautic Engineering,” read by
Dr. Thurston at the Engineering Congress, Chicago, 1893.

Nore on some PRODUCTS rrom tHe FRUIT or PITTOS-
PORUM UNDULATUM ayv From tHe LEAVES or THE
PEPPER TREE (Schinus molle).

By R. Ture.ratt, m.a., Professor of Physics, University of Sydney.

[Read before the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, December 4, 1895.]

Pittosporum undulatum, so common in the bush around Sydney,
not only produces flowers of exquisite scent, but bears an abundant
crop of fruit. The fruit consists of slightly oval berries of about
one centimeter in diameter. During the month of May these
berries pass from a dark green to a bright orange hue, and in the
following month usually split longitudinally, displaying a mass of
dark coloured seeds or pips buried in a dark red mass of a pitch
like substance. If the fruit is gathered when just ripe the pitchy
mass is lighter in colour and I think rather more voluminous than
is afterwards the case. Long before the fruit is ripe the pericarP
and epidermis become more or less saturated with oil. The

PRODUCTS FROM PITTOSPORUM UNDULATUM., 457

epidermis is easily bruised by the fingers, and when this is done
a strong scent peculiar to the fruit at once becomes noticeable.
This odour resembles that of the rind of the tangerine orange, but
is easily distinguished from the latter. During May 1894, I was
struck with the great abundance of the fruit of Pittosporum
undulatum, and determined to examine it in so far as my quite
inadequate knowledge and opportunity permitted.

On cutting sections of the outer rind and examining them under
the microscope, I expected to see globules of oil, but in this I was
disappointed, either from incompetence as an observer or for
some real reason which I do not understand, for subsequent
observation showed that oil exists in abundance in this part of
the fruit. Sections of the seeds showed a few globules of greenish
oil, but not many.

I then compressed the ripe fruit in a screw filter-press, and
from 500 grms. of fruit I obtained 70 cc. of a thick juice which
was brownish-yellow in colour, smelt strongly of the oil and
rapidly thickened on exposure to the air—or rather the surface
did so.

On extracting this juice with alcohol and evaporating on the
water bath, I obtained a fine green solution which had solidified by
the next day to a hard green resin. This resin has a most pleasant
smell, which so far as I know is quite peculiar to it, and which
appears when the resin is heated—in the cold it is without any
odour. During the evaporation of the alcohol the smell charac-
teristic of the fruit was strongly marked, but it disappeared
towards the close of the operation, whence I inferred that the
odour of the fruit is probably due to the presence of an essential oil.

The juice also yields a watery extract, which when filtered and
dried gives a brown mass. This brown substance has the bitter
‘romatic taste of the fruit. It was perfectly soluble in water and
8ve a blue-black precipitate with ferrous sulphate.

Tt was noticed that the seeds were not in any way crushed by
adi filter-press, and after several attempts it was decided =

Separate the seeds from the fruit, and to treat each part separately.

458 R. THRELFALL.

About three and a quarter kilos. of seeds surrounded by the
pitchy matter were gradually collected, and an attempt was made
to grind them in an iron mortar, but they were too hard to yield
appreciably. Some of them therefore were pounded on an anvil
witha heavy hammer. Finally, in the hope of softening the seeds,
they were boiled in water for twelve hours, and afterwards a
current of steam was passed through the still in order to remove
any oil which might be removable by this process. The yield was
a minute quantity of a white wax(?) with somewhat the same odour
as that of the resin previously described. This wax was rather
harder than tallow and is not perfectly soluble in alcohol. The
water distilled over with the wax had a smell of the fruit, though
this had degenerated to an unpleasant acrid odour.

The residue in the still consisting of the seeds and a trace of
wax together with the watery extract was filtered, and a portion
of the filtrate extracted with ether and with shale benzine. Both

these substances produced such a heavy precipitate that the
process was almost unmanageable. Neither ether nor benzine
extracted any measurable amount of anything.

The watery extract was evaporated to dryness and yielded a
brown mass which has not yet been further examined.

The seeds, when collected on a filter after undergoing the distil-
lation process, were white and slimy on the surface, as if the resin
had been partially decomposed. After stirring for an hour with
a considerable quantity of alcohol the slimy mass dissolved. The
alcoholic extract gave a mass of a dark red resin or pitch which
has not yet been further examined except by heating. At first
it yielded a smell as of turkey rhubarb, then of benzoic acid and
finally an odour of the resin already referred to.

The seeds which had thus been freed from the pitch and soluble
constituents were very hard, and an attempt was made to break
them by compression in a mould on the testing machine. The
press measured seven by seven inches and stood a pressure
96,000 lbs. whenit broke. The iron was greasy where the pressure

PRODUCTS FROM PITTOSPORUM UNDULATUM. 459

had acted most strongly, but no appearance of anything like a
yield of oil was obtained, hence it was decided to abandon the
pursuit of this oil for the time being.

An alcoholic extract of the husks from which the pitchy matter
had been removed was prepared. This yielded an abundance of
the green resin already referred to. It is clear therefore that
both the characteristic resin and essential oil came from the peri-
carp and not from the seeds. :

In order to obtain the essential oil of the pericarp some three
_ kilograms of husks were prepared. These husks were placed ina
copper still with about their own volume of water, and then
distilled by means of a current of steam led in to the apparatus,
the still itself being kept hot by means of a moderate flame. An
abundant yield of oil was the result.

As it was now clear that nothing was to be gained by separating
the pericarp from the seeds, I proceeded to submit the whole
fruit to steam distillation in quantities of five to seven kilograms
atatime. The greater part of the oil came over in the portions
of water first collected. As the process went on, the yield soon
grew to be so small as to be unremunerative, partly owing to the
slight solubility of the oil in water. The yield is about 180 ce. of
oil from 50 kilograms of fruit, which was the quantity operated
Upon by me. It takes about two and a half hours to extract the
oil from each lot of fruit, starting with boiling water and passing
steam at a pressure of three or four pounds per square inch >
through a half inch pipe into the still.

The oil obtained by distillation has at first a rather acrid odour,
but this is possibly due to traces of the accompanying water, for
on drying by means of fused calcium chloride the odour quickly
improves, and in a few days becomes almost the same as that of

the bruised fruit.

On submitting the dried oil to fractionation the following results
Were obtained. The oil began to boil at about 174° C., and
60—65 ce. were treated.

460 R. THRELFALL.

Fraction from 174° to 180°2° C., 22 cc., colourless.
180-2° to 185° C., 20°5 ec., colourless.
185° to 190° C., 8 ec., colourless.

Pe 190° to 200° C., 5 ec., colourless.
is 200° to 210° C., 3:5 cc., colourless.
- 210° to 250° C., 1:0 ce., faint greenish-yellow.

a 250° to 280° C., 08 cc., bright yellow-green.
Above 280° C., residue ‘57 cc., red with fairly strong
green fluorescence.

During the process it was noticed that the oilappeared to begin
to decompose slightly at about 200° C., this was also shown by
the distillate changing sensibly in its odour above this temperature.
The distillates below this temperature had sensibly the same odour
as the oil before it was distilled. The residue when burned
emitted the same odour as the green resin already referred to.
The density of the oil was determined at 24-5 C. by weighing a
bit of glass in it: the result was -848 (24).

The refractive index was measured by means of a hollow prism
and also by means of the refractometer as a check. The results
hatch Pp . 1:4742 at 26° C.

Pr . 1-4830 at 26° C.

The action of Pittosporwm oil on polarised light was studied by
myself to some extent, and thoroughly by Mr. Pollock with the
assistance of Mr. Grant. The results of these observations is t0
show that Pittosporum oil in the crude but dry state rotates the
plane of polarised sodium light in the same direction as cane
sugar and to the extent of + 79°850° per decimeter at 244° C.
I have to thank Professor Stuart for allowing us to use ®
polarimeter belonging to the Medical School.

The leaves of the introduced Pepper Tree (Schinus molle) were
also examined with a view to discovering the source of the pungent
odour so noticeable when the leaves are bruised. By distillation
in steam I obtained 8-3 cubic centimetres of a thick oil from three

NOTES ON ANTARCTIC ROCKS. 461

and a half kilos of the green leaves gathered in June. The oil
was slightly yellowish and nearly as thick as vaseline oil. It had
a pungent resinous and bitter taste, and a very strong scent 0

the pepper tree leaves.

Owing to the small quantity as yet obtained, no steps have
been taken towards an examination. From the very strong scent
of the oil, however, it is not unlikely that the odour of the leaves
of the pepper tree may be wholly owing to it.

NOTES ON ANTARCTIC ROCKS COLLECTED BY
MR. C. E. BORCHGREVINK.
By T. W. E. Davin, B.A, F.G.8., Professor of Geology; W. F.
SMEETH, M.A., B.E., Assoc. R.S.M., Lecturer in Metallurgy
and Demonstrator in Geology; and J. A. SCHOFIELD,
F.C.S., Assoc. R.8.M., Demonstrator in Chemistry,
University of Sydney.
[With Plates XIII. - oid.)
[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, August 7 and December 4, 1895. ]

Part I.—Inrropucrory Notes aBouT ANTARCTICA.

(1) Introduction.—The region to which this paper refers is by
far the largest unexplored land area in the world, its area being
estimated by Dr. John Murray to be at least 4,000,000 square
miles, and therefore greater than that of Australia. Situated
between the voleanic zone of the Andes and the Taupo zone in
New Zealand, it supplies several links to that chain of fire which,
Commencing at the north-western extremity of Antarctica, runs
around the earth along the Andes and the volcanoes of Central
America and Alaska, through the Aleutian Islands, Japan, the
Kurile Islands, and various islands of the Pacific, through north-

462 T. W. E. DAVID, W. F. SMEETH, AND J. A. SCHOFIELD.

eastern New Guinea, the Tonga Islands and New Zealand back
to Antarctica, ending in the volcanic zone of Victoria Land.
About fifteen extinct, five active, and three dormant (’) volcanoes
have been recorded as occurring in the Antarctic Regions, (if the
South Shetlands be included under this term), the highest known
peak, Mount Melbourne, attaining an altitude of about 15,000
feet.

(2) Summary of the History of Antarctic Exploration.—Want
of access to the necessary literature precludes us from doing more
than traversing cursorily the records of a few of the chief Antarctic
Explorers. The honour of being the first man to discover the
Antarctic Continent probably belongs to Captain James Cook,
who in the year 1772 reached latitude 71° 10’S., in longitude
106° 54’ W., where he sighted the Great Ice Barrier, which forms
the seaward boundary of Antarctica. Speaking of this discovery
Sir James Ross says!:—“I confidently believe with D’'Urville
that the enormous mass of ice which bounded his view, when at
his extreme south latitude, was a range of mountainous land
covered with snow.”

In 1819 William Smith in the brig William discovered the
Archipelago of the South Shetlands, South of Cape Horn.

In 1820-23 Weddell visited the South Shetlands, including the
the active volcano Bridgman. Powell, the discoverer of the
South Orkneys, visited the volcanic island of Bridgman in 1822,
and found it to be at that time two hundred feet high. Weddell,
who visited it during the following year, estimates its height at
four hundred feet, and describes the island as being of sugarloaf
shape, whereas at the time of Powell’s visit there was a crater 0”
the west side of the island. Possibly the crater had disappeared
at the time of the subsequent visit of Weddell, as he makes 10
mention of it. Weddell penetrated to 74° S. in 1823, thus
attaining a higher latitude than Captain Cook, but he s4W no
land anywhere in that neighbourhood.

agin pe
1 Voyage in the South Seas. By Sir James C. Ross. Vol. 1., p- 276

NOTES ON ANTARCTIC ROCKS. 463

In 1831 Biscoe in the brig Zula discovered Enderby’s Land.
In 1839 Balleny discovered Balleny’s Island, a volcano 12,000 feet
high, and adjoining it the active (?) voleano of Buckle Island. In
1839 the important French Expedition, under Dumont D’Urville
explored the South Shetlands.’

Syenite, occurring in needle-like pinnacles, was found at Smith
Island, while this island as well as Livingstone, Greenwich,
Roberts, King Georg? and Elephant Islands were proved to be
of primary schistose formation, traversed by intrusive igneous
rocks. The trend of these rocks was ascertained to be north-east
and south-west, dipping (?) at from 29° to 30°. Powell Islands
were discovered to belong to a somewhat similar formation, being
composed of phyllite-like talcites and quartzose talc rocks.

In the South Orkneys near Laurie Island the occurrence of a
greyish-white limestone is recorded, as well as that of phyllite-like
schists, their strike being north-north-west and south-south-east,
and their angle of dip over 60°.

The granites and syenites, of which the New South Orkney
Islands consist, were found to have contributed the greater
number of the erratics observed on the coast of Terra del Fuego.

An interesting description is given in the above work of the
remarkable volcanic crater, among the South Shetlands, known
as Deception Island. The basin of the crater is submerged, the
sea being sixty-seven feet deep at the centre of the basin, and
the latter being about five miles in width measured at sea level :
the maximum diameter of the crater ring measured at sea-level
across its outer circumference is about eight miles, thus giving
an average width of about one and a half miles for the portion of
the crater rim above sea level. The crater is described as being
built up of alternate layers of ice and volcanic tuff. Fumaroles
were discovered to the number of at least one hundred and fifty,

a...

ws Voyage au Péle Sud et dans l’Oceanie. Sur les corvettes L’ Astrolabe

pr ae Zélée, exécuté pendant les Années 1837-40. Géologie, Minéralogie
phie physique du Voyage, Vols. xx11.-xxt., Paris, 1848.

464 T. W. E. DAVID, W. F. SMEETH, AND J. A. SCHOFIELD.

the temperature of the water flowing from some being 140° Fahr.
This expedition discovered Adélie Land. The mainland appeared
to be completely swathed in snow and ice, but nine small islands
off the mainland were found to be more or less free from ice, and
to consist of granite and gneiss, the folia of which strike in an

east and west direction.

In 1840 Commander Wilkes in the U.S.A. Corvette Vincennes
discovered Wilkes Land. In January 1841, Sir James Clarke
Ross made his memorable discovery of Victoria Land. With the
object of trying to find the South Magnetic Pole, as he had already
found the North Magnetic Pole, he forced his well fortitied ships
through the heavy pack ice which he encountered in latitude
about 67° S., and longitude 1744° E. It was a very formidable
pack. In four or five days, however, he forced his way through
it, and entered comparatively open water beyond, a great ocean
pool about six hundred miles in diameter. Bounding this on the
west was the magnificent chain of snow clad volcanoes of Victoria
Land. Ross traced the coast for five hundred miles southwards
until he encountered the Great Ice Barrier terminating seawards
in a sheer wall of ice, from one hundred and eighty to two hundred
feet high, through which, in Ross’ words, ‘‘he could no more sail
his ships than he could sail them through the cliffs of Dover.”
His dredgings showed that marine forms of animal life, especially
polyzoa, were abundant right up to the edge of the Great Ice
Barrier. Ross states (op. cit.) that on January 19th, 1841, when
off the coast of South Victoria, in latitude 72° 31’ S., longitude
173° 39’ E., “the dredge was put over in two hundred and seventy
fathoms water, and after trailing along the ground for some time
was hauled in. It was found to contain a block of grey granite,
composed of large crystals of quartz, mica and felspar, with
apparently a clean and recent fracture, as if lately broken off
from the main rock, and had probably been deposited by the
agency of an iceberg. McCormick, the surgeon of the Hrebuss
frequently found fragments of granite in the stomachs of the
penguins,”

NOTES ON ANTARCTIC ROCKS. 465

In 1874, H.M.S. Challenger visited the neighbourhood of the
supposed Termination Land of Wilkes, and drift fragments were
brought up by the dredge of granite, dioritic rocks, quartzites,
clay shales etc. Tetrasporew were so abundant over wide areas
as to give the sea a peculiar green colour, and the sea swarmed
with diatoms. In 1883! the Zalisman dredged from depths
mostly of between 4,000 to 5,000 métres, common granite, horn-
blendie granite, pegmatite, granulites rich in muscovite and
microcline, with two specimens respectively of diorite and diabase,
and numerous specimens of gneiss and hornblendic gneiss. The
gneisses were found to be more abundantly represented than the
volcanic rocks. The following minerals are recorded as having
been observed in the gneiss :—microcline, zircon, sphene, apatite,
rutile, garnet, tourmaline, biotite, muscovite, magnetite, epidote,
amphibole, pyroxene, diallage, and enstatite.

Amongst rocks probably of volcanic origin may be mentioned
seven specimens of augitic labradorite rocks, two of basalt, and
eight of andesites partly hornblendic, besides five specimens of
pumice, eight of basic scorie more or less palagonitic, and ten
Specimens of very basic tuffs. Amongst metamorphic rocks
dredged by the Talisman, may also be mentioned five specimens
of mica schists with tourmaline, microcline, sphene and epidote,
fifteen specimens of sericite and very epidotic quartz schists rich
in rutile, besides argillaceous schist with erystals of biotite and
garnet and numerous particles of graphite.

Amongst other rock specimens dredged were many representing
undoubted sedimentary rocks, ¢.g., sixteen of arkose very quartzose,
nineteen of sandstones, and sixty-three of limestone. Some of
the limestones are marble, some are oolitic, and thirty-one are
fossiliferous, the fossils consisting chiefly of indeterminable bivalve
shells. Some fragments of hard yellowish magnesian limestones
contain sections of Gyroporella, and are therefore very probably

J *Fouqué and Lévy—Comptes Rendus de I’Académie des Sciences,
anvier — Juin, 1886, cir., pp. 793 — 795.
Dp—Dee. 4, 1895,

466 T. W. E. DAVID, W. F. SMEETH, AND J. A. SCHOFIELD.

of Triassic Age. Three specimens are almost entirely foraminiferal
limestones of a markedly tertiary facies.

In 1893-94 the whaler Jason (Captain C. A. Larsen) visited
' the north-western portion of Antarctica. The important discovery
was made by Dr. Donald,! of Lower Tertiary rocks with the fossil
shells Cucullea, Natica, and Cytherea, in situ at Cape Seymour.
Fossil wood was also found imbedded in the Tertiary rocks ata
level of three hundred feet above the sea. A new active volcano,
named by Captain Larsen, Christensen Volcano, was discovered
in latitude 65° 5’ S., longitude 58° 40’ W. On the sketch chart
accompanying Captain Larsen’s paper, another active volcano,
Sarsee,” is shown, also Lindenberg Volcano [extinct (?)], and the
four Seal Islands, all of which are considered to be of volcanic
origin, if not dormant or extinct volcanoes.

We now come to the subject of the latest piece of Antarctic
Exploration accomplished by Mr. C. E. Borchgrevink in the
whaler Antarctic.

The following account is partly taken from the Standard of
2nd August, 1895, partly from notes kindly be us by Mr.
Borchgrevink :—

The Antarctic was well fortified for ice work, her timbers being
nowhere less than three feet in thickness, and actually not less
than nine feet thick at the bows. She sailed from Melbourne on
the 20th September, 1894. Mr. H. J. Bull accompanied the
expedition as manager of the Antarctic Whaling Company, and
Mr. C. E. Borchgrevink finding that there was no room on board
for him in the capacity of scientific collector, pluckily engaged
himself as an ordinary seaman. The pack ice was sighted on the
7th December, and on the following day the Antarctic was in
latitude 58° 45’ S., longitude 171° 30’ E., and with vast streams
of ice driving all around. When the Antarctic entered the pack
ice the temperature of the air was 25° Fahr., and that of the water

1 J. Murray—Geogr. Journ. Vol. ut., No. 1, Jan. 1894, pp. 10, 11.
2 Geogr. Journ. 1894, rv., No. 4, p. 333.

NOTES ON ANTARCTIC ROCKS. 467

28° Fabr. Penguins were about in great numbers, and no
difficulty was experienced in killing some of them,

On the 14th December, in latitude 66° 44’ S. and longitude
164° 0’ E., as the Antarctic approached Balleny Island, the ice
floes greatly increased in size, and some of them were observed to
carry stones and earth. So thick and dangerous was the ice that
a vessel, dependent wholly upon sails, could not have existed, and
even with steam those on board ran very considerable risk, and
had one or two narrow escapes. They decided to run eastward,
following in the track of the Erebus and Terror, On Christmas
Eve they saw the midnight sun in latitude 66° 47’ S. and longi-
tude 174° 8’ E., and at midnight on the 31st December the sun
was again shining brightly.

Altogether they were thirty-eight days in working their way
through the pack ice, and then they got into a clear, smooth,
open expanse of sea. They steered straight for Cape Adare in
Victoria Land, which they first sighted on Jan. 16. Mr. Borch-
grevink describes it as a square bluff of basaltic rock. The
temperature of the air here was 32°, and of the water 30, and
the sky was perfectly clear. Cape Adare rose to a height of 3,77 9
feet. Near Mount Sabine a peak was sighted clear of snow, con-
sidered to be a volcano recently in eruption.

On January 18th, they sighted Possession Island, where Sir -
James Ross landed fifty-four years before and planted the British
flag. They found an immense quantity of penguins, and a large
portion of the island, which they judged to be about three hundred
and sixty acres in extent, was covered with a deep layer of guano,
Small plants were found there by Mr. Borchgrevink growing on
the rocks up to thirty feet above sea level. These have subse-
quently been identified as lichens.

On the 20th February they steamed still further sonth ward,
and sighted a new cape which they named Cape Oscar, in honour
of the King of Sweden and Norway, whose birthday it happened ~
tobe. On the 22nd they were in latitude 74° S., and no whales

468 T. W. E. DAVID, W. F. SMEETH, AND J. A. SCHOFIELD.

being visible they decided to return northwards to Cape Adare,
where they landed, being the first human beings who had ‘ever set
foot on that territory. Their landing place was a sort of peninsula,
which formed a complete breakwater for the inner bay, through
which they steered. Immense swarms of penguins were on the
cape, on which they nested as high up as 1,000 feet. Mr.
Borchgrevink and his party after landing, collected specimens of
the rock, and they also found some signs of vegetation, consisting
of lichens (?) like those met with by them at Possession Island.

Throughout the whole of their voyage they had a comparatively
high temperature, and they met with great numbers of sperm
whales. The minimum temperature which they encountered
within the Antarctic circle was 25° Fahr., and the maximum was
46°, while all through the ice pack it kept at 28°. The mean
temperature for January 1895 was 32°5° Fahr., and for February
30° Fahr. ~

While at Possession Island and Cape Adare Mr. Borchgrevink
collected specimens of the different varieties of rock obtainable at
those localities. Several of the specimens from Cape Adare are
in the form of waterworn pebbles, which were picked up by Mr.
Borchgrevink on the shores of that headland.

(3) Summary of Antarctic Geology.—The observations of the
Antarctic explorers mentioned above prove that (a) eruptive, (b)
sedimentary, and (c) metamorphic rocks are well represented in
Antarctica. If the (a) Hruptive rocks be divided into respectively
plutonic, and volcanic groups, we find that the former comprises
granite, pegmatite, granulites rich in microcline and muscovite,
syenite, diorite, diabase etc., and the latter pumice, andesites
partly hornblendic, augite-labradorite rocks (augite-andesites ),
basalts, basic scorie, palagonite tufts.

(b) Sedimentary rocks—These comprise the Cucullea rocks of
Cape Seymour, with fossil wood of Lower Tertiary Age, numerous
fragments of limestone, partly molluscan, partly foraminiferal, the
latter Tertiary, the former of doubtful geological age, some more

NOTES ON ANTARCTIC ROCKS. 469

or less incoherent, some oolitic, some in the condition of marble.
Besides these are the fragments of hard yellowish magnesian
limestone with Gyroporella, probably Triassic, the Paleozoic (‘)
greyish-white limestones of the South Orkneys, fragments of
various sandstones, arkose, quartzites, and clay shales.

(c) Metamorphic rocks—These appear to be abundantly repre-
sented and comprise :—gneisses, some hornblendic, containing
zircon, microcline, sphene, apatite, rutile, tourmaline etc., mica-
schists with tourmaline, microcline, sphene and epidote ; sericite
quartz-schists, epidotic quartz-schists rich in rutile, argillaceous
schist with crystals of biotite and garnet, and numerous particles
of graphite, phyllite schists and tale schists.

With regard to the volcanic zone of Antarctica the following is

a list of the volcanoes at present known to us :—

1. Balleny Island ... Dormant (?)... ... 12,000 feet high,
2. Buckle Island ...Active (7)... ... small.
3, Mount Sabine —_... Extinct 49 gee ... 9,500 feet,
4. Cone observed by Borchgrevink near Mt.
Sabine apparently recently in eruption,
Active ().
5. Mount Herschell ...Extinct ... ... 14,000 feet (?) ,,
6. Mount Melbourne... Extinct(? large crater).
7. Mount Erebus _... Active is ... 12,367 feet (?) 5,
8. Mount Terror ...Extinct (1) ... ... 10,884 feet 5
9. Mount Haddington Extinct (?) ... --» 7,050 feet
10. Cockburn Island ...Extinct (7)... +» 2750 feet 55
11. Paulet Island CO Oe FAs ihe 750 feet 5
12. Etna Island ... Extinct (7) ... soe 1,300 £006... ...44
13, Bridgman Island ... Active cone ... 400 feet (?) »,

i, Apsland Island... Extinct crater..
15. Astrolabe Island ... Extinct crater ... 1,000 feet (?) »
16. Deception Island—Large partly submerged

crater with numerous fumaroles, dormant (?) 800 — 1,800ft. »,
ui. Christensen Volcano Active... ..- Small.
18. Sarsee Voleano ... Active... ay

470 T. W. E. DAVID, W. F. SMEETH, AND J. A. SCHOFIELD.

19. Lindenberg Volcano Extinct (?)... ©... Small
21. é 3
29, The four Seal Islands, extinct (1) *

23.

As regards the general distribution of these volcanoes, we may
here quote from a previous paper by one of us forming part of his.
Presidential Address to the Linnean Society of New South Wales
for 1895, pp. 155 - 156 :—‘The volcanoes of Victoria Land show
a tendency to linear arrangement. From Mount Sabine to Mount
Melbourne the trend is south-south-westerly. Mount Erebus and
Mount Terror lie almost due south of Mount Sabine. Further
north from Mount Sabine the great earth-fold, on the septum of
which this chain of volcanoes is situated, probably bends a little
westwards, as shown partly by the surroundings, partly by the
position of Balleny’s Island. North-west of Balleny’s Island the
great fold trends perhaps to the knotting point between the Tas-
manian axis of folding, described in the address just referred to,
and that of New Zealand, the former perhaps running through
Royal Company Island, and the latter through or near Auckland
Island and Macquarie Island. The knotting point would probably
be somewhere (approximately) near the intersection of the 60th
parallel of south latitude with the 150th meridian of longitude
east from Greenwich. It would thus join the line of extinct
volcanoes along East Australia on the west, and perhaps the
active volcanic zone of the North Island of New Zealand, or ab
all events the fold which bounds that continent, on the east.

Traced in the opposite direction, the volcanic zone probably
runs through Seal Islands, the active volcanoes of Christensea
and Sarsee, and through Mount Haddington, an extinct voleano
in Trinity Land, to Paulet and Bridgman Islands, active volcanoes.
The volcanic zone bends easterly from here on account of the
easterly trend in the fold, which appears to make a loop towards
South Georgia before it swings back towards Cape Horn. That

there is a real easterly trend in the earth-fold at Trinity Land

NOTES ON ANTARCTIC ROCKS. 471

and the South Shetlands is proved by the observations made by
the Astrolabe and Zélée expedition, which record a strike in a
north-north-east and south-south-west direction for the greyish-
white limestones and phyllite-schists at the South Orkneys.
Towards Cape Horn from near South Georgia the fold probably
trends west-north-westerly, then follows an approximately
meridional direction parallel with the chain of the Andes. It may
be noted, however, that whereas the Hrebus chain of Victoria
Land is on the east side of the fold, the Christensen-Bridgman
group are apparently on the opposite side. This may be due to
the fact that at the latter locality the eastern slope of the fold is
steeper than the western, as seems probable from the presence of
_ the deep ovean abyss east of Graham’s Land, as shown on Dr.
Murray’s map. It is probable, therefore, that the volcanic chain
of Victoria Land will continue towards the South Pole, probably
bending somewhat to the eastward, and will thence change its
position to the fold on the other side of the Antarctic continent,
so as to run through the Christensen-Bridgman line of volcanoes.
In any case it is almost certain that high land, covered of course
more or less by snow and glaciers, will be found at the South ~
Pole.”

The additional information as to the geology of Antarctica fur-
nished by the collections submitted to us by Mr. Borehgrevink
is detailed below :—

Part I—Prrronoay or tHE Rocks cotuecteD By Mr. C. E.
Borcucrevink rrom Cape ADARE, VicrorIA LAND, AND
FROM Possession IsLAND.

A.—SprEcIMENS From CAPE ADARE.
Garnetiferous-Granulitic-Aplite, (No. 4).
This rock is the only representative of the acid-group among
the Specimens. In the mass it is a white, holocrystalline, aggre-

Sate of quartz and felspar granules. Numerous small, well-

“rystallized red garnets are present, also numerous crystals of

black tourmaline. In section the granulitic texture is very

472 T. W. E. DAVID, W. F. SMEETH, AND J. A. SCHOFIELD.

marked, and the felspar granules are seen to consist largely of
microcline. The hatched twin lamelle are very irregular and
wavy and suggest that the rock has been under pressure. There
isa small amount of triclinic felspars which appears to lie between
albite and oligoclase. One section of the latter shows a remark-
able twin structure (Plate 13, fig. 1), the outline is rudely rec-
tangular and the grain is divided into four equal areas by lines
joining the middle points of the sides. Each area is finely lamellar,
and extinguishes simultaneously with the one diagonally opposite
to it. A possible explanation may be that it is a section approxi-
mately parallel to the macropinacoid (100) divided into two halves
according to the Carlsbad law, and again divided into two halves,
one of which is reversed on the other by turning round a normal
to 001, according to the Mannebach law. In addition to this
each of the four areas exhibit albite lamellation. Some of the
felspars show numerous fine parallel cavities probably of the nature
of solution planes.

The quartz grains have some liquid enclosures but not many,
and also some very tine needles of a mineral which has not been
‘determined. Stray flakes of muscovite have been noticed.

Among the accessory minerals the garnets do not require
further notice. The tourmaline occurs in well shaped prisms the
pleochroism being pale pinkish-brown to very dark slaty-purple.

Included in the other minerals are numerous highly refracting
grains and prisms, all practically colourless. Some of these must
be referred to topaz, although the optical sign appears to be
negative instead of positive, as is more usual. One piece in pat
ticular, (Plate 13, figs. 2a, 2b) has the outline of a cross section
of topaz and gives a good figure in convergent light. In this,
from the shape of the section, it can be seen that the optic axial
plane is the macropinacoid, and that the sign is negative while
the axial angle is somewhat smaller than usual. If this mineral
is a topaz, it would appear that in addition to the change of sign,
the plane of the optic axes has taken a position at right angles od
the normal one. Itisan interesting point in connexion with this,

NOTES ON ANTARCTIC ROCKS. 473

that we have found, among some sections cut for stauroscopic
investigation, a specimen of topaz in which the optic axes make a
very small angle with each other (not more than a few degrees)
and that the optical sign is negative. It may be that under
certain conditions topaz changes its axial angle, and after passing
through zero the axes open out in a plane at right angles to their
former position with changed sign.

Besides some apatites and zircons there are some grains with
extremely strong double refraction. One of these, a small prism
showing pyramid faces at one end, gives colours of the seventh
order in polarized light (Plate 13, fig. 3). The presence of some
prismatic cleavage lines render it probable that it is rutile.

There are a few tabular crystals of anatase, and some grains,
with somewhat lower double refraction and without cleavage, may
most probably be referred to cassiterite. :

Trachyte, (Nos. 1 and 2).
Compact, greenish-grey in colour, somewhat fissile. Sp. gr. 2°49.

Analysis yielded the following composition :—

SiO, = 61-01
Al,O; = 16°62
Fe,O,; = 3°59
FeO = 281
MnO =. "00
CaO a Bal :
MgO es” 08
Na,O = $92
K,0 & 5°22

Water (ignition)= 1°13
100714
Phosphoric acid and chlorine present in small quantities.

Under the microscope the rock is seen to be composed principally
of sanidine microlites. There is a small proportion of lath-shaped
triclinic microlites and of cryptocrystalline interstitial material.

474 T. W. E. DAVID, W. F. SMEETH, AND J. A, SCHOFIELD.

(Plate 14, fig. 1), The sanidines are apparently all tabular ih
form, some slices showing nothing but tabular sections while
others yield only lath-shaped ones. .

The ferro-magnesian constituent is represented by an egirine —
which is present in considerable quantity (probably nearly 25/
of the whole bulk), It exhibits brownish-green to bluish-green —
pleochroism with a small extinction angle. It is uniformly dis —
tributed in minute angular patches moulded on the felspars with
here and there a tendency to an elongated prismatic habit. In —
places it shows ophitic structure on a small scale. The only
porphyritic constituents are a few rounded grains of this same
eegirine and a few large grains of magnetite.

As accessory constituents there are a number of minute flakes
of a brown biotite, some needles of apatite included in the felspars,
a few zircons and a little magnetite. q

Glassy Augite Andesite (1) No. 11.
Greyish-black in the mass and has the appearance of a fine —
grained andesite or basalt. a
There are but few porphyritic constituents. Some corroded
fragments of felspar, apparently monoclinic, and some grains ofa
pale augite with faint pleochroism—yellowish- to pinkish-brow a
There are one or two patches of magnetite (opacite) granules with 6
traces of brown hornblendic material remaining.

Next to these in point of size we have a sparsely scattered “ ‘
of small lath-shaped felspars, the majority of which are silt |
twinned, but a few show lamellar twinning and appear to be
oligoclase, The base appears to be glassy, but is generally 0
quite isotropic and gives the impression of being in @ near,
strain. It is quite colourless and in many places indefinite plates”
of felspar material seem to have partially developed.

This base is filled with very minute augite crystals. They 3
for the most part well formed crystals, with short prismatic 8°”
pale green in colour, and appear to have a small angle ofextinctio® — |

NOTES ON ANTARCTIC ROCKS. 475

They are too minute to be certain of pleochroism. In addition
to these there is much magnetite dust.

This rock ought perhaps to be classified as a trachytic andesite
owing to the number of apparently monoclinic felspars present.
The amount of glassy base present renders its nomenclature a
matter of uncertainty which can only be settled by chemical
analysis for which there has not been time up to the present.

Vesicular Andesite Glass, No. 13.

This is a highly vesicular fragment which on examination proves
to have many points in common with the glassy andesite No. 11,
and may well be considered as a portion of the same flow. The
porphyritic constituents are quite similar to those in No. 11, with
the exception that we have here some hornblendes preserved with
a ring of opacite granules round them, while in No. 11 the horn-
blende has practically completely disappeared, The lath-shaped
felspars are not so numerous, but are still for the most part simply
twinned. The base is faintly coloured and somewhat more glassy
while the incipient felspar plates are not noticed.

The minute augite crystals are perhaps quite as numerous as
in No. 11, but are even smaller while the magnetite and opacite
dust is more diffused.

Basaltic Andesite (No. 6).

In the mass fine-grained, very dark grey in colour, with but
few porphyritic crystals. Sp. gr. 2:78.

Th sections the ground mass is eryptocrystalline, and contains
a dust of magnetite and minute augite granules. Above this in
86 scale of crystallization is a crop of forked triclinic microlites,
Siving extinction angles approximating to labradorite. There
are also many small square and rectangular sections of felspar,
most of which show only simple twinning.

Some large crystals of magnetite are present, and a number of
ee sized’ yellowish brown augites. One or two grains of
olivine were noticed enclosed in augite. There are also some

- 476 T. W. E. DAVID, W. F. SMEETH, AND J. A. SCHOFIELD.

corroded crystals of a rich brown hornblende, which are sur-
rounded by a ring of magnetite (opacite) dust, which varies in
amount from a thin layer to a complete absorption of the
original mineral. (Plate 14, fig. 3.) :

Olivine-Dolerite, No. 14.

This rock has suffered considerable alteration. The felspars
are lath-shaped, not much decomposed, but the broken and
irregular lamelle give evidence of considerable crushing. These
felspars have a tendency to aggregate into radial or fan-shaped
groups which might be considered as a poor attempt at ‘ centric’
or ‘ocellar.’ structure. |

The augite is brown in colour, the depth increasing toward the
periphery of the grain. It occurs in irregular grains partly
moulded on the felspars, and giving rise in places to ophitic
structure. Most of it is fairly fresh, but in places it has been
converted into a felted mass of chlorite fibres, and possibly also
serpentine or other ferruginous silicates.

The olivine is in large grains, frequently with idiomorphi¢
contours. These have for the most part been converted into
serpentine, without separation of magnetite dust, but coloured in
patches by homogeneous aggregates of chlorite fibres.

Magnetite crystals are present, together with irregular masses
of secondary magnetite. Specular hematite seems to be present
also, the brilliant faces of the crystals being noticeable in reflected
light ; some of this is possibly micaceous ilmenite.

Numerous slender needles of apatite traverse all other com
stituents, and there are needles of what appears to be
actinolithic mineral also present.

Olivine Basalt (Nos. 3a, 3).
Compact, greyish-black with phenocrysts of augite, olivine,
and plagioclase. Sp. gr. 2-92.
In section the rock is clear and fresh. The ground-mass fine
in texture and composed of plagioclase microlites, minute grains

Ri DLE ee

NOTES ON ANTARCTIC ROCKS. 477

of brownish-green augite moulded on the felspars, and magnetite
dust.

The porphyritic constituents are :—Plagioclase (chiefly labro-
dorite), some of the crystals being zoned and others appear to be
made up of patches of felspar of different composition, forming
a large lath-shaped section. Some of these patches have all the
appearance of sanidine. Augite, pale brown in section with
idiomorphic contours. Olivine, generally in rounded grains, occa-
sionally idiomorphic, and showing no alteration to speak of.
There are also some large grains of- magnetite. Some of these
have a coarsely arborescent structure, the spaces between the
branches being occupied by felspar and augite similar to the
ground-mass. This would seem to point to the constituents of
the ground-mass having started to crystallize before the grains of
magnetite had completely separated out. (Plate 14, fig. 2.)

Olivine Basalt, (No. 7).

This specimen is a vescicular pebble of a reddish-brown colour.
Sp. gr. 3-07.

Under the microscope the rock is seen to consist of a fine-grained
ground-mass much stained with ferruginous decomposition pro-
ducts, and carrying numerous phenocrysts of augite, olivine and
Magnetite. The scarcity of felspar is at once apparent, no crystals
of any appreciable size being present. The ground-mass however,
contains a considerable number of very small felspar microlites.
These together with much very finely granular augite and
magnetite dust make up the ground-mass, little if any glass being
discernible,

At first the comparative scarcity of felspar would suggest that
the rock approached a limburgite in composition. The following
analysis shows that it must be retained in the basalt group :

SiO, = 45°137
Al,O = 1813
Fe,O, = 12:94
CaO = 11°23

478 T. W. E. DAVID, W. F. SMEETH, AND J. A. SCHOFIELD.

MgO = 7:33
BO ee 7 8S
Na,O. = , 2-14
H,O = 2:18

100-06

The percentage of Al,O, is high and implies the presence of
felspar, either actual or potential. As there is little glass present
it is probable that the augite, which is by far the most prevalent
constituent, is itself highly aluminous.

The porphyritic augites are frequently broken but not much
corroded. All exhibit shelly zoning, there being generally two
or three thin shells round each crystal. In some cases where the
crystal has been fractured these shells continue round the fractured
edge, showing that they have formed subsequently to the breaking
of the original kernel. This kernel is frequently twinned and is
greenish-yellow in colour. The anglec:¢ = 45°; this increases
in other outer shells up to 55° in the outermost. Zoning is
apparent in ordinary light, owing to the outer shell being of 4
decided yellow colour, but whether this is due to change in com-
position or merely to staining is not clear, though the former is
probable, from the sharpness and uniformity of the coloured shell.
One crystal differs from the majority in having a well marked
shell with a greater angle of extinction than the kernel and out
side this a thin shell having the same extinction as the kernel.

The olivine is all porphyritic, idiomorphic outlines being ¢om
mon. All the crystals exhibit a curious structure. They at?
traversed by a dense rectangular network composed of strings of
magnetite grains which here and there show octahedral faces but
are less regular than skeleton crystals. (Plate 13, fig. 4.)

The main axes of these strings are apparently parallel to the
axes, a, and 6, the shorter offsets being parallel to the vertical

axis. The olivine matrix is perfectly colourless and fresh, show

ing no decomposition and none of the usual irregular cracks. In

NOTES ON ANTARCTIC ROCKS. 479

places there are thin films of what is probably micaceous hematite
making the olivine a brilliant transparent red.

In many of the crystals the enclosed iron oxides have been
attached and converted into opaque red hematite, so that the
whole crystal appears of an opaque red by reflected light. The |
larger crystals of magnetite have suffered in the same way, and

’ the opaque red dust has spread over much of the ground-mass.

Limburgite (No. 9).
In the mass this rock is of a dark grey colour, compact with

minute irregular cavities, and shows phenocrysts of augite and
olivine. Sp. gr. 2-94

It has very much the appearance of an ordinary olivine basalt.
On microscopic examination, however, felspar was found to be
entirely absent. Porphyritic augjtes and olivines are abundant ;
they are clear and fresh, and show crystal boundaries. These
augites are yellowish to pinkish-brown in colour, generally zoned
and frequently twinned. Then we have a large crop of much
smaller augites with a few small olivines, and finally there is a
base of fine granular augite and greyish to brown intersertal glass
dusted over with granules of magnetite. (Plate 15, fig. 3.)

The colour of the glass varies in patches; in places it seems
almost entirely absent, and elsewhere we find it in brown angular
petebes filling the spaces between the second generation of augites.
This glass is perfectly isotropic, but contains a dust of dark
particles, Throughout the mass there are little irregular cavities
which would appear to be contraction rifts consequent on crystal-

: tion. Into these the augites of the second generation project
with very good crystal boundaries. These cavities are filled with
a colourless isotropic mineral with a few needle-like inclusions.

is most probably analcime. ‘Treated micro-chemically with
HCl it is decomposed, yielding a good crop of NaCl crystals and

gelatinous SiO,. The separated silica is richly stained by
malakite green,

480 T. W. E. DAVID, W. F. SMEETH, AND J. A. SCHOFIELD.

As to the nomenclature of this specimen, its mineralogical con-
stitution practically entitles it to a place among the limburgites,
though it is undoubtedly more stony in texture than is usual with
these rocks.

A partial analysis gave the following results :—
SiO, = 38-447
Al,O, = 19°88
Fe,O, = 13°46
Some oxide of manganese is included with the alumina. This
shows that the rock is ultrabasic in composition. The high per-
centage of alumina is accounted for by the analcime which is
present in considerable quantity.

Limburgite, (No. 10).
This rock is not unlike No. 9 in general appearance, but its
texture is finer. Sp. gr. 2°91.

Under the microscope it is seen to be a highly glassy rock, the
glass being very free from crystallites and of a rich brownish
yellow colour. Contained in the base are porphyritic augites and
olivines, and a second generation of smaller augites similar to
No. 9. Numerous small granules of magnetite are also present.
(Plate 15, fig. 4).

It is possible that this rock is but a more glassy portion of the
mass from which No. 9 has come, and that this glass holds
potentially the granular augitic base which is seen developed 12
the latter rock.

A partial analysis, for comparison with No. 9, gave the follow:

ing :— SiO, = 38-997
Al,O, = 11-72
Fe,O,; = 15:26

The percentage of alumina in this is much less than in No 9,
and probably represents more accurately the common magia bd
in this rock no analcime, so prevalent in the other, is observed:

NOTES ON ANTARCTIC ROCKS. 481

Basic Tuff, (No. 8a, 8b).

A hardened tuffaceous material, light-brown in colour, contain-
ing numerous darker angular fragments. Under the microscope
is seen to be composed of numerous irregular fragments of various
basic volcanic glasses. These vary in colour from light to dark
brown, and are all amygdaloidal, the vescicles being filled or
partially filled with colourless isotropic material. Some of the
lighter fragments are almost pumiceous in texture, while a few
consist of almost compact dark brown glass.

All the fragments contain minute lath-shaped felspars with a
parallel arrangement in each piece, while the more glassy ones
contain trichites in addition. The matrix is comminuted material
of the same nature as the fragments, and contains a wie tas,
, angular pieces of felspar.

No. 8¢ is very similar to the foregoing but is more porous, the
vesicles being without amygdaloidal infillings.

Nos. 12 and 15 are fragments of scoriaceous lavas, some of
which approach pumice in character. They are probably of
intermediate composition, but have not been examined in

il

Mica Schist, (No. 5.)

A fine grained rock, consisting of quartz and dark brown mica,
_ strongly marked schistose characters and easily fissile. In
thin sections the rock appears to be made up principally of clear
—— of quartz and flakes of biotite (Plate 14, fig. 4). The
biotite forms about 20% of the whole mass and is perfectly fresh
Bees strongly pleochroic. In addition to these constituents there
‘Sasmall amount of a white mica which appears to be muscovite.
There are also numerous small but beautifully formed prisms of
brown tourmaline as well as zircon, apatite, magnetite, some
Pseudomorphs of pyrites in oxide of iron, and a few grains of a
— Spinel, probably pleonaste. Some felspar is also present,
and possibly a member of the scapolite group.

Ee—Dec. 4, 1995,

482 T. W. E. DAVID, W. F. SMEETH, AND J. A. SCHOFIELD.

The bulk analysis of the rock yielded the following results :—

sid, ao =71-437% |
Al,O, (P,0,). =11°03
Fe,O, ie =. 18]
FeO hi = 2°56
MnO me “D2
CaO = 407
MgO see = 2°44
Na,O "ee = 2°10
K,O et oe 277

H,O (on ignition) = 1-44

100-17

Phosphoric acid, chlorine and fluorine aré present in small
quantities.

The percentage of lime is notably large and a partial analysis

of the biotite was made to see whether it contained any lime.
This yielded the following :—
SiO, =37-707

Al,O, = 20-74
Fe,0, =19-03
MnO = 2:03
MgO = 8-06

The iron present as FeO was not determined. It was found to
contain no lime.

The above analysis shows that the mica, which has a decided
bronze lustre, lies between biotite and lepidomelane in composition:
It was also found to be uniaxial. The high percentage of Mn0
is noteworthy and probably accounts for all the manganese found
in the bulk analysis of the rock. (We may mention incidently
that all the specimens of these Antarctic rocks which have so fa
been submitted to analysis contain appreciable quantities of
manganese).

Lime being therefore excluded from the mica it became —
sary to search for it elsewhere. No trace of twinning, whi

FOR coe PERE Ce ae ees A a ae URS aa tr ae Teer

;
|
|
|

= NOTES ON ANTARCTIC ROCKS. 483

would indicate a felspar, is to be found among the colourless
granules; nevertheless some of them were found to be biaxial in
convergent polarized light. Further, in the neighbourhood of
joint planes, some of these granules are seen to be slightly decom-

posed, indicating that they are silicates and not quartz.

These silicates, from their resemblance to the quartz grains,

when not decomposed, may be either felspars or scapolites or both.

The fact that many of them are biaxial may reasonably be taken
as indicating felspar, notwithstanding the absence of twinning, for
the secondary felspars in schists are frequently untwinned and
much resemble quartz in thin sections, The question then arises
as to whether a member of the scapolite group is also present.
To try and settle this, a prolonged separation of the mineral con-
stituents was made. A few heavy minerals came down first,
then the tourmaline; close on this came the dark mica, and
immediately after it the muscovite. The bulk of the rock, which
now .consisted of colourless grains only, remained. For a long
time we tried to separate this into its different constituents but
failed, as they all floated or sank together. It followed therefore
that the quartz, felspar and other silicates, not only resembled
each other under the microscope but were also of equal density.

_ Separation by this method having failed, and the silicates being
but slightly attacked by acids, the isolation and identification of a
Scapolite (if present) is not feasible. Nevertheless certain general
arguments render the presence of such a mineral very probable.
In the first place a felspar with the sp. gr. of quartz would have
& composition approaching that of oligoclase or andesine. In
_ a felspar the proportion of CaO does not exceed that of
Na,0, and if we assumed that all the Na,O was present in
felspar, this would account for only 2:1% of CaO, leaving a balance
of PTZ, unaccounted for. We are therefore in need of a silicate
Which, under the microscope resembles quartz, has the same sp. gT-
“8 quartz, and in which the amount of CaO, or the proportion of

CaO to Na,0, is large.

484 'T. W. E. DAVID, W. F. SMEETH, AND J. A. SCHOFIELD.

Now certain members of the scapolite group are the only
minerals with which we are acquainted which entirely satisfy the
conditions, and on these grounds we think it highly probable that
such a mineral is present.

The question of the pre-metamorphic condition of a schist, such
as the present one, is of great interest, but unfortunately little
can be done towards its elucidation from mere hand specimens.
One or two suggestions may, however, be made. From the bulk
analysis this mica schist appears to have the composition of an
acid igneous rock so far as its more stable constituents (SiO, and
Al,0;) go. In other constituents there are important differences.
For example, the amount of CaO and of Mg0O is largely in excess
of, and the amount of alkalis falls far short of, that usual in acid
igneous rocks. Now this diminution of the alkalis and increas?
of the alkaline earths is suggestive of denudation and sedimenta-
tion, and lends colour to the suggestion that this rock may be
metamorphosed sediment.

Again the numerous tourmalines present indicate, probably,
thermal metamorphism under the influence of an highly heated
acid rock from which boric acid and fluorine might be derived.
(In the granulitic aplite No. 4, we have evidence of the presence
of such an igneous mass—containing much tourmaline—in the
district). One may therefore suggest with some probability that
this mica-schist has been previously a sedimentary rock which has
taken its present form under the influence of a neighbouring
mass of highly heated acid magma.

B,—Sprctmens From Posszession IsianD.
Amygdaloidal Trachyte, (No. 9).

Grey in colour with numerous irregular cavities, many of which
are filled with yellowish and white materials. The texture
uniform, giving in section a mass of small lath-shaped felspat
which appear to be sanidine and oligoclase. Between these there
is a fair amount of colourless glass containing magnetite and very
minute grains of highly-refracting greenish material, probably

Jy
:
“

NOTES ON ANTARCTIC ROCKS. 485

augite. The flow structure is distinct, and the cavities and amyg-
daloids are irregularly elongated parallel to its direction. These
amygdaloids consist of a very irregular layer of brownish doubly-
refracting material which fuses easily and gelatinizes easily with
HCl even in the cold, and is most probably natrolite.

The portions inside this layer are generally filled with colourless
sectors of material which exhibits faint anomalous double-retrac-
tion, and may probably be analcime. In some of the larger ones
the centre is occupied by calcite surrounded by analcime which is
again surrounded irregularly by natrolite. The natrolite exists
in minute fan-shaped aggregates.

Augite Andesite, (No. 12).

Rock brownish in colour, considerably decomposed and porous.
Small red grains indicate oxidation of magnetite crystals, and the
general brownish tone due to oxidation of magnetite dust. There
is not much actual staining of other constituents. Under the
microscope appears to be an andesite of fine texture.

The base consists of felspar microlites, a great number of
smaller prisms and grains of yellow augite and magnetite (mostly
converted to reddish oxides), and a fair amount of granular inter-
sertal glass, almost colourless ond containing highly refracting
globulites. There are some porphyritic crystals of brownish augite
the outer shells of which are of a strong yellow colour similar to
that of the small augites in the base. This is probably due to
oxidation of the FeO. There are some dark patches in the base,
some with regular outlines, which may represent the debris of
another constituent, possibly a hornblende.

Basalt, (Nos. 1 and 2).
These are specimens of a fine, dark, compact basalt, with a few
porphyritic crystals of black augite. Sp. gr. 2°82, 2°86.
In section, flow structure is apparent from the parallel arrange
ment of the sniall lath-shaped felspars, The texture is micro-
“rystalline with a certain amount of intersertal glass of a brownish

486 T. W. E. DAVID, W. F. SMEETH, AND J. A. SCHOFIELD.

colour. Numerous small brownish-red olivines are present as

well as minute crystals and grains of a pale augite, and much
magnetite dust, The glass contains numerous globulites and

microlites, but nothing of special interest.
Basalt, (Nos. 3 and 7.)

These specimens seem identical, save that No. 3 is slightly
vesicular, while No. 7 is fairly compact. Colour greyish-black.
Base glassy with patches of finely granular augite. Small lath-
shaped felspars abundant, also small brownish-red olivines. Por-
phyritic constituents scanty, consisting of one or two rich brown
hornblendes surrounded by a considerable resorption layer of
opacite granules mixed with granules of augitic material ; and a
few fair sized grains of a greenish augite. These specimens beat
a strong resemblance to Nos. 1 and 2 in mineralogical constitution.

Basalt, (No. 5.)

Fine in texture with glassy base containing magnetite, minute
pale augite, felspar microliths, and some small olivines decompo>
ing into brownish-yellow serpentine. The usual small lath-shaped
felspars are present ; some porphyritic grains of pale augite, and
some pseudomorphs of hornblende in opacite and augite granules.
One of these represents a large crystal of hornblende, and some
of the original mineral remains. This is clear and fresh, and
shows a greenish-yellow to brown pleochrism (Plate 15; fig. 1).
Near the centre of the pseudomorph a large patch of the rock
base isincluded. The constitution of this pseudomorph is peculiar.
There is an outer zone of opacite, and almost colourless augite
granules preserving the idiomorphic outline of the original horn-
blende. Inside this there is a zone of varying width formed of
fucoid-like growths standing at right-angles to the sides.
are dark brown in colour, translucent, and slightly pleochroie ())
and apparently traversed by strings of opacite granules. be
probable that they consist of thin leaves of a brown oxide of ir0s

Basalt, (No. 6). :

Fine in texture, with glassy base nearly colourless and contall:

ing numerous globulites and grains of highly refracting materi

:
.
j

NOTES ON ANTARCTIC ROCKS. 487

which is probably augite. Also magnetite dust, a large crop of
lath-shaped felspar microlites and many small brownish-red
olivines. Porphyritic constituents absent. There is, however, in
one of the sections a crystal of zoisite, about 0°75 mm. long by
05 mm. broad (Plate 15, fig. 2). This is perfectly colourless and
conspicuous by its very low double-refraction, high index of
refraction, and rhombic characters. The sectién is six-sided, show-
ing two prism faces and four pyramid faces. The cleavage
parallel to 010 is well shown and a series of somewhat curved
parting planes at right angles to the vertical axis. In this
particular section the greater elasticity is parallel to the axis c.
There are some smaller sections of this mineral giving rhombic
and trapezoidal outlines.

Basalt, (No. 8).

This rock in the mass presents a curious foliated appearance.
It seems to be made up of little irregular ovoid lumps, about 5 mm.
by 2 to 3 mms., together with less regular fragments into which
it easily breaks up. The ovoid pieces all lie with their longer
axes parallel and a face at right angles to these axes was polished.
It was then seen that the ovoid lumps gave rise to dull round
spots fairly regularly distributed over this surface. They are of
softer material than the portions surrounding them, and form
centres from which irregular cracks radiate out through the sur-
rounding layers (Plate 13, fig. 8).

“y would thus appear that the rock has split up into a number
of irregular ovoid lumps, the longer axes of which are all parallel,
that most of these have a kernel of softer material the outer
evelope being traversed by irregular radial cracks. We have not
“een anything exactly like this structure before, and no definite
*xplanation has up to the present suggested itself. Doubtless
Contraction on cooling together with lateral pressures and subse-
quent percolation of waters along the cracks to the kernels have

® their share in its formation. In thin sections the slice splits
- into a number of rounded and polygonal pieces, but no dis-
Unction is observable between those forming the kernels and those

488 T, W. E. DAVID, W. F. SMEETH, AND J. A. SCHOFIELD.

forming the surrounding shells. The rock isa fine grained basalt
composed of a felted mass of felspar microlites with minute grains
of greenish augite, magnetite, and brownish-red olivines. The
presence of any glassy material is doubtful. The texture is very
fine and quite uniform, no phenocrysts having been met with.

All the basalts described so far bear a striking resemblance to
each other, both in general characters and in mineralogical con-
stitution. Their differences consist in the varying amount of
glassy base and slight changes of texture, some having a few por-
phyritic constituents, and some being vesicular.

_ The small brownish-red grains of olivine form a peculiar feature
common to all. Were it not for these olivines, the general
characters of these lavas, and the fact that most of the felspars
indicate a composition not lower in the series than labradorite,
would suggest that they should be placed among the basaltic
andesites. On the other hand the olivine is not present in suffici-
ent quantity to make them olivine-basalts. In the absence of
chemical analysis their exact classification is not ascertainable,
and we have therefore left them with the somewhat indefinite
designation of basalt.

Olivine Basalt, (No. 10).

A dark scoriaceous rock with numerous large olivines and

black crystals of augite. Under the microscope the ground-mass

is fine in texture, containing a number of very minute lath-shaped
felspars. With higher magnifying power the base is seen t0 be
glassy, slightly greenish-brown in colour, with numerous globulites
and highly refracting grains. Intermediate in size between these
and the felspars are numerous grains of pale brown augite, and
also of brownish-yellow olivine. These olivines have a granulat
appearance. There are also many small magnetite grains.
Coming next to the porphyritic minerals we have :—Larp?
crystals of magnetite. Large rounded grains of olivine, which
are colourless but turning to a brownish-yellow along the crac™
Finally, very large crystals of augite. These have idiomorphi¢

j

NOTES ON ANTARCTIC ROCKS. . 489

contours, are frequently simply twinned and slightly pleochroic.
The colour varies from a greenish-brown to a violet-brown in
different crystals and frequently in the same crystal. Sometimes
this change of colour takes the form of zoning, the kernels being
greenish and the outer shell violet, and sometimes the two colours
seem irregularly intergrown.

There are also a few corroded remnants of a brown hornblende.
The original hornblende crystals are in several instances repre-
sented by remarkable pseudomorphs, similar in many points to
those described in Basalt No. 5. There are, however, some
features present in these which render a separate description
desirable.

The ground-mass of these pseudomorphs consists @f granules
of almost colourless augite. These granules have in their
interstices or intergrown with them little specks of colourless
isotropic material, numerous elongated and branching parones
of dark brown to opaque material similar to the fucoid-like in-
clusions described in No. 5, and finally many prismatic and
granular pieces of brownish-yellow olivine similar to those in the
base of the rock. A small piece of the original brown horn-
blende may or may not remain in the centre.

The augite framework, which appears to be in irregular granules
owing to the number of these inclusions in it, is in reality optically
continuous. In one case it is twinned, one half of the pseudo-
morph extinguishing at a different angle from the other. As =
hornblende remains, it cannot be ascertained whether this twin-
ning occured in the original mineral. Further, it appears from
‘wo of the pseudomorphs that this secondary augite has its plane
of symmetry coincident with that of the hornblende. In one of
these (Plate 13, fig. 5) which appears to be a section parallel to
010, the hornblende extinguishes at an angle of 16° with 508
*ertical axis (shown by the prismatic cleavage), while the augite
extinguishes at 43° on the opposide of the vertical axis. In the
other case (Plate 13, fig. 6) we have a section approximately -
right angles to the vertical axis as shown by the shapely defined

490 T. W. E. DAVID, W. F. SMEETH, AND J. A. SCHOFIELD.

prismatic cleavages of the hornblende, and here the hornblende
and augite extinguish simultaneously.

The dark brown to opaque inclusions do not occur in the
original hornblende, but are confined to the surrounding altered
portion. They do not appear to have any very definite arrange-
ment, irregularly elongated and platy forms being common. On
the edges, and when in thin films, they are translucent and of a
dark brown colour. Associated with these are prisms and irregular
patches of brownish-yellow olivine ; and in some cases a layer of
this olivine appears to fringe some of the brown inclusions, and
one material seems even to pass gradually into the other (Plate 13
fig. 7.) It is a suggestion perhaps worth making that this dark
material is silicate of iron allied to ilvaite, which would resemble
a fayalite in which some of the iron was peroxidised. The trans-
ition from this to a ferrugineous olivine, or vice versa, is easily
conceivable.

Nos. 11 and 13 are: fragments of basic scorie, varying from
black to red in colour. Some are very highly vesicular and may
be intermediate in composition. No. 11 is more compact and
most of the vesicles are lined with zeolitic material.

SUMMARY.

The collections submitted to us by Mr. Borchgrevink, in addi-
tion to proving the existence in Victoria Land of a group of
trachyte lavas containing soda-augites, and other interesting rocks
such as the ultra-basic limburgites and the mica-schist already
described, appear to us to strongly confirm the conclusion already
arrived at by Dr. Murray and several eminent biologists a8
the existence within the Antarctic Circle of an Antarctic Con
tinent rather than an Antarctic Archipelago. The schistose and
granitic rocks collected by him at Cape Adare are distinctly of
continental origin, and imply a strong probability of the com
tinuity of Victoria Land with Adélie Land.

In speaking of Mr. Borchgrevink’s work we can but echo the
sentiments already expressed by Dr. Murray, that it is imposs

NOTES ON ANTARCTIC ROCKS. 491

to overestimate its importance as bearing on the whole subject
of the geography and geology of Antarctica ; and we here desire
to express to him our warmest thanks for his courtesy in allowing
us the privilege of examining and describing his collections. Our
thanks are also due, for help kindly given us when preparing
material for this paper, to the following : .—_Mr. H. 8S. W. Crummer,
the Hon. Treasurer of the New South Wales Branch of the Royal
Geographical Society of Australia; Mr. E. F. Pittman, Assoc. B.S.M.,

the Government Geologist ; Mr. G. W. Card, Assoc. R.S.M., Miner.
alogist ; Mr. W. S. Dun, Assistant Paleontologist and Librarian
to the Geological Survey of N. S. Wales; and to the following
geological students of the University of Sydney: :—Miss Montefiore,
Miss Flavelle, Miss Haslam, Miss Noakes, Mr. H. J. 8. Brook,

and Mr. Graham Officer, B.Sc.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
PLATE XIII.

Fig.1. Triply-twinned grain of felspar showing Carlsbad, Mannebach
and Albite types. Two of the sectors are shown extinguis

Fig. 2a. Basal section of topaz, showing usual position of a axes,
the sign being positive.

Fig. 2b. Section of topaz, in Granulitic Aplite, A. No. 4, showing
position of optic axes, the sign being negative.

Fig.3. Prisms of rutile and anatase from Granulitic Aplite, A. No. 4,

Fig. 4. Crystal of aiden from Olivine Basalt, A. No. 7, with inter-
8town meshwork of magne

Figs. 5,6. Pseudomorphs of hornblende composed of granular augite,
colourless isotropic material, brownish-yellow olivines, and dark none
a inclusions. These latter may be oxides of iron or possibly 4

ate allied to ilvaite. Some of the hornblende remains in ¢ ach.

The augite granules are optically continuous and have the plane of
try and vertical axis coincident with those of the horblende.
a. 7. A portion of Fig. 6 enlarged; the dotted grains represent
Fig. 8. Polished surface of basalt B. No. 8, at right angles to axes of

nitrate i i ne softer kernels of these lumps represe ented by lighter
Repeats which irregular cracks radiate through the surrounding

492 HUGH CHARLES KIDDLE.

PLATE XIV.
Fig. 1. Trachyte A. No. 1 and 2, composed principally of sanidine and
egirine. A porphyritic crystal of egirine is shown X 30

. Olivine Basalt A. No. 3a, 3b, showing, near the centre, an
arborescent grain of magnetite X 45.

Fig. 3. Basaltic Andesite A. No. 6, sein a large brown hornblende
surrounded by a layer of opacite granule

Fig. 4. Mica Schist A. No. 5, section at ite angles to plane of
foliation X 30

PLATE XV. e

Fig. 1. Basalt B. No. 5, with large pseudomorph of hornblende. On
the left of the centre a patch of the original mineral is seen X 20.
Fig. 2. Basalt B. No. 6, showing crystal of zoisite X 20.
Fig. 3. Limburgite A. No.9, showing miarolitic structure, the cavities
Heise filled with analcime. The dotted crystals are olivin lass |
is in dark brown angular patches or filled with fine granular augite X 30. |
Fig. 4. Limburgite, A. No. 10, glassy base without rs fine granular
augite of No. 9. This is studded with a second generation of small 3
;

B

augites anda few olivines. Two large porphyritic aia are shown X 30.

Notes on tae RAINFALL or tue SOUTHERN RIVERINA
1872 ro 1894.

By Hueu Cuarues Kipp ie, F-R. Met. Soc.
:

[Read before the Royal Society of N. 8. Wales, December 4, 1895.]

In order to carry out an investigation of the rainfall of a larg?
tract of territory, two essential conditions must be complied with,
firstly, there must be a number of willing observers, well cad

tributed throughout the district, and secondly, some one to under-
take the task of collecting and digesting the records thus made ‘:
available. I have undertaken the task of doing this for souther® '
Riverina, and in the pages which follow I have endeavo

RAINFALL OF SOUTHERN RIVERINA. 493

make this an exhaustive enquiry into the rainfall of the district
lying between the Murray and the Murrumbidgee.

Out of one hundred and twenty-five stations herein discussed,
the Government Astronomer has furnished me with the particulars
of seventy-three stations; for the remaining fifty-two I am indebted
to the proprietors of these stations who very kindly responded to
my request for copies of their records.

I.—Area under consideration.
II.—Divisions.
III.—Tables.
IV.—Summary.

(I.) The district which, for the purpose of this paper, is termed
the Southern Riverina, embraces all the area between the Murray
and Murrumbidgee Rivers, and extending as far east as the
meridian of 147° 30’. The locality to the eastward of that
Meridian is termed the western slopes of the southern table-
land. The records of the town of Aibury, situated in the extreme
south-east of this area, have been omitted. The reason for doing
this is that the township is surrounded by hills, a fact, which, in
My opinion, considerably affects the rainfall. I mention this to
show that only stations which may be said to belong to the
Southern Riverina have been selected, and that the results are
not simply a large collection of statistics irrespective of locality.
As Albury has a very long and valuable rainfall record, you might
be sure that there was a valid reason for omitting it. The area
of the district is approximately 19,700 square miles, or embracing
about twelve and a half millions of acres of the finest wool and
wheat growing lands of New South Wales. ‘he length is about
two hundred and thirty miles, and average width about eighty-
ind miles. The surface may be characterised as a generally
sloping plain falling from east to west. The ‘altitudes on the
eastern side are given thus for Wagga Wagga 615 feet, Albury
530 feet, the level at Deniliquin is 320 feet, while at Balranald
about 230 feet, being a fall of about two feet per mile for the first
mterval and one foot per mile for the second,

494 HUGH CHARLES KIDDLE.

(II.) Divisions.—The area has been divided into four sections,
the dividing lines being the meridians of longitude. They are

designated— '
Section. From. To.
Junction ooh Sat Sneeey | °
A snd) Marrombiagee | 145° E.
B 146° E.
Cc 146° ‘ 147° E.
D 147° E. 147° 30’ E.

This method of division was selected as it was found to be
more workable than taking the square degree or other arbitrary
anit, and it also conformed to the geographical nature of the
district. The first three sections are essentially part of the
Southern Riverina, but Section D encroaches somewhat on the
southern tableland. For this reason only those stations situated
on the northern, central, and western sides were used for the
purpose of computing the Table No. 4.

(III.) The Tables numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, have been compiled
for each year by taking the sum of the available rain records for
each month in that year and dividing by the number of stations.
I may say that the stations are well distributed throughout each
section, so that the average for each year, although the result of
a constantly increasing number of stations, is a very true one.

One pleasing feature is the large number of stations represent
ing Section A. I have obtained twenty-nine records for 1893 for
this section. In all sections where there are two or more reports
from the same place, either only one of them, or else the averag®
of the two has been counted in the mean. For instance Wagg*
Wagga has two records, both dating from 1873. In such a casé
I take the mean of the two records and call it one station. The
reason is obvious, for the results would otherwise probably be
misleading.

Table (1) gives monthly and annual results for all stations 1?
Section A. Table (2) same for Section B. Table (3) same for
Section C. Table (4) same for Section D.

aero ae

RAINFALL OF SOUTHERN RIVERINA. 495

Taste I.—Results of Monthly and Annual Rainfall, 1872 to 1894, for
Section A.—Balranald to Long. 145° E.
: No. ;
| Soe: Sie Jan. | Feb.| Mar.|April| May | June} July| Aug.|Sept = jer er
1872| 31°37) -07 50) 43) -92 4-05 1°31 {1-241 Bees, Pe PPS Pea i
. 1873| 3 |5:01|3-16| -10 2-29|1-40 1-29| -82|2-69|1-92| “88 -88| -65 nee
(1874 8 |884) — 4°81 1-83 )1-36/1-67| -63) “51 229 ‘50| °81| +12| 1637
wi 4 | -16|2°04| -78/1-71 |2°97 3°13 |1°20|2°44.|1°01 |1°81| °57/1°37 | 19°19
6) 5 | 65| °51|1°68| -16|2-91| -16| -10|2-07 |1-01 |1°31/3-77) °22| 14°55
isa 9 | 501-05 |2°35| -46 [1°85 1-21) -68| “12 /2°62| -63| “85) -37| 12°14
—— {3878 ) 11.) — j4-58|5-96|1-83) -25/ -99 2-42) -44) -61|1-77) -67| — | 18-47
1880 | 14 al bide 72 |1-32 1°29) -80|1:04.|1°61 |1°29 |2°81 |1°60| -60) 13°
send mal 61 |2-36 |1-48 2-87 “48 | ‘76| °2 1-41| °59| *38 12°10
sr nd he 1:96 | -23 |2-05/1-61| -40/1°18 [1°57| °73) °75) 45 13°71
| aaa ge "02 | -02| -09 2-83 |1-00/ -88 |1-04|1°79 (0-29 2-29 2-46) -97 13°68
Tee | oo | OE] (8641-67 | -73/1°77 |1-20| 58 |1-42 180/131) °87) “30 12°27
| 1885 ped “B1) °28 1-15] -49'1-74 1-46] 04] “53 1 73/1°34| -21) 9°34
amal 3 he 1-82| -82|1°73| -59'1:41| -92| -74|2°32| -68) *17|2°08 | 13°63
1887 | 24 39) “06 -25| -08 1:09 | “68 {1°73 |2°86 1-63 |L-11| °57/2°57 | 14°02
of | (28 [2-88 [1-47 [2-21 [1-09 2°68 [1-61 1°36 -95/|1:95 '419 1-88 21°98
1889 | 96 Ph 62} “32 -41|1:77) -59| “4 ‘54| -98| -22| -26| *76| 7°3
~ - 2:95| — [3-73 4°12 2-11] 27 3:02 1-71 |1°39 1°99) -06 | 23°51
vet a To 33 |2°89| -76 |218 2°69 |2-62/1-46 | -59/1-75/1°58| *71 17°61
rn ed *80| -88 1-77 |1-52/1:99 | -65 |1°72| 29 16°89
1893 | 39 ost "20 | -23| -66 2°86| *79 [1-45 |1°72 |1°45 |3°08 |136| 25 14°18
1894| 96 a UL | 52] -90|8-24/1-38] -99/1-23 1-49 °78|1°89) “40 12°88
eka! of | oe ag 2°72 |1-45 8 (290 1:31|1'95 | “88 352 “35 4°32) 21-21
oii 20 hd Re OE LO ee es la
Tr ee ——
ABLE se Results of Monthly and Annual Rainfall, 1872 to 1894, for
ae ection B.—Longitude 145° E. to Longitude 146° E.
Year. (2.041 | ;
ear bl ag Mar.|April thes Liao July | Aug.|Sept Oct. | Nov.| Dec. Total.
1872| 3 | —
I 3 \. 24 | = "52 |1°63 [4-71 |1-46 |1-44 |1°75 [2°81 3°32 58) 19°15
187 2a) “ogi ees - L|1°30| -50|2°27|1:56) -72 79 | 56) 19°55
ne ara “47 |1°71|1-95 ‘87 |2°31| *38) 02) 04) 15°04
1876! bn 3-16 | 61 |1°70|3-07 |4°73 |2-02/ 2°56 |1-30 |1-27) *95 148) 23°25
1877; § | os} 29 1-49] “02 |2'86| -25] -22/1'81| “87| 60/908 “37/126
1878 | vr aed 81| -23/1-67/1-67| -97| -23|2°83| -40| *56/ “57, 11-24
ae ab ab Cay 3 bat 20 Ego ven eaear os 416
880 3 ‘97| °76|1°56 \1°56 |1°46 |2°87 1°66, *47|
1881 14 | -33 ob 1:95 |4-14 |1-06|1-06| °58| °57 173 92| -21) -28, 15°15
8821 17 | tel ne ree 1 |t 92|1°74| “45/106 [1-45 ) 84/005 “56 15°66
|1883' 17 | .o9 8 | ‘10 3:12 /1°59| -88| -98|2°33| *24 |2°78|2°07 |L32 15°60
|194) 1g | 02201 1-15 | -62 [1-96 j1-56| “68 |1-49 [1-64 [1-92 94) -26 13°25
11885! 17 |yree | 22/108 [Laz Lar 2-26) -24 [1-13 1-08 [1-56 [1°37 | 50) 12°64
'1886 19 |}-45 13)" °62/2-78 | -61/1-59| *81| “60 /2°6 11°35 | °27/1-76| 15°80
1887 99 | go lat |g:3t| 15) 89 -87|1-48 [3:36 |1-50|1°39 65236 14°62
1888 99 | 2928.25 8:48 1-63 1-65 (2-45 [1-79 |1-63 1-06 2°31 8.88 219 26°01
11889 21 [psp |ped| 28) 362-44) -62) +52) -63)1:1 3 +29) -50|1-04) 9°61
1890 22 | -95 sd Ol 3°67 5°15 3:06| 39 |3°68/1-95 1°62 1°88) 25 27°31
‘1891 29 3.97 ‘32 2°71 [1041-95 3°27 [2-51 [1-35 |1-09 1-70 1°45) -72| 18°16
(1892 24 |'.gq) 02/202 8°57 |1°17 '2°68 [2°59 |1°80 [1-25 [1°38 1°28 36 21°46
| (1898 26 | -o4| 95) 0788297 | “92 2641-48 3-36 1°86) -28) 16°78
(A804 9g | “Be| “08! 92 |2-20 [3-40 1-70 1-02 |1-531-76 14 175) °78) 15°36
Mean of | 99 | 48 /3°42 2:80 1-89 [3-70 [1821-78 | “88 3°71 “31 |2°83 | 23°80
er ie Pas [ae ee ee

496 HUGH CHARLES KIDDLE.
Taste III. Eom of Monthly and ees — via to sai
tude

Section C.—Longitude 146° E. t 147° E
eas be dan ae Mar.|April) May | June| July i Aug.|Sept | oct
tion: | |
1872} 2 1:00 -86/1-20| -12/3°36 6°10 |2°53 | -82 1°70 4°35
1873| 2 |382 2°80) -05|2-27| -91/3°10| -42 |2-48|1-:12) -73
1874| 2 2-42) — |4-25| -80/3°09 2-00 |1-06 |1-45 |2°75 | *48
1875| 3 °10 3°76 |1°43 |2°81 3°64 /4°41 |2-01 |3-13 |1°39 /1°53 |1
1876| 5 | -08) -65/1°35| -07 3°18) 36) *10/1-76 |1-54/1°37 |2°
1877| 6 | °77| -97|1:03| 59 |1°88 |2°20 |1-05 | 27 12-84 1°16
1878|. 6 | — [3-99 |4°19|1°84| - 91 2°69 -99 |3-08 |3°63
1879| 8 | ‘47 /1°71|1°38 |2°59/1°53| °81 2°18 1-86 |1-68 3°40
880| 12 | °75 1:80 2°12 4-67 |1°48|1-58| +45) 741-77 1:54
1881| 13 | -43 2°33 3°85| -83 2°05 /1-77| -48 1°15 |1-40 |1-05
1882 | 18 | “82, -17| -37/3-49|2°39| -78|1-16|2-69| -28 3°67
1883 | 21 | -01 1:06 1°57) -79/1-65|1-91|1-10 1°55 1°58 |2°84
1884| 26 | -35| -54/1-08| -73|1°48|1°57| -10| -65| -98] °99
1885 | 32 |2:26/1-64) -57 1-67) °70|2°20) -59) -90 3:17/1-34
1886 | 36 14d ‘30 84 40 “921-02 |1-74 |4-03 1-76 |2
1 41 | ‘94 4°12 4-27 1:26 1°80 3°03 |2°64 1°74 1-202
1888| 43 |1:10 219) -23 -30 2°62| -96/1-:02 -86/1-00| -
1889 | 44 |2°49/2-95| -02 2°79 5°77 3° 82 3°33 2°31|1
1890 | 44 | -09|1-36 2°74 1-04 2°58 3-04 2-45 1-42 1-65 2
43 \4-40 ‘11/197 3 6\1 2 6 11:58 |1°34.|1°
1892 | 43 (1°54) -22| -19/1-71 2°55 |1 78 |3°05 |1-97 |2°
— 1°66 1-84 4°19 |2-08 |1°68 |1-98 |2°31 |1:87
ees bP Ea 23 eae io dee
TaBLe LV.—Results of ‘Meuieie and Annual Rainfall, hg ie 1994, for
Section D.—Lo ngitude 147° E. to.Long tude 147°
as and Jan.| Feb.) Mar.| Ay al ae J June July | Aug./Sept.} Oct. Noy.
tions. |
1872| 1 |1-66{1:53 |2:87| -02|2-94 |6-62 1-81 |1-71 2-09 |3°51 [3°17
873| 1 |8-18/1-27| — |2°65| -77|3-54 1-12 |1°54/1°70 |1°09 |2°73
1874} 1 |4°10| -55 4°88 |2-75 |2-39 3-05 3-10 |2°85 |3°80 |1°65 | “15
1875| 1 |1:22/3-20| -57|3-20|3-20 3°86 1-44 |1°93 1°76 |1°68 2°05
1876) 2 | -27| -$9|1-52' — |3-62| -55| -79|/2-45 |1-38 |1°35 [2°83
1877) 2 1:04) -57 |1-37|1-68 |2°55 3°05 /1-01| -55 2°80 1°33 “45
1878| 2 | -03|3°81|3°33/1:84)| -35 3-00 3-02 1-07 2°54 |4-02 2°21
1879) 3 | -60/1:87|2-45 2°77 2°71 |1-05 2°54 2-48 [2-64 |2°33 2°75
1880| 2 | -82|2-26 |1-77 4-00 |1°54 {1°81 | -69|1-04|1-04 2°11) “41
1881| 3 | -40/2-43 |2-91| -55|2°55/2°60 -73|1-16|1-46 |1-43 1°65
1882] 4 | -70| -63| -83 3°65 |2-94 1°51 1-77 |3°71| °50 |3°38 3°32)
1883} 5 | -05)1:41|1-98 76 |1-63 |1-78 |1-39 |1-67 |2-28 |3°81 1-41
1884| 7 | 45) -49/1-29'1-52|1-13 3-64 46 (1°12 |2°00 1°52
1885| 9 3°59 /2°60| -44 1-:08| -69'2-98| -56|1-18 3°12 |1°43 |1°53
1886} 11 1:43) 52) -47| -61|1-21 1-01 2°08 |4-94 2°25 |3°89 |1°63 2°
1887) 11 1:26 4°58 5°39 59 1:44 3°77 3°33 |2-05 |1°56 |2°90 |6 0}:
1888 | 12 | -92/2°85| 52) +15|2-13/1-72/1-70| °72/1°48| °33| “71
1889 | 12 2°70 /2°72| — 2-78 16-09 4°48 1-23 |3°39 2°62 |2°21 |3°38 |l
1890| 14 -21 2°17 3°55 1-27 |2-96 |3-83 2°12 |1°77 |2°23 |2°55 |2°05 2"
1891 | 15 5:80) -14|1-85 3-01 |1-22 14-62 5-20|1-77 1°66 |1°68 2°89
1892) 15 2:08; -28 78 2-05 |2-79 |1 2-09 3°88 2°48 |2°48 [3°14
Saal i4 as way [et 200 [8:92 [9°72 [2:64 [2-28 2°50 [2-51 a
Mean! of | 23 lvear's... |. 4, ng ies 3°14./1°88 |4 vie pas

2

RAINFALL OF SOUTHERN RIVERINA. 497*

(IV.) Summary.—In dealing with a subject so uncertain as
rainfall, the most important feature to be discovered is its
periodicity. In fact I think that this is the only point of impor-
tance in connection therewith.

The question of periodicity has been dealt with by many writers,
and the number of different theories advanced is somewhat per-
plexing. There are periods of three, five, eleven, nineteen and
thirty-three years ; all of these have their supporters. In many
instances an agreement exists between one of these periods and
the figures representing the rainfall, and this agreement is im-
mediately set forth as a positive theory. As it is orthodox to
assume that rainfall is governed by certain laws, more or less
proven, argument on the matter is out of place in these notes.
Suffice it to say that I do not consider that the records of twenty-
three years which I have now set before you, show definitely any
periodicity, for the simple reason that T do not think the observa-
tions cover a sufficiently long series of years to actually prove
anything. I beg to draw your attention though to the fact that
the amounts of the annual totals coincide closely and conform to
the period set down as a nineteen year cycle. By taking the
monthly values I find that the period shows eighteen years two
months. For instance, the dry period commencing in October
1874, and lasting for four months is repeated in December 1892,
when a dry period of three months set in.

The annual results agreeably conform to the nineteen year
cyele as shown by the following examples :—1875, 1894, and the
three years immediately preceding these years respectively. These
oe what may be called all good years or years of a plentiful
rainfall, Unfortunately our series for this district does not give
us an opportunity of comparing the recurrence of the dry years.

viegne Tam correct in stating that the nineteen year period
Fig = our Government Astronomer Mr. H. C. Russell,
mention this to show the excellence of the authority i
quote when applying the cycle to this discussion.
Fr—Deec. 4, 1995.

498 HUGH CHARLES KIDDLE.

The periodicity may therefore be summed up as indicative ofa
recurrence of similar seasons at intervals of about eighteen or
nineteen years. Taken alone this knowledge may prove of much
service to both the pastoralist and the agriculturalist, and if so,
one of the objects aimed at will have been accomplished. But
apart from the knowledge of the periodicity, these tables afford
the means of working out the relationship between the amount of
rainfall and the resulting crops. This may be effected by com
paring the amount registered in any particular season, that is
from ploughing time to harvest of any particular year, with the
recorded average yield per acre of the crop under consideration.
For instance bushels per acre would be assumed in discussing

wheat crops, tons per acre if vines.

The tables are particularly useful in this respect, as by dividing
the period the crop is in the ground into sections, the most bene-
ficial amount of rainfall and opportune season for‘it to fall may
be discovered. A wheat crop for instance, may be divided into
(1) ploughing and sowing period, (2) growing period and, (3)
ripening period. The fact that the same annual amount of rail-
fall will not necessarily produce the same result in the crops in
any two years is so apparent as to need no enlargement thereon

In conclusion I may say that although the period of twenty-
three years is short from a meteorological point of view, the
results deduced therefrom will I hope be found not altogether
unworthy of notice.

At some future period I hope to be in a position to place before
you not only the rainfall results of this district, but results of the
investigation of rainfall, pressure, temperature, winds, et¢., CO
bined, and not only for this district but also for any other i2

which it may be my lot to reside.

Finally, before I close my remarks, I must take the opportunity
of thanking all those gentlemen who have supplied me with coples
of their records; without their assistance this paper could not have
been produced. I must also thank the Government Astronomeh

.

THE GREAT METEOR OF MAY 772, 1895. 499

Mr. H. C. Russell, F.x.s., for his kindness in supplying nearly

two-thirds of the data to me, more especially for the year 1894,

for by his kind assistance in that’ direction I have been enabled

to bring the subject matter up to date, and thus render it more
interesting, and I hope useful.

THE GREAT METEOR OF MAY 71, 1895.

By H. C. Russetu, B.A., C.M.G. F.R.S.

[Read before the Royal Society of N. S. Wales, July 3, 1895.]

From time to time we get reports of earthquakes on the western
plains, and various circumstances connected with them convinced
me that they, or at least some of them, result from meteoric
explosions, and I have at last obtained what seems to me to be
clear and definite proof that what was accepted by a large number
of persons as an earthquake, was simply a vibration in the earth,
caused by a terrific explosion overhead. Some of the observers,
indeed describe it as like the explosion of a magazine. Sturt was
ence startled at 3 o’clock in the day (Feb. 7, 1829) when on the
Parling, by a great explosion “like the discharge of a heavy
iri of ordnance five or six miles away,” and in the early days,
1789 (17 Jan.), all Sydney was agitated by what was supposed to
be the explosion of a gun outside the heads, and everyone who

could get a horse or a gig went off to South Head with all speed,
to see the ship,
looked for.

but no ship was in sight, anxiously as she was

| The source of the great explosion this year was fortunately
— ny a great number of persons under conditions which

ary point to the explosion of a meteor as the cause of the
oe and the earthquake. The first intimation I received of it
Bones telegran from Mr. Thomas Cadell, who happened to be at

500 H. C. RUSSELL.

Bedooba Station, some sixty miles south of Cobar, and while
sitting at a table reading, distinctly heard the glasses rattle
together as a rumbling noise passed the house. Many others in
Nymagee and Gilgunnia had a similar experience. Later Mr.
Cadell got reports from the Cobar mailman that at the time he
had seen a great meteor pass over, and from Mr. Edgar who was
startled out of his sleep by the noise, and thought he saw the
moon falling; these reports pointed clearly to the cause of the
earthquake, and I wrote to the daily papers asking for informa-
tion. Thanks to many correspondents to whom I am indebted
for valuable reports, I have now been able to trace the meteor
over this colony so well that I think it ought to be placed upon
record. I have never before heard of such a magnificent meteor
in Australia, and it is not often that any part of the world is
visited by such a fine one. Unfortunately no one has referred its
path to the stars; if they had, it would give us more exact inform-
ation of its path in the heavens, and there are still some points to
clear up which the publication of what follows may bring out, at
least it will place upon record all that I have been able to learn
of this truly magnificent meteor, and show that at its explosion 4
distinct tremor of the earth was experienced in the houses near.

No. 1, Vyngan—Mr. C. Maclean reports to Mr. Edwin Lowe
of Wilgar Downs, that he was camped at Nyngan with sheep, he
was on watch about 11 p.m., when a gigantic meteor passed over
head travelling about due south-west, the ball of fire was twice
the size of the moon and had a long train after it, travelled slowly
and was in sight for several minutes. At Wilgar Downs 4
brilliant light was seen by Mr. Lowe junior after he had retired,
but at the time he did not know what it was.

No. 2, Vymagee.—Mr. G. Robinson was on the night of May
7, on his way from Nymagee to Gilgunnia, at a point marked
by a cross on the map. At the moment he was driving due
west, “when suddenly and without any warning a dazzling
patch of light about twenty feet in diameter appeared 0”
the ground just to the right of the horses’ heads; the horses

THE GREAT METEOR OF MAY 77h, 1895. 501

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instantly shied from the light and turned their heads to 8.W.
and we saw the meteor before us. The most beautiful sight
was the reflection of the light from the ground, it seemed at one
moment to burst off in all directions giving out magnificent
colours ; I was surprised at its being confined to such a small
space, a circle as just stated, not more than twenty feet in diameter.
Its brilliance was very remarkable and affected or rather dazzled
our eyes; this may account for the meteor not appearing so bright
to us afterwards. The ground where the light struck was bare
and dry, trees formed a good back ground for the light, but they
were some distance away, and the light lasted about eleven seconds.
When this brilliant light struck the ground, it seemed to ascend
from the ground again, splashing up over our heads and leaving
the spot in darkness : at the same moment I noticed a chain of
light dart from this spot, flying along the ground first south, then
darted across our track, and immediately darted back east pass-
De back on our left and close to us. I knew that this light was
* Slven out by some brilliant object high up behind me, and I
*xpected to see something when I turned my head suddenly
°ver my left shoulder. I was surprised to see the meteor

502 H. C. RUSSELL.

coming away from north-east; it was high up but falling
towards us ; at first the tail appeared about 14° long and inclined
upwards, but as it passed by on the east side of us it seemed to
be 10° or 12° long; it changed colour at first, but I saw no sparks
in it. The object in front (i.¢., the meteor) seemed to be 34° to
4° ahead of the flash or tail of smoke, this distance got greater
when close to us. When opposite to us the motion was too rapid
for such observations, although I could see the trail quite distinetly;
it looked like sheet lightning, and it disappeared when the meteor
was due south of us.” eS.

“ As the meteor passed us the trees under it actually glittered
with its light, while east and west of the track the tree tops
appeared dark. The meteor passed to the east of us as just stated,
but almost over our heads from north-east to south-west. The
hissing noise as it passed was something like the flare noise of a
gas jet, but very much louder. The remarkable brilliance of the
light which dazzled our horses may have affected our eyes, and
this would account for the fact that the meteor itself did not
appear so bright. The tail looked like a tongue of flame gliding
along after a dark object. two degrees in diameter, which seemed to
be enveloped in smoke.” [Probably the meteor looked dark
because (1) they were looking at the back of it, and (2) the front
of the meteor would be the great point of heat and light in its
passage through the atmosphere.| ‘Subsequently he heard three
loud reports as if three heavy guns had been discharged almost at
the same moment and quite near them.”

When they reached Gulgunnia the townspeople were found to
be in a state of alarm at what they thought was an earthquake.
They said the noise was like heavy thunder that rolled past from
the north-east, At Nymagee the noise of the explosion was SO great
and the earthquake so severe that almost every person in the
town was alarmed. Mr. Robinson gives the time 10 h. 30 m.
that at which the meteor passed, but his watch must have bee?
fifteen or twenty minutes slow, for Mr. Cadell at Bedooba, sixty
miles away, made the time 10h. 50 m., and the three observers

THE GREAT METEOR OF MAY 774, 1895. 503

at Rookwood fix the time by railway clocks at 10-48 p.m. or
within a minute or two of that.

No. 3, Bedooba.—Mr. Thomas Cadell of Hillston, was at Bedooba
on May 7, and at 10-50 p.m. felt a very distinct earth tremor pass
the house from south-west to north-east, the noise lasted about
two minutes ; it very much resembled the noise made by an iron
tank being rolled rapidly over a rocky place, and he heard it
gradually dying out in the distance. He also distinctly heard the
glasses in the house rattling together and the kerosene lamp on
the table at which he was reading decidedly tilted and momen-
tarily flared up just as the rumbling noise passed the house.
Mr. Edgar, who was camped about fifteen miles south-east from
Mount Hope, reported to Mr. Thomas Cadell that he was asleep
when the noise of the meteor awakened him, and looking up he
saw a bright body passing overhead, and for a moment he thought
it was the moon that was falling, it was so large. It had a tail
of smoke and flame apparently twenty yards long, and the light
it gave completely snuffed out the moon which was near the full.
The mail driver from Mount Hope northwards reported to Mr.
Thomas Cadell that he had seen an enormous meteor travelling
horizontally from north-east to south-west, and it disappeared
about 10-45 p.m.; about five minutes after the meteor passed he
heard a rumbling noise travelling from south-west to north-east,
and he thought the noise was made by the meteor exploding.

No. 4, Orange.—Mr. District Surveyor Crouch was driving in
hooded buggy home to Orange, and at about 10°45 p.m. of May
ith saw the meteor, his attention being attracted by a bright light;
he looked out and just saw for a fraction of a second the meteor
‘ravelling from north to south about 5° or 7° degrees above the
horizon. The size appeared about half the diameter of the full
cine He did not hear any noise, nor was the trail particularly
eee “It was certainly the largest meteor I have ever
Seen, its bearing was about west by north.”

No. 5, Sathurst.—Miss Gillkrest, Bathurst, saw the meteor of
May 7th, at 10h. 50 m, p-m., and thought the moon was falling, So

504 H. C. RUSSELL.

large and brilliant was the meteor. The meteor seemed to travel
from north to west leaving a trail of light behind it for some time;
it appeared to descend to the ground at an angle of about 45°. It
was so brilliant that its light shining through the window blind
attracted attention, and it moved so slowly that there was time
to pull up the blind and see the meteor.

No. 6.—Mr. J. Smethurst of Wyalong, was walking towards
the south about 11 p.m. on May 7th, the moon being nearly full,
“when suddenly the bright moonlight was absorbed by a brilliant
light behind me; on turning round I saw a meteor about the same
diameter as the moon, it was due north of me then, and 15° or 20°
above the horizon. The meteor presented the usual train of light
&c., but it did not burst, it remained visible six or seven seconds,
towards the end of its path it grew gradually fainter and finally
went out without reaching the horizon.” Mr. Hunter, a friend,
confirms these statements as to its brilliance, direction, and not
reaching the horizon, but thinks it was only a quarter the size of
the moon.

No. 7, Minto—Mr. T. P. Latta saw the meteor of May 7th -
10-50 p.m., it travelled at a great pace from north to west,
seemed to disappear behind the Minto hills. The night was
beautifully clear, “‘ when I saw a magnificent meteor, its head like
a ball of electric light and the tail seemed to give out prismatic
colours like a rainbow. The head seemed to be two-thirds of sg
diameter of the moon and the tail half the moon’s diameter 1
width, and its length ten or twelve’ times the diameter of the
moon. ‘The tail of the meteor seemed to give out colours some-
thing like the flashing of a diamond in the sun; compared with all
the meteors I have seen before, this was a giant.”

No. 8, Rookwood.—Mr. Richard Peck saw the meteor 0B May
7th at 10-48 p.m., it came out of a small dark cloud more thar :
half-way up the sky (visual angle 30°, half-way up pr obably 15)
it was very brilliant, like a ball of fire as large as the moon,
it had flames shooting out from it on all sides fully half the mooP .

THE GREAT METEOR OF MAY 71, 189. 505

diameter long; its course was marked by a trail like sparks of
fire, fully three degrees long; it was in sight for fully half a
minute. Its light, like sunlight, made every other light pale,
only it looked like a ball of iron at a white heat. It left a trail
behind it two or three degrees long and one degree wide. It
travelled in a curve and very slowly.

No. 9, Rookwood—Mr. Bissett, Post Master, Rookwood. “Mr.
Peek called my attention to the meteor, time 10°48 p.m. It was

" amagnificent object, moving slowly, and remaining in sight twenty

to twenty-five seconds; it was as large as the moon and as
brilliant as the electric light, I took the time from Mr. Morton,
whose watch was ad justed to railway time. Messrs. Peek, Morton,
and I were standing together and saw it, in all important points
Wwe are agreed, except that our estimates of the time it was visible
differ a little, it lasted twenty to twenty-five seconds by my
estimate.

No. 10, Rookwood.—Mr. Peter McGrath of Mary Street, Rook-
wood, on May 29th, in course of conversation said he saw the
meteor of May 7th; he did not look at a watch, but the trains ran
always within a minute of true time, and he took the time when
he saw the meteor to be 10:46 p.m., because one train left the
station at 10-39%p.m. and another at 10-52 p.m. The meteor
seemed to come out of a cloud which was about 12°, above the
horizon, and immediately afterwards fire seemed to flash out of
it all round as if it exploded, and its size increased enormously.
From this explosion an intensely brilliant meteor seemed to shoot
out and go away to the south. When first seen it was over &
hill which he believes to be Tomah, bearing W.N.W. The moon
as hear the full and shining brightly, and he is sure the meteor
after the explosion was three times the diameter of the moon.

No. 11, Strathfield —Mr. H. 8. Thompson, Architect and
Surveyor, saw the meteor of May 7th. He was standing on the
Strathfield Railway Station and saw the meteor at 10°50 p.m., it
— exceedingly brilliant; it seemed to descend, then suddenly
*xpand in size and brilliance and shoot away more brilliant than

506 : H. C. RUSSELL.

before. The sudden increase in brilliance occurred apparently :

over Mount Tomah, two or three degrees above the top of that
hill. The light was dazzling and cast strong shadows.

No. 12, Ashfield—Mr. Ernest A. Nichol, at Ashfield with ,
a friend ; “we both saw it begin at 12° above horizon; it was —
at first a bright yellow, then dull gold, and at 8° high it burst out —

into a brilliant whitish light like an explosion, but no sound was
heard, thence it was nearly parallel to the horizon. It appeared
to be due west when it went out. In the Jatter part of its course
it assumed a long fish-shape and emitted a dazzling light, like the
electric light ; head and tail together during this part of its course
had a form like an indian club used for calisthenics, the handle
end flattened a little.”

No. 13, Kiama.—Capt. H. H. Honey of Riversdale, had a fine
view of the meteor of May 7th, about 11 p.m. It was the most
brilliant meteor he had ever seen. At first it appeared as
large as Venus but much more brilliant, and gradually grew
larger until it appeared about twice the size of the moon, which
was shining brightly at the time; its track was towards south-
west by south, and its motion much slower than that of ordinary
meteors. He first saw it north-west 5° N., and the great explos
ion took place exactly west-north-west; this was scotia first
by noting the exact place of observation, then the relation of the

apparent position of the meteor to certain trees on the neighbour:

ing hills, and then returning to the place and measuring the bear-
ings with an azimuth compass, and the elevations by the same
means. When first seen at north-west 5° N. its elevation ¥®
from 20° to 23°, say 21°, it was then following a slowly descent
ing course, and after the explosion it seemed to descend more
rapidly and disappeared below the horizon at a point 5” south of
west over a range of mountains 2,000 feet high, with an elevation
of 4° as seen from Kiama. The meteor was of extraordinary
brilliance, so much so that although the moon was nearly full
shining brightly, the shadows cast by the meteor were quite
distinct. At its greatest the meteor looked twice the size

THE GREAT METEOR OF MAY 77s, 1895. 507

moon. “The most peculiar circumstance I noticed was that dur-
ing its flight its speed seeemed to be suddenly checked, and its
course changed considerably, and the meteor suddenly burst into
brilliance, lighting up the surrounding heavens in a scene of in-
describable grandeur. No word picture that I have ever seen
painted could adequately describe it. I have witnessed many
wonderful and beautiful views in the heavens, but the grandest
pales into insignificance when compared with this ; the light was
so brilliant, yet not dazzling, and as if all the most beautiful
colours the mind can imagine, blended into an indescribable one,
which filled the whole heavens, from a point south-south-west to a
little north of west, the sight was such as I can never forget. I
was riding a somewhat spirited horse at the time and he suddenly
stood still and trembled. The peculiar light died out gradually,
but remained visible long after the meteor itself had disappeared.
I listened attentively for any sound and heard none until about
thirty minutes after I saw the explosion, and then heard a low
distant tumbling, which suddenly became louder as if heavy
artillery was heard at a distance.” In reply to my question, he
Was sure the explosion took place at a point (by compass) west-
north-west, and is quite sure that its altitude when first seen was
between 20° and 23°.

No. 14—Mr. Waite who resides fourteen miles south of Con
bolin, saw the meteor, and distinctly heard a rumbling noise
directly after seeing the meteor, and he thought the noise lasted
half a minute, . |

No. 15, Shellharbowr.—Mr. Frank James of Shellharbour, and
one other persons, saw the meteor a few minutes before 11 p.m.
It appeared near the horizon, between west and north-west and
had a bright tail of flame; it seemed to disappear behind the
Mlawarra Range of mountains.

No. 16, Dine Dine.—Mr. H, 0. Wade of Dine Dine Station,
a the meteor about 11 o’clock on May 7th. He heard very
loud noise much like thunder only much louder, which lasted for
“considerable number of seconds, and upon going outside to see

508 H, C. RUSSELL.

what it was, he saw a very large body of fire which started inthe
west and travelled right across the sky. The ball of fire seemed
to be about five diameters of the moon across, and as it travelled
it sent out long tongues of flame. The night was very clear and
no wind until after the meteor passed, when there were afer
strong pufis. 4
No. 17, Springwood.—Mr. Hector Rayner of Springwood was:
riding a bicycle from the Valley towards Springwood on May Tth
“ when suddenly there was a brilliant light which made me think
the end of the world was come.” When he looked up the meteor
was passing from north to west, but it seemed to fall and go behind
the hills before it reached the west ; it was moving slowly ol”
pared with small meteors and its size did not diminish. When
about north-west it threw out lovely blue lights, and after it went
behind the hills the sky was perfectly red; it seemed to disappest
behind Mount Hay, which lies west-north-west from here. The
colours were like beautiful rocket colours which seemed to follow
it as if it were a rocket. It appeared to be far larger than the sum
No. 18, Cockringe.—Mr. George Cadell of Cockringe, Mudge’,
was talking to a person in the road on 7th of May, a few minutes
after 11 p.m., they were both attracted by a brilliant light in teh
and looking up saw an immense ball of fire shooting actos .
sky from north to west; he said it was the most wonderful thing
he had ever witnessed, the light being so brilliant, he could ssi
read the smallest print. Mudgee is one hundred and ninety
east of the meteor’s track. =
No. 19, Sutherland.—Mr. E. Lewis of Sutherland 9” the
meteor of May 7th at 10-50 p.m. in the north-west. Tt was rae"
low down and near the horizon and very brilliant while it lasted
Tt gave off a number of sparks in the first part of its course i
seemed to descend as a large mass of fire; he lost sigh i‘
behind the mountains. ‘
No. 20, Condobolin.—At Melrose Station, near Condobolin, aba :
11 p.m. May 7th, a large and brilliant meteor was seen PY
dog-trappers on this station. A rumbling noise was beard.

ri
4
3
:

THE GREAT METEOR OF MAY 773, 1895. 509

No. 21, Murrumburrah.—At Murrumburrah, one of the most
southern points of observation, Mrs. Aiken states that on the night
of May 7th her sons were out shooting, and between 10 and 11 p:m,
were surprised to see what they took to be a great comet moving
from north to west.

No. 22, Wyalong.—_Mr, H. J. Naylor of Wyalong saw the
meteor on May 7th; he was walking from Wyalong West to
Wyalong, i.¢., towards the east, and at a few minutes after 11 p.m.
his attention was attracted by a bright light and a buzzing noise,
and turning to the left saw a ball of fire as large as a foot ball
approaching him from the north at a great rate, and leaving a
long train of sparks behind it. At first it appeared to be very
high but falling, when it seemed to be within two hundred yards
’ looked not more than fifty feet high, but its light died out before
it reached the earth.

No. 23, Terangan.—Mr. A. A. MacInnes of Terangan Station.
“On the evening of May 7th I heard a loud report similar to the
explosion of a magazine, the noise came from a westerly direction.”

No. 24, Cugong.—Mr. Hudson ©. Shaw of Cugong, saw the
noes Seabank 11 p-m., May 7, 1895. It seemed to rise from the
northern horizon and travel swiftly towards the west. Estimated
= time of passage as two minutes. The light was vivid, throw-
Ry strong shadows of trees in the bright moonlight. Twenty
eo after the meteor, he heard a faint rumbling noise like
“stant thunder seemed to come from the north. (Meteor’s track
was about ninety miles away from Cugong.)
ge +25, Meryula.— A very brilliant meteor passed over Meryula

on at about 10-30 p.m., May 7, 1895. It seemed to be quite
48 large as the moon and was visible for a minute.
As ni 6, Lake Bathurst.—Mr. Badgery of Lake Bathurst saw
in the meteor of May 7th, about 10°50 p.m. It was seen first
leayj north, and it travelled thence slowly towards the west,

“ng @ long trail of fire behind it which remained visible for

510 H. C. RUSSELL.

As stated at the beginning of these notes, my chief object was :
to show that earthquakes felt on our western plains were some —
times if not always caused by the explosion of large meteors, and
I think that the reports show clearly that in this instance a great
explosion in the meteor was coincident with the earthquake, and —
further that the explosion was seen to occur at a point directly
over that part of the country where the earthquake was sufficiently
severe to alarm some hundreds of people. Capt. Honey’s observed
bearing of the explosion, places it almost exactly vertically over
Mr. Robinson’s buggy, (No. 2 report), and the time carefully
noted by Mr. Cadell at Bedooba agrees within a minute or two
of the times carefully noted at Rookwood, (Nos. 8, 9, 10.)

The explosion therefore took place immediately over the point
at which the earthquake or tremor was most severely felt. It is
described as like the noise of heavy cannon close to, and every
detail seems to me to point conclusively to the cause of the earth-
quake as existing notin the earth but in the meteor. The explos-
ions in great thunderstorms often shake the earth ; and explosions
of large quantities of powder or other detonating materials have
similar effects, and there can I think be no doubt that meteors
from time to time produce the same sort of earth tremors.

The object I had in view in collecting the facts of this meteor

is now completed, but there are other facts pointing to the extra

ordinary brilliance and dimensions of this meteor, some oF which
I should like to call your attention to before I conclude.

ITS GREAT SIZE.

There are eleven estimates of the diameter of the meteor®
compared with the moon, which was shining brightly at the time
near the mid-heavens, and only one and a-half days from full
moon. The estimates are admittedly rough, but they make the
meteor’s apparent diameter two and a-half miles, the inte
brilliance of it no doubt exaggerated the apparent diameter ; but
the collateral circumstances, as for instance, its casting very dark ;
shadows of trees, etc., in bright moonlight, at a distance of three a

THE GREAT METEOR OF MAY 71x, 1895. 511

hundred and thirty miles, its effect upon the horse ridden by
Capt. Honey, and many other details, prove that it must have
been of magnificent proportions and brilliance.

ITS ALTITUDE.

Its altitude must have been very great. Capt. Honey having
noted his own position and then that of the meteor in relation to
large trees on the mountains near him, went back with an instru-
ment and measured the altitudes of these points, which show that
the elevation when first seen must have been one hundred and
seventy miles, and at the moment of explosion ninety-six miles,
and when last seen over the mountains thirty-three miles, but
the probability is that it was then much farther away than three
hundred and twenty miles assumed in the computation, and that
therefore the third altitude is too small. I am aware that some
of the best authorities deem it improbable that a meteor can
become heated by the passage through the earth’s atmosphere at
a greater altitude than one hundred miles, and I do not press this
observation as proof to the contrary, but I simply place it on record.
It is to be regretted that not one of the observers referred the
meteor’s position to the stars. There are estimated angles of
elevation which support Capt. Honey, (No. 10), made it eighty-
four miles when first seen and sixty-two at explosion, and others, —
which although only estimated still prove that it must have been
at a great elevation.

ITS BRILLIANCE.

Ido not remember any meteor either here or amongst the
Tecords with a brilliance equal to this, which at a distance of at
least three hundred and twenty miles could cast a much darker
shadow than the moon. All who saw it were struck by the light
yay Witch seemed like an electric flash-light, and at the vos

Plosion and later the light seemed for a short time of various
Colours. See Nos. 2,7, 10, 11, 15, No. 11 especially.
ene ney given between reports Nos. 1 and 2, is Bees

€ localities of the places from which the meteor was
Seen, and as a matter of course the area over Which it was seen.

512 H. C. RUSSELL.

THE CLIMATE OF LORD HOWE ISLAND.

By H. C. Russet, B.A., c.M.G., F.B.S.

[Read before the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, October 2, 1895.)

In working up the temperature records of this colony for a map,
which I have made with a view of showing for each square degree
of the colony, the mean annual shade temperature, the tempera-
tures of spring, summer, autumn, and winter, as well as the highest
and the lowest shade temperature ever recorded there on any day, ©
I was very much struck by the mild climate of Lord Howe Island.
Its surrounding currents of tropical water coming down from the
north, no doubt keep the little island in a more equable climate
than I anticipated, and I have brought the facts before you
simply to place them on record, and to show by comparison with
the mainland the advantages Lord Howe possesses in its climate,
which may make it a sanatorium for those requiring a mild winter.
The records at Lord Howe Island extend over eight years
I have put with it, for comparison, the records at Sydney and on
the New South Wales coast in the same latitude as Lord Howe
Island.

Tabular Statement of the 5 mee of a Lord Howe Island and

t Macquar
Lord | About
‘ort
Sydney. Bacyteh | Pee
ae
Mean shade temperature... 2°9 : #3
Highest shade e temp. ever recorded on any day 108 110°7 | 116 0
Lowest shade temp. ever recorded on an ad da, 35°9 | 45 :
Spring mean shade rature 9 68 1
Summer mean shade temperature |. --| 707 | 48) @
Autumn mean shade temperature a ---| 641 | 69°0 | | at
‘Winter mean shade temperature ne ---| 540 | 4 1 :

Average Monthly Temperatures.

Jan. |Feb,|Mre,| Apl May|Jun, July | Aus. Sep,{ Oct.|Nov.
olerslexslesles 4 525 5 55-0 058-7 |63-3 ou 007) we

0|62:4 (65°3 |67°6 71°4 73°8) Oe
r ige glen looslesolaa-e i701 63.

$$$
Sydney ia
Lord Howe Island 55
Port Macquarie District

|
|
|

TYPES OF AUSTRALIAN WEATHER. 513

TYPES OF AUSTRALIAN WEATHER.

By Henry A. Hunt, ;
Second Meteorological Assistant, Sydney Observatory.
[With Forty Diagrams. ]

Iv continuation of the valuable work on Australian Meteorology
which the Hon. Ralph Abercromby initiated several years since,
by offering a money prize for the best essay on Southerly Bursters;
he has recently selected the phases of Australian Weather which
are treated in the following twenty studies of “ Types of Austra-
lian Weather,” Many of these appear to be peculiar to Australia,
and at the same time connected with Equatorial and other weather.
That they throw much new light upon the source of the greater
part of Australian rain, and show how these rain storms develop
out of ordinary weather conditions is certain ; at the same time
they form an important contribution to the study of weather in
the Southern Hemisphere generally. The work has been done
by Mr. H. A. Hunt, at Mr. Abercromby’s expense, and Mr.
H. ©. Russell, has edited the work.

GENERAL REMARKS.

As a general rule, weather is set fine when anticyclones move
tapidly, and in a straight line across Australia, 7.¢., at a rate
exceeding five hundred miles per day. And weather is unsettled
= they move slowly, and not in a straight line, 7.¢., in a zigzag
>a *specially if they show no appreciable forward motion for a
day ortwo. When anticyclones move in low latitudes the con-
— favour dry weather, in high latitudes, wet weather,
specially it they rest for a time south of South Australia.
aang examples of weather phases which follow have been

rom the Sydney Weather Charts, and illustrate each
Bs : a originals were carefully traced, and then reduced from
‘‘ to the size used in this essay by means of the camera.
GG—Dec, 4, 1895,

514 HENRY A. HUNT.

Ordinary symbols have been used, except the circle half filled
for thunderstorms, and the straight line shading ; parallel lines
indicate the area of rainfall under one inch, crossed shading over
one inch,

TYPE I.—MOVING ANTICYCLONES. a

One of the best marked features of Australian weather is the
steady easterly progression of all the types, and the governing :
type, that in fact about which all the other types seem to congre —
gate, is the anticyclone ; it-has therefore been placed first in the
series, with three charts to show the progress made by a quick
moving one in forty-eight hours. The average daily progress of
anticyclones is four hundred miles per day, but the speed at times -
rises to one thousand miles.!

Investigation so far leaves no room to doubt that in these lati :
tudes a series of anticyclones surround the globe ; the latitude of
the average one varies with the season, being farther south in
summer than in winter. The normal circulation about an anti-
cyclone brings southerly winds in front of them, and northerly
winds in the rear, hence our cold and our hot winds.

Chart No. 1 shows the position, on 15th August, 1893, of the
eastern half of an incoming anticyclone; it rests over Western
Australia, while the departing one is seen over the Tasman Sea;
between these is seen the usual , depression, which is of average .
intensity, and a dormant tropical low pressure to the north. IB :
Chart No. 2 the anticyclone has moved nearly nine hundred miles :
in the twenty-four hours, the centre being located near F owlers
Bay, north of the Australian Bight; the antarctic A depressio®
is well across the Tasman Sea, while the tropical or monst”™
isobar depicted in the previous chart has apparently merged nt
the high pressure system, a curious and not unusual kink being
formed to the north-east of it, following the contour of the Gulf
of Carpentaria. On Chart No. 3 the anticyclone is shown ©
have moved a further seven hundred and fifty miles, or 4 total of

1 Russell—Quarterly Journal R. M. S., Vol. xrx., No. 85.

TYPES OF AUSTRALIAN WEATHER. 515

TYPES
oF
AUSTRALIAN WEATHER dé
‘o
AUQUEST. NBs... 5008

S

Moving Antieyelones Ito 3

one ee eam)

| comer TYPES :
‘ ot oF

i bk fy MN 2a e AUSTRALIAN WEATHER, 4

; ~~ j

one thousand six hundred and fifty miles in forty-eight hours;

ve | ,
| = monsoonal dip is still noticeable south of the Gulf, while

i Saat depression has its centre to the east of New
Zealand,

516 HENRY A. HUNT.

TYPES ; |
OF fs
c AUSTRALIAN WEATHER

03
—AIGG SS
*y

The passage of this anticyclone was an unusually rapid one,
and is presented as portraying with a minimum number of charts

the easterly motion of anticyclones over Australia.

TYPE Il.—MONSOONAL RAIN STORM.

This type is undoubtedly the chief rain agent in the Australian
Continent. Monsoonal depressions or tongues may occur at any
time of the year, but particularly between the months of September
and April, and most frequently during January, February and
March. The readings of barometers in the depression seldom fall
very low, the grade from the surrounding areas to the centre of
the tongue ranging from one to three-tenths of an inch generally;
the depression may intensify, that is the tongues between ig)
A y protrude further south anywhere during their pass?
across Australia, but show a preference to do so after they -
crossed central Australia, a fact which suggests that the hea
interior has at least some influence in‘their development.

When and wherever the tongue is well defined, rain certainly
follows in its track, and thunderstorms as a wide spread
‘simultaneous feature are never experienced without it.

TYPES OF AUSTRALIAN WEATHER. 517

| On April 18th and 19th, 1894 (Chart Nos. 4 and 5) occurred one
| of the finest monsoonal rain storms on record, the area affected
being very extensive, embracing the whole of the eastern colonies,
Tasmania, and the greater part of South Australia. Many inches
—up to five and six—of rain were recorded on the north-east
coast of Queensland, and over the eastern half of the rain area
the country benefitted to the extent of over two inches generally

before the storm was over.

TYPES
oP .
u AUST ; ;
No
sonrnnah A2ELIB 00%
9 NR a
ae Fo,
; p TN a
dh ty
tY 7 jo xi
Y7| Yo,
a

ee we

On this Chart No. 4 the monsoonal isobars, after passing the
est southern part of the tongue, are shown sweeping round &
high Pressure of considerable energy, situated over the Great
Bight. Following these isobars to the eastward, we find them

7 — Over another high pressure of greater energy in the
man Sea. On Chart No. 5, both anticyclones will be noticed to
a Worked northward, and while so doing they have lost some
on ae Pressure, and the low pressure tongue has extended a
° and broadened ; at the tip, two cyclonic rain centres will be

ed to have formed,
8 antecedent to 18th April presented the general

: mistics of Chart No. 1, except that the antarctic A depress-

518 HENRY A. HUNT. a

ion was a considerably less active feature, but on the other hand
the monsoonal dip was somewhat more pronounced, and possessed
two instead of one isobar. Following the 19th, the chart of 20th
revealed no sign of the monsoonal tongue, and the continent was
covered with a high pressure of very slight energy.

TYPES
oF
AUSTRALIAN WEATHER 4

vy bin APRIL... 1804
vy NY

at ++

ims
Fito Git
St]

Au,
MAL
Yak 1]

TYPE Ill.—DEVELOPMENT OF A CYCLONIC STORM IN LOW LATITUDES
FROM A MONSOONAL DEPRESSION. 2
In Type No. 3 we have the development of a cyclonic aie
out of a monsoonal depression. The seasonal peculiarity of he
phase of the tropical low pressure is similar to that in Type No- - ,
. The cyclone seems to develop when the southern extension of the
monsoon is out of proportion to its width, and it become me
narrow at one part of it that the opposing winds which circulate ie
round it interfere, set up the cyclonic circulation, and it a |
progresses eastward as a rain storm. (See Charts 6 and 7.)
These storms frequently develop in South-east Queenslansh
and they are generally most severe there; the quantity of ee
which sometimes comes with them is very remarkable, as in
case of the phenomenal fiood in Brisbane in 1893, which wa -
result of one of these storms.

TYPES OF AUSTRALIAN WEATHER. 519

The example selected and shown in Charts 6 and 7 took place
on September 28th and 29th, 1892; on the 28th (Chart 6), it
appears that one of these storms had developed in the previous
twenty-four hours, at the southern end of a narrow tropical or
monsoonal tongue of low pressure. An anticyclone of good energy
lies to the east of it, with its isobars extending well to the north
and contracting the width of the tongue in the north; another
anticyclone lies to the west, and this also seems to be pressing on
the narrow monsoonal tongue and helping to contract its diameter,
at the same time the energy in both high pressures is adding force
to the circulation of the wind, and so aiding in the development
of the cyclonic circulation. A modified , depression exists to the

south-east of the Australian Bight, and there is another over New _

Zealand.

TYPES

or
AUSTRALIAN WEATHER
°

mpiaet: © 2, 169%
Cae

: aA
oy a
G bat
Yelone from Monsoonal Se, .

eee? tow

Se,

go ne 29th, (Chart 7), the small cyclone has extended
ica nd energy on its way to the coast, but its motion of
et heen rapid, and this probably accounts in a measure

~ comparatively small area over which rain has fallen,

althou,

gh, in this instance, over an inch of rain fell in the central

520 HENRY A. HUNT.

and eastern parts of New South Wales. The winds circulating
about the western isobars of this storm are rather stronger than
usual in such cases. In the twenty-four hours both anticyclones
have lost a considerable portion of their energy, while that of the :
depression in New Zealand is about the same as on the previous

day.
ee ome A TYPES.
: BF as ‘& oF 5
8 rm’ AUSTRALIAN WEATHER ¢
> \ N°7
rae SEPTEMBER 29.1892
“ae a NG
Nj a
2 &
©

e

TYPE IV.—DEVELOPMENT OF A CYCLONIC STORM IN HIGH LATITUDES
FROM A MONSOONAL DEPRESSION.

These are somewhat similar to Type 3, but the rainfall is
usually not so heavy, and the wind much more violent.

Chart No. 8 shows the development of one of these cyclones on
April 15th, 1889; in this case the monsoonal depression had :
extended across Australia into the Australian Bight. go
development of one of these storms is heralded by the strong
easterly gales on the south-east coast of South Australia and
south coast of Victoria. The energy of wind circulation increases
over South Australia, and as the whole system moves bodily @*
ward from the Australian Bight to the mainland, the circulation *
seen to be that of a fully developed cyclone of small area, wit fT

Oe PLS = SA a MT ale PP ms aga MRE Mame Te

TYPES OF AUSTRALIAN WEATHER. 521

diameter three to five hundred miles, formed out of the southern
part of the extensive monsoonal depression.

In Chart 8 a high pressure is shown over the south-western
part of Australia, and evidently encroaching on the moonsoonal
about central Australia.

TYPES
OF
AUSTRALIAN WEATHER
Nes
vee yelp APRIL 15.1889
oN ,
= }
‘
\G
p{CH | o) y
0 B we
x Cyclone in high latitudes from uy » fi
onsoonal depression & tol0 4 e

522 HENRY A. HUNT.

In Chart 9, the western anticyclone has extended northwards
and has seriously contracted the diameter of the monsoonal low

pressure, thereby facilitating or helping to cut off and start the —

cyclonic storm in the south ; which has now developed a much
steeper barometric grade and an energetic wind circulation, and
is moving eastward without extending the rain area.

Chart No. 10 shows comparatively little motion in the cyclone,

but it is considerably distorted, especially to the west, where the
anticyclone is compressing the isobars by its easterly progress and
in its endeavours to maintain its rate has overridden the cyclone
in the north. As will be seen by a glance at these three charts,
the rain resulting from this storm was most extensive and bene-

ficial, and the winds under its influences were strong.

z TYPES
oF
é. AUSTRALIAN WEATHER
Nol
= APRIL It. 160%

TYPE V.—CONDITIONS FAVORABLE FOR THUNDERSTORMS.
Upon comparison of charts setting forth this type with those
of cyclonic thunderstorms, they will be found very similar } the
main difference being the absence in this set of the cyclonic -_
at the end of the monsoonal tongue. The chief feature indicating

£

Bs

Se Sp ONE eh a tee Cer gg ec un Sree oh

SPIO ks ee ee ERT Ey ay see eee TS sia

Ban Best eek g

s

TYPES OF AUSTRALIAN WEATHER. 523

thunderstorms is the narrowness of the col’ and somewhat con-
gested state of isobars in the high pressures west and east of it,
resulting in opposing winds. Those of the tropical tongues are
hot and charged with moisture, while those of the 4 depressions
are strong and dry. This type is met with during the monsoonal
season. The rains resulting from this feature are not generally
heavy, and though thunderstorms may be experienced over exten-
sive areas of Queensland, New South Wales, and Northern
Territory, a number of them may occur without any rain falling.

Chart No. 11, January 17th, 1893, shows an extended and
narrow tongue lying between two relatively high pressures, @ A
depression similarly situated also exists in the south, this col or
area of low pressure separating these two depressions is very
small, and opposing currents of wind are noted there as blowing
within close limits. Thunderstorms were occurring or had
occurred in Northern Territory generally, over 4 great part of
Queensland and in central parts of New South Wales, the rains
upon this occasion, as is often the case, were not heavy, though
they fell over an extensive and generally unfavoured area.

TYPES
oF
AUSTRALIAN WEATHER
NeW

ALANUA <a yeas
*»

‘

a of
- e 5
Conditions for thunderstorms :
It & 12

1 For explanation of this term see P- 5326

524 HENRY A. HUNT.

On Chart No. 12, the following day, though a few storms were —
recorded, shows a great diminution in number. The col has —
widened and the monsoonal tongue has lost to some extent its —
thundery characteristics, having widened at the end. ‘The —
accompanying barometric systems show no motion since the —
_ previous day, but the high pressures have intensified.

TYPES
oF ‘
AUSTRALIAN WEATHER

SANUA XS 8.803

TYPE VI.—CYCLONIC THUNDERSTORMS.

This also, like the preceding one, is allied to the tropical low —
pressures, but in this case a defined cyclonic circulation develops
in the lower extension of the tongue without the usual intensif-
cation of grades. From this source the thunderstorms radiate
easterly and southerly directions, and at times, as in the instan?
presented, a vast area is affected.

Chart No. 13, December 12th, 1893. As on the previous
the monsoonal tongue lies over much the same country, though
with its axis more east and west ; the high pressure to the west is

very small, and the systems are somewhat fragmentary.

TYPES OF AUSTRALIAN WEATHER. 525

TYPES
oF
AUSTRALIAN WEATHER

DECEMBER 12.083
‘
~

AS

~~ ‘TYPES
oF
AUSTRALIAN WEATHER =
Nol

DECEMBER \2.. 129%
A

ela day, Chart No. 14, a cyclonic circulation has
Sydney _ Sy end of the tongue, while the A depression over
hi e 12th has moved eastward and nearly filled up, and
igh pressures have followed and intensified. The thunder-

526 HENRY A. HUNT.

storms and rains were not so general as on the thunderstorm —
type, but curiously, were recorded in an almost parallel area of
country, nearly three hundred miles wide by twelve hundred ‘
long. Though great barometric changes have taken place, the
pressures remain about the same as on Chart No. 13.

TYPE VII.—A RAIN STORM WITH VERTICAL AND NEARLY STRAIGHT
ISOBARS.

This type is one of the best defined and reliable of the series
for forecasting purposes, because with them, good general rains
almost invariably come. They are the rear isobars of a departing
anticyclone, and the wind circulation from north and north-east
brings into the interior winds laden with tropical moisture
meet in the west southerly winds laden with antarctic cold,
and therefore precipitating power. The sequence of rain is
rendered even more certain if rain be recorded in the north-east
before the isobars straighten, or in the , depression to the south.

The actual height of the barometers is not material, but the
greater the number of isobars in a given area, the more extensive
will be the rainfall ; the rain usually lasts three days. The rail
begins to fall north-west of New South Wales, spreads southwards,
then eastward, and finally northwards, crossing the mountains
near the Queensland boundary. A fine example of this type
occurred on 15th, 16th, and 17th October, 1894. (Charts 16, 17-)

On the 15th, Chart 16, a departing anticyclone rests on)
Tasman Sea, and its rear isobars are shown revoning north and
south over central Australia ; another anticyclo.ae is shown over
Western Australia and a A depression east of the Australian
Bight ; a trough of low pressure rests over Central Australia from
ste to south. On this day the only indications of the pending
rain were found in the cloudy skies generally over South Australia,
western parts of New South Wales and Queensland, and a small
area of rain in South Australia.

‘In Chart 16, the straight isobars of Chart 15 have entirely
disappeared, but the rain has come over Central and Soe

TYPES OF AUSTRALIAN. WEATHER. 527

TYPES
oF
AUSTRALIAN WEATHER a
04
OCTOBER [3 sea
Ko *
2%
é
%
{ :
HICH J
i ti; i
erlical isobars *
had sé

o Excepting the Gulf country and its central area, all
ee all New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania had
ze. (See shading on Chart 16). For other instances of straight
lsobars see Charts 5, 27, and 28.

TYPES
oF
AUSTRALIAN WEATHER

NIG
OCTOBER. NS.. 1988
i

8

528 HENRY A. HUNT.

TYPE VIIIL—CYCLONES FROM NORTH-WEST.
From time to time fully developed cyclonic storms appear on
the north-west and west coasts of Australia, and in the Australian
Bight, but the absence of observing stations in the unoccupied
country which lies between the overland telegraph line and the
west coast of Australia, makes it impossible to trace them over
that part of the continent, but cyclones are well known on the
northern coast of Western Australia, and their formation in the
tropics equally well known. ‘There can therefore be no doubt
that when we find a cyclone on the western coast of Australia
or in the Australian Bight, that it is one which has come from
the north-west, and is in fact recurving to the east and south-east
as they do on the ‘east coast.

PUL ae ae ae ee
OP a as tl a tie apne nC bere a

The one selected for Type 8 was picked up on the west coast of
Australia in Latitude 28° on July 4th, 1892, (See Chart No. 17).
The winds were light, but the rain heavy along the coast; an inert
anticyclone rested over South Australia, Victoria, and New

South Wales, where it was moving to the east and making 100 :
for the approaching storm.

ie “ TYPES |

oF
AUSTRALIAN WEATHER
No!I7

Tul. A 1892

c)

».

a

TYPES OF AUSTRALIAN WEATHER. 529

Chart 18, July 5th, shows that the whole system has moved
rapidly, that the cyclone now with an elongated centre lying
north-west to south-east now rests over South Australia, strong
winds are rapidly developing, and the barometric grade about the

TYPES .
or
AUSTRALIAN WEATHER 8
18
eave Juby &. 1892
YQ

530 HENRY A, HUNT.

centre is much steeper, and rain has fallen over the south coast —
generally and extended northwards almost to Central Australia.

On July 6th at 9 a.m. the weather chart presented the features
shown in Chart 19. The cyclone has intensified all round, and
has moved rapidly to the east, its centre is just entering ¢
Bass’ Straits; very heavy gales from south-west are blowing
in the rear of the centre ; heavy rain is falling over Victoria and
extends over the greater part of New South Wales. All the winds
controlled by this storm were very heavy, and during the 6th :
July, as the storm passed through Bass’ Straits, extremely heavy
weather was experienced there. On July 7th it had filled up.

:

TYPE IX.—TORNADOES.

These occur during the summer months, and are most frequent
in the western plains; they are developed in hot weather and in
the low pressure known as a “Col” between two high pressure
when there is not enough grade to control the winds and the heat, :
ing power of the sun is great ; if to these there is added the pre
sence of moisture from recent showers, we have all the conditions
for the formation of a tornado. The force of wind is often * 4
ficient to break off growing trees, two and even three feet ia :
diameter, and the reason there is so little damage to life and
property is not the want of power, but the sparse population and
the very small number of towns.

Chart 20, March 20th, 1894. An extensive anticyclon® Ties
south of Australia, giving way in its central parts to an extensiv?
monsoonal dip. The isobars are generally uniform and of eve?
gradients, though a suspicious interval exists to the west of New .
South Wales between the 30-0 and 29-9 curves. This is - :
doubtedly the area in which the secondary. developed. Light ea i
were recorded in New South Wales and Victoria, but in Cent —
Australia temperatures were high.

Chart 21, March 21st. A marvellous change has taken pee
The area of high pressure on the previous day over the Tasme? 4
Sea has lost two-tenths in pressure. The monsoonal dip % sai

i

TYPES OF AUSTRALIAN WEATHER. 531

TYPES
oe OF
AUSTRALIAN WEATHER é

_ MARCH 20s00¢

TYPES
or
AUSTRALIAN WEATHER a

ens, Se sgess

26)

251

HICH ‘ .
ly 40

.

hounced
sis, then has retreated, and is now only represented by one

“ the a the western portion of the anticyclone existed
ta io. depression has protruded itself, and lastly
dibs 18 entering Western Australia. Thus a most
and extensive col area exists between these four systems

532 : HENRY A. HUNT.

for the generation of these storms. The winds are generally 4
blowing any way, and excepting those of the eastern high
pressure have apparently no circulating power. ;
These were the conditions at 9 a.m., but as the day advancel q
the col area advanced with its arid heat, and this acting upon the :
precipitated moisture of the previous two days, resulted in the :
tornado which we are about to describe, and which occured at
Bourke on the morning of March 21st, being one of the most
terrific ever witnessed in that district. It struck the town at 10
o'clock, but could be seen approaching for some time from 4 :
north-westerly direction. It only lasted six minutes, but during .
that period thirty-nine points of rain fell, and several hundrel
pounds’ worth of damage was done to houses. Chimneys, vera
dahs, trees, etc., suffered and general consternation pre led,
Many narrow escapes occurred, as the cyclone came across the
common from the ‘direction of Fort Bourke. The theatre ™®
unroofed and a quantity of beams and iron was deposited in # ;
adjoining yard. Pleasure boats on the river were sunk, and § E
steam-boat was considerably damaged by the falling of a larg? i
gum tree. a

TYPE X.—CYCLONES FROM NORTH-EAST. q
A comparatively small number of these storms reach the cos q
of Australia, and owing to the almost complete absence of obser
ing stations, New Caledonia excepted, and the small number # ‘
vessels passing their tracks, it is usually impossible to trae?
course before they reach Australia, but there seems to
to doubt that they are more or less spent tropical cyclones,
reach Australia in the act of recurving. The majority reach
coast of Queensland between latitudes 20° and 26°; some”
north and south ; only one has been traced from the coast nls
and then recurving there to south-east. It reached the one 3
the neighbourhood of Brisbane in January 18°93, passed 9
over the mountains, gradually curving to south past Mudge oe q
Dubbo, thence curving easterly it left the mainland about a |
35°S. Its course was marked by violent cyclonic wind ane’

a

be no ress |

TYPES OF AUSTRALIAN WEATHER. ‘533

Picton reported 4°76” rain. It has not been possible to present
this as an example, because one of the days was a Sunday when
very few observations are recorded.

Asa rule these north-east. cyclones recurve at the coast line.
Charts 22 and 23 show the weather conditions on March 10th
and 11th, 1891.

On March 10th there was a sudden fall of pressure on the coast
of Queensland, about latitude 24° (Chart 22), and an accession

: ss and sea which clearly heralded the coming storm. This

"as intensified on March 11th, (Chart 23) by a further fall of
three-tenths of an inch, and three more isobars of the cyclone were
marked on the coast south to south-east ;

: ales prevailed in its
neighbourhood with very heavy rains.

§
th a 12th, (Chart 24) the anticyclone had retreated to
Coast inte go oe the cyclone travelled to the south along the
Was waa as it came. The barometer curve at Brisbane
southern Y of the cyclone type and dropped to 29:5. In the

Part of Queensland and northern of New South Wales
See) ts easterly gales were experienced. On the 13th

sto :
"m had disappeared to the eastward.

543 HENRY A. HUNT.

Ween
da Ps TYPES :
. 3 or
Is AUSTRALIAN WEATHER
4, f 023

Dtharch t.19%
’Y

LOW
Ae

TYPE XI,—SOUTH-EAST GALES. o
The south-east gale here referred to is peculiar to the east coast 4
of Australia, and it has been responsible for the most memorabl |

* 4

TYPES OF AUSTRALIAN WEATHER. 535

wrecks on this coast. For the most part these gales appear to be
partially spent cyclones, which come in from north-east or east,
and travel down the coast until they begin to recurve to the
eastward,

The warning of their coming is usually very short; it consists
_ of a sudden increase in the sea on some northern part of the coast
with wind from east to south, and falling barometers, while the
high pressure over Victoria and South Australia becomes inten-
sified and progresses into the Tasman Sea. The south-east circula-
tion about this anticyclone increases in force with the increasing
barometric grade, and also by the wind circulation about the
cyclone, and the effect of the two causes acting together is to
produce a most serious gale. Rarely, these storms originate in

a ee es 8 eee ee

4tmonsoonal depression somewhere over South Australia, which
travelling eastward intensifies on the east coast. Heavy rain is.
& marked feature of these storms, but it is confined to the coast,

and rarely if ever extends inland.
The storm selected to illustrate this type was a very severe one,
and began on September 23rd, 1892, about 6 p.m. ‘The barometric
conditions antecedent to it are shown in Chart 25; the main

536 HENRY A. HUNT.

features being the bend in the high pressure isobars, and the |

dormant low pressure off the coast of Queensland.

At 9 a.m. on this day there was nothing in the local weather
conditions which would lead one to anticipate the gale that @
eventuated, the winds being generally light, and at Sydney oly

a light breeze was blowing from the South-south-west ; but ats
p.m. an unusual fall took place in the barometers to the north-east
of New South Wales, and the winds there were freshening genet
ally. On preparing a chart at this hour we found the depression
was intensifying and had a cyclonic tendency; at 6 p.m mn
Sydney the wind, which had been blowing from the south-east
and gradually increasing in velocity, reached the force of gale,
a thick driving rain began to fall, which continued with little inter
mission until daybreak next day, when over 2” were registered,
and an extensive area around the metropolis benefitted to the
extent of an inch and upwards ; the barometer at this hour also
began to fall rapidly and steadily, until at 5 a.m. on the 24th it
read 29-203, and the wind had reached in one squall, lasting only
a few seconds, the extraordinary rate of one hundred and twenty
miles per hour, the mean rate of the gale being thirty-two miles
per hour.

TYPE

TYPES OF AUSTRALIAN WEATHER. 537

At 9 a.m. on the 24th, (Chart 26) the cyclone was still in an
active state, but it had passed to the south of Sydney and was
receding fromthe coast; the barometers were rising rapidly on shore,
and before noon a light northerly wind was blowing. On the 25th
September, the day following the gale, the weather everywhere
was generally fine, while all that remained of the energetic high
and low pressure systems were parallel isobars lying over the
southern areas of Australia with very shallow gradients. This
gale was very destructive and did much damage to property in
Sydney ; in some instances houses were unroofed, and the wind
and sea on the coast were very heavy.

TYPE XII.—DEVELOPMENT OF A CYCLONE FROM A A DEPRESSION.

The distinction between a A depression and a monsoonal low
byte is not by any means well defined, and it is possible that
this should be taken as a variation of Type 3; there are however, _
marked differences, not only in the shape of the isobars, but also
i the wind ; and the most decided distinction is perhaps the
easterly wind circulating round the southern part of the monsoonal
low ala and the northerly and southerly winds about the 4 ;
= M some cases, as in the one selected, the wind circulation is
res northerly, southerly and easterly winds being present, and
o Pies their want of energy tend to throw the forecaster off
ie ao The season is, however, some guide, as these storms

Frequent from September to April.
aaa of influence is very extensive, as may be noted in
mal a : . ich shows rain over half Australia as the apparent
ee wey — Most of these storms take a direct easteely
Maite. i; a South Wales and Victoria or earongh _
tee Ga imes pee move to — the Polar winds —
ies ditions, aanee feature intensifies all the astm and =
Soca a e wae in all these storms are violent, and in
structive,

The :
189 One selected for illustration appeared first on 27th May,

3, : "
' (Chart 27). At 9 a.m. on that day, a dormant and irregular

538 HENRY A. HUNT.

A depression existed over the Australian Bight, the winds were
moderate northerly and southerly, as usual in such conditions,
there were a few light easterly winds. Isobars were close over
eastern Victoria, but there was nothing which seemed to indicate
the violent cyclone that developed during that day over southern
parts of South Australia and south-west of New South Wales,
(See Charts 27 and 28.) This storm formed in the rear of a very
substantial anticyclone, then over the Tasman Sea, and it should
be noted that it did not act as a secondary and travel round the
southern and eastern parts of the high pressure, but it moved
towards the northern side of it and against its circulation, thus
proving its own Polar impulse and energy, and giving rise to very
strong gales and steep barometric grades with great fall of
temperatures ; these conditions produced extremely heavy and
wide spread rains, not only within the storm isobars, but over the
whole of the eastern half of Australia. We have no means of
tracing the rain to the west of the overland telegraph line, becaus?
there are no observing stations there.

May 28th was unfortunately a Sunday, and we have no obser
vations for that day, but on the 29th the cyclone is seen in full

¥ TYPES
or
s AUSTRALIAN WEATHER
N°27
" “4 a: ree
25, 9
36
{ )
»
{ICH
46

43

Cyclone from A depression
Pini

TYPES OF AUSTRALIAN WEATHER. 539

TYPES
oF
AUSTRALIAN WEATHER
No28

. MAY 29. 1892
NR %

strength covering the southern colonies of South Australia and
Victoria, and the greater part of New South Wales; its isobars
are unusually symmetrical and its rain influence the most exten-
sive we have on record. During the 29th and 30th rain continued
to fall over considerable areas, although on the 30th the depression
filled up and the storm was displaced by the high pressure coming
on from the west.

TYPE XIII.—WESTERLY WINDS.

The Winter anticyclone (See Chart 36) is much nore extensive
than the Summer one, and its grades are steeper and circulation
stronger, while its latitude is further north, often up to 30° 8.;
hence the circulation on its southern side, unlike the Summer one,
—— the mainland of Australia and gives us our westerly winds.
-_ Just as the trade wind intensifies its northern circulation by
adding force thereto, so the brave west winds of the southern
Ocean follow the general move of the weather systems northwards,
and thus add force to the westerly circulation of the anticyclone,
7 Ag dimensions increase the size of the 4 depression,

that it no longer has the sharply defined change from

540 HENRY A. HUNT.

notherly to southerly winds, but from north-west to south-west :
winds; all these conditions combine to strengthen the westerly
circulation, until at times they seem to be like the brave west
winds of the roaring forties.

On the east coast they extend further north than they do inland,
and at times include Brisbane within their influence. When
very strong the anticyclone is elongated and the southern isobars
are flattened. (See Chart 30). They are very cold and dry,
having all the raw feeling of the easterly winds of England, and
have been known to last for several weeks without intermission}
they are the most persistent winds during our winter. In heavy

_ westerly winds the cold is very severe in Bass’ Straits, between —
the south coast of Victoria and Tasmania, rain, hail, and sleet being
very common. It is almost needless to say that on land they
bring very little rain, and they rapidly dry up the soil. The .
severe drought of 1895 was largely due to the persistent westerly
winds which rapidly dried up the occasional rains; this featur :
becomes intensified if instead of coming from due west they blow
from north-west. :

Westerly Gale
29 & 30,

RS ee nee

TYPES OF AUSTRALIAN WEATHER. 541

Turning now to the charts of the westerly gale selected for
illustration, it will be seen in Chart 29, that this storm began on
September 3rd, 1895; on that day an elongated anticyclone lay
over Western Australia, a flattened and extensive , over New
South Wales and Tasman Sea, and the winds generally displayed
great energy, as might be expected from the close isobars, and
unusually low barometers over Tasmania ; light rain was falling
on the coasts of South Australia and Victoria.

On September 4th, Chart 30, the anticyclone is more elongated
and the q flattened until its isobars are nearly horizontal, and
heavy westerly gales swept all the south-eastern part of Australia
and all Tasmania. On the 3rd the wind at Sydney at noon for a
short time reached a velocity of seventy-eight miles per hour. On
the 4th the wind was less gusty, but its average velocity was quite
as strong as it was on the 3rd.

TYPE XIV.—SOUTHERLY BURSTERS.
The Southerly burster is a well known feature or type of Austra-
Sam » debs marked in character indeed that it requires
" raining in meteorology to recognise it ; its character-

542 HENRY A. HUNT.

istics are so obtrusive that they cannot be overlooked, and they

are welcomed as the most pleasant relief after the high temper :

tures and oppressive northerly winds which precede them. They
come in the late spring, all summer, and part of autumn, butas
a rule, in order to get a strong southerly an antecedent excessively
hot day or days must beexperienced. The duration of a southerly
burster may be anything from two hours to ten days, but it is not
to be understood that the term burster is applied to the whole
period or duration of the southerly wind. What is called a
burster is the squall or sudden and violent change of wind direc-
tion, and the violent rush or “ burst” which marks the advent of
this wind. We need not go into all the characteristics ; these will
be found in the Abercromby Prize Essay on this subject.’ It is
there explained that the south wind comes in front of an approach:
ing anticyclone, and that it is felt from West to Eastern Australis
but it is only on the eastern coast, where, aided by the smaller
friction of the ocean and the shelter which the mountains afford
from other winds, that the southerly becomes more vigorous and
rushes northwards in a squall, which happens so suddenly and
with such force, that at times ships drag their anchors in Sydney
harbour.

It is not definitely made out yet that these storms are
“line storms ” in the sense that the change of wind comes a8 the
dip in the isobars passes over each place in succession, but there
are many facts which suggest that such is the fact in some instanc®
Our present purpose is to describe a “‘burster” as a type
Australian weather. The essential feature of it is a sha?

+

A; in Chart 31 such a depression is shewn existing over Viclo™ —

and Tasmania, with its axis lying from north-north-west to south
south-east.

year exists to the west, and hot northerly winds occupy norther®

Australia; these are the elements for the good burster that
As a general rule,” the position and character of #8

followed.

1 4 *
Journal Royal Society, N.S. Wales, Vol. xxvimI.

Moving Anticyclones—Quarterly Journal Roy. Met. Soc., Vol. x

An anticyclone of good energy for this time of the —

TYPES OF AUSTRALIAN WEATHER. 543

TYPES
or
AUSTRALIAN WEATHER
MOVEMBER B.s00+
ww
\

HICH

v

such systems as shown would bring the burster to the coast of
New South Wales within twenty-four hours; in this case it took
thirteen hours,

November 16th, light to fresh north-east winds were blowing
on the coast at 9 a.m., while in the front of the high pressure
strong south-west winds were blowing. In Chart 32, the southerly

a

nae TYPES or

q 7 \ Ae oF
ma ONG te AUSTRALIAN WEATHER

- Y N°S2]
Por. \ \ ; . NOVEMBER. 17.2505 >
Su hs .
: i lm rea he

@
sb
S <
re

544 HENRY A. HUNT.

is shown in full force in front of the anticyclone, which by the
way has lost none of its energy since the previous day; the
depression is well off the coast and on its way to New Zealand.
This burster reached a velocity of forty-nine miles per hour, and
lasted thirty-five hours.

TYPE XV.—THE BLACK NORTH-EASTER.

This is a somewhat uncommon but nevertheless well known
type of weather on the coast about Sydney. Its characteristics
are a very strong and persistent north-east gale, continuing day a
and night for two or more days; it has been known to last five
days and nights, and it ends with the advent of a southerly
burster. Its cause is found in an extensive col, the rear of one
anticyclone being at rest over this coast, while another lies over the
Australian Bight. Ifthe grade is rather steep and the system
at rest for several days, then the north-east wind persists with
force proportionated to the grade, until the whole system mové
forward ; the southerly winds in the front of the approaching high
pressure then displace the north-easter and the storm is over.

There have been no good examples of this type since weather
charts have been printed here. Chart 33 shows the necessaly
forms of isobars, but the grade is not steep enough for a gale.

TYPES OF AUSTRALIAN WEATHER. 545

TYPE XVI.—WIND BLOWING CONTRARY TO ISOBARS,

In this type the wind blows with considerable force in a direc-
tion directly opposed to that which the isobars would lead us to
expect. For instance in No. 34, it will be seen that an extensive
high pressure rests over the east coast, and the isobars are com-
paratively close together. The normal circulation with these
isobars would be fresh north to north-west winds, when, as a
matter of fact, strong southerly winds were blowing as far as
Sydney with a velocity of thirty miles per hour. Such conditions
are rather troublesome in forecasting ; fortunately they do not
come often, and the fact is not confined to southerly winds. The
general direction of the coast line is northerly bearing east a little,
* Tange of mountains from two to four thousand feet high
= nearly paralled to it, and this local formation has a very
mpstinnt effect on the circulation of the wind ; as in Chart 34
it seems to have more effect than the isobars, and probably the
dees was rapidly intensifying and had not been long enough in
Sxlatence to fully control the winds. It seems probable, so far as
this type has been studied, that we should find that when the
wind blows contrary to isobars,

: it does so because of some impulse
siven to it before the new grade

had time to control the circulation.

TYPES.
oF
AUSTRALIAN WEATHER é
Ne
SEPTEMBER I3.1005
MO a

‘

546 HENRY A. HUNT.

TYPE XVII.—SUMMER ANTICYCLONES.

One of the most marked features of weather in Australiais the
‘regular easterly motion of it in all seasons of the year, addedt?
this the anticyclones—the controlling element in our weather—
change with the sun, so that the latitude they follow in their
easterly progress is further south in summer than in winter.’ The
summer latitude is about 40° south. They are less extensive in
summer than in winter, and do not so completely control out
weather as they do in winter, for their southern position leaves
room for the southerly extension of monsoonal low pressures,
which make a great deal of our weather; but the anticyclone
makes the change from hot northerly to cool southerly winds, the
bursters of the east coast.

4
smal acid

TYPE XVIII.—WINTER ANTICYCLONES.

During the winter months the antiyclones are much large ot
they are in summer, and their latitude about 30° 8.; vey ere
monly their area is equal to Australia, and their control of the
weather more complete than it is in summer. Fine wea

Se aol eee :
1 Moving Anticyclones—Quart. Journ. R.M.S., No. 85, Jan. 189%

WS Ge oe Sena et ee

TYPES OF AUSTRALIAN WEATHER. 547

marks their centres, and the rains come chiefly from the low
pressures between each pair of anticyclones, and the strong
westerly gales are but part of the circulation about these high
pressures. (See Charts 29 and 30.)

The one selected for illustration occupied the whole of Australia
on June 4th, 1895, Chart 36. Its form was remarkably sym-
metrical, and in the central area the barometers read 30°6, which
is somewhat unusual, hence the circulation is active, and in
northern Australia where the trade wind adds force, it is very
strong. Under the central influence of these great anticyclones
the whole of Australia enjoys fine weather.

TYPES %

TUNE... 1085
.

oF
AUSTRALIAN WEATHER ai
0

TY
PE XIX.—SQUARE HEADED A DEPRESSION.

is type j bene
suficiont] cay ® variation of the usual , depression, but is
c fats ,
ey om aracteristic to be placed by itself as a type or rather

ence to — isobaric peculiarity, as may be seen by refer-
» 18 that there is a flat top or square
A, the usual form of. which is a sharp
a marked feature of this is that under

arkably squally and charged with thunder

548 HENRY A. HUNT.

and hail storms, and deluges of rain. This type is not peculiarto :
any season of the year, and the country they affect is usual :
south of Lat. 30°. The particular square headed A i
under discussion occurred in July, 1891. Its effects were wile
spread and its life persistent, and its peculiarity in a moe or less
distinctive form was maintained during its passage over six degrets
of longitude, and its effects most severe in Victoria.

In Chart 37, July 8th, 1891, the square headed A is —_
when over South Australia. The gradients about it excepting
those on its eastern side were moderate; winds were from fresh
to strong. Following it is a high pressure of decided energy, and
preceding it to the east an anticyclone of little or no character ;
on the previous day rain fell over greater part of the southern
seaboard and in Tasmania.

B 7

at
Square-Headed | depression
hereto iin

Chart 38, J uly 9th, the depression has become more 7
but has lost energy. The relative powers of the antiey : raid
remains the Same, winds were generally lighter, but the ie |
covered a much wider area than on the previous day. a :
storm moved to the east its characteristic weather was mal” : |

TYPES OF AUSTRALIAN WEATHER. 549

TYPES
on
AUSTRALIAN WEATHER ri
°

nf ee
wK *.

TYPE XX.—THE ADVENT OF AN ANTARCTIC STORM.
This is a type of weather that does not often visit Australia

hat its severity makes it noteworthy for the winds and weather
which come with it are very destructive, and the cold severe, it
might almost be called a southern blizzard; yet the warning is
short and often difficult to read, for it comes from the Antarctic
where we have no out stations.
Foe —— consideration began to affect the south coast
1age (Chass making the winds fresh to strong on June 2st,
_’ \~aart 39), yet the season (winter) and the general conditions.
i < wal winds, and said nothing definite of the storm
€graphed on the morning of June 22nd, (Chart 40).
an. were then seen to be four-tenths lower in Tasmania
finties Be iy on the 21st, and the wind had increased < a
tad the ay aren south coast of South Australia and Victoria,
ile bias é TS Indicate a very steep grade commensurate with
a Pi mote also the wind rose in places to hurricane
and trees bio rat, in western Victoria, buildings were unroofed
own down. So severe was it there that the storm is
4s the Ballarat storm.

550 HENRY A. HUNT.

oF
AUSTRALIAN WEATHER

39
me 1892
*»

In South Australia and New South Wales the wind did a gres#
deal of damage without reaching the intensity it had in Victoria.
ra isobars show a retreat of the anticyclone and a tilting of the
ve axis, and a very remarkable increase in the number a
isobars on the south coasts of South Australia, Victoria, and

=
TYPES

i

TYPES OF AUSTRALIAN WEATHER. 551

Tasmania. It looks as if the low pressure had retreated and its
western parts forced their way north. What probably did take
place was that a storm centre south of the Australian Bight and
indicated by the northerly winds in Chart 39, had in the interval
surged northwards on to the west coast of Victoria, bringing with
it all its antarctic energy and severe cold. This view is sup-
ported by the fact that there was in the twenty-four hours but
little change in the New Zealand isobars, and further by the
upward tilting of the eastern part of the anticyclone caused by
the northing of the antarctic storm, and lastly by the blizzard-
like cold which was so marked a feature of this storm.
LIST OF TYPES OF AUSTRALIAN WEATHER.
I.—Moving Anticyclones, Charts 1, 2, 3.
IL—Monsoonal Rain Storm, Charts 4, 5.
IIT.—Development of a Cyclonic Storm in Low Latitudes
from a Monsoonal Depression, Charts 6, 7.
IV.—Development of a Cyclonic Storm in High Latitudes
from a Monsoonal Depression, Charts 8, 9, 10.
V.—Conditions favourable for Thunderstorms, Charts 11, 12.
VI.—Cyclonic Thunderstorms, Charts 13, 14.
a and nearly straight Isobars, Charts 15, 16.
-—Uyclones from North-West, Charts 17, 18, 19.
TX.—Cyclones from North-East, Charts 20, 21, 22.
X.—Tornadoes, Charts 23, 24.
XI.—South-Fast Gales, Charts 25, 26.
XIL—Development of Cyclones from a 4 Depression, Charts

x , 28
Caan Winds, Charts 29, 30.
Pe eam Bursters, Charts 31, 32.
i. North-Easter, Chart 33.
a noting Against Isobars, Chart 34.
i a” Anticyclone, Chart 35.
. inter Anticyclone, Chart 36.
any Headed , Depression, Charts 37, 38. ,
vent of an Antarctic Storm, Charts 39, 40.

PROCEEDINGS

ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

WEDNESDAY, MAY 1, 1896.
AnyuaL GENERAL MEETING.
Prof. R. THRELFALL, M.A., President, in the Chair.
Fifty-three members and nine visitors were present.
The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.
The following Financial Statement for the year ending 3lst
March, 1895, was presented by the Hon. Treasurer, and adopted :—

GENERAL ACCOUNT.
REcEIPTs. £s. d se
One Guinea... Pe -- 155 8 0)
Subscriptions — ae see < 3 ’ ’ “es
Advances eke uke ‘ve 3.3 0
Entrance Fees and Compositions a his ee “4s 56 14 0
Parliamentary Grant on Sihecrint: ived during 1894 500 0 0
Meteltit § a
ee ee. be”
ee
ae Total Receipts ic a ee : :
ance on Ist April, 1894 Bed
£1298 2 §
———
: PAYMENTS. £3. c Se
Advertisements iS ts be 2716 6
Assistant Secreta 250 0 0
Books and Periodicals 100 13 10
kbindin : 6116 0
Conversaziong «_. oe cae co we 69 13 1
wien, Chatges Pisking ggg ae
iture and Effects ... sas : 410 0

Carried forward ee wu. S028 14. 8

PROCEEDINGS. 553

AYMENTS—continued. rae Spe can ae
ae ase sa wai «. 523 14° 0
Gas . eds beak oe
Boteckoeper ane a8 ee mS isa 10070
urance ... obs ie sa ae ee 10 14 0
Office Boy . cia ise | oak eRe gee ee
Petty Cash Be pensos ves Wis <n (Sa Gea
Postage and Duty Stamps ... ... «.. 38215 0
Printing a Ne a ae
Printing ead Publishing J Jourhid a seek ae
Prize Essay Awards Nope ie ee
Rates a ae ee
Refreshments and itendidice st t Meetings a Soe
Repairs ; a ae
a
Sundries... ue 7

Total Pays = 1140 17 4

Transfer to Building and Investment vad. a 106 14 0

Balance on 81st March, 1895... ie ia 50 10 11

£1298 2 8
———

BUILDING AND INVESTMENT FUND.

ReEceEIets. £ s. d.

Transfer from General Account . oe oe - 10614 0.
Interest on Fixed Deposit co een eee
Amount of Fund on 1st April, 1894 = ie ac Gee Ee
£1286 0 1
——=
‘ £a
Pee eee in Uuicn Bank

£1286 0 1
———

CLARKE renaming FUND. s ‘
s. d.

te t on Fixed Deposit ee
Sunt of Pindion Ist Apri, 1894... 2 OP
£359 11 0

——-

Fj £s. 4a
mes Deposit in Government Savings Ban Sg BO
“posit in Savings Bank of New Rs Waiek oes Tew

£359 11 0

——

554 PROCEEDINGS.

ABERC pea FUND.
Rec

2 4.
Amount received from the Hon. alg: ‘abacus to be
offered as Prizes for. Competitive or on various
hases of s odealian weather Sim te 100 0 0
Interest on Fixed Deposit, 1893 ... pe at ioe | eS
Interest on Fixed Deposit, 1894 ... a oe ae re 4138 7
: £109 3 7
ve
22
Award for Prize 90d on “ ie ouside Bursters” Ss ee
Illustrations for Dit am ee ' 16
Fixed Deposit in ee Bank we ne Te ig OTH
£109 3 7

Aupitep, P. N. TREBECK.
H. 0. WALKER.
Sypner, 19th April, 1895.
H. G. A. WRIGHT, Honorary Treasurer.
W. H. WEBB, Assistant Secretary.
Messrs. Henry Deane and Josiah Mullens were appointed
Scrutineers for the election of officers and members of Council.
A ballot was then taken and the following gentlemen were duly
elected officers and members of Council for the current year:
Honorary President:
President:
Prof. T. W. E. DAVID, B.A., F.G.S.
Vice-Presidents
: | Pror. 7.P. ibnrcaeiea pigs
CHARLES MOORE, r.1.s., F.z.s. | Pror. THRELFALL, ™
Hon. Treasure
H. G, A. vie M.R.C.S. ghar Lond., &e.

Hon, gah aha ht

J. H. MAIDEN, r.1.s. | W. GRIMSHAW, ™. rst. 6-5:
Members of Council:
W. CHISHOLM, m.p H. A. LENEHAN, F.B.A.8-
C. W. DARLEY, m. rsr.c.z. | Pror. LIVERSIDGE, ™.s-» F-2-*
HENRY DEANE, w.a.,.twer.c.e, | E, F. PITTMAN, assoc. 2.8.8 7*
M. HAMLET, r.c.s., ¥.1.¢. | H. C. RUSSELL, res CB Gay FRE
H. KNIBBS, ALFRED SHEWEN

The following gentlemen were » duly elected pirat enbe
of the Society :

PROCEEDINGS. 555

Adams, John Henry; Orange.
Bancroft, Thomas L., m.p. Edin.; Brisbane.
The certificates of two candidates were read for the second
time, and of five for the first time.

The names of the Committee-men of the different Sections were
announced :—
Section H.—Medical,
Chairman—Dr. W. H. Goode, m.a.
Secretaries—Dr. G. E. Rennie, s.a. and Dr. C. J. Martin, B.Sc.
Committee—Dr, P. Sydney Jones, Dr. Cecil Purser, Dr. Alfred Shewen,
Hon. Dr. H. N. MacLaurin, M.u.c., M.A.

Three Meetings were held, viz.—June 21st, August 16th, and October 18th,
£ n

Section K.—Engineering.
Chairman—B. C. Simpson, M. Inst. C.E.
Secretary—T. H. Houghton, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E.
Caras Treasurer—J. W. Grimshaw, M. Inst. C.E.

mittee—C, 0, Burge, M. Inst. C.E., Joseph Davis, M. Inst. C.E.,
mas Rhodes Firth, M. Inst. C.E., W. F. How, M. Inst. C.E., Wh. Sc.,
D.M. Maitland, u.s., J. M. Smail, M. Inst. C.E. ;
Past Chairmen, ex oficio Members of Committee for three years:
ecil W. Darley, M. Inst. C.E., H. Deane, M.A., M. Inst, C.E., and

R.R. P. Hickson, M. Inst. C.E.

Meetings held on the Third Wednesday in each month, at 8 p.m.

<a President called attention to the footnote on the Prize

if circulars, to the effect that papers submitted would be

oF only on the condition that, if awarded a prize, they would
amenable to Rule XXVIa. of the Society.

nse announced that the Clarke Memorial Medal for 1895
oe a to Mr. Robert Logan Jack, F.c.s., &c., Govern-
hei, — of Queensland, and to Mr. Robert Etheridge,

, ernment Palxontologist, Department of Mines, Sydney.

The
his Achy then presented to Mr. Etheridge, who expressed
i “elation of the honour conferred upon him.

following letters were received acknowledging the award :

556 PROCEEDINGS.

Geological Survey of Queensland,
George-street, Brisbane,
3r ecember, 1894,
The Hon. Secretaries, Royal Society of N.S. Wales, Sydney.

Gentlemen—Your announcement, (dated 14th ult.), that the Council
of the Royal Society of New South Wales had awarded me the Clarke
Memorial Medal, awaited me on my return from a journey in the interior,
and added to my welcome home a satisfaction for which I was entirely
unprepared.

This mark of appreciation of my part in the study of the geological
history of Australia is peculiarly grateful to my feelings, both on account
of the authority from which it emanates and of the connection of my
name with that of the revered geologist in whose memory the distinction
was founded ; and, permit me to say that if anything could heighten the
pleasure with which I receive the announcement, it is the fact that my
colleague and friend Mr. Robert Etheridge Junior, is to share the honour
conferred by the Society.

In conveying my sincere thanks to the Council, be good enough to
assure them that the medal will be prized not merely as a recognition of
past service, but as an encouragement to renewed effort during the
remainder of my career.

I am gentlemen, yours very truly,
ROBERT L. JACK.

“ Alladale,” Old Canterbury Road, Petersham,
Sydney, 16th November, 1894

Dear Mr. Maiden,—I beg to acknowledge your letter of November iy

informing me that the Council of the Royal Society had been pleased
award me a “Clarke Memorial Medal.”

Will you be kind enough to convey to the Council my most since —
thanks for the honour conferred, the more pleasing to me, as it was id
unexpec You may assure the Council that this recognition of ™Y
humble efforts towards the elucidation of a most fascinating atudy-

Australian Palwontology—will still further tend towards enlivening ™
future investigations in that direction.
I am very faithfully yours,

R. ETHERIDGE.

To J. H. Maiden, Esq., Hon. Secretary, Royal Society, N. S. Wales.

Eighty-seven volumes, four hundred and twenty-sever par

twenty-nine reports, twenty-three pamphlets, and seveD hyde

graphic charts received as donations since the last meeting ci 2

laid upon the table and acknowledged.

iE oe yen aha Yeates Sib oho (aan note! iti t ees Al ni ete

PROCEEDINGS. 557

Prof. THRELFALL, M.A., then read his address.
A vote of thanks was passed to the retiring President, and
Prof. T. W. E. Davin, 8.A., F.G.s., was installed as President for
the ensuing year.

Prof. Davip thanked the members for the honour conferred
upon him.

WEDNESDAY, JUNE 5, 1896.

Cuares Moors, F.1.s.,Vice President, in the Chair.

Thirty members and two visitors were present.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.
The certificates of two new candidates were read for the third
time, of five for the second time, and of two for the first time.

The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members
of the Society woke

Boultbee, J. W., Superintendent of Public Watering Places.
Frackelton, Rev. W. S., M.Se., B.D.; Randwick.

Fifty-four volumes, three hundred and seventy-eight parts, six-
~ reports, ninety-nine pamphlets, and two hydrographic charts
Tecelved ag donations since the last meeting were laid upon the
table and acknowledged. oe
The following papers were read :—

: Aeronautical Work,” by LAWRENCE HARGRAVE.

~ “A contribution to the chemistry of Myrtaceous Kinos,” by

. J. H. Marve, rts. &c., and Henry G. Sra.

- “Note on two alteration products derived from the mineral
Dyscrasite and argentiferous Galena, found in the Broken

; Hill Consols Mine,” by E. F. Prrrmay, A-R.S.M-

" “The cubic parabola as applied to the easing of circular curves
on Railway Lines,” by C. J. MERFIELD, (Communicated by
G. H. Kntsps, 1s.) |

EXxuIBItTs : |

Mr. Pirrman exhibited specimens of the two mineral Co .

showing in places the action of the two solvents referred to in

558 PROCEEDINGS.

paper, namely :—“ Alteration product after Dyscrasite, compo-
sition chiefly chloride of silver and antimoniate of silver.” A
small area of the polished surface has been etched by means of
strong ammonia. The chloride of silver has thus been removed,
leaving the antimoniate of silver in relief. ‘ Alteration product
after argentiferous Galena, composition chiefly sulphate of lead
and sulphide of silver, in variable proportions.” One side of the
small polished piece has been etched by means of a solution of
acetate of ammonia. The sulphate of lead has thus been removed
leaving the sulphide of silver in relief. He also exhibited a
Specimen from the White Cliffs near Wilcannia. It consisted of
a water-worn boulder of Devonian sandstone (containing typical
Devonian fossils), found in the Upper Cretaceous rocks at the opal
mines. Qne half of the boulder had been subjected to the action
of thermal silicious waters, with the result that that part of the
stone had been completely vitrified, and the fossils had been con-
verted into precious opal.

WEDNESDAY, JULY 1, 1895.
Prof. T. W. E. Davin, B.a., F.Gs., President, in the Chair.
Thirty members and one visitor were present.
The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.
The certificates of five new candidates were read for the third
time, and of three for the first time.
The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members
of the Society -—
Barraclough, 8. H., B.E., M.M.E.; Glebe Point.
Bensusan, A. J., A.R.S.M., F.c.s.; Burwood.
Jacob, a ies A.M.1.C.E.; Dulwich Hill.
Nicholls, W. H: ; Gosford.
Van de Velde, Clement, c.z.; Sydney.

ae FN a rae pae NL ERE St ee i Be yew hea ia aed HRs enh po

The President made the following announcements :—
1. The death of the Rt. Hon. Prof, Huxley, rns. P.c., who ¥#
elected an Honorary Member of the Society in 1879, and

was awarded the Clarke Medal in 1880.

| Geen a ae

PROCEEDINGS. 559

2. That the Council recommend the election of the following
gentlemen as Honorary Members of the Society, viz.:—
Prof. Robert Wilhelm Bunsen, For. Mem. R.S.; Heidelberg.
Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace, F.R.s., Parkstone, Dorset.
The election was carried unanimously.

3, That a course of two or three Lectures in connection with the
Clarke Memorial would probably be given by Prof. T. W.E
David, B.a., r.G.s., and Mr. E. F. Pittman, a.r.s.m., Govern-
ment Geologist, in September or November next.

4, That the Society’s Bronze Medal and Prize of £25 had been
awarded to Cartes JAMES Marvin, B.Sc. M.B. Lond., M.R.C.S.
Eng., for paper upon ‘The physiological action of the venom
of the Australian black snake, Pseudechis porphyriacus.”

The medal and cheque were then presented to Dr. Martin.
Nine volumes, one hundred and sixty-one parts, six reports,
four pamphlets, and one hydrographic chart, received as donations

Since the last meeting were laid upon the table and acknowledged.

The following papers were read :—

1. “On the great Meteor of May 7th,” by H. CO. Russztt, B.A.,
C.M.G., FLR.S,

Some remarks were made by Dr. Martin, Prof. David, and
the Author,

2. “The history, theory, and determination of the viscosity of
water by the efflux method,” by G. H. Kn1ps, Ls.

Some remarks were made by Mr. J. A. Pollock and the
Author,

3. “On the physiological action of the venom of the Australian

black snake Pseudechis porphyriacus,” by Dr. C. J. Martin,
B.Sc,

Some remarks were made by the Chairman.

; WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 7, 1895.
rol. TW. E. Davin,
Twenty

B.A., F.G.8., President, in the Chair.

“eight members were present.

560 PROCEEDINGS.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed,

The certificates of three candidates were read for the second
time.

Seventy-three volumes, one hundred and eighty-two parts, eight
reports and ten pamphlets received as donations since the last
meeting were laid upon the table and acknowledged.

The following papers were read :—

1. “Some Folk-songs and Myths from Samoa,” by Dr. JOHN
FRASER, B.A.

Some remarks were made by the Rev. Dr. W. Wyatt Gill
and the Chairman.

2. “ Rocks of Victoria Land and Possession Island,” collected by
Mr. C. E. Borchgrevink, with ‘“‘ Notes on the Geology of
Antarctica,” by Prof. T. W. E. Davin, B.A., F.G.S., and w. F.
SMEETH. M.A., A.R.S.M.

3. “ Considerations on the surviving refugees, in Austral Lands,
of ancient Antarctic life,” by C. HEDLEY, F.L.S.

The discussion on the above papers was postponed to the next
meeting.

EXHIBITs :
1. Photographs showing the crystalline structure of gold ingots,

by Prof. LiversipGE, M.A., F.R.S.

2. Exhibits to accompany the papers by Prof. DaviD and Mr.

W. F. Smeeru.

3. Photographs of scenes of geological interest in N. S. Wales,
taken and prepared for the stereoscope by His Honour Judge

Docker, m.a.

4. Comic portrait of himself in pen and ink by Prof. Huxley,
also water-colour painting of an island in the Torres Straits by
the same.—Exhibited by Mr. C. Heptey.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 4, 1899.
Prof. T. W. E. Davin, 8.A., F.G.8., President, in the Chair.

Thirty-one members and three visitors were present.

:
Py
4

2

PROCEEDINGS. 561

_ The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.

The certificates of three new candidates were read for the third
time.

The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary members
of the Society :—
Ross, Colin John, B.sc., B.E., AMI.C.E.; Sydney.
Ross, Herbert E. ; Sydney.
Ward, James Wenman ; Sydney.

The Chairman made the following announcements, viz :—

1. That the Society would shortly be connected with the Tele-
phone Exchange.

2. That members using the Library could, if they wished, be
supplied with a cup of tea, &c., price 6d.

3, That the Society had purchased fourteen feet of land adjoining

their present premises.

Five volumes, sixty-three parts, three reports, four pamphlets,
and eighteen hydrographic charts, received as donations since the
last meeting were laid upon the table and acknowledged.

The following papers were read :—
Le Contributions to a knowledge of Australian vegetable exuda-
tions, No, 1,” by J. H. Marpsn, F.1.s. &c., and H. G. Smira.

Some questions were asked by the President, to which Mr.
Maiden replied,

2 « Icebergs in the Southern Ocean,” by H. C. RussELt, B.a.,

OM.G., PRs,
Sg discussion followed in which the Hon. Dr. Oreed, Mr.
ce

Gale, Mr. P. N. Trebeck, and the President took part.

Mr. Watrar F. Gaus, F.R.A.8., said he had listened with con-

ble pleasure to Mr. Russell’s paper. There could be no
4S to the great value of a more complete knowledge of the
“tent and Movements of the ice encountered by vessels proceed-
- 4, 1895,

Ji~Deg

562 PROCEEDINGS.

ing both to and from Australia. He perceived that Mr. Russell
made no reference to black or discoloured ice, such as was recorded
in large quantities in 1892 and 1893. The barque by which he
had travelled encountered twenty-three ice-masses of this character,
The majority were of small extent, and resembled whales’ backs,
but several were true bergs. One measured upwards of three
miles in length, with a maximum height out of water of about
eighty feet. The colour was dark brown or black, and it had
occurred to him that this colouring might throw some light upon
the genesis of the icebergs usually met with in running down the
easting. Whatever theory might be advanced to account for the
colouration of the smaller masses, there was little doubt in his
mind that the true bergs appeared black from the presence of
matter ejected during the long continued action of an antarcti¢e
voleano. The observation of an uncommon berg, such as the one
referred to, by officers of vessels in different latitudes, would
certainly be of more than ordinary value in connection with the
rates of drift and melting, since the identification would be more
easy than usual. He regretted to think that even the extensive
records Mr. Russell had had the good fortune to receive could
hardly be regarded as sufficient for definite conclusions relating
to this important subject; owing to the lack of approximately
simultaneous observations in different latitudes. i
exemplified in his own experience during a recent voyage t0 Chili
His vessel’s track lay between 50° and 51° south latitude, and D0
ice was seen in March. Bergs were reported, however, during
the same month by a vessel whose track lay 3° to the north
Either report alone might have led to an incorrect conclusion, %
it was to be hoped that shipmasters would report negative expert
ence, in order that the author might form as complete @ theory
as possible,

The discussion upon the papers by Prof. T. W. E. David, BA
F.G.8., and W. F. Smeeth, m.a., A.R.8.m., and by C. Hedley; rh |

read at the previous meeting were further postponed ©
October meeting.

PROCEEDINGS. 563

WEDNESDAY, OCTOBER 2, 1895.
Prof. T. W. E. Davin, B.A., F.G.s., President, in the Chair.
Forty-one members and two visitors were present.
The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed:
Forty volumes, one hundred and six parts, fifteen reports, six-
teen pamphlets and one hydrographic chart, received as donations
since the last meeting were laid upon the table and acknowledged.
The following papers were read :—
1. “On the amount of gold and silver in sea-water,” by Prof.
LIVERSIDGE, M.A., F.R.S.
2, “The removal of silver and gold from sea-water by Muntz
metal sheathing,” by Prof. LivERSIDGE, M.A., F.R.S.

Some remarks were made by the President.

3. “Notes on equable temperatures, Lord Howe Island,” by

H. C. Russet, B.A., 0.M.G., F.R.S.

Some remarks were made by Mr. Carment, to which Mr.

Russell replied.
sige C. Hepiey gave an outline of the paper read by him on
: 7th August, viz.:—“ Considerations on the surviving refugees
Austral lands of ancient Antarctic life.”

The subject was discussed at some length by the President.

: Mr. Russeny exhibited (and afterwards presented to the Society)
rine ph of a flash of lightning two miles long, taken at the
¥ Observatory on the 16th September.

WEDNESDA Y, NOVEMBER 6, 1895.

Prof, :
i T.W.E. Davin, B.A., F.G.s., President, in the Chair.
orty-
Big two members and nine visitors were present.
mi :
‘ mutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.
Welve volum

five Pamphlets, ®s, one hundred and fourteen parts, nine reports,

two hydrographic charts and one astronomic’

564 PROCEEDINGS.

chart, received as donations since the last meeting were laid on
the table and acknowledged.
A letter was received from Prof. R. W. BUNSEN, For. Mem.B8,
Heidelberg, acknowledging his election as an Honorary member.
The President read a circular ‘stating that steps were being
taken in London, to found a National Memorial to the late Right
Hon. T. H. Huxley, and announced that if any of the members
or general public were desirous of contributing to this object, the
Hon. Treasurer (Dr. Wright), would be happy to receive and
transmit their subscriptions.
The following papers were read :—
. “Onsome New South Wales and other Minerals, (Note No. 7)’
by Prof. Liversipa@#, M.A., F.R.S., &c

pot

2. “On a natural deposit of Aluminium succinate in the timber
of Grevillea robusta,” by J. H. Marpen, F.1.s. &ec., and H
G. Smrru..

Some remarks were made by Mr. Hamlet, Prof. Liversidge,
the President and Mr. Maiden.

“The extinct volcanoes of the Warrumbungle Mountains,” by
His Honor Judge Docker, .a., and Prof. T. W. E. Dav)
B.A., F.G.8. Lantern views were ie, described, and forme
the basis of interesting observations on the geology of the
district.

a)

4. “Geological Laboratory Notes, (Note No. 1),” by the Rev.
J. Minne Curran.

Some remarks were made by the President.

EXHIBITs :
The oil of Pittosporum undulatum by Prof. THRELFALL.

Selenium bearing stone, trachyte, &c. by Rev. J ..M. Curpa®

WEDNESDAY, DECEMBER 4, 1898.
Prof. T. W. E. Davin, B.a., F.¢.s,, President, in the Chal

Forty-nine members and two visitors were present.

7 ae
| TUES ESSEC STS UnOTS Rae

PROCEEDINGS. 565

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.

The certificate of one new candidate was read for the first time,

Thirty-seven volumes, one hundred and fifteen parts, eleven
reports, forty-five pamphlets, nineteen meteorological charts and
four hydrographic charts, received as donations since the last
meeting were laid upon the table and acknowledged.

Mr, Marpen gave notice that at the next Annual General
Meeting, he intended to move that the whole of the last paragraph
of Rule XIV. be omitted, viz.:—‘ At the meeting held in July,
and at all subsequent meetings for the year, a list of the names of
all those members who are in arrears with their annual subscrip-
tions shall be suspended in the Rooms of the Society. Members
shall in such cases be informed that their names have been thus
posted.”

It was resolved that Messrs. P. N. Treseck and J. W.
McCurcuzon be appointed Auditors for the current year.

The following papers were read :—

1. “On the assimilation of gold by fungoid growths,” by Prof.

LiveRsIpgx, M.A., F.R.S.
Some remarks were made by Messrs. J. W. McCutcheon,
W. D. Campbell, and the President.

- “The origin of malachite ; observations made in an abandoned
copper mine” by Epaar Hatt, this paper was communicated
and read by Prof. LiversipGe.

Some remarks were made by Messrs. W. M. Hamlet, W. D.
Campbell, and Prof. Liversidge.
“Notes on the geology of Antarctica (Part 2)” by Prof. T.. Wi

E. Davin, B.A., F.G.S.. W. F. SMEETH, M.A., A.R.8.M., and

J. A, SCHOFIELD, F.C.S., A.R.S.M.

This Paper was read by Mr. Smeeth, and some remarks were
made by the President.

* “On the occurrence of Artesian water in rocks other than the

Cretaceous,” by E. F. Prrrmay, A.R.S.M.

bo

3.

566 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTIONS.

Some remarks were made by the President.

ou

. “The tensile and compressive strengths of Magnesium,” by
S. H. BarRAcLouaH, B.E., M.M.E.

Some remarks were made by Prof. Threlfall and the President.

-

‘‘On the products from the fruit of Pittosporum undulatum
and Schinus molle,” by Prof. THRELFALL, M.A.

“Types of Australian Weather,” by H. A. Hunt. This paper
was prepared as an essay under the Abercromby Prize Fund
and was read by Mr. H. C. Russet.

‘Rainfall of Southern Riverina 1874 — 94,” by H. C. Kippus,
FR. Met.Soc. This paper was also read by Mr. RussELl.

aE.

Pe

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTIONS.

(IN ABSTRACT.)

ENGINEERING SECTION.

At the preliminary meeting held on April 17th, the following
officers were elected for the 1895 Session :—Chairman: Mr. B.C.
SIMPSON, M.Inst.c.e. Hon. Secretary: Mr. T. H. HovaHt™,
Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., M. Inst.Mech.E. Hon. Treasurer: Mr. J-
GRIMSHAW, M. Inst. C.E., M. Inst, Mech. E. Committee: Messrs. D.M
Mairanp, is, 0. O. BurGs, M. Inst. C.z., W. F. How, M. Inst. 02s
Wh.8c., J. M. Smar, m. Inst. c.£., T. R. Firta, M. Inst. CE, and J:
Davis, M. Inst. C.E.

The ex officio members of the Committee being Messrs. ¥ |
Dar ey, M. Inst. 0.8, H. DEANE, M.A., M. Inst. c.E., R. R. P. Hiss
M. Inst. C.E, :

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTIONS. 567

Messrs. Haycrorr and Smit the Auditors appointed by the
meeting, reported that there was a balance of £16 8s. 7d. in the
hands of the Hon. Treasurer to the credit of the printing fund.

Monthly meeting held May 15, 1895.
Mr. B. C. Simpson, in the Chair.
Thirty-five members and visitors present.
The Chairman delivered an inaugural address.
Mr. H. Deane then read a paper on “Some recent Engineering

Developments in England and America.”

Monthly meeting held June 19, 1895.
Mr. B. C. Simpson in the Chair.

Twenty-seven members and visitors present.

Messrs. Cowdery, Selfe, Grimshaw, and Simpson asked Mr.
Deane for information in connection with his paper “‘Some recent
Engineering Developments in England and America,” which the
author supplied.

The discussion on Mr. W.S8. de Liste Roperts’ paper “Recent
Researches in the Testing of Cement,” and Mr. W. M. Hamers
Paper “The interpretation of Cement Analyses” was opened by
Mr. J. Davis and continued by Messrs. Richards, Haycroft, Deane,
and Grimshaw, and adjourned to the next meeting.

Monthly meeting held July 17, 1895.
Mr. B. C. Simpson, in the Chair.
Twenty-eight members and visitors present.
Mr. C. 0. Burce read a paper on “ The Preparation of Engineer-
8 Specifications and General Conditions for large Works,” the
discussion Was postponed until the next meeting.
oe on Messrs. Roperts’ and HaMLET’s papers on
' 4esting was resumed by Dr. McDonagh, and continued by
“sts. Henson, Mingaye, Davis, Try, Farr, Dixon, Allan, Simp-
“n, and Hamlet.

568 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTIONS.

Monthly meeting held August 21, 1895.
Mr. B. ©. Simpson, in the Chair.

Twenty-three members and visitors present.

Mr. W. S. de Liste Roserts replied to the discussion of his
paper on “ Recent Researches in the Testing of Cement.”

The discussion of Mr. C. O. Burcr’s paper “The Preparation
of Engineering Specifications and General Conditions for large
Works,” was opened by Mr. How, and continued by Messrs.
Grimshaw, Farr, Shaw, and Allan, and adjourned to the next
meeting.

Monthly meeting held September 18, 1895.
Mr. H. Drang, in the Chair.

Twenty-nine members and visitors present.

Mr. P. Aan read a paper on “ Timber Bridges,” the discuss
ion was postponed to a future meeting.

The discussion of Mr. C. O. Burcr’s paper “The Preparation
of Engineering Specifications and General Conditions for large
Works,” was resumed by Mr. Smail, and continued by Messrs.
Mansfield, Rowe, Haycroft, Selfe, Barraclough, and Deane, and
replied to by the author.

Monthly meeting held October 16, 1895.
Mr. B. C. Simpson, in the Chair.

Twenty-three members saa visitors present.

A paper communicated by Mr. T. E. Burrows entitled “ Fasciné
Work as carried out by the Public Works Department in oie
South Wales,” was read by Mr. Grimshaw, and the discussio®
postponed to a future meeting.

Mr. J. M. Smart read a paper entitled “ Notes on the under-
draining of the Filter Beds at the Botany Sewage Farm.”

Monthly meeting held November 20, 1895.
Mr. B. C. Simpson, in the Chair.

:
2

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTIONS. 569

The discussion of Mr. P. Auxan’s paper “Timber Bridges” was
opened by Mr. Deane and continued by Messrs. Burge, Smail,
Barraclough, Statham, and Simpson, and replied to by the author.

Monthly meeting held December 18, 1895.
Mr. B. C. Simpson, in the Chair.

Twenty-two members and visitors were present.

The discussion of Mr. Burrow’s paper “Fascine Work as
carried out by the Public Works Department in New South
Wales,” was opened by Mr. Darley, and continued by Messrs.
Smail, Deane, Grimshaw, Allan, and Simpson, and replied to by
the author.

During the Session the Section visited, by invitation, the Ocean
Street Cable Tram Power House, Messrs. Anthony Hordern’s
Hydraulic and Electric Light Plant, the Botany Sewage Farm,
and the Rosehill and Dural Railway.

Subscriptions to the printing fund have been received amount-
ing to £21 Os. 6d., and £5 by sale of papers.

MEDICAL SECTION.
At the provisional meeting of the Medical Section held on
a 19th, 1895, the following officers were elected :—Chairman:
‘W.H. Goong, m.a. Committee: Hon. Dr. MacLaurty, MLC,
ao Joxzs, SHEewen, and Purser. Secretaries: Drs.
“+ AENNIE and ©. J. MARTIN.
It was decided to hold only three meetings during the year.

oR Committee were instructed to revise the Rules of the
on,

"i Specia, GENERAL MEBRTING.
0 Sige General meeting was held on June 2lst, at 8 p.m.,
walch the draft of the rules as revised by the Committee was

Steed to, and ordered to be forwarded to the Council for their
4pproval,

570 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTIONS.

First GENERAL MEETING.

The first general meeting was held on June 21st, at 8:15 p.m.
Dr. W. H. Goong, m.a., in the Chair.

Dr. MacDonatp Git, exhibited a case of sporadic cretinism
and also one of myxoedema.

Dr. Rennie exhibited two cases of myxoedema which had been
under treatment with thyroid tabloids.

The Hon. Secretary exhibited for Dr. Scor SkirviNe, two cases
of Friedreich’s disease. These patients were examined by the
members and afterwards discussed.

Dr. Mitrorp read some notes on the treatment of diphtheria
with Resorcin.

The paper was discussed by Drs. Megginson, Crago, Neill,
Sydney Jones, and McDonagh. The remaining business was
postponed.

Seconp GENERAL MEETING.

The second general meeting was held August 16th. Dr. W.
H. Gooner in the Chair.

Dr. J. A. Dick read some notes on a case of Malignant Diseas?
of the Lung and exhibited the specimen, and also some micro-
scopical sections of the growth.

Dr. Rennre read a paper on “Death after Head Injuries,”
which was criticised by Prof. Anderson Stuart, Drs. McDonagh,
Chisholm, and Ange! Money.

Dr. R. L. FarrHrun. read-a paper on “ Significance of Albu-
minuria more especially as regarded by medical examiners for
Life Insurance.” Remarks were made on the subject by Drs.
Sydney Jones, Angel Money, and Rennie.

Dr. ©. J. Martin exhibited a simple and efficient method #
drying serum and maintaining it sterile during the process

The Secretaries were instructed to write a letter expressing the
sympathy of the members of the Section with Mrs. L. R. Huxt#®™
on the death of her husband.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTIONS. 571

Trp GeneraL MEETING.

The third and last meeting of the year was held on Oct. 15th,
at 815 p.m. Dr. W. H. Goons, m.a., in the Chair.

Dr, Macponatp Git. exhibited a case of sporadic cretinism,
and also one of Raynard’s disease.

Dr. Jamreson exhibited an infant suffering from congenital
syphilis and tumour in the sterno-mastoid. .

Prof. ANDERSON STUART gave a demonstration of his new form
“ artificial larynx, and exhibited the patient with the larynx
m situ, ;

Dr. Minrorp exhibited two cases of old injury to the skull.

Dr. Jamieson read a paper on some cases illustrating the effects
of syphilis on the central nervous system.

572 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

ADDITIONS
TO THE
LIBRARY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

DONATIONS—1895.

(The Names of the Donors are in Italics.)
TRANSACTIONS, JOURNALS, REPORTS, Xe.
ApmrprEN—University. Calendar for the year 1895-96. The University

pga TNL ment Geologist. Report on Northern Ter-
yE iodine by H. Y. L. Brown, F.G.5., Mei
ee 7 ment Geologist

cease" soared of South Australia. yon agin Vol. x XVIII,
5 Vol. xrx., Part i., July The Society
anit York State Library. Aad ine (78rd - 76th)
of the =e wp 1890-93. Annual Reports (45th, a

The aa
Amsterpam—Koninklij ke Akademie van Wetenschappen. Ver-
handelingen, — Sectie, Deel 111., 1894. Ve sae Jem
der Zittingen, 1893-94 Jaarboek voor 1893. he A
Nederlandsche Maatschappij ter bevordering van sien
Wekelijksche Courant de sg a Jahrgang 1., Nos
39-52, 1893; Jahrgang 11., Nos. 1-52, i804; “Jabr- viation
gang 111., Nos. 1—13, 1895. The A

siya tena Institute and Museum. Annual a sll

rea eis get of Mines and Industries. Calendar for 1895 |.
with Annual Report for 1894. ace
jee ena ment van omc ala anlage eae Nivea
Pithecanthropus Erectus eine Menschenaehnlic Co eparines!
uebergangs form aus Java von Eug. Dubois, 1894. The D
Koninklijke Natuurkundige Vere wo goad in —— Indié.
atuurkundig Tijdschrift, Deel L Boekwerken Social
1898-94. Naamlijst der Leden op J Mei 1895. ”
Baurimore—Johns Hopkins University. American J ournal of
Mathe 8 ” :
4, 1893 ; Vol. ae Nos. 1 - 3, 1894, American Chemical
Journal, Vol.

» No. 8, 1892 ; Mo _ Woe es ct
1893; Vol. XVI., ge a 1894. can Jo urnal of

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 573

BaLTImMoRE—continue
ey” 8 xu., No. 4. 1892; Vol. xrv., Nos. 1-4,
893; Vol. xv., No.1, 1894. Circulars, Vol. x x11., Nos. 104,
115- 118, 1893-9 95; Vol. x1v., Nos. 119
Studies in Historical and Political Science, hat g
Vol. os Vol :
m Studies rom ea Biological Thabenatisey,

i The University
oa for 1893. The Museum
—University of California. Bulletin of the Dept-
ment of Geology, Vol. 1., Nos. 5-9, pp. 161— 300, 1894-

1895. The University
gets brennan der Fasogiuelee cena Erdmessung. Ver-
andlungen der 1894 zu Innsbru

Brrcun—Bergens leaded’

The Bureaw
seine ee Band x
- 7-10, 1894; Band aor 5. Nos 1-38, sn eit:
schrift, “gt XXIx., 3-6, Band x
1895. erkungen uber Pe Tima von 7 Jaluit- Nach
Dr. tech. The Society
Koniglich Geodiitisches Instituts. Feier des hundertjah-
rigen Geburtstages. J eRe des erated 1893
1894. Bem merkungen zu der The
Koniglich Preussische Akadem aie! Wissenschaften.
ne eaehte,.2 Nos. 39 - i
e

Institute

Koniglich go cnmsache Met sete «er algae oe Bericht
itber gkeit im Jahre, 1894.
set :

gebnisse der

e onen II. un
im Jahre, 1894, Heft 1 snd 2) 1895, Hott ri
The Institute
Brrnz—Départment de P — de la Confedération oat
Graphische Darstellung der
metrischen,

3, 1893. Tableau ings ee e des
observations eae suisses, Pl. 1. --xvi., 1894.
The |

Seta oo Birmingham maga ee ane Philosop
oclety.

hical
Proceedings ., Part 1, Session 1894. The Society
Birmingham and Midland plakers oe epor id the Council
— 1894. Results of Examinations and Award of Prizes
Bor Prog ae ye Session 1895.96. The Institute
cok : ademia ans Scienze dell’Istituto. Memorie,
5, Tomo m1

Bo. The Academy
n—Natuhistorachen Versa der Preussischen Rheinlan
Nb estfalens und des Reg.-Bezirks Osnabriick. Verhand-
F ungen, Jahrgang u1., Folge 5, Band x1., Hilfte 1, 1894; :
olge 6, Band r., Hiilfte 2, 1894. The Society
mar n Academy of Arts and Sciences. Proceed-
ings, sen Ser. Vol. xx., Whole Ser. Vol. xxv1iI., 1892
1893; Vol. xt, Whole Ser. Vol. xx1x., 1893-94. The Academy

574 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Boston—contin
ee ciety of gia’ No. 11 PF mea Vol, 111., No.
1894; Vo

P oceedings, Vol
ar il; an nee. Occasional Pap
Geology of the eston Basin by W. O. Crosby, Vol. rv.,
arts i. and ii., 1893- The Society
aE San ao ne I. Ordnung. ee der
Met ischen Beobachtungen, Jahrgan -» 1894. The Director
Naturvinenschaftiche 1a Abhandlungen, :
x1m., Heft 2; Band x ae i; The Society
BrisBaNE— Depart at of A ure. a tany arg Nos.
10-12, 1895. Baile, "Boao Series) No. 5, April
18 895. The Department

ig 8 pra of Mines. Bulletin of the Geological Survey,
1895.

Gvaaacie Geologist. Annual Progress Report of the
Geological Survey for the years 1888 and 1894. bl

en

in the Cloncurry District by W. H.Rands. Gove ee ” Gedlagia
Government wheel eal Table of pron ee re Oct.

~ Dec. 1893, Jan. - Dec. 1894. Meteorological Record—

Climatological Tables, Oct. - Dec. ss 1893, gr Fe be

1894. Meteorological ws me Nov. ~ Dec., 1893, Jan.

~ Dec 4, Jan. — Apri 59 Government Meteorologist
Hydraulic ma neer, Report on Preis Supply by J. B.

Henderson, M. tnst.c.£, 189 The Engineet
"Aga aoa Society of sauiiels Transactions, Vol. he Riel

0

Quotpsland A pecs ilestai Society. Transactions, Vol. 1,
i 1895. ”
Royal Geographical Society of Australasia. Proceedings
and Transactions of the Queensland Branch, Vol. x.,
Sisattn 1894- 05.

inva) Bosicky of Queensland. Proceedings, Vol. xt., Part i.,

”

oo. tape grin Society. Proceedings, N.S., Vol.

ie 3-94. — Report (32nd) and List

0 Wenhers, $0 April, 1
BROOKVILLE, ae oe audi of Science. Proceedings.

1892, 3 The Academy
Brows —Naturtrschonds Verein. Verhandlungen, Band x

ag ge sage t der Meteorologischen Commission, Val ‘og Soil
Bavssnis Commissions eg d@ Art et may paca Da ;

etin, Année xxvir. —~ xxx XII., 1888 — The Commission
Beemanase—Inatitt tul Moteorologic al tha anie: Annale,

mul vir., virr., Anul 1891-92, Buletinul, july oe —

Instituto Geografico o Argentino. en rs:
111., Cuadernos 7-9, 1892; Tomo xrv., Cuadernos 1 - 4,
1893 ; Tomo xy. ,Cuade ernos 1 - 12, 1894-95 ; Toms XVL,
Cuadernos 1 - 2, 1895.

‘ a foe eee Se are Sen aon aes erie ea ie
ap S e és = et ee Pn as as hoe
Ee Sota ae IE MMSE EN APPR OPAL a THe Se LT ue ee od SR Rig =p hyhe a fer ati ne oR

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 575

Camn—Académie Nationale des Sciences, Arts et Belles-Lettres.
' Mémoires, 1894 et Tables Décennales 1884 — 1893 incl.

The Academy
oe peetic Society of Bengal. Ser ee ee hag 7-10,
1894, Nos aT “S 1895. Journal, N.S. hee kere 1,
a vier Bey seed Part i. ae 3 and 4,
See Vol. LxIv., Pact i Nps Ly
yous ii, , Nos. 1 oda. 2, saoe The Society
"ve ygenied of India. Records, Vol. xxvitt., Parts i.
ili The Director
CaxmnesCamridg cs ie, eae Becca £ Proceedings,
Vol. vir1., Parts ii The Society

Cambridge Cnion Sistety tanh al Repowk 's
ie Cg Library. Annual Report (38th) ees ‘(sis
The Library
aes Li ibrary. crea Report of the Library Syndi-
cate for 1894 and 1
CamBriner, sage —Cambridge Entomological Club. Psyche,
Vol. vir., Nos. 218 — 234, 1894-95. The Club
Museum wi a tive Zodlogy. Annual Report = oe
Jepae Seg 1893-94. Bulletin, Vol. xv1., No. 15, 1

a

Vol. xxv., Nos. 9— anh 1894-95; Vol. xxvr., Nos. > 4

1894. 95 ; Vol. xxvi1., Nos. 1-3, 1895; Vol. xxvur.,

(Geological Series, Val III.) No. 1, July 1895. Memoirs
+» No. ; Vol. xvurt., 1895. The Museum

28S oie sche oie schule. Programm fiir das Stu-

er rod 1894-95, Tobecanphes fiir das das Wintersemester

Inaugural-Dissertations (6) 1893-94. The Director

Can —Fersin fiir Naturkunde. Bericht, Vol..xxxix., 1892
1894. The Society

Canvits—Naturwiseoschaftliche Gesellschaft. Bericht, Band

1, 1889-92, :

Cutca¢o—Chicago ge ad emai * Seer Vol. 1., Nos.

1-10, 1883-86; Vol The Academy .

Field Columbian eas ae i ans 1., No. 1, 1894. The Museum

i Soong du Chili. Actes, Tome 11., a ter
; Tom , Liv. 4, 5, 1893; Tome Iv., Liv. 2 - nk
4. e Society
ae

he eden he BP ag tang tose Commiss-_
i de me Roce tate der im Sommer 1894 in
m sii iihieten 1 Theile Norwegens ausgefiihrten Pen
delbeobachtungen von O. E. gens Rag
‘ Beobachtungen, 1895. ssociation
orwegische Pomniesio on der Europiischen Gradmessung.
Resultate er im Sommer 1893 in dem nordlichsten
eile hts me ausgefiirten Pendelbeobachtunge en
“ von 0. E. Schidt he Commission
ee Royale de No orvege. Jahrb iaceaeaeiel
eg orologischen Instituts fiir 1891. Beskrivelse
_ “n Rekke Norske Bergarter af Dr. Th. Kjerulf, 1808.
he University

576 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

CuHRISTIANIA—contin
Viewsat Slats Forhandlinger, Nos. 1-21, 1898,
(Complete) The Society
conor cine Society of Natural History. a ee
Vol Nos. 2-4, 1893-94; Vol. xvi, Nos. 1-
1894-95 5. »
ora cy Whang Asiatic Society. Index to Journal and Proceed-
“> A the Ceylon Branch, Vol. 1.— x1., Nos. 1— 41, 1845

Be a doucts Royale des Antiquaires du‘Nord. Mbinvivekt
Nouvelle Série, 1893. ”
oe emia Nacional de Ciencias. Boletin, Tomo XIL.,
rega 2 - 4, 1891-92; Tomo x111., Entrega 1 - 4, ear

Tomo 0 xIv., Entrega 1-2, 1894. cade
ee at eos des Sciences. Bulletin ee a Nos.
0, 1894; Nos. 1, 2, 4, and 5, 1895 ”

Dreves—Coland Scientific Society. Proc sctitdos , Vol. Iv.,
-92-93. Occurrence of Tellurium in ceiiiesd form
g

re with gold, by Dr. R. Pearce, 1 April, 1895
£ measurement of ore bodies in min
examinations, by . Kirby, 1 The Recent His-
t and Canes Status of Chemistry by Pr

mary e rmination of Bis n Refined

and in Le G.
the Precipitation of the Precious Metals eon Cyanide
Solutions by means of zinc, No. 1 The non-existence of
of Zine in i

the We ste o Range

Costillo Co. y E. C. and P. a a iest, i394. :

The Costilla Meteorite by R. C. aa 189 The Society
Des eae i Surve Report (Ist)

for 1892, , Coal Deposits 0 of Toms + C. R. Keyes, roe

aL Second a Annual Report, 1893, Vol. 111. The Ste

Dison—Académi $ et belo tte. Mémoires,

Série 4, aoe IV., er 1893, 1894. The LOY
Drrespen—K. Siich. Statistische Bureaus. Zeitschrift, Jahr

er g xxxix., Heft 1- 4, 1893; Jahrgang xu., Heft rt

5

Veins fiir Erdkunde. Jahresbericht, Band xxiv., 1894. The Socield
Desens Fen Irish hte a “ Pig unningham Memoirs,” No.

0, 1894. Proceedings, 3 Ser., Vol. m1., No. 3, * seqdem

eae ly Vol. xxx., Parts 13, 14, 1894. The A
EpinsureH—Botanical Society of tions

fs of Edinburgh. Transac
and Proceedings, Vol. xx., Part i., 1894. ae
Bainburgh 6 Balagicat rast Transactions, Vol. vit., Part

ONS Lee oat aga eR tae een ens Me Re ae

t
ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 577

EpinBurGH—continued.
Royal Physical Society. Proceedings, Session 1898-04. The Society

ant x. s. 9-12,18 dl = fee
1-4, 6- 95. Accessions to the Li
1893 to Oct. 31, 1894 eee List of ted brinaieat
Vols. vir

33
Scottish Microscopical Soci. pees Session 1893-4. ,,
opment ora d’ ieee ee on oe Sezione
Fiorentina, Vol. x., Serie 2, Vol. 1 asc. 3-8, 1894-5. ,,
ge Talian di Antzopologa e - Binologa Archivio,
Vol. xxiv., Fasc. 2, 1804; Vol » Fasc. 1, 1895. »
Fort —sSeriggela i eet ao the U.S
seleny lery, oe m1., No. 4, 1894; Vol. rv., Nos. 1, 2, 4,
The School
leg ae es min geen Naturforschende Gesell-
schaft. ta dlungen, Band xvu11., Heft. 3, 4, 1894-95.
Bericht 189 The Society
Freipure o(uden)—Wateforschend Gesellschaft. Berichte,

cs ... hare allege. ‘ The Geelong Reiareia

Vol. tv., Nos. 2-4, 1894-95. The Wo mbat, Vol.1., No.

August. 1895. The College
seare lnatiint National Genevois.. Bulletin, Tome xxxIt.,

The Institute
ee Calendar for the year 1895-96. The University
wana ae gliche Gesellschaft der ee

ichten, Math-phys. Classe, Nos. 3, 4, 1894, Nos.
Maasie4 Colonia Museum. Bulletin, March, July, 1895.
Nuttige Indisch e Planten heats M. Greshoff, Aflever-
ing 1, [Extra Bulletin, 1 94]. The Musewm

eae: ee Archives, Sion 2, Vol. 1v., Parts iii., iv.,

Société Ce . e des Sciences. Archives rs
des Sciences Reectos et — —— XVIIL., se v.
3-5, 1894-5; Tome xxix., Liv. 1 The Society

Hatz A/ yb Leopold-Caro Deutsche bee emie der Natur-
er. Nov

Vol. byit.—uLxtr., 1892-1894.
Tepe rium, Band . [Act 1.—x., Nova Acta
Band 1, Leopoldina, Heft 28-30, 1892
Katalog der Bibliothek, Lieferung 4, (Band 11., 1) 1893;
iefer g 5, (Band 11., 2 Geschichte der Biblio-
thek und Naturaliensammlung von Dr. Oscar Grulich,
OE ate The Academy
AX, N.S.—Nova Scotian Institute of Science. Proceedings
d Transactions, Second Series, Vol. 1., Part iii.,
Session 1899-93. The Institute

2 Deutsche Seewarte. Archiv, Jahrgang xvil., 1894,
tgebnisse der Meteorologischen Beobachtungen, Jahr-
KE—Dee. 4, 1995,

578 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Hampure—continued.
gang XvI., 1893. begs ried iart iiber Thatigkeit der

Ho
aes “Nordatlantischen Ozeans [Quadrat 78] No. X1v.,
he

Sesirealacks Gesellschaft. Mittheilungen, Heft 2, 1891-92.
The

Naturhistorische Museu unig ios Jahrgang bade
Hilfte

2, 1892 ; Jaieeganin x1., 1893. usewm
a aahacliicha Verein. ‘Abfandlungétt aus dem
Gebiete der hie ie wens gma xu., 1895. ;
Vubenilenedn, Folge u1., Heft 2 The Society
Vereins fiir “roy ea uensbageb ot ia Untoratong Ver-
handlungen, Band viir., 1891 ”
Hamitron—Hamilton Association. pase and ae oe
No. 10, Session 1893-94. Associaton
. Herpetberc—Naturhistorisch - ae ee Pe is
handlungen, N.F. Band v., Heft 3 ”
a des Sciences de sptaaiiabs. Acta,
idrag, Hiftet, 54 - 56, — 95. Obeid
Forhandlingar ol, xxxvi., 1893- sneer
Météorolo cnet ag on 1889-90. Guia ns Météo-
peiocianes te faites 4 Helsingfors en 1893.
mcontione nag ene of Mines. Report of the fore
Mines for 1894-5 Secrcary for Mn |

Royal Backs ety of Toimanis, The Tasmanian ie eon. XVIIL, ae
No. 958, Nov. 30, 1895. The Society
casera! N. J.—Stevens Institute of Technology. Annual
Catalogue, 1894-95. The Institue
JaLapa—Observatorio Meteorologico Central del Estado de Vera
etn Boletin, Jan., Feb., Mar., and Resumen en See

onigng

risen ig Cy h-N serie aig peterson Gesellschaft. Jen-

= ische Zeitschrift fir Nat schaft, Band ait
F. we'd mri Heft. 4; 5 aig et ye N. F. Band xxu., ihe

Heft. 1, 2 The Society

Kew—Royal ee tik ker’s happens ee Fourth
Series, Vol. rv., Pa rts ii. - The Bentham Trusted

Kaxosrox—Institute o a Jamai ph eat i 11., No. ; op

895—A A Handbook of "Information or Lh situ

tending settlers and o The .

Knin—Société oar toe eae Starohrvatska Prosvjeta. The Socey
God. 1., Br. 1-

LANSING. Mich. —Mi ites a ‘School. Reports of the The Sebo
Director for 1890 — 1892.

La Prata—Facultad de Agronomia y Veterinaria. Revista, pocsllt
Nos. 5 - 7, 1895. . Revie :

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 579

Lavsanne—Société Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles. Bulletin
8e S. Vol. xxx., Nos. 115,116, 1894; Vol. xxx1., No. 117,
1806, The Society
Leeps—Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland.
Jou rnal, Vol. v ty; No. 12: 1894 “oy
Leeds Piiscophicai and Literary aay. Annual Report
(75th) for 1894-95.

naan eoreges penal. sake (20th) 1893-4. The College
Lerezia—Ki ft der Wissenschaften.
Si de die Verhagen, =e classe,
Heft. 2, 3, 1894; Heft. 1 and 4 The Society
Vereins fiir Erdkunde. Mitte, ne Wissenschaft-
liche Verdffentlichungen, Band 1 ”

Lifiar—Société Géologique de Belgique. Annales, Tome xx.,
v.3, 1892-93 ; ‘Tome xxr1., Liv. 3, 1893-94; Tome xx11.,
894-95.

Société one des Sciences. Mémoires, Serie 2, Tome
XVIII., 1895 »
Lirtie a et tell Survey of pee: Annual Report
1 Vol 11., for 1892 Vo oe The Survey
ci. xia Institut: Great Britain and opr
Journal, Vol. xxrv., Nos. 1-4; Vol. xxv., No.

‘ PNG Institute
British ae (Natural History). A Monograph of the
Mycetozoa by Arthur Lister, F.L.s The Museum
: ears pg vee Baer Journal, Vol. t., No.
4; Wer LI. 203, 1895. List of Pallows, ‘n %
Nov. 1894. ii ogical Literature added to the
Society 8 Library during the half year ended Dec. 1894. The Society
Highland and bag gros oe Scotland. Trans-
actions, Fifth Series, Vol. v
India Office Kéfiristin. and ite a iy G. 8. Robertso
Ms Seer —— of Stat eater India
Institute of Chemistry of a Britain and Ireland.
» Parts i. and ii., 1894. Register, aoe 1896,
: 1895 ~ 1896, The Institute
oe ge of Civil Engineers. Minutes of P.
ol. exrx

Tron and Steel In stitute. Journal, Vols. xv., sees Nos.
»2,1894. Brief Index of Papeie in Journal 1869 - 1894.
The Institute
ary Society. Journal, Botany, Vol. xxx., Nos. 209,
1904-92: Zoology, xO set Nos. 158, 161, 1894-95.
FE dings, from Nov. 1893 to June 1894. List of
ellows, 1894-95. The Society
tio logical Office. Meteorological Observations at sa
ns of sel —- Order for the year 1890. Repo: ca
eteorological — to the Royal Society for
the year ending 31 March, 1 . The Council

580 d ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Lonpon—continued.
Minera Gierteat Society. Mineralogical Magazine and Journal
Vol. x., Nos

. 45 and 48, 1892-94; Vol. x1., Nos. 49, 50,
The 8

Pharmaceutical Society of Great iene Se
Jour 8 Ser. Vol. xxv., Nos. 1266-1317, 1894-9
. 1, Nos. 1319 - 1321, 1895. Calendar 1895.
Physical Society of London. Proceedings, Vol. xu1., Parts
x., Nos. 51 - 60, 1894-95. List 7 Officers and Mem-
tik April 2, 1895.
nsec [eet ies po — Ser. 2., Vol. v., No.
; Vol. vi., No. 3
coe agseatana Society 7c ea lend Journal, ee
Series, Vol. v., Parts ili., iv., 1894; Vol. v1., Part

iii., 18 895. ” the Socey :

Royal ye Society. Monthly Notices, Vol. Liv.,
No. 9, 1894; Vol. uv., Nos. 1—8, 1894-95.

Royal College of Physicians. List of phe ag Members,
ra-Licentiates and Licentiates, 1

Royal Colles of Surgeons of England. Caicndas July 12,

uly 11, 1895.

mye Colonial Institute. eee Vol. xxvi., 1894-95.

alogue

of the Libra The Institule

Royal Graphical Society. “The Geographical Journal,
Vol. 1 re petal Vol. v., Nos. 1-6, 1895; Vol.

Aree
Ro eval ‘Historical “Seciciy. Transactions, New Series, vol.
1894: ibbon Com a ation 1794 - 1894.
Royal Thotitution . Great Britain. _ Procee dings, hoe XIV.
Part ii., No. 88, March 1 TOee, ge he Inst
Royal Meteorological Society. Quarterly Journal, Vol x
No. 92, 1894; Vol. xx1., Nos. 93, 94, 1895. Mateo:

bs i
Royal Society. Indian Meteorologica cal Memoirs, Vol. Vil,
Parts i. and ii., agen ipmapeee Transactions Vol.
XXxv., Parts i. and ii., each A and B Pr c
sag = =a aud LVIl., “1894-95. List er are 30
Royal Cited Service Institution. Journal, Ns XXXVIII.,
Nos 1894; Vol. xxxrx., Nos. — 209, res

= 5 94-953 os
mens ‘Institute. eakiy Vol xv., Parts i. —iv., 18 )

ol. xv1., Parts i., ii., 1895.
South Kensington iueav: rset for 1895. Catalogues
of Percy Fy;

of Light on Water Colou Report
ke agga Metal Work, &e. by Prof. W.

Zoological Societ ety of London. Proceedings Parts iii., IV»

Parts i., ii., 1895. Transactions, Vol. xIII., |

y ee 1894 -95.

The Club

The Society
gi dl
itution : 7

Socidy

=

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY, 581

Lusrck—Geographische Gesellschaft und des Naturhistorisches
eums. Mittei eilungen, Zweite Reihe, Heft 7, 8, 1895.

The Museum
a. Institut Royal Grand-Ducal. Publications,
eee Send Sciences Naturelles et Mathématiques, Tome

The Institute

ag Observatory. Madras Meridian Circle
Utes rvations, Vol. vir., 1883-1887. Errata, Vols. 1
The Observatory
Madras et cacack Museum. Bulletin, Nos. 1-3, 1894-95.
The Museum
Manson, A eg oF ag consin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and
Let . Transactions, Vol. rx., Partsi., ii., 1892-93. Ths Keallany
asst Concho Society. Journal, Vol. viir., Nos.
1-4, 1895. The Bookety
Manche a Society. Transactions, Vol. xxrmt.,
Si, 1894-95.

Hao iSacasy and vem geeesed Society. Mem

and Pr geet da 4. Ser + Mies » Nos. 3, 4, 1893.94;
Vol. rx., Nos 1894 *
Mansur G—Konieliche Unive “hagas Inaugural
Addresses 8 (73) 15 August, 1893-9 The University
Gesellschaft zur Beforderu ung der gesammten le ade
Schaften. Si itaungaberichte, ch emt 189 “The Society

MaRseriies—Faculté des Sciences de Marseille. Annales, Tome
It., Fasc. Supplémentaire 1893 3; Tome tv., . 1-3,
1894, Sur l’ Existence et la Bt igtete des oscillations
dlestro-magnétiqnee dans I’ air, par M. A. Perot. The Faculty

Institut ee Hhlogune Colonial, Annales, Ser. 1,
Lo

” The Institute
Sanaa soe of ome. Vol. rx., Nos
106 - 108, 1894; Vol. x., Nos. 109-119, 1895. The Publishers

Broken Hill a petnty Gs . Ld. Reports and Statements
of A t for Half Sone ending 30 Nov. 1894 and 31
May 1895. The Secretary

Department of Mines. Annual Report of the ——T _

Mines for 1894, Report on the loss of gold i

reduction Se —— veinstone in Vieoein, ty

ales, G.8., 1895. Reports on the Victorian

Coal Fields, ate 3 and 4, by James Stirling. | The Department
Field oe Club of Victoria. The Victorian Naturalist,

Vol - 7-12, 1894-95; Vol. x11., Nos. 1-5, 7,
105 The Club

," D ibrary, Museums, and National neon | of Victoria.
€scriptive Catalogue of the specim n the Indus-
th and ‘era logical Magen um, | cae Hiinatedtingy
Plan wonom Woods of Victoria. Select Extra-Tropical
1895, “ by Barn Ferd. von Mueller, Ninth. Baition, _

582 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

MELBOURNE—continued.
Royal Society of Victoria. ore ape of the Victorian
Institute, Vol. 1., Sessions 1854-55. eerie of

ophi Tra
actions and Pro aT toe, of the Royal Socaty i Victoria

ol. viu., Part i., 1867; N.S. Vol. vir., 1894. Trans- :
actions, Vol. rv., 1895. _ The Society
Mérmpa—Universidad de los Andes. Annuario, Tomo bd :
31 Dec. 1893. The University
Mertpen Conn.—Meriden Scientific Association. Transactions a
Vol. v., 1893. e Association
gic sags coige Aas oe zu Metz. Jahresbericht, Band ;
The Society
Maxico—Oteeratoro oS Nacional de Tacubaya.
Anuario, Afio xv., 1895. Bo letin, Tomo 1., Nos. 18- :
21, 1895, The Observatory
Sociedad ee “Antonio Alzate.’ Memoriasy Revista, :
Tom 12, 1893-94. The Society
Mixax—Roal nea a peesaiage m omen e Lettere. Rendi- 4
nti, Serie 2. Vol. x ; Vol. xxvi., 1893. Indice
Suiarais 1803 — 1888. The Institute
Societa Italiana di Scienze Naturali. Atti, Vol. xxxv., Fase. ;
1, 2, 1895. The Society

MrynzaPotis—Geological and Natural History Survey of Min :
nesota. First Report of the State Zoblogist, Zodlogical
je eries, Vol. 1., 189 The Survey
nnesota Academ . t Natural Sciences. Occasional Papers,
Vol. r., No. 1, 18 The Academy
Sega Sige ire Gulia ns Polytechnic Society. Pro-
8, New Series, Vol. x1, Parts 4 and 5, 1894. The Sociely
Moves Regn cademia ne Scienze, Catia ed Arti. Memorie, ©
Seri Pes Ix., 1893. Opere inviate alla R. Accademia
1892, 1 The Academy
ne conan été Météorologique de Uruguay. Résu
des er are ns nde, cease es settee pendant ‘ Socily

Saison d’ été de P a
Mownenizien— Academic ak pelea et Let ie es. Mémories,
érie 2, Tome 1., Nos. 3 and 4, 1893; Tome 1., No.1,

The Academy

MontrEat—Natural 1 History S The Cana- apie
ry Society of mag" e :
dian Record of Science, Vol. v 1893. The St

Royal Society of Canada. Pro fiat ais oe icc
Vol. xit., 1894, and Galeorat 2 ly Vols. I

Moscow— Observatoire Météorologique de l’ Galver 66 Imps — :
Meteorolo 1 Obse atin, Sdn: e 4

March, 1895 ae cs The Observatory

Société aperiele des Naturalistes. een OE 8. Vol, vitts Society :

8. 2- 4, 1894; Vol. rx., Nos. 1, 2, 1895. The 2

MorasiiaSecch: Industrielle de Midian. Bulletin, Vol-
dd +» Oct. - Dee s Vor

94; Vol. raid Jan. — June, 1895.
rogramme des Prix, 29 Mai, 1

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 583

eee ee Botanische Gesellschaft, Berichte, Band

The Society
King Taye Akademie der Wissenschaften. Ab-
lungen der Math-phys. Classe, oes xvit., Abth.

4 1895." Si itmgsberihte, Band xxitt., Heft 3 cae
B. 1894. Ueber a6 Bedent
Micethatitiohe: anne von L. Sohncke, 1894

The Academy

ee eae des Naturell VOuest dela France.
Bulletin, sien ING; Serparurenye se 4, 1894; Tome v.,
ee 1, 1895. The Society

a Reale di Napoli. Rendiconto dell’ a
del omen Fisiche e Matematiche, Ser eRe
12, 1894; Ser. 3, Vol. 1., Fase, ee $1
Zoologische Station zu Neapel. Mittheilungen, le Xi;
Heft 3, 1894. The Director
Newcastis-uron-Tyne—Natural History Society of Northum-
berland, tain and Fiprecerntest -upon-Tyne. Trans-
actions, Vol. x Part ii 1894. The Society
North of England ‘tasibeis of Mining and Mechanical
Engine - Report of the Proceedings of the Flameless
arts

ases Dy A.C. ayll. Transactions, Vol, xtiv., Part 1.
—1v., 1894-95. The Institute

New Havew—Connecticut eg cag! of Arts and Sciences.
Transactions, Vol. 1 «ys Part 11;,° 1805: The Academy
New Yous—Ameicin Chemical Society. Journal, Vol.
Nos. 10-12, ; Vol. xvit., Nos. 1-10, 1895. The Society

saat Geograph ne aie Bulletin, bi xxvi., Nos.
8 and 4, Parts i. and ii., 1894; Vol. xxv, Nos. i., ii.,
1895 ”
American a of Mining Engineers. Transactions,
Vol. xx1v The Institute
American eal of Natural a. ta Bulletin, Vol. r.,
1881 ~ =O6 > Vol. i1,, 1887 = Vol 1893; Vol. vI.,
eae Annual Report of the. Presidont &e., for the year
189 The Museum
New Tot Academy of Sciences. Annals, ben vuit., Nos.
~ 12, 1894-95 ; Indexes to Vols. vr. and v The Academy
New York “coppigy bel het Journal, a x., No. 4
1894 ; ., Nos 1895. The Society
Omavs Gulia Survey of eon Annual Report, New
Series, Vol. v1., 1892-93 The Survey
xo acl eae Gaiiieds of Books added during
The Trustees
Raastine ite anne : & gee Stars for the
+. Poch 1890 by E. J. Stone ”
Sy oe nome de gene “at France. Comptes
N a oo cx1x., Nos. 12 - 27, 1894; Tome cxx.,
0s. ; Tome cxxt. =) Ros. i- 13, 1895. The Academy

584 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Paris—continue
Comptoir Gstogiane = Paris. A ire Géologiq ‘Une
Tom ~» PP —612, 1892 ; Tom , Fase 1893. y
Expositi i publiqn et temporaire ay detaatiiee ‘Géo. ea
logiques “2 r. 1894) The Editor

wees v Asthepolgi de Paris. Revue Mensuelle, Année

. 9-12, 1894. Bulletin, No. 3, Juillet — Sept. ‘

The Director

Boole. N ationale des Mines de Paris. Statistique de l

ustrie Minérale et des appareils & vapeur e nce

th Algérie pour année 1893. JMinistére des Travaue Publica :
Ecole Polytechnique. Journal, Cahier 63, 64, 1893-94.

Feuille vse Jeunes Naturalistes. Revue Mensuelle d’ Histoire

relle A

Nat 3 Ser. Année 24, No. 288, 1894; 3 Ser. Année en

5, “Now. 289 300, 1894-95. The Editor

L’ Observatoire de Paris. Rapport Annuel pour Il’ année,
F The Observatory —
Museum a Histoire Naturelle. Bulletin, Nos. 1-8, Bo wae ;
Revue de I’ a Tome v., 1892; Tome v1., Liv. 1 Per
and 3 The Editor —

Socidté = ‘Anthropslo ie. Bulletins, ae 4, Tome v., Nos.
Mémoires, Serie 3, Tome r., Fasc. 2, 1894. ue

ae ae ‘iologi, Comptes meg ‘Serie 1 0, Tom
Nos - 35, 1894-95 ; Ser. 10, Tome 11., Nos. re 27; 1895. ”

Société . Encouragement = Yr Industrie Nationale.
Bulletin, 4 Série, Tome 1x., 1894.

Société Entomologique de Pics: Bulletin, Vol. ux1., 1893.»

Société ie de rane oes, Toe ee Tome xvit., Nos.
7s ) ., Nos. — 6, 1895.

oo “Fran de: Physique, Sultott in Bimensuel, Nos.

1894; Nos. 988 ba 1895. Séances, Année 1894

alte rs 4; 1895, Fas

sipep = bee ba Ballet, Ser. 7, Tome xv., Trimestre

894; Tom , Trimestre 1, 2, 1895. Comptes
sy ai Nos 15 19, ; 1894; Nos 3, 7-12. 5 4:

Société ren sep de France. Bulletin, coe Tome XXL,

No. 6, 1898; Tome xx11., No. 6-9 ; Tome Xxull,

Nos. 1-3, 1895. Compte-Rendu an gihee 3 Ser,
Tome xxu., Nos. 14- 18, 1894. =

Société Zoologique de France. Bulletin, Tome x1x., 18%.
Mémoires, | VIt., 1894. i

Prntaxce—Royal Geo logical ‘Shaely of Cornwall. Transactions,
Vol. x1., Part ix., 1894. Laws and Rules

xy of Natural Sciences. py eedings,
8 ii, and iii., 1893 ; Parts i. - ili., 1894; Part is =a -

American Sul rag ee
1894; Vol.

PunavnemaAcadom
Par

Nos. 3

ol. xxxi1., No. 143, 1893;
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ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 585

PHILADELPHIA—continued.
Franklin Institute. Journal, Vol. cxxxvit., Nos. 826 — 828,
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835, 837, 838, 1895. The Institute
Wagner gal Institute of Science. Transactions, Vol. 111.,
Part ii 1895. ”
gaan Sic ety. Annual Report (28rd) of the Board of
hactiira, Apel 25, 1895. The Society
Preu—Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali. Atti, Processi Ver-
bali, Vol. rx., pp. 183 - 242, 1894-95. »
Pe py couik h Institution and Devon and Cornwall
Natural History Society. Annual Raper and Trans-
actions, Vol. x1., Part ne 1893-94. ”
Port rhe gen Alfred Observatory. Results of Meteor
cal Giesivabone fakes during the year 1893. The Ctenvatony
CS Preuss. Geoditisches Institutes. Astronomisch-
Geodatische ‘Arbeiten I. rdnung. ip get
in f F

4° Berlin, The R, inabioull

Pracon—Konigl. i. “ns Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften.
3 “cium fir das Jahr. 1892 and 1893. Sitzungs-
erichte, ma w. classe, 1892 and 1893; sae
histor.-phi ilolog. Be aly 1892 and 1893 e Society
Bio Dz Janztro—O Observatorio. Annuario 1893 and 1894. idee Otero
Muse useu Nacional de Riode Janeiro. Archivos, Vol. vim1. The Muse
Rocursrzr, N.Y.—Geological Society of America. an letin
xe ols, IV. — VI., 1893-95. List of Officers and Fellows for

1894, he Society
_*wouE—Accademia Pag ia de Nuovi Lincei. ey eel

dal segretario, Anno xzvit., Sessione 2, 3, 5-7, 1894;

Anno xivirt., ena 1 - 6, 1895. The Academy

Ministero dei Lavori Pubblici. Giornale = Genio Civile,
Anno x XX11., Fasc. 8-12, 1894; Anno xxxut1., Fasc.
1895. Minister of Public Instruction, Rome
R. Accademia - Lincei. Atti, Serie 5, Rendiconti, ibe Itt.
Fasc. 6—12, Semestre 2, 1894; Vol. 1v., Fasc. 1-12,
Semestre a 1895 : | Vol. v., Fasc. 1-5, Semestre 2, TAOB.
1 1895. esata

Giugno
R. Comitato Geologico d’ Italia. oie Vol. xx
Nos. 3, 4, 1894; Vol. xxvr., Nos. 1, 2, 1895. The Committee
Societa gai Dante Alighieri “ Ganiditte 8). Revista
ca Italiana, Anna’ ., Fase. 5, 6, 1895. sider :
Vol. v.. Pacte i i., 1895. The Society
. Googratie Italiana. Bollettino, Ser. 3, Vol. v1,
asc. 9-12, 1894; Ser. 3, Vol. vim., Fasc. 1-9, 1895. »

586 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

RomE—contin
Ufficio Cantrile Meteorologico e aro Italiano.
nnali, Serie 2, Vol. xu1., Parte ii The Director
ogemenge Ai Lick Observatory. Pub ns of th en ,

vatory of the sdeipecese of Confrtee: Vol.
Ss ol tv., 1895 The ‘Ohmeewiie
Sr. Apnaaiee “University. ‘-Calonday for the year 1895-96. The Senate
Sr. Urban igen sae Science o St. Louis. Preece
Vol. v

A Ne 9 16, 1893- ne Academy

Missouri etectioal Garden. Gani Report (5th) 1894. ‘* Director
St. Pererssurc—Académie Impériale des Sciences. Bulletin,
N.S., Vol. rv Seri. ) Nos. 1, 2, 1893-94; Serie 5, Tome
1., Nos. 1 — 4, 1894, ., Nos. 1 —4, 895 Mémoires,
Serie 7, Tome x., Part ii., 1893; Tome xtr., Nos.

2-9, 1893; Tome x11 - 1-12, The Academy
Comité Stic a bea erie ig Sora roger Tome
x11., Nos. 8-9, 1893; Tom , Nos. 1-9, 1894 and
Supplement ; ag XIv., Sg 1-8, a0 Mémoires,

vul., Nos. 2,3; Tome 1x., Nos. 3,4 xX, :

No. 3, Tome xrv., Nos. 1, 3, 1895. The Committee
ihe ogy a Gesellschaft. Verhand-

lungen, Ser. 2, Ban 1894. The Society

Suuex—Ameriean eRe Ss the Advancement of sue
Proceedings, Vol. xnir., 1893, Madison Meeting; Vol.
XLut., 1894, Brooklyn Meeting. Bhi Pree
Essex Institute. Bulletin, Vol. see Nos. 1 - 12,
Historical Collections, Vol. xx Bee Dee. rs The Institute
San ee ornia enemy a Saimin. Pineke di in
Vo ae . Parts i. and ii., 1894-95. Memoir pei
No, ne Academy
California. State Mining Bureau. Twelfth Report of ‘the
State ng eralogist (second biennial) two years ending
Sept. 15, 1894. The Bureaw
San Viens ages servatorio Astronémico iy Meteoroldgico.
Observaciones Meteorologicas del aio de 1892, 1893,
. The Observatory
Pa.—The a Engineer Co. Ihe Colliery Pe
sein eta Mi vas Bh v., Nos. 3-12, 1894-95; Vol. Rae
The College
i Aarsberetning for 1893. ne Mon
ockHOLM—Kongl. Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademi Hand-
3 ngar, gee xxv., Haftet 2, 1892. po int ary
Afd. , 1894. Lef —_ ningar, Ban
Hite 2 2. 1894, _ovesit sles 1894. ‘ acuatioul
katalog, 8, 9, m Sveriges zoologiska hats-
station Kristinbong af Hjalmay . The Acaden
STRASSBURG, i. x—Centralstelle des Pk es nae:
dienstes in Elans-Le othringen. Ergebnisse der Meteoro-
logischen _ en im Reichsland Elsaas-Loth ne
ringen im Jahre 1893

Sowravitin, Ma Mas. Put College. Tufts College neo te

> 2, 3,

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 587

ere ee nigliches Bt ger rad Sendouan Wiirttem

ergische, Heft The ‘ Landitant”
Vereins a ney “Natorkund in Wirttemberg.
Jahreshefte, Band u., Jahrgang 18 The Society
SroneAsartinn Museum. Report of the © asap for the
1894. Records, Vol. 1i,, No. 6, The Trustees
Deymztnent - Mines and Agriculture, Pi ae Gazette
a New South Wales, Vol. Parts x. - xii., Ne Vol.

obi — x., 1895. ptt Report for 1894. Memoirs
of the Geological a ey of N.S. Wales gine oleate
8, Ree of the Geological Survey of N.S.

f
den, F.L.s., &c. and W. 8. Campbell. The Department
Department of Public REEF Report of the Minister
of Public Instruction, 1894. Technical Education
ranch, Series sia ind wind ae Wales Binet
- 6,

Engineering Association of ite South Wales. Minutes of
ceedings, Vol. viir., 1893. se Association
a ora Pri nter. The Statutes of New South W.
on “6 lic and Private) passed during the ponte of 18
e Go eho Printer
nda Statistician. Statistical Regiter ia 1893 and
previous years (complete), and Parts vi., viii. — xi. ;
894 and previ ye Parts i. - viii.

189: d ious S, -—viii. A Statistical
Survey of New South Wales, 1893-94. Statistics of t
Seven Colonies of Australasia, 1861 - Wealth se

Progress of New South Wales, 1894, ag issue, Vol.
e Go els ‘Statistician

cing = Surveyors, New South Wales. The Surveyor

Vol -, Nos. 11 and 12, 1894; Vol. vitr., Nos. L-

ie The Institution
Linnean Society of New pe — Proceedings, Second

Serie 8, Vol. x., Parts i., 1895. ee of Proceed-

ity, 5 1894 : March - sg a Nov. The Society
New South Wales Board of Health. Ant itoxic Serum for

ive). Vaccination, Report for 1894. Vessels arriving at
— — e ports of New South Wales, Returns eg
894.

e President
ie. South Wales — Board. Register of ota
Practitioners for The Secretary
Observatory

5 Recen i of Double Stars made at
ydney by H. C. Russell, 8.4., F.8.s. Results of Rain,
River, and Evaporation Observatio ons made in New
South Wales, during 1893. The Observatory

588 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

SypNEY— continued.
saan Free Public Shae: Report from Trustees oe

Trustees

Universi eae of the Sydney University for a
The University
‘oh eae Astronémico Nacional. Boletin, Tomo
1895. The oe
Tarpinc—Perak Government Gazette, Vol. vit., rip 21 - 26,1

Vol. viir., Nos. 1 — 26, 1895. etary to the "Covers
Toxio—Asiatic Society of Japan. Asean dies v6 xxir., Part

ii 1894. General Index, Vols. I. = XXII, Ae

he Society
Imperial University of Japan. Calendar 1893-94. J ae

of the College of Science, Vol. vi1., Parts ii. - v., Be 894;

Vol. vit 1., Parts i., 1895. he University
nig tot aanealoiang Cplenda for 1895-96. ”
TovuLouse—Académie des Sciences, Inscriptions et Belles-

Lettres. onic, Serie 9, Tome v1., 1894. The Academy
Trreste—Museo Civico di Storia Naturale. Atti, Vol. 1x., —

he Musewm
Sereno reg eee rit dag aa Rapporto ijaiee

Vo er ’anno 1892, The Observatory

Tosis—Insttut 2 Carthage. Revue Tunisienne, Année 1., No.
The meee
Tosix—Osserraorn della R. io Osservazioni pee
rologiche fatte nell’ anno 189 Oboe
R. orca Hard Scienze di et Atti, Vols. xIv., We
—XXIL, XXIV. - XXIx., 1878-94; Vol. Xxx., Disp.

i AL, 1894. 95. The Academy —

Haat Heals Istituto Veneto me herp epee. ed Arti. Atti,
Serie 7, Tomo m1., Disp. 4-10, a d Appendices 1 and 2,
1891. -92; Tomo tv., Disp. 7. 10, 1892-93 ; Tomo v., Disp.

1-3, 1893-94. The Institwlt

ee penbrepslogiache Gesellschaft. Mittheilungen, Band
N.F. oF Hott 5,6, 1894; Band xxv. (N.F. cial
Ba. xv.) Heft + <4 The Si :

— Akademie Pg ‘Wissenschaften, Sitzungsber-
. Cla

th.-naturw
‘Abth, I., Band my “5 ne mes We 1893
ed Ia, Ee cil >
” 110, » cit, ” ae ef. 2 2”?
2” bas aoe CEE., 5s = 10, ”
2» 9 CRs a 2 = 8, 1804,
1 Gs 5s Og a Bes as

wy ORs 3s Lee

PN AR tak aici gt eee aren midlet | 7 on). =

K. K, cnt caine fiir Meteorologie und Je Erdm magnet ‘
rbiich B
xxix. onan er {oct Publication) N. TH Institute
K. K. Geographische Gens M social
ittheilungen, Ban ‘:
Vi., (N.F. xxv1.) 1893 The

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 589

Virnna—continued.

K. K. eologische Reichsanstalt. dorsbhen Band xu1.,

Heft. 4 — Band xuu11., Heft. 2 1893; Band xurv.

Heft. , 1894. Verhandlu mgen, ‘Nos. 6- 10, 1898;

Nos. ae ts, 1894; Nos. 1-7, 1 The “ Reichsanstalt ?
K. K. Gradmessungs- Bureau. dia: Arbeiten,

Band sg ‘en The Bureaw
K. K. Gradm wii he maga Verhandlungen, Proto-

koll 11, 12 poe. The Commission
K. K. Nalarhstrischo fea ’ Annalen, Band rx.

she Museum
K. u se K. ee BEceias Ministerium ‘‘ Marine Sectio
av Schwerebestimmungen durch Pendelbeabach-
tungen, 1892 —1894. he Department
K.K. Zoologisch- Botanische Gesellschaft. Vechuetniiines,
oo XLII., Quartal 3, 4, 1893; — XLIV., Quartal 1

4, 1894; Ba wir tv., Heft 1 ee The Society
Bootie” fiir Naturkunde des PAB wine te et en
Clu oa “Mitthellonges, Jahrgang 111., 1891; Jahrgang
I, The Section
eS cae erginge Association. Annual;Report
or the year 1893 The sof
Bureau of Ethnolo ogy. Annual et (9th - 12th) 1887-8
1890-91. An ancie ak qua pcden| here L by

- H. Holmes, n Jam
and P, awe re wg Gerard Fowke. “Biblio graphy

>B
oF
eo
S
519
sS8
°
ewe
ae
4
rs)
Dm
ae
oS

Chinook Texts by Franz Boas. Contributions to North
American Ethnology, Vol. 1x., 1893. List of the publi-
s of th

cation e Bureau of Ethnology by V. Hodge,
- The Maya Year by Cyrus Thomas. The Pa-
. munkey Indians of Virginia by J. G. Pollard. The Bureaw
Chief of Engineers, Me Ba : ey ea We Topical
Index te 8 , Vol. u1., 1888-1892. Annual
Come ePort for 1894 ce six ae rts). The Department
mmmissioner of Education. ig for the year rag
ols., aoe Nos. 211, 2 e Commissioner
us S. Departmen t of yeti cay cena of Ornithology

, Mammalogy—North Am Fauna, No.

w
and Annual Sum mary for 1894. Report of gic Chief of
the Weather rg for 1893. Report of th

Agriculture, 189

of
gricultu Sectio eign Mar
i Bulletin, No. 4, 1 .: ircular, Nos. 1, 2,3, 1895. The Department
partment of the Interior (C fice). Com oo
of the Eleventh Census, 1890, Part ii. Report on Indians
taxed and Indi t taxed in a United States (Ex-
ce ; rt on Insurance Busi in
hese States, Part I. Fire, Marine, and Inland Insur-
ce at the Eleventh Céabes 1890. Report on Popu-

lation and Resources of Alasiw at the Eleventh Census,

590 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY,

WaAsHINGTON—continued.
U.S. Geolo seal nites. Annual or og (ie ihe
Parts i., Hat gree 1891- ~~ ae aS, oy letin,
oF Min

Nos. he ae

oe peng "i kaeanka Vols. XIx., ng 5 eee
1892-93. The Survey

meee of the Mint. Annual Report (22nd) for the fiscal
ended June 30, 1894 The Director

National Academy of Katctusen. Memoirs, Co vI., 1893. i
Nav See partment —Office of Naval ee Notes
the r’s Naval eae July 1 The Department
Aikiwinian Institution. nual el of the Board of
racy or for rig oy aie ly 1893. Circular No.
Dia a Journey sieoad Mongolia and
Tibet i in n 1891 a 1893 by W. W. Rockhill. Report of
he U.S. National Museum 1891-92: Smithsonian Con-
tributions to g peterrseam No. 884—[The Internal Work
of the Wind by S. P. ‘Lan gley]. Smithsonian Miscel-
laneous Collections, Nol. xxxv., No. 854; Vol. XXXVIIL, ‘
No. 970, The Institution
Treasury Ste ment. Annual Report of the Secretary of
the Treasury on the state of the Finances for the year
ee he Department
U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Bulletin, No. 1895
Report of the Superintendent for the Anon pe dine
Fon 30, 1892, Part ii. ae Survey
U.S. Hydrographic Office. Notice to Seprieinoninig Nos. 27 -
1894, and Index to Vol; Nos. 1 wo eg Pilot chee

States and Canada, thir Erie and Ontario; Nos. 1494, :
West Coast of Lower California, San Ignacio ay eT
S. _Hydrographer
War Department. Annual Report of the snciutacy of War
for the year 1893, Vols. 1., 11. (Parts i. —vi.) Il., Me oll

WELLINGTON, N.Z.—Department of Lands and Acatl Report
of the Survey Department, N.Z. for 1892-93. Report of
the Department of Lands and Survey N. 7, “for 1894-95. a
The Land Districts, 1894. The Depart
Mining Geologist. Older suriferous drifts Xt — ia
ng Depa

go,
New Zealand I Institute. Bfa:se mga and Proceedings stitute

(ND. VON x
Polynesian Society y- Journal, Vol. ur., No. 4, 1894; Vol. ciel
3, 189 The §

Winving“istarial pa Pager Society of Manitoba.
r

Nos 47, 1894. Annual Report fo
the year 1893. 2
ZuricH—Naturforschende nc apegpegeronl Vierteljahrechett:
Jabrgang xxxix., Heft 3 ; Jahrgang Xt., Heft

1, 2, 1895. Neujahrablatt, No "of, 1895.

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 591

MIscELLANEOUS.
Ne a of Donors are in Italics.)

Acland, Sir Henry W.., K.c —The oe of
the Statue of Syden ie in in ths Oxford Museum, Aug
: by the Marquis of Salisbury, K.c., with an

s by.

Annual Rao od the City Engineer—City of Newton, Mass. for
yea The Engineer
Aslan Anition for the Advancement of
of the Fifth Meeting held at Adelaide, Fie
F. Wiesener
beta Medica Gazette, Vol. 11., No. 8, 1883; Vol. XIrr., tog
he Publisher
el Prt A. W.—Some recent evidence in favour e im-
pact, 1894. Copy of lethoes sent to “ Pata on partial
ee 1879. A New Story of the The Author
ccm tba Roland— esata rae jen Assemblées
ratiques en Sui 1890. Les Variations Pério-
tigues es Glaciers ualeidis 1891. Une Excursion en

Bourke, Capt. John G.—Folk-Foods of the Rio Grande Valley
and of Northern Mexico. Popular Medicine Co
and ‘Supersti Goin of the Rio Gr an The s of
Spain in their application to the American tndians. ”
Brown, Robert—Roberti Brownii Prodromus Flo Nov
Hollandiae et <7 ulae Van-Diemen ge neie an Reprint)

4° Londini W. Woolrych
‘Cameron, Alex. M. igh as the Interpretation of “ at of

Gravity, 1895 The Publishers
Council, Edward —Maxins: political, philosophical and moral,

(2nd Edition) The Author

and Squier, Dr. G. O.—Experiments with a
new Polashitne Photo-Chronograph, applied to the
Measurement of the Velocity of Projectiles, 1895. The Authors

Cudmore, P.—Buchanan’s oo acy. ae Nicaragua Canal
and Reciprocity. New York, 1892. The Author

Cunow, oo Sarwan iaciahie Ogeioe der Aus-
negar

n Serpentine pseudomorphs, and other
og ag ‘the Tilly — feng ot Mine, Putman Co.,

d Meventaods, Cambrian an

592 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Dana, ea James D.—conti
rchean-axes of Eastern North America. Rocky Moun-
mes Protaxis and the ing Cretaceous Mountain-making
along its course. Som he features of non-volcanic
Igneous s Hjections as illustrated in the four “ Rocks ”

. ura-Trias trap-belts of "Central Connecticut, with
e upturn re or mountain-making dis-
farbance of the formation. On Subdivisions in Archean

Philadelphia, 1 1852. U.S. Exploring oe
X111.,:Par and ii., and ‘Atlas—Crust he Author
Dresdner Journal, ay 107, 11 Mai, 1894. me pars
eet — P. F.—A een on the Principle of Sufficient
ason, 8° London, 1887. The Author
Viitedtic, Dr, sagt Die eiheeistchirs Localabweichungen bei
ree ne eg ihre Beziehungen zur dortigen—Local-

Geinitz, i, i= OP ricwitks fiir eine neue Wasserwerks-aulage.
uf Tolkewitzer Fiur bei Dresden

Gengephisno a eae heraus. von Dr. Alfred Hettner, J: Ba ‘

se 1895. he Editor
Heche erate us M:D,, L.D. Gelltribations to pare
; The Author
Janet, oo sur wie -Spriecine Les Guepes and Les

eilles, Notes 10 a &
Katalog te “Puna el hea’ x ante Geographentages. os ae a |
K. K. i. Astronomische Arbeiten, Band Iv., chair
1892. JW. 6

Klossovsky, Prof. A.—Organisation de l’Etude criti
Spéciale de la Russie et probléms de la Meteorologie
agricole. ~ - «Sie annuelle des orages & la ‘surface

du globe terr he Author
Kosmopolan, No. 25, a : 1895. The "Paiies
Kuntze, Dr. Otto—Geogenetische Beitriige, 1895. The Author
Mayr, Dr. shia von—Referat-Statistif der beutschen Binnen-

erungen. blisher
Medical Peter a Vol, 1., No. 11, May 1893 (4° London). The Pu
”

Medical Press, N.S., Vol. ux., No. 2941, 18 Sept. 1895.

Minerva, Ano 11., Nim 1, Marzo 1894, 8° Puebla.
Modigliani, Dott. ira eyes dal-Danielli Dott Jacopo s tudiati

dal Cra oon! ossa lunghe di Abitanti dell Isola Co aur

Bognnge: The A
Mullins, G. L., p.—Notes on Hydatid Disease in New

South Wales’ 1895. Notes on Phthisis in op a South

e

Wales and other Austr siaatan Colonies. emic
Diseases and their prevention in the Eastern Suburbs
of Sydney, 1895.

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 593

Nangle, James—Roof Coverings. The Author
Nowlan, James—Darwin’s ‘aun of the ——— of the Moon. sj
Oliver, peste A, —A new series of Berlin wools for the

cientific Relation of prac ormal eaiditene Wak
feilbar blindness). Description indie a revolving astig-
matic ulpha

i
ciliary muscle. Third Annual Report of the Ophthal-
mological Department - the State Hospital at Norris-
for

town, Pa. the year ”
Oserihiche ae admessungs- eer Spee eee Pro-
Koll 11, 13, adie 1894. he Commission
Peek, Cuter E., F.S.A.—Meteorological Onaeration at
he Rou doa Observatory, Devon, for the yea poe
oe 1894, Vols. x. and x he Author

Puga, Guillermo B. Y.—T pestades del Fin del Invierno, 1895. _,,
Ramond, G. —Geologie Asie et Océanie, 1891,
Ramond, - — "ghia E.—A note sur la cloche gypseuse de

Revue Tp des Alcaloides, Année iv., No. 37,

189% ris ‘Publisher
Smith, J. 1p ieGarvie—Investigation of the composition of the air
the Sewers of eeu y, with special reference to the
presence of ger The Author
Societa ar ratione Sauk in Africa, Anno x., Fase 5
The Soccety
ia, New Ser., Vol. xvz., No. 8, 1895. The Publisher
Todd, sir C, » K.C.M.G., M.A., F.R.S.—Meteorological Work in Aus-
t ralia PA Beet The Anthor

Transactions of the Bridie Association, Vols. x. - xrx., 1878
~ 1887, 8° Plymouth, 1885-87. Extra Volume The
Beachire Domesday, uiat: 3,4, ese k Rev. Dr. Harris, M.A..
Rev. James S., M.A., n Theory and
Practice. The tend: ek a thes ae last in —.
= tion considered. The Author
ide, Henry, ?.x.s.—On the Multiple akon laa of the Atomic
Weights of Elementary Subst: in relation to the
unit of Hydrogen. 1895. On the ams afforded by
nr law of a permanent ee ion of the Radii
W; ectores of the Plansaey Orbit
sy gee ‘D., M.R.C.P.— An gbalien of the fallacies of the
terialistic ' Theory of Physiological Psychology, 1894. ,,

White,

Pi Donations To THe Socrery’s CaBrners, &c.
Bh (fra (fra Ri eteg scacgy Men of Rejener of Pag at
Titain livi n the years 1807-8. Hon E. Kater, M..¢.
ay ofa ag a lightning two niilin long pies at the
weary Observatory, 16 September, 1895.
H. C. Russell, B.A., C.M.G., F.B.8e -
Lande, 4, 1895,

594 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Periopicats PURCHASED IN 1895.

\merican Journal of Science and Art, engeras
\merican Monthly Microscopicai Journa
lys

y

Z

Analys

‘Annales des — et de Physique.
f

An

y:

4

.stronomischo Nachrichten.
Athen
ahs “Mining Standard.

British Medical Journal
Building and Engineering Journal of Australia and New Zealand.

Chemical News.
Curtis’s Botanical Magazine.
Dingler’s Polytechnisches Journal.
Electrical Review.
Engineer.
Engineering. f
Rania and Mining Journal.
Engineering eee
English Mechani
Fresenius Zeitschrift fiir Analytische Chemie.
Geological Magazine.
Industries and Iron.
Journal and tan mec of the Photographic Society.
Journal de Méd
of Anatomy ‘and Physiology.
B

oS
ail

ne 8
the ‘Shenson Socie
ournal of the Institution oF E trical Engineers
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Aen of Great Britain and Ireland.
Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry.
Knowledge.

L’ Aéronaute.
Lancet.

Medical Record of New York.
Mining Journal.

Nature.
Notes and Queries.
Observatory.
Petermann’ s Erginzungsheft.
etermann’s Resuraphlanen Mittheilungen.
Frosedeas: Magazine.
Proceedings cf the Geologists’ Association.
anes Journal of Microscopical Science.

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 595

.
rican
tific Gece Supplement.
Zoologist.

Booxs Purcuasep In 1895.

American Institution of ap tig i Sree Vols. 1.
Annals of British sorime 4 y Blake, Vols. r. - Iv., 1890- 93.
Australian Handbook,

say: epee 6 R.—Technisch-Chemisches, Jahrbuch, Vol. xv1., 1893-4;

Vo 894-5,
Brthwate, R British Moss Flora, Part 1
Braj — —The Retrospect of "Medicine, Vol. ox., 1894; Vols. cxt.,

British 1 actin Rep rt J

ayn W.—Larvee of the Baltic Butterflies and Moths, Vol. v1., Part iii.
Ray Soc.)

Chalienger Report—Summary of Results with Appendices.

oe ot fiir Analytische Chemie, Index, Band xxt. - xxx.,

ae ‘hada peony ae Origin of Plant Structures, 1895. (Inter. Sei.
oe Se

Index Kewensis, Parts i

International Bcontitie rote ld Vol, LXXVII.

Jahresbericht der Technologie, 1894.

mene rar Pierre—Lectures on Diseases of the Spinal Cord. (New Syd. Soc.
0

Medico-Chirurgical nce Transactions Vol. txxvir , 1894.
Nautical Almanack for
Bist _Srdenham Boalety’s 8 Poldictien, Vol. ot., &e., Atlas of Pathology,

esis es Vol. xxxvi., 1894.
Pathan oerephical Society, V

Society — atten ¥ Vol. xiv., 1894,
ha Society’s Publications, Vol. vr., 1893.
Deter Bpend der Diatomaceen-Kunde, Hef. 50.
+ Whitaker’s Almanack, 1896.

Year Book of Scientific and Learned Societies, 1895.

J

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W, Vol. XXIX. 1895. Plate 1

{¥e. 2t Plotor. Blivateor) Diagram. iB
Fo
~ jie "} r
Serut holler fe re

Ph Kenn g: checerriter

Plate Il.

iiwon screw gear J Mo. 21 Motor. i Plan }
, Engune and Tank weigh 4S cuereces
2 : c nd Shaft : oS :
es Baler and Connections * 18%
j Burner and Spcrel Jank 3
# Water ; * 10
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8 Total weight O56 Us- F7eunces

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&lb. Calico Kite .

ciety of NSW, Voi.XXIX. 1895.

oya Soc

44th. Redwood Kite.

Kite with springy paper sails

Vv.

.

Diagram

oyal B eciety of NSW, Vol. XXIX.. 1895. Plate Vi.

| 3
3 :
:

2Q3zeoz. hile.
Kite flies from A to B.C%D. March St 1894

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ymal Royal Society of NSW, Vol. XXIX. 1896 : Plate Xill

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Plate XV.

Tournal Royal Society of NSW. Vol XIX. 1895.

Journal Royal Society, N. S. Wales, Vol. XXTX., 1895.

[ENGINEERING SECTION. |

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Journal Royal Society, N. S. Wales, Vol. XXIX., 1895.

[ENGiNEERING Sxctioy.]

PLATE 5.

FIG. 2.

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[ENGINEERING SEcTION. |

PLATE 8.

—= DIAGRAM =
—= OF @&

—" ANNUAL CHARGES —

————P ® Gime

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[Eneinrertne Section. ]

N —-FASCINE WORK— Bae

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Journal Royal Society, N. 8. Wales, Vol. XXX

[EncIvEERING SzcTron, ]
Sos Hokk PLATE 10.
Soha Xe onahet
Meo yy Kange Ke
Sele r™ «\ Spek

4 TIMBER BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION IN NEW SOUTH
WALES

By Percy ALLAN, Assoc. M, Inst. C.E.
[With Plates 1-8.]

4 [Read before the Engineering Section of the Royal Society of N. 8S. Wales,
: September 18, 1895.]

_ Tue necessity for the economical designing of timber bridges in
the Colony of New South Wales, may be gauged from the fact,
a that in the last ten years some 680 timber structures have been
erected at a cost of £634,000, so that any economy in a type
- design means a very large saving in the annual expenditure of
_ the Colony.

For many years Plate 1, was the type of truss for 69 feet,
75 feet, 90 feet, and 100 feet spans. The defects in this design may
e briefly summarised—weakness in suspension rods, no means of
taking up slackness in braces, caused by shrinkage of timbers, |
and tendency of top chord to incline inwards owing to want of
lateral stiffness.

Although this type of truss has for many years carried the
traffic without accident, yet in view of the increase in settlement
and the greater risk of the structures being subjected to heavier
oads, it was thought desirable in 1886 to adopt the design shown
in Plate 2 for 65 feet, 75 feet, and 90 feet spans.

_ These structures were designed for a distributed live load of
& bs. per square foot of roadway and a traction engine weighing
16 tons, on a 10’ 4” wheel base having 94 tons on the leading
Wheels,

The improvements in these trusses are the increased sectional
‘Mea of suspension rods, the providing of means of taking up
slackness i in braces, increased lateral stiffness imparted to truss
1—Sept. 18, 1895.

is PERCY ALLAN.

by splaying principals, the introduction of iron in lieu of timber
side braces, the more general use of sawn timber free from heart,
and the more effective splicing of chord.

In 1823 to replace the 1886 type of truss bridges, Mr. Hickson,
M.I.C.E., Engineer-in-Chief for Public Works for New South Wales,
approved of the author’s designs for new standard type of truss
bridges for 70 feet and 90 feet spans, Plate 3. The’ 90 feet
span is designed for a traction engine of 16 tons and a distributed
live load of 18°8 cwts. per foot run, or 74 cwts. per lineal foot
more than for the 90 feet truss bridge previously in use.

The truss is divided into nine panels of 10 feet with a depth of
13 feet measured between centres of triangulations, and carries a
15 feet carriageway and two 5 feet footways.

The timber generally employed is tallowwood for the planking
and ironbark for the stringers, floor beams and trusses, the timber
in trusses being cut free of heart ; but in many districts the local
timber, with a somewhat shorter life could be used for the
planking and stringers.

The flat decks in the old type of bridges, resulted in water lying
in pools on the surface of the planks, more especially in the
centre of the roadway, where the wear is greatest ; 3 inch scupper
pipes along kerb line, even if not choked up, are therefore of little
‘service.

To provide against this a camber of 13 inches in cross section of
deck is provided in the new type of bridge, permitting of the quick
escape of water through the large gratings at ends of spans.

Unlike previous designs, 4 inch transverse planking spiked to
longitudinal stringers has been adopted, thus permitting of shorter
lengths being obtained at a cheaper rate and of their being replaced
with less trouble than diagonal planking.

Longitudinal stringers varying from 103” by 5” to 9” by 6” (to
give camber in deck), pitched 3 feet apart, are bolted to the floor
beams, in lieu of the intermediate floor beams used in all previous
designs, effecting a saving in cost, and permitting of the conceD- —

TIMBER BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION IN N.S.W. II.

trating of the loads at the apices ; thereby relieving the bottom
chords of secondary stress.
__ Inall the old types of trusses, the suspension rods passed through
| ‘the floor beams, and as the braces were also butted against the
' floor beams, the renewal of these timbers was rendered practically
out of the question.
In the later design, Plate 3, the floor beams 15” by 12°
spaced 10 feet apart are placed between the suspension rods,
‘admitting of easy renewal, and at the same time saving the
expense of boring large holes through floor beams for the passage
_ of suspension rods.

- With a view to renewals, the horizontal thrust from the braces
“is taken up by means of castings, having lugs 14” deep let into
- the chords, and where two lugs are necessary it will be noticed

that the deeper lug is at the back of the casting, so as to distribute
the thrust over a larger area and reduce the risk of failure by

= ‘shearing between the lugs.

7
;

The advantage in using castings in lieu of a number of timbers
bolted together to form butting blocks for the braces, is the doing
Way with to a great extent of one of the most troublesome
uestions in connection with timber bridge work, viz., the lodge-
ment of water. No matter how carefully the timbers may be
bolted » seed and reaiact water will, ae a aber time, find
its way bet ffects; again,
in the endeavour to get a a joint sine ve ee surface
the butting surfaces will oftentimes be made slightly concave, in
such cases when the water does penetrate—there being no escape
the evil will be intensified.

The batter braces, which consist of two 14” by 6}” timbers
wed and stiffened with hardwood distance pieces have been
tituted for principals ; thus reducing the horizontal thrust
to such an extent as to permit of the introduction of castings
lieu of the large timber butting blocks, with the heavy bolts,
‘Previously necessary.

IV. PERCY ALLAN.

In most of the American Howe trusses counterbraces are
introduced, with a view of stiffening laterally the main braces,
however the braces in the truss under consideration are compara-
tively short, and as columns require no lateral stiffening ; counters
in the end bays are therefore not provided.

As all the braces in the truss are at the same angle, any
shrinkage in the timbers can be taken up by means of the
suspension rods ; the iron wedges in the 1886 design are therefore
not arranged for in this later type of truss.

The main braces are formed each of two timbers 8” by 42”
bowed to prevent warping and twisting and connected together
with bolts and hardwood distance pieces, all the timbers being
connected to the cast-iron shoes at the top and botton with f°
bolts.

Formerly it was the practice to have the top chord in one
piece 16” by 14” by 42’ long, which having to be bored for the
suspension rods, rendered renewal very costly, if not impracticable.
As one of the objects in designing a new type of truss was to
permit of renewals, a chord, consisting of two timbers 14” by 63”
bowed and stiffened with hardwood distance pieces was adopted,
thus securing better timber and giving greater stiffness as @
column.

The side braces adopted in previous trusses being a source of
inconvenience when footways had to be provided, the author
decided to design this chord as a column with a varying load,
unsupported in a lateral direction; none of the text books however,
consulted by the author treated of such a case.

The stress in the top chord of a 90 feet span ranges from 69°3
tons in the centre to 27-72 tons in the end bay.

As the maximum stress extends only over a length of 10 feet
of the chord, it would be obviously incorrect to take this stress 0D
a column the total length of top chord, nor could it be assumed
that this maximum stress was acting only on a column 10 feet
long. ;

TIMBER BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION IN. N.S.W. V.

The author therefore has dealt with the case in what he submits,
isa practical way of looking at the question.
_ Starting with the end bay there is a stress of 27-72 tons which
_ extendsfor the whole length of the chord (70 feet). Taking the least
di meter, the ratio of length to least diameter is 48 to 1 and the
ultimate buckling strength of a timber column of this proportion,
ing 2-36 tons per square inch, the area required on the point of
buckling would be 11-74 inches, whilst at the ends of the column
the area required, when on the point of failure by direct crushing
would be 5-87 inches.
‘Setting up these ordinates and plotting in as a parabola, the
area shown on diagram, Plate 4, is obtained ; in the second
y the stress is 48-51 tons extending for a length of 50 feet
but as part of this stress (27°72 tons), has already been
vided for, it leaves only 20-79 tons to be dealt with ;
ing the ratio of length to diameter this gives a column
he proportion of 36 to 1, requiring an area of 6°77 square
es when the column is on the point of buckling at the centre,
an area of 4:4 square inches when on the point of failing by
t chrushing at the ends, the required additional area being ©
on the diagram, Plate 4.
Th the third bay there is a stress of 62°37 tons extending over
distance of 30 feet, 48°51 tons of this stress has already been
ealt with, leaving only 13-86 tons to be provided for, proceeding
s before, the area shown in green is arrived at ; in the middle bay
€ stress is 69-3 tons extending over 10 feet of which 62°37 tons
been provided for, leaving 6°93 tons to be arranged for.
The whole of the varying stresses having now been dealt with,
is heavy dotted black line, represents the total area required
When the column would be on the point of failing.
The actual net area of timber provided is 156-16 square inches,
te 4, and as the maximum area required at the centre is only
“09 square inches, the column has a factor of safety of 6°6
buckling, irrespective of the stiffness imparted by the
Ying of the feet of braces.

VI. PERCY ALLAN.

The bottom chords of the 1886 type of trusses for 90 feet spans
14” by 18” were built up of four 14” by 44” flitches, planed on all
surfaces to ensure good butting, the whole being drawn up with
§ inch bolts. This is a costly and undesirable design of chord,
offering as it does, after a few years, an entrance for water
between the flitches, causing decay, which is especially serious on
account of the design of truss being such that the bottom chord
cannot be renewed, thus necessitating in some cases the replacing
- of the whole structure, which under other circumstances—with a
few new flitches—might have lasted for several years longer.

_ Again, some of the flitches are 53’ 6” long and, having to
be free of heart and sapwood, are difficult to obtain, and this
oftentimes occasioned delay in the erection of the structures, the
simple-minded sawmill proprietor supplying all the short and
profitable sizes in the bridge, and then pleading inability to
supply the more costly flitches.

The bending stress in the bottom chord of the new truss having
been eliminated by the omission of intermediate floor beams, only
a direct stress has to be provided for, resulting in a considerable
reduction in the sectional area of the bottom chord, which consists

only of two flitches 12” by 5” placed 6 inches apart, thus being
_ always accessible to the brush, and permitting of the renewal of
these important members ; again, the longest flitch is only 36 feet,
a length easily procurable.

Perhaps the most important connection in a timber truss is
the bottom chord joint.

Plate 5, fig. 1, shows the eover adopted for the very old types
of truss, which can at a glance be seen to be of little assistance
in making up the loss of section caused by the joint in the chord.

Plate 5, fig. 2, shows the cover used in the 1886 type of
truss; this is a much superior connection, but is expensive and
difficult to fit.

Plate 5, fig. 3, shows the cover adopted for the new type of
truss.

TIMBER BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION IN N.5.W. VII.

___ As the two flitches in the bottom chord are independent of one
another, the whole stress in each flitch has to be taken by the

two 12” by 3%” wrought-iron plates placed on either side of the
beam ; on each of these plates four wrought-iron strips 12” deep
_ by 13” wide by 1” deep are rivetted ; these strips are let tightly
into the timber and are designed’to take up the whole of the
_ stress, and as the stress in each flitch is 31°18 tons and there are

four strips giving a total bearing area of 48 square inches, the
crushing strain is only -65 tons per square inch, thus giving a
4 factor of safety of 7} against crushing, whilst for shearing along

_ the grain a minimum factor of 15 is provided.

Following American practice, the bolts passing through cover
: plates are not in any way relied upon, being simply provided to
j keep the plates up to their work, however as the bolts had to be
_ provided the author determined to obtain the benefit of them, and
"arranged for the bolts to be turned and passed through drilled
_ holes in the plates. | te

The above joint has also met with the approval of the Engineer-
— in-Chief for Railways and has been adopted for some of the
Proposed bridges on the Narrabri-Moree line, whilst in some of
the later American railway bridges it has proved successful,
’ despite the fact of it being necessary in some of these pine
: bridges to arrange for fitting in, eight strips in each plate,
instead of four as shown in Plate 5.

_ With this joint, requiring as it does only a straight cut, no
difficulty is found in obtaining an almost perfect bearing with
ironbark timber, and so far in the 146 joints in the bridges
Already erected in this Colony, no trouble has been found in
effectively making this connection.

_ The suspension rods, which in the author’s design of truss have
4 minimum diameter of 2” and 1}” respectively, are placed on
- tither side of floor beams, and pass through the space between the
: chords, thus saving the boring of holes through chords and floor

VIII. as PERCY ALLAN.

beams, and permitting of easy removal in connection with the
system to be adopted in renewing chords.

One of the features of the new type of truss is, that any member
can be renewed without staging from below, a matter of import-
ance when deep gorges or fast running streams have to be crossed.
Briefly stated, the top and bottom chords being in two pieces, the
Suspension rods are removed and re-arranged so as to throw the
whole weight on one flitch ; there being no strain on the remaining
flitch, any member of the top and bottom chord can be replaced
with sound timber ; and by slacking the suspension rods and
inserting temporary struts, any of the braces can be renewed,
whilst the renewal of the cross girders is obviously a simple matter.

In the superstructure of one of the new 90 feet spans carrying
a 15 feet deck, there is 500 cubic feet less timber than in the
1886 type of truss, which, in conjunction with the greater ease
in framing together (notably in the bottom chord, where no
fitting is required) the fewer bolt holes to be bored and the short
lengths of timber employed, effects a saving of over £100 in each
90 feet span.

The economy is more marked when it is considered that the
old trusses were designed to carry a 15 feet carriageway, whereas
the new trusses are designed to carry two 5 feet footways in
addition to a 15 feet carriageway. Thus it will be seen that the
later design of truss bridge offers greater facilities for traffic at a
much reduced cost.

The piers carrying truss bridges vary in accord with local Mea

cumstances ; one of the heavy type is that shown in Plate 6,
Consisting of nine vertical piles 12” by 12” arranged in groups of
four under heels of trusses, also one short vertical pile upstream
and two short vertical piles downstream, carrying up and down-
stream struts. The pier is stayed with wales and braces 12” by
6” and internal compression struts 12” by 12” seated on hardwood
chocks secured to piles with bolts, the chocks being set end on t0
do away with shrinkage, the previous system of seating butting

TIMBER BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION IN N.S.W. Ix.

3 blocks on the wales not being satisfactory, the blocks shrinking

q away from the struts, resulting in a slackness in the bracing.

At Glennies Creek, near Singleton, the superstructure of one
of the 90 feet spans cost, erected in position, £450, whilst in the

: ag bridge a pier of the design above described 28 feet 4 inches

F high from bottom waling to capwales, driven about 16 feet to
4 tock, cost £200. The timber for this bridge was brought from

: pepe Hawke to Newcastle by sea 61 miles, thence forward by
. to Singleton 49 miles, thence by road 9 miles, or a total
‘ carriage of 119 miles. _

& Late in the year 1892, it was decided to erect a new bridge
over the Murrumbidgee River at Wagga Wagga. Designs were
; pmitted for a light iron lattice girder bridge, carrying @ timber
deck resting on iron croés girders, but the amount available being
: insufficient, the author’s design for a timber truss bridge was
: decided upon, and a contract for construction let to Mr. 8. Stokes
on 4th October, 1893, at shedule rates, totalling £12,604.

aring completion, and, reckoned by
by far the largest
a short description
trusses,
forming

e: As this bridge is now ne
. floor space per span (3,165 square feet) is
4 timber structure yet attempted in the Colony,
aa be of interest :—The bridge consists of six timber
Yesting on iron cylinder piers and concrete abutments,

” centres, also nine approach spans each
and

three spans each of 110’ 3
of 35 feet. The trusses stand 27’ 1” apart, centre to centre,
“are connected by a top and bottom system of lateral bracing,
4 angle and portal brackets being introduced in the top system.
; Each truss contains seven panels of 15’ 9° and being 21 feet deep
between centres of triangulations enables full provision to be
- Mnade for a loaded wool waggon, which requires 17’ 6” head room.
: The truss spans are designed to carry 4 distributed live load of

1-2 tons per foot run, or a concentrated load of 16 tons.

‘The carriageway is 24’ 4” whilst one 4 6” footway is arranged
_ for, so that the requirements of the wool traffic will be fully met;
_ ® wool waggon measuring 11’ 6” when loaded and 6’ 6” when
empty.

ey i eterna ge tae
PRN ee ghee ia td rere.
a VES ey ee oe

x. PERCY ALLAN.

The wind pressure allowed for is 56ibs. per square foot, on the
exposed surfaces of kerbs, stringers, and ends of planking, and on
twice the area of the handrails, ends of girders, top and bottom
chords, braces and verticals, the whole being taken as an uniform
moving load. :

Whilst the author is aware that on the occasion of the
Dandenong gale, September, 1876, the wind is recorded at the
Sydney Observatory to have attained a velocity of 153 miles per
hour, equal to a pressure of 115ibs per square foot, yet the author
considers there would be no justification for assuming that such

a phenomenal pressure would extend over such a large area as

that occupied by such a bridge as that under consideration, and —

in support of this opinion, points to the existing structures
throughout the Colony, few if any of which would be now standing
if ever subjected to anything approaching even the pressure
allowed for in the Wagga Wagga bridge.

The minimum factor of safety adopted for timber in the trusses

is 7 for the stresses due to combined dead and live loads.
Although this factor may appear to be somewhat liberal, yet it
must be borne in mind that the ultimate strength of ironbark has
been taken from tests made on small specimens of picked timber,
and that a reduction in strength is only to be anticipated in
large scantlings, again the flitches being sawn, the grain will run
more or less across the line of the sticks, and as defects in timber
are so liable to escape even the most severe inspection, it is

necessary, in the opinion of the author to make a liberal allowance

to cover such contingencies.

The floor system adopted in this bridge presents some novel

features, which, so far as the author is aware, have not previously

been adopted in any structure in any part of the world. (8
Plate 7). The main points kept in view were :—

Ist. The necessity of having a camber in deck to permit of the
quick escape of water. ‘

2nd. The desirability of having a lower lateral system Of

windbracing, so arranged that the triangulation lines of the

TIMBER BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION IN N.S.W. XI,

windbracing and the triangulation lines of the truss members
would intersect at a common point in the bottom chord.

3rd. The distribution of the load, so as to get each pair of the
floor beams to act as one.

4th. The necessity of concentrating the loads at the apices, as,
with the Section employed, two 14” by 7” timbers, no additional
stress was permissable in the bottom chords.

The deck adopted consists of 4” tranverse planking spiked to
12” by 6” longitudinal stringers, seated on the lower lateral struts.
The lower lateral strut is 12” wide by 8” deep at centre, adzed
down on top surface to 6 inches at ends (to give camber in deck),
the centre line of strut being placed in the same plane as the
centre line of the bottom chord. The ends of the lateral strut
are secured to bottom chords by wrought-iron brackets, and to
these brackets are attached the diagonal tie rods, the centre lines
of which, if produced, would intersect at the centre of bottom
chord; the triangulation lines of the wind-bracing and truss mem-
bers thus intersecting at a common point and avoiding all bending
stress.

The lateral struts are tightly dapped one inch over nine 12” by
4” sawn packing blocks 2’ 5” long, resting on the floor beams.

These blocks not only pack the lateral struts up to the same
plane as the centre line of chord, but what is of just as much
importance, equally distribute the whole load over the pair of
floor beams. ;

With a panel length of 15’ 9” and a span of 27 feet the
resulting load is so great as to necessitate the use of two floor
beams, each 14” wide by 16” deep, spaced one inch apart (to
permit of a current of air and avoid boring for stringer bolts),
and connected together with 11 {” bolts passing through one inch
cast-iron distance washers.

As the overall width of these two floor beams is 2’ 5” it was
impracticable, without fouling the braces and suspension rods, to
rest them on the upper edge of the chord. They are therefore

xi. PERCY ALLAN.

suspended from the chords by sixteen beam hangers 1} inches
diameter passing on either side of the flitches of chords.

The author is of opinion that for timber railway bridges of
large span, the floor system above described offers some advantages,
inasmuch as shock from trains would be reduced by the lateral
strut and distributing blocks acting as a cushion ; whilst the beam
hangers being so short a large allowance could economically be
made for dynamic action, which: action would be materially
lessened by the time the main suspension rods were reached.

In connection with the construction of timber bridges, the
financial aspect of the question is of the utmost importance.
Like all engineers, the author would prefer (if economy had not
to be considered) to construct metal bridges, but in a new Colony
where the trend of the traffic is likely to be diverted by many
circumstances, difficult, if not impossible, to anticipate, it would
seem preferable in such localities to construct timber structures
with a small capital outlay, rather than spend large sums on
works of a more permanent character.

For many years there has been a disinclination in this Colony
to build other than permanent traffic bridges out of loan funds,
yet as harbour works and railway works, in which timber struc-
tures, sleepers, fencing, etc., represent no inconsiderable portion,
are built out of loan funds, the author submits there is no reason
why traffic bridges should not also be constructed out of borrowed
capital, provided it can be shown, first, that they are more
economical not only in prime cost but in annual charge, and
secondly, that provision be made for their renewal or repayment
out of revenue.

It may be urged in these days of cheap steel, that it is against
the practice of other parts of the world to construct timber
bridges, but in what other country could be found timber with a
tensile strength of 8 tons per square inch, a crushing strength of
47 tons per square inch, and a shearing strength along the grain
of 1 ton per square inch ; or bridges totally unprotected from the

TIMBER BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION IN N.S.W. XIII.

weather with a life approaching anything like, amongst others,

the following :— a
Bridge over Cox’s River, at Glenroy ............ 28 years old.
Bridge over Bell River 32 years old.
Bridge over Macquarie River, at Dubbo......... 32 years old.

Bridge over Murrumbidgee River, at Wagga ...33 years old.
Bridge over Duck River, at Parramatta ..... ...34 years old.
Bridge over Cudgegong River, at Rylstone...... 34 years old.
Bridge at Berrima 35 years old.
Bridge over Murray River, at Albury............ 36 years old.

The first metal bridge in the world, is said to have been erected
over the Severn at Colebrook Dale in 1779, this bridge consists
of a cast-iron arch of 100 feet span, the structure being thus 116
years old.

Wrought-iron and steel bridges are however of a much later date,

and the fixing of the life of such structures, is to a great extent

only a matter of conjecture; in connection with this matter
Waddell says, “There is no reason why a well-designed iron
highway bridge—when properly cared for—should , not last for
ever.” ‘Under loads which are light and slowly moving com-

. pared with those of railway bridges, the iron cannot possibly wear .

out, and when properly protected from the weather cannot rust.”

The author therefore to make everything favorable to the metal
bridge in a comparison of its cost, with that of a timber bridge,
has assumed the life of the former as infinity ; whilst the timber

__ bridge has been taken at only 25 years—a life—it is only reason-
_ able to expect will be much exceeded, with the better type of

Structure, the more careful inspection of timber, and the greater

care in erection that now obtains.

L The whole of the timber for the Wagga Wagga bridge was
3 brought from the Northern Rivers to Darling Harbour, about

150 miles by sea, thence by railway to Wagga Wagga 310 miles,

ra total carriage of 460 miles.

_ The contract cost for one timber truss span at Wagga Wagga

| is £1,300 and the estimated cost of one span of the iron lattice

XIV. PERCY ALLAN.

girder design, complete on bearings was £2,800 (Colonial manu-
facture). Now, to compare the relative cost of these two bridges
on the basis, that the planking in each bridge will require renewal
every 12) years, the remaining timberwork every 25 years and
that the ironwork is everlasting, it is necessary to ascertain how
much per annum it will take to keep these bridges “ traflicable”
for ever, in other words to ascertain how much per annum it will
cost in each case for interest on the prime cost, tarring, painting,
removal of old material and renewing of each portion as it wears
out.

Having obtained the annual charge for each bridge, the difference
represents the saving effected. The comparison is as follows :—

ANNUAL CHARGE FOR IRON DESIGN.

: | a a Fund 4 zs
3 .
Hom. = jPriage),; Tutercet. BP ant renewal of | 84 sda
peop timber. a
| Rate | Amount. al Life. | Amount. a
&., £ dj£s.d.j£ s. d.
Planking...| 180 4°), 7 4 i £220 brig yrs. |13 18 Bshesiee 21 2-2
Stringers --| 1380/4 5, | 5 0} £17 4D Bhi, aves 9 5 8
Ironwork.../2490 |4 ,, [99 is ce) rit i Imai Nib Tae 99 12 0
Painting ...|...... ‘| 60 0 260 0 2
| eine oe
£12800) Total annual charge ... £190 0 90 0 0
ANNUAL CHARGE FOR TIMBER DESIGN.
a nee Be Fund me FS
a a Pee | Pca r | dsj eae
: a ea |
Rate} Amount.| & oe om a
oe £ £8, d. £s. difadj/£ 5. a
mking..., 180 |4°/,) 7 4 0 £220/123 yrs.|13 18 2......... 21 2 2
Stringers,
sses,
floor-beams
and re-
mainder of
timber ij
superstruc-
Ure «....... 630 |4 ,, 125 4 0) £950/25 ,, (2216 3)........48 0 3
Ironwork...) 490 |4 ,, /19 12 0| Nil. |Infinity) Nil. |.........19 12 9
Painting ...)::../: : WecdT vnrsan 51.5 751.5 7
£/1300 Total annual charge ...... £140 0 0

TIMBER BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION IN N.S.W. XV.

Thus it will be seen that there is a saving of £50 per annum
in favour of the timber bridge, which has at 4 per cent. interest,
a capital value of £1,250. See Plate 8.

The author has also designed timber trusses for spans of 130
feet and 153 feet. The latter truss altogether differs from the
Wagga Wagga bridge, four flitches instead of two being placed
in the top and bottom chords, and as for purposes of renewal
a larger sectional area is provided than is actually required for
direct tension, the floor beams can in this case be seated directly
on the upper edge of the bottom chord.

The flitches of chords being spaced only three inches apart
whilst allowing of a free current of air, and room for painting,
permits of the adoption of channel iron gib-plates for suspension
rods in lieu of the heavy forgings used at Wagga Wagga, whilst
the castings are, from the same cause, much lightened.

Again, in the lower lateral system diagonal timbers and trans-
verse tie rods have been arranged for, which is somewhat more
economical than the diagonal tie rods used at Wagga Wagga.

In conclusion the author desires to record his acknowledgments
to Mr. Hickson, .1.c.£, for his courtesy in lending models, plans,
and photographs to illustrate the several works mentioned in the

foregoing paper.

DIscussIoN.

Mr. Deane said that in a design for a timber bridge, in the
first place there was the proportioning of the amount of material
in the trusses, and beams to the strain to which they were sub-
jected. That of course should be made as near to theory as
possible, although it was hardly possible to strain right up to
theory. The different parts should be capable of separate erec-
tion, and ought to be put together in a proper manner, for
instance, the trusses should be stayed, and should be capable of
erection separately ; they should be complete in themselves, and
braced together before any attempt is made to put on the plat-

XVI. DISCUSSION.

form of the bridge. After the trusses are erected then the
platform should be added. The old practice used to be on the
interlacing principle, leading to something like a Chinese puzzle,
and very difficult to deal with in case of renewal. Another point
to be considered was the replacement of the separate pieces of
the truss, one or other might decay, and they ought to be so
fixed that these particular pieces could be easily taken out, and
what was of great importance, was the construction of the joints,
so that there should be no lodging of water in them, and that
they could be examined, and attended to when necessary. With

regard to the comparison of the cost of the bridge, the illustration —

of which the speaker exhibited, with that of Mr. Allan’s, the
conditions were different, as his was intended for road traffic, and
the other for railway purposes. In the road bridge one of the
largest items of expense was decking, which the railway bridge
was made very much narrower, but having to carry heavier loads
was much stronger.

Mr. Burce—He intended to refer to-night only to the author’s
comparison between the ultimate cost of timber as against iron
or steel in bridge construction. With regard to the cost of the
two kinds of structures, a comparison of which was shewn in
the table exhibited, the quotation for iron was for colonial manu-
facture. It might be the view of some people that it was a wise
thing to pay something extra in order to encourage manufacture
in the Colony, but the extra amount so given was given for that
purpose only, and it should not be added to the actual cost of the
bridge. Moreover, there was no doubt that Mr. Allan had
proved his case, without thus surcharging the ironwork with

regard to the preference of the timber over the iron bridge, but —

if we came to smaller bridges the difference between the per-
manent design and the temporary one was not so great. In

preparing railway estimates he had made the following caleula- 4

tions, which illustrated these views :—

Comparison of timber as against permanent bridge work

assuming no repairs to latter, and in the former about one-fifth,

ERG Yee eet Ee ST Lt 44i as ee

OIE ee ee Te Mardy Se SST RENTS TY OREN Toe oe Ree ee ae ee WED ee et a RS Cree ent ie PY OS ONE Be ow MLE,

Se

TIMBER BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION IN N.S.W. XVII,

that is the more exposed parts, required renewal in 11 years, and

_ that the whole had to be rebuilt in 22 years—£100 is provided.
£100

The permanent work is assumed to cost ...
The timber work one-half, viz. ... 0... 0 see ee 50

Balance remaining, should the timber bridge be
WOR occper vee ahaa vee Ne te ee eee

Of this balance £7 is placed at compound interest at 47/ pro-
ducing in 11 years £11, with which about one-fifth of the bridge
is renewed—£43 remains which, at same interest in 22 years,
becomes £102. The whole bridge is now rebuilt for £50, leaving
balance of £52 by which the renewal fund is more than kept up.
The depreciation is therefore about 4}7/ per annum on the actual
capital expended.

If, therefore, the permanent work costs not more than twice
the timber work, it should be preferred from a financial point of
view, independently of the objection, in railway work, to renewal
as interfering with traffic. This is about the proportion of cost
of small openings at 3ft. to 4ft. between concrete or brickwork

3 and timber.

Mr. Sma said—one thing he noticed in the new design, was
that any member of the truss could be renewed without staging
below, while with the old. style of bridge when this was being
done a temporary one had frequently to be built. The speaker
mentioned that in 1876 he erected a bridge of the 1866 design,
in which the very best timber procurable was used. It occurred
to him then that from the way the bridge was designed, if any
part had to be renewed, practically a new bridge had to be built.
He thought it would be far better to build small bridges,
Culverts, &c., with stone or concrete.

Mr. BarractouaH said there was one point he would like to
refer to, and it was the method shewn in one of the diagrams of
treating the top member as a long column, and he would like to
know if Mr. Allan had compared the method which he had
employed with the theory of long columns, as the variable load

2—Sept, 18, 1895.

XVIII. DISCUSSION.

on the column in question would make the matter a very complex
affair.

Mr. SrarHam remarked that there were a great many points in
favour of Mr. Allan’s design in comparison with the old ones.
It was a great defect that so many timbers were in contact in
the chord, the damp got into the joints and caused great damage,
which practically meant the renewal of the chord, and when the
chord was done the bridge was practically done, but in this new
design there were a great many improvements. The new method
of making up the top chord of smaller scantlings utilised the best
part of the timber. Such bridges as these should last 30 years
which was the life of the best ones.

Mr. Simpson—One thing that struck him was the comparison
of prices. It was not a fair thing to compare colonial iron work
with timber work, because the former is not of the cheapest kind.
He assumed that the price of timber work included the painting,
at 4s. per cubic foot, and that of the iron was at 23s. per ton,
erected. Then taking Mr. Allan’s margin of safety, he found
that for the 90ft. span the price of steel work was 7s. per foot of
the top chord, as against 3s. for timber, so that these comparative

prices were in favour of timber. Personally, he would prefer to

deal with a steel or iron structure. As regards the extra prices
and renewals, a certain proportion of this timber work had to be

renewed in a few years, and it seemed the renewal prices had ==

been calculated upon the same basis as for the original, which
was quite incorrect. A timber bridge requires constant inspec-
tion, which would add greatly to the cost, and for these reasons

he thought he would prefer larger works to be of steel instead

of timber. .

Mr. Borer, in explanation, said that the Chairman had
remarked upon the cost of renewals being taken as the same as
the original provision of the timber, but Mr. Allan had provided
for the extra cost. He had put down the cost of the renewal of
planking at £220 as against £180 original cost, and of the rest

£950 as against £630. As to his own (Mr. Burge’s) comparison; —

Careeth a. poe
Sos eae

TIMBER BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION IN N.S.W. XIX.

he had made no extra allowance in the railway bridge, and for a
very good reason. The material for the original bridge had
frequently to bear long road cartage, but the train brought the
renewal mentioned to the spot at a very low rate.

Mr. ALLAN, in replying, said that the exhibiting by Mr. Deane
of the plans of the truss bridges to be erected on the Narrabri-
Moree railway line, clearly showed how economically Australian
hardwoods could be utilised for railway structures. Mr. Burge,
whilst agreeing that in any case a saving in favour of the
timber bridge at Wagga Wagga had been shown, thought the
_ timber structure should have been compared with an imported
: metal bridge. He could not follow Mr. Burge in this, the iron-
work in the timber bridge costing £490 was not only manufactured
but rolled in the Colony, the iron bridge was also stipulated
to be manufactured in the Colony, therefore the estimated
actual cost to the country, irrespective of colonial rate of wage,
duty, or other similar contributing causes was, Mr, Allan held,
the only basis on which a comparison could be made. He
could not with confidence make any remarks on Mr. Burge’s
comparison, as to the relative financial results of small concrete
and timber railway culverts, without looking into the question.
The experiences of Mr. Smail as to the difficulty of renewing tim-
ber in the old type of trusses agreed with his conclusions. The
complex character of the theoretical investigation of the strength
of a column, carrying different loads throughout its length,
remarked upon by Mr. Barraclough, was the reason of reference
being made to the case in the hope that information might be
given by some of the members on the question, The Author's
practical method of treating the subject was based on actual
experiment as to the buckling strength of ironbark columns of
different ratios of length to diameter.
Mr. Statham’s opinion that the using of flitch pieces permitted
of matured timber being utilised, thereby ensuring cheap supply
and increased durability, is of considerable importance, the

benefit of which has been recognised in the new type of trusses.

2 DISCUSSION.

The Chairman was in accord with popular opinion, that in the
long run a steel bridge was cheaper than a timber structure,
but the Author pointed out that this popular opinion only held
good when pine or other soft wood with a short life was used, in
lieu of the much more durable Australian hardwood, and that the
Chairman did not support his opinion with the necessary tabulated
statement, similar to that submitted by the Author, shewing the
comparative cost of interest, renewals, and maintenance of a
steel and timber structure. As previously reasoned, Mr. Allan
considered it would have been incorrect to compare the Wagga
Wagga timber bridge with an iron bridge based on imported
prices, but even supposing it possible that by importing the iron
bridge the cost could have been reduced by £1,000, there would
still be a saving of £10 per annum in annual charge, equal to @
capital value at 47% of £250 per span in favour of the timber
structure. As the decks in each bridge were similar, the incon-
venience to traffic during renewals would be common. to both
designs, whilst the timber truss members could at the end of
twenty-five years (if then decayed) be renewed without -interrup-
ting traffic.

-FASCINE WORK as CARRIED OUT sy ran PUBLIC
WORKS DEPARTMENT in NEW SOUTH WALES.
By T. E. Burrows, is.
(Communicated by J. W. Grimshaw, M. Inst. C.E.)
[With Plates 9, 10.]

[Read before the Engineering Section of the Royal Society of N. S. Wales,
October 15, 1895. |

Tue history of embankments for river training purposes in New
South Wales, in which the use of fascines of Ti-tree, or similar a
scrub form part, commenced as far as the author is aware only

Rie geen: amas ah he Meee pS

FASCINE WORK IN N.S.W. XXI.

ten years back; but the principle of using fascines of a bushy
nature, to bind clay or soil together, has been availed of in many
and various instances, either for rough mining dams, or to form
mattrasses upon which roads or light tram lines might be carried

across swampy ground.

Indeed the first fascine work with which the author was con-
nected, was the construction of a temporary dam of fascines and
untempered clay, at a breakaway in the town dam (on western
end) at Parramatta about 1880; and owing to the force of the
water, the river being in flood at the time, it can safely be asserted
that only through the use of fascines, for binding the clay, and
easing off the power of the stream, the work of repair to the main
dam would have been much more expensive than was actually
the case.

Fascine work was introduced when Mr. E. O. Moriarty was _
head of the Harbours and Rivers Department, but the greater
portion was carried out under the Engineer-in-Chief, Mr. C. W.
Darley.

The credit of the introduction of this class of work into New
South Wales is due to Mr. Alfred Williams, M.Inst.c.E., under
whom the author had considerable experience, and as Mr. Williams
had the advantage of employing this description of river bank
protection in England, at the river Severn ; where the range of
tide is considerably more than our six feet, he saw to what advan_
tage such work could be put, in the proper alignment of our rivers
with their unsightly, useless, and muddy Mangrove flats ; where
the use of stone embankments would prove too costly to allow of
the work being undertaken ; especially in such places were soft
bottoms are met with, as the entrance to the Long Cove Canal at
Leichhardt. .

Two notable descriptions of fascine work, have been constructed
under the supervision of officers in the Public Works Department,
and these the author will designate as “ Fascine Embankments ”

and ‘“ Fascine Wall.”

XXII. T, E. BURROWS.

Fascine EMBANKMENTS.

The embankment work has been carried out in the following
localities, and an approximate statement of the extent of each is
also given—

District of Sydney.
ms th Height Area ~
Local Length. rage. average. Purpose. reclaimed.
Cook’s River... 520 chains 14 feet 9 feet reclamation
14

Shea’s Creek! 130 ,, » 9 4 do. & canal ‘413 acres

Muddy Creek 125 ,, 14 ee DD re

Leichhardt ... 153 ,, 12 ,, 9 ,, reclamation 81 acres
Callan Park... 12 ,, 1A. sh gs - i
Homebush Bay 210 _,, 44 2S i 201. ;,
Duck River ... 18 ,, Se. wig comenks +f 41.4,
Tarban Creek 16 _,, es an are ee (ea

Newcastle District.

ch. , ; Purpose.
Horseshoe Bend 13 heli 50 feet atk feet protection of river bank
Belmore Bridge 17 ,, 20

” 2” ” ”

Hawkesbury District.
Sackville Reach 1 chain 8 x 16 feet

Grafton District.

Public School, 7 chains, 10 x 12 feet, protection of river bank.

Great Marlow Embankment, 60 chains of combination bank,
part earthwork only; protection of river bank,

Moruya District.

Moruya River, left incomplete and damaged by floods, length
58 chains, by 14 feet by 9 feet; for training wall purposes.

Of the larger works two may be practically called complete,
that at Iron Cove, Callan Park, and also the one at Long Cove ;
the areas between original high water mark and the present sea
face of the embankments, having in each case been filled in to a
height of three feet above high water mark by the sand-pumps
“Groper ” and “ Neptune.”

1 Shea’s Creek refers only to original creek affected by tidal waters.

SS Sh ee pe ee Le ene at eee

FASCINE WORK IN N.S.W. XXIIl.

The embankment on the western side of the Long Cove Canal
has been one of the most difficult of any of these works to deal
with, owing to the soft bottom met with in places, which in no
case developed when the bank was being constructed, but when
the filling was being placed behind.

The weight of filling being greater than the weight of an equal
bulk of bank, pressed the soft mud out from beneath the bank
into the canal. Section herewith showing the fascine work only
slightly disturbed, yet a considerable cavity at back with a cor-
responding rise in front.

To curb this subsidence of the filling, piling along the toe of the
bank has been resorted to, and only one subsidence has since been
reported, which is attributable to the piles being of insufficient
length to reach beyond the liquid mud underlying the bank,
although twenty-six feet long.

In one instance at the mouth of the canal, ballast was tried,
but after 3,500 tons of stone had been deposited over an area
of 444 square yards, the ballast was still sinking, at the same
time displacing the mud as shown by an upheaval in the canal
near by.

The following is a detailed description of the method of con-
struction of fascine embankment ; after the alignment has been
done, and the author can state from severe personal experience,
that the setting out of the work is no trifle, when over your knees
in mud and still sinking, you are uncertain whether to tell the
chainman to come and pull you out, or go on with his distances.

A trench 18 feet wide is made to a depth of 1 foot below low
water mark, spring tides, and then the first layer of fascine is laid
for a length of about 50 feet with the bushy ends out, bearing in
mind that the next layer has to bond over them. A layer of mud
9” to 1’ deep is then deposited on the fascines, and the work
carried up ina similar manner until the requisite height is reached,
attention being given to breaking bond with the fascines, by using
long or short bundles as required,

ALY, T. E. BURROWS.

A shrinkage of the fascines usually takes place under the weight
of the mud, and during the first twelve months amounts to 12” or
18", and this shrinkage is made up with silt or other good surface
material obtainable. |

The first cost of fascine embankment work——at the section
given—is under 3/- per cubic yard, inclusive of backing with silt
for an average width of 3’; and when the fact that such small
subsidence has to be allowed for, and a very small expenditure for
maintenance, the embankment may be considered a cheap training
wall with a life of over twenty years. Some of this work con-—
structed at Cook’s River, nearly ten years ago, bearing out the
probability of this statement.

When a scour occurs or the proximity to a steamer’s wash is :
unavoidable, it has been found advisable to face the embankment :
with fascines, as shown in Section “A”; that is, with a liner or
stretcher fascine staked down along the face of each layer of silt.

Embankment work of this nature, has been considered as
specially liable to damage from fire; but the experience of the
author is against this theory, and where the bank has a good top
layer of mud, and the fascines are kept to high water spring tides
level, it is almost impossible to seriously damage the work by fire.
Timber shoots or box drains are used to relieve the banks while
in their early stages, from the water pressure caused by falling
tides: the shoots being fitted with a hinged flap, which opens
outward only ; and where large areas are dealt with, or consider-
able back water has to be released, a self-acting sluice door is
used for the same purpose. ;

In concluding the remarks on embankment work it may be
mentioned that where the banks have been constructed by truck-
ing the material for the work ahead, over that recently constructed —
behind, greater consolidation and security are gained at a very
slight additional cost. The Great Marlow Embankment was a
combination of earthwork with a fascine face, where height of :
bank exceeded 5’ and was constructed for protection of river banks
from erosion (section herewith).

FASCINE WORK IN N.S.W. XXV.

FascinE WALL Work.

This class of work differs materially from that already described,
as this is a thin wall or fence which acts the part of a screen, pre-
venting the silt or similar material deposited at the back of same
in a liquified condition, from obtaining access again to the river
channel. This work has been constructed at the Myall River,
and was carried out by Mr. H. D. Walsh, m. mst. c.x., under Mr.
Darley’s instructions, and has been very successful.

It is formed by driving a row of piles, from 6” to 8’ diameter—
of either turpentine or ti-tree with the bark left on—battered
slightly inwards, and 3’ apart, and driven 8’ or 10’ into the
ground. By using a 12” x 12” ironbark ram and steam driving
plant on punt, as many as 50 piles could be driven per day, but
the author may here remark that where sand is met with, by |
using a steam pump the piles could be put in much faster and
more batter given if required.

Continuous ropes were then formed of pliable ti-tree—from 10°
to 15’ bushes—and as the rope was formed on the punt, it was
bound by 14 gauge wire every 18”, and then woven between the
piles, and well pressed into place.

It was found necessary to place a small bank of stones, shells,
or other suitable material, outside of this fence, to keep out the
* Teredo,” which are very plentiful in this river.

Plan and sections herewith marked, ‘“B.”

Discussion.

Mr. Dar ey, said, there was nothing very novel about the use
of fascine work; it wasa very old class of work, but had only been
introduced into this Colony during the last ten years ; it had
been used for enclosing reclamations, training banks, and
strengthening river banks, for which latter work it had proved
exceedingly satisfactory. The banks of the Mississippi River are
protected by endless fascine mattrasses of about 20 ft. wide, laid
on the surface, and then loaded with stone. Experience here

3—Sept. 18, 1895,

XXVI. DISCUSSION.

proved to him that it would be worse than useless to use fascine
for training banks of channels again. The work at Moruya was
an utter failure, the fascines were laid on a sand bottom, and
when the very first flood took place the sand scoured away and
the whole bank floated out to sea, this was anticipated by the
then Engineer-in-Chief, Mr. Moriarty, who reported strongly
against the use of fascine for such a purpose. The work of this
class at Long Cove has not been the success it might have been, |
piles had lately been driven in, and he believed that they are |
being pressed forward. He thought that in many cases it would
have been cheaper, and more economical to carry out the work
with stone, for when the water in front deepens, the stone will run
down and check the scour ; this is very noticeable at Newcastle,
where there is a dyke of a mile and a half in length. This dyke
was laid out by the speaker, the construction being commenced

i
L
]

at low water, there is now over twenty feet of water close beside
it. The stone does not sink with the sand, but as the scour takes
place the stone runs down off the face of the dyke and so

i A

checks further erosion, and it is a simple matter to make good
the loose stone again till the full depth is reached. In this
country where in the majority of cases, our coastal harbours have

Ee

sci tac, aes ee ca

sandy bottoms, fascine work would be quite useless. In the
case of some rivers, say the Hunter, some excellent work has been
done with fascines, and it has been found a very effective protec-
tion against flood, but there it is made of layers of fascine and
stone, loaded and coated with stone.

Mr. DEANzE, said the first cost of work was put down as being
under three shillings per cubic yard, but he was under the impres-
‘sion that the work costa great deal more, and he would like to
know from Mr. ste viet where fascine work came cheaper than
stone.

Mr. Darley said in reply to Mr. Deane’s pene “in what way —
fascine work came cheaper than stone”? that stone would be very _
costly to make large dykes of. In our river banks the introduction
of the fascine and stones proved itself very effective, where you

E
y

:
te
a
d

FASCINE WORK IN N.S.W. XXVII.

have stone only it is very apt to slip forward, owing to excessive
weight on the toe when a scour takes place in the river. A
mixture of fascine, clay, and stone will stand a heavy rush’ of
water, and has proved to be very successful, it is light, and does
not put too much weight on the toe of the bank, that is speaking
of a bank of forty to fifty feet in height, alternate layers of stone
and fascines have proved very successful. When commencing
work at the Tweed River, great pressure was brought to bear to
have fascine work introduced, this was not done, as he pointed
out what must happen if this class of work were adopted, it would
be sure to scour away. It ended that he carried out the work
cheaper than any work of a similar kind in the Colony, certainly
everything was favourable to this end, and it is now a permanent,
lasting, and cheap work. Formerly there were ten to twelve
inches of water, but now there is a depth of over fourteen feet,
and in cases of that sort stone is the proper thing to use. In cases
like Cook’s River where stone is scarce and would have been very
costly, fascine work was suitable, but if the channel is to be
deepened eventually the banks must be faced with stone to make

them permanent.

Mr. Grimsuaw agreed with Mr. Darley’s remarks, but did not
consider that the author had written the paper with any view of

making a comparison. between stone and fascine work, or mis-

leading anyone in believing that facine work was superior to stone,

but simply with a view of describing where and how fascine

work was being used by the Public Works Department of
this Colony. Some of the failures mentioned were attributable
+o the fact that fascine is used on mud flats, or where the bottom
is very soft and difficult to deal with. He had no doubt what-
ever, that for a first class work stone should be used, but in
many cases it was quite out of the question on account of the
expense, although stone ballast is much cheaper now than it
was. Most of the fascine banks had stood very well indeed,
though in places where washed by the salt water they could not
get any protection from vegetation, which forms a great protection

XXVIII. DISCUSSION.

in fresh water. The slips described by the author have given a
great deal of trouble, the slip at Long Cove occurred in spite of
piles having been driven twenty feet into the mud, they invariably
occurred when the dredges were filling in at the back of the bank,
and at low tide. It was the weight at the back of the bank that
pushed the mud through and underneath the bank, and the same
occurred in a lesser degree in stone dykes. In the case of the
Moruya work, mud and silt in the ends of the fascine dyke were
washed away by sea waves, leaving the bushes only ; and no
doubt stone should have been used. Still in his opinion the work
was started from the wrong end, it should have been commenced
at the shore or upstream end, instead of which it was com-
menced at the sea end. When the flood came down the river it
got at the back of the dyke and washed a great portion of it away.
In swampy country, such as Cook’s River, an immense amount
of stone would have been absorbed as there is no saying to what
depth it would have sunk in the soft mud. In the case of Rozelle
Bay it sank over eight feet, and in Long Cove it disappeared
altogether. There was no more expense in keeping the fascine
work in good order than was experienced with the sides of an
ordinary river, when once the reclamation was complete. He
was quite of opinion that the facing of fascine banks should be
of stone, if possible, and where there was a rocky or hard bottom
stone should be used entirely.

Mr. P. ALLAN said, where you have to dredge a channel to a
considerable depth, it is inadvisable to use anything but stone, as
he believed it to be very doubtful whether successful work could
otherwise be done.

Mr. Simpson said that he quite agreed with the remark that
more is sometimes to be learned from failure than from success,
but as it has been pointed out by members there are cases in which —
fascine work would be quite inappropriate, and in other cases
fascine work should undoubtedly be adopted.

Mr. Burrows in reply, stated, that the primary reason of this
paper was to give information, as to the purposes for which fascine

F

FASCINE WORK IN N.S8.W. XXIX.

work is used in New South Wales, and not for any comparison
with stone embankments. For if stone can be used, from an
economical point of view it should be. In the case of Long Cove,
at one point stone was used with no success, as it was found that
the stones kept sinking. Piles were afterwards used, and were put
down to a depth of forty-seven feet, the last strata was softer than
the upper crust, so that the building of a stone dyke at a one to
one slope section, would cost infinitely more than the fascine work,
The slips occurred through using the bank as a dam, a purpose
for which it was never intended, large lakes of water were formed
behind them by the use of sand pumps. This water would have
at least a six feet head at low tide. Mr. Grimshaw pointed out
in the case of the Moruya work, and he agreed with him, that it
was started at the wrong place, and that it had not only the
ordinary run of the tide but when a flood came there was nothing
to protect it from the scour, consequently the water got both back
and front of it, and gave it no chance whatever. The dykes of
Holland are constructed largely of mud, and only faced with
mattrasses of something similar in character to ti-tree ; weighted
with stone or rip-rap, certainly they have much flatter slopes,
which are necessary on account of their abutting on the open
sea. An instance of the cost of stone ina finished dyke is Rozelle
Bay, this is six feet wide on top, with a one to one slope on both
sides, the bottom is fairly soft, the stone used was tipped over the
ends of the bank, and the cost of stone here compared to fascine
work, allowing for a subsidence of the latter of three feet, would
be about two to one. He found that the stones had displaced
the silt to a depth of from something like ten to fifteen feet,
the average being eleven feet for a length of 1,650 feet of dyke.
Fascines sometimes give a very ragged appearance to a bank,
and the cost of facing up is about fifteen shillings per rod, but
when a bank will stand about five years without having anything
done to it, this extra payment for maintenance is very inconsider-
able. The percentage of shrinkage is about 15% on the section
of the bank during the first twelve months.

‘Allon, Per aera , Ti mbe
bridge eauminnis New

8 es ae eke
Albizzia p sa. 304, 400
Aluminium succinate . tev
Amygdaloidal trachyte
pasa of water from Wyalong 406
Ancient Antarctic life .. 7
Asdecite, tlaany augite . 474
— au . 485
—— ba . 475

saltic

—— vesicular elas 475

Angophora lanceolata 31, 37, 38, 39, 40

Anniversary Addre

é hs yale exploration, history of 462
461

=

Anti , 316
Apatite, plombiferous 316

os 39
Abonaae 4

ndri
Artesian waieean in LN.
sige other than
oo 6 retaceo 8
Astringent exudations.. i
Australian black s =

kinos... one
tence nake
— vegetable acetates
ae perp ak ypes of... aS
oving Anticyclones
ii _—Mo msoonal Rain Storm
il—Development of of a Cyclonic
in Low a
from a Monso 1 De-

iv eben of a Cyclonic
Storm in High Latitudes
from a Monsoonal De-
pression

y.—Conditions favourable for

: Thunderstorms

vi.—Cyclonic Thunderstorms

S. Wales ‘fe

596 INDEX.
INDE.

A PAGE mL oN ariece) ed nearly straight
oe nooner Fund 3, 7, 553 viii —Cyclones from North-west
Acacia 3, 399 ix.—Cyclones: from North-east

ge swa 393, 398 x
ee am at Gal
etnies one 3938, 399 co coolciueeaat of Cyclones
— Maideni ... 394, 400 ee stroma 4 Dep
72 xiii.— Westerly Wi te: vy
pancagard to the Library 5 C se AP ee te 8

xv.—Black North-easter rs
xvi.—Winds Blowing against
Isobars
xvii.—Summer Anticy plot
a se —Winter Aciavels
rc eauere He abe A : Depression
mt of a etic Storm
«« Axe-breaker” 394

Barraclough, 8. H., M.E.,
the aig ‘and compressive

pee: of ma ven 453 a
Barkl We :
Basalt, o — es yee 476, 488 =
Basaltic saircite oa . 475 ;
Basic tuff x 481

eryl , 318
Bismuth aecociated with selen-
ium
lack-snake ne
— sir blood véssels, action _
nake v
c @” All,
Blythesdale Erayetone’ pea
Borchgrevink, C. E., Antarctis ak
rocks collected bj pr
Bosistoa sapindiformi 293, .
Bouchardatia newrococ
Bridge ome construction in

New Wales +
“ Britis & su e
“ce Broa d-

* 400
jeaved Sally” am
Building aaa Lara Fund 553
Bur; L

.
-

rge, 0: Ov,
the preparation o of En

eer-
ing specifica ationsandgeneral
aaa for oy ra e works 567
Burrow e

is, Wass
sat as pose ee by ba
Public Works Departm ment
in New South Wales 568, 5%

INDEX.

PAGE

fe

bb . 40
. 320
Capparis nobilis 393, 397
Cape Laas f geological nee

gh

to

ri
Chryso 318
Peace cares, easing 0 of

a

‘al Fu nd
reaps of ‘Lord } Howe island.

ii. Onag
co: ,N. S. Wal

iii. Analysis of water from gatouis 408

iv. On br trachy mes ot ~~ Can

sou

anele A eis .. 407

a

David, SS, 1. W.E
n Antarctic rocks
collected ies Mr. C. E. Borch-

rocks
pe victoria
and — Possession

see yl

a ‘s cp Inst. C
Some recent Engineering
developments in _— nd
America . 567
Dick, J. A., M-D. p., Notes on nacase
= inalignent disease of the a
0

piphtberia,. Resorein treatment 570
« Divi Di 37
Doan late, a

ia russellit
paccraagicroige * the “derelict 284

EB
Echidna, embryology and de-
velopmen
Ellagic _ from Angophors
lanceo

Z| Hargrave, Lawrence, paper 0 a
37 ork .

597

Ellagic acid from “ Divi Divi”
—— ection ... 3,
opments in fngtand

— Planchoniana
gogo
al composi itic ion
Exhibits iat again Meetings
557, 560, 564
Exudations, astringen a
_— Australian vegetable

Zz

Paithful, R. i “M.D , Si enifi-
e of albu éniwarte more
especially as regarded by
sth st miners for Life

Ins
Fascine coe e N. Ss. Wales 568, 2

°
John on p., some fo 1k-
and myt ths fecal Samoa on

Galena zinciferous . 320
Garnetife rous- -granlitio-aplite 471

7] a 3, 394, 396, ot
base

eological “isboratony notes
Gia ee andes
«Glue g
Gee associated with selenium 404
n sea-w

i:
. 474

r
removal by 3 “Muntz-

Gum-resi

Ho
Edgar. note on the er.

. Hall,
of Malachi

ronautical wor 40

598 INDEX.

PAGE M PAGE
Hawaiian haan age 420 | Magnes esium, tensile oy com-
ey, Cs, -F.E8.; Considera- pressive strengths o te

s Malachite, origin of .., ... 416

ledge of Australian vege

Huxley Mem -. 564 s : 8

Hydrous ftiics silicate ... 818 tet 2 natura epost of ys
aluminium succin nthe

: t € Grevillea robust
Icebergs in the Southern ocean poi gad yee ich ea ee
ured

ick aoa or discolo Martin, C. J., B. Se., M.B.,

ve the physiological action
f the ve of

acca bla oe age ( pal

ere porphyriacus)

its

oo Sydney , On
m _ iinstrating the

Introductio
its syphilis on the ii, cop iene va t introduction of
central “lb system ... 571 the v 147
iii. pe oft venom on the plood
and blo ye sels 151
iv. Effect of venom on the cir-
i ee (oveatea N.S.W. 7 culatory 1 mechanism 208
Kidd] wa v. Effect of eee on the
lies on ney aren of the _ nervous ‘sys
vi. Effect of venom on the res-
oe — Riverina, 1872 — piratory mechanism 256
ag we 492 vii. Effect of dono on the e body
Hite Ae --- 894, 401 tempera ;
—— myrtaceo viii. Furthe om thological effects 26
Knibbs, G. H , L.8., The history ix. Comparis of exp erimental
e results with shee m toms
theory and determination of Pseudechis panies, sen in
of the viscosity of water by man
he efflux m tho Appendix—The toxic value of

Medal, Society's sawardof ... 6
edi Be,

<4
sf
o 5
iS
®
BH

L
eae of ther, sale and Ha-
wa

Lemons wild a ‘ gs 387 Melicope neurococca 393, 396, 397
Library = Merfield, C. J., Th par:

—— additions to. : Me bola as applied to the easing
Limburgite 479, 480 of circular curves on railway
Lim Spomey with cone-in-cone ines oe

ucture . 321 | Meteor of fay 7th, 1895 ... 499
ihenause Prof. 7c E.R a Mica schist .- 481
On e amount, of pod and Milford, F., on the
silver in sea-water treatment of ‘tiptheria age

—— On some New Sou Wales es Resorcin
and other Wines (Note iljee >»
No. 316 | Minerals, N.S. Wales and other 316
—— The removal of silver and Mineral substances, n
go “ie 7 m sea-water by Mol Mite ue . 822
Muntz metal s sheathing .. - 350 | Morus alba ee one ,. 882

Lord tows Toland, climate of 512 Myths, Samoan... ... «.. 366

INDEX.

N E
w mineral substance eee
New South Wales paent uvedl6

Obituary 1894 el ae ree
476, 477, 488
we .. 476

Olivine basalt
-doleri :
Original Researches ae we eD
a my
Pentaceras australis 393, —
Pepper tree
Pittman, E. ols R.S.M., t. Notes
n ineral sub-
stances feo the Australian
roken dure ew Is Mine 48
Pilbara un 456

san "embryology ‘and de-

Paitin raion . 858
Ponape languag: 420
Possession “Island, geological
specimens from ce

Piosasdiugs of me Sections ... 566
— us Society ... 552
Pro so eee
Puadechis ‘porphyriacus .. 7 . 146
Railway lines, easing of curves on 51

Rainfall in Southern Riverina 492
Sidne d illus-

the om tty 8 of Net ~
Hawaii by the late Rev
Ne pee
Renn , On
Sect vaier! hand injures. 570
. 461
Russell, H. ae
peoheret in Phe ‘aoutoen

599

AGE

Sea-water, gold and silver in... 335

Sections, Proceedings of the 566
a ociated with gold

an rt 1. 404

Senga bird : . 366

sree = — ater 349
val sa Muntz metal

ing

he underdraining of the
Filter Beds at the eres

Sewag
Smeeth, Ww. sate . AR
Notes on Antaretie r rocks
Smith, Henry

tion

* 461

to ‘ce chemistry of
sp ogni =
a natural depodt of
set ata succinate in the
tim _ of Grevillea demer
. 825

— Contributions +
ledgeof age nig vegetable
s, No. 393

exudatio:
Southern Ovean, icebergs in ... 286
wood ” .. 400

« Stink .
esheets ornate .. 285
rabilis + 285

ol
Teniopteris Daintreet vem 410, 412
Thinnfeldia cE ORE . 410
f.

PoP tree ere =
Presi a ntial Addr

—s

ak
Timber bridge construction in

Oce
— The © sinkake ‘of Lord Howe Tinston none ” 323
I oe ne BAe Ne ae aseil 82
—— The great Met f May7 am i
1895 ae e ace , on 499 Teachytes of f the Canoblas an nd
mbungle Mountains 407

Ss
arian ciaeatieims _ ~~ 366
, 323
456
Scho vofeld, oA F.C.8
hah tes gett Antaretie Sake.
Schizo 394,

, Serub m iickory ”

Vv
—— exudations ...
yong ee

Venoms, toxic v: f bi 277
A ey e blood ... 161
— ity oe black

— agent of introduction... 2 3

600 INDEX.

GE PAGE
Venom, effect on the siheeialeieg. Water from Wyalong, analysis
echanism OS! of -. 406

—— — body hep. ste oui rors —— viscosity of ra eae
nervous sys Weather, Australian ... 513
respiratory Sahence 356 “White gum” ... xe 1
Tank berus wa --- 209 | White eens tree ...
Viscosity of water va .. 77) Wildlem ie oh

Ww Z
Water, artesian in N.S. Wales 7! Zinciferous galena_
—— —— in rocks other than
Cretaceous . . 408

EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS

MADE BY THE
ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES, 1895.

The Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of N.S.W. for 1895
Vol. xxrx., has been transmitted through the New South Wales
Government Board for International Exchanges, Public Library,

yaney :—
The Smi be Ne Institution, Washington, United States, am ey figs Messrs,
George Robert Co., 17 Warwick Square, Paternoster Row, w, Lon
ieee to receive and forward to ‘gyan ey all tert eer per ene
i Wales.

ao to the Society are acknowledged by letter, and in the Society’s Annual
Volum j
eee of dap nines have been received from the Societies and Institutions
distinguished by an asterisk.

Afri

1 Tunis c. ...*Institut de Carthage.

Argentine estonia
2 CoRDOBA ... ...*Academia Nacional de Cien
3.La Puara.. laste seems de Statistique de la Province

uénos Ayres
4 > S *Maseo. de La Plata, Provincia de Buenos Aires.
. Austria—Hun :

5 Aaram (Zagrab) ...*Société Archéologique Croate.
6 B a Pitcher der Gewerbeschule.
7 CRA .*Académie des Sciences.
8 yeni bes ‘*Naturwiseonschaftliche Vereins fiir Steiermark

n Gra
9 PRAGUE ... - *Koniglich Bohmische Gesellschaft der Wissen-

10 TRENCSIN ... : Oietacs ees Verein des Trencsiner
Komitates.
a TRIESTE ... .*Museo Civico di Stor ia Naturale.
a ...*Societa Adriatica di Scienze Naturali.
i3 Vimwa kes vs knteantioghelc Gesellschaft.
14 ey ...*Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften.
15 ee ae he de Cen aCaneats fiir Mataseologia ‘and
agnetismus.
1 py oe ..*K. K. Geographische Gesellschaft.
# hes or es K. Geologische er naga
18 2” IS ee radmessungs-Burea
19 s os or K. ' Natarhistorische Hofmaseums
ae tei ...*K. K. Zoologisch- e Gesellschaft.
21 ‘ es ce “*Section fiir Matasisde tas Osterreichischen-
Touristen Club

Belgium.
22 BRUSSELS ... ..*Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et de
Beaux Arts. i

EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS.

23 BRUSSELS ..,

28 Lrfaz

Luxeasouna
29 Mon

30 Rio pE JANEIRO...

31 SANTIAGO ...
32 CopENHAGEN

33 BoRDEAUX...

34 CAEN

41 Paris
ae
43,
eine
BB: ng

" 46 3”
ss,
cero
ye

SSSSSIAALSSLES

£8

oe
Be “asocieté Géologique
...* Société e des Sciences de Lié ége.

...*Institut Ro bacco Grand-Ducal de Luxembour

Musée Royale d’Histoire Naturelle de Belgique.
xelles

ee “sObeervat Royale de Bru

e Malacologique de Belgique
de Belgiqu
-* Société des Sciences, des Arts et des Lettres Sa
"tabs aut.

Brazil.
*Observatoire Impérial de Rio de Janeiro.

hili.
...*Sociedad Cientifica Alemana.

Denmark.

...*Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord.

France.

...¥Académie Nationale des Sciences, BelJles-Lettres

rts

e :
...¥ Académie Nationale des Sciences, Arts et Belles-

ettres,

...¥Académie des Sciences, soba et Belles-Lettres.
andie.

..*Société Géologique de Nor

ord.

a 1 ien - Marseille

...*Académie des Sciences et Lettre

...*Société des Sciences Waivclics a VOuest de la
rance

... “Académie des Sciences on Institut de France

. Bibliothéque de PUnive ité : la Sorbonne.
-*Comptoir Géologique ae ar
*Depot des Cartes et Plans cm i. Marine.

...*Ecole d’ A Anthropologie ue Paris.
Min

eee Hc sap des
Ecole Nor ea Supéricure

: ...*Ecole yoyteeh

. Faculté de Mice de Paris.

a ..* Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes.
pink

---*Société d’ Anthropologie.
am -*Société de Biolo
té di

. Société tite e de Pari
a. #Société = _eanadalebeg pour Y Industrie
onale.

Nat
*Société Entomologiqne de France.

el ...* Société Frangaise de Minéralogie.

EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS.

65 Paris ify Pe ment Francaise de Physique.

O62 oy en = iété de Géographie.

GF » ia Ma “Société Géologique de Fran

68 i» > iété Météorologique de Tebhbe.

C8553 oes Société Philotechnique.

BO ve ...*Société Zoologique de ter sac

71 St. ErrENNE ...*Société de Industrie Min

72 TouLousE ag Ane des Sciences, feanicidies et Belles-
ttres

73 VILLEFRANCHE-
-MER cap { Laboratoire de Zoologie.

Germany.
74, BREMEN .. _..*Naturwissenschaftliche Vereine zu Bremen.
45 BERLIN ... ... Deutsche Chemische Gesellschaft.
76 % aus es .*Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde.
77 Z ae ...* Koni aiglt ‘er espescepy ee Akademie der Wissen-

78 ” ig _Wkeoigiies Pranasioche an Se Instituts.
79 Bonn ek ...*Naturhistorischen Ver der Preussischen
Rheinlande, Westfalens all des Reg.-

Bezirks Osnabrii
80 Brunswick ...*Vereins fiir Naturwisse sonachatt zu Braunschweig.
81 CARLSRUHE ...*Grossherzoglich-Badische P olytechnische Schule.
82 re ‘ eo ake Sopot 20 na cher Verelis m ror et 5
83 CASSELL ... .- 2 Vers Naturkunde.
84 CHEMNITZ FE vor etiohe Gesellschaft zu Chemnitz.
85 DRESDEN ... ea “Koni glic ste See und Praehistorisches
a
86 is vat ts foftentlichs > Bibliot
87 53 gis _..¥*Statistische Bureau eo Ministeriums des Innern
u Dresden.
88 ‘3 He = *Vereins fiir Erdkunde zu Dresden
89 Exp *Naturwissenscheftlicher Verein in Elbe rfeld.
alm. Sen eich a ische Naturforschende sia
91 FrererG(Saxony) K Nich-Sachsische Berg-Akademi

92 nach (Baden *Natnsforchon nde Gesellsc
.* Ober! 7 e Gesellschaft ri Natur-und-Heil-

. *Na ade Ecueds Gesellschaft in Gorlitz.

94. GORLITZ ... ;
95 GoOTTINGEN Ja _.*Kénigliche — der Wissenschaften in
Gotting
96 Haute, AS. ...*Kaiserliche * Leopolina—Carolina Akademie der
Deutschen Naturforse
97 HaMBURG... ...*Deutsche Meteorologische Gesellschaft.
98 Fi ot << oamaCne Seewarte.
Ma ...*Geographische hey poser in Hamburg.
100 se at gigi sine waa seum.
101 pal sy *Verein fir fiir = Here ee cpamuahatiticks Unter-haltung
urg.
102 HEIDELBERG eae Medicinische Verein zu Heidel-
erg.
103 *Medicinisch Nat nschaftliche Gesellschaft.

JENA ae Gs
104 KonIGsBERG ‘ *Konigliche poh -Okonomische Gesell-

105 Lerpzie

109 eis
110 Mertz Ns
111 Mu.yHovuse
112 Mounic# ...

113 is sue
114 SrurregarRt
115 re eet

116 =

EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS.

eee ao Gesellschaft der Wissen-
hafte

we *Vorein afar ‘tr dkunde.

..*Na tushinboblichio Museum.

..-*Gesellschaft. ~— Beforderung der dummies
urg.

senschaften in Marbur
*Univ

ive ity.

< erenaine fiir Erdkunde zu Metz.

#S0i8t6 Industrielle de Mulhou

...*Koniglich soap Pocgrnaary ‘der - Wissen-
me ften nchen

é Botani ane vg si

.. Soe
“"'#Konigliches Statistische rT agiilult

; #*Verein iad Vaterlindische Naturkunde in

er,

Wiir
» Sey dittemmberpiashe Vereins fiir Handelsgeo-
graphie.

reat

117 BrruingHamu

2”
119 Brisron ...
120 CAMBORNE
121 CAMBRIDGE
122

33

123 i>

124 PP

125 Kew

126 Leeps

127

128 Livenroon
129 Lonpon
130

ee
132s,
ey
ie ee
eee
186): i
137 ly
18
meg
140 33
ee
me
M43,
144s,
146, i
a
ee
148s
a
Mee ee
a

Britain and the Colonies.

.*Birmingham and Midland} phono
ety.

...* Birmingham Philoss Sods Soc
...*Brist ol Nat secpeed Soci

ning Association and Cawiak of Cornwall.

Begg et
“-*Bhilosophieal Soci fet

ublic fae — ary.

: “eUaion Soc
es University brary

yal Garden
ds Philosophical and Literary Society.
*York shire Colleg

"eit and Philoso ophical Society.
...¥Aéronautical Society of oN at Britain.

gent-General (two copie

“4 Anthropological Lussivdte, of Great Britain and
Tre

2 Briti Baer
; Sante Socie
. Colonial Office, Downing Str

iE
. Institute of pants of Great Britain

Trelan
5 Winatibation ‘of Civil Engine
..-*Institution of Mechanical Drigineate:
""“#Institution of Naval Architects.
...*Iron and Steel Institute
...*Library, S outh Kensi ington Museum.
...* Linnean ie
vik — Institut:
...*Lords Com ainiacbnavi of the Admiralty.

Offi

vi sedbetioe :
...*Mineralogical Societ:

we *Physical Society of Lon
.--*Quekett Microscopical Gleb,

u eyes eco History).

Stor ,Encyclope Gi BMeannics, i ‘Soho patie

*M

*Pharmaceutical Soci ioty of ee Britain. ~

EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS.

152 LONDON .. ..*Royal Agricultural Society of England.
153 ys ay: ...*Royal Astronomical Socie
154 3 ...¥Royal hb of Physicians
155 is eed ‘oyal College of Surgeons.
156 en ...*Royal Colonial Shs bday
157 »s ...*Royal Geographical teat
158 4 ...*Royal Historical Socie
159 3 ...¥ Royal Institution ssa Britain.
160 a ...*Royal Meteorological Society
161 3 ...*Royal Microscopical Society
162 55 Loyal § f Mi
163 oi ae ...*Royal —
164 os a cel ‘oyal Socie of Literat
165 oy oo ...* Royal aaerd Service Institn tio
166 a * anitary gers of Great Britain.
167 mm 7 Tes ety of A
168 35 ie = ivan of E ondon
169. ‘5 ea ...* War Offic o— (Intelligence oe
170 s evs ...¥*Zoological Socie
171 Mancuester _ ...*Conchologica al he
172 x ...*Literary and Philos ephieal a
173 io ..*Manchester ae ogical Society.
174 2S Owens Colle
175 Mirr LE ..¥ Yorkshire Gaaloatcal and Polytechnic Society.
176 Neweastus-vP0%- \ ‘*Natural History Society of No a
TYNE.. exe Durham and Ne ee n-T'yn
177 se ...¥ North ee England — e of Mining and
Mec nginee
178 ae . Society of Chemical taceairy.
179 OXFORD ... *Bodleian Library.
80 PA ee "*Radcliffe Lee:
181 ~ aes eal ca Observatory.
182 PENZANCE *Royal Geolo. coed ‘tay of Cornwall.
183. PurymouTs ee Plymouth Institution eve Devon and Cornwall
atural History Society.
184 WINDSOR ... . The our s Libra
“CAPE OF GOOD Bore.
185 Cape TOWN _..*South African Philosophical Society.
CEYLON.
186 CoLOMBO... ..*Royal Asiatic Society, bende Branch).

DOMINION OF CANA
187 ge saith (Nova »*Nova Scotian pepe ee Y Hetatine,

188 HaminTron (Ont) i geal Assoc
189 MonTREAL al History Socisty of Montreal.

90 ” eee ast o :
191 OTTAWA ... eae and Natural cngomat Survey of Canada.
Society.

ay o
192 QUEBEC .... ... * Literary ails torical
a. TORONTO ... ...*Canadian Inst ita.
« ...* University.
195 Winwipre ‘""*Manitoba Historical and Scientific Society.

196 CALCUTTA ...¥Asiatic Society of Bengal.
197 » eve ...*Geological Survey of India.

EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS.

198 DuBLIn
199

32>
201 Kineston...

202 Port Louis
203

33

204 Ricumonp
SYDNEY ...

207 ”
208
209 2?
210 ry)
211 re
212s
213_—(ss,
214 2
215 re
216 »
oe SS
218 2
219 ”
220 ra
221 i

222 AUCKLAND
223 saath ego
2 NE a
225 A gett
226

>»

227 e »

228 BRISBANE...
230 ue ;
23 1 2?

232 Pe

233 ne

234 ABERDEEN
235 EpINBURGH
236 se

IRELAND.
Royal Dublin Soc

iety.
yal Geo eclogieal wate of Ireland.

.--*Royal Irish Academ

AMAICA.
...¥*Institute of Jamaica.

MAURITIUS.

...*Royal Society of Arts and Sciences.

Société d’Acclimatation de le Maurice.

NEW SOUTH WALES.
Hawkesbury Soman College.

...* Australian Mus
...™Department of "Mines and Agriculture.

""t0hservatory
...*Public

a Sone me of Public Instruction.
--’ Engineering Association of tee South Wales.
atistician.

a
}
4
©
a
8
B
&
ae,
of
el

“sLincan Society vo New South Wales.
.*Min

me. hearse
eh vec Railways Institute.

hikes
...*Public Works ; ent.
...¥Royal Geographical Society of Australasia (New
nch).

South Wales Bra
... School of Arts.
ne _ rechnologica Muse
*United 1 Servic patina of New South Wales.

Pee eee ie
.

eUnive

NEW Cem
*Auckland Ins

oe Philosophical institets of Canterbury.
Ota —

“goto a

eala: ae aida
ety.

. : eke dion Socie

UEENSLAND.

Beg" a Society of a
-*Geologi urvi and.

plas al. Society of Australasia
Bg Coreen, Branch).

...*Royal Society of Queensland.

SCOTLAND.

e rsity.
* eBdinberoe h Geological Socie

oan and eo dr itagaggy Seolaty of Scotland.
tani

‘Sa Sbacreaie
...*Royal Physical acids.

EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS.

240 EpINBURGH
241 ”
242 Ps
243 GLASGOW ...
244 a ee

245 m gh
246 St. ANDREWS

247 ADELAIDE...

250 >»
251 ap
252 »
253 ”»
254 »

255 SINGAPORE

HOBART ...
257 LAUNCESTON

258 BALLARAT
259 YBOROUGH
260 MELBOURNE
261 ”

262 ”»

263 ”»

264 ”

265 ”

266 »

267 ”

268 ”

269 »

270 ”

27rl ”
972 STAWELL ...

273 PERTH

274, PortT-AU-PRINCE ..,

275 BOLOGNA ...

277 FLORENCE...

“ oye Scottish Geographical Society.
= :*

.*Roy cad
*Unive

i “eGoologioal Society of Glasgow.
...*Philosophical Society of Glasgow.

-*University.

"..* Universi ity.

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

ess Beckie ose paca Ne South Australia.
vee OW

sGorernment oH rinte
tory.

...#Obse
iy "*Publie Tekin: Museum, and Art Gallery of
Sou

th Australia.

...*Royal bet’ graphical sea d of Australasia
ranch).

(South ralian B

...*Royal Society va South Australia.
...* University.

STRAITS SETTLEMENTS.

.. *Royal Asiatic Society (Straits Branch).

TASMANIA.
.*Royal Society of Tasmai

2 ‘*Geological Survey of Piohaia

VICTORIA.

...*School of eon and Ind

ustri
. District School of Mines, Industries and Science.
f Vi

...*Field Naturalists’ Club o ctori
ae rnment B i

eral.
e “Royal ‘Geogeaphical Society of Australasia (Vic-

Sea ‘Society ra Victoria.

...*Unive

VIS alan Institute of Surveyors.

...* Working Men’s College.

...*School of Mines, Art, Industry, and Science.

WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

...¥ Museum.

Hayti.
Société de Sciences et de Géographie.
Ital

y:
ccademia ee Scienze dell’ Istituto.
fF xa a.

i. rsita di
“ *#Societd. pracy d’Italia (Sezione Fiorentina).

EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS.

278 FLORENCE .--*Societa pores gre Italiana
cS te ..*Soc — Italiana di | Antropologin e di Etnologia.

280 GENOA : ...*Museo Civi ie a Naturale.

281 Minan ... 5 een Istituto ikabasae di Scienze Lettere ed

282 ts a : a alin di Scienze Naturali.

283 MopEna ... Pees cademia di oe Lettere ed Arti.

284 NAPLEs ... 0 ak Pinca at

285 S Ae Jagr Reale di Napoli (Accademia delle Scienze
Fisiche e Matematiche).

86 i vas *Statione teologion rrr Ts De hrn).

287 PaLerRMo... F .*Re ale is wage Palermitana di Scienze Lettere
e

288 Pisa ie ... Reale a tuto Teenic

a sae ...*Societa Toscana di eketind Natura i.

290 Rome ies ...*Accademia Ponti ficia de Nuovi Lincei.

201. a ...*Biblioteca e peasetn itsnaiec (Ministero dei
Lavori Pubblico is

Zoe 2 eee fsent-qeaeh dei Lin

a! 5 eae ay .*R. Comitato Gelogico 2 Italia

ee igen we ; _#R. ee son fen rale di Meteorologico e di Geo-

dinamico.
...*Societa Geograsia Tt

4 oe talia
296 SIENA... ...*R. Accademia dei Fisiocritici in Siena.
207 Topin: -.-*Reale gained della Scienz
298 a ...*Regio Osservatorio della payin Universita.
299 VENICE oe ot “*Resle Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti.
Japan,
300 Toxto ease eect e nd oo (formerly in Yokohama)
Sel a rial University.
302s, eR Rac os erate elas of Japan.
Java. ~
303 Batavia ... rtd |e Natuurkundige Vereeniging. in Nederl-Indié
Mexico.
304 Mexico .,, ...*Sociedad Cientifica “Antonio Alzate.”
Netherlands,
305 AMSTERDAM -*Académie Royale des noite

d
-ASoiets Zimslo de Zoolo

307 HaaRuem... “Bibliotheque de Musée vie.
*Col

a wei olonial Museum.

309 - or *Bocibté Hollandaise des Sciences.
Borway.

310 Bercen ... ee

311 CHRISTIANIA ""*Kongelige Norske Fredericks barreepoet

31 es i Christian

313 Tromso ..*Museu

oumania.
314 BucHarzst ...*Institutul Meteorologic al Rouminiei.

EXCHA

NGES AND PRESENTATIONS.

sia.
..*Société des Sciences de Finlande.

315 HELSINGFORS
316 KrIeFrF si *Société des Naturalistes
317 Moscow -.*Société Impériale des ‘Naturalists.
318 s "_.*Soeiété Impériale des Amis des Sciences Nat
elles d’ An Pcalnoia: “at d’ Ethnographie
Moscow (Section @ Anthropologie).
319 Sr. Pererspure ...*Académie Impériale des Sciences,
320 Fe ...*Comité Géologique—Institut des Mines.
n.
321 Maprip . Instituto geografico y Estadistico.
Sweden.
322 SrocKHOLM Si ee Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademien.
323 is .*Kongliga Universitete
324 UPpsaLa . Kongliga Vetenskaps Societeten.
Switzerla nd.

325 BERNE ...* Société de Géograp steed poe:
326 GENEVA _*Institut National pe
327 LAUSANNE *Société Vaudois - Sclcnies Nature
328 NEUCcHATEL *Société des Sci s Naturelles de N renee
329 Ic . ‘Shatectorwhones "G@esellabhatte

United States of America.
330 .*New York nor Library, Albany.
331 Awsaronis( (Md.) a a: Academ,
332 *Johns Ho opkina University.
333 Beworr (Wis) *Chief Geologist.
334 Br pesca of Californ
335 Bos’ merican Academy of Arts soa Sciences.
336 oe pie Sooke of Natural Histo
337 ‘ ibrary of Massachusett
338 geste: (Ind.)* Brookville Society of Natural History
339 Academy of Se
340 Burra ALo (In Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences

Ent ct

2»

343 CHICAGO ...
344 a ree

d.) .
CAMBRIDGE (Mass. ahaa

ollege.
is Academy of Scienc
: n Medical iccintien ~The Newberry

of Com

ear ‘ra rary.
*Cincinnati Society of Natural History.

345 CINCINNA’

846 CoLpWwa ichigan Library Association

B47 alae ale (Iowa)*Academy of Natural Sciences

348 DENVE olorado Scie Society.

349 Fort Mowsss(Va. ye Jnited States Artillery School.

350 H n (N.J.) ...*Steven’s Institute of Technology

351 Iowa Crry (Iowa) *] director Iowa Weather Service
logi poate of Missouri

ademy of Sciences, Arts

354
355 NewHAVEN (Conn) bps
pd New Yor

357 am

358 »

..*Am
ga sna Institute of cieae Divine:

esota ciate emy of N e
‘onnecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences.
*Am eric. an Chemical Saniaty.

an Geographical So

ur-

a

Letters.

EXCHANGES AND PRESENTATIONS.

359 New Yorr : - American Museum of Natural erik
Pr ..." American Ssugprie of Civil En
361 = "#Rditor Journal of Calwaticg "Medicine and
stanky Archives.
362 re -.-*New York Academy of Sciences.
roy Box York Microscopical Society.
chool of Mines, Columbia College
pee Pato Auto (Cal. ¥ “*Geologieal Survey of Arkansas
366 PHILADELPHIA ... *Academy of Natural Science.
367 * -.-*American Entomological Set
368 a -..-* American tberrirt ay cal Socie
369 “A ...*Franklin I
370 _ seen see of Sie
371 si Ps de can a ee Institute of Science

2 oologi 1 Society of cai ia.
373 RocuEstsr (N. Y. ) «Geological Society of Am

374 Satem (Mass.) . i :
75 a “Tasttiats
*Academ

376 Sr. Louis see

ss x ] den.
878 San Francisco ...*California Academy of Sciences.
37: a alifornia State Mining Bureau.

380 Scranron (Pa.) .. The Colliery Engineer Co.
381 oe “y sureau of Waucation! Hotdctacnt of the Interior).
382 ...™ Bureau of Ethnol
383 a ...*Chief of Engineers (War Department).
384 Pe ---*Chief of Ordnance (War Departme se
385 F -..*Department of Agriculture, Libra.
386 oe ...* Department of ier ea Wea thee Bureau.
387 i ...-* Director of the M dosecenged Department).
388 si ... “Library (Navy Depattrs ae
389 au ...*National Academ y of ont
390 ia ...* Office a Indian ” Affai irs (Denegtii ale of the
Interior).
391 2» Ps inal Piilncobicsl Society.
392 . ...*Secretary Depatacas of the Interior).
393 a ..*Secretary (Treasury Departm ment),
394 ne ...*Smithsonian Institution.
395 ‘3 ...*Surgeon peers (U.S. Army).
396 re ..*U. S. Coast and Geodetie Survey (Treasury
397 pa wea ae eee |
398 ae we National Minas ( Department of the
Fs nterior
399 rs -U: -: Puttak Office.
r Department.
N anaber of PON sent to a Britain i Be

» » India = the Colonies i ee

a 5s Ameri ie ete i é

2» 2 Baise vice 2 168

2 9 Asia, Africa, ‘&e. oe

33 2» Editors of Periodic: als eos 4

a
J. H. yet Ceniae } Hon. Se Sicrebasios

Spdnep:
F. W. Ware, Printer, 39 MarKeT STREET. —

1896,