s 599.65 F2MDS 1981-82 TANA DEER STUDIES 12-| U- 10- 9- 8- llj 4 z 2 i 1 FEMALES LECTION UCI rrif}^, 6th AVE. HELENA, MONTANA 59620 I960 "T r MALES T 1 r 1 r 1965 1970 T— I — fbNTANA DePARTOENT OF FiSH, VIlLDLIFE AND PaRKS Federal Aid Project l'l-120-R-13 Progress Report for the Period July 1, 1981 - June 30, 1982 MONTANA STATE LIBRARY 3 0864 1002 2738 1 JOB PROGRESS REPORT RESEARCH PROJECT SEGMENT STATE PROJECT •STUDY NO, JOB NOS. STUDY NO. JOB NOS. Montana W-120-R-13 NAME Statewide Wildlife Research BG-1.0 1 and 2 BG-2.0 1, 3, and 5 TITLE Statewide Mule .D eer Ecology Studie s TITLES (Various) TITLE Statewide White-tailed Deer E cology Studies TITLES (Various) Period Covered: July 1, 1981 - June 30, 1982 Prepared by: Richard J. Mackie •. ' Gary L. Dusek Kenneth L. Hamlin H e_n_r y E. Jorgensen John G. Mundinger David F. Pac Duane B. Pyrah Dace: September . 15, 1982 Approved by: John P. Weigand Eugene 0. Al len Since this is a Progress Report only, results presented herein are not necessarily fitia]. and may be subject to cliange. For this reason, the intorination contained in this report may not be published or used for other purposes without permission of the Director. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The istudies reported in this document required the efforts, assistance, cooperation, and support of numerous individuals, both in the Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Parks and other agencies. The assistance and support of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, CM. Russell Wildlife Range, and the U.S. Bureau of Land Management has contributed significantly to studies in the Missouri River Breaks. The U.S. Forest Service has cooperated in studies in the Swan Valley and in ' the Bridger Mountains. Montana State University and the University of Montana have been especially supportive, contributing graduate student assistants, other student assistance, faculty assistance, laboratory space and facilities, and in some cases direct financial assistance. The Montana Agricultural Experiment Station is providing direct support for the Gallatin Valley study. To all of these agencies and the particular individuals involved, we express our sincere appreciation. We are also grateful for the cooperation and assistance of the numerous private individuals who have, as landowners, provided access to their land's, or otherwise assisted in the ijnvestigations . ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION 1 Mule Deer on Mountain-Foothill Habitat 3 Study BG-1.0, Job 1 Mule Deer on River Breaks Habitat 22 Study BG-1, Job 2 Mule Deer Fawn Survival Study 48 Study BG-1, Job 2 - Supplement White-tailed Deer on Coniferous Forest Habitat 50 Study BG-2, Job 1 ' White-tailed Deer Summer Habitat Study Study BG-2, Job 1 - Supplement White-tailed Deer on River Bottom Habitat 68 Study BG-2, Job 3 Gallatin Valley Deer Study q Study BG-2, Job 5. Appendix - List of Publications 96 INTRODUCTION The statewide deer research program was initiated in July 1975. Background information on problems and needs was given in previous reports (Mackie et al. 1976, 1977, 1978, 1979, 1980, and 1981). Overall objectives were to: 1. provide a more detailed understanding of the population biology and habitat relationships of deer and of the factors influencing deer numbers in the diverse environments in which deer occur in Montana; 2. develop new or improved methods for measuring deer populations and habitat parameters, new guidelines for applying existing information and technology more effectively, and/or new criteria for interpreting field data in terms of management needs; and 3. establish new guidelines for consideration of the habitat require- ments and relationships of deer in other game, range, forest, and land management programs and practices in Montana. Present efforts continue most of the basic studies established during 1975-76, except those on deer in the prairie-agricultural habitats of eastern Montana. This prairie deer study will be reestablished as a graduate (Ph.D.) thesis research project in July 1982. In addition, an intensive study of white-tailed deer on river bottom habitats along the lower Yellowstone River was established during the summer of 1980, and studies of white-tailed deer in northwestern Montana were extended to include another major coniferous forest habitat during 1981-82. Goals and objectives are generally similar to those outlined earlier, except that greater emphasis is now given to testing hypotheses developed from investigations and findings during the 1975-1980 period. Specifically, they are to: 1. further determine basic biological and ecological parameters for mule deer and white-tailed deer in populations associated with the major habitats in which the two species occur in Montana. These include population size/density, reproduction/recruitment, mortality/ turnover, sex/age structure, longevity, and physical condition. They also include distribution, movements, use of specific habitat/ cover types, food habits, and other behavioral patterns; 2. further relate those basic biological and ecological parameters to characteristics of individual habitats or environments, including topography, physiography, vegetation, weather and climate, and land use, as well as to specific potential limiting factors associated with individual habitats, study areas and populations. Those might include nutrition(f orage production, availability, and quality), other wild ungulates, domestic livestock, livestock grazing and associated range management practices, logging and associated forest management prac- tices, agriculture and associated cropping practices, and rural ■ ' subdivisions and associated human activities. They could also in- clude hunting, predation, diseases and parasites, and weather; -2- 3. further develop and test hypotheses relating to findings; particularly that: natural population regulation in deer is basically effected by interaction between inherent habitat charac- teristics and inherent requirements and behavioral attributes of the animals; that population phenomena and dynamics are the strategy by which deer populations exploit diverse habitats; and that population dynamics are indicators of basic habitat relationships of deer in the diverse habitats in which they occur; and 4. develop new methods, criteria, and guidelines for deer management in- cluding those for: assessing mule deer and white-tailed deer popu- lation characteristics in major habitats, assessing important habitat/ environmental characteristics; relating population phenomena and dynamics of the two species to habitat/environmental characteristics, and vice-versa; relating population phenomena and dynamics to specific management opportunities or constraints; relating important habitat/environmental characteristics to specific management opportunities and constraints; measuring and/or interpreting the role and importance of various "limiting factors" in deer management programs; and for consideration of the requirements and habitat relationships of deer in other land use and management programs. This report compiles Job Progress Reports for individual jobs and investigations conducted on intensive study areas or in conjunction with the Statewide Deer Research Studies during 1980-81. The individual reports outline specific job objectives and procedures and present and discuss current findings in relation to information obtained previously. Findings and other information resulting from the studies have also been summarized in numerous separate publications. A listing of these is presentated in an Appendix to this report. Several additional manuscripts were prepared during 1981-82 for submission and possible publication during 1982-83. -3' STUDY NO. BG-1.0 JOB NO. 1 JOB TITLE: Population ecology and habitat relationships of mule deer in mountain-foothill habitats in southwestern Montana. ABSTRACT : Studies to evaluate factors affecting populations of mule deer in the Bridger Mountains were continued during 1981-82. The winter of 1981-82 was characterized by alternate mild and cold periods, with periods of severe weather persisting through April and May. Vegetation production on 6 of 9 macroplots located on summer range was significantly less in 1981 as compared to 1980; the other three macroplots were not significantly different. In early April, 113 deer with recognizable neckbands and radio collars were present on the Armstrong study area, while 36 marked animals occurred on Brackett Creek. Approximately 55 marked deer occurred on the Livingston winter range, 96 on South 16-Mile, 31 on Battle Ridge, and 31 on the Blacktail Mountain winter range. Population data for the Armstrong winter range indicated that 330 deer were present in early winter; the number decreasing to 170 by spring. Overwinter fawn mortality was moderate with the estimated total reaching about 45% of early winter numbers. Adult mortality was estimated to be 14% of the early winter adult population. Observed ratios from winter aerial classifications were 50 fawns: 100 females, 38 fawns: 100 adults, and 32 males: 100 females in early winter and 46 fawns: 100 adults in late winter. The spring fawn: female ratio was 35:100, indicating moderate recruitment. Age structural data indicated that females 8.5 years and older continue to comprise a substantial percentage of the female population. During the 1981 hunting season, an estimated 468 (72%) of 650 either sex permit holders hunted deer in HD312 and 257 killed deer. Hunter success was 55% compared to 56% in 1980. Calculations based on helicopter sampling efficiencies and the total number observed during the late winter surveys indicated a population of 7,315 mule deer for the entire Bridger Range. JOB OBJECTIVES: 1. To determine basic biological and ecological parameters of mule deer populations associated with mountain-foothill habitats : 2. To relate those basic population parameters to (a) charac- teristics of individual habitats or environments and (b) specific, potential limiting factors associated with individual populations and habitats, including nutrition, other wild ungulates, domestic livestock grazing and range management practices, subdivisions and associated human activity, weather, and hunting; 3. To further develop and test hypotheses relating to deer- habitat interactions and population regulation; and 4. To develop new methods, criteria, and guidelines for deer management within mountain-foothill habitats. -4- INTRODUCTION This report summarizes findings of studies on the population ecology and habitat relationships of mule deer in the Bridger Mountains, Montana, for the period 1 July 1981 through 30 June 1982. These studies have included: (1) intensive studies of the distribution, movements, habitat use and population characteristics of mule deer associated with the Armstrong winter range, and (2) extensive studies of the seasonal distribution, habitat relations and population characteristics of mule deer throughout the Bridger Mountain Range complex. The history and general nature of both efforts were described by Mackie et al. (1978) . THE STUDY AREA The Bridger Mountain Range (Fig. 1) is located in northeastern Gallatin and northwestern Park Counties, Montana. A detailed description of topographic, climatic and vegetative characteristics of this area, including the location of major mule deer winter ranges and associated seasonal ranges was presented by Mackie et "al. (1978, 1980). METHODS Habitat Analysis Habitat parameters measured and general methodology employed were described by Mackie et al. (.1978). Population Studies Various methods employed in assessment of deer population characteristics have been described in previous reports (Mackie et al. 1978, 1978). During 1981- 1982, early winter helicopter surveys (Mackie, Hamlin and Pac 1980) were conducted on 27 December 1981 on the Armstrong study area and Brackett Creek on 5 January 1982. In late winter, all major mule deer winter ranges in the Bridger complex, excluding North 16-Mile, were surveyed on 21-25 March 1982. The Brackett Creek and Armstrong study areas were flown for classification data on 29 April 1982. A separate estimate of mule deer numbers on the Armstrong winter range in spring was developed from ground observations on 15 days during April-early May when a minimum of 50 deer were classified per survey. Fifty-eight additional deer were bait-trapped and tagged on tie Armstrong winter range between 4 January and 12 March 1982. All were marked with "Armorite" neckbands. Included were 11 fawns fitted with both neckbands and expandable radio-collars. A summary of all mule deer tagged on the Armstrong study area from 1972 through 1982 and their status as of May 1982 is given in Table 1. At the end of June, 1982 6 adults and 6 fawns in the Armstrong population wore functional radio collars. On 24 February, 198 2, 33 mule deer were trapped on the Blacktail mountain winter range using a drive net and helicopter (Beasom et al. 1980) . Ten adult females were fitted with radio-collars, the remaining deer were neckbanded. The same trapping method was used 24-25 February 1982 on the South IGHVlile winter range to tag 99 mule deer. Thirteen adult females were equipped with radio-collars and the remainder of these deer were neckbanded. On 3 March 1982, 55 mule deer were trapped and tagged using the helicopter and drive net on the Livingston SYPES AREA BOZEMAN LIVINGSTON Figure 1. Map of the Brldger Range showing ma j or" features and the loca/ion of primary study areas. -6- Table 1. Summary of mule deer trapped on the Armstrong winter range from 1972 through 1982 and their status as of May 1, 1982. Total Number Number OK"'" 2 Year Marked 5/82 Number Dead Unknown 1972 5 0 4(3) 1 1973 16 1 11(1) 4 1974 39 6 15(3) 18 1975 36 5 23 (9) 8 1976 9 2 3(1) 4 1977 16 5 8(2) 3 1978 42 16 14 (4) 12 1979 72 21 26(8) 25 1980 24 7 12(3) 5 1981 11 7 1(1) 3 1982 58 45 11 2 Number alive during spring, 1982. Includes one adult male that wintered off the study area and one male fawn that lost collar. 2 Number shot by hunters in parentheses. winter range. Twelve adult females were marked with radio-collars and the remainder were neck-banded. Two additional mule deer were tagged 2 March 1982 on the South 16-Mile winter range using the hand-held Net Gun fired from a heli- copter (Barrett, et al 1982) . One was radio-collared and the other neckbanded. Information on hunter success, hunter distribution, and the total number, sex and age structure and distribution of the deer harvest during 1981 was determined from a mail questionnaire sent to all 650 special either-sex permit holders in HD 312, which includes the Bridger Range. -7- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Habitat Studies Weather Conditions on Major Winter Ranges The winter of 1981-82 was near average in temperature, the niomber of days with snow on the ground and severity (Table 2) . Total precipitation and snowfall were above average. The winter generally v/as characterized by alternate mild and cold periods, with periods of severe winter conditions persisting through April and May- The severity index for April-May, 1982 (Table 3) was considerably higher than average and second only to 1975 for the period 1971-1982. The maximum snow-depth in Bozeman recorded during April was as great as at any time during the winter, and half the days in the month had 1 inch or more snow on the ground . Table 2. Climato indices logical data, . 1971-1982. MSU Weather Station, November through May Bozeman, and severity Avg. Temp. (OF) Ppt. (In.) Total Snowfall (In. ) Max . Snow Depth (In.) No . Days Snow on Ground Severity Index 1971-72 33.9 7.7 81.8 10 119 -329 1972-73 31.3 8.4 92.6 14 135 +1335 1973-74 34.3 10.0 89.9 14 116 + 2025 1974-75 30.5 12.1 118.6 17 161 + 2286 1975-76 35.2 9.9 95.2 12 86 -810 1976-77 37,4 7.9 57.8 9 88 -2391 1977-78 33.9 10.0 60.5 12 111 +790 1978-79 29.9 10.7 87.4 18 159 +7843 1979-80 10.9 100.7 20 144 + 752 1980-81 37.6 12.9 55.6 8 74 -2871 1981-82 32.8 11.5 125.3 11 129 +818 20 Year Mean 32.4 9.5 87.8^ 13.18^ 2 120 +859^ Follows Picton and Knight (1969) . Positive values indicate greater severity. 2. ^ ll-year mean. Table 3. Spring severity at MSU Weather Station, 1972-82 March- April- March April May May May 1972 -585 -652 -958 -732 -805 1973 -303 -520 -989 -604 -754 1974 -206 -764 -880 -617 -822 1975 295 -141 -803 -216 -472 1976 262 -663 -1157 -519 -910 1977 -184 -875 -946 -668 -910 1978 59 -692 -886 -506 -789 1979 -125 -623 -1269 -672 -946 1980 526 -738 -1046 -419 -891 1981 -535 -734 -895 -721 -814 1982 -226 -452 -857 -512 -654 Mean 1972-82 -93 -623 -971 -562 -797 Mean snow depths and percentages of ground covered by snow on winter ranges were somewiiat greater during 1981-1982 than the prior two years, but much less than in 1978-1979 (Table 4) . The duration of considerable snow cover was almost as long on west slope ranges as the extremely severe 1978-79 winter and much longer on east side winter ranges. As in previous years, the Blacktail Mtn. winter range consistently experienced the greatest snow depth and coverage and the Livingston winter range the least. This was due at least partially to the 230 meter elevation difference between the two winter ranges. Wind speeds at most of the weather stations were the highest recorded since 1978-79, but they were only slightly higher than in 1978-79 (Table 5). There appears to be a direct relationship between average winter wind speed and severity. This seems reasonable because comparatively severe winters are associated with frequent passage of low pressure systems which normally are accompanied by winds, pull cold air from the north or northwest and draw moisture for snow from the west. -9- Table 4. Snow coverage and depths compared for four mule deer winter ranges in the Bridger Mountains, 1978-1981. Depths compared with Bozeman Weather Stations . Blacktail Brackett Creek Armstrong Mountain Lef f ingwell Peckenpaugh Livingston Percent of measuring dates with snow on ground 1 1978-79 73 100 67 ND 40 3 1979-80 73 73 70 79 48 3 1980-81 52 52 52 42 39 3 1981-82 72 79 76 76 59 Mean percent snow coverage per measurement 1978-79 78 85 76 ND 53 3 1979-80 54 59 52 58 29 3 1980-81 34 45 36 31 29 3 1981-82 65 70 62 62 48 Bozeman Mean snow depth per measurement 1978-79^ 2 .21^ 1.93 2.76 2.21 ND .55 1979-80"^ 1 .15^ .83 1.26 .82 .72 .31 1980-81"^ .27^ .38 ,56 .22 .16 .17 1981-82"^ .95^ .95^ .92 1.40 .68 .42 1 Nov. 9-Apr. 13 2 Dec. 28-Apr. 13 3 . Entire snow period 4 Bozeman 5W weather station ^Bozeman MSU weather station -10- Table 5. Mean winter/spring wind speeds (miles/hour) on five mule deer winter ranges in the Bridger Mountains, 1978-1982. Schaf er Creek Armstrong Blacktail Mountain Brackett Creek Livingston Leffingwell Peckenpaugh 1978- 79 1979- 80 1980- 81 1981- 82 1.63 1.04 Disc. ■ 2.54 2.40 2.42 2.59' 2.66 2.58 2.65 2.75' .2 4.60 6.39 6.68 4.. 23 5.66 6.36 3„95 4.77 5.79 4.67^ 6.28^ 4 6.75 Weather station dismantled ^Based on 182 days 3 Based on 140 days Based on 167 days Growth and phenological development of plants on the winter ranges was retarded in 198 2 as compared to the preceding four years. Development and occurrence of specific phenological events for five selected species on the Armstrong winter range was also the latest in 1982 (Table 6) . Dates of occurrence of specific phenological events ranged from 7 to 17 days later than the four-year average and ranged from 13 to 3 5 days later than in the earliest year, 1981. Analysis of the relationship between spring severity and phenological development (Tables 3 and 6) indicated: 1) timing of the beginning of growth and phasic development of plants in the area is primarily dependent on melting of the winter/spring snowpack and secondarily dependent on temperature; 2) rates of development after melting of the snowpack are temperature dependent and not photo- periodic; 3) conditions in March are important for the timing and initiation of growth and development only if they are unusually cold. [Neither an average or severe March provides conditions suitable for the initiation of growth and development of vegetation in this area. Only during a milder than average March does the snowpack melt soon enough and temperatures become warm enough to allow growth to begin much before the end of the month. The timing of mid to late spring phenological events is not influenced by conditions in March. The timing of extremely early spring phenological events is influenced mostly by melting of winter/spring snowpack!; and 4) if March is not unusually mild, the severity of conditions during April is the main determinant of early to mid spring phenology Cfor lilacs in Bozeman, April severity has the greatest effect on timing of flower bud formation; April and May severity appear equal in determining timing of peak bloomll. -11- Table 6, Phenology of selected plant species on the Armstrong winter range, 1979-82 and lilacs in Bozeman, 1972-1982. Number of days event occurred after March 15. RAGL BASA AGSP DEBI GEAR 1st bloom 1st bloom 4" height 1st bloom 1st bloom 1979 14 57 41 50 47 1980 3,6 41 34 41 48 1981 5 39 34 39 39 1982 39 60 52 52 67 Mean 23 49 40 45 50 RAGL - buttercup, BASA - balsamroot, AGSP - bluebunch wheatgrass, DEBI - larkspur, GEAR - chickweed Vegetation Production on Summer Range in the Armstrong Area Production of understory vegetation was estimated in 1980 and 1981 for nine macroplots using a homemade capacitance meter to: 1) determine year to year variation in forage production on summer range in the Bridger Mountains as com- pared with the Missouri River Breaks; 2) generally relate understory production to major cover types and forest tree canopy coverage; and, 3) test the suitability of using electronic capacitance meters to estimate variations in forest under- story forage production On 6 of the 9 macroplots, the estimates indicated significantly (P< .05) or near significant (P <.l) less herbage production for 1981 contrasted to 1980; the other 3 macroplots were not significantly different at any level (Figure 2) . However, even where significant, the differences in herbage production were slight and contrary to what might be expected based on precipitation data (Table 7) . This may have been influenced by a severe hailstorm that passed t h rough the area shortly before measurements were made in 1981 and heavily damaged much vegetation, even that occurring beneath fairly dense timber. Also, June 1981 was characterized by a period of cold snowy weather and a hard frost occurred in July. -12- Table 7. Precipitation at the MSU Weather Station, Bozeman, 1980-1981. Nov. -July ^ Apr. -July May- July June- July 1980 14.87 9.49 9.1 3.97 1981 18 14.08 12.09 5.1 ^November 1979-July 1980 and November 1980 through July 1981 Due to an inverse relationship between understory production and tree canopy coverage, the macroplots were arranged in Figure 2 from lowest to highest crown closure. The strong influence of degree of crown closure on understory production apparently overrode the effects of other factors (elevation, slope declivity, aspect, and species composition) on production. Aspect and tree species composition, as well as successional status, influence tree canopy coverage. This is illustrated by the weak to moderate correlation between these factors and production. The highest understory production was found on south and west-facing slopes where the lowest crown closure occurred. The lowest production tended to occur where crown closure was highest on lodge- pole pine dominated, north facing slopes. Distribution, Movements and Habitat Use Winter Aerial surveys during 1981-82 indicated that most deer population segments were restricted to their respective winter ranges by mid-late December. Animals associated with east-slope winter ranges began to disperse in early May; those on west slope ranges in early June. Summer Slammer movement and distribution patterns of the Northwest s]ppe. Southwest Slope, Brackett Creek, and Battle Ridge population units were similar to other years. Summer distribution pattern on the Blacktail, South 16-Mile, and Livingston population units will be defined during summer-fall 1982. Population Characteristics Trend and Dynamics of the Armstrong Deer Population Trends in mule deer numbers and sex-age composition of the spring population on the Armstrong winter range from 1973-1981 were discussed in previous reports (Mackie et al. 1978, 1979, 1980, Pac et al 1981). Population estimates for mule deer using the Armstrong winter range during spring 1982 are presented in Tables 8 and 9. Cumulative ground observations, aerial observations, and trapping records provided data on numbers of marked deer on the area throughout winter and early spring. In early May, approximately 113 deer wearing reco- gnizable collars used the area between Tom Reese Creek and North Cottonwood Creek, Of those, 76 ranged between Bill Smith and North Cottonwood Creeks. -13- 1980 1981 AVERAGES FROM LIPPED PLOTS ONLY lllriiiir CAGE CAGE CAGE PSME ASCO AGSP CARU CARU PSME PSME PSME ABLA PICO CARU PtAL VASC LUAR PICO PICO PICO CARU CARU VAGL VAGL VAGL VASC COVER TYPE Figure 2. Understory production at 9 sites on suininer range on the Armstrong study area, Bridger Mountains, 1980 and 1981. Sites arranged in order of increasing forest crown closure. * Significant difference at P<.05 CAGE = Car ex qeyeri PSME = Pseudotsuqa menqiessi CARU = Ca lamaqno s ti s_rube s cens PICO = Pinus Gontorta VASC = vaccinium scoparium VAGL = vaccinium globulare ■^SCO = aster consipicuus AGSP = Agropyron spicatum ABLA = albies lasiocarpa PIAL = pmus albicaulis LUAR = lupmus argenteus -14- Even more marked animals could have been present since the fate of 1 fawn marked in 1982 was undetermined and 11 adults of unknown status were last seen in spring 1981. The mean percentage of collared deer in April-early May observations between Bill Smith and North Cottonwood Creeks was 45%. Table 8- Spring estimates of numbers of mule deer on the Armstrong winter range, April, 1982. Estimated Numbers Remarks Total S X Lincoln Index for 15 ground surveys 170 19.46 (52-129 deer obs. /survey) and 75-77 collars in population. 171 Schnabel Index for 15 ground surveys (52-129 deer obs. /survey) and 76-77 collars in population. Table 9 . Estimated late winter-spring mule deer populations on the Armstrong winter range, 1973-82. No. Males Year Total No. No. Adult Females Adult Yearling No. Fawns 1973 230 123 31 27 49 1974 220 130 27 23 40 1975 140 92 35 8 5 1976 170 118 37 3 12 1977 200 120 24 6 50 1978 160 116 6 6 32 1979 140 104 6 11 19 1980 160 95 .14 7 44 1981 170 98 13 6 53 1982 170 102 12 20 36 -15- The best estimate of mule deer nixmbers on the Armstrong winter range was 170 during spring 1982. The mean Lincoln index for 15 ground surveys in April- early May was 170 mule deer. The Schnabel index was similar at 171 deer. The current estimate is the same as the population estimate for spring 1981. Estimates of mule deer numbers on the Armstrong range during early winter (Figure 3) were reconstructed from the spring population using overwinter mortality rates of marked adults, and fawn: female and male: female ratios observed during classification flights in late December. The early winter population of 220 deer included about 117 females, 15 adult males, 23 yearling males, and 55 fawns. Using the Lincoln Index, a second, independent population estimate of 221 deer was computed for the Armstrong study area from the 27 December 1982 complete coverage helicopter survey. The estimated 170 deer on the Armstrong range in spring 1982 included approxi- mately 102 adult females, 12 adult males, 20 yearling males, and 36 fawns (Table 9). When compared with estimates for early winter, over-winter mortality was approximately 23 percent of the early winter population. It also represented approximately 13 percent of adult females, 16 percent of adult males, and 45 percent of the fawns. Known deaths included 6 adult females, 2 unclassified adults, and 11 fawns in the area between Bill Smith and North Cottonwood Creeks. Two adult females, 2 adult males, and 8 fawns were known to have died on the area between Bill Smith and Tom Reese Creeks. Trap related mortalities were limited to a 9h year old female and 2 female fawns. Hunting mortality of males appeared to be higher in 1981 than the previous year. Tag returns in 1980 indicated that a minimum of 5 (28%) of 18 marked males were killed. During the 1981 hunting season, 5 (42%) of 12 marked males were shot. This included one apparent crippling loss. However, one (8%) of the 12 marked males which left the winter range in May 1981 and presumed to be alive during fall was not observed during the winter. Fifty percent of the marked males were known to be alive at the close of the hunting season. Hunting was for males only, except for 650 either-sex permits issued for HD312 which includes the Bridger Range. After the 1981 hunting season, a special questionnaire was sent to all 650 either sex permit holders for HD312; 556 (86%) were returned. Harvest and hunting season projections made from the returned sample for all 650 permit holder& indicated that about 468 (72%) of 650 permittees actually hxinted deer in HD312. Hunters averaged 3.7 days afield. Of those that hunted, 55% were successful. Permit holders harvested an estim.ated 257 deer in 1981 consisting of 212 mule deer (119 F , 81M, 12Fawns) and 45 white-tailed deer (30F, 12M, 3 Fawns) . Sex and Age Structure in Relation to Population Phenomena Trends in sex and age structure of the Armstrong mule deer population during 1981 and 1982 (Figure 4) followed those discussed by Mackie et al. 1980. Females 8.5 years and older continued to comprise substantial percentages of the female segment during 1981 and 1982. The strong 1.5 year cohort in spring 1982 reflected high recruitment in spring 1981. 1972- 1973 MALES 73-74 74-75 75-76 76-77 77-78 78-79 79-80 80-81 0V 1 81-82 Figure 3. Early winter population trend of mule deer on the Armstrong winter range, Bridger Mountains , 1972-1982 -17- Figure 4. Sex and age structure of the Armstrong mule deer population, Bridger Mountains, spring 1981 and 1982 1982 AWR Age Structure SPRING I9« FEMALE MALE 15 10 0 10 -18- Spring population sizes have remained stable during the 1981-82 period, because recruitment rates have equaled adult losses. It is unlikely that significant population increases will occur until adult female mortality rates decline. This can be expected after the 9.5 year and older female age classes move out of the population. Fawn Production and Survival Aerial classifications of mule deer on the Armstrong range during helicopter surveys in late December 1981 and late March 1982 are listed and compared with previous years in Table 10. The observed ratios (50 fawns: 100 females and 38 fawns: 100 adults in 1982) indicated moderate fawn survival to early winter. The late-March ratio of 46 fawns: 100 adults indicated that fawn survival to late winter was the second highest recorded since the study began in 1972. However, significant fawn mortality occurred after the March helicopter survey. Ground and aerial classifications in late April indicated a fawn: adult ratio of 28:100. An overwinter mortality rate of 45 percent was computed from a sample of 22 fawns trapped and marked in early winter. Most of the mortality occurred during late March and early April. Table 10.. Aerial classifications of mule deer on the Armstrong winter range, January 1972 through April 1962. NUMBERS RATIOS PERCENTAGES Reese Creek - N. Cottonwood Total Count Total Class. Adults Males Females Fawn Unci. F:100 Females F:100A Males:100 Females % Fawn 1 Ylg. Males % Spi Ylg. 1971-72 Jan. 3 173 173 119 39 80 54 68 45 49 31 56 26 Mar. 28 92 83 68 15 9 22 18 1972-73 Feb. 7 188 188 14 3 55 31 24 1973-74 Dec. 27 131 131 100 28 72 31 43 31 39 24 46 62 Apr. 1 188 188 154 34 22 18 1974-75 Jan. 5 140 140 116 37 79 24 30 21 47 17 19 17 Mar. 23 227 227 214 13 6 6 Apr . 20 99 99 96 3 3 3 1975-76 Jan. 2 121 121 113 29 84 8 10 7 35 7 7 100 Mar. 15 102 102 90 12 13 12 1976-77 Jan. 5-9 90 90 70 14 56 20 36 29 25 22 21 100 Mar. 10-11 116 116 87 29 33 25 1977-7B Dec. 19 133 133 94 11 83 39 47 42 13 29 46 40 Apr. 2 126 126 101 25 25 20 1978-79 Dec. 26 118 118 68 14 54 50 93 74 26 42 43 29 Mar. 12 98 98 68 30 44 31 1979-80 Jan. 9 132 132 85 16 69 47 68 55 23 36 37 50 M.-ir. 17 101 73 28 28 38 28 1980-81 Jan. 8 69 6S 44 7 36 25 1 69 57 19 35 29 50 Mar. 19 129 129 83 46 55 36 1981-82 Dec. 27 131 131 95 23 72 36 50 38 32 20 61 43 Mar. 23 162 161 110 51 1 46 32 Apr. 29 137 137 107 30 28 22 Table 11. Numbers and sex a.,d aye ratios of mule deer clrtssified by aerial (helicopter) survey on various «inter ranges in the Bridger Mountain conplex during early and late winter, 1071-72 through 1901-82. NO. END ■..EST SLOPE SO. END '..■EST SLOPE bLACKTAIL ■■'.OUNTAIH riORTli 16-IIILE SATTLE P.IDGE BRACKETT CREEK LlVlrjGSI'ON- BILU-IAN CR. No. Classic. il<':100 99 FF:100 99 FF:100 AD No. Classif. "•^-.lOO 99 FFtlOO 99 FF:100 AD No. Classif. do": 100 99 FFilOO 99 FF:100 AD No. Classif. ad: 100 99 FF:100 99 FFilOO AD No. Classif. <5<5:100 99 FF:100 99 FFrlOO AD No. Classif. 0.10), they suggested that differentially greater fawn mortality, relative to adults, may have occurred during March. Table 7. Classification of white-tailed deer in the vicinity of the RKWMA winter range, 1982. Fawns/ Date Total Adults Fawns Unid. 100 Adults % Fawns Mid-winter 313 218 81 14 37 27 1 + a/ i 4.24- 5 April 82 151 118 32 1 27 21 3 7 April 82 265 194 69 2 36 26 2 19 April 82 187 144 43 30 23 0 Spring Total 603 456 144 3 32 24 0 - 4.24 — 0.90 confidence interval Recruitment estimates for 1982 in the RKWMA, derived from the mid-winter survey, were less than the long-term average in the Swan Valley, but similar to the 1982 estimate for that area. The recruitment estimate derived from the spring survey in the Bowser Lake area was significantly less (p < 0.10) than the long-term average in the Swan Valley. A total of 61 white-tailed deer was captured in the vicinity of the RKWMA. Fawns and adult females were predominant in the sample of captured animals (Table 8) . The sex- and age-structure of the trapped sample differed sign- ificantly (X = 17.415; d.f. = 4; p < 0.005) from the cumulative trapping sample in the Swan Valley (Table 9) . The RKWMA sample included fewer adult males (p < 0.01) and more old adult (4+ -years) females (p < 0.10) than expected - The total number of fawns in the RKWMA sample was similar to that expected from the proportion of fawns in the Swan Valley sample. The ratios of fawns/adult females also were similar. However, the sex ratio of fawns in the RKWMA sample was significantly different from the Swan Valley sample (X^ = 7.03: d.f. = 1; p < 0.01). In the Sv/an Valley, 46% of the captured fawns were females and a SO'fSO fawn sex ratio was suggested (p = 0.15). At the RKWMA, 76% of the captured fawns were females and the fawn sex ratio . differed significantly from 50/50 (p < 0.01). Presumably, that difference occurs because fawn mortality, prior to recruitment age, in the RKWMA is dif- ferentially greater among males. -61- Table 8. Number of white-tailed deer, by sex- and age-class, captured in the vicinity of the RKWMA winter range, 1982. Sex Age-Class Ih 2h 3^ 4+ Males 6 2 1 Females 19 9 4 2 18 25 fawns/33 females = 76 fawns/100 females Table 9. Number of white -tailed deer by sex- and age-class captured on the Upper Swan Valley winter range 1976 -1980 (Mundinger 1980) Age-Class Sex h Ih 2h 3^5 4+ Males 94 25 8 6 14 Females 81 52 38 38 94 175 fawns/222 females = 79 fawns/100 females Recruitment was similar on the two study areas during 1982. It is interesting that this similarity occurred despite apparent, major differences in the sex ratios of both fawns and adults in the two populations. Analysis of habitat use in the Tally Lake area is preliminary and only general statements are possible at this time. Concentrated deer use on the RKWMA occurred on Lost Creek bottom and in the vicinity of the small potholes north of Bowser Lake. Concentrated deer use also may have occurred in riparian habitat adjacent to the Stillwater River, but the sample of radio-collared deer did not include individuals that wintered in that area. Concentrated deer use in riparian habitats was less pronounced than that which occurs in r.he Swan Valley (Mundinger 1980), probably because riparian habitats are limited on the RKWMA. By comparison with deer in the Swan Valley, deer on the -62- RKIVMA were more mobile, less dependant on specific activity centers, and may have used larger winter home ranges. Similar to the Swan Valley, winter deer use on the RKWMA occurred, almost exclusively in the coniferous forest. A change in habitat use within the vicinity of the RKWMA winter range was the first indication that dispersal was imminent. This was evidenced by the occurrence of large groups of deer in the snow-free fields adjacent to the winter range. Coincident with this change, the size of individual home ranges of some deer increased, while other deer left the area entirely. Dates of departure from the winter range were determined from single movements by 18 of the 22 radio-equipped deer. Of the remainder, one deer died on the winter range and the transmitter on a second deer functioned sporadically during the first 3 months of operation. Movements of 2 deer were erratic, in comparison with movements by other instrumented deer, and a single movement of dispersal could not be determined. Dispersal by instrumented deer spanned a 47-day period, from 10 March to 25 April (Table 10) . Of the 18 deer followed, 16 dispersed during a 13-day period, from 8 April to 25 April. The first reports of neck-banded deer at locations away from the winter range were obtained during tae second week of March. Similar to other studies (Mackie and Knowles 1977; Mundinger 1979), dispersal occurred as individual behavior, rather than as a mass migration. Deer from the RKWI^IA winter range were spread over an area of 456 square km during spring-early summer (Figure 3) . Seven of the deer were located in an area of approximately 31 square km, in and adjacent to Star Meadows. Three migration routes between the RKWMA winter range and the summer range were apparent. The Lost Creek drainage was the route used by eight deer. These animals used "staging areas" located near Pilot Knob and, again, near the inlet of Logan Creek to Tally Lake. Seven deer moved through the trench between the ridge east of Tally Lake and the Stillwater River. Pronounced "staging areas" were not apparent on this route, perhaps because several locations were suitable, but each of these 7 deer remained at locations within the trench for a period, prior to a second movement. One of these deer died, probably from predation, during the spring. Two deer moved from the RKWMA to Mountain Meadows and thence over Reid Divide to Star Meadows. A third deer, the last to leave the RKWMA, apparently followed this route as well-. However, she moved directly to Star Meadows without first "staging" at Mountain Meadows. Such distinct migration routes were not apparent in the Swan Valley (Mundinger 1980) . This difference probably is related to differences in topography between the two areas. Seventeen of 18 deer, that eventually occupied summer ranges in the vicinity of Tally Lake, dispersed from the winter range by two distinct movements. They first moved from the winter range to a definable spring home range ("staging area") and moved again, during late May-early June, to their respective, definitive summer home ranges. Only a small proportion of the animals followed in the Swan Valley used definable spring home ranges (Mundinger 1980). This difference between these populations may be real. Table 10. Dates of departure from the RKWMA winter range by 18 radio-equipped white-tailed deer females. Time Period 3/7-13 3/14-20 3/21-27 3/28-4/3 4/4-10 4/11-17 4/18-24 4/25-5/1 Number of Deer 10014 5 61 -64- Figure 3. Dispersal of white-tailed deer from the RKWMA during spring, -65- It also may have been that such a distinct use of spring ranges by deer in the Tally Lake area during 1982 was exaggerated in response to unusually cool, wet spring weather. Two different patterns of summer range use were evident from the manner by which radio-equipped deer used habitats in the vicinity of Tally Lake. Thirteen of these deer used summer home ranges similar to those previously described for the Swan Valley {Mundinger 1980; Leach 1982). These animals used summer home ranges of approximately 160 acres. Within that area, activity centers occurred in riparian habitats and a mature coniferous forest was the dominant cover type. A preliminary analysis suggested that prominent Habitat Types (Pfister et al. 1977) included Abies lasiocarpa/ Clintonia uni flora and Thuja plicata/Clintonia uni flora. A distinct summer concentration of white-tailed deer occurred in the vicinity of Star Meadows. That concentration was evident from frequent observations of deer. Also, the summer home ranges of seven radio-collared deer occurred in that area. Star Meadows may have provided summer habitat for deer from diverse wintering areas because the sample of radio-collared deer included one oi the animals that had been captured near Rhodes Draw. Apparently, summer range use by those deer which used Star Meadows differed from summer range use by other deer in the Tally Lake area. Three of the radio-collared deer first occupied areas on timbered ridges adjacent to Star Meadows. Then, they occupied small areas, wholly within Star Meadows, from early June to late July-early August. Thereafter, they returned to the respective areas that they had used during late Spring. A fourth deer behaved similarly, except that the timbered stand that she used in late spring and again in late summer was contiguous with Star Meadows. Thus, changes in habitat use occurred but a distinct movement was not apparent. A fifth deer also behaved similarly, except that her spring range was located near the head of Rhodes Draw while her late summer range occurred on a ridge near Star Meadows. Two deer first occupied small areas , in Star Meadows during early June and they remained there through early August. These observations are preliminary, but they suggest that Star Meadows is an important fawn-rearing habitat. However, the area either may not provide optimum habitat during the entire late spring - late summer period, or high densities in that area may not be possible during periods when adult does have greater mobility. Star Meadows is an extensive area of riparian habitat and is a unique feature in the Tally Lake area. Three cover types are prominent. Extensive stands of deciduous shrubs, primarily willow (Salix spp.) with lesser amounts of red osier dogwood (Cornus stolonifera) , occur contiguous with flowing water. These are interspersed with large, grassy meadows. Most of the meadow area was wet during late spring-early summer. In portions of the meadow, cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa) stands have replaced the shrub fields. Spruce may be a potential climax species in Star Meadows, but it is dominant only in small, isolated stands. Generally, spruce occurs as scattered individuals within the cottonwood stands or, occasionally, in the shrub fields. While in Star Meadows, the activity centers of individual deer occurred either in the shrub fields or in timbered areas. -66- LITERATURE CITED Antos, J. A. 1977. Grand fir {Abies grandis (Dougl.) Forbes) forests of the Swan Valley, Montana. Unpub. M.S. Thesis, Univ. Montana, Missoula. 220 pp. Clover, M. R. 1954. A portable trap and catch net. Calif. Fish Game. 40:367-373. Gilbert, F. F. 1965. Aging white-tailed deer by annuli in the cementum of the first incisor. J. Wild. Manage. 30:200-202. Hildebrand, P. R. 1971. Biology of white- tailed deer on winter ranges in the Swan Valley, Montana. Unpub. M.S. Thesis, Univ. Montana- Missoula. 91 pp. Leach, R. H. 1982. Summer range ecology of white-tailed deer in the conif- erous forest of northwestern Montana. Unpub. M.S. Thesis, Univ. Montana, Missoula. 80 pp. Mundinger, J. G. 1976. Population ecology an<^ habitat relationships of white-tailed deer in coniferous forest habitat of northwestern Montana. Pp. 7-37 in Montana Deer Studies. Job. Prog. Rept. , Mont. Dept. Fish and Game, Helena. Fed. Aid Pro j . W-120-R-7. 1980. Population ecology and habitat relationships of white-tailed deer in coniferous forest habitat of northwestern Montana. Pp. 8-92 in Montana Deer Studies. Job Prog. Rept., Mont. Dept. Fish and Game, Helena. Fed. Aid Pro j . W-120-R-11. 1981a. Population ecology and habitat realtionships of white-tailed deer in coniferous forest habitat of northwestern Montana. Pp. 53-72 in Montana Deer Studies. Job Prog. Rept. Mont. Dept. Fish and Game, Helena. Fed. Aid Pro j . W-120-R-12. . 1981 b. White-tailed deer reproductive biology in the Swan Valley, Montana. J- Wild. Manage. 45:132-139. Pfister, R. D. , B. L. Kovalchick, S. F. Arno, and R. C. Presby. 1977. Forest habitat types of Montana. U.S.D.A. Forest Service. Gen. Tech. Prpt. INT-34. 174 pp. Quimby, D. C. and J. E. Gabb. 1957. Mandibular dentition as an age indicator in Rocky Mountain elk. J. Wildl. Manage. 21:435-451. Robinette, W. W. , D. A. Jones, G. Rogers, and J. S. Gashwiler. 1957. Notes on tooth development and wear for Rocky Mountain mule deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 21:134-153. Sever inghaus , C. VJ. 1949. Tooth development and wear as criteria of age in white-tailed deer. J. Wild. Manage. 13:195-216. Weckwerth, R. 1958. Big game surveys and investigations - Swan Unit. Job. Prog. Rept., Mont. Dept. Fish and Game, Helena. Fed. Aid Proj . W-71-R-3. 21 pp. Submitted by: John J. Mundinger -67- STUDY NO. BG-2.0 JOB NO. 1 (Supplement) JOB TITLE: Summer range ecology of white- tailed deer in the coniferous forests of northwestern Montana. JOB OBJECTIVES: 1. To identify and describe sxommer habitat of white-tailed deer in the Swan and northern Clearwater River drainages; and 2. To evaluate the possible influences of fire and logging on summer habitat. FINDINGS This study was conducted as a graduate (MS) thesis research project within the framework of studies of the population ecology and habitat relationships of white-tailed deer in coniferous forest habitats in northwestern Montana. Field work was completed in the fall of 1981 and the final thesis report was submitted in July 1982 as a supplement to the 1981-82 progress report for Study No. BG-2.0, Job No. 1. An abstract of that thesis by Rosemary H. Leach is present below. ABSTRACT During 1980 and 1981, I studied the ecology of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) on the Swan-Clearwater summer range, northwestern Montana. Summer home ranges were well dispersed over the study area. Deer monitored both summers established their ranges in the same areas each year. Average home range size was 71 ha for adults and 91 ha for yearlings. Three deer followed for 24-hour periods confined movements inside or near to home ranges delineated during daytime tracking. Adult home ranges contained significantly more riparian and unlogged upland habitats, and significantly less logged upland than expected. Habitat composition within home ranges of yearlings more closely paralleled composition on the entire study area, except yearlings had significantly more logged riparian habitat than expected. Yearling ranges were composed largely or marginal (logged) habitats, most commonly logged riparian habitat with abundant deciduous cover, remnant conifers, and high diversity. Deer ranges also contained siginif icantly more cool site and riparian habitat types and topographic features, mature subclimax coniferous forest, and diversity than expected. Adults and yearlings selected similar habitats within home ranges. Both used riparian habitats, both iinlogged and logged, significantly more than expected, and upland habitats, both unlogged and logged, significantly less than expected. Management implications included: 1) protect riparian areas from logging; 2) retain unlogged coniferous for'est around riparian areas; 3) plan cutting units as small (< 12ha) and as scattered as possible (£. 5 per section) ; and 4) plan additional entries only after second growth in logged units is sufficiently developed to provide hiding cover. -68- STUDY NO. BG-2.0 JOB NO. 3 JOB TITLE: Population ecology and habitat relationships of white-tailed deer in river bottom habitat in eastern Montana. ABSTRACT: A study to evaluate factors affecting populations of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) on islands and f loodplain of the lower Yellow- stone River was continued in 1981-82. Intensive research was continued in 3 units located between Glendive and Sidney, Montana. Fall aerial classification indicated a fawn:adult female ratio of 96:100 (154:100 producing females), which compared to a ratio of 93:100 for individually marked females based on differential productivity by age class. Sixty percent of the adult females {lh+) successfully reared fawns to fall 1981. Ninety-one percent of the fall (prehunt) population consisted of deer 4h years and younger. A fetal rate of 187:100 was observed among a sample of adult females (1^+) during winter ?nd spring 1982. Deer densities of 58 and 40 deer/mi2 were observed at the Elk Island and Intake study units respectively during early spring 1982. A population increase of 19 percent was noted in the Elk Island unit from spring 1981 to spring 1982. Seasonal habitat use and harvest data were also evaluated during the report period. INTRODUCTION Riparian communities, associated with major streams and rivers, provide important habitat for white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in eastern Montana. The distribution of this species in eastern Montana just prior to 1941 was limited almost exclusively to the Missouri River and its major tributaries and to the extreme lower Yellowstone River (Allen 1971) . The lower Yellowstone was selected for study because it is representa- tive of a major ecological community in which white-tailed deer occur in eastern Montana and because the f loodplain habitats occupied may be subjected to alteration as a result of future demands for water for energy develop- ment. Quantitative data on animal/habitat/ environmental relationships of white-tailed deer associated with these habitats are generally lacking. This report updates findings from a research project initiated in July 1980 (Dusek 1981) . Included are the results of general monitoring of population phenomena and distribution of whitetails on the segment of river bottom between Glendive and Sidney, Montana. Intensive research was also continued in the 3 units in and near the Elk Island and Seven Sisters Wildlife Management Areas and near Intake. Previous work on white-tailed deer on the latter unit includes that of Swenson {1978a) . Research on successional relationships of riparian communities was conducted during the summers of 1980 and 1981 (Hoggs 1981) . -69- STUDY AREA The study area (Figure 1) includes approximately 53 miles of river floodplain and islands between Glendive and Sidney, Montana. This stretch of river bottom, which lies entirely in hunting district 750, crosses portions of Dawson, Wibaux and Richland Counties. Three areas, which take into consideration the various kinds of agricultural practices along the lower Yellowstone, were selected for intensive study (Figure 1) . Land use practices as well as physiography and vegetation were described previously (Dusek 1981, Boggs 1981). -70- Winter 1981-82 included larger periods of cold temperatures, greater snowfall and more persistant snow cover than the previous 2 years (Table 1) . However, weather severity (Picton and Knight 1969) approxi- mated the average for the 5-year period ending March 1982. Table 1. Climatological data and weather severity indices for the period on mid-November through March from weather records gathered at Sidney, Montana. Year No. days w/^ No. days w/'- temp, below snow on freezing (F) ground Total Precip . (in. ) Max. snow depth (in.) Severity^ Index 1977- 78 1978- 79 1979- 80 1980- 81 1981- 82 93 99 62 40 72 122 137 69 25 113 2.40 2.69 1.30 0.99 3.92 15 25 10 7 19 +17,835 +24,028 +1,565 -600 +13,242 Average 73 93 2.26 15 +11,214 ^Indicates number of days in which maximum daily temperature did not exceed 32°?. '^Indicates number of days in which there was 1 or more inches of snow cover . ^Weather Severity Index is from Picton and Knight (1969) . -71- METHODS Procedures generally followed those of Dusek (1981). A ratio of fawns: producing female was determined from data obtained incidental to aerial tracking transmittered deer during July-September. Reproductive success was also determined for individually marked females. Additional data regarding age structure and longevity of the population were obtained from deer killed on depredation permits issued during January -February 1982, Reproductive potential of the population was estimated from examination of reproductive tracts of all age classes of females during the period of January-May 1982. Ovulation and fetal rates were also determined. An additional 100 deer were captured and individually marked along the river bottom January-March 1982. Of those, 28 were equipped with transmitter collars. RESULTS Population Characteristics Herd Composition and Longevity Deer agefj 4^-years-and-younger comprised 91 percent of the pre-hunt population of white-tailed deer along the lower Yellowstone during fall 1981 (Figure 2) . This suggested a relatively young age structure as was also observed during fall 1980 (Dusek 1981) . Sex and age specific composition of the population was determined using supplementary data obtained from fall aerial classifications together with harvest composition of females older than fawns and males older than yearlings. Herd composition, as determined from aerial classification during fall, early winter and early spring, is shown in Table 2. Composition by sex and age of deer that were harvested, killed on highways, killed on depredation permits, and those trapped for marking appear in Tables 3, 4, 5, and 6, respectively. Fawns accounted for 41 percent of the 1981 pre-hunt population (Table 2) . Male and female fawns apparently occurred in nearly equal proportions. An aggregate sample of harvested, road-killed and collected specimens included 28 female and 27 male fawns. A preponderence of male fawns in samples of trapped deer during all years suggested that they were more vulnerable to trapping than other sex and age classes. -72- 7-1- s.sl « 5.5 (0 " 4.5 O o 3.5 O) < 2.5 1.5 0.5 Fall 1980 Fema ies ia 1 es — I — 1 5 — 1 20 20 1 1 5 10 5 6 5 10 Percent of Population < 2.5 1 1981 Ma 1 es Fema 1 es r - -r 1 n '- Percent of Population Figure 2. Composition by sex and age of fall populations (pre-hunt) during 1980-81. -73- Table 2. Seasonal herd composition by sex and age o£ white-tailed deer along the lower Yellowstone in hunting district 750. Number Percent Percent Percent Percent Fawns : Fawns : Males Females Fawns 100 Fem. 100 Ad. Year fied IS* l")* Fall (Pre-hunt) 1977* 375 10^ 53 37 68 58 1978 42 7 43 50 117 100 1979 125 14 36 50 140 102 1980^^ 540 6 12 39 43 112 76 1981 334 5 11 43 4] 96 69 Early Winter 1981 687 55 45 81 1982 1581 55 45 82 Early Spring 1981 425 55 45 82 1982 490 59 41 68 ^Pre-hunt data for 1977-79 are from Region 7 annual progress reports (Swenson 1978b, Swenson and Knapp 1979, Swenson 1980) . °Data from 1980-82 are from the ongoing study. Table 3. Percent composition by age of 185 white-tailed deer harvested along the Yellowstone River in hunting district 750 during 1980-81.^ Females Age 1980 1981 Class (33)"^ (30) 15 23 27 17 21 20 6 13 4% 9 10 Sh 3 7 ih 6 7 Ih 12 SV 3 Hales Total 1980 1981 1980 1981 (43) (79) (76) (109) 7 10 11 14 53 38 42 32 16 33 18 29 16 16 12 16 5 1 7 4 1 1 3 2 2 2 5 1 15 fawns: 94 adults = 16:100*= 15 fawns:23 adult females = 65:100 yearlings = 22% of adult females yearlings = 42% of adult males 30 yrlg. males: 5 yi"!?- females = 600:100, or 86% males 8 male fawns:7 female fawns = 114:100, or 53% males ^Data from checking stations and jaw collections were combined. ^Sample size is in parentheses, "^Includes animals harvested only during fall 1981. -74- Table 4. Percent composition by age of 68 white- tailed deer llillcd on highways along the Yellowstone River during the bio- logical years 1981 and 1982 . ^ Femal es Males Total Age 1981, 1982 1981 1982 19H1 Class (17)'' (26) (B) (17) (25) ( 4 H ) ii 41 27 50 39 44 40 35 23 50 41 40 30 2h 12 19 8 12 8 5 41, 12 8 8 5 5I5 8 5 61, Ih 4 2 as 9', 4 2 17 fawns:26 adults = 65:100'^ 17 fawns: 19 adult females = 89:100 yearlings = 32% of adult females yearlings = 100% of adult males 7 yrlg. males: 6 yrlg. females = 117:100, 54% m ,les 10 male fawns;7 female fawns = 143:100, or 59% males Some samples within each year were from hunting districts 761 and/ or 714. Sample sizes are in parentheses. Includes data only from biological year 1982. Table 5. Percent composition by age of 39 white-tailed deer talten on depredation kill permits during January and February 1982. *9e Females Males Total Class (27)3 ,j2) (39) h 3'2 75 59 IS 7 5 2h 15 17 15 3I5 S 3 4S 4 3 51i 6": 4 3 7^1 7 5 BH 9\ lOh llh 4 3 I2h 4 3 13lj I4I3 4 3' 23 fawns:16 adults = 144:100 23 fawns:13 adult females = 177:100 yearlings = 15 percent of adult females 9 male fawns: 14 female fawns = 64:100, or 39% males Sample size is in parentheses. -75- Table 6. Percent composition by age of 185 white-tailed deer trapped along the Yellowstone River during 1980-82. Females Males Total Age^ 1980 1981 1982 1980 1981 1982 1980 1981 1982 Class (18)^ (27) (59) (15) (20) (46) (33) (47) (105) h 44 26 46 87 70 78 64 45 60 Ih 6 15 14 30 20 3 21 16 2h 17 26 19 9 15 10 3h 11 7 10 7 2 9 4 7 4h 11 7 5 6 4 3 5h 6 11 5 3 6 3 6h 4 2 7 3 2 1 Ih 6 4 3 2 63 fawns -.42 adults = 150:100*^ 63 fawns: 32 adult females = 197:100 yearlings = 25% of adult females yearlings = 90% of adult males 9 yrlg. males :8 yrlg. females = 112:100, or 53% males 36 male fawns: 27 female fawns = 133:100, or 57% males Age was determined by an eruption and wear technique, 'sample size is in parentheses. Includes animals trapped only during winter 1982. -76- Yearlings accounted for 20 percent of the population during fall 1981. Survival of this cohort during winter 1980-81 was high (45% of popula- tion during spring 1981) , but they accounted for only 34 percent of the adult deer (1^+) in the population during fall 1981 (Table 7) . Among adult females, 2*2- year-olds outnumbered yearlings in samples of harvested, collected and trapped deer. It seems likely that numbers of deer from the 1980 cohort in the popu- lation on the river bottom may have been reduced by dispersal during the period from June through November 1981. Yearlings of both sexes may have been prone to dispersing from areas in which they spent their first year, although the data indicated that more females than males may have left the river bottom (Figure 2) . Table 7. A model of population size, composition and turnover of white-tailed deer along a 53 mile stretch of river bottom from Glendive to Sidney during fall 1980 through spring 1982.^ Season Total Age % % % and Year Number Class Males Females Fawns Yrlgs. Adults Fall (Pre-hunt) 3552 2S+ 282 855 43 25 32 1980 l"! 426 462 h 764 763^ Total 147 2 2080 -251 (17%) -210 (10%) Early Winter 3091 2h+ 205 767 45 24 31 1980-81 Ih 320 421 h 689 689 Total 1214 1877 Mortality^ (1%) - 10 (1%) - 20 (1%) Spring 3061 2h+ 205 762 45 24 31 1981 IS 315 414 >5 685 680 Total 1205 1856 Recruitment^ (28%) +475 (39%) +388 (21%) Fall (Pre-hunt) 4317 2h+ 361 1323 41 20 39 1981 I's 475 388 h B85 885 Total 1721 2596 Harvest Mortality (13%) -407 (25%) -280 (11%) Early Winter 3756 2h+ 150 1230 45 18 37 1981-82 IH 321 362 ij 344 849 Total 1315 2441 Mortality (8%) -165 (13%) -126 (5%) Spring 1982 3465 2S+ Total 150 316 684 1150 *Model was derived from a population estimate, using a Lincoln Index, during early winter 1981-82. Population estimates during other seasons and years were calculated using a ohange-in-ratio formula (Downing 1980) with the composition of mortality roughly known, ''change-in-ratio formula used and was in agreement with tag return data. ^Mortality from winter to spring also included road-ltilled deer, which accounted for 1% of winter populations. Mortality believed influenced by malnutrition was documented only during winter 1981-82. ^Only 63% of the fawns of 1980, which were in the population during spring 1981, were present in the fall 1981 population as yearlings. It was likely that dispersal of some members of this cohort from the river bottom may have contributed to this discrepancy. -77- Data in Tables 3, 4 and 5 suggest that the male segment of the river bottom population turns over in 4-5 years, whereas the female segment turns over in excess of 9 years. Hunting mortality, which included crippling, accounted for nearly all observed and reported deaths of males older than yearlings. As in the sample of hunter-killed deer, highway mortality claimed yearling males in greater proportion than their representation in the population. Males older than yearlings did not occur in the sample of road-killed deer. Aerial surveys during early winter indicated an increase in the pro- portion of fawns from fall (Table 2) . This probably was an artifact of hunter selectivity for deer older than fawns. This increase was diminished by early spring. Observation of marked deer during late winter and early spring indicated that animals lost to malnutrition included mostly fawns. The observed fawn: adult ratio during early spring approximated that of the previous fall (Table 2) . Harvest mortality during fall 1981 claimed 12.9 percent of the white- tail population along river bottom lands from Glendive to Sidney as determined from a change-in-ratio formula (Downing 1980) . From this formula, which considered the change-in-ratio of fawns: adults from fall to winter as a result of hunter selectivity for adult deer, it was determined that 4.4 and 18.8 percent of the fawns and adults, respectively, had been removed from the population by hunting during fall 1981. The proportion of radio-collared adults removed (19.2%) or lost through crippling, was in close agreement with the proportion calculated from the change-in-ratio formula. Approximately 81 percent of the fawns of fall 1981 survived through spring 1982 (Table 7). Recruitment (41%) was only slightly less than that observed the pre- vious year (Table 2) despite more severe winter weather in 1981-82 (Table 1) . Productivity Observed fawn: doe ratios during fall have approached or exceeded 100:100 since 1978 (Table 2). Aerial observations during fall 1981 indicated that 60 percent of the adult females (1^5+) successfully reared fawns to that period (Table 8) . This compared to 58 percent in 1980, although the ratio of f awns : producing female (154:100) was the same both years. This resulted in a calculated fawn: doe ratio of 92:100 for fall 1981 as compared to the observed ratio of 96:100 (Table 2). The number of fawns : producing female had declined from summer to fall (Table 8) suggesting some postnatal mortality had occurred. During the September-October period, approximately half the females with fawn(s) at heel were accompanied by singletons (Table 8) . -78- Table 8. Productivity of adult white-tailed females on the Yellowstone River during 1980-81.^ Fawns: 100 Percent Percent of pro- Producing Ad. Females during females w/ ' Period Females Producing Singles Twins Triplets September- October 1980 154 :100 (133)'^ 68 47C 51 2 July- August 1981 162 :100 (101) 41 57 3 September- October 1981 154 :100 (123) 60 51 43 6 ^Sample obtained from Elk Island, Seven Sisters and Intake study areas . Producing female sample size in parentheses. Percent of producing females. Fawning success was determined for 25 individually marked females (Table 9) of which 23 were equipped with transmitters. None of the 3 radioed yearling females in 1981 produced fawns, whereas 80, 100 and 86 percent of the respective females aged 2h, 3^-5*5 and 6h+ years successfully reared fawns to fall 1981 (Table 10). A doe:fawn ratio, calculated from the differential productivity by age class among marked females (93:100), was comparable to those determined from the population at large. Reproductive success was determined for 30 marked females during 1980 and/or 1981 (Appendix Table 15) . Fawning success was determined for 5 deer during both years. Two, which were ih+ years in 1980, produced twins both years, while another of similar age produced a single in 1980 and twins during 1981. Two animals, which were yearlings in 1980, produced no fawns in 1980, but in 1981 one produced twins and the other a single. During summer 1980, one yearling female was observed to have successfully reared a fawn (Dusek 1981) . -79- Table 9. Net productivity of adult female white-tailed deer {lh+) during 1981 as determined from observation of individually marked females during late summer and early fall. Number Percent Percent^ Number Fawns : Fawns : Age of Obs . w/ Multiple of Fawns 100 Prod. 100 Class Females Fawns Births Produced Females Females 3 0 2h 5 80 50 6 150:100 120:100 10 100 50 14 140:100 140:100 6+ 7 86 33 9 150:100 129:100 Expressed as a percent of only females successfully producing fawns. Yearlings in the sample included only transmittered deer . Table 10. Contribution by age class to net production during 1981 based on differential productivity of individually marked females and on pre-hunt herd composition as determined from aerial composition surveys and age data of harvested deer. Composition Number of Calculated Observed in^ Age per 100 Fawns Pro- from Data in Pop. during Class Adult Females duced Table 8 October 1981 ■ Ih 21 0 2h 26 31 Ih-Sh 40 56 6+ 5 6 Fawns: 100 Ad. Females 93:100 92:100 96:100 'Data also appears in Table 2. -80- Prenatal Productivity Reproductive tracts of 34 female white-tailed deer, collected from January-April 1982, were examined. Only 2 of 9 fawn females examined were pregnant. One carried a single fetus, and the other twins. All females older than fawns were pregnant. Females with an assigned age of 2h-4h (3-5 at fawning) were the most productive age classes, followed by those 5^+ and yearlings, respec- tively (Table 11) . Females 2h+ had much higher ovulation indices but lower fertilization rates than yearlings. A combined sample of females 1^+ during winter and spring 1982 had an ovulation index of 2.11 and a fertilization rate of 87 percent. When comparing the number of young: producing female and the proportion of multiple births among producing females in Tables 8 and 11 (both prior to and following fawning) , some fetal loss and/or early post natal fawn mortality apparently occurs. A conservative estimate of such mortality, not taking into account females that lost all fawns they produced, was 18 percent. This is based on the assumption that the. number of f awns : producing female differs very little from year to year. Table 11. Prenatal productivity of white-tailed deer by age class from analysis of reproductive tracts of 26 pregnant females during winter and spring 1982. Age Ovulation Fertilization No. Fetuses: Fetal Sex % Mult. Class Index Rate (%) Preg. Fem. Ratio(d's:9) Births ^5 1. 50 (2)^ 100 1.50 (2) ■ Ih 1. 25 (4) 100 1.43 (7) 4.0 43 2h-Ah 2. 37 (8) 89 2.20 (10) 0.9 90 2. 33 (6) 79 1.86 (7) 1.0 86 Total (1^+) 2. 11 87 1.87 1.2 75 a Number of specimens per age class are in parenthese. Yearling females produced a preponderance of male fetuses whereas older females produced a fetal sex ratio of nearly 1:1 (Table 11). Similar findings were reported by Dapson et a_l. (1979) and Ozoga and Verme (1982) . -81- Population Trend During early winter 1981-82, the population between Glendive and Sidney was estimated to number 3,756 deer as determined from the proportion of transmittered deer observed during a complete aerial census. Consider- ing that approximately 13 percent of the population was removed by hunting, the calculated pre-hunt population was about 4,317 deer. This represented a 22 percent increase over the estimated pre-hunt population for the previous year (Table 7) . These total population estimates are crude since radioed deer were not uniformly distributed but concentrated in and near the 3 units of intensive study (Figure 3) . Radioed deer also accounted for less than 1 percent of the estimated population. Population estimates were made during March and April 1982 for both the Elk Island and Intake study units. Population estimates of 482 and 421 deer for the respective units were an average of estimates from the 2 census flights in each unit. Calculated 95% confidence intervals, using the multiple aerial sampling technique of Rice and Harder (1977) , were 408-556 for Elk Island and 413-429 for Intake. During observa- bility conditions characterized by clear skies and lack of snow cover and when deciduous riparian vegetation was leafless, the proportion of marked deer observed varied from 33-36 percent at Elk Island (5 census flights) and 43-60 percent at Intake (4 flights) . The difference in observability between the 2 units may have reflected lesser abundance of understory shrub cover in the Intake study unit as influenced by grazing. Early spring appeared the most optimal period to census these units because 1) each area contained maximum yearly numbers of marked deer and 2) it was assumed that animals were not moving in or out of the area and the whereabouts of marked deer was generally known. Approximately 12 percent of the population in the Elk Island study unit was marked as of spring 1982. The population estimate for spring 1982 was approximately 19 percent higher than that for spring 1981. This was about the same percentage increase as estimated for the entire study area from fall 1980 to fall 1981 (Table 7). Animal density was estimated at 58 deer/mi^ at Elk Island and 40 deer/mi^ at Intake during spring 1982. Densities calculated for the same period of 1981 were 49 and 45 deer/mi^, respectively (Dusek 1981) . Condition Field-dressed weights of hunter-harvested white-tailed deer from the lower Yellowstone River are summarized in Table 12. Average dressed weights of both sexes of fawns and yearling females from the Yellowstone were comparable to state-wide averages for the respective sex and age classes (Mackie 1964) and to averages for the Swan Valley of western Montana (Mundinger 1981) . -83- Weights of yearling males from the Yellowstone were comparable to those for the Swan but averaged approximately 15 pounds heavier than the state-wide sample. Deer of both sexes, which were older than yearlings, from the Yellowstone were of comparable weight to the state-wide sample but averaged 10-12 pounds less than the corresponding sex and age classes from the Swan. Table 12. Average field-dressed weights, by sex and age, of 37 white- tailed deer harvested in the Yellowstone Valley during 1980-81, Weight (Lbs.) Age Class Females Males h 57 (5)^ 60 (2) ih 92 (6) 115 (14) 2h 135 (4) 3h 90 (1) 152 (11) 4h 102 (2) 200 (1) 5h 6% 105 (1) Sample size is in parentheses. Habitat Use Distribution White-tailed deer on the lower Yellowstone occurred primarily in sections of river bottom which were characterized by a braided stream channel and where the entire spectrum of young to old serai communities, as described by Boggs (1981) , was represented. Bottomlands dominated by late serai to climax communities appeared devoid of deer. Observations and relocations of marked deer, as well as observation of unmarked deer, suggested that seasonal changes in distribution were negligible, although some individuals differentially used portions of their annual home range by season. -84- There appeared to be a marked difference between diurnal and nocturnal patterns of habitat use. Deer appeared to use a wider range of available habitat during periods of twilight and darkness than during periods of daylight when they restricted their activity to relatively dense deci- duous riparian cover. The circadian aspect of habitat use will receive major emphasis during the next 2 years. Seasonal and Annual Home Ranges Summer and/or winter home ranges were computed for 29 radio-collared deer {lh+ years) during the biological year, 1981-82 (Table 13). The sample included 23 females and 6 males. Six of the adult females were also monitored during the preceeding year. The data summarized in Table 13 included only activity during daylight and twilight periods. Early morning, midday and evening periods accounted for 36, 37 and 27 percent of all relocations. Data from radio-collared deer indicated a high affinity for relatively small areas during summer and winter. This was particularly obvious among adult females (Table 13) . Home ranges of summer 1981 averaged 0.17, 0.07 and 0.05 mi^ for females aged Ih, 2h and 3h+ , respec- tively. One 2^-year-old female (81-30) moved approximately 9 miles upstream during June 1981, where she remained for 2-3 weeks before returning to her original home range and was not included in the above sample. Summer home ranges averaged 1.31 and 0.20 mi^ for males aged Ih and , 2^5, respectively (Table 13). The average winter home range for all adult females during 1981-82 was 0.09 mi^ and 0.19 mi^ for 2 year- ling males. A fidelity index, which represents the distance between geometric centers of activity for a given season over a period of 2 or more years for individual animals, was computed for females fallowed since the spring of 1980. This index serves as a means of quantitatively measuring the relative fidelity that individuals have for seasonal or annual home ranges where 0 represents complete fidelity. The sample of deer included 5 adult females for summer and 5 adult females during fall and winter. Average indices for seasonal samples were 0.15, 0.16 and 0.21 during summer, fall and winter, respectively, which suggested that adult females have a higher affinity to summer home ranges from year to year than they have for other seasonal ranges. Differences between age classes were not detected among the small sample. The standard deviation from the m.eans of seasonal samples were 0.02, 0.12, and 0.06 during summer, fall and winter, respectively, which perhaps indicated that these females not only had a high affinity to certain areas during summer as compared to other seasons, but that this trend appeared consistant among females generally. It is not uncomm.on for some individuals to use non-overlapping portions of their annual home range during summer and winter, while those portions used during fall and/or spring may not be common to either summer or winter home ranges. Such a pattern was observed for one adult female -85- (80-08) (Dusek 1981) during both years she was monitored. Of the 6 females monitored since June 1980 (those from which fidelity indices were computed) , 2 were yearlings in 1980 and neither produced fawns that year. Both produced fawns in 1981, while the 4 older does were known to have successfully reared fawns both years. The 2 younger females in the sample apparently had established permanent summer home ranges as yearlings. Table 13. Seasonal and annual home ranges of transraittered white- tailed deer captured on the Yellowstone River prior to June 1981. Home Range Size (mi ) , Serial Age at Study ^ Summer Winter Annual Number Capture Area 1980 1981 1980-81 1981-82 1980-61 Females 80-02** 2i 1 0.14 80-03 1 0.05 0.01 0.11 0.07 0.96 80-05* i 1 0.19 0.30 80-06 4i 1 0.05 0.05 0.09 0.12 0.16 80-08 . 3i 1 0,03 0.01 0.73 0.09 2.41 80-10 * 1 0.25 0.02 3.39 9.26 80-12 3I 1 0.08 0.10 0.54 0.16 0.63 80-17* 1 0.07 80-19* 1 0.06 80-20* li 2 0.10 80-26 7i 2 0.03 0.14 80-29 2 0.09 0.03 0.09 0.06 0.38 81-01 l| 2 0.06 0.08 81-04 zl 2 0.02 0.05 0,03 81-05* 5i 2 0.03 81-13 2i 1 0.05 0.23 81-18 2i 1 0.12 0.20 81-24* 2? 2 0.02 81-29 6i 3 0.10 0.07 81-30 li 3 3.65 0.06 81-32** 6i 3 0.02 81-34 i 3 0.23 0.03 81-37 2i 3 0.05 0.16 81-38** 9i 3 0.08 0.10 81-39 li 3 0.17 81-41 3 0.04 0.02 81-42*" f 3 0.24 81-45** 2t 3 0.04 0.04 Males 80-22* 3i 2 0.12 80-27* 6i 2 0.05 81-03* li 2 0.07 81-10 1 0.61 0.33 81-14* ll 1 0.36 81-08* l| 2 0.18 81-23* 2 0.05 81-36 i 3 3.27 0.06 *Study areas I 1 - Elk Island i 2 - Seven Sisters j and 3 - Intake. Biological year - June 1 - Kay 31. * Aniaml lost to the population through hunting mortality. **Animal lost to the population by mortality other than hunting. Transmitter failure. -86- Movements and Dispersal Of 43 deer marked during winter/spring 1980-81, 9 (21%) were known to have dispersed from their capture sites between June and November 1981 (Table 14). It was unlikely that most of this observed movement was attributable to routine travel between winter and summer, home ranges. The maximxim distance travelled between the respective home ranges among the sample of marked deer was 2.6 miles (a transmitter ed adult female, 81-04) . Table 14. Summary of known dispersals of marked white-tailed deer during the biological year ending May 31, 1982.^ Serial Dist. Number Sex Age^ Origin^ Destination Trav. (mi) Status +81-10* M Ih Elk isl. Sev. Sis. 7 Permanent 81-21* M Ih Elk Isl. Sev. Sis. 6 Cripp. Loss 81-22 F 2h Elk Isl, Lambert 19 Harvested +81-23 M Ih Sev. Sis. Gartside Res. 2 Harvested +81-26 M Ih Sev. Sis. Elk Isl. 6 Harvested 81-27 F Ih Elk Isl. near Sidney 14 Permanent +81-30 F 2h Intake Near Glendive 9 Temporary 81-35 M Ih Intake Box Elder Cr. 4 Temporary 81-36 M Ih Intake Box Elder Cr. 4 Harvested Includes 9 marked animals, which were captured during winter/spring 1981, which were known to have dispersed from the area where they were captured from June through November 1981. ^Age as of June 1, 1981. Study unit in which animal was marked, "''individual was transmittered. Offspring of transmittered females. Yearlings accounted for 7 (78%) of the 9 animals with abberrant patterns of movement (Table 14). Four of the 7 yearlings were killed during the hunting season of 1981 (one was a reported crippling mortality) . Of the survivors, a transmittered male (81-10) remained in the immediate vicinity of Seven Sisters Island after moving there in November 1981 from an area just north of Elk Island where he had spent the preceding summer (Figure 4) . -87- He was the 1980 fawn of transmittered female 81-13 which has remained on the Elk Island Management Area since being captured in January 1981. He became disassociated from her in late June 1981. The known crippling loss (yearling male, 81-21) was the 1980 fawn of transmittered female 80-06 which has remained in the Elk Island Management area since she was captured in March 1980. Yearling male 81-21 was found dead by a hunter near Seven Sisters Island during late November 1981. r V W 1981-82 Su/F 1981 Figure 4. Movements of a transmittered male white-tailed deer from February 1981 (fawn) through February 1982 (yearling) . A yearling female, collared as a fawn near Elk Island during February 1981 (81-27), moved into a "deer -proof" game farm enclosure near Sid- ney during late May to early June 1981. This was a straightline dis- tance of 14 miles from the point of capture. She was observed within the enclosure on 2 occasions. The remaining survivor, a male (81-36) was captured on the Gentry ranch near Intake and equipped with a transmitter collar in March 1981. He and a collared sibling (81-35) were observed along the floodplain on 3 occasions prior to June 1981. Both were observed in the Box Elder Creek drainage during early June 1981 as yearlings. Animal 81-36 returned to the river bottom by mid-June and 81-35 was not observed until he was killed by a hunter on the west, side of the river near Intake in November 1981. The 2 marked deer older than yearlings, that moved more than 2 miles from their respective capture sites, were both 2'5-year-old females. One female (81-30) , which was equipped with a transmitter on the Gentry ranch in March 1981, moved 9 miles up river near Glendive during early June 1981 but returned to Gentry's by mid-July. She did not successfully rear a fawn during 1981. The other 2J2-year-old female (81-22) was collared at Elk Island in February 1981 and V7as last observed in that area in May 1981. She was taken by a hunter near the comm.unity of Lambert, Montana during November, a distance of approximately 19 miles from where she was marked. Only one of 10 males of the 1979 cohort, which were collared at Elk Island during Feb. /Mar. 1980 (Dusek 1981) , was observed during the report period. That was a 235-year-old (80-04) when observed on the Gentry ranch during August 1981, a distance of 22 miles from Elk Island. He was not observed during the year following his capture and was assumed to have left the Elk Island area during summer 1980. A sighting was made in April 1982 of a collared deer with the same combination of colors in the Intake study unit but could not be positively identified due to deterioration of the collar. The greatest reported distance from which one of the 10 collared males of the 1979 cohort was observed from Elk Island was 28 miles; it was sighted by a hunter near Glendive in November 1980. Nearly all known dispersal during June was likely related to break-up of family groups when adult females separate themselves socially and spatially prior to giving birth as reported by Hawkins and Klimstra (1970). Downing and McGinnes (1975) reported a tendency for 2-year-old females to move long distances when preparing to bear their first fawn. Long movements by yearling males during November generally coincided with the rut and heavy hunting pressure where affected animals were located (81-10 and 81-23). -89- Harvest Harvest data for hunting district (h.d.) 750, which includes the study- area, are summarized in Table 15. Approximately 90 percent of the white- tailed deer in h.d. 750 occurred along bottomlands of the Yellowstone River during winter 1978-79 (Swenson 1980) . Table 15. Summary of harvest statistics for deer hunting district 750 as determined from the statewide postseason harvest survey.^ Year 1976 1977 1978 1979^^ 1980 1981 Total hunters^ 1224 1318 1319 1136 1383 1858 % of Harvest WT Deer 96 88 67 75 76 77 No. of WT Deer Harvested 594 527 462 458 624 810 % of Total WT Harvest Antlered 70 81 71 67 69 68 % of WT Harvest B-tag Antlerless 11 15 12 Percent Success 53 46 49 54 59 57 Data for the years a telephone survey of 1976- was used 80 were during obtained from 1981. a questionnaire, whereas Includes all hunters regardless of species hunted. '^Includes all hunters regardless of species harvested. "^The hunting district was decreased in size by a boundary change in 1979 which excluded portion of Beaver Cr. in Wibaux County. B-tags (antlerless) were issued in HD 750 from 1979-81. A comparison of estimated hunting mortality (including crippling losses) on the river bottom from 1980-81 (Table 7) with numbers of whitetails harvested in the entire hunting district from the statewide post- season survey for the same years (Table 15) suggested that numbers of whitetails harvested in prairie and stream bottom habitats adjacent -go- to the river accounted for proportionately more than 10 percent of the total harvest for h.d. 750. Estimates of hunting mortality of 451 and 687 during 1980 and 1981, respectively, accounted for 74 and 84 percent of the total harvest for the hunting district during the respective years. Populations of white-tailed deer in upland prairie habitats in eastern Montana have increased noticeably since 1979 (N. Martin, J. Swenson, personal communication) . They may have increased at a rate greater than those on the river bottom. Whitetails in prairie habitats may also be more vulnerable to hunting mortality than those in forested river bottom habitat. Swenson (1982) reported such a phenomenon for mule deer. Numbers of white-tailed deer harvested in h.d. 7 50 has steadily increased since 1979 (an average of 33% per year) . The proportion of antlered males in the harvest was consistant (ave. 68%±1) after the latest h.d. boundary change in 1979. Antlered whitetails accounted for 55 and 62 percent of those taken on the river bottom study area as determined from hunter checking stations. Swenson (1980) reported a discrepancy between the proportion of antlered deer examined at checking stations and that reported by hunters on the questionnaire which was likely attributable to some reporting male fawns as antlered deer. Using his correction factor of 0.08, the harvest of antlered whitetails in h.d. 750 averaged 54 percent from 197 9-81. LITERATURE CITED Allen, E.O. 1971. White-tailed deer. pp. 69-79 in Mussehl and Howell, eds., Game management in Montana. Montana Dept. of Fish and Game. Boggs, K.W. 1981. Successional relationships of riparian vegetation along the lower Yellowstone River, pp. 101-103 in_ Montana deer studies. Job Prog. Rept., Montana Dept. Fish, Wildl. and Parks, Fed. Aid Proj . W-120-R-12. Dapson, R.V., P.R. Ramsey, M.H. Smith and D.F. Urbston. 1979. Demographic differences in contiguous populations of white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 43 (4) :889-898. Downing, R.L. 1980. Vital statistics of animal population. pp. 247-267 in S.D. Schemnitz, Ed. Wildlife management techniques manual. 4th ed. The Wildl. Soc . , Washington, D.C. 686 pp. and B.S. McGinnes. 1975. Movement patterns of white tailed deer in a Virginia enclosure. Proc. SE Assoc. G-ame and Fish Commrs. 29:454-459. -91- Dusek, G.L. 1981. Population ecology and habitat relationships of white- tailed deer in river bottom habitat in eastern Montana, pp. 75-100 in Montana deer studies. Job Prog. Kept., Montana Dept. Fish, Wildl. and Parks, Fed Aid Pro j . W-120-R-12. Hawkins, R.E. and W.D. Klimstra. 1970. A preliminary study of the social organization of white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 34 (2) :407-419. Mackie, R.J. 1964. Montana deer weights. Montana Wildl., Winter:9-14. Mundinger, J.G. 1981. Population ecology and habitat relationships of white-tailed deer in coniferous forest habitat of northwestern Montana, pp. 53-72 in Montana deer studies. Job Prog. Rept. , Montana Dept. Fish, Wildl. and Parks, Fed. Aid Pro j . W-120-R-12. Ozoga, J.J. and L.J. Verme. 1982. Physical and reproductive character- istics of a supplementally fed white-tailed deer herd. J. Wildl. Manage. 46 (2) : 281-301 . Picton, H.D. and R.R. Knight. 1969. A numferical index of winter condi- tions of use in big game management, pp. 29-39 in A.O. Haugen, ed. Proc. Symp. on snow and ice in relation to wildlife and recreation. Iowa St. Univ., Ames. Swenson, J.E. 197Ba. Intake terrestrial wildlife study. Montana Dept. Fish and Game. Final Rept. 72 pp. . 1978b. Big game survey and inventory (deer) - Region 7, including an analysis of deer harvest data, 1960-77. Montana Dept. Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Pro j . W-130-R-9. 36 pp. . 1978b. Big game survey and inventory (deer) - Region 7. Montana Dept. Fish and Game. Fed. Aid Proj . W-130-R-10. 32 pp. . 1980. Big game survey and inventory (deer) - Region 7. Montana Dept. Fish, Wildl. and Parks. Fed. Aid Proj. W-130-R-11. 90 pp. . 1982. Effects of hunting on habitat use by mule deer on mixed-grass prairie in Montana. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 10:115-120. Submitted by: Gary L. Dusek -92- Appendijt Table 16. Reproductive history of 28 individually marked white- tail females on the Yellowstone River. Estimated Serial Age Number of Fawns Produced Number At Capture 1980 1981 SO-02* 2':+ 2 80-02* 4'l+ 2 2 80-05* h 0 7 * * 80-06* 2 2 80-08* 1 2 80-10* h 0 2* * 80-12* ? 2 80-17* "i 1 80-19* 2h 2 80-20* Ih ? 80-26* 7<> 7 1 80-29* "j 0 X 81-01* IH I 81-04* 2 81-05* 4", 3 81-13* a>i 1 81-18* 1 81-20 5H 1 81-24* 1 81-29* 6%+ 1 81-30* Ih 0' 81-32* 6>> 0 81-34* •i 0 81-37* 2h 1 81-38* 5h ■ 1 81-39* Ih 2** 81-41* h 0 81-42* h 0 81-44 1 81-45* 215 2 * Animal was equipped with a transmitter. ** Transmitter failed during late summer period when data were being collected. -93- STUDY NO. BG-2.0 JOB NO. _5 JOB TITLE The relationship of white-tailed deer and mule deer to agriculture in the Gallatin Valley. JOB OBJECTIVES 1. To determine basic biological and ecological parameters for an erupting population of white-tailed deer in the Gallatin Valley, Montana. 2. To relate those basic population parameters to (2) habitat/ • ■ environmental characteristics of the Gallatin Valley and (b) specific potential limiting factors for deer in that habitat, including nutrition, other wild ungulates, specifically mule deer, agriculture and associated farming practices, domestic livestock and associated grazing practices, rural sxibdivisions and associated human activities, weather, disease, and hunting. 3. To further develop and test hypotheses relating to deer- habitat interactions and populations regulation; and ' 4. To develop guidelines for deer management on mountain valley/agricultural habitats. INTRODUCTION This project involves the study of the ecology of white- tailed deer and mule deer and their relations to agriculture and development in the Gallatin Valley, Montana. The study area and general methods employed were described in a previous report (Vogel and Picton 1981) . Field studies were conducted from April 1981 through June 1982. This report summarizes activities and findings for the period July 1, 1981 - June 30, 1982. Data will be compiled analyzed and reported in a final report to be submitted by January 1983. RESULTS Sixteen deer were monitored during the entire year. An additional 30 were marked from January to March of 1982, released and monitored during the winter and spring. A maximum of 45 deer are still marked in the valley, as one recognizable animal shed its collar. At present there are 16 deer with radio transmitters. The details of those deer marked in 1982 are given in Tables 1 and 2. Information on those caught in 1981 was given in a previous report (Vogel and Picton 1981) . -94- Table 1. White-tailed deer captured and marked in the Gallatin Valley during February and March of 1982 Area Sex Age Date Radio Freq. Collar Penwell F h 2/14/82 Yellow open circles on blue 50727-4903 F 2/16/82 150. 200 Black zig-zag on white M 2h 2/18/82 White arrows on red F 2h 2/24/82 150. 600 Black squares on white M h 2/25/82 White open triangles on red M 2/26/82 Black double plus on white F 1^ 2/27/82 150 . 100 Solid black M 1*5 3/3/82 Black Sigma on white *F 3h 3/3/82 Yellow M on blue F 3*5 -2 / A /O O j/4/Owi leiiow clox-s on uxut: M 3/2/82 Ear tags only Sourdough F h 2/13/82 Yellow circles on blue 50496-4976 F 2/24/82 150.150 Solid white F h 2/24/82 Yellow bars and dashes on blue F 2/25/82 150,550 Black double dashes on white M h 2/25/82 Black diamonds on yellow M h 3/1/82 Black stripe on yellow M Ih 3/1/82 Black dashes on yellow F 3/6/82 Black bars on yellow M h 3/6/82 Black triangles on yellow F 3/9/82 150.650 Yellow double dashes on black * potential hybrid Table 2. Mule deer captured and marked in the Gallatin Valley from January to March of 1982. Area Sex Age Date Radio Freq. Collar Valley F 21s 1/19/82 150.500 Solid red Center F h 1/19/82 Yellow diagonals on blue 50632-4878 F h 1/20/82 Yellow sin wave on blue M h 1/20/82 White dashes on red F 2h 2/4/82 150.300 Yellow stripe on red F Qh 2/5/82 150.250 Yellow and red chevrons M 2h 2/8/82 White circles on red M h 3/5/82 Red circles and stripe on white F 2h 3/8/82 150.450 Black dots on white -95- Movements in the late spring for deer radioed in 1981 were the same in both years and indicate distinct summering and wintering areas. Dispersion was also seen in those deer marked in 1982. On August 21, 22,23 of 1981 an extensive fixed wing survey was conducted, 362 deer were observed. White-tailed deer had 98 fawns per 100 adult does and mule deer had 56. Several of the road kill deer that were necropsied, appeared to be hybrids, according to the description given by Wishart (1980) . Protein-electrophoresis is being employed to further test for this possibility. Observations on the distributions, movements, habitat use, activity habitats and population characterstic of deer will be analyzed and related to distribution of land use types and other habitat characteristics in the final report. Landsat imagery was used to develop a procedure for estimation of the percent snowcover in the valley from the snow on ground measurements at the Montana Agricultural Experiment Farm Weather Station. LITERATURE CITED Vogel, Wm. and H.D. Picton. 1981. The relationship of white-tailed and mule deer to agriculture in the Gallatin Valley. Job Prog. Rept. MDFWP Fed. Aid Proj. W-120-R-12. 109-117 Wishart, Wm. D. 1980. Hybrids of white-tailed and mule deer in Alberta. Jour- of Mamm. 61(4): 716-720. 1980 Siibmitted by: William Vogel and Harold Picton -96- APPENDIX A LIST OF PUBLICATIONS RESULTING FROM STATEWIDE DEER RESEARCH STUDIES, 1975 - 1982. Hamlin, K.L. 1977. Population dynamics and habitat relationships of mule deer in the Bridger Mountains, Montana. 1955-76. Ann. Conf. N.W. Section, TWS, Kalispell, MT. , Feb. 1977. • 1978. Deer, coyote and alternate prey relations in the Missouri River Breaks Montana. Ann. Conf. N.W. Section, TWS, Portland, OR., Feb. 1979. . and L. Schweitzer. 197 9. Cooperation by coyote pairs attacking mule deer fawns. J. Mamm. 78(4): 849-850. . , R.J. Mackie, J.G. Mundinger, and D.F. Pac. 1982. Effect of capture and marking on subsequent fawn production in deer. J. Wildl. Manage, 46 (4) . Mackie, R.J. 1976. Interspecific competition between mule deer, other game animals and livestock. Pages 49-54 in mule deer decline in the west. A Symposium. Utah State Univ. Coll. of Nat. Resour., Agr. Exp. Sta., Logan. 1978. Natural regulation of mule deer populations. In: Natural regulation of Wildlife, ed. D.S. Eastman and F.L. Bunnell. N.W. Section, TWS. In ■press. • 1979. "Competition" and the future of wild ungulates on Montana rangelands. Joint meeting of the Mont. Chapters Soil Cons. Soc. of Amer., Amer Fisheries Soc, Soc. Amer. Foresters and The Wildlife Society, Missoula, MT. Jan. 31-Feb. 1, 1979. • 1981. Interspecific Relationships. Chapter 13 in O.C. Wallmo, ed. Mule and Black-tailed Deer of North America. Univ. of Nebraska Press. 605 pp. K.L. Hamlin, and D.F. Pac. 1981. Census methods for mule deer. Pages 97-106 iri symposium on census and inventory methods for popu- lation and habitats. F.L. Miller and A. Gunn, eds . Univ. of Idaho. Forest, Wildlife and Range Experiment Station, Contribution No. 217. ' / and . 1982. Mule deer. Chapter 44. In: Wild Mammals of North America. J. A. Chapman and G.A. Feldhammer (eds.). J. Hopkins Univ. Press. 1147 pp. -97- APPENDIX (cont.) and D.F. Pac, 1980. Deer and subdivisions in the Bridger Mountains, Montana. Proc, West Assoc. of State Fish and Wildlife Agencies 60:517-526. Mundinger, J.G. 1979. The Swan Valley: whitetail country, Mont. Out- doors 10(5) : 35-41. ' 1981. White-tailed deer reproductive biology in the Swan Valley, Montana. J. Wildl. Manage. 45 (1) : 132-139 . / 1981. Impacts of timber harvest on white-tailed deer in the coniferous forests of northwestern Montana. Ann. Conf . -N.W. Section, T.W.S., Cour d'Alene, ID. April 1981. t 1982. Biology of the white-tailed deer in the coniferous forests of northwestern Montana. Symposium on wildlife relations in old-growth forests, N.W. Section, T.W.S. , Juneau, AK. In press. Pac, D.F, and R.J. Mackie. 1981. Conflict for space. Montana Outdoors 12(2):13-16. ' R-J- Mackie and H.E. Jorgensen. 1982. Relationships between mule deer and forest in southwestern Montana - some precautionary observations. Symposium on wildlife relationships in old-growth forests, N.W. Section, T.W.S. , Juneau, AK. In press. Picton, H.D. and R.J, Mackie. 1980. Single species island biogeography and Montana mule deer. 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