In the Press, in Tii<o Vohimes, Cro-ini %vo., ii>ith numerous

Illustrations,

THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE,

BY

THE SAME AUTHOR.

jf onion anb |Te(ri ^lorh:
M A C M I L L A N AND C O.

LOWEST ORGANISMS.

Fig. i.

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Fig. i.— The simplest forms of Lite— Bacteria, Torula, ire.
Fig. 2. — Bacteria, Pibriones, and Leptothrix filaments.
(X 800 diameters.)

THE MODES OF ORIGIN

OF

LOWEST ORGANISMS:

INCLUDING

A DISCUSSION OF THE EXPERIMENTS
OF M. PASTEUR,

AND A REPLY TO SOME STATEMENTS BY PROFESSORS

HUXLEY AND TYNDALL.

BY H. CHARLTON BASTIAN, M.A., M.D., F.R.S.,

FELLOW OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS ;

PROFESSOR OF PATHOLOGICAL ANATOMY IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON ;
ASSISTANT PHYSICIAN TO UNIVERSITY COLLEGE HOSPITAL, AND TO THE NATIONAL HOSPITAL

FOR THE EPILEPTIC AND PARALYSED.

Bonbon anfr $Jefo |Jork:
MACMILLAN AND CO.

1871.

[A II rights reserved. ]

" QUANT i ce qui concerne la pre"tendue incubation d'oeufs d'Infusoires dans
I'infusion, il fandrait d'abord prouver 1'existence de ces ceufs. Les dit on trop
petits pour etre apergus, c'est avouer qu'on ne peut rien savoir de leur existence.

* * * Croire que partout oil Ton rencontre des Infusoires, ils ont ete precedes d'oeufs,
c'est done admettre une pure hypothese, qui n'a d'autre fondement que 1'analogie.

* * * Si c'est seulement par 1'analogie qu'on suppose des oeufs chez eux, il faut
accorder a ces osufs des proprietes semblables a celles de tous ies ceufs connus ; car
ce serait jouer sur Ies mots que de supposer qu'ils en ont de particulieres a eux
seuls." — BURDACH'S Traite de Physiologic, Translation by Jourdan, 1837, l- i->

. 22.

LONDON : PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET,

AND CHARING CROSS.

PREFACE.

HAVING been compelled by the results of my
investigations on the question of the Origin of
Life to arrive at conclusions adverse to generally
received opinions, I found that several persons
having high authority in matters of science, were
little disposed to assent to these views. To a
great extent this seemed due to the fact that
a distinguished chemist had previously gone over
some of the same ground, and had arrived at
precisely opposite conclusions. M. Pasteur has been
long known as an able and brilliant experimenter,
and some of his admirers seem to regard him
as an almost equally faultless reasoner.

Renewed and prolonged experimentation having
tended to demonstrate the truth of my original
conclusions, and to convince me of the utter
untenability of M. Pasteur's views, it seemed
that the best course to pursue would be, at first,
to endeavour to show into what errors of reasoning

39671

viii PREFACE.

M. Pasteur had fallen, and also how his con-
clusions were capable of being reversed by the
employment of different experimental materials,
and different experimental methods. Then, having
presented, in a connected form, evidence which
might suffice to shake the faith of all who
preserved a right of independent judgment, one
might hope to have paved the way for the recep-
tion of new views — even though they were adverse
to those of M. Pasteur. The present volume con-
tains, indeed, only a fragment of the evidence
which will be embodied in a much larger work —
now almost completed — relating to the nature
and origin of living matter, and in favour of
what is termed the physical doctrine of Life.

The question of the mode of origin of Living
Matter, is inextricably mixed up with another pro-
blem as to the cause of fermentation and putrefaction.
M. Pasteur's labours were, at first, undertaken in
order to solve the latter difficulty — to decide,
in fact, between two rival hypotheses. It was
held, on the one hand, that many ferments
were mere dead nitrogenous substances, and that
fermentation was a purely chemical process, for
the initiation of which the action of living organ-
isms was not necessary ; whilst, on the other hand,

PREFACE. ix

it was also maintained that no fermentation could
be initiated without the agency of living things —
in fact, that all ferments were living organisms.
The former may be called the physical theory of
fermentation, of which Baron Liebig is the most
prominent modern exponent ; whilst the latter may
be termed the vital theory of fermentation, and this
is the doctrine of M. Pasteur. All the facts which
I have to adduce, so far as the subject of fermenta-
tion is concerned, are wholly in favour of the
views of Baron Liebig.

And, the conclusions arrived at in this work are
confirmed by the results of several unpublished
experiments, in which living organisms have been
taken from flasks that had, a few weeks before, been
hermetically sealed and heated for a variable time to
temperatures ranging from 260° F. to 302° F.

With the view of aiding some of my readers
in their interpretation of the results of some of
the experiments contained in this volume, I would
call their attention to the following considerations.
If fluids in vacuo (in hermetically-sealed flasks),
which were clear at first, have gradually become
turbid ; and if on microscopical examination this
turbidity is found to be almost wholly due to the
presence of Bacteria or other organisms, then it

PREFACE.

would be sheer trifling gravely to discuss whether
the organisms were living or dead, on the strength of
the mere activity or languor of the movements which
they may be seen to display. Can dead organisms
multiply in a closed flask to such an extent as to
make an originally clear fluid become quite turbid
in the course of two or three days ?

And if any one wishes to convince himself as to
whether such turbidity can occur in a flask which is
still hermetically sealed, let him take one that has
been prepared in the manner I have elsewhere des-
cribed, carefully heat the neck of it in a spirit-lamp
flame, and see how the rapid in-bending of the red-
hot glass testifies to the preservation of a partial
vacuum within. The vacuum in such cases is only
partially preserved, because of the emission of a
certain amount of gases within the flask — such as
invariably occurs during the progress of fermenta-
tion or putrefaction.

In these experiments with heated fluids in closed
flasks, nothing is easier than to obtain negative
results. The same kinds of infusions which — if
care has been taken to obtain them strong enough-
will in a few days teem with living organisms, often
show no trace of living things after much longer
periods, when the solutions are weak. Again, in

PREFACE. xi

those cases where only a few organisms exist in
a solution which has been made the subject of
experimentation, nothing is easier than by a per-
functory examination of the fluid to fail in finding
any of these sparsely-distributed living organisms.
Experiments, the results of which are positive,
may, therefore, in the absence of sufficient care,
be cited as negative ; and experiments which
would otherwise have been crowned with tmmis-
takeably positive results, may be rendered wholly
barren by the employment of infusions which have
been carelessly made.

A word of explanation seems necessary with
regard to the introduction of the new term
Archebiosis. I had originally, in unpublished writ-
ings, adopted the word Biogenesis to express
the same meaning - - viz., life-origination or com-
mencement. But in the mean time the word Bio-
genesis has been made use of, quite independently,
by a distinguished biologist, who wished to make
it bear a totally different meaning. He also intro-
duced the word A biogenesis. I have been informed,
however, on the best authority, that neither of these
words can — with any regard to the language from
which they are derived — be supposed to bear the
meanings which have of late been publicly assigned

b

xii PREFA CE.

to them. Wishing to avoid all needless confusion,
I therefore renounced the use of the word Bio-
genesis, and being, for the reason just given, unable
to adopt the other term, I was compelled to intro-
duce a new word, in order to designate the process
by which living matter is supposed to come into
being, independently of pre-existing living matter.

H. CHARLTON BASTIAN.

Queen Anne Street,
May 8, 1871.

THE MODES OF ORIGIN

OF

LOWEST ORGANISMS.

THE mode of origin of Bacteria, and, to a less extent,
of TorulcB, has been much discussed of late, and many
different views have been advocated on this subject by
successive writers.

It is of much importance to bear in mind when such
views are under consideration, that a short time since
nothing was positively known concerning the life-
history of these organisms. However strongly, there-
fore, certain persons are inclined to rely upon the
analogy which is supposed to obtain between these
doubtful cases, and the multitudes of known cases
-in which it can be shown that organisms are the
offspring of pre-existing organisms — it must always
be borne in mind that in many of the doubtful cases,
where the simplest organisms are concerned, there is
also an analogical argument of almost equal weight
adducible in favour of their de novo origination -
after a fashion, and under the influence of laws

B

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

similar to those by which crystals arise. To rely
too exclusively upon an argument from analogy is
always perilous : it is more than usually so, how-
ever, in a case like this, where what is practically
an opposing analogy may be deemed to speak just
as authoritatively in an opposite direction.

There is one consideration, moreover, which deserves
to be pointed out here, and which does not seem to
have occurred to most of those who so firmly pin their
faith to the truth of the motto " omne vivum ex vivo''
The every-day experience of mankind, supplemented
by the ordinary observations of skilled naturalists, does
pretty fairly entitle us to arrive at a wide generaliza-
tion, to the effect that some representatives of every
kind of organism are capable of reproducing similar
organisms. But, whilst this is all that the actual
every-day experience of mankind warrants being said,
and whilst there is in reality the widest possible gulf
between such a generalization and that which is ex-
pressed by the motto " omne vivum ex vivo" the
latter formula has of late been spoken of as though
it were the one which was in accordance with the daily
experience of mankind, rather than the other, which
gives expression to a generalization of a much nar-
rower description. This experience, in reality, affords
no evidence which could entitle us to place implicit
belief in the formula " omne vivum ex vivo''

Whilst we do know something about the ability
which most organisms possess of reproducing similar

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

organisms, we cannot possibly say, from direct ob-
servation, that every organism which exists has had
a similar mode of origin, because the cases in which
organisms may have originated de novo are the very
cases in which their mode of origin must elude our
actual observation. Such a statement, too, would be
all the more dangerous, in the face of the other
analogy, when it can actually be shown that some
organisms do make their appearance in fluids after
precisely the same fashion as crystals.

Although, therefore, there is a contradiction between

O '

the unwarrantable and ill-begotten formula, " omne
vivum ex vivo!' and the doctrines of what has been
called " Spontaneous Generation"; there is no con-
tradiction whatever between such doctrines and the
only generalization which we are really warranted
in arriving at, to the effect that some representatives
of every kind of organism are capable of reproducing
similar organisms.

Bacteria, Torula, or other living things which may
have been evolved de novo, when so evolved, multiply
and reproduce just as freely as organisms that have
been derived from parents.

The views as to the origin of Bacteria and Torula
which are most worthy of attention, may be thus
enumerated : —

a. That they are independent organisms derived by
fission or gemmation from pre-existing Bacteria and
Tc rules,

B 2

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

b. That they represent subordinate stages in the
life-history of other organisms (fungi), from some
portion of which they have derived their origin, and
into which they again tend to develop.

c. That they may have a heterogeneous mode of
origin, owing to the more complete individualization
of minute particles of living matter entering into the
composition of higher organisms, both animal and
vegetal.

d. That they may arise de novo in certain fluids
containing organic matter, independently of pre-
existing living things (Archebiosis).

I shall make some remarks concerning each of these
views, though the evidence I have to adduce mainly
concerns the possibility of the origin of Bacteria and
Torukz in the way last alluded to, viz., by Archebiosis.

The third mode of origin is what is called He-

o

terogenesis ; whilst the first and second modes are
the representatives of more familiar processes, in-
cluded under the head of Homogenesis. Thus, in
accordance with the first view, Bacteria may be
regarded as low organisms having a distinct indi-
viduality of their own and multiplying by a process
of fission — thus affording instances of what I propose
to term direct Homogenesis. Whilst, in accordance
with the second view, Bacteria are supposed to repre-
sent merely one stage in the life-history of higher
organisms, which are therefore reproduced by an in-
direct or cyclical process of Homogenesis.

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGAXISMS.

The possible modes of origin of Bacteria and
Tonilce may, therefore, be tabulated as follows :-

f a. Direct.
Modes of origin f i- Homogenesis. j ^ indirect.

of Bacteria and < 2. Heterogenesis.
70™^- I 3. Archebiosis.

i. HOMOGENETIC MODE OF ORIGIN OF BACTERIA

AND TORUL/E.

Bacteria and Tonilcs being already in existence,
they may, undoubtedly, reproduce organisms similar
to themselves by processes of fission and gemma-
tion — in the same way that other low protistic
organisms propagate their kind. Although so many
reasons rendered this view probable, it was some
time before I was able actually to confirm it by
personal observations in the case of Bacteria. In the
ordinary microscopical examination of portions of an
infusion containing these organisms, an observer may
watch for hours and never see a single instance of

o

such fission occurring. His attention is apt to be dis-
tracted by the number of organisms which are con-
stantly flitting before his view, and he is, moreover,
perhaps apt to pay particular attention to those which
seem by their movements to be most obviously alive.
I have observed the process most plainly when a
few Bacteria have been enclosed in a single drop of
fluid, pressed into a very thin stratum, in a " live-box '
kept at a temperature of about 90° Fahr. by resting

ORIGIAT OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

on one of Strieker's warm-water chambers placed on
the stage of the microscope. Under these conditions,
I have seen a Bacterium of moderate size divide into
two, and each of these into two others somewhat
smaller, in the course of fifteen minutes.

It is still more worthy of remark, that in all cases
(so far as I have been able to observe), this, the most
certain sign of vitality which such organisms are
capable of manifesting, is shown by those which,
from their stillness, might be considered dead. The
Bacteria which are about to divide are generally either
motionless,* or merely present slight oscillating move-
ments. The separation is quickly brought about at
the joint, so that the original organism divides into
two equal portions ; and these, lying close together,
soon develop a new construction as they grow, through
which a further division may occur.

That the Bacteria which reproduce should be in a
comparatively -quiescent condition, seems not difficult
to understand. Such rudimentary organisms do not ap-
pear to possess cilia or other locomotory appendages :
their movements are, therefore, in all probability de-
pendent upon the mere molecular changes which are
taking place within them, and upon which their life
.and nutrition depend. The process of fission must,
however, be considered as the result of a new effort at

Those which are quite motionless are always in close
apposition either with the under surface of the covering glass, or
with the surface of the glass on which they are situated.

OR I G IX OF LOWEST ORGANISMS,

equilibrium, which has, perhaps, been necessitated
by molecular changes that have occurred during a
preceding period of growth. The living matter which
is no longer able to exist round a single centre,
re-arranges itself around two centres, — as a result of
which, fission occurs. It seems only natural, there-
fore, that whilst this active work of molecular re-
arrangement is going on, those other molecular
movements which occasion the actual locomotion
of the organism from place to place, should be more
or less interfered with.

This is the one and only mode of multiplication of
Bacteria and of Torulce which is actually known to
occur ; and such a limitation is in accordance with the
more general fact, that processes of fission or gemma-
tion are the only means of reproduction that are known
to occur in the lower kinds of organisms, belonging to
the PROTISTIC kingdom.

However well this process of fission may have
been established, as a frequent mode of reproduction
of Bacteria, such a fact does not lend any support to
the notion that these are necessarily distinct and
independent organisms. Torulce (of which beer-yeast
is the most familiar example) may similarly undergo
this process of mere vegetative repetition to an
indefinite extent, whilst only some of the products
develop into fungi. The gonidia of lichens may also
reproduce indefinitely in this fashion, and only some
of the products of multiplication may go on to the

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

production of lichens similar to that from which the
gonidia had been derived.

It is a fact, however, admitted by many, and
which any patient microscopist is capable of verifying
.for himself, that some Bacteria do develop into
Leptothrix filaments, and that these are capable of
passing into a dissepimented mycelial structure of
larger size and undoubtedly fungus nature — from
which fructification of various kinds may be produced.
Some Bacteria may therefore develop into some
fungi, just as certainly as some Torulce may develop
into other fungi, or, just as surely as some multiply-
ing gonidia may develop into lichens.

In order to prove, however, that the Bacteria which
happen to go through this development into Lepto-
tlirix and thence into fungi, are strictly to be
considered as necessary links in the life-history of
fungi, it would be essential for the person holding
such views, to show that Bacteria could not arise
independently — or at least that no independently
evolved Bacteria could develop through Leptothrix-
forms into a fungus. And, similarly, for the other
kinds of organisms : in order to establish that the

o

Tornla cell is a necessary link in the life-history of
certain fungi, or the gonidial cell a necessary link in
the life-history of lichens, it would be necessary to
show that Torulce or gonidial cells could not originate
de noi'o — that no independently evolved Tornla or go-
i-dial cell could develop into a fungus or a lichen.

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

An easier position to establish would be, that the
Bacterium or the Tontla were occasionally links in the
life-history of fungi, or that the gonidial cell was an
occasional link in the life-history of a lichen. This
doctrine would leave the other more difficult problems,
— as to the possible existence of supplementary
modes of origin for such organisms by Heterogenesis
or by Archebiosis — perfectly open questions.

To establish the position that Bacteria are occa-
sional links in the life-history of fungi, it would be
only necessary to show that some of the Bacteria
which develop into fungi through Leptothrix have
derived their origin from pre-existing fungi. This is
the view which Hallier* has endeavoured to establish ;
it is also the doctrine of M. Polotebnow,t and one,
moreover, to which Professor Huxley J inclines. Even
this mode of origin for Bacteria, however, has not been
so decisively established as might be desired. With
regard to Tornlce, we do possess sufficient evidence
tending to show that some of them may arise from
pre-existing fungi, and we are equally certain that
some gonidial cells are thrown off from lichens. The
analogical evidence is, therefore, in favour of the view
that minute particles which are budded off from the
mycelium of certain fungi, may subsequently lead an

* Phytopathologie, 1867. Hallier seems, however, strongly
inclined to disbelieve in the origin of these organisms by Hete-
rogenesis or by Archebiosis.

t Sitzungsber. der K. Akacl. zu Wien, 1870, Band lx.-, Heft iv.

t Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, Oct., 1870,

io ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

independent existence, and multiply in the form of
Bacteria — although many of the cases in which such
buds scan to be given off, may be merely cases in
which co-existing Bacteria have become adherent to
fungus filaments or to Torulce*

But, with reference to these supposed cases of bud-
ding, and also to those others in which the contents of
a spore or sporangium break up into what Professor
Hallier calls " micrococci ' (which are generally inci-
pient Bacteria], it would be difficult for us to decide
whether such processes are normal or abnormal.
When we have to do with such organisms, in fact,
there may be the nicest transitions between what is
called Homogenesis, and what, when occurring in
other organisms, we term Heterogenesis. It may be
that the production of such " micrococci ' from the
spore or sporangium of the fungus is not an invariable
incident in the life-history of the species, but rather an
occasional result of the influence of unusual conditions,
or of failing vigour on the part of the organism. In
this latter case we should have to do with a process of

* Notwithstanding what Professor Huxley has said, I believe
it to be almost certain that in many cases Bacteria exist in a
solution in which there are neither Torulce nor developed fungi.
And, on the other hand, I have seen fungi growing in a simple
(boiled) solution of tartrate of ammonia, for weeks together,
without the appearance of Bacteria or the occurrence of any
turbidity of the solution ; and on two or three occasions I have
seen Torulce swarming in an infusion without the presence of
Bacteria.

ORIGIN OF LO WES T OR GA NISMS. 1 1

Heterogenesis ; although, as I have just stated, in
respect to such low and changeable organisms,
scarcely any distinct line of demarcation can be drawn
between Homogenesis and Heterogenesis.

The evidence seems, therefore, against the notion
that Bacteria or Torulce are ordinary, independent
living things, which merely reproduce their like.

That some Bacteria are produced from pre-existing
Bacteria, just as some Tornlce are derived from pre-
existing Tornlce, may, it is true, be considered as
settled. But, so far as we have yet considered the
subject, there may be just as good evidence to show
that Bacteria and Tor nice are capable of arising de
novo, as there is that some of them are capable of
developing into fungi.

If this were the case, such types could only be
regarded as the most common forms assumed by
new-born specks of living matter ; and, by reason of
their orisrin — which would entail an absence of all

o

hereditary predisposition — they might be supposed to
be capable of assuming higher developmental forms.

Now, as a matter of fact, worthy of arresting our
attention, we do find that some Bacteria are capable of
growing into Leptothrix, whilst this is able to develop
continuously into a fungus ; just as we also know
that some Tor nice are capable of growing into other
fungi.

Should it be established, therefore, that Bacteria
and Tornlce are capable of arising dc novo, the facts

1 2 ORIGIN OF LO IV ES T OR GA NISUS.

concerning their mutability are harmonious enough
with theoretical indications.

But, as I have before indicated, although it is quite
true that some Bacteria develop into fungi, such forms
may constitute no necessary links in the life-history of
other fungi. I have suggested that in those (occa-
sional) cases in which they do occur as links in the life-
history of fungi, there is room for doubt whether these
Bacteria are to be considered as normal products, or
as abnormal results (heterogeneous offcasts), brought
about by some unusual conditions acting upon the
parent fungus. That is to say, we may be doubtful
whether in such a case their origin ought to be con-
sidered Homogenetic or Heterogenetic. It may be
that many of the lower fungi are such changeable
organisms, and so prone to respond to the various
" conditions" acting upon them (which would be almost
certainly the case if they had been developed from a
Bacterium in two or three days — the Bacterium itself
having been evolved de novo) that no very valid dis-
tinction can here be drawn between Homogenesis and
Heterogenesis Our whole point of view, in fact, con-
cerning such fungi as are seen to develop through
Leptothrix forms from Bacteria must be entirely
altered, if it is once conceded that Bacteria may arise
de novo. Such simple Mucedinece would then have to
be regarded as mere upstart organisms only a few
removes from dead matter, and — in view of the greater
molecular mobility of living matter — capable of being

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS. 13

modified in shape and form even more than the most
changeable crystals under the influence of altering
" conditions." We should have no longer to do with

o

the members of a stable species, which had been repro-
ducing its like through countless geologic ages anterior
to the advent of man upon the earth. Indeed, in
order to reconcile such a possibility with the seem-
ingly contradictory fact of the known extreme change-
ability of these lower forms of life, we hear only vague
hints thrown out about our imperfect knowledge of
the "limits within which species may vary." As if, in
the face of what we do know concerning hereditary
transmission, this changeability did not make it
almost impossible to conceive that there should have
been an unbroken series of such organisms since that
remote epoch of the earth's history, when the first
organisms of the kind made their appearance. It does
not seem to me that the presumed permanence of a
very changeable organism is consistent with, or ren-
dered more explicable by, the supposition that some
representatives of the species have constantly been
undergoing progressive modifications which have been
successively perpetuated by inheritance, in the shape
of distinct specific forms. Why should some be pre-
sumed to have undergone so much change, whilst
others (presenting an equal and an extreme degree of
modifiability, even to the present day) are supposed
to have preserved the same specific form through a
countless series of changing influences ?

14 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

2. HETEROGENETIC MODE OF ORIGIN OF BACTERIA

AND OF TORUL^E.

It has been long known that Bacteria and Torulce
are frequently to be found within vegetable cells,
taken even from the central parts of plants, whenever
these are in a sickly condition or are actually dying.
They are apt to exist also within epithelial cells taken
from the inside of the mouth ; and the frequency and
abundance with which such organisms are met with in

o

these cells, is almost in direct proportion to the mal-
nutrition and lack of vital power in the individual who
is the subject of observation. Then, again, in persons
who have died of adynamic diseases, in the course of
twenty-four or thirty-six hours (during warm weather)
Bacteria may be found in abundance within the blood-
vessels of the brain and of other parts, although no
such Bacteria were recognizable in the blood of the
individual during life.

In these cases we must, in order to account for the
presence of the Bacteria and Torulce, either suppose
that such organisms, in an embryonic state, are almost
universally disseminated throughout the various tex-
tures of higher organisms, both animal and vegetal
(though they are only able to develop and manifest
themselves when the higher organisms, or the parts of
them in which the Bacteria or Tontlce are met with,
are on the eve of death), or else we must imagine
that when the vital activity of any organism, whether

ORIGIN OF LO IVES T OR GAXISMS. 1 5

simple or complex, is on the wane, its constituent
particles (being still portions of living matter) are
capable of individualizing themselves, and of growing
into the low organisms in question. Just as the life
of one of the cells of a higher organism may continue
for some time after the death of the organism itself,
so, in accordance with this latter view, may one of the
particles of such a cell be supposed to continue to
live after even cell-life is impossible.

Now, to many persons, the latter seems to be a
much simpler hypothesis than the former, and one,
moreover, which is more in accordance with known
facts. People's views, however, on this subject are
likely to be much influenced by their notions as to
the possibility of Bacteria arising by a process of
Archebiosis. Although some may be inclined to ac-
cept the doctrine of Heterogenesis, the same persons,
being "vitalists," may not readily believe in the
doctrine of Archebiosis, because this implies the
vivification of dead matter — the conversion of not-
living elements into a living combination. Those,
however, who do believe in Archebiosis will — if the
necessary evidence be forthcoming — all the more
readily yield their assent to the doctrine of Hete-
rogenesis, because it is a much less novel thing
to have to believe in the mere transformation of
living matter, than in the possibility of its origin de
novo.

Evidence of a tolerably satisfactory nature, how-

16 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

ever, is forthcoming, which may speak independently
in favour of the doctrine of Heterogenesis.

It has been affirmed by Crivelli and Maggi * that
they have actually seen the particles within granular
epithelial cells (taken from the back of the tongue of
a patient suffering from diabetes) grow and elongate,
so as to give rise to Bacteria, or fuse in longitudinal
series, so as to form a Vibrio. \ And, moreover, as
I have myself ascertained, if one takes healthy-
looking epithelial scales scraped from the inside of
the mouth, which appear to contain nothing but the
finest granules, and places them with a little saliva
in a " live-box " (and this within a damp chamber kept
at a temperature of about 90° Fahr.), in the course
of from 5 to 10 hours, the cells may be found to be
studded throughout with motionless Bacteria. Of
course it may be said that the granules originally
seen in the cells were offcasts from pre-existing
Bacteria\ which had gained access to the cell.

* Rendiconti del R. Istit. Lombardo, Ser. II. Vol. i, p. 11.

t However novel such a mode of origin of independent Bac-
teria and Vibriones may appear to some, it will seem much less
strange and unlikely to others who have seen, as I have done, an
Amceba, or an Actinophrys^fee. body, originate from the pro-
gressive molecular modifications taking place in a mass of
chlorophyll and protoplasm within the filament of an alga.
Many independent observers have watched all the stages of this
process, and some have even seen Ciliated Infusoria originate
by such a metamorphic change.

J Or offcasts from pre-existing fungi, — constituting the "micro-
cocci" of Professor Hallier.

ORIGIN OF LO WEST OR GA NISMS. \ 7

And although, to many, this may seem an extremely
improbable supposition, it is, nevertheless, one which
it . would be very difficult to disprove. The im-
probability of the notion is increased, moreover,
when we find that Bacteria, and even Torulcz, will
develop just as freely within closed cells taken from
the very centre of a vegetable tuber, as they will in
the midst of the more solid epithelial cell from the
inside of the mouth. If it be urged that in this latter
situation, there is the greatest chance of the cells
being brought into contact with Bacteria, and that
it must be considered possible for imaginary minute
offcasts from these Bacteria to make their own way
into the substance of the epithelial cell, I am quite
willing to grant the desirability of taking such possi-
bilities into consideration. But, at the same time,
it seems all the less likely that the actual occurrence
of the Bacteria is explicable on these grounds, be-
cause we find them developing just as freely within
the cells freshly cut from the centre of a tuberous
root, or we may find them already developed within
these cells, if the root has begun to decay. To suppose
that actual germs of Bacteria and of Torulce are
uniformly distributed throughout the tissues of higher
organisms, is to harbour a hypothesis which would
appear to many to be devoid of all probability — more
especially when the heterogenetic mode of origin of
larger and higher organisms is a matter of absolute
certainty.

C

1 8 ORIGIN OF LO WES T OR GA NISMS.

3. ORIGIN OF BACTERIA AND OF TORUL/E BY

ARCHEBIOSIS.

The evidence on this part of the subject is, I think,
sharply defined and conclusive. Simple experiments
can be had recourse to, which are not admissible in
the discussion of the question as to the origin of Bac-
teria and Torulcz'by Heterogenesis. There, we wish to
establish the fact that living matter is capable of un-
dergoing a certain metamorphosis, and consequently,
we must deal with living matter. Here, however, with
the view of establishing the fact that living matter
can arise de novo, if we are able, shortly after beginning
our experiment, to arrive at a reasonable and well-
based assurance that no living thing exists in the her-
metically sealed experimental vessel — if the measures
that we have adopted fully entitle us to believe that
all living things which may have pre-existed therein
have been killed — we may feel pretty sure that any
living organisms which are subsequently found, when
the vessel is broken, must have originated from some
re-arrangements which had taken place amongst the
not-living constituents of the experimental solutions,
whereby life-initiating combinations had been formed.

The possibility of the de novo origination of Bacteria,
Torulcz, and other such organisms, is one which is inti-
mately associated with the doctrine as to the cause of
fermentation and putrefaction. With regard to the
almost invariable association of such organisms with

ORIGIN OF LO WEST OR GA NISMS. \ 9

some of these processes, almost all are agreed. There
is, moreover, a very frequent association of particular
kinds of organisms with particular kinds of fermenta-
tion. Hence the assumption is an easy and a natural
one to many persons, that the organisms which are
invariably met with in some cases are the causes of
these fermentations,* although it is quite obvious that
the facts on which this view is based, are equally ex-
plicable on the supposition that the organisms are
concomitant results or products (due to new chemical
combinations) of the fermentative changes. In the one
case the fermentative changes are believed to be ini-
tiated by the influence of living organisms ; and those
who regard living things as the only true ferments,
for the most part also believe that living things are
incapable of arising de novo. They think that those
organisms which serve to initiate the changes in ques-
tion, have been derived from a multitudinous army
of omnipresent atmospheric germs, which are always
ready, in number and kind suitable for every emer-
gency. This is the doctrine of M. Pasteur and others.
On the other hand, fermentations and putrefactions
may be regarded as sets of chemical changes, which
are apt to occur in organic and other complex sub-
stances— these changes being due either to the intrinsic

* From this view the transition is also easy, though none the
less illegitimate, to the doctrine that all fermentations are caused
by organisms ; just as it has been easy to start, and find converts
for, the doctrine expressed by the phrase " omne vivum ex vivo"
The distinction between #//and some is only too often overlooked.

C 2

20 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

instability of the body which manifests them, or to
molecular movements communicated to it by a still
more unstable body. Baron Liebig says : — " Many
organic compounds are known, which undergo, in pre-
sence of water, alteration and metamorphosis, having a
certain duration, and ultimately terminating in putre-
faction ; while other organic substances that are not
liable to such alteration by themselves, nevertheless,
suffer a similar displacement or separation of their mole-
cules, when brought into contact with the ferments."

Each substance belonging to the first class, would
be at the same time, therefore, both ferment and fer-
mentable substance ; whilst a small portion of such
substance, when brought into contact with a less un-
stable substance, might induce such molecular move-
ments as to make it undergo a process of fermentation.
With regard to the cause of such induced fermentative
changes, Gerhardt* says, in explaining Liebig's views:
->" Every substance which decomposes or enters into
combination is in a state of movement, its molecules
being agitated ; but since friction, shock, mechanical
agitation, suffice to provoke the decomposition of many
substances (chlorous acid, chloride of nitrogen, fulmi-
nating silver), there is all the more reason why a
chemical decomposition in which the molecular agita-
tion is more complete, should produce similar effects
upon certain substances. In addition, bodies are

* ' Chimie organique,' 1856, t. iv. p. 589.

ORIGIN OF LO WES T OR GA NISMS. 2 1

known which when alone are not decomposed by cer-
tain agents, but which are attacked, when they exist
in contact with other bodies incapable of resisting
the influence of these agents. Thus platinum alone
does not dissolve in nitric acid, but when allied with
silver, it is easily dissolved ;-pure copper is not dis-
solved by sulphuric acid, but it does dissolve in this
when it is allied with zinc, &c. According to M.
Liebig it is the same with ferments and fermentable
substances ; sugar, which does not change when it is
quite alone, changes — that is to say ferments — when
it is in contact with a nitrogenous substance under-
going change, that is, with a ferment."

Thus, in accordance with this latter view, living
ferments are not needed — mere dead, organic or nitro-
genous matter suffices to initiate the processes in
question.* Those who hold this opinion may or may
not believe that organisms are capable of arising
de novo ;"\ though there can be little doubt that a

* Those who hold this opinion do not of course deny that
living ferments can initiate fermentations. Every-day expe-
rience convinces them of the truth of this. They merely affirm
that the intervention of vital action is not essential : they look
upon fermentation as a purely chemical process, and believe that
even in those cases where fermentation is initiated by living
organisms (such as beer-yeast), these — although living — act che-
mically upon the matter which undergoes fermentation.

t They may not believe this, because they may be unaware of
the fact of the invariable association of some organisms with
some kinds of fermentations, and may consequently have never
concerned themselves with the evidence bearing upon this part
of the question. (See Gerhardt, loc. tit,}

22 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

belief in the truth of such a doctrine does, almost inevit-
ably, entail a belief in the de novo origination of living
things. No one who has looked into the evidence,
doubts the fact of the association between some of
these processes and the presence of organisms ; the only
question is, as to the relation in which they stand to
one another. If organisms are not the causes of those
fermentative changes with which they are invariably
associated, then they are, in all probability, the results
of such changes ; and they must certainly have been
produced de novo if it can be shown that fermentation
or putrefaction may take place under the influence of
conditions which make it certain that pre-existing
living organisms could have had nothing to do with
the process.

Now, in order to lend some air of probability to
the former hypothesis, concerning the necessity for the
existence of living ferments, it was incumbent upon its
supporters to endeavour to show that the air did con-
tain such a multitude of " germs," or living things, as
were demanded by the requirements of their theory.
Spallanzani and Bonnet had, as far as the imagination
was concerned, done all that was necessary. They
had proclaimed the universal diffusion of " germs ': of
all kinds of organisms throughout the atmosphere
-which were ready to develop, whenever suitable
conditions presented themselves. So far, however,
this was but another hypothesis. To establish the
doctrine that fermentation cannot take place without

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS. 23

the agency of living ferments, we cannot receive hypo-
theses in evidence : facts are needed. These, no one
attempted to supply in an adequate manner * ante-
rior to the investigations of M. Pasteur. Speaking
of his researches, even M. Milne-Edwards says,t " Pre-
vious to this time, the existence of reproductive par-
ticles, or infusorial germs in the atmosphere was
nothing more than a plausible hypothesis, put forward
in order to explain the origin of such creatures in a
manner conformable with the general laws of repro-
duction ; but it was only a mere supposition, and no
one had been able actually to see or to handle these
reproductive corpuscles."

We have to look, therefore, to M. Pasteur's investi-
gations, and to others which may have been since
conducted, for all the scientific evidence in support of
what has been called the " Panspermic hypothesis."

By an ingenious method of filtration, which is fully
described in his memoir, J M. Pasteur separated from
the air that passed through his apparatus the solid
particles which it contained. This search convinced
him that there were, as he says, " constantly in ordi-
nary air a variable number of corpuscles whose form

: M. Pouchet and others had examined the dust which settles
on objects, and amongst much debris of different kinds had found
comparatively few ova or spores. He had not, however, up to
this time, filtered the air, so as to see what germs might be
detected floating about in the atmosphere.

f ' Anat. et Physiol. compar.' t. viii. p. 264.

\ ' Annales de Chimie et de Physique,' 1862, t. Ixiv. p. 24.

24 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

and structure declare them to be organized." Some
of these, he thinks, resemble the spores of fungi, and
others the ova of ciliated infusoria, though he adds : —
" But as to affirming that this is a spore, much less the
spore of any definite species, and that one is an
egg, and belonging to such an infusorium, I believe
that this is not possible." He limits himself, in fact,
to the statements, that the corpuscles which he found,
were (in his opinion) evidently organized ; that they
resembled in form and appearance the germs of the
lower kinds of organisms ; and that, from their
variety in size, they probably belonged to many
different sorts of living things. Even here, therefore,
we have to do with the impressions of M. Pasteur,
rather than with verified statements. All that has
been established by his direct investigation as to the
nature of the solid bodies contained in the atmosphere
is this : that the air contains a number of round or
ovoidal corpuscles, often quite structureless, which
he could not distinguish from the spores of fungi * —
some of which, being about the right size, were round
or ovoidal, and structureless. In addition, however,
it has been shown that the air contains other rounded
corpuscles which are similarly structureless, though
composed of silica or starch. It may therefore be
asked, in the first place, whether the conclusion is

* Those which he believed to be eggs of ciliated infusoria,
may be at once dismissed from consideration, as we are not at
present concerned with the origin of organisms of this kind.

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS. 25

a sufficiently safe one that many of the corpuscles
found by M. Pasteur were spores of fungi ; and in the
next place, supposing this to have been established,
whether such spores were living or dead. These
questions would have been answered satisfactorily if
M. Pasteur could state that he had actually watched
the development of such corpuscles, in some suitable
apparatus, into distinct organisms. But any such
development, he distinctly states, he never witnessed.
He says* : — "What would have been the better and
more direct course would have been to follow the
development of these germs with the microscope.
Such was my intention ; but the apparatus which I
had devised for this purpose not having been delivered
to me at a convenient time, I was diverted from this
investigation by other work." The evidence which
he does adduce, in subsequent portions of his memoir,
in order to prove that some of these corpuscles were
really " fertile germs," is almost valueless, because all
the facts are open to another interpretation, which is
just as much, nay, even more, in accordance with Baron
Liebig's than with his own doctrine of fermentation.

But another most important consideration presents
itself. M. Pasteur's researches as to the nature of
the dust contained in the atmosphere enable him to
say nothing concerning the presence of Bacteria,
although he himself admits that these are generally

* Loc. cit. p. 34, note l.

26 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

the first organisms which display themselves in fer-
mentations or putrefactions, and that in a very large
majority of the cases in which fermentation occurs
in closed vessels they are the only organisms which
make their appearance.* And yet, notwithstand-
ing these facts, M. Pasteur says, in reference to the
common form of Bacterium : — " This infusorial animal
is so small that one cannot distinguish its germ, and
still less fix upon the presence of this germ, if it were
known, amongst the organized corpuscles of the dust
which is suspended in the air."

Here, then, we have a confession from M. Pasteur
himself, that all evidence fails, where it is most wanted,
in support of his hypothesis.

If a large number of fermentations begin with the
presence of Bacteria as the only living things, and if
in a number of cases no other organisms ever occur, it
is useless to adduce as evidence, in proof of the view
that fermentations are always initiated by air-derived
organisms, the fact that certain corpuscles (supposed
to be spores of fungi) are recognizable in the atmo-
sphere— capped by the distinct statement t that
Bacteria or their germs are not recognizable. If Bac-
teria are not recognizable in the atmosphere, what
scientific evidence is there that the fermentations in
which these alone occur are initiated by Bacteria
derived from the atmosphere, or from certain imagi-

* Loc cit. p. 56. f See p. 57.

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS. 27

nary Bacteria germs,* which we are supposed to be
unable to distinguish ? M. Pasteur may, moreover,
be reminded that when he resorts to the supposition
of Bacteria possessing "germs" . which are indistin-
guishable, he is again resorting to hypothesis rather
than to fact, in order to prove the truth of the
particular doctrine of fermentation which he advo-
cates. Bacteria are known to reproduce and multiply
only by a process of fission ; each of the parts into
which they divide being nothing more than a part of
the oria;inal Bacterium, and therefore endowed with

o

similar properties of resisting heat, desiccation, and
other agencies. Any resort to invisible germs to
account for the multiplication of Bacteria, which are
known to reproduce freely in other ways, is obviously
not permissible, unless such postulation be more or
less necessitated by the occurrence of facts otherwise
inexplicable.

* M. Pasteur's use of this term, in which he is followed by
others holding similar opinions, is much to be deprecated.
Having said that he had found certain corpuscles which resem-
bled spores of fungi, or ova of infusoria, he subsequently speaks
of them as " germs," and also applies the same name to the repro-
ductive particles of Bacteria, which he merely assumes to be
present in the atmosphere. Thus, having only proved that
corpuscles resembling spores of some fungi, are to be found in
the atmosphere, he subsequently speaks of the presence of a
multitude of atmospheric germs as an established fact, without
at all prominently pointing out that, so far as the most important
of these are concerned — germs of Bacteria — their existence had
only been inferred, and not proved.

28 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

Although, therefore, no direct evidence has been

^5 '

adduced tending to show that Bacteria are present
in the atmosphere, even if this evidence had been
forthcoming, it would have been necessary, in reference
to M. Pasteur's hypothesis, for it to be supplemented
by further evidence to the effect that Bacteria were
well capable of resisting such an amount of desiccation
as must have been involved by their presence for an
indefinite time in the atmosphere even of the hottest
and driest regions of the earth. For, organic sub-
stances in solution do not only putrefy in moist
weather or moist climates ; they putrefy most rapidly
and surely when the temperature is high, and quite
irrespectively of the amount of moisture contained
in the atmosphere. A property of resisting the
effects of desiccation — the possession of which, by
Bacteria, is so necessary for the truth of M. Pasteur's
argument — ought to have been shown by scientific
evidence to be a real attribute of such organisms ;
though it seems, on the contrary, to have been
assumed to exist, with almost equal readiness by both
parties, in the controversies concerning the possibility
of " spontaneous generation." This error may be
ascribed to the misguiding influence of a treacherous
analogy. Whilst it may be true that certain seeds
and spores, and also that Rotifers, " Sloths," and some
Nematoids are capable of resisting the influence of a
prolonged exposure to desiccating influences, it may
well be asked, whether the same fact necessarily holds

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS. 29

good for organisms such as Bacteria, which have no
chitinous or other envelopes to protect them, and
which are merely minute fragments of naked proto-
plasm. Having elsewhere* shown how far presump-
tions had stolen a march upon established facts, in
reference to the supposed possession of a similar pro-
perty by the Free Nematoids, my eyes were opened
to the reality of this uncertainty with regard to Bac-
teria. It is, however, no easy matter definitely to
prove or to disprove the possession of this property
by organisms so minute as Bacteria, and therefore so
difficult to identify. If dried Bacteria are added to a
drop of a suitable solution — similar to that in which
they had been bred — it soon becomes quite im-
possible to distinguish those which have been added
from those which arise in the fluid. Taking into con-
sideration the fate of other simple organisms, however,
it is by no means improbable that they should be
killed even by a short desiccation. I have found, for
instance, that desiccation for half-an-hour in a room
at a temperature of 65° F. suffices to kill all the larger,
naked, lower organisms with which I have experi-
mented— including long Vibrios, Amaebse, Monads,
Chlamydomonads, Euglenae, Desmids, Vorticellse and
all other Ciliated Infusoria.

But, certain indirect evidence seems to speak
most authoritatively against the supposition that the

* 'Philosophical Transactions,' 1866, pp. 616-619.

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

air contains any notable quantity of living Bacteria,
or Bacteria germs, whether visible or invisible. I
have always found that a simple solution of ammonic
tartrate, which has been placed— without previous
boiling — in a corked bottle of greater capacity, will
become turbid in two or three days, owing to the
presence of myriads of Bacteria; whilst a similar
solution, previously boiled, may remain for ten days,
three weeks, or more, without showing the least trace
of turbidity, although the open neck of the bottle or
flask in which it is contained, may be covered only by
a loose cap of paper. And yet, at any time, in order to
make this fluid become turbid in from 24 to 48 hours,
all that one has to do is to bring it into contact with
a small glass rod which has just been dipped into a
solution containing living Bacteria*

If we find that an eminently inoculable fluid will
remain for two or three weeks, or perhaps more,
in contact with the air without becoming turbid,
though it will always become turbid in two or three
days if brought into contact with living Bacteria, what
can we conclude, but that living Bacteria are not very
common in the atmosphere ? These most striking
facts can be easily verified by other observers.

Thus we find ourselves, at present, in this position.
After all that has been said and done to prove the
wonderful prevalence of " germs ' in the atmosphere,

* The solution, during the whole time, being exposed to a
temperature of 75° to 85° F.

ORIGIN OF LO WES T OR GA NISMS. 3 1

we are really still in the region of hypothesis — no
further advanced than we were in the time of Bonnet
and of Spallanzani, so far as it concerns the organisms
which are all important — Bacteria. Neither these
nor their germs have been shown to exist in any
recognizable abundance in the atmosphere, and yet
in most fermentations they are the first organisms
which display themselves ; whilst in many such
fermentations Bacteria alone occur. Nay more, even
were they present in any great abundance, there is
some reason to believe that the majority of them
would exist as mere dead, organic particles — because
Bacteria are more than likely to be unable to resist
anything like an extreme or prolonged exposure to
desiccating influences.

The first and essential data in support of M.
Pasteur's hypothesis must, therefore, be regarded as
entirely unproved in respect to Bacteria — which are
the most important of all organisms, in relation to
the cause of fermentation and putrefaction.

Without the aid of elaborate experiments, however,
the evidence which the microscope can supply is
capable of leading us to the conclusion that such
search for atmospheric Bacteria germs, was com-
paratively useless. If it can be shown that Bacteria
can arise in a • fluid independently of visible germs,
then, obviously, any inquiries as to the nature of the
visible contents of the atmosphere, can have only a
very indirect bearing upon the question as to the

32 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

mode of origin of these organisms. And yet by the
aid of the microscope, as I have elsewhere stated,
one can watch the appearance of almost motionless
specks, more or less uniformly diffused through a
motionless film of fluid, and can see them gradually
develop into moving Bacteria or into Torulce. So that,
where no visible germs previously existed, visible par-
ticles of living matter develop, and more or less rapidly
grow into distinct Bacteria. This may be best seen in
a drop of a fresh and very strong turnip infusion, which
has been filtered several times through the finest paper.
The drop, placed in a live-box, should be flattened
into a thin film by the application of the cover.

Thus protected, evaporation takes place very
slowly, and with the live-box resting on one of
Strieker's hot-water plates, at a temperature of 85° to
90° F., and the latter upon the stage of the micro-
scope, one can easily select a portion of the field in
which either no particles or only a countable number
exist. If, therefore, around and between any mere
granules which may pre-exist, or in a clear space, one
gradually sees in the course of two or perhaps three
hours, a multitude of almost motionless specks (at first
about j-o-oVoV' m diameter) in positions where no such
specks previously existed ; and if these specks may
be seen gradually to increase in size and develop
into Bacteria and Tornlce, then, at all events, we are
able to say that these organisms can be developed
without pre-existing visible germs, and we have

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS. 33

just the same amount of actual evidence for believing
that they have been formed de novo, as we should
have for believing that crystals had been formed de~
novo, if we had seen them appearing under our eyes in
the same manner. Whether they really arise after the
fashion of crystals, without the aid of pre-existing
though invisible germs, is a matter which can only be
settled inferentially, by a subsequent resort to strict
methods of experimentation.

Seeing however, that we are able, with the aid of
the microscope alone, to demonstrate that Bacteria
and Torulcz can develop in situations where no visible
germs had previously existed, it is useless, as I have
said before — so far as the question of their mode of
origin is concerned — to search the atmosphere to ascer-
tain what visible germs it may contain. If some Bac-
teria and Tor nice arise from germs at all, it must be
from germs which are invisible to us. The finding of
visible germs in the atmosphere can, therefore, only
have an indirect bearing upon the solution of the pro-
blem. Since it can be shown that some visible spores
and ova exist in the atmosphere, this affords a certain
amount of warrant for the supposition that invisible,
living, reproductive particles may also exist — more
especially if the existence of an amount of organic
matter, which is ordinarily invisible, can be revealed
in the air, by the agency of the electric beam, or by
any other means.

Nothing can be more illegitimate, however, in the

D

34 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

way of inference, than the assumption at once indulged
in by Prof. Tyndall and others (who might have been
expected, by their previous scientific work, to have
learned more caution) that this impalpable organic dust
was largely composed of impalpable germs. Yet, with-
out a shadow of proof, without even an attempt to
prove it, the air was for a time represented to be a
mere stirabout, thick with invisible germs. The
briefest reflection, however, upon the probabilities of
the case, should have sufficed to suggest a totally dif-
ferent interpretation. The surface of the earth is
clothed with living things of all kinds, animal and
vegetal, which are not only continually throwing off
organic particles and fragments during their life, but
are constantly undergoing processes of decay and mole-
cular disintegration after their death. The actual re-
productive elements of these living things are ex-
tremely small in bulk, when compared with the other
parts which are not reproductive, and although Bacteria
and Torulce&Q exist abundantly, and do materially help
to bring about some of the decay in question, yet their
bulk, also, is extremely small in comparison with the
amount of organic matter itself that is continually
undergoing disintegration of a dry kind, in which
Bacteria and Torulce take no part. When, moreover,
it is considered that in the neighbourhood of populous
cities (the air of which alone exhibits this very large
quantity of impalpable, mixed with palpable, organic
dust), there is constantly going on a wear and tear of

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS. 35

the textile fabrics and of the organic products of
various kinds which are daily subservient to the wants
of rnan ; and that the chimneys of manufactories and
dwelling-houses are also continually emitting clouds
of smoke thick with imperfectly consumed organic
particles, some idea may be gained of the manifold
sources whence the organic particles and fragments
found in the atmosphere may emanate, and also as to
what proportion of them is likely to be composed of
living or dead reproductive elements, or " germs."

Thus, then, so far as the two rival doctrines of fer-
mentation are concerned, the investigation of the
nature of the solid particles contained in the atmo-
sphere has revealed facts which are thoroughly in.
harmony with all the requirements of Liebig's phy-
sical theory, though it has almost utterly failed to give
anything like a scientific basis to the vital theory of
Pasteur. So far from being able to show that living
Bacteria (which are the first and oftentimes the only
organisms concerned in many processes of fermenta-
tion and putrefaction) are universally diffused through
the air, Pasteur admits that these cannot be detected,
and that their " germs " are not recognizable.

If, therefore, M. Pasteur still maintains the truth of
his theory, it should be distinctly understood that it
rests originally, not upon established facts, but upon
a mere hypothesis — the hypothesis that the air teems
with multitudes of invisible Bacteria germs. He is
driven to such a doctrine, not only by his own con-

D 2

36 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

fessions concerning Bacteria, but also by the micro-
scopical evidence to which I have referred.

So that in explaining the results of any experi-
ments made with the view of throwing light upon the
cause of fermentation or putrefaction, it is especially
necessary to bear in mind two considerations : —

I. That dust filtered from the atmosphere cannot
be proved to include living Bacteria; though it is
known to contain a multitude of organic particles
which may be capable in the presence of water, in ac-
cordance with Liebig's hypothesis, of acting as ferments.

II. It must also be recollected that, in the opinion
of many, Life represents a higher function which is
displayed by certain kinds of organic matter ; and that
this higher function may be deteriorated or rendered
non-existent by an amount of heat which might not
be adequate to decompose the organic matter itself.

It is all the more necessary to call attention to
these two considerations, because M. Pasteur invari-
ably speaks as though it had been established that
the air contains multitudes of living Bacteria, when,
really, he had only proved that the air contains a
number of corpuscles resembling spores of fungi, &c.
And, as I have already intimated, the existence of
spores of fungi in the atmosphere, however well
established, is of little or no importance as an ex-
planation of the cause of a very large number of
fermentations. Their presence is even of still less im-
portance, owing to the fact of the co-existence with

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS. 37

these fungus-spores, of multitudes of organic fragments,
which — in accordance with the views of Liebig,
Gerhardt, and other chemists — are capable of acting
as ferments. To this latter consideration M. Pasteur
never even alludes when he speaks (loc. cit. p. 40) of his
" ensemencements," and of other experiments which
are equally, or even more, capable of being interpreted
in accordance with Liebig's views than with his own.

Bearing these considerations in mind, we shall be in
a better position to enquire into the real interpretation
that may be given to many of M. Pasteur's results,
and into the question as to how far the facts which he
records are favourable to his own, or to the adverse
doctrine concerning the causes of fermentation.

In the memoir so often alluded to on " The Organ-
ized Corpuscles which exist in the Atmosphere," M.
Pasteur adduced various kinds of evidence, tending,
as he thought, to show that the first Bacteria which
make their appearance in putrefying or fermenting solu-
tions, have been derived from living Bacteria or their
" germs," which pre-existed in the atmosphere.

Some of the experiments by which he endea-
voured to substantiate this position were of a very
simple nature. Their narration attracted much atten-
tion at the time, as it was supposed that by their
means M. Pasteur had — as he professed — conclu-
sively shown the erroneousness of the views of those
who believed in what was called " spontaneous gene-

38 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

ration." These experiments were soon repeated by
other observers, who, using different fluids, obtained
quite opposite results. Thus it became obvious to
impartial critics, that whilst the means adopted by
M. Pasteur might be adequate to check the processes
of fermentation or putrefaction in certain fluids, they
were quite powerless to effect this when many other
fluids were employed.

These particular experiments, however, still seem
to exercise a very great influence on the minds of many
in this country, who are either unaware of, or disbe-
lieve in, the possibility of obtaining opposite results.

The chapter in which M. Pasteur detailed these
experiments is thus entitled : — "Another very simple
method of demonstrating that all the organised products
of Infusions (previously heated) oive their origin to the
corpuscles which exist suspended in the Atmosphere"
Whilst claiming to have already rigorously established
the validity of this conclusion by the experiments
described in previous chapters, M. Pasteur adds : — " If
there remained the least doubt on this subject, in the
mind of the reader, it would be dissipated by the ex-
periments of which I am now about to speak." (p. 66.)

Sweetened yeast-water, urine, infusions of pear and
of beetroot, were placed in flasks with long necks,
variously drawn out and bent. The flasks were sub-
sequently treated as follows. M. Pasteur says : — " I
then raise the liquid to the boiling-point for several
minutes until steam issues abundantly from the ex-

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS. 39

tremity of the drawn-out neck of the flask, which is
permitted to remain open. I then allow the flask to
cool. But, singular fact — and one well calculated to
astonish every one acquainted with the delicacy of the
experiments relating to what is called 'spontaneous
generation ' — the liquid of this flask will remain inde-
finitely without alteration. The flask may be handled
without any fear, it may be transported from place to
place, allowed to experience all the seasonal variations
of temperature, and its liquid does not undergo the
slightest alteration, whilst it preserves its odour and its
taste." If, however, the neck of one of these flasks be
broken off close to the flask itself, then, according to
M. Pasteur, the previously unaltered fluid will, in a
day or two, undergo the ordinary changes, and swarm
with Bacteria and Mucedinece.

" The great interest of this method is," M. Pasteur
adds, " that it completes, unanswerably, the proof that
the origin of life in infusions which have been raised
to the boiling point, is solely due to the solid particles*
which are suspended in the air." He believes that any
living things pre-existing in the fluid itself would be
destroyed by the high temperature to which it had been
raised ; and that those contained in the air of the flask
would also be destroyed, if not expelled, by the process

* As expressed, the proposition may be an approximation to
the truth. M. Pasteur, however, really endeavours to lead his
readers to believe that the " solid particles " which are efficacious,
are, in all cases, living " germs."

40 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

of ebullition. Believing that the air is the source of
germs from which Life is first developed in infusions,
he thinks that what rapidly enters at first, on the
cessation of ebullition, has its germs destroyed by
contact with the almost boiling liquid ; whilst the air
which enters subsequently, and more slowly, is sup-
posed to deposit its germs in the various flexures of
the tubes, so that none are able to reach the fluid
itself. Infusions, thus protected, do not undergo putre-
faction, says M. Pasteur, because the access of pre-
existing living things is necessary for the initiation of
this change, and such access is prevented by the tor-
tuous and bent neck of the flask.

Others say that some fluids submitted to the condi-
tions mentioned, will undergo putrefactive changes,
and that, therefore, these experiments of M. Pasteur
are utterly incapable of settling the general question
as to the cause of fermentation and putrefaction, and
also that concerning the origin of Life. Although
acknowledging a certain difficulty in explaining the
results which are sometimes attained by this method,
some of us would rather confess this than confidently
offer explanations — as M. Pasteur did — which may in
a short time be stultified by the results of other expe-
riments with different fluids.

Having previously shown* that living things could
appear and multiply in such a flask as M. Pasteur

* ' Nature,' 1870, No. 36, p. 193.

ORIGIN OF LO WEST OX GA NISMS. 4 1

describes — in any flask, in fact, — which had been her-
metically sealed during the ebullition of a suitable fluid
within ; this was deemed to be a result so contradic-
tory to the explanations of M. Pasteur, that it appeared
needless to add my testimony, as I could have done,
to that of M. Victor Meunier and others, as to the
different results obtainable by operating, in M. Pas-
teur's fashion, with different fluids. It seemed to me
that if organisms were to be procured in flasks from
which air had been altogether expelled, it was useless
still to urge the preservative virtues of any process of
filtration of air — with the object of showing that living
things in infusions derived their origin from atmo-

o <-->

spheric germs. Obviously, if there were no atmosphere,
there could be no atmospheric germs present ; and if
living things were, nevertheless, developed under these
exclusive circumstances, how could M. Pasteur or his
disciples still expect to convince others that the first
living things in infusions always proceeded from pre-
existing atmospheric germs — even although it could
be shown, that in many cases, when these were fil-
tered off by flasks with narrow and tortuous necks, no
living things were developed in such fluids. Granting
to the full the truth of such facts, they could do
nothing to establish the doctrine of the origin of infu-
sorial life from pre-existing atmospheric germs, so long
as it could also be shown that living things might be
developed in boiled solutions to which air, instead of
being filtered, was never allowed to enter at all.

42 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

It is not, therefore, because I think that some of the
experiments which will subsequently be related afford
any stronger or more direct support to my own con-
clusions, but because I think they may do this indi-
rectly— by shaking the faith of many in some of the
reasonings of M. Pasteur — that I am induced to give
an account of them.*

What has been hitherto said, also applies to the more
recent statements concerning the efficacy of cotton-wool
as an agent for filtering germs from the atmosphere.
Prof. Huxley says he has never seen putrefaction or
fermentation occur after certain organic fluids have
been boiled for ten or fifteqn minutes, if a good plug
of cotton-wool has been inserted into the neck of the
flask in which they are contained whilst ebullition is
going on, and has, subsequently, been allowed to remain
in the same situation. Using other or perhaps stronger
fluids, however, I have found that such a method of
proceeding is by no means adequate to stop the growth
and development of organisms. And, also, even if it
had been always efficacious — the reason adduced
could not hold good, in the face of my other experi-
ments, which had shown that a development of life
might o;o on in cases where the air, which had been

o o

similarly driven out, was subsequently, in place of

* If his reasonings can be shown to be quite inconclusive,
and if his results can be otherwise explained, some people may,
at last, begin to recognize that their blind and mistaken faith

M. Pasteur's work has been somewhat misplaced.

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS. 43

being filtered, prevented from gaining access to the
fluid.

If germs derived from the air are the sole causes of
putrefaction, then, surely, deprivation from air ought
to be just as efficacious as any process of filtration of
air — more especially when the filtration or the depri-
vation have a common starting point. And the mode
of procedure, in both cases, is precisely the same up to
a certain point. A fluid is boiled for a short time
in order to kill the germs which may be within the
flask, and to expel its previously contained air. At
a certain stage of the ebullition, this may be arrested,
if we have to do with a bent-neck flask, or one
whose neck is plugged with cotton-wool, and no
change, it is said, will subsequently take place in the
contained fluid, because the air which enters is, by
either of these means, filtered from its germs. But
if, whilst ebullition continued, the neck of the flask
had been hermetically sealed — so as altogether to
prevent the re-ingress of air — and if the fluid, thus
contained in vacua, would nevertheless undergo fer-
mentation, obviously the former explanation must be
altogether shelved.

In the face of M. Pasteur's explanations, and those of
Professor Huxley, these frequent positive results with
fluids contained in vacua are absolutely contradictory.
There may naturally arise, therefore, a very grave doubt
as to the validity of the explanation adduced by M.
Pasteur, and adopted by Professor Huxley and others.

44 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

All these experiments to which I have been alluding
are based upon the supposition (assented to by Pas-
teur and Huxley) that Bacteria which pre-existed in
the solution would certainly be destroyed by its being
raised for a few minutes to a temperature of 212° F.
This conclusion is, I believe, perfectly correct,* and in
support thereof I will adduce the following additional
information.

Limits of l Vital Resistance' to Heat displayed by
Bacteria and Torulcz.

After stating elsewhere t, that Vibriones are partly
broken up or disintegrated by an exposure for a few
minutes to a temperature of 212° F. in an infusion
which is being boiled, and also that, in all probability,
the life of Bacteria would be destroyed by such a
treatment, I made the following remarks : — " With
reference to these organisms, however, one caution is
necessary to be borne in mind by the experimenter.
The movements of monads and Bacteria may be, and
frequently are, of two kinds. The one variety does
not differ in the least from the mere molecular or
Brownian movement, which may be witnessed in
similarly minute, not-living particles immersed in
fluids. Whilst the other seems to be purely vital — •

* M. Pasteur attempted to make a distinction in the case of
slightly alkaline or neutral fluids (loc. cit., pp. 60-65). I have
endeavoured to show the untenability of his conclusion in
1 Nature,' 1870, No. 37, pp. 224-227.

f ' Nature,' 1870, No. 35, p. 171.

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGAXISMS. 45

that is, dependent upon their properties as living
things. These vital movements are altogether dif-
ferent from the mere dancing oscillations which not-
living particles display, as may be seen when the
monad or Bacterium darts about over comparatively
large areas, so as frequently to disappear from the
field. After an infusion has been exposed for a second
or two to the boiling temperature, these vital move-
ments no longer occur, though almost all the monads
and Bacteria may be seen to display the Brownian
movement in a well-marked degree. They seem to
be reduced by the shortest exposure to a temperature
of 100° C. to the condition of mere not-living par-
ticles, and then they become subjected to the unim-
paired influence of the physical conditions which
determine these movements." I now have various
facts to add in confirmation of these conclusions, and
in extension of our knowledge concerning the vital
resistance to heat of Bacteria and Torulce.

It would be a most important step if we could
ascertain some means by which these primary move-
ments of living Bacteria might be distinguished from
the secondary, or communicated, movements of not-
living particles. In many cases, organisms that are
truly living may only exhibit very languid movements,
which, as movements, are quite indistinguishable from
those that the same Bacteria may display when they
are really dead. Because the movements, therefore,
are of this doubtful character, persons are apt, unfairly,

46 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

to argue that the Bacteria which present them, are no
more living than are the minute particles of carbon
obtained from the flame of a lamp, which may exhibit
similar movements. This, however, is a point of view
which becomes obviously misleading if too much stress
is laid upon it ; and it is more especially so in this
case, when those Bacteria which display the most
characteristic sign of vitality — viz., " spontaneous '
division or reproduction — do, at the time, almost
always exhibit only the same languid movements.
Mobility is, in fact, not an essential characteristic of
living Bacteria, whilst the occurrence of the act of repro-
duction is the most indubitable sign of their life. It
should be remembered, therefore, that any Bacteria
which are almost motionless, or which exhibit mere
Brownian movements, may be living, whilst those
which spontaneously divide and reproduce, are cer-
tainly alive — whatever may be the kind of movement
they present.

In any particular case, however, can we decide
whether Bacteria, that have been submitted to a given
temperature, and which exhibit movements resem-
bling those known as Brownian, are really dead or
living ? If the movements are primary, or dependent
upon the inherent molecular activity of the organism
itself, they ought, it might be argued, to continue
when the molecules of the fluid are at rest ; if, on the
other hand, they are mere secondary or communicated
movements, impressed upon the organisms as they

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS. 47

would be upon any other similarly minute particles,
by the molecular oscillations of the fluid in which they
are contained, then the movements ought to grow less,
and gradually cease, as the fluid approaches a state of
molecular rest — if this be attainable. Following out
this idea, some months ago, I first tested the correct-
ness of the assumption by experimenting with fluids
containing various kinds of not-living particles ; such
as carbon-particles from the flame of a lamp, or freshly
precipitated baric sulphate. However perfect may
have been the Brownian movements when portions of
these fluids were first examined beneath a covering-
glass, they always gradually diminished, after the
specimen had been mounted by surrounding the
covering-glass with some cement or varnish. Thus
prepared, no evaporation could take place from the
thin film of fluid, and after one, three, four, or more
hours — the slide remaining undisturbed — most of
the particles had subsided, and were found to have
come to a state of rest. In order still further to test
these views, I took an infusion of turnip, contain-
ing a multitude of Bacteria whose movements were

o

of the languid description, and divided it into two
portions. One of these portions was boiled for about
a minute, whilst the other was not interfered with.
Then, after the boiled solution had been cooled, a
drop was taken from each and placed at some little
distance from one another on the same glass slip ;
covering-glasses half an inch in diameter were laid

48 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

on, and the superfluous fluid beneath each was re-
moved by a piece of blotting-paper. When only
the thinnest film of fluid was left, the covering-
glasses were surrounded by a thick, quickly-drying
cement.* Examined with the microscope immediately
afterwards, it was generally found that the Bacteria
which had been boiled presented a shrunken and
shrivelled aspect — whilst some of them were more
or less disintegrated — though, as far as movement
was concerned, there was little to distinguish that
which they manifested, from that of their plumper-
lookincr relatives which had not been boiled.

o

If the specimens were examined again after twenty-
four or more hours, there was still very little difference
perceptible between them, as regards their move-
ments. And the same was the case when the spe-
cimens were examined after a lapse of some days or
weeks. One important difference does, however, soon
become obvious. The Bacteria which have not been
boiled, undergo a most unmistakeable increase within
their imprisoned habitat ; whilst those which have been
boiled, do not increase. The two films may be almost
colourless at first (if the Bacteria are not very abundant),
but after a few days, that composed of unboiled fluid
begins to show an obvious and increasing cloudiness,

* I always employ a solution of gum mastic and bismuth in
chloroform. If a different varnish be employed, it is of course
necessary to ascertain whether its application is injurious to the
enclosed Bacteria.

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS. 49

which is never manifested by the other. Microsco-
pical examination shows that this cloudiness is due to
a proportionate increase in the number of Bacteria.

Is the continuance of the movements of the or-
ganisms which had been boiled attributable to their
extreme lightness, and to the slight difference between
their specific gravity and that of the fluid in which
they are immersed ? I soon became convinced that
this was one, if not the chief reason, when I found
that Bacteria which had been submitted to very much
higher temperatures, behaved in precisely the same
manner as those which had been merely boiled, and
also that other particles which — though obviously
dead — had a similar specific lightness, also continued
to exhibit their Brownian movements for days and
weeks. This was the case more especially with the
minute fat particles in a mounted specimen of boiled
milk,* and also with very minute particles which were
gradually precipitated \ from a hay infusion that had
been heated to 302° F. for four hours. Trials with many
different substances, indeed, after a time convinced me
that the most rapid cessation of Brownian movements

* If an unboiled specimen of milk be mounted, a multiplication
of living particles takes place here and there amongst the fat
globules, just as the multiplication of Bacteria occurs in a vege-
table infusion ; but in the boiled specimen no trace of such
multiplication can ever be detected.

f Those particles which come to rest, in such cases, are always
in contact with one or other of the contiguous surfaces of glass.

E

50 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

in stationary films,* occurred where the particles were
heavy or large ; and that the duration of the move-
ment was more and more prolonged, as the par-
ticles experimented with, were lighter or more minute.
So that, when we have to do with Bacteria, the minute
oil globules of milk, or with other similarly light par-
ticles, the movements continue for an indefinite time,
and are, in part, mere exponents of the molecular
unrest of the fluid. They are always capable of being
increased or renewed by the incidence of heat or other
disturbing agencies.

In respect of the movements which they may ex-
hibit, therefore, really living, though languid, Bacteria,
cannot always be discriminated from dead Bacteria.
Both may only display mere Brownian movements.

It becomes obvious, then, that in doubtful cases we
ought not to rely very strongly upon the character of
their movements, as evidence of the death of Bac-
teria— although these may frequently be of so extensive
a nature as to render it not at all doubtful whether
the Bacteria which display them are living. In the
experiments which I am about to relate, wre shall be
able to pronounce that the Bacteria are living or dead,
by reference to the continuance or cessation of their
most essentially vital characteristic. If Bacteria fail
to multiply in a suitable fluid, and under suitable con-

* The specific gravity of the fluid being constant. Where
this is dense or viscid, as with glycerine, Brownian movements
do not occur at all.

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

ditions, we have the best proof that can be obtained
of their death.

Having made many experiments with solutions of
ammonic tartrate and sodic phosphate, I have almost
invariably observed that such solutions — when exposed
to the air without having been boiled — become turbid
in the course of a few days owing to the presence of
myriads of Bacteria and Vibriones, with some Torulce.
These organisms seem to appear and multiply in such
a solution almost as readily as they do in an organic
infusion. On the other hand, having frequently boiled
such solutions, and closed the flasks during ebullition,
I have invariably found, on subsequent examination
of these fluids, that whatever else may have been met
with, Bacteria and Vibriones were always absent. The
difference was most notable, and it seemed only intel-
ligible on the supposition that any living Bacteria or
dead ferments which may have pre-existed in the
solution, were deprived of their virtues by the pre-
liminary boiling. These experiments also seemed to
show that such solutions, after having been boiled, and
shut up in hermetically-sealed flasks, from which all
air had been expelled, were quite incapable of giving
birth to Bacteria. The unboiled fluid, exposed to the
air, might have become turbid, because it was able to
nourish any living Bacteria which it may have con-
tained, or because it was capable of evolving these de
noyo, under the influence of dead ferments whose ac-
tivity had not been destroyed by heat. Hence we have

E 2

52 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

a fluid which is eminently suitable for testing the vital
resistance of Bacteria, — one which, although quite
capable of nourishing and favouring their reproduc-
tion, does not appear capable of evolving them, when,
after previous ebullition, it is enclosed in a her-
metically sealed flask from which all air has been
expelled. Three flasks were half-filled with this solu-
tion.* The neck of the first (a) was allowed to remain
open, and no addition was made to the fluid. To the
second (b), after it had been boiled and had become
cool, was added half a minim of a similar saline solu-
tion, which had been previously exposed to the air,
and which was quite turbid with Bacteria, Vibriones
and Torulce. From this flask — after its inoculation
with the living organisms — the air was exhausted
by means of an air-pump, and its neck was hermeti-
cally sealed during the ebullition of the fluid, without
the flask and its contents having been exposed to a
heat of more than 90° F. The third flask (c) was
similarly inoculated with living Bacteria, although its
contents were boiled for ten minutes (at 2I2°F.), and
its neck was hermetically sealed during ebullition. The
results were as follows : — the solution in the first flask
(a), became turbid in four or five days ; the solution
in the second (b), became turbid after thirty-six hours ;
whilst that in the third flask (c), remained perfectly

* In the proportion often grains of neutral ammonic tartrate,
with three grains of neutral sodic phosphate, to an ounce of dis-
tilled water.

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS. 53

clear. This latter flask was opened on the twelfth
day, whilst its contents were still clear, and on micro-
scopical examination of the fluid no living Bacteria
were to be found. This particular experiment was
repeated three times with similarly negative results,
although on two occasions the fluid was only boiled
for one minute instead of ten.

It seemed, moreover, that by having recourse to ex-
periments of the same kind, the exact degree of heat,
which is fatal to Bacteria and Torulcz might be ascer-
tained. I accordingly endeavoured to determine
this point. Portions of the same saline solution,
after having been boiled * and allowed to cool,
were similarly inoculated with a dropj of very
turbid fluid, containing hundreds of living Bacteria,
Vibriones, and Torula. A drying apparatus was fixed
to an air-pump, and the flask containing the inoculated
fluid was securely connected with the former by
means of a piece of tight india-rubber tubing,J after
its neck had been drawn out and narrowed, at about
two inches from the extremity. The flask containing

* It was necessary to boil the solution first, in order to destroy
any living things or dead ferments which it might contain. It
must contain one or the other, because an unboiled solution of
this kind, in a corked bottle about half full, will always become
turbid ; whilst, after it has been boiled, it may be kept indefi-
nitely under similar conditions without becoming turbid.

f The proportion was one drop of the fluid, opaque with or-
ganisms, to an ounce of the clear solution.

J Into which apiece of glass tube had been slipped to prevent
collapse.

54 ORIGIN OF LO WEST ORGANISMS.

the inoculated fluid was then allowed to dip into a
beaker holding water at I22°F., in which a thermometer
was immersed. The temperature of the fluid was main-
tained at this point for fifteen minutes,* by means of a
spirit lamp beneath the beaker. The air was then
exhausted from the flask by means of the pump, till
the fluid began to boil ; ebullition was allowed to con-
tinue for a minute or two, so as to expel as much air
as possible from the flask, and then, during its continu-
ance, the narrowed neck of the flask was hermetically
sealed by means of a spirit-lamp flame and a blow-
pipe. Other flasks were similarly prepared, except
that they were exposed to successively higher degrees
of heat — the fluid being boiled off, in different cases,
at temperatures of 131°, 140,°, 149°, 158°, and 167° F.
All the flasks being similarly inoculated with living
Bacteria, Vibriones, and Torulce, and similarly sealed
during ebullition, they differed from one another only
in respect to the degree of heat to which they had
been submitted. Their bulbs were subsequently placed
in a water bath, which during both day and night was
maintained at a temperature of from 85° to 95° F.
The results have been as follows : — The flasks whose
contents had been heated to 122° and 131° F. re-
spectively, began to exhibit a bluish tinge in the
contained fluid after the first or second day ; and

* Allowing even five minutes for the temperature of the i oz.
of fluid to become equal to that of the bath, it would then have
remained exposed to this amount of heat for about ten minutes.

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS. 55

after two or three more days, the fluid in each became
quite turbid and opaque, owing to the presence and
multiplication of myriads of Bacteria, Vibr tones and
Torulcz ; the fluids in the flasks, however, which had
been exposed to the higher temperature of 140°, 149°,
158°, and 167° R, showed not the slightest trace of
turbidity, and no diminution in the clearness of the
fluid while they wrere kept under observation — that
is, for a period of twelve or fourteen days. One kind
of conclusion only is to be drawn from these experi-
ments, the conditions of which were in every way
similar, except as regards the degree of heat to which
the inoculated fluids were subjected — seeing that the
organisms were contained in a fluid, which had been
proved to be eminently suitable for their growth and
multiplication.* If inoculated fluids which have been
raised to 122° and 131° F. for ten minutes, are found
in the course of a few days to become turbid, then,
obviously, the organisms cannot have been killed
by such exposure ; whilst, if similar fluids, similarly
inoculated, which have been raised to temperatures
of 140°, 149°, 158°, and 167° F. remain sterile, such
sterility can only be explained by the supposition
that the organisms have been killed by exposure to
these temperatures.

Some of these experiments have been repeated

* Fluids which had remained sterile would always, in the
course of thirty-six or forty-eight hours after inoculation with
living Bacteria, become more or less turbid.

5 6 ORIGIN OF LO WES T OR GA NISMS.

several times with the same results. On three occa-
sions, I have found the fluid speedily become turbid,
which had only been exposed to 131° F. for ten
minutes, whilst on three other occasions I have found
the inoculated fluid remain clear, after it had been
exposed to a heat of 140° F. for ten minutes.*

* There is, however, another point of extreme interest in con-
nection with these experiments, bearing upon the supposed uni-
versal distribution of " germs " of Bacteria and other organisms,
which I will now mention. One of the flasks, which had been
exposed to 140° F., and which had been hermetically sealed at this
temperature, had its neck cracked (accidentally) about half an
hour afterwards. Thinking it would be as well, notwithstanding
this, to keep it and observe the result, its bulb was immersed in
the same water-bath with the other flasks which had been pre-
pared at the same time. Whilst the fluid in one of these which
had been exposed to a heat of 1 3 1° F., became turbid in the course
of a few days, this, which had been exposed to a heat of 140° F.
and whose neck was also extensively cracked, remained quite clear
for seven days, although to such an extent exposed to the access
of germs. Its eminent suitability for nourishing the germs of
such organisms was also shown, because, on the seventh day,
the fluid being still clear, the blade of a penknife was dipped into
it, after having been previously immersed in a solution containing
living Bacteria and Torulce, and in thirty-six hours after this
inoculation, the fluid had become turbid, owing to the presence of
myriads of these organisms. So that even where obvious cracks
occur, and the vacuum is altogether impaired by the consequent
inrush of air, such air does not necessarily carry with it germs of
Bacteria — which have been supposed to be universally diffused,
and capable of passing through cracks so minute as to be in-
visible. These results, important as they are, have not at all
surprised me, because one may frequently find a previously boiled
solution of the kind under consideration, remaining free from
turbidity for two weeks or more, although the neck of the flask
has been merely covered by a loose paper-cap (see p. 30).

ORIGIN OF LO WEST ORGANISMS. 5 7

In experimenting upon rather higher organisms,
with which there is little difficulty in ascertaining, by
microscopical examination, whether they are living or
dead, I have found that an exposure even to the lower
temperature of 131° F. for five minutes, always suffices
to destroy all signs of life in Vibrios, Amoebae, Monads,
Chlamydomonads, Euglenae, Desmids, Vorticellae,
and all other Ciliated Infusoria which were ob-
served, as well as in free Nematoids, Rotifers, and
other organisms contained in the fluids which had
been heated.

These results are quite in harmony with the
observations and experiments of M. Pouchet and
of Professor Wyman, as to the capability of resisting
heat displayed by Vibriones and all kinds of ciliated
infusoria. According to the former,* the majority
of ciliated infusoria are killed at, or even below, the
temperature of 122° F., whilst large Vibriones are all
killed at a temperature of 131° F.j According to the
observations of Professor Wyman, the motions of all
ciliated infusoria are stopped at less than 130° F.,
whilst Vibriones, taken from the most various sources,
also seemed to be killed at temperatures between
1 30°- 1 36-4° F. Similarly, we find Baron Liebig quite
recently making the following remarks concerning
a species of Torula : — " A temperature of 60° C.

* ' Nouvelles Experiences,' etc., 1864, p. 38.
t ' American Journal of Science and Arts,' Oct. 1867.

5 8 ORIGIN OF L 0 WEST OR GA NISMS.

[140° F.] kills the yeast cells; after exposure to this
temperature in water, they no longer undergo fer-
mentation, and do not cause fermentation in a sugar
solution. ... In like manner, active fermentation in
a saccharine liquid is stopped when the liquid is
heated to 60° C, and it does not recommence again
on cooling the liquid."

That the organisms in question — being minute naked
portions of living matter — should be killed by exposure
to the influence of a fluid at these temperatures will
perhaps not seem very improbable to those who have
attempted to keep their fingers for any length of time
in water heated to a similar extent. With watch in
hand I immersed my fingers in one of the experimental
beakers containing water at 131° F., and found that, in
spite of my desires, they were hastily withdrawn, after
an exposure of less than five-and-twenty seconds.

Wishing to ascertain what difference there would
be if the inoculated fluids were exposed for a very
long time, instead of for ten minutes only, to certain
temperatures, I prepared three flasks in the same
manner — each containing some of the previously
boiled solution, which, when cold, had been inoculated
with living Bacteria, Vibriones, and Torulcz. These
flasks and their contents were then submitted to the
influence of the following conditions : — One of them
was heated for a few minutes in a beaker containing
water at 113° F., and then by means of the air-pump
a partial vacuum was procured, till the fluid began to

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS. 59

boil. After the remainder of the air had been expelled
by the ebullition of the fluid, the neck of the flask was
hermetically sealed, and the flask itself was subse-
quently immersed in the water of the beaker, which
was kept for four hours at a temperature between 113°
and 1 1 S^° F.* The two other flasks similarly pre-
pared were kept at a temperature of I i8J°-i27j-° F. for
four hours. In two days, the fluid in the first flask
became slightly turbid, whilst in two days more the
turbidity was most marked. The fluid in the two
other flasks which had been exposed to the tempera-
ture of n8J°-i27j° F. for four hours, remained quite
clear and unaltered during the twelve days in which
they were kept in the warm bath under observation.
These experiments seem to show, therefore, that the
prolongation of the period of exposure to four hours,
suffices to lower the vital resistance to heat of Bac-
teria and Torula, by I4j°-i8° F.

Such experiments would seem to be most im-
portant and crucial in their nature. They may be
considered to settle the question as to the vital
resistance of these particular Bacteria, whilst other
evidence points conclusively in the direction that
all Bacteria, whencesoever they have been derived,
possess essentially similar vital endowments f. Seeing

* During nearly the whole of the time the temperature was
kept at 113° F. It only rose to the higher temperature for about
ten minutes.

f The Bacteria and Vibriones with which Professor Wyman
experimented were derived from different sources ; and so far as

60 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

also that the solutions have been inoculated with a drop
of a fluid in which Bacteria, Vibr tones, and Torulcz
are multiplying rapidly, we must suppose that they
are multiplying in their accustomed manner, as much
by the known method of fission, as by any unknown
and assumed method of reproduction. In such a
fluid, at all events, there would be all the kinds of
reproductive elements common to Bacteria, whether
visible or invisible, and these would have been alike
subjected to the influence of the same temperature.
These experiments seem to show, therefore, that even
if Bacteria do multiply by means of invisible gem-
mules as well as by the known process of fission, such
invisible particles possess no higher power of resisting
the destructive influence of heat than the parent
Bacteria themselves possess. This result is, more-

•

I also have been able to ascertain, the Bacteria of different fluids
are similarly affected by exposure to similar degrees of heat.
Thus, if on the same slip, though under different covering glasses,
specimens of a hay infusion, turbid with Bacteria, are mounted,
(a) without being heated, (8) after the fluid has been raised to
122° F. for ten minutes, and (c) after the fluid has been heated to
140° F. for ten minutes, it will be found that, in the course of a
few days, the Bacteria under a and b have notably increased in
quantity, whilst those under c do not become more numerous,
however long the slide is kept. Facts of the same kind are observ-
able if a turnip infusion, containing living Bacteria, is experi-
mented with ; and the phenomena are in no way different if a
solution of ammonic tartrate and sodic phosphate (containing
Bacteria} be employed instead of one of these vegetable infusions.
The multiplication of the Bacteria beneath the covering-glass,
when it occurs, is soon rendered obvious, even to the naked eye,
by the increasing cloudiness of the film.

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS. 61

over, as I venture to think, in accordance with what
might have been anticipated a priori. Bacteria seem
to be composed of homogeneous living matter, and
any gemmule, however minute, could only be a
portion of such living matter, endowed with similar
properties.

Extent to which boiled Fermentable Fht-ids may be pre-
served in Vessels with Bent Necks, or in those whose
Necks are guarded by a Plug of Cotton- Wool.

Having thus satisfied ourselves as to the truth of
the conclusion that Bacteria are killed when the fluid
containing them is boiled (at 212° R), we are in a posi-
tion to proceed with the inquiry as to the evidence
which exists in respect to the statements made by
M. Pasteur, Professor Huxley, and others, that ferment-
able fluids which have been boiled, will not undergo
fermentation, either in vessels whose necks have been
many times bent, or in those into whose necks a
plug of cotton-wool has been inserted during the
ebullition of their contained fluid. Organisms are
not found in such cases, they say, because the
" germs " from which the low organisms of infusions
are usually produced, are arrested either in the
flexures of the tube or in the cotton-wool. As I have
before stated, however, it is obvious that if this
explanation be the correct one, the preservation
should be equally well marked in all cases — quite
irrespectively of the amount of albumenoid or other

62 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

nitrogenous material which may be contained in the
fluid. Any exceptions to the rule should at once
suggest doubts as to the validity of the explana-
tion.

It was shown* in 1865 by M. Victor Meunier that
some fluids were preserved after having been boiled in
a vessel of this kind, whilst others, submitted to the
same treatment, speedily became turbid from the pre-
sence of Bacteria and other organisms.t By these
experiments he ascertained that strong infusions did
frequently change, whilst weak ones might be pre-
served ; and that even a strong infusion might be
prevented from undergoing change if the period of
ebullition were sufficiently prolonged.

The fluids most frequently employed by M. Pasteur
were yeast-water, the same sweetened by sugar, urine,
infusion of beetroot, and infusion of pear.

Taking urine as a fair example of such a fluid, I
have found that the statements of M. Pasteur and of
Professor Lister are perfectly correct. This fluid may
generally remain for an indefinite period in such ves-

* ' Compt. Rend.,'t. Ixi. p. 1060.

f When boiled solutions, containing mannite, with a little
nitrate and phosphate of ammonia, were employed, they always
remained sterile. Similar negative results followed the em-
ployment of ox-gall. Of three decoctions of beef with
which M. Meunier experimented, the two stronger of them
were found to contain swarms of Bacteria in about twelve days.
Of three other flasks containing boiled urine, two also proved
fertile.

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS. 63

sels * without becoming turbid, or undergoing any
apparent change. The same is generally found to
be the case with an infusion of turnip, and occasion-
ally an infusion of hay may be similarly prevented
from undergoing fermentation. On the other hand, if
the turnip-solution be neutralized by the addition of
a little ammonic carbonate, or liquor potassae ; or,
better still, if even half a grain of new cheese be added
to the infusion before it is boiled, then I have found
that the fluid speedily becomes turbid, owing to the
appearance of multitudes of Bacteria. In an infusion
to which a fragment of cheese had been added, I have
seen a pellicle form in three days, which, on micro-
scopical examination, proved to be composed of an
aggregation of Bacteria, Vibriones, and Leptothrix fila-
ments. A mixture of albuminous urine and turnip-
infusion has also rapidly become turbid in a vessel of
this kind owing to the appearance of multitudes of
Bacteria, and so has a mixture containing one-third
of healthy urine with two-thirds of infusion of turnip.

Other infusions have been boiled for ten minutes in a
vessel with a horizontal neck two feet long, into which,
during ebullition, a good plug of cotton-wool had been
carefully pushed down for a depth of twelve or fourteen
inches, and cautiously increased in quantity during

* I have employed flasks of about I \ oz. in capacity, provided
with necks two feet in length. In each case, after the flask has
been half filled with the fluid, the neck has been bent eight times
at an acute angle.

64 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

the continuance of the ebullition ; whilst immediately
after the withdrawal of the heat, the plug was pressed
closer, and all the outer unoccupied portion of the
tube was rapidly filled up in the same manner.

Preserved in such a vessel, a specimen of urine
remained unchanged ; a hay-infusion also underwent
no apparent alteration ; whilst a very strong infusion
of turnip became turbid in five days, and ultimately
showed a large quantity of deposit.*

Thus the rules laid down by Pasteur and others
are not universal, and therefore, as I have previously
pointed out, the explanation which he adduced of the
preservation of those particular fluids which remained
unchanged is at once rendered doubtful. More espe-
cially is there room for doubt on this subject when, as
I have found, the result of the experiment can be,
within certain limits, predicated beforehand, according
to the nature of the fluid employed. If all organisms
proceed from pre-existing germs, and these can be
filtered from the air by a certain mechanical con-
trivance, then, if it be alleged that it is on account of
such filtration that certain boiled fluids do not change,
all fluids placed under these conditions ought, on this
theory, to be similarly preserved. Exceptional cases
cannot be accounted for on this hypothesis. To

* These are the only experiments which I have performed
with the very long plugs of cotton-wool, though in other previous
trials with plugs about 1 2 in. long, I have several times obtained
positive results.

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS, 65

others, however, who say that organisms are capable
of arising de novo, and that fermentation can be
initiated without the agency of living things, the
above facts appear quite natural. The more complex
the nitrogenous or protein materials contained in a
solution, the more is it fitted to undergo fermenta-
tive changes, which may be accompanied by the de
novo origination of living things. Therefore the above
results are just as compatible with the notions of
M. Liebig and his school, as they are antagonistic
to those of M. Pasteur. Certain fluids, it is found, do
not undergo change ; whilst other fluids, of a more
complex description, will ferment under the influence
of similar conditions. Prolonged ebullition also, by
breaking up some of the more unstable compounds
of a solution (those which most easily initiate these
changes) will retard or prevent its fermentation.

The complete untenability of M. Pasteur's explana-
tions are, however, best revealed by having recourse to
a series of comparative experiments, in which portions
of the same fluid are boiled for an equal length of time
in vessels of different kinds, and are then subsequently
submitted, in a water-bath, to the influence of the
same temperature.

I have made many experiments of this kind with
different solutions, some of which I will now record.
Owing to the different behaviour of the same fluids
under different conditions, we are enabled to draw
some most important conclusions ; and owing to the

F

66 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

different behaviour of different fluids under these
respective conditions, our attention is strongly drawn
to other facts which ought considerably to influence
our judgment as to the relative merits of the two
doctrines concerning the cause of fermentation and
putrefaction.

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS. 67

COMPARATIVE EXPERIMENTS.

IN the following experiments, each fluid (unless a
statement is made to the contrary) was boiled con-
tinuously for ten minutes, after having been placed in
its flask. Then, with the neck either open, sealed,
or plugged, the bulb of the flask was immersed in a
water-bath maintained at a temperature of 8o°-95° F.,
during both day and night.*

FIRST SET OF EXPERIMENTS (I.-XV.).
a. Fluid exposed to Air in a Flask with a short Open Neck.

No. I. — Urine in twenty-four hours was still clear and free
from deposit. In forty-four hours the fluid was very
slightly turbid, and on microscopical examination Bac-
teria and Torulcz were found, though not in veiy great
abundance. In sixty-eight hours the fluid was quite
turbid.

No. II. — Hay Infusion in twenty-four hours was still
clear. In forty-four hours the fluid was very turbid, and
a drop on examination showed multitudes of Bacteria
of different kinds, exhibiting languid movements. In
sixty-eight hours the turbidity had become much more

* When infusions have been employed, these have all been
made as strong as possible, and have been filtered before use.
Warm water has been added in quantity just sufficient to cover
the substance to be infused (cut into very small pieces), and the
mixture has then been kept at a temperature of from I io°-i3o° F.

for three or four hours.

F 2

68 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

marked, and there was also a certain amount of sedi-
ment.

No, III. — Turnip Infusion in twenty-four hours showed
a very slight degree of turbidity. A drop examined
microscopically revealed a number of very minute, but
very active, Bacteria. In forty-four hours the turbidity
had become very well marked.

b. Fluid in contact with Ordinary Air and its Particles ;

Neck of Flask Sealed after the Fluid had become Cold.

No. IV. — Urine remained quite bright and clear during the
fifteen days in which it was kept under observation in
the water-bath.*

No. V. — Hay Infusion after forty-four hours showed a
well-marked turbidity. In sixty-eight hours there was
an increase in the amount of turbidity, and also some
sediment. During the next forty-eight hours turbidity
and sediment gradually increased, whilst the colour of
the fluid (originally that of port wine) became several
shades lighter. Except that it grew still lighter in
colour, and that the amount of sediment increased, it
underwent no further obvious change during the fifteen
days in which it remained in the bath.*

No. VI. — Turnip Infusion underwent no change during
the fifteen days in which it was kept in the bath under
observation.*

c. Fluid in a Flask with a Neck two feet long, and having

Eight acute Flexures.

No. VII. — Urine remained quite bright and clear during
the fifteen days in which it was kept under observation
in the water-bath.*

* Flask still in my possession, unopened.

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS. 69

No. VIII. — Hay Infusion remained bright and clear for
twelve days. On the thirteenth day a very slight
(almost inappreciable) sediment was seen, which scarcely
underwent any obvious increase during the next eight
days, though on the two following days (twenty-second
and twenty-third) the turbidity became most obvious :
much sediment was deposited, and the fluid assumed
a much lighter colour.* (On the twenty-second day
the temperature of the bath was raised to 100° R, for
two or three hours.)

No. IX. — Turnip Infusion remained for four days without
undergoing any apparent change. Its neck was then
accidentally broken at the fourth joint — a certain amount
of fluid still filling the third joint. In this condition
the flask was allowed to remain in the water-bath, and
the fluid continued quite unchanged in appearance for
five days. It was then boiled \ for three minutes, and
the neck of the flask was hermetically sealed whilst the
fluid was boiling. The flask being re-immersed in
water-bath, the fluid continued quite clear for thirteen
days. Its neck was then carefully heated in the spirit-
lamp flame till, when red-hot, the rapid inbending
of the glass showed that the vacuum was still pre-
served. This being ascertained, the flask was, after
a few minutes, replaced in the bath. The next day
the temperature of the bath was allowed to go up
to 100° F. for three or four hours, and in the evening
the fluid was observed to be very slightly turbid. In
two days more (i.e., after sixteen days in vacuo) the

* Flask still in my possession, unopened.

f The vapour had lost all odour of turnip. Some of the fluid
which splashed over was found to be still slightly acid.

70 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

turbidity was well marked, and when the fluid was
examined microscopically it was found to contain an
abundance of very languid Bacteria and Vibriones. On
opening the flask there was an outrush of very foetid
gas, and the reaction of the fluid was acid.*

//. Fluid in a Flask having a Neck two feet long, bent at rig/it
angles shortly above the bulb, and provided with a firm
Plug of Cotton- Wool twelve inches in length.

No. X. — Urine remained quite bright and clear during the
fifteen days in which it was kept under observation in
the water-bath, f

No. XI. — Hay Infusion showed a very slight amount of
sediment after forty-four hours, which seemed to increase
somewhat during the next three days. The fluid after-
wards appeared to undergo no further change, though it
remained in the warm water-bath for fifteen days.t

No. XII. — Turnip Infusion in four days showed a well-
marked turbidity, and also very many flakes of a broken
pellicle.t

This experiment is very interesting in two or three respects.
A neck of half the usual length — with only four bendings — sufficed
to preserve the fluid for several days ; and when this fluid (which
had been in the bent-neck apparatus for nine days) was sealed
up in the same flask during ebullition, it remained in vacua for
thirteen days without undergoing any apparent change, and then
only became turbid under the influence of a higher temperature.
Yet some of the same fluid, in a flask which was hermetically
sealed during the first ebullition (No. XV.) behaved as such an
infusion usually does, and became quite turbid in forty-eight
hours.

f Flask still in my possession, unopened.

ORIGIN OF LO WES T OR GA NISMS. 7 1

e. Fluid (in vacuo) in a Flask, the Neck of which was her-
metically Sealed by means of the Blowpipe Flame during
Ebullition.

No. XIII. — Urine in forty-four hours showed a very
slight amount of sediment. During the next two days
the sediment very slightly increased, but was still small
in amount. At the expiration of fifteen days, no further
increase in the turbidity having taken place, the fluid
was examined. The vacuum was still partially pre-
served, as evidenced by the rapid inbending of a portion
of the neck of the flask after it had been carefully made
red-hot. When opened, the odour of the fluid was
stale, but not foetid, and its reaction was still faintly
acid. On microscopical examination Bacteria and
Toruld were found in tolerable abundance.

No. XIV.- — Hay Infusion in forty-four hours showed a
very slight amount of turbidity. In sixty-eight hours
the turbidity was most marked, and there was also a
small amount of sediment. In another twenty-four
hours it was noticed that the colour of the fluid had
become much lighter, whilst the turbidity and sediment
had increased. It subsequently continued in much the
same state, and the flask was opened on the sixteenth
day. The vacuum was found to be almost wholly
impaired, whilst the odour of the fluid was sour, and
not at all hay-like. On microscopical examination
Bacteria, Vibriones, Leptothrix, and Tornla, were found
in abundance, and the former were very active.

No. XV. — Turnip Infusion after forty-eight hours showed
a well-marked turbidity. In seventy-two hours the tur-
bidity was more marked, and there was a slight amount
of sediment. The turbidity also increased during the

72 ORIGIN OF LO WEST ORGA NISMS.

next twenty-four hours ; though, after that, the infusion
seemed to undergo no further change. The flask
remained in the warm bath for fifteen days, when the
fluid was examined. Its odour was not foetid, but was
somewhat like that of baked turnip. Bacteria and
Vibriones existed in abundance, though their movements
were extremely languid.

SECOND SET OF EXPERIMENTS (XVI.-XXI.).

b. Fluid in contact with Ordinary Air and its Particles ; Neck
of Flask Sealed after the Fluid had become Cold.

No. XVI. — Simple Turnip Infusion in twenty-four
hours had undergone no apparent change. In thirty-
six hours there was slight turbidity, and in forty-eight
hours this was most marked and uniform. When the
flask was opened, after seventy-two hours, there was an
outrush of very foetid gas ; the reaction of the fluid was
acid, and, when examined microscopically, it was found
to contain multitudes of very languid Bacteria.

No. XVII. — Neutralized Infusion of Turnip -f- i gr.
of Cheese,* in thirty-six hours showed a well-marked
pellicle.t When the flask was opened, after seventy-two
hours, there was a violent outrush of gas, though the
fluid was still neutral. Portions of the thick pellicle
were found, on microscopical examination, to be made
up of Bacteria, Vibriones, and an abundance of long,

* The filtered infusion of turnip was neutralized by liquor
potassse. The cheese (Cheddar) was new and not in the least
mouldy.

f The fluid itself being somewhat opaque, the first stages of
increased turbidity from presence of Bacteria could not be
detected.

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS. 73

interlaced Leptothrix filaments. Bacteria also existed
abundantly in the fluid, though their movements were
very languid.

c. Fluid in a Bent Neck Flask, having Eight acute Flexures.

No. XVIII. — Simple Turnip Infusion after forty-eight
hours showed no change. It was kept in water-bath for
twelve days, and during the whole of this time the
fluid remained quite clear. The tube was then broken
\\ inch above the bulb (which was re-immersed in the
bath), leaving the fluid exposed to the air through the
straight open tube. The fluid at this time was odour-
less, and its re-action was still faintly acid.

The infusion remained thus exposed for six days
without undergoing any apparent change. On the
eighth day a very slight whitish sediment was noticed,
which had increased in quantity by the tenth day,
though there was still no trace of general turbidity. On
the eleventh day some of the sediment was examined
in a drop of the fluid, and it was found to be wholly
composed of rather large Torulcz cells — the largest being
about -g-oVo" in diameter, though all the smaller sizes
were abundantly represented. Not a single Bacterium
or Vibrio could be detected, and the fluid was still
quite odourless.*

This again is a most instructive experiment when compared
with Nos. XVI. and XX., in which portions of the same infusion
were employed. The results in No. IX. would lead us to believe
that a vegetable infusion which does not ferment, does, never-
theless, undergo some changes in molecular composition, and
this notion seems to derive confirmation from the present ex-
periment. Some of the same solution which has been kept for
a time (twelve days) from contact with atmospheric particles,
subsequently, even when fully exposed to the air, undergoes no

74 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

No. XIX.— Neutral Turnip Infusion+ igr. of Cheese,
showed no perceptible change in twenty-four hours,
though in thirty-six hours there was a well-marked
pellicle on the surface. When the neck of the flask
was broken after seventy-two hours, the fluid was found
to be very foetid, whilst its re-action had become slightly
acid. Portions of the pellicle were found to be made
up by aggregations of Bacteria, Vibriones, and an abund-
ance of Leptothrix filaments. The Bacteria all ex-
hibited very languid movements.

e. Fluid (in vacua] in a Flask which had been Sealed during
Ebullition.

No. XX. — Simple Turnip Infusion in twenty-four hours
showed a very slight amount of turbidity ; in thirty-
six hours this had increased, and in forty-eight hours
there were multitudes of curdy flocculi floating in a
tolerably clear fluid. The flask was opened after
seventy-two hours, when there seemed to be only a
very slight inrush of air. The odour of the fluid was
somewhat foetid, and its re-action was acid. There were
multitudes • of Bacteria and Vibriones, partly separate
and partly aggregated (constituting the flocculi above
mentioned). The separate Bacteria exhibited only very
languid movements.

No. XXI.— Neutral Turnip Infusion + \ gr. of Cheese,

showed a well-marked pellicle on its surface in twenty-
four hours. In thirty-six hours the first pellicle had, in

apparent change for six days, and then, instead of becoming
filled with Bacteria, swarms only with Tor nice. Yet the infusion
in this condition was perfectly capable of nourishing Bacteria,
as I subsequently proved by inoculating it. Why then was it
not inoculated by the living Bacteria, with which the air is
thought by some to be teeming ?

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS. 75

great part, sunk to the bottom of the flask, though its
place on the surface was already taken by a new, though
thin, scum-like layer. After seventy-two hours, the
flask was opened ; there was no fetid odour of the
fluid, and its re-action was still neutral. Examined
microscopically the fluid showed an abundance of
Bacteria, and also of short monilated filaments. There
were, however, none of the ordinary kind of Vibriones,
and no Leptothrix. All the Bacteria exhibited very
languid movements.

THIRD SET OF EXPERIMENTS (XXII. — XXX.).

a. Fluid exposed to Air in a Flask with a short Open Neck.

No. XXII. — Urine in twenty-four hours showed no change ;
though in forty-six hours the turbidity was well marked.*
Examined microscopically it was found to contain an
abundance of Bacteria.

b. Fluid in contact mnth Ordinary Air and its Particles ; Neck

of Flask Sealed after the Fluid had become Cold.

No. XXIII. — Urine in eighteen hours showed a distinct
pellicle, though there was not much general turbidity.
During the next few days the old pellicle fell to the
bottom, and a new one formed.

c. Fluid in a Bent Neck Flask, having Eight acute Flexures.

No. XXIV. — Urine in forty-eight hours showed no change.
After twelve days there was still no general turbidity,

Some of the same fluid, exposed in a similar flask, without
previous boiling, became turbid in eight hours, and lighter in
colour ; whilst, after twenty hours, the turbidity was extremely
well-marked.

76 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

though there was a slight flocculent deposit of an uncer-
tain nature. Two days afterwards the flask was broken,
when the odour of the fluid was still found to resemble
that of fresh urine, and its re-action was acid. The
flocculi were made up of granular aggregations, in the
midst of which were a few bodies closely resembling
Torul<z, though they were somewhat doubtful in nature.
Neither Bacteria nor Vibriones could be found. The
flask, having a short open neck, was then replaced in
the warm bath. In sixteen hours the whole fluid had
become turbid ; it was also slightly fcetid ; and on
microscopical examination it was found to be swarming
with Bacteria, Vibriones, and Leptothrix.

No. XXV. — Turnip Infusion -f- \ gr. of Cheese in forty-
eight hours showed no change, though in seventy-two
hours there was a well-marked pellicle, in which
some bubbles of gas were engaged. After ninety-six
hours the neck of the flask was broken ; the fluid was
found to be fcetid, and it had an acid re-action. On
microscopical examination, a portion of the pellicle was
seen to consist of multitudes of Bacteria, Vibriones, and
jointed Leptothrix filaments.

No. XXVI. — Simple Turnip Infusion remained clear,
and showed no appreciable change for seven days. On
the eighth day a slight general turbidity of the fluid was
noticed. On the ninth, the turbidity was rather more
marked, though there was no trace of a pellicle ; the neck
of the flask having been broken, the fluid was found to
be odourless and very faintly acid. On microscopical ex-
amination, multitudes of languid Bacteria of medium
size were found, and also short monilated chains with

ORIGIN OF LO WES T OR GA NISMS. 7 7

from two to ten segments. There were no Vibriones,
Leptothrix or Torulce*

f. Fluid (in vacua) in a Flask, Sealed during Ebullition.

No. XXVII. — Healthy Urine after twenty-four hours
showed no change. After eleven days there was still
no apparent change, though on the thirteenth a slight
amount of flocculent sediment was noticed. This de-
posit increased in amount, very slowly, during the next
fortnight ; though afterwards the fluid seemed to under-
go no further change, and did not become generally
turbid. |

No. XXVIII.— Healthy Urine (J-) and Filtered Turnip
Infusion (§-) after forty-eight hours showed a very
slight turbidity, which, however, became quite marked
in another twenty-four hours.

No. XXIX.— Albuminous Urine (J) and filtered Tur-
nip Infusion (-§) after twenty-four hours, showed a
slight turbidity, which became much more marked in
forty-eight hours ; whilst in seventy-two hours there
was a considerable deposit at the bottom of the flask.

No- XXX-— Simple Turnip Infusion showed no change
in forty-eight hours, though in seventy-two hours there
was well-marked turbidity. The turbidity and sedi-
ment continued to increase for several days, and both
were most marked on the tenth day, when the flask was
opened. There was an outrush of gas, having an ex-

* The condition of the fluid, and the nature of its contents,
were very similar to that met with in No. XXI.

f Still in my possession, unopened. In all probability the
flocculi which formed would be found to be similar in their micro-
scopical, as they certainly were in their naked-eye characters, to
those met with in No. XXXV.

78 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

tremely foetid odour. The fluid had an acid re-action,
and when examined microscopically, multitudes of
Bacteria, Vibriones and Leptothrix filaments were found
—the movements of the Bacteria being very languid.

FOURTH SET OF EXPERIMENTS (XXXI.— XXXVII.).

/;. Fluid in contact with ordinary Air and its Particles ; Flask
Sealed after the Fluid had become Cold.

No. XXXI.— Healthy Urine remained in the warm bath
for twenty-eight days without undergoing the least
change.

No. XXXII.— Simple Turnip Infusion remained in the
warm bath for twenty-eight days without undergoing any
appreciable change.* On breaking the neck of the
flask, the fluid was found to be quite odourless. With
its neck quite open, the flask was replaced in the water-
bath. During the first forty-eight hours it underwent
no apparent change, though at the end of seventy-two
hours a slight general turbidity was noticeable, and an
examination of a drop of the fluid (still odourless),
showed a number of minute but very active Bacteria.^

c. Fluid in a Bent-Neck Flask, having Eight' acute Flexures.

No. XXXIII. — Simple Turnip Infusion showed no
change after eight days' immersion in the warm bath.

* Experiment No. 8, recorded in ' Nature,' 1870, No. 36, p. 194,
may be compared with this and No. XXXIII.

f This experiment should be compared with Nos. XVIII. and
XXXIII. It seems to show that if some fermentable fluids can
be kept for a time under conditions in which they will not fer-
ment, the constitution of the fluid, instead of remaining the same,
undergoes a slow alteration by which it is rendered absolutely
less fermentable, even when exposed to the most favouring
influences.

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS. 79

After eleven days, the fluid being still clear, the tube was
broken just beyond the second bending from the bulb,
and then the flask was re-immersed in the bath. After
three days' exposure, the fluid being still clear, it was
boiled in the flask for one minute, when it was noticed
that the steam was quite odourless. The flask was then
replaced in the water-bath, where it remained for
twenty-two days (still with the neck open and broken
just beyond its second bending) without showing any
change.* It was then submitted to examination ; the
fluid was found to be devoid of all odour, it had a
slightly bitter taste, and its re-action was very faintly
acid. On microscopical examination no living things
were found ; there were no Bacteria, no Vibriones, and
no Torttlce, only some mere granules, a small amount
of amorphous matter, and a few fibres, f

No. XXXIV.— Turnip Infusion Neutralized by Am-

After this experiment had been completed, a fresh-filtered
infusion of turnip was placed in the same flask (having the neck
open just beyond its second bending), and after having been
boiled for a few minutes it was immersed in the same water-bath.
This fluid became turbid in thirty-six hours, and was then found
to contain multitudes of Bacteria ; and the characteristic odour
of the turnip infusion was still appreciable.

f The results of this experiment are most interesting, espe-
cially if compared with what takes place when some of the same
fluid is neutralized by ammonic carbonate (No. XXXIV.),
with what occurs when a similar fluid (as in No. XXX.) is con-
tained in a flask sealed during the continuance of ebullition, or also
with what occurred in Nos. XIII. and XXXII. In the present
case the second boiling seems to have destroyed what small
amount of fermentability there was still remaining in the solu-
tion ; but in No. IX. fermentation did take place after the second
boiling — though this occurred only under the influence of dimi-
nished pressure and a higher temperature.

So ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

monic Carbonate in forty-eight hours showed a
slight turbidity, which slowly increased during the next
two days. In two days more the turbidity was very
great, and there was also a considerable amount of
sediment. The fluid was then examined microsco-
pically, and found to contain myriads of large but very
languid Bacteria.

e. Fluid (in vacuo) in a Flask which had been Sealed during
Ebullition.

No- XXXV-— Healthy Urine underwent no apparent
change for the first twelve days, then (the bulk of the
fluid still remaining clear and bright) small greyish white
flocculi began to collect at the bottom of the flask,
which very slowly increased in quantity during the suc-
ceeding twelve days. At the expiration of this time
the flocculi were pretty numerous, though the fluid was
otherwise bright. The vacuum was ascertained to be
still good, and on breaking the flask, the fluid was
found to have a slightly acid re-action, though no appre-
ciable odour. When examined microscopically, the
flocculi were seen to be made up for the most part of
mere granular aggregations (simple, and not in the form
of Bacteria). Small Torula cells, however, existed in
some quantity ; also a few necklace-like chains, and a
comparatively small number of Bacteria, some of which
were tolerably active.

No. XXXVI.— Simple Turnip Infusion after twenty
four hours showed no sign of change, though in thirty-
six hours it was slightly turbid. On the fourth day the
turbidity was well-marked and general, though there
were no flake-like aggregations. When examined mi-
croscopically, the fluid was found to contain multitudes
of Bacteria.

ORIGIN OF LO WEST ORGANISMS. 8 1

No- XXX VIL— Turnip Infusion, *Neutralized by Am.
monic Carbonate in twenty-four hours was de-
cidedly turbid. In thirty-six hours the turbidity was
more marked, and there was a slight sediment. By
the end of forty-eight hours both turbidity and sedi-
ment had notably increased. On the fourth day, there
was a moderately clear fluid, containing an abundance
of curdy or flake-like masses. When the flask was
opened, these were found to be made up principally by
the aggregation of myriads of Bacteria.

FIFTH SET OF EXPERIMENTS (XXXVIII.— XLVIL).

Fluids not boiled, but half-filling hermetically Sealed Flasks,

containing Ordinary Air.

No, XXXVIII.— Turnip Infusion in ten hours showed a
slight amount of turbidity. After forty-eight hours this
was very well-marked : there was a thick pellicle on the
surface, and, in addition, a small amount of deposit. On
examination, the fluid and the pellicle were found to
contain an abundance of Bacteria, Vibriones and Lep-
tothrix filaments.

No. XXXIX.-Turnip Infusion + ^ of Carbolic Acid

after eight days showed no appreciable alteration in
appearance,| no trace of pellicle or deposit. When
examined microscopically, however, the fluid was found
to contain some very minute Bacteria, though they
were by no means abundant.

No. XL. — Hay Infusion had become quite turbid in
twenty-four hours, and several shades lighter in colour.

* Some of same as that which was used (unaltered) in last
experiment.

t It had been rendered turbid from the first, by the carbolic
acid.

G

82 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

After forty-eight hours the colour of the infusion was
still lighter; there was more turbidity, and some sedi-
ment. On microscopical examination, the fluid was
found to contain an abundance of Bacteria, Vibrioues
and short Leptothrix filaments.

No. XLI, — Hay Infusion + ¥V of Carbolic Acid

showed no apparent change* after forty-eight hours,
and when examined microscopically it revealed no trace
of Bacteria, or other organisms. The neck of the flask
was then again closed. On the twelfth day the fluid
had still undergone no change in appearance, and when
examined microscopically, it still showed no trace of
organisms, though the fluid was — as it had been at the
time of the first examination — full of minute, undis-
solved particles of carbolic acid.

Fluids loiled for five minutes, and half-filling hermetically
Sealed Flasks containing Ordinary Air.

No. XLIL — Hay Infusion, after forty-eight hours, showed
no change, and continued to remain quite clear and
free from deposit until the twelfth day, when it was
examined microscopically. No organisms of any kind
could be detected.

No. XLIII. — Hay Infusion -)- gV part of Carbolic

Acid showed no apparent change t for the first five
days, though, on the sixth day, a slight deposit was
noticed at the bottom of the flask. The deposit had
increased, and was well-marked by the twelfth day,

* The fluid had been rendered paler and turbid from the first,
by the addition of the carbolic acid.

f The alteration in colour was less marked than in the similar
mixture which had not been boiled, though the turbidity was
just as obvious.

ORIGIN OF LO WEST ORGANISMS. 83

when, on microscopical examination, there were found
amongst the granular flakes of the deposit, Torulce. of
several varieties of size and shape. Many were spherical,
others ovoid, or having an elongated oat-like shape :
some were of the ordinary colour, and others were
brownish in tint. The variety was most striking. No
Bacteria were seen, though there were multitudes of
active particles which seemed to differ from the minute
spherules of undissolved carbolic acid.

Fluids (in vacua) — boiled for five minutes •, and Flasks Sealed

during Ebullition.

No. XLIV. — Turnip Infusion, in seventy-two hourL.
showed a slight turbidity, which gradually increased.
On the eighth day there was a considerable quantity of
flake-like sediment, and some amount of general tui
bidity. On the thirteenth day the vacuum was found
to be still partly preserved. When the flask was
opened the fluid was perceived to have a foetid odoui,
and an acid re-action ; and, on microscopical examina-
tion, multitudes of Bacteria and Vibriones were seen.
In the flake-like aggregations also (made up almost
wholly of these organisms) there were a number of large
thick-walled spores ; some already formed, and others
in process of formation by coalescence.

No. XLV. — Turnip Infusion + ¥^ Part of Carbolic
Acid showed no increase of turbidity * for the thirteen
days during which it was kept under observation.
Before the flask was opened it was ascertained that the
vacuum was well preserved. The odour of the fluid

This fluid was whitish, and somewhat opaque, from the first.

G 2

84 ORIGIN OF LO WES T OR GA NISMS.

was unaltered, and on microscopical examination no
Bacteria, or other living things, were found.*

No. XL VI.— Hay Infusion, after forty-eight hours, showed
no change, though, in seventy-two hours, there was per-
ceptible a very small amount of a dirty greyish deposit.
By the fifth day the deposit had slightly increased, and
on the seventh day there was a trace of turbidity in the
fluid. It did not undergo much further change, so that,
on the twelfth day, the flask was opened. The vacuum
was found to have been very slightly impaired ; the
odour of the fluid was almost natural, and its re-action
was slightly acid. On microscopical examination of the
deposit, Bacteria, Vibr tones, short Lcptothrix filaments,
and Torulce, were found, though not in very great
abundance.

No. XL VII. —Hay Infusion + ^V Part °f Carbolic
Acid showed no apparent change for the first four days.
On the fifth day there was a small quantity of powder-
like sediment, and one dirty greyish-coloured flake.
On the seventh day there were more small flakes at the
bottom, and a slight general turbidity of the fluid. On
the twelfth day, the turbidity and deposit having in-
creased, the flask was opened— after it had been first
ascertained that the vacuum had only been slightly
impaired. The re-action of the fluid wras still strongly
acid. On microscopical examination of some of the
deposit, there was found, amongst granular flakes and
aggregations, a large number of Torulce cells, of most
various shapes and sizes ; also in the midst of the

* For other experiments showing a similar sterility, induced
by a slight acidification with acetic acid, see 'Nature,' 1870,
^°- 37? PP- 226 and 227.

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS. 85

granule heaps many large, rounded or ovoidal, densely
granular nucleated bodies, whose average size was
TTW" in diameter, though there were many of them
much larger, and others even less than half this size.
Intertwined amongst the granular matter also were a
large number of algoid-looking filaments, -^-Q^-Q^ in di-
ameter, containing segmented protoplasmic contents
There were also in the fluid itself a number of medium-
size, unsegmented Bacteria, whose movements were
somewhat languid.*

SIXTH SET OF EXPERIMENTS (XLVIII. — LXV.).

Ammoniacal Solutions, unboiled, and exposed to Ordinary Air
in a Corked Bottled (Temp. 6o°-65° F.)

No. XLVIII. — Ammonic Acetate Solution. — On the

* The results of this experiment, and of No. LXIII. are de-
cidedly opposed to the reality of the germ-killing powers with
which carbolic acid has been endowed by Professor Lister and
others. I, however, had previously found that specimens of
Torul(B and Bacteria, obtained from freshly opened flasks, and
then mounted as microscopical specimens in a mixture of
glycerine and carbolic acid (in the proportion of 15:1), not
unfrequently grew and multiplied under such conditions. MM.
Bechamp and Estor, also found that Bacteria multiplied in car-
bolized fluids, and similar facts have been testified to by some
Italian observers. But, organic fluids differ much from one
another, so that the influence of carbolic acid may well be different
upon different fluids. And, accordingly, we find that whilst its
addition to, and subsequent boiling with, a hay infusion increases
the fermentability of this, precisely the opposite effects are pro-
duced when the hay is replaced by a turnip infusion (see
No. XLV.). Without wishing to undervalue in the least the system
of treatment introduced, and so admirably carried out by Pro-
fessor Lister, I am strongly of opinion that he explains his results
by theories which are almost wholly incorrect.

f All the simple ammoniacal solutions were in the proportion

of

86 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

tenth day the fluid was still quite clear, and free from
sediment.

No. XLIX. — Ammonic Oxalate Solution. — On the

tenth day there was no distinct opalescence of the
fluid, but a well-marked whitish flocculent deposit. On
microscopical examination no Bacteria were found in
the fluid, and the deposit was made up by an aggrega-
tion of blackish and colourless granules, mixed with a
few crystals and a very few Torula cells— all being held
together by a sort of mucoid matrix. In the midst of
this matter were found two or three very small, much
branched, mycelial tufts of a fungus-growth.

^o. L. — Ammonic Carbonate Solution. — On the tenth
day the fluid showed a very faint opalescence, with a
small amount of deposit, and a partial non-coherent
scum on the surface, which, on microscopical examina-
tion, was found to be composed partly of amorphous
granules, and partly of minute Bacteria, mixed with
small necklace-like organisms. The fluid itself con-
tained, in suspension, a few small and sluggish Bacteria,
with a minute Torula cell here and there.

No. LI. — Ammonic Tartrate Solution after twenty-
four hours showed the faintest opalescence of the fluid ;
in forty-eight hours there was a bluish-white turbidity,
and in seventy-two hours the turbidity was well marked.
When examined microscopically the fluid was found to
contain multitudes of very active Bacteria. On the
thirteenth day the turbidity was not so well marked,

of ten grains of the salt to the fluid ounce of distilled water ; and
to those which also contained sodic phosphate, three grains of
this were added. About half an ounce of each solution was put
into a one-ounce wide-mouthed bottle, and then tightly corked.

ORIGIN OF LO WEST OR GANISMS. 8 7

though there was a very thin pellicle on the surface, and
also the dirty-looking crumpled remains of another
pellicle at the bottom, which, on examination, was
found to be composed of an aggregation of Bacteria.
The pellicle on the surface was very thin, and com-
posed only of a single layer of Bacteria. In the fluid
iiself many Bacteria were seen, of medium size, and
mostly sluggish in movement, though a few of them
exhibited very active rotatory movements. No I 'ibriones,
Leptothrix, or Torulce, were found.

No. LII. — Ammonic Tartrate and Sodic Phosphate
Solution after twenty-four hours showed the faintest
opalescence ; in forty-eight hours there was a bluish-
white turbidity, which, in seventy-two hours, had become
more marked. When examined microscopically multi-
tudes of Bacteria were found whose movements were
very sluggish. On the thirteenth day there was a well-
marked whitish turbidity, due to Bacteria and Vibriones,
a slight amount of deposit, and a firm pellicle which
was found to be composed, almost wholly, of long
unjointed Vibriones and unsegmented Leptothrix fila-
ments, all of which, when separate, exhibited the most
distinct eel-like movements, accompanied by an actual
progression from place to place.

A HI maniacal Solutions, u?ib oiled, and exposed to Air in a
Corked Bottle, after Inoculation with a Drop of Fluid
containing living BACTERIA and TORUL^:. (Temp.
6o°-65° F.)

No. LIII. — Ammonic Acetate Solution after twenty-
four hours was faintly opalescent, and in forty-eight
hours showed a very slight bluish tint. In seventy-two

88 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

hours it was in the same state, and, on microscopical
examination, the fluid showed no distinct Bacteria or
other living things, though there were a number of
very minute particles distributed, singly or in small
groups, throughout the fluid. On the thirteenth day
there was no change in appearance, except that the
sediment had somewhat increased in amount. Still, no
Bacteria could be found in the fluid or the sediment,-
only the above-mentioned particles, and a few somewhat
larger, which resembled very minute Tornlcz. Amongst
the sediment, however, there were two or three very
small mycelial tufts of a developing fungus.

No. LIV. — Ammonic Oxalate Solution. — On the eighth
day the fluid showed a very faint opalescence, though
there was a well-marked, greyish, flocculent deposit,
which was found to be composed of an aggregation
of colourless and blackish granules, of a multitude of
minute crystalline particles (mostly diamond-shaped),
and some rounded or ovoidal, thick-walled, spore-like
bodies ; amongst which, and enveloped in part by them,
were several mycelial tufts of a fungus. A number of
minute Bacteria were found distributed throughout the
fluid, and also a quantity of minute star-like bodies
(crystalline), about Tslhnr m diameter.

No. LV. — Ammonic Carbonate Solution. —On the

eighth day the fluid showed a very faint opalescence,
and a slight deposit, which was found to be composed
principally of amorphous granules. Distributed through
the fluid were some small and sluggish Bacteria, though
no other organisms were seen.

No. LVL— Ammonic Tartrate Solution.— After twenty-
four hours the fluid showed the faintest opalescence.

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS. 89

and in forty-eight hours there was a slight bluish-white
turbidity. In seventy-two hours the turbidity was well
marked, and there was a very thin pellicle on the sur-
face. When examined microscopically the fluid was
found to contain multitudes of very active Bacteria,
and the pellicle was also composed of an aggregation of
Bacteria. On the thirteenth day the opacity had some-
what increased ; there was also a well-marked pellicle,
and an obvious deposit. The pellicle was found to be
composed of Bacteria, and in the fluid there were mul-
titudes of medium-size Bacteria and Vibriones, with here
and there a small Toriila cell.*

* On comparing the corresponding experiments of series
XLVIIL— LI. with those of series LIII.— LVI. less difference
is found than might have been expected by many. The com-
parison of the numbers of each series with one another, also
reveals the interesting fact, that the mere presence of N, C, O,
and H, is not all that is required, even for the growth and nutrition
of the lower living things. These elements seem to lapse into
the new combinations constituting living matter of various kinds,
more easily from certain pre-existing states of combination than
from others. Solutions of ammonic tartrate are much more
favourable starting points for the new combinations than solu-
tions of ammonic acetate. The comparison of experiment No.
LI. with No. LI I. is extremely interesting in reference to the
dogma that phosphorus is a necessary ingredient in living matter.
Solutions of the ammonic tartrate in distilled water have been
twice analyzed for me by a skilled chemist, without revealing the
least trace either of phosphorus or sulphur. This result is very
remarkable when compared with the amount of living matter
which may so soon appear in such a solution : the number
of the organisms and the rapidity of their evolution, being
almost equal to that which occurs in a similar solution to which
a phosphate has been added. However much, therefore, phos-
phorus may aid the development of organisms in many fluids,
there is still an important difference between many and all,

which

90 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

Ammoniacal Solutions (in vacua) in Flasks which were her-
metically Sealed during Ebullition of their Fluids at a
Temperature of go F.°* (Subsequently exposed in water -
bath to a Temperature of 75°-85° F.).

No. LVII. — Ammonic Tartrate Solution after sixty
hours showed a slight sediment, with bluish flakes
attached to sides of flask. In eighty-four hours there
was a general bluish opalescence, and on microscopical
examination the fluid was found to contain multitudes
of Bacteria.

No. LVIII. — Ammonic Tartrate and Sodic Phos-
phate Solution. — After sixty hours there was a slight
general bluish opalescence. In eighty-four hours the
general opalescence was not more marked, but there
were many flake-like aggregations in the fluid, which on

which if more frequently borne in mind, would render universal
propositions more scarce (see * Journal of Chemical Society,'
March, 1871, pp. 72-74). The truth of the dictum " Ohne Phos-
phor gar kein Leben" is, I venture to think, far from being
proved. If on insufficient evidence (referring only to particular
fluids) such a dictum is arrived at ; and if then, the presence of
organisms in any fluid is to be taken as evidence of the existence
of phosphorus (even though this cannot be otherwise substan-
tiated), the case of phosphorus in relation to Life comes to be
similar to the case of the much abused germs.

Mutato nomine, de te
Fabula narratur.

* The fluids were boiled at the low temperature, with the aid
of an air-pump, merely in order to be able to procure a more
perfect vacuum in the flasks ; these experiments being destined
to show whether the simple (uninoculated) solutions would be-
come turbid in vacua — that is to say, without the oxidizing influ-
ence of the air — when they 'had not been exposed to an amount
of heat sufficient to destroy any living or dead ferments which
they might contain.

ORIGIN OF LO WEST OR CAN ISMS. 9 1

microscopical examination were found to be aggrega-
tions of Bacteria.

Ammoniacal Solutions boiled (at 212° F.\ and exposed to
Air in Flasks whose Open Necks were only loosely
covered with Paper Caps : subsequent Inoculation.
(Temp. 750-850 F.\

No. LIX. — Ammonic Tartrate Solution. — The fluid
remained quite clear, and free from all trace of tur-
bidity up to the ninth day, when it was inoculated with
some living Bacteria. In fifty hours after the inocu-
lation there was a very faint opalescence of the fluid,
which, in another 24 hours, had become much more
marked. On microscopical examination it was found
to contain multitudes of Bacteria.

No. LX. — Ammonic Tartrate and Sodic Phosphate
Solution. — After four days the fluid was still quite
clear. In seven days no trace of general turbidity,
though there was a minute dirty-grey aggregation
about -jL" in diameter at the bottom of the flask. On
the sixteenth day the grey aggregation had very slightly
increased in size, though the fluid above was still per-
fectly clear. The grey mass was removed by a small
pipette, and, on microscopical examination, it was found
to be composed of an aggregation of minute extraneous
fibres, mixed with blackish particles and amorphous
granular matter, in which were growing many Torula-
cells in all stages of development, and also a minute
mycelium composed of branched Leptothrix3fc& fibres.*

A deposit of this kind is almost invariably found in such
solutions after their fermentability has been lowered by previous
boiling. Growth takes place very slowly in these cases, and also
when similar boiled fluids are contained /;/ vacuo.

92 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

The clear fluid was then inoculated with some living
Bacteria, and the bulb of the flask was replaced in the
warm bath. After fifty hours the solution showed a
bluish turbidity, which, in thirty-six hours more, had
increased to a well-marked whitish opacity, and when
examined, the fluid was found to be swarming with
active Bacteria.

Solutions of Ammonic Tartrate and Sodic Phosphate were
heated, in their respective Flasks, for Fifteen Minutes to
the Temperatures mentioned below. The Necks of the
Flasks were afterwards loosely covered with Paper
Caps, whilst the Bulbs were immersed in a Water-Bath
kept at a Temperature of 75°-85° F.

No. LXI. — Solution heated to 149° F.

No. LXII. „ „ „ 158° F.

No. LXIII. „ „ „ 158° F.

No. LXIV. „ „ „ 167° F.

No. LXV. „ „ „ 167° F.

All these solutions remained quite clear and free from
any trace of general turbidity for ten days. Each fluid
was then inoculated with some living Bacteria, and in
the space of thirty-six to seventy-two hours, all had
become more or less obviously turbid, and on micro-
scopical examination this turbidity was found in each
case to be almost wholly due to the presence of multi-
tudes of Bacteria.

Interpretation of the Experiments : Conclusions as to
the Cause of Fermentation, and as to the Occurrence
of Archebiosis.

These experiments seem to show quite conclusively
that M. Pasteur's explanations are altogether inade-

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS. 93

quate to account for the occasional preservation of
boiled fluids in bent- neck flasks. They show that the
preservation, far from being universal, is only occa-
sional, and that preservation or non-preservation of
different fluids is almost wholly dependent upon their
nature. They lend no countenance, moreover, to
his particular theory, that fermentation cannot be
initiated without the agency of living ferments, — they
are, on the contrary, wholly opposed to this restriction.
The plug of cotton-wool, or the narrow and bent tube
may, it is true, protect the boiled fluid from subse-
quent contact with living " germs" ; but that the fluids
do not undergo change on account of such deprivation
cannot be safely affirmed, when the same means
would also filter from the fluid some of the multi-
tudinous particles of organic matter (dead), which the
air undoubtedly contains, and which may act as
ferments. It must be remembered that the main
object of M. Pasteur's investigation was to determine
whether fermentation took place under the agency of
mere dead nitrogenous matter, as Liebig and others
affirm ; or whether it is only initiated by living
organisms, as he himself supposes. Obviously, there-
fore, the same filtration which purified the air from
any living organisms wrould filter from it its ni-
trogenous particles, which are the other possible
ferments : so that no conclusion could be drawn
from such experiments, more favourable to the one
than to the other of these hypotheses. All that

94 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

could have been safely affirmed was, that by boiling
the fluid, and then protecting it from subsequent con-
tact with everything that could act as a ferment,
fermentation would not take place.

Even this however, — as the preceding experiments
fully show — cannot be truly affirmed to be a general
rule. Some infusions do undergo change, notwith-
standing this treatment and deprivation, whilst others
do not : that is to say, some still preserve a first
degree of fermentability even after boiling, whilst
others are reduced by this process to the second
degree of fermentability. These latter are unable to
initiate changes by virtue of their own inherent insta-
bility ; molecular re-arrangements require to be set
on foot in them by contact with some more unstable
substance, which is itself undergoing change.

That such is the correct explanation of the reason
why some fluids do not ferment in bent-neck flasks,
seems obvious from the discordant results obtained
in many other experiments, after the free admission of
uncalcined air to the fluids which had been boiled.
The fluids were deprived of their virtues in some cases
by the heat to which they had been subjected, so that
whether they underwent change or not, may have
depended upon the accidental presence or absence,
in the air which was subsequently admitted to the
fluid, of some unheated organic fragments, capable
of initiating fermentative changes. If germs were
as omnipresent as they have been represented to

ORIGIN OF LO WEST OR GA NISMS. 9 5

be, such fluids ought always to have undergone fer-
mentation.

Whilst I have found that any given fluid, whose
strength is about equal on different occasions, acts in
a definite manner when the flask is hermetically
sealed after expulsion of all its air and during the
continuance of ebullition ; and, whilst a like definite
result can generally be obtained, when calcined air
is admitted to the boiled fluid before the vessel is
hermetically sealed ; it is found, on the other hand,
that the result is in no way predicable when uncal-
cined air is admitted. Sometimes fermentation takes
place, and sometimes in other flasks — sealed at the
same time, and subsequently placed under the same
conditions — no change whatever occurs. My own
experience in this respect accords perfectly with that
of M. Pasteur.* He, however, at once came to the
conclusion that the only inference from such facts
was that " germs " are not so universally distributed
as they had been supposed to be by Bonnet and
Spallanzani.t The unprejudiced inquirer, however,
will perceive that M. Pasteur was entitled to come to
no such conclusion concerning germs which was not
equally applicable to minute fragments or debris of
organic matter floating in the air. And, similarly,
the evidence which he adduces with regard to the
diminution in the number of the fertile flasks when
they were filled with some of the still air of the caves

* Loc. cit. p. 71. t Loc. cit. pp. 75 and 76.

96 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

of the observatory, or else with some from the peaks
of the Jura,* far away from the haunts of men, had
no bearing upon the distribution of germs which was
not equally applicable to that of dead organic
particles. Such evidence, therefore, was valueless for
settling between the rival doctrines of fermentation — it
could not possibly help us to decide whether living or
dead ferments were necessary. Dead organic particles
would sink in still air in the same manner as living
organisms ;t and similarly, dead organic particles,
have been shown to be less and less numerous in the
atmosphere in proportion to the elevation obtained. {
In these latter experiments M. Pasteur made use of
yeast-water (alone or sweetened), and of urine — all
three of them fluids, which, after having been boiled,
are apt to possess only the second degree of fermen-
tability. Shortly afterwards, M. Pouchet, in concert
with MM. Joly and Musset, § repeated these experi-
ments, with the sole difference that they employed
strong infusions of hay — which experiment has shown
almost invariably to possess the first degree of ferment-
ability. And seeing that all their flasks, after a time,
yielded organisms from whatever mountain elevation

* Loc. cit. pp. 83 and 84.

t The subsidence of the atmospheric particles has been ably
demonstrated by Professor Tyndall. — See ' Nature,' 1870.

% See M. Pouchet's ' Nouvelles Experiences surla Generation
Spontanee,' &c., p. 69.

§ See various communications in ' Compt. Rend.' (1863),
t. LVII.

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS. 97

the air had been taken — the combined evidence tends
strongly against the view of M. Pasteur. Since
the germs in the fluids and in the flasks, in each set
of experiments, had been previously destroyed by
ebullition, and since in each set, also, air of the same
character had been admitted to the boiled fluids, the
different results seemed to show that fermentation or
non-fermentation, in such cases, depends wholly upon
the quality of the fluids employed.

Other evidence which is so much vaunted by M.
Pasteur and his supporters, as to the possibility
of inducing fertility in previously sterile flasks, by
the addition of a portion of asbestos containing the
solid particles filtered from the atmosphere,* is also
equally valueless for confirming the proposition that
fermentation is only capable of being initiated by
living ferments. The same asbestos which may
contain living spores or organisms (" germs "), does

i

undoubtedly contain many decomposable particles
and fragments of organic matter, f The previously
barren solution may therefore be rendered fertile by the

* Loc. cit., p. 40.

f Speaking of experiments in closed flasks, in which the air
has been either calcined or filtered, Gerhardt (' Chimie Orga-
nique,' t. IV. p. 545) says : — " Si dans les premieres experiences
1'air calcine ou tamise s'est montre beaucoup moins actif que
1'air non soumis a ce traitement, c'est que la chaleur rouge ou le
tamisage enleve a 1'air non seulement les germes des infusoires
et des moisissures, mais encore les debris des matieres en decom-
position qui y sont suspendues, c'est-a-dire les ferments dont
1'activite viendrait s'ajouter a celle de 1'oxygene de 1'air."

II

98 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

mere addition of those portions of unstable organic
matter, whose molecular mobility has not been impaired
by the agency of heat, and which are therefore capable
of initiating fermentations. This view is strengthened,
as M. Pouchet has pointed out, by the fact that in
these cases, instead of meeting some of the various
kinds of organisms which are supposed to have repre-
sentatives in the air, and whose spores or ova may be
supposed to have been sown, it is often merely Bac-
teria which are encountered, — differing in no respect
from those that may present themselves in a some-
what similar infusion, which has undergone change
in a closed flask without any such hypothetical sowing
of living spores or germs. It is more especially im-
portant to bear in mind this consideration, when por-
tions of organic matter can always be easily demon-
strated amongst such atmospheric dust ; whilst living
Bacteria, or other organisms, such as are first produced
as a result of the supposed sowing of spores, either
cannot be demonstrated, or would seem, from other
evidence, to be at least very sparingly distributed.*

The fact revealed by M. Pasteur, that some fluids
remain unchanged for an indefinite period, after having
been boiled in flasks, with long and bent necks, is
easily explicable in accordance with the physical
theory of fermentation, and now that it has been
thoroughly proved that other fluids — submitted to pre-

* On what other supposition can one explain the results of
experiments LVII.-LXV., and of others alluded to on p. 100?

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS. 99

cisely similar conditions — do nevertheless undergo
fermentation, this fresh fact is just as completely
adverse to the explanations and views of M. Pasteur,
as it is thoroughly harmonious with the doctrines of
Baron Liebig. The fluids which are capable of being
preserved — generally not presenting a high degree of
fermentability — do not undergo change, at ordinary
atmospheric pressure, after having been boiled, unless
they are brought into contact either with some pre-
existing living things or with some unaltered organic
particles from the atmosphere. Neither of these, how-
ever, can gain access to the fluid, in such a vessel ;
because all the air which enters, after the first inrush
into the still almost boiling fluid, has to pass, more or
less slowly, through the numerous flexures of the nar-
row neck of the flask and the two or three strata of
fluid which always remain therein.

Some of the fluids which do not undergo chanee in

o &

these bent-neck vessels are, however, by no means
notable for possessing a low degree of fermentability.
This is the case, for instance, with infusions of turnip,
which, under other conditions, have been found to be
most prone to undergo fermentation. And, I have
found in several cases in which such an infusion
had been exposed in a bent-neck vessel, and had
remained unchanged for twelve or fourteen days (even
though subjected to a temperature of 85°-95° R), that
if the neck of the flask were then broken shortly above
the bulb, the solution would still continue without

H 2

ioo ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

alteration for a week, ten days, a fortnight, or even
more — although freely exposed to the air, and there-
fore to the access of any living germs which might be
floating about in the atmosphere.*

The views hitherto expressed with reference to the
causes of fermentation and putrefaction, and to the
interpretations which M. Pasteur's experiments are
capable of receiving, seem to derive all the additional
support that can be needed, from the results of my
own experiments with boiled fluids, in sealed flasks,
from which all air had been expelled.

Some of the same fluid being taken and divided
into three parts, each portion is placed in a separate
flask, in which it is boiled for a period of ten minutes.
One of the flasks (A) is provided with a long and bent
neck, so that the air which re-enters is deprived of
its germs and organic particles ; another (B) has only

* See notes on pp. 73 and 79. It was not that these fluids
were incapable of being inoculated, or that they were unsuitable
for the development of the lower forms of life, as was shown by
their subsequent fate, and by the fact that they can always
speedily be made to become turbid if they are really inoculated
with living Bacteria. Almost similar facts in opposition to the
prevalent Panspermic views have been noted by Professor Can-
toni (Rend, del R. Istit. Lombardo, Novembre, 1869). He found
(as I have also frequently found) that when fluids had been sub-
jected to the influence of high temperatures, and had subse-
quently remained sterile in closed flasks, they might be freely
exposed to the air for one or two weeks, or more, without be-
coming turbid — although at any time a general turbidity could
be speedily induced, by introducing a few living Bacteria into
the fluid.

ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS. 101

a short neck, and to this, the access of germs and
organic particles is freely permitted till the fluid has
become cool, and then the neck of the flask is
hermetically sealed ; whilst the last (C) is sealed
during ebullition, after all air has been expelled.
Now, if Pasteur's theory of fermentation, and the
prevalent notions concerning the universal distribution
of " germs " throughout the atmosphere were true, it
might be expected that the fluid in B would always
rapidly change ; that that in A would always remain
pure ; and that the fluid in C would, similarly, un-
dergo no alteration. The facts, however, are quite the
reverse : if a strong turnip infusion be employed, the
fluid in A will almost always remain unchanged ; that
in B will sometimes rapidly change, and at other times
will remain quite pure ; whilst that in C will almost
invariably become turbid in from two to six days.
But, even if it were not the case that some fluids,
different from those used by M. Pasteur, will almost
invariably undergo change in bent-neck vessels, M.
Pasteur's explanation of the cause of the preservation
would have been altogether upset by the fact that
some of tJie very fluids wJiicJi remain pure in tlie bent-
neck apparatus will become foetid if shut up in vacua. It
is, therefore, of course useless to talk of a particular
boiled fluid having been saved from putrefaction on
the ground that the living atmospheric germs (whose
presence is supposed to be necessary for the initiation
of such a process) have been altogether filtered from

102 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

the re-entering air, when some of the same fluid will
putrefy, if placed under different conditions by which
it is freed both from the influence of the atmosphere
and from its germs — L <?., when, instead of filtering the
re-entering air, no air is permitted to enter. Germs
and atmospheric particles being equally got rid of in
both sets of cases, the great difference between them
is that the weight of the atmosphere is also got rid of
in my experiments — the fluids being contained in
vacua. Now it has been ascertained by Mr. Sorby, that
pressure undoubtedly influences " chemical changes
taking place slowly, and therefore, probably due to
weak or nearly counterbalanced affinities;" and he
also states, in the Bakerian Lecture for 1863,* that
" a considerable number of facts have been described,
showing that pressure will more or less influence such
chemical actions as are accompanied by an evolution
of gas, so that it may cause a compound to be per-
manent, which otherwise would be decomposed." If
increase of pressure retards, a diminution of pressure
will facilitate such chemical changes, so that one can
only explain the results which I have obtained, on the
ground that many boiled fluids, which will not undergo
change when protected from the influence of atmosphe-
ric particles (living or not living) at the same time that
they are subjected to ordinary or increased pressure,

* ' On the Direct Correlation of Mechanical and Chemical
Forces.' — Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. xii. pp. 539
and 546.

ORIGIN OF LO WEST OR GA NISMS. 1 03

will, on the contrary, pass through such changes when
pressure is removed, and the fluids are preserved
in vacno. It is not pretended that this is a rule appli-
cable to all organic fluids — far from it. Diminution
of pressure does seem, however, to be a very potential
cause of change in some fluids. The extent to which
changes of a fermentative character can progress in
the absence of atmospheric oxygen, is also evidently
subject to much variation, in accordance with the
nature of the dissolved fermentable substances.

These facts are not so new and exceptional, however,
as they may at first sight appear. It has been long
known that a boiled fluid extremely prone to change,
will not yield infusoria if the vessel in which it is
contained is filled with the fluid. Burdach says * :-
" Gruithuisen a reconnu que des infusions, meme tres
fecondes d'ailleurs, celles du foin par exemple, ne
donnaient point d'infusoires dans des flacons de
verre dont le bouchon etait assez enfonce pour toucher
a la surface de 1'eau." On the other hand, no experi-
ments with which I am acquainted, in which heated
fluids and calcined air have been shut up in closed
flasks, have yielded so many positive results as those
of Professor Wyman of Cambridge, U.S., — and his
were performed under precisely the reverse conditions.
Large flasks were used, and only -^ — YV of their bulk

*' Traite de Physiologic.' Translated by Jourdan. 1837. t. i.,
p. 18.

104 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

was filled by the experimental fluids.* Gruithuisen's
results were explained by Burdach on the ground that
a certain amount of air was necessary, and it was also
with the view of subjecting his fluids to as large an
amount of air (calcined) as possible, that Professor
Wyman employed small quantities of fluids in large
flasks. These views were dictated by the chemical
doctrines of Gay-Lussac and others, to the effect that
the oxygen of the air is the initiator or priinum
movens of fermentative changes.!

Now, without doubting in the least that in some
instances this may be the case, it seems to me quite
obvious, from my own experiments, that a different
interpretation may be given of Gruithuisen's results-
which r have myself verified, — and of the fact that
meats and vegetables will often remain unchanged for
years after having been heated in closed tins from
which all air has been expelled. J

If we ponder only upon the fact that certain fluids,
in contact with a very small quantity of air, in an
hermetically-closed vessel, will not undergo change ;
though these same fluids will change when exposed

* 'American Journal of Science,' July, 1862.

t See Gerhardt's, ' Chimie Organique.' t. iv. pp. 540 and 547.

J It was, indeed, the consideration of these latter facts which
originally forced Gay-Lussac to the conclusion, that fermentation
would not take place in vacua, or without the presence of
free oxygen, which was and still is, believed by many, to be the
immediate determining cause of fermentation.

OR1GIX OF LOWEST ORGANISMS. 105

to a much larger quantity of calcined air, there may
be strong reason for coming to an opinion similar to
that of Gay-Lussac. When, however, it is also
ascertained that provisions which have been subjected
to the long-continued influence of heat, do not undergo
change in closed vessels, if all air has been expelled
from the very small space above the level of the pro-
visions ; though many organic infusions will putrefy
if they occupy only one half, or less, of a hermetically
closed vessel from which all air has been similarly ex-
pelled by ebullition of its fluid contents, it is impos-
sible that the same explanation can hold good. And
at the same time another interpretation is suggested
for the first set of facts.

The last-mentioned experiments prove * that fer-
mentation can take place in vacuo, when the
conditions are more favourable than those which
present themselves within the almost full tins con-
taining provisions. The change in these latter cases
cannot (in the great majority of instances) proceed
fart, because there is no adequate space into which

* This proof is more severe in certain other experiments (not
yet published) in which I had the benefit of Professor Frankland's
assistance. The vacuum in these cases was perhaps more per-
fect, having been procured by means of a Sprengel's pump and
a simultaneous ebullition of the fluid, during which the flasks
were hermetically sealed. The closed flasks were subsequently
exposed to a temperature of 293° F. for a short time.

f An examination of tins of " perfectly good " meats has con-
vinced me that a very small number of Bacteria and Leptothrix
filaments are occasionally to be met with.

1 06 ORIGIN OF LO WES T OR GA NISMS.

residual gases may be emitted. When this emission
(which is almost always one of the accompaniments
of a fermentative change) has taken place to a slight
extent, the meats are in the very best condition for
preservation. There is an utter absence of light, an
absence of free oxygen, and also an absence of that
diminished pressure which my experiments seem to
show is favourable to the promotion of many kinds of
fermentative change. So that if fermentation does
not take place in a closed flask which is full of a
boiled infusion of hay,* it may be owing to the fact
that there is no space for the residual gases, and that
undue pressure retards many fermentative changes.
This is also perfectly compatible with the other fact
that the same kind of fluid will undergo change when
a small quantity of it is contained in a comparatively
large flask — owing to there being, in such a case,
plenty of room for residual gases to be effused, before
that undue amount of pressure is brought about, in
the presence of which such a fluid will no longer
ferment or putrefy. Fluids, therefore, whose putre-

It has, however, been ascertained by M. Pouchet, that beer-
yeast, even after prolonged ebullition, will undergo change in a
flask which is full and hermetically sealed : and the manufac-
turers of preserved meats also find that occasionally, in some of
their best prepared tins, the meats become putrid, and that the
putridity is accompanied by the presence of organisms. Some
fermentations are doubtless attended by a less copious emission
of waste gases than that which characterizes other fermenta-
tions ; and some fermentations will progress in spite of a mo-
derate amount of pressure.

ORIGI.V OF LOWEST ORGANISMS. 107

faction is hindered by increased pressure and favoured
by diminution of pressure, may be placed under con-
ditions which are successively more favourable than
the last, by putting a gradually smaller and smaller
quantity of fluid into a flask, to which calcined air is
admitted, and, better still — if the stimulus of oxygen
is not absolutely needed in order to incite fermenta-
tion in the fluid employed — by only half filling the
flask, and procuring a more and more perfect vacuum.
In accordance with the doctrines of Baron Liebig,
therefore, my experiments, as well as those of many
other investigators, tend to show that fermentative and
putrefactive changes are merely processes of chemical
re-arrangement, which frequently take place — as it
were " spontaneously ' - owing to the inherent insta-
bility of certain nitrogenous compounds in the presence
of free oxygen. My experiments have, however, also
revealed the additional fact that, under the combined
influence of heat and diminished pressure, some fluids
will undergo fermentation even in closed vessels, from
which all air has been expelled. They lend no sup-
port to the idea that the air is so thickly laden with
living germs as some would have us suppose ; and in
view of the mass of positive information now in our
possession concerning the degree of heat which suf-
fices to kill the lowest organisms, they also, as I think,
entitle us to come to the conclusion that such orga-
nisms are (as the microscopical evidence might lead us

io8 ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS.

to believe) really capable of being evolved de novo.
These lowest organisms are, in fact, to be regarded
as occasional concomitant products, rather than as
invariable or necessary causes of all fermentative
changes.

It would thus appear that specks of living matter
may be born in suitable fluids, just as specks of crystal-
line matter may arise in other fluids. Both processes are
really alike inexplicable — both products are similarly
the results of the operation of inscrutable natural laws,
and what seem to be inherent molecular affinities.
The properties of living matter, just as much as the
properties of crystalline matter, are dependent upon
the number, kind, and mode of collocation of the
atoms and molecules entering into its composition.
There is no more reason for a belief in the existence
of a special " vital force," than there is for a similar
belief in the existence of a special " crystalline force."
The ultimate elements of living matter are in all pro-
bability highly complex, whilst those of crystalline
matter are comparatively simple. Living matter
develops into Organisms of different kinds, whilst
crystalline matter grows into Crystals of diverse
shapes. The greater modifiability of living matter,
and the reproductive property by which it is essen-
tially distinguished from crystalline matter, seem both
alike referable to the great molecular complexity and
mobility of the former. Crystals are statical, whilst

ORIGIN OF LOl VES T OR GA NISMS. 1 09

organisms are dynamical aggregates, though the evo-
lution of both, marked by their peculiar characteristics,
may be regarded as visible expressions testifying to
the existence of one all-pervading Power

" Whose dwelling is the light of setting suns,
And the round ocean, and the living air.
And the blue sky, and in the mind of man :
A motion and a spirit that impels
All thinking things, all objects of all thought,
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Critical Notice concerning each Book.

SECTION I.

HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, and TRAVELS.
Baker (Sir Samuel W.).— THE NILE TRIBUTARIES OF

ABYSSINIA, and the Sword Hunters of the Hamran Arabs.
By SIR SAMUEL W. BAKER, M.A., F.R.G.S. With Maps and
Illustrations. Fourth and Cheaper Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s.

Sir Samuel Baker here describes huelve months'1 exploration, during
•which he examined the rivers that are tributary to the Nile from Abyssinia,
including the Atbara, Setiite, Royan, Salaa?n, Angrab, Rahad, Dinder,
and the Blue Nile. The interest attached to these portions of Africa differs
entirely from that of the White Nile regions, as the whole of Upper Egypt
and Abyssinia is capable of development, and is inhabited by races having
some degree of civilization; while Central Africa is peopled by a race oj
savages, whose future is more problematical.

THE ALBERT N'YANZA Great Basin of the Nile, and Explo-
ration of the Nile Sources. New and Cheaper Edition, with
Portraits, Maps, and Illustrations. Two vols. crown Svo. i6s.

** Bruce won the source of the Blue Nile ; Speke and Grant won the
Victoria source of the great White Nile ; and / have been permitted to

A. 2. A

10.000.4.71.

GENERAL CATALOGUE.

Baker (Sir Samuel W.) (continued}—

succeed in completing the Nile Sources by the discovery of the great
reservoir of the equatorial waters, the Albert N'yanza, from which the
river issues as the entire White Nile.'1'1 — PREFACE.

NEW AND CHEAP EDITION OF THE ALBERT N'YANZA.
I vol. crown Svo. With Maps and Illustrations, 'js. bd.

Barker (Lady). — STATION LIFE IN NEW ZEALAND.
By LADY BARKER. Second and Cheaper Edition. Globe Svo.

" These letters are the exact account of a lady's experience of the brighter
and less practical side of colonization. They record the expeditions, ad-
ventures, and emergencies diversifying the daily life of the wife of a New
Zealand sheep-farmer ; and, as each was written while the novelty and
excitement of the scenes it describes were fresh upon her, they may succeed
in giving here in England an adequate impression of the delight and free-
dom of an existence so far removed from our own highly -wrought civiliza-
tion.'" — PREFACE.

" We have never read a more truthful or a pleasanter little book"

ATHEN/EUM.

Baxter (R. Dudley, M.A.). — THE TAXATION OF THE
UNITED KINGDOM. By R. DUDLEY BAXTER, M.A. Svo.
cloth, 4^. 6d.

The First Part of this work, originally read before the Statistical
Society of London, deals -with the Amount oj Taxation ; the Second Part,
which now constitutes the main portion of the work, is almost entirely new,
and embraces the important questions of Rating, of the relative Taxation
of Land, Personalty, and Industry, and of the direct effect of Taxes itpon
Prices. The author trusts that the body of facts here collected may be of
permanent value as a record of the past progress and present condition of
the population of the United Kingdom, independently of the transitory
circumstances of its present Taxation.

NATIONAL INCOME. With Coloured Diagrams. Svo. 3^. 6d.

PART I. — Classification of the Population, Upper, Middle, and Labour
Classes. II. — Income of the United Kingdom.

A painstaking and certainly most interesting inquiry." — PALL MALL
GAZETTE.

HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, & TRAVELS. 3

Bernard. — FOUR LECTURES ON SUBJECTS CONNECTED
WITH DIPLOMACY. By MOUNTAGUE BERNARD, M.A.,
Chichele Professor of International Law and Diplomacy, Oxford.
8vo. gs.

Four Lectures, dealing with (i) The Congress of Westphalia; (2?} Systems
of Policy ; (3) Diplomacy, Past and Present ; (4) The Obligations of
Treaties.

Blake.— THE LIFE OF WILLIAM BLAKE, THE ARTIST.
By ALEXANDER GILCHRIST. With numerous Illustrations from
Blake's designs, and Fac-similes of his studies of the " Book of
Job." Medium Svo. half morocco, iSs.

These volumes contain a Life of Blake ; Selections from his Writings,
including Poems ; Letters ; Annotated Catalogue of Pictures and Drawings,
List, with occasional notes, of Blake's Engravings and Writings. There
are appended Engraved Designs by Blake ; (i) The Book of Job, twenty -
one photo-lithographs from the originals ; (2) Sottgs of Innocence and
Experience, sixteen of the original Plates.

Blanford (W. T.).— GEOLOGY AND ZOOLOGY OF
ABYSSINIA. By W. T. BLANFORD. Svo. 21 j.

This work contains an account of the Geological and Zoological
Observations made by the Author in Abyssinia, when accompanying the
British Army on its march to Magdala and back in 1 868, and during a
short journey in Northern Abyssinia, after the departure of the troops^
Parti. Personal Narrative; Part II. Geology; Part III. Zoology.
With Coloured Illustrations and Geological Map.

Bright (John, M. P.). —SPEECHES ON QUESTIONS OF
PUBLIC POLICY. By the Right Hon. JOHN BRIGHT, M. P.
Edited by Professor THOROLD ROGERS. Two vols. Svo. 25 s.
Second Edition, with Portrait.

" / have divided the Speeches contained in these volumes into groups.
The materials for selection are so abundant, that I have been constrained
to omit many a speech which is worthy of careful perusal. I have
natiirally given prominence to those subjects with winch Mr. Bright has
been especially identified, as, for example, India, America, Ireland, and
Parliamentary Reform. But nearly every topic oj great public interest on
•which M'-. Bright has spoken is represented in these volumes."

EDITOR'S PREFACE.

4 GENERAL CATALOGUE.

Bright (John, M.P.) (continued) —

AUTHOR'S POPULAR EDITION. Extra fcap. 8vo. cloth. Second
Edition. 3$. 6d.

Bryce. — THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE. By JAMES BRYCE,
B.C. L., Regius Professor of Civil Law, Oxford. New and Re-
vised Edition. Crown Svo. Js. 6d.

CHATTERTON : A Biographical Study. BY DANIEL WILSON,
LL.D., Professor of History and English Literature in University
College, Toronto. Crown Svo. 6s. 6d.
The Author here regards Chatterton as a Poet, not as a mere " resetter

and dcjacer of stolen literary treasures." Revieived in this light, he has

found much in the old materials capable of being turned to neiv account ;

and to these materials research in various directions has enabled him to

make some additions.

Clay.— THE PRISON CHAPLAIN. A Memoir of the Rev. JOHN-
CLAY, B.D., late Chaplain of the Preston Gaol. "With Selections
from his Reports and Correspondence, and a Sketch of Prison
Discipline in England. By his Son, the Rev. W. L. CLAY, M.A.
Svo. \^s.

" Few books have appeared of late years better entitled to an attentive
perusal. . . . It presents a complete narrative of all that has been done and
attempted by various philanthropists for the amelioration oj the condition and
the improvement of the morals of the criminal classes in the British
dominions. " — LONDON REVIEW.

Cobden. — SPEECHES ON QUESTIONS OF PUBLIC

POLICY. By RICHARD COBDEN. Edited by the Right Hon.

JOHN BRIGHT, M.P., and Professor ROGERS. Twovols. Svo. With

Portrait. (Uniform with BRIGHT'S SPEECHES.)

The Speeches contained in these two volumes have been selected and

edited at the instance of the Cobden Club. They form an important part

cj- that collective contribution to Political science -which has conferred on

their author so vast a reputation.

Cooper. — ATHENA CANTABRIGIENSES. By CHARLES
HENRY COOPER, F.S.A., and THOMPSON COOPER, F.S.A.
Vol. I. Svo., 1500—85, i8j. ; Vol. II., 1586—1609, iSj.
This elaborate -work, ivhich is dedicated by pel-mission to Lord Macau lay,
contains lives of the eminent men sent forth by Cambridge, after the
fashion oj- Anthony a Wood, in his famous "Athena Oxonienses"

HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, «Sr» TRAVELS. 5

Cox (G. V., M.A.). — RECOLLECTIONS OF OXFORD.
By G. V. Cox, M.A., New College, Late Esquire Bedel and
Coroner in the University of Oxford. Second Edition. Crown Svo.

" An a musing farrago of anecdote, and will pleasantly recall in many
a country parsonage the memory of youthful days." — TIMES.

"Daily News."— THE WAR CORRESPONDENCE OF

THE DAILY NEWS, 1870. Edited, with Notes and Com-
ments, forming a Continuous Narrative of the War between
Germany and France. With Maps. Third Edition, revised.
Crown Svo. 'js. bd.

TJiis volume brings before the public in a convenient and portable form
ike record of the momentous events which have marked the last six months

The spicial value of letters from camps and battle-fields consists in the
vividness with which they reproduce the life and spirit of the scenes and
transactions in the midst of which they are written. In the letters which
have appeared in the DAILY NEWS since the Franco-Prussian War, the
public has recognized this quality as present in. an eminent degree.

The book begins with a chronology of the war from July Ajh, when ihe
French government called ont the army reserves, to December ^th ; the
detailes of the campaign are illustrated by four maps representing — I. The
ba'tlcs of Weissenburg and Worth. 2. The battles of Saarbriicken and
Speiechercn. 3. The battle-field before Sedan. 4. A plan of Metz and its
vicinity.

THE WAR CORRESPONDENCE OF THE DAILY NEIVS
continued to the Peace. Edited, with Notes and Comments.
Second Edition, Crown Svo. with Map, Js. 6d.

Dicey (Edward). — THE MORNING LAND. By EDWARD

DICEY. Two vols. crown Svo. i6j-.

"An invitation to be present at the opening of the Suez Canal was the
immediate cause of my journey. But I made it my object also to see as
•much of the Morning Land, of whose marvels the canal across the
Isthmus is only the least and latest, as time and opportunity would permit.
The result of my observations was communicated to the journal I then
represented, in a series of letters, which I now give to the public in a
collected form." — Extract from AUTHOR'S PREFACE.

GENERAL CATALOGUE.

Dilke. — GREATER BRITAIN. A Record of Travel in English-
speaking Countries during 1866-7. (America, Australia, India.)
By Sir CHARLES WENTWORTH DILKE, M.P. Fifth and Cheap
Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s.

" Mr. Dilke has written a book which is probably as well worth reading
as any book of the same aims and character thai ei'er was written. Its
merits are that it is written in a lively and agreeable style, that it implies
a great deal of physical pluck, that no page of it fails to show an acute and
highly intelligent observer, that it stimulates the imagination as well as the
judgment of the reader, and that it is on perhaps the most interesting
subject that can attract an Englishman who cares about his country"

SATURDAY REVIEW.

Diirer (Albrecht). — HISTORY OF THE LIFE OF AL-

BRECHT DURER, of Niirnberg. With a Translation of liis
Letters and Journal, and some account of his works. By Mrs.
CHARLES HEATON. Royal Svo. bevelled boards, extra gilt. 31-5-. 6d.

This work contains about Thirty Illustrations, ten of which art produc-
tions by the Autotype (carbon} process, and are printed in permanent tints
by Messrs. Cundall and Fleming, under license from the Autotype Com-
pany, Limited; the rest are Photographs and Woodcuts.

EARLY EGYPTIAN HISTORY FOR THE YOUNG. See

"JUVENILE SECTION."

Elliott.— LIFE OF HENRY VENN ELLIOTT, of Brighton.
By JOSIAH BATEMAN, M.A., Author of "Life of Daniel Wilson,
Bishop of Calcutta," &c. With Portrait, engraved by JEENS ;
and an Appendix containing a short sketch of the life of the Rev.
Julius Elliott (who met with accidental death while ascending the
Schreckhorn in July, 1869. ) Crown Svo. Ss. 6d. Second Edition,
with Appendix.

"A very charming piece oj religious biography; no one can read it
without both pleasure and profit." — BRITISH QUARTERLY REVIEW.

EUROPEAN HISTORY, narrated in a Series of Historical
Selections from the best Authorities. Edited and arranged by
E. M. SEW ELL and C. M. YONGE. First Series, crown Svo. 6s. ;
Second Series, 1088-1228, crown Svo. 6s.

HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY &* TRAVELS,

WJien young children have acquired the outlines of history from abridg-
ments and catechisms, and it becomes desirable to give a more enlarged
view of the subject, in order to render it really useful and interesting; a
difficulty often arises as to the choice of books. Two courses are open, either
to take a general and consequently dry history of facts, such as RusselVs
Modern Europe, or to choose some work treating of a particular period or
subject, such as the works of Macaulay and Fronde. The former course
tisually renders history uninteresting ; the latter is itnsatisfactory, because
it is not sufficiently comprehensive. To remedy this difficulty, selections,
continuous and chronological, have in the present volume been taken from
the larger works of Freeman, Milman, Palgrave, and others, which mav
serve as distinct landmarks of historical reading, " IVe know of scarcely
anything," says the Guardian, of this volume, "which is so likely to raise
to a higher level the average standard of English education.'1''

Fairfax. — A LIFE OF THE GREAT LORD FAIRFAX,
Commander-in-Chief of the Army of the Parliament of England.
By CLEMENTS R. MARKHAM, F. S.A. With Portraits, Maps,
Plans, and Illustrations. Demy Svo. i6s.

Aro full Life of the great Parliamentary Commander has appeared ;
and it is here sought to produce one — based upon careful research in con-
temporary records and upon family and other documents.

" Highly useful to the careful student of the History of the Civil War.

. . Probably as a military chronicle Mr. Mark/lam's book is one
of the most full and accurate that we possess about the Civil fFar." — •
FORTNIGHTLY REVIEW.

Forbes. — LIFE OF PROFESSOR EDWARD FORBES,

F.R.S. By GEORGE WILSON, M.D., F.R.S.E., and ARCHIBALD

GEIKIE, F.R.S. Svo. with Portrait, 14^.

"From the first page to the last the book claims careful reading, as being
a full but not overcrowded rehearsal of a most instructive life, and the true
picture of a mind that was rare in strength and beauty" — EXAMINER.

Freeman. --HISTORY OF FEDERAL GOVERNMENT,

from the Foundation of the Achaian League to the Disruption of
the United States. Bv EDWARD A. FREEMAN, M.A. Vol. I.
General Introduction, History of the Greek Federations. Svo.

2IJ.

" The task Mr. Freeman has undertaken is one of great magnitude and
importance. It is also a task of an almost entirely novel character. No

8 GENERAL CATALOGUE.

other work projessing to give the history of a political principle occurs io
us, ex.cept the slight contributions to the history of representative govern-
ment that is contained in a course of M. Gtiizot's lectures .... The
history of the development of a principle is at least as important as the
history of a dynasty, or of a race." — SATURDAY REVIEW.

OLD ENGLISH HISTORY. By EDWARD A. FREEMAN, M.A.,
late Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford. With Five Coloured Maps.
Second Edition extra. Fcap. Svo., half-bound. 6s.

" Its object is to shovv that clear, accurate, and scientific views of history,
cr indeed of any subject, may be easily given to children from the very
first. . . I have, I hope, shown that it is perfectly easy to teach children, from
the very first, to distinguish true history alike from legend and from wilful
invention, and also to understand the nai:ire of historical authorities, and
to weigh one statement against another. . . . . I have throughout striven to-
connect the history of England with the general history of civilized Europe,
and I have especially tried to make the book serve as an incentive to a more
accurate study of historical geography -." — PREFACE.

HISTORY OF THE CATHEDRAL CHURCH OF WELLS,
as illustrating the History of the Cathedral Churches of the Old
Foundation. By EDWARD A. FREEMAN, D.C. L., formerly Fellow
of Trinity College, Oxford. Crown Svo. 3-r. 6d.

" I have here tried to treat the history of the CJnirch of Wells as a con-
tribution to the general historv of the Church and Kingdom of England,
and specially to the history of Cathedral. Churches of the Old Foundation.
. . . I wish to point out the general principles of the original founders as
the model to which the Old Foundations should be brought back, and the
New Foundations reformed after their pattern." — PREFACE.

French (George Russell). — SHAKSPEAREANA

GENEALOGICA. Svo. cloth extra, 15*. Uniform with the
"Cambridge Shakespeare."

Part I. — Identification of the dramatis persons in the historical plays,
from King John to King Henry VIII. ; Notes on Characters in Macbeth
and Hamlet ; Persons and Places belonging to Warwickshire alluaed to.
Part II. — The Shakspeare and Arden families and their connexions, with
Tables of descent. The present is the first attempt to give a detailed de-
scription, in consecutive order, of each of the dramatis persona in Shak-
speare's immortal chronicle-histories, and some of the characters have been.

HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, &* TRAVELS.

it is believed, herein identified for the first time A clue is furnished which,
followed up with ordinary diligence, may enable any one, with a taste for
the pursuit, to trace a distinguished Shakspearean worthy to his lineal
representative in the present day.

Galileo.— THE PRIVATE LIFE OF GALILEO. Compiled
principally from his Correspondence and that of his eldest
daughter., Sister Maria Celeste, Nun in the Franciscan Convent of
S. Matthew in Arcetri. With Portrait. Crown 8vo. 'js. 6d.

It has been the endeavour of the compiler to place before the reader a
plain, iingarbled statement of facts ; and as a means to this end, to allow
Galileo, his friends, and his judges to speak for themselves as far as possible.

Gladstone (Right Hon. W. E., M.P.).— JUVENTUS

MUNDI. The Gods and Men of the Heroic Age. Crown 8vo.
cloth extra. With Map. lo.r. 6d. Second Edition.

This nei.v work of Mr. Gladstone deals especially with the historic
clement in Homer, expounding that element and furnishing by its aid a
full account of the Homeric men and the Homeric religion. It starts, after
the introductory chapter, with a discussion of the several races then existing
in. Hellas, including the influence of the Phcenicians and Egyptians. Jt
contains chapters on the Olympian system, with its several deities ; on the
Ethics and the Polity of the Heroic age ; on the geography of Homer ; on
the characters of the Poems ; presenting, in fine, a view of primitive life
and primitive society as found in the poems of Homer. To this New
Edition various additions have been made.

"GLOBE" ATLAS OF EUROPE. Uniform in size with Mac-
millan's Globe Series, containing 45 Coloured Maps, on a uniform
scale and projection ; with Plans of London and Paris, and a
copious Index. Strongly bound in half-morocco, with flexible
back, gs.

This Atlas includes all the countries of Europe in a series 0/48 Maps,
drawn on the same scale, with an Alphabetical Index to the situation of
more than ten thousand places, and the relation of the various maps and
countries to each other is defined in a general Key-map. All the maps
being on a uniform scale facilitates the comparison of extent and distance,
and conveys a just impression of the relative magnitude of different countries.
The size sujjices to show the provincial divisions, the railways and main
reads, the principal rivers and mountain ranges. "This atlas," writes the

io GENERAL CATALOGUE.

British Quarterly, "will be an invaluable boon for the school, the desk, or
the traveller1 s portmanteau.'1''

Godkin (James).— THE LAND WAR IN IRELAND. A
History for the Times. By JAMES GODKIN, Author of "Ireland
and her Churches," late Irish Correspondent of the Times. Svo. \is.
A IILtory of the Irish Land Question.

Guizot. — (Author of "JOHN HALIFAX, GENTLEMAN.")— M. DE
BARANTE, a Memoir, Biographical and Autobiographical. By
M. GUIZOT. Translated by the Author of "JOHN HALIFAX,
GENTLEMAN." Crown Svo. 6s. 6d.

" The highest purposes of both history and biography are answered by a
memoir so lifelike, so faithful, and so philosophical.'1''

BRITISH QUARTERLY REVIEW.

Hole.— A GENEALOGICAL STEMMA OF THE KINGS OF
ENGLAND AND FRANCE. By the Rev. C. HOLE, M.A.,
Trinity College, Cambridge. On Sheet, is.

The different families are printed in distinguishing colours, thus facili-
tating reference.

A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Compiled and
Arranged by the Rev. CHARLES HOLE, M.A. Second Edition.
iSmo. neatly and strongly bound in cloth. &[s. 6d.
One of the most comprehensive and accurate Biographical Dictionaries
in the world, containing more than 1 8, ooo persons of all countries, with
dates of birth and death, and what they were distinguished for. Extreme
care has been bestowed on the verification of the dates ; and thus numerous
errors, current in t>rez<ious works, have been corrected. Its size adapts it
for the desk, portmanteau, or pocket.

" An invaluable addition to our manuals of reference, and, from its
moderate price, cannot fail to become as popular as it is useful."1 '• -TIMES.

Hozier. — THE SEVEN WEEKS' WAR ; Its Antecedents and
its Incidents. By H. M. HOZIER. With Maps and Plans. Two
vols. Svo. 2&s.

This work is based upon letters reprinted by permission from " The
Times. " for the most part it is a product of a personal eye-witness of some
of the most interesting incidents of a war which, for rapidity and decisive
results, may claim an almost unrivalled position in history.

HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, & TRAVELS. n

THE BRITISH EXPEDITION TO ABYSSINIA. Compiled from
Authentic Documents. By CAPTAIN HENRY M. HOZIER, late
Assistant Military Secretary to Lord Napier of Magdala. Svo. gs.

" Several accounts of the British Expedition have been published. ....
They hare, however, been written by those who have not had access to those
authentic documents, which cannot be collected directly after the termination

of a campaign The endeavour of the author of this sketch has been t?

present to readers a succinct and impartial account oj an enterprise which
has rarely been equalled in the annals of war''' -PREFACE.

Irving.— THE ANNALS OF OUR TIME. A Diurnal of Events,
Social and Political, which have happened in or had relation to
the Kingdom of Great Britain, from the Accession of Queen
Victoria to the Opening of the present Parliament. By JOSEPH
IRVING. Second Edition, continued to the present time. Svo.
half-bound. iSs. [Immediately.

" We have before us a trusty and ready guide' to the events of the past
thirty years, available equally for the statesman, the politician, the public
writer, and the general reader. If Mr. Irving' s object has been to bring
before the reader all the most noteworthy occurrences which have happened
since the beginning of Her Majesty 's reign, he may justly claim the credit
of having done so most briefly, succinctly, and simply, and in such a
manner, too, as to furnish him with the details necessary in each case to
comprehend the event of which he is in search in an intelligent manner.
Reflection will serve to show the great value of such a work as this to the
journalist and statesman, and indeed to every one who feels an interest in
the progress of the age ; and we may add that its value is considerably
increased by the addition of that most important of all appendices, an
accurate and instructive index." -TIMES.

Kingsley (Canon). — ON THE ANCIEN REGIME as it
existed on the Continent before the FRENCH REVOLUTION.
Three Lectures delivered at the Royal Institution. By the Rev.
C. KINGSLEY, M.A., formerly Professor of Modern History
in the University of Cambridge. Crown Svo. 6s.

These three lectures discuss swerally (i) Caste, (2) Centralization, (3)
The Explosive Forces by which ihe Resolution was superinduced. The
Preface dea's at some length with certain political questions of the present
day.

12 GENERAL CATALOGUE.

THE ROMAN AND THE TEUTON. A Series of Lectures
delivered before the University of Cambridge. By Rev. C.

KlNGSLEY, M.A. SvO. I2S.

CONTEXTS : — Inaugural Lecture ; The Forest Children ; The Dying
Empire; The Human Deluge ; The Gothic Civilize)-; Dietriches End; The
Nemesis cf the Goths ; Paulus Diaconus ; The Clergy and the Heathen ;
The Monk a Civilizer ; The Lombard Laws ; The Popes and the Lombards ;
The Strategy of Providence.

Kingsley (Henry, F.R.G.S.)- — TALES OF OLD
TRAVEL. Re-narrated by HENRY KINGSLEY, F.R.G.S. With
Eight Illustrations by HUARD. Third Edition. Crown Svo. 6s.
CONTENTS: — Marco Polo ; The Shipwreck of Pelsart ; The Wonderful
Adventures of Andrew Battd ; The Wanderings of a Capuchin; Peter
Carder; The Preservation of the " Terra Nova ; " Spitzbergen; D'Erme-
nonvilles Acclimatization Adventure; The Old Slave Trade; Miles Philips :
The Sufferings of Robert Everard ; John Fox ; Alvaro Nunez; The Foun-
dation of an Empire.

Latham. — BLACK AND WHITE : A Journal of a Three Months'
Tour in the United States. By HENRY LATHAM, M.A., Barrister-
at-Law. Svo. ics. 6d.

" The spirit in which Mr. Latham has -written about our brethren in
America is commendable in high degree." — ATHEN/EUM.

Law. — THE ALPS OF HANNIBAL. By WILLIAM JOHN LAW,
M.A., formerly Student of Christ Church, Oxford. Two vols.
Svo. 21 s.

" No one can read the ivork and not acquire a conviction that, 2/1
addition to a thorough grasp of a particular topic, its writer has at
command a large store of reading and thought upon many cognate points
of ancient history and geography "• -QUARTERLY REVIEW.

Liverpool.— THE LIFE AND ADMINISTRATION OF
ROBERT BANKS, SECOND EARL OF LIVERPOOL, K.G.

Compiled from Original Family Documents by CHARLES DUKE
YONGE, Regius Professor of History and English Literature in
Queen's College, Belfast ; and Author of " The History of the
British Navy," "The History of France under the Bourbons," etc.
Three vols. Svo. \2s.

HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, & TRAVELS. 13

Since the time of Lord Burleigh no one, except the second Pitt, ever
enjoyed so long a tenure of power ; "with the same exception, no one ever
held office at so critical a time .... Lord Liverpool is the very last
minister ivho has been able fully to carry out his own political views ; who
has been so strong that in matters of general policy the Opposition could
extort no concessions from him "which were not sanctioned by his own
deliberate judgment. The present vvork is fozmded almost entirely on the
correspondence left behind him by Lord Liverpool, and now in the possession
of Colonel and Lady Catherine Harcourt.

"Full of information and instruction" — FORTNIGHTLY REVIEW.

Macmillan (Rev. Hugh). --HOLIDAYS ON HIGH

LAXDS ; or, Rambles and Incidents in search of Alpine Plants.
By the Rev. HUGH MACMILLAN, Author of "Bible Teachings in
Nature," etc. Crown 8vo. cloth. 6s.

"Botanical kncnuledge is blended -with a love of nature, a pious en-
thusiasm, and a rich felicity of diction not to be met with in any works
of kindred character, if we except those of Hugh Miller." — DAILY
TELEGRAPH.

FOOT-NOTES FROM THE PAGE OF NATURE. Y\~ith
numerous Illustrations. Fcap. Svo. 5-r.

" Those who have derived pleasure and profit from the study of flowers
and ferns — subjects, it is pleasing to find, now everywhere popular — by
descending lovver into the arcana of the vegetable kingdom, will find a still
more interesting and delightful field of research in the objects brought under
review in the following pages." — PREFACE.

BIBLE TEACHINGS IN NATURE. Fifth Edition. Fcap.
Svo. 6s.

Martin (Frederick) — THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK :

A Statistical and Historical Account of the States of the Civilized
World. Manual for Politicians and Merchants for the year 1871.
BY FREDERICK MARTIN. Eighth Annual Piiblication. Cro\vn
Svo. IQS. 6d.

The new issue has been entirely re-written, revised, and corrected, on the
basis of official reports received direct from the heads of the leading Govern-
ments of the World, in reply to letters sent to them by the Editor.

I4 GENERAL CATALOGUE.

Martin (Frederick). — (continuea]—

" Everybody w/io knows this work is aware that it is a book thai is indis-
pensable to writers, financiers, politicians, statesmen, and all who are
directly or indirectly interested in the political, social, industrial, com-
mercial, and financial condition of their fellow-creatures at home and
abroad. Mr. Martin deserves warm commendation for the care he takes
in making ' The Statesman? s Year Book"1 complete and correct.'1''

STANDARD.

HANDBOOK OF CONTEMPORARY BIOGRAPHY. By
FREDERICK MARTIN, Author of "The Statesman's Year-Book."
Extra fcap. Svo. 6s.

This volume is an attempt to produce a book of reference, furnishing in
a condensed form some biographical particulars of notable living men,
The leading idea has been to give only facts, and those in the briefest form,
and to exclude opinions.

Martineau. — BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES, 1852—1868.

By HARRIET MARTIXEAU. Third and cheaper Edition, with
New Preface. Crown Svo. 6s.

A Collection of Memoirs under these several sections: — (l) Royal, (2)
Politicians, (3) Professional, (4) Scientific, (5) Social, (6) Literary. These
Memoirs appeared originally in the columns of the " Daily News."

Milton. — LIFE OF JOHN MILTON. Narrated in connexion
with the Political, Ecclesiastical, and Literary History of his
Time. By DAVID MASSON, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Rhetoric
at Edinburgh. Vol. I. with Portraits. Svo. iSs. Vol. II. in a
few days. — -Vol. III. in the Press.

// is intended to exhibit Milton's life in its connexions with all the more
•notable phenomena of the period of British history in which it was cast —
its state politics, its ecclesiastical variations, its literature and speculative
thought. Commencing in 1608, the Life of Milton proceeds through the
last sixteen years of the reign of James /. , includes the whole of the reign
of Charles /. and the subsequent years of the Commonwealth and the
Protectorate, and then, passing the Restoration, extends itself to 1674, or

HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, & TRAVELS. 15

through fourteen years of the new state of things under Charles II. The
first volume deals with the life of Milton as extending fro in 1608 to 1640,
•which was the period of his education and of his minor poems.

Mitford (A. B).— TALES OF OLD JAPAN. By A. B.

MlTFOKD, Second Secretary to the British Legation in Japan.
With upwards of 30 Illustrations, drawn and cut on Wool by-
Japanese Artists. Two vols. crown Svo. 2U.

This work is an attempt to do for Japan what SirJ. Davis, Dr.
and M. Stanislas Julien, have done for China. Under the influence oj
more enlightened ideas and of a liberal system of policy, the old Japanese
civilization is fast disappearing, and will, in a few years, be completely
extinct. It was important, therefore, to preserve as far as possible trust-
worthy records of a state of society which although venerable from its anti-
quity, has for Europeans the dawn of novelty • hence the series of narra-
tives and legends translated by Mr. Mitford, and in which the Japanese
are very judiciously left to tell their own tale. The two volumes comprise
not only stories and episodes illustrative of Asiatic superstitions, but also
three sermons. The preface, appendices, and notes explain a number of
local peculiarities ; the thirty-one woodcuts are the genuine work of a native
artist, who, unconsciozisly of course, has adopted the process first introduced
by the early German masters.

Morley (John). — EDMUND BURKE, a Historical Study By
JOHN MORLEY, B.A. Oxon. Crown Svo. "js. 6d.

" The style is terse and incisive, and brilliant with epigram and point.
It contains pithy aphoristic sentences which Biirke himself would not have?

Morison. — THE LIFE AND TIMES OF SAINT BERNARD,

Abbot of Clairvaux. By JAMES COTTER MORISON, M.A. New
Edition, revised. Crown Svo. Js. 6d.

" One of the best contributions in our literature towards a vivid, intel-
ligent, and worthy knowledge of European interests and thoughts and
feelings during the twelfth century. A delightful and instructive volume,
and one of the best products of the modern historic spirit."

PALL MALL GAZETTE.

1 6 GENERAL CATALOGUE.

disowned. But these are not its best features: its sustained power of
reasoning, its -wide sweep of observation and reflection, its elevated ethical
and social tone, stamp it as a work of high excellence, and as such we
cordially recommend it to our readers.'" — SATURDAY REVIEW.

Mullinger. — CAMBRIDGE CHARACTERISTICS IN THE
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. By J. B. MULLINGER, B.A.
Crown 8vo. ^s. 6d.

\ li It is a very entertaining and readable book" — SATURDAY REVIEW.

" The chapters on the Cartesian Philosophy and the Cambridge Platonists
are admirable. ' ' — ATHEN/EUM.

Palgrave. — HISTORY OF NORMANDY AND OF ENG-
LAND. By Sir FRANCIS PALGRAVE, Deputy Keeper of Her
Majesty's Public Records. Completing the History to the Death
of William Rufus. Four vols. Svo.

Volume I. General Relations of Medieval Europe — The Carloi'ingian
Empire — The Danish Expeditions in the. Gauls — And the Establishment
of Rollo. Vohtme II. TJie Three First Dukes oj Normandy ; Rollo,
Guillaume Longue-Epce, and Richard Sans-Peur — The Carlovingian
line supplanted by the Capets. Volume III. Richard Sans-Peur —
Richard Le-Bon — Richard III. — Robert Le Diablc — William Hie Con-
queror. Volume IV. William Rufus — Accession of Henry Beauderc.

Palgrave (W. G.). — A NARRATIVE OF A YEAR'S
JOURNEY THROUGH CENTRAL AND EASTERN
ARABIA, 1862-3. By WILLIAM GIFFORD PALGRAVE, late of
the Eighth Regiment Bombay N. I. Fifth and cheaper Edition.
With Maps, Plans, and Portrait of Author, engraved on steel by
Jeens. Crown Svo. 6j-.

" Considering the extent of our previous ignorance, the amount of his
achievements, and the importance of his contributions to our knowledge, we
cannot say less of him than was once said of a far greater discoverer.
Mr. Palgrave has indeed given a new world to Europe."

; PALL MALL GAZETTE.

HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, & TRAVELS. 17

Parks s (Henry). — AUSTRALIAN VIEWS OF ENGLAND.
By HENRY PARKES. Crown 8vo. cloth. 3^-. 6d.

" The following letters were written during a residence in England, in
the years 1861 and 1862, and were published in the "Sydney Morning
Herald" on the arrival of the monthly mails .... On re-perusal, these
letters appear to contain views of English life and impressions of English
notabilities which, as the views and impressions of an Englishman on his
return to his native country after'an absence of twenty years, may not be
without interest to the English reader. The writer had opportunities of
mixing with different classes of the British people, and'of hearing opinions
on passing' events from opposite standpoints of observation" — AUTHOR'S
PREFACE.

Prichard. — THE ADMINISTRATION OF INDIA. From
1859 to 1868. The First Ten Years of Administration under the
Crown. By ILTUDUS THOMAS PRICHARD, Barrister-at-Law.
Two vols. Demy Svo. With Map. 2is.

In these volumes the author has aimed to supply a full, impartial, and
independent account of British India bet^veen 1859 and 1 868 — which is
tn manv respects the most important epoch in the history of that country
which the present century has seen.

Ralegh. — THE LIFE OF SIR WALTER RALEGH, based
upon Contemporary Documents. By EDWARD EDWARDS. To-
gether with Ralegh's Letters, now first collected. With Portrait.
Two vols. Svo. 32J-.

" Mr. Edwards has certainly written the Life of Ralegh from fuller
information than any previous biographer. He is intelligent, industrious,
sympathetic : and the world has in his two volumes larger means afforded
i: of knotting Ralegh than it ever possessed before. The nciv letters and
the newly-edited old letters are in themselves a boon" — PALL MALL.
GAZETTE.

Robinson (Crabb).- -DIARY, REMINISCENCES, AND
CORRESPONDENCE OF HENRY CRABB ROBINSON.
Selected and Edited by Dr. SADLER. With Portrait. Second
Edition. Three vols. Svo. cloth. 36^.

i8 GENERAL CATALOGUE.

Mr. Crabb Robinsoifs Diary extends over the greater part of three-
quarters of a century. It contains personal reminiscences of some of the
most distinguished characters of that period, including Goethe, Wieland, De
Quince)', Wordsworth (-with whom Mr. Crabb Robinson was on terms oj
great intimacy), Madame de Stael, Lafayette, Coleridge, Lamb, Milman,
&c. 6-v. : and includes avast variety of subjects, political, literary, ecclesi-
Astical, and miscellaneous.

Rogers (James E. Thorold). — HISTORICAL GLEAN-
INGS : A Series of Sketches. Montague, Walpole, Adam Smith,
Cobbett. By Professor ROGERS. Crown Svo. qs, 6J.

Professor Rogers' s object in the following sketches is to present a set of
historical facts, grouped round a principal 'figure. The essays are in the
form of lectures.

HISTORICAL GLEANINGS. Second Series. Crown Svo. 6s.

A companion volume to the First Series recently published. It contains
papers on Wiklif, Laud, Wilkes, Home Tooke. In these lectures the
author has aimed to state the social facts of the time in which the individual

•

whose history is handled took part in public business.

Smith (Professor Goldwin). — THREE ENGLISH
STATESMEN : PYM, CROMWELL, PITT. A Course of
Lectures on the Political History of England. By GOLDWIN
SMITH, M. A. Extra fcap. Svo. New and Cheaper Edition. $s.

" A work which neither historian nor politician can safely afford to
neglect." — SATURDAY REVIEW.

SYSTEMS OF LAND TENURE^IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES.

A Series of Essays published under the sanction of the COBDEN
CLUB. Demy Svo. Second Edition. I2.r.

The subjects treated arc: — I. Tenure oj Land in Ireland ; 2. Land
Laws of England ; 3. Tenure of Land in India; 4. Land System oj
Belgium and Holland ; 5. Agrarian Legislation of Prussia during the
Present Century; 6. Land System of France ; 7. Russian Agrarian
Legislation of 1861 ; S. Farm Land and Land Laws of the United
Stutes.

HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, & TRAVELS. 19

TacitUS. — THE HISTORY OF TACITUS, translated into
English. By A. J. CHURCH, M.A. and W. J. BRODRIBB, M.A.
With a Map and Notes. Svo. los. £>d.

The translators have endeavoured to adhere as closely to the original as
was thought consistent with a proper observance of English idiom. At
the same time it has been their aim to reproduce the precise expressions of
the author. This work is characterised by the Spectator as " a scholarly
and faithful translation."

THE AGRICOLA AND GERMANIA. Translated into English by
A. J. CHURCH, M.A. and W. J. BRODRIBB, M.A. With Maps
and Notes. Extra fcap. Svo. 2s. 6d.

The translators have sought to produce such a version as may satisfy
scholars who demand a faithful rendering of the original, and English
readers who are ojf ended by the baldness and frigidity which commonly
disfigure translations. The treatises are accompanied by introductions,
notes, maps, and a chronological summary. The Athenceum says of
this work that it is " a version at once readable and exact, which may be
perused with pleasure by all, and consulted with advantage by the classical
student:'

i

Taylor (Rev. Isaac). — WORDS AND PLACES ; or

Etymological Illustrations of History, Etymology, and Geography.
By the Rev. ISAAC TAYLOR. Second Edition. Crown Svo.
1 2s. 6d.

" Mr. Taylor has produced a really useful book, and one which stands
ilone in our language.'" • —SATURDAY REVIEW.

Trench (Archbishop).— GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS : Social

Aspects of the Thirty Years' War. By R. CHENEVIX TRENCH,
D.D., Archbishop of Dublin. Fcap. Svo. 2s. 6d.

" Clear and lucid in style, these lectures will be a treasure to many to
whom the subject is unfamiliar." — DUBLIN EVENING MAIL.

Trench (Mrs. R.).— Remains of the late MRS. RICHARD
TRENCH. Being Selections from her Journals, Letters, a: d
other Papers. Edited by ARCHBISHOP TRENCH. New and
Cheaper Issue, vith Portrait, Svo. 6s.

B 2

20 GENERAL CATALOGUE.

Contains notices and anecdotes illustrating the social life of the period
— extending over a quarter of a century (1799 — ^827). // includes also
and other miscellaneous pieces by Mrs. Trench.

Trench (Capt. F., F.R.G.S.).— THE RUSSO-INDIAN

QUESTION, Historically, Strategically, and Politically con-
sidered. By Capt. TRENCH, F.R.G.S. With a Sketch of Central
Asiatic Politics and Map of Central Asia. Crown 8vo. 7-r. 6d.

11 The Russo- Indian, or Central Asian question lias for several obvious
reasons been attracting much public attention in England, in Russia, and
also on the Continent, "within the last year or two. . . . / have thought
that the present volume, giving a short sketch of the history of this question
from its earliest origin, and condensing much of the most recent and inte-
resting information on the subject, and on Us collateral phases, might
perhaps be acceptable to those who take an interest in it." — AUTHOR'S
PREFACE.

Trevelyan (G.O., M.P.). — CAWNPORE. Illustrated with
Plan. By G. O. TREVELYAN, M.P., Author of "The Com-
petition Wallah." Second Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s.

"In this book vve are not spared one fact of the sad story ; but our
feelings are not harrowed by the recital of imaginary outrages. It is
good for us at home that 'we have one who tells his tale so well as does
Mr. Trevelyan." -PALL MALL GAZETTE.

THE COMPETITION WALLAH. New Edition. Crown Svo. 6s.

" The earlier letters are especially interesting for their racy descriptions
of European life in India ..... Those that folloi.v are of more serious
import, seeking to tell the truth abotit the Hindoo character and English
influences, good and bad, upon it, as well as to suggest some better course of
treatment than that hitherto adopted." — EXAMINER.

Vaughan (late Rev. Dr. Robert, of the British

Quarterly). — MEMOIR OF ROBERT A. VAUGHAN.
Author of "Hours with the Mystics." By ROBERT VAUGHAN,
D.D. Second Edition, revised and enlarged. Extra fcap. Svo. $s.

" It deserves a place on the same shelf with Stanleys ' Life of Arnold, '
and Carlylis l Stirling."1 Dr. Vaughan has performed his painful but
not all unpleasing task with exquisite good taste and feeling" — NONCON-
FORMIST.

HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, & TRAVELS.

Wagner. — MEMOIR OF THE REV. GEORGE WAGNER,
M.A., late Incumbent of St. Stephen's Church, Brighton. By the
Rev. J. N. SIMPKINSON, M.A. Third and Cheaper Edition, cor-
rected and abridged. ^s.

" A more edifying biography we have rarely met with"-— LITERARY
CHURCHMAN.

Wallace.— THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO: the Land of the
Orang Utan and the Bird of Paradise. A Narrative of Travel
with Studies of Man and Nature. By ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE.
With Maps and Illustrations. Second Edition. Two vols. crown
Svo.

"A care f nil v and deliberately composed narrative. . . . IVe advise
our readers to do as we have done, read his book through."- -TIMES.

Ward (Professor).— THE HOUSE OF AUSTRIA IN THE

THIRTY YEARS' WAR. Two Lectures, with Notes and Illus-
trations. By ADOLPHUS W. WARD, M.A., Professor of History
i'.i Owens College, Manchester. Extra fcap. Svo. 2s. 6d.

" Very compact and instructive.'" — FORTNIGHTLY REVIEW.

Warren.— AN ESSAY ON GREEK FEDERAL COINAGE.
By the Hon. J. LEICESTER WARREN, M.A. Svo. 2s. 6d.

" 7Vie present essay is an attempt to illustrate J/r. Freeman s Federal
Government by evidence deduced from tlie coinage of the times and countries
therein treated of." — PREFACE.

Wedgwood. — JOHN WESLEY AND THE EVANGELICAL

REACTION of the Eighteenth Century. By JULIA WEDGWOOD.
Crown Svo. Ss. 6d.

This book is an attempt to delineate the influence of a particular man
upon Jiis age.

Wilson.— A MEMOIR OF GEORGE WILSON, M. D.,
F.R.S.E., Regius Professor of Technology in the University of
Edinburgh. By his SISTER. New Edition. Crown Svo. 6s.
" An exquisite and touching portrait of a rare and beautiful spirit.'" —

GUARDIAN.

22 i GENERAL CATALOGUE.

Wilson (Daniel, LL.D.). — PREHISTORIC ANNALS
OF SCOTLAND. By DANIEL WILSON, LL.D., Professor of
History and English Literature in University College, Toronto.
New Edition, with numerous Illustrations. Two vols. demy
Svo. T,6s.

This elaborate and learned work is divided into four Parts. Part I.
deals with The Primeval or Stone Period : Aboriginal Traces, Sepulchral
Memorials, Dwellings^ and Catacombs, Temples, Weapons, &c. fr=c. ;
Part II., The Bronze Period : The Metallurgic Transition, Primitive
Bronze, Personal Ornaments, Religion, Arts, and Domestic Habits, with
other topics ; Part III., The Iron Period : The introduction of Iron, The
Roman Invasion, Strongholds, &c. &<:.; Part IV., The Christian Period :
Historical Data, the NorriJs Law Relics, Primitive and Medieval
Ecclesiology, Ecclesiastical and Miscellaneous Antiquities. The work is
furnished with an elaborate Index.

PREHISTORIC MAN. New Edition, revised and partly re- written,
with numerous Illustrations. One vol. Svo. 2is.

This work, which carries out the principle of the preceding one, but with
a wider scope, aims to " vieiu Man, as far as possible, unaffected by those
modifying influences which accompany the development of nations and the
maturity of a true historic period, in order thereby to ascertain the sources
from whence such development and maturity proceed" It contains, for
example, chapters on the Primeval Transition ; Speech ; Metals ; the
Mound-Builders; Primitive Architecture ; the American Type; the Red
Blood of the West, 6v.

CHATTERTON : A Biographical Study. By DANIEL WILSON,
LL.D., Professor of History and English Literature in University
College, Toronto. Crown Svo. 6s. 6d.

The Author here regards Chatterton as a Poet, not as a '•'•mere resetter
and defacer of stolen literary treasures." Reviewed in this light, he has
found much in the old materials capable of being turned to neiv account :
and to these materials research in various directions has enabled him to
make some additions.

HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, & TRAVELS. 23

Yonge (Charlotte M.)— A PARALLEL HISTORY OF

FRANCE AND ENGLAND: consisting of Outlines and Dates.
By CHARLOTTE M. YONGE, Author of "The Heir of Redclyffe,"
"Cameos from English History," &c, &c. Oblong 4.1 o. 3-v. 6d.
This tabular historv has been drawn up to supply a want felt by many
teachers of some means of making their pupils realize what ei'ents in the
hi'o countries ivere contemporary. A skeleton narrative has been constructed
of the chief transactions in either country, placing a column betu'cd for
what affected both alike, by which means it is hoped that young peoplt may
be assisted in grasping the mutual relation of ei'ents.

SECTION II.

POETRY AND BELLES LETTRE3.

Allingham. — LAURENCE BLOUMFIELD IN IRELAND
or, the New Landlord. By WILLIAM ALLINGHAM. New and
Cheaper Issue, with a. Preface. Fcap. Svo. cloth, ^s. 6d.

In the neiv Preface, the state of Ireland, zvith special reference to the
Chnrch measure, is discussed.

' ' It is vital with the national character. . . . It has something of Pope's
point and Goldsmiths simplicity, touched to a more modern, issue." —
ATHENAEUM.

Arnold (Matthew). — POEMS. By MATTHEW ARNOLD.
Two vols. Extra fcap. Svo. cloth. 12s. Also sold separately at 6s.
each.

Volume I. contains Narrative and Elegiac Poems; Volume II. Dra-
matic and Lyric Poems. The two volumes comprehend the First and
Second Series of the Poems, and the New Poems.

NEW POEMS. Extra fcap. Svo. 6s. 6d.

hi this volume will befonnd " Empedodes on Etna ; " " Thyrsis " (written
in commemoration of the late Professor Clough) ; " Epilogue to Lessings
Laocob'n ; " '"''Heine's Grave;" " Obermann once more." All these
poems are also included in the Edition (two vols. ) above-mentioned.

ESSAYS IN CRITICISM. New Edition, with Additions. Extra
fcap. Svo. 6s.

CONTENTS : — Preface ; The Fiinction of Criticism at the present time ;
The Literary Influence of Academies ; JMaurice de Guerin ; Eugenie
de Guerin ; Heinrich Heine ; Pagan and Alediccval Religioiis Sentiment;
Joubert ; Spinoza and the Bible ; Marcus A nreliiis.

POETRY &* BELLES LETTRES. 25

ASPROMONTE, AND OTHER POEMS. Fcap. 8vo. cloth
extra, ^s. 6d.

CONTENTS :— Poems for Italy ; Dramatic Lyrics ; Miscellaneous.

" Uncommon lyrical power and deep poetic feeling"— LITERARY
CHURCHMAN.

Barnes (Rev. W.).— POEMS OF RURAL LIFE IN COM-
MON ENGLISH. By the REV. W. BARNES, Author of
" Poems of Rural Life in the Dorset Dialect." Fcsp. 8vo. 6s.

" In a high degree pleasant and novel. Tlie book is by no means one
•which the lovers of descriptive poetry can afford to lose" — ATHEN^UM.

Bell. — ROMANCES AND MINOR POEMS. Ey HENRY
GLASSFORD BELL. Fcap. Svo. 6s.

" Full of life and genius.'" — COURT CIRCULAR.

Besant.— STUDIES IN EARLY FRENCH POETRY. By

WALTER BESANT, M.A. Crown. Svo. 8s. 6J.

A sort of impression rests on most mi/ids that French literature begins
with the " siecle de Louis Quatorze;" any previous literature being for
the most part unknown or ignored. Few know anything of the enormous
literary activity that began in the thirteenth century, was carried on by
Rulebeuf, Marie de France, Gaston de Foix, Thibault de Champagne,
and Lorris ; was fostered by Charles of Orleans, by Margaret of Valois,
by Francis the First ; that gave a crowd of versifiers to France, enriched,
strengthened, developed, and fixed the French language, and prepared (he
way for Corneille and for Racine. 71ie present work aims to afford
information and direction touching the early efforts of France in poetical
literature.

" In one moderately sized volume he has contrived to introdiice us to the
very best, if not to all of the early French poets. " — ATHEN^UM.

Bradshaw.— AN ATTEMPT TO ASCERTAIN THE STATE
OF CHAUCER'S WORKS, AS THEY WERE LEFT AT
HIS DEATH. With some Notes of their Subsequent History.
By HENRY BRADSHAW, of King's College, and the University
Library, Cambridge. In the Press.

26 GENERAL CATALOGUE.

Brimley. — ESSAYS BY THE LATE GEORGE BRIMLEY,
M.A. Edited by the Rev. W. G. CLARK, M.A. With Portrait.
Cheaper Edition. Ecap. Svo. 3-r. 6</.

Essays on literary topics, such as Tennyson s "Poems," Carlyle's
11 Life of Stirling" "Bleak House" OTY., reprinted from Eraser, the
Spectator, and like periodicals.

Broome. — THE STRANGER OF SERIPHOS. A Dramatic
Poem. By FREDERICK NAPIER BROOME. Fcap. Svo. $s.

Founded on the Greek legend of Danae and Perseus .

11 Grace and beauty of expression are Mr. Broome s characteristics ;
and these qualities are displayed in mar.y passages. " — ATHENAEUM.

Church (A.J.). — HOR-E TEXXYSOXIAN.E, Sive Eclogse
e Tennysono Latine redditre. Cura A. J. CHURCH, A.M.
Extra fcap. Svo. 6s.

Latin versions oj~ Selections from Tennyson. Among the authors are
the Editor, the late Professor Coningion, Professor Sedey, Dr. Ilessey,
Mr. Kebbel, a )id other gentlemen.

Clough (Arthur Hugh).— THE POEMS AND PROSE
REMAINS OF ARTHUR HUGH CLOUGH. With a
Selection from his Letters and a Memoir. Edited by his Wife.
With Portrait. Two vols. crown Svo. 2is. Or Poems sepa-
rately, as below.

The late Professor Clough is well known as a graceful, tender poet,
and as the scholarly translator of Plutarch. 7 he letters possess high
interest, not biographical o:ily, but literary — discussing, as they do, the
most important questions of tJie time, always in a genial spirit. The
"Remains" include papers on " Retrenchment at Oxford;" on Professor
P. IV. Newman's book " The Soul ;" on Wordsworth ; on the Formation
of Classical English ; on some Modern Poems (Matthew Arnold and the
late Alexander Smith], &c.

THE POEMS OF ARTHUR HUGH CLOUGH, sometime Fellow
of Oriel College, Oxford. Third Edition. Fcap. Svo. 6s.

POETRY & BELLES LETTRES. 27

" From the higher mind of cultivated, all-questioning, but still conser-
vative England, in this our puzzled generation, we do not know cf anv
utterance in literature so characteristic as the poems of Arthur Hugh
.'" — ERASER'S MAGAZINE.

Dante. — DANTE'S COMEDY, THE HELL. Translated by
W. M. ROSSETTI. Fcap Svo. cloth. 5-r.

'' The aim of this translation of Dante may be summed up in one word
— Literality. . . . To follow Dante sentence for sentence, line for line,
Ivor d for word — neither more nor less — has been my stnnuo us endeavour. "
— AUTHOR'S PREFACE.

De Vere. — THE INFANT BRIDAL, and other Poems. By

AUBREY DE VERE. Fcap. Svo. 'js. 6d.

"Mr. De Vere has taken his place among the pods of the day. Pure
and tender feeling, and tJiat polished restraint of style which is called
classical, are the charms of the volume.'1'' — SPECTATOR.

Doyle (Sir F. H.). — Works by Sir FRANCIS HASTINGS DOYLE,
Professor of Poetry in the University of Oxford : —

THE RETURN OF THE GUARDS, AND OTHER POEMS.

Fcap. Svo. Js.

" Good wine needs no bush, nor good verse a preface ; and Sir Francis
Doyle's verses run bright and clear, and smack of a classic vintage. . . .
His chief characteristic, as it is his greatest charm, is the simple manliness
which gives force to all he writes. It is a characteristic in these days rare
enough.'''' —EXAMINER.

LECTURES ON POETRY, delivered before the University of
Oxford in 1868. Crown Svo. $s. 6d.

THREE LECTURES : — (i) Inaugural ; (2) Provincial Poetry; (3) Dr.
Newman's "•Dream of Gerontius"

"Full of thoughtful discrimination and fine insight: the lecture on
' Provincial Poetry' seems to us singularly true, eloquent, and instructive"
— SPECTATOR.

Evans. --BROTHER FABIAN'S MANUSCRIPT, AND
OTHER POEMS. By SEBASTIAN EVANS. Fcap. Svo. cloth.

28 GENERAL CATALOGUE.

" /;/ this volume -we have Jull assurance that he has ' the vision and the
faculty divine.'' . . . Clever and full of kindly humour" — GLOBE.

Furnivall. — LE MORTE D'ARTHUR. Edited from the Harleian
M.S. 2252, in the British Museum. By F. J. FURNIVALL. M.A.
With Essay by the late HERBERT COLERIDGE. Fcap. 8vo. "js. 6d.

Looking to the interest shown by so many thousands in Mr. Tennyson' 's
Arthurian poems, the editor and publishers have thought that the old
version would possess considerable interest. It is a reprint of the celebrated
Harleian copy ; and is accompanied by index and glossary.

Garnett. — IDYLLS AND EPIGRAMS. Chiefly from the Greek
Anthology. By RICHARD GARNETT. Fcap. Svo. 2s. 6d.

"A charming little book. For English readers, Mr. Gar net? s transla-
lations will open a new -world of thought"- -WESTMINSTER REVIEW.

GUESSES AT TRUTH. By Two BROTHERS. With Vignette,
Title, and Frontispiece. New Edition, with Memoir. Fcap. Svo. 6s.

" The following year was memorable for the commencement of the
' Guesses at Truth. ' He and his Oxford brother, living as they did in
constant and free interchange of thought on questions of philosophy and
literature and art ; delighting, each of them, in the epigrammatic terseness
which is the charm of the ' Pensees ' of Pascal, and the ' Caracteres'1 of La
Bruyere — agreed to utter themselves in this form, and the book appeared^
anonymously, in two volumes, in 1827."-— MEMOIR.

Hamerton. — A PAINTER'S CAMP. By PHILIP GILBERT
HAMERTON. Second Edition, revised. Extra fcap. Svo. 6s.

BOOK I. In England ; BOOK II. In Scotland; BOOK III. In France.
This is the story of an Artistes encampments and adventures. The
headings of a feiv chapters may serve to convey a notion of the character
of the book: A Walk on the Lancashire floors; tht. Author his own
Housekeeper and Cook ; Tents and Boats for the Highlands ; The Author
encamps on an uninhabited Island ; A Lake Voyage ; A Gipsy Journey
to Glen Coe ; Concerning Moonlight and Old Castles ; A little French
City ; A Farm in the Autunois, &c. &c.

POETRY &* BELLES LETTRES. 29

" His pages sparkle with many turns of expression, not aferv well-told
anecdotes, and many observations which are the fruit of attentive study and
•wise reflection on the complicated phenomena of human life, as well as of
unconscious nature." — WESTMINSTER REVIEW.

ETCHING AND ETCHERS. A Treatise Critical and Practical.
By P. G. HAMERTON. With Original Plates by REMBRANDT,
CALLOT, DUJARDIN, PAUL POTTER, &c. Royal Svo. Half
morocco. %is. 6d.

" It is a work of which author, printer, and publisher may alike feel
proud. It is a work, too, of which none but a genuine artist could bv
possibility have been the author"-— SATURDAY REVIEW.

Herschel. — THE ILIAD OF HOMER. Translated into English
Hexameters. By Sir JOHN HERSCHEL, Bart. Svo. i8j.

A version of the Iliad in English Hexameters. The question of Homeric
translation is fully discussed in the Preface.

" // is admirable, not only for many intrinsic merits, but as a great
tribute to Genius.'''' — ILLUSTRATED LONDON NEWS.

HIATUS : the Void in Modern Education. Its Cause and Antidote.
By OUTIS. Svo. &r. 6d.

The main object of this Essay is to point out how the emotional element
which underlies the Fine Arts is disregarded and undeveloped at this time
so far as (despite a pretence at filling it up} to constitute an Educational
Hiatus.

Huxley (Professor). — LAY SERMONS, ADDRESSES,
AND REVIEWS. By T. H. HUXLEY, LL.D., F.R.S.

Second and Cheaper Edition, crown Svo. Js. 6d.

Fourteen discourses on the following subjects : — On the Advisableness of
Improving Natural Knowledge Emancipation — Black and White ; A
Liberal Education, ana where 10 find it ; Scientific Education ; on the
Educational Value oj the Natural History Sciences ; on the Study of
Zoology; on the Physical Basis of Life ; the Scientific Aspects of Posi-
thism ; on a Piece of Chalk; Geological Contemporaneity and Persistent
Types of Life ; Geological Reform ; the Origin of Species ; Criticisms on
the " Origin of Species ;" on Descartes'1 " Discourse touching the Method
of using one 's Reason rightly and of seeking Scientific Truth.'1'1

30 GENERAL CATALOGUE.

ESSAYS SELECTED FROM LAY SERMONS, ADDRESSES,
AND REVIEWS. Crown Svo. Cloth. 2s.

Whilst publishing a second edition of his Lay Sermons, Addresses, and
Reviews, Professor Huxley has, at the suggestion of many friends, issued
in a cheap and popular form the selection ive are now noticing. It inchides
the following essays : — ( I ) On the Advisableness of Improving Natural
Knowledge. (2) A Liberal Education, and vvhere to find it. (3) Scientific
Education, notes of an after-dinner speech. (4) On the Physical Basis of
Life. (5) The Scientific Aspects of Positivism. (6) On Descartes'1 "Dis-
course touching the Method of rising one's Reason Rightly and of seeking
Scientific Truth.'"

Kennedy. — LEGENDARY FICTIONS OF THE IRISH
CELTS. Collected and Narrated by PATRICK KENNEDY. Crown
Svo. With Two Illustrations, "js. 6d.

"A verv admirable popular selection of the Irish fairy stories and legends,
in ivhich those who are familiar with Mr. Crokers, and other selections
of the same kind, will find much that is fresh, and full of the peculiar
vivacity and humour, and sometimes men of the ideal beautv, of the true
Celtic Legend"— SPECTATOR.

Kingsley (Canon). — See also "HISTORIC SECTION," "WORKS
OF FICTION," and " PHILOSOPHY ; " also "JUVENILE BOOKS,"
and" THEOLOGY."

THE SAINTS' TRAGEDY : or, The True Story of Elizabeth of
Hungary. By the Rev. CHARLES KINGSLEY. With a Preface by
the Rev. F. D. MAURICE. Third Edition. Fcap. Svo. $s.

ANDROMEDA, AND OTHER POEMS. Third Edition. Fcap.
Svo. 5-r.

PHAETHON ;. or, Loose Thoughts for Loose Thinkers. Third
Edition. Crown Svo. 2s.

Lowell (Professor). — AMONG MY BOOKS. Six Essays.
By TAMES RUSSELL LOWELL, M.A., Professor of Belles Lrttres
ir. Harvar College. Crown Svo. 'js. 6d.

POETRY & BELLES LETTRES. 31

Six Essays: Dryden ; Witchcraft; Shakespeare Once More ; New
England Two Centuries ago; Lessing ; Rousseau and the Senti-
mentalists.

UNDER THE WILLOWS, AND OTHER POEMS. By JAMES
RUSSELL LOWELL. Fcap. Svo. 6s.

" Under the Willows is one of the most admirable bits of idyllic work,
short as it is, or perhaps because it is short, that have been done in otir gene-
ration."— SATURDAY REVIEW.

Masson (Professor). — ESSAYS, BIOGRAPHICAL AND

CRITICAL. Chiefly on the British Poets. By DAVID MASSON,
LL.D., Professor of Rhetoric in the University of Edinburgh.
Svo. I2J-. 6d.

' ' Distinguished by a remarkable power of analysis, a clear statement
of the actual facts on which speculation is based, and an appropriate
beauty of language. These essays should be popular zvith serious men.'1'' —
ATHENAEUM.

BRITISH NOVELISTS AND THEIR STYLES. Being a Critical
Sketch of the History of British Prose Fiction. Crown Svo. Js. 6d.

" Valuable for its lucid analysis of fundamental principlts, its breadth
of z'iezv, and sustained animation of style." —SPECTATOR.

MRS. JERNINGHAM'S JOURNAL. Second Edition. Extra fcap.
Svo. 3-f. 6d. A Poem of the boudoir or domestic class, purporting
to be the journal of a newly-married lady.

" One quality in the piece, sufficient of itself to claim a moment's atten-
tion, is that it is unique — original, indeed, is not too strong a word — in
the manner of its conception and execution."- —PALL MALL GAZETTE.

Mistral (F.). — MIRELLE: a Pastoral Epic of Provence. Trans-
lated by H. CRICHTON. Extra fcap. Svo. 6s.

" This is a capital translation of the elegant and richly -coloured pastoral
epic poem of M. Mistral which, in 1859, he dedicated in enthusiastic

terms to Lamartine It would be hard to overpraise the

s^veetness and pleasing freshness of this charming epic.'" — ATHENAEUM.

32 GENERAL CATALOGUE.

Myers (Ernest). — THE PURITANS. By ERNEST MYERS.
Extra fcap. 8vo. cloth. 2s. 6d.

" It is not too much to call it a really grand poem, stately and dignified,
and shelving not only a high poetic mind, but also great power over poetic
expression.'1'' — LITERARY CHURCHMAN.

Myers (F. W. H.). — Poems. By F. W. H. MYERS. Extra
fcap. 8vo. 4j. 6d. Containing "ST. PAUL," "St. JOHN," and
other Poems.

' ' Sf. Paul stands without a rival as the noblest religious poem which
has been written in an age which beyond any other has been prolific in this
class of poetry. The snblimest conceptions are expressed in language which
for richness, taste, and purity, we have never see) i excelled"- -JOHN BULL.

Nettleship.- -ESSAYS ON ROBERT BROWNING'S
POETRY. By JOHN T. NETTLESHIP. Extra fcap. Svo. 6s. 6d.

Noel.— BEATRICE, AND OTHER POEMS. By the Hon.

RODEN NOEL. Fcap. Svo. 6s.

"Beatrice is in many respects a noble poem; it displays a splendour
of landscape painting, a strong definite precision oj highly-coloured descrip-
tijn, which has not often been surpassed."1 '• —PALL MALL GAZETTE.

Norton. — THE LADY OF LA GARAYE. By the HON. MRS.

NORTON. With Vignette and Frontispiece. Sixth Edition.

Fcap. Svo. 4s. 6d.

" There is no lack of vigour, no faltering of power, plenty of passion,
much bright description, much musical verse. . . . Full of thoughts well-
expressed, and may be classed among her best works"- -TIMES.

Orwell.— THE BISHOP'S WALK AND THE BISHOP'S
TIMES. Poems on the days of Archbishop Leighton and the
Scottish Covenant. By ORWELL. Fcap. Svo. 5^.
" Pure taste and faultless precision of language, the fruits of deep thought,

insight into human nature, and lively sympathy.1"— NONCONFORMIST.

Palgrave (Francis T.).— ESSAYS ON ART. By FRANCIS
TURNER PALGRAVE, M.A., late Fellow of Exeter College,
Oxford. Extra fcap. Svo. 6s.

Mulready — Dyce — Hoi man Hunt — Herbert — Poetry, Prose, and Sen-
sationalism in Art — Sculpture in England — The Albert Cross,

POETRY & BELLES LETTRES.

33

SHAKESPEARE'S SONNETS AND SONGS. Edited by F. T.
PALGRAVE. Gem Edition. With Vignette Title by JEENS. $s. 6d.

"For minute elegance no volume could possibly excel the ' Gem
Edition' " —SCOTSMAN.

ORIGINAL HYMNS. By F. T. PALGRAVE. Third Edition, en-
larged, iSmo. is. 6d.

LYRICAL POEMS. By F. T. PALGRAVE. \_Nearly ready.

Patmore. — Works by COVENTRY PATMORE : —
THE ANGEL IN THE HOUSE.

BOOK I. The Betrothal ; BOOK II. The Espousals ; BOOK III.
Faithful for Ever. With Tamerton Church Tower. Two vols. Fcap.

8l>0. I2S.

%* A New and Cheap Edition in one vol. l8mc>., beautifully printed
on toned paper ; price 2s. 6d.

THE VICTORIES OF LOVE. Fcap. Svo. 4*. 6d.

The intrinsic merit of his poem will sectire it a permanent place in
literature. . . . Mr. Patmore has fully earned a place in the catalogue
of poets by the finished idealization of domestic life.'''' — SATURDAY
REVIEW.

Pember (E. H.).— THE TRAGEDY OF LESBOS. A
Dramatic Poem. By E. H PEMBER. Fcap. Svo. 4.5-. 6d.
Founded iipon the story of Sappho.

Richardson. — THE ILIAD OF THE EAST. A Selection
of Legends drawn from Valmiki's Sanskrit Poem "The Ram -
ayana." By FREDERIKA RICHARDSON. Crown Svo. 'js. 6d.
" A charming volume which at once enmeshes the reader in its snares."

—ATHENAEUM.

Rhcades (James). — POEMS. By JAMES RHOADES. Fcap.

Svo. 4-r. 6d.

POEMS AND SONNETS. Contents : — Ode to Harmony ; To the Spirit
of Unrest; Ode to Winter ; TJie Tunnel ; To the Spirit of Beauty ;
Song of a Leaf ; By the Rotha ; An Old Orchard ; Love and Rest ; The
Flowers Surprised; On the Death of Artemus Ward ; The Two Paths ;
The Ballad of Little Maisie ; Sonnets.

c

34 GENERAL CATALOGUE.

Rossetti. — Works by CHRISTINA ROSSETTI : —

GOBLIN MARKET, AND OTHER POEMS. With two Designs
by D. G. ROSSETTI. Second Edition. Fcap. 8vo. 5^.

"S/ie handles her little marvel with that rare poetic discrimination which
neither exhausts it of its simple wonders by pushing symbolism too far, nor
keeps those wonders in the merely fabulous and capricious stage. In fact
she has prodiiced a true children's poem, which is far more delightful to
the mature than to children, though it would be delightful to all"
SPECTATOR.

THE PRINCE'S PROGRESS, AND OTHER POEMS. With
two Designs by D. G. ROSSETTI. Fcap. Svo. 6s.

" Miss Rossett? s poems are of the kind which recalls Shelley's definition
of Poetry as the record of the best and happiest moments of the best and
happiest minds. . . . They are like the piping of a bird on the spray in
the sunshine, or the quaint singing with which a child amuses itself when
it forgets that anybody is listening"- —SATURDAY REVIEW.

Rossetti (W. M.). — DANTE'S HELL. See" DANTE."

FINE ART, chiefly Contemporary. By WILLIAM M. ROSSETTI.
Crown Svo. los. 6d.

This volume consists of Criticism on Contemporary Art, reprinted
from Fraser, The Saturday Review, The Pall Mall Gazette, and other
publications.

Roby.— STORY OF A HOUSEHOLD, AND OTHER POEMS.
By MARY K. ROBY. Fcap. Svo. 5-r.

Seeley (Professor). — LECTURES AND ESSAYS. By

J. R. SEELEY, M.A. Professor of Modern History in the
University of Cambridge. Svo. IGJ-. 6d.

CONTENTS : — Roman Imperialism: I. The Great Roman Revolution;
2. The Proximate cause of the Fall of the Roman Empire ; 3. The Later
Empire. — Milton s Political Opinions — Milton's Poetry — Elementary
Principles in Art — Liberal Education in Universities— English in
Schools — The Church as a Teacher of Morality— The Teaching of
Politics: an Inaugural Lecture delivered at Cambridge.

POETRY & BELLES LETT RES. 35

Shairp (Principal).— KILMAHOE, a Highland Pastoral, with
other Poems. By JOHN CAMPBELL SHAIRP. Fcap. Svo. 5.5-.

" Kilmahoe is a Highland Pastoral, redolent of the warm soft air oj
the Western Lochs and floors, sketched out with remarkable grace and
picttiresqtteness. " — S ATU RDAY REVI EW.

Smith. — Works by ALEXANDER SMITH : —

A LIFE DRAMA, AND OTHER POEMS. Fcap. Svo. 2s. 6d.

CITY POEMS. Fcap. Svo. 5*.

EDWIN OF DEIRA. Second Edition. Fcap. Svo. $s.

"A poem which is marked by the strength, sustained si.veetness, and
compact texture of real life." — NORTH BRITISH REVIEW.

Smith. — POEMS. By CATHERINE BARNARD SMITH. Fcap.

SVO. 5-T.

" Wealthy in feeling, meaning, finish, and grace ; not without passion,
-which is suppressed, but the keener for that" — ATHEN/EUM.

Smith (Rev. Walter). — HYMNS OF CHRIST AND THE
CHRISTIAN LIFE. By the Rev. WALTER C. SMITH, M.A.
Fcap. Svo. 6s.

" These are among the s^veetest sacred poems we have read for a long
lime. With no profuse imagery, expressing a range of fading and
expression by no means uncommon, they are true and elevated, and then-
pathos is profound and simple''- -NONCONFORMIST.

Stratford de Redcliffe (Viscount).— SHADOWS OF
THE PAST, in Verse. By VISCOUNT STRATFORD DE RED-
CLIFFE. Crown Svo. ioj. Gd.

" The vigorous words of one who has acted vigorously. They cc;nbii:c
the. fervour of politicians and poet"- -GUARDIAN.

36 GENERAL CATALOGUE.

Trench. — Works by R. CHENEVIX TRENCH, D.D., Archbishop
of Dublin. See also Sections "PHILOSOPHY," "THEOLOGY," &c.

POEMS. Collected and arranged anew. Fcap. 8vo. 'js. 6d.
ELEGIAC POEMS. Third Edition. Fcap. 8vo. 2s. 6d.

CALDERON'S LIFE'S A DREAM : The Great Theatre of the
World. With an Essay on his Life and Genius. Fcap. Svo.
4J. 6d.

HOUSEHOLD BOOK OF ENGLISH POETRY. Selected and
arranged, with Notes, by R. C. TRENCH, D.D., Archbishop of
Dublin. Second Edition. Extra fcap. Svo. $s. 6d.

TJiis volume is called a " Household Book" by this name implying that
it is a book for all — that there is nothing in it to prevent it from being
confidently plactd in the hands of every member of the household. Speci-
mens of all classes of poetry are given, including selections from living
authors. The Editor has aimed to produce a book ' ' which the emigrant,
finding room for little not absolutely necessary, might yei fina room for
in his trunk, and the traveller in his knapsack, and that on some narrcnv
shelves where there are few books this might be one."

" The Archbishop has conferred in this delightful volume an important
gift on the whole English-speaking population of the world." — PALL
MALL GAZETTE.

SACRED LATIN POETRY, Chiefly Lyrical. Selected and arranged
for Use. Second Edition, Corrected and Improved. Fcap. Svo.
7*.

" The aim of the present volume is to offer to members of our English
Church a collection of the best sacred Latin poetry, such as thev shall be
able entirely and heartily to accept and approve — a collection, that ts,'m which
they shall not be evermore liable to be offended, and Jo have the current of
their sympathies checked, by coming upon that which, however beautifiil as
poetry, out of higher respects they must reject and condemn — in which, too,
they shall not jear that snares are being laid for them, to entangle them
unawares in admiration for aught which is inconsistent with their faith
and jcalty to their own spiritual mother"- —PREFACE.

Turner. — SONNETS. By the Rev. CHARLES TENNYSON
TURNER. Dedicated to his brother, the Poet Laureate. Fcap.

Svo.

POETRY & BELLES LETT RES. 37

:' The Sonnets are dedicated to Mr. Tennyson bv his brother, and have,
independently of their merits, an interest of association. Thev both love to
write in simple expressive Saxon; both love to touch their imagery in
epithets rather than in formal similes ; both have a delicate perception
of rhythmical movement, and thus Mr. Turner has occasional lines which,
for phrase and music, might be ascribed to his brother. . . He knows the
haunts of the wild rose, the shady nooks where light quivers throtigh the
leaves, the ruralities, in short, of the land of imagination." — ATHEN/EUM.

SMALL TABLEAUX. Fcap. 8vo. 4* 6d.

" These brief poems have not only a peculiar kind of interest for the
student oj English poetry, but are intrinsically delightful, and will reward
a careful and frequent perusal. Full of naivete, piety, love, and knowledge
of natural objects, and each expressing a single and generally a simple
subject by means of minute and original pictorial touches, these sonnets
have a place of their own."- —PALL MALL GAZETTE.

Vittoria Colonna.— LIFE AND POEMS. By MRS. HENRY
ROSCOE. Crown Svo. gs.

The life of Vittoria Colonna, the celebrated Marchesa di Pescara, has
received but cursory notice from any English writer, though in every
history of Italy her name is mentioned with great honour among the poets
of the sixteenth century. "In three hundred and fifty years," says her
biographer, Visconti, " there has been no other Italian lady who can be
compared to her."

"It is written luith good taste, with quick and intelligent sympathy,
occasionally with a real freshness and charm of style"- —PALL MALL
GAZETTE.

Webster. — Works by AUGUSTA WEBSTER : —

" If Mrs. Webster only remains true to herself, she will -assuredly
take a higher rank as a poet than any woman has yet done." — -
WESTMINSTER REVIEW.

DRAMATIC STUDIES. Extra fcap. Svo. 5^.

"A volume as strongly marked by perfect taste as bv poetic power.'1'' — •
NONCONFORMIST.

PROMETHEUS BOUND OF AESCHYLUS. Literally translated

into English Verse. Extra fcap. Svo. %s. 6d.
" Closeness and simplicity combined with literal y skill" — ATHEN/EUM.

GENERAL CATALOGUE.

"•Mrs. Webster's ' Dramatic Studies'1 and ''Translation of Prome-
theus ' have won for her an honourable place among our female poets.
She writes with remarkable vigour and dramatic realization, and bids fair
to be the most successful claimant oj Mrs. Browning's mantle.'' '• —BRITISH
QUARTERLY REVIEW.

MEDEA OF EURIPIDES. Literally translated into English Verse.

Extra fcap. Svo. 3J-. 6d.

" Mrs. Webster s translation surpasses our utmost expectations. It is a
photograph of the original without any of that harshness winch so often
accompanies a photograph"- -WESTMINSTER REVIEW.

A WOMAN SOLD, AND OTHER POEMS. Crown Svo. -js. 6d.
" Mrs. Webster has shown us that she is able to draw admirably from
the life ; that she can observe with subtlety, and render her observations
with delicacy ; that she can impersonate complex conceptions, and venture
into which few living writers can follcnu her." — GUARDIAN.

PORTRAITS. Second Edition. Extra fcap. Svo. 3^. 6d.

" Jlfrs. Webster1 s poems exhibit simplicity and tenderness . . . her
taste' is perfect . . . This simplicity is combined with a subtlety of thought,
feeling, and observation which demand that attention which only real
lovers of poetry are apt to bestow. . . . If she onlv remains true to herself
she will most assuredly take a higher rank as a poet than any woman has
yet done.'"- -WESTMINSTER REVIEW.

" With this volume before us it would be hard to deny her the proud
position of the first living English poetess."- —EXAMINER.

Woodward (B. B., F.S. A.).— SPECIMENS OF THE

DRAWINGS OF TEN MASTERS, from the Royal Collection
at Windsor Castle. With Descriptive Text by the late B. B. WOOD-
WARD, B.A., F.S. A., Librarian to the Queen, and Keeper of
Prints and Drawings. Illustrated by Twenty Autotypes by
EDWARDS and KIDD. In 4to. handsomely bound, price 25^.
This volume contains facsimiles oj the works of Michael Angela, Perugino,
Raphael, Julio Romano, Leonardo da Vinci, Giorgione, Paul Veronese,
Poussin, Albert Diirer, Holbein, executed by the Autotype (Carbon} process,
which may be accepted as, so far, perfect representations of the originals. In
most cases some reduction in size -was necessary, and then the dimensions
of the drawing itself have been given. Brief biographical memoranda of
the life of each master are inserted, solely to pr went the need of reference
to other works.

POETRY &* BELLES LETTRES. 39

Woolner. — MY BEAUTIFUL LADY. By THOMAS WOOLNER.

With a Vignette by ARTHUR HUGHES. Third Edition. Fcap.
8vo. 5-r.

" // is clearly the product of no idle hour, but a highly -conceived and
faithfully -executed task, self-imposed, and prompted by that inward yearn-
ing to utter great thoughts, and a wealth of passionate feeling which is
poetic genius. No man can read this poem without being struck by the
fitness and finish of the workmanship, so to speak, as well as by the chas-
tened and unpretending loftiness of thought which •bervades the whole."—
GLOBE.

WORDS FROM THE POETS. Selected by the Editor of " Rays of
Sunlight." With a Vignette and Frontispiece. iSmo. limp., is.

Wyatt (Sir M. Digby). — FINE ART : a Sketch of its

History, Theory, Practice, and application to Industry. A Course
of Lectures delivered before the University of Cambridge. By
Sir M. DIGBY WYATT, M. A. Slade Professor of Fine Art.
8vo. IOJ-. 6d.

THE GLOBE LIBRARY.

Beautifully printed on toned paper and bound in cloth elegant, price
4J-. 6d. each. In plain cloth, 2s- 6d. Also kept in various styles of
Morocco and Calf bindings.

THE SATURDAY REVIEW says— " The Globe Editions
are1 admirable for their scholarly editing, their typographical
excellence, their compendious form, and their cheapness."

UNDER the title GLOBE EDITIONS, the Publishers are
issuing a uniform Series oi Standard English Authors,
carefully edited, clearly and elegantly printed on toned
paper, strongly bound, and at a small cost. The names of
the Editors whom they have been fortunate enough to
secure constitute an indisputable guarantee as to the
character of the Series. The greatest care has been taken
to ensure accuracy of text ; adequate notes, elucidating
historical, literary, and philological points, have been sup-
plied ; and, to the older Authors, glossaries are appended.
The series is especially adapted to Students of our national
Literature ; while the small price places good editions of
certain books, hitherto popularly inaccessible, within the
reach of all. The Saturday Review says : " The Globe
Editions of our English Poets are admirable for their
scholarly editing, their typographical excellence, their com-
pendious form, and their cheapness."

GLOBE EDITIONS. 41

Shakespeare. — THE COMPLETE WORKS OF WILLIAM

SHAKESPEARE. Edited by W. G. CLARK and W. ALOIS
WRIGHT.

"A marvel of beauty , cheapness, and compactness. The whole works —
plays, poems, and sonnets — are contained in one small volume : yet the
page is perfectly clear and readable. . . . For the busy man, above all
for the working student, the Globe Edition is the best of all existing
Shakespeare books" — ATHEN/EUM.

Morte D' Arthur. — SIR THOMAS MALORY'S BOOK OF
KING ARTHUR AND OF HIS NOBLE KNIGHTS OF
THE ROUND TABLE. The Edition of CAXTON, revised for
Modern Use. With an Introduction by SIR EDWARD STRACHEY,
Bart.

" It is with the most perfect confidence that we recommend this edition of
the old romance to every class of readers." — PALL MALL GAZETTE.

Scott. — THE POETICAL WORKS OF SIR WALTER
SCOTT. With Biographical Essay by F. T. PALGRAVE.
New Edition.

" As a popular edition it leaves nothing to be desired. The want oj
such an one has long been felt, combining real excellence with cheapness"

—SPECTATOR.

Burns. — THE POETICAL WORKS AND LETTERS OF
ROBERT BURNS. Edited, with Life, by ALEXANDER SMITH.
New Edition.

" The works of the bard have never been offered in such a complete form
in a single volume." — GLASGOW DAILY HERALD.

" Admirable in all respects.'1''-— SPECTATOR,

Robinson Crusoe. —THE ADVENTURES OF ROBINSON

CRUSOE. By DEFOE. Edited, from the Original Edition, by
J. W. CLARK, M.A., Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
With Introduction by HENRY KINGSLEY.

' ' The Globe Edition of Robinson Crusoe is a book to have and to keep.
It is printed after the original editions, with the quaint old spelling, and

42 GENERAL CATALOGUE.

is published in admirable style as regards type, paper, and binding. A
well-written and genial biographical introduction, by Mr. Henry Kingsley,
is likewise an attractive feature of this edition." — MORNING STAR.

Goldsmith. — GOLDSMITH'S MISCELLANEOUS WORKS.
With Biographical Essay by Professor MASSON.

This edition includes the whole of Goldsmith 's Miscellaneous Works—
the Vicar of IVakefield, Plays, Poems, &>c. Of the memoir the SCOTSMAN
newspaper writes: "Such an admirable compendiiim of the facts of
Goldsmith s life, and so careful and minute a delineation of the mixed
traits of his peculiar character, as to be a very model of a literary
biography"

Pope. — THE POETICAL WORKS OF ALEXANDER POPE.
Edited, with Memoir and Notes, by Professor WARD.

" The book is handsome and handy. . . . The notes are many, and
the matter of them is rich in interest."-— ATHEN^UM.

Spenser. - - THE COMPLETE WORKS OF EDMUND
SPENSER. Edited from the Original Editions and Manuscripts,
by R. MORRIS, Member of the Council of the Philological Society.
With a Memoir by J. W. HALES, M.A., late Fellow of Christ's
College, Cambridge, Member of the Council of the Philological
Society.

" A complete and clearly printed edition of the whole works of Spenser,
carefully collated with the originals, with copious glossary, worthy — and
higher praise it needs not — of the beautiful Globe Series. The work is
edited with all the care so noble a poet deserves." — DAILY NEWS.

Dryden. — THE POETICAL WORKS OF JOHN DRYDEN.

Edited, with a Revised Text, Memoir, and Notes, by W. D.
CHRISTIE.

" The work of the Editor has been done with much fulness, care, and
knowledge ; a well-written and exhaustive memoir is prefixed, and the notes
and text together have been so well treated as to make the volume a fitting
companion for those which have preceded it — which is saying not a
little.'''' — DAILY TELEGRAPH.

GLOBE EDITIONS. 43

Cowper.— THE POETICAL WORKS OF WILLIAM COW-
PER. Edited, with Biographical Introduction and Notes, by W.
BENHAM.

' ' Mr. Benham's edition of Cowper is one of permanent value. The
biographical introduction is excellent, full of information, singularly
neat and readable, and modest — too modest, indeed- — in its comments.
The notes seem concise and accurate, and the editor has been able to
discover and introduce some hitherto unprinted matter."- —SATURDAY
REVIEW.

Virgil. — THE WORKS OF VIRGIL RENDERED INTO
ENGLISH PROSE, with Introductions, Running Analysis, and
an Index, by JAMES LONSDALE, M.A., and SAMUEL LEE, M.A.
Globe 8vo.

The preface of this new volume informs us that " the original has been
faithfully rendered, and paraphrase altogether avoided. At the same time,
the translators have endeavoured to adapt the book to the use of the English
reader. Some amount of rhythm in the structure of the sentence has been
generally maintained ; and, when in the Latin the sound of the words is
an echo to the sense (as so frequently happens in Virgil], an attempt has
been made to produce the same result in English."

The general introduction gives us whatever is known of the poet1 s life,
an estimate of his genius, an account of the principal editions and trans-
lations of his works, and a brief vie^u of the influence he has had on
modern poets ; special introductory essays are prefixed to the Eclogues,
Georgics, and rEneid. The text is divided into sections, each of which is
headed by a concise analysis of the subject • the index contains references to
all the characters and events of any importance.

* * Other Standard Works are in the Press.

*

The Volumes of this Series may be had in a variety of morocco
and calf bindings at very moderate prices.

MACMILLAN'S

GOLDEN TREASURY SERIES.

Uniformly printed in i8mo., with Vignette Titles by SIR
NOEL PATON, T. WOOLNER, W. HOLMAN HUNT, J. E.
MILLAIS, ARTHUR HUGHES, &c. Engraved on Steel by
JEENS. Bound in extra cloth, 45. 6d. each volume. Also
kept in morocco and calf bindings.

' ' Messrs. Macmillan have, in their Golden Treasury Series especially,
provided editions of standard works, volumes of selected poetry, and
original compositions, which entitle this series to be called classical.
Nothing can be better than the literary execution > nothing more elegant
than the material workmanship" — BRITISH QUARTERLY REVIEW.

THE GOLDEN TREASURY OF THE BEST SONGS AND
LYRICAL POEMS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Selected and arranged, with Notes, by FRANCIS TURNER
PALGRAVE.

" This delightful little volume, the Golden Treasury, which contains
many of the best original lyrical pieces and songs in our language, grouped
with care and skill, so as to illustrate each other like the pictures in a
well-arranged gallery." — QUARTERLY REVIEW.

THE CHILDREN'S GARLAND FROM THE BEST POETS

Selected and arranged by COVENTRY PATMORE.

" // includes specimens of all the great masters in the art of poetry,
selected with the matured judgment of a man concentrated on obtaining
insight into the feelings and tastes of childhood, and desirous to awaken its
finest impulses, to cultivate its keenest sensibilities" — MORNING POST.

GOLDEN TREASURY SERIES. 45

THE BOOK OF PRAISE. From the Best English Hymn Writers.
Selected and arranged by SIR ROUNDELL PALMER. A New and
Enlarged Edition.

«

All previous compilations of this kind must undeniably for the present
give place to the Book of Praise. . . . The selection has been made
throughout with sound judgment and critical taste. The pains involved
in this compilation must have been immense, embracing, as it does, every
writer of note in this special province of English literature, and ranging
over the most widely divergent tracks of religious thought." — SATURDAY
REVIEW.

THE FAIRY BOOK ; the Best Popular Fairy Stories. Selected and
rendered anew by the Author of " JOHN HALIFAX, GENTLEMAN."

' ' A delightful selection, in a delightful external form ; full of the
physical splendour and vast opulence of proper fairy tales." — SPECTATOR.

THE BALLAD BOOK. A Selection of the Choicest British Ballads.
Edited by WILLIAM ALLINGHAM.

" His taste as a judge of old poetry will be found, by all acquainted with
the various readings of old English ballads, true enoiigh to justify his
undertaking so critical a task."- —SATURDAY REVIEW.

THE JEST BOOK. The Choicest Anecdotes and Sayings. Selected
and arranged by MARK LEMON.

" The fullest and best jest book that has yet appeared" — SATURDAY
REVIEW.

BACON'S ESSAYS AND COLOURS OF GOOD AND EVIL.
With Notes and Glossarial Index. By W. ALOIS WRIGHT, M.A.

' ' The beautiful little edition of Bacon"1 s Essays, now before us, does
credit to the taste and scholarship of Mr. Aldis Wright. . . . It puts the
reader in possession of all the essential literary facts and chronology
necessary for reading the Essays in connexion with Bacoris life and
times."- —SPECTATOR.

" By far the most complete as well as the most elegant edition -<ue

possess."- -WESTMINSTER REVIEW.

46 GENERAL CATALOGUE.

THE PILGRIM'S PROGRESS from this World to that which is to

come. By JOHN BUNYAN.
"A beautiful and scholarly reprint."-— SPECTATOR.

THE SUNDAY BOOK OF POETRY FOR THE YOUNG.

Selected and arranged by C. F. ALEXANDER.
"A well-selected volume of Sacred Poetry." -SPECTATOR.

A BOOK OF GOLDEN DEEDS of all Times and all Countries.
Gathered and narrated anew. By the Author of " THE HEIR OF
REDCLYFFE."

"... To the young, for whom it is especially intended, as a most interesting
collection of thrilling tales well told ; and to their elders, as a useful hand-
book of reference, and a pleasant one to take up when their wish is to while
away a weary half -hour. We .have seen no prettier gift-book for a long
time."- —ATHENAEUM.

THE POETICAL WORKS OF ROBERT BURNS. Edited, with
Biographical Memoir, Notes and Glossary, by ALEXANDER
SMITH. Two Vols.
" Beyond all question this is the most beautiful edition of Burns

yet out"- -EDINBURGH DAILY REVIEW.

THE ADVENTURES OF ROBINSON CRUSOE. Edited from
the Original Edition by J. W. CLARK, M.A., Fellow of Trinity
College, Cambridge.

" Mutilated and modified editions of this English classic are so much
the rule, that a cheap and pretty copy of it, rigidly exact to the original,
will be a prize to many book-buyers."-— EXAMINER.

THE REPUBLIC OF PLATO. TRANSLATED into ENGLISH, with

Notes by J. LI. DAVIES, M.A. and D. J. VAUGHAN, M.A.
"A dainty and cheap little edition." — EXAMINER.

THE SONG BOOK. Words and Tunes from the best Poets and
Musicians. Selected and arranged by JOHN HULLAH, Professor
of Vocal Music in King's College, London.
" A choice collection of the sterling songs of England, Scotland, and

Ireland, with the music of each prefixed to the words. Hozv nmch true

-wholesome pleasure such a book can diffuse, and will diffuse, ive trust,

through many thousand families" — EXAMINER.

GOLDEN TREASURY SERIES. 47

LA LYRE FRANC AISE.' Selected and arranged, with Notes, by
GUSTAVE MASSON, French Master in Harrow School.

A selection of the best French songs and lyrical pieces.

TOM BROWN'S SCHOOL DAYS. By an OLD BOY.

'' A perfect gem of a book. The best and most healthy book about boys
for boys that ever was written." —ILLUSTRATED TIMES.

A BOOK OF WORTHIES. Gathered from the Old Histories and
written anew by the Author of "THE HEIR OF REDCLYFFE."
With Vignette.

"An admirable addition to an admirable series^ — WESTMINSTER
REVIEW.

A BOOK OF GOLDEN THOUGHTS. By HENRY ATTWELL,

Knight of the Order of the Oak Crown.

"Mr. Attwdl has produced a book of rare value .... Happily it is
small enough to be carried about in the pocket, and of such a companion
it would be difficult to weary." — PALL MALL GAZETTE.

LONDON :

K. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS,
BREAD STREET HILL.