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THE MONTHLY
MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL:

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY,

AND

RECORD OF HISTOLOGICAL RESEARCH

AT HOME AND ABROAD.

EDITED BY
HENRY LAWSON, M.D., F.R.MLS.,
Assistant Physician to, and Lecturer on Physiology in, St. Mary’s Hospital.
VOLUME IX.

LON DON:
ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, PICCADILLY, W.

MDCCCLXXITI.

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REW YORK
BOTANICAL

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MONTHLY MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.

JANUARY 1, 1873.

I.—A New Form of Micro-spectroseope.
By Epvwarp J. Gayerr, Surgeon H.M. Indian Army. .

(Read before the Rovat Microscoprcan Society, Dec. 4, 1872.)

Puate I. (Lower portion).

In the form at present in use, the Sorby-Browning direct vision
micro-spectroscope, the divergent rays of light received from the
object-glass are collected at the eye end of the microscope by a
lens, placed about an inch in front of the slit, and after passing
through it, are rendered parallel in the usual way by an achromatic
collimating lens, before entering the compound direct-vision prism,
through which the spectrum is viewed directly without a telescope.

In the new form, the divergent rays issuing from the object-
glass of the microscope are at once passed through the slit, placed
about an inch from the objective, without passing through any
collecting lens; the prisms are not compound, and the spectrum is
looked at through a telescope. The advantages of the new form
are, that there is more light, more dispersive power, and that it is
quite possible even with high powers to use a telescope for magni-
fying the spectrum, and collecting the whole of the light passing
through the prisms ; also no special form of micrometer is necessary
because as there is a telescope any ordinary micrometer can be
brought to focus and rendered visible. A reference to the annexed
Plate will render the instrument more intelligible.

A is the objective; B, the arm of the stand of the microscope
carrying the body C; D is the slit of the spectroscope ; H, the
collimating lens; F, F, two dense flint-glass prisms of 60°; G, the
object-glass of the telescope; I, one of the eye-pieces belonging to
the microscope ; H, rack-work motion. to the eye-piece of the tele-
scope; K, the usual apparatus for the second spectrum; N, the
micrometer. There are screw adjustments in the brass plate and
tube in which the prisms are placed.

To use this micro-spectroscope, the tube of the microscope should
be unscrewed at L, and replaced by the spectroscope, which should
be made to fit the same screw. The angle, which the telescope

VOL. IX. B

2 Transactions of the

makes with the body of the instrument, will be found a very con-
venient one, as the stage of the microscope will be horizontal,
while the telescope will be inclined at a comfortable angle for the
eye. It is obvious that more light passes through the slit of this
spectroscope, because it is so much nearer the object-glass, and also
that more light passes through the prisms, because they are fewer,
and the collecting lens being done away with, the light has only
one instead of two lenses to traverse. All this gives a greatly
increased brilliancy to the spectrum, and enables objectives of high
power to be used, as also a telescope. When it is required to
examine the spectra of very minute objects, it is important to
ascertain that the whole of the light which is used to form the
spectrum passes through the substance which is bemmg examined.
In order to make certain that this is the case, the tube M
(carrying the collimating lens and the spectroscopic apparatus and
sliding in the outer tube C) should be removed, leaving the outer
tube C carrying the slit and all its adjustments fixed to the micro-
scope. The draw-tube of the microscope having the erector screwed
into its place at the lower end of it, should now be inserted into the
outer tube C, and an eye-piece should be placed in the usual
position in the draw-tube ; the open slit can now be easily and
clearly focussed by sliding the draw-tube in and out until the slit is
seen distinctly. ‘The object on the stage of the microscope bemg
now placed in focus in the usual way, both it and the slit will be in
the same field of view, and it will therefore be easy to make certain
that the material under examination occupies the proper position
between the jaws of the slit.

Diagram No. 2 shows this arrangement. M’ is the draw-tube
of the microscope; O, the erector ; and P one of the negative eye-
pieces of the microscope. The draw-tube being removed, the
inner tube M carrying the spectroscope can now be replaced, and
the observer will be certain that the slit corresponds to the proper .
radiant point.

Il.—On an Aérial Stage Micrometer: an improved form of
engraved “ Lens-Micrometer” for Huyghenian EHye-preces,
and on finding Micrometrically the Focal Length of Eye-pieces
and Objectives. By G. W. Royston-Picorr, M.A., M.D., &e.

(Read before the Royau MicroscoricaL Society, Dec. 4, 1872.)

Tue writer wished to draw attention to a mode of using micro-
meters, which he thought was somewhat novel. He has found very
sreat convenience from using an aérial image of micrometer spider-
lines. The micrometer which he employed was one of Browning's

a

Royal Microscopical Society. 3

best. The miniature image formed in the focus of the microscope
on the stage was reduced six times exactly by means of an objective
placed below it in a certain position within a sliding tube, adjusted
precisely by a stud. He has thus brought the arrangement to this
point, that, with an old 43-inch object-glass, the miniature aérial
image of the micrometer spider-lines appeared precisely one-sixth
of their natural size. In other words, the instrument is rendered
six times more sensitive than it was before. There was not the
shghtest difficulty in moving the aérial image or spider-lines some-
thing like 80000th of an inch at a time in the plane of focal vision
on the stage. When an observer had a very delicate object which
he wished to measure, it was extremely inconvenient to disarrange
the microscope. By this simple method, the micrometer was always
in use; it formed part of the condensing apparatus, and by turning
a screw the micrometer lines rose into view, which can then be
traversed with the greatest nicety.

In measuring very minute quantities, it had been always a
matter of difficulty to work beyond a certain point, in consequence
of the vibration which was attendant on any movement of the
instrument; but if you moved this micrometer placed below the
stage, vibration would be avoided. On examining microscopically
the image under a power of 200 by means of a stage micrometer,
you are able at once to see, with the greatest precision and accuracy,
that you really have got a certain proportion between the micro-
meter lines and the aérial image. He had chosen six times because
it happened to suit the size of his instrument. If such as the } be
used the image is reduced twelve or fourteen times. As a general
rule it is found the 4 inch of low angle gives suflicient light. It gave
a sharply-defined miniature of the spider-lines ; and the 100th of
an inch interval between the aérial lines under a 4 inch was a very
considerable quantity to look at. It could then be divided easily
into 600 parts.

There was some interest displayed at the present moment in
ascertaining magnifying power, and it wasrather important to know
what one was about. Very great difficulty is experienced in using
the old-fashioned glass micrometer, usually placed at the stop within
the eye-piece; there were disturbances arising from four surfaces of
refraction, and from various changes in the Canada balsam, which
underwent decomposition. _The writer wishes now to communicate
a plan which perhaps will be generally adopted, and it is this;
instead of using a micrometer glass of that nature, after some little
study he had had lines engraved upon a very long focus plano-convex
lens.* The lens was then inserted into the stop. Its magnifying
power was of course so slight at that position that it did not appre-
ciably alter the effect of the eye-piece. By this means he got per-

* The weakest that is made for spectacles: nearly plano-convex.
B 2

4 Transactions of the

fectly bright linear images without the errors of refraction from four
surfaces and the changing film of Canada-balsam cement. We got
a nearly perfect surface to engrave upon, the plano-convex lens
being far easier of true workmanship than the formation of exactly
parallel surfaces. The consequence was that he got a brilliant field,
brilliantly marked, with an unchangeable micrometer. That was the
first point.

The writer had just tried rather a curious experiment. If you
place the micrometer in your different eye-pieces, say four ; then view
the stage micrometer, the Fellows would be surprised to hear that the
reading of the micrometer as to the size of a 100th of an inch on
the stage, was the same for all the four eye-pieces, very nearly
indeed. It seemed very odd, for instance, that, under a 4-inch ~
objective, he read 37 hundredths: placed another eye-piece B he ©
read 38 hundredths; in the D eye-piece he read 39 hundredths.
The conclusion was this, that if you put the same micrometer into
the four eye-pieces, A B C D, they all showed the same reading in
the size of a 100th of an inch upon the stage, provided the principle
of their construction and arrangement was precisely the same.*

The new micrometer, engraved on a very long focussed plano-
convex instead of the old-fashioned cemented micrometer, contained
one hundred divisions to the inch, the same as the stage micrometer.
When the eye-lens of the eye-piece is exactly 10—11ths of an inch,
then, and then only, did the reading of the new micrometer, as
compared with a 100th on the stage, give the magnifying power of
the whole instrument in use.t If anyone looked through the micro-
scope by the use of this micrometer, he could read instanter the
magnifying power, no matter what objective was employed. It
seemed very strange at first sight that all the eye-pieces should
read nearly the same. But only one of them precisely gave the
correct magnifying power. If the divisions of the new lens en-
graved micrometer now exhibited were 200 to the inch, then only —
an eye-piece having a 3-inch focal eye-lens would tell the power at
sight, and so on.} He must compliment Mr. Acland upon the very
beautiful manner in which the “lens-micrometer” now used in
the eye-pieces had been engraved. He had often tried some experi-
ments in reference to cutting fine lines upon glass, and had found
that, by turning round the writing diamond upon its axis, there
was generally some particular angle of rotation at which the diamond
ploughed most beautiful grooves, scattermg minute little glass curls
or shavings, and then the grooves were as clear as if they had been
planed a thousand times larger.

* This principle is in general that the field-lens shall have three times the
focal length of the eye-glass, and that the interval between the glasses shall, to
preserve the achromatism, be exactly one-half the sum of their focal lengths.

+ Provided the distance of distinct vision is 10 inches.
t Accurately ~ for 10 inches vision.

Royal Microscopical Society. 5

The micrometer eye-piece for displaying at once the magnifying
power at a glance is thus constructed: focal length of field-glass,
3 inches; focal length of eye-glass, +} inch ; distance between the
lenses, 2 inches; number of divisions of lens-micrometer, 100 per
inch.

OxssERVATION.—The aérial image of the spider-lines of Browning’s
micrometer placed under the stage was then shown in the focus of
the microscope at about 200 diameters. Six full turns of the
divided milled head of the Browning micrometer moved a spider-
line image exactly 100th of an inch upon the stage micrometer, and
as the milled head was divided into 100 parts, one of its divisions
exactly corresponded to a movement of the aérial image y35 +
gboth, or godooth of an inch, and half a division to the ys¢oooth.

Referring to the new “lens-micrometer” placed at the stop of
the Huyghenian eye-piece, all objectives can at once be examined
and their focal lengths assigned by simply remembering that all the
makers construct their objectives on the following principle; if we
divide 100 by the assigned focal length, we have the magnifying
power of the microscope with “C eye-piece.”

100

Thus 1 inch power = === 1. }-with¢C.7
100
Sos) ” =itan oa 400 ” ”
4
100
$ ”? ” a hae = 800 ” ”
8
100
aa) ”» aye as 1600 ? ”
16
100
ale ” ” a 2500 ” ”

Now in general the B eye-piece is half the power of the “C” and
D double. Moreover the 4 of Andrew Ross is really a +, for it
magnifies 500 with C eye-piece instead of 400. In each case the
stop of the eye-piece is supposed to be exactly 10 inches from the
object on the stage.

The “ Lens-Micrometer” is an improvement upon the Kratometer
already described, p. 79, XX VI. of this Journal for 1870.

(To be continued.)

6 Transactions of the

I1I.—On the Development of the Skull in the Tit and’ Sparrow-

Hawk. By W. K. Parxer, FBS. ;
(Read before the Roya Microscorican Society, Dec: 4, 1872.)
Part I.
Puate II.

Tx an embryo of one of our native Titmice (either Parus ceruleus,
P. fringillago, or P. ater—one of the three), I found much to
interest me: it had undergone about three-fourths of the incubating
process. The head (Plate II., Fig. 1), the size of which makes it
most probable that it belonged to P. fringillago—the Ox-eye Tit—
had fine filamentous feather-tips streaming from it here and there :
it had, already, the characteristically small neb, so that I should
have guessed, if I had not known for a certainty, that it was a Tit-
mouse embryo. It is difficult to say whether the Histology or the
Morphology of this little cranium is most interesting. Already the
cartilaginous skull was well formed (Fig. 2), but, like that of the
Lepidosiren, and some of the Tadled Amphibia, it had very little
bony matter belonging to the “endoskeleton”: the “ investing” or
borrowed bony tracts were fairly on their way towards typical
completion. One true internal bone was present, namely, the
“basi-occipital” (Figs. 2 and 3, b. 0.), a spear-head-shaped bony
tract, formed round the notochord (x. ¢.) in its sheath, and already
leavening the “investing mass,” or basilar plate of cartilage (7. v.)
on each side: this mass is the wndivided counterpart of the blocks
that unite at the mid-line to form the bodies of the vertebre. The
foramen for the hypoglossal nerve (9) and its near neighbour the
“posterior condyloid foramen,” are clearly seen, and also the larger
holes farther forwards and outwards for the “vagus” (8). The
“ notochord” (Figs. 2 and 3, n. ¢.) is well seen; it scarcely reaches
the fore-end of the “ basi-occipital ossicle” (b. 0.), and is seen running
through the axis of the berry-shaped occipital condyle (0. ¢.). On
each side, the occipital cartilage is of great size, and is flanked above
by the investing “ squamosals ”—“ squame temporis”; below, the

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE II.

Fic. 1.—Head of Tit (Parus fringillago?), natural size.
» 2.—Lower view of skull of ditto, x 7.
» 3.—Part of same, x 30.
» 4.—Palate of same, x 7.
5, 0.—Mandible of ditto (inner view), x 7.
» 6.— s » (outer view), x 7.
», 7.—Part of orbital septum, x 30.
» 8.—Fore-part of same object, x 150.
5 9.—Hind-part of ditto, x 150.

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cartilage walls, in the tympanic cavity (¢y.). On the side of the
notochord, and in front of the vagus nerve passages the rudimen-
tary cochlea are seen (cl.) lying imbedded, as in a burrow, in the
substance of the basilar plate.

In front of these cavities the cartilage is still of great width, its
outer edges bounding the drum-cavity, anteriorly. Much of the
cartilage in this “ basi-temporal ” region is undergirt with a pair of
bony rafters, that have become slightly fused together at their fore-
end ; these are the “basi-temporals” (b.¢.). When these are removed
(Fig. 3), we find the cartilage deficient at the mid-line ; this space,
which becomes very large, and is a great chink in the nestling, is the
“posterior basi-cranial fontanelle ” (p. b. f.) of Rathke ; the “ invest-
ing mass-’ meets in front of it, and in front of that commissure we
have the space lying between the out-bowed apices of the trabeculee
—the “ pituitary space” (py.). This space is floored with carti-
lage in Sharks, Frogs, and Mammals, and that floor is the seat of
’ the “ turkish saddle” (sella turcica) of the human skull. In the
Bird, as in the Osseous Fish, this saddle has no cartilaginous seat, that
is formed below, by secondary bony matter, the “ parasphenoid.”
On each side of the “anterior basi-cranial fontanelle,” or “ pitui-
tary space,” we see projections of the much-narrowed cartilaginous
mass; these are the tops of the “first prae-oral facial arch,” or
“‘trabeculee cranii”; they have coalesced by their inner margin
with the terminal part of the “investing mass”’; the face is there
grafted upon the skull, and from this pomt, the middle of the
“ basi-sphenoidal ” region, the cranial cavity is up-tilted, its fore-
part resting on the wall-plate of the great interorbital partition.
Rapidly the trabecular bars run inwards, meeting each other at the
mid-line, and becoming welded together in a long commvisswre to their
very end. Hence, at this part, below the partition-wall of the eye-
sockets, the bas?-factal bar—it is no longer basi-cranial—is a rounded
mass of cartilage with an ascending keel; it is a plank of cartilage
strongly beaded below and set edgewise with the “bead” down-
wards. But this interorbital wall is underbuilt by another kind of
material, as though a beam of soft wood should be strengthened by
clamping along it a narrow, grooved plate of metal. In so small a
creature as this germ of a Titmouse I found a good object for the
examination of the tissues that compose this part of the face. So
much of the “interorbital” wall as belongs to the trabecule is
shown in Fig. 7; it was prepared by caustic soda and glycerine,
and examined by an inch-focus lens with the lowest eye-piece. The
middle of the upper part (7. o. f.) was found, like the “ perichondrium ”
which had been removed, wholly of connective-tissue fibres,—long,
delicate spindles. Down to near the base was all hyaline cartilage ;
then a tract of soft, much younger cells,—indifferent tissue ; and
then a form of tissue intermediate between hyaline cartilage and

8 Transactions of the

connective tissue. This was more fully formed, largely-granular, in-
different tissue. This part was underlaid by the palatal skin, or so-
called mucous membrane, with its sub-mucous stroma. But very
much of this solid tract had become bony; and this bone, the para-
sphenoid, it is which is seen as bony style, bifurcate behind, in the
basal view (Fig. 2, pa. s). Various parts of this bar being brought
under the quarter-inch lens, with the low eye-piece, I obtained such
views as are given in Figs. 8 and 9. At the fore-part of the bony
style (Fig. 8) the trabeculee (#.) and their common crest were already
composed of solid, clear, true cartilage ; here the intercellular spaces
were of nearly the same width as the cells themselves, which were
proliferating rapidly. Below the convex edge of this truly cartila-
ginous plate the tissue was gelatinous—“ bioplasm,” with inter-
spersed granules (g. ¢.). Below this gelatinous stratum there is a
very thick cushion of a very solid granular substance (gr. 7.) running
under the whole of the ethmoidal and sphenoidal regions. This is
peculiarly the case in “Ganoid” and “ 'Teleostean” Fishes, in the
Dipnoi (Lepidosiren), and in all the Amphibia and the Serpents,
but not in the Cartilaginous Fishes—Sharks, Rays,and Lampreys, nor
in Lizards, Turtles, Crocodiles, and Mammalia. In front (Fig. 8) the
granules form a thicker stratum, where the bony layer is thinning-
out, than behind (Fig. 9); farther back it forms a large, outspread,
thick mat, in shape like the double leaf of a Banhinia (see Fowl’s
Skull, Plate 82, Fig. 2,b.¢.). In the hinder region (Fig. 9) the
gelatinous layer (g. 7.) is much thinned-out, and dies away in the
solid pree-basi-sphenoidal region (Fig. 7).

The granules of the granular layer are only half the size of those
in the cartilage, and are closely packed, the appearance of inter-
cellular substance being due to the bioplasmic jelly in the inter-
spaces of rather closely-packed ovoids. I have studied this part of
Vertebrate Histology with painstaking care for many years, as it is
at first undistinguishable from tracts that soon afterwards become
hyaline cartilage. I have examined, with my friend Mr. Chas.
Stewart, this substance in the early embryo of the Pig, and when it
forms the nidus for the vomer of that animal. In very fine sections,
stained with carmine, it has about half the transparency of the true,
but very young cartilage of the “‘prae-sphenoid” and “ ethmoid ”
above it. This is in embryos less than an inch and a half in length.
But in piglets double that length it has been metamorphosed into
solid bone, and no part of it, then unossified, shows any proper car-
tilaginous character. Yet in those earlier embryos it had a very
much greater transparency than the surrounding mother-tissue,
which was ready to become connective fibre.

This tissue has been called “simple cartilage,’ and still better,
by Professor Huxley, “ indifferent tissue,” as it seems ready to be
by metamorphosis for any duty that may be imposed upon it, These

Royal Microscopical Society. §

granules soon become osteoblasts in the basi-facial and basi-cranial
regions of the bird, and the “parasphenoid” (pa. s.) and “ basi-
temporals” (0. ¢.) are the result of this histological change.

In the Lizard, which is extremely unlike the Bird in many
respects, there is a rudimentary azygous “ parasphenoid,” but in
place of the “basi-temporals ” we have a delicate ectosteal lamina of
bone immediately investing that part of the “basilar plate” from
which the notochord has retired. The space between these two
true “basi-sphenoids ” in the Lizard is the “ posterior basi-cranial
fontanelle.”’

In the less magnified figure of the Tit’s face (Fig. 7) below
and behind the end of the gelatinous layer (g./.) the “ para-
sphenoid ” (pa. s.) 1s spreading, bifurcating, and grafting itself upon
the basi-sphenoidal cartilage (b. s.). This extraneous bone under-
takes the bone-leavening process for the anterior part of the ‘ basi-
sphenoid,” and then runs outwards and backwards from the apices
of the “ trabeculz,” and grows into large temporal wings that wall-
in each trumpet-shaped “anterior tympanic recess.” The “ basi-
temporals” (Fig. 2, b. ¢.) undergird the skull where its floor is
open—the “ posterior fontanelle,” and send their beautiful diploé-
fibres round the internal carotid arteries and the tongue-shaped
rudiment of the “cochlea.” They thus form a lower floor beneath
the true “ occipito-sphenoidal synchondrosis.”

It may bea very simple matter to take an adult bird’s skull and
with a fine saw cut it into sections that shall resemble ordinary ver-
tebree, but such easy parlowr-work throws no light upon all that
series of changes which laborious morphological work reveals. Some
happily-constituted minds, anatomical lotos eaters, enjoy a soft and
soothing sense of things in this delicious way. Having mentioned
other vertebrate types, Fishes, Reptiles, Mammals, &c.,and their
likeness and unlikeness to the Bird in the modes of their develop-
ment, | may remark that a sense of the real Unity of the whole sub-
kingdom grows upon me. It makes me giddy to look farther down,
and I turn my “ deficient sight,” for rest, to the exquisite fitness in
the results of all those darkly-wise processes, all which “ are placed
in number, weight, and measure,” and which, working together to
one common end, in the upshot, produce the most charming of all
living creatures.

Another addition to the first pree-oral arch is the vomer
(Fig. 4,v.); this is composed of two delicate bony styles, formed
by ossification of a small cartilaginous nucleus on each side, and
afterwards grafted upon the vestibular part of the nasal sac; the
two ossicles have already united at the mid-line in front. But the
main secondary element of the first arch is the “ pree-maxilla ”—
longest of the bird’s facial bones; here, in the Tit’s (Fig. 4, pa.),
it is less than m any other bird, with the exception of the Swift

10 Transactions of the

(Cypselus apus). The moieties are already joined together at the
mid-line, and are grooved below by the pree-nasal cartilage (pn. g.) ;
each half is three-lined, and these divisions are the upper or nasal,
outer or dentary, and lower or palatine pieces (n. pa., d. pa., p. pa.).

The second pre-oral arch, or pterygo-palatine (Fig. 4, pg. pa.),
has, in the young, stout rounded pterygoids (pg.), but little unci-
nate, and articulating with the palatines ( pa.) by overlapping them ;
most of the overlapping portion is segmented-off, and ankyloses
with the palatine. This latter bone (pa.) half embraces the pos-
terior nasal canal behind by an upper and lower lamina; it then
elbows out, and at the bend has an ear-shaped cartilage, the trans-
palatine (¢. pa.). Towards the mid-line the two lamine “ ethmo-
and interpalatine ” are pointed forwards, the former, or upper of these
spurs ankyloses with the corresponding leg of the vomer (v.). The
“pree-palatine” bar is long and sinuous, ending in front close to the
maxillary. This latter bone (mw.) is a slender stalk of bone, with
an ear-shaped leaf growing out of it at its middle on the inner side.
The bony leaf is the “ maxillo-palatine” (ma. p.); it looks back-
wards, helps to join the imperfect nasal floor, and is separated from its
fellow by the vomer. The narrow cheek-bone is the jugal (7.) ; it ties
the fore-face to the “ quadration ” (g.)—the large anvil-shaped sus-
pensorium of the mandibular arch—the mimetic serzal homologue of
the Mammalian incus. This bone articulates with the back of the apex
of the pterygo-palatine arch, just as the “ incus” of Man does with
the back of the apex of the primary mandible—the head of the
“malleus.” The rest of Titmouse’s mandible (Figs. 5 and 6) show
long splints of bone ensheathing a large-headed rod of cartilage,
articulo-Meckelian. On the outer side (Fig. 6), the dentary (d), the
surangular (s. ag.), and the angular (ag.) are seen, and on the under
side (Fig. 5) there is also seen the splenal (sp.). I did not in this
case get a sight at this stage of the coronoid, which is, however,
constant in the Passerines.

I hope soon to lay before the Zoological Society figures of the
facial structure of the “Paridz,” or Tits. Amongst other related
forms, one of these (Cyclorhis), from Bahia, Brazils, is as large as
the Nuthatch (Sitta Europa), and another sent me by the Consul ~
of Formosa, Mr. Swinhoe, is smaller even than our Blue and Coal
Tits (Parus cerulzus and ater). The Formosan species is evi-
dently a creature of great energy; like our own native kinds, it
has courage enough to “peck an Hstridge.” This form (Suthora
bulomachus) carries in its specific name its own peculiar excellency
of character, for the word, if I mistake not, is translatable into our
English term bully. If any of our Fellows have the courage to
innoculate themselves with a strong affection for bird-anatomy, the
simplest and easiest plan is to prepare the skull of a Titmouse care-
fully by maceration, using afterwards the smallest modicum of chlo-

Royal Meroscopical Society. 1A

ride of lime for bleaching ; this once accomplished, there would be
an impetus given that would not soon die out. I verily believe that
such a preparation, well made, is one of the most exquisite natural
objects. ‘The face is short, and sheathed in the living bird with
strong horn, for this fierce little creature’s carpentry : he is a great
bark-chipper, doing this for the sake of entomological prey.

The cranium of a Tit is as large (relatively) and as well made as
ours, and he is simply one of the most active persons in Europe,
such as Falstaff would have been but for his redundancy of adipose
tissue.

Tn the further development of the Tit’s face the dentary and
palatal ends of the pre-maxillaries become stunted, and so also
does the fore-end of the maxillary ; thus a hinge is formed between
these bones on each side, as in Finches, Parrots, and other strong-
cheeked birds.

foie")

IV.—On a Simple Form of Mount for Microscope Objectives.
By R. L. Mappox, M.D., Hon. F.R.MS.
Puiate IL. (Upper portion).
To others who, lke myself, occasionally do a little glass grinding,
the following form of mount may prove useful. It was made about
two years ago. It consists of the usual outer tube (Fig. 3), but
near the shoulder, on the outside, are turned a few threads of a
coarse or fine screw, as desired, on which works the fine adjust-
ment collar; a slot, below or in front of the threads, permits a steel
pin, which screws into the inner core or tube, to slide up and down
according as the collar is rotated, the inner tube being carried up
by a couple of turns of steel wire (indicated by a dotted spiral line
in the figure), forming a spring, which works in a small space near
the neck of the mount, bearing against a shoulder in front and above,
against a stop attached to the top of the inner or core tube, which
carries, as usual, the back and middle cells. It works quickly,
easily ; has a considerable range, and no sensible slip; moreover,
its construction is not difficult. 7

V.—On Bog Mosses. By R. Brarrawarrs, M.D., F.L.S.

5, Sphagnum subsecundum Nees von Esenbeck.
Sturm’s Deutschl. Fl. Crypt. Fase. 17 (1820).
Puiates III. anp IV.

Syn.—Funk, Moos—Taschenherb. p. 4, T. 2 (1821). Nees and Hornsch.
Bryol. Germ. I, p. 17, T. 3, fig. 7 (1823). Bridel, Bry. Univ. I, p. 8 (1826).
Hiibener, Muse. Germ. p. 26 (1833). C. Miiller, Syn. I, p. 100 (1849). Schimp.
Torf. p, 74, Tab. 22 (1858). Synop. p. 682 (1860). Lindb. Torf. No. 11
(1862). Hartm. Skand. Fl. 9th ed. II, p. 82 (1864). Russow, Torf. p. 71 (1865).
Milde, Bry. Siles. p. 392 (1869). Sph. contortum B subsecundum Wilson Bry. Brit.
p. 22, T. LX (1855).

Dioicous. Tall, slender, crowded in soft tufts of various colours,
glaucous-green, yellowish-green, brownish or ochraceous. Stem
solid, brown or blackish, somewhat glossy, with a single thin layer
of cortical cells. Branches flagelliform, 2-3 arcuato-patulous, 1-2
pendent, less elongated, not appressed to stem ; the retort cells per-
forated at the slightly recurved apex. Cauline leaves small, from a
broad insertion, broadly ovate, minutely or distinctly auricled,
cucullate at apex, finally flattened and very minutely fringed,
narrowly bordered, upper hyaline cells fibrose and porose, the lower
almost free from fibres. Ramuline leaves laxly incumbent or
patent, more or less subsecund, broadly acwminato-elliptic, very
concave, with the margin involute in the upper half, narrowly
bordered, the point 3-5 toothed ; hyaline cells flexuose, elongated,
very small, with annular and spiral fibres generally forming a net,
pores very numerous at the back, minute, in two rows along the

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On Bog Mosses. 15

walls of the cells, Chlorophyll cells central, enclosed by the hyaline,
strongly compressed. Male plants more slender, in distinct tufts,
the amentula short, olive green, bracts broadly ovate, acute, with
incurved, bordered margins.

Fruit usually seated in the capitulum, peduncular leaves laxly
imbricated, elongate oblong, acuminate, fibrose and with a few pores
' in the upper part. Spores ferruginous.

Var. 8 contortum.

Sph. contortum Schultz, Sup. Fl. Stargard. p. 64 (1819). Nees and Hornsch.
Bryol. Germ. I, p. 15, T. II, fig. 6 (1823). Bridel, Bry. Univ. I, p. 7 (1826).
Wilson, Bry. Brit. p. 22, Pl. LX. (1855). Berkl. Handb. p. 308 (1863). SpA.
subsecundum B isophyllum, Russow, Torfm. p. 73 (1865).

Robust, more or less immersed, ferruginous, blackish-green or
olive. Ramuli crowded, terete, usually twisted or circinate, more
densely leaved. Ramuline leaves much larger, broadly ovate, more
or less densely imbricated and secund, somewhat glossy, the chloro-
phyll cells less compressed.

Var. y turgidum.

O. Miil. Synop. I, p. 101 (1849). Sph. contortum Var. y obesum Wilson, Bry.
Brit. p. 22 (1855).

Stem paler, branches swollen, cuspidate or obtuse. Branch
leaves large, very broad, truncate at apex, 5-toothed, with wide
cells, stem leaves very large, ovate, fibrose at upper part or some-
times throughout.

Var. 6 auriculatum.

Lindberg, Torfmos. in Obs. sub. No. 11 (1862). Sph. auriculatum Schimper,
Torf. p. 77, T. XXIV (1858). Synop. p. 687 (1860).

Glaucous green, whitish below; the stem pale brown, cauline
leaves large, lingulate acuminate, subhastate at base, with very large
auricles composed of large fibrose utricular cells, perforated at the
free apex ; the point truncate and erose.

Var. € gracile.

C, Miiller, Syn. I, p. 101 (1849).

More slender in all its parts, the lateral branches remote, some-
what curved; those of the coma very dense.

Hab.—Turf-bogs and about springs in the moorlands. £, in
deep bogs. y, in ditches and at the edges of deep pools. 8, Hay-
ward’s Heath, Sussex (Mr. Mitten). e, near Berlin, Mecklenburg
and the Black Forest. Fr. July.

This most_ polymorphous of all the Sphagnums varies remark-
ably in size of leaf, habit and colour. S. subseewndum of Nees must
be taken as the type of the species, and this is always more slender
and attains a height of 12 inches or more; of all the forms it occurs
in those localities where there is the least accumulation of moisture,
and also where they assume a more subalpine character. The

14 On Bog Mosses.

branch leaves are usually somewhat secund and a little curved in
the direction to which they are inclined. Great diversity also
exists in the quantity of threads present in the cells of the cauline
leaves, some being almost free from them, while others have them
more or less filled to the base. ;

Var. 6 is the commonest form in this country, and differs much
in appearance from the typical state. The colour is often a fine
ochraceous yellow (S. contortum 8 rufescens, Nees and Hsch. Bry.
Germ., Tab. Il, Fig. 6*), and not unfrequently the upper part is
tinged with vinous-red. The woody layer is well developed, and
thus the stem is conspicuous by its brownish-black colour; the stem
leaves are not much larger than those of the typical form, but those
of the branches are much broader and more or less glossy.

This variety occurs on Hampstead Heath, but it also attains a
considerable elevation on the mountains, and is attached to deep
bogs, where there is a constant supply of water.

Var. y has generally more or less of a purple-brown tinge, and
in its extreme form is remarkable for its short, thick clavate
branches ; it is, however, completely connected with the Var. contor-
twm by intermediate states. I am indebted to Mr. Curnow for an
extensive series of specimens collected near Penzance ; some of these
are 12 inches long, with the lower part of the stem naked and
filiform, and others quite resemble Sphagnum cymbifoliwm ; he
never finds the fruit in the coma, but low down on the older stem,
this is due apparently to the rapid growth of the innovations, and
from one of these specimens the figure is taken. The woody layer
of the stem is less devoloped, and thus imparts a paler hue, and the
leaves both of the stem and branches are very large, with wide cells.

Var. 6 is remarkable chiefly for the large auricles to the stem
leaves, composed of loose inflated fibrose and porose cells; but this
character alone is not sufficient to give it specific rank; and the
colour, and presence or absence of fibres in the hyaline cells, are
equally valueless for the purpose. It is to be feared that this
interesting variety no longer exists at Hayward’s Heath, but the
figure is taken from an original specimen, for which I am indebted
to my friend Mr. Smith of Brighton. Sphagnum spolyporum
Mitten in Herb. Mus. Brit., also from Hayward’s Heath, is a form
with more obtuse leaves, those of the stem having the cells fibrose
and porose even to the base. The Lapland specimens collected by

Angstrom and distributed as Sp). awriculatum under No. 713 and
714 in Rabenhorst’s Bryotheca, are very different from the English
specimens, and belong, 713 to Var. twrgidum, 714 to Var. con-
tortum.

Var. e I have not seen, but it is probably represented by the
specimen 208) in the Bryotheca, collected at Kremsminster by Dr.
Potsch. Schliephacke also finds it at Jeziorki in Galicia, and states

F
"
=
2
5
= fe
| tae
A |
; 3
5 é
E <
q a
oO
4 4
& A
: 3
. a
i
iil

On Bog Mosses. 15

that it resembles S. tenellum. Milde in Bryol. Siles. p. 893
describes another variety simplicissimum, “resembling Hypnum
turgescens, the stem swollen, vermicular, quite simple and without
branches,” apparently some peculiar or imperfect local form.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Puate III.
Sphagnum subsecundum.

a.—Female plant. a d.—Male plant.

1.—Part of stem with a single branch fascicle.

2.—Catkin of male flowers. 2 6.—Bract from same.

3.—Fruit with its peduncle. 4.—Peduncular leaf.

5o.—Stem leaf. 5aa.—Areolation of apex of same. 5 a b.—Ditto of base.

6.—Leaf from middle of a divergent branch. 6 x.—Transverse section. 6 p.—Point
of same. .6aa.—Areolation of apex. 6a6.—Ditto of base. 6¢—Cell from
middle x 200.

7.—Intermediate leaves from base of a divergent branch.

9 x.—Part of section of stem.

Puate IV.
Sphagnum subsecundum.

8.—Var. contortum. 5.—Stem leaf. 6.—Leaf from a divergent branch.

y-—Var. turgidum. 6.—Leaf from a divergent branch.

5.—Var. auriculatum. 5.—Stem leaf. 5ab.—Basal wing of same x 200. 6.—Leaf
from a divergent branch.

Note to Sphagnum neglectum.

I have just received a letter from Professor Lindberg, in which
that great bryologist informs me that he has identified Sphagnum

neglectwm Angst. with an original specimen of Sph. laricinum
Spruce. This celebrated observer detected the plant in 1846, in
Terrington Carr, Yorkshire, and since that time its place in the
genus or its title to specific rank have never been settled; Sph.
neglectum therefore drops into a synonym, and the species must
stand as Sph. laricinum Spruce.

The Figure 6 # in my Plate, representing a section of the leaf,
ig erroneous, for the chlorophyllose cells are elliptic and central,
just as in Sph. subsecundum, to which indeed Sph. larictnum
appears to stand in the relation of a subspecies.

Angstrom described both Sph. larictnwm and Sph. neglectum
as species in the Ofver. Vet. Ak. Férhandl. for 1865, but Professor
Lindberg points out that the Lapland specimens collected by him
and published under No. 712 in Rabenhorst’s Bryotheca as Sph.
laricinum, and also those of Austin’s Musci Appalach. do not

belong to the species but to Sph. cuspidatum.
Fine specimens of Sph. laricinwm in fruit from the island of

Aland and Stockholm accompanied the note.

VOL. IX. CG

16 The Histology and Physiology of the

VI.—The Histology and Physiology of the Corpus Spongiosum
and the Corpus Cavernosum, &c., &c.,* in Man. By Auzx.
W. Srey, M.D., Attending Physician to Charity Hospital,
Professor of Visceral Anatomy and Physiology in New York
College of Dentistry and of Comparative Physiology, New York
College of Veterinary Surgeons.

Histology.—The erectile tissue of the organ to which those parts
belong may be said to consist of venous cavities or cells which freely
communicate with each other, are continuous with the general
yenous system, and are lined with squamous epithelium. The direct
connection of these cavities with the veins is clearly demonstrable
in such preparations, in which the cavities are somewhat filled with
blood (Fig. 8). In the corpus spongiosum these cells are quite
large near the surface or immediately beneath the external fibrous
investment, while toward the axis of the urethra they are short and
narrow. In the bulb they are larger than at any part anterior to
the same.

The interspaces between these cavities are occupied principally
by non-striped muscles, which form, as it were, an external muscu-
lar tunic for these cavities. In these interspaces may also be re-
cognized connective tissue forming the connecting medium of the
muscles, blood-vessels, nerves, and lymphatics of the part.

The sheath of connective tissue, known as the albuginea of the
corpus spongiosum, which lies beneath the subcutaneous areolar
tissue, and which surrounds the corpus spongiosum in its entire
length, is interspersed with innumerable fasciculi of organic muscles
which are attached to or originate from the albuginea at innumera-
ble and various points. From this origin they pass in a devious
manner in the interspaces between the venous cells, inward toward
the deeper portions of the spongy substance, verging suddenly from
one direction into another, and by their manifold directions and
connections with each other form the intricate trabecular structure
or trellis-work of the corpus spongiosum.

Many of these fasciculi run horizontally’ internal to the albu-
ginia, so that upon transverse section the periphery of the corpus
spongiosum appears, at first glance, to be surrounded by a circular
layer of organic muscles. Upon more precise examination, how-
ever, we find that this muscular layer does not form an absolute ring,
but only an approximation to one. On the contrary, not a single
fasciculus runs continuously around the spongy substance, but em-
braces only a small portion of its periphery in a horizontal direction,

* Illustrated by microscopical specimens prepared by my friend, John Busteed,
M.D., and myself.

Corpus Spongiosum and the Corpus Cavernosum. 17

and that at those points where one fasciculus turns from one hori-
zontal plane into another, others arise and continue in an analogous
manner the horizontal course left by the first, and thus contributing
to the formation of a more or less interrupted muscular ring upon
the periphery of the corpus spongiosum.*

In the section of the corpus spongiosum before you can be seen
the arterie profunde corporis spongiosi, equidistant from the ex-
ternal fibrous covering and urethral canal in each lateral half of the
corpus spongiosum. In this instance they are almost on a level
with the urethra, though sometimes we find one artery a little
below, the other a little above, the level of the urethra. At the
bulbous portion we always find the arteries below the level of the
urethra, because of the greater thickness of the parts below the canal
at this part.

Fic. 1 (pp. 22 and 23).

Trin TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE Corpus SponciosuM URETHRA, 'TAKEN FROM
THE PENIS OF A MAN AGED TWENTY-SEVEN, MIDWAY BETWEEN THE GLANS AND
Buizous Portion. PREPARED IN ALCOHOL, AND TREATED WITH CARMINE,
MAGNIFIED 20 DIAMETERS,

The albuginea, or external connective-tissue sheath of the corpus spongiosum,
is shown at A A’ A” A’”, The upper half, which is connected with the corpus
cavernosum, is seen at A A' A”; the lower half at A, A’’, A". It is abundantly
interspersed with (dark) fasciculi of organic muscles, a, a, a, a, Which do not run
completely around the periphery of the corpus spongiosum, but form only frag-
ments of a muscular ring. These fasciculi are continuous with those seen in the
substance of the corpus spongiosum at B, B, B, B. At A*, At (between A and A’),
may be seen such fasciculi, extending from the albuginea directly into the sub-
stance of the corpus spongiosum. At b, b, b, can be seen the cut surfaces ofa large
number of muscular bundles appearing as round, oval, or irregularly-shaped dark
spots. At ¢,¢,c,¢c,may be seen other muscular fibres running in continuity. The
latter run in a parallel direction with the section, while the former run in a ver-
tical direction, and are consequently cut by the section, Between these bundles
of muscles can be seen, d, d, d,d, innumerable empty spaces or meshes of irregular
shape. The walls of these spaces have become separated in preparing the speci-
men, while during life they are generally in immediate contact. These spaces are
lined with pavement (Pflaster) epithelium, which can be distinctly seen, in suit-
able preparations, with a magnifying power of 60 to 200 diameters. Some of these
meshes are quite near the mucous membrane, separated from it only by a thin
layer of connective tissue, 7. e. in the upper wall of the urethra in this figure.
Transverse section of the corpus spongiosum will show asa rule two large arteries,
ee’, the arteris profunde corporis spongiosi. Each of these is surrounded by a
number of organic longitudinal muscular bundles, e*, e*, which appear as round
masses, in whose centre the artery passes. In the middle of the section is seen an
empty space, C, the canal of the urethra. The epithelial covering of the mucous
membrane is indicated at /, /, f, and is seen extending into its lacunw#. The exist-
ence of a real space in the accompanying figure is the result of the preparation.
It does not exist during life. At g, g’,g”, gt, g*, is seen the cut surface of a lacuna
which extends deeply into the substance of the corpus spongiosum at g*, and sends
off several branches from its sides g’, g”, gf. The largest meshes are at the ex-
ternal portions of the corpus spongiosum ; the smaller ones near the urethra. The
substance of the corpus spongiosum near the urethra is more transparent than the
rest, because it consists of finer fibres than the parts more external.

* B. Stilling, ‘ Harnrohren-stricturen,’ Fig. 1.

Cc 2

18 : The Histology and Physiology of the

LONGITUDINAL SECTION FROM THE SUPERFICIAL PARTS OF THE Corpus CAVERNOSUM
(Man). ALCOHOL PREPARATION, TREATED WITH CARMINE, ACETIC ACID, AND
GLyYcERINE, MaGnirrep 15 DIAMETERS.

This figure represents the trellis-work of the corpus spongiosum formed by the
manifold directions and interlacing of its muscular fibres.

According to Miller, there are two sets of arteries, differing
from one another in their size. The first are the rami nutritil,
which are distributed upon the walls of the veins and throughout
the spongy substance, differing m no respect from the nutritive
arteries of other parts; they anastomose freely with each other,
and terminate in capillaries. The second set he calls arteric heli-
cine, from their supposed resemblance to the tendrils of the vine.
They are given off from the larger branches as well as the smaller
twigs of the arteries. They are especially to be seen in good lon-
gitudinal sections, sending out short branches somewhat like a ram’s
horn, several going off from one point in a stellate form, or as the
arms of a chandelier, and terminating in an expanded or knob-like
extremity, which project freely into the venous cavities (Fig. 5).
They are not entirely naked, but are covered with pavement epithe-
lium. ‘These arteries are more easy of detection in the corpus

Corpus Spongiosum and the Corpus Cavernosum. 19

THIN TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE Corpus Sponciosum (MAN), PREPARED IN
AtcoHot. TREATED FIRST WITH CARMINE, AND AFTERWARD WITH ACETIC
ACID, AND PRESERVED IN GLYCERINE. MAGNIFIED 160 DIAMETERS.

In the centre of the picture at a, is seen a transverse section of the arterice
profund corporis spongiosi. At b, the inner coat of the artery. At c, c, its very
darkly-stained middle coat, with the nuclei of its individual muscular fibres. At
d, d, its transparent external connective-tissue coat. The artery is surrounded by
quite a number of organic muscular bundles, like a tube surrounded by a bundle
of staves, €, e,e,e,e. At many points may be seen a portion of these fasciculi con-
necting and mixing with the muscular coat of the artery, as, for example, at e*.
The muscular bundles surrounding the arteries are so distinct from the other longi-
tudinal muscular bundles that they must be recognized as a set belonging exclu-
sively to the arteries. The meshes of the spongy substance, g, g, g, g, are seen to be -
lined by pavement epithelium, h.

cavernosum than in the corpus spongiosum. In the latter body
they are most numerous in the bulbous and posterior portions.

In most of these terminal knobs can be seen a triple fissure, the
form of a Y—like the three-horned figure in the crystalline lens of
the human eye (Fig. 7). The smaller branches often present but
a simple transverse fissure. tilling is inclined to regard these fis-
sures as the openings or mouths of the arteries, which are closed in
the ordinary condition, but in the state of erection are opened and
empty the arterial blood into the venous cavities or cells,

20 The Histology and Physiology of the

Tun LoncITUDINAL SEcTION OF THE Corpus Sponciosum (MAN). PREPARED IN
ALCOHOL, AND TREATED WITH CARMINE. MAGNIFIED 160 DIAMETERS.

In the eentre of the figure is seen a branch of the arterize profunde corporis
spongiosi, a,a. Itis accompanied upon both sides by organic longitudinal bundles
of muscles, b, b, b, b, which are seen running for some distance in continuity
near the artery. Some of these fasciculi pass directly into the walls of the artery,
as at *, *, *, and are inserted in the same. ‘Transyersely-running muscular fasci-
culi, c, c, c, as well as those which bend from the longitudinal to the transverse
direction, d, d, d, d, are very distinct, Also the meshes between these fasciculi,

9; J-

These arteries are accompanied by a special system of longitu-
dinal bundles of muscles, whose fibres become inserted at various
points into the middle coat of these vessels. Stilling, I believe, was
first to call attention to this anatomical fact. These bundles may
be seen in both transverse and longitudinal section (Figs. 3 and 4).
The number and size of these bundles vary in different sections, in
consequence of the changes which they undergo by the insertion
of their fibres into the walls of the arteries on the one hand, and
again by the addition of new fibres to these bundles from other

lanes.
: The bundles accompanying the large arteries are comparatively
numerous, while those accompanying the smaller ones are few, and
not so distinct.

Corpus Spongiosum and the Corpus Cavernoswin. 21

Fic. 5.

Turin LoncitupINAL SECTION FROM THE PosTERIOR PORTION OF THE CORPUS
Cavernosum (Man). Magniriep 15 Diameters. THe ORGAN WAS INJECTED
THROUGH THE ARTERIA DORSALIS WITH BEALE’S BLUE FLUID. AND THEN HARD-
ENED IN ALCOHOL. THE THIN SECTION WAS AFTERWARD TREATED WITH CAR-
MINE, AcETIC AcID, AND GLYCERINE.

In the centre of the figure is seen the artery, a, a, running from below upward.
The dark injection in its cavity is well shown. From the right and left of this
artery are given off the arteriz helicinz, b, b, b, b. They assume different forms.
Their terminal knobs lie free in the meshes, b* b*, and are coyered with pavement
epithelium, which by higher magnifying powers are very distinctly brought into
view.

The knobby terminations of these arteries possess muscular
fibres closely packed in concentric circles, which probably act as
sphincters to the mouths of these vessels.

There is one other anatomical faci mentioned by Stilling, to
which I will briefly refer, on account of its pathological bearing.*
It is the intimate relationship of the epithelial elements of the
urethra with sub-mucous tissues of the corpus spongiosum.

That certain epithelial cells possess prolongations by which they
are in intimate connection with the underlying tissues, Stilling

* This I will reserve for another occasion when I shall have completed some
observations now engaged in.

THIN TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE CoR

(Giosum Uretura. (Sce page 17.)

24 The Histology and Physiology of the

Bie: 7

THE KNOB-LIKE END
OF AN ARTERIA
HELICINE FROM A
Frye Lonerrupti-
NAL SECTION OF
THE Corpus CAVER-
nosum (Man). Pre-
PARED IN ALCOHOL,
AND TREATED WITH
CARMINE.

The terminal end a
appears to lie free in
one of the meshes.
The mouth of the
vessel is seen at *,
which appears as a

Part oF A Fine LonGrrupINAL SECTION FROM THE Y-shaped fissure.
PosTERIOR PoRTION OF THE CorPUS CAVERNOSUM
(Man). PREPARED IN ALCOHOL, AND TREATED
WITH CARMINE. MAGNIFIED 160 DIAMETERS.

In this section the artery a, a, is seen running along the entire length of the
section, sending off a number of branches which terminate in thickened ends,
c,¢, ce. The red knob-like ends of this artery are quite conspicuous in consequence
of the imbibition of carmine. To the left of the artery is seen the course of a
longitudinal muscular bundle, d, which is inserted in the upper third of the artery.
Transverse and oblique muscular bundles are seen at ¢, e.

claims to have indicated as early as 1857, since which time his
statements have become confirmed by the researches of others, who
have represented the passage of nerve fibres to the epithelial layers
of certain tissues, as for example in the cornea.* He affirms that
the epithelial cells of the urethra are in manifold connections with
the muscular fibres, nerves, and other tissues of the corpus spon-
giosum. “The most superficial cells,” he says, “terminate in a
pedicle or filiform prolongation, which often remain connected with
the mucous membrane after the body of the cell has separated from
its connections. A good longitudinal section will often show three
or four of such cells, one above the other, hanging like pears by
their stalks, the cells directed toward the bladder, the stalk toward
the external meatus. To state the precise manner in which these
connections occur is reserved for future research. Especially will it

an Frey, ‘Handbuch der Histology und Histochemie,’ 3. Aufl., Leipzig, 1870,
p. 608.

Corpus Spongiosum and the Corpus Cavernosum. 25

have to be ascertained whether certain epithelial cells of the urethral
mucous membrane are real terminations of nerves, and others real
terminations of muscular fibres. If we consider the extreme sensi-
tiveness of the epithelial layer of the healthy cornea to the contact of
-ever so fine a foreign body; if we consider that the most superficial
contact of the point of a needle with the cornea produces the most
severe pain and reflex movements; while, after destruction of the
most superficial layer at one point, the needle produces at that point
only an inconsiderable amount of pain—facts which every physician
has opportunity to observe in removing foreign bodies (dust, iron
filings, particles of coal, &c.) from the cornea—the conclusion is
almost irresistible that the epithelial covering of the cornea consists
of cells which are to be regarded as nerve terminations.

Physiology.—The cause and mechanism of erection may be
said to depend upon two phenomena occurring simultaneously :—

1. Upon an increased influx of blood through the arteries which
empty by the arterial helicinee into the venous cavities.

2. Upon mechanical pressure affecting the veins which convey
the blood from the penis, whereby a retardation of the venous cir-
culation is induced.

In the passive condition of the penis the same quantity of blood
flows to and from the organ, but during erection the entire arterial
system becomes distended, especially those known as the arterie
helicinse become actively dilated, and empty themselves into the
venous cavities. The dilatation of these vessels is supposed to be
effected through the agency of the special system of longitudinal
bundles of muscles which accompany, and whose fibres are inserted
into the walls of these arteries.

The muscles chiefly concerned in arresting the efflux of blood,
or at least preventing it from being as great as the influx, are the
acceleratores urine and erectores penis.

The contraction of the acceleratores urine muscles impedes the
return of blood through the vena corporis spongiosi, by pressure
upon the bulbous portion of the corpus spongiosum.

The erectores penis act as erectors, by compressing the crura
and vena dorsalis. ‘They embrace the root of the penis and com-
press it. The pressure upon the vena dorsalis impedes the return
of blood by this vessel, and the pressure upon the crura produces
the same effect upon the veins of the corpus cavernosum.

The transversus perinei probably assists the posterior fasciculi
of the acceleratores urine in producing turgescence of the corpus
spongiosum, by virtue of its insertion into the fibrous tunic of the
bulb

These muscles are supplied with nerves by the pudic branch of
the sacral plexus, and it is an interesting fact, capable of demonstra-
tion upon the lower animals, that after division of this nerve the
penis is incapable of erection.

26 The Histology and Physiology of the

TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE Corpus CAVERNOSUM (MAN). PREPARED IN ALCOHOL,
TREATED AT FIRST WITH CARMINE, AND AFTERWARD WITH ACETIC ACID AND
GLYCERINE, AND PRESERVED IN Farrant’s Liquor. Maaniriep 160 D1a-
METERS.

The object of this figure is to represent the communication of the veins with
the meshes of the corpus cavernosum (and spongiosum). The dark portion of the
picture indicates the corpus cavernosum, a, a, the lighter portion the albuginea
of the corpus cavernosum, b, b, b. The meshes are all filled with blood, in conse-
quence of which the structure of this part appears considerably more distinct than
when these cavities are empty. Internal to the albuginea of the corpus cavernosum
are seen a large number of veins, ¢, c, c, forming a plexus. The direct connection
of some of these veins with the meshes of the corpus cavernosum can be seen
ati.

In the passive condition the natural tonicity of the muscular
trellis-work of the penis is sufficient to maintain the walls of the
venous cells in apposition ; and they, together with the sphinctoric
action of the circular fibres around the mouths of the arterial heli-
cine, prevent the flow of blood into these cells. But, when the parts
are stimulated to erection, the muscular bands are obliged to yield
to the distending force of the blood (according to Miiller, it appears
that the blood accumulating in the penis during erection is subjected
to a pressure equal to that of a column of water six feet in height).
The meshes become filled, and remain so until the stimulus to erec-

Corpus Spongiosum and the Corpus Cavernosum. 27

g Fig. 8. h

ke

Fig. 8—g, h, 7, j, k, represents the various shapes of the arterie# helicina,

which are frequently found in injected preparations of the corpus cayernosum.
Magnified 15 diameters.

The description of the plates is taken from ‘ Die Rationelle Behandlung der
Harnrohren-stricturen,’ by Dr. B. Stilling.

tion subsides, when the acceleratores urine and erectores penis
muscles relax, and remove the pressure from the veins. The tra-
beculz (non-striped muscles) of the penis now contract and expel
the blood from the dilated venous cells.

The contractile force of the corpus spongiosum is well displayed
in persons who, for the first time, submit to the introduction of a
catheter or sound into the urethra; the entrance of the instrument

-is often sensibly opposed, and during withdrawal it is forcibly
expelled.

This phenomenon cannot be attributed entirely to the action of
the acceleratores urine and compressor urethre muscles, for it is
manifest even within an inch of the external meatus.

The action of the muscular trellis-work of the corpus spon-
giosum, as it affects micturition and the ejaculation of the spermatic

28 The Physiology of the Corpus Spongiosum, &e.

fluid, is of interest. During micturition the entire corpus spon-.
giosum, as well as the urethra, becomes somewhat stretched. At
the end of micturition the tonicity of the trellis-work is sufficient
to coaptate the walls of the urethra, and to expel the last drops of
urine which may remain in the anterior portion of the canal. This
pressure is strongest at those parts where the urethra and its sur-
rounding meshes are narrow; and weakest where these cayities are
wide, and consequently more dilatable, as at the bulb.

As the external fibrous investment of the corpus cavernosum
consists of broad, thick bands of connective tissue, it becomes firmer,
harder, and more unyielding during erection, than the corpus spon-
giosum. ‘The latter being smaller in circumference, with its external
fibrous investment interspersed with non-striped muscular bands,
it remains even during the most complete erection, and during the
ejaculation of the sperm, sufficiently dilatable or distensible to permit
the seminal fluid to flow through the canal. Should the corpus
spongiosum attain that degree of hardness which the corpus caver-
nosum acquires, the canal would not yield to the pressure of the
sperm, and ejaculation would be obstructed.

The pressure which the corpus spongiosum is capable of exerting
upon the urethra becomes quite considerable, when to the natural
tonicity of its muscular trellis-work above mentioned there is added
a special stimulus to contraction, which obtains when the penis is
brought to a state of erection. Each new pulsation increases the
quantity of blood in the meshes or venous cavities, and this—as it
were—supplementary body within these cavities stimulates the mus-
cular bands to increased activity. The pressure now brought to
bear by these bands very materially assists the acceleratores urine
and compressor urethre muscles in communicating an expulsive
impetus to the outflowing stream of urine or seminal fluid.

The greater the special force exerted by the contraction of the
acceleratores urinz during ejaculation, the more is the erection of
the penis augmented, and the concentrical pressure of the muscular
trellis-work upon the spermatic fiuid increased.

For this reason micturition is so difficult during complete erec-
tion, and immediately after ejaculation.

Thus I have endeavoured to lay before you, in a somewhat con-
densed form, a synopsis of some views at present entertained upon
the histology and physiology of the penis. This subject is but
imperfectly understood ; its literature is meagre, and much of that
which has been written is vague and unsatisfactory, while many
points have remained entirely unexplored. Yet there are few sub-
jects which present a more fruitful field for histological investigation
than the one to which I have now had the honour of calling your
attention.— Read before the New York Dermatological Society.

mia« 9)

VIL—Apertures of Object-glasses. By F. H. Wennam.

On the 14th day of November, 1872, the dry and immersed aper-
tures of Mr. Tolles’ yoth were tested in presence of the undersigned.
The angle in air (taken at the best adjustment for a Podura
scale) measured 145°,
With the front in water, the angle became reduced to 91°. And
lastly in balsam the result was 79°.

Cuas. Brooxst, F.R.S., V.P.R.MS.
H. Lawson, M.D., F.R.M.S.

W. J. Gray, M.D., F.R.MS.

S. J. M‘Intirs, Esq., F.R.MLS.

For measuring the immersed apertures the sector was fixed
vertically. The object-glass was set with its surface level to the
centre of the are. A small circular tank was firmly clamped
below, into which the end of the object-glass passed. A wax
candle was placed exactly in a line on the floor three feet beneath.

After the air aperture had been taken, the tank was filled with
water so as to cover the end of the object-glass. At each extreme
of the aperture a pencil line was drawn along the straight edge of
the bar that carried the microscope body, leaving a permanent
record of the trial. The water was then turned out and replaced
by fluid balsam, and the diminished aperture again marked with
pencil, the object-glass having been radiated in the fluid as before.

A trial in the presence of such competent judges might well end
the question, and establish the infallible law by which such a result
could be foretold.

From the result of the water trial I asserted that there would be
a further reduction of 15° in balsam or an aperture of 76°, but 79°
was indicated. These extra three degrees beyond my theoretical
limit may be accounted for in this way. I had assumed the index
of refraction for hard balsam. That used was very fluid, and there-
fore contained turpentine, which of course diminished the refractive

ower.
Dr. Josiah Curtis has witnessed an experiment conducted by
Mr. Tolles, and speaking in a somewhat jubilant tone of his
assumed triumph, remarks, “ Equally gratified probably will Mr.
Wenham be when he shall see for himself that an angle of more
than 82° can be attained through balsam.” *

I may say that I certainly was surprised at seeing a result so
strictly in accordance with my argument; for after all this

* See ‘M. M.J.,’ Nov. 1872, p. 243.

30 Apertures of Object-glasses.

ceremony of sending a glass across the Atlantic for trial, I expected,
in this particular instance, to find some light beyond the theoreti-
cal angle, and hoped to investigate and explain the cause in order
to furnish some incidental proof of fallacy in the measurement of
extreme apertures; but the limits of the immersed angles in this
case were more decided than in the air, and there was nothing
beyond the mere record left for me to do. Dr. Curtis has given his
faith to the trial without proof that he has paid any attention to
the principles of refraction involved in the experiment, and as Mr.
Tolles has shown that he will not be led by any theory, and there-
fore is quite unprejudiced thereby, I can only infer that he has
conducted the experiment in some way without regard to the laws
that should guide the rays through the media, and that a false
indication has resulted.

It needs but a very limited knowledge of optical theory to
demonstrate that the utmost angle of possible transmission or
conversely of emergence from the first surface of ordimary crown
glass with a refractive index of 1:531 does not exceed 40° 43’, and
therefore with still lighter crown, the angle behind the first surface
cannot get beyond 82°; and supposing the other lenses to be of
such a form as to bring to a posterior conjugate focus the rays of
even such an improbable angle, this cannot be increased either with
water or balsam immersion, without destroying that focus and giving
a negative result with no image in the eye-piece ; therefore this 82°
must continue straight in the balsam medium if of a similar refrac-
tion to the glass.

I demonstrated this seventeen years ago, and till now no one
has disputed the position and at the same time tried the plans for
obtaining full aperture both of object-glass and illuminator, that
are now revived as new facts. I make the following extract from
the ‘Quart. Journal of Mic. Science,’ No. XII., July 1855, by which
it will be seen that having succeeded with the hemispherical lenses, I
felt somewhat diffident about encysting objects in Mr. Tolles’
“ Pilluloe.”

“The sharpness and beauty with which some test-objects are
displayed under the diminished aperture consequent upon balsam
mounting, is, on first consideration, rather surprising, and tends to
show analogically the very great increase of distinctness that would
be obtained if the object could be seen in the same medium, with
the full aperture of the object-glass. Having been rather curious
to know if objects in balsam could be observed under such an ad-
vantage, I have tried a few experiments which were successful in
their results. :

“T first took asmall hemispherical lens of about 55th of an inch
radius, and cemented it over a selected specimen of one of the
Diatomacee (N. Sigma) with Canada balsam, in the manner

Apertures of Object-glasses. 31

represented by the annexed diagram ..... It will be seen from
the position of the object, that each ray of light passing from
that point through the surface of the hemisphere will be transmitted
in straight lines in a radial direction without undergoing any
. refraction, the consequence of which is that the full and un-
diminished aperture of the object-glass is made to bear upon the
object.

“Tf an object is already covered with thin glass it may be sur-
mounted with a lens, so far short of a hemisphere as the thickness
of the cover, which of course amounts to the same in effect as if the
lens were hemispherical. I have a specimen of P. formosum
mounted in this manner, by which the markings are remarkably
well displayed. A more simple method of obtaining a similar
result, is by the following course of proceeding :—Spread some of
the desired forms of Diatomacex upon a slip of glass while in a moist
state, and when dry, scatter a number of small fragments of hard
Canada balsam upon the same surface. Apply heat very gradually
and these will run into the form of a spherule; they will next
slowly sink into a shape approaching to that of a hemisphere.
Before the figure is quite completed, place the slide under the
microscope, and ascertain if any one of the nodules of balsam
exactly covers a fair specimen; if not, the trial must be repeated
with a fresh slide. Having found an object properly situated
under the particle of balsam, the next step is to bring the latter
down to the form of a hemisphere, by the further aid of heat very
cautiously applied. ‘The nodule of balsam having been too spherical
in the first instance, will now gradually sink, and must be repeatedly
tested under the microscope, till the perfect hemisphere is obtained
without any refraction being produced on the rays from the object
in the centre. The criteria for knowing this are :—first, the object
under the balsam must be in the same plane of focus as similar dry
objects outside ; secondly, the balsam object must not appear more
magnified than its uncovered fellows; and thirdly, the balsam-
covered object should not require a different adjustment from the
dry ones on the same slide. The existence of these combined condi-
tions indicates a perfect hemisphere.

“ When an object is seen under these circumstances it at once
shows the great increase of distinctness that is to be obtained in the
structure of the more difficult diatomaceous tests; when they are
thus viewed in Canada balsam with the full aperture of the object-
glass, markings which in the neighbouring dry objects of the same
character are scarcely discernible, are sharply and distinctly visible
under the balsam hemisphere with the same illumination.

“The luminosity of the field of view around the balsam object
is many shades darker than in the uncovered portion of the slide,
which appearance is caused by the diminished angle or cone of rays

VOL. IX. D

32 Apertures of Ohject-glasses.

of the illuminating pencil. From this fact it is evident that the _
theoretical perfection of mounting objects in this manner would be
to enclose them exactly in the centre of a minute sphere of balsam.
In this case the pencil of rays, both from the achromatic condenser
and object-glass, would pass directly to the object without refraction
or diminution ; but I must confess that I have not been successful
in effecting this; it is very easy to form a sphere of balsam at the
end of a needle point of any degree of minuteness, but very difficult
to coax an object into the centre of such a spherule.”

I have been engaged in countless comparisons of object-glasses
of different makers brought together by their respective owners,
and each held his private opinion of the result. I have avoided any
public mention of comparative merit as an assumed dictatorship
both odious and uncalled for; and in this object-glass so confidingly
forwarded by Mr. Tolles, I would not sanction a trial against glasses
of any English manufacturer, as it was sent for a different purpose.
But as Mr. Tolles has stated in allusion to my 1th described in my
paper “On the Construction of Object-glasses” (published in the
commencing numbers of this Journal) as being composed of curves
that he would not use on any account, and that it would not give a
large angle in balsam (beyond that assigned by theory) because it
had “no collecting power” !! I did therefore venture to make the
comparison with this, of curves now obsolete, made twenty-two
years ago. It proved far superior to Mr. Tolles’ (made three years
ago) on every object on which it was tested. I have sent my glass
to Dr. Lawson in order that he may also make the comparison. I
value it as a matter of history, as the first successful glass with a
triple back and single front, and showing Podura markings of a
hight ruby tint on a green ground, then a novel appearance, but
now recognized as a criterion of perfect correction.

I do not wish this to be taken invidiously, as Mr. Tolles may
have made a great advance since then, and may profit by the hint.
His glass appeared to have a compound front. The single front
may be used with advantage in all the powers from the 4 upwards.

I am now weary of urging these reiterated demonstrations both
theoretical and practical of the angles of immersed objectives, and must
drop the question, believing that my views are accepted by a discri-
minating majority, therefore no reply must be expected from me;
Mr. Tolles’ sect may set me down as an infidel having faith in what,
to them, is an unknown creed, or as a serpent deaf to the voice of the
charmer, but even this shall not provoke an answer. As I before
stated, I had no wish to discuss the question further with Mr.
Tolles, and the necessity of testing the aperture of his glass sent for
the purpose is an apology for my reappearance.

F. H. WENHAM. .

(33's)
PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

Microscopic Life at the Bed of the Mediterranean.—We would
merely allude to this subject for the purpose of referring our readers
to the splendid paper of researches on ocean currents generally, and
vitality at different depths in the Mediterranean and other scas, by
Dr. B. W. Carpenter, F.R.S., which occupies a whole number of the
Proceedings of the Royal Society, extending to about 110 pages. It is
of special importance, from the justification it affords to the hypo-
theses of the late Edward Forbes, F.R.S., who made most of his
researches in the Mediterranean. Dr. Carpenter states, in reference to
this subject,—“ I am disposed to believe, therefore, that in the Medi-
terranean basin, the existence of animal life in any abundance at a
depth greater than 200 fathoms will be found quite exceptional; and
that, without pronouncing its depths to be absolutely azoic, we may
safely assert them to present a most striking contrast, in respect of
animal life, to those marine Paradises* which we continually met with
in the Eastern and Northern Atlantic at depths between 500 and
1200 fathoms. And I have the satisfaction of finding that my con-
clusion on this point is entirely borne. out by the results of the
dredgings carried on in the Adriatic by Dr. Oscar Schmidt; who
found the like barrenness at depths below 150 fathoms, except as
regards Foraminifera, Bathybius, and Cuccoliths. Atter a most care-
ful microscopic examination of the mud obtained from the depths of
the Mediterranean, I feel justified im saying that even of these lowest
organisms scarcely any traces are to be found.—Thus it appears that
Edward Forbes was quite justified in the conclusion he drew as regards
the particular locality he had investigated; and that his only mistake lay
in supposing that the same conditions would prevail in the open ocean ”

A Mite in the Ear of an Ox.—At a meeting of the ‘Academy of
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, whose report we have only now
received, Professor Leidy said he had received a letter from Dr. Charles
8. Turnbull, in which he stated that while studying the anatomy of
the ear he had discovered in several heads of steers, at the bottom
of the external auditory meatus, a number of small living parasites.
They were found attached to the surface of the membrana tympani.
Specimens of the parasite preserved in glycerine, and a petrosal bone
with the membrana tympani, to which several of the parasites were
clinging, were also sent for examination. These prove to be a mite
or acarus, apparently of the genus Gamasus. The body is ovoid,
translucent white, about 3 of a line long, and 2 of a line wide. The
limbs, jaws, and their appendages, are brown and bristled. The body
is smooth or devoid of bristles. 'The limbs are from 2 to } a line
long. The feet are terminated by a five-lobed disk and a pair of
claws. The palpi are six-jointed. The mandibles end in pincers or
chele, resembling lobster claws. The movable joint of the chele has
two teeth at the end. The opposed extremity of the fixed joint of the

* This word is used in the sense familiar to the Greek scholar.

Dp 2

34 PROGRESS OF MICKOSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

chele is narrow, and ends in a hook. Whether this mite is a true
parasite of the ear of the living ox, or whether it obtained access to
the position in which it was found after the death of the ox in the
slaughter-house, has not yet been determined. Dr. Turnbull ob-
served it only in the position indicated,

Tea and Cotton Blights.—‘ Grevillea’ for December contains an inter-
esting paper on the above, by the editor, Mr. M. C. Cooke, M.A. He
says that the tea-planters of Cachat have been complaining of late
that the leaves of the tea-plants have become blighted, so as to
interfere seriously with the production of tea. Two or three of the
diseased leaves have been sent us for examination. They were not in
good condition for the purpose, but on one we detected some punctures
of an insect, and on two of the others a parasitic fungus. The leaves
are blistered, deformed, and stunted; the fungus appearing on both
surfaces like minute black points. The following is a description
drawn up from the dry specimens :—Hendersonia theecola. sp. nov.—
Perithecia globose, black, prominent, pierced at the apex, scattered
over both surfaces, or sub-gregarious ; spores cylindrical, rounded at
the ends, triseptate, pale brown, on long hyaline pedicels (-0004—
-0005 in.), 01-:0125 mm. long, without the pedicels. On leaves of
Thea. -Cachar, India. The ultimate cells have sometimes a more
hyaline appearance, but we could detect no terminal cilia, otherwise
it reminds us of such species of Pestalozzia as P. Guepini, which occurs
on Camellia leaves. The only remedy we can suggest is to pick off
the diseased leaves and burn them. What portion of the destruction
is also due to the insect we have no material for determination, but
both are probably culpable. From Dharwar we have also received
samples of “ Black-blight” on naturalized American cotton. The
cotton presents but little external indication of disease so long as the
seeds remain entire, but, on crushing the seed, the cotton becomes
covered with a sooty powder, which at first we were disposed to regard
as the spores of a species of Ustilago, which entirely fills the seed.
After a closer examination, however, we became satisfied that the
spores are concatenate, being produced in chains, or jointed threads, in
the interior of the secd, and afterwards break up into subglobose
spores. This is rather an anomalous habitat for a Torula, but such,
nevertheless, we are disposed to regard it, and append its description.
Torula incarcerata. sp. nov. — Produced within the seeds of Gos-
sypium. Threads simple, or slightly branched, breaking up into
minute, subglobose, fuliginous spores. Within cottonseed. Dharwar,
India. It is rather to be presumed that the Torula makes its appear-
ance after the commencement of decay in the seed, stimulated by
moisture, than that it should be the cause of disease in the plant.
The species of Torula with which we are acquainted are produced
upon decaying substances, and we have no experience of any one
causing disease in living plants. Had this proved to have been a
species of Ustilago, the case would have been different, but we believe

that, notwithstanding its habitat, we are justified in placing it with
Torula.

( 35 )

NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

A Microscopical Life-slide has been described in an American
Journal,* which will not appear novel to some of our readers, though
it is describedas new. Itis constructed to retain the greatest quantity
of material under the smallest cover glass, and is designed to be used
with the highest powers of the microscope for studying the bacteria,
vibriones, and other very low forms of life. The slide consists of a
central polished cavity, about which is a similar polished bevel; and
from the bevel outward extends a small cut, the object of which is to
afford an abundance of fresh air to the living things within, as well as
to relieve the pressure which shortly would become so great, from the
evaporation of the liquid within, as to cause the destruction of the cover
glass. No special dimensions are stated for the central cavity. The
bevel is usually } inch in diameter; the small canal is cut through
the inner edge of the bevel or annular space, outward, for the purpose
named above. It is found upon enclosing the animalcule, &c., that
they will invariably seek the edge of the pool in which they are con-
fined, and the bevelled edge permits the observer to take advantage of
this disposition ; for when beneath it, the objects are within range
of the high-power glasses. Another very important feature in the
device is the fact that a preparation may be kept within it for days or
weeks together, without losing vitality, owing to the simple arrange-
ment for supplying fresh air. “ We,” says the writer, “have repeatedly
had the opportunity of witnessing the use of this slide, and are con-
vinced that nothing of the kind has yet been devised which can equal
it in excellence either for observing or generating the lower forms of
life.”

A Review of the ‘‘ New Conspectus of the Families and Genera
of Diatomaceze,”’ by Professor H. L. Smith, has been published in
‘ Grevillea, by Mr. F. Kitton, in which he says that the Professor “ has
applied the pruning knife most unsparingly, doubtless to the great
disgust of the ‘ species mongers.’ Some of the genera might, he thinks,
have been retained with advantage; for example, the Campylodisci,
which have been relegated to the Surirelle. This genus has two
unyarying characteristics, viz. the circular form of the valves, and
the median space of the two valves of the frustule are always at
right angles to each other; consequently the valve must be truly
circular. Professor W. Smith, the author of the ‘Synopsis,’ has
erred in placing Campylodiscus spiralis in that genus. Kiitzing was
right in making it a species of Surirella (S. spiralis). The union
of the genera Triceratium and Amphitetras with Biddulphia we
think will not be generally accepted; to do so necessitates the
enlargement of the generic characters of the last to too great an ex-
tent. The number of species will also be inconveniently large. The
genus Triceratium might, we think, be united to Amphitetras without

* ¢ Journal of the Franklin Institute,’

36 CORRESPONDENCE.

much alteration of the generic character. The author is, no doubt,
right in abolishing the conditions of stipitate, tubular, &c., as being of
no value. He remarks, ‘The conditions frondose, stipitate, filamentous,
tubular, &c., I have not considered sufficient to warrant the formation
of new genera. A long study of living forms has convinced me that
these characters are fleeting—not to be relied on.’”

A Latin Work on the Desmidie, which contains 100 pages and
five plates, has been issued by the Royal Society of Sciences, at Upsala.
Tt is under the authorship of M. P. M. Lundel, and is said to be a very
good book.

CORRESPONDENCE.

Tae Mistake about OBJECTIVES USED BrnocuLaRLy.
To the Editor of the ‘Monthly Microscopical Journal.’
Cuirton, Briston, Dec. 11, 1872.

Sir, — Immediately I observed Mr. Wenham’s letter in your
December number, in reply to mine of the 19th Oct., I wrote to the
gentleman who furnished me with the information, and he replied to
this effect — that he decidedly objected to his name being men-
tioned, and added, “ you misunderstood what J said, and Mr. Wenham
has misunderstood what you wrote.”

Now I must repeat that what I stated in my letter to the ‘ Monthly
Microscopical Journal’ was precisely what he did say in our con-
versation on the subject, and also that the statement relative to the
matter was made during a casual conversation at the meeting of the
Society, several members standing near, any one of whom might have
heard what was said, and, that it was made without the slightest
reservation as to its publicity, so that at the time I neither doubted
its correctness, nor imagined anything to the contrary of its being
commonly known.

Although I do not enjoy the pleasure of Mr. Wenham’s acquaint-
ance personally, I very much regret that he should have been annoyed
by the publication of what appears to him to be an absolute untruth.

I am, Sir, yours truly,

SamMvEL SMITH,
Surgeon.

A Microscopicat Purr.
To the Editor of the ‘Monthly Microscopical Journal.’
Kine’s Cottece, Dec, 21, 1872.

Srr,—On the 18th instant a paragraph, headed “ Royal Micro-
scopical Society,’ and purporting to give an account of the “ Annual
Soirée,” held on the 11th, appeared in ‘ The Times, and I believe in
some other papers.

No “Annual Soirée” was held on that occasion, but a private
Scientific Evening, as reported in this number of the Journal.

>

eee

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. ay)

The writer of the paragraph in question evidently intended to convey
an idea that an objective by Hartnack was of such unusual merit as to
deserve to be singled out for honourable mention beyond all others.

Tn case anyone should suppose that this paragraph is sanctioned
by the Council of the Society, I beg you will allow me to state that
they entirely repudiate it, and have the strongest objection to the
abuse of the Society’s name for any purpose of trade pufting.

There is no member of the Council who would refuse to recognize
the merit of Mr. Hartnack’s work; but justice to other eminent
makers would entirely preclude the sort of notice the objectionable
paragraph contains.

Dr. Carpenter’s object can be shown distinctly with a good th
or 1th, and specimens of Rhomboides have frequently been displayed
with 3} inch.

I remain, Sir, your obedient servant,
Henry J. Suacg,
ec. RM. BS.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Royat Mricroscopican Society.
Kine’s Couiece, Dec. 4, 1872.

W. Kitchen Parker, F.R.S., President, in the chair.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and confirmed.

A list of donations was read, and a vote of thanks passed to the
respective donors.

The Secretary, Mr. Hogg, announced that some beautiful photo-
graphs of the 19th band of Nobert’s lines had been received from
Dr. Woodward, of the U. 8. Army. Dr. W. had also forwarded a
photograph of a diatom, which he called Frustulia Saxonica. He (Mr.
Hogg) thought it very much like Navicula rhomboides. He wished
some of the Fellows would carefully examine these objects and name
them more definitely and correctly. He might mention, with reference
to Rhomboides, he was able to resolve it very satisfactorily with an
old } and Wenham’s new illuminator. The 1 objective was one made
by Andrew Ross twenty-five years ago.

Mr. Slack called attention to the fact that in the diatom photographs
there were spurious lines shown outside the picture of the object
itself.

Mr. Slack then said, the Fellows would perhaps remember the
observations made by Mr. Stewart at the last meeting of the Society,
which tended to show that the apparent hexagons in certain diatoms
were real, Apart from the special optical considerations advanced
by Mr. Stewart, the question very much turned upon the appearance
displayed along lines of fracture. He had sought out a good many
fractured diatoms, and in such forms as Coscinodiscus oculus Iridis,

and Triceratium favus, the lines of fracture showed the lines bounding

38 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

the hexagons to be the strongest parts, and led to the belief the
hexagonal markings on such diatoms were real; but in the pleuro-
sigmas, and in many others, including several circular ones, the lines
of fracture passed between the bead rows, as long since shown by
Mr. Wenham. The structure of the hexagonal diatoms did not, how-
ever, vary in prineiple from the others, as there was evidence that the
whole floor of the hexagons was made up of minute spherules. He
hoped to publish some specimens of fracture where the hexagonal
markings were real, so that the Fellows might institute a comparison
between them and those which corresponded with simple beaded
structures.

Mr. Gayer then read a paper “ On a New Form of Micro-spectro-
scope.”

‘Mtr, Wenham thought the arrangement described by Mr. Gayer
remedied one very great objection to the use of the ordinary form of
micro-spectroscope. In the usual form the slit is placed in the eye-
piece, and the view is often drowned by diffraction lines. His impres-
sion was that putting the slit in the position indicated by Mr. Gayer
would obviate the objection alluded to altogether.

Mr. Hogg said, there could be no doubt that the slit was placed
by Mr. Gayer in the proper position. But he thought Mr. Gayer
had laid too much stress on the dispersive power of his instrument.
It had been the object of Mr. Browning to get rid of dispersion: his
object was not to get dispersion, but a perfect image, with as little
dispersion as possible. It was not, as in the telescope, an object to
divide the sodium band, but it was a thing of great importanee to get
a sharp, definite band under the microscope, and to be quite sure that
the substance under examination always gave bands in the same
part of the spectrum. Mr. Gayer said, that by using a deeper eye-
piece it was possible to remedy a defect in the instrument he was
using. He (Mr. Hogg) asked Mr. Gayer if he had examined a difficult
test, the chloride of calcium and cobalt, which was a very good
one ?

Mr. Ingpen said, the form of Browning’s spectroscope is that in
which the intermediate lenses are dispensed with, and the only thing
between the objective and the eye was the collimating lens. That gave
the sharpest spectra of anything he had ever seen. There was the
collimating lens just in front of a series of prisms which were viewed
through a small aperture in the other end of the instrument. No
eye-piece or intermediate lens of any kind was used. The whole in-
strument was put in instead of the eye-piece, after having focussed the
object with the ordinary eye-piece, and a sharp, beautiful short spec-
trum was obtained. Mr. Browning got rid of stray rays by slipping
a cap on the end of the objective, and then bringing that cap down so
as to touch the object.

Mr. Slack would mention that the form desirable for a spectro-
scope depended necessarily on the purpose for which it was to be
used. The micro-spectroscope had been usually employed to examine
objects which give cloudy bands. It is a peculiarity of these bands
to be like astronomical nebule in the telescope. Consequently, if

——— Ss

ee

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 39

there was too much dispersion, the bands were thinned out so much
that it could not be seen where they ended. So if absorption bands
were over magnified, failure would again be the result. For absorption
bands enough dispersion was wanted to render them easily separable.
There should not be more dispersion, as it rendered the band difficult
. to be measured. With respect to the size of objects, he had shown

about 1rd or 1th of the human blood globule with a 20th objective,
and fhe Sorby-Browning spectroscope, and had brought out the cha-
racteristic bands. The blood globule as to size was about the 4000th
of an inch, and a } of that was an excessively small object.

Dr. Lawson inquired whether the ordinary system of measurement
could be adopted in Mr. Gayer’s instrument.

Mr. Gayer replied he believed it could. With regard to the dis-
persive power of the instrument he had described, there were two
prisms in the tube, and it would be optional for anyone to have either
of them.

Mr. Wenham said he thought the micro-spectroscope should be
made more universally to bring out Fraunhdéfer’s lines fully. The
arrangement Mr. Gayer had introduced would effect that object far
more perfectly than the form of spectroscope generally used.

Mr. Ingpen said he could bring out Fraunhéfer’s lines beautifully
with Browning’s small spectroscope.

A vote of thanks was given to Mr. Gayer.

Dr. Royston-Pigott read a paper “ On a New Method of Using a
Micrometer.”

Mr. Wenham said he thought it was very desirable to get an
aérial image with a distant micrometer in the same plane with the
object ; because in that case you can dispense with extra surfaces in
the eye-piece. If he understood Dr. Pigott correctly, he has attained
that end.

Dr. Pigott assented; a vote of thanks was unanimously accorded
to him.

The President then read a paper “ On the Histology and Growth
of the Skull of Tit and Sparrow-Hawk.”

A vote of thanks was passed to the President for his interesting
paper.

Donations to the Library, from Noy. 6th to Dec. 4th, 1872 :—

From
Land and Water. ey yon ei | wet gsi, alse | beat than wed weNeiattorm
Nature. Weekly oH eee a me Chat Sey Pech gon tc Ditto.
Atheneum, Weekly FON ockm Tone” Rad tetiot Aut 8c Ditto.
Society of Arts J fe Weekly i Te hoo) aie OCIELIP
Quarterly Journal of the Eooloeeall Society, No. Td 04) ee
The Microscopical Theatre of Seeds. By James Parsons. Vol. .

1745 y : Dr, Millar.
Royal Society’s Catalocue of Scientific Papers. Vok Gu. Royal Society.
On the Natural System of Botany. By Benjamin Clarke, F.L. S.,

Ufa Author,

On New British Graptolites, By John Hopkinson, EGS crass Bate:

Water W. Reeves,
Assist.-Secretary.

40 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES,
“‘

Screntifie Evening of the Royal Microscopical Society,
Dee. 11, 1872.

On the above evening a numerous company of Fellows assembled
in the great hall of King’s College, kindly lent for the purpose, for
inspection of, and for conversation upon, the numerous objects of special
interest which were exhibited. Many of the physiological preparations
—such as Mr. Stewart’s, Mr. Loy’s, Mr. Needham’s, &c.—were ex-
tremely fine. The Appendicularia, exhibited by Mr. Alfred Sanders,
and a preparation, showing striped muscular fibre in the larva of a
tape-worm, attracted great attention. Mr. Renny, of Hereford, sent,
and Mr. Reeves exhibited, a microscopic fungus, Helicomyces roseus,
new to this country.

An opportunity, as will be seen from the subjoined list, was
afforded of comparing new objectives by eminent English and Con-
tinental makers. Messrs. Powell and Lealand exhibited an 2,th
and th; Mr. Ross showed glasses of Mr. Wenham’s recent con-
struction ; ‘while Mr. Hogg and Mr. Mayall showed the works of
Hartnack and Schieck.

Dr. Pigott and Mr. Ingpen exhibited their methods of ascertaining
magnifying power; and Mr. Stephenson showed with his binocular
arrangement fine specimens of fractured valves of coscinodisci, &c.,
mounted in bisulphide of carbon, and viewed with an 3th. The effect
of this highly refractive fluid was remarkable for the distinctness with
which it displayed details not seen when balsam is employed.

Mr. Browning showed a set of diffraction bands, ruled by Nobert,
to exhibit a series of prismatic colours; and a section of opals in the
matrix, from South America.

Mr. Curteis exhibited a chigoe in situ; and Mr. Baker an elegant
slide of butterfly scales and diatoms, arranged to form a floral device.

Mr. Ackland exhibited a slide of diatoms, grown on a glacier of
the Rhone.

Mr. Swift exhibited a new and very small pocket microscope,
described by Professor Brown; and Mr. How sent specimens of Dr.
Guy’s hand microscope.

The Council have to thank Mr. Baker, Mr. How, Messrs. Horne and
Thornthwaite, and Mr. Norman, for their kindness in lending lamps.

The subjoined list is not as complete as could be wished, as several
exhibitors omitted to supply names and descriptions of their objects.

The Council observed, with great satisfaction, that many Fellows
came from long distances to be present on this occasion, and much
gratification was expressed by all who attended this second Scientific
Meeting of the present session.

Objects and Apparatus Exhibited.

Mr. John Mayall, jun.: A new immersion No. 8 objective, made
by M. Prazmowski, of the firm of Hartnack and Co. Of this, Mr. Hogg
observes,—‘ This objective has a focal length of about one-sixth of an
inch, and has been specially made for physiological investigations.
Its defining power and clearness of image were admirably displayed

————

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. Al

on the ‘Rhomboides’ with an eye-piece that gave a magnification of
upwards of 1200 x. One of Dr. Carpenter’s spiral thread-cells
(Ammodiscus Lindahl) was shown with most satisfactory results.”

Mr. Jabez Hogg: An old 1 of Andrew Ross, and the new “ Reflex
Illuminator” of Wenham. P.angulatum and Rhomboides were brought
out in lines and dots, in a perfectly clear and crisp manner, and
without difficulty. He also showed several objectives by F. W.
Schieck, of Berlin. As these only came into his possession an hour
before the time of meeting, it is almost impossible to speak of their
performance. He found that a +,th immersion tested on “ Rhom-
boides” and on Dr. Carpenter’s test “thread-cells.” gave fine defi-
nition, with good penetration.

Mr. Browning: A set of Nobert’s lines. A section of opal in
matrix, from South America.

Mr. Loy: Preparation, showing anatomy of leech, and illustra-
tions of his method of dissecting.

Mr. F. H. Ward: Rectangular crystals of uric acid.

Mr. 8. J. M‘Intire: Podura, Templetonia nitida alive, hatched and
bred in captivity.

Messrs. Ross: Their new patent 4 inch and ,|, object-glasses.

Dr. Royston-Pigott: A new aérial micrometer for the stage,
measuring to the 100,000th of an inch; and a new lens micrometer
for estimating power to supersede the Canada-balsam micrometer.

; Mr. Thomas Curteis: A chigoe in situ.

Mr. Charles Baker: A slide, with 400 butterfly scales and diatoms,
arranged as a vase of flowers.

Dr. W. J. Gray: Parasitic growths in Closterium. }

Mr. Charles Stewart: Vertical section of the compound eye of
blow-fly, &e.

Dr. Millar: Stephenson’s new binocular as a dissecting microscope.

Mr. J. W. Stephenson: Diatoms mounted in bisulphide of carbon,
with a Ross’ th, on his new binocular microscope ; and the Test
Podura scale.

Mr. H. J. Slack: Sepal of gum cistus, with polarized light. A
fractured valve of Coscinodiscus oculus Iridis, showing the reality o
the hexagonal markings.

Mr. Thomas C. White: Hippuric acid crystals recrystallized over
fuming sulphur.

Mr. John Ingpen: Photograph of Fraiinhofer’s metzotint of the
solar spectrum.

Mr. James How: Dr. Guy’s “ Illuminator hand microscope.”

Mr. J. C. Sigsworth: Transverse section of Acrocladia mammillata,
dry, with combined reflected and transmitted oblique (white cloud)
illumination, by means of one light.

Messrs. Powell and Lealand: Scale of Podura, with 3th object-
glass, 2500 diameters; and Pleurosigma angulatum, with 2th object-
glass, 4000 diameters.

Dr. Rutherford: An injecting apparatus. The pressure obtained
from a column of water. This appears to be the cheapest and best
form of injecting apparatus.

Mr. H. F. Hailes: Some new forms of Foraminifera.

42, PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Mr. Alfred Sanders: The larva of an ascidian; and striated mus--
cular fibre from the larva of a tape-worm.

Mr. Moginie: Some selections of Diatomacee from Montery
earth, &e.

Mr. James Swift: Professor Brown’s pocket microscope, &e.

Mr. Amos Topping: Injected bone of kitten, and section of carti-
lage injected.

Mr. William Ackland: Diatoms from the glacier of the Rhone.

Messrs. Beck : Some injected preparations.

Mr. Walter W. Reeves: Helicomyces roseus (Link), a fungus, new
to this country, and some acari, supposed to be undescribed.

Mepicat MicroscoricaAL Soctery.

At the second General Meeting of this Society, held at St. Bartho-
lomew’s Hospital on Friday, Dec. 6, W. Morrant Baker, Esq., in the
chair, the minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed.
Mr. Jabez Hogg gave some account of the proceedings of the Pro-
visional Committee, of which he was Chairman, and then the Secretary
(Mr. Groves) read a code of rules, which it was proposed to adopt,
and which was passed, with but few amendments.

The following gentlemen were elected as officers :—

President os o« Mir. Jabez Hage:
Vice-Presidents ne re ue

Treasurer .; . “« 3. Win, 3. Co White:

oe C. H. Golding Bird.

Hon. Secretaries Mi J. Wc

Commitiee :—
St. Bartholomew’s .. Mr. H. E. Symons.
Charing Cross .. .. P.M. Bruce.
St. George’s.. .. «. Mr. EGC. Baber
Guy's 7.990.. ° Me A ee
King’s College .. .. Dr.U.. Pritchard.
London -. 0 . o Mr..J. Necdigm:
St.Mary's .. ... :. Mir; Giles
Middlesex .. .. .. Mr. B. T. Lowne.
St. Thomas’s aera ee
University College .. Mr. E. A. Schafer.
Westminster .. . Mr. Geo. Cowell,
Mr. E. C. Baber.
Cabinet and Eachange Com- )Mr. J. Needham.
mittee :-— Dr. Urban Pritchard.
Mr. F. H. Ward.

The place of meeting was not decided upon, but the meetings will
take place on the third Friday in each month, from October to July
inclusive, and the subscription will be 10s. per annum, without any
entrance fee.

Intending members are requested to forward their names, qualifica-

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 43

tions or medical school, and addresses, to Mr. T. C. White, 32, Belgrave
Road, Pimlico, 8.W., or to Mr. J. W. Groves, St. Bartholomew’s
Hospital, Smithfield, H.C.

The next meeting, of which due notice will be given, will take
place on the third Friday in January.

BRIGHTON AND Sussex Narurat History Society.

October 24th.—Microscopical Meeting. Mr. G. Scott, President,
in the chair. Dr. Hallifax on “The Invertebrate Eye.”

When asked to introduce the subject of the invertebrate eye,
between which and the vertebrate were great points of dissimilarity,
he felt, from having made sections for the microscope of the eyes of ©
insects and crustaceans, he might be able to direct the minds of
some of his hearers to, not simply an admiration of a beautiful object,
but the establishing a principle, which should guide all inquiry, viz.
the tracing out a unity of plan where there appeared to be diversity
of structure. Whatever organ we investigated in any class of the
animal creation should be compared with the same organ in other
classes, in order to show their connection by some general plan of
unity. As an example of what might be deduced by comparison, he
might mention what Mr. Wonfor had proved. He found certain
scales, called battledores and plumules, only on the males of certain
butterfliés, and pursuing the plan of comparison, he had arrived at
a general law that any butterfly on which such scales were found was |
invariably a male.

Newton, who brought the seemingly chaotic mass of stellar and
planetary matter not only into order, but simplified their movements
under mathematical laws, believed that the seeming chaos of the
animal and vegetable kingdom would in time be reduced to harmony.
This was before Cuvier, Linneus, and others had brought about our
present classification. It was always a great incentive to inquiry,
when we saw any organ devoted to the same evident purpose but
differing in structure, to endeavour to bring it in harmony with some
general law of unity of plan.

In the invertebrates, taking the eye of the dragon-fly as a type,
was an apparent divergence, as wide as possible from the highest
type of the vertebrates, the human eye. Comparing them, we found
in the first a great mass of optic ganglia, proceeding from the cephalic
ganglia (the equivalent of brain in the vertebrates), subdivided and
covered with pigment, giving off nervous matter, covered also with
dark pigment, changing into a transparent substance terminating in
a curved surface, which abutted on a cornea composed of numerous
facets, 4, 5, and 6 sided, but each consisting of a lens, convex ex-
ternally and internally. Each of these facets, or convex lenses, was
capable of bringing the rays of light to a focus upon the transparent
pigment-covered substance, consisting of transformed nerve matter.
In the vertebrate eye we had a globe filled with vitreous matter, a
crystalline lens and aqueous matter, refracting the rays of light and
causing them to fall on the nervous matter, called the retina, lining
the interior of the globe. The nervous expansion of the retina was

44 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

the only part of the eye cognizant of external impressions, the rest.
of the eye being merely a physical apparatus.

The sensitive retina, only one hundredth of an inch thick in its
thickest part, consisted of at least seven layers, all consisting of nervous
matter: the first composed of rods and cones; then four layers of
granular matter; next nerve cells; and then the optic nerve. It was
believed that the rods and cones were the percipient part of the retina,
and for a long time it was held that no similar structure could be
traced in the invertebrate eye. Miiller, who investigated the eyes of
both, came to the conclusion that they were constructed on a totally
different plan, and that there were two types of eye in nature.

Recently, Leydig and others had come to the conclusion that there
was a unity of type after all. It was a common thing in nature,
while preserving the unity of plan, to modify the structure, sometimes
transforming or suppressing unimportant parts, but retaining all the
essential ones, in accordance with the wants and habits of the
creatures. Thus in the invertebrate eye the dioptric apparatus was
not necessary, but the nervous mass, with its essential part, the bac-
cillary layer, was retained. It would be seen that each convex facet,
hemispherical in the Crustacea, abutted on the layer of transparent
pigment-covered rods and cones, which were allowed to be the
essential parts of the vertebrate eye. Thus it was seen the essential
parts were retained, viz. the baccillary layer, which was a modification
of nerve structure, abutting on the corneal facets, as the rods and
cones in the human eye abutted on the optic apparatus, thus tracing
out a unity of plan with diversity of structure.

He had made these observations for the purpose of introducing to
their notice certain slides, more especially one lent him by Mz. T.
Curties, of Holborn, which cut through the eye of the death’s head
moth, showed the several parts in situ, especially the cones~in con-
nection with the corneal facets. Seeing the eyes and antenne of
insects were then instruments of sensation, it was not wonderful these
apparatus were highly elaborated.

In proposing a vote of thanks, the President remarked that Dr.
Tallifax had promised them a few introductory words, but had, without
notes of any kind, given them an elaborate lecture.

Mr. Wonfor said Dr. Hallifax modestly attributed the views of the
connection of the vertebrate and invertebrate eye to others, whereas,
whatever others had done, to his knowledge he had at least six years
ago worked out the views he had enunciated to them, and, moreover,
pioneered the way to making sections of eyes prior to that time.
Some years since he explained his method of making sections of
insects and their parts to the “Quekett Microscopical Club,” and
a section of insect’s eye on the stage of his own microscope, showing
the parts in situ, was made by Dr. Hallifax at least five years ago.

The meeting then became a conversazione, when the slide above
mentioned, together with sections of the eyes of prawn, shrimp,
crayfish, crab, lobster, moths, flies, &c., made by Dr. Hallifax, were

lee eee eee ee a eo

TheMonthly Microscopical Journal Feb’ 1] 187s.

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Development of Sparrow-Hawks Skull] ae

THE

MONTHLY MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL,

FEBRUARY 1, 1873.

I.—On the Development of the Skull in the Tit and Sparrow-
Hawk. By W. K. Parxsr, F.R.S.

(Read before the Rovau Microscorican Soctrry, Dec. 4, 1872.)

Part II.
PuLatTEs V. anp VI.

My next instance of cranio-facial growth is the representative
of quite another “ Family,” or rather “Order” of Birds; this is the
Sparrow-Hawk (Nisus vulgaris), a good type of a huge group which
begins, in extant forms, with the Cariama (Dicholophus), and culmi-
nates in the Falcon and Eagle.

My illustrations are of a half-fledged nestling of this robber, “a
speckled bird among the birds of the forest,” the dreaded enemy of
the Warbler tribe.

This kind of bird, in this its immature state, is excellent for
comparison with the Reptile’s skull, especially that.of the Turtles
and Tortoises (““Chelonia”). It would seem at first sight that the
frowning brow and the arched and knife-edged beak were special
modifications of this form of bird, in thorough harmony with its
character and its habits, and having no other or wider meaning.

But the permanent down-bend of the beak and the bony roof to
the brow are both retentions of the Chelonian type of structure,
not derived from the Turtle, and yet pointing to a probably common
origin for both. Yet with all these evident reptilian marks upon
them, in many respects these birds are to their own class what
Tigers and Lions are to the Mammalia, namely, amongst the most

EXPLANATION OF PLATES V. AND VI.

Piate V., Fic. 1.—Skull of Nestling Sparrow-Hawk (Nisus vulgaris) (side
view), X 2.

is 5, 2.—Ditto, ditto (lower view), x 2.
= », 3.—Ditto, ditto (upper view), x 2.
i » 4.—Part of Fig. 2, x 3.

Puate VI., ,, 1.—Skull of same (end view), x 2.
* » 2.—Fore-view of skull, with face cut away, x 3.
s » 3.—Part of palate of ditto, x 3.
“ » 4.—Os hyoides of same, x 2.

VOL. IX. B

46 Transactions of the

highly specialized ; being indeed, as to skeletal mechanism, the most
wonderfully endowed of all the Birds. Not only their whole body,
fitly jomed and compacted together, but every several limb and every
hinge and joint is in itself a paragon of form, strength, and elegant
lightness. Still, my proper business is not with these final results,
but with those stzl-life vegetative processes by which these special
ends are brought to consummation.

Looking at the side view of the skull (Plate V., Fig. 1), it is at
once seen how the fierce face of an aquiline bird “is modelled on a
skull,” which differs from that of other birds only by the gentlest
modifications. Indeed, it were not an impossible task to make a dia-
gramatic figure of a Carinate bird’s skull that should serve as a
general illustration for the whole of the feathered nations. Amongst
these Plunderers there is one bird, the South American Cariama,
which combines the characters, otherwise seen separately, of Owl
and Vulture, Eagle, Faleon, Hawk, and Secretary Bird, whilst it is
also unmistakably related to the Cranes and Fowls.

Looking at the skull from beneath (Plate V., Fig. 2), we see
that already the process of ankylosis has greatly effaced the occi-
pital sutures, and the basi-sphenoidal and basi-temporal tracts have
melted into each other. The occipital condyle (0. ¢.) is transversely
largest, having more of the Lacertian form than in the Singing-birds.
The “ex-occipital tympanic wings ” (¢. eo.) are still edged with car-
tilage. The parasphenoid has formed large trumpet-shaped recesses
to the tympanic cavity (a.¢.7.), and on the lips of these tubes,
behind, I have seen, in older specimens, as many as three “ tym-
panics” on one side. In still older specimens these have coalesced
together, and with the trumpet lip. Good, stout basi-pterygoids
appear on the base of the “rostrum” (b. pg.), and these, although
pointed, and scarcely functional, are permanent. The “parasphenoidal
rostrum” (Figs. 1 and 2, pa. s.) is thick behind, and comes upwards
to a fine point in front, behind the great “cranio-facial notch,”
which is slowly pushed upwards in the adult, the cartilage becoming
absorbed between the ethmoidal and septal ossifications. The former
of these (Plate V., Fig. 1, p.e.) is now a huge plate of bone,
running forwards to the “notch” (hidden in the figure by p. p.)
and backwards towards the “ pra-sphenoid” above and the basi-
sphenoid below (p.s., 0. s.); its posterior crescentic margin em-
braces the front of the pear-shaped “ interorbital fenestra” (7. 0. f.).
The basi-sphenoid (0. s.) is ossified, and is continuous behind with
the huge grafting wings of the “ parasphenoid,” and has coalesced
by its lower surface with the basi-temporals (b.¢.). Within the
skull it is being fixed into the margins of the “periotic” masses
and basi-occipital (0. 0.). Seen from behind (Plate VI., Fig. 4), the
large, once double, supra-occipital (s. 0.) is still partly traceable as
distinct from the ex-occipitals (e. 0.), and in this view the “ epiotics ”

Ee

SE

Royal Microscopical Society. 47

and squamosals (ep., sg.) are seen all surmounted by the squared
parietals (p.). The peculiarly ornithic condition of the great
sphenoidal wings is best seen in a skull which has had the whole
face cut away through the orbits (Plate VI., Fig. 2, al. s.). They
are placed far more from without inwards than longitudinally, and
are attached to the orbital plate of the frontal (0. f.). A subvertical
view of the post-orbital plane (Plate VI., Fig. 2) helps much to the
— understanding of this very complex and most instructive skull. The
narrow, superorbital plates of the frontals (f.) are cut through, and
these large orbital plates (0. f.) are seen from their scooped front
aspect. ‘They are sending bony spicule into the up-tilted cranial
floor towards the “anterior sphenoid,” which lies in the middle.
The upper plate of each frontal is grooved for the “ olfactory
nerve” (1). Propping up these plates, another bony bar is seen ;
this is an azygous “ ectosteal” orbito-sphenoid ; it has three points
below, and rests upon the pre-sphenoid and the narrowest foremost
part of the “orbito-sphenoidal” cartilaginous ale, which are here
unusually large for a bird; these together are pyriform, and on
each side there is a largish “endosteal” orbito-sphenoid ; they are
unequal. Between them there is a large vertical plate of endosteal
bone (Plate V., Fig. 1, and Plate VI., Fig. 2, p.s.); this is the
“ pree-sphenoid ”; it lies above and in front of the opotic foramen (2).
An irregular “ fenestra,” or rather “ fontanelle,” of the unhardened
membranous cranium extends upwards on each side between the
orbito-sphenoids mesially and the orbital plates of the frontals
and “ali-sphenoids” laterally. The large squamosals are scarcely
seen in this view (Plate V., Fig. 1, sq.); but in the lateral view
they show nearly all their relationships. The large cartilaginous
wings of the posterior sphenoid (“ad. s.”) had a fenestra in their
centre ; here the bone is still very thin, and I suppose, as in most
birds, the upper and lower regions were separately ossified. A very
small additional centre is seen on the near margin of each bone.
Between the lower edge of the “ali-sphenoid” and the upper edge
of the huge complex “ basi-sphenoid” there is a suture, and in this
suture two holes; the outer, or posterior, is the “foramen ovale”
and the inner the “ foramen rotundum.”

The sectional view of the median part below is the “ pre-
pituitary” part of the basi-sphenoid cut through close to the “ basi-
pterygoid processes.” Seen in a shadowy manner, at a distance, we
have, below, the occipital condyle at the mid-line (0.¢.) on each
side, and in front of that the swellings caused by the cochlez where
the underlapping “ basi-temporal” ankyloses with the basi-occipital
(b.t.). The outermost swellings are the “ basi-temporal floors” of
the tympanic cavity. The two “anvils” that look towards each other
are the “ quadrate bones.” ‘They must be considered soon.

The huge “internal ears” only come fairly into view at two

E 2

48 Transactions of the

points in the figure; the antero-superior angle of the “ periotic ”
mass breaks out between the “squamosal” and “ali-sphenoid”
(sq., al. s.), and a lateral element of this organ is seen below the
head of the quadrate; this latter bone (pto.) is the “ pterotic,” and
the former the “sphenotic” (P.), the symmorph of the “ post-
frontal” of the Osseous Fish. Laterally (Plate V., Fig. 1) and
behind (Plate VI., Fig. 1) the “epiotic” (ep.) is well seen as an
oblong obliquely-placed tract of bone overlying the “ posterior sémi-
circular canal.” The main part of the mass is only to be seen from
within, but a little of the chief bone, the “ prootic” (Plate VI.,
Fig. 2, pro.) is seen below and outside the “foramen ovale.”
The opisthotic or fifth osseous element of the ear-mass has already
coalesced with the “ex-occipital,” and is becoming ankylosed to the
prootic. In a paper which I hope will soon appear in the ‘ Philoso-
phical Transactions,’ I have gone into this matter thoroughly, and
have shown why I have had the audacity to add two new elements
to the “ periotic mass,” namely, the “ pterotic” and the “ sphenotic.”
Professor Huxley is responsible for the terms “ prootic,’ “ opis-
thotic,” and “epiotic.” My terms are in imitation of his. With
regard to the bone which I have called “ pterotic” (See Fowl’s
Skull, Plate 85, Figs. 1 and 4, pfo.), it is a bony centre with
which I have long been familiar, but its unusually fine development
in the Sparrow-Hawk has at last thrown an unexpected light upon
certain bones in the Lizard’s skull. By the light of a most patient
and long-continued study of the tissues microscopically—haying
never been satisfied with rough observations, although I have not
used extravagantly high powers—I now (Dec. 3, 1872) can master
and masticate things that have been as gravel to my teeth for years
past. When Professor Huxley was working out his “ Malleus and
Incus” paper, for which all posterity shall bless him, he wrote to me
(Jan. 29, 1869) a letter with a sketch of the condition of the facial
arches in “ Hatheria alias Sphenodon.”

In his graphic pen-sketch the hyoid arch is seen to be attached
to the side of the “auditory mass,” and a piece of cartilage at the
end of the “ par-occipital bones ” is pointed to, with this description,
namely, “a bit of cartilage with endostosis, which some call pte-
rotic.” This granular epiphysis anyone can see in a Lizard’s skull,
and outside it a strongly binding falcate bone (an “ ectostosis”)
which is wedged-in between the similarly falcate squamosal and the
out-turned parietal horn. The two falcate bones thus overtop
the “quadrate,” binding the cartilage to which that bone hinges,
like metallic clamps. The some body who had called that endosteal
patch “ pterotic” has often foregathered with his friend as to the
nature of the post-squamosal “sickle”; it stood out, an enigma.
This is one of those points in the histological study of the meta-
morphosis of a bird, in its ascent above a Lizard, which is so
very instructive. In the bird the “pterotic” (see Plate VL,

Royal Microscopical Society. 49

Fig. 4, ptc.) is one bone made up of an endosteal metamorphosis of
the cartilage, and the ectosteal transformation of its perichondrium.
In the Lizard these parts, like the clavicle and prz-coronoid, are
permanently distinct ; other instances in the Lizard’s skeleton could
be shown. Hence we may see that any hasty interpretation of
homologous parts is worse than useless, and. that the most delicate
microscopic research must go hand in hand with morphology.

Going forwards to the nasal capsule, we find each “ pars plana ”
(Plate V., Fig. 1, p. p.) a large sub-quadrate flap of cartilage, under-
going endostosis at its inner edge. The bridge by which this flap
passes into the “ali-ethmoid” above is separately ossified, at least
it is in Buteo, and the nasal branch of the fifth nerve runs outside it,
not through the same passage as the first. The swollen ali-ethmoid
(rudimentary upper turbinal) has its own bony tract in old birds. The
septum-nasi (Plate V., Fig. 2, s, n.) is well ossified, and is very large;
it ankyloses with the prae-maxillaries and the maxillo-palatine plates in
the adult; in the young the latter union has not taken place: this
bird is typically “ desmognathous.”

The two-horned “nasals” (Plate V., Figs. 1 and 2) and the
lachrymals (.) are very characteristic; the lachrymals, besides their
long superorbital process, have in the adult a square superorbital
bone at its extremity ; this was fibrous in my young specimen. In
the Monitor Lizards the whole upper part is swper-orbital, and the
descending crus or prx-orbital is the true lachrymal.

The “vomer” (Plate V., Fig. 2, v., and Plate VI., Fig. 3, v.)
is a long knife-like bar of bone, narrowest in front; it 1s wedged-in
between the ethmo-palatines (e. pa.). In the adult the vomer is very
long and downturned, and enlarged in front, as in Falco and Dicho-
lophus, but to a less degree. In Ulula uluco (the Hooting Owl),
and in two forms nearly related to this Hawk, namely, Haliastur
Indus and Circus cyaneus, there is a “ median septo-maxillary ”
above the yvomer. ‘The vomer is a membrane-bone, and enters into
no union with the nasal walls or turbinals. In all Rapacious birds
I have found the vomer azygous. Only in Dicholophus is there
an “os uncinatum”; it is a rod-like ossicle underlapping the lach-
rymal, and standing on the zygoma.

The palatines (Plate V., Figs. 1 and 2, and Plate VI, Fig. 3,
pa.) have a somewhat outspread form. I have not seen a separate
“‘transpalatine” or any cartilage in that region, yet in the
European Vulture (Gyps fulvus) the bone is partly separated by a
suture from the body of the palatine. The pre-palatine bar is
long and lathy; the “interpalatine” spurs aborted; the “ ethmo-
palatines” are rounded lobes, and the groove between the two
inferior ridges behind is of moderate depth. Not in this species, but
in several, there is a junction, or “commissure” of the “ ethmo-
palatines,” namely, in Dicholophus; the Owls; Helotarsus ecaudatus ;
Sarcoramphus papa; Neophron perenopterus; Falco tinnunculus ;

»

50 Transactions of the

and in this part there is a separate bone, the “medio-palatine.”’ -
The short pterygoids (pg.) are flat in front and rounded behind ;
they grow towards the basi-pterygoids, but by a poznt, not by a
facet. The meso-pterygoids (Plate V., Figs. 1 and 2, m. pg.) are
large and spongy, and divide the palatines above the posterior nasal
canal (Plate VI., Fig. 3). The maxillaries (mz.) are in themselves
small, but their ‘‘ maxillo-palatine processes” are large, spongy, and
hugely developed, fore-and-aft. As in Dicholophus, they unite by
harmony in the young; but in the old bird they are thoroughly
ankylosed, both with each other and with the nasal septum. The
jugal process of the maxillary, the jugal and quadrato-jugal bones
(j.q.j.), are all long and slender styles. The large quadrate (q.),
with its small, blunt-pointed orbital process, is best seen from the
front (Plate VI., Fig. 2, ¢.), and from the side (Plate V., Fig. 2, ¢.);
it has two articular heads above; the outer articulates with the
“squamosal” and “ pterotic,” and the inner with the “ prootic” and
“‘ opisthotic.” Below (Plate VI., Fig. 2) it articulates in the usual
manner with the mandible. This latter part (Plate V., Fig. 1,
ar. d., 8. ag., ag.) 18 composed of an endosteal “articulare,” and of
the ordinary splints, namely, dentary, sphenial, coronoid, suran-
gular, and angular. The posterior angular process is blunt; the
internal long and pneumatic ; the dentaries (d.) are well ankylosed
by a short, strong symphysis; they are deflected in front. The “os
hyoides” (second and third post-oral arches, Plate VI., Fig. 4) is
composed of two rod-like “cerato-hyals” (¢.h.) which partly ossify
and afterwards unite at the mid-line; a broad “basi-hyal” continuous
with a slender “uro-hyal ”; and the elements of the third arch (br. 1)
are of the usual form, but are very straight in the Raptores; the
“stapes” has a bony rod with three cartilaginous forks, the “supra-
extra-” and ‘‘infra-stapedials.”

In conclusion, I may remark that this last-described type, the
Raptorial, is full of interest, as full as the forms that have already
come under consideration, namely, the “ Passerines.” The working-
out of these types has been microscopic from first to last; but the
power to see the image of one type reflected in another—to trace
the same touch—the same habit or fashion, and to be able to
deduce arguments for the absolute unity of morphological law—
these seem to me to be precious results of painstaking labour, in
which “the hand of the diligent maketh rich.” Only he who,
counting the cost, is willing to become foot-sore and weary, not
once nor twice, can have the serene satisfaction of beholding Nature
in her broader features of beauty and never-cloying variety.

Intellectually, out’ of even these foul eaters of flesh there comes
forth meat; and out of these strong robbers there comes forth the
sweetness of new light, shed on the old paths of Creation.

The Monthly Macroscopical Journal-Feb’1. 1873. PL VE 7

—— a

WE P del ad not.G West on Stone ‘ i Sine Dee A

if

¥

Nee oe fh

Royal Microscopical Society. 51

Il.—On an Aérial Stage Micrometer: an improved form of
engraved “ Lens-Micrometer” for Huyghenian Eye-pieces,
and on finding Micrometrically the Focal Length of Eye-pieces
and Objectives. By G. W. Roysron-Picort, M.A., M.D., &e.

(Read before the Royau Microscopicau Society, Dec. 4, 1872.)
(Continued from p. 5.)

In the present article it is intended to give an easy method of de-
termining the focal lengths of either eye-pieces or objectives; and
also their magnifying power micrometrically.

It is indeed generally known that the focal length of an eye-
piece may be found by multiplying the focal lengths of each com-
ponent lens, and dividing the product by their sum when diminished
by the interval separating the lenses,

or F=fxf+(f+f —4).
But then the observer is landed in the double difficulty of finding
these focal lengths and the interval. The method I now propose
obviates these measurements altogether, and it entirely resolves itself
into micrometric measurements.

In the paper given at page 266 (No. XLYIITI.) the writer gave
methods for establishing the focal lengths of a single lens by means
of ascertaining the magnifying power when a certain distance inter-
venes between the object and image.

For deeper glasses, as $ inch, 4, &c., a well be found sufficient to
divide the distance by the magnifying power when increased by the
number two.

It has been for a very long time a custom with opticians to place
a rule, divided into inches and tenths, on the stage besides a glass
micrometer divided into hundredths; when, by observing with the
left eye how many inches and parts are subdivided by a magnified
hundredth in the field of view observed with the right, a tolerable
estimate can be roughly formed. Besides, however, the fact that
both eyes frequently have different distances of distinct vision, and
that several experiments give different results, it can lay no claim to
the accuracy of a scientific determination.

The new method may thus be described :—To find focus of an
eye-piece, measure by a stage micrometer, divided into 100ths and
1000ths, the image of a ten-inch circular white disk placed on a
black board 100 inches from the stage of the microscope, as minia-
tured by the given eye-piece used as a condenser.*

Let N be the size of the image in number of thousandths—go
that m is the proportionate size of object to image, or 10 + N—

Then there is a beautiful relation between the focal length and the

* The eye-piece is arranged with its field-glass towards the disk.

52 Transactions of the

proportion of the miniature to its object at a given distance, expressed
by the formula given by the writer (‘ Phil. Tr., vol. i1., 1870), vez.—

Focal length of equivalent single lens
" distance between object and image *
~ diminution of image + 24-1 diminution

OP = a age i which in our case is

m+2+—
100

* 1
m+2+ mA
Remark.—When the miniature is extremely small compared
, , i!
with object, — may be neglected.

Exz.—A Huyghenian eye-piece is placed like a condenser, and
forms an image of a ten-inch disk, 100 inches distant from the stage
micrometer ; and witha low power the miniature is found to measure
147 thousandths (0-147 inch) by stage micrometer, required the focal
length. Here the miniature is reduced in the proportion of 10
inches to 0: 147 or 68 times nearly ; so m = 68.

100 inches és 100
68+2+ 4; 70°015
= 1,4 very nearly.

Then) hy

The next question arises, if such be the sidereal} focal length of
the eye-piece, what is the magnifying power ?

The writer has for this purpose worked out the following simple

roblem :—

If D be the distance at which an observer can see an object dis-
tinctly and the distance at which he sees really the field of view in
the microscope, F the focal length of a single lens, then the mag-
nifying power, or the proportion of the size of the image to the object
is one less than the distance of distinct vision divided by focal
length,

D
or M0 og

If the observer's eye adopts 10 inches,
Then m= = —i1.

Ex. 2.—Find the magnifying power of the eye-piece of last

example at 10 inches’ distance for distinct vision.
1
pul — 1 = 6} times.
Ls

* This formula will be found extremely useful to photographers.
+ “Sidereal and solar focal lengths” are terms indifferently used for expressing
the principal focus or focal point formed by parallel rays.

ier: MOGa se +p LPS

Dew wht pe Neer wre ou

Royal Microscopical Society. 53

Ex. 3—Magnifying power of E eye-piece, whose focal length
is 3, is for 10 inches,

1
oe eee ea ee ce

Ex. 4.—Focal length of an eye-piece E when the object at 100
inches is diminished 798 times by measurement on the stage of the
miniature of disk 10 inches diameter can be similarly i as
follows :—

Noplecting = ;
be 100 100
OS te We GOR
_ 100
~ 800
Magnifying power at 10 inches,

10 10
sar eho ear ae e:

nearly.

= 1 nearly.

Focal lengths of objectives and their magnifying powers can be
similarly found.

54 Transactions of the

III.—Note on the Scalp of a Negro.
By Cuartes Srewart, M.R.CS., F.LS.

(Read before the Royau Microscoricau Society, Jan. 1, 1873.)
Puate VII.

Besrpes the dark colour which is seen in the skin of the Negro, and
which is due to extra pigmentation of the deep layer of the epi-
dermis, there are some peculiarities which I believe have not been
noticed, or at all events are not generally known. ‘These features
may be seen in vertical sections of the scalp; but before describing
them perhaps I may be excused for saying a word on the principal
structures displayed in a similar section of the scalp of a Kuropean.

The free surface of the epidermis will be seen to be nearly level,
whilst the deeper layers, or rete mucosum, will be raised by the
papillee, or conical elevations of the subjacent dermis. Bundles
consisting of five or six hairs surrounded by their follicles will
pursue a straight but oblique course through the greater part of
the thickness of the dermis, each follicle having at its base the
papilla upon which the hair is seated, and attached about a third of
the way up on its under surface the bundle of involuntary muscular
fibres which moves the hair. In the angle between this and the
hair itself will be situated the sebaceous gland. Besides these, a few
scattered sudoriparous glands may be noticed.

In the Negro the scalp is altogether thinner, and of course will
show the pigmentation of the rete mucosum already alluded to. In
addition to this familiar peculiarity the hairs and follicles present
the following remarkable differences, viz. the portion of the hair and
follicle imbedded in the skin is much longer, and is also remarkably
curved, so that it commonly describes a half circle. The papilla at
the base of the follicle consequently either lies horizontally or even
becomes directed obliquely inwards towards the subjacent bone. In
other respects there is no great difference, but perhaps the sebaceous
gland is somewhat smaller.

It may be suggested that some of these conditions were pro-
duced by the mode of preparation, but this can hardly be the case,
as the Negro and European scalps were prepared at the same time
in the same way.

TheMonthly Microscopical Jowmal, FebY1. taro: * Pl. VI.

|
|
|
|

ey ee

ms ‘

a

He

Proximal surface of Rosette (Podophora) |

= Opaque - —

| |

Att "a0 \5
\ 500 A
2 oes

Say 2

fing (Bodophora) ; | a As ae i = Ft
— transparent. — ;
Vertical Section, of Negro's scalp.

W West &C°? «+

<4’ &
ay

» o —

ry hy oe a eee
' ee ed

Royal Microscopical Society. 55

IV.—WNote on the Caleareous Parts of the Sucking Feet of an
Echinus (Podophora atrata).

By Cuanues Stewart, M.R.C.S., F.LS.
(Read before the Royat MicroscopicaL Society, Jan. 1, 1873.)
Puate VII.

In addition to the spines and pedicellaria which cover the outer
surface of an Echinus, or Sea-urchin, five rows of tubular muscular
cylinders may readily be seen; these are called the ambulacral
tubes, and are the sucking feet which assist the animal in loco-
motion. ‘The feet are most developed on the under surface of the
Echinus, those on the upper surface being commonly modified, and
used either as organs of touch or for respiration.

In all known Echini, these feet are strengthened by a calcareous
framework, which consists always of two, and usually of three,
distinct parts, each composed of many separate pieces. ‘Two of
these, called the rosette and ring, are apparently constructed for
keeping the sucking extremity expanded; the third exists in the
form of numerous spicula, which vary greatly in shape in the dif-
ferent genera, and afford valuable aids for their distinction.

The rosette is usually figured and described as a flat circular
disk composed of separate pieces, varying in number from three to
six or seven, five, however, being the most usual; its margins are
ornamented by spine-like projections, and its centre is perforated by
a large hole. The ring is described as a single polygonal plate,
haying a large hole in the centre, whose sides are equal in number
to the plates of the rosette. :

This description, however, is not quite true, either for the
rosette or ring.

Although the general outline of the rosette is correct, the mar-
ginal spines do not stand out horizontally, but project forwards
from the flat anterior surface; this arrangement seems to enable
them to grasp the body to which the sucker is applied when its
centre is pulled towards the animal. The part of the rosette nearest
the animal is very complex, each plate showing a depression of
great depth, so that the inner as well as the outer margin of the
rosette is thin, the greatest thickness being found a little to the
inner side of the centre of each plate. Just inside the outer margin
of the depressed area may be seen a small extremely transparent
tubercle ; 1t is upon this tubercle that the angles of the polygonal
ring rest, and to the constant motion of the ring upon the rosette
must be attributed the solidity and consequent transparency of the
tubercle. The posterior contiguous edges of the plates of the
rosette are bevelled off, so that their anterior diameter is greater
than their posterior ; the result of this is, that when the posterior

56 Transactions of the Royal Microscopical Society.

margins of all the plates are brought together the anterior surface of
the entire sucker is rendered convex, and so becomes detached from

the body to which it was fixed, whereas, when the posterior margins

are separated, the front surface of the sucker becomes concave, and

the marginal spines grasp like claws any inequalities of the body to

which they are applied.

The ring, which is described as a single plate, I have always
found to consist of separate plates, equal in number to the seg-
ments of the rosette; they are, however, most frequently arranged
in many corresponding sets, one beneath the other. In all cases
the extremities of the plates overlap one another.

(809)

V.— Oblique Illumination for the Binocular.
By W. K. Briwemay, L.D.S.

THE management of oblique light with the Monocular instrument
is comparatively an easy matter, but when it comes to the Bino-
cular, it is altogether a very different affair; in fact, with the
ordinary mirror turned out of the axial line as commonly practised,
it is scarcely possible to obtain an equal degree of illumination in
both tubes simultaneously, and why it should be so will be very
apparent on consideration of the conditions produced. When the
reflector is turned to either side of the stage, the light falling
obliquely upon the surface of glass necessarily becomes graduated
in intensity from one side to the other, and as the prism bisects the
field in the same line of gradation, it divides the illumination from
Aor DB, Wie: 1.u-
equally, by giving the Fig. 1.
lighter half to one tube
and the darker half to
the other. It will, hence,
be obvious that if the
prism could be turned
one quarter round and
made to cross the aper-
ture in the direction
from C to D, Fig. 2, it
would divide the light fairly, so that each half would be a complete
counterpart to the other, and both tubes could thus become similarly
lighted up at the same time ; but as this is an impracticability, the
only alternative will be to alter the direction of the hght itself instead.
Oblique illumination can of course be obtained by the prism, the
parabola, the spot lens, or the “kettledrum,” in any direction ; but
these appliances are more adapted for special purposes than available
for general use. The want is for some plan of illumination that will
serve for all kinds of work and be as little trouble as an ordinary
condenser. It is quite a mistake to suppose that oblique light is
only of service for bringing out the markings upon diatoms and
other tests; it is in reality the most suitable mode of treatment for
every kind of object that can be seen by transmitted light from
beneath the stage.

With direct light thrown up from below and a transparent or
translucent substance, it is little better than mere shadow-work ; as
the thicker or darker portions then only become visible by stopping
out more or less of the direct rays, while the illumined surface, or
that part which ought to be seen, is the under-portion presented to the
mirror and away from the object-glass. In obtaining a good defining

58 Oblique Illumination for the Binocular.

illumination the practised observer is well aware that it is desirable
to exclude as many as possible of the direct rays which suffer little
or no refraction in their course upwards, but tend to produce an
uncomfortable and confusing glare, and to accomplish this, the
mirror is generally thrown a little out of axis, so as to give a slight
degree of obliquity to these portions of the light, as well as to cast
the shadow more or less to one side of the object. Thus, although
we speak of direct illumination, it is not so in reality; a slight
degree of obliquity is found to be a practical necessity, and I have
been endeavouring ever since the introduction of the binocular to
find some means of obtaining a more satisfactory arrangement for
accomplishing this, and have at length been rewarded with sufficient
success to warrant its being offered to the attention of others. It
has always appeared that as the outside edge of the picture of a
flame is found to be the most effective, there is something more than
the mere obliquity of the rays that is the desideratum, and I have
been inclined to attribute it to inflection, or diffraction, and this
idea has been kept in view throughout.

The first point has been to stop out all the useless central rays.
The next to throw up a good body of light in a suitable direction to
produce the necessary shade and shadows, and then to let in a sufficient
amount of light from another point in order to render the shadows
transparent and thus enable us to distinguish the detail within
them. As a foundation to commence upon, a hemispherical lens
of about one inch in diameter was found to be most advantageous,
but it was also found that placing the diaphragm in contact with
the upper flat surface of the lens, as recommended by the late Rey. J.
B. Reade, did not produce the same effect (which I attribute to dif-
fraction) as placing it beneath the convex surface and at a very slight
distance below it. After innumerable trials it was found that the

Fic. 3. form (accurately ob-

eae presented in Fig. 3

gave the best results.

This is fixed by the

tongue A being bent

up, and then inserted

into the doubled end of

the flat ring at B, Fig. 4.

This ring is left as a

fixture within the set-

ting of the lens, and so

admits of the stop being removed at pleasure or changed for any
other form. The stop is cut out with a pair of scissors from sheet
tin about the thickness of thin writing paper, and is then curved at
the transyerse edge to something less than the curvature of the lens,

tained by tracing) re- ~

|
|
;
;
|
|
|
;

The Red Admiral Butterfly, and the Lepisma Sacecharina. 59

and placed at a slight inclination downwards as well. It will thus
appear that the central portion of the lens is stopped out for the
direct rays, while a greater portion of light is admitted from one
side than the other, and being placed transversely to the edge of the
prism, or from C to D of Fig. 2, and with the larger space B, Fig. 3,
on the left-hand side, the bulk of the light is sent across towards
the prism and helps to compensate for the loss by reflexions within
it. By running the condenser up and down it will be seen that
the quality of the light varies very much in its different parts, and
by slightly turning the mirror to one or the other side the most
varied effects will be produced; but at the edge where the effects of
diffraction would be found, the greatest distinctness will be seen to
occur. Then, again, the stop being of polished tin and slightly
inclined downwards, a portion of the refracted rays will probably be
reflected downwards by the plane side of the lens, and being met
by the reflecting surface of the tin, will be thrown upwards again,
helping to break the gloom of the otherwise darkened part of the
circle. In addition to this, there would seem to be a considerable
amount of light reflected downwards by the surface of the covering
glass or the under surface of the object lens, for objects thus
illumined have the appearance of being lighted up with both trans-
mitted and reflected light, so that the most delicate surface mark-
ings and the most transparent tissues become remarkably and most
beautifully distinct, and indeed I have never before seen the more
delicate membranes of Infusoria, Zoophytes, &c., brought out with
such exquisite delicacy and clearness. It should be observed that a
piece of finely-ground glass should be placed beneath the slide, and
with artificial light this glass should be of a pale neutral tint and
the ground side upwards, and only just sufficiently distant to be
quite out of the focus.

VI.—On the Spherules which compose the Ribs of the Scales of
the Red Admiral Butterfly (Vanessa Atalanta), and the Lepisma
Saccharina. By G. W. Royston-Picorr, M.A., &.

Tue scales of this splendid insect exhibit by reflected light fine
shades of red, brown, and yellow. Some of them are intensely
black, resembling the dead black of the finest velvet. It is upon
these apparently black scales I now propose to make a few observa-
tions with a succession of object-glasses.

1. By transmitted light with a low-angled “ inch,” the particular
scale now under notice is of a fine Indian-ink colour, approaching
burnt sienna; daylight without sunshine. Under a fine half-inch

VOL. IX. FE

60 On the Spherules which compose the Ribs of the Scales

and a “C eye-piece” magnifying about 200 diameters, the dark
colour is seen to be owing to very dark ribs, with bright intercostal
spaces—brighter as they approach the quill; and these spaces
appear filled with some kind of structure upon drawing out the
tube 4 inches, so as to give about 300 diameters.

Some of the scales adhere to the under side of the cover, and
these are better defined. Inch and a half condenser (direct light),
without stops (a very fine Ross objective).

2. Fine Ross Quarter “1851.” The ribs assume a pale bluish
colour, and the pale intercostal spaces a pale rosy hue. This
appearance 1s best seen towards the quill end, and is easily brought
out with a delicate fine adjustment.* Aperture of $ 70°.

An antique 3th (4th) of Powell’s make (Aperture 60°), with
A eye-piece shows the ribs much darker, but clearly beaded. No
appearance of rose colour, but a faint bluishness. ‘The scale has
been crushed in places, and in the wide gaps of the openings appear
very dark clusters of minute bodies, resembling granules, in strong
relievo. It is noon, and a cloudy grey day.

3. Powell and Lealand’s fine 1862 dry 1th, A eye-piece. The
ribs are indistinctly beaded, and very dark; the intercostal spaces
light and translucent; the granules indistinct in the broken u
spaces. The edges of the quill are somewhat thick and blurred.
A few isolated spherules lie in the open spaces, surrounded by a
white halo. With the “ C eye-piece” and a power of 800, above
the bead appears a bright focal point (which demonstrates its con-
vexity) ; in concave objects the bright focal point lies below the
surface in “dry mounted ”’ objects.

It appears probable the bead can be measured by finer definition
with a good light and Powell and Lealand’s new immersion lth,

I now substitute a very fine half-inch objective for the 14-inch
condenser in order to get more light.

The ribs appear narrower, and the intercostal spaces full of
some kind of structure, apparently granular, which is still more
distinct with condenser formed by the “ Ross 1851” Quarter.

4. Beye-piece ; Powell and Lealand’s new immersion 1th, + con-
denser, dull daylight as before. The ribs appear darker, Indian-
ink colour, thinner, sharper, cleaner; between the ribs (and cross-
ways like the rounds of a ladder, only thickly set together) small
dark beads are arranged in rows of three spherules in contact. In
the broken spaces I perceive a set of trios isolated, still arranged
nearly in straight transverse lines, and these spherules appear
nearly half the diameter of a rib. At the quill end of the scale
the spherules appear fainter.

* T cannot too highly praise the extreme steadiness and delicacy of the new

stand Messrs. Powell and Lealand have specially constructed for me, with a
silver-rimmed stage divided to minutes of arc of rotation.

of the Red Admiral Butterfly, and the Lepisma Saccharina. 61

A remarkable deterioration in definition occurs with scales
attached to the slide and laying below those adherent to the cover.

In order to measure the diameter of these cross trios of spherules,
an eye-plece micrometer was now used to examine the thousandths
of an inch on a stage micrometer. The divisions in the eye-piece*
were 200 to the inch. One stage thousandth exactly measured
13°5 divisions; the power employed was 675 = 1350 +2. The
spherules appeared to be just four to the width of one division of
eye-piece. ‘The diameter of one spherule therefore = }th of these
divisions.

1 1
1 divisi ee Es Spe :
Dope i000 > 1°? = 73500
1 1 1

ith division = ri x Exit ST

The spherules are therefore about 1-44000th of an inch,
set close together in contact. Now it is singular that although
Nobert’s Banp VII. on the new plate contains about

45,000 divisions to the inch,

they are very much easier to be seen than these spherules separated
from centre to centre by almost the very same interval. Indeed,
in the case of the spherules in contact there are only minute
notches 0coo, whilst in Nobert’s bands there is a clear space between
the lines; and this notch is much less than the spaces of Nobert’s
lines of Bann VII.t

I think that those of our Fellows who will take the trouble to
examine the spherules of the Red Admiral scales, will quickly
discover that (with an inch and a half object-glass condenser) on
a cloudy day it is only by their very best glasses they can
detect the cross rows of beads in the intercostal spaces. Perhaps
the rationale of the easier visibility of Nobert’s lines 50,000 to the
inch, as compared with equivalent spherules in close contact, will
be more apparent by means of a diagram.t

Let A B, A B be a pair of Nobert’s lines of Band VIII., about
50,000 per inch; C CO, the centres of two spherules, whose diameter
is the same, viz, 1-50000th. Now the visibility of these spherules

* This eye-piece is described at page 5 of the last number of Journal. When
the “lens-micrometer”’ is divided 100 per inch, the power 675 is indicated at sight
_ by the stage micrometer, but at 200 per inch, it would read, of course, 1375 instead
of 675.

+ Tolles’ immersion ;1,th with a power of 800 showed the 8th band with
central light, which rates at about 50,000 per inch. Wales’ ith with a power of
475 showed them with oblique sunlight : a fine performance.

{ The letters A A, B Bin the diagram should have been engraved at points
close to the lines touching the circles; moreover, the fine lines drawn by the en-
graver are merely intended as a shading, A C B in each case representing two con-
secutive single lines of a band,

rie

~

62 On the Spherules which compose the ibs of the Seales

depends chiefly on the curved areas, B D B, A D A, formed by
completing the square, A B, B A, and in the difference between
the areas of the two inscribed semicircles and the square, 7. e.

between the area of a square and its inscribed circle, 7. e. between
1:0000 and 0°7854 for a square of diameter 1, or 0°2146, ae.
one-fifth nearly; so that the combined areas of these curved
notches are only about 1th of the corresponding square, or, allowing
for the breadth of a Nobert’s line, we may at least say one-fourth.
The double notches therefore which really enable the eye in such
minute objects to discriminate the beaded form, are four times smaller
in area than the space corresponding to Nobert’s lines ruled at a
similar rate.

On precisely the same principle, when first diatoms began to be
studied, the lines formed by shadows disposed in lines were much
more easily made out than the beading projecting the shadows. It
would be interesting if some of our Fellows would work at this
question of the comparative easiness of distinguishing lines drawn
at the same rate of closeness, or of defining rows of spherules in
close contact. The retina repeats, as it were, the sensation all
along the line which is seen; and a much fainter line can be
distinguished than dots in close proximity, which if dotted on paper
and removed to a distance quickly run into a line, whilst finer dark
lines drawn at the same intervals as the dots still remain visible.
Of course the case is quite altered if brilliant dots be used, as these,

of the Red Admiral Butterfly, and the Lepisma Saccharina. 63

if widely separated and very brilliant, can be seen almost as easily
as lines, especially if the eye glances near them rather than at them
directly, as well known to astronomers.

Nobert’s New Bands are indicated to be from y555 to yohooth
of a Paris Line. Now, according to Babbage, the French foot ig
equal to 1°0657654 English foot, and the line is the 1-12th of
a pouce, which is the 1-12th of a French foot. By these data I
find the French line is 0°088813783 English inch, and not
0088815, as generally given. This makes some difference in the
assigned English divisions per inch, and for those who may feel
interested in comparing the visibility of Nobert’s Bands with rows
of spherules in contact of the same category, viz. so many to the
inch, I now add the result of some calculations accurately verified.
(The decimals are given merely to show the care taken.)

Banp. No. of Spaces per inch. BAND. No. of Spaces per inch.
To anes os) EV259-51358 XE...) '67,557-08148
BU, ced} ea | 22519-02716 LE ey eei) eseloogg06
TAYE | ae gb) eBHe (te ear AOI XV. .. .. 90,076°10864
Vi. ... .. 45,038°05432 | XVIE- ... .. 101,335°62222
Dm Sah Bo OIE aoe PAG DSS) SABO GH alles yore yaye(0)

A very careful examination of the ribs of the Atalanta Vanessa
(Red Admiral) hag enabled me to distinguish the molecules of
which they are composed, viz. minute beads of the same size as
the transverse trios, crowded thickly together. Two rows of beads
to a rib would not exactly represent the appearance, as they are
arranged on a grooved surface, which, from, the action of oil-drops
running along, seems to resemble a corrugated galvanized roof. In
many cases, when a little pressure has been applied to the dry slide,
the natural oil of the scale exudes. Under a Siateenth, touching
the glass, the play of this oil is remarkable, and in my glasses
greatly improves the definition when it spreads between the scales
and the cover. I have seen these component beads, or molecules,
with a quarter condenser and an uncovered moderator lamp.

On the Resolution of the Lepisma Saccharina Scale.

The Lepisma Saccharina scale is far more difficult.

1. The same arrangement with Powell and Lealand’s new
ith immersion reduces the size of the ribs, making them finer than
inferior glasses, but with direct light they appear structureless ;
between them, in the intercostal spaces, a faint irregular structure
is visible. Power 1200.

With slight obliquity of illumination, these clear spaces began
to appear lumpy, broken up here and there with irregular bodies.
Removing the “quarter” condenser, I replaced it by Powell’s achr.
condenser, one half of which was covered with green paper. After

64 On the Spherules which compose the Ribs of the Scales

searching among the scales, and rotating them with the axis
towards the hight, I was rewarded with the appearance between
the second, third, and fourth spaces at the round end of a large
scale, of two rows of beads of a red colour taking directions exactly
radiating from the quill.

At first the ribs are bluish, the obliquely radiating rows of
beads are reddish, and much more numerous than the upper parallel
ribs, which show also a beaded structure. More fortunate resolu-
tion shows the reddish beads of the radiating class intervened with
whitish, which are best seen at the sides of the scale when the
radiating ribs cross the parallel at about an angle of 35°. In this
position about jive beads can be counted crossing between the upper
parallel ribs. As before, those scales are the easiest to resolve
which lie adherent to the cover. Those with a film of air between
require a different correction for spherical observation.

In some cases a good definition shows black ribs and bright
radiating ribs of the same size, with red interspaces. At this
degree of fine definition the edging of the scale at the round end
is a clean black line, and the ribs project slightly, like black points.

2. A eye-piece ; Powell and Lealand’s },th dry; same illumina-
tion. Upper ribs show very small and clear, shaded with two black
lines very sharp. At the places where the lower radiations cross
them, the black lines are obliterated, so as to give a peculiar shaded
twisted appearance, alternating with blue and red shading. On
rotating the scale so that its axis forms an angle of 15° with the
light, the lower radiating ribs, where they cross the upper at an
augle of 40°, also show black lies precisely similar to the others ;
both sets of shadows, of a sharp, clear, decisive character, being
seen at once, forming an elegant black lattice-work, the red beaded
rib below colouring the upper ribs at the parts where they intersect.

A very fine phenomenon is exhibited of the effect of the ribs
crossing obliquely, which appears to me a perfectly satisfactory
proof of the nature of the structure, vzz. obliteration of the black
line double shadows of both sets of ribbing at the places of intersec-
tion; also the colours of the lower ribs glistening there through
the upper at graduated intervals, just as are seen when a fine
colourless rod of glass is obliquely crossed upon a pink one; still
more so when a series of such rods are crossed in radiating positions.

I have the more pleasure in describing this interesting scale,
because this resolution demonstrates the very great advance in
microscopic definition since the time when the ribs of the scale
were described as translucent and merely an appearance of a dot
at the intersection of the lines, whereas there are scores of beads
between the ribs in avery small space. At the same time, I may be
excused for making a few animadversions on the subject of spurious
beads and ghost beads of which so much has lately been said.

of the Red Admiral Butterfly, and the Lepisma Saccharina. 65

It has been roundly stated that, when striz intersect, spurious
beads are produced or seen at their intersections. And that this is
especially the case with the crossing striz of the Lepisma.

To this I reply, a finer glass dissipates these ghost beads
entirely, and replaces them by others very much smaller and at
least ten times more numerous. These ghost beads demonstrate
(not the existence of the smaller reality but) the absurd correction
and errors of the microscope itself.

The lovers of these ghosts may stick to their spurious showings
and prefer them, whilst a wealth of fascinating beauty lies hid from
their gaze. Residuary aberration still hovers about our best
glasses. Perfect achromatism and perfect correction of spherical
aberration are at present almost incongruous. Correct the one,
then the other appears. Get rid of the colour totally and you will
see woolly and blurred outlines, thick edges, and spurious beads or
ghosts. What is the pleasure or advantage of seeing for mstance
say forty spurious beads in the Lepisma, when these forty should
vanish and make room for four hundred realities—rows upon rows
of tiny, shiny gems instead of a few non-existent spurious images ?
The intercostal spaces of the Lepisma, like the Podura curvi-
collis, teem with closely-packed rows of beading: admirers of
Podura nails can see nothing in the blank spaces: and champions of
the Lepisma ghosts can see nothing there between the ribs, but
ghostly shams of intersecting strie. In each, these blank spaces
are full; but not till the aberrating obnoxious rays are controlled
can these tiny strings of pearls start into view. A greenish-blue
sky above a setting sun, for instance, gives comparatively few
aberrating rays in my 1-50th immersion. The more colours the
light contains, the more difficult becomes the destruction of the
aberration. The finest effects in Colonel Woodward’s photography
could only be produced when the number of the colours was reduced
to the blue ray which now alone exactly suits his photography. But
we use all mixed together in our daily researches, and involve our-
selves in the mists of residuary aberration.

It is when the ribs appear sharper, thinner, and the intercostal
spaces become broader; when sharp, keen black lines take the place
of blurred thick outlines; when the quill is keenly portrayed and
the serrations finely pronounced,—it is then only that the aberration
approaches a minimum, and then that we may expect to see with a
little obliquity of light the gratifying sight of that mner structure
which has hitherto eluded the eyes of the most diligent micro-
scopists of modern times.

(4 166%: )

VII.—The History of the Micro-spectroscope.
By Jonn Browning, F.R.AS.

Dr. Gaver has kindly afforded me an opportunity of trying the
micro-spectroscope he has contrived and described in the last num-
ber of the ‘Monthly Microscopical Journal,’ the performance of
which is very satisfactory. It appears to me only just that I should
recall to the members of the Society the fact, that in consequence
of a suggestion I received from Dr. Huggins, I have made a miero-
spectroscope exactly similar in optical construction several years
since. The principal difference in the mechanical details of the in-
strument I used was that my spectroscope could be inserted in the
body of a microscope, and removed as in the case of an ordinary
eye-piece, thus avoiding the necessity of another body for the micro-
scope, and reducing considerably the cost of the apparatus. There
is an engraving of a contrivance such as I allude to, on page 120,
figure 70, in the 6th edition of Mr. Hogg’s work on the
Microscope.

My method of finding the object in this micro-spectroscope was
as follows: I had a small slot in the body of the microscope and a
projecting pin on the adapting tube of the micro-spectroscope. I
had an eye-piece with a point or indicator in the field of view.
This eye-piece had a steady pin on the side of the tube, correspond-
ing to that on the spectroscope. On finding and focussing any
small object, bringing it to coincide with this point, removing the
eye-piece and substituting the spectroscope, the spectrum of the
object was visible at once. _

NEW BOOKS, WITH SHORT NOTICES.

A Manual of Microscopic Mounting, with Notes on the Collection
and Examination of Objects. By John H. Martin. London: J. and
A. Churchill, 1872.—There can be very little doubt that the general
microscopical student requires a new work or a new edition of some of
the older books on the subject of the preparation and mounting of
microscopic objects. The old books, though admirable each in its
own special department, are, nevertheless, devoid of all that has been
done in the way of work and apparatus for the past few years. It is
not therefore surprising that persons like the author of the book under
notice should—thinking themselves the ones who are chosen for the task
—give us the results of their experience. But we are sorry to say that
Mr. J. H. Martin is about the very last who should be selected for so
important a duty, and that his book, though it may possess some three
or four points of interest, is the very worst possible companion that
can be placed in the hands of a student. For ourselves, we had hopes
that a new edition of a recent work would have been all that could be
desired, but, unfortunately, that is not the case. So we are left to the
desire that Dr. Carpenter may, either by himself or some one perfectly
skilled in the subject, bring out a new edition of his excellent treatise
on the microscope ; for assuredly, as regards the wants of the general
student, it is the very best and most abundantly illustrated work on
the subject, that any language possesses. In the meantime we cannot
accept books like the present one as offering at all what we require,
for, in addition to the fact that the present treatise is most limited in
outline and heterogeneous in plan, it is certainly almost the worst
illustrated book we have ever beheld. It contains in the commence-
ment some useful remarks on some of the apparatus to be employed
by the worker, and a few good cuts accompanying the text, but beyond
this it is really unworthy of any serious criticism. The plates are simply
horrible, and the alphabetical arrangement of the subject is an absurd
one. We are sorry to have to speak so distinctly, but we fear we should
be but pretending to discharge our task were we to commend the essay
to our readers’ notice.

The Micrographic Dictionary. A Guide to the Examination and
Investigation of the Structure and Nature of Microscopic Objects.
Third Edition. By J. W. Griffith, M.D.; the Rev. M. J. Berkeley,
M.A., F.L.8.; and T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S. London, Van Voorst,
1872.—Parts VIII., [X., and X. of this work have lately appeared,
and they bring the work down to Equisetum, thus showing how much
_ more remains to be done. It is to be regretted that the publisher
cannot produce the book more rapidly, for behindhand as the earlier
numbers unquestionably are, they will become doubly so if it is not to
be completed till four years after they have been issued. We trust,
therefore, that he will use his best endeavours in this direction, and
further, that he will insist on another editor being added to the list -

68 NEW BOOKS, WITH SHORT NOTICES.

which is already published. We speak in this matter from the most
perfectly disinterested motives, but we cannot see a really capital work
spoiled through the proprietor’s neglect of modern work and modern
writers. On the whole, it strikes us that the numbers now upon our
table are better than their predecessors. There has beea more effort
to bring new light upon the subject than was shown in the commence-
ment, and we can only rejoice that it is so. We notice, for example,
that the subject of Diatomaci has been more fully dealt with than
we had expected. A good deal of space has been given to this
subject, but, in our opinion, not enough, so important is it if only
regarded in the light of the test of microscopic power. It appears to
us, too, as if the subject were dealt with by one who was deeply in
love with the old notions, and could only give the more modern views
as other ideas, but by no means the correct ones. Still, this section -
is evidently written by one who is a master, and we are glad that he has
even stated the views of more recent authorities. A good “diatom” plate
accompanies the tenth portion of the Dictionary, in which, however,
it must be observed that the writer’s views of structure are distinctly
adhered to. The allied subject of Desmids is not so fairly dealt
with. A good deal of foreign work has been done upon this branch
of late years, yet we find nothing whatever of it in the Dictionary.
Elastic tissue is. by no means satisfactory. The illustrations are all
old, and the idea of treating of the branches of the subject as though
distinct, is manifestly antique. Endosmosis, too, is a subject which
requires to be much more fully dealt with than it has been under the
present heading. Entomostraca is wonderfully well treated, the
remarks being terse, to the point, and modern; whilst the refer-
ences to work done at the subject by others is both full and modern.
Entozoa, too, is not bad; but, in our opinion, it will be regretted if it
is not dealt with in the succeeding parts of the Dictionary more fully.
Eozoon Canadense is, of course, a new paragraph. It is, however,
extremely short, and gives no very full description of this interesting
fossil. We should have wished to have seen a plate with some of
Dr. Carpenter’s admirable drawings of this remarkable Rhizopod, but
as yet none has appeared. The cuts throughout the pages are too
manifestly those only of two or three groups; why, we cannot say, but
clearly it is a somewhat prejudicial and unfair distribution. The
plates, too, are immensely too crowded; in most instances they
contain some of Tuffen West's best drawing, and these, of course, are
in most cases excellent, but in other instances they are not so well
executed ; and further, they in some degree but very poorly repre-
sent the progress which has been made. With these several defects—
and of course we have dwelt upon them—the book is, nevertheless, an
improvement on the old edition, and we doubt not that the succeeding
parts will be even better far than those which have already been
published.

Various foreign menvirs :—‘ Nuove Ricerche sull’ interna tessitura
dei Tendini del Prof. G. V. Ciaccio.’ Bologna, 1872.—In this paper,
which the author has been kind enough to send us, there is given a

PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE. 69

very full account of all the modern work that has been done upon the
histology of tendon and other varieties of the more distinct connective
tissues; that is, upon those forms of the tissue which essentially
consist of the white or inelastic structure. Besides giving the views of
_tmany other workers on this subject, he enters upon the distinctions

between the views held by Herr Boll, who published a paper in the
* Archiv fiir Mikroscopische Anatomie’ (one of the numbers for 1871),
and M. Ranville, who published his opinion in the ‘Archives de
Physiologie’ (Part II., 1869), After discussing these views he
then sums up his own, and gives an admirable plate in illus-
tration of his opinions.

When the two following reached us last year, we gave them to a
friend to notice. He, however, has been since out of the country, and
hence they have been forgotten. We now can only give the titles,
and express our regret that they were not noticed earlier :—

‘Su Ja illuminazione monochromatica del microscopio e la fotomi-
crografia e loro utilita Nota del Sig. Conte Abate Francesco Castracane.’
Roma, 1871. And also ‘Esame microscopico e note critiche su un
campione di fango atlantico ottennto nella spedizione del “ Porcupine ”
nell’ anno 1869; Memoria dell’ Ab. F. C. Castracane.’ The first
memoir is accompanied by an admirable photographic plate, the best
we think we have ever seen, even Colonel Woodward’s being, if any-
thing, inferior. It represents three species of Diatoms, Arachnodiscus
ornatus, Cocconeis punctatissima, and a species of Hupodiscus. They
are reproduced by the well-known Albert-type, and exhibit the
elevations on Cocconeis admirably. The second memoir relates
particularly to the various diatoms collected by the expedition.

| We regret that owing to the late date at which we received Dr.
Bastian’s book from Messrs. Macmillan, we are compelled to postpone
our notice to the next number. |

PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

Structure of the White Blood Corpuscle.—Dr. Richardson, of Ame-
rica, has recently published a very able paper on this subject, from
which the following may be taken as a summary :—The white blood
corpuscle is a cell composed of, in the first place, a nucleus (or nuclei)
which possesses the power of independent amceboid movement, and is
insoluble in water, but capable of slowly imbibing that fluid until
swollen to nearly double its normal size. The cell wall of the cor-
puscle is a membranous envelope, insoluble in water even when boil-
ing, too thin to exhibit a double contour with a magnifying power of
1200 diameters, but firm enough to restrict the movement of its con-
tained granules within its limits. Its exterior is adhesive, so that

70 PROGRESS OF MIOROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

surfaces or particles coming in contact are liable to become attached .

thereto. Some phenomena observed lend countenance to a theory
that this membrane is dotted with minute pores which permit delicate
threads of the soft protoplasm it encloses to be extruded, and that the
edges of these foramina, if the projection still continues, are carried
outwards during the amceboid movement, forming a sheath to all except
the extreme point of the tongue-like process. The material occupying
the space between the capsule and the nucleus, denominated the pro-
toplasm of the cell (the fibrino-plastin of Prof. Heynsius), is a soft
jelly-like matter in which chiefly resides the capacity of amceboid
motion. This protoplasm appears to be soluble in water and saline
solutions in all proportions, and when freely diluted loses its amceboid
power, which, however, is regained in a majority of cases, when the
excess of fluid is removed. The laws by which leucocytes take up
and part with fluid seem to be simply those of the dialysis of liquids
through animal membranes by endosmosis and exosmosis, as investi-
gated on a larger scale by Graham in 1855; the rapid inward current
from the rare solution of high diffusive power, through the cell wall,
distending that membrane and diluting the contained fluid, until an
equilibrium of the endosmotic and exosmotic flow is attained, or the
capsule is burst by the centrifugal pressure of accumulated liquid.
“The structure of the particles which exist in the protoplasm and
exhibit dancing motions when the latter undergoes dilution is yet
undetermined, although sundry facts indicate that their movement is
not dependent on ‘ vital’ causes, but is merely a molecular one; also
that some of them, at least, are minute granules of fatty matter which
after a time may coalesce into visible oil globules, as in the older pus
corpuscles. In regard to any difference of their motion in the sali-
vary bodies, my experiments as above detailed so fully and uniformly
corroborate each other, that, reluctant as I feel to dispute the as-
sertions of such celebrated histologists as Stricker and Pfliger, I
cannot but call in question the general correctness of their statement
upon this point; for it is manifestly inaccurate to affirm that a half
to one per cent. salt solution still permits the ‘ dancing’ movements
of fresh pus or lymph corpuscles to continue, when the fact is that
the motion ceases in nineteen out of every twenty globules under its
action, just as it would be erroneous to maintain that quinine does not
stop the course of ague, because in one case out of twenty it fails to
prevent a recurrence of the chill. I therefore am induced to think,
from the above investigations, which I trust any critic will do me the
justice to repeat before disputing, that, contrary to the views of these
histologists, no essential difference exists in the effects of salt solu-
tions of various strengths upon the salivary, pus, and white blood
corpuscles; and from this circumstance, in conjunction with the in-
teresting fact discovered during one of my experiments, that the sali-
vary globules, when acted upon by the denser saline liquid, contract
to the size of the blood leucocytes, and manifest amceboid movements, I
conclude my theory, that the corpuscles of the saliva are ‘migrating’
white blood globules, which, ‘ wandering out’ into the oral cavity,
have become distended by the endosmosis of the rarer fluid in which

Oe a

PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE. 71

they float, may now be considered established upon a firm experi-
mental basis.” — Transactions of the American Medical Association.

Diatoms in Hot Water.—It is not a novel discovery to find diatoms
in hot water. Still Dr. Blake’s recent paper, read before the ‘ Cali-
fornia Academy of Sciences,’ is not without interest. He says that
’ the forms were very abundant in water of a temperature of 163° Fahr.,*
a small portion of the mud not larger than a pin’s head containing
many hundred individuals, amongst which could be recognized more
than fifty different species. The most interesting point connected
with the discovery of these diatoms was their almost perfect identity
with the species found in beds of infusorial earth in Utah territory.
Most of them were identical with the fossil species described by
Ehrenberg, from near Salt Lake, but many were new. He found
about fifty-two species, of which thirty are the same as Ehrenberg’s,
who mentioned about sixty-eight. So close was their identity, that
there can be but little doubt that the Utah beds must have been
formed in an inland sea, whose temperature was probably about the
same as that of the water of the Pueblo spring. The fact that these
diatoms can grow in such abundance in water of so high a tempera-
ture, affords an explanation of the total absence of every other form
of organized beings in the infusorial beds, as such an elevated tem-
perature would be totally incompatible with the existence of every
other form of living beings. The time at which these infusorial beds
were deposited was probably, in the author’s opinion, during the
Miocene period,as we have evidence that at that period Spitzbergen
- and other Arctic regions had a temperature of some fifty or sixty
degrees above that of their present climate.

Columnar Dolerite under the Microscope.—At the same meeting of
the, California Academy as that above referred to, Dr. Blake showed
the advantage of the microscope to the mineralogist. Not being
satisfied with the opinion of Mr. Durand regarding a mineral which
he found near Black Rock, Nevada, he says:—“ I prepared a thin
section of one of the crystals, or crystalline prisms, and looked at it
through the microscope. This section I now present to the Academy,
and even an examination of it with the naked eye suffices to prove
that itis a compound rock, made up of heterogeneous substances,
imbedded in a dark greenish matrix. With the microscope we detect
crystals of augite, nephiline or labradorite, and titanite. I believe
the transparent crystals are nephiline; so perfect is their trans-
parency, that at first I concluded that they were holes where the rock
had been ground out; but on using polarized light, I discovered they
were doubly refracting crystals. I am not aware that any of these
compound rocks have been found in such small prisms. Some of the
smaller prisms measure not more than 0°10 inch across, and in the
specimens I have some three to four inches long. There can be no
doubt but that originally they were aggregated into masses, and that
their separation is the result of weathering; in fact, amongst my speci-
mens are some in which many prisms are still attached to each other.”

* A hot spring in Pueblo Valley.

72 PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE,

The Microscopic Examination of Cotton.—We have received a copy:
of a paper which was read before the Cotton Brokers’ Association of
Liverpool, by the Rev. H. H. Higgins, M.A., on this subject, which is
admirably illustrated with a series of twelve photographic microscopic
views of the fibre. Although there is not very much novelty in the
paper, still it is interesting, and to many instructive. The following
quotation which he gives from Barnes’ work on ‘The History of the
Cotton Manufacture of Great Britain’ is not without interest :—
* Rouelle, in the ‘Memoirs of the French Academy of Sciences’ in
1750, and Dr. Hadley, in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions ’ in 1764, had
contended that the mummy cloth of Egypt was cotton; and so it was
esteemed to be till, in 1836, James Thomson, F.R.S., having obtained
from Belzoni various specimens of mummy cloth, determined to renew
the investigation. All other methods failing to afford a satisfactory
solution of the difficulty, he bethought himself of the microscope.
‘He was not, however, possessed of such an instrument, nor was he
accustomed to its use. Mr. Thomson therefore applied to his friend
Mr. Childern, who undertook to secure the good offices of Sir Everard
Home in prevailing on Mr. Bauer, a microscopist, tv make the requi-
site examination. Thus a Fellow of the Royal Society, less than forty
years ago, found himself three removes from an authority competent
to resolve a question capable of being decided in a few moments by
the aid of a very ordinary microscope.” ‘The author sums up the
advantages of the microscope in the examination of cotton thus :—
“(1.) It may probably be found useful chiefly in deciding questions
of some difficulty: for example, in comparing various kinds of Surat,
or North American cottons. Where two samples are apparently equal —
in value and suitability, the microscope may give a decided preference
to one of them ; and a decision thus formed would probably be justified
by the manufacturer. It is not altogether improbable that the micro-
scope may lead to a more correct appreciation of some kinds of cotton
which may hitherto have been under-rated or over-rated. (2.) The
microscope may greatly facilitate and generalize the power of judging
cotton.”

Larve in the Human Ear.—The ‘ Lancet’ of Dec. 14, 1872, con-
tains an article on this subject which is of interest in connection with
the subject mentioned in the last ‘H. M.J. It appears that in
a recent number of the ‘ Archives of Ophthalmology and Otology ’“—
a publication brought out simultaneously in English and German—
Dr. Blake, of Boston, describes four cases of the occurrence of dip-
terous larve in the human ear. In one of these cases the larva was
that of Muscida sarcophaga, and in another case that of M. lucilia,
which was probably also present in the fourth case. The presence of
these larve is always associated with an otitis media purulenta, which
can hardly be wondered at if we bear in mind the nasty predilections
of the ordinary blow-fly. M. lucilia is oviparous ; from which may
be explained the fact that in the cases in which it was present only
a single larva was found, most of the eggs having been presumably
washed away by the fetid secretions from the ear. M. sarcophaga,
on the other hand, whose larvee were more numerous, five and four

: PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE. te

being respectively present in the cases recorded, and being visible as
“a white undulating mass,” is viviparous, the larva being seen at birth
to protrude from the abdomen of the fly, and move its head as if in
search of some point of attachment; and, should a piece of meat be
presented to it, “the mandibles are driven into it, and the larva with-
draws itself from the body of the mother, and is immediately followed
by another and another, until several have been delivered.” The
intense deep-seated pain and the streaks of blood which accompanied
the purulent discharge were easily accounted for when a larva was ex-
amined under the microscope, after being included between the bottom
of a glass beaker and a piece of meat; the animal being seen to be
armed with a pair of strong mandibular hooks, articulated with a kind
of chitinous endo-skeleton lying within the anterior rings of the body.
When the larva strikes its prey, the integument of the rings is made
tense, the mandibles being thereby extended and fixed firmly in that posi-
tion on the framework ; the anterior rings are then retracted as a whole,
“and thrust quickly forwards with a force often sufficient to bury the
claws up to their roots.” This manceuvre is rapidly repeated, while the
body is simultaneously dilated, the sharp backwardly-directed papille
which clothe it giving it an additional hold. “ We can hardly, then,”
says the ‘ Lancet, “be surprised that these pests cannot be dislodged
merely by the process of syringing, but that they must be picked out
singly with a forceps, and that after their removal the intense pain
ceases and the blood-streaks in the discharge disappear.”

The Anatomy of the Cerebellum.—One of the best articles that have
ever appeared on this subject is one which is given * in the ‘ British
Medical Journal’ for November 30, 1872. We congratulate the
‘Journal’ on its appearance, as we hope that this article is but one
of a series which the editor proposes to give. It states that, accord-
ing to M. Luys, the apparatus of cerebellar innervation constitutes
a subsystem clearly isolated, in spite of its close connection, on the
one hand, with the cerebral system properly so-called, and, on the
other, with the spinal system. It is a true central apparatus, engen-
dering and distributing the cerebellar influence by a special conductive
system to an apparatus of peripheral reception. He compares this
disposition to that of the circulating system. The cerebellum repre-
sents the heart as the central apparatus; the peduncles which emerge
from it are the analogues of the arteries; and, finally, the capillary
network of arteries can alone give an idea of the diffusion of the
plexuses of grey peripheral matter, in which the terminations of the
peduncular fibres are lost. The disposition of the cerebellar hemi-
spheres recalls and reproduces that of the cerebral hemispheres. -
From the periphery of the cerebellum (cerebellar convolutions) start
converging fibres, which terminate in a grey central nucleus (rhom-
boidal body of the cerebellum). From this nucleus spring three
bundles of efferent fibres, constituting the superior, middle, and
inferior cerebellar peduncles. These peduncles all pass forwards and
mingle with the elements of the nervous system, which appear to have

* Tt is No. II. in order.

74 PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPIOAL SCIENCE,

exclusive relations with the motor functions. All three intercross at
the median line with their congeners, and pass then into masses of
nerve cells, constituting nuclei spread out over the whole of the height
of the encephalic isthmus. Finally, from these nuclei start grey fibres,
which throw themselves into a special nervous substance, described
for the first time by M. Luys under the name of peripheral cerebellar
substance. In this way the inferior cerebellar peduncles terminate,
after decussation, in the grey masses of the olivary body (anterior and
inferior olive of M. Luys). This anatomist has found in the thickness
of the posterior pyramid an analogous nucleus of grey matter, which
enters similarly into connection with the inferior cerebellar peduncles.
This is the inferior and posterior olive. The median peduncular
fibres cross each other also in the median line, and pass into the grey
matter of the protuberance. Finally, the superior cerebellar pedun-
cles, after a similar intercrossing, terminate in a grey mass, already
described by Stilling as the red nucleus, and which M. Luys proposes
to call superior olive, seeing its striking analogy with the grey nucleus
of the bulbar olive. From these different nuclei start grey fibrils, the
ultimate termination of the peduncular fibres, which put themselves
in connection with the fibres of the anterior spinal system, by the
medium of the peripheral cerebellar substance. The latter extends
on the neck of the bulb as far as the corpus striatum in a continuous
layer, presenting here and there swellings, the most apparent of which
is the locus niger of Soemmering. Histologically, this grey substance
is constituted by a network of polygonal cells, provided with numerous
prolongations. It is probably by the medium of these branching and
anastomosing cells that the connections between the fibres of the
cerebellar apparatus and those of the spinal apparatus are established.
So far as concerns the latter, M. Luys is almost entirely in accomllance
with accepted opinions. It should be mentioned, however, that the
posterior sensitive fibres of that apparatus are shown in his drawings
as all terminating in one ganglion. From this ganglion start two
orders of fibres. Those of one order connect themselves with the
grey centre of the spinal marrow, ganglio-spinal fibres. These are
properly the reflex motor fibres. The others take an ascending direc-
tion, cross each other at the level of the bulb, and, according to all
appearances, terminate in the optic thalamus (ganglio-cerebral fibres).
Asto the anterior or motor fibres, they emerge from the large asteroid
cells of the grey matter of the anterior horns. ‘Towards the bulb and
the protuberance, these cells are agglomerated, and unite in masses to
form the grey nuclei whence spring the fibres of origin of the cranial
motor nerves, hypoglossal, facial, external oculo-motor, masticatory,
&e. Finally, the cells of the anterior horns unite together, and with
the nuclei of the corpus striatum, by fibres of which the ensemble
constitutes the antero-lateral column, and, after decussation at the
level of the bulb, the cerebral peduncles. Combining the whole of
these details, the following general conception is arrived at by this
author. In respect to the sensitive fibres, a part of them, after having
traversed the spinal ganglion, take their course directly into the large
cells of the marrow. The impression in this case is not felt; the

— ee

PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE. 75

activity of the spinal cord only is called into play, and only a simple
reflexion results. The other sensitive fibres, on the contrary, pass
directly into the optic thalamus; there the impressions undergo a
first relay ; then they are radiated by the converging cerebral fibres
towards the cells of the convolutions, when they become the materials of
the ulterior operations of the intelligence. The will, thus awakened,
enters into activity, and transmits, in its turn, its determinations
along the path of the converging fibres, especially the cortico-striate
fibres. The voluntary impulse thus arrives at the striated body ; it is
there reinforced ; thence sets out again along the cerebral peduncles
and the grey axis of the cord, and finally proceeds to excite the roots
of the motor nerves, and to determine movement. As to the cerebellar
apparatus placed at the confluence of the cerebral and spinal systems,
it constitutes a sort of reservoir of nervous influence—an influence
which appears to spread itself incessantly along the anterior spinal
system, and to expend itself in answer to each appeal that reaches it
from the superior voluntary centres. In the normal state, the distri-
bution of the cerebellar influx in each half of the body maintains the
physiological equilibrium. If this uniform distribution be disturbed,
there appear immediately incoordinated movements, blind and irre-
sistible influence, vertigo, and a veritable titubation.

Is the Source of Ague discovered ?—Dr. Salisbury, of the United
States, thought it was proved by him some years ago,* by his remark-
able discovery of the malarial essence in the cells of certain Palmelloid
plants. Desiring to investigate the subject, Dr. John Bartlet says that
he sought for the plants described by Dr. Salisbury, in the ague bot-
tom of the Mississippi River, opposite Keokuk, Iowa, lat. 10° 25’. Not
being provided with a suitable microscope, he was unable to discover
the microscopic alge described by the Doctor. He was pleased, how-
ever, to find the fungi, samples of which he has sent to Mr. Cooke, the
editor of the Journal to which he addresses his letter. Generally it
answers Salisbury’s description. It does not correspond in these im-
portant particulars : Salisbury’s plants are so minute that it requires a
powerful lens to render them visible. A single specimen of plant may
be discovered as you stand. Salisbury’s plants were not less (?). These
have roots + or 3, of an inch in length. They grow on the flat moist
alluvium of the slough and river margins and their drying beds; in the
vicinity of such localities they may be found on ordinary soil in damp
places, even at some elevation. “The specimens sent you are green ;
I have observed them slate-coloured, pink, and black. They vary in
size from a mere point to ., of an inch in diameter. When in natural
state they are globular in shape and of a fresh colour; when covered
with water they swell and present a gelatinous appearance. They
discharge their spores when ripe by slitting open at the top, and a
falling in, collapsing of the upper circumference: so that a discharged
plant appears cup-shaped, and to the naked eye it seems to have lost
the upper half of its circumference. So far as I have been able to
determine with the imperfect means of observation at my command,

* ‘American Journal of Medical Science,’ 1866.
MOL. exe G

76 PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

the cells are composed of two walls, the outer green (or otherwise
coloured), composed of laminated cells, the inner white and structure-
less. Upon puncturing the plants a liquid i is forcibly ejected. I have

never been able to discover the contained cells for want of a good —

microscope. By placing the cake of earth sent you in a plate, and
adding water enough to make it of about the consistence of potter’s
clay, and keeping it ata a temperature about 60°, you will find a fresh
crop of the plant to develop, and you will thus have an oppornnnily
of studying them.”—Grevillea, Dec. 1872.

The Structure of the Nerve Fibres——In the ‘ Centralblatt, * Dr.
Tamamschef gives the results of his researches on this point, which
have been recently translated in the ‘Lancet,’ + which we may
mention usually contains, of late, something of interest to the micro-
scopist. Dr. Tamamschef ’s specimens have chiefly been taken from
the lumbar, sciatic, and brachial plexuses of man and of the
mouse. Those from the latter, immediately after their removal
from the living body, were plunged either into distilled water or into
serum or the aqueous humour, and examined with high powers. Many
nerve tubules, he finds, are united together and enclosed by a common
sheath composed of flat shells, which may be brought into view by a
solution of nitrate of silver. This sheath probably belongs to the lym-
phatic system. The nerve tubules are composed of an external sheath
or neurilemma, the white substance of Schwann, and the axis cylinder.
On the careful addition of ammonia and then of acetic acid to the
nerves on the stage of the microscope, it may be shown that the cylin-
der axis is composed of a completely homogeneous matrix, which dis-
solves readily in ammonia, and in which spheroidal bodies gradually in
about three-quarters of an hour make their appearance, which he pro-
poses to term nerve corpuscles—corpuscula nervea. The corpuscles are
in contact with one another throughout the whole length of the tube, and
are capable of spontaneous movement ; their size is nearly equal to that
of the red corpuscles of the blood, and they may with cautious manipu-
lation be obtained altogether detached from the nerve tubules under
the influence of various reagents; they break up into minute granules,
which exhibit Brunonian movements in oil of turpentine. In order
to determine whether the cylinder axis belongs—as is usually thought

—to the albuminous compounds, M. Tamamschef undertook a compa-_

rative series of micro-chemical investigations between fresh albumen
and these cylinder axes. He finds that pure albumen, in the course of
two or three days, exhibits the same kind of resolution into spheroidal
elements, more or less nearly approximating in size those of the
cylinder axis. After the addition of alkalies and acids, however, the
similarity is no longer perceptible. Alkalies, and especially ammonia,
cause the corpuscles to swell up, and several granules make their
appearance, which are capable of moving in a concentric manner;
sometimes a triple zone appears, of which the internal appears red-
dish, the middle greenish blue, and the external dark-violet. Acids
cause the muscles to shrivel, and finally to break up into numerous

* No, 38, 1872. + December 14, 1872.

——

PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE. 77

granules. The following tables give M. Tamamschef's results in a
condensed form :—

| Axis-cylinder Matrix. Albumen Matrix.
1. Ammonia yap eDissolvesi (3a. sas 4. (\:vs0 |v Dissolves.
2. Weak alkalies | Dissolves .. .. «.. «. | Dissolves.
(potash). | |
3. Carmine .. .. | Uncoloured aaa au ye Unecoloured:
Corpuscles. Corpuscles.
1. Ammonia.. .. | Action slow, distensive .. Action slow, distensive; pris-

| matic colours.
2. Concentrated al- Rapid distension; gradual Rapid distension; sudden

kalies (potash). disappearance. disappearance.
3. Acids: chromic, | Gradual shrivelling; ap- Rapid shrivelling, the cor-
acetic. | pearance of granules, and puscles becoming irregu-
their disintegration. larly angular; disintegra-

tion of granules.

Persistent oscillation of Persistent oscillation of
granules. granules. k

5. Carmine ... .. | Feeble coloration .. .. Very slow and feeble colora-

\ tion.

4. Turpentine

The Surface of Botrydium granulatum.—Mr. E. Pigott has an
important paper on this plant in ‘Grevillea’ for January, 1873, giving
it the specific name of granulatum. He says that, “as Dr. Greville
and others have said, its surface seems minutely granular. Now this
I have ascertained by careful microscopic examination to be not ex-
ternal, although the effect is seen on the surface of the vesicles, but it
results from the pressure of the protoplasm and grains of chlorophyll
on the inside. The membranes composing the walls of the vesicles,
for there are two, an outer and an inner membrane, although this can-
not be ascertained with certainty, except at the base of the vesicles
and where the inner membrane begins to dry up when it shows in
folds, by carrying, and the breaking up of the endochrome, into folds
with it, and in the underground stems, where they are distinctly visible,
they appear to me to be perfectly structureless, that is, they are thin
transparent membranes only, without any cellular structure, and when
the plant is alive they remain distended to their very utmost from the
pressure of the fluid within. The young vesicle which, as will be
observed, only the swollen apex of a branch of the creeping or under-
ground stem, when it emerges from the ground it is frequently only
a clear transparent sac filled almost to bursting with a watery fluid;
after a time minute green spherical grains will be seen, mostly adher-
ing in little groups to each other, and at length they take up their
position on the wall of the inner membrane, until the whole vesicle
appears to be filled with them ; but the vesicle being filled with them
is only in appearance, as it is only the walls that are covered, with a
few exceptions of granules floating inthe fluid. When a full-grown
plant is pressed between slips of glass and examined, the membranes

G 2

78 PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL. SCIENCE.

composing the vesicle will be seen to shrink up into folds, on which
are seen the adhering granules. When the plants are full grown the
epidermis is furfuraceous, or having a number of minute scale-like
processes attached to it, as if it were a very thin outer membrane
broken up.” <A very able note is appended to the paper by Mr. W.
Archer, of Dublin, in which this authority criticizes some of the
author’s statements.

Delhi Ulcers.—We have received from the author, Dr. Fleming, a
short note on these ulcers, in which he says that last year a partial
microscopical examination of the ulcers, which affect the nose of most
dogs in Delhi, was made in connection with a few experiments to
ascertain their nature. The result of this investigation showed that
they were similar to those which occur on the human subject, and also
proved that dogs, as well as men, can easily be inoculated by the
cellular substance from an undoubted Delhi sore. Delhi ulcers have
been proved to be contagious.

The Bailey Diatoms at the Boston Society of Natural History.—
Prof. H. L. Smith writes in the ‘Lens’ (Nov., 1872) with regard to
these. He states that they are not at all equal to what Mr. Bailey
possessed when alive. Hence he thinks that they have been stolen or
taken away. He says it “is well known that Prof. J. W. Bailey
bequeathed his microscopical collection, his collection of Algz, his
books on botany and microscopy, his memoranda and scientific cor-
respondence, to the Boston Society of Natural History. The Algae,
books, and memoranda are, I believe, still about as Prof. Bailey left
them ; but the slides of Diatomacese, and more especially the crude
materials left by him, have not been so fortunate in escaping the grasp
of greedy collectors, Perhaps I am mistaken, but either the collec-
tion of Prof. Bailey, which he gave to the Society, was much more
meagre than that I had seen at his own rooms at West Point, or it has
suffered since its deposit. I believe it was the wish of Prof. Bailey
that the crude material should be distributed, and this indeed was
publicly announced. I myself, shortly after the announcement, made
application, and received about a dozen specimens of fossil earths,
and a few soundings, but in very small quantity, as was proper; most
of which I now have. For a long time the collection was inaccessible,
during the period when the Society was about moving from its very
confined rooms in the Walker House, to the new and elegant building
now occupied. Just previous to this time, and perhaps just after,
there is reason to believe that the collection was very seriously de-
pleted; not, however, by any fault or connivance of the officers, but
rather from perhaps too much confidence in allowing free access of
those who professed to be especially interested in the study of the Dia-
tomacee. It isreasonable to suppose that Prof. Bailey left mounted
specimens (if not the material) illustrating the new genera and species
described by him, and especially those which had been engraved.
Besides these, I know he had a considerable collection, exchanges,
&c., from abroad.”

American Dredging Results—A valuable paper, more zoological
than microscopical, on this subject appears in ‘ Silliman’s Journal’ for

PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE. 79

January, 1873, by Professor A. E. Verrill. The paper records the
results obtained by the dredging parties who sailed in the ‘ Mosswood ’
and ‘ Bache’ steamers, but it is impossible to abstract it.

The Red Blood Cells in Mammals, Birds, and Fish—In the new
medical journal, the ‘Medical Record’ (January 8th), which we hope
will prove a successful undertaking, Dr. Ferrier gives an abstract of
M. Malassez’ paper on the above subject in the ‘Comptes Rendus.’
It is stated that according to the method recommended by M. Potam,
a drop of blood is mixed in exact proportion with some preservative
liquid, and introduced into an artificial capillary, which consists of a
flattened glass tube, in which the volume is calculated for each unit of
length. By means of a microscope, the eye-piece of which is divided
into squares, the number of corpuscles comprised within a certain
number of squares can be counted. Knowing the length of tube
corresponding to the squares and the corresponding volume, one can
easily calculate the number of corpuscles in the cubic millimétre.
Among the mammals the number varies from 3,500,000 to 18,000,000
in the cubic millimétre. The average number in man is 4,000,000.
Camels possess from 10,000,000 to 10,400,000. In the goat the
number amounts to 18,000,000. The porpoise has 3,600,000—a
number exceeding that found in fishes. Birds have fewer than mam-
mals. The maximum is 4,000,000, the minimum 1,600,000, the mean
being about 3,000,000. Fishes have still fewer, and there is a differ-
ence between osseous and cartilaginous fishes. Osseous fishes possess
700,000 to 2,000,000. Cartilaginous fishes have 140,000 to 230,000.
Thus the number of corpuscles diminishes as one descends the animal
series. But the richness of the blood depends not on the mere
number, but also on the surface, volume, and weight of the globule
in the cubic millimétre, and also on the amount of hemoglobin in each
corpuscle. The author has not been able to resolve these questions,
but compares the number of the corpuscles with their dimensions.
The corpuscles increase in size as we descend the animal scale, so that
there is an inverse proportion between the size and number of the
corpuscles. This proportion is not, however, altogether constant, for
man has fewer than the dromedary or llama, and at the same time
smaller corpuscles. The consequence of this inverse proportion is,
that the diminution in the number is compensated by the increase in
volume. This is not always exact, however, as birds gain more by the
augmentation in volume than they lose by the diminution in number,
the weight of the bird’s being greater than that of the mammalian
corpuscle.

The Rabbit's Ovum, its Fecundation and Development.—In the same
journal, the ‘Medical Record’ (January 8th), Dr. E. Klein has an
admirable paper on the above subject. He gives a valuable abstract of
Dr. Carl Weil’s researches on the subject. He states that since the
discovery of spermatozoa in the ovum of the rabbit by Barry,*
it has been held by all embryologists that the spermatozoa form
the most important part of the sperma as regards the fecundation.

* ¢Philosoph. Trans.,’ 1838-40.

80 PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE,

Barry’s observation has been confirmed by a great number of embryo-

logists, amongst whom we may mention Bischoff, Lehmann, and
Meissner. Spermatozoa have been found by those observers in
the albuminous envelopment of the ovum of different mammals,
during its passage through the oviduct, farther in the zona pellucida,
and between the latter and the germ (yolk) itself. They have
been seen in the latter place, not only previously to the cleavage
process—when the germ (yolk) had retracted itself from the zona
pellucida—but also in a later period, when the germ was already
divided into a number of cleavage globules. In all these instances,
however, the spermatozoa were motionless. Dr. Weil has observed in
a number of ova, taken from the oviduct between the 17th and 46th
hours after fecundation, spermatozoa in very lively movement in the
albuminous envelopment as well as within the zona pellucida. Weil
gives an account of four instances where he has seen unchanged sper-
matozoa in the substance of the germ itself, besides numbers of moving
spermatozoa between the germ and the zona pellucida. There were
to be found in these and other instances filaments either isolated or in
bundles inside the germ, which Weil regards as the tails of spermato-
zoa. In later periods, when the ovum had already reached the uterus,
no spermatozoa were to be found, neither outside nor inside the germ.
From these facts, Weil takes it as probable that the spermatozoa,
after having penetrated the germ, vanish completely, and that this
intimate union of the spermatozoa with the germ forms the most
material part of the fertilization of the ovum. Consequently, the in-
heritance of faculties from the father may be in this way explained.
Weil confirms the assertion of Bischoff that the coitus in rabbits is
not to be regarded as the chief cause of the extrusion of the ova from
the ovary ; but that, if there exist a relation between the coitus and
the extrusion of the ova, it is only in so far as the former takes place
a few hours before or after the latter. According to Weil, each ovum
possesses two vesicular nuclei before the cleavage process commences.
As to the earliest changes of the ova on their way through the oviduct,
Dr. Weil’s observations confirm those of Bischoff, fully described in
his great work on the development of the rabbit’s ovum (1842), which
may be briefly described as follows:—The germ is first closely sur-
rounded by the zona pellucida; then the germ retracts itself from
that membrane; farther, the germ divides itself into two halves, each
of these again into two halves; then the germ consists of eight
cleavage globules, and finally of sixteen. In ova taken from the
uterus (four days), the germ is already transformed into a vesicle
(vésicule blastodermique of Coste), which exhibits on its surface a
mosaic of cells, and on one place a mass of opaque elements, pro-
jecting into the cavity of the vesicle. In a later stage (five days),
this vesicle consists only of one layer of cells; that is to say, the
elements which result from the cleavage of the germ have arranged
themselves in one layer, which encloses the cavity of the vesicle. In
a still later stage (seven days), the vesicle shows a circular opaque
spot, which consists of two layers of cells, whereas all other parts of
the vesicle have only one layer. Not being able to find the above-

PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE. 81

mentioned mass of opaque elements at the stage when the germ
vesicle was seen to consist of only one layer of cells, Weil takes it as
improbable that this mass of elements participates in the formation of
the area germinativa, and is therefore in agreement with the earlier
assertion of Bischoff and that of Remak, and against the later assertion
of Bischoff and that of Coste. Weil does not give any explanation of
the spherical finely-granular bodies that are to be found between the
germ and the zona pellucida previously to, as well as in, the earlier
stages of the cleavage process. He does not think it necessary to
conclude that they stand in a relation to the germinal vesicle (vz. the
nucleus of the unfertilized germ), which, according to some authors,
leaves the germ before the cleavage process commences. ‘The method
employed by Weil in his researches is as follows:—Within the first
twelve hours after littering, the female is coupled with the male ; from
twelve until about eighteen hours after coition, the oviduct and ovary
of one side are excised from the living animal, which is then allowed
to live, the wound being treated according to the ordinary rules; the
other oviduct may be made use of at a later period. For observation
of the ovum from eighteen hours to seven days after coition, the
cornua uteri are excised. In the first instances the oviduct is freed
by the aid of forceps and scissors from the surrounding fat and peri-
toneum, and opened on a glass slide with fine scissors inch by inch,
Whether ova have left the ovary can easily be recognized by the
presence of blood-stained specks on the ovary—the openings of
ruptured Graafian follicles. The folds of the mucous membrane being
stretched with a pair of needles, ova can be discerned under a lens
as spherical bright bodies.

The Nerves of the Cornea.—Dr. Woodward has, in the American
journal the ‘ Lens, complimented Dr. E. Klein upon his paper in this
Journal. He says that the “ London ‘ Monthly Microscopical Journal’
for April, 1872, contains an admirable paper, by Dr. E. Klein, of the
Brown Institution, ‘On the Finer Nerves of the Cornea,’ which sub-
stantially corroborates Cohnheim’s observations, while some new and
important points are added. This paper is illustrated by two admi-
rable plates, to the accuracy of which I bear my humble testimony.
The chief point of difference between Cohnheim and Klein is, that
while the former thinks the sensitive nerves of the cornea terminate
in various animals in the substance of the anterior layer of epithelium,
or on its surface, in free extremities, the latter holds that the peri-
pheral termination is a network. The difference of opinion appears
to result from the circumstance that Cohnheim used perpendicular,
Klein oblique sections. At the Museum both have been made, and
both correspond to the descriptions of the distinguished investigators
named. After careful comparison, I am disposed to approve the
modification of Cohnheim’s views adopted by Klein as best covering
all the facts of the case.”

Dr. Beale’s Theories from an American point of view.—Dr. Dan-
forth, who is pathologist to St. Luke’s Hospital, Chicago, in a recent
paper says that to “ Professor Lionel 8. Beale, of London, the world

~

82 PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

is more indebted, it seems to me, than it has yet seen fit to acknow-
ledge. Nor is this at all strange. Clad in an impenetrable garment
of good stiff English egotism; firmly convinced of the absolute cor-
rectness of his own views, and the absolute incorrectness of the views
of everybody else; ready at all times to fancy himself ‘ hit,’ and more
than ready to strike back ; the author of two or three very useful, and
a far larger number of very useless, books; a writer of ordinary
ability, but of extraordinary productiveness so far as pages of octavo
are concerned; these qualities, either singly or combined, are not cal-
culated to win the esteem or command the confidence of the great
brotherhood of scientists. And yet Professor Beale deserves the
highest commendation. He is an indefatigable worker; as a micro-
scopist he has few equals, and probably no superiors, and he is largely
endowed with that quality of persistency which always means results.
His cell theory is attractive and plausible, and, so far as the function
of the nucleus is concerned, has been accepted by a considerable
number of observers, and is likely to increase rather than diminish
its adherents. The cell, as a whole, he calls the ‘elementary part’ ;
the nucleus, ‘germinal matter’ (more recently, ‘bioplast’); and all
outside the nucleus, ‘formed material.’ The ‘formed material’ is
solely the product of the action of the ‘germinal matter’; through
the agency of the ‘formed material’ the various functions of the
body are carried on; and yet, by a strange paradox, this very ‘formed
material’ is, according to Dr. Beale, dead, or, to employ a softer
phrase, ‘non-living.’ ”

Dr. Bastian’s Experiments on the Beginnings of Life.—Under this
heading Dr. Sanderson, F.R.S., contributes the following valuable
information to ‘ Nature, January 9th, 1873 :—“ In every experimental
science it is of great importance that the methods by which leading
facts can be best demonstrated should be as clearly defined and as
widely known as possible. This is particularly true as regards
physiology, a science of which the experimental basis is as yet im-
perfect. All experiments by which a certainty can be shown to exist
where there was before a doubt, serve as foundation stones. It is well
worth while taking some pains to lay them properly. Your readers
are aware that Dr. Bastian, in his work on the Beginnings of Life, has
asserted that in certain infusions the ‘lower organisms’ come into
existence under conditions which have been generally admitted to
exclude the possibility of the pre-existence of living germs. It is also
well known that these experimental results are disputed. Not long
ago I witnessed the opening of a number of experimental flasks
charged many months ago by a friend of mine with infusions sup-
posed to be similar to those recommended by Dr. Bastian. The flasks
had been boiled and closed hermetically, according to Dr. Bastian’s
method. Finding on careful microscopical examination that the con-
tents of the flasks contained no living organisms, I charged calcined
tubes with the liquids, sealed them hermetically, and forwarded them
to Dr. Bastian. When I next saw him he pointed out that two of the
three liquids used were not those which he had recommended, that if
the infusions had been properly prepared there would not have been

PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE. 83

any necessity for keeping them many months before examination, that
his results with organic infusions were obtained after a few days, and
that they were generally of a most unmistakable nature. To satisfy
my doubts on the subject he most kindly offered to repeat his experi-
ments relating to the production of living organisms in infusions of
hay and turnip in my presence. To this proposal (although I have
hitherto taken no part in the controversy relating to spontaneous
generation, and do not intend to take any) I gladly acceded, at the
same time engaging to publish the results without delay. Fifteen ex-
periments were made. They were in three series, the dates of which
were respectively, Dec. 14, Lec. 20, and Dec. 27,” of which we publish
only the third, referring our readers to ‘Nature’ for the more full
results, which are of the highest interest. Dr. Sanderson says that
even after two series of experiments, which quite bore out Dr. Bas-
tian’s conclusions, “it appeared to me desirable to ascertain whether
the condition of the internal surface of the glass vessels exercised any
influence on the result. I therefore heated two retorts to 250° C.,
keeping them at that temperature for half an hour, and closed them
while hot in the blow-pipe flame. These Dr. Bastian charged by
breaking off their points under the surface of a neutral infusion of
turnip with cheese, freshly prepared for the purpose, without employ-
ing any of the rind. The retorts were boiled and sealed in the same
way as before, excepting that whereas one was boiled only five minutes
the other was boiled ten minutes. The specific gravity of the infusion
used was 1013. A third uncalcined retort was charged with some of
the same infusion containing no cheese. This was also boiled for ten
minutes. I was out of town from the 28th to the 30th, and therefore
did not examine the retorts until the 51st. Dr. Bastian informed me
that on the 28th, twenty-one hours after preparation, the liquids in
both the calcined retorts were distinctly turbid, the temperature of the
water-bath being 32° C.; and that sixty-six hours after preparation,
whilst the turbidity was much more marked, each flask also contained
what appeared to be a ‘ pellicle,’ which had formed and sunk. At
this period the fluid in the third flask had also become very decidedly
turbid. (a.) Neutral turnip infusion with cheese in calcined retort, boiled
ten minutes.—The retort having been tested in the way previously
described, was opened on the 31st. The liquid was very foetid, had an
acid reaction, and contained much scum. It was found to be full of
Bacteria, whilst Leptothrix existed in abundance in portions of the
scum, together with granules of various sizes which refracted light
strongly. (b.) The same boiled five minutes.—The state of the liquid
was the same as that just described. (c.) Neutral infusion without
cheese, boiled ten minutes ; retort not calcined.—In this liquid the rods
and filaments were much less numerous. In other respects its cha-
racters were the same. In each case before opening the retort it was
observed that a portion of its neck became drawn in when exposed to
the blow-pipe flame. As regards the results of the foregoing experi-
ments, it is unnecessary for me to say anything as to their bearing on
the question of heterogenesis. The subject has already been frequently
discussed in your columns. The accuracy of Dr. Bastian’s statements

84 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

of fact with reference to the particular experiments now under consi-
deration, has been publicly questioned. I myself doubted it, and ex-
pressed my doubts, if not publicly, at least in conversation. I am
content to have established—at all events to my own satisfaction—
that, by following Dr. Bastian’s directions, infusions can be prepared
which are not deprived, by an ebullition of from five to ten minutes, of
the faculty of undergoing those chemical changes which are charac-
terized by the presence of swarms of Bacteria, and that the develop-
ment of these organisms can proceed with the greatest activity in
hermetically-sealed glass vessels, from which almost the whole of the
air has been expelled by boiling.”

NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

Monochromatic Sunlight, by means of Glass Plates.—In a
recent nnmber of the ‘American Naturalist’ it is stated that Mr. J.
Edwards Smith, of Ashtabula, Ohio, has obtained light with which he
is perfectly satisfied, by means of a light sky-blue and darker green
glasses. He prefers to use one blue glass combined with two or three
green ones, the best shades being ascertained by trial. Several such
sets, of different depths of colour, may be mounted in a series, like
magic-lantern pictures, so that either set can be brought easily over
the hole in the shutter. By sunlight transmitted through such a
combination of glasses, and without condenser or apparatus of any
other kind, he “resolves” all the shells of the Probe Platte with per-
fect ease. He considers the light thus modified as good as the more
nearly monochromatic light of the troublesome ammonia-sulphate
cells.

An interesting paper on the Thysanurade is contributed by one
of our Fellows, Mr. S. J. M‘Intire, to ‘Science Gossip’ for December.
We refer those of our readers who are anxious to know where they
may obtain scales, to the paper itself, which describes many species of
these animals.

Mr. Powell’s 4; Objective.—This is described by a contributor to
‘Science Gossip’ (December) in the following terms, which we think a
little too flattering, though the glass is certainly a wonderful piece of
mechanism and the definition remarkably good :—It appeared to per-
form well, defining the Podura test sharply and without colour, and
having plenty of light. Its magnifying power is 4000 diameters with
the A eye-piece, with an angular aperture of 160°; it bears the B and
C eye-pieces, with no other detriment than some loss of light, and
works well through covering glass +003 thick.

The Use of Glycerine in Microscopy. — Dr. Woodward replies
to the remarks of Dr. Beale in the last number of the ‘ Lens.’ He says
(among other things) that as the climate of England is not subject to the

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 85

high summer temperatures which so often prevail in the United States,
it is very possible that glycerine may behave somewhat “ more kindly”
as a preservative in that country than it will here ; though from what he
has been able to learn from the conversation of friends who have been
abroad, and from the letters of correspondents, he has been led to the
conclusion that the experience of the majority of histologists, both on
the Continent and in England, has been, in this matter, essentially the
same as mine. Nor does he understand Dr. Beale’s language, either
in the article before him or in his former publications, as claiming
any constant or uniform permanency for glycerine preparations. Dr.
Beale does not tell us that all, or even the majority, or even a large
minority, of the thousands of preparations he has immersed in glyce-
rine, retained their pristine beauty and usefulness for any considerable
time. Is it not a fact, he would ask him, that even in his own skilful
hands it is only a few fortunate preparations out of many made, which
by some happy chance survive the common ruin of the first summer ?
** Now, as to just what I have been able to do myself, or to have done
at various times by my assistants, I have not a great deal to add to my
former article. Dr. Beale proposes that I should get some friend in
whom I have ‘implicit confidence,’ to cross the ocean and wait on
him with some of the Museum specimens, for comparison with his. If
he really desires that any such comparison should be made, would it
not be much simpler for him to send me by mail, or otherwise, one or
two glycerine preparations of tissues which he thinks it quite im-
possible to display in balsam? I would take pleasure in sending back
what I could, in the same way. Meanwhile, I cordially invite any
English or American microscopists who have seen Dr. Beale’s prepa-
rations in his own hands, to call at the Museum in Washington, and
see what we have been able to do in the way of making a collection of
histological preparations which are likely to be permanent.”

Draw-tubes versus Deep Eye-pieces.—Mr. Stodder says in the
‘Lens’ for November, in reference to a paper which had previously ap-
peared in that journal, that the writer omitted the whole question by
not specifying any length of tube. “ With what length of tube has
good definition been obtained? Thousands are using English and
American instruments with tubes eight to ten inches long, giving the
conjugate focus ten to twelve inches from the optical centre of the
objective, and to that adding some inches of draw-tube. Now, all
these will undoubtedly agree that the ‘perfection, clearness, and
brightness’ of the image depend upon the skill of the maker in cor-
recting ‘the spherical and chromatic aberration, and not on the
length of tube or power of eye-piece entirely. He has by him photo-
graphs of Amphipleura jpellucida, taken by Col. Dr. Woodward, of
Washington, with a Tolles’ objective (a little less than one-fifth inch
focus) at 48 inches distance from the objective: this is equal to a
pretty long tube. Now, this photograph bears enlarging twenty dia-
meters, and still shows ‘clear and bright.’ But he has other photo-
graphs by Dr. Woodward of the same object, taken with Powell and
Lealand’s ,),th (so-called) and with Tolles’ ;,th at 7 feet 6 inches
distance, still giving good definition, and bearing a low-power eye-

86 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

piece well. It is to be supposed that these are at least not ‘short
tubes,’ and are good evidence that the definition is obtained by quality
of the objective.”

How to pick out Diatoms in Mounting.— Dr. C. Johnston in a
paper on this subject (‘ Lens,’ November), says that nothing is easier
than to seize particular diatoms and transfer them to a bottle for
future use, or to a slide, provided the field from which we select be
rich and clean. Difficulty, however, occurs when forms in any gather-
ing are few and far between. Let such prepared material be spread
upon a large slide, covering a space of one inch by two, and let it be
filliped as it is set away to dry spontaneously. With a 3-inch ob-
jective, search the white field for any diatoms whatever, and, upon
finding, encircle each one with a line, made with a point of a match
sharpened and moistened, adding near the circle a dot, or cross, or
other sign, always appropriated to the same diatom, and of which a
tallying record is kept on paper. At leisure one may, without trouble,
single out any desired object, pick it off with a fine dampened point
of cane (reed), not including the silicious cuticle, and deposit it, free
from injury, in a small drop of distilled water placed in the centre of
the slide.

The Use of Osmic Acid.—Osmic acid when obtained pure is a
yellow crystalline solid, which is volatile at ordinary temperatures,
has a peculiar stinking odour, and rapidly excites a severe and per-
sistent catarrh in those exposed to its slightest influence. It is better,
therefore, says Col. Woodward (‘ Lens, November), for the micro-
scopist to procure it from the dealer already made into a one-per-cent.
solution, which he can dilute at pleasure for use. Even dilute solu-
tions, however, have an unpleasant smell, and excite catarrh unless
great care is taken to avoid exposure. A box outside the window of
the working-room is the proper place to set capsules containing por-
tions of tissue during the action of the reagent, which should always
be handled near an open window. The preparation to be acted upon
should be as fresh as possible, and laid in a small quantity of the
solution for several hours, when it may be washed with water, and is
ready for examination in water or glycerine. According to the inten-
sity of action desired, the solution may vary in strength from one-half
to one-tenth of one per cent. It will be found to have a particularly
energetic action on the medullary sheath of the nerves, which ac-
quires a peculiar purplish-brown colour passing into black if the
action is very intense, while the surrounding tissues are but little
stained or remain quite uncoloured. Fatty matters of all kinds are
also blackened by the acid, the use of which, therefore, is undesirable
if the part to be investigated contains much adipose tissue.

Frustulia Saxonica as a Definition Test—Dr. Woodward does
not appear to set so high a value on this test as the Germans do. He
states (‘ Lens, November), that having been lately presented with an
opportunity of examining specimens of the diatom, he found no diffi-
culty in seeing and counting the transverse strie, both with mono-
chromatic sunlight and with the light of a small coal-oil lamp. The

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 87

longitudinal striw of Dippel, however, he regards as diffraction pheno-
mena, similar in character to the longitudinal lines which some have
described in the central portion of Grammatophora frustules; they
varied too much in their distance apart, with varying obliquity of
illumination, to bear any other interpretation. The transverse strizx,
on the other hand, he found very definite in character. He counted
on different frustules from eighty-five to ninety to the thousandth of an
inch, which agrees substantially with the results of Dippel, whose
figures correspond to from eighty-six to eighty-nine to the thousandth of
an inch. The frustules themselves varied in length from °0018 to
-0029 inch. He subsequently removed the cover of one of the dry slides
obtained from Moller with the diatoms adherent to it, and mounted the
specimen in Canada balsam. The strie were then paler than before,
but he is unable to say that he found them more difficult to resolve.
Both in balsam and dry he got resolution by the Tolles’ immersion {th
belonging to the Museum, and that by lamplight as well as by mono-
chromatic sunlight. With immersion objectives of higher powers the
lines were still more distinctly separated, and he obtained the finest
results with the immersion front of the ;}{th of Powell and Lealand,
and with the new immersion ,.th recently made for the Museum by
Mr. Tolles. On the whole, he thinks the Frustulia Saxonica an easier
test than the Amphipleura pellucida, as may be inferred from the
above measurement of its striz, and the difference is especially marked
by lamplight. Those therefore who work by lamplight only will find
this test more extensively useful than the Amphipleura. The photo-
graph, or rather the Woodbury print which accompanies the paper, is
avery good one. It shows the transverse striz most distinctly ; but,
of course, parts of the diatom, which is magnified 1750 diameters, are
somewhat indistinct.

Shall Microscopic Specimens be Photographed, or Drawn by
Hand?—On this question a note appears in the ‘ American Natu-
ralist’ (December, 1872). In the September number of that journal
there appears an article entitled “ Photo-mechanical Printing,” giving,
says O. 8. [Mr. Charles Stodder, we believe], “some of Dr. Wood-
ward’s ideas, and an editorial dissent from them. Now this difference
of opinion relates to a point that ought to be settled by the judgment
of microscopists, and I write this for the purpose of calling for their
views of the question. I quote from the article :—‘ Even the micro-
scopist himself, being unable to represent all that he sees, is obliged
to select what he conceives to be of importance, and thus represents
his own theories rather than severe facts’ (Dr. Woodward). The com-
ment is [‘If, however, his theories are correct, and his delineation
skilful, this very power of selection and construction enables him to
give a distinctness and completeness which is lacked by the photo-
graphic camera.’| Here are two almost opposite principles of illustra-
tion in question. Which should be the governing one? What is the
object of the pictures? Obviously there are two—one for explanation
of the observer's theories ; the other, that other observers may, in re-
peating the observation, be guided by and recognize what the first one
had seen, and this I consider the all-important object of ‘figures.’ If

88 CORRESPONDENCE.

the observer draws only what he thinks important, he must almost
invariably make a picture quite different from the one seen in the
microscopehe has,omitted what he deemed the unimportant parts—
and the pupil trying to follow him finds the actual appearance so dif-
ferent that he does not recognize it as the same. No doubt many of
the misunderstandings or differences of opinions among microscopists
have originated from this very defect of published figures, which have
been taken to be what they purported to be, representations of what
was actually seen—‘ if his theories are correct’; but if his theories are
wrong, then his skilful delineation has only misled his readers. But
if the draughtsman publishes his figure as explicitly as his theory, not
as the representation of the ‘severe fact,’ then he will be understood.
On the other hand, the camera represents exactly what may be seen
by any other observer using the same appliances (which should in all
cases be described), and the student can draw his own conclusions
from the picture as to the soundness of the theories advocated. But
then it must be remembered that a photograph can represent only one
view of an object, while the observer, by changing the focus of his
instrument, obtains a new view at each movement of the screw. With
the high-power lenses now in use, these differing views are all im-
portant for correctly understanding almost any object. Therefore
scarcely anything can be properly illustrated by one photograph.
Many objects must require several.” To which remarks the editors
reply :—This inflexible limitation of the photographic view to one sec-
tion or plane of the object is evidently one of the points referred to in
the criticism quoted above, which, without referring to photography as
a means of proof of alleged observations, or of submitting observations
to investigators for criticism or deduction, only suggested that for
communicating well-ascertained facts a skilful delineation may contain
more information than any available number of photographic repre-
sentations. A good drawing, as intimated by Dr. Beale, may often
supply the place of a long and unread verbal description.

CORRESPONDENCE.

_ Micro-sPECTROSCOPE.
To the Editor of the ‘Monthly Microscopical Journal.’

Srr,—Mr. Gayer was probably not aware that the micro-spectro-
scope described by him is the same in optical construction as the
original form which Mr. Huggins explained, and figured in a paper
before the Society, May 18th, 1865. In this two equilateral prisms
of dense glass were used. I was present when the first investigations
were made with this instrument, which gave good results with the
highest powers and also on opaque objects. This was the first

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. &9

arrangement in which the light from a microscopic object was
analyzed by the prism itself.

In the previous experiments of Mr. Sorby the prism was set
below the stage, and the object placed in the spectrum. I write this
note without any wish to detract in the smallest degree from Mr.
Gayer’s merit in the construction of the efficient instrument described
by him, but merely in the cause of scientific history.

F. H. WenuaAm.

Tae Notice or Hartnacn’s OBJECTIVE.
To the Editor of the ‘ Month!y Microscopical Journal.’

S1r,—In correcting proof of the notice of objects exhibited on the
11th ult., by inadvertence I put Mr. Hogg’s name to the remarks con-
cerning Hartnack’s objective. This I did because they were in his
handwriting. He explained to me afterwards that the description of
the lens was supplied to him by the exhibitor in the usual manner.

I remain, yours obediently,

Henry J. Siaon,
Sec. R. M.S.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Royat MicroscopicaAL Society.

Krine’s CoLunce, Jan. 1, 1873.

W. Kitchen Parker, Esq., President, in the chair.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and confirmed.

A list of donations was read, and a vote of thanks passed to the
respective donors.

The Secretary stated that the Society had received a very hand-
some present from Mrs. Farrants. The gift had been made in order
to commemorate her late husband’s long connection with the Society,
and his interest in its welfare. The present consisted of a cabinet,
containing about 1000 slides, and many specimens of Mr. Farrants’
works with Dr. Peter’s machine. An early opportunity would be
taken of bringing some of the most interesting specimens prominently
before the notice of the Fellows.

A special vote of thanks was accorded to Mrs. Farrants.

The Fellows then proceeded to the election of auditors for the
purpose of examining the accounts to be presented at the Annual
Meeting of the Society in February next, and it was resolved
“that Messrs. Loy and Hilton be requested to act as auditors.”

The Secretary stated in reference to a paragraph which had
appeared in some of the'daily papers, relating to the late Scientific
Meeting of the Society, that, after advising with several members of

90 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

the Council, he had taken upon himself the responsibility of writing .
to the ‘Times’ and ‘ Daily News’ to say it did not emanate from the
Council, but his letters had not yet been published. The whole of the
Council present that evening had approved of the course he had taken.
He regretted he had been misled at first into supposing that the para-
graphs in question had been written by Mr. Hogg, through their con-
taining phrases similar to a description of Mr. Mayall’s exhibition on
the 11th ult., in Mr. Hogg’s writing. Upon inquiry it appeared that
Mr. Hogg had copied that description from a statement written by
Mr. Mayall. The newspaper paragraphs were disclaimed and dis-
approved by Mr. Hogg. He (the Secretary) then thought it right to
give Mr. Mayall an opportunity of offering an explanation to the
Society, which resulted in Mr. Mayall’s stating that the notices in the
papers were written by a reporter, the technical information having
been furnished by him. The Council thought the paragraphs were
very unfair to the eminent makers who came down to exhibit lenses
on the night of the meeting, and they (the Council) had taken the
best means of correcting any erroneous impression that might have
been formed.

The following list of officers for the ensuing year, proposed by
the Council for election at the Annual General Meeting in February,
was read by the Secretary, who stated that in the absence of Mr.
Hogg, who had not been able to attend that evening, his nomination
must be regarded as to some extent provisional.

Proposed as President.—*Charles Brooke, M.A., F.R.S. As Vice-
Presidents.—William Benjamin Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S., &c.; Sir
John Lubbock, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., &c.; *William Kitchen Parker,
F.R.S.; *Francis H. Wenham, C.E. As Treaswrer.— John Ware
Stephenson, F.R.A.'S. As Secretaries—Henry J. Slack, F.G.S.;
Jabez Hogg, M.R.C.S. As Council—*James Bell, F.C.8.; Robert
Braithwaite, M.D., F.L.S.; John Berney, Esq.; William John Gray,
M.D.; Henry Lawson, M.D.; *John Millar, L.R.C.P. Ed. F.LS.;
Samuel John McIntire, Esq.; Henry Perigal, F.R.A.S.; *Alfred
Sanders, M.R.C.S.; Charles Stewart, M.R.C.S., F.L.S.; Thomas Char-
ters White, M.R.C.S.; *Charles Tyler, F.LS.

Mr. Joseph Beck thought a change in the Secretariat desirable,
and nominated Mr. Charles Stewart. Mr. Coppock and Mr. McIntire
joined in this nomination, as provided by the by-laws. It was
announced on behalf of the Council that should there be a vacancy
caused by Mr. Stewart’s election as Secretary, they would suggest the
name of Mr. B. T. Lowne to replace him on the Council.

Mr. Stewart then read a paper ‘‘On some of the Characteristics
of the Negro, as revealed by the Microscope.”

The same gentleman also described the structure of the calcareous
framework which is connected with the locomotive apparatus of the
Echinus.

A vote of thanks was given to Mr. Stewart.

The meeting was then adjourned until the 5th of February.

* Those with the asterisk placed before their names are proposed as new
members.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 9}

Donations to the Library and Cabinet, from Dee 4th to Jan. Ist,
1873 :—

From
Land and Water. Weekly cop ees bash) sal wn whe editors
* Nature. Weekly bert | Moaspnkaced Sos seal ec ate Rica Ditto.

PNthencaliinia sVeCK lye. A etek ed 4 a ool) foals Lae Ditto.
Society of Arts Journal. Weekly .. .. .. .. .. Society.
Journal of the Linnean Society, No. 68 .. Ditto:
On the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. “By W. K.

Parker, F.R.S., and Prof. R. Jones .. .. ... Authors.
The U.S. War Department Weather Map. 3 copies .. U.S. War Department.
The Daily Bulletin of the U.S. War Department. ]

3 copies .. ze : sity owt 4 wed 0 acre Ditto.
94 Slides of Starches .. .. ..- +. ss ss ss +s Mr. Waldron Griffiths.
Cabimetandegse Slides) 5-2. 8. ee sae) ess Poaranis.

The Rev. John George 8S. Nichol was elected a Fellow of the
Society.
Water W. REe&EvES,

Assist.-Secretary.

BRIGHTON AND SussEx Naturat History Society.

November 14th.—Ordinary Meeting. Mr. G. Scott, President, in
the chair. Dr. Ormerod, F.R.S., and Mr. W. Puttick, were elected
ordinary members.

Mr. Wonfor read a paper “ On Certain Wingless Insects.”

After briefly sketching the changes through which insects passed
from the egg to the so-called perfect state, he showed that with the
exception of the pediculi and Thysanuride all insects possessed either
four wings or their modifications ; the halteres, or poisers, of the dip-
tera being, in his opinion, only modified wings, while the fleas in
the place of wings had four scales. He then pointed out that among
moths, which were characterized by four large wings, were some in
which they were either so small as to be quite useless as organs of
flight, or altogether absent.

One group of moths, the Liparide, closely allied to very swift and
broad-winged moths, contained two species, called ‘‘ Vaporers,’ from
their peculiar flight, in which while the males were good fliers, the
females were nearly wingless, and seldom crawled beyond their
cocoons, on which they laid their eggs and died. Wingless moths were
also found among the “ geometers,” earth-measurers, so named from
the mode of progression, and from the circumstance of looping their
bodies while walking called also loopers. Several examples of moths
among these were mentioned, and exhibited, in which it was shown
the wings of the females were either too short for the purpose of
flight, or were altogether wanting, some presenting the appearance of
spiders, for which they might well be taken. Another family, the
Psychide, whose caterpillars made cases of pieces of grass, &c., which
they carried about with them, and which afterwards served the pur-
pose of cocoons, exhibited examples of females not only wingless, but
in one case footless, and withont antenne. In this particular instance
the female laid her eggs inside the cocoon, and died; while the first

VOL. IX. H

92 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

experience of life on the part of the caterpillars was to eat up their
dead mother’s body! It might be asked why some females should be
so different, not only from the males of the same species, but from the
other females of the same family? At present no satisfactory answer
could be given, and examination of the larve did not show any differ-
ence between those which produced winged males and wingless
females. There were other examples of wingless females among
other groups of insects. Thus the cochineal females were wingless,
the summer broods of aphides, some cockroaches, stick insects, and a
very notable case, the glowworms. In the last-named the females
were not only wingless, but alone were luminous, while the males,
different in appearance, flew well.

It was strange that, in some cases, the sex to which wings would
seem more important, should not only be destitute of them, but that
as far as decoration, power of locomotion, and the possession of certain
organs went, the so-called perfect insect should fall short of the
immature or larval form. ‘

November 28th.—Microscopical Meeting. Mr. G. Scott, President,
in the chair.

Mr. Wonfor, after announcing the receipt for the cabinet of four
slides from Mr. W. H. Smith, and one from Mr. Gwatkin, stated that
as the next Microscopical Meeting would fall on Boxing Day, it was
determined not to meet on that evening. He also announced that
Mr. T. Curties had sent down for exhibition some slides, designated a
“ Microscopical Novelty,” in which birds, flowers, and insects had
been built up from the scales of butterflies and moths. Though to
the microscopist they were only toys, yet they were marvels of what
patience and skill could do.

Mr. W. H. Smith then read a paper “On the Ingredients of the
Unfermented Drinks—Tea, Coffee, and Cocoa.”

The meeting then became a conversazione, when the ingredients
of tea, coffee, and cocoa, with their adulterations, prepared by Mr.
Smith, were exhibited under the microscope by Mr. W. H. Smith,
Drs. Badcock and Hallifax, and Messrs. Wonfor, R. Glaisyer, and
T. Glaisyer. Later in} the evening Mr. Wonfor exhibited the micro-
scopical marvels made out of insect scales, which were pronounced to
be very beautiful and ingenious. It was mentioned that they could
only be obtained at Baker’s, Holborn.

Reapinc Microscoprcat Socrety.*

November 5th.—Captain Lang presided.

Mr. Austin read a paper “On the Structure of the Floating-
bladders of the Common Bladderwort (Utricularia vulgaris),” de-
scribing more particularly the microscopic structure of the air vessels,
and the several forms of hairs peculiar to them. The paper was
illustrated by mounted sections and sketches.

Mr. Tatem exhibited mounts of Necrophorus vespertilio, Aphis aceris,
and of the vulvar appendages of Hpeira diadema.

- * Report supplied by Mr. B. J. Austin, Devonshire House, Bath Road,
eading.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 93

Captain Lang exhibited slides of arranged Polycystina and Dia-
toms ; not only for their intrinsic beauty, but to show his mode of
finishing off slides with a ring of tenacious white cement, on which
are described circles of red or white varnish.

December 3rd.—The President read a paper “On the Hyes of
Insects.” This was specially illustrated by a beautiful mount of a
section of the eye of the Death’s-head Moth, prepared by Mr. H.
Mozeley, according to a method described in the October number of
the ‘Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science.’ The paper de-
scribed the general structure of the compound eye of a typical insect ;
but more particularly presented a comparison between the diagrams
and descriptions in Dr. Hicks’ work on the Honey Bee, and the ap-
pearances presented by the section. The possible difference between
the eye of an insect flying by day, and of a nocturnal insect, was
naturally referred to. The section seemed to afford no proof of the
corneal lens being made up of two conjoined plano-convex lenses,
though it was clearly seen to be doubly convex; nor did the section
exhibit the narrow constriction behind that lens of which Dr. Hicks
speaks; nor did the conical lens, behind the corneal lens, appear
strictly to impinge upon the bulbous expansion of the optic nerve.
The writer was also disposed to regard the compound eyes of insects
as more microscopical in their action than telescopical, in which
latter aspect Dr. Hicks regarded them.

January 7th, 1873.—Dr. Moses read a paper “ On Picus auratus
and Picus tridactylus,” two North American woodpeckers ; describing
also the structural adaptations of woodpeckers, generally, for their
mode of life. Specimens of the two somewhat rare birds were ex-
hibited.

Captain Lang brought before the Society the first three numbers
of the ‘Lens, a new American Quarterly Journal of Microscopical
Science, calling the attention of the members to Professor H. L. Smith’s
conspectus of the Diatomacex, and to Dr. Arnold’s views (as con-
tained in the 3rd number) of the nature of the so-called “ exclama-
tion-marks ” of the Podura scale, which he regards as simply minute
epithelial scales on the surface of the principal scale, from which
they may be removed by electrical discharge, or by mechanical means.
He also exhibited slides of selected diatoms, from a gathering from
the Sandwich Islands, kindly sent to him by Professor H. L. Smith,
of Hobart College, Geneva, N.Y.

Mr. T'atem reported an addition to the local fauna of some in-
terest, having recently found a male specimen of Salticus formicarius,*
hybernating in an empty shell of Cyclostoma elegans, the mouth of
which it had closed with a compact web. This spider is admitted
to be British on the authority of Dr. Leach, who states that it is
found, though rarely, in Scotland.

The Secretary exhibited a section of the human scalp, and also
sections of the stipes of exotic ferns, to show the differing arrange-
ments of the vascular tissue.

* Blackwell’s ‘ British Spiders,’ plate iiL, fig. 56.

Of PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Tue Lrverroon Microscopicat Socrery.
Ninth Meeting of the Session.

The adjourned discussion on Mr. Newton’s paper “ On Spontaneous
Generation,” and on Dr. Bastian’s recent work on the ‘ Beginnings of
Life, was resumed by Mr. Hamilton, F.R.C.S., who read a paper on
the subject, of which the following is an abstract:—After mentioning
Dr. Bastian’s view, that life arises de novo in animal and vegetable
infusions, he went on to say — The smallness of the vital material,
if we could trace it to its ultimate form, cannot be conceived. AII
the experiments that have been hitherto made seem only to point te
latent forms, of which the earliest outgrowths which are perceptible
to the eye are monads and bacteria. The way in which they first come
into view, their rapid increase, the changes they undergo, seem to
indicate that life exists in forms so infinitesimal as to be far removed
from view. This being the case, what can heat do, carried to its
utmost limit, with the ultimate forms of matter? It tells upon its
matured development, and that, too, in an almost regulated proportion,
destroying the higher forms of life at a temperature which would not
affect simpler forms. The writer next went on to question the truth
of Dr. Bastian’s statement that all organic matter, in the shape of
food taken into the stomach, was dead matter. He proceeded to show,
on the contrary, that because it was living material from the first
which was worked up into chyme and chyle, that it took an active
part in the process, not as a stone or a piece of metal, either of which
if taken into the system will be ejected unchanged, because it is
really dead inorganic matter. In conclusion, Mr. Hamilton pointed
out the possibility of two forms of life being present in every living
animal and vegetable—an embryonic life and a molecular or cell life.

The Rev. W. H. Dallinger said he considered a question of that
sort too large for profitable discussion of the kind which they could
afford it. The Society knew that he had been, for the past four years,
patiently working and accumulating facts on this really great question.
But at the end of the time he was less prepared to speak positively
than at the beginning. “Facts” of the most diverse complexion
could be produced on both sides; and inferences diametrically oppo-
site could be drawn from them. Eventually, he should haye much to
say on this subject; at present he confined himself to a general glance
at Dr. Bastian’s book. In the first place, he submitted that it opened
with an assumption. Life, it was argued, was evolved from the phy-
sical forces: life, in fact, was correlated with the known forces of
matter. Because “heat” is a “mode of motion,” which, although we
have every reason to believe, is not proved, therefore life is a mode
of motion! He protested that there were truly no scientific grounds
for such a dogma. There is something in life, even in its lowhest
forms, which distinguishes it from all the known powers of chemistry
and physics. The microscopic sting of the Tsetze fly imserts an
infinitesimal portion of fluid into the skin of a huge brute on the
African plain, and. strikes it down to death. Can either chemistry
or physics explain its actions? Dr. Frazer has just completed

~

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 99

aseries of exquisitely accurate experiments on the antagonistic
action .of the poison of the Calabar bean and atropia on each
other in the living subject. These poisons have no chemical and no
physical action on each other. Yet physiologically the one de-
stroys the destructive action of the other; proving that vital action,
whatever be the cause of its difference, differs from mere che-
micro-physical action. To say that life and all its phenomena are
produced by mere chemistry and physics, is equal to saying that
when an ounce and a ton of gunpowder are exploded by the same
spark, that the work done by the explosion was in each case done by
the spark. The spark merely determined — set free — the working
power—chemical affinity ; and chemical and physical forces simply
excite or determine vital action. Even if Bastian’s supposition be
true, that life was at first evolved from physical force, it does not
follow that it is so now. Because there has been one carboniferous °
period on the globe, it does not follow that there must be another.
And to suppose that the lowly organisms we see must be physically
evolved, inasmuch as otherwise they would have taken by the laws of
evolution a higher grade in the scale of being, is to forget that there
are definite groups of animal forms almost as lowly as the Foramini-
fera that have remained the same through all geological epochs. To
talk of the monads as unstable is to know nothing about them. It
requires the patience of years, and powers from 1-16 to 1-50th to
truly study them. He had worked out Bodo saltans after three years of
work with Powell and Lealand powers; had traced it through seven
metamorphoses, but these were as constantly repeated as'the metamor-
phoses of the frog or the crab. There is no doubt that bacteria de-
velop where there is a comparative optical purity when nothing is
seen. But does it follow that they develop where nothing is? Ferns
were fertilized a hundred years ago as they are now, in spite of our
inability to discover the process. The author had developed spores
by reagents where none were visible otherwise; and the invisibility
of bacteria spores, or whatever else they might be called, was only
natural with our present powers of analysis. Where an experiment
was made by Bastian and Sanderson, it is not difficult to predicate
whose results the scientific world would sooner receive; and in a
similar experiment the results of the former were positive, those of
the latter negative. It is easy to get positive results. Proof such as
true science should demand is wanting, that the issues of Dr. Bastian’s
experiments with saline solutions were vital; while the. same want
of delicate manipulation which permitted a fragment of sphagnum to
enter a sealed tube, and to be discovered in Huxley’s presence and
mistaken for a vital product of the infusion until the fallacy was dis-
pelled by Huxley,* would have allowed him to introduce the penicil-
lium, which is a common adherent to crystals of ammoniac tartarate.
The assumption that prolonged boiling destroys the possibility of
life from germs Mr. Dallinger gave strong evidence for suspecting,
and wholly questioned the production of one form of life from the ova
or spore of another. He had often scen rotifers emerge from cells of

* “Nature, vol.i., p. 479.

96 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Vallisneria, and seen them living and swimming in the cells of Chara ;
and Mr. Chantrell had given them demonstration of the hatching of
Tardigradia inside the body of another form. But to suppose that
because they emerged from a certain cell or seed the vitality of that
cell or seed had been transformed into the new form is certainly
to draw largely on our faith. No chemist supposes that a solution
capable of crystallizing into sulphate of iron will by some hidden
process produce chloride of sodium. Why, then, should a conferva
spore produce—say, a Rotifer vulgaris? Finally, the “areas ” of sup-
posed germination, as seen in the proligerous pellicle of an infusion,
the author said had yielded, witha Powell and Lealand ,},th, entirely
divergent results to him from those which Dr. Bastian had seen.

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THE

MONTHLY MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.

MARCH 1, 1873.

I.—ANNUAL ADDRESS FROM THE PRESIDENT.
(Read before the Royau Microscopicat Sociery, Feb. 5, 1873.)

GENTLEMEN,—I am permitted by the Council to speak to you to-
night of things within my own measure; for, working within a
very limited territory, I have no power or leisure for expatiating on
other men’s labours. So far as I become acquainted with the
results produced by the working of a thousand excellent labourers,
I rejoice ; but my limitations are too strict for me to become an
annalist even in my own department.

Besides this, long-continued labour in one particular direction
tends to give the mind somewhat of a narrow and exclusive charac-
ter, from the habit of obliviousness which is acquired by any man
who keeps for year after year one train of ideas in his mind.
Besides this I have the misfortune to have a cat-lke nature—I
must scent out my game for myself, and do not readily receive hints
from others. The creature I have referred to, as you all know,
escheweth change of place; so also do I, and thus lose many excel-
lent opportunities of learning from my fellow-workers. In this
hermit-like scientific life, I have lost much time and labour ; dig-
ging over acre after acre to find what would have turned up much
sooner had I possessed the dog-like qualities of more ready men,
who take the least hint, and catch at suggestions by instinct. After
all, I suppose, this is as it should be; for the human species is,
within its own boundary, an epitome of the whole animal world
beneath it, and nature, abhorrent of uniformity, has evidently
intended man to break up into ten thousand varieties and sub-
varieties. My own idiosyncrasy is merely mentioned as an apology
for the restricted character of this Address, which is the result of
the necessary limitation of my researches; he who will observe
every flower bordering his footpath, will miss much of the extended
scenery around him. My own line of research is the growth, as of
a plant or flower, of those animal forms which, like us, possess a
vertebral column ; and I search in them, even in the lowest, for the
pattern and type of our own form, which is the highest of all. But,
as the field is far too wide for any single worker—the labourers are
few, but there is work for thousands—I am fain to restrict my own
work to one part of the vertebrated animal, its head. And, indeed,

VOL. IX. I

98 Transactions of the

the head is far too large a territory for one worker, so I have
selected merely its framework; the box that contains the brain ;
the basket-work of the face; and the wondrous passages of the ear
and nose. All the forms that compose the great sub-kingdom of the
vertebrata may be considered as branchings from one stock: the
whole group is in one sense a unity. All the forms lead up by
many a winding path to man; they all foreshadow him, and their
very existence has no meaning but as seen in the light of him who
is the head and chief of all. Therefore, when carefully studying
the development of newt and blindworm, spotted snake or thorny
hedgehog, we are ever searching for the development of the form
of man. I cannot be restricted to the mere animal form; I must
attain to a vision of the highest; for, by other methods, I am seek-
ing the same delight in the contemplation of human beauty as the
sculptor or the painter.
“ Be it ounce, or cat; or bear,
Pard, or boar with bristled hair,”

—or “the clamorous owl that nightly hoots at our quaint” fea-
therless forms; or the cold and silent fish—in all these leaves of
the book of nature I find my members written. If there is one
idea which impresses the mind more than another in these researches,
it is that these unnumbered forms, all in manifold ways foreshadow
and give glimpses of their rightful king. No Fellow of this Society
will ask, “Tio what purpose is all this scientific labour?” For
even setting aside the higher esthetic and intellectual end, it has
the highest value in relation to the healing art. The meaning
of life, as life, in all its forms, is the one thing needful to the art
and science of medicine; and all knowledge leading up to light in
that division of human work, to us, being what we are, and suffer-
ing what we do suffer, must be precious. Yet I hold that all these
researches into nature have a still higher value in the education
and development of those excellent faculties which are placed within
us. They yield immediate pleasure of a refined and a refining kind ;
this is an end in itself, and need not be dragged into the category
of a means to something further; yet it is a means to something
further, notwithstanding. In making these remarks, I am thinking,
not merely of my own narrow headland, which I have endeavoured
to make into a dainty bit of garden ; but of the work of this, and of
all other societies established for the furtherance of biological re-
search. Our own most excellent and beautiful bodies will be slowly
but distinctly revealed to us, as to their structure and functions, as
we learn more and more of vegetable and animal life. Gradually the
hidden meanings will become apparent, and we shall see ourselves to
be “ parts and proportions of one wondrous whole.” I therefore bid
God speed to every worker in this vineyard: To him who improves
the invaluable instrument with which we, especially, work—the

os

Royal Microscopical Society. 99

microscope; and to him, to anyone indeed, who adds a single fact
to the-science of life. It has been cast at us, as Fellows of this
Society, that we do nothing but improve our tools, or measure the
markings on the frustule of a diatom, or count the bristles on a
flea’s nose. We need care but little for these criticisms; whatever
we have done, if so be it has been done well, will have a recognized
and permanent value. However, it is possible and even desirable
that we should improve; and this one thing we will do, and our
monthly journal shall witness for us that we have not been fag-
goted together into a society in vain. I am afraid you are saying
this is a long introduction ; it is; but the discourse shall be short.
My proper duty for this evening was not to go rambling over all
creation, ‘‘ rounding about,” as Bacon would have said, but to ask
your attention to some plain details concerning my own work. This
work is on one special subject, vz. the formation of the skull and
face of one of the ordinary mammalia. It was my purpose to have
taken the guinea-pig as a fresh subject of research, but I was led
to change it through the kindness of my friend Mr. Charles Stewart,
who put into my hands about seventy embryos of the common pig.

These are of six or seven different stages, and range from the
size of a bee’s grub to that of a new-born kitten. I have supple-
mented these by specimens of the sucking-pig, and the carefully
prepared skull of one that died in an emaciated condition at six
months old. ‘This specimen, being absolutely free from fat, is as
pleasant an object as if it were composed of ivory. For my work,
as many young elephants and hippopotamuses, or even hairy
rhinoceroses, would not have served my purpose better than these
germinal pigs. Indeed, I very much question if a more central
type could be found. It is commonly believed that the pig comes
very near to man in its internal structure; happily for us, zoology
places it very far from owr group. Yet, when my plates are
finished, they will show the marvellous conformity between the
highest and the medium type of the mammalia. Iam satisfied that
all those who are not in the secret will suspect me of having
laboured at the primordial form of my own species. The size of
the smallest of these embryos is yths of an inch in length, then
an inch, then an inch and a third, and so on. But the complete
bony framework of the skull and face is best seen in the
skull of the half-grown individual, where all the bones are well
developed, but are, to a large extent, distinct from each other; in
old individuals, they are largely coalesced. The higher types of
vertebrated animals undergo as real a transformation as the lower,
such as the newt and the frog ; so that we do not watch merely the
expansion of the parts, but also their metamorphic changes. This
metamorphosis is exactly like what is seen in the lower forms, but
it runs to a higher pitch, and takes place more rapidly; whilst

»

~_

100 Transactions of the

hidden from ordinary view, like the concoction of gems in the
lower parts of the earth, unvisited by rays from sun or moon. As
you may suppose, all the parts in the youngest specimens are very
soft ; much of their tissue being a sort of jelly, having little cells,
or masses of “ bioplasm ” scattered through it. When a more solid
structure is about to be formed, the cells breed rapidly, and thus
clouds of more crowded granules are found gathering together, as
the vapours gather together in the sky. In fine sections, that have
been stained with carmine, these cell-clouds are extremely beautiful ;
perhaps the most elegant object of this sort is the nascent tooth-
pulp, which has the appearance of a granular fruit, such as a mul-
berry. As for the blood-vessels, streaks of cells are formed, which
run into each other, to make a network; the outer cells form the
wall of the vessel, and the inner ones, proliferating rapidly, fill the
tube with blood disks, which float free, and circulate at a very early
period through the canals. The cartilage is at first merely a cloud
of granules, distinguished from the surrounding tissues by their
closely-packed condition. They breed at this stage with extreme
rapidity. Gradually these masses acquire a clear margin, and then
a pith and a bark can be seen in sections; the pith is cartilage, the
bark is its investing perichondrium. And so for tissue after tissue;
for if a cavity has to be formed, the cells vacate a certain region, and
then the new-born cells, standing on end, and closely packed together,
become its epithelium, or lining skin. The first formation of the
cranium is not an easy process to observe. In its simplest part, at the
roof, it is merely the innermost part of the skin, subdivided again
into a dense membrane,—the dura mater, and the cranial roof bones
external to this. But the floor and side-walls are pre-formed in
cartilage, the morphology of which it is not easy to make out. All
the specimens from which my objects are made, are preserved in
alcohol; nothing can take the place of this old-fashioned way of
keeping moist tissues. Beginning with the youngest, these, for
sections, are dried on blotting-paper, and imbedded in paraffin; a
sharp razor being used for slicing them as they lie in the cheesy
mass. ‘The slices are one by one transferred into alcohol again, by
the use of a small bent slip of tinfoil; they are then stained with an
ammoniacal solution of carmine, and are mounted in glycerine, to
which a small quantity of muriatic acid has been added. The
sections thus prepared are very beautiful, the protoplasmic masses
taking up the colour very rapidly. As soon as cartilage begins to
be formed, the intercellular substance not taking up the colouring
matter, a very different appearance is presented, and the tracts of
this tissue are well marked. For making solid sections, and for
dissection of the early embryos, I prefer to put them for awhile
into a weak solution of chromic acid; they can then be divided
vertically or horizontally, being held between the finger and thumb.
Dissection must be done in water, on a black substance; paraffin

a

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Royal Microscopical Society. 101

and lampblack make the best cake of this kind, and the object can
be fastened on to it with pins. The dissection is made by fine
needles, mounted in small holders. It is anxious work, and is done
with the help of a pocket glass. Of the smallest embryos, portraits
have to be taken of very perfect specimens which have not become
shrunken in the spirit. These are of great value, as they show the
form and relations of the principal masses of the skull and face.
They also serve as a platform on which the mind can place what it
has discovered of the structure of the parts as displayed by sections.
After the embryos have grown somewhat, and bone begins to appear,
they can still be treated like the smallest, for the first traces of
bone do not turn the razor. These early traces of bone are of a
rich crimson colour in specimens that have been coloured with car-
mine. In larger specimens, the heads must be placed in a weak
solution of chromic and nitric acids; this acid must be much
stronger, and be used for a much greater time, because of the
solidity of the bone. These larger specimens make very valuable
thick sections to be used as opaque objects, and with a low power;
and each face of a slice, 4th or 5th of an inch in thickness, shows
something fresh, so that each object is practically double. Perfect
sections of the heads of embryos taken from snout to occiput verti-
cally, are of great value; a very fine saw has to be used for this
purpose on the older ones. The section should be made a little to
the left, so as not to injure the septum of the nose. Bird's-eye
views of the skull-floor are taken from unroofed preparations ; these
are very valuable, but they require extreme care in dissection, and
all the landmarks have to be observed and drawn, the nerves,
arteries, veins, muscles, and the like. ‘Then there are lower and
lateral dissections to be made, so that no stone be left unturned in
the elucidation of the problem of the growth of the skull. Now, it
will be clearly seen that such a thorough root-and-branch sort of
work as this gives the worker no easy task; it is such as does not
admit of being hurried ; but once done, it serves as a felled opening
in a large wood; and when such a space is connected with similar
cleared spaces, a survey can be made of what was tangled and dark
enough at first, but which makes fine fields when well tilled.

I cannot give you an abstract of results; everything is in pro-
gress, and nothing finished ; moreover, it is natural to us to delight
in unfinished works, but the objects at which we labour are all
perfect ; completeness, beauty, and unity are stamped upon them all.

How the wnity has arisen I do not pretend to say ; if all organic
forms have become evolved from one common parental protoplasm,
the planting and stocking of this planet has been a slow business:
I more than suspect that there has been an overruling Will: and
that the whole was foreordained.

102 Transactions of the

I1.—On the Development of the Skull in the Genus Turdus—
the Thrushes. By W. K. Parker, F.BS.

(Read before the Royau Microscopicat Society, May 1, 1872.*)
Puates VIII., IX., anp X.

Tue Singing-birds, both as living creatures and as organisms, have
for many years exercised a sort of witchery over me, so that I am
always ready to give them my attention ; and they perhaps have
engrossed an undue share to themselves. There are plenty of
them ; the types of Passerine birds almost rival the fishes of the
sea in multitude; and as to individuals, they are a prolific sort of
bird, and abound everywhere. Yet they are the highest kind of
birds, notwithstanding; and in them the great Oviparous group,
ealled ‘‘ Sauropsida,” culminates. Amongst the cold-blooded groups
the Lizards come in most naturally for comparison with “ carinate ”
birds; yet, morphologically considered, these are mere pupe# as
compared with them. The particulars of conformity and of non-
conformity between these two great groups are of great interest,
and the genus here to be considered is important, in that, in one

EXPLANATION OF PLATES VIII, [X., AND X.

Pate VIII., Fic. 1.—Lateral view of skull of Turdus viscivorus, 3 or 4 days
before hatching, x 3 diam.
7 ,, 2.—Lower view of ditto, x 3 diam.
+ »» 3—End view of ditto, x 3 diam.
- », 4.—Fore-part of palate of same, x 9 diam.
i 5, 0.—Hinder-part of lower view, x 9 diam.
ns 5, 6.—Same object, upper view, x 9 diam.
a » 7.—Inner view of mandible of same, x 3 diam.
53 » 8.—Mandibular symphysis of same, seen from above, x 9 diam.
4: 5, 9.—**Cornu major” of ‘os hyoides” of same, x 3 diam.

Pirate TX., ,, 1.—Lateral view of skull of Zurdus merula, 1 day old, x 3 diam.
5 5, 2.—Lower view of ditto, x 3 diam,
ns », 3.—Upper view of ditto, x 3 diam.
oA , 4.—End view of ditto, x 3 diam.
os », 5.—Posterior part of basal view of ditto, x 6 diam.
# , 6.—Floor of cranium of same, seen from above, x 3 diam.
=f ,, 7.—Part of end view of skull of same, unroofed, x 6 diam.

», 8.—Mandible of same, inner view, x 3 diam.
* » 9.— “Os hyoides” of same, x 3 diam.
Puate X., —,,_ 1.—Side view of skull (with mandible) of Turdus merula, 1 week

old, x 2 diam.

3 ,, 2—Lower view of ditto, x 2 diam. .

as 5 3.—Upper view of ditto, x 2 diam.

= », 4-—End view of ditto, x 2 diam.

i 5 9.—Section of skull (with inner view of mandible) of the same
x 2 diam,

= 55 6.—“Os hyoides” of same, x 2 diam,

* It is but fair to state that, although this paper was read so long ago before
the Royal Microscopical Society, it did not pass into the Editor's hands till
February 18, 1873.

nly V eroscopical Journal, Mar] 1873

WP. ded.ad nat G.West om Stone W West & C°imp.

Development of Blackbirds oileull

ure
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. eds

pais

2

on. Stone.

lopment of Blackbirds Skull.

él. ad nat G West

W. West & C° imp |

iDeve

Royal Microscopical Society. 108

outstanding point of structure—the development of its occiput—
its members agree with the Lizard, and with reptiles generally,
and not with the other birds—eyen the other Passerines.

I have shown the earlier condition of the Passerine skull in my
former papers—on the Crow and Titmouse, and similar studies of
the skull in embryos of the Song-Thrush (T’urdus musicus) have
been made by me, but not figured. The earliest of these here
given is that of the Storm-cock (Turdus viscivorus), three or four
days before hatching (Plate VIII.), Here the skull is seen to be far
developed, although the inworks are mostly composed of cartilage,
and the oatworks of very thin membrane-bones, easily peeled off
the spirit-preparation. Looking at the basis-cranii from below
(Figs. 2 and 5), we see that the notochord has become ensheathed
by a bony deposit; the basi-occipital (b. 0.) has the form of a
scale of wheat-chaff. This new bone is surrounded by cartilage
common to the “investing mass ” and the auditory capsule, and in
the substance of the latter the rudimentary cochlez shine through.
On each side of the foramen magnum (f. m.) we have now a leafy,
lobate bone, enfolding the vagus (8) as it passes out between the
auditory and occipital cartilaginous regions. This lime-hardened
tract of the occipital wall passes upwards on each side the great
hole for the spinal chord, but the keystone piece has not appeared
(Fig. 3, s. 0.). Undergirding the skull-base, hiding part of the
cochlear cavities, and forming an extraneous floor to the “ pituitary
space,” we see the basi-temporals (b. ¢.) like an inverted saddle;
they now form one bone by median union of substance. This
bone is notched in front and behind—the remains of the interspace
between the two original pieces, and also, laterally, they are
fenestrate ; the double top in front underlies the converging Kusta-
chian tubes and the pituitary body. These bones, like the spiked
and winged bone in front of them—the parasphenoid proper—
are ossifications of a thick felt of connective fibrous tissue, which,
however, was calcified very early, and whilst the cells were scarcely
spindle-shaped.

The parasphenoid (pa. s.) is a long scoop-shaped bone, ending
behind in wings that rival the basi-temporals; these wings are
extravagant periosteal outgrowths from the bony matter ossifying
the apices of the trabecular bars.

The whole bone is an azygous splint applied to the under-face
of the soon-coalesced moieties of the first visceral arch—the trabe-
cular arch ; and the wild growths behind are economized to form the
anterior recess of the complex tympanic cavity—the primary
condition of which cavity was the first post-oral visceral cleft—a
crack, as it were, or dehiscence in the facial wall of the embryo.
Strange as it may seem, the “parasphenoid” is a facial, and not
a cranial bone, and the harmonious co-working of these facial bars

104 Transactions of the

and plates, to form secondary sense-chambers outside the main
brain-chamber, is well worthy of notice. The bars of the face not
only conjugate to form their own basket, they form many and
notable connections with the cunning-work of the sense-capsules.

As the cochlee show through the hyaline cartilage below, so
also do the elegant “ semicircular canals” appear in the hinder
view of the skull (Fig. 3); and their form would seem to have
been for beauty rather than for use; yet Nature obtains both
these ends by one process. The great fontanelle (fo.), or exposed
part of the membranous cranium, is still very large; the roof bones,
parietals (p.), and frontals (f.) bemg scarcely half their proper size.
The nasals (7.) have already their characteristic form ; and the thin
sickle-shaped squamosals (sq.) are quite like those of a Lizard at
this stage. Returning to the basal view (Fig. 4), we see that there
is a projection answering to the basi-pterygoid (b. pg.), although it
is here in these types at its lowest development, and shows scarcely
at all in the adult. Farther forwards we see the end of the para-
sphenoidal rostrum sheathing the base of the perpendicular ethmoid ;
this base being, indeed, formed by the trabecular commissure, and,
somewhat higher, by the crest growing upwards from that arch.
Already this part is cleft off from the “ septum-nasi ”: andalso between
the eyes (Fig. 1, 2. 0. f:) a “fenestra” has appeared, dividing the
trabecular crest below from the ethmo-presphenoidal bar above.

The optic nerve (2) passes out of a notch between the pre-
sphenoid (p. s.) and ali-sphenoid (a/. s.): this latter part is fene-
strate, and has below and behind it a foramen (f. ovale, 5) for
the trigeminal nerve. The only intrinsic bone in the cranio-facial
axis, yet developed, is the basi-occipital; but the parasphenoid (pa. s.)
is grafting itself upon the cartilage bounding the pituitary space,
namely, the fore-part of the “investing mass,” behind, and the
apices of the trabecule around and in front. The nasal septum,
like the lateral and median ethmoids, is still altogether cartilaginous ;
the lateral ethmoids appear on the top of the head. The ale-
nasi (al. n.) give off huge turbinals (Fig. 4, ad. ¢.), and these are
separated by the trabecular bar, which is rounded behind, and alate
to a large extent in front: it terminates in the spatulate pre-nasal
cartilage, the azygous model on which the pra-maxillaries are
formed. This rod is becoming absorbed behind, and will soon
disappear.

The ali-nasal cartilage turns inwards behind, and each moiety
of the broad-fronted vomer (v.) 1s grafted upon the corresponding
cartilaginous flap; this is the true “ Aigithognathous ” structure.
I have not seen any “ septo-maxillaries” on the angles of the vomer
in the Thrushes. The halves of the great prae-maxillary are indi-
cated by a large notch in front ; the various processes, nasal, marginal,
and palatine, are all well developed.

Royal Microscopical Society. 105

The delicate styliform ichthyic maxillaries send backwards the
usual jugal style, behind which is the jugal bone (j.), with no
separate quadrato-jugal, in these, the highest birds. -The maxillary
also sends inwards and backwards the spatulate ‘“ maxillo-palatine
process” (Fig. 4, ma. p.).

The long palatines, and the short pterygoids (pa. pg.), are
already well developed, the former sending out its trans-palatine
flap of cartilage. The quadrate (g.) has acquired an endosteal
patch above, but most of it, like the “articulare” below, is car-
tilaginous; so also is the rest of the mandibular arch; but four
investing bones, vz. the splenial, dentary, surangular, and angular
(sp., d., 8. ag., ag.), are already far developed.

I do not see a coronoid in this type. The distinct ends of the
Meckelian rods are well seen here, underborne by the two distinct
dentaries (Fig. 8, Mk. d.). The only bones in the hyoid arch are
the tiny medio-stapedal rod, and the shaft of the lower piece of the
“cornu major” of the “os hyoides.”

In about four days later the Thrush’s skull shows much to
interest the observer (see Plate IX., Twrdus merula). All the parts
described in the last stage can now be seen more clearly in their
fuller development, although very few new centres of bone are to
be seen. The most important of these hardened territories is now,
however, well shown; this is the “ super-occipital” (s. 0.) ; it ig
a linear vertical patch, affecting the cartilage which lies between the
huge anterior semicircular canals (Fig. 7, s. 0., a. s.c.). This is a
true reptilian bone; and I have seen it stngle, as yet, in no other
bird; not even in the Redbreast, Sparrow, or Crow.

In an unroofed skull (Fig. 6) we see the large prootic (also
shown in the last stage—Plate VIII., Fig. 6, pvo.); between this main
“ petrosal” and the ex-occipital is the small “ opisthotic” (op.),
This figure shows the squamosals at the sides, and the “rostrum” of
the parasphenoid projecting in front; the more solid part of the
bone has worked its way into and behind the deep sella turcica (s. ¢.) :
between the end of this bone—now a veritable “ basi-sphenoid ”—
and the basi-occipital, we see the “ spheno-occipital synchondrosis.”
Even in this minute preparation the ali-sphenoid (al. s.) shows its
fenestra, and its two foramina (/f. ovale and f. rotundum). In the
basal region (Fig. 5) the other occipital bones—lateral and basal—
are much more developed, and the cochleze (cl.) are well seen in the
remaining clear cartilage.

Farther forwards, the “basi-temporals” (0. ¢.), and the para-
sphenoid (pa. s.) are seen to have acquired increased solidity and
ankylosis on the lower surface. An upper view (Fig. 3) shows
well the relation of the various parts of the roof, and the gradual
advance of the bony territories. The large size of Meckel’s car-
tilage (Fig. 8, Mk.) is shown by removing the dentary.

106 Transactions of the

The “os hyoides” has still the single bone on each side, behind.
The extreme beauty of the auditory labyrinth is displayed in the
outspread occ?pital cartilage (Fig. 7), which contains much of the
structure of the inner ear. The rest of the figures of this stage
will speak for themselves, as mere advances upon the last stage.

In nestlings of Turdus merula a week old, the elegance of the
sylvine type of skull becomes more manifest (Plate X.); taking
figure by figure, we shall observe how the advance is all in the
direction from a somewhat generalized to an extremely specialized
form of skull. On the side (Fig. 1) we see the skull-roof is much
more complete, the beak becoming more ossified and slender, and
an osseous centre in the perpendicular ethmoid (p. e.), outside of
which is the large “pars-plana” (p. p.). The ali-sphenoid (al. s.)
is largely ossified, and also the quadrate (q.), and below this the
articulare (ar.) is now bony. Below (Fig. 2), besides the extension
of the bony matter, we have the more typical form of the various parts,
everything becoming more and more slender and elegant, as is the
wont in these soft-billed singing types. Especially we may note
the more out-curved and enlarged extremities of the maxillo-palatine
hooks, and the finer shape of the parasphenoidal rostrum.

In the upper and hinder views (Figs. 3 and 4) we find that
the azygous super-occipital (s.0.), which has now grown on to the
arch of each anterior semicircular canal.

The sectional view (Fig. 5) shows the cranio-facial cleft (¢. f. c.)
between the septum-nasi and the fast-ossifying perpendicular
ethmoid (p. e.): the rest of the interorbital septum is soft. The
position of the vomer (v.), with regard to the parasphenoid (pa. s.),
is shown; and the latter bone has grown far up into the sella
turcica, and has coalesced with the basi-temporal (b. ¢.). The
fenestrate ali-sphenoid (a/. s.) has on its supero-posterior angle the
square inner face of the large squamosal (sq.), and behind this and
the oblong parietal (p.) is the huge “ prootic” (pro.); behind
which is the small opisthotie wedge (op.) ; which in turn is followed
by the ex-occipital (e. 0.). The prootic, basi-occipital, and basi-
sphenoid, together form a triradrate suture. I have not been able
to find either an “epiotic” or a “pterotic” in these birds. The
inner face of the mandible (Fig. 5) shows no “coronoid”; the
median part of the “os hyoides” (Fig. 6) has a basi-hyal, and a
“uro-hyal” bone; and the upper shaft has been developed on the
large cornu (Cr. 1).

In the growing and adult birds I have studied Twrdus merula,
musicus, viscivorus, pilaris, and dacus ; the skull differs from that
of the Crow in elegance as well as in size; and the bony tissue
is extremely light and delicate. The bony “ siphonium” is as large
relatively ; but the smaller additional bones are fewer and lesser.
The septum-nasi does not ossify, nor any of the nasal cartilages

Royal Microscopical Society. 107

in front of the “hinge.” The ear-drums, formed by the ex-occi-
pitals; are very large and hollow; the maxillo-palatines are very
much scooped for an air-sac, and are like out-bent ladles, with the
hollow part below. The ethmo-presphenoidal bar is narrow, and
has a large permanent fenestra beneath it, and a pair of post-
orbital fontanelles above. The anterior sphenoid is formed by one
bone only, with scarcely a trace of orbito-sphenoidal lips. In one
specimen of Turdus merula (adult) the septo-maxillaries are partly
separated from the vomer by a “ fenestra” on each side. Altogether,
this is a type which well repays the painstaking student.

( 108 )

IlI.— Note on Reduced Apertures.
By Rev. 8. Leste Braxey, M.A.

WHEN an object is immersed in any liquid it has been shown, with
superabundant proof, that the aperture of the object-glass cannot
exceed a certain determinate limit, which limit varies with the
nature of the medium. But the limit so fixed is only a maaimum,
which cannot be exceeded ; that is, it is not to be understood that
it will in general be reached, or even nearly approached. It is, in
fact, the angle which corresponds to the theoretical limit of 180°
of aperture in air. As in air every glass falls short, more or
less, of this angle, which is only theoretically possible, so with pre-
servative media the actual angle will always be less than the
maximum referred to. Its absolute magnitude depends upon the
absolute magnitude of the angle in air, increasing and diminishing
along with it. To determine its amount for any glass, we may of
course, if we like, proceed simply by experiment, as exemplified in
the case of the glass examined and reported upon in the January
number of this Journal, at p. 29. But the kind of experimenting
required for such cases is troublesome ; and costly as involving a
special apparatus ; and with some fluids dangerous, since the obliquity
of the position required in immersing the whole front will in general
necessitate the immersion of the working parts (the screw-collar
and screw of the nose-piece). It is very unlikely, therefore, that
any microscopist will be found so zealous as to work this experi-
ment himself for his own glasses. Fortunately, this is unnecessary.
In a letter inserted in the November number of last year, at p. 247,
I observed that the actual angle may always be found by calculation,
without experiment. The calculation is easy, and its rationale not
difficult to follow; and this it is the purpose of the present note to
point out.

O O (Fig. 1) is the front of the object-glass, F the focus for air,
and F O the extreme ray, refracted to O X. Then a will be the
semi-aperture, and of course at the same time the angle of incidence.
F" being the focus for the new medium, the extreme ray F’ O will
also be refracted into O X, so that @ is the common angle of re-
fraction. Now the sine of a’ is to the sine of 8 as the index of the
medium to the index of the glass, inversely ; and the sine of @ is
to the sine of a as the index of the glass to the index of the air,
inversely. Compounding these ratios, the sine of a’ is to the sine
of a as the index of air to the index of the medium; that is (since
the index for air is unity), the sine of a is equal to the sine of a
divided by the index of the medium.

Therefore to find the aperture for any preservative medium :—
Find by experiment the semi-aperture in air, divide its sine by the

Note on Reduced Apertures. 109

index of the medium, and the quotient will be the sine of the new
semi-aperture.

Fire. 1.

To exemplify this, let us take the glass experimentally tested in
the January number already referred to. In air the aperture was
found to be 145°, 2.e. the semi-aperture = 724°, and we wish to
find, without experiment, the aperture, e.g. for water. The sine
of 724° is 0°9537, which divided by 4, the index of water, gives
(}:7153, which number is the sine of 45° 40’. This, therefore, is
the semi-aperture for water, ¢.e. the aperture = 91°, agreeing with
the observed aperture within a fraction of a degree; from which
we may remark, in passing, the extreme accuracy with which these
experiments must have been conducted.

To find the aperture for balsam, we divide the same number by
1°549, the index for balsam, which gives for the semi-aperture 38°,
aperture 76°. The aperture observed was in this case 79°, which,
therefore, though within the maximum limit, appears to differ
slightly from what theory would indicate. This apparent discre-
pancy, however, is only half what it appears to read; for it is to
be remembered that the angles ascertained by theory for comparison
are not the apertures, but the semi-apertures, and these in the present
case differ not by 3° but by 14°. In the commentary appended to
the record of the experiment, this difference is ascribed to the fact
of the balsam used having been very fluid—approaching turpentine.
To test this, the index of the balsam being in any case not so low
as pure turpentine, let us, at a venture, assume it to be an arith-
metic mean between the two. Computing with this index even
the slight difference recorded disappears, and the coincidence of the

110 The Structure of Hupodiscus Argus.

theoretical with the experimental results is shown to be absolutely
perfect.

If the glass tested should possess the extreme aperture (170°, or
upwards), the fluid balsam used in the experiment would give the
reduced aperture within a few minutes of 83°; the reduced angle
chen much more slowly than the angle in air when near its
inits.

It is to be observed that the investigation given above shows
—what before examination might not be suspected—that the
results are entirely independent of the kind of glass used for the
objective-front. The index of the glass occurring both directly and
imversely disappears from the compound ratio; so that the reduced
aperture remains exactly the same, whatever may be the nature of
the glass, or the value of its refractive index.

IV.—The Structure of Eupodiscus Argus. By Samurn WELLS.
Puate XI. (Lower portion).

THE elucidation of the Hupodiscus Argus given by Mr. Slack in
your December number did not agree with my previous observa-
tions ; but as I had a supply of specimens obtained from sea-weed
washings in Buzzard’s Bay, on the south coast of this State, I made
further examinations to see if I could discover the appearance
represented by Mr. Slack. I looked at different valves dry and in
balsam, covered and uncovered, using Beck’s parabolic reflector, as
well as Professor Smith’s arrangement for opaque objects, the use
of which was recommended by Mr. Slack in his paper.

The valve of this diatom is remarkable for its opacity, its thick-
ness being about z55"; it presents, therefore, a beautiful appear-
ance as an opaque object with a binocular. The structure of the
outer or convex surface can be readily made out with a low power.

It is dotted with depressions irregular in size, shape, and
arrangement ; between these depressions the surface rises in ridges,
which glisten and sparkle like fresh snow. No arrangement of
light (except transmitted) varies this appearance. The depressions
are unmistakable, and, as appears by the use of the binocular, and
the examinations of the edges of fragments, are pockets extending
nearly, but not quite, through the valve. In Fig. A I have
endeavoured to represent the upper surface of a fragment, and in
Fig. C a vertical section.

The average diameter of these depressions is about gq'5y"’.

The inner or concave surface is much more difficult of reso-
lution; its structure is quite different to that of the convex
surface. It is nearly smooth, has no ridges, and (probably) no

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The Structure of Ewpodisecus Argus. itt

granulation. It is covered with round dots, radiating irregularly
from the centre, and leaving irregular blank spaces between the rows.
It is probably this surface that is figured by Mr. Slack, who makes
no mention of any difference between the two surfaces, but appears
to have made the drawing from a specimen on Méller’s typen
platte. In my typen platte there are the eighteen-corner Eupo-
disci, and three others, and all were mounted concave side up, which
is the easiest mode of making them stay in place.

A difficult question is now met, and that is, what is the nature
of these dots? The solution of this question affects Mr. ‘Slack’s
theory of the depositions of silica in spherules, and also the inter-
pretation of appearances given by Mr. Wenham’s “ Reflex [lumi-
nator.” If we concede these dots to be spherules, then Mr. Slack
has gained one side of the valve only, and must further show that
the upper side is covered with them; perhaps he can succeed in
this; but I think he must fail on the processes, which are as clear
and smooth as glass rods.

If we examine these dots by light both from above and below,
the transmitted light passes through the large depressions on the
convex surface, and thus through four or more of the dots on the
inner surface, making them brighter than their neighbours. We
have then the appearance figured by Mr. Slack.

I can see them with a 4, but get a very distinct view with
& zs, and Professor Smith’s apparatus, and to my eye, with that
light, they are slight depressions, like dents, with a white spot in
the centre as if the bottom of the dent were slightly convex. The
average diameter is about soto0".

I have tried to represent them at B in a fragment more highly
magnified than that at A.

The examination of other species of this genus cannot deter-
mine the structure of the H. Argus, for we cannot affirm the
identity of structure of two species until we have satisfactorily
determined that of each.

I have no opportunity of using the “ Reflex [luminator,” and
therefore send with this a slide of fragments mounted dry, which I
think will prove instructive to anyone who wishes to imyvestigate
the subject, and has access to different modes of illuminators.

Boston, Mass., U.S.A.

[The reader should refer to Mr. Slack’s letter on this subject
in the present number.—En.‘M. M. J.’|

VOL. IX. K

(oq, 9

V.—On Spurious Appearances in Microscopic Research. By ©
G. W. Rovysron-Picorr, M.A., M.D. Cantab., F.CPS.,
F.R.AS., MRI, M.R.C.P., F.R.M.S., formerly Fellow of
St. Peter’s College, Cambridge.

Piate XI. (Upper portion).

Tue “ Battle of the Glasses” is gradually being fought out. But
until spurious appearances are no longer accepted as the true, it is
impossible that definition in the microscope can arrive at that
degree of perfection which is required by the spirit of the age.

It has been my unpleasant task to point out the residuary
aberration of the best glasses, and until then unsuspected and stoutly
denied on all hands. This was followed by very considerable im- .
provement. But the old school of microscopic belief still attracts
its disciples; and I wish here to point out another glaring error in
definition, and an acceptance by such microscopists of the false for
the true. I had the honour of pointing out to the Fellows in 1869,*
the structure of the Lepisma Saccharina ; but as the remark has been
often reiterated by writers against my views that beads are merely
caused by the intersection of striz, and as the Lepisma has been
figured with such false beading, the accompanying Plate has been
drawn from the object in the field of view of the microscope by the
talented young artist, Mr. Hollich, to my complete satisfaction.

The first figure on the Plate represents the spurious appearance
of exaggerated beads shown at the intersections of the upper and
lower ribs of the Lepisma at the part where they cross and inter-
sect at a considerable angle. In this case the objective was
improperly corrected for spherical aberration. In each of the
examples here described, the direct light of a good half-inch objective
used as a condenser is employed. ‘The paraffin lamp flame is also
placed in the axis of the condenser.

I now substituted an old one-eighth of 70° aperture, but a fresh
scale came into view in the positions of figures 2,3, and 4. This
glass, made by Powell and Lealand about twenty-five years ago, has
the middle and back sets of lenses placed in contact; we then saw
the form, Fig. 2, Plate XI. ach ribis terminated by an intensely
black point, and each rib towards the middle shows beautiful alter-
nate thinning and thickening of the ribs at regular intervals, the
intense black lines composing them showing rudimentary breakings
of their parallel rulings, but: at the left side close imitations of the
Podura markings or spines accompanied by oblique shadows, the
spine bisecting the angle formed between the oblique shadows and
the ribs. On examining the beautiful drawing of Fig. 2 with a
pocket lens, these remarkable appearances will at once be evident.

* Page 303, vol, ii., 1869.

On Spurious Appearances in Microscopie Research. 113

In this case, with the direct light of the condenser, no signs of
beading appeared; a faint shading exquisitely drawn at the upper
part suggested structure of some sort in the intercostal spaces.

Progressing in definition, I now withdrew the antique eighth,
and replaced it by the celebrated Powell and Lealand dmmersion
eighth of 1870, and re-adjusting the collar, the appearance, Fig. 3,
was displayed, with which Mr. Hollich seemed greatly surprised and
delighted, judging from his mute signs and expression of counte-
nance. He wrote on paper, he had never seen anything like this
before, though he had often drawn the Lepisma. The double bead-
ing he readily copied and portrayed the false appearances of
Podura-like markings with evident glee.

The whole of the blank spaces shown between the ribs appeared
erowded with a symmetrical arrangement of double beading
straightly radiating from direction of the quill. In the drawing
the two sets are distinctly shown as darker (ruby colour) and
lighter (pale yellow, and sometimes sapphire), whilst these are
broken up by the false Podura-like spine displayed in the figure.

In order to show the true structure of the Lepisma, the
dry one-stateenth was then substituted, and the “A” eye-piece.

A minute apertured cap was placed upon the condenser,
between i and the object. After careful adjustment Mr. Hollich
now drew Fig. 4. The spurious spines disappeared. The ribs
most brightly, sharply edged with a slightly undulating black
border, display the spmes shrunken to a slight thickening of the
crossings of the darker substratum of beading.

Compare now these delicate developments of structure with
the coarse spurious beading drawn in Fig. 1. Common sense
at once revolts against accepting this appearance as even a rough
approximation to the truth. Again, the spurious spines of Fig. 3,
significantly suggest that those of the Podura, once so generally
believed in, are also a delusion. And the delusion is the more
pernicious, because it compels the makers to construct their glasses
so as to show this delusion in the sharpest form. By many persons
the spurious beads seen at the intersecting striae of the Lepisma
are considered quite the correct thing. But when once the real
structure shown at Fig. 4 is seen by them, their faith in their
best glasses begetting these microscopical shams, fades away at
once.

My object in writing these papers, is to induce those observers
‘who rest content with glasses imperfectly constructed to search
for a higher standard of definition. The day may arise when
a verdict involving human life may depend upon microscopic
perfection. I may be excused for saying that I consider that I am
discharging a duty, as a retired physician, in boldly denouncing
spurious appearances when accepted as true.

K 2

114 Professor Smith's Conspectus of the Diatomacee.

The beading here described is very distinctly visible, with my
aplanatie searcher and a quarter objective.

The spurious spines of the Lepisma Saccharina ought to
be seen, as Mr. Wenham described the Podura “ note of admiration”’
markings “with that distinctness and sharpness of definition that
so delights the eye of the optician.”* Both the Lepisma and
Podura scales are formed of beaded striz crossing at a variable
angle. The optician ought, therefore, to delight in the note of
a'miration markings developed in (Fig. 3), shown by one of the
best objectives now made when incorrectly adjusted.

The study of spurious appearances under the use of a variety
of objectives of high and low degrees of excellence, is one of the most
instructive subjects of microscopic research. Notwithstanding that
the famous Podura mark so delights the eye of the optician, a
more profound resolution dissipates this spurious appearance, as
well as the false beads of Fig. 1, and the quasi Podura “ notes”
of Figs. 2 and 3.

It is very easy to produce the false appearance of scattered
spherules somewhat similar to Fig. 1 in the Podura as described
by Mr. Wenham.

VI.—Professor Smith’s Conspectus of the Diatomacee.

By Captain Prep. H. Lana, President.of the Reading
Microscopical Society.

Tux study of the Diatomaceze, instead of becoming easier, is getting
more difficult every year, simply because new genera are constantly
being added, on most insufficient grounds, to the ever-lengthening
list, and because there is no one authority on the subject. Ehren-
berg, Rabenhorst, Kutzing, W. Smith, Ralfs, Arnott, Brebisson,
Donkin, Kitton, and a host of others, besides Dr. Pfitzer, who has
just published a new classification based on the method of repro-
duction of the frustules, are all more or less authorities; but to
whom are we to trust? And now Professor H. L. Smith has pub-
lished in the American Microscopical Journal, the ‘Lens,’ his
Conspectus of the Diatomaces, which, at all events, appears an
effort in the right direction to reduce within a reasonable number
of genera the vast variety of forms in this most prolific and mul-
tifarious order.

Probably any classification of these curiously-beautiful and
interesting organisms must for the present be more or less artificial ;
his is certainly completely so, as he himself allows, based as it is en-
tirely on the tout ensemble and general form and appearance of the

* Page 124, vol. ii., ‘ Microscopical Journal.’

Professor Smith’s Conspectus of the Diatomacee. 1lo

silicious frustules or skeletons, without any reference to the mode of
growth and habitat of the living organisms. As an example of
his method of treating the subject, it is enough to state that Cocco-
nema and Cymbella, the one a stipitate and the other a free form,
are grouped together, Cocconema being, in fact, abolished as a genus
and retained only as a synonym. And so Arachnoidiscus is placed
in the same tribe as Melosira, the first being invariably a free
form and the latter a mere integral portion of a long filament ;
and then, again, on the same principle, the frondose genera Schizo-
nema, Collotonema, and Encyonema are done away with, their
particular habits of gelatinous growths being ignored and the forms
of their frustules only taken into account. It is true that Professor
Smith follows Mr. Ralfs, and most modern diatomists, in this way
of looking at the matter, but it is still questionable whether the
plan of almost the oldest English diatomist, the Rev. W. Smith, is
not the best, as it certainly is the most natural, viz. that of
arranging the Diatomacee according to their habitat and method of
growth, whether free, stipitate, concatinate, frondose, or gelatinous.
Our author, however, in vindication of his system, says that he has
not considered the conditions of growth sufficient to warrant the
formation of new genera, a long study of living forms having con-
vinced him that these characters are fleeting and not to be relied
on; and he gives certain examples in proof of this statement.
Professor Smith divides the order into three tribes; the first
mostly bacillar, with distinct raphe, cleft, or median line, with
nodules ; the second, generally bacillar, with pseudo or false raphe,
or blank space ; and the third generally circular, with a crypto or
concealed raphe. His first tribe contains five families, the second
three, and the third seven; and these fifteen families are again
subdivided into one hundred and ten genera, exactly half of which
belong to the third tribe. To one or other of these genera the Pro-
fessor considers any new form may be ascribed. He has taken
great pains in collecting together every known synonym. Ou
looking over his index to the synonym register in the third
number of the ‘Lens,’ it will be seen at a glance what a vast
number of genera (189) are abolished, and apparently very pro-
perly in most cases. There are two or three familiar genera, how-
ever, whose extinction the old diatomists will scarcely relish,
though the author may be able to justify it—Campylodiscus, for
instance, is now relegated to Surirella, and, possibly, rightly so;
there are arguments, however, against the incorporation, as the
median line of the opposed valves of the former are at mght
angles to each other, whilst they are parallel in the latter ; other-
wise the tout ensemble on which Professor Smith chiefly relies is
pretty similar. As a general rule certainly Surirella is more or
Jess oval and flat, whilst Campylodiscus is circular and twisted ;

116 Professor Smith’s Conspectus of the Diatomacez.

but certain specimens of S. fastwosa are almost as round as many —

Campylodisci, and C. spiralis departs from a circular outline more
than most Surirelle ; whilst in a gathering in my possession from
Fish Spring, Salt Lake Desert, Utah, an apparent variety of S.
striatula is as much twisted as a Campylodiscus. Again, Amphi-
tetras and Triceratium are both combined with Biddulphia. The
latter grows in long zigzag chains; I am not aware that the former
does so, having never studied it in the living state, but I fancy not ;
but at all events Professor Smith takes no cognizance of this difference
as to method of growth, attaching no importance to it. Biddulphia
has two processes, Triceratium three or more; that, therefore,

appears no valid reason why they should be separated. Biddulphia_

has usually a few spines, but so has Triceratium armatum. As

a general rule, Triceratium is seen in its side, and Biddulphia in.

its front view, when the diatoms, of course, appear very different ;
but a front view of an entire frustule of Triceratium is remarkably
like a Biddulphia, and in a slide of selected diatoms from Singapore
which I have, containing entire frustules of Biddulphia reticu-
lata and Triceratiwm armatum, these forms would doubtless be
considered closely-allied species instead of distinct genera by anyone
but an experienced diatomist. Of course, the same arguments
would apply to Amphitetras, so perhaps the Professor may be right
in abolishing even these old and well-known genera.

In the second portion of the Conspectus, in a sort of preface,
the author enunciates his ideas as to the structure of the diato-
maceous frustule, following out the hints of Mr. Carter in the
‘Annals and Magazine of Natural History,’ March, 1865, but
which are much more fully worked out by Dr. T. D. M‘Donald in
the January number, 1869, of the same journal, and which it
would seem has escaped his attention. :

A Table of Species is promised hereafter, without which the
present Conspectus would be not only incomplete, but almost use-
less. Such a Table will involve not only a vast amount of labour
and trouble, but will require an intimate knowledge of every form.
Though many so-called species may be treated as mere varieties,
the Professor will scarcely be able to use his pruning knife as
trenchantly as he has done with the genera, and in the case of his
present enlarged genera of Biddulphia and Surirella, it is to be
feared that their number will be legion.

It is scarcely to be expected that old diatomists, though they
may perhaps agree as to the propriety of the proposed changes, will
adopt them, as this would involve the renaming most of their speci-
mens, and the learning a new grammar, as it were, for their favourite
science ; but the Conspectus will probably be a boon to the rising
generation of students. I must, however, again express my regret
that it has been based on a purely artificial instead of a natural

‘

Professor Sinith’s Conspectus of the Diatomacex. Lig

classification ; for though many instances may be cited where
frustules of the stipitate, concatinate, tubular, frondose, or gela-
tinous families or genera, may have been found in a free state, I
have little doubt that if the entire course of the process of reproduc-
tion had been observed they would have been found to revert to
their normal condition.

At any rate we must all be thankful to Professor Smith for his
attempt to reduce within a reasonable limit, and into something
hike order, the present chaotic confusion of families, genera, and
synonyms.

Reavine, February, 1873.

(ey

NEW BOOKS, WITH SHORT NOTICES.

The Beginnings of Life. By H. Charlton Bastian, M.A.,M.D.,F.R.S.
In two vols. Macmillan and Co. London, 1872.—In these days of
bulky volumes every addition to our scientific literature should be
well weighed and considered, for every repetition of dubious assertions,
every reprint of unproven statements is a cruelty inflicted upon the
already overtaxed powers of the student of science.. We greatly fear
Dr. Bastian has much to answer for in presenting the world with two
bulky volumes containing over a thousand pages of letterpress. There
is some original research, much of it bearing the strongest evidence
of carelessness and too easy credence, mixed with a vast number of
pure hypotheses and restatements of the observations of others, which
have been considered incredible by the majority of careful observers.
The greater part of the work consists, however, of an argument in
favour of certain phenomena not hitherto admitted to a place in
science, which is conspicuously loose, and in places gives evidence of a
negligence of known facts scarcely less remarkable than the tenor of
the argument itself.

As an instance of this, the reader is referred to the 221st and
following pages of the first volume, in which the author quotes an
experiment made by M. Onimus, in which small portions of serum
containing no white blood corpuscles were enclosed in little bags of
gold-beater’s skin, and placed under the skin of a living rabbit. The
serum in these, after remaining twelve hours under the rabbit's skin,
was found to be loaded with white blood cells, or leucocytes. After
minutely describing M. Onimus’ experiment, Dr. Bastian says, “ Now,
by these experiments, Onimus seems to have shown quite conclusively
that the corpuscles met with in his éxperimental fluids had not been
derived from the fission of any visible pre-existing cells. It seems
almost equally certain that they did not even originate from particles
which were recognizable by the microscopic powers employed, since
the fluids were at first, to all appearance, perfectly homogeneous.
Hither, therefore, the minute particles, which were seen at a later
stage, must have originated owing to some primitive formative process
taking place in a really homogeneous organic solution, or else the
fluid, seemingly homogeneous, in reality contained the most minute
particles (microscopically invisible), derived in some unknown way
from the previously existing protoplasmic elements of the tissues.
We, however, incline to the former view; and we believe it to bein the
highest degree probable that the fully-developed leucocytes or plas-
tides which were seen in the later examinations, had arisen out of the
growth and development of the mere organic specks met with in the
earlier stages of the inquiry.”—Vol. i. p. 224. After four pages in a
similar strain, the author says, “Such a mode of origination of living
units, together with their subsequent evolution, affords, perhaps, the
best illustration that can be given of the birth of cells de novo in Blas-
temata.” The italics are our own,

-

NEW BOOKS, WITH SHORT NOTICES. 119

Tt does not seem to have occurred to Dr. Bastian to ask himself
whether gold-beater’s skin is, or is not, permeable to leucocytes. If
he had placed a piece under his microscope, he would have recognized
the structure of an animal membrane. A little inquiry would have
enabled him to discover that gold-beater’s skin is made from the
intestine of the ox, and he would have discovered openings in it with
even a low power large enough for millions of blood cells to pass into
and out of a little bag made of such a material. The experiments of
Cohnheim must be well known to Dr. Bastian ; he cannot be ignorant
of the fact that white blood corpuscles will pass freely through the
walls of a fish’s swim-bladder, when it is filled with a saline fluid and
buried under the integument of a living animal. This experiment has
been verified again and again, and is a favourite one with professors of
physiology to show their classes the manner in which leucocytes
wander through the living tissues. Does he then seriously ask us to
believe in this as evidence of spontaneous generation ? or is the ilus-
tration merely intended to explain what he thinks occurs in other
fluids? We can only believe it found a place in his writings without
a thought as to the nature of gold-beater’s skin—on the authority of
M. Onimus. We may take it, however, as a fair specimen of the
carelessness which characterizes the book before us, and of the manner
in which every possible unsifted statement has been brought to bear
on the argument in favour of Dr. Bastian’s opinions. It will occur
to the reader at once that the minute particles observed at first in the
fluid were the result of its degeneration, or were, perhaps, minute
particles of precipitated fibrine. It will be difficult, however, to con-
vince most men that they developed into leucocytes.

The experiments on the origin of Bacteria are certainly the most
important part of the work, and it must probably be held as proven
that such particles originate in fluids in sealed tubes, even after the
most careful manipulation and exposure to a temperature usually
destructive to all life. Perhaps other low organisms originate like
Bacteria in such tubes. The argument that these organisms arise de
novo reduces itself to a very small compass. Hither germs have
withstood a temperature of between 212° and 307° Fahr., or such
forms have arisen de novo. The author assumes, on, we think, very
insufficient evidence, the latter alternative.

Without prejudice, we do not see why the other alternative is not
equally probable, especially when we remember that the cause of
death is chemical change in the organism. A form of living matter
capable of resisting such temperatures may, for all we know, exist in
the germs of the lowest living forms, and if so, the whole argument
falls to the ground.

The second part of the work relates to the development of higher
from lower forms of life. The author asserts his belief in the evolu-
tion of Tardigrades and Rotifers from highly differentiated plants, as
Euglena, Vaucheria, &c. He says at page 540, vol. ii., “I have
already in my possession much convincing evidence, derived from
personal observation, that some water mites and acari, and also the
ciliated embryos of Naides may be produced by a direct transforma-

120 PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

tion of masses composed of the protoplasm and chlorophyll of Nitella ”
—a plant nearly as high in development as a fern.

Dr. Bastian’s figures on pages 516 and 527 of the second volume
bear a remarkable resemblance to the eggs of animals; and although
the vegetable structures which he gives side by side with them bear
some resemblance to the eggs in question, the assumption that they
are the same is about as justifiable as the assumption that an ovoid
white stone, looking exactly like a hen’s egg, might become trans-
formed into an egg. It might be impossible to distinguish between
them by mere external inspection, if they were only seen under such
limited conditions as those which exist in microscopic research.

Much learned matter is contained in Dr. Bastian’s thick volumes,
but all we can say is, we hope its learned author will reconsider his
opinions, and will bring his great stores of knowledge of the works of
his predecessors to bear upon this difficult subject in a more careful
and logical manner, and that he may ultimately, weighing the laws of
evidence with an unbiassed mind, throw great light upon the origin of
living things. At present our opinion is, that he has failed to do
anything towards advancing our knowledge on the subject.

PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

A Hematozoon inhabiting Human Blood.—Dr. T. R. Lewis is, as
our readers are probably aware, the describer of this curious fact.
He has written an important paper on the subject, which we should
give much more fully did our space permit. However, the following
brief summary will put our readers in possession of the more im-
portant facts contained in the author’s account :—1. The blood of
persons who have lived in a tropical country is occasionally invaded
by living microscopic Filariz, hitherto not identified with any known
species, which may continue in the system for months or years without
any marked evil consequences being observed ; but which may, on
the contrary, give rise to serious disease, and ultimately be the cause
of death. 2. The phenomena which may be induced by the blood
being thus affected are probably due to the mechanical interruption
offered (by the accidental aggregation, perhaps, of the Hematozoa) to
the flow of the nutritive fluids of the body in various channels, giving
rise to the obstruction of the current within them, or to rupture of
their extremely delicate walls, and thus causing the contents of the
lacteals, lymphatics, or capillaries to escape into the most convenient
excretory channel. Such escaped fluid, as has been demonstrated in
the case of the urinary and lachrymal or Meibomian secretion, may be
the means of carrying some of the Filariz with it out of the circula-
tion. These occurrences are liable to return after long intervals—so
long in fact as the Filarize continue to dwell in the blood. 3. Asa
rule, a chylous condition of the urine is only one of the symptoms of
this state of the circulation, although it appears to be the most
characteristic symptom which we are at present aware of. 4. And,
lastly, it appears probable that some of the hitherto inexplicable

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. ‘Ei

phenomena by which certain tropical diseases are characterized may
eventually be traced to the same, or to an allied, condition. The
importance of a careful microscopical examination of the blood of
persons suffering from obscure diseases, in tropical countries
especially, is therefore more than ever evident, and opens up a new
and most important field of inquiry—referring as it does to a hitherto
unknown diseased condition.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

Microscopy at the Brighton Aquarium.—We learn that Mr. Lee,
F.L.S., who has had so much to do with this most successful institu-
tion, has inaugurated a very great and decided improvement in the in-
troduction of microscopes for the use of the public. There are few places
where microscopic objects in a very wide and important class can be so
well exhibited as in an aquarium. We think that Mr. Lee has done
well both for the public and the proprietors in the introduction of the
microscope to the general use of the visitors.

Muscles in the Kidneys —Herr Eberth states in a German journal
that he has found a network of non-striated muscular fibres in the
outer portions of these glands.

Pathological Microscopy.— Dr. Rindfleish’s manual of pathological
histology has been translated into English by Dr. E. B. Baxter, of
King’s College. We hope soon to be able to lay a notice of the book
before our readers.

CORRESPONDENCE.

Mr. Wennam’s Examination oF THE AMERICAN ,),TH.
To the Editor of the ‘ Monthly Microscopical Journal.’

Sir,—Very lately I have seen Mr. Wenham’s account of measure-
ment of the ,!," sent for test of angle when “immersed” in balsam. It
is extremely unsatisfactory and bald of any result. A little must be
said, and but little need be said as comment thereon.

Mr. Wenham states that he adjusted the objective “for Podura,”
no reference to cover of any thickness whatever. This is too indefinite
for anybody’s use. The meaning, if anything, must be without cover
(which is not likely), and that would be, at most open point, where
presumptively the angle of objective és least.

At the point at which Mr. Wenham tested the objective, the angle
(air) was found to be 145°. Now, without a chance of question or doubt,
the maximum angle of the ,3,” is 175° at adjustment for maximum
angle. Measured at this point (obviously in all respects the proper
point), the balsam angle would have been found to be not 79°, three
degrees more than Mr. Wenham “predicted,” but, using parallel rays
of slender sunbeam, 95°, as repeatedly obtained and verified by me.

I have not the slightest objection to an adjustment “for Podura”
under a proper thickness of cover to require adjustment to point of

122 CORRESPONDENCE.

maximum angle,—but Podura in this case is utterly insignificant, and,
this related testing for angle is, is it not ? in the same category.

As Mr. Wenham, for the second time, refuses to appear again to
gainsay what he has distinctly admitted,*—the real issue in my first
non-provocative “experiment,”’{—as against his broad challenge to
“anyone,” t it seems proper that I should procure further attested
measurement here, and, doing so, it shall be without warp of vision or
judgment from any theory; the contrary of which strangely enough
Mr. Wenham seems to require! in his expression alluding to Dr.
J. Curtis’s statement. Yet unhappily for our critic, all that I have
set forth is strictly accordant to accepted theory in all the matter
involved, only, Mr. Wenham (it seems) does not understand how!
But perversely it seems to me, and entirely without warrant or need
to do so, he pronounces all diagrams wrong unless (as I understand
him) drawn for refraction in the front lens according to index of
refraction of crown glass, 1-525 (or 1:531), which is a wide error of
fact.

Mr. Wenham is solely responsible for the assumption. I gave no
indices of refraction. It was not necessary. I did set forth what was
possible, but not limiting myself to use of crown glass only, in the
“front.” Anyone can conceive of a material in the front having the
same refraction in balsam as has common crown glass in air, and
what then becomes of the limit of 82° in balsam? This simple
question sulves the whole matter. I have not suggested it perhaps
distinctly before, but, only to leave it to ordinary discernment to
discover.

The quotation, “no collecting power,’ is not my expression, and
Mr. Wenham should not place it to appear so.

Respectfully yours,
Rost. B. Toiuzs.

APERTURE OF IMMERSED OBJECT-GLASSES.
To the Editor of the ‘ Monthly Microscopical Journal.’

Sir,— By your courtesy I have seen a proof of a letter from Mr.
Tolles for publication in this number. The optical question of
the discussion having ended, I prefer now to make a brief comment
on the aperture trial, which however “bald and unsatisfactory” it
may appear to Mr. Tolles, I maintain was an accurate and fair one..
When the th in question was brought as close as the range
of adjustment will allow, apparently it gave a large aperture; but
then the aberrations were such that it would not define objects under
any thickness of cover. I set it at a position that gave the best
definition on a well-known test, and that angle being measured, the
very simple question to be solved was how that same angle became
diminished by immersion in water and balsam? In the transfer
of course the adjusting collar was not altered.

* See ‘M. M. Jour.,’ No. xxxvi., p. 292. + ‘M.M. Jour, for July, 1871.
¢{ ‘M. M. Jour., No. xxvii., p. 118.

CORRESPONDENCE. 123

It is the custom of most of our English makers to stop the closing
of the lenses at a point where the definition becomes useless. Whether
Mr. Tolles imagines I had predetermined that my “ predictions”
should be verified or not, is but of little consequence as affecting the
facts. I really expected to find some reason for these alleged ultra-
theoretical rays, and that I should have to account for such an
appearance. Mr. Tolles, in admitting that he closes the lenses within
the position of proper definition, gives, us the key to his fallacy. I
submit that my trial was correct; we are merely dealing with visual
angles. Whatever these are to begin with, the simple question is
next, What is the loss in water and balsam? Any after-alteration in
the adjusting collar will falsify the results.

Finally, as this trial has not supported Mr. Tolles’ views, he
seems to imply that it has arisen from “ warped vision and judgment.”
A very convenient dismissal! If I am honoured by being considered
a judge in the matter, I may regret that the evidence of measured
aperture had not gone Mr. Tolles’ way, and so left me to account for
the discrepancy. If the glass in question has not yet been returned,
Mr. Tolles may move for a new trial, and get some of his own friends
to be present. Though he excludes me from the list, surely he must
allow that there are some Englishmen that will do him justice. I
have no desire to be present, or to interfere further; but to facilitate
the matter, Iam willing to provide any apparatus that may be called for.

Mr. Tolles proposes to have further “attested measurements”
made in America. I only hope that they will explain their method
in detail, as plainly as I have done. Let us have their names by all
means, and if there is one amongst them known to be capable of
discussing the question on the admitted laws of optical science I will
be happy to exchange notions with him.

T noted the facts under the conditions named as I found them, and
should have recorded any measurements, however adverse to theory,
and sought reasons for the discrepancy subsequently. It was Mr.
Tolles’ own desire, and not mine, that I should make the trial. I ask
whether his request was a fair one if he had predetermined to impugn
my competence to conduct the experiment properly if the result did
not confirm his own views? I could not accept the measurements
at the closest position of the lenses, for then all definition had gone.

Yours very truly,
F. H. Wenuam.

Tue Structure or Kvpopiscus Araus.
To the Editor of the ‘ Monthly Microscopical Journal,
AsHDowNn CorraGE, Forrest Row, Sussex, Feb. 7, 1873.

Sir, — I am much obliged by a sight of Mr. Wells’ letter. My
remarks on Hupodiscus Argus were by no means intended as exhaustive.
I wished to show that the drawings hitherto published were founded
on erroneous views, and that the real structure conformed to the ordi-
nary diatom type, though no doubt with variations.

I find no difficulty in showing the aspects I figured on parts of

124 CORRESPONDENCE.

good specimens, as in Mdller’s type slide, with a stop of an achromatic
condenser, limiting the illumination to a pencil of central rays of 20°.
Mr. Wenham’s illuminator gives similar and more striking results.

With Méller’s slide I can examine the upper or lower surface, as
the glass of the slide is thin enough for a large-angled 4 inch of Ross
to work through, and that with the D eye-piece shows.the framework
of the diatom to be composed of minute beads, whichever side is
uppermost.

The irregularities, elevations, depressions, &¢., are well worth
more attention than I have paid to them.

Mr. Stewart—one of the best observers—made valuable remarks
when my paper was discussed, and he caused me to examine Coscino-
discus oculus Iridis in fractured specimens, and I found the depressions
real, and the hexagonal framework real. These depressed surfaces and
framework seemed, however, composed in the usual way, of minute
beads.

I recommend to Mr. Wells’ attention Mr. Stephenson’s valuable
experiments of mounting fractured and whole diatoms in bisulphide
of carbon. . :

I remain, Sir, your obedient servant,
Henry J. Suack,
Sec, R. M, 8.

THe Estmation oF THE Maaniryinc Power or LEnNsgss.
To the Editor of the ‘ Monthly Microscopical Journal.’

Sir,—The world is advancing so fast in these days that people
ought to be prepared for hearing anything; especially people who
live, like me, in the mountains, and know they are behind the age.
Still, I own I was unprepared for what I saw to-day in your Journal.
When I was at school—a good time since—we used to do Algebra
and Optics ; not much, but some. And one of the things I remember ~
we learned was how to find the magnifying power of a lens. Now, I
see in this Journal of February, near the end of page 52, that this pro-
blem is claimed by Dr. Pigott, of Cambridge University. He says that
the person who has “ worked it out” ishimself. But if everyone knew
it long ago, how can it be that it is now discovered by him? It can
never be, surely, that the world has taken a turn the other way for a
change, and is going backwards instead of forwards? Or, is it that,
like the rest of the age, lenses have got advanced ideas, and refuse to
magnify according to the former rules, as being too old-fashioned ?
This, no doubt, would call for a new solution, and might explain why
a learned Professor lately came to tell your Society that the old
Optics was now “played out.” I was encouraged the more to think
it must be this, when I looked at the new “ working out” ; for, if the
problem is old, the working out is quite new. He says, to get the
magnifying power, you divide 10 inches by the focal distance and
take one less. Very well, so I did. I took a 5-inch lens and, doing
this, there came out 1. So a 5-inch lens neither magnifies nor
diminishes, but acts like a piece of window-glass. Then I tried an

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 125

8-inch lens, and by the same rule got }. So this lens, which used
to magnify, now diminishes and shows you things one-fourth their
natural size. Lastly, I took a 10-inch, and the power came out 0.
So this lens not only diminishes things, but diminishes them quite
out of existence, and what you get is—total darkness.

Would some of the people about your Magazine tell me how these
things can be, and whether this is the Optics that has been played in?
There is no one here I can ask about it except our parson, and he
“ gives it up.”

Yours in perplexity,
Rusricvs.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Royat MicroscopicaL Soctery—ANnvuAL MEETING.

Kine’s Cotieces, February 5, 1873.

Wm. Kitchen Parker, Esq., F.R.S., President, in the chair.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.

The Secretary intimated that in conformity with their usual custom
upon the election of a new President, the list of Fellows would be
revised, and requested that any alterations or corrections to be made
might be notified to Mr. Walter W. Reeves, the Assistant-Secretary,
as early as possible.

A list of donations to the Society was read, and the thanks of the
meeting were voted to the respective donors. -

The Secretary called attention to two slides which had been sent
to the Society by Mr. Alfred Allen, of Felstead, one of which was
exhibited in the room by Mr. Reeves. The slides were of some
crystals obtained from a liquid which condensed from the vapour of
coke burnt in a stove, and which was found to drop from the joints of
the sheet-iron stove-pipe.

The Secretary said that it would be remembered that at the last
meeting, in reading the list of gentlemen nominated as officers of the
Society, he had mentioned that for the reason then stated the nomina-
tion of Mr. Hogg as one of the Hon. Secretaries must be considered as
provisional, and that in view of the possibility of that gentleman
resigning his position, he had been directed to propose the name of
Mr. Chas. Stewart as Secretary, and that of Mr. B. T. Lowne as a
member of the Council. After that meeting, however, Mr. Hoge
addressed a letter to the President of the Council, in which he resigned
the office of Secretary on the ground that having been appointed
President of the Medical Microscopical Society, his leisure time would
be too much occupied to enable him to fulfil both duties. The Council
had therefore, in conformity with the by-laws, appointed Mr. Chas,
Stewart to replace Mr. Hogg, and it remained now for the Fellows to
elect him if they chose for the ensuing year. It was the circumstance

‘

126 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

of not having received Mr. Hogg’s letter until after the last meeting
which led to some little ambiguity at the time, but which the Fellows
would now readily understand.

Mr. Beck suggested that it would be better in future if the balloting
lists for Officers and Council could be sent by post to the Fellows before
the meeting; he believed that this was the usual practice in some other
societies, and he believed it would tend to give a greater interest to
the proceedings, by more generally intimating what was about to be
done, as well as affording a better opportunity of making any altera-
tions in the list which might be desired.

Mr. Chas. Brooke said that this was the practice in the Royal,
Royal Medical, Pathological, and other Societies, and it was found to
render the ballot more efficient, and certainly created a greater general
interest in what was going on in the Society.

The Secretary saw no objection whatever to this being done in
future, and accordingly made a memorandum to the effect that the lists
should be enclosed in the copies of the Journal which were posted to
the Fellows previously to the Annual Meeting, or sent by post.

Mr. Beck and Mr. Suffolk having been appointed scrutineers, the
ballot for Officers and Council for the ensuing year was taken ; at the
close of which it was declared that the whole of the gentlemen whose
names had been printed on the house-list were duly elected.

The Secretary then read the Annual Report of the Council, and
also the Treasurer’s statement of account ; after which,

The President delivered the Anniversary Address, which will be
found printed in eatenso at p. 97.

It was moved by Mr. Chas. Brooke, and seconded by Dr. Millar,
that the reports now read be received and adopted, and that they be
printed and circulated in the usual way. The same gentlemen moved
and seconded that the best thanks of the meeting be presented to the
President for the admirable Address which he had delivered to them
on that occasion, and that he permit it to be printed in the Society’s
Transactions. P

The motion having been put to the meeting by the Secretary, was
carried unanimously.

Mr. Beck said that he was desirous of saying a few words with
regard to the report, and also of calling attention to one or two
matters in connection with the Society, which he thought affected its
interests. He felt that they were deeply indebted to those gentlemen
who had driven the coach of the Society so well and safely in the
past, and he believed that as “outsiders” they knew but little of the
difficulties met with by the way. Theirs was not like many other
scientific societies, because they had a specialty, and consequently
were at a disadvantage as compared with the Zoological, Astronomical,
or Linnean Societies, to which many papers of special interest could
be taken, and this difficulty was one which was not experienced to the
same extent in the earlier days of the Society. He thought that the
ordinary meetings of the Society were not so well attended as they
used to be, and he regretted that this should be so, though he felt sure
that the Council would be very glad to have this obviated if it were

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 127

possible. One reason for this want of interest in the meetings was, he
thought, due to the fact that they had a Journal in which persons
thought they could read the papers, and that the Journal contained
many other papers which were not brought before the Society. Dis-
coverers were, no doubt, anxious to get their papers brought before the
public, and could do so at once by sending them direct to the Journal.
He thought it would be much better if the papers could be brought
there, even though they were taken as read, and were then passed on
to the Journal. He had strong objections to the Transactions of the
Society being brought out as they were merely as a trade speculation.
He thought that all papers published in their Journal should pass
through the hands of the Council, and then be printed in a separate
and independent publication ; it was needless for him to say how this
was done by other societies. The question was not so much one of
quantity as of quality. There were cases which he could mention in
which papers had appeared in the Journal, when it was quite certain
that had they been first brought before the Society they would have
been either very much modified or withdrawn altogether. He thought
that these were important reasons why the meetings had fallen off.
Another matter worthy of attention was the want of the social feeling
amongst the Fellows, and no one could doubt that a great deal was
done by giving a social character to the meetings. Persons now went
off directly after the meetings were over; whereas they used to stay
when the Society indulged in the good wholesome practice of a cup
of tea after the business of the evening was over. He could well
remember the pleasant conversations and introductions which used to
take place at those times, and where persons lived out of London it
was frequently their only opportunity of becoming acquainted with
or of holding conversation with other Fellows of the Society. Tor
his own part he regretted exceedingly that money should be spent
upon a Journal rather than upon a genial cup of tea. He regretted
also very much the increased tendency towards individuality amongst
microscopical workers, and wished that he could have seen something
done to draw them more together instead. His regret was increased
by seeing the formation of another new Society, which he thought
must have the effect of drawing away young men from them who
would otherwise be workers with them. Was there any reason why
the Quekett Club, or the new Medical Society, could not be brought
into closer union with their own? One more subject he should like
to mention, and that was that he considered it had been a very great
mistake on the part of the executive to retain a law that persons,
because they happened to be makers of microscopes, should be excluded
from the Council. He did not say this from any feeling as to himself,
because he had never desired the honour, and therefore might, he
thought, allude to the matter; but there had been instances in which
this rule had been prejudicial to the Society, and he need only
mention the case of his late brother in proof; they all knew how his
active energies were turned from the Society in a great measure, and
what he had done for the Quekett Club was very well known. In the
Astronomical Society, not only were makers of instruments eligible
VOL. IX. L

128 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

as members of the Council, but that Society had gone further, and —
even stated the opinion that there ought to be a maker upon the
Council who might be able to give them the benefit of his experience
upon practical questions connected with their instruments. If per-
sons supposed that makers could not be admitted to such positions,
because they were jealous of one another, he could assure them, that
so far as he was aware, no such jealousy had any existence, nor did
he see why there should be any; for if any of them thought that any
extra amount of trade would result from connection with that Society
he believed it was a very great mistake. The persons who came to
makers as customers were for the most part young men, students
seeking information, and whom makers had frequent opportunities of
introducing to societies such as that. He hoped it would be under-
stood that he did not make these remarks from any feelings of hos-
tility to the Council, because he believed that they had done all that
they could, but he thought that the discussion of these few things
would perhaps be of use as regarded the future, and the annual meet-
ing was, he also thought, the proper time to bring them forward, and
he felt much obliged to the meeting for hearing what he had to say.
The Secretary said he should like to be allowed to divide what he
had to say upon the subjects mentioned by Mr. Beck into two parts,
and to say the first in his capacity as Secretary, and the last in that of
a private Fellow. Speaking as Secretary he might say that the Coun-
cil were quite of opinion that all original papers should be sent through
the Society to the Journal, and not to the Editor independently ; it
was, however, a matter which it was not altogether within their power
to regulate as they wished. It was due to Dr. Lawson to say that he
was always willing to aid them as far as he could in this respect.
With reference to the tea, he thought he might say from his own per-
sonal knowledge of them, that almost every member of the Council
was as fond of tea as Mr. Beck himself, and when they occupied rooms
of their own the question of tea would receive their best attention.
With regard to the numbers at the meetings, he certainly thought that
they stood very well, and would favourably compare with those of
former years, and he thought that if Mr. Beck would refer to the
attendance-books he would find this to be the case. They would, no
doubt, remember that they were obliged to leave the rooms upstairs in
consequence of the increase in the attendance which caused them to
be inconveniently crowded. As to union with other societies he could
assure them that the Council had always desired it, and indeed one
reason why it was decided that the Journal should contain* other
matter than their own, was that it should publish the reports of other
societies also, and thus be a means of bringing them together. And
now to speak in his private capacity, he might say that he heartily
agreed with Mr. Beck in his remarks as to the exclusion of makers
from the Council; he was strongly of opinion that the Society ought
to know nothing about what a man’s occupation was, or to let his
occupation in life in any way prejudice him. If a man distinguished
himself in scientific pursuits, and was also—as most scientific men
were—a gentleman, it ought not to matter what else he did for his

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 129

living. He had, perhaps, no right to say this in his official capacity,
and therefore hoped it would be considered as his private opinion.

Mr. Charles Brooke, the newly-elected President, then moved, and
Mr. F. H. Wenham seconded, the following resolution :—* That the
cordial thanks of the Society be returned to their retiring President
for the manner in which he had discharged the duties of his office.’
He also moved, “ That the thanks of the Society be presented to Mr.
Jabez Hogg on his retirement from an office he had long filled with
energy and assiduity.”

A further resolution was also moved by Mr. Frank Crisp, and
seconded by Mr. Ingpen, “That the thanks of the Society be pre-
sented to the Council, the Secretary, and Assistant-Secretary for their
valuable services during the past year.”

Both resolutions, having been put to the meeting by the President, -
were unanimously carried, and the meeting was then adjourned to
5th March.

List oF OFFICERS AND CouNcIL OF THE Roya MroroscopPicaL
Socrety, Exectep 5TH Frsruary, 1873.*

President.—* Charles Brooke, M.A., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.— William B. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S., &c.; Sir John
Lubbock, Bart., M.P., &e.; *William Kitchen Parker, F.R.S.; *Francis
H. Wenham, C.E.

Treasurer.—John Ware Stephenson, F.R.A.S.

Secretaries—Henury J. Slack, F.G.S.; *Charles Stewart, M.R.C.S.,
E.LS.

Council_—* James Bell, F.C.S.; John Berney, Esq.; Robert Braith-
waite, M.D., F.L.S.; William J. Gray, M.D.; Henry Lawson, M.D. ;
*Benjamin T. Lowne, M.R.CS., F.LS. ; ; Samuel J. McIntire, Lisq. ;
*John Millar, L.R. C. Bt Ed. EL. 5.5 ” Henry Perigal, F. R.AS.:

* Alfred Sanders, M.R.C. S24 *Charles Tyler, F.L.S.; Thomas C.
White, MRCS. ‘

Donations to the Library and Cabinet, from Jan. Ist to Feb. 5th,
1873 :—

From
gandvandaWater. ssWeekly” oo Gj0 es a5 ol 8a) os | he aston:
WaLITGseRVV COCKY tee err etre Nee acres nee Seen ae Ditto.
PAENonsoUMs gAVV.cOK Lys et bank yee base Feet ce Fre 2 hc Ditto.
Society of Arts Journ: oe 5 Robie. Orso lent rene Society:
Popular Science Review, No. 46... eu 20° Hditor:
Bulletin de la Société Botanique de France, 2Parts Society.
Certain Wingless Insects. By J. W. Wonfor .. Author.
The 19th Annual Report of the Brighton Natural History

Society for 1872... Society.
On a Heematozoon Inhabiting Human Blood. “By T. RB.
Lewis, M.B. F Author.
A Report of Microscopical and Physiological Researches
into the Nature of the Agent or Agents producing
Cholera. By T. R. Lewis, MB. and D. D. Cunning-
ham, M.B. .. or Authors,
The Canadian Journal, Non?7 0: 1s te te oy nat sOlpacdeon dashitate,

* Those with an asterisk before their names were elected new members,

2

130 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. :

From
Journal of the London Institution, No. 18 . .. Institution.
Two Slides of Cysticercus ae from Soldiers’ ‘Rations i in :
India .. .. Dr. J. Fleming.
Three Slides of Crystals, a “ Distillation from the
Vapour of Coke” an » we. A, Alleni esq:
The following Semilenon were gtd Fellows of the Soeiety :—
Robert Kemp, Esq.
William Bevan Lewis, L.R.C.P., London.
Watter W. Reeves,
Assist.-Secretary.

Annual Report of the Royal Microscopical Society.

The subjoined accounts of the Society, property, income, and
expenditure show that its financial position is satisfactory, and the
number of fresh elections to its Fellowship exceeds that of most
former years.

The books and instruments of the Society are in a satisfactory
state, with the additions mentioned below.

The following list of papers read before the Society during the
past year, and arranged according to the subjects to which they relate,
afford a highly satisfactory proof of the value of its labours,

Relating to Comparative Anatomy, Physiology, and Natural
History, we find “' The Structure and Development of the Skull of the
Crow,” and that of the Tit and Sparrow-Hawk, illustrated in two
papers by the President (W. K. Parker).

Dr. Klein contributed “ Remarks on the Finer Nerves of the
Cornea,” and “ Researches on the First Stages of the Development of
the Common Trout” (Salmo fario).

Dr. Lionel Beale supplied a paper in reply to Dr. Klein, and one
on the “ Nerves of Capillary Vessels and their probable Action in
Health and Disease.”

Mr. Lowne contributed “ Notes on the Development of the Nervous
System of the Annulosa.”

Mr. Stewart described “ Some of the Characteristics of the Negroes
revealed by the Microscope,” and researches “ On the Structure of the
calcareous framework connected with the Locomotive Apparatus of
the Echinus.”

Dr. Maddox described “ Some Methods of Preparing the Tissues
of the Tadpole’s Tail.”

Mr. Cubitt contributed ‘Remarks on the Homological Position of
the Members constituting the Thecated Section of Rotatoria.”

Mr. Maplestone supplied Drawings and Descriptions of the Palates
of Victorian Mollusca.

Dr. Hudson described “ Euchlanis triquetra and E. dilatata,” and
contributed further information on Pedalion under the title “‘ Is Peda-
lion a Rotifer ?” ’

Dr. Anthony supplied investigations on “ The Structure of Battle-
dore Scales” of Butterflies.

Botanical subjects have been represented by a series of papers

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 131

exhibiting the latest researches into the structure and character of
“Bog Mosses,” by Dr. Braithwaite; also, by Mr. Carruthers, “On
the History, Histological Structure, and Affinities of Nematophycus
Logani.”

Mr. Hogg contributed a paper “On Mycetoma: The Fungus Foot
Disease of India.”

Dr. Murie described “ Vegetable Organisms in the Thorax of Living
Birds.”

Mr. Slack furnished observations “On the Supposed Fungus on
Coleus Leaves ;” and “ Notes on Podisoma fuscum and P. Junipert.”

Dr. Woodward wrote on the “Resolution of Amphipleura
pellucida by Objectives of Beck and Wales.”

Mr. Slack remarked on “ The Structure of Hupodiscus Argus.”

Dr. Woodward furnished “Remarks on the Resolution of Nobert’s
Nineteenth Band, with Wales’ New Immersion +},th.”

New Apparatus and Instruments were treated in the following
papers :—By Mr. Stephenson, “Stephenson’s Erecting Binocular,” a
“Silver Prism for the Successive Polarization of Light,’ and “On
Bichromatic Vision.”

On an “ Improved Reflex Illuminator for the Highest Powers of the
Microscope,” by Mr. Wenham.

“On a Micro-pantograph,” by Mr. Roberts.

“ Proposal for a Standard of Comparison of the Magnifying Powers
of Microscopes,” by Mr. Ingpen.

“« A New Form of Micro-spectroscope,” by Mr. Gayer.

“ An Aérial Stage Micrometer,” on an improved form of improved
Lens-Micrometer, and on finding Micrometrically the Focal Lengths
of Eye-pieces and Objectives, by Dr. Pigott.

Dr. Murie contributed a paper “On the Classification and Ar-
rangement of Microscopie Objects.”

Booxs PuRCHASED DURING THE PAST YEAR.

Annals of Natural History. 2 Vols.

Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science. Vol. XX.
Cooke’s Fungi Britannici. 3 Parts.

Allman’s Gymnoblastic Hydroids.

Books PRESENTED.

Royal Society’s Catalogue of Scientific Papers. Vol. VI.

Transactions of the Linnean Society.

The Natural System of Botany. By B. Clarke, F.L.S.

Several pamphlets and papers, as well as the journals of other societies in
exchange for our own, have been periodically announced in the ‘ Monthly
Microscopical Journal.’

APPARATUS AND SLIDES,

Safety Stage for Ross’s Microscope .. .. .. «.- «. J. W. Stephenson, Esq.
6 Injected Preparations .. .. .. .. «. «+ ++ Moritz Pillisher, Esq.
9 Slides of Insects’ Scales ete an ere, ere Ve VON On ests
4 Slides of Mycetoma §.5.°..:.. .. «2 =. «» Jabez Hogg, Esq.
2 Slides of Battledore Scales... .. .. .. - « Dr. Anthony.
12 Slides of Podura Scales st el ihc. < eal eat Seedy MiGinat ines:
24 Slides of Starchesesgy ss.) doh) ics, wisi, cthar ae | wah bv aldnor: Gasfiths ests

986 Slides and Cabinet sec tee ih iy anaes Ne nati 7 Ramee teeta / [GIT eRe

132 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

NuMBER OF Mempers ELECTED DURING THE YEAR.

Elected 20. Deaths 6.
** Jonathan Bagster, elected 1840, died ——.
*Geofirey Bevington, elected 1857, died October 31, 1872.
*Richard Hodgson, F.R.A.8., &., elected 1849, died May 4, 1872.
*John Hollingsworth, M.R.C.S., &e., elected 1860, died May 23, 1872.
*Rey. Douglas Cartwright Timins, M.A., elected 1867, died May 5, 1872.
James How, elected 1864, died December, 1872.

Osituary.—The Society have to regret the decease of Richard
Hodgson, who died at Hawkwood, Chingford, Essex, the 4th May,
after a very long illness, induced in great measure by his untiring
exertions in the cause of the debenture holders of the London,
Chatham, and Dover Railway: was born in Wimpole Street, in
1804. He was educated at Lewes, passed some time in a banking-
house in Lombard Street, and eventually became leading partner in
the firm of Hodgson and Graves, the publishers in Pall Mall, from
which he withdrew in 1841, and thenceforth gave up his time to
scientific pursuits, first taking up daguerreotypy (then in its infancy) ;
he introduced many improvements in the manipulative part of the
process; was very successful as an amateur in portraiture, and in
obtaining magnified representations of microscopical objects which have
rarely been surpassed. He also spent some time in endeavouring to
print from the silver daguerreotype plate, by submitting it to
chemical treatment, and proceeding as is usual in copperplate print-
ing. Though he had some fair results, the process was too delicate
and uncertain for general use, and he abandoned it to devote himself
more exclusively to the microscope and telescope. In 1852 he built
an observatory at Claybury in Essex, in which a 6-inch refractor was
mounted equatorially. This was afterwards removed to Hawkwood,
and a transit-room added, which now contains the 4-inch instrument
formerly in the possession of Dr. Lee, of Hartwell. In 1854 he designed
’ the diagonal eye-piece which bears his name, by which the whole
disk of the sun can be observed without contracting the aperture of
the object-glass, a description of which appears in the Royal Astrono-
mical Transactions for that year. For many years he was a constant
observer of the sun, and made a series of drawings of many solar spots.
Whilst so engaged, at 11.20 a.m., on the 1st September, 1859, he was
fortunate in witnessing the remarkable outbreak in a large spot, which
was simultaneously observed by Mr. Carrington at his observatory,
Reigate. He became a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society
14th April, 1848, a Member of Council 12th February, 1858, and an
Honorary Secretary in 1863; a Fellow of the Royal Microscopical
Society 25th April 1849.

The Rev. Douglas Timins, M.A., &c., who died on the 5th May last,
at the early age of thirty-five, was educated for the Church, and obtained
his degree of M.A. at Oxford with honours. He was always delicate and
suffered from a defect of sight, which threatened to become destructive
to vision. He was, therefore, recommended to travel, and being ex-
cessively fond of natural history, he took to entomological pursuits,

_——

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 133

having been forbidden to continue the use of the microscope. He
attempted, however, to make the scales of the Lepidoptera a means of
their classification, but was unable to do much in this direction,
although he contributed several interesting papers to the Transac-
tions of the Entomological Society. He was an able writer, and was
better known for theological papers and contributions to religious
publications.

Mr. James How, the well-known philosophical instrument maker of
Foster Lane, recently complained of a small tumour that had appeared
behind one of his ears, which, on the following day, became so painful
as to compel him to leave his business. The tumour rapidly de-
veloped into a carbuncle, and erysipelas supervening, he died on Sunday,
the 8th of December, 1872, at the comparatively early age of fifty-two.
Mr. How was for many years manager of the business of the late firm
of George Knight and Son, Foster Lane, whom he afterwards succeeded.
He was intimately conversant with the practical details of photography
in its numerous ramifications, and several years since published his
method of producing negatives by the waxed-paper process—a process
which he simplified to a very great extent, and by which he produced
many fine photographs. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Micro-
scopical Society on the 10th of February, 1864. Mr. How introduced
a cheap students’ microscope, which was admitted to be one of the
best instruments of its class, and his skill in exhibiting microscopic
photographs and similar objects was widely known and appreciated.

The Secretaries have not been able to obtain any biographical
notices of the three other gentlemen who have died during the year.

JOHN WareE STEPHENSON IN AccoUNT WITH THE Roya

Dr. Microscopical Socrery. Cr.
1872. Bee Sil dael USii2. ah
To Balance brought from | By Cash paid for Journal .. 248 11 6
SUS CC UST Maas tig Ol, Od » Rent to King’s College
», Dividend on 1059/. 6s. 2d. and Attendance .. .. 5717 8
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Feb. 1, 1873. Examined and found correct,

WILLIAM T. LOY,

JAMES HILTON, \ a,

134 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Mepicat MicroscortosLt Soctrery.

At the first ordinary meeting of this Society, held at the Royal
Westminster Ophthalmic Hospital, King William Street, Strand, on
Friday, January 17, at 8 p.m., Jabez Hogg, Esq., President, in the
chair, the minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed.
The certificates of thirty-two gentlemen proposed for membership were
read, amongst whom were Drs. Rutherford; G. C. Wallich; W.
Mackenzie, C.B., C.S.I.; T. Tebay; Duplex; Messrs. Power, T.
Smith, T. Harvey Hill, &c.; after which the President read an intro-
ductory address describing the rise and progress of the science of
histology. A vote of thanks to the President was passed for his very
interesting address, and the meeting was resolved into a conversazione,
at which many most valuable and interesting specimens were exhibited
by Mr. Jabez Hogg, Dr. U. Pritchard, Mr. J. Needham, Messrs.
White, Ackland, Atkinson, Baber, and Groves. Several of the makers,
amongst whom were numbered Messrs. Baker, Horne and Thornthwaite,
How, Pillischer, Ross, Swift, &c., very kindly assisted by the loan of
microscopes, specimens, and lamps.

President's Address on the Opening of the Medical Microscopical
Society of London.

January 17, 1873.

The doctrine of the elementary structures, whether in plants or
animals, first took its root in men’s minds about the latter part of
the seventeenth century, when Malphighi and his contemporaries
introduced into their anatomical investigations the use of the simple
microscope.

The employment of anything better than a single lens appears to
have been almost unknown to the anatomists of the middle ages, for
although it has been observed that Aristotle and Galen wrote of
partes similares et dissimilares, and that Follopia had some idea of
“tissues,” it is quite certain that neither of those philosophers
possessed more than a faint notion of the intimate condition and
connection of the various tissues of the human body.

The first steps in histological science were cut out by those who
followed long after—Leeuwenhoek, Ruysch, Swammerdam, Adams,
Hook, &e. ; and even these anatomists were too much absorbed in other
pursuits, and in the teaching of anatomy, physiology, and embryology,
to find time to assist in the advancement of microscopical physio-
logical investigations. Thus it came about, throughout the greater
part of the eighteenth century, histology almost stood still, or, at best,
found only a few men of science, Lieberkuhn, Fontana, Hewson, &c.,
contributing towards the knowledge bequeathed to them by their
predecessors. It was not, indeed, until the commencement of the
present century that any great effort was made to secure a solid and
scientific position for the microscope in the teaching of the medical
schools.

En

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. r35

The master mind of Newton was not fully alive to the importance
of the-instrument; for speaking of the extreme tenuity of the ultimate
molecules of bodies, he seems to have had but an inadequate idea of
their minuteness, and supposes that they might be seen through
microscopes magnifying some three or four thousand times (linear),
and in speculating upon the possible resolution of the colouring
matter of bodies—a speculation, as Herschel observes, “in the highest
tone of a refined philosophy, irrespective of its theoretic bearings,” he
goes on to say :—“ In these descriptions I have been the more particu-
lar, because it is not impossible but that microscopes may at length be
improved to the discovery of the particles of bodies on which their
colours depend, if they are not already in some measure arrived at
that degree of perfection. For if these instruments are, or can be, so
far improved as with sufficient distinctness to represent objects five or
six hundred times bigger than at a foot distance they appear to our
unaided vision, I should hope that we might be able to discover
some of the greatest of these corpuscles, and by one that would
magnify three or four thousand times, perhaps they might be all
discovered except those which produce blackness. ... . However,
it will add much to our satisfaction if those corpuscles can be dis-
covered with microscopes which, if we shall at length attain to, I fear
it will be the utmost improvement of this sense. For it seems impos-
sible to see the more secret and noble works of nature within the
corpuscles by reason of their transparency.”

Much of what must have appeared to be impossible to the earlier
workers with the microscope has been slowly and surely accomplished.
During the year 1801, histology became indirectly indebted to the
genius of a member of the medical profession, who, although not
himself a great discoverer, yet he so well understood how to arrange
existing materials, and bring them into harmony and close relation-
ship with physiology and medicine, that it soon acquired for itself an
independent existence.

The future of histology was secured the moment Bichat gave to
the world his admirable treatise, ‘ Anatomie Générale.’

This work may certainly be said to be the first scientific monograph
on histological physiology ; for in it the tissues are not only treated
of fully and logically from a morphological point of view, but their
physiological functions and morbid conditions are discussed somewhat
in detail. About the time this book made its appearance, many im-
provements were effected in the optical part of the microscope—a
circumstance which gave an impetus to the growing desire for a more
careful and systematic study of natural history —so that more
appears to have been accomplished in a few years than had previously
been effected in two hundred. Discovery quickly followed discovery,
and in 1823 the first attempt to furnish the instrument with an
achromatic objective proved successful both im France and in this
country simultaneously. In the following year, 1824, Mr. Joseph
Lister, the father of Professor Lister, of Edinburgh, fully accom-
plished what he had long laboured to produce, namely, a perfect
combination of achromatic lenses, together with the mode of obtaining

136 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

better corrections of their spherical and chromatic aberration. This
important improvement in objectives furnished what had long
been wanting—increased power with better definition and penetration.
Mr. Lister also placed in the hands of opticians a projection for an

3th objective, which, until very lately, was the standard se yen
powers, and the basis ‘of all subsequent improvements.

Many men, eminent in physical science, now engaged in a race
after greater perfection, Tully, Goring, Brewster, Brown, Herschel, &e.,
in this country; and on the Continent, Selligues, Chevalier, Amici,
Fraiinhofer, &c., eagerly set themselves to work, grinding and con-
structing lenses for the micr oscope, and workers were not long want-
ing who understood how to apply them.

Sir John Herschel, writing about the improvements made in the
instrument, says :—“ I have viewed an object, without utter indistinct-
ness, through a microscope by Amici, magnifying upwards of 3000 times
in linear measure, and had no suspicion that the object seen was even
approaching to resolution into its primitive molecules.” In the year
1828, C. A. 8. Schultze made many valuable observations on the
“‘ primitive molecules of matter”; but it was not until ten years later
(1838), that Schwann gave the world his remarkable generalization of
cell development. If, therefore, Bichat laid the foundation of theo-
retical histology, and supplied it with a backbone, it was Schwann
who discovered and propounded the great significance of the cell, in
the development of the simple and complex tissues which enter into
vegetable and animal bodies. This discovery led the way to great
advances in our microscopical knowledge. Indeed, the microscope was
now seen in the hands of very many men of science, and at the same
time small bodies of the medical profession were in the habit of meet-
ing together at each other's houses for the regular study and dis-
cussion of matters connected with the instrument. It was at one of
these evening meetings that the happy idea was conceived of esta-
blishing a society for the more systematic and methodical prosecution
of microscopical work. Accordingly, in the year 1839, the first So-
ciety was formed, in this or any other country, “for the promotion
of microscopical investigation, and for the introduction and improve-
ment of the microscope as a scientific instrument.”

Professor Owen, then a rising young general practitioner, fresh
from St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, became the first President of the
Society. During the first year of its existence 177 members joined
the little band ; a number fully large enough to justify the anticipa-
tions of its founders, that such a society was wanted and would prove
a success. May the rise and progress of the Royal Microscopical
Society foreshadow the future of the bark we launch on the ocean of
time to-night. May the Medical Microscopical Society fulfil in every
way the wishes of its founders, and become a pillar of strength in the
promotion of “ Practical Histology” among students, young and old,
in our profession, From the history of the Royal Microscopical
Society we learn that members of the medical profession were more
eager and zealous in the promotion of its objects than any other class of
men; and that the earliest and most frequent contributors to its

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 137

Transactions were chiefly Owen, the brothers Edwin and John Quekett,
Arthur Farre, Dalrymple, Lindley, Busk, and others. Dr. Lindley
strongly advocated the formation of committees to conduct particular
branches of inquiry, because, as he said, “ The application of the
powers and advantages of an associated body of observers to gain an
intimacy with nature, is more important in regard to the microscope
than to any other instrument of philosophical research, to conceive
clearly the aim of our researches and to give a right direction to our
exertions.” I venture to differ from Dr. Lindley’s view of the value
of committees for the promotion of microscopical inquiries. In my
opinion it is far better that each member of this Society should be free
to pursue his investigations in his own way, and unfettered by the
restraint imposed by association, or in committee. We know by
experience how prone committees are to express an authoritative opi-
nion, without accepting the responsibility which always attaches to
individual action. It will conduce more to the promotion of original
thought and methodical care in the prosecution of microscopical
research, if each one takes his own course, and follows the bent of
his inclination, for by his works shall he be known. Nevertheless,
we truly feel that we are knit together by the kindliest bonds of
brotherhood for the attainment of a common object, each and all
striving to obtain a broader and firmer objective basis for histology
than it has heretofore enjoyed. To make our labour one of more
solid worth, we must join heart and hand in the careful investigation
of every phase of the intimate morphological condition of the animal
organism; starting from the earliest germ of existence, to develop-
ment or growth, and proceeding onward to the more permanent forms
in all created beings.

The eye only sees what it brings the light to see, in spite of all
our well-contrived instruments. It must therefore acquire the faculty
of seeing accurately before it can be trusted to draw conclusions. A
period of apprenticeship must be passed at the microscope, the earth
must be tilled and the sowing done, before the harvest can be reaped.
With all our boasted knowledge of histology, what do we really know ?
As yet we only possess a tolerable idea of the elementary parts of the
higher classes of animals. We are not perfectly familiar with the
structure of any—man not excepted—much as the human body has
been scrutinized by the 50ths and 80ths of modern ingenuity and
workmanship. The higher organs, the senses, and some few other
portions of the body, have been partially worked out; but there is
even more waiting to be accomplished; and as we proceed to investi-
gate, we shall find something new to arrest attention, and waiting to
be discovered, in the most familiar organ.

In comparative histology, the greater part of the work has yet to be
done, and here we shall find a mass of material requiring years for its
perfect elucidation. And whoever will perform something useful in
this department of nature, must first acquaint himself with all that
has been done by others. He must then prepare to discard authority,
abandon old methods of research, and adopt new ones. He must also
employ better and hitherto untried reagents; otherwise he will fall

¢

138 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

into errors of interpretation conspicuous enough in the writings of
many of those who have preceded him. Again, in pathological micro-
scopical work, an immense field remains unexplored, waiting the
hand of the diligent to become rich in gems of priceless worth.

But few students who commence the work of the microscope are
able to recognize the fact that, under high powers, the natural appear-

* ance of almost every object is in some way influenced or altered by the

refractive nature of the fluid medium in which it has been immersed or
is examined. The remarkable changes effected by Graham’s law of
diffusion when colloid substances enter into a preparation, at once
illustrates the necessity for caution in the use of preservative fluids.
The many changes brought about by glycerine in substances contain-
ing alkaline salts is another instance.

There are, indeed, many other sources of error, to which, however, I
need not more particularly allude in addressing the members of this
Society, most of whom have already acquired skill in histological
science. Such work as I have endeavoured to sketch out, is necessarily
laborious and requires time and patience for its execution; but he
who is prepared to undertake it will ultimately find his reward in
having extracted some secret from nature of inestimable worth.

It is encouraging to think, and experience teaches us, that such
work can be done with instruments of an inexpensive kind. Neverthe-
less, I must candidly confess that I am unable to offer a model micro-
scope, well suited in every way for the work of the student in practical
histology. This has arisen from the circumstance that hitherto per-
sons, in no way fitted for the task, have volunteered to dictate the
form and accessories of students’ microscopes. A society in no
especial manner engaged in the promotion of microscopical pursuits a
few years ago, ventured, I think, so far out of its way as to offer a pre-
mium for a “ students’ microscope,” and not knowing anything about
the requirement of the class it was preparing to cater for, the whole
thing turned out a miserable failure. It would not have mattered
much if the mischief done could have been confined within the four
walls of the Society ; but this was impossible, and makers of micro-
scopes looked upon the Society of Arts’ instrument as a model worthy
of imitation; the result has been to drive teachers of practical
histology to use and prefer instruments of foreign workmanship.
The Medical Microscopical Society will, I feel sure, stimulate English
opticians to furnish a better and more efficient stand than either that
of Hartnack, Merz, or Nachét. We are favoured to-night with an
unusual display of students’ microscopes, some of which are decidedly
in advance of the instrument usually met with. Mr. Baker contri-
butes a new microscope after Hartnack’s model; and Messrs. Beck,
Ross, Browning, and Pillischer, well-known forms. But, in all, there
are faults of construction and room for improvement; some are
wanting in firmness, the fine adjustment moves the object out of the
field of view, proving the instruments to be unsuited for the use of
high powers, and all lacking in one essential to a working microscope ;
a perfectly concentric turning stage, and without which it is almost
impossible to employ every kind of illumination or obtain high-power

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 139

definition. It would occupy too much time to go fairly into the ques-
tion of a good stand, but I am gratified to hear that Mr. Browning is
engaged, in conjunction with Mr. John Mayall, jun., in perfecting a
new microscope for students which will embody every practical im-
provement, consistent with simplicity and the use of high-power
glasses.

But there is one point about a good working instrument of even
more importance than a perfect stand, and that is a first-rate objective.
In selecting a magnifying power for scientific work of any kind, it
must be our endeavour to secure one giving the very best defini-
tion and penetration. These are two of the most essential quali-
ties in every good objective; as on the first depends the truth
of the optical image, and on the second the proper appreciation
of its histological characters or structure. The defining power of
an objective, as I dare say most of you know, chiefly depends on the
perfection of the corrections for spherical and chromatic aberration.
A fourth of 120° and an eighth of 150° angular aperture may be looked
upon as standard objectives. Greater angular aperture in dry objectives
is not in my experience beneficial for medical microscopy. Increased
angle of aperture frequently means impaired definition; the explana-
tion of this is, that the manufacture of glasses with the utmost angle
of aperture is attended with increased difficulties, and requires the
most skilled workmanship. It is, therefore, a somewhat rare thing to
meet with an objective of great angular aperture that approaches to
freedom from spherical aberration. The absolute correction of chromatic
aberration in an objective is of far less importance than the correction
of spherical aberration, and just so is it less important to the histolo-
gist to have a colourless image than one with perfectly sharp defini-
tion. By this test will the student be inclined to estimate the value
of any object-glass. Increased angular aperture enables us to bring
to our aid, when needed for the resolution of an object, a more oblique
pencil of light than we otherwise could; and we should be prepared
to employ every kind of illumination in our work. Indeed, we should
not in any case pass judgment upon a structure until an exhaustive
series of trials has been made upon it by every method of illumina-
tion. The cover-glass, as Amici long ago pointed out, exerts con-
siderable influence on the perfection of the image. An object or
preparation without a cover-glass gives a sharper image than one
covered. A thick glass cover increases spherical aberration. In the
immersion objective, the film of water removes or lessens many of
the evils inherent to the dry objective. In the immersion system the
stratum of water becomes, as it were, an adjustable film between the
objective and the object, and greatly assists in the correction of
spherical .and chromatic aberration. As water is a stronger refracting
medium than air, the reflexion of the rays of light is much diminished
at the upper surface of the cover-glass, and on its incidence on the
objective; here, indeed, it is almost entirely neutralized, and hence a
greater number of rays do actually contribute to the formation of the
image. The thin film of water produces very nearly the same effect
as enlarged angle of aperture. It also collects the peripheral rays

140 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

from the object, and sends them on to assist in the formation of a
more perfect image in the eye-piece. In short, the water becomes an
integral part of, and a new optical element in, the combination, and
doubtless assists in the removal of residuary secondary aberration in
the lens. In awarding praise to the immersion system, I by no
means intend to disparage the dry objective; I am convinced, how-
ever, it is to the immersion objective we must look for increased power
and usefulness in histological work. I am glad to acknowledge that
hitherto I have been quite content to employ what may now be called
our old half-inch and a quarter, made by Andrew Ross more than
twenty years ago; neither having a greater angle than 75°. Lately,
T have used a 4 by Dallmeyer (Andrew Ross’s son-in-law), the angular
aperture of which is 120°. The excellent workmanship of this optician
is well known and recognized, both on the Continent and in this
country, and therefore needs no praise from me. I must, in justice
to Mr. Dallmeyer, say that his } objective works through almost any
thickness of cover-glass, and its aberrations are equally well balanced
for uncovered objects. It bears the highest power eye-piece, and gives
a magnification of 1000 diameters in every way satisfactory; this
perhaps, after all, is one of the best tests of a good objective. It
proves beyond a doubt whether the angular aperture of the objective
is brought to the maximum of utility, and increases its value in the
eyes of the pathological microscopist.

To enter, however, into the history of the discoveries and improve-
ments which each has effected, or to assign the share of honour which
each labourer has reaped in this ample field, forms no part of my
present discourse. In the language of Herschel,— of the splendid
constellations of great names which adorn the history of the micro-
scope, we admire the living and revere the dead far too warmly and
too deeply to suffer us to sit in judgment on their respective claims or
merits ; to balance the mathematical skill of one against the experi-
mental dexterity of another, or the philosophical acumen of a third, is
scarcely possible. So long as one star differs from another in glory,
—so long as there shall exist varieties or even incompatibilities of
excellence,— so long will the admiration of mankind be found suffi-
cient for all who truly merit it.”

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THE

MONTHLY MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL

APRIL 1, 1873.

©
I.—Some Remarks on a Minute Plant found in an Incrustation
of Carbonate of Lime.

By R. L. Mappox, M.D., H.F.R.MS.
(Read before the Royau Microscoricat Socrery, March 5, 1873.)
Puate XII.

THe interesting substance popularly called “ petrified moss,” which
forms the subject of the present communication, was brought from
a spring at Reedwater, the property of the Duke of Northumberland,
situated about fifteen miles from the nearest market-town, Jed-
borough, by an intelligent lad, Wm. Anstiss, who on his return
here presented some of the same toa lady of this neighbourhood,
who is greatly interested in microscopic and natural history pursuits,
Miss Davies, of Peartree Vicarage, and who, towards the close of
November last year, kindly forwarded some specimens to the writer
for examination. Some time after the receipt of the specimens, Miss
Davies kindly sent the lad to me, affording thus an opportunity of
obtaining additional particulars. The lad had been engaged by a
party on a shooting excursion over this property, and whilst occupied
in his duties, had his attention directed by the gamekeeper to the
strange masses seen in the foot-bed of a spring that flowed down
a moss-covered bank at about 4 or 5 feet above the level of a stream,
into which it ran at the distance of a few yards. ‘This spring was
the only one in which he noticed anything peculiar, though there

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XII.

Fic. 1—Supposed to be an entire plant.

2.—Shows two different conceptacles, the round one, possibly “ oogonal,”
and the oblong one, “antheroidal” in function, though doubtful if
belonging to the minute plant.

3.—Represents a large oblong cell containing a few highly refringent
cellular and narrow curvilinear bodies.

4.—Is considered as a very early stage of Fig. 1, or to represent a very
young plant of Botrydium minutum.

5.—Possibly belongs to the early condition of some other plant; its tubular
portion is distinctly septate.

5, 6.—One of the round reddish bodies found with the minute plant ; its nature
is doubtful, whether a minute spore or ovum.

7.—Apparently a rather earlier stage of the condition of the nearly mature
cell represented in Fig. 2.

VOL. Ix. M

>

142 Transactions of the

are other spots known on the same property where these moss in-
crustations exist. This little outflow, with several others, helped to
feed a stream or streams that ran for some considerable distance
before falling into the river Reedwater,—as Longfellow beautifully
says, with poetic licence—
“Mute springs
Pour out the rivers’ gradual tides,”—

“ And, babbling low amid the tangled woods,
Slip down through moss-grown stones with endless laughter.”

By the help of a pickaxe and spade some of these incrustations
were removed from beneath the water, and treasured up until his
return here. ‘The specimens sent to me had very much the appear-
ance of a keratose sponge, densely incrusted with inorganic matter—
carbonate of lime. The masses averaged about 3 inches in height,
and measured from 4 to 5 inches round the upper part.

Upon ordinary examination, the bases that had been adherent
to the shallow bed at the fall of the spring, were noticed to be very
compact, whilst the upper portions presented a more or less open
moss or sponge like appearance, and where the small stems or cross
junctions had been accidentally broken, a minute dark round aper-
ture could be seen occupying the centre of the ramifications. On
the outside, there remained in the hollows, some earthy and sandy
matters, but nothing beyond these to indicate the nature of the body
that had furnished the nucleus for the incrustation; nor did the
microscopic examination by a low power lead to anything more.

Some small pieces about half an inch long were sawn off from
the top, middle, and base of one of the pieces. ‘These were set in a
small beaker with some diluted acetic acid, and the solvent action
of the acid kept up until the pieces were dissolved. On looking
across the vessel at the light, several very small flocculent substances
were noticed depending from the bubbles of gas on the surface.
These were lifted out of the fluid by a fine hooked platinum wire,
and examined on a slide under the microscope, when amongst the
débris of organic matters—evidently portions of vegetable tissue,
chiefly softened decayed coarse and fine stems and stem leaves of
(bog ?) moss, one or two fine septate filaments of a confervoid alga
with other matters, such as starch grains, butterfly or moth scales,
empty ova cases, hairs and claws of insects, ligneous fibres and par-
ticles of sand, yet not a single diatom—was seen a minute well-
preserved fungus-looking plant, consisting chiefly of microscopic
coarse and fine tubular threads and branches, terminating in small
globular, oval, or variously-shaped heads or conceptacles, varying
in colour, due probably to decay, from a brown to a very pale
almost colourless greenish yellow; the whole plant bemg woven
as it were ina most intricate manner over and into the decayed
débris of the moss structure. (Vide Fig. 1.)

9

Royal Microscopical Society. 145

Not knowing of any plant that corresponded with the above, and
supposing it to be some form of mildew that had formed on the
dead moss, before incrustation, the writer was disposed to regard it
as belonging to the Mucoroidee. Fortunately, however, having left
a mounted slide in the hands of the Assistant-Secretary, Mr. Walter
Reeves, he kindly promised to try and obtain the opinions of others
more versed in these matters. The slide was shown by him to my
friend Mr. Slack, who has been much interested in the subject, and
thus expresses himself, in his note of January 19th, which I take
the liberty of quoting. He says, “ The bodies certainly look much
like fungi, with asci full of spores, but I have never met with and
eannot find in Berkeley or Cooke any that have such mycelium
threads or such ascz.” “The round bags in your objects are evidently
strong and thick; their fractured edges, I think, leave no doubt of
this. The tubes also seem much firmer and with a more decidedly
cortical layer than any I know of in fungi.” “ Although I cannot
refer them to any other class, I should doubt their being fungi
unless we had some undoubted fungi in a fresh state and sufticiently
resembling them, to strengthen that view.” “Their interest is
undoubted,” &e.

Mr. Reeves also brought it to the notice of Mr. Renny, and thus
kindly writes on February the 10th, “ Mr. Renny thinks the little
plant is not a fungus, but probably a species of Botrydium, a genus of
confervoid Algze, only one species of which has as yet been found in
England, and very little is known about it.” He thinks “it would
be found growing on the banks of the stream near where your
deposit was obtained.” To Mr. Slack I am indebted for procuring
the opinion of Mr. Currey, who also examined the specimen and
was disposed to agree with Mr. Renny. With permission I beg to
quote the remarks in his note of February 20th :—*TI am decidedly
of opinion the object is not mucedinous, nor does it, I think, belong
to any class of fungi. It seems to me to be certainly an alga allied
to Hydrogastrum (Botrydium) and Vaucheria. The chitinous
appearance I think only arises from the brown colour which is
common on decaying filamentous Alge,” and adds “no truly micro-
scopic species of Botrydium has hitherto been described, at least to
my knowledge.”

At the same time Mr. Slack pressed me to make further exami-
nations; and contribute the same to the Royal Microscopical Society,
in conformity with which, I have been induced to spend a consider-
able time in the further elucidation of the subject, and endeavouring
to secure good specimens for figuring.

Although the masses had been found beneath water, it seemed
just possible that this part of the foot-bed of the spring might occa-
sionally be dried up, and that if the fine Botrydioid structure had
formed on the incrustations at such a time, that I should be able to

mM 2

144 Transactions of the

find it on the surfaces by soaking the masses and examining the
outside crust in water. Most of the sand and dirt was in this way
washed out, and lying in some of the crevices could be seen a little
blackish flocculent matter, which was gently torn away with fine ©
forceps, removed to a slide, and mounted. This flocculent substance,
apparently, contained some of the broken and coarse threads of the
plant, but evidently the entire plant did not grow on the surface of
the incrustation, for in no case was it discovered in this loose matter,
but always on solution of the inorganic substance. The deposit from
the washings of the moss was now treated with diluted acetic acid
and very carefully examined in small quantities under the micro-
scope, but only a very few disjointed heads and minute portions of the
mycelium threads were seen amongst fine, quite decayed vegetable -
structures, the former of which were possibly from the abraded
parts from which the pieces had been sawn, and those exposed on
removing the mass from the bed where it was formed; hence why
the term apparently, has been used in reference to those portions
of the flocculent substances found on the outside.

Several fresh pieces were again sawn from the mass and dis-
solved in weak acetic acid ; the flocculent bits as well as the organic
débris were very carefully examined in small portions at a time. The
entanglement of the long threads or tubes of the little plant and the
sort of network it appeared in most cases to form around or upon
the decayed moss structure, just opened up the question whether.
the plant may not have originally been parasitic on the moss; but
tracing the threads in some cases more than a quarter of an inch,
some part of the coarser portion of the tubular stem was generally
found attached to a little mass of a soft dark-brown substance
(? humus) which had resisted the action of the acid, but which broke
up directly under the needles, for it was only by considerable
patience that the vegetable débris of the moss could be cleared away
from these long, much-branched, interlacing threads, or could be
cleaned so as to furnish a more or less satisfactory specimen for
figuring, and then always with the loss of some of the little heads
or sacks at the tips of the branches.

Comparing the plant with the figures at hand of Botrydiwm
granulatum, and notably the excellent one by Mr. E. Parfitt, in the
January number of ‘Greyillea’; the conceptacles or heads of the
plants were seen to be very much more minute; Botrydiwm granu-
latum being described as of the size of a pin’s head, whilst these
average from 2 to 6 one-thousandths of an inch. Again, many of
the heads, though having more or less the shape of Botrydium, are
not as sessile, but are borne at the ends of fine long tubes as in |
mucor ; others again being very sessile, almost seated on the tubes ;
others being intermediate; whilst the dense strong-looking root
threads or tubes furnished a resemblance justly in favour of Mr.
Renny’s and Mr. Currey’s opinions, to which the writer gladly con-

Royal Microscopical Society. 145

forms. For the present, failing the successful endeavour to procure
fresh living specimens, for which, thanks to Miss Davies, steps have
been taken, it will perhaps be as well to place the little plant in the
genus Botrydium, and from its quite microscopic character name it
Botrydium minutun.

Another curious point to be noticed is that Botrydiwm granu-
latwm is described as decaying rapidly, whilst here we have a minute
plant, though discoloured, yet resisting the decaying influences of
time ; who can say the exact period? though

“ Little avail it now to know
Of ages passed so long ago.”

whilst the coarser vegetable tissues of the moss have almost entirely
succumbed to their action; the best preserved parts of the moss
being the small leaves of the stem, in which in several cases the
intimate structure was left very perfect, yet readily breaking up on
being handled with the dissecting needles.

The plant as represented in Fig. 1 may be briefly described as
consisting, so far as known, of long coarse, dense, and somewhat
roughish non-septate mycelium tubes, from which arise narrower
and finer branches, whilst from these, chiefly, spring shorter or
longer fine stalks, which bear on their tips globular or variously
shaped receptacles or heads, containing apparently a fine plasma,
though in some can be seen fine and coarser granules or spores, and
a few still rather thinner threads, most likely rootlets. ‘The recep-
tacles appear to present two chief forms, one of which, more or less
oblong or contorted, and somewhat, as in some of the figures of
Vaucheria, may perhaps be regarded in the absence of fresh living
specimens as antheroidal in their function, and the other, the round
and somewhat granular, as oogonal: though whether the fertiliza-
tion takes place by the passage of spermatozoids along the tubes
from the former receptacle to the “oogonium,” as suggested by
Mr. Parfitt, to be the case in Botrydiwm granulatum, is mere con-
jecture.

By the careful examinations made, were detected some concep-
tacles in form oblong and globular (vide Fig. 2 6 and a), almost
close together, of rather larger size than the ordinary heads ; one of
the latter having enclosed several brown, apparently ripe spores ;
whilst in a separate oblong receptacle (Fig. 3) may be seen some
minute bodies, in the specimen a few highly refringent, which may
be antheroidal in function. At the lower end and sides of the plant
in Fig. 1 may be noticed some long more or less tubular portions,
which differ considerably from the rest, and which have some marked
resemblance to some of the early stages of fungi, yet are connected,
as 1s seen, with a collapsed cell anda larger irregularly flattish lobu-
lar cell. Whether these differ from or form a primary or secondary
phase in the life history of this minute plant must be left doubtful,

146 Transactions of the

but sufficient has been said to prove the correctness of Mr. Slack’s
remark, that the plant “is of undoubted interest.”

In Fig. 4, which is regarded as a very young plant, are seen the
following parts: a collapsed, dark-brown globular cell, furnishing a
short, curved, simply-branched tube, having at the end of one of the
branches a globular receptacle, and at the other end a short myce-
lium thread, to which apparently is connected a somewhat collapsed
oblong cell; whilst at the lower part of the figure is seen an
obovoid cell with a longer tube, which doubtless joins the mycelium
branch of the round and oblong cells. At the bend of the first, or
supposed primary tube, may be noticed two fine rootlets passing
into the attached mass of vegetable débris,

Fig. 5 is apparently an entire plant, which from its appearance
is questionable whether it belongs to this species; the tubular por-
tion is septate.

Fig. 6 represents one of two small reddish cells with dark out-
lines, found in the examinations; but whether they should be
regarded as ripe winter-germ cells of the plant, or ova of some
rotifer or infusorian, it is difficult to say. There was apparently a
small nuclear-looking body in one.

Fig. 7 is from a contorted receptacle intermediate in size between
the cells of the entire plant of Fig. 1, and the larger cells given in
Figs. 2and 3 ; it was found as drawn, disjointed; the globular part
contained small granular bodies, and the outside imvestment had
broken up to a certain extent on part of the surface. Whether the
contorted portion under further development would have become a
supposed antheroidal cell, or is such undeveloped, or whether it only
forms part of the tube of the receptacle widened out, must be left
undecided.

The examinations have induced me to place this little plant
rather with Botrydium than with Vaucheria, from its closer resem-
blance to the former, yet possibly it may not be new to other ob-
servers, from whom may it be hoped, further information may be
obtained than is given in this imperfect sketch,

“To win but such a form, as thou mightst love to look upon.”

Since writing the foregoing remarks, through the kindness of Miss Davies,
some of the fresh moss was obtained, just after the last heavy fall of snow, from
the bank within a few yardsof the spring. Upon a very careful examination of
the attached soil and of the lower part of the plants after gentle washing, likewise
after placing some of the moss and the soil in weak acid, only two small globular
heads of the little plant, each (enclosing in the centre an opaque dark spore-
looking body) attached to very long irregular unbranched mycelium threads or
tubes, were found. Each plant had quite a decayed appearance. The autumn
may furnish a better chance of finding recent specimens. The writer is indebted
to Dr. Braithwaite for kindly naming the fresh specimen of moss, “Hypnum
commutatum.” Probably the incrustations were formed over the same kind of moss.

Royal Microscopical Society. 147

I1.—Notes on the Micro-spectroscope and Microscope.
By E. J. Gaymr, Surgeon H.M. Indian Army.
(Read before the Royau Microscopican Socirery, March 5, 1873.)

Iw continuation of my paper on “ A New Form of Micro-spectro-
scope,” read before the Royal Microscopical Society on the 4th
December, 1872, I would wish to add the following few remarks.
On a trial it will be found that the arrangement with the erector
placed in its usual position in the draw-tube, as described in the
above-mentioned paper, may have a low-powered object-glass substi-
tuted for the erector, and that avery useful combination will be thus
obtained for viewing the slit, and the object under examination, in
the same field. A small ring screw adapter is all that is required
to enable the object-glass to be screwed into its place at the end of
the draw-tube. This combination, without a slit, can also be used
when an erect image is required, as in dissections and arrangement
of objects on a slide when placed on the stage of the microscope :
and it will be found that, with this arrangement of two objectives,
the magnifying power can be diminished or augmented almost at
pleasure, without changing either of the object-glasses, by simply
altering the relative distances between the object under examination
and the first object-glass, and the distance between the first and
second objectives, so that almost any degree of magnifying power
which is found expedient, can be easily and rapidly obtained without
any alteration in the apparatus. The least magnification will be
obtained when the two objectives are near each other, and the
farther they are separated the more the image will be enlarged.
For those persons who have not got an erecting eye-piece, the
arrangement herein described will prove a useful and very cheap
substitute. It will also be found, if a micrometer of any convenient
construction be placed in the position of the slit in this form of
micro-spectroscope, and the arrangement just described be used,
that a very sharp image of the micrometer and the object on the
stage will be obtained ; and in some instances this plan will be
found more efficient than any of the usual forms which have, from
time to time, been adopted. I would also wish to suggest, that
when a micrometer with lines ruled on glass is used either in the
shape of a stage micrometer or that form which is placed in the
eye-piece, that, instead of having the lines ruled in the usual way,
they should be made up of concentric circles placed at equal dis-
tances from each other; an object would in this way be very
readily measured in all its diameters, and facilities for making
drawings would also be afforded. Since my paper of the 4th
December was read, it has been brought to my notice that the

148 - Transactions of the

instrument described by me is similar in principle to the original:

form of the spectroscope applied to the microscope proposed by
Dr. W. Huggins in a paper read by him before the Microscopical
Society on the 10th May, 1865, and described and figured in the
‘Microscopical Journal’ for that month, entitled “Note on the
Prismatic Examination of Microscopic Objects.” I regret that I
did not know of this paper by Dr. Huggins before reading my
own, but a reference to it will show that the dispersive power
employed was that obtained by the use of two prisms. There can
be no doubt that the amount of dispersive power which will be the
best for one kind of object, will not be always the most suitable for
all other objects, and that therefore sometimes one and sometimes
two prisms will give the best results. Much will depend upon the
amount of light available, and it would therefore be useful to so
arrange matters that either one or both prisms could be used at
pleasure, but as there is plenty of light available when the slit is
placed sufficiently close to the object-glass, and the collimating lens
is of adequate angular aperture, two prisms, under ordinary circum-
stances, can easily be used without rendering the absorption bands
at all undefined or indistinct. Dr. W. Huggins doubtless places
his slit at a distance of three or four inches from the object-glass,
because it gives a larger image of the object relatively to the slit,
and because the angle of divergence is greater the nearer the image
or slit is to the object-glass. The maximum of light (irrespective
of the size of the object) will be when the angle of the collimator
is equal to the angle of divergence. Now, when a very accurate
inspection of the minute portions of small objects is required,
the position of the slit must accurately correspond to the place
where the image of the object on the stage is formed behind
the object-glass; and as this position of the image can be made
either to approach or to recede from the object-glass, at the will of
the operator, by merely altering the distance between the object on
the stage and the object-glass, by means of the usual focussing
arrangements, almost any position of the slit can be easily made to
be in the conjugate focus behind the object-glass; and as the
nearer the slit and image are to the object-glass the farther the
object-glass must be removed from the object, the motion is in a
ossible direction ; and as the image diminishes as it approaches
the object-glass, its brightness rapidly increases, and therefore the
closer the slit is to the object-glass, the more the light will be in-
creased which is received within the jaws of the slit ; but the closer
the image is to the objective the larger will be the angle of diverg-
ence, and therefore the diameter of the collimating lens must be
increased in proportion, and its focal distance lessened.
Suitable proportions appear to be reached when the slit is
placed at a distance of 14 inch from the objective, and the colli-

Royal Microscopical Society. 149

mating lens is 1} inch in diameter with a focal length of 4 inches.
The prisms should be of the same width as the collimating lens;
and, as Dr. Robinson and others have suggested, they might be
made up of any of the forms of compound prisms which were con-
sidered most suitable to the object for which this spectroscope
was chiefly selected. The magnifying power required is best
obtained by changing the objective.

150 On the Structure and Function of the Rods

TII.—On the Structure and Function of the Rods of the Cochlea
in Man and other Mammals. By Ursan Prironarp, M.D.,
F.R.C.S., Demonstrator of Physiology, King’s College, London.

( Read before the Mepicat Microscoricat Society, Feb. 21, 1873.)
Puate XII.

Brrore entering upon the description of the rods themselves, it may
be well to refer briefly to the mechanism of the ear, and the method
by which we are able to hear and distinguish certain sounds.

The ear itself, as is well known, is one of the most complicated
organs of the body, consisting of the external, middle, and internal
sections: the two former are merely concerned in collecting and
conducting sounds or vibrations; while the duty of the internal
portion consists in receiving, localizing, and, moreover, clearly dis-
tinguishing them. Now, it is simply with this last and most
delicate function of the organ that I purpose to deal, my aim being
to describe the true construction and use of the cochlea so far as its
task of distinguishing the various sounds is concerned.

I may state that, for convenience sake, I shall in the course of
my remarks speak of the cochlea with its apex uppermost. This
cochlea, it must be borne in mind, consists of a spiral canal, in form
and shape very similar to the inside of a snail-shell. From the axis,
or modiolus as it is called, of this spiral, there proceeds horizontally
a plate of bone, the lamina spiralis, which almost divides this canal
into two. From this plate again there extend two membranes to
the walls of the canal, thus separating it into three minor canals.

Of these two membranes the upper one or membrane of Reissner
(Fig. IT.) arises just behind the teeth of the limbus (as the peripheral
end of the bony lamina is called), and passes upwards and outwards
to the upper part of the ligament of the cochlea; it is exceedingly
delicate, and is composed of a single layer of flattened nucleated
cells, closely adhering to each other, and which are situated on a
very thin membrane.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIII.

Fic. I.—The upper extremities of the rods (doy), showing the mode of articula-
tion and processes. Drawn by camera, x 500 diam.; 7, inner rod; 0, outer
rod,

Il.—A diagramatic drawing of a vertical section of the central canal of the
cochlea, x about 150 diam. 1. Scala vestibuli. 2. Central canal of
cochlea. 3. Scala tympani. A, Membrane of Reissner ; B, Membrana
tectoria; C, Bony lamina spiralis; D, Membrana basilaris; E, Liga-
ment of cochlea; F, Nerve plexus; G, Epithelium; H, Membrana
reticularis; L, various cells; 7, inner rod; 0, outer rod.

>, 11].—Three pairs of rods carefully drawn from three sections of the cochles of

the same animal (cat), showing the mode of graduation—1, from near
the apex of cochlea; 2, from about the middle; 3, from near the base,
x about 250 diam. ; 7, inner rod; 0, outer rod.

”

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of the Cochlea in Man and other Mammals. 151

The other, the lamina spiralis membranacea, proceeds directly
outwards from the limbus to the ligament of the cochlea.

This membranous lamina is composed of two horizontal mem-
branes, having between them certain delicate structures. The
upper of these (the membrane tectoria) arises from the limbus just
external to the membrane of Reissner, and passes directly outwards,
covering and overlapping the end of the limbus, but not actually
reaching the ligament of the cochlea (Fig. II.). It may be well to
state, by the way, that on this point I differ from most of the
previous writers, with the exception of Bottcher. The portion
which covers the limbus is moderately thin, but the outer portion
which overlaps it is exceedingly thick, and the whole is marked _
with radiating wavy lines.

The lower, or membrana basilaris, arises from the lower lip of
the limbus, while its other end is firmly attached to a well-marked
ridge on the ligament of the cochlea.

Between the membrana tectoria above, and the membrana basilaris
below, are situated the so-called rods of Corti.

The Rods of the Cochlea.

These interesting little bodies were first discovered and de-
scribed by the Marquis of Corti, whose name they now bear, and
although since then many observers have studied and written on
the subject, yet scarcely two are agreed as to their exact form, while
many of the later authors have gone so far as to state that their
shape is of a most varied character. The greatest difference of
opinion exists as to the shape of the rods at their articulation.
Deiters described them very minutely in his first paper, but in a
second communication he completely altered his description of them.

The following is a free translation of an extract from Deiters’
first paper in Siebold and Kolliker’s ‘ Zeitzchrift von Wissenschaft
Zoologie,’ vol. 10.

“The outer rods do not directly join the inner, but are con-
nected by a curious body, which partly belongs to the true rods of
Corti and partly to the lamina reticularis, and which we will call
the middle union joint. These middle joints vary much in form,
owing to their easy compressibility, and have not on that account
been as yet properly distinguished.” ‘‘ This (middle joint) will best
be likened to a boat which terminates at one end in a pointed
keel, and at the other in a straight back or plate.”

“Tn the natural position this back plate is turned upwards and
lies parallel to the membrana basilaris; the keel, on the contrary,
looks downwards and somewhat forwards. ...... The back plate
is nearly rectangular in form, but only the anterior corners are
perfect, the posterior being rounded, and perhaps only appear
angular on account of the plates lying side by side.”

152 On the Structure and Function of the Rods

In his later work on the subject he figures these rods very
differently, and much more accurately.

Kolliker, Henle, and others appear to agree with Deiters’ later
view of the form of the rods, and most of our text-books have
copied their drawings.

Recent writers, such as Drs. A. Béttcher, Waldeyer, Gottstein,
and Nuel, give varying drawings, some of which are nearer the true
form of the rods than that of Deiters, while others exhibit the rods
in all kinds of extraordinary shapes.

I will proceed at once to detail the results of my own observa-
tions.

In a general view of the rods from above (that is to say, look-
ing at the lamina spiralis lying flat) they appear similar to two
rows of pianoforte hammers, rather than like the keys of that instru-
ment, to which they have been likened, the heads of the rods lying
close together.

In a lateral view, these two rows of rods are seen sloping
towards each other like the rafters of a gabled roof, and it is by
reason of the difficulty in obtaining these side views (vertical sec-
tions) that such very different ideas exist as to the question of
shape.

"The rods, as before mentioned, lie between the membrana
basilaris and membrana tectoria, and-pass directly outwards from
the lower lip of the limbus; they are both firmly attached by their
lower extremities to the membrana basilaris, their upper extremities
being covered by a peculiar membrane (membrana reticularis), but
they are not in any way connected with the membrana tectoria.
On every side they are surrounded and supported by cells of a more
or less delicate structure. The rods are best described like a long
bone, as consisting of a shaft, and two enlarged extremities, but the
two rows differ considerably in form. The inner rods (those nearer
to the bony lamina) are attached by their lower extremities to the
membrana basilaris at its junction with the lower lip of the limbus
and just external to the spot where the nerve filaments emerge (the
habenula perforata). They are directed outwards and upwards, ~
with a slight undulation to meet the outer rods.

The lower extremity is enlarged and rounded, gradually taper-
ing to the shaft. The shaft is cylindrical, although Deiters,
Claudius, and nearly all other observers state that they are
flattened ; but by referring to preparations in which the inner rods
are cut through their shafts, the cut ends will be seen to be quite
circular.

Curiously enough, although these very investigators say the
shaft is flattened from above downwards, they give a thick lateral
view of the same. ‘The upper extremity is peculiar in form, and as
I differ from all observers on this point, it requires special attention.

of the Cochlea in Man and other Mammals. 153

Its superior surface is rectangular, but longer than it is broad, as is
well seen when looking from above, in flat preparations. Externally
it is prolonged into a process which overlaps the superior extremity
of the outer rod, and terminates somewhat abruptly. The form of
this process will be better understood by looking at Fig. I. Below
it is continuous with the shaft; the lateral surfaces are somewhat
quadrilateral in form, with the anterior and posterior edges concave.
These surfaces are divided obliquely by a curved ridge ; the upper
and inner is smaller, raised and marked by curved lines—the exter-
nal and lower division is smooth and more transparent. The inner
surface is concave from above downwards, and is continuous with the
lateral surfaces.

The external surface is deeply concave, and receives the head of
the outer rod very much in the same manner as the glenoid cavity
receives the head of the humerus. The upper lip of this concavity
is continuous with the process mentioned above, the lower one is
rounded, and forms a sort of tubercle.

The outer rods are attached to about the middle of the mem-
brana basilaris by a broad base, which is very similar to that of the
inner rods, but somewhat larger, and this also gradually tapers
towards the shaft. The shaft is cylindrical, and equal in diameter
to that of the inner row, as may be proved by carefully measuring
the two as seen in most of my preparations. The upper extremity
of these outer rods is also peculiar, but very different to that of the
inner. ‘The superior surface is quadrilateral, but both broader and
longer than that of the corresponding extremity of the first row.
Below it is of course continuous with the shaft.

The inner surface is very convex, forming a head which articu-
lates with the corresponding concavity of the inner rod. The outer
surface is slightly concave, and from the upper part a long slender
process extends outwards. This process lies at first under that of
the inner rod, but is prolonged much farther outwards; it is rather
more slender in form, and has a handle-hke enlargement at the
extremity : the whole will be better understood by referring to
Fig. I. The lateral surfaces are apparently smooth, but marked by
fine radiating lines.

The articulation of the two rows is not movable; there are no
ligaments, unless the membrana reticularis, which is finely adherent
to the upper surfaces, may be regarded as such, but the articulating
surfaces may be seen to be glued together in some peculiar way.

I now come to one of the most important features with regard
to these interesting little rods, namely, their relative length. Most
authors state that there is very little difference in the length of the
two rods; this is quite a mistake, as I am about to prove, for not
only do the two sets of rods differ in this respect, but the length of
each varies according to its position in the cochlea. Thus, at the

154 On the Structure and Function of the Rods

base of the cochlea, the outer rods are as nearly as possible equal

in length to the inner, but as we proceed upwards, both rods increase
in length with great regularity, although not in the same ratio.
The outer increases with much greater rapidity, so that near the
apex they are twice the length of the inner. This fact is clearly
demonstrated by referring to one of my preparations, in which the
various measurements were found to be as follows ; beginning at
the lowest section of the lamina and proceeding upwards in regular
succession :—

; Inner rod measures +23
Sa hanes rod Af caieete as eas the same.
aati Inner rod measures ;23,, of an inch.
2nd Bechen { Outer bod fe aed oC f
Bed Haction Ge ialenlie this is not sufficiently perfect to admit of
measurement.

F Inner rod measures +25,, of a
4th Section es easures we > of an inch.
Outer rod bs ae :

The 5th and 6th are not sufficiently perfect to allow of measure-
ment, although in the latter the rods may be seen to have increased
in about the same ratio. Further confirmation of this statement
may be obtained by comparing the rods shown in any vertical
sections of the lamina.

Fig. III. represents three pairs of rods carefully drawn from
three sections of the cochleze of the same animal (cat). The upper-
most taken from near the apex of the cochlea, the next from about
the middle, and the lowest from near the base.

It was generally supposed a priori that these rods were een
so as to distinguish the most minute variation of tone, but no one,
until now, has been able to demonstrate this.

The rods, therefore, vary in length from about ;3, toy}, of an
inch, Their other measurements are as follow :—

Inch.
Diameter of base ofinner rod, about .. .. .. -. ‘0006
bs 35 outer rod _,, Prime wisn (1075)
53 n shaft inner ,, wa ae ee SR SEER OURS
oepoutery. -00015.
Anterio- -posteri ior measurement of upper extremity of
inner rod, about .._.. “0005.
Anterio- -posterior measurement of upper extremity of
outer rod, about .. .. 0006.
Lateral posterior measurement of upper extremity of
inner rod, about .. .. .. “0002.
Lateral posterior measurement of upper extremity of
outer rod, about .. -. 0003.
Length of process of upper -extr emity of inner yod, about 0006.
outer ¥ *00075.

” ” 7

The number of rods in each row is not the same, there being
three of inner for every two of the outer, and, according to a rough
calculation that I have made, there are about 5200 inner rods, and
3500 outer in the whole cochlea.

of the Cochlea in Man and other Mammals, 155

Deiters stated that the rods of the outer row were smaller and
more-numerous than those of the inner, while Claudius positively
stated the reverse. Now, Deiters was undoubtedly wrong in both
these statements, and Claudius not altogether correct, for although
the latter, was right about the inner rods being the more numerous,
yet he was incorrect in stating that the inner were the smaller,
there being, indeed, no difference in the diameter of the shafts, but
only in the width of the upper extremities.

The rods of Corti appeared to be composed of a homogeneous
substance resembling the matrix of delicate cartilage.

Numerous longitudinal and curved lines are observable, espe-
cially at the enlarged extremities, and they may readily be split up
into fibres, otherwise they appear quite transparent and contain no
nuclei. They evidently possess great elasticity, and are calculated
in every way to receive the finest vibrations.

They are to be stained by all the various colouring fluids, as
earmine, and aniline blue, magenta, &c., but they are not so deeply
coloured as the nuclei of cells, &c.

Most authors, with the exception of Deiters, describe nuclei
situated in various parts of these rods, principally in the lower ex-
tremities, but although at first sight, and especially when seen from
above, this does appear to be the case, yet on closer observation
these so-called nuclei of the rods are found to be nothing more than
the nuclei of cells surrounding the bases of the rods. In my opinion
there is no ground whatever for the belief expressed by some modern
authors, that they are composed of fine fibres continuous with those
of membrana basilaris, and for this reason: the bases of the rods
may be easily separated from the membrana basilaris, and in this
case are found to be quite rounded, and in no way jagged or uneven.

The Arrangement of the Nerves in connection with the

Rods of Cortt.

The cochlear nerve fibres from the portio mollis pass up the
modiolus and turn off at the lamina spiralis. Just at this junction
we find in the bone itself a ganglion ; the cells of this are fusiform,
bipolar, with distinct nuclei. From this ganglion fibres proceed
outwards, these form a close plexus, and give rise to the broad dark
band seen in all transverse sections of the lamina spiralis.

Immediately before the end of the lower lip of the limbus, the
nerve filaments pierce its upper surface, by a number of small
foramina (habenula perforata), and appear close to the base of the
inner row of rods. Concerning the termination of these nerve fila-
ments little is really known. I have traced them on to the inner
rods themselves, and to the tiny cells lying on their bases, as also to
certain delicate cells between the rods, but I have good reason for
believing that some of them terminate in the cells of Corti and

VOL. IX. N

156 On the Function of the Rods of the Cochlea.

Deiters, on the outer rods themselves, and in the corresponding little
cells on their bases.

Filaments also pass directly upwards to the inner side of the first
row of rods, and on these filaments little modular enlargements may
be seen.

The Function of the Rods.

Corti and most of the subsequent authors considered this
system of rods to be the essential portion of the cochlea. They
supposed the rods received the vibrations conducted to them, and
being set in motion, so affected the nerves as to cause the brain to
appreciate the various sounds.

Later German writers have, however, attributed the apprecia-
tion of the various vibrations to certain delicate cells (the cells of
Corti and Deiters) which are attached to the under-surface of the
membrana reticularis. From this circumstance alone, it appears
evident that these investigators had not suspected, much less dis-
covered, the fact that the rods are most exquisitely graduated, for
otherwise they could surely never have doubted that so beautiful and
suitable an apparatus could have any other ostensible purpose than
that of appreciating the various sounds. If the rods had been found
to be longer in the lower and larger portion of the canal, and shorter
in the upper and smaller portion, the matter might naturally enough
have been regarded as one of little importance ; but it must be re-
membered that quite the reverse is the case, for the rods actually
increase in Jength as the canal becomes narrower. This uniform
graduation of the rods presents to my mind so plausible and
reasonable a key to their use, that there can scarcely be a doubt as
to their real function. I consider, indeed, that the cochlea as a
whole represents a finely-constructed musical instrument, similar in
nature to a harp or musical-box, the strings of the one and the teeth
of the other being represented by the rods of Corti. The spiral
bony lamina is simply nothing more nor less than a natural sound-
ing board, in connection with the end of which are arranged the
rods, attached to a strong membrane (membrana basilaris) by their
feet, and supported throughout by delicate cells, the whole being
protected above by the thick membrana tectoria, and bathed in a
special fluid secreted by the epithelial cell. This fluid, it should be
mentioned (endolymph), is cut off from the other fluid (epilymph) in
the general canal by the delicate membrane of Reissner. Around
the rods are placed the various nerve cells and nerve fibres; of the
former, I believe the cells of Corti and Deiters to be the most im-
portant, and these being connected through the medium of the
membrana reticularis to the processes (which act as levers) are, of
course, suitably placed to perceive the slightest vibration of the rods.

From these cells the impressions are conveyed by the nerve fibres

A New Formula for a Microscope Object-glass. 157

to the brain itself. Thus, I think, we are in a position to trace very
completely the course of sounds or vibrations from a musical instru-
ment, or any other source, to the brain, through the medium of the
ear. First, the vibrations are caught and collected by the auricle,
and transmitted through the external meatus to the drum of the
ear, next across the middle ear (the tympanic) cavity, principally by
means of the chain of little bones, to the internal ear. Here the
sound is appreciated merely as a sound by the vestibular portion of
the labyrinth ; the direction of the sound is probably discovered by
means of the semicircular canals, but to distinguish the note of the
sound it must pass on to the cochlea. The vibration then passes
through the fluid of the cochlea, and probably strikes the lamina
spiralis, which, acting as a sounding board, intensifies and transmits
the vibration to the system of rods. There is, doubtless, a rod not
only for each tone, or semitone, but even for much more minute
subdivisions of the same, so that every sound causes its own parti-
cular rod to vibrate. ‘Thus each string sounded on the primary
musical instrument induces a vibration in the corresponding rod of
the secondary musical instrument (the cochlea). And this rod
vibrating so affects the nerve cells in connection with it as to cause
them to send a nerve current through the nerve fibres to the brain,
which current is no doubt modified or affected by passing through
the ganglion cells, situated in the bony lamina near its junction
with the modiolus, as before mentioned.

IV.—A New Formula for a Microscope Object-glass.
By ¥. H. Wenuam.

A pENcIL of rays exceeding an angle of 40° from a luminous point
cannot be secured with less than three superposed lenses of increas-
ing focus and diameter, by the use of which combination rays
beyond this angle are transmitted with successive refractions in
their course, towards the posterior conjugate focus: until quite
recently, each of these separate lenses has been partly achromatized
by its own concave lens of flint glass, the surfaces in contact with
the crown glass being of the same radius, united with Canada
balsam ; the front lens has been made a triple, the middle a double,
and the back again a triple achromatic. This combination, there-
fore, consists of eight lenses, and the rays in their passage are sub-
ject to errors arising from sixteen surfaces of glass.

~ In the new form there are but ten surfaces, and only one con-
eave lens of dense flint is employed for correcting four convex
lenses of crown glass: as this might at first sight be considered

N 2

158 A New Formula for a Microscope Object-glass,

inconsistent with theory, a brief retrospect of the early improye-
ments of the microscope object-glass will help to define the condi-
tions. The knowledge of its construction has been entirely in the
hands of working opticians ; and the information published on the
subject being scanty, this has probably prevented the scientific
analyst from giving that aid which might have been expected.

Previous to the year 1829 a few microscopic object-glasses were
made, composed of three superposed achromatic lenses; but this
combination appears to have been used merely with the intention of
gaining an increase of power, in ignorance of any principle, and
without even a knowledge of the value of angular aperture.

At this time the late J. J. Lister tried a number of experiments,
and discovered the law of the aplanatie focus, and proved that, by
separating lenses suitably corrected, there were one or two positions
in which the spherical aberration was balanced. This was explained
in a paper read before the Royal Society in 1829. In the year
1831 Mr. Ross was employed to construct the first achromatic
object-glass in accordance with this principle, which performed with
“a degree of success never anticipated.”

Mr. Ross then discovered that, after he had adjusted the interval
of his lenses for the aplanatic focus, that position would no longer
be correct if a plate of thin glass was placed above the object; this
focus had then to be sought in a different plane, and the lenses
brought closer together, in order to neutralize the negative aberra-
tion caused by covering-glass of various thickness. From this
period the “ adjustment” with which all our best object-glasses are
now provided became established. Fig. 1 is the form of object-glass
used at this time, consisting of three plano-concave achromatics,
whose foci were nearly in the proportion of 1, 2, 3.

No greater angle than 60° could be obtained with this system
in a }-inch objective (the highest power then made), for reasons
apparent in the diagram. The excessive depth of curvature of the
contact-surfaces of the front pair is unfavourable for the passage of
the marginal rays; the softness of the flint glass forming the first
plane was also objectionable. In the year 1837 Mr. Lister gave
Mr. Ross a diagram for an improved “ eighth,” having a tzple
front lens in the form shown in Fig. 2. By this the passage of
extreme rays was facilitated ; and in order to diminish the depth of
curvature, a very dense glass was used, having a specific gravity of
4°351. Faraday’s glass, having a density of 6°4, had been pre-
viously tried, but was abandoned on account of a difficulty in
working it. The polished surfaces of both these qualities of dense
class speedily became tarnished by exposure to the air; and thus
the dense flint concave could only be employed in a triple combina-
tion, that is, when cemented between two lenses of crown glass:
this form of front was kept a trade secret, and was not published in

A New Formula for a Microscope Object-glass. 159

any work treating of the optics of the microscope. The front
incident surface of the flint of the middle pair was made concave, in

160 A New Formula for ad Microscope Object-glass,

order to reduce the depth of the contact; and for this reason only, —

as that surface has but little influence in correcting the oblique
pencils, or in producing flatness of field, and may be a plane with
an equally good or better result. “ Highths” of this form with
angles of 80° were made, and remained unaltered till the year 1850,
when larger apertures were called for, and Mr. Lister introduced
the triple back lens.

The necessity for this will be seen by the diagram (Fig. 2), which
shows that the contact-surfaces of the back achromatic are too deep,
thus giving great thickness to the lens, and limiting its diameter:
dense flint would have remedied this to some extent; but its
liability to tarnish rendered its use in a pair objectionable. The
highest density at this time known, quite free from this defect, was
3°686. By means of the triple back, the final corrections were
rendered less abrupt, a greater portion of the marginal rays could
be collected, and the aperture of an “ eighth” was at once brought
up to 130° or more. ;

At this time the author had been making some experiments in
the construction of an object-glass in the form of Fig. 2. Mr.
Lister having favoured his “eighth” with an examination, was
good enough to communicate his late improvement of the triple
back. No time was lost in giving this a trial, the result of which
proved that excessive negative aberration or over-correction could
readily be commanded with lenses of shallow contact-curves. During
these trials all chromatic correction was obtained by alterations
in the triple back; for it was found that the colour-correction
could not be controlled by a change in the concave surface of the
triple front, as the negative power of the flint here appeared to be
feeble, requiring a great difference in radius to give a trifling
result, Tor this reason the front concayes were formed of very
dense and highly dispersive flint ; the cause of this was analyzed
by a large diagram, with the passage of the rays projected through
the combination, starting from the longest conjugate focus at the

back. ‘This proved that the rays from that focus passed through ~

the concave flint of the front nearly asa radius from its centre, or in
such a direction that its negative influence was almost neutralized.
It is well known that a lens may be achromatic for parallel rays, and
under-corrected for divergent ones. The utmost extent of this con-
dition was apparent in the object-glass under consideration.

This led the author to the idea of the single front lens of crown
glass, which gave a fine result at the first attempt, as the back
combinations‘ to which it was applied happened to have a suitable
excess of negative or over-correction existing in the triple back
alone, the middle being neutral or nearly achromatic. Still there
was a defect remaining as positive spherical aberration ; and this
was afterwards cured by giving additional thickness to the front

A New Formula for a Microscope Obyect-glass. 161

lens, which is now recognized as a most essential element of correction:
In a “ fifteenth,” for instance, a difference of thickness of only -002 of
an inch will determine the quality between a good and an indifferent
glass. Fig. 3 represents a front lens suitable for bringing the back
rays toa focus. .‘Lhe dotted lines indicate the effect of this difference,
showing that with a lens of less thickness, the marginal rays fall
within the central, producing positive aberration as the result,

The single front introduced by the author is now used by every
maker ; for several years he could not induce the leading opticians
to change their system, though challenged by a series of high
powers constructed on this formula, for the purpose of proving its
superiority. Fig. 4 represents the curves of the first successful
“eighth ” on this system, having an aperture of 130°, enlarged ten
times. On tracing the passage of the marginal rays through the
combination, it will be seen that, though the successive refractions
are nearly equalized, the contact-surfaces of the middle pair are
somewhat deep, though no over-correction existed or was needed
here, for this would have required a shorter radius still (the density
of the flint in this was 3:686). If this pair of lenses were not
cemented with Canada balsam, total reflexion would take place
near the circumference of the contact flint surface, cutting off the
marginal rays at a, and limiting the aperture. It might be argued
that practically this would be no disadvantage, as these surfaces
are united with Canada balsam, whose refraction is higher than the
crown ; so that the rays in. this case must proceed with very little
deviation. But incidences beyond the angle of total reflexion may
be considered detrimental, as they imply excessive depth of curva-
ture ; this can be discovered by looking through the front of an
object-glass held close to the eye, any air-films in the balsam near
the edge of the lens appearing as opaque black spots.

At the commencement of the present year the author caused a
few object-glasses to be made, with a middle of the form of Fig. 5,
the performance of which was very satisfactory. In this the
extreme rays pass at more favourable incidences, and within the
angle of total reflexion. The upper lens is of dense flint.

When the experiments on the single front were concluded, and
the remarkable corrective power of the triple back in conjunction
therewith had been proved, the next attempt was to make the
middle also a single lens, leaving the entire colour-correction to be
performed by the one biconcave flint in the back. After numerous
trials it was found that,. though something like over-correction or
negative aberration could be obtained with the back, in the degree
requisite for balancing the under-correction of the single middle
and front when set at the prescribed distance of the aplanatic
focus, yet by trial on the mercury globule all the results invariably
displayed two separated colour-rings: these could not be combined

162 A New Formula for a Microscope Obyject-glass.

by any alteration in the radius of the lenses. By projecting the
blue and red, or visible rays of greatest and least refrangibility
through the system, the cause became apparent. ‘The left-hand
section of this object-glass is shown in Fig. 6. The rays from the
focus are slightly divided by the first front surface. On emerging
from the back the separation is increased; the red ray (7) is out-
wards, and the more refrangible or blue ray (b) inwards. Next,
the divergence of these two rays is extended by the middle single
lens. The following crown lens extends the angle of divergence so
far that the flint lens of the back triple cannot recombine them ;
and they emerge at two distinct zones, shown by the practical test
of the “artificial star” or light-spot reflected from a mercury
globule, viewed within and without the focus.
It might be supposed that these rays at their final emergence
can be so refracted as to project the blue outwards. A crossing
point would then occur at a fixed conjugate focus in the body of
the microscope, at which all rays would be combined ; and if this
focus was adjusted to that of the eye-piece, achromatism and final
correction would be the result. But to meet the various conditions
occurring in the use of the microscope, the conjugate focus con-
stantly alters in position, this being affected by every change of
eye-piece, length of tube, or adjustment for thickness of cover; ~
therefore a correction for a fixed point cannot be maintained.
Achromatism in the microscope object-glass, like that .of other
perfectly corrected optical combinations, must be the reunion of the
rays of the spectrum close to the final emergent surface of the
system. The remedy suggested by these experiments appeared to
be a transposition, that is, in placing the over-corrected triple in
the middle of the entire object-glass; this would at-once cause a
convergence of the blue and red rays. A single lens of longer
focus at the back would then bring these rays parallel at the point
of final emergence.
By projection in a diagram this condition was apparently
realized. The dispersive power of the flint (density 3°686) was
taken by the refractive index 1-76 of line H in the blue ray of the
spectrum, and 1°70 of line B in the red ray. The refraction of
the corresponding rays in the crown (density 2°44) was 1°53 H
and 1°51 b. With these indices the rays are traced in Fig. 6. The
radii in the right-hand half-section are those of an “ eighth” of the
new form drawn twenty times the size of the original. The single
front is of the usual form, as this is much alike in all cases. The
radius or focus of the single plano-convex back is about four and a
half times that of the front, and the focus of the middle (triple)
three times. The passage of the blue and red rays at the extreme
of the pencil is shown in contrast with the preceding, the separa-
tion from the same front being alike.

164 A New Formula for a Microscope Obyect-glass.

which refract the blue rays to a greater extent than the red, and
cause them to converge (instead.of diverging, as in the opposing
half-diagram), so that at their exit from the triple they meet and
would cross, effecting what is known as “over-correction”; but
this is so balanced and readjusted by the single back of crown
glass, that the rays are finally united, and emerge in a state of
parallelism. This form of object-glass is suitable for the high
powers, or such as have a cover adjustment, viz. from the “ 4-inch”
upwards ; perfect colour-correction is equally to be obtained in all
of them.

It may be asked by some who have devoted their attention to

the higher branches of optical mathematics, why the above result
should have been worked out entirely by diagrams. But it has
been found such a difficult task to calculate the passage of the two
rays of greatest and least refrangibility through a combination
having sixteen surfaces of glass of three different densities and
refractions, that even first-class mathematicians have hitherto shrunk
from the attempt.
_ Diagrams, however, are surprisingly accurate in their capability
of indicating causes and results in the microscope and object-glass ;
for these lenses are minute, with deep curves and abrupt refractions;
so that if the projection is worked out some fifty times the size of
the original, small errors can be detected. The work should be
commenced at the back from a long conjugate focus, which, not
being a constant distance, may be taken as very near to parallelism.
The high powers all have the means of correction within this
distance, and perform better with a long posterior focus than with
a very short one. ‘The relative indices for the two, or more rays
should be marked on a large pair of proportional compasses, the
long limbs representing the sine of the angle of incidence, and the
short one that of refraction. Both the sines ought to be set off in
the diagram behind, and neither of them in front of the ray. in
course of projection; this leaves the way clear, with the least
confusion of lines,

At the same time a second or counterpart diagram should be
at hand, to which the rays only are transferred as soon as their
direction is ascertained ; with these precautions a mistake is scarcely

ossible.
: Now it is hoped that some improvements may be effected by
this investigation, on account of the simplicity attained in the com-
bination, in which we have two single lenses of crown, whose foei
bear a definite proportion to each other; while all the corrections
are performed by one concave of dense flint, the acting condition of
which is not altered by the influence of any other concaves acting
in the combination, and hitherto taking a share of the duty. This
one flint is now to be considered singly as the heart and centre

Professor Smith's Conspectus of the Diatomacee. 165

of the system in reference to the correction of the rays entering and
leaving.

This memoir is of necessity incomplete, for want of definite
information concerning the optical properties of various kinds of
glass. Data obtained from working them into small Jenses furnish
only a rough approximation to the mean dispersive power of the
combined flint and crown having the best apparent effect. Of the
intermediate rays, little can be known beyond the mere appearance
of more or less of a secondary spectrum.

Nothing of importance has been published since Fratinhofer’s
Table, containing the refractive indices for each of the seven
primary colour-lines of the spectrum for ten kinds of glass: great
advance has been effected since that date in the manufacture of opti-
cal glass, a most complete collection of which of every variety has
been made by the Rosses up to the present date. Selected speci-
mens from this will be worked into prisms, and the relative spectra
mapped out by the Fraiinhofer lines, leading, it is hoped, to the
discovery of a combination of crown and flint glass which shall be
free from secondary spectrum or absolutely achromatic. The result
of this investigation will be subject of a future communication.—
Proceedings of the Royal Society, No. 141, 1873.

V.—Professor Smith’s Conspectus of the Diatomacee.
_ By F. Kirton, Norwich.

Caprain F. H. Lane will probably excuse the following remarks
on his critique upon the above-named Conspectus. The late Dr.
Arnott, whose knowledge of the Diatomaceze was perhaps greater
than any other diatomist, always contended that the stipitate, con-
ae or frondose states were not of any generic or specific
value.

Professor Smith, in placing Arachnoidiscus in the same tribe as
Melosira, has surely brought together forms more nearly allied than
Kitzing has in his arrangement.. He places the Melosirez in the
same tribe as Eunotiex, Surirelles, and Naviculee. Professor
Smith does not refer all the Triceratia to Biddulphia. Some are
referred to Ditylum, another to Kucampia, others to Eupodiscus,
and some to Liradiscus and Stictodiscus. J

Captain Lang says he has never seen Amphitetras or Triceratium
in zigzag chains, and fancies they do not occur in that state. It is
the usual state of Amphitetras, and two species of Triceratium have
been found in that condition, wz. Triceratiwm arcticum, described
and figured by Mr. Roper in ‘Trans. Mic. Soc., vol. viii., p. 55,

‘
eee

166 Professor Smith’s Conspectus of the Diatomacee.

from Vancouver’s Island, and 1. striolatum= Biddulphia, Heiberg, —
‘Dansk Diatomeer,’ page 41, pl. 2, fig. 16. I have never seen
Biddulphia reticulata with spines like Triceratiwm armatum.
B. turgida bears a greater resemblance to the latter form.

The genus Campylodiscus always appears to me to be the best
marked of any of the genera of Diatomacez ; all the species I have
seen (and I possess or have examined nearly all those figured and
described, besides many which are possibly new species), I find the
circular outline of the valve, its double flexure, and median spaces
of the opposite valves of the frustule at right angles to each other,
constant characteristics. I have noticed the twisted form of Suri-
rella striatula in the Salt Lake gathering, but it differs from the
flexures in Campylodiscus ; the latter has two bends at right angles
to each other, and also in opposite directions. In Surirella the
valve is not bent, but sometimes it has a twist in a spiral direction,
most conspicuous in Surirella spiralis, Kutzing = Campylodiscus
spiralis of the Synopsis.

Guano Diatoms, &c.

Many of the forms found in guanos were at one time considered
to be extinct species, like the majority of those in the “ fossil earths ”
from Barbadoes, Virginia, Maryland, &c. The beautiful Aulacodiscus
formosus was thought to be peculiar to the guano known as Upper
Peruvian or Bolivian. A. margaritaceus was found rarely in the
Chincha guano, but more plentifully in that known as Californian
guano, A. scaber and A. Comber occurred only in the Chincha
guano. I always had an impression that these forms, like many
others at one time supposed to be extinct, would one day be found
living in the harbour near the localities from which the guanos
are obtained, and perhaps other localities. A similar idea occurred
to my friend Captain J. A. Perry, of Liverpool, who took the first
opportunity of proving the truth of the surmise. In a letter just
received, he says, “ When I went away my last voyage I made up
my mind to find out if there was any similarity between the forms
found in the Guanape, Chincha, and Peruvian guanos, the
Mexillones deposit, and the recent forms to be found in the various
harbours; so I made gatherings in each of the ports we called
at, and to the astonishment of all of us here at Liverpool, I have.
got in great abundance recent forms of those found sparingly
in the fossil material, such as Aulacodiscus formosus, A. margart-
taceus, A. crux, and A, Comberi, Omphalopelta versicolor, &c., Xe.,
which you will see much better than I can attempt to explain to
you.” The recent forms are very fine, particularly O. versicolor.
This to my knowledge had only been found in two localities, and
in both cases in a fossil state, viz. ‘“ Monterey earth” (not
“stone”), and described by Mr. Brightwell under the name of

Hair in its Microscopical and Medico-Legal Aspects. 167

Actinocyclus spinosus, in the ‘Quarterly Journal of Microscopical
Science,’ vol. viil., p. 93, and the Mexillones guano. Avulacodiscus
crua of the Virginian deposit I have not seen in Captain Perry’s
gatherings; but A. scaber (which Ehrenberg also called A. cruz)
does occur in these gatherings. -Diatomists may perhaps be
interested in knowing that a Diatomaceous deposit (? sub-peat) has
been discovered in Talbot, Victoria, Australia, and my correspon-
dent (Mr. F. Barnard, of Kew, Victoria, to whom I am indebted
for a sample of it) writes me that the deposit is “ twelve feet deep,
and covers acres.” The prevailing form 1s Synedra amphirynchus,
Kiitzing. A few small Navicula and Cocconeis pediculus occur in
it, but at least 90 per cent. consists of the Synedra.

VI.—Hair tn its Microscopical and Medico-Legal Aspects.
By Dr. E. Hormann.

THE examination of the hair in its medico-legal relations is a
subject hitherto but little noticed, except superficially in the
“ Year-book of Legal Medicine.” Yet many cases might be men-
tioned in which the microscopic examination of the hair was of
great importance.

In the medico-legal examination of hair, two questions are met:

1. Are the hairs from animals or from men ?

2. In the latter case from whom do they come? From what
portion of the body ?

Of course, if the hairs belong to a beast, that may be sufficient
to settle the question at issue ; but the difference between such and
human hair has been too little noticed. A human hair under the
microscope shows three distinct layers: the outer, cuticula, or the
superficial covering, formed of epithelial cells, with rounded con-
tour, lying over each other like tiles, which clothes the surface of
the hair from its exit from the skin to its end. The ends of the
scale stand out somewhat from the shaft, and give the outer cir-
cumference of the hair a more or less jagged appearance. Seen
sideways, the cuticula appears as an undulatory design, more pro-
minent if the hair is treated for a short time with concentrated acid.
The scales have their points directed toward the free end of the hair ;
aay the latter can be easily distinguished from the other broken
end.

The cortical substance forms the principal part, and often the
whole of the shaft. It consists of a system of closely-packed cells
in rows lying nearly parallel to the long axis of the hair, giving
the cortical substance an appearance as if striped lengthwise.
These cells are so intimately united that without reagents this

168 Hair in its Microscopical and Medico-Legal Aspects.

striped appearance alone shows the cellular structure. Concen-
trated sulphuric acid breaks up this union, and reveals the spindle-
shaped cells, with occasionally a nucleus.

The cortical substance has different colour, according to the
colour of the hair; generally the colour is diffused through its
whole mass; less frequently the colour depends on granular pig-
ment scattered through its substance in small masses.

Finally, the cortical substance contains a number of cavities
filled with air, most evident in the hair from aged persons or in
dry hair. These are secondary results of drying, as they are not
found in young hair.

The central portion, the medullary substance, forms, when well
developed, an axis-cylinder, one-fifth or one-fourth the diameter of
the hair, with sharp outlines, generally central, but many times a
little eccentric in position. The medullary substance is not con-
stant; it is often wanting in human hair, especially in blond hair.
It is wanting less frequently in hair obtained from other parts of
the body than in that from the head. In woolly hair it is always
wanting ; also in the hair of the new-born child. The medullary
substance is often interrupted, and sometimes consists only of a few
dark points lying in the axis of the hair.

The nature of the medullary substance is still a matter of dis-
pute, some considering it cellular, others denying this. The first is
certainly the correct view, as may be seen by following the develop-
ment of the medullary substance from the papilla, where round and
imperfectly-polygonal cells can be seen gradually merging into the
medullary substance.

The medullary substance has been thought to contain the pig-
ment; this is not so, the supposed pigment-granules being very
minute air-bubbles. ‘The cause of the colour of the hair is found
in the diffuse pigmentation of the cortical substance. The cause
for the hair becoming grey or white is to be found in the disappear-
ance of the diffuse pigmentation of the cortical substance, the cause
of which is not yet known. The medullary substance can be more
easily seen in white hair than in coloured.

Turning now to the hair of animals, we find generally the same
three layers as in human hair, but differing to such a degree that,
as a rule, a hair can be easily recognized as belonging to an animal.
The cuticula in most animals has absolutely and relatively larger
cells, which give the hair a characteristic appearance, as is seen
especially well in the wool from sheep. A toothed or ‘saw-like ap-
pearance of the contour of certain animal hairs.depends upon the
larger development and peculiar relations of the cuticular cells,
whose points stand out so far from the hair that the latter has a
feathered appearance, as in the field-mouse. Among animals the
greater bulk of the hair is formed by the medullary substance, the

Hair in its Microscopical and Medico-Legal Aspects. 169

cortical substance being only a thin layer ; often, indeed, is reduced
to a hem-like streak. This predominance of the medullary sub-
stance is seen best in the shaft of the hair; toward the end the
cortical substance predominates, the medullary becoming thinner.
Generally, the cortical substance has the same structure as in
human hair, and the same variety of pigmentation; in some
animals, as the cat, rat, and mouse, the cortical substance is more
translucent and of finer structure, resembling, under the microscope,
a hyaline envelope of the medullary substance.

The medullary substance in animals is an interesting study,
differing greatly from the same layer in human hair. The cellular
structure is generally very evident, without the employment of any
reagent. The cells vary greatly in size and form.

Though the hair of animals usually is so different from human
hair that it can be easily recognized, yet the difference is sometimes
less marked ; especially may this be the case with single hairs, and
at times only a single hair can be had for examination. ‘This
resemblance is caused by the absence of the medullary substance.
Dogs’ hair, especially when brown, is often very similar to human
hair, or may be almost exactly the same; fortunately, only separate
hairs are. thus similar, while generally the remaining hairs which are
given for examination have clearly the animal type. Reagents will
often help to decide the question.

In medico-legal cases, when it has been decided that the hair
examined is human hair, the question arises, from whom it comes
and from what portion of the body. In regard to the first question
it may be merely said here that the hair examined must be compared
with that of the person concerned, both in regard to its gross
appearances and microscopically.

In deciding to what part of the body the hairs belong, the length,
the size, the form, and the root of the hair, must be noticed.

The hair from the head and beard is less limited in its length
than the hair on other portions of the body; though individual
and other circumstances may modify the length of the hair from the
head and the beard.

The size of the hair differs in different parts of the body, and
so may forma diagnostic mark. The beard is the thickest generally,
measuring 0°14 to 0°15 mm. Next comes the hair about the
female genitals, 0°15 mm.; then the eyebrows, 0°12 mm.; the
hair about the male genitals, 0-11 mm.; finally, the hair from the
head in either sex, 0:06 to 0°08mm. The great individual differ-
ences which are found may render the value of the size for diagnosis
less valuable. Moreover, it must not be forgotten that the same
hair may vary in diameter. The shape of the hair modifies its
diameter ; thus cylindrical hair especially is found only on the
head ; but when this is curly it is flattened, and the transverse

170 Hair in tts Microscopical and Medico-Legal Aspects.

section is then oval instead of round. The beard is generally
triangular on transverse section, with one convex side; the hair

from the genitals is generally oval, sometimes triangular. Hair.

which has been exposed to the action of the sweat is sometimes
swollen in one part, and so changed in form.

When the hair grows undisturbed it ends always in a fine point.
All the hair of a new-born child, hair which grows at the age of
puberty, and such as has grown naturally without interference,
always has a pointed end, which may be of use in deciding in
regard to the age of a person. Later this normal ending is not
found. Hair which has been cut has at first a sharply-defined
transverse section; later the edges are rounded off, and the end,
becomes round and diminished in size, or is frayed out. This may.
lead to an approximate calculation of the time which has elapsed
since the hair was last cut. The beard, being less frequently cut,
is more often split and frayed out. The -hair from the female
head, generally not cut, ends regularly in two to three points,
often in more, each having the end frayed out.

The shape taken by the ends of the hair depends upon the
action of friction and sweat, the former splitting and rubbing off
the ends, the latter macerating and acting chemically by dissolving
or softening the connective substance. The shaft of the hair is
acted upon by the same agents an] changed; especially active is
the sweat, changmg the colour, as is seen in the axilla, on the
scrotum, and the labia.

From the form of the hair, especially of its end, we can draw.
conclusions as to the nature of the influence to which it has been
exposed, and by means of this and its other peculiarities we may
be able in medico-legal cases, with more or less certainty, to decide
from what part of the body it came. But no form of hair is
absolutely characteristic of any portion of the body.—Translated
by 8. G. Wexer in the New York Medical Journal.

PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

The Distribution of Hemoglobin in the Animal Kingdom.—One of
the, if not the very best papers which have been published on this
subject is that by Mr. E. Ray Lankester, B.A., which appears in a
late number of the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society.’ * It is illus-
trated by a most carefully drawn plate, which, however, we cannot
reproduce. The following, which is a considerable portion of this the
most exhaustive essay that has been published on the subject, is most
of what this observer has stated :—

“The facts ascertained as to the distribution of Hemoglobin may
now be summarized as follows :—

“1. In special corpuscles.

a. In the blood of all vertebrates, excepting Leptocephalus and
Amphiouus (?).

b. In the perivisceral fluid of some species of the Vermian
genera Glycera, Capitella, Phoronis.

ce. In the blood of the Lamellibranchiate Mollusk Solen legumen.

“2. Diffused in a vascular or ambient liquid.

a. In the peculiar vascular system of the Chetopodous Anne-
lids very generally, but with apparently arbitrary exceptions.

b. In the vascular system (which represents a reduced peri-
visceral cavity) of certain leeches, but not of all. (Nephelis,
Hirudo.)

c. In the vascular system of certain Turbellarians as an
exception (Polia).

d. In a special vascular system (distinct from the general
blood-system) of a marine parasitic Crustacean (undescribed)
observed by Professor Edouard van Beneden.

e. In the general blood-system of the larva of the Dipterous
insect Cheironomus.

f. In the general blood-system of the pulmonate mollusk Pla-
norbis.

g. In the general blood-system of the Crustaceans Daphnia
and Cheirocephalus.

“3. Diffused in the substance of muscular tissue.

a. In the voluntary muscles generally of Mammalia, and
probably of birds, and in some muscles of reptiles.

b. In the muscles of the dorsal fin of the fish Hippocampus,
being generally absent from the voluntary muscular tissue of fish.

c. In the muscular tissue of the heart of Vertebrata generally.

d. In the unstriped muscular tissue of the rectum of man,
being absent from the unstriped muscular tissue of the alimentary
canal generally.

e. In the muscles of the pharynx and odontophor of Gasteropo-
dous Mollusks (observed in Lymneus, Paludina, Littorina, Patella,

* Vol. xxi., No.140.
VOL. IX. 0

172 PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE,

Chiton, Aplysia), and of the pharyngeal gizzard of Aplysia, being
entirely absent from the rest of the muscular and other tissues
and the blood of these mollusks. See as to Planorbis abovo (2 /).
f. In the muscular tissue of the great pharyngeal tube of
Aphrodite aculeata, being absent from the muscular tissue and
from the blood in this animal, and absent from the muscular
tissue generally in all other Annelids as far as yet examined.
“4, Diffused in the substance of nervous tissue.
a. In the chain of nerve-ganglia of Aphrodite aculeata.

“ The significance of these observations depends toa large extent on
the negative results given by very numerous observations not recorded
here. I have taken every opportunity, during some years past, of
examining coloured animal matters with the spectroscope, and especially
where there could be a suspicion of the presence of Hemoglobin.”
Thus, where the absence of Hemoglobin is generally stated above, it
must be understood that examination has been made for it in such
cases as have been accessible. I have found that many cases of red
coloration of a tissue or liquid, which might be supposed to be due to
Hemoglobin, are certainly not so, such red-coloured matter failing
to give the characteristic bands of that body, and, as a rule, giving no
detached characteristic bands. Such are the red pigments occurring in
the blood corpuscles of Sipunculus, in the tissues of many Annelids,
Kchinodermata, in compound Tunicata, surrounding the intestine of
Salpa, in the foot and mantle of many Mollusca, also in their nerve-
ganglia and other parts, in the chromatophores of Cephalopoda, in
certain Infusoria. On the other hand, among coloured bodies not
suggesting Hemoglobin, I have found an equally large number devoid
of characteristic spectra, but some few which exhibit the remarkable
phenomenon of detached definite bands of absorption, which enables
them to be certainly characterized and recorded. Such are :—a chlo-
rophyl-like body occurring in Spongilla, in Hydra viridis, and in
Mesostomum viride ; Chlorocruorin, which takes the place of Haemo-
globin in the vascular fluid of the Chlorémiens and some species of
Sabella ; Stentorin, giving the intense blue colour to the Infusorian
Stentor cceeruleus, and possessing a very marked and peculiar pair of
absorption bands. With one single exception, it appears, from the
examination of a great number of cases, both among Vertebrates and
Invertebrates, that coloured bodies which may be supposed to be
purely pigmentary in their function do not give detached absorption
bands. ‘The exception is the red colouring-matter named Turacin by
Professor Church, discovered by him in the feathers of birds of the
family Musophagid, which has other properties quite unusual in
pigmentary bodies. In an examination of a large number of birds’
feathers, red, yellow, blue, and green, I failed to obtain detached

* T may state that I have not hitherto made any observations on the colouring
matters of the biliary secretion in invertebrata and the lower vertebrates, except-
ing in their fresh condition. ‘The use of the spectroscope, combined with chemical
reagents, would no doubt lead to interesting results in that field, since a variety of

substances giving characteristic absorption-spectra have been obtained from the
manipulation of mammalian bile-pigment.

PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE. 173

absorption bands, as also in the scales of fish and in the skin and hair
of mammals, and in the pigments of many Crustaceans, Annelids,
Insects, Tunicates, and Sponges.*

“From a consideration of the facts stated above with regard to
the mode of occurrence and distribution of Hemoglobin in animal
organisms, the following general statements may be made, which are
in accordance with the now thorough establishment, by chemical
investigation, of its peculiar oxygen-carrying property.

“ Hemoglobin is irregularly distributed throughout the animal
kingdom, being absent entirely only in the lowest groups.— It may
be present in all the representatives of a large group, with but one or
two exceptions, or it may be present in one only out of the numerous
members of such a group; or, again, it may be present in one and
absent in another species of the same genus. It may occur in cor-
puscles in the blood, or diffused in the liquor sanguinis, or in the
muscular tissue, or in the nerve-tissue. The same apparent capricious-
ness characterizes its occurrence in tissues as in specific forms. It
may be present in one small group of muscles and absent from all the
rest of the tissues of the body, or it may occur in one part only of a
tissue, histologically identical throughout its distribution in the
organism. The apparently arbitrary character of this distribution is
to be explained (though only partially) by a reference to the chemical
activity of Hemoglobin. Wherever increased facilities for oxidation
are requisite, Hemoglobin may make its appearance in response;
where such facilities can be dispensed with, or are otherwise supplied,
Hemoglobin may cease to be developed.

“The Vertebrata and the Annelida possess a blood containing
Hemoglobin in correlation with their greater activity as contrasted
with the Mollusca, which do not possess such blood. The actively
_ burrowing Solen lequmen alone amongst Lamellibranchiate Mollusks,
and amongst Gasteropods only ,Planorbis, respiring the air of stagnant
marshes, possess blood containing Hemoglobin. In the former the
activity, in the latter the deficiency of respirable gases are correlated
with the exceptional development of Hemoglobin. But we cannot
as yet offer an explanation of the absence of Hemoglobin from the
closely-allied species of Solen, and from the Lymnei which accompany
Planorbis. The Crustaceans Cheirocephalus and Daphnia, and the
larva of Cheironomus, possessing, as exceptions in their classes, Hemo-
globin in their blood, inhabit stations where the amount of accessible
oxygen must be small (that is to say, stagnant ponds), the last living
in putrescent mud; whilst the possession of abundant Hemoglobin in
its vascular fluid may be supposed to be one of the chief properties
which enables the oligochet Annelid Tubifex to hold its ground in the
foul, and therefore much deoxygenated, water of the Thames at London.

* See ‘Journal of Anatomy and Physiology,’ 1869-70, p. 119.

t (Note. Dec. 24th, 1872.|—It is perhaps of some significance that Hemo-
globin las only been found in that great group of the anima! kingdom which in
the course of its development gives rise to a middle layer of blastodermic cells or
mesoderm, and in examples from nearly every great branch of this stem.

0 2

174 PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

“ The known chemical properties of Hemoglobin furnish a more
complete explanation of its peculiar distribution in tissues., That it
should occur in a circulating fluid, which is the medium of respira-
tion, is obviously related to those properties. Its occurrence in the
voluntary muscles of the most active of Vertebrata, and in the most
active muscles of some others (as in the case of the dorsal-fin muscles
of Hippocampus), is equally so; so also its occurrence in the most
powerfully acting part of the intestinal muscles, those of the rectum,
and in the only rapidly and constantly acting muscles of the Gastero-
pods, namely, those used in biting and rasping.

“ To connect its occurrence in the nervous chain of Aphrodite
aculeata with its properties is more difficult, smce we have no know-
ledge that this Annelid is remarkable for nervous energy. The large
bulk of the animal in proportion to the size of the nervous system,
and the deficient respiration, indicated by the very slightly developed
vascular system and the total absence of Hemoglobin from the fluids
of the worm, may be a reason for the endowment of the nervous
centre which has to control such a large and complicated organism
with a special facility for appropriating what little oxygen may come
in its way.

“The complete absence of Hemoglobin from Leptocephalus is an
example of the submission of an auxiliary, but not an essential, struc-
tural attribute to an all-powerful necessity—that of transparency.
The absence of Hemoglobin from the transparent Annelid Alciope
may be similarly correlated.

“ From what has been stated above as to the Hemoglobin-bearing
corpuscles of Glycera, Solen, and the Vertebrata, it appears that
when Hemoglobin is present in the blood in corpuscles, these cor-
puscles are of a peculiar character, and are specially related to the
presence of the Hemoglobin. When that is absent, other things
remaining the same (as with the blood of Solen ensis and the peri-
visceral fluid of most Annelids), the peculiar corpuscles are absent. |
Such things as colourless corpuscles, representative of the Hemo-
globin-bearing corpuscles, do, however, appear to exist in the case of
the fish Leptocephalus. In connection with the relation of the colour-
less corpuscles of vertebrate blood to the red corpuscles, and of the
corpuscles of the vascular fluids of Invertebrata to one another and
to those of Vertebrates, these facts seem to be important: the colour-
less corpuscles in one case are only comparable to the colourless in
another; the red corpuscles are something apart, which may or may
not be superadded.*

“ The corpuscles of the perivisceral fluid of the Gephyrean Sipun-
culus nudus, which is abundant in the Gulf of Naples, present some
facts which are interesting in relation to the occurrence of Hemo-
globin; and I may therefore draw attention to them before concluding
this paper. The fluid which is contained in the perivisceral cavity
of this worm is, as is well known, of a pale madder-red colour. It
contains a remarkable abundance and variety of corpuscles, the most

* (Note. Dec. 24th, 1872.|—The two kinds of corpuscles may be definitely
distinguished from one another as /eucocytes and pneumocytes.

PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE. 17D

numerous of which are thick circular disks, varying in diameter from
sy0 tO sop Of an inch; and in these, and these only, the pink
colour resides (Fig. 7). These pink corpuscles consist of a clear
homogeneous substance, of high refringent power, in which are scat-
tered three or four bright granules and a small nucleus, which is
rendered obvious by the action of acetic acid, MRosaniline stains this
nucleus, but does not usually give any other macule, such as are to
be observed when it is added to Hemoglobin-containing corpuscles.*
Dr. Alexander Brandt, in a recent memoir, very rightly insists on
the similarity between these pink corpuscles of Sipunculus and the
red corpuscles of the blood of Vertebrata: they are something quite
distinct from the amceboid corpuscles found in the fluid corresponding
to blood in nearly all Invertebrata, and are to be compared to the
red corpuscles of Glycera, Solen, and Vertebrates. The amceboid
corpuscles are otherwise represented in the perivisceral fluid of Sipun-
culus by numerous active amceboid cells. Dr. Brandt, naturally
enough, regarded the pink colour of these corpuscles as favouring
their assimilation to vertebrate red corpuscles. The colour en masse
is, however, obviously different from that of dilute Hemoglobin; and
I was not therefore surprised to find that it did not give the absorp-
tion-spectrum of that body. This pink colouring-matter is soluble
in water. When a little fresh water is added to some of the perivis-
ceral fluid in a tube, it takes up all the colour, whilst the corpuscles
sink in a colourless condition to the bottom. No detached bands of
absorption of any kind were given by the colouring-matter thus ob-
tained ; a slight acidulation with acetic acid was sufficient to destroy
the colour. Ammonia had the same action, also ether and alcohol.

“ Though this pink substance is thus devoid of the spectral pro-
perties which characterize Hemoglobin and Chlorocruorin, it does
not seem improbable that it isa body analogous to them in other pro-
perties, since the corpuscles in which it resides can only be compared
to the respiratory or oxygen-carrying corpuscles occurring in the
blood of Vertebrates and the four Invertebrates noticed in this paper.
Moreover, this pink colouring-matter occurs in other parts of the
organism of Sipunculus, namely, diffused in the substance of a remark-
able tissue which runs along the wall of the intestine, forming a red
streak, which has sometimes been taken for a blood-vessel, and also in
the peculiar cellular tissue which surrounds the true nerve-tissue of
the nerve-chord.

* The occurrence of colourless corpuscles in Leptocephalus iden-
tical in form and character with the Hemoglobin-bearing corpuscles
of the blood of other fish, and the apparently capricious distribution
of Hemoglobin among Invertebrata, together with the existence of
the green oxygen-carrier Chlorocruorin and the pink colouring-matter
of the corpuscles of Sipunculus nudus, suggest the hypothesis of the
existence of various bodies not necessarily red, possibly colourless,
which act the same physiological part in relation to oxygen as does
Hemoglobin.”

* On one occasion out of many I obtained an appearance of the kind; and
hence further observation on this point is necessary.

176 PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

The Development of Cancer.—In the ‘Medical Record’ (Feb. 12)
Dr. C. Creighton gives a valuable account of Dr. Carmalt’s recent
researches on this point, which are published in Virchow’s ‘ Archiv.’
(vol. 58.) The writer records the results of the examination of three
carcinomatous tumours, removed from the skin of the nose, the cheek,
and the eyelid. Thiersch, in his work on cancer, has pointed out
that the epithelial cells of the sebaceous and sweat glands, and espe-
cially the cells of the rete Malpighii, are often the point of departure
for cancer of the skin, and he casually includes the epithelium and
the hair-follicles in the same category. In the hair-follicles Dr.
Carmalt found not only an increase of the outer layer of epithelium,
but also offshoots from the follicles, diverticula lined with epithelium,
penetrating the connective tissue to various depths and in various
directions. A section made either obliquely or parallel to the axis of
the follicle, and passing through the diverticula, gave exactly the
appearance of the ordinary cancer-alveoli, filled with epithelial cells.
In certain preparations, it was possible to see the alveolar groupings
of the cells pass into long processes lined with epithelium, which,
again, opened into the hair-follicle ; so that the appearance was that of
a group of acinous glands with their excretory duct. Other sections
presented a still more complete picture, viz. the enlarged follicles
and their offshoots, the alveolar groups of epithelial cells, evidently
in connection with the follicular offshoots, and lastly, isolated
epithelial alveoli, situated more deeply in the tissues, and showing the
ordinary characters of cancer-alveoli. Carmalt thinks it is hardly to
be doubted that these isolated, cancer-alveoli were also originally in
continuity with the hair-follicles and their diverticula. The sebaceous
glands were found unchanged, or hyperplastic, or quite undistinguish-
able, according to the degree of invasion of the cancerous growth.
The connective tissue (stroma) surrounding the follicles and their
abnormal offshoots was at some points so infiltrated with small round
and spindle-shaped cells, that the cancer-alveoli could not be dis-
tinguished ; at other points, the stroma consisted of a delicate network.
In showing that the epithelium of the hair-follicles form a point of
departure for the cancerous growth, Carmalt thinks that some light
has been thrown on the cause of cancer of the skin. Referring to the
statement of Fiihrer, that frequent and rough shaving is apt to pro-
duce cancer of the skin of the face, he points out that, out of fifty or
sixty cases of cancer of the lip and cheek that have occurred within a
recent period in the Breslau Pathological Institute, only two were in
women, and not a single case occurred in men with unshaved beards,
With reference to the general question of the histological origin of
cancer, his conclusions are so far in support of the opinion of
Waldeyer and others, that every cancerous growth originates in the
epithelial elements of the part, and are in opposition to the opinion of
Virchow, that the cancer-cells are the equivalents of connective tissue
corpuscles. In cancer of the cesophagus, Carmalt found an analogous
condition. Sections showed processes of the deeper epithelial layer
(corresponding to the rete Malpighii of the skin), penetrating the
subjacent tissue. These processes were in connection with the cancer-

PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE. 177

alveoli, the cells of which had everywhere an epithelial character, and
could be readily distinguished from the growth of connective tissue
corpuscles near them. In one case the excretory ducts of the mucous
glands were implicated, being dilated three or four times beyond the
normal width, and covered with six or eight layers of pavement-
epithelium. They presented also sacculated enlargements, of the same
appearance as the neighbouring cancer-alveoli. In another investiga-
tion, Carmalt determined that cancer-cells possessed the property of
spontaneous or amoeboid movement. Minute particles were removed
with a warmed knife from a newly excised tumour, and mounted in
serum derived from the blood of the incised wound. The specimen
was examined on a Stricker’s warm stage, at a temperature of
104-107° Fahr. In the ease of cells from two cases of cancer of the
breast, and one case of sarcoma of the axilla, the amceboid movements
were observed side by side with, and distinguishable from, the move-
ments of white blood corpuscles. The tumour elements comported
themselves like amceboid cells, assuming various forms and shooting
out short processes. The amcboid movements of the tumour cells
were found to be more sluggish than those of the colourless blood
corpuscles.

Ehvrenberg’s Foraminifera.—Messrs. Parker, F.R.S., and Rupert
Jones, F.R.S., give, in a recent number of the ‘Annals of Natural
History, an interesting account of Herr Ehrenberg’s researches on the
Foraminifera. They say, we feel certain that the better Ehrenberg’s
work is understood, his beautiful and lasting illustrations, and his
painstaking synoptical registers, will largely advance the progress of
biology in its relation to both the present and the past. In removing
some obscurity from the highly valuable groups of Foraminifera of
which he has treated, we feel the pleasure of being of use to naturalists
and geologists, enabling them to put several extensive faune and local
groups into close critical relation with each other, and with such as
have been observed by others. Further, we are sure that Ehrenberg
himself, thinking over the improved biological systems of later
naturalists, and open to conviction on good arguments, would freshly
recognize the force of his own words respecting the importance of
rhizopodal studies and their slowly progressive nature ; and be pleased
to find, also, his own researches not only serving as a broad basis for
the study in general and as steps to higher knowledge, but still more
freely trodden in the upward ascent, when made somewhat clearer and
firmer for the student.

Hickel’s work on Calcareous Sponges is admirably reviewed by P.S.
in ‘Nature’ (Feb. 13). After giving some of the principal names of
those whose works the author has less or more made use of, the writer
of the notice goes on to say, that the first chapter gives an apprecia-
tive account of the admirable labours of Professor Grant, and of the
subsequent contributions to the subject by Johnston, Bowerbank,
Lieberkiihn, Carter, Oscar Schmidt, and Kolliker. The defects of
Mr. Bowerbank’s “ Monograph of British Sponges ” are clearly pointed
out, but its great merits receive equally cordial recognition, while the

178 PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

criticism passed on Dr. Gray’s “Classification” is as just as it is
severe. After a description of the methods of examination, the author
proceeds to give a detailed account of the anatomy and natural
history of the calcareous sponges, and this occupies the greater part
of the first volume. The second is devoted to a detailed description
of the whole group in systematic order, with diagnosis of species and
ample synonomy. The plates in the third volume, drawn by Professor
Hackel with the camera lucida, are admirably exact, though artistic
effect is sometimes sacrificed to a somewhat diagrammatic clearness.
They remind one of the excellent illustrations of Bronn’s
“'Thierreich.” The class of sponges is divided into Fibrospongie,
including most of Grant’s and Bowerbank’s silicious and ceratose
genera, Myxospongic, represented by Halisarca and Calcispongie vel
Grantie. This third class contains three families, Ascones (Leucoso-
lenia Bowerbank), Leucones (Leuconia Bowerbank), and Sycones
(Grantia Bowerbank), represented by Ascetta, Leucetta and Sycetta
respectively. The genera are chiefly characterized by their spicula.
The author agrees with Oscar Schmidt in deducing all known sponges
from a single primitive form (Archispongia, Protospongia), which he
supposed to have resembled Halisarca more than any other existing
genus. He regards the class as very distinct from the Protozoa, and
most nearly related to the Coelenterata, a view with which English
readers are familiar from Mr. E. R. Lankester’s interesting paper on
Zoological Affinities of Sponges in the ‘Annals and Magazine of
Natural History’ (vol. vi., 1870). Indeed it was the position taken by
Leuckart himself in 1854, seven years after the sub-kingdom of
Ccelenterata had been established by himself and Frey. If we admit
that each sponge-pyramid is not a colony of Protozoa, but a multi-
cellular organism, its likeness to a polyp is very striking: the chief
differences are the absence of tentacles and of thread-cells. The
latter structures, however, haveswe believe, been detected in some
Mediterranean sponges since the publication of Professor Hackel’s
work. Comparing the “Stammbaum” given at the end of the first
volume with that in the third edition of the ‘Schépfungsgeschichte ’
(1872), published five months earlier, we find that the author now
makes all sponges descend through “ Archispongia,” and “ Protascus”
from an equally hypothetical “Gastrea,’ while the Ccelenterata
diverge from Protascus as Archydra. This makes the affinity less
close between Myxospongie on the one hand, and between Calci-
spongiz and Coralligena on the other. The modification brings the
Stammbaum nearer to the classifications actually used by other
zoologists, and is so far an advantage. With regard to nomenclature,
Professor Hackel defends the proposal which he made in 1869 to
revive the old name of Zoophyta (used by our countryman, Wotton,
in 1552) in order to include sponges (or Porifera) and Ccelenterata
(or, as he prefers to call them, Acalephe). Admitting the justice of
the classification, there seems no sufficient justification for the change
of names. 1. Priority belongs to the name given by those who first
establish true affinities, and not to vague and fanciful names given
two hundred years before Linnaeus. 2. To say “ Zoophyta” is no

PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE. 179

worse a name to revive than “ Vermes” is sufficiently to condemn it.
3. Whether the cavity in a sea-anemone is all stomach or partly peri-
visceral may admit of dispute, but “Coelenterata ” only affirms that
the animal is hollow ; and if the term suggests either interpretation,
it rather lends itself to Professor Hiickel’s. 4. If another word must
be invented to apply to Anthozoa (or “ Coralla”) and Hydrozoa (or
“ Hydromeduse”) in common, Huxley’s “ Nematophora,” suggested
in 1851, is just as good as “ Acalephin,” which was used in a more
restricted sense by Cuvier. But it is not impossible that before long
neither term will be properly exclusive of sponges.

The seepromucion of the Saprolegnie.—A very able paper on this
subject appears in ‘ Hofmeister’s Handbook’ (vol ii., cap. v.), from the
pen of Dr. Anton de Bary. This is translated very fully by Mr. M.
C. Cooke, M.A., in the February number of his ‘Grevillea.’ It says
that the existence of a sexual generation in a certain number of Fungi
has latterly been demonstrated. “'The Mucorini offer an example of a
copulation which, in my idea, and that of M. Hofmeister, is a particu-
lar form of this mode of generation; and, since Micheli and Bulliard a
multitude of Fungi are, at any rate, supposed to possess sexes, flowers,
anthers, &c. We will first quote the Saprolegniz, the sexual organs
and the fecundation of which were first discovered by M. Pringsheim,
and described by him. In the types which may be imagined to be mone-
cious, such as the Saprolegnia monoica, the Pythium and our Aphano-
myces, the female organs consist of oogonia, that is to say, of cells
which are at first globose, and rich in plastic matters, which most
generally terminate short branches of the mycelium, and which are
but rarely seen in an interstitial position. The constitutive membrane
of the adult oogonium in Saprolegnia monoica is re-absorbed in a great
number of points, and is there pierced with rounded holes. At the
same time-the plasma is divided into a larger or smaller number
of distinct portions which are rounded into little spheres, and separate
from the walls of the conceptacle, in order to group themselves in its
centre, where they float in an aqueous liquid. These gonospheres
are then smooth and bare ; on their surface there exists no membrane
of the nature of cellulose. In the genera Pythium and Aphanomyces,
and in some of the Saprolegnie all the plasma of the oogonia is
condensed into one solitary central sphere, surrounded by liquid,
During the formation of the oogonium, there arise from its pedicel,
or from neighbouring filaments, slight, cylindrical, curved branches,
sometimes twisted around the support of the oogonium, and which all
tend towards this organ. ‘Their superior extremity is intimately
applied to its wall, then ceases to be elongated, becomes slightly
inflated, and is limited below by a septum ; it is then an oblong cell,
; slightly curved, filled with protoplasm, and intimately applied ‘to the
oogonium ; in one word, an antheridium, or the organ of the male sex.
Each oogonium possesses one or several antheridia. Towards the
time when the gonospheres are formed, it may be remarked that each
antheridium sends to the interior of the oogonium one or several
tubular processes which have crossed its side wall, and which open at
their extremity in order to discharge their contents. These, while

180 PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

they are flowing out, exhibit some very agile corpuscles, the diameter
of which is barely equal to ‘002 mm., and which, considering their
resemblance to what are termed ‘spermatozoids’ in the Vaucherie,
ought to be regarded as the fecundating corpuscles. After the evacua-
tion of the antheridia, the gonospheres are found to be covered with
cellulose; they then constitute so many oospores, with solid walls, if
I may use an expression specially applied to the alge by M. Pring-
sheim. Phenomena which are analogous in several respects and have
been studied in the Vaucheriw and other conferve, as also direct
observations which are due to M. Pringsheim, do not permit of any
doubt but that the cellulosic membrane, which appears on the surface
of the gonospheres, is only the consequence of sexual fecundation,
and that this ought not to be attributed to the corpuscles which
issue from the antheridea, which would penetrate into the gonospheres,
and unite with their substance.’ It then goes on to deal fully with
the subject for two or more pages, but we have not space to proceed
farther.

Pathological Appearance of the Jaw after Resection of the Mamillary
Bone.—Dr. Goodwillie, of New York, recently read a paper partly on
the above subject before the Medical Society of his county. He says
that on making a section of the tumour through the longitudinal direc-
tion of the teeth, there was to be seen the following: at the apex of
the second molar tooth there was a small, soft cyst, containing some
pus, and for a short distance surrounding this the bone appeared quite
cancellated, but the rest of the tumour was quite dense in structure.
The pulps of the canine and first bicuspid had still some vitality, but
that of the second bicuspid was dead. The pulp-chambers were
decreased in size by a deposit of osteo-dentine to their walls, slight
hypertrophy of the cementum on the fangs. A large nerve entered
the tumour on its buccal side. The microscopical examination of this
tumour, as made by Dr. J. W. 8. Arnold, shows that it is ‘‘ composed
of cancellated tissue almost entirely. The outer edge of a thin layer
of more compact bony tissue. In the spongy part a small amount of
soft marrow, containing the usual constituents of foetal marrow, 7. e.
medulla-cells, and myelo-plaxes with oil-globules.”

The Union of Divided Tendons.—A paper with the title of “The
Minute Processes in the Union by the first intention of Divided
Tendons,” by Herr Paul Gicterbock, of, Berlin, is well abstracted
in a late number of the ‘Lancet.’ It appears that the observer’s
work was most of it done at the well-known Brown-Institution of
London. The experiments were made on the Achilles tendons of
nearly full-grown white rats. The tendons were never entirely, but
only partially divided, the object being to avoid much separation of
the cut surfaces, and any considerable effusion of blood, which neces-
sarily occur when a stretched tendon is completely divided. The
operation was done with a sharp-pointed tenotome, the tendons being
removed under chloroform, together with the lower portion of the
muscles of the calf. The rats, the author states, recover from this
procedure quickly, and without any marked lameness resulting, pro-

PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE. 181

vided the posterior tibial artery be not wounded. The tendons, after
being pinned out on pieces of cork, to prevent shrinking, and having
been treated with chloride of gold solution (4 per cent.) and spirit,
gave the following results :—Half an hour after the operation blood is
seen to be extravasated between the cut surfaces, and for a short dis-
tance under the sheath of the tendon. The extravasation does not
usually extend deeply into the funnel-shaped wound, but the latter is
filled up more or less completely by a process of the sheath, and of
the connective tissue outside the sheath. Twenty-four hours after
the operation no change is visible in the tendon-cells, particularly
none that in any way resembles inflammation. As a rule, the wound is
almost entirely filled with the tissue of the sheath, so that any “ plastic
exudation ” that may occur must be very small in quantity. It is only
exceptionally that the latter is present in considerable quantity, in
which case there is only a small process of the sheath in the wound.
In preparations treated with chloride of gold, the exudation appears
as a yellow, finely-granular mass, in which a few young cells are
scattered. The sheath itself is only slightly inflamed over the place
of the incision. If the tendon be examined later on, little change is
seen to have occurred in the elementary parts, and none in the tendon-
cells. The margins of the wound can always be recognized, and a
distinct connection between the contents of the wound and the sheath
can be demonstrated. It can also be shown that the tissue occupying
the wound is prolonged at the edges of the wound between the separate
bundles of fibrille, By means of this prolongation of the tissue of the
wound into the interstices of the tendon-cells, the edges of the wound
become, in forty-eight hours, so strong that considerable force is
required to make them give way ; and after seventy-two hours or more
their separation becomes as difficult as the rupture of the tendon itself.
The tissue filling the wound then gradually comes to occupy less room,
its cells becoming comparatively more approximated ; and in a week
from the operation the previously finely granular intercellular sub-
stance begins to assume a fibrillated structure. In three or four weeks’
time, when the funnel-shaped wound has become linear, nothing definite
can be made of the intercellular substance even with high powers. The
author cannot ascertain, from direct observation, what becomes of the
majority of the elements of the tissue occupying the wound, but is of
opinion that, in deciding this point, regard must be had to the amount
of original inflammatory swelling of the sheath. In conclusion, he
says, ‘‘ whilst on the one hand a true union by the first intention, in
its histological sense, of tendon does not occur, on the other hand I
have found suppuration very rare after incomplete Achillitomy in rats,
and where it does happen, the tendon-tissue takes scarcely any part
in it.” i

Insect Muscles: their Structure.—-The following are stated to be the
conclusions formed by Herr Grunmach: 1. That the structural element
of the transversely striated muscular fibre of insects is the “columna
muscularis” of Kélliker (muskel-siulchen). 2. That the columna
muscularis is composed of a clear lustrous matrix, in which, at definite
distances from each other, le dull prismatic bodies, the so-called

182 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

sarcous elements, which are either all of equal breadth or are alter-
nately broad and narrow. 3. That the columne are separated from
each other by interfibrillar or intercolumnar substance, in which fat-
molecules and other granular particles are suspended. 4. That a
certain number of these columne form the primitive fascienlus (fibre)
of muscle which is invested by sarcolemma. 5. The so-called yellow
muscles of insects are to be included with the other transversely
striated muscles.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

The Gull and Johnson Controversy.—Apropos of the late discussion
relative to the structure of the kidney, as to whether the term “ arterio-
capillary fibrosis” is correct or not, the ‘Lancet’ has the following leading

article, in the expression of which we entirely concur. It says:—We-

shall look with much anxiety to the composition of the committee,
which the Society very properly decided to appoint, for the micro-
scopic investigation of the true nature of those appearances in vessels
to which Sir W. Gull and Dr. Sutton have given the distinctive name
of “arterio-capillary fibrosis.” Assuredly it ought, as far as possible,
to consist of competent microscopic observers who have not in any way
adopted a definite view on the subject. We think it is easy to see that,
as regards mere histological fact, there is certainly something to be
said for both sides. Both among the very beautiful preparation exhi-
bited by Dr. Johnson and among those shown by his opponents there
are many which appear to exhibit undoubted evidence of such a hyper-
trophy of the muscular coats of arteries as Dr. Johnson contends for ;
but, on the other hand, we should be greatly surprised if it were ulti-
mately proved that there are no further changes of the arterial walls in
granular renal disease. Certainly it is not thus that one feels inclined
to explain several of the preparations which have been exhibited ; nor
can the hypothesis of glycerine-modification be received as a sufficient
explanation of the discrepancy. Moreover, it is very widely felt, we
believe, among the best clinicians of London, that the clinical history
of degenerative disease, as observed both in hospitals and in private
practice, gives a very large number of instances in which everything
seems to point to various other portions of the systemic circulation,
and not to the renal vessels, as the commencement of the series of
degenerative diseases of which granular renal disease may form a part.

Microscopical Experiments on Insects’ Compound-Eyes.—Dr. F.
W. Griffin, of the Bristol School of Chemistry, sends us the following
note which he has had inserted in the ‘ World of Science.’ Any tole-
rable “mount” of a beetle’s eye will show more or less of the results
hereafter described, but to obtain the more striking effects it should
be prepared with great care. From a shape more or less semi-glo-
bular, it has to be flattened out to a perfect plane, that all the images
in the field should be in focus together, yet this must be accomplished

— er, =

a

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 183

without materially altering the form of the individual “lenses,” which
would impair the distinctness of the images produced by them. Judg-
ing from numerous specimens of his mounting which the writer has
had occasion to examine at different times, he can recommend Mr.
Barnett as an excellent preparer of these “ eyes” (as well as of insects
in general, grouped diatoms, wood-sections, &c.), and whose mounts
may be relied on. To obtain all the effects which can be got from
this beautiful object requires some patience, care, and skill. No in-
structions can supply the place of these qualities, but we will endea-
vour to make our hints as plain and practical as possible. We will
first consider the mode of operating by daylight, which is the easiest to
work with, and admits of the greatest variety of effects. That we may
see the images at all, we must know where to look for them, which is
on the very summit of the quasi-lenses, or possibly a little above. One
general rule will suffice for finding them with any “ power” or ar-
rangement. First, focus down to the hexagonal framework, which is
the lowest part; when this is distinct the raised corneules will be
utterly lost. Then rack slowly back, the projecting rounded corneules
will come into view as their reticulated “ setting” fades away. Con-
tinue racking-up till they in turn disappear in a general haze, which
will be near the point required. Now pass a steel pen or similar
object between the mirror and stage with its broad side presented to
both. With slight focussing, a perfect image of it, moving backward
and forward, will be seen in each of the so-called “ facets” of the eye.
With the writer’s own slide, viewed with a 1-inch objective and a large-
field ocular (a “ Kelner” gives the finest effect with all such “ show-
objects”), nearly 2000 separate images are seen at once well focussed.
With 4-inch or }-inch objectives the size and distinctness of the
images are greatly increased, but their number is, of course, dimi-
nished in proportion. Still even the }-inch gives 150 ocelli in the
field. Either the plane or concave mirror may be employed, but the
latter is probably preferable. A capital and appropriate object with
the higher powers is a dead house-fly, stuck on a pin passing through
a piece of cork, which may be held by a stiff wire attached to. any
stand or support placed on the right-hand side of the mirror. The
nearer the object is brought to the stage, the larger its image will
appear, while approximation to the mirror diminishes the apparent
size. Further, by suitably directing the mirror, we can make window-
bars, sash-fastenings, blind-tassels, &c., appear in each ocellus, though
small and somewhat indistinct. The size and perfection of definition
of such images may be greatly increased (put in by composition) by
employing with a 41-inch a 1-inch objective as an achromatic con-
denser. By racking this up or down, the size or definition of the
image may be regulated toa nicety. A blind-tassel may thus be mag-
nified so as nearly to fill the whole area of the corneules, or be more
than half an inch in diameter, while each “ strand” will be distinctly
seen, and even the mottling of a fly’s wing will be plainly visible. If
the tassel be set swinging, the effect will be amusing, and if it be drawn
aside and an outstretched hand with the fingers in rapid movement be
put in its place, the appearance of 150 frantic extremities in simulta-

184 NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

neous motion will be found ludicrous in the extreme. A friend of ours
substituted a jointed toy suspended from the sash-fastener by an india-
rubber string, and he describes the effect when it was set going as
comical exceedingly! Nay, more, perfect pictures may be obtained in
each ocellus when the 1-inch condenser is used with # 41-inch objective.
A group of trees at some little distance from the window may be thus
sharply depicted, their leaves and branches waving in the wind; and
the writer has had a panoramic view of blue sky with white clouds,
minute but clearly defined, flying across, all multiplied 150 times!
Many persons, however, object that these figures are not really
formed by the lenses of the eye itself, but that any image presented
to it is merely repeated in it by refraction. When an objective is
used beneath as an achromatic condenser, this doubt not only seems
plausible, but it is impossible to disprove it directly. Still it is easy
to show the optical completeness of the ocelli, and that their lens-
like action is an absolute fact. To do this, set the microscope hori-
zoutally, and then raise the fore part of the stand so that the axis of
the body is in a line with the upper part of a window five or six yards
distant. ‘The mirror being removed, there will then be absolutely
nothing behind the “eye” but the slip,of glass on which it is
mounted, yet with a }-inch or 31-inch, the steel pen will show clearly,
and with the }-inch a picture of the window, with curtains, tassels, &c.,
and even objects outside, will be seen in each corneule, though small
and rather indistinct. If a large profile face or figure is cut out of
brown paper and stuck on a window-pane, it will show very well; or
if a person stands on a chair against the light and raises the hands to
the head, no one observing the effect could doubt for a moment that
the “ eye” continues to perform the same work which it formerly did
during life. By lamplight our range is far more limited. The plane
mirror gives only a small speck of light in each of the corneules,
which with l-inch appear like minute nodules of a dull red colour,
much resembling some of the thick discoid diatoms (Coscinodiscee,
Aulacodiscee, &c.) when viewed dry. 'The concave mirror produces
a troublesome image of the flame of the lamp. On parallelizing the
light by a bull’s-eye, this image is got rid of, and the steel pen shows
very well with }-inch or }-inch, but to obtain really good effects the
1-inch must be used as an achromatic condenser, with bull’s-eye and
concave mirror. Then the fly or similar objects (a small transparent
photo-portrait has been suggested) will come out admirably, but a
patient adjustment of all the appliances should be tried—of the lamp,
bull’s-eye, mirror, and condensing-objective, as well as exact focus-
sing of the “power” employed. We read in the ‘ Monthly Micro-
scopical Journal,’ No. 42, that at a soirée of the Croydon Microsco-
pical Club in November, 1871, Mr. Butler exhibited an eye of beetle
magnified 400 times (probably by a }-inch and a highish ocular), show-
ing in every facet the moving seconds’-hand of a watch reflected into
it. We do not know the precise means by which this curious result
can be satisfactorily accomplished. If direct sunlight is allowed to
fall on the mirror when a low power (1-inch or }-inch) is employed
on the “ eye,” beautiful and vividly-coloured geometrical patterns
are seen in it, changing like a kaleidoscope with every alteration in

CORRESPONDENCE. 185

focussing. The appearances are eminently beautiful, but of course
entirely illusory. The foregoing observations were made with a
monocular microscope, the writer not happening to have a binocular
at the present time. He does not apprehend, however, that it would
occasion any notable difference. In conclusion, some of your younger
readers may desire to know the method of calculating the number of
ocelli in any compound eye which they may happen to possess, or the
number contained in the field with the higher powers. The arith-
metical rule for finding the number of square inches in a circular
plane is to multiply half the diameter in inches by half the circum-
ference, the latter being three times the diameter, or, more precisely,
as 22 to 7. Thus a disk 8 inches in diameter will contain 48 square
inches, for 8 x 3 = 24, the half of which is 12. This multiplied by
4 (the semi-diameter) gives 48 square inches as the superficial area.
Now, by counting the number of ocelli in a straight line across the
field in the vertical and horizontal directions, and substituting the
numbers so found for the inches in the above example, we shall gain
the desired result. Thus, in the field given by the 41-inch and ocular
which the writer used, there were 14} of the ocelli in each direction,
which, calculated out, gives 150 in all. With the whole eye, some
allowance must be made if, instead of being truly circular, it is oval,
or irregular in outline. Ours has an average of 51 “ facets” each way
in the plane part, besides others on the rounded edges, which gives
nearly 2000 optically available.

CORRESPONDENCE.

“Spurious APPEARANCES IN MicroscopicaAL Resrarcu.”
To the Editor of the ‘ Monthly Microscopical Journal.

Sir,—The test Podura, with some conditions of illumination, dis-
plays a variety of indications of false structure, arising from the
peculiar form of the longitudinal ribbings. Ribs in such a direction,
viz. from quill to point, are characteristic of all the lepidopterous
scales, and the Podura forms no exception; in this they are undu-
lating, and at the end of each “note” marking the rib drops, and
again rises with an increasing expanse. With a good object-glass
the continuity is unbroken, and readily seen and traced. I am not
inclined to reopen the discussion at present, but take my stand for
this positive assertion from having examined torn specimens with
ribs partly isolated or displaced, so as to give a clear idea of their
form; I have collected a number of these with the view, if requisite,
of proving the structure by photographs of fragments.*

* Besides examples of longitudinal and cross fractures, I have a fine slide of
test Podura mounted by Richard Beck, kindly presented to me by Dr. Gray.
The cover has evidently shifted or spun round while pressing on a large scale,
tearing the membrane in the middle of the specimen, and taking with it the
fractured ribs at the spot. Some of the club markings are twisted transversely,

_ one so far that the thick end lays the reverse way, as clearly and definitely as a
half turn given to the handle of a copying-press.

186 CORRESPONDENCE.

Dr. Pigott seems not to have seen or recognized such fragments,
and, perhaps, never can do so, as they must overturn his long-cherished
bead theory, a fallacy in the Podura caused by broken refraction ob-
tained by an illumination that obscures the ribs and substitutes a host
of false beaded appearances in their stead ; and it is thus attempted to
be shown that the so-termed spines are spurious. In the Seira Bushii
only three or four of these, with sharp cut outlines, occupy the whole
length of the scale, more like the “Irishman’s shillelah ”, that Dr.
Pigott once tried to floor me with. Against his numerous articles on
this one subject I have recently said nothing, as, whatever leisure he
may find to pen them, I could not well spare the time to reply; for
with noteworthy perseverance he has for years past written the same
thing again and again on this scale, with every variety of paraphrase,
to keep alive his darling idea. When all the permutations are at
length exhausted, I may perhaps come forward with the evidence.
At present I am indifferent, because out of all my numerous micro-
scopical friends, I cannot call to mind one that will uphold his views
in this particular. But after I called his optics in question, and con-
troverted his statement concerning the admission through immersion
lenses of larger apertures than those due to recognized theory, an
advocate from over the Atlantic has taken up the argument in such
a style, that Dr. Pigott might well exclaim, “Save me from my
friends !”

The Lepisma saccharina was investigated by my esteemed friend,
the late Richard Beck, many years ago, who showed that in this object
spurious markings (something similar in appearance to those on Podura)
were formed by the crossing of oblique strizw, but he never believed,
in consequence, that the Podura spines arose from a similar cause.
This oblique refractive phenomenon has been very palpably shown
by Mr. Hennah’s experiments with glass rods. Dr. Pigott seems to
claim these investigations as his own. My name having been called
in again, I enter an appearance, lest silence should be construed into
acquiescence. I bide my time, till then, whether Dr. Pigott stands
forward either prophet-like to warn us betimes, assuming a keenness
of vision and discrimination far beyond his purblind fellow-mortals,
or, as a more congenial character, in “discharging a duty as a retired
physician in boldly denouncing” that which may involve a verdict of
human life! I shall still trust to my own eyesight for my guidance.

Yours very truly,
F, H. WENHAM.

Mr. Sropprr’s Remarks on Evropiscus Arevs.
To the Editor of the ‘ Monthly Microscopical Journal.

Sir,—I am glad to find that my paper on Eupodiscus Argus has
excited the attention of American observers, and beg to make a few
remarks on Mr. Stodder’s paper in the ‘ Lens.’

I have already explained that my remarks had no pretensions to-
be exhaustive of the structure of E. Argus, but I still think them

‘

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 187

correct, as far as they go. Mr, Stodder figures an under-layer
(No. 1 in the ‘ Lens’) the existence of which I do not deny, though I
think his figure is not quite correct. I hope Mr. Stephenson will
soon publish his researches into the structure of Coscinodiscus Oculus
Tridis, as his mode of showing an inner layer is very instructive.
Two of Mr. Stodder’s figures (8 and 4)—one, representing very irre-
gular hexagons, with indistinct markings; and the other, irregular
black dots—appear to me to be affected by distortion, as well as in-
completeness. His figure 3, more regular hexagons with central bright
spots, is, I think, true under certain conditions of illumination, with
imperfect resolution. The central marks in these hexagons I conclude
result from the action of the lower layer. Fig. 5 in Mr. Stodder’s
paper is not reconcilable with anything I have seen. I believe the
true formation to be much more symmetrical, and also more complex.

I must leave microscopists who study chemical, as well as optical,
probabilities, to consider how far I am justified in thinking diatom
silica to be uniformly deposited in spherules. Many individual
diatoms show no spherules with means at present in use, but I know
no group in which they are not apparent, and as objectives and modes
of illumination improve, more and more spherules are seen. They
can now be traced in many species close to the limits of (present),
optical visibility ; I see no reason why they should be supposed not to
exist beyond it.

I quite agree with Mr. Stodder in noticing that in many diatoms
(Coscinodisci, &c.) lines of fracture pass through the apparent de-
pressions, showing them to be the weakest parts. In most of such
cases the hexagonal borders appear to me composed of beads, and in
many cases the floors of the hexagons are beaded too. The lines
of fracture can often be traced to pass between the rows of these minute
beads, just as Mr. Wenham showed in the case of Plewrosigma, &c.

Mr. Stodder thinks me wrong in objecting to the terms “areole”
and ‘“cellules” being applied to diatom markings. I do so because
I do not believe the diatom marks coincide in character with the
objects in other plants known by these names.

I remain, &c.,
15th March, 1873. Henry J. SLAcK.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Royat Microscopican Soctetry.

Kine’s Cotiece, March 5, 1873.

Charles Brooke, Esq., President, in the chair.

The President said he felt some little diffidence in occupying the
clair for the second time as their President ; he should not have thought
of doing so himself, and he must ask them to consider him asa stop-gap
(No! No! from a number of Fellows), because it unfortunately happened

VOL. IX. P

188 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

that two gentlemen, whom it was thought desirable to have as Presi-
dents, had been prevented from accepting the office. He trusted that
with this explanation they would receive his humble services during
the coming year.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.

A list of donations to the Society was read, and the thanks of the
Society were voted to the donors.

The Secretary announced that the special vote of thanks passed at
the last meeting had been sent to Mr. Hogg, and duly acknowledged
by him.

The Secretary read the following letter which he had received that
day, in explanation of an error which had been printed in a former
number of the Journal, and which had been noticed in the number for
March.

2, LANSDOWNE Crescent, W., March 5, 1873.

My pear Mr. Siack,—I shall feel obliged if you will communicate to the
meeting to-night that I admit I have made an error at page 52 by inadvertence
and haste. The magnifying power should be one more than the distance of
distinct vision divided by the focal length, instead of one less; so that the
examples will read 8} times instead of 6}; 81 instead of 79. I regret the error;
but console myself with the sentiment that we are none of us infallible.

I am, yours very truly,

G. W. Royston-Pieort.

The Secretary exhibited to the meeting a pattern chimney for
microscope lamps which had been placed in his hands by Mr.
Wenham. It was a cylindrical brass tube with a space cut out of one
side of it, this being closed by an ordinary plain glass slide held in
its place by means of a spring clip. The chimney itself was in-
destructible, and if the slip of glass got broken by accident, it could,
of course, be very easily replaced. He also wished to mention that
at the last meeting some slides were sent to the Society from Mr. Allen,
of Felstead ; they contained some crystals obtained from a liquid dis-
tilled from coke, as described in the last number of the Journal, at
page 125. There was not time then to say much about them, but
having had his attention directed to it, and having in his greenhouse
a slow-combustion coke stove, he had obtained and examined some of
a similar liquid. He found that when the coke was wet or impure a
great deal of matter came over, it appeared to be a mixture of tar with
a corrosive fluid. On a damp day it formed freely, and it was so
corrosive that it perfectly riddled a piece of ordinary tinned iron
piping placed to receive it. He had sent some which was unusually
free from tar to Mr. Bell, who had kindly examined it.

Mr. Bell said that he found the crystals deposited on evaporation
to be proto-sulphate of iron. The liquid contained sulphuric acid ;
there was also with them a little hydrochloric acid. Probably in the
first instance the sulphur was given off from the coke as sulphurous
acid, and this, by contact with the air and moisture, would become free
sulphuric acid, the action of which upon the iron would of course be
very rapid.

Mr. Richards reminded the meeting that he had some time ago

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 189

introduced a metallic chimney for microscope lamps, similar to the one
brought there that evening, but he used to put a glass tube inside,
which he thought was more simple.

Mr. Wenham explained that his idea in making that chimney was
not so much for simplicity as for the purpose of providing one in
which a blank slide could be made available in case of breakage, that
being a thing which everyone was sure to possess. He had tried the
plan of putting an exterior tube to increase the draught, but he found
that it did not succeed.

The Secretary thought that Mr. Wenham’s idea was a good one,
and would relieve microscopists from a great deal of trouble if they
happened to be away in the country. He found that he never could
get such a thing as a chimney for a microscope lamp at a country
shop, and the consequence was, that if he met with an accident to his
chimney he had to wait until he visited London before he could get
another.

Mr. Beck observed that this chimney was cylindrical, and many
paraffin lamps had flat wicks, and would not burn well with a straight
chimney ; they required one bulged out at the bottom and tapering
towards the top. His own idea was that a flat wick lamp was far
superior to any other for microscope use, because so much better light
could be obtained by using it with the flame turned edgeways.

Mr. Wenham said that the chimney which he had brought was
used on a flat wick lamp ; it slightly elongated the flame, but was found
to burn very well.

The President said that many years ago when he had occasion to
go carefully into the subject of lamps, he found that the best flame was
obtained by a flat wick bent into a circular arc ; this would always burn
in a straight chimney.

Mr. Richards had used a small circular wick in his lamps.

A paper was read by the Secretary, entitled “Some Additional
Notes on the Microscope and Micro-spectroscope,” by Mr. E. J. Gayer,
Surgeon H.M. Indian Army, being a continuation of his paper upon
the same subject read at the December meeting. (The paper will be
found at page 147.)

A vote of thanks to Mr. Gayer for his paper was unanimously
carried,

A paper was also read by the Secretary, “ On a Minute Plant found
in an Incrustation of Carbonate of Lime,” by Dr. Maddox ; the paper
was illustrated by coloured drawings and specimens exhibited under
the microscope. (The paper will be found at page 141.)

The thanks of the Society were unanimously voted to Dr. Maddox
for his communication. e

The Secretary hoped if any gentlemen present had paid special
attention to this subject, that they would look at the object, and give
the meeting the benefit of their opinions. It was curious that this
plant was so much better preserved than the other vegetable matter
with which it was associated ; this would seem to show that it was of
more recent growth. He also observed that Dr. Maddox stated that
it did not seem to be parasitic on the moss.

p 2

190 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

The President thought that it must be a plant growing in the
interstices of the calcareous concretion.

Mr. T. C. White inquired whether other plants in the neighbour-
hood were also incrusted. He thought this would be the case if the
water were highly charged with lime.

The Secretary said that such would no doubt be the case ; indeed,
any substance placed in a highly-charged spring would in time
become semi-fossilized in the same manner.

At the next meeting, on the 2nd of April, Mr. W. K.. Parker,
V.P.R.M.S., will read a paper on “ The Development of the Sturgeon’s
Facial Arches,” and Mr. Henry Davis will read one on “ A new Calli-
dina : with the result of experiments on the Desiccation of Rotifers.”

Donations to the Library, from Feb. 5th to March 5th, 1873 :—

From

Taand’and Water 9 620 ais) fs ie) cele | hie) dare lore ome a eg
Nature. Weekly cs 9 ges) cs). 2s sce suns ~ cole cee Ditto.
Athenseum., Weekly.) ) 36 ose, pice) tsi cacid bash ie en Ditto.
Society of Arts Journal .._. oc, cites eens OGLE
Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, No. ‘113° a5: : Ditto.
Transactions of the Northumberland and Durham Natural History

Society, Vol. 10, Part II. we thle cate oot Omnees
Bulletin de la Société Botanique de France, ‘2 parts £35) aiep kes miele eee

Edward Cresswell Baber, L.R.C.P. Lond., &c., was elected a Fellow
of the Society.
Watrter W. REeEvszs,
Assist.-Secretary.

Mepicat MicroscopicaL Soctery.

At the second Ordinary Meeting of this Society, held at the Royal
Westminster Ophthalmic Hospital, Friday, Feb. 21st, Jabez Hogg,
Esq., President, in the chair, the minutes of the previous meeting
were read and confirmed. The Secretary announced that six micro-
scope lamps, as well as a cabinet for the use of the Exchange and
Cabinet Committee, had been purchased since the last meeting, and
the President notified that the Committee had decided to provide tea
and coffee at the meetings in future.

Thirty-three gentlemen, proposed at the last meeting, were duly
elected, and twenty-eight others proposed for election at the next
meeti

The President then called upon Dr. Pritchard to read his paper
“On the Cochlea.” See p. 150.

In the discussion following the reading of the paper, the President
asked whether Dr. Pritchard had tried staining the nerves with chlo-
ride of gold, and also whether he had succeeded in setting up inflam-
matory action in the cochlea previous to the death of the animal
experimented upon.

Mr. Crétin asked whether the animals used by Dr. Pritchard were
similar to those employed by previous investigators.

Mr. Schafer considered that the form of the rods was a question

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 191

which would never be settled. He asked why Dr. Pritchard did not
mention the striation of the rods, as this was to be seen by teazin
with bichromate of potash, and stated that he had traced the fibrilla-
tion along the outer rods and into the membrana basilaris in osmic
acid preparations. The fact that the rods increased in size towards
the apex of the cochlea, he believed had been previously mentioned by
some German author. He considered that teazed preparations were
better for examination than sections, and doubted with Helmholtz
whether the rods vibrated as they were stated to do, since they were
firmly fixed the one to the other. He asked if cells existed between
the rods, and said he considered it easy to demonstrate cilia on the
rods, and accounted for Dr. Pritchard’s not having seen them by the
fact that he used chromic acid in the preparation of his specimens.
The nerve cells described by Dr. Pritchard he believed to be simply
epithelium.

Dr. Bruce asked how Dr. Pritchard prepared his specimens,

Dr. Pritchard, in reply, stated that he had used chloride of gold
for staining the nerves, but with no very good result, and he had not
succeeded in setting up inflammation. The animals he had made use
of were cats, dogs, rabbits, guinea-pigs, man, and a kangaroo, but he
had found very little variation in the form of the rods in any of them.
He believed he had stated that the rods could be split up into fibres.
He had discovered the difference in the length of the rods in 1871, and
believed that the rods in a living animal might vibrate, although fixed,
and thought it hardly fair to compare them to a mechanical instrument.
The cilia mentioned by Mr. Schafer he considered to be the fibrille
of the rods torn off from the membrana tectoria, and the cells which
Mr. Schafer regarded as epithelial he still considered to be nerve
cells, and Dr. Beale had also expressed his opinion in favour of their
being nerve cells. With regard to methods of preparation, Dr.
Pritchard referred those interested to the ‘Quarterly Journal of
Microscopical Science ’ for October, 1872.

A cordial vote of thanks was accorded to Dr. Pritchard for his
valuable and interesting paper, which was illustrated by many excellent
models, diagrams, and specimens.

The following presents were announced :—An Italian Medical
Journal from Signor A. Tigri. Nine Slides from Mr. J. W. Groves.

The meeting then resolved itself into a conversazione, at which
several interesting specimens were exhibited.

Mancuester (Lower Mosley Street) Microscoprcan Socimry.*

Report of Annual Meeting.

The third annual soirée of the Microscopical section of the Natural
History Society, in connection with the Lower Mosley Street schools,
was held on Tuesday evening, February 4, 1873. There were about
200 present, amongst whom were Professor Williamson, Mr. John
Barrow, Mr. Thomas Peace, Mr. Councillor Nield, Mr. Thomas

* Contributed by Henry Hyde, Hon. Sec.

192 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Armstrong, F.R.M.S., Mr. Tozer, Superintendent of the Fire Brigade,
Mr. Thomas Brittain, Secretary of the Manchester Aquarium, and
Mr. Plant, of the Salford Museum. In a lower room were ranged, on
tables, a number of microscopes, under which were shown numerous
interesting objects, including specimens of the grains of various flowers ;
the calcareous covering of marine objects; the anatomy of insects ;
the cuticle of plants ; portions of the human lung, and other objects.
Each table was presided over by a member of the Society, who gave
such information as was necessary to the spectators. After the com-
pany had had an opportunity of examining the interesting collection,
they adjourned to an upper room, where arrangements had been made
for a lecture, upon Pond Life, to be given by Mr. R. Horne, of Oldham.
The chair was taken by Mr. Thomas Armstrong. In opening the pro-
ceedings, he said that, as President of the Society, he would venture to
offer a few remarks upon the subject which had brought them together.
It was about two hundred and fifty years since the microscope was
invented, and to the valuable discoveries made thereby they stood
indebted for a great amount of knowledge in various branches of
science. At first difficulties and discouragements surrounded its in-
troduction, but by degrees its use extended until it had attained to
what they then saw it. Among the earlier workers as microscopists
were Dr. Boyle, Mr. Hooke, Dr. Lieberkiihn, Culpepper, and Henry
Baker, F.R.S., who, so far back as 1743, wrote an admirable work
upon the subject. A great impulse had been given, during the
-present century, to that branch of knowledge by societies ; amongst
which were the Royal Microscopical Society, the Old Change Society,
and others, till they got down to their own little one there. There
were people at that time, however, who looked upon the microscope
as but a thing to excite wonder, and as a plaything, but he had no
doubt that these opinions would soon be dissipated. Speaking upon
the use of the microscope, he said, its results must materially lead a
thinking mind to a consideration of organisms of all kinds, from the
most minute to the most immense, until it was lost in the variety and
magnificence of them. There remained a boundless field for inquiries
in that department of science, and every step they took enlarged their
ideas, and gave them greater capacity to understand the wonders of
nature. Histology, or the science of the minute structure of the
organs of plants and animals, might be said to be the creation of that
century ; some glimpses of organic structure having been, however,
obtained by the earlier observers, but without system, and from which
it would have been impossible to get a proper idea of the laws of
formation and development. It was only within the last forty or
fifty years that the microscope had been made capable of yielding
such a magnifying power, combined with such clearness of definition,
as was necessary for the investigation of that most interesting and
important field of research. In organized beings nature worked out
her most secret processes by structures far too minute to be observed
by the naked eye, hence the microscope was of great importance to
the physiologist. The medical profession were greatly indebted to
it. Referring to animals and plants, he said the difference between

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES, 193

the two seemed very great, but upon investigation it would be found
that they gradually approached each other, and it took a skilful
microscopist to determine sometimes to which of the two kingdoms
an individual belonged. Formerly the power of motion was con-
sidered the characteristic of an animal, but then it was known that
some plants possessed that power. Histological inquiry had rendered
the matter complex by the discovery of a common character, namely,
the primary cell as a starting point for all organic beings. The
microscope had taught them that the simplest plants were composed
of cells, and also all others of the higher order were made up of such
cells, of course arranged according to the functions they had to per-
form. In the earliest condition of animals the cells were nearly the
same as those in plants. In the latter the cells continued present
throughout their growth, but in animals, except in those tissues called
cellular, they soon disappeared. The minute structure of the skeleton
of plants, and the lower order of animals, was a most interesting
study, and would amply repay them for the investigation, and he (the
Chairman) knew of none more calculated to make them forget time
and place. There was something so entrancing in the way Nature
gave up her wondrous secrets, that the mind seemed to be entirely
taken out of the world—the hours flew past as in a dream, and the
day became too short for the pleasant labour. An interesting lecture
on Pond Life was then delivered by Mr. R. Horne, of Oldham, who
illustrated his remarks by means of a large picture thrown on a
screen by means of an oxyhydrogen lantern. The originals of the
objects of animal and vegetable life, depicted on the drawing, were
taken from a pond in Essex, but it was shown that every pond con-
tained more or less the same objects. Mr. Horne explained those
phenomena in a scientific, popular, and even humorous manner.

OtpHAM MicroscopicaL Socrery.

Recently the members of the above Society held their sixth con-
versazione in the club-room of the Oldham Lyceum. After spending
an agreeable half-hour in conversation, and in the examination, under
the various microscopes lent by members, of objects illustrative of the
subject of the evening, the chair was taken by the President, Dr. A. Thom
Thomson, and a paper read upon “Common Moulds” by Mr. Pullinger.
At its close some interesting discussion took place upon the question,
“ How can we account for the presence of mould in the inside of
nuts, in the core of apples, and other unlikely places?” which gave
the advocates and opposers of the theory of spontaneous generation
an opportunity of airing their peculiar notions thereupon. After
an inspection of a further supply of objects, the meeting was brought
to a close by the usual vote of thanks. The following is an abstract
of the paper :-—

The term “mould” has been applied generally to a whole host of
minute plants, belonging mostly to the natural orders Mucedines
and Mucorini, which include some of the great scourges of the day,
attacking and destroying our grape crops, our potato crops, our silk-

194 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

worms, and many forms of useful vegetable life. These moulds,
however, belong to special species, and are not commonly met with,
and it is my purpose to confine myself to those met with continually in
every-day life, and which infest our bread, cheese, preserves, pickles,
ink, beer, fruits, and decaying vegetables ; also our boots, our linen,
our cotton goods en route for India or China, and even our very teeth
and the mucous membrane of our throats. These belong, for the most
part, to the genera Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Mucor, the two former
being hyphomycetous, and the latter physomycetous.

The mould which has most frequently come under my notice is
Aspergillus glaucus, the presence of which in its favourite nidus, cheese,
is considered by some of my friends (and I must plead guilty myself
to the soft impeachment) to greatly improve its flavour. I have found
it on Manilla cigars, on preserves, on Radix althe, or the marsh-
mallow roots of the shops, on horn, old oak, mistletoe, old shoes, and,
in fact, everywhere. The name aspergillus has been given in conse-
quence of some resemblance to the aspergillus or mop-like brush used
in Roman Catholic countries to sprinkle the holy water with. In its
young state it presents nothing to our view but a rapidly-spreading
white articulated mycelium, which, however, soon, under favourable
circumstances, throws up erect fertile threads, bearing on their
apices globular heads, from which chains of spores radiate, and thus
give a mop-like appearance to the ripe fruit. In course of time these
chains of spores fall off, and leave the globose head, which may then
be observed covered with short spiny processes, probably the points
of attachment of the chains of spores. These spores are globular
in form, and seem to me to be irregular in size—3, 24, or even 2,
sometimes filling the micrometer space for 1-1000 in. They present
a most beautiful appearance under the binocular with a 4-inch power.
Aspergillus has been found in the lungs and air-sacs of birds, also in
the external conduit of the ear.

The next form of common mould is Penicillium, which also belongs
to the hyphomycetous family, and natural order Mucedines. The most
common is Penicillium glaucum, which is found in great abundance, in
the form of bluish and greenish mould, on decaying vegetable sub-
stances generally, but especially on semi-fluid or liquid matters, form-
ing a dense pasty crust, slimy on the lower surface, and bearing spores
on the upper, Its general appearance is similar to that of Aspergillus
glaucus, and it is only by the aid of the microscope that,we can distin-
guish them. Its mycelium consists of interwoven articulated filaments,
extensively ramified, and bearing fertile threads, also articulated, upon
the apices of which are developed septe or branchlets, consisting of
an elongated cell, or cells, sometimes simple, sometimes forked, but
each bearing a chain of spores, frequently arranged in a peniciliate or
brush-like form; hence its name. The spores are of various colours,
according to age and circumstances, but green of some shade generally
prevails. They are elliptic in form, and thus easily distinguishable
from those of Aspergillus. ‘They are also smaller, and more even in
size; at least, such is my experience of them, about six placed side by
side filling the micrometer space for 1-1000 in. The specimens on

\

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 195

the table are mostly from fruit—oranges and apples—and also from
bread.

Years ago a considerable interest was created by the introduction
of a new article of domestic economy in the form of a slimy mass of
gelatinous matter, very much like inferior boiled tripe, and called the
vinegar plant. It was said to have been introduced from India or
South America. It was usually placed in a jar containing a solution
of treacle or sugar, and, on being allowed to remain in a warm situa-
tion for a month or six weeks, the liquid was found converted into
vinegar by the action of this strange plant, which also propagated
itself by subdivision, for on looking underneath laminz were observ-
able, which could be separated, and, when placed in the proper media,
would develop into new plants. This curious plant has been un-
doubtedly resolved into a Penicillium, the gelatinous mass being only an
abnormal condition of the mycelium, due probably to its submerged posi-
tion, for when allowed to dry up, the fruit of Penicillium glaucum is in-
variably produced. The general mass of the vinegar plant is structure-
less, but near the middle are chains of cells of all sizes, many of which
are undistinguishable from those of the yeast plant, which fact suggests
the idea of a family likeness, an idea now fully established ; and as the
yeast plant is a known cause of vinous, so also the vinegar plant seems to
be a cause of acetous fermentation, and, as both are but different forms
of Penicillium glaucum, so it comes about that the common mould
of our bread paste, &e., becomes the presiding genius over the great
regenerating work of fermentation, giving us not only our yeast
wherewith to make our bread, but also vinegar for our pickles, and, what
is better still, “wine, which maketh glad the heart of man,” and
last—but not least—our “ far-famed bitter beer.”

The yeast plant, as you well know, consists of round or oval cells,
which live, expand, and give rise to new cells or plants by budding
until the fermenting principle is exhausted. The cells are round at
first, and as the fermenting principle is nearer exhaustion they become
oval, then linear and filamentous, advancing to the primary stage
of mycelium, until finally they develop themselves into the normal
threads and fruits of the common Penicillium glaucum. Berkley says
that he and Mr. Hoffman followed up the development of individual
yeast globules in fluid surrounded in a closed cell with a ring of air
until the proper fruit of Penicillium glaucum was developed. Some
years ago the bread of Paris was much infested with Penicillium, the
spores of which were found capable of sustaining a heat equal to
that of boiling water without destroying their germinating power.
The disease known as apthe or frog, and which is one of our earliest
troubles, is now generally believed to be a species of Penicillium, as
is also the filamentous growth constant in the tartar of the teeth.

The last of these common moulds is known as Mucor. It belongs
to the family Physomycetes, and order Mucorini, the genus being Mucor,
which, as in the case of Aspergillus and Penicillium, a number of species
exist. The mycelium consists of delicate branching filaments, forming
a beautiful network, which is distinguished from the mycelia of
Penicillium and Aspergillus by its consisting of simple tubes, without

196 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

articulations, which is also the case with the fruit stalks, which bear
on their apices, not naked spores, but bladder-like sporangia enclosing
sporidia or spores. Itis common on decaying fruits, paste, and vege-
table matters, and Mucor mucedo is very often met with, though,
strange to say, I have not been able to meet with a single specimen.
I have, however, a beautiful specimen of a more uncommon one—
Mucor tenerrimus—which is developed in large quantities ina Wardian
case I have set up, and in which I put the trimmings of the ferns
chopped small to lighten the soil, and shortly after the whole case was
one mass of mycelium. Its fruit is scarcely visible to the naked
eye, but when viewed with the half-inch it is an object of rare beauty
and elegance.

The result of my examination of its sporangia and sporidia is,
that the sporangia are about equal in size to the spores of Aspergillus,
whilst the sporidia—which are liberated on the bursting of the spo-
rangium, which takes place on the application of a drop of water—
are very minute indeed, and elliptic in form. They displayed great
molecular activity, and in consequence I was unable to measure them.
Mucor stolonifer, and its life history, is a subject dwelt upon by Professor
Wyville Thomson in his address before the Botanical Society of Edin-
burgh, and he gives the results of the most recent investigations by De
Bary, Pasteur, and others. He states that from the mycelium, at certain
points, long, rather wide tubes start from the surface, on which the
fungus is growing, obliquely into the air, and after running along
for a time, again dip down and give origin to other tufts of myceline
tube roots. At the point where these roots come off, as at the bud
of a strawberry runner, a little tuft of tubular stems rise up vertically,
and end in round vesicles or sporangia, which are at first entirely filled
with transparent protoplasm, which ultimately breaks up into amass of
black polygonal spores. These spores are thus produced by no process
of true reproduction, but are simply separated particles of the proto-
plasm of the parent plant, and may be regarded as buds, since
they are capable of producing new plants like themselves. True
reproductive spores exist in the secondary form of fruit of the Mucor,
and this is the case also with Aspergillus. Thus we see these plants are
reproduced in two ways—by buds and by true spores born in asci.

EastpourneE Naturau History Socrery.

A meeting of the members of the Eastbourne Natural History
Society was held at the Society’s Rooms, Lismore Road, on Friday,
December 20, when about 30 members were present. Mr. Roper
occupied the chair, and the minutes having been read and confirmed,
the Hon. Secretary read a paper “On Geoglossum Difforme or Earth-
Tongue,” by C. J. Muller, Esq.

The plant belongs to the order Elvellacei, which includes within
its limits the rare and delicious Morel (Morchella esculenta), the no
less favourite curled Helvella (Helvella crispa), the lovely Peziza
(Peziza coccinea), the curious and elegant Ascobolus ciliatis, and
many other genera attractive to the Fungologist. The character of

es ee

a ee oe

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 197

the order is, that the fruit consists of sporidia contained in asci, that
the hymenium or fruit-bearing surface is more or less exposed, and
that the substance of the plant is soft. The character of the genus
Geoglossum is that the receptacle or fruit-bearing part is club-shaped,
and that the hymenium surrounds the club. Seven distinct species
are found in England.

If a longitudinal section of the plant be made, it will be found on
examination with the microscope that the entire substance consists of
nothing more than delicate filaments, like the threads of a common
mould, interwoven and more or less compacted, and that these threads,
as they approach the external surface of the plant, become differen-
tiated into what are called asci and paraphyses. The asci are Little
elongated bags of transparent texture, which contain, within each of
them, eight dark brown spores closely packed together. It is these
dark brown spores which partly give to the plant its black and dingy
appearance. ‘They are for the most.part 7 septate, but some may be
found with only 3 septa, and others divided into as many as 14
distinct cells. These spores, or sporidia, are the fruit of the plant,
and by germinating under certain conditions are believed to reproduce
the parent form.

In looking at the fruit, one cannot but be struck by the very
ample provision made for the propagation of the plant. The spores
are all but innumerable, and are carefully packed away in parcels of
eight in delicate little bags ready for future use. In what condition
they remain during the spring and summer, no one has yet discovered.
The plant does not appear until late in autumn, so that they may be
supposed to lie dormant in the ground during the greater portion
of the year.

I have mentioned paraphyses at part of the fructifying surface.
These delicate filaments are believed by many mycologists to be
simply abortive asci, but I have noticed in the case of Geoglossum
that they occasionally thicken and give origin to distinct uniseptate
spores.

In conclusion, I have only to remark that this plant, like many
other species of fungi, consists of nothing more than septate threads
like the threads of a common mould ; and that it differs from a mould
only in the nature of its fructification, and the way in which these
threads are compacted into an object of definite shape, and consider-
able consistence. The same remark applies to mushrooms and many
other species of fungi, and indicates the vast resources of nature
in multiplying forms from one simple element, a delicate tubular
filament.

F. C. 8. Roper, Esq., F.L.S., then read a “Note on the Wall
Pellitory.” The Parietaria officinalis, or Wall Pellitory, is a plant
so common on old walls and buildings that it is probably well known
to most of our members. It has, however, some peculiarities of struc-
ture, not generally noticed in botanical works, but at the same time
of much interest to the microscopical observer. As the minute exami-
nation of the structure of both animal and vegetable organisms is of
great interest to the really scientific investigator of the wonders of

198 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES,

creation that are spread around us in such boundless profusion, I

propose to direct attention to some points of interest that may have
escaped notice, even of those well acquainted with the general habit
and appearance of a plant that is met with in so many localities.

The Parietaria officinalis belongs to the Urticacee or nettle
family, which, although abundant in tropical regions, is represented in
England by very few species; the stinging-nettles, the hop, and the
elm, being the only other members of the order. I do not, however,
propose to enter into any detail of the characteristic or common
peculiarities of these genera, but merely to point out some points of
interest in the leaves of the common pellitory.

The only description generally given of these leaves in botanical
works is, that they are slightly rough or hairy, and Loudon in his
Encyclopedia notices that they are marked with pellucid dots. If a
leaf is placed in water under the microscope, or, better still, if a small
section is made and examined in the same way, the hairs are very
plainly seen, and are of two kinds. The most abundant consists of
long slightly curved transparent spine-like hairs, with rather blunt
points, apparently hollow at the other extremity, and attached to the
centre of some cells arranged somewhat in a stellate manner, and
larger than those forming the general substance of the leaf. Inter-
spersed with these, but not so abundant, are found small recurved
hairs, about one-fifth the length of the others, which in shape and
peculiar curve exactly resemble small fish-hooks ; these are scattered
apparently at intervals, especially on the younger leaves, but are less
abundant on the older leaves towards the base of the stem. But the
structure of most peculiar interest in these leaves consists in the so-
called “pellucid dots” of Loudon, which may be readily seen by
holding a leaf up to the light. If the leaf is placed in water, and the

upper surface examined with a half or quarter inch objective, these»

dots are seen to consist of seven or eight rather large cells, radiating
from the sides of a centre cell, which appears slightly raised above
the surface of the leaf, so that the surrounding cells appear to slope
from it to the surface of the leaf; below these, and in the parenchyma,
or substance of the leaf itself, is a large single cell, within which
is suspended a sub-globular or slightly pear-shaped mass with a papil-
lated surface, but with no clearly defined crystalline structure. These
bodies are known as Spheraphides, and have also been called “ Cry-
stoliths ” by Continental writers; they are sufficiently large and hard
to be easily separated from the parenchyma of the leaf when thin
sections are made, or small portions torn up under the microscope.
When treated with muriatic acid they dissolve rapidly with consider-
able ebullition, and when burnt are reduced to a white powder ; there
can be no doubt that they are, therefore, chiefly composed of lime,
and probably in the form of carbonate. They differ from the true
Raphides, so abundant in many plants, by being almost amorphous,
though occasionally a slight semi-crystalline appearance may be
detected in small fragments if examined with a quarter objective.
Although not so often noticed as true Raphides, they are character-
istic of many tribes of British plants—as the Caryophyllacexw, Gera-

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 199

niacew, Bythracez, Chenopodiacer, and especially the Urticaces,
and it is thought by some botanists that they afford a good diagnostic
character. for species. In some exotic plants these Spheraphides
occur of considerable size, forming a weighty grit, and are especially
large and fine in the prickly pear and others of the Cactus tribe.

If we look to the use of this curious and elaborate structure in the
leaves of plants, and ask what is their object in the economy of
nature? It isa question easier to ask than toanswer. Some suppose
that Raphides are perhaps rather a disease than formations of natural
growth in plants; but they are of too common occurrence and too
universally distributed over the whole tissue of certain species for
this to be the case. In some instances they are doubtless useful as
a medicine, and the genuineness of sarsaparilla, guaiacum and squills
may be tested by the presence or absence of Raphides. Dioscorides
says that the juice of the wall pellitory tempered with ceruse is
good for the shingles, and Pliny affirms it is also a remedy for gout.
But it is more probable, as Dr. Gulliver suggests, that the large
proportion of these crystalline bodies being compounded of phosphate
or oxalate of lime, or some other compound of this earth, and
remember the value of these substances in the growth and nutrition
of plants, that nature has established in some plants a storehouse or
laboratory of such calcareous salts, and that we may thus get a
glimpse of the utility of these crystals.

A vote of thanks was passed to the authors.

Both papers were illustrated by sections and specimens showing
the points of interest, which were exhibited under the microscope, at
the close of the meeting.

SHEFFIELD NATURALISTS CLUB.

Last month the first meeting of the Sheffield Naturalists’ Club
was held in the Cutlers’ Hall. Mr. Henry C. Sorby presided.

The President, in delivering the inaugural address, said he pro-
posed to give a few of his views with reference to the formation of the
Society. He had been asked what was the use of such an institution,
and he would tell them. If they were to look upon the study of
natural history as the discovery of rare plants in the district which
did not exist in other parts, such a society as this would be of little
use. The knowledge of natural history was not to be limited to the
mere knowing the names of animals and plants, and the chronicling
of them. That would be about equal to knowing the name of a
man and thinking they knew his character, or knowing the name of
a country and thinking they knew its history. Such a society as this
had two characters. First of all, the subjective influence it had on
the members who composed it. The study of natural history was
most desirable in many ways. Man had a certain amount of energy ;
it must be expended in some way or other, and the examination into
natural history furnished them with a study which was advantageous
to both body and mind. The explorations into the country would be
exceedingly beneficial in point of health, and they might learn many

200 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

interesting facts during those excursions which would have a beneficial
influence on the intellect. By being joined together in a society they
might greatly help one another. With regard to the objective value
of such a society as this, he thought they ought not to limit their
efforts to the mere making out of accurate lists of flors end fauna
which occurred in the district. The efforts of naturalists aiso ought
to be devoted to the discovery of general philosophical principles, as
applied to both animals and plants. He thought they could learn a
great deal more by the careful study of the commonest things than
by looking for rarities. They could not hesitate in saying that a
great deal remained to be done in the study of natural histc — 4
every district. They might come to such a question as this: “ What
is life, and how have the various species of animals and plants origi-
nated?” Such a problem was one of the greatest that could be pre-
sented to the human intellect. Then, again, a very difficult subject
was, why particular plants grew in particular localities. That was a
question easily asked, but most difficult to answer. Sooner or later,
science ought to be able to say why certain plants grew in certain
localities and not in others, and the determination of that question
would have a most important bearing on geological theses. Another
problem for study was, what was the effect of dry or wet seasons on
certain plants? If that question were settled, they might know the
effect that must have been produced in bygone ages, by the alteration
of climate, on certain plants and animals. Another most interesting
subject for investigation was the influence of plants on plants, animals
on animals, and one on the other; the fertilization of plants by in-
sects, and the attractability of different colours for different insects.
The speaker recommended for study the following subjects :—The
manner in which the habits of animals have been acquired; the
manner in which varieties or species have been formed; the limit
of the successive generation of insects through none but females;
the diseases of plants due to parasitic fungi and insects. He concluded
by remarking that he might say much more on this subject, but he
had shown sufficient to prove that much might be learnt by studying
the commonest things seen almost everywhere.

Mr. Edward Birks read an interesting paper on the botany of the
district, after which, the following gentlemen were added to the
members of the Society:—Messrs. M. du Gillon, G. W. Hawksley,
W. H. Booth, F. Trickett, R. Lokley, F. Lawton, D. K. Doncaster,
J. Hobson, W. K. Peace, W. Smith, 8. Osborn, E. Allen, J. Bedford,
J. H. Wood, H. Seebohm, A. Ellin, J. Webster, H. I. Dixon, and the
Rey. J. T. F. Aldred.

A vote of thanks to the President concluded the proceedings.

yMicr oscopical Journal May11873.

CALLIDINA VAGA.

THE

MONTHLY MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.

MAY 1, 1873.

1—A New Callidina: with the Result of Experiments on the
Desiccation of Rotifers. By Henry Davis, F.R.MLS.

(Read before the Royau MicroscoptcaL Society, April 2, 1873.)
Puate XIV.

Ir is just six years since the Rev. Lord 8. G. Osborne forwarded by
post to several microscopists in London, small parcels of a few
grains of a dry dusty powder, labelled “ Philodina roseola”; and
one of these being kindly consigned to me, no time was lost in
watering the dust in a stage-tank as directed. Almost immediately
the contained pink ovoid bodies, seen in profusion under a low
power, began to swell, lengthen, and, finally, either put forth a pair
of rotatory organs for purveying and swimming, or everted a pro-
boscis and crawled out of the field.

As a first experience this revival was sufficiently interesting,
but it was no novelty, for the same thing was witnessed by Leu-
wenhoek more than 150 years ago; but a careful scrutiny of the
lively inhabitants of my tank brought to light the fact that it con-
tained two distinct kinds—the P. roseola, as expected, and a very
few crawling strangers, having blunt rounded heads, in contour like
those of the Tardigrades; and although undoubted ‘‘ wheel animal-

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIV,

Fic. 1.—Callidina vaga: ventral view. x 200.

», 2 —Ditto: side view.

» 3.—Ditto contracted: dorsal view.

» 4—Ditto - In the “dry” state.

>, 9.—Ditto: side view of a single detached ramus: one of a pair of hard
processes beneath the teeth-plates of the mastax. x 500 about.

» 6a,—Ditto. Hard parts of the mastax: the rami seen through the teeth-

lates.

~- 65.—Ditto. Ideal section of 6a, made through the part corresponding to
the dotted line.

» 74—Ditto. Hard parts of mastax: with teeth-plates opened and rami
turned on their long axis, showing short branches.

» 7b,—Ditto. Ideal section of 7a, through dotted line.

; 8 —Ditto. Ideal section of mastax, when the teeth-plates are brought into
contact crushing food. In these ideal sections, the prebable positions
only, of muscles are indicated,

VOL, IX. Q

202 Transactions of the

cules,” yet bearing no wheels at all. On communicating this fact
to Lord Osborne, with my opinion that the rotifer was new to
science, he looked through his large stock of tanks, and found
scores—hundreds of them. He could not, however, be induced to
undertake the task of introducing the stranger to the scientific
ublic.

. Little less reluctant at that time, I merely exhibited the new
rotifer under the name of Callidina vaga, at a soirée of the Old
Change Microscopical Society, in February, 1869, and again let it
retire into private life.

Some time after this, Dr. Hudson met a rotifer whose head was
shaped like the “ top joint of a thumb,” * and he speaks regretfully
of their short acquaintance in the first excellent paper on his
Pedalion mira. Seeing that he had happily given the most striking
peculiarity of C. vaga, I at once sent a few dry specimens, which
he moistened and immediately identified ; thus reviving with plea-
sure an old friendship, and giving me the great advantage of
forming a new one with the best active observer and describer of
rotifers we now possess.

It is, perhaps, barely necessary to state that all due care has
been taken to prevent the introduction of a previously-described
rotifer under another name. I can find nothing like C. vaga
described anywhere ; the C. constricta of Dujardin bears, indeed, in
the head a very remote resemblance to it, but description there is
next to none; while the C. bidens of Mr. Gosse is very plainly a
different species, as shown by that gentleman’s notes and figures in
an invaluable MS. volume, most courteously lent to me by the
author.

For ranging with the most generally accepted classification of
Rotifera, the specific character of this new member of the family
Philodinea, genus Callidina, may be thus condensed :—

C. vaga (mihi).—Figure depressed-fusiform ; crystalline, and
nearly colourless ; flat, frontal lobes continuous with ventral sur-
face, and uniformly covered with short cilia, not disposed as peri-
pheral wreaths ; non-retractile proboscis, with broad anterior hook ;
two coarse and numerous fine teeth in each jaw. Progression by
crawling. Length 1-50” to 1-36".

As regards habitat little information can be given: the rotifers
are found in certain open stone vases in the grounds of Lord
Osborne’s house near Blandford ; and these at times get partly filled
by the rain, while the wind drifts in dead leaves, and other matter,
which by their decomposition seem to yield suitable food. So far
as my experience teaches, similar circumstances in and near London
do not produce the same results. Philodine of different species
have been gathered sparingly and in sooty condition from a house-

* ‘Monthly Micro. Journal,’ Sept. 1871.

Royal Microscopical Society. 203

top in Islington, while moss on a garden wall at Battersea has
furnished C. bidens, but no C. vaga.

With the exception of the strange head, and the gliding crawl
necessitated by the arrangements of its parts, there is no great
peculiarity to distinguish this from most other philodines ; it has,
like them, two lobes, but these—although separated by a clear
unciliated space—are not split up into two independent rotatory
organs inclined laterally right and left when in action, and slightly
over to the dorsum, but are generally kept down nearly in the
same plane as the ventral surface on which the creature swiftly
crawls, while the cilia brush over the path traversed and sweep all
loose matter, including food, towards the buccal cavity ; — not
directly into it, however, but sufficiently near, on each side, to
permit the sucking action of its ciliary current to have full play on
the passing atoms.

Running at the back, or unciliated portion of the confluent
lobes, we have the representative of the ordinary proboscis: in this
case soldered to, and having no action apart from, these lobes: it is
furnished with a permanent frontal hook, only seen as such in a
side view (Fig. 2). Unintentionally I may be straining analogy
too far in considering this a proboscis; except in bearing the un-
usually well-developed hook, it is not at all like the ordinary
proboscis : but it is somewhat remarkable that occasionally a philo-
dine may be seen crawling with half retracted rotatory organs and
proboscis arched over them, affording most perfect resemblance to
C. vaga; for the ciliary frills in this rare case are drawn together
into a thick brush, sweeping the way, while at the back of these, in
close contact, comes the extended proboscis, with its soft anterior
finger or hook. Is it too fanciful to think that the head of C. vaga
may be a permanent form of an exceptional and transient figure
assumed by that of other philodines ?

Each clump of cilia, or lobe, is bounded at the neck by a strong
process—perhaps the homologue of the trochal pedicle in Rotifer,
&c.,—rigid, except at its base, and deeply serrated at the free
curved ends, which appear to come level with the tips of the cilia
(Fig. 1). Between these comes the capacious oral aperture with its
strong ciliatory current, inwards or outwards, apparently as the
creature wills.

The cesophageal tube as usual goes direct to the mastax, and
this delivers the masticated prey to a slightly convoluted central
duct of a large cylindrical stomach. Beyond, and, I think, divided
by a valve, comes a small spherical intestine, with a short, com-
monly closed, passage round the contractile vesicle to the anus.
In fully grown specimens the period of the contractile vesicle aver-
ages two minutes, but it evidently grows slower with age; thus,
when the animals are very small and young, the sac fills and

Q 2

204 Transactions of the

suddenly empties in twenty seconds, or less; while the oldest
inhabitant of my oldest tank had a pulse calmly beating one in five
minutes.

With difficulty, but certainty, five pairs of “vibratile tags”
may be traced in a selected victim, by crushing (or otherwise per-
suading it to be quiet), and seeking the flicker before the creature
dies. A tag may be seen on each side beneath the base of the
serrated processes, or a little lower, and so on downwards, four
more at about equal distances approaching the contractile vesicle ;
but I fail to detect any tube connecting the tags with each other,
or with the vesicle. On either side of the abdomen is seen a group
of rudimentary ova, or a single large granular egg.

C. vaga bears on its back an antenna a little broader laterally,
and shorter than common (shown in Figs. 2 and 3), and at the
extremity of its foot-tale three soft toes; mounted on the next
joint above are the usual two spurs or horns. These, I find, act as
supplementary toes in this species, and in P. roseola :—whenever an
extra firm hold is required, the penultimate false joint is carried
down, and the spurs, as well as the small toes, are brought into
adhesive contact at the anchorage ; assisted, no doubt, by the viscid
fluid which all rotifers appear to secrete more or less abundantly
(vide foot-tail, Fig. 3).

As to the mastax of any philodine, it would be discreet in me
only to refer to Mr. Gosse’s memoir in the ‘ Philosophical Trans-
actions ’;* but the worst part of valour urges me to make a few
remarks on the most simple part of a difficult subject.

If C. vaga be killed by boiling, poisoning, or unduly roasting ;
the body, left in a tank and not compressed, will slowly rot away,
and leave all the hard parts of the mastax clearly displayed, gene-
rally adhering undistorted and in natural positions. As an ex-
ample, take one of these (Fig. 6 a): two transparent plates curved
like watch-glasses, convex side outward, each having two thickened
lines or teeth to lock into each other, and from thirty to forty fine
teeth, all in the one-thousandth part of an inch; on focussing
through the faces of these striated plates (just on the right and left
of the straight edges where they are in contact), we see a pair of -
rami, the strongest and thickest hard part of the entire rotifer.
The rami have two notches on the parts corresponding to the
coarse teeth of the plates described, and on the side opposite to the
notches each ramus has a short branch (Fig. 5). Take another
example: In this the straight edges of the curved plates are

forced apart, only being kept together by the hinge at the top; —

while the inner rami will be seen to have turned on their long axes,
bringing their short branches into sight (Fig. 7a). Many self-

* “On the Manducatory Organs in the class Rotifera,” by P, H. Gosse, Esq.,
* Phil. Trans.,’ Feb. and March, 1855.

Royal Microscopical Society. 205

prepared specimens like these, with observations in the life, go to
show that the rami, by a rolling motion (actuated by muscles),
cause one of the many movements of the apparatus, that of open-
ing and closing—scissors-fashion—the teeth-plates ; while the sur-
face-contact and pressure-together of the latter are effected by the
direct action of the muscular cushions on which they rest.

This branch of the subject may be concluded by a short history
of the life, manners, and vicissitudes of the little collection of C. vaga
I now exhibit [a 8 x 1 glass slip with a central cell holding about
ten drops of water.}| It is a colony of modest virgins; eager eyes
have been on (and off) them for nearly six years anxious to detect
instances of feminine frailty, but in vain. They literally scrape up
a living thus: keeping the toes attached to the glass, one crawls
swiftly straight forward, partly by greater and greater extension of
the body, and partly by the action of the ciliated discs, and all the
time feeding as it goes; having attained its greatest extension, the
animal suddenly retracts, reducing its length more than half, and
without releasing its foothold, turns slightly in another direction,
again extends, and again retracts. At last it may have grazed over
a circular plane of a diameter double the greatest length of its
body ; it then starts for pastures new, generally by crawling some-
what in the manner of &. vulgaris. But it travels most quickly
when it releases its foothold, contracts some of its posterior joints,
and glides on by its cilia only (Fig. 2). Its attempts at swimming
are always failures; one may cast itself from the cover of a tank
and wriggle helplessly, as an earth-worm might, until it reaches
the bottom; or it may attach itself to a passing free-swimming
philodine, and ride safely to shore.

Originally this tank contained two species, but one, after keep-
ing apart in groups, finally died out. Ina larger tank the reverse
was the result, the Callidme dying off and leaving the Philodin
flourishing. In this fact a careless observer might readily imagine
a transmutation of form—one species changing into the other.
Much greater changes than these Dr. Bastian supposes he
witnessed, such as spores of Algee developing into highly-organized
rotifers,* but to say little of my own rather lengthened experience,
which points directly against Dr. Bastian’s belief, I could, were
permission given, state the adverse opinions of gentlemen whose
studies of Rotifera extend over as many years as Dr. Bastian’s over
weeks; but in truth his conclusions are founded on such absurdly
insufficient evidence that serious refutation is not needed.

To return to the colony of rotifers. Since its establishment in
1867 it has received no new immigrants, but as it increased and
multiplied, some of its members, in a dry state, have been removed
to stock new tanks for my friends. It is generally kept in a

* «The Beginnings of Life, vol. ii, by Dr. Bastian.

206 Transactions of the

cabinet, with other objects, and watered for examination when
required, or, asa rule, once a month: so small a quantity of water
dries up rapidly in summer; in a day sometimes. ‘The longest
time it has kept continuously dry is ten months; in winter, after
watering, it has been frozen into a mass of ice; it has been heated
on a brass mounting-table, with a spirit-lamp very often, in order
to melt the marine-glue when a new cover has been required; it
has been exposed dry to the sun in a photographer's glass room, all
through a broiling summer; taken a sea voyage to the south of
Spain, revived there, and brought home again; taken to Ceylon ;
to India; revived on ship-board, to the astonishment of the
passengers; brought home, and a few of the dry inhabitants
immediately posted off again to a friend in Ceylon, who revived
and has them still. As a final indignity and injury this much-
enduring family has been put into the receiver of an air-pump for
twelve hours and thoroughly exhausted. This was almost too
much for it, but still there is a little life in the tank.

Recently I determined to make a methodical series of experi-
ments, to see if any new light could be cast on what I thought
were disputed points regarding the perfect drying and revival of
certain rotifers, but reference to books, old and new, soon proved
that now at least there was no disputed point at all. The battle
had been fought and won, and controversy ended. As a matter of
history it had a certain interest to know how Spallanzani and
Doyere experimented and Ehrenberg doubted, but it is far more
interesting to learn the ultimate result as recorded unanimously by
our modern text-books. Thus, Pritchard*:—“They have the
power of preserving their vitality when thoroughly desiccated.
Leuwenhoek and Spallanzani experimented on them, and announced
the fact of their revivification on the addition of moisture months
and even years after their complete desiccation. Schrank,
St. Vincent, and Ehrenberg questioned the truth of the state-
ment. . . . Schultze and Doyere have repeated and confirmed the
experiments of the old observers, and the latter authority concludes
that Rotifera may be completely dried in a vacuum without losing
the capability of being revived by moisture. Many, indeed, are
sacrificed in the process, but enough recover to demonstrate the
possibility of the fact.”

And what does Dr. Carpenter say? ‘“ Certain t Rotifera are
remarkable for their tenacity of life, even when reduced to a most
complete state of dryness; for they can be kept in this condition
for any length of time, and will yet revive upon being moistened.
Experiments have been carried still further with the allied tribe of

* ‘History of Infusoria,’ 4th edition.
+ ‘The Microscope and its Revelations,’ 4th edition.

Royal Microscopical Society. 207

Tardigrades; individuals of which have been kept in a vacuum,
with sulphuric acid and chloride of calcium (thus suffering the
most complete desiccation that the chemist can effect), and yet have
not lost their capability of revivification ..... their return to a
state of active life, after a desiccation of unlimited duration, may
take place whenever they meet with moisture, warmth, and food.”

All the modern scientific works tell the same tale; a dry rotifer
must be the driest thing in existence; but privately and out of
book seyeral good observers have expressed their doubts. They
cannot believe that the rotifers are completely dried, and yet they
cannot explain away the undoubted drying effects of an oven at
200° (Fahr.), or of the vacuum of an air-pump. The only modern
writer I can find bold enough to put his doubts into print is to be
read in the first volume of the ‘Cornhill Magazine.’ He cleverly
attacks the “dry” subject, shows that when separated from sand
or dirt the rotifers die in drying; concludes that sand and dirt some-
how keep moisture in them under trying circumstances, and thinks
there have been “mistakes somewhere” about the air-pumps and
ovens.

My experiments at first were merely repetitions of those of the
old observers, and the results were nearly the same. ‘The rotifers
could be heated gradually up to 200° (Fahr.) in an oven, and some
revived with water afterwards: with thermometer standing at 300°
two hours’ baking completely cooked and killed them all; so did
boiling for three hours ; but most of the experiments were made with
a modern air-pump of the best construction. Two large vessels
of strong sulphuric acid were put into the receiver, and a dry tank
containing P. roseola in great numbers. ‘The receiver was ex-
hausted to the utmost, and so kept for a week. ‘Then the tank
was removed and moistened ; about a dozen rotifers crawled feebly
out, and two or three put forth their rotatory disks: they all died
in a few days.

Now we are taught that this experiment is conclusive, the dozen
rotifers having suffered “ the most complete desiccation the chemist
can effect,” must needs have been dry. By no means. According to
my belief, the few rotifers revived because they were not desiccated,
in spite of the effective chemist, while the scores of non-revivers had
been dried, partially or entirely, and killed!

Then, how are rotifers protected against desiccation? The
philodines constantly give off a slimy secretion; in drying they
contract head and foot-tail (Fig. 3), and as they gradually assume
an ovoid form (Fig. 4), the gelatinous fluid dries over them into
a hard thin shell, and effectually secures them from even “the most
complete desiccation the chemist can effect.”

And now for proofs: as evidence that they really have. such a
secretion, | merely quote one witness of many, a valued corre-

208 Transactions of the

spondent, who made his statement quite unexpectedly and without |

a question being put. ‘“ They are very slimy, and when first
getting out are much hampered by the stuff sticking to them.”
But admitting the gelatinous varnish over a naturally dried rotifer,
would such a coating be sufficient protection against the searching
absorption of sulphuric acid in vacuo? Yes: I produce some
grapes which are coated with gelatine; they have been with sul-
phuric acid in the exhausted receiver for seven days and nights.
On breaking the protecting envelope they are found fresh and
juicy ; far more so than some from the same bunch which, put by
in a cupboard, are now shrivelled and mouldy.

We can now see how it is that isolated rotifers put singly, or in
small numbers, on a glass slip, and with thin cover, and allowed to
dry, very seldom recover when moistened ; for in crawling excitedly
over the slide, as they generally do, trying to find more water or
protection in their usual refuge—sand and dirt, they part with much
of their adhesive covering, the evaporation of the small quantity of
water is so rapid that they have no time to settle down quietly as
usual while more coating is secreted ; they roam about almost to the
last minute, when they are overtaken by the drought, shrink hastily
into a ball to dry and to perish.

Having shown that the creatures need not of necessity be really
dry, however we may endeavour to dry them by moderate con-
tinuous heat, or by the so-called complete desiccation of the air-
pump, it only remains to demonstrate the fact that they are not dry.
A dry trough rich in philodines was kept in the vacuum for three
days with acid, then removed, and at once transferred to a long dry
test-tube, and the closed end immersed in boiling water for two
hours ; then with a pencil and the aid of a hand-magnifier, the
pink contracted bodies were picked out, put on a ledged glass slip,
and covered with a thin circle. They were then examined under a
quarter-inch, and seen to be highly refractive, and like rubies ; with
increasing pressure the tough yielding balls at last burst, and after a
few minutes, and repeated squeezings, emitted two distinct fluids,
one watery, which diffused through the broken mass, and another
oily—a yellow-pink fluid in minute smears—changing to drops
when water was run under the cover. In another case oil was
applied to the edge of the cover, run in, and the yellow fluid was at
once dissolved.

From these experiments, and from other considerations, it seems
only reasonable to conclude that these rotifers become torpid in
drying externally ; that their vitality, though intact, is maintained
only by the slow consumption of their bodies. It is true they are
in air-tight cases; but experiment shows that they can, even when
most active, bear the absence of air with impunity for a consider-
able time. I have had them in water in the exhausted receiver of

Royal Microscopical Society. 209

the pump (of course without acid) for two days without their dying
or showing much signs of distress.

As regards the “unlimited duration” of time they may be kept
alive in their dry cases, authorities differ: my experience, founded
on unsuccessful attempts to revive three samples of dust after five
years’ drought, two after three years, and one after one year, leads
me to rate their longevity within moderate limits; but there is
evidence of their revival after four years’ torpor.

In conclusion, I will quote the great Ehrenberg, who without
these experiments, in spite of apparently overwhelming evidence to
the contrary—evidence considered up to the present time as per-
fectly conclusive—and led only by analogy and reason, arrived at
the same results that I have now the honour to place, with proofs,
before you :—‘“‘ Whenever these creatures are completely desiccated,
life can never again be restored. In this respect the Rotifera
exactly correspond with larger animals; like them, they may con-
tinue in a lethargic and motionless condition; but there will be
going on within them a wasting away of the body, equivalent to
so much nourishment from without as would be needed for the
sustentation of life.”

210 Transactions of the

Il.—On Agchisteus plumosus (Parfitt), By E. Parrrrr.

(Read before the Royau Microscoricau Society, April 2, 1873.)
Puate XV. (Upper portion).

THE accompanying sketch is one of a very remarkable animal I
met with in the mucous matter surrounding Hamatococcus binalis
(Hassell). Ido not remember to have seen anything before like
this. At first sight it has something of the appearance of a large
rotifer, being transparent, white, and showing very clearly the pale
yellowish stomach or intestine; as this vessel seems to combine
both, the contraction would appear to divide the stomach from the
intestine proper, although I did not observe any valve separating
or dividing the two; but I presume the siphon-like bend and con-
traction would perhaps answer the purpose to an animal like this.

This creature is provided with a double coating, an ectoderm
and an endoderm ; the outer is wrinkled into transverse folds, with
many small protuberances arising therefrom; out of each of these
springs a beautiful plumose bristle or spine; by the side of each of
these springs a short spine, bearing at its apex a number of fine
bristles, reminding one of a little aspergilliform brush. On the
anterior part of the body and placed somewhat laterally are six
bundles of simple slightly-curved spines or spinetts; and below
these, on the posterior half of the body, are five rather long slightly-
curved furcate spines directed backwards.

The oral aperture is lateral and inferior. This creature pro-
gresses by contracting its body, and with the assistance of the
spines very similar to the progress of an Annelid. I could not
discover any rings or annulations, the nearest approach to this is
the folds of the dermal coat.

Viewing this animal as a whole, it is from the form and disposi-
tion of the spines very closely related to the Annelids, but at what
position to approach this group to connect them I do not see my
way clear except through Chatogaster. On the other hand, the
simplicity of its interior organization seems to prevent a very close
alliance. Although the general appearance is that of a large rotifer,
and which by some are considered to approach very closely, if not
quite, to connect the Rotifera with the Annelids, this creature does
not quite fill the requirements of that position to connect them at ~
this point; the position of its mouth and the simplicity of its in-
ternal organization precludes it. At the same time I think there
can be little doubt but that its nearest allies are the Annelids. I
have named it provisionally Agchisteus plumosus, presuming it to
be next of kin to the Annelids, and plumosus from the beautiful
plumous spines.

I can say nothing as to its habits, except the finding of it in the

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Royal Microscopical Society. 211

mucous surrounding the Heematococcus, and that its intestine
contained same greenish granulose matter, from which I presumed
that it fed on the plasma of the Algze.

It is four or five years ago since I found this, and made the
sketch of it, and I was then in hopes of finding more specimens,
but have been disappointed, and I am now sorry I did not keep the
specimen, as I might have dried off the creature on a slip of glass,
and so preserved the spines 2m setw.

The following letter was addressed by the author to Mr. Stewart
in answer to one suggesting the possibility of some mistake as to the
mouth of the animal :—

March 22, 1878.

Dear Mr. Stewart,—I thank you for your suggestion, as regards
the mouth of the animal. I had thought so myself, that the mouth
ought to be inferior, or beneath ; but on studying the movements of
the creature, I could not persuade myself that it was so. At the
same time I would not insist upon it that it is not inferior; for a
creature that is more or less cylindrical, or, perhaps, clavate, would be
more in accordance with its-form. One could scarcely insist upon
the one or the other. At the same time I have stated what I believe
to be the fact.

As regards the spines, there are two lateral rows of six fascicles ;
although I could not show them all, as it would make confusion with
so many; but I have stated this, and shown three fascicles, to show
their arrangement and ‘position.

You are at full liberty to read the paper at the next meeting of
your Society ; it might probably elicit some remarks worth recording.

I am, my dear Sir, yours truly,

Epwarp ParRFITT.
C. Stewart, Esq.

( 212 )

Ill.—An Apparatus for Obtaining the “ Balsam” Angle of any
Objective. By Rozert B. Totus, U.S. America.
Puate XY. (Lower portion).

[The following two communications, though intended by the
author to appear in different numbers of this Journal, have reached
the Editor simultaneously. They are therefore published in the
same number of the Journal—Eb. ‘ M. M. J.’]

Iw reference to Mr. Wenham’s comments on my last communica-
tion there is just a word to add.

I am not averse to the ordeal of a test of balsam angle in
London. I am not afflicted with Anglophobia; never have before,
I am sure, been suspected of that.

I impugn, not the verdict, nor the testing, so far as that trial
went. At air angle of 145° I get the same results, doubtless.

My method was Mr. Wenham’s tank-plan, as stated. I have
since used quite extensively a different method, putting the light
down through the microscope tube, the cone of light being
measured as emergent from the front of the objective, the object
also in position, in balsam, under covering glass, as in practice in
use of the compound microscope, and under identical circumstances,
and in view at option through the eye-piece. Therefore and thus
the extreme rays measured for angle can be identified as traversing
and giving view of the object. This seems conclusive, and when I
describe the apparatus I have no doubt the action of it will be
tested in England, and I would gladly entrust such trial to the
committee already according me their attention, and by all means
including Mr. Wenham. As a sort of explanation I am bound to
add that I am almost certain no English objective will be found to
go above 83° or 85° of balsam angle, which by the method I allude
to (which I doubt not will be accepted), those of mine of compound
fronts, will reach 90°, at all events in most cases, 7.¢. when the
air angle is 175° or upwards.

More than this, the sort fairly denominated in your heading of
my article, “Peculiar Objectives,” shall, in balsam angle, exceed
100°, and range above that according to the intention in their
construction.

As yet I have done nothing about any further attestation here,
and when I do so it will be without knowledge of the opinions of
the gentlemen I shall call upon, or care either about their partisan-
ship of whatever theory.

Respectfully yours,

Rosert B. Toes.

P.S.—Since writing the above I have tested the angle of the
objective measured in London, and find the air angle at open povnt,

An Apparatus for Obtaining the “ Balsam” Angle. 2138

z.e. for uncovered objects, 145°. By the new method hinted of
above, the balsam angle is 77°, less by 2° than Mr. Wenham’s
trial made it.

At closest, to the extent of one-half of its whole adjustment, I
now get 90° in balsam instead of 93° as before. These discrepancies
are, 1 am confident, chargeable to the tank method which I before
used, and which I used because it was not my method.

I now use a semi-cylinder of crown glass, reading the angle on
the cylindrical surface, where the rays emerge. Of course the
cylindrical surface has a non-polished portion to facilitate the true
reading. I will send a description of the apparatus, but not in
time to appear with this note.

Boston, March 19, 18738.

I conclude to send a sketch of the apparatus I have used to get
the real balsam angle actually available in use of whatever objective.

The candle-flame F (Plate XV., lower portion) shows the
position in which the apparatus is seen in the figure.

B and H, the base of the apparatus. B is a sector of 180°.
A is a semi-cylinder of crown glass closely to the refractive index
of balsam, and having an elevation above the base B, beyond the
axis of the tube and objective D. A film of covering glass is
represented at C.

As the light from the candle-flame F proceeds down the tube
and emerges at the front of the objective, and traverses the balsam-
mounted object at C, it will have divergence and reach the cylin-
drical surface of the glass half-cylinder, emerging without sensible
refraction.

By means of a proper shutter swinging over the surface-cylin-
drical of A, the light can be admitted from the outside of it, and
by means of shutter the exact limits of angle be found, while the
observer has the object in view through the eye-piece and objective.
That this can be utilized as a condenser, with peculiar advantages,
is evident enough.

The rude drawing will answer present purposes, but I hope to
communicate explicit results hereafter. But I desire to state here
that the results given in my table of measurements of balsam angle
are substantially verified by this method of measure.

40, Hanover STREET, Room 30, Boston,
March 21, 1878.
P.S.—The author adds, “the drawing is now to scale of 0:65
to 1 in.,” giving at the same time permission for its reduction.

This permission has been accepted. The sketch is now but 2rds of
its original size as sent by Mr. Tolles.

( 214 )

IV.—On Bog Mosses. By R. Brarrawarre, M.D., F.LS.
Group A, addenda.
6. Sphagnum papillosum Lindberg.
Contrib. ad Fl. Crypt. Asize Bor—Or. p. 280 (1872).
Piates XVI. anp XVII.

Syn.—Sph. Cymbifolium p. p. omnium auctorum.

Dioicous; more or less ochraceous or brown, never tinged
with purple; base of stem-leaves and bracts, as also the points of
branch leaves, darker brown. Stems more slender than those of
S. cymbifolium, reddish-brown ; bark composed of 4 strata of cells,
the outer perforated by several large foramina, but without fibres,
the others with very fine spiral fibres. Branches 3-4 in a fascicle,
2 divergent, short, acute; 1-2 pendent, appressed to stem, atten-
uated ; cortical cells, with fine spiral fibres and large pores.
Cauline leaves rather rigid, spathulate, minutely fringed at apex,
their cells large, empty below, with a few fibres and pores above.

Ramuline leaves closely imbricated, strongly cymbiform-concaye,
cucullate at apex, very broadly ovate, obtuse, cells large, the hyaline
filled with spiral fibres and perforated by large pores, their walls
combined with those of the chlorophyll cells, and there covered in-
ternally with minute short papille ; chlorophyll cells central, ellip-
tical. Male plants more slender, amentula more or less ochraceous,
short, oyate, pointed, the bracts broadly ovate, concave, obtuse,
the margin minutely fringed toward the apex, the areolation like
that of the branch leaves. Fruit not greatly exserted ; peduncular
bracts large, oblong, convolute, plicate, the cells very large and
of two forms; in the lower half of the bract, the central part con-
sists of narrow pleurenchymatous empty cells, with thick walls,
the margins and the upper half of the bract of normal porose and

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVI.
Sphagnum papillosum.
a,—Female plant. a $.—Part of male plant.
1.—Part of stem with a branch fascicle.
2.—Catkin of male flowers. 26,—Bract from same.
3.—Fruit with its peduncle.
4.—Peduncular leaf. 45 a,—Areolation of basal wing of same.
5.—Stem leaf.
6.—Branch leaf. 6 .—Point of same. 6 x.—Transverse section of same. 6a a.—
Areolation of half of apex of same, expanded under pressure. 6 c,—Single
cell x 200. 6y.—Branch leaf of the var. Stenophyllum.
7.—Intermediate leaves from base of a divergent branch.
9 «.—Part of transverse section of stem. 9 c.—Outer cortical cells of stem.

N.B.—The dotted line in Fig. 4 indicates the parts occupied by the two
kinds of cells.

Vay lJ873.

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On Bog Mosses. 215

fibrose hyaline cells like those of the branch leaves. Spores
ferruginous.
Var. B confertum.

Plants very short, in dense tufts, usually dichotomous; outer
cortical cells of stem with 3-1 very large foramina, and usually
without fibres. Ramuline leaves, round, deeply cochleariform-
concave, obtuse, the apical cells less prominent at the back.
Peduncular bracts shorter.

Var. y stenophyllwm.

Plants somewhat lurid, short, dense, robust, irregularly
branched. Outer cortical cells of stem rectangular, with 3-1
large foramina, and some very fine distant fibres. Branch leaves
ovate-oblong, less concave and cucullate, and almost entire above.

Hab., peat bogs in subalpine districts.

Scandinavia, frequent (Lindberg), Germany, Ben Lawers
(R. B.), near Penzance (Curnow), Sutton Park, Birmingham
(Bagnall), Staveley, Westmoreland (Barnes), @. near Penzance
(Curnow), y. near Penzance (Curnow), Staveley (Barnes).

This fine species is no doubt quite as common as Sph. cymbi-
folium, from which it may be at once distinguished by its more
rigid texture, brown colour, and less elongated branches, with
shorter closely imbricated leaves.

In Sph. cymbifoliwm the branches are much more attenuated,
the leaves less closely imbricated, more divergent, and more atten-
uated at the points. The chlorophyll cells also are nearer to the
concave surface than to the back of the leaf, and at their point of
union with the hyaline the internal surface is quite smooth; the
texture of the plant is also remarkably soft. It will be seen that
the two varieties of Sph. papilloswm are quite analogous to those of
Sph. cymbifolium, and indeed a careful study of the four species
referable to this group would lead us to the conclusion that they
have all descended from some common type or parent.

7. Sphagnum Austini Sullivant.
In Austin’s Musci Appalachiani.
Puate XVII.

Sullivant, Ic. Muse. Scop. 1 ined. No. 2, Lindberg Contrib. ad Fl. Crypt.
Asis Bor-Or. p. 280 (1872).

Dioicous ; much resembling Sph. papillosum and the American
Sph. Portoricense, more or less ochraceous. Stems frequently
dichotomous, dark brown, the bark composed of 4 strata of cells,
the outer quadrato-hexagonal without fibres, the inner with very
fine fibres and large pores.

Branches closely placed, 3 in a fascicle, 2 divergent, attenuated
at points, 1 pendent, short, slender, appressed to stem; cortical

VOL. IX. R

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216 On Bog Mosses.

cells with fine spiral fibres. Cauline leaves lingulate obtuse,
minutely fringed at apex, the areolation as in Sph. cymbifolium.
Ramuline leaves closely imbricated, ovate-oblong, concave, more
deeply coloured at apex, which is also less cucullate, but with cells
strongly projecting on the back; cells large, the hyaline filled with
fibres and having several large foramina. The chlorophyllose .
obtusely trigonous, projecting between the hyaline on the concave
surface of the leaf. The internal wall of the hyaline cells, where
united to the chlorophyllose, densely crested with prominent
papille.

Fruit but little exserted ; peduncular bracts oblong, convolute,
minutely fimbriate at the rounded apex, cells of the lower third,
empty, narrow, parenchymatous, above normal, more or less fibrose,
with large pores. The adjacent walls transversely striate by the
large papillae. Spores ferruginous.

Hab., swamps. Farrago, Ocean County, New Jersey, United
States (Austin). In Europe only found in Sweden, Hunneberg
Mountain, Westrogothia, 1859 (Lindberg). Viby, Nerike, 1860
(Zetterstedt), both sterile.

I am indebted to Prof. Lindberg for specimens of this fine
sphagnum, which we may reasonably hope will some day be found
in Scotland.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVII.
Sphagnum Austini.
a.—Female plant, from Austin’s collection in the Kew Herbarium.
6.—Barren ditto from Hunneberg.
1.—Part of stem and branch fascicle.
3.—-Perichetium and fruit.
4.—Bract from ditto. 4c.—Single cell from middle of same x 400.
5.—Stem leaves.
6.—Leaves of divergent branch. 6p.—Point of ditto. 6 aa—The same, expanded
under pressure. 6c.—Cell from middle x 200. 62.—Section of same.
7.—Basal intermediate leaves.
8.—Leaf of pendent branch.
9 x.—Part of section of stem. 9c.—Outer cortical cells. 9c’—TInner ditto, x
100.
10.—Part of a branch denuded of leaves.

nd

V.—Binoculars for the Highest Powers.
By F. H. Wenuaw, Vice-President R.M.S.

I nave recently made some experiments for this particular applica-
tion ; the result, however, claims no novelty beyond an adaptation
of plans already known and tried.

There have been three separate methods by independent in-
ventors, in which the whole aperture with a full field can be

The Monthly Microscopical , Journal May11873.

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s . Binoculars for the Highest Powers. 21%

secured in each eye with the highest powers. These have not
comé into use, because each image is similar, and no stereoscopic
appearance obtained, even by plans of illumination all effects of
which are identical in each. Beyond the relief afforded in the use
of both eyes together nothing is gained; and I have been told by
some who have tried this system for difficult test observation, that
for perceiving delicate structure they preferred the single tube,
rather than endure the slight loss of definition caused by the
partially reflected image.

We are thus driven back to the original principle of dividing
the pencil of the object-glass, and bringing the separated images
into each eye.

I have before demonstrated the reason why the present binocu-
lars do not give a full field with powers from the 4th upwards,*
attributable to the distance of the prism from the back lens of the
object-glass.

Immediately after this, the late Richard Beck ingeniously
adapted my form of prism to some }ths in the following way. The
prism was set just to clear the back lens, on the end of a thin elastic
strip or spring fixed by its upper end to the inner tube of the
setting. When the spring lay close to the side, the prism was
drawn without the pencil from the object-glass. By turning a
screw resting on the spring, the prism was pushed forward, so as
to bisect the rays. This plan was successful, and gave a clear, full
field in each eye-piece. It did not come into extensive use, pro-
bably on account of the difficulty of making prisms on such a
minute scale—the necessity of having one fitted to each object-
glass, and the inaccessible position in which they were situated.

In all forms of binocular prisms, it is important that the
bisection should be fine and sharp without waste; as any edge or
space at the junction will be like a thread across the centre of an
object-glass obscuring its most valuable portion, and in a high
power sadly impairmg performance—knife edges are therefore
preferable. Nachet’s equilateral prism is perfect in this respect,
and might easily be made as small as requisite; but from the wide
angle at which the rays emerge, it could not be placed close to the
back lens of any present form of objective.

Finding difficulties m setting any compact form of reflecting
prisms in the end of a tube sufficiently small to drop down in the
setting close behind the lens of a high-power object-glass, I have
applied the achromatized refracting prism described by me in a
paper read before the Microscopical Society, June 13th, 1860, by
which the images from the right and left half of the object-glass
are brought into the opposite eye with the true orthoscopic effect.
About this time near a dozen microscopes were fitted with these

* «Quart. Journ, of Micro. Science,’ April, 1861 (new ae
R

218 Binoculars for the Highest Powers.

prisms, which gave a definition that has never been surpassed by
any succeeding arrangements. This was abandoned in favour of
the present well-known form, as it required a separate pair of
bodies with which direct single vision could not be obtained. But
as for some special observations separate bodies are still used, I
have re-arranged the prism to suit the angle required. If the
vision is taken off at right angles to the axis of object-glass by
prisms, in the manner first suggested by me in a paper read before
the Microscopical Society in May, 1853, and figured in the ‘ Trans-
actions,’ the vision will be erect in one plane. Such was the case
in the instrument then described, but the effect was pseudoscopte.
The following diagram, Fig. 1, shows an enlarged sectional
view of the achromatic separating prism now used. The lower

prism is of crown glass. Fig. 2 (full size) represents its appli-
cation to a right-angled or diagonal erecting microscope with
horizontal stage.

The reflecting prisms at a are the same as formerly described,
and are set so that the faces are perpendicular to the emergent ray.
Some play should be left between them, to allow for lateral adjust-

Professor Smith’s Conspectus of the Diatomacex. 219

ment, in case a point does not fall in the centre of each eye-piece.
If the bodies are set at any other angle, the prisms are tilted to cor-
respond. ‘The achromatic separating prism, b, is only ‘08 in thick-
ness from apex to base, and is turned to a circle -26 in diameter ;
it is set in the end of a thin sliding tube, that can be slid down,
more or less, within the body of an object-glass as circumstances
allow. The small range of motion thus given is not found appre-
ciably to disturb the central position of an object in the eye-pieces.
For optical effect, it is of no consequence at what distance the
right-angled or erecting prisms are placed; they may be half-way
up the bodies and the bend made there, or even employed in
diagonal eye-pieces; these being swerved round, would enable two
observers to see the same object with any form of binocular.

VI.—Professor Smith's Conspectus of the Diatomacee.
By Professor H. L. Surrn.

I notice in the March number of the ‘M. M. J.,’ which I have
just received, the criticism of my “ Conspectus,” by my friend,
Captam Lang. He had already notified me of his intention.
Although he deprecates it as an artificial, instead of a natural
classification, my own opinion is, that the Diatomacee are grouped
in a much more natural manner by it than by W. Smith’s
method, in the ‘ Synopsis of the British Diatomacez, and which
the Captain seems to think more natural! It is quite true I do
not call my “Conspectus” by any higher name than an “ Artificial
Key,” for I am very far from presuming, in the present state of
our knowledge, to say that I know enough about our little friends,
to construct anything better; I fancy, however, that W. Smith’s
classification will be found quite as artificial, and even less natural.
In haying regard, for this purpose, to the “general build,”
or structure, I am quite sure it is what a student in any other
department of natural history would do, sooner than depend upon
circumstances or conditions, which the slightest experience would
show to be variable; and so Captain Lang will find out one of
these days, ‘‘ when knowledge shall be increased,” and he tries the
system, that stipitate, tubular, frondose, persistent and non-
persistent membrane, are characters absolutely of no value in a
natural classification. He knows very well that Staunner’s acuta,
€.g., grows in filaments; shall we therefore put this species, follow-
ing W. Smith’s more natural classification, along with Melosira in
Sub-Tribe V., keeping the others of the genus in Sub-Tribe I. ?
It seems to me that this is worse than associating Arachnoidiscus
with Melosira. But let us see where this so-called natural classifi-

220 Professor Smith's Conspectus of the Diatomacee.

cation would put the latter. Why, we actually find Arachnoidiscus
along with Nayicula! in W. Smith’s classification, the only point
of resemblance being that both are free: for same reason we may
associate an ant and an antelope. In my own classification, which
is not so wholly artificial but that it is based upon the position and
character of the “ Raphe,” or medium line, into three tribes, Arach-
noidiscus, not so very unlike Melosira in 8. V., is associated with
that genus, and also as to its being free I may mention that chains
of three or four individuals are not uncommon. Again, some doubt,
both on the part of Mr. Kitton and Captain Lang, appears to exist
about the propriety of my union of Triceratium and Amphitetras
with Biddulphia (which, by the way, is only in part, as all those
forms, without processes, go with the Coscinodisces). As Captain
Lang makes a point here, that Biddulphia coheres, forming a zig-
zag filament, and the others, a straight one, if any (preferring the
natural (?) classification of W. Smith, who puts Biddulphia with
Diatoma! and Triceratium and Amphitetras with Navicula!!!) I
commend to him Mr. Roper’s little woodcut, ‘Trans. Mic. Soc.,’
vol. viii. p. 57, where he will find Triceratium zigzag, and Tuffen
West’s representations of Biddulphia Arinta, Pl. XLY., 8.B.D.,
where he will find this diatom forming a straight filament. End-
less anomalies and confusions result from considering these eyanes-
cent conditions as of value. Mr. Kitton’s remarks about Campylo-
discus* are reiterated by Captain Lang, though he is not so decided.
That Campylodiscus has, in some cases, crossed valves, is true; I
think it will be hard to show that it has in all. I shall not shrink
from extending a genus, because, forsooth, the number of species
will become inconyeniently large; to found a new genus on such
grounds would be far from natural. Captain Lang is right that
the Table of Species will involve a vast amount of labour and
trouble. In the next number of the ‘ Lens’ I give the species of
the genus Amphora. Unless I am aided by generous sympathy
and kind advice, I know I must go hesitatingly, and often erro-
neously forward. Most thankful shall I be for any original speci-
mens, memoirs, or other assistance, in the arduous task which
involves, not only the consideration of every hitherto (so far as I
know) named species, but a classification, with descriptions, figures,
~and index.

I was not before aware of Dr. McDonald’s paper in the
January number of the ‘ Annals and Mag., 1869, nor have I yet
seen it. If I have done him injustice by any seeming neglect, I
beg to apologize. As for Dr. Pfitzer’s classification on the method
of reproduction, I only know it through the abstracts published in
the journals; that method of classification I long ago tried and ~
abandoned, as he will be obliged to. With all the enthusiasm of a
novice I fancied here was the key to unlock the mysteries of the

* *Grevillea,’ vol. i,, p. 63.

A New Method of Preserving Tumours. 221

diatom world. Alas! the anomalies were so many, and the diffi-
culties so great, that I abandoned it in disgust.

As regards, then, my own Conspectus, I candidly acknowledge it
is faulty. Not, however, because I have expunged too many
genera, but too few. I have trusted too much to the statements
and figures of, especially, the Continental authors, and I am be-
coming more and more distrustful—not a very pleasant state of
things. I am very much obliged to Mr. Kitton and Captain Lang
for the kind manner in which they have received my Conspectus,
and feel encouraged to go on.

Geneva, N.Y., March 19, 1873.

VII.—A New Method of Preserving Tumours and certain Urinary
Deposits during Transportation. By JoserpH G. Ricwarpson,
M.D., Microscopist to the Pennsylvania Hospital.

In the early days of medical microscopy, partly because all revela-
tions of the science were looked upon by most practitioners with
suspicion or positive distrust, partly, I presume, on account of real
unskilfulness among its students, microscopic examinations were
rarely called for, and there was little need of devising plans for
securing the portability of specimens. At present, however, when
the value of the microscope, not merely as an aid, but even as the
most reliable guide for diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment, in many
forms of disease, is becoming almost universally recognized, some
means of transporting urinary and other deposits, tumours, &c., over
long distances, in the unaltered condition, has become a great
desideratum. As a contribution towards this important object, I
offer to the profession the subjoined method, originally contrived to
meet the exigencies of a recent case in my own practice.

The clinical history in this particular instance, being accurately
noted by the patient himself, a highly intelligent physician, gives
such an exquisite picture of one form of the special renal malady in
question, that I am confident most of my auditors will feel some
interest in its relation, which is briefly as follows :—

About the 20th of August last, I received a letter from Dr. ——,
residing in one of the trans-Mississippi States, informing me that
he had forwarded to my address two specimens of deposit let fall from
samples of his own urine, which he wished me to examine. In
speaking of his condition, he remarked :—

“‘T am forty years of age, and for the last four years my health
and strength have been steadily failing. From my normal weight
of 165 pounds, I have declined gradually to 132, at the rate of
about eight pounds per annum. My condition at first was attri-
buted to malarial fever, but this cause has not involved the case for

222 A New Method of Preserving Tumours and

more than two years. My symptoms have, during this time, been
as follows: great general debility, more or less dyspeptic symptoms,
ageravation of rheumatic stiffness and soreness (not pain), from
which I have suffered for years. A constant tendency to lose the
erect position, and droop in the neck and shoulders. A gradual
impairment of virility, amounting for the last six months almost to
extinction. In fact, to sum up all in a word, general debility with-
out apparent cause covers the case. I have run the gamut, under
the ablest advice, of tonics, stimulants, and nutritious diet, and have .
taken a sea-voyage of three months’ duration, with no appreciable
benefit. A few months ago I accidentally discovered—what had -
never before been suspected—the presence in my urine of albumen
in large amount. Its presence is persistent, and its quantity on the
increase. The deposit after being precipitated, and allowed twelve
hours to settle, just half fills the tube. I have never had any sign
of dropsical effusion, but for the last year or more have suffered from
periodical attacks of almost uncontrollable diarrhoea, developing
themselves with much regularity about every two months, and
- lasting from three days to as many weeks. The amount of urine
secreted is, about thirty-two ounces for twenty-four hours, variable
in colour, but never turbid when fresh. I micturate a little oftener
than when in health, always having to rise at least once during the
night ; urime much inclined to foam, sp. gr. normal (1021).
Prof, , of Philadelphia, has pronounced my liver, spleen, and
heart healthy, while my vital capacity as indicated by the spirometer
is fifteen per cent. above par. . . . May I trespass upon your pro-
fessional courtesy so far as to ask you to solve the problem, in which
I am so much interested, by a microscopic examination? The pre-
sence of casts will of course demonstrate renal degeneration ; but
suppose no casts are found, what then? How in that case would
my malady be termed? Certain it is I am suffering from some-
thing which, unarrested, must hurry me to a goal not dim or far dis-
tant. Please give me your views in reference to diagnosis, prognosis,
and treatment. . . . Soliciting an early reply as the greatest favour
that could be rendered to one in my present condition of suspense,—
it is the suspense alone that tries me,—I subscribe myself, &c.”
This letter—which, I should mention, Dr. with brave un-
selfishness, and in the spirit of a true philanthropist, has most
generously given me permission to make free use of in preparing any
paper upon the subject—was accompanied by a small box, enclosing
the two samples of urinary deposit. Each specimen was contained
in an ordinary two-drachm vial, stopped with a cork that previous
to its insertion into the mouth of the bottle had been wrapped in a
piece of thin india-rubber, and then, being pressed in to the level of
the lip, had been firmly tied down with another small circle of sheet
caoutchouc. The ingenious precautions thus employed to prevent
leakage were entirely successful, but the long journey of some twelve

certain Urinary Deposits during Transportation. 223

hundred miles, occupying more than a week of the hot weather with
which we were yisited during the past summer, had given time
enough for complete decomposition to occur, and, although one of
the specimens was prepared with a small portion of carbolic acid
solution, entire putrefaction had taken place in both before their
arrival. The vial which had been merely sealed up gave forth when
uncorked a strongly ammoniacal odour, and its deposit was composed
only of amorphous granular matter. The other specimen, to which
carbolic acid had been added, contained an abundant white coagulum,
without any tube-casts, epithelial cells, or leucocytes. Numerous
mycelial threads of fungous vegetation presented themselves, and
were probably capable of developing in the solution to which carbolic
acid had been added, because that acid was deprived of its parasiticidal
properties when it combined with the albumen of the urine.

On mentally reviewing the preservative agents at our disposal,
and rejecting, of course, alcoholic and arsenical fluids, on account of
their power of coagulating albuminous substances, it occurred to me
that solution of acetate of potash, whose admirable properties as a
preservative menstruum for microscopic objects formed the subject
of one of my communications to this Section last year, would best
serve our purpose; and I therefore wrote to my correspondent, in-
forming him of the ill-success of his first venture, and requesting
him to prepare another specimen by filling a similar small vial with
dry acetate of potash, and then pouring in a fluid drachm of the
sediment let fall from his morning urine after standing twelve hours
in a cool place.

On the 12th of September I again received two samples, one of
which had been mixed with the washings of a bottle that had
formerly contained acetate of potash, and which comprised the
Doctor's entire stock of the salt; the other prepared with a small
portion — about twenty drops—of alcohol. Both of these were
worthless for microscopic examination ; and I therefore procured a
two-drachm vial of solid acetate of potash and forwarded it to my
patient by return mail, requesting him as before to add to its
contents a fluid drachm of his urinary deposit.

This last experiment in the preservation of a urinary sediment
for transportation, the fifth of the series it completed, was entirely
successful, the preparation reaching me about the Ist of October,
not only in such a condition as to show well-defined hyaline, granular,
and fatty epithelial casts of the uriniferous tubules in great abundance,
but likewise embalming, so to speak, those pathognomonic signs of
Bright’s disease so perfectly that a drop of the fluid, which I have
placed beneath one of the academy’s microscopes this evening,
exhibits numerous tube-casts with admirable distinctness, even
although more than six weeks have now elapsed since this identical
sample which I here hold in my hand was prepared for examination,
upwards of twelve hundred miles away.

224 A New Method of Preserving Tumours.

During the past few years I have repeatedly felt the need of
some method for preserving specimens of tumours and other patho-
logical formations for microscopic investigation, which might prevent
the alterations in the cellular elements which are so apt to occur
with the media now in use, and also avoid the difficulty of sending
fluids by mail, or the delay and expense attendant upon carriage by
express. Since employing the plan described above, for ensuring
the portability of specimens of tube-casts, in spite of their exposure
to either very high or very low climatic temperatures, I have made a
few observations upon the effects of the acetate of potash solution
upon morbid growths, and, as a result of my researches, recommend
the following method :—

Place a small fragment of any tumour or pathological structure,
say a quarter to half an inch square and one-tenth of an inch thick,
in a couple of drachms of saturated solution of acetate of potash, and
allow it to fully imbibe the fluid by soaking therein for forty-eight
hours. The solution referred to 1s best made by simply pouring
half an ounce of rain-water upon one ounce of dry granular acetate
of potash, in a clean bottle. When the tissue is thus fully saturated
with this saline liquid, remove it by means of a pair of forceps, without
much pressure, and insert it in a short piece of india-rubber tubing,
or wrap it up carefully in a number of folds of thin sheet rubber or of
oiled silk, tying the whole firmly at the ends with strong thread.
When thus prepared, specimens can be enclosed with a letter in an
ordinary envelope, and sent long distances, doubtless thousands of
miles, by mail, without danger, on the one hand, of decomposition,
because of the preservative power of the potassic acetate, or, on the
other, of desiccation, on account of its exceedingly deliquescent
nature.

One very important advantage which this plan has over those
in which alcohol or glycerine is employed as a preservative agent, is
that the menstruum has little or no effect upon the oil-globules con-
tained in cells. Hence by its aid we are enabled to recognize fatty
degeneration in the cellular elements of a tumour, and easily to
detect the same metamorphosis in the kidneys from minute oil-drops
in the epithelium attached to tube-casts of Bright’s disease, under
circumstances where specimens preserved in glycerine or alcohol
would afford a doubtful or wholly negative result.

Urinary deposits composed of oxalate of lime or of triple phos-
phate are not, according to my experience, readily preserved in solu-
tion of acetate of potash, possibly on account of chemical decom-
positions which occur. When these crystalline bodies are met with,
as is usually the case, in non-albuminous urine, they could probably
be best retained in an unaltered state by adding from twenty to
thirty per cent. of solution of carbolic acid to the renal secretion in
which they are found.—From the Philadelphia ‘ Medical Times,’

(2 225y-)
NEW BOOKS, WITH SHORT NOTICES.

A Report of Microscopical and Physiological Researches into the
Nature of the Agent or Agents producing Cholera. By T. R. Lewis,
M.B., and D. D. Cunningham, M.B., Calcutta, Office of the Superin-
tendent of Government Printing, 1872.—-Although this work is not
especially microscopical, it deals less or more with the histological
character of the blood, and more especially with those cases in which
Bacteria are present. It seems to us somewhat of a mistake on the
authors’ parts to have published the volume at all; for though it
narrates much excellent experimentation, there is very little in the
shape of sound conclusion to be drawn from the researches it narrates.
We think, therefore, that the authors would have been wiser to have
waited longer before publishing their inquiries. But for all that the
book is of considerable interest. In the first place we must state that
the entire volume does not exceed a hundred pages of clear readable
type, and of this by far the larger portion has no relation to micro-
scopic work. Yet is the histological part of value, especially in
regard to those peculiar protoplasmic masses or corpuscles in. the
blood of cholera-patients, which are admirably figured in the folding
plate which precedes the volume. The following account of them we
give in the authors’ own words, for they are clear, minute, and to
the point. We may, however, mention that the specimen of blood
was taken from the finger of the patient, and was placed in a wax-cell
of a similar character to that described by Berkeley as specially
adapted for the observation of fungi. The powers employed were
the =.th of Powell and Lealand and }th and ;1,th immersion of Ross.

“Tt now remains,” say the authors, “to make a few remarks on
the principal points of interest in connection with these observations.
The conveniences afforded by a tropical climate for any such series of
observations as these are very great, as the temperature as a rule is
sufficiently high to secure that the activity of the bioplasts contained
in the blood is not too rapidly checked. During a period of frequent
observation in the course of the past season, the thermometer ranged
from a maximum of 98°2° F. to a minimum of 76°3° F. It is not
devoid of interest to remark that the use of immersion objectives
involves a disadvantageous depression of temperature, due to evapora-
tion of the film of water which is placed between the lens and the
covering glass. The prolonged use of such a lens has frequently
appeared in this way to check the activity of the bioplasts in the blood.
One of the most important points determined by these observations is
the fact, that the blood in cholera is, as an almost invariable rule, free
from bacteria, either actual or potential. This is the case as well shortly
after death as during life, and holds in regard to every stage of the
disease. In one or two cases, a slight development of distinct bacteria
has occurred during the course of observation, but this is no more than
may occur in the most healthy specimens of blood, and the idea that
bacteria are normally present in the blood in cholera may be finally

226 NEW BOOKS, WITH SHORT NOTICES.

dismissed. It is not improbable that certain of the appearances
observed in series of observations, such as those described above, may
afford a clue to the origin of such an idea. At an early stage, when
the bioplasts are of great fluidity and tenuity, monad-like granules,
contained in and moving with them, may be supposed to be free and
endowed with independent motion, but this will be found, on pro-
longed observation, not to be the case, and as the density of the
bioplasts increases, the true relations of the granules will appear.
At a much later stage, namely, at that of escape of the contents of the
cells, patches of molecular matter and scattered granules may result ;
and finally, when general disintegration of the bioplasts occurs,
large sheets and masses of evenly molecular matter may occupy much
of the preparation; but these granules, micro-coccoid patches, and
molecular flakes, are no new developments, but are clearly traceable to
mere disintegrative changes in bodies previously present. The mole-
cular matter so produced, be it scattered or aggregated, undergoes no
further development, and shows no motion or any other indication of
vitality. The term bacteria is often very vaguely and loosely employed,
but it is under no pretext applicable to mere dead particles due to
simple disintegration.

“ As regards bacteria, so it is in regard to the presence of fungal
elements as a normal and constant characteristic of the blood in
cholera. There is absolutely nothing in favour of any such view;
there is absolutely no evidence of the existence of fungal elements in
the blood whilst in the body, and only very rare and clearly accidental
development of such bodies after its removal from it. Possibly the
most important result to be derived from observations on the blood in
cholera, conducted in the manner described above, is the explanation
which they are capable of affording of the nature of the bioplastic bodies
and cells so abundant in, and so characteristic of, evacuations passed
during the course of the disease. We have previously pointed out
that such evacuations frequently contain evidences of the escape of
blood into the intestines, either by the presence of red corpuscles in
greater or less abundance, and occasionally included within the
characteristic cells of the discharges, or by that of a more or less
pronounced pinkish and sanguineous tinge of the fluids, with the
subsequent appearance of blood crystals in them. Now if, as observa-
tion has proved, the bioplasts contained in the blood are capable of such
activity and multiplication when removed from the body, and with
quite abnormal surroundings, it is surely fair to allow them an equal,
if not superior capacity, when exuded on the interior surface of the
intestines.

“ Such bioplasts, in passing through the various changes described
above, will come to present every modification of appearance and
characters presented by those found in the discharges. In their
earlier stages they will correspond with the freely motile amcebex of
the evacuations ; when rather older they lose their freedom of motion
and show mere feeble changes of form, ultimately becoming motion-
less and pus-like or rather exudation-like cells, such as are observed
in the flakes of lymph in peritonitic and similar effusions, and such

PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE. 227

cells we know to form the great bulk of those present in perfectly
recent choleraic dejections. Whilst in this condition it has been
already mentioned that they frequently show one or more distinct
nuclear vacuoles in their interior, and they are then identical in
aspect with the large mother-cells containing bioplast-masses, pre-
viously described in connection with the subject of the evacuations.

“There is one class of bodies in the evacuations, the nature of
which has hitherto been peculiarly puzzling and obscure—namely,
that of flattened, whitish or pale-yellowish hyaline cells showing no
evident structure or contents, but the observations on the changes
occurring in the bioplasts of the blood explain the nature of these
also, for the empty capsules persisting after the escape of the mole-
cular contents of the pus-like cells, are exactly similar to the hyaline
bodies of the evacuations, and unless the actual steps in their forma-
tion had been followed, their nature would have been as obscure as
that of the latter cells has till now remained. MHyaline vesicles,
somewhat resembling these, are more or less generally found in all
intestinal discharges, and are probably the result of endosmotic pro-
cesses acting on the epithelial cells, as was long ago pointed out by
Heidenhain and Briicke in connection with appearances observed in
healthy epithelium ; they may occasionally be seen closely attached to
the cells in those very exceptional cases in which epithelium can be
detected in choleraic discharges, as well as very frequently in connec-
tion with the loose epithelium found in the intestines after death, as
figured and described in the last report.”

Besides these important observations the authors give some others,
in the course of which they discovered evident Vibriones and Bac-
teria in considerable abundance. There is much in the book to excite
the interest of the medical microscopist, and those who are likely to be
in the Indian colony should certainly study the researches of Messrs.
Lewis and Cunningham.

On a Hematozoon inhabiting Human Blood: in relation to Chy-
luria and other Diseases. By T. R. Lewis, M.B., Calcutta, 1872.—We
have in an earlier number given a summary of the contents of this
book. So we now merely commend it to the notice of our readers
as an excellent little volume.

PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

Asterophyllites not the branch of a Calamite.—Professor Williamson,
E.RS., stated, at one of the February meetings of the Manchester Philo-
sophical Society, that the second fossil plant described by Mr. Binney at
the meeting of the Society, on January 21st, and of which a notice ap-
peared in the Society’s ‘Proceedings,’ does not belong to some new genus,
as Mr. Binney supposed, but is one that he has already described on two
or three occasions as being the stem or branch of the well-known genus
Asterophyllites. In his description of the Volkmannia Binneyi, published

228 PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

in the Society’s ‘ Transactions’ in 1871, respecting which Professor Wil-
liamson showed that it possessed a vascular axis exhibiting a triquetrous
transverse section, the author gave his reasons for believing that the
strobilus was the fruit of Asterophyllites. In a letter addressed to Dr.
Sharpey on Nov. 16, 1871, and published in No. 181 of that Society’s
‘Proceedings,’ Professor Williamson gave a brief description of a stem
having a similar triangular vascular axis, with lenticularly thickened
nodes, and which he again referred to the same verticellate-leaved
genus. In a second letter to Dr. Sharpey, dated May 3, 1872, the
author confirmed the above conclusions by stating that he had “got an
additional number of exquisite examples showing not only the nodes
but verticels of the linear leaves so characteristic of the plant. These
specimens place the correctness of my previous inference beyond all
possibility of doubt, and finally settle the point that asterophyllites is
not the branch and foliage of a calamite, but an altogether distinct
type of vegetation having an organization peculiarly its own.” ‘The
author said that he had obtained the plant in almost every stage of its
growth, from the youngest twig to the more matured stem, and that the
genus would be the subject of his next, or fifth, of the series of memoirs
now in course of publication by the Royal Society.

Experiments on the question of Biogenesis.—Dr. William Roberts
exhibited, at one of the meetings of the Manchester Philosophical
Society (February 4th), some preparations and experiments bearing on
the question of biogenesis. He stated that in the last two and a half
years he had performed over 300 experiments. His results supported
the conclusion that the fungi, monads, and bacteria which make their
appearance in boiled organic mixtures, are not due to spontaneous
evolution, but arise exclusively under the influence of pre-existing
germs or ferments introduced from without. His method of experi-
menting consisted chiefly in exposing organic solutions and mixtures
toa boiling heat in glass flasks whose necks had been previously
tightly plugged with cotton wool. Two modifications of the experi-
ment were adopted.

I. In the first modification a 4-ounce flask was employed, and the
heat applied directly by means of a gas flame.

II. In the second modification—after the introduction of the mate-
rials to be operated on—the elongated neck of the flask was sealed
hermetically by the blowpipe above the plug of cotton wool; the
flask was then weighted with a collar of lead and immersed in a large
can of water; the can was then put on the fire and the water boiled
for 20 or 30 minutes. During the process of boiling, the flask was
maintained in an upright or semi-upright position, in order to prevent
any wetting of the cotton-wool plug by the contents of the flask.
When the can was cold the flask was removed, and its neck filed off
above the cotton wool, so as to permit free ingress and egress of air.

Flasks thus prepared were maintained at a warmth varying from
50° to 90° Fahr. for long periods—many weeks and months—some in
the dark and some exposed to the light with the following results :—

I. Simple filtered infusions of animal or vegetable tissues—a very
considerable variety were tried—boiled over the flame for five or ten

PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE. 229

minutes, in flasks previously plugged with cotton wool, remained per-
manently barren. This result was absolutely invariable.

II. More complex mixtures—milk, neutralized or alkalized infusions
of vegetable and animal tissues, similar albuminous and gelatinous
solutions, mixtures containing fragments of animal or vegetable sub-
stances or cheese—yielded variable results. In none of them did
fungoid growths make their appearance—but monads and bacteria
frequently appeared in abundance.

This seemingly contradictory result was inferred to be due to the
ineffective application of the heat in the process of direct boiling over
aflame. It was found that many of these more complex mixtures
frothed excessively when boiled —brisk ebullition could not therefore be
maintained—particles were spurted about on the sides of the flask, and,
in this way, apparently escaped effective exposure to the heat. Even
when the boiling was prolonged for 20 or 30 minutes the results were
still uncertain—sometimes the flasks remained barren-—sometimes
they became turbid and swarmed with bacteria.

III. By the second modification of the experiment much more
constant results were obtained—the flasks remained almost always per-
manently barren—and the few exceptions were found to be due to some
imperfection in the conduct of the experiment. No exceptions occurred
with milk, nor with substances, however complex, which were in actual
solution, but when considerable pieces of vegetable or animal sub-
stances were introduced into the flasks, bacteria and monads with
putrefactive changes occasionally made their appearance in abundance.
In these exceptional cases, when the experiments were repeated with
the pieces finely comminuted, or introduced in some other way more
favourable to the diffusion of the heat, the flasks remained permanently
barren.

Dr. Roberts called attention to the crucial significance of experi-
ments on this subject made in flasks whose necks are plugged with
cotton wool. A plug of cotton wool acts as an absolutely impervious
filter to the solid particles of the atmosphere, while it permits a free
passage to the gaseous constituents.

When one of these experiments is effectively performed, the fluid or
mixture in the flask may be exposed to the full influence of light, of
warmth, and of air, and yet it remains permanently barren. As slow
evaporation takes place the liquid passes through all grades of concen-
tration, possibly chemical changes of various kinds take place within
it, and still no organic growth makes its appearance for months and
even years; but if the plug of cotton wool be withdrawn for a few
minutes, or a single drop of any natural water, however pure and well
filtered, be introduced, then all is changed—in a few days the clear
solution becomes turbid from bacteria and monads, or a mass of mil-
dew covers its surface and soon half fills-the flask.

In the face of these experiments it was impossible to doubt that the
biogenic power of the atmosphere resides in its dust, and not in its
gaseous ingredients ; but as to the exact nature of that biogenic power
—whether it be a specific germ or a ferment—no sufficient evidence
has yet been adduced. Dr. Roberts did not find that diminished

230 PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

pressure of the atmosphere, obtained by sealing flasks hermetically in
ebullition, after the mode suggested by Dr. Bastian, materially affected
the results. At the conclusion of the paper Dr. R. Angus Smith, F.B.S.,
said that he was glad to see such uniformity of results. His own ex-
periments, which were very numerous on a similar point, were made
differently, but were without exception proving the same. As to the
name of the substances in the air, he preferred germ: it involved no
theory. A germ may be considered that which germinates. Dust is
an equivocal expression, which may cause a popular error. Polarity
introduces a theory which is so entirely without basis that in our
present state of knowledge we may call the inference it presupposes
decidedly false.

On the Origin of Bacteria, and on their relation to the Process of
Putrefaction—Dr. Charlton Bastian lately read the following paper
before the Royal Society: *—He says that in his now celebrated
memoir of 1862, M. Pasteur asserted and claimed to have proved (1)
that the putrefaction occurring in certain previously boiled fluids
after exposure to the air was due to the contamination of the fluids
by Bacteria, or their germs, which had before existed in the atmo-
sphere, and (2) that all the organisms found in such fluids have been
derived more or less immediately from the reproduction of germs
which formerly existed in the atmosphere. “The results of a long
series of experiments have convinced me that both these views are
untenable. In the first place, it can be easily shown that living
Bacteria, or their germs, exist very sparingly in the atmosphere, and
that solutions capable of putrefying are not commonly infected from
this source. It has now been very definitely ascertained that certain
fluids exist which, after they have been boiled, are incapable of giving
birth to Bacteria, although they continue to be quite suitable for the
support and active multiplication of any such organisms as may have
been purposely added to them. Amongst such fluids I may name
that now commonly known as ‘Pasteur’s solution, and also one
which I have myself more commonly used, consisting of a simple
aqueous solution of neutral ammonic tartrate and neutral sodic
sulphate.t When portions of either of these fluids are boiled and
poured into superheated flasks, they will continue quite clear for
many days, or even for weeks—that is to say, although the short
and rather narrow neck of the flask remains open, the fluids will not
become turbid, and no Bacteria are to be discovered when they are
submitted to microscopical examination.

“ But in order to show that such fluids are still thoroughly favour-
able media for the multiplication of Bacteria, all that is necessary is
to bring either of them into contact with a glass rod previously
dipped into a fluid containing such organisms. In about thirty-six
hours after this has been done (the temperature being about 80° F.),
the fluid, which had hitherto remained clear, becomes quite turbid,

* ‘Proceedings,’ 141, 1873.
+ In the proportion of 10 grains of the former, and 3 of the latter, to 1 ounce
of distilled water. .

PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE. 231

and is found, on examination with the microscope, to be swarming
with Bacteria.*

“Facts of the same kind have also been shown by Dr. Burdon
Sanderson ¢ to hold good for portions of boiled ‘ Pasteur’s solution.’
Air was even drawn through such a fluid daily for a time, and yet it
continued free from Bacteria.

“ Evidence of this kind has already been widely accepted as justi-
fying the conclusion that living Bacteria or their germs are either
wholly absent from, or, at most, only very sparingly distributed
through, the atmosphere. The danger of infection from the atmo-
sphere having thus been got rid of, and shown to be delusive, I am
now able to bring forward other evidence tending to show that the
first Bacteria which appear in many boiled infusions (when they sub-
sequently undergo putrefactive changes), are evolved de novo in the
fluids themselves. These experiments are, moreover, so simple, and
may be so easily repeated, that the evidence which they are capable
of supplying lies within the reach of all.

“That boiling the experimental fluid destroys the life of any Bac-
teria or Bacteria-germs pre-existing therein is now almost universally
admitted ; if may, moreover, be easily demonstrated, If a portion
of ‘ Pasteur’s solution’ be purposely infected with living Bacteria,
and subsequently boiled for two or three minutes, it will continue (if
left in the same flask) clear for an indefinite period ; whilst a similarly
infected portion of the same fluid, not subsequently boiled, will rapidly
become turbid. Precisely similar phenomena occur when we operate
with the neutral fluid which I have previously mentioned ; and yet
M. Pasteur has ventured to assert that the germs of Bacteria are not
destroyed in neutral or slightly alkaline fluids which have been
merely raised to the boiling-point.

“Kven M. Pasteur, however, admits that the germs of Bacteria and
other allied organisms are killed in slightly acid fluids which have
been boiled for a few minutes; so that there is a perfect unanimity of
opinion (amongst those best qualified to judge) as to the destructive
effects of a heat of 212° F. upon any Bacteria or Buacteria-germs
which such fluids may contain.

“Taking such a fluid, therefore, in the form of a‘ strong filtered
infusion of turnip, we may place it after ebullition in a superheated
flask with the assurance that it contains no living organisms. Having
ascertained also by our previous experiments with the boiled saline
fluids that there is no danger of infection by Bacteria from the atmo-
sphere, we may leave the rather narrow mouth of the flask open, as
we did in these experiments. But when this is done, the previously
clear turnip-infusion invariably becomes turbid in one or two days
(the temperature being about 70° F.), owing to the presence of
myriads of Bacteria.

“Thus if we take two similar flasks, one of which contains a boiled

* The ‘ Modes of Origin of Lowest Organisms,’ 1871, pp. 30, 51.

¢ Thirteenth Report of the Medical Officer of the Privy Council (1871), p. 59.

{ How unwarrantable such a conclusion appears to be, I have elsewhere endea-
voured to show. See ‘Beginnings of Life,’ 1872, vol. i. pp. 326-333, 372-399.

VOL, IX, S)

232 PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

‘ Pasteur’s solution, and the other a boiled turnip-infusion, and if
we place them beneath the same bell-jar, it will be found that the
first fluid remains clear and free from Bacteria for an indefinite
period, whilst the second invariably becomes turbid in one or two
days.

“ What is the explanation of these discordant results? We have
a right to infer that all pre-existing life has been destroyed in each of
the fluids;* we have proved also that such fluids are not usually
infected by Bacteria derived from the air; in this very case, in fact,
the putrescible saline fluid remains pure, although the organic in-
fusion standing by its side rapidly putrefies. We can only infer,
therefore, that whilst the boiled saline solution is quite incapable of
engendering Buacteria,t such organisms are able to arise de novo in
the boiled organic infusion.

“ Although this inference may be legitimately drawn from such
experiments as I have here referred to, fortunately it is confirmed and
strengthened by the labours of many investigators who have worked
under the influence of much more stringent conditions, and in which
closed vessels of various kinds have been employed.t

“Whilst we may therefore infer (1), that the putrefaction which
occurs in many previously boiled fluids when exposed to the air is
not due to a contamination by germs derived from the atmosphere,
we have also the same right to conclude (2), that in many cases the
first organisms which appear in such fluids have arisen de novo,
rather than by any process of reproduction from pre-existing forms
of life.

“ Admitting, therefore, that Bacteria are ferments capable of initi-
ating putrefactive changes, I am a firm believer also in the existence
of not-living ferments under the influence of which putrefactive
changes may be initiated in certain fluids—changes which are almost
invariably accompanied by a new birth of living particles capable of
rapidly developing into Bacteria.”

Balanoglossus and Tornaria.—The history of these two interesting
creatures is fully given in a recently-published memoir of Professor
Agassiz’s (published from the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences,
on January 14,1873). In this memoir, says Professor Verrill, who
gives an analysis of it in ‘ Silliman’s American Journal’ for March,
Professor Agassiz gives us a nearly complete history of the development
of the larva long known as Tornaria, and until recently universally
regarded as the larva of an Hchinoderm, into the very remarkable worm
Balanoglossus. That Tornaria is the larva of this or some allied genus,
had been rendered very probable by the observations of Metschnikoff,

* (Note, Jan. 31, 1873.]|—In ‘ The Beginnings of Life, vol. i. p. 332, note 1,
I have cited facts strongly tending to show that Bacteria are killed in infusions of
turnip or of hay, when these have been heated to a temperature of 140° F. They
also seem to die at the same temperature in solutions of ammonic tartrate with
sodic phosphate.

+ See ‘ Beginnings of Life,’ vol. ii. p. 35, and vol. i. p. 463.

t See a recent communication by Prof. Burdon Sanderson, in ‘ Nature,’ January
9th, the greater portion of which appeared in ‘M. M. J.’ for February.

PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE. 233

published in 1870, as stated by M. Agassiz, but the evidence was not
conelusive, for the complete development and metamorphosis had not
been observed. It is, therefore, very gratifying to have this impor-
tant point settled so soon and so satisfactorily. M. Agassiz gives an
excellent account of the structure, both of the larva in its various
stages and of the adult Balanoglossus, and discusses their relations to
other worms. He concludes that when, at last, the true structure of
this remarkable larva and its history have been ascertained, its true
relations to the larve of Annelids are sufficiently clear, while the re-
lations to Echinoderm larvee are not so close as had been supposed,
for the parts are not homologous with those of the latter, although the
external resemblance is quite remarkable. Nor does he admit that
this worm, either by its structure or mode of development, can be
regarded as connecting the Annelids and Kchinoderms. “It is un-
doubtedly the strongest case which could be taken to prove their iden-
tity ; but when we come carefully to analyze the anatomy of true
Echinoderm larve, and compare it with that of Tornaria, we find that
we leave as wide a gulf as ever between the structure of the Echino-
derms and that of the Annuloids.” The plates are excellent, and
illustrate well both the external appearance and anatomy of the Tor-
naria stage, the young DBalanoglossus, and the adult. This worm is ot
large size when mature, and lives in the sand at low-water mark. It
occurs on the sandy shores of southern New England and southward ;
M. Agassiz has found it at Beverly, Mass., as well as on the shores
of Vineyard Sound and at Newport. The writer also has specimens
from Naushon Island. M. Agassiz does not mention, and therefore
has doubtless overlooked the fact, that Mr. Chas. Girard, just twenty
years ago, described a species of Balanoglossus from South Carolina,
under the name of Stimpsonia aurantiaca. It is true that Girard’s
description was quite imperfect, like all the early descriptions of
this singular genus, but no one can doubt that his species was a
Balanoglossus, and judging from the description, it is most likely
identical with the B. Kowalevskii, so well described and illustrated
by M. Agassiz in the memoir before us.

Histology of the Tympanum.—My. John C. Galton, M.A., says in a
late number of the ‘ Medical Record, that Dr. Riidinger, Prosector in
the Institute of Anatomy, at Munich, has just published some contri-
butions towards the Minute Anatomy of the Tympanic Cavity (Beitrage
zur Histologie des Mittleren Ohres), illustrated by twelve lithographic
plates, each containing, on an average, two large figures. Six chapters
deal respectively with the following subjects :—1. Osseous substance
and medullary cavity of the auditory ossicles. 2. The annulus carti-
lagineus and membrana propria, with their relation to the malleus.
3. The processus brevis of the malleus, and its relation to the tym-
panic membrane. 4. The folds ( Taschenbdnder) of the tympanic mem-
brane, with relation to the malleus. 5. The lodgment of the tympanic
membrane in the sulcus tympanicus. 6. Additional observations on
the articulation between the auditory ossicles. The chapters are
rather short, but in these due reference is made to the published works
of previous observers, among which the beautifully illustrated mono-

s 2

234 PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

graph of Professor Gruber, of Vienna, on the tympanic membrane and
auditory ossicles (Anatomisch-physiologische Studien tiber das Trommel-
fell und die Gehéirknéchelchen, Wien, 1867), may be commended to all
who are studying the histology of the organ of hearing. The figures,
though somewhat coarsely executed, are, nevertheless, rendered effec-
tive by the employment of brown and grey colours.

Vulpian on the Septic Virus.—Dr. J. B. Sanderson, F.R.S., states
in a recent number of the ‘Medical Record’ that M. Vulpian has
communicated to the Society of Biology an account of six experiments
on rabbits on the production of septicemia (Contribution a [ Etude
de la Septicémie) by the development of bacteria in the blood. He
regards the results as confirmatory of those of M. Davaine. In the
first experiment, two drops of blood taken after death from a patient
affected with gangrene of the lung, produced death in twenty hours.
The blood of this animal, taken during life, contained innumerable
“oranulations” and “rods.” In the second experiment, exudation
liquid, from the pleura of a guinea-pig infected by inoculation with
the blood of the same patient, was used ; death occurred in twenty
hours. In the third experiment, a couple of drops of a mixture of
blood (of the subject of the second experiment) with fifty times its
volume of water, were inserted; death followed in twenty-four hours.
In the fourth experiment a similar quantity of water containing +955
of the same blood was used. Death occurred in twenty-three hours.
In the fifth experiment, water containing +59¢.999 of the same blood
was used. The symptoms were much less marked; death occurred
after fifty hours. In the sixth experiment the dilution was increased
to too0do0000: The animal was affected with leucocytes, but
recovered. It is well worthy of record that, even in liquids diluted a
million times, granulations and bacteria could be found by the micro-
scope. They could even be detected in the liquid used in the sixth
experiment. All the infected animals displayed what M. Vulpian
calls “ bacteriemia.” In using the term, he means to imply that the
bacteria are the efficient cause of the infection. In most of them
there was peritonitis, the exudation liquid containing innumerable
bacteria. All the experiments were made on rabbits. Guinea-pigs
were tried, but abandoned, because the results were less marked.

Canella alba and Pomegranate Barks.——These are minutely de-
scribed as to their microscopic anatomy in a paper in the ‘ Pharma-
ceutical Journal’ (March 8), by Mr. H. Pocklington. Of Canella he
says that beginning with the outside of the bark we have first
“stellate” cells, analogous to those found in cassia and cinnamon,
but somewhat different in size and shape, and are wholly situate on
the outer surface of the bark, where they form a tolerably continuous
layer of varying thickness, ranging from two to six or eight cells
thick. They are porous, the pores being few and large. The
successive deposits of thickening matter are not very evident without
the use of powerful reagents, and they stain intensely with magenta,
prolonged boiling in alcohol not removing the colour entirely.
Indigo and logwood solutions do not permanently stain them, but

PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE. 235

the latter stains the original cell wall of these thickened cells and
also:the pores, rendering these latter very perceptible. This latter
reaction is probably not chemical but mechanical, the minute pores
retaining the dye longer than the exposed cell surfaces. The whole
of the other tissues of the bark, excepting the resin receptacula, it may
be noted, permanently stain with the logwood fluid. The general
shape of the thickened cells is ovate, but more or less globose ones
are frequent. Within the layers of stellate cells are many layers of
thin-walled parenchymatous cells containing various minute granules
of starch and other matters, some of which, apparently allied to
chlorophyll, stain intensely with magenta. Amongst these cells are
distributed very irregularly large receptacula, containing a light
yellow coloured oleo-resinoid substance. On removing this it is
found that the walls of the containing-cell are thin, imperforate,
that they stain intensely with magenta, and do not permanently stain
with logwood. That their walls are very thin is shown by their
slight action upon a selenite plate by polarized light; for when
freed from their contents they scarcely raise or depress the colour of
even the teint sensible film, the very delicate red-violet. With these
parenchyma cells are a few liber bundles, not many. The liber
proper forms the lighter internal surface of the B.P. description. It
is chiefly remarkable for the great number of spheraphides arranged
linearly among the liber cells, as seen in cross section, and apparently
composed of oxalate of lime. These are almost wholly confined to
the layer bounding the inner surface of the bark. The liber cells
are hollow, little thickened, and frequently contain minute granules
of starch and other granular substances. The medullary rays and
oblong or sub-cylindrical cells associated with the liber are not very
interesting. The cells of the medullary rays are nearly square, with
incomplete parietal adhesion, and contain considerable quantities of
minute starch granules, spherical or ovate, doubly refractive, and
giving a black cross. A large number of cells associated with these
square cells, and forming part of the medullary rays, contain, each
cell singly, spheraphides imbedded in a semi-granular substance
(probably semi-fluid when the bark is fresh) of apparently a saccha-
rine nature, and unless this be removed by maceration in water, and
subsequently alcohol, the polariscope and chemical reactions of the
crystals will be but feeble. In conclusion it may be remarked that
the structure of Canella alba bark is somewhat complex, but not
difficult of study to a microscopist of moderate experience, although
there are features, such as the nature of the contents of some of the
cells, notably of the liber cells and medullary rays, that are almost or
quite beyond the reach of present micro-chemical histology. Granati
Radicis Cortex.—Pomegranate Root Bark.—The cells of this bark are
altogether very different from either of the preceding, both as regards
size and shape. The external cells are small, sub-globose, and some
of them porous. The cells of the layers beneath, excluding certain
ligneous cells, are sub-cylindrical, thin-walled, and small in cross out-
line. Their contents are starch granules, very minute and sphera-
phides, of which each cell contains one, imbedded in a substance of

236 PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

which I am unable to determine the nature. These raphides are

minute, with feeble optical qualities, and their prismatic constituent
crystals not clearly discernible as is usual in this class of crystalline
cell contents. Their great number is the first thing one notices in
examining the section, and further study shows that the inner layers
of cells contain by far the greater number of them, very few cells in
this position being without one. The more external cells contain
fewer, the outermost cells none.. The starch granules are very minute
and most numerous in the middle layers. Their polariscope reactions
are obscure. The ligneous cells are distributed in twos and threes, are
large, porous, much thickened, and the successive layers of thickening
deposits very evident without the aid of reagents. In conclusion it
may be remarked that the only difficulties in the examination of this
bark arise from the minuteness of the cells, and their being filled with
various matters that are difficult to remove without altering the general
structure. Maceration in very dilute sulphuric acid for a few hours
appears to be most effectual in preparing sections for examination, so
far as a general view of the size and shape of the cells is concerned.

Pollen of Petasites fragrans.—A writer to ‘Science Gossip,’ who
signs himself Q. F., says that though this is not a British plant, as it
was originally introduced to England from Italy in 1806, it is doubtful
whether any of our indigenous species abound so much and so early
in pollen as P. fragrans, or Sweet-scented Butterbur. It grows ram-
pant at Canterbury in deserted gardens, where this Butterbur has
been profusely in bloom from Christmas to January. And the pollen-
grains are so remarkably beautiful as to afford very delightful micro-
scopic objects even at this season. Each pollen-grain is oval, haying
a length of 53, of an inch, and a breadth of 73, ; muricated on the
surface like those of so many other composite ; becoming globular
or sub-triangular, with three scars appearing for the passage of the
future pollen-tubes, when treated with diluted sulphuric acid. The
pollen-grains are so large that they may be very easily examined
under an object-glass of half an inch focus,

The Septic Virus.—The French paper, ‘Union Medicale,’ for
January and February of this year, contains an interesting account
of the researches of Davaine and others on this subject. A brief
sketch of these researches has been sent by Dr. B. Sanderson to the
‘Medical Record. From this we learn that M. Davaine’s research
is a continuation of his former one on the induction of septicaemia in
rabbits by inoculation. As it deals with the fundamental experiments
on which he founds his claim to have discovered a new virus, it may
be taken, not only as the most recent, but the most complete exposi-
tion of his present position in relation to the subject. M. Davaine
uses the rabbit as a test for the detection of the septic virus in
blood. He finds (as others have done before him) that that animal
is specially liable to be affected by the introduction under its skin
of blood which has undergone a certain degree of putrefactive
change; and he has endeavoured to measure the virulence of such
blood by comparative experiments, in which the activity of the liquid

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 237

in question was judged of by the degree of dilution to which it could
be subjected without losing its power of destroying life. The results
are stated by him as follows :—Ordinary blood kept at a temperature
of about 100° Fahr. becomes so virulent in forty-eight hours, that
a trillionth of a drop, injected subcutaneously, is enough to kill a
rabbit. 2. The blood of a person affected with certain febrile
diseases, particularly typhoid fever, possesses a similar activity. Of
the numerous experiments related, in which rabbits were killed with
quasi infinitesimal doses of typhoid fever blood, it may be useful to
reproduce one—the last of the series—as an example of the rest. In
a case of typhoid fever, blood was taken at various periods during the
progress of the disease : the plan followed being to inject, at ‘each
period, blood of two ee subcutaneously Hat two test-animals,
of which one received ;,/55 drop, the other y55}595 drop. When
this was done at the eighth day of the disease, the first rabbit sur-
vived seven days; the second, twenty-seven days: at the eleventh
day, the first rabbit survived seven days; the second, three and a
half days: at the sixteenth day, the first survived eleven days; the
second, twenty-five days. After complete convalescence the experi-
ment was repeated. Neither of the test rabbits was in the slightest
degree affected.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

A New Slide for the Microscope—At a recent meeting of the
Optical section of the Franklin Institute, U.S.A., there was described
and exhibited in operation a new adjunct to the microscope, designed
by Mr. D. 8. Holman, a member of the Section, whose life-slide
recently attracted so much attention and comment. The new device
may be called a current cell, or moist chamber, and is designed to
afford the microscopist the opportunity of observing and studying the
constitution of the blood and other organic fluids with much greater
ease and precision than it has heretofore been found possible to
attain. The accompanying illustration will serve to make the descrip-
tion of its construction and operation manifest :—

Ti Ll on

The slide consists of a plain piece of plate glass of considerable
thickness, and three inches by one in dimensions.

238 NOTES AND MEMORANDA. -

This is furnished at equal distances from its centre with two well- —
polished shallow cavities of circular form, which are connected with
each other by one or more capillary channels. These channels are
likewise polished, and to permit of a greater field in focussing for
’ their contents, the groove of the tube is made triangular in section,
with one side forming a right angle with the surface of the slide, and
the other forming with it a very large angle.

The arrangement of the cell, or moist chamber, is as follows :—In
order that the current shall be most sensitive, the slide should first
be brought nearly to the temperature of the body, by holding it for a
few minutes in the hand. A small quantity of the liquid to be
examined (blood, for example) is then to be placed in each cell, and
a thin cover-glass placed upon them. If held down for a moment
with the hands, the air within the cavities will become slightly rarefied,
and the cover-glass so firmly held in place by atmospheric pressure as
to require no artificial attachment. Upon removal of the fingers, it
will be found that the centre of the cavities is occupied with a bubble
of air, while a thin annulus about the circumference as well as the
connecting capillary tubes are occupied by the fluid. The slide is
now ready for inspection. If placed beneath the microscope, and the
instrument is focussed upon the connecting channel, a number of cor-
puscles, red and white, will be observed, but quite quiescent. Let
the finger be now approached to the neighbourhood of either cell,
when at once a current, more or less rapid, according to its proximity,
commences to flow beneath the object-glass; remove the finger, and
the direction of the current is reversed. The current is caused by
the expansion of the air-bubble in the cell, in consequence of the heat
radiated from the finger; and its rapidity may be controlled to a
nicety by regulating the proximity of the finger. So sensitive is the
apparatus, that even with the highest powers, a corpuscle, granule, or
cell, in the field of view, may be leisurely turned over and over in any
desirable position, thus affording an unequalled means of observation
and study to the microscopist; and while the eye is examining at
leisure the behaviour of the objects beneath it, the mind is charmed
with the simplicity of the means by which these motions are con-
trolled. In the cell here described, no foreign liquid is added to the
material under examination. Moreover, if each cell be entirely
filled with liquids of different densities, the cell holding the denser
liquid being placed slightly uppermost upon the rotating stage of
the microscope, the action of gravity will cause two currents to flow
in opposite directions through the communicating channels, and in
this way the phenomena of transfusion, crystallization, &c., may be
observed for a considerable length of time, which otherwise are
brought to sight only with difficulty. We have to thank the Editor
of the ‘ Journal of the Franklin Institute’ for the block.

( 239 )

CORRESPONDENCE.

A “Socrery’s” Microscopz Sranp.
To the Hditor of the ‘Monthly Microscopical Journal.’
87, Botp Street, Liverroon, March 27, 1873.

S1z,—The Royal Microscopical Society has on two occasions per-
formed a useful service to the whole body of microscopists by the
appointment of committees to investigate questions of general interest.
The last (I think) resulted in the adoption of the universal screw for
the attachment of object-glasses.

I beg to suggest another investigation, which, I think, would be
well worthy of the Society, and which no other body could so well
perform. It is, that the Society should appoint a committee to ascer-
tain and recommend the best form of stands*for microscopes.

Two forms are in general use, one in which the compound body
slides in a groove in a fixed bar, the other in which the compound
body is held at the lower end by a transverse bar, which is again
attached at right angles to another bar, the whole of these being
moved in order to focus the object, except when the fine adjustment
suffices. The fitting and position of the fine adjustment necessarily
differs in these two forms.

Many instruments in which the paged parts are the best which
have been constructed, exhibit, when used with high powers, a tremor
which greatly impairs definition, and which, I believe, to be due—not
to the imperfection of the workmanship, nor to unavoidable defects—
but to a faulty model.

The subject has become increasingly important since the more
general introduction of high powers, and their use in rooms where
numbers of persons are assembled.

I am, Sir, your obedient servant,

Joun ABRAHAM,
President of the Liverpool Microscopical Society.

Tse Bartle oF THE GuassEs.
To the Editor of the ‘ Monthly Microscopical Journal.’
Cincinnati, Onto, April 1, 1873.
Sir,—Two weeks of convalescence have given me time and oppor-
tunity to become interested in the “ Battle of the Glasses”; and the
March number of the ‘ M. M. J.’ coming opportunely to hand, I con-
cluded to try what I could do towards reproducing the appearances
of Lepisma saccharina, figured in that number, Plate XI., by Mr.
Hollich, for Dr. Pigott. Beginning with a Tolles’ 1th, 1868, ang. ap.,
150° dry, first with the B eye-piece, and then with Tolles’ solid eye-
piece, the appearance of Fig. 1 was easily produced ; and then rotating
the stage, so as to put the scale in the position shown in Figs. 2, 3, and
4, Plate XI., there was little more difficulty in producing appearances

240 CORRESPONDENCE.

which I could not distinguish from Figs. 2, 3, and 4, except the note
of admiration shown in Fig. 2. That I was not able even to glimpse
through the whole series of observations, with all the apparatus em-
ployed. Then substituting first a Powell and Lealand 1th dry, 1870,
the appearances were all a little more distinct by reason of the in-
creased amplification, and so when the Powell and Lealand ith dry,
1870, was substituted for the }th. The illumination was by the St.
Germain students’ lamp, with coal oil, and a }-inch condenser in all
the observations. The different appearances were produced by slightly
altering the focus, or the cone adjustment, and other appearances,
bearing an equal appearance of truth, were produced in the same way.
There can be no doubt that all the appearances shown in the figures in
Plate XI. may be produced by proper (or improper?) manipulation.
But, like Dr. Pigott, I only saw them near the margin, when the
oblique and longitudinal ribs cross each other. In the central
portion of the scale I did not find them. But the question is not
what may be seen? but what is? Which of the various appearances,
if any, represents oe the structure of the scale.

Whilst using the ,!,th I removed the dry front and substituted the

“ immersion ” front, when—* presto—change ”—all my pretty beads
were in a moment gone. I had forgotten that the cone glass of
the slide was cracked. The water flowed in, and in place of the beads
were only the oblique ribs as plain, palpable, distinct, and as real as
the longitudinal ones. No coaxing could bring back ‘the beads, with
any apparatus. The minute transverse, irregular wrinkles or corru-
gations of the membrane were there, and the water formed little
lacunce between them and the ribs. At separated points, when the
wrinkles crossed the ribs, they formed little elevations, which, when
not properly focussed, formed little isolated bead-like points, as
different from the beads before seen, as they were from the large ones
in Fig. 1, which surely no one would ever mistake for those of
Fig. 4.
It would be difficult to persuade the late President of the R. M. 8.
that a pig’s head is formed upon a type altogether different from that
of other Vertebrata. And it would be none the less so to persuade an
entomologist, who is familiar with the appearances and structure of
the scales of Diptera, Coleoptera, and Lepidoptera, that those scales are
of a typical structure, different from that of the order Thysanura ;
and that in place of the ribs’ wrinkles and corrugation of the mem-
brane in the three first-named orders, there is substituted in the last-
named order an internal framework of beads.

However, Mr. Editor, I do not profess to be knowing as to these
matters, nor capable of throwing light upon them. But like, no
doubt, hundreds of others, I want to know what the truth is when I
see it through the microscope, and whether there is any infallible rule
by which false appearances may be distinguished from the true ones ;
and I shall have attained my object if some one who knows more and
sees better is able to shed some light upon this subject in the mind of
a benighted

Tyro,

CORRESPONDENCE. 241

Desiccation or Rorirers.
To the Editor of the * Monthly Microscopical Journal.’
April 7, 1873.

Sir,—I have not been able to find the latest papers on the desicca-
tion of rotifers, to which I referred on 2nd April, when Mr. Davis
brought the subject before the Royal Microscopical Society, and
which, I thought, had appeared within three or four years in ‘ Comptes
Rendus.’

The following extracts and references will, however, show that
the question was investigated and settled at an earlier date.

F¥. A. Pouchet speaks thus in his ‘ Universe’ (English transla-
tion, p. 52): “This pretended revival is only the same phenomenon
as is exhibited by the snail which, when placed in a dry spot, buries
itself in its shell till a little moisture is imparted to it.” Mr. Wenham
mentioned an interesting instance of this revival on the 2nd, which
will be found in your report. Pouchet continues, “It has been main-
tained that the contracted rotifer is absolutely dry, and consequently
dead, but this is not the case. When it is thoroughly dried it never
recovers. The prestige of these resurrections was doomed to vanish
in the laboratory of the Museum of Natural History at Rouen. Many
of my pupils joined with me in bringing back science to rational
views. Professor Pennetier, by his memorable labours, proved that
the anguillule do not revive. M. Tinel did the same with the tardi-
grades ; I myself as far as regards the rotifers.”

In a foot-note M. Pouchet says, ‘‘ Dr. Pennetier, in a series of valu-
able observations, has proved the complete absurdity of resurrections
in general. In his special experiments upon anguillule, he noticed
that, so far from supporting complete desiccation, they succumbed at a
heat of 70° C. (158° F.). See ‘Mémoires sur les Rotiferes,’ Ann. des
Sciences, 1859 ; ‘ Mémoires sur les Tardigrades, Ann. des Sciences, 1859 ;
‘Mémoires sur la Révivification des Rotiféres, Soc. de Biologie, 1859;
‘Mémoires sur les Anguillules des Toits,’ Soc. de Biologie, 1859 ;
‘Recherches sur les Anguillules, Ann. des Sciences, 1860; ‘De la
Révivescence des Animaux dits. Resuscitants,’ Actes du Muséum
d'Histoire Naturelle de Rouen, 1862. He gives references to M.
Tinel’s experiments, Soc. de Biologie and Union Médicale 1869, and to
his own experiments, showing that desiccation carried to 90° C. infal-
libly kills rotifers—Comptes Rendus, 1859, &c.

In ‘ L’Origine de la Vie,’ par le Docteur George Pennetier, Paris,
1868, in the chapter entitled “Les Prétendus Incombustibles,”’ the
author investigates various questions of alleged resurrections of orga-
nized beings after exposure to heat sufficient, or more than enough to
dry them, and gives various details of opinions, and experiments with
rotifers. He quotes Pouchet to the effect that “rotifers and tardi-
grades may be subjected to a cold of 17° C., then exposed suddenly to
95° C. without losing their property of revival.” At p.157 he figures
the apparatus he used to ensure the thorough drying of rotifers—a
process which killed them all. He exposed them to a current of dried
air at temperatures gradually brought up to 100° C. (212° F.). The

4

242, PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES,

rotifers used were first dried by fifteen days’ exposure to a burning
sun; they were then kept in the shade at a temperature of 18° C. for
another fortnight, and subsequently from July to October under the
receiver of an air-pump, with quick-lime, showing a pressure of only
3mm. In October he found half the rotifers thus treated capable of
revival, which he accounted for by the quantity of earthy matter
mixed up with them, and the average low temperature of the season
during their sojourn under the pump. All the tardigrades associated
with the rotifers died. The final experiment at complete desiccation
was made with two decigrammes of the rotifers and sand that had been
in the air-pump.

He cites Claude Bernard, saying, in 1864, “that infusoria ordi-
narily (convenablement) dried lose their vital property, at least im
appearance, and may remain so for whole years; but when supplied
with a little water, they become as lively as before, provided that a
certain degree of desiccation has not been exceeded.”

I have also a reference to a paper by Gavarret, Ann. des Sci. Nat.
(Zool.), vol. xi., 1859, relating to “ dessiccations a froid” et “ chauffés,”
in which he speaks of “the coagulation of hydrated albumen as
speedily fatal to most organized beings.”

The whole question, in fact, turns upon the amount of desiccation ;
and no chemist, accustomed to analysis, would consider an organic
substance really dry until it had been sufficiently exposed to air that
had passed through some desiccating material, and heated to 212° F. or
more. No chemist would have expected to dry the rotifers by the
process which did not succeed. Professor Miller mentioned 212° to
250° as the temperatures generally required to dry organic matter, and
when the greatest possible dryness is required, the heat should, as
long ago pointed out by Faraday in his ‘Chemical Manipulation,”
only stop short of charring the material.

I remain, Sir, yours obediently,
Henry J. SLAcg.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Royat MicroscoricaL Society.

Krne’s CoLuice, April 2, 1873.

Charles Brooke, Esq., President, in the chair.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.

A list of donations to the Society since the last meeting was read,
and the thanks of the meeting were voted to the donors.

Mr. Henry Davis read a paper “On a New Callidina: with the
Result of Experiments on the Desiccation of Rotifers.” The paper was
illustrated by a carefully-executed drawing of the new’ species
(C. vaga), and by living specimens exhibited under the microscope.
(The paper will be found printed at pp. 201-209).

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 243

The thanks of the Society were unanimously voted to Mr. Davis
for his paper.

Mr. Slack thought that Mr. Davis’s paper had been an exceedingly
interesting one; but with regard to the observations upon the desicca-
tion of Rotifers, he believed that Mr. Davis was not the first to make
them.* If he-hunted over the ‘Comptes Rendus, a few years ago,
he would have found observations coming to the same conclusions.
Mr. Davis was doubtless not aware that such was the case; and in the
present day, when so very much is written on every subject, it was
almost an impossibility to say what was new. He did not think
that the fact of some one else having previously made similar obser-
vations detracted in any way from the independent conclusions of Mr.
Davis. It was curious that, whilst these Callidinas seemed at first to
have been regarded as rarities, Mr. Davis should have found them in
such abundance. Callidina elegans, discovered by Ehrenberg, was
for some time the only species known. He believed that all the
known specimens had been females, and it would be very interesting
to discover the males, of which at present they knew nothing. The
number of teeth seemed to vary ; Ehrenberg said that Callidina elegans
had two jaws, and a number of very fine teeth, whilst another species
was described as having only two teeth in each jaw.

Mr. Wenham said that revivification was not confined to Rotifers,
although common amongst them. He remembered when in the lower
part of Egypt, near the Pyramids, finding some snails upon the
ground which seemed quite dried up, so much so that they cut with a
knife like a piece of dry cheese-paring. They were found in a place
where the heat of the sun was very great, the stones they were on
being almost too hot to bear the hand on. He took some of them
down with him to the boat, and put them in a plate with some mois-
ture and some slices of cucumber, when he found that in a short time
one of them filled out with the water, put forth his horns, and began
to feed on the cucumber. He mentioned the circumstance of finding
them in such a place where there was very little moisture or vegeta-
tion, and rain scarcely ever fell, and Dr. Carpenter thought they must
have been brought there by the wind from some more fertile part.
In reply to a question from the President, Mr. Wenham said they
were a species of Planorbis.

Mr. Davis said that Mr. Slack’s remarks as to the species of Calli-
dina were quite correct, but he took exception to the statement that
some one had previously shown what he had himself just demon-
strated. No doubt, it had been said that Rotifers would not revive
after being actually dried up, but it had never been shown that those
which did revive had not been actually dry.

Mr. Slack said the subject had been investigated before, and the
same conclusions had been arrived at; he would endeavour to find
the article to which he had referred.

Mr. Davis said he had proved that, under certain circumstances,
the air-pump was not such a perfect desiccator as was generally
believed, and he had also shown how it was that these Callidine did

* See Mr. Slack’s letter, p. 241.

244 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

not become entirely dried up when placed under it. He should be
glad to see where this had previously been shown.

Mr. Charles Stewart observed that the late Mr. Woodward had
mentioned the case of a snail which resembled in some respects what
had been related by Mr. Wenham. In this instance the snail had
been fixed to a slab in the British Museum for many years, when one
day it began to show signs of returning to life, and removed the lid
which had closed the opening of the shell, and crawled round as far
as its attached end would permit.

The Secretary read a communication from Mr. Parfitt, of Exeter,
descriptive of a presumed new animal, to which the name of Agchisteus
plumosus (Parfitt), had been given; the communication will be found
printed at pp. 210, 211.

The thanks of the meeting were voted to Mr. Parfitt for his com-
munication.

Mr. Stewart exhibited a preparation of a rabbit’s kidney, showing
the epithelial nature of the lining of the Malpighian capsule, a similar
squamous epithelium was seen passing down the narrow neck by
which the capsule became continuous with the convoluted uriniferous
tube.

Mr. B. T. Lowne thought that Mr. Stewart’s specimen was quite
a demonstration of a fact which was now becoming generally received ;
the specimen exhibited was a remarkably good one.

A vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Stewart for his observations.

The President said that they were in possession of a paper by
their late President, Mr. W. K. Parker, upon the Facial Arches of the
Sturgeon, which was announced as one of the papers to be read that
evening ; unfortunately, however, Mr. Parker had been unavoidably pre-
vented from reaching the meeting in time, and under these cireum-
stances it was thought best to postpone the paper until the next
meeting, when he hoped the author would be able to read it to them
himself, in which case they would have the advantage of hearing from
him any vivd voce observations which he might wish to make in
addition to what he had written.

Donations to the Library, from March 5th to April 2nd, 1873 :—

From
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Naitaire? » Weekly: a3 ¢ detes sal 4 foiey yrteca’ of oa: fs ee ocd eee Ditto.
Athens; . Weekly sen. tate ncn ase. checiyh slom ik c-jemeee manne Ditto,
Society of Arts Journal. Weekly Pear are ck eo SR).
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Bulletin de la Société Botanique de France... Society.

Thomas Palmer, Esq., was distal a Fellow of uilé: daciag:

Watter W. ReErEvzs,
Assist.-Secretary.

4

7

pay Aig yy ah

ba

PEAVTT

wml Jumel 18/3.

ps bg

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Monthly Micro

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‘ IA vtyye

Nite” 5

BLM. admatdel cam. lcd.

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W.West.&Commp.

rom an Hntozoonencystedinthe muscles of a Sheep.

THE

MONTHLY MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL.

JUNE 1, 1873.

I—On an Entozoon with Ova, found encysted in the Muscles of
a Sheep. By R. L. Mappox, M.D., H.F.R.MS.

(Read before the Royau Microscorican Soctery, May 7, 1873.)
, Puate XVIII. anp Urrer Haur or XIX.

Tue following particulars, though scanty and imperfect, may be of
interest to Helminthologists as poimting to an unrecognized or at
least a very rare occurrence connected with the development of a
Cestoid parasite, found with ova, yet encysted, in the muscles of the
lower part of the neck of a sheep, and which was removed by myself
a few weeks since (April) from the exposed chop part of the joint,

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVIII. AND UPPER HALF OF XIX.

Puate XVIII.

Fic. 1.—One half of the small nodulated body found embedded in the muscles of
a sheep, xX 2.
2.—Thin slice of the integument of the parasite, x 160.
3.—Section of the ovarium, or may be vitelligene organ, compressed with
immature ova and so-called calcareous corpuscles, x 160.
4.—Small chitinous plate, x 160.
5.—Hooks from proboscis of head, x 160.
6.—Hight small spines, x 160.
7.—Small narrow or denticulated pieces, x 160.
8.—Larger smooth chitinous pieces, x 160.
5, 9.—Intromittent organ (?), x 160.
10.—So-called calcareous particles, x 362. It is doubtful if the largest may
not be an ovum in one stage of development.
11.—A delicate cell filled with pale cells, x 362.
12.—A little granular body or cell, covered with minute spines; ? if one phase
of development of ovum, or spermatic corpuscles, x 362.
13—Two granular cells, supposed to be the earlier stages of the ovum.
14.—The well-formed ovum of the parasite marked as in tenia, x 410; the
one below is figured at rather less magnification, and the lower
ungranulated cell-like body appears to be similar, but arrested.
15.—Shows the mammillated condition of the integument, x 160.
16.—Immature and mature ova of ordinary Tenia soliwm for comparison with
Fig. 14, x 410.
17.—Ideal figure of the entozoon.
18.—Entozoon, nat. size, about.

Puate XIX. (Upper portion).
1.—Head of entozoon, much compressed, mounted in Canada balsam, x 85,
VOL. IX. at

?
”

”

”

246 Transactions of the

which, in household phraseology, passes by the name of “the best
end of the neck of mutton.”

Projecting from the cut surface of the joint, but well covered by.
the muscular structure, was a small nodulated, yellowish-looking
mass, hard to the touch, and situated just in the centre of the
muscles of the longissimus dorsi, forming the chief fleshy part of
the chop. After its removal, much of the surrounding muscular
structure was cut away and a section made through the centre of
the encysted mass, exposing a small pisiform fibrous-looking body,
bounded externally by altered tissue containing small cretaceous
nodules, which gave rise to the little nodulations, whilst centrally,
was seen an irregularly sinuous linear-looking cavity, itself bounded
by a narrow band of hardened tissue, paler than the rest; the space
between this, the endocyst (?) and the outer border or ectocyst (?)
was occupied by a more or less compact, well-marked fibrous and
connective tissue. These boundaries were well distinguished by the
differences in their colour, due apparently to the cretification which
had happened to the outer one, and to the amount of minute so-
called calcareous particles, found afterwards, in the inner one. The
general appearance of the cut surface of one half is given in Fig. 1,
twice the natural size. With a low-power hand-lens, the central
cavity was seen to be filled with a soft grumous-looking body,
retaining the figure of the boundary, apparently without any definite
structure, but which on one of the halves had been slightly dragged
above the cut surface on dividing the cyst. This little nodulated
mass was enclosed in a distinct capsule, formed of the altered
surrounding muscular structure and fibrous tissue, set up, as usual,
in self-defence against the extraneous body. The pisiform nodulated
mass appeared to be free in this capsule. The neighbouring flesh,
as indeed all others of the exposed parts of the joint, looked perfectly
healthy and sound, and had been taken from a young sheep.

A thin section was made across one of the halves of the encysted
mass and placed with a little distilled water on a slide for examina-
tion under the microscope. Besides a quantity of grumous matter
and minute calcareous particles and corpuscles, the section furnished
a slice of free integument, bordered on one side by what I took to
be ruge. ‘This is seen in Fig. 2, compressed ;—a section of the
ovarium, or may be vitelligene organ, with immature ova and very
many calcareous corpuscles, Fig. 3;—portions of the endocyst, which,
in this case, was of some thickness, and, to some slight extent,
appeared as if imperfectly laminated; but the cut edge did not curl
itself up, as is usual in the hydatid cyst of Tenia echinococcus,
though this might have been due to the quantity of fine calcareous
particles with which the whole boundary seemed loaded, nor could
any fine distinct cellular membrane, the ordinary granular layer, be
detected, as forming a distinct membrane to the endocyst (?), whilst

Royal Microscopical Society. 247

the outer border or boundary was noticed to be formed chiefly of
altered fibrous tissue very much cretified, yet otherwise structureless,
and between these was seen very distinct fibrous and connective
tissue free of cretaceous particles. Some free ova were also seen.
Seeing these particulars, naturally awakened considerable interest ;
but being otherwise much occupied at the time, the encysted body
was flushed with water, and put aside in a mixture of weak gly-
cerine and saturated solution of the acetate of potash, for future
further examination.

It remained in this solution for some days, when I had the
opportunity of showing it to my friend Dr. Aitken, Professor of
Pathology of the Royal Victoria Hospital, Netley, who at once,
from his extended knowledge of these subjects, recognized the
novelty of the example of an encysted parasite yet furnished with
ova. Later it became a question as to the best method of seeking
for the entozoon which had furnished these particulars.

. Taking the encysted body between the fingers to make fresh
sections it slipped as if non-attached from the fibroid capsule, and
was found too soft to furnish successful sections; hence I com-
menced, under a hand-lens, trying to remove the parasite from the
central cavity, but finding it break away in small portions, these
were taken up on a flattened curved needle, and placed on several
slides with a little glycerine, temporarily covered from dust, until
the whole was removed. The cavity was now seen to be narrow
yet broad, or sole-shaped, and the section had been carried longi-
tudinally through the narrow axis. Small portions from the slides
were removed by needles to another slide with glycerine, and covered
with a thin cover. ‘Thus the whole was examined very carefully at
the magnification of 160 diameters. The first part found of chi-
tinous structure, was the small peculiarly-constructed plate, repre-
sented in Fig. 4, and of which only one was seen. ‘To what part of
the parasite this may belong is to me quite unknown, though it is
suspected to have been from one of the suckers. Continuing the
examination very carefully in this manner three hooks were dis-
covered, Fig. 5, and the shaft of a fourth; also eight small spines,
one barbed or bifid, Fig. 6, and numerous small denticulated frag-
ments of thin chitinous narrow plates, Fig. 7; likewise several larger
structureless horny plates, sharp at one edge and rather thicker at
the other, apparently a broken surface, Fig. 8. Having found the
hooks, I was anxious to learn more, if possible, of the structure of
the parasite. Examining some of the larger portions, they appeared
to form parts of the ovarium, or may be the vitelligene organ; they
were loaded with highly refractive so-called calcareous corpuscles
and immature ova; a small portion of one of these masses is repre-
sented in Fig. 3. The outline of these parts on one side corresponded
closely before compression to the rugose or mammillated border of
eZ

248 Transactions of the

the integument, Fig. 2; but uncompressed, they were too dense or
opaque to give a fair view of the structure, so that by compression
the outline of the figure is altered. The addition of acetic acid
rendered the opacity rather less, without any kind of effervescence.
Besides the parts of the ovarium, or may be vitelligene organ, a
considerable mass was seen much denser than the rest, and appa-
rently lobulated, though the compression that had been used might
have caused this. Near to it, and connected to a very thin tissue or
membrane (if such it may be termed, for it appeared to be composed
of almost transparent irregular non-nucleated little bodies held toge-
ther by some common adherence), was noticed a small well-defined
truncated tube, with two sharp spicules exserted for a short distance
beyond the open end, one of these spicules beg continued back for
the entire length of the little tube; this was supposed to be the
intromittent organ, Fig.9. After long and patient search continued
through several days I was rewarded by finding the head of the
parasite ; it was however so opaque that it seemed very doubtful if
its particular features could be recognized, especially as the previous
compression had evidently displaced several of the parts of which it
consisted. The addition of acetic acid availed little, hence I decided
on trying to mount it in Canada balsam, by first dehydrating it with
chloroform followed by alcohol, then soaking in absolute alcohol,
draining the slide, covering the specimen with oil of cloves, and
finally with cold Canada balsam. This enabled me to obtain the view
given in Fig. 1, Plate XIX., x 85 diameters. This with what was
noticed previously to mounting, showed a double row ef hooks and
hooklets. Three of the small ones seemed somewhat different in
shape and density, and besides these, four suckers were visible, though
their exact relationship and structure had been disturbed by the com-
pression used before finally mounting the specimen. A count of the
hooks and hooklets gave the number, including the four separate
hooks on the slides, as 12 large and 16 small, but as these in the
double-crowned tenia are generally, when perfect, alternate, it
would perhaps be more correct to fix the number of large ones as
equal to the small ones, giving thus 32 im all, though even here
it is very possible some of the small ones also may be missing.
Besides the various points enumerated amongst the so-called
calcareous corpuscles which had been set free, some of which are
figured with their dense covering at 360 diameters in Fig. 10, is
one with the granular contents escaping under pressure; also a
peculiar delicate cell-like body, enclosing very pale, scarcely percep-
tible cells in the interior, which apparently was attached to one of
these ruptured corpuscles, which even appeared operculated or
perhaps broken at one point, and the delicate mass to have advanced
a stage towards some developmental condition, Fig. 11. The
corpuscles varied considerably in shape and size. Likewise were

Royal Microscopical Society. 249

seen several pale, non-nucleated, globular little masses or cells, with-
out any distinct cell-wall being evident, beset all over with minute
bodies; only one is figured, though the others were alike, Fig. 12 ;
but whether these represented spermatic cells or stages in develop-
ment of the ova I could not determine; others, smaller and very
distinctly granular, appeared to be only earlier stages of these
bodies or ova, Fig. 138. Likewise well-developed mature ova,
rather smaller than the ova of ordinary teenia, were seen, Fig. 14.
I had the satisfaction of showing many of the slides to my friend
Dr. John Macdonald, F.R.S., of Netley Hospital, who has paid
considerable attention to these subjects, and to him I am indebted
for pointing out the mammillated condition of the integument in a
specimen which had been mounted about four days in glycerine
with acetic acid, which I had not previously noticed, Fig. 15. He
likewise confirmed the opinion of immature and well-developed ova
being present, and he kindly procured for me a specimen of Tenia
soliwm, which was handed to me after the drawings had been
made, and from which two ova have been figured for comparison,
Fig. 16; thus, I think, solving any doubt as to the nature and
condition of the little entozoon.

These sundry particulars formed the chief features obtained by
the microscopic examination, on which to try and build up anatomi-
cally this peculiar parasite, which evidently falls into Dr. Cobbold’s
fifth order, Cestoda ; Sub-class, Anenterelmintha ; Class, Helmintha.
And I do not think we need hesitate to place it with the Teenie,
but to which particular species, I feel great diffidence, for it is
exceedingly difficult, even with this amount of detail, to arrange the
several parts in their exact respective positions ; for example, where
are the eight short spines to be placed? how was the vitelligene
organ or the ovarium situated? where the intromittent organ,
centrally or at the side? and where the dense lobulated mass ?
Again, to what parts are the small denticulated plates and the larger
flat ones to be referred? Any attempts to construct an ideal whole
would be likely to be very erroneously given; yet it may be as
well, looking to the position which the sundry larger portions
removed seemed to occupy or to bear to each other, to make the
attempt, though it must be perfectly understood as only ideal and
subject to correction. Such is given in outline in Fig. 17. No
transverse line was seen marking a distinction between the head
and caudal parts; no separation into proglottides; in fact, the
creature appears to me a paradox, and had not this name been
already employed, I should have pressed it into use for the nomen-
clature, as certainly this little puzzling entozoon, from the high and
unusual point to which its development had been carried in its
encysted state or without the necessity of another host, has special
claims on our attention, more especially from the presence of ova;

250 . Transactions of the

hence it may conveniently, if not systematically correct, be desig- —

nated Cysticercus ovipariens, habitat sheep.

Doubtless sufficient will have been said to awaken the curiosity
and stimulate to further research, on the part of those who may be
more fortunate than myself, to procure an entire or undamaged
specimen from one of our ordinary herbivora.

For the benefit of those who may be unacquainted with the
curious phases of these migrating parasites, I venture to briefly run
over some of the important points, and in so doing shall borrow
largely from Dr. Cobbold’s very valuable and learned treatise on
Entozoa, at the same time noticing his opinions, which must have
great weight from his large experience, yet which are contrary to
the facts above mentioned,—the exception, so to say, proving the
rule.

The ordinary tapeworm condition, Van Beneden termed the
strobila, the joints of which are called proglottides; these sexually
mature joints may retain an independent life, and the ova developed
in them furnish each the proscolices of Van Beneden—a 6-hooked
embryo. According to his view these become the nurses, or
scolices, and are represented by the well-known hydatid, or
cysticercus. These Cestodes are stated to be bisexual, have alternate
generations, and migrate to various hosts for the purpose of

preservation of their kind. Dr. Cobbold says the tapeworms are

characterized by the possession of a small distinct head, furnished
with four simple oval suckers and commonly with a more or less
strongly pronounced proboscis placed at the summit of the median
line; this is retractile, frequently furnished with double or a single
row of chitinous or horny hooks and hooklets; sometimes the rows
are greatly augmented, and aid to determine the species. The
joints are bisexual. In one of the six species of tapeworms of the
dog, which he selects for example, the Tania serrata, the double
row of hooks amounts to 48, 24 in each row. In experiments made
by administering its separate joints or proglottides to a rabbit,
Leuckart found after 24 hours in parts of the venous system, the
minute 6-hooked embryos, which had been developed from the ova
in the joints, and on the fourth day small cysts in the liver, each con-
taining a minute embryo of z}> of an inch in length. These grow
rapidly, and two days later reach the length of », of an inch, and
after eight or nine days the spots are visible on the liver. Later
on, these increase, becoming longer and narrower at one end than
the other. The organ attacked sets up a sort of self-defence, as
a protection against the presence of the parasite, and produces
a closed cavity of connective tissue. The embryos themselves, by
differentiation, further obtain structural characters, as epidermis,
‘uuscular fibre, &c., and make use of their boring propensities.

he anterior end of the embryo becomes turbid in appearance,

—————

Royal Microscopical Society. 251

forming eventually the head of the so-called Cysticercus pisiformis.
At: the anterior end the epidermis is folded inwards, and at this
point small calcareous particles appear, which become more
abundant ; later on, further changes of structure become visible in
the little parasite, as vessels circulating a clear fluid by means of
cilia beneath the subdermal muscular layers. Those destined not to
run to the advanced stage die down, the cyst becomes softened,
granular little masses of a mixed chalky and cheesy character are
formed, and the remains of the embryo are generally lost by this
retrogradation. A little later, some of the embryos escape into the
peritoneal cavity, being free of the cyst, and are termed “ wandering
larvee,” as yet imperfect in their development, which requires to be
perfected in another encysted stage. At the end of about the
eighth week the receptacle in which the head part is formed, and
where the crown of hooks and sucker-pits are situated, is capable of
retraction within the receptaculum, forming with the caudal sac the
complete development of this stage, and here they degenerate if
untransferred to their requisite host. It appears that these
imperfect or wandering larvee may be administered without
producing in the intestine the final phase of the Tania serrata,
though the administration of the secondly encysted form will .
produce the Cestoid, the caudal vesicle being quickly destroyed by
the digestive function in the dog; the young entozoon rapidly
acquires length and segmentation, so that at the end of a fortnight
it has become more than 4 inches in length, and Dr. Cobbold puts
the period for the sexes to be matured in the segments at the
twentieth day or earlier. Dr. Cobbold points out that in the
Cysticercus fascrolaris found in the liver of rats and mice, the resting
larvee, or scolex, whilst i the mouse, frequently assumes the tenioid
condition ; but in all such cases the incomplete development of the
sexual organs shows that the parasite is still a larva, and has not
yet gained access to its proper ultimate host. Dr. Aitken also
informs me that this corresponds with his experience. In most
cysticerci there is usually no trace whatever of the future repro-
ductive apparatus of the tapeworm.

In reference to Botriocephalus, an entozoon found in man, but
the normal geographical distribution of which appears somewhat
limited, Dr. Cobbold, after stating Von Siebold’s views, “ that it is
not until the worm reaches the intestine of the ultimate host that
its segments acquire sexual completeness,” says, and “this is a law,
as I have before had occasion to remark, which pervades all classes
cf parasites.” He also notices that the scolex form of entozoon in
the sun-fish may even take on the tenioid condition to the extent ~
of 2 feet or more without acquiring sexual organs. Dr. Cobbold is
sceptical of the self-impregnation in the proglottides of Tenia
echinococeus, though Leuckart supports such with his authority.

252 Transactions of the

These tenia are caused in us “ by our swallowing the ova containing
embryos of Tenia echinococeus after they have made their escape
from the alimentary canal of the dog,” and in their larval condition
“ this species is probably more injuricus to the human race than all
the species of entozoa put together, or to say the least, it is more
frequently the immediate cause of death than any other internal
parasite.” Referring to measled pork, he points out the care the
butcher should take in using the same knife which, after cutting
measled pork, is “often indiscriminately used to cut up any other
meat at hand, and not unfrequently the vesicles are transferred
from meat to meat, and from meat to mouth.”

Dr. Thudicum, in his able Report on the principal parasitic
diseases of the quadrupeds used for food, speaking of the echino-
coccus and its frequency in sheep, in one of his investigations,
several years before his report to the Medical Officer of the Privy
Council, published 1864, says, “ Amongst the worst classes of sheep
sold in Camden Town, I then sometimes could not find a single
animal that was entirely free from echinococci.” Staff-Surgeon Dr.
P. Davidson, late of Victoria Hospital, Netley, in his ‘ Remarks on
the Cestoid, or Tape-like Worms, speaking of the geographical
distribution of Tania echinococcus, says, “ In Iceland the statistics
of hydatid disease are appalling. According to Schleisner, Eschricht,
and Guérault, it is endemic to such an extent that a sixth part of
the whole population are afflicted by it.” Again, Dr. Thudicum,
speaking of the hookless tapeworm: “from the 5-cupped bladder-
worm which lives in the calf and heifer, and not in the pig, is the
exclusive tenia of Austria Proper (Archduchy).” “Every case of
tapeworm of this kind was therefore preceded by the existence in a
piece of veal or beef of the hookless 5-cupped bladder-worm, which
had escaped cooking, and, being swallowed, was set free in the
intestine to grow and effect propagation.”

These passages, quoted from such authorities, may well invite
the attention of those who may be purposing a visit to the Inter-
national Exhibition in Vienna this year, by pointing to the risks of
partaking of these meats in an imperfectly cooked condition. ‘To
those interested in these matters—and it is really a question that
widens with man’s dispersion—let me recommend the perusal of
Dr. Cobbold’s work on Entozoa, and Dr. Thudicum’s Report, found
in the ‘Seventh Report of the Medical Officer of the Privy Council,
1864,’ published by Eyre and Spottiswoode, London, 1865.

The disposal of the sewage of large or small communities, the
patent earth-closet system, the food of swine and dogs, the contami-
nation of streams and water-supplies by parasitic ova, with many
other points, all relating to the mitigation of a life-long suffering
and premature agonizing death, hence to the well-being of man, to
say nothing of the state of the animals from which he derives so

Royal Microscopical Society. 253

much of his daily food, are bound up in the consideration of much
of entozoic life. The fearful ravages amongst the inhabitants of
Iceland, the occasional outbreaks in other countries, remain as
warnings for the adoption of necessary precautions, and from what
has been elucidated from the before-named specimen, may, I think,
well make the timid shudder at the “underdone chop.” Thus “the
more we learn of parasitic disease in man, as Dr. Gamgee says,
the better we can understand how even the underdone roast beef
of old England may prove our poison as well as food.”

254 Transactions of the

IIl.—On the Development of the Face in the Sturgeon (Accipenser
_ sturio). By W. K. Parger, F-.R.S.
(Read before the Royau MicroscopicaL Society, May 7, 1873.)
PuaTe XX.
Very remarkable protrusible mouths are to be seen amongst ordi-
nary Osseous Fishes, such as the Dory (Zeus faber), and in the

species known as Epibulus insidiator.* But the Sturgeon belongs
to another “ Order”—the “ Ganoids”—and is, indeed, one of the

group farthest from the Osseous Fishes: forms of Ganoids that.

come much nearer to our ordinary Fishes are to be found in the
North American lakes, namely, the Bony Garpike (Lepidosteus) ;
and in the Polypterus of the Nile.

Yet the mechanism of the mouth and tongue of the Sturgeon
comes much nearer to that seen in Osseous Fishes than to the
curious Embryonic mouth of the Skate and Shark (“ Elasmo-
branchii”). But in the latter group, in the Ganoids and also in the
Osseous Fishes (“ Teleostei”), the arch of the mandible is loosened
from the skull, is confluent with the pterygo-palatine arch, and is
swung on the front of the lower end of a huge pier, which forms
part of the broken-up arch of the tongue. In some Fishes, as the
Pipe-fish (Fistularia), and the Hippocampus and its allies, this
pier is of enormous length, and the double arch carried at its
extremity is very short; so that while a mouth of this kind is
capable of great extension forwards on its hyoid hinge, it is itself
very small‘indeed. Those who have looked at the Sturgeon’s head
will remember that it has a transverse, inferior, thick-lipped mouth,
which can be drawn downwards as a short, highly-arched tube:
the Fish is a grownd-feeder ; and its mouth is very effective for the
purposes of its possessor.

The proper skull of the Sturgeon is a huge mass of solid,
hyaline cartilage, covered, externally, by large ganoid, bony plates ;
behind it has the fore-end of the large, persistent notochord
entering it, and has several of its unossified vertebrae coalesced with
it behind.

Nothing could have thrown any certain light upon the morpho-
logical meaning of the parts of the Sturgeon’s face, except the
study of development; as this has not been possible in the early

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XX.

Fic. 1.—Side view of facial arches of a young sturgeon—one foot long.

2.—Lower view of the mouth-roof of ditto.

3.—Inner view of mandible of ditto.

4.—Section of lower part of stylo-hyal with cerato-hyal attached, of ditto.
All these four figures are magnified.

5.—Side view of palate and mandible of an adult sturgeon.

”
”
”

”

* See Owen, ‘ Lect. Comp. Anat.,’ vol. ii., p. 108, Fig. 37.

———

The Monthly Micr ose opical Journal June 11873.

I
|
| : a nat
W KP del.admat. W.West &Co.se.

Facial arches of Sturéean.
8

Royal Microscopical Society. 259

stages of this Fish I have used the collateral light of the study
of these parts in Salmon.

What seems to be a continuation of the axis of the skull in
front is, really, the “ trabeculze craniu,” or first facial arch; and
there is such a copious growth of hyaline cartilage that all the
primordial parts are fused into an immense beaked box. In front,
above, scattered ganoid plates represent, in a general way, the
nasals and prae-maxillaries, and under the conical snout one, two, or
three fibrous bones do duty for the specialized ‘“‘ vomer” of the
bony Fishes. Farther back, on the under surface, a huge bony
splint—the ‘“ parasphenoid ”—forms a strong and elastic balk to
the main part of the skull and the contiguous vertebree.

Laterally, thin fibrous plates are applied to the dense mass of
cartilage, and these represent the “ pre-frontals,”’ “ orbito-sphe-
noids,” and “ali-sphenoids”; I find these in very young specimens ;
in the adult they only lie like splints on the cartilage. These
plates are sub-cutaneous, or rather sub-mucous. They are formed
under the skin of the mouth and palate, and answer to the outer
plates, minus the ganoid layer. They are parts of the skeleton of
the skin that have begun to yield to the organic attraction of the
endo-skeleton, and to be used up in its metamorphic changes.

In a young sturgeon, one foot long, for which I am indebted
to Frank Buckland, Esq., who sent it me at the instance of Dr.
Murie, I found very much of what is seen in the adult, but not all ;
yet the metamorphosis of the original parts was almost complete; I
ought to have specimens from the roe. In this specimen, the second
pre-oral arch “ pterygo-palatine,” had formed a very curious con-
nection with the first post-oral (“mandibular”). These two arches
being arrested in growth, as compared with the second post-oral
(“ hyoid ”), are so attached to that arch and swung upon it, that they
are capable of being protruded far from their original (embryonic)
position. Each pterygo-palatine cartilage is a crescentic plate
attached to its fellow of the opposite side, anteriorly, by a dense fibrous
band. But the posterior part of this plate (Fig. 1, pa. pg. ¢.)
belongs to the pier of the mandibular arch—not al the “ pier,” but
its lower half. To understand this, let the reader imagine the first
condition of the mandibular arch, to be a sigmoid rod; this rod be-
comes segmented off into two shorter pieces above, and one longer
piece below. The upper or “ metapterygoid” segment flattens out
into a three-cornered piece, and coalesces with its fellow-piece at the
mid-line, above the mouth-tube, and thus the lozenge-shape piece is
formed, as seen from below, Fig. 2 (mé. pg.). The next piece is
squarish, and performs a very common morphological feat ; namely,
its fore-edge becomes completely united to the hinder edge of the
“ pterygo-palatine” plate (Figs. 1 and 2, pa. pg. q.); we thus get
the “ palato-quadrate,” or great “sub-ocular” bar, so familiar to
ichthyotomists. And now we find most familiar bones applied to

256 Transactions of the

the compound, metamorphosed cartilage. Antero-inferiorly, its edge
is further selvaged bya sickle-shaped “ palatine ” (pa.), and beneath
a large “ pterygoid” bony plate appears (Fig. 2, pg.), which just
peeps from under the edge behind to the outer side (Fig. 1, pg.).
Farther outwards, a strong, arched bar of bone runs from the fore-
part of the palatine territory to the outer face of the quadrate
hinge; this is the “maxillary” (Figs. 1 and 2, mz.); it 1s quite
normal in shape, and bows outwards so as to leave space for mus-
cular bands. Contrary to rule, it binds strongly on to the quad-
rate, its posterior end doing duty for quadrato-jugal—a bone I
have never seen in Fishes. But the “jugal” or malar is not
uncommon in Osseous Fishes, and here it is in the Sturgeon, sitting
bolt-upright on the end of the maxillary. The rounded condyle
formed by the quadrate (Figs. 1 and 2, g.) is received into a
scooped joint on the rest of the mandibular arch—the “ articulo-
Meckelian” bar, or mandible proper.

This massive, somewhat compressed rod has a large angular
process (Figs. 1 and 3, ag.); a “dentary” bone (d) has been
formed on its outside, and it has turned over the top of the bar to
clamp the inner face to some degree (Fig. 3, d. mk.).

In the adult (Fig. 5), which may be well studied in the fine new
preparation which Professor Flower has put into the museum of the
College of Surgeons,* the “palatines,” ‘‘maxillaries,” and ‘“ malars ”
have not altered much; the “metapterygoid” lozenge keeps free
from bony matter, but the huge “pterygoid” plates (pg.) have
grown over half the upper surface from the inner edge. A sub-
oval bone in front of that tract has appeared, which is at once seen
to be the familiar “meso-pterygoid” (ms. pg.) A plate of bone
behind the great “dentary” splints the angle, and is the “os
angulare” (Fig. 5, ag.). Antero-internally there is a “splenial ”
plate, and on the left side a rare bony nodule, the “ mento-Meckelian,”
(m. mk.), is seen. This is described in my paper on the Frog's
Skull,t and is also shown to be an element in the lower jaw of man
by Mr. Callender.{ It is very remarkable that in the tailless
Batrachia, and down here amongst the lower ganoids, a bone should
turn up which goes to form our especially human chin, which part,
if it had not projected, would have left us with very foolish-looking
faces. Hitherto, these three types are the only ones that I know of
as possessing a special chin-bone.

The hyoid arch, or arch of the tongue, is immense, and is
chopped up into five pieces on each side. Moreover, these elements
are in a very different position from what they occupied at first; and
if I had not watched the shuffling of these pieces in the Salmon I

* The solid cartilage in that invaluable preparation has been ingeniously
imitated by wood; the cartilage itself, in drying, shrinks so as to spoil the form
of the preparation.

+ ‘Phil. Trans.,’ 1869, Plates 8 and 9, ‘M. Mk.,’ pp. 171 and 188.
{ ‘Phil. Trans.,’ 1869, Plate 13, Figs. 6 and 7, p. 170.

Royal Microscopical Society. + O57

could not have guessed in the least the original state of these parts
in the Sturgeon. Let the reader imagine a second f-shaped bar
behind the mouth like the first and of the same size ; this bar, round
at first, flattens out, and then divides into two similar rods, the
hinder the slenderer of the two. These get a distance from each
other, and apply themselves to the ear-capsule, as if they were
primary rods. The foremost has a small nodule segmented off from
its lower end, and a larger piece above this becomes separate. Then
the hinder piece gradually lets itself down near the lower end of the
bar in front, gets the lowest nodule attached to its extremity, fastens
itself to the middle segment near its top, and has a nodule of car-
tilage formed in the suspensory ligament.

Then the upper segment of the anterior bar, the “hyoman-
dibular” or “incus,” flattens out, and projects backwards to form a
shoulder, on which the great “opercular” bony plate is situated ;
and above this part a sheathing shaft-bone is formed, below the
rounded articular head. This piece is attached by a fibrous band
to the segment below, which is like a phalangeal bone, with its
shaft; this is the “symplectic,” which in Osseous Fishes is only
separated from the “hyomandibular” by an unossified tract of
cartilage. The oblique inferior end of this free phalangiform
“symplectic” is bound by ligament to the quadrate region and to
the angle of the jaw. The little secondary block of cartilage which
is formed in the ligament which binds the two hinder to the two
front cartilages of the hyoid arch, occurs as a larger rod in Osseous
Fishes, and is constant, I believe,in Mammals. In Man it is known
to anatomists as a little rod running with the tendon of the stape-
dius muscle towards the “stylo-hyal,” and is attached to the
neck of the “stapes.” It is the “inter-hyal.” Below this binding-
joint is the true “stylo-hyal”; it is phalangiform, and has enlarged
ends like the rickety phalanges of a weak, young, captive Mammal ;
its shaft-bone surrounds it. The lowest segment is the counterpart
of the “lesser horn,’ “cornu minor” of the human tongue-bone.
This “cerato-hyal” is attached to the “stylo-hyal” by ligament
(Fig. 4, st. h., c. h.) and by ligamentous fibres, without a joint-cavity
are nearly all the parts attached in the Sturgeon’s face, the exceptions
being the “glenoid” articulation, or that of the mandible with the
“quadrate,” and the hingeing of the hyomandibular on the ear-
capsule. It may sound strange in the ears of some that the
elements that go to make up the mouth of such a creature as the
Sturgeon should be boldly named by the very terms used in
the description of the human palate, mouth, and throat; but it
must be remembered that a knowledge of the true representative
elements, in forms so wide apart, has not come of itself to anatomists.
There has been long and anxious work, by many skilled workers, to
bring this about.

T11.—On Cutting Sections of Animal Tissues for Microscopical
Examination. By Josepn Nrrepuam, F.R.M.S., &c., Demon-
strator of Histology at the London Hospital Medical College.

(Read before the Mepicat MicroscopicaL Society, Apri 18th, 1873.)

Kwowrne the primary object of this Society to be the diffusion of
practical knowledge amongst its members, I shall endeavour to
further that object, this evening, by taking into consideration the
various methods of cutting sections for microscopical examination.

It is not my imtention to enter into the history of the subject,
for time will not permit; we will, therefore, proceed at once to the -
more interesting part, which will be practically demonstrated.

We have three classes of tissues to deal with, each differing in
consistence. Bone may be taken as the type of the first or hard ;
cartilage of the second or intermediate, and kidney of the third or
soft. fo
I. Sections of hard structures, as bone, teeth, &c., are to be
made by a gradual wearing away of the tissues on two opposite
sides, corresponding in position, the planes of these sides being kept
parallel to each other till the required thinness is attained; this
may be accomplished in two ways, as follows :— .

1st Method.—Deprive a bone of the ligaments, muscles, and
tendons attached to it—in a way that will be presently. described—
and dry it; then firmly fix it in a vice, and divide it into thin plates
by means of a very fine bow-saw, the blade of which should be made
of watch-spring and held by screws: place a portion of bone so
obtained on a flat surface, and remove the first excess by means of a
file; several files may be used for this, commencing with a coarser
and finishing with a finer. The section is to be now placed on a
good flat hone, and rubbed down on both sides to the required thin-
ness, being kept in contact with the stone by the pressure of the
finger or thumb, or fixed on a piece of cork. Although the section
is now thin enough, and sufficiently smooth for mounting in Canada
balsam, yet when viewed as a dry object, will be found to exhibit

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES.

Fia. 1.—Section of plano-concave razor.
» 2.—Section of bi-concave
9) .3.—Section of flat rf
5, .4.—Upper surface and vertical section of Refrigerating Microtome. a, brass

plate, with hole in centre; 6, tube fixed to ditto; c, plug; d, graduated
screw ; ¢, indicator; f, oblong box to contain the freezing mixture ;
g, tap to carry off water.

Drawn to a seale of one-half.

”

On Cutting Sections of Animal Tissues.

VOL. IX.

260 On Cutting Sections of Animal Tissues

numberless scratches, giving it a confused appearance; but this
may be easily removed by polishing the section on a glass plate,
with a little Tripoli or fine emery powder ; a piece of leather firmly
spread on a flat piece of wood, with a little powder sifted over it,
will also answer the same purpose.

2nd Method.—The bone is sawn into lamelle, as in the first
method, or by a thin circular rotating saw, then ground down to a
moderate thinness on a small grindstone, made to rotate in an ordi-
nary lathe, the stone being kept moistened with water. It should
then be further ground on both sides on a fine flat whetstone, also
rotating, and finally polished as in the previous instance. The
sections obtained by both processes should be cleaned in water,
either with a camel’s-hair brush, or—which is far preferable—a soft
toothbrush, and dried; they are then ready to be put up in Canada
balsam or dry. The last method was adopted and used by the late
Mr. Carter for many years. A sufficient guarantee of its success
is the splendid collection of sections of bones and teeth, made by
him, in the possession of the Royal Microscopical Society.

Bones may be prepared either by removing the surrounding
tissues with a scalpel, and drying, or, after cleaning in this manner,
steeping them for some months in a large quantity of water, which
should be changed occasionally to prevent putrefaction. During
the maceration they should be scrubbed from time to time with a
hard brush ; and when perfectly clean, they should receive a final
scrubbing in clean water, and dried by exposure to the atmosphere.
By simply drying, a bone, saturated with fat, is generally the
result, from which a dry, ‘white specimen cannot readily be ob-
tained ; by the latter process, however, a perfectly white bone—
—especially if it be from a dropsical subject—will be the reward
for time and patience expended on it.

II. Tissues of Intermediate Density.— Under this head may
be classed decalcified bone, cartilage, tendon, and many tissues
hardened by chromic acid, and other ‘agents,

Sections of bone prepared by the methods already described,
although very instructive and beautiful, do not show the soft
organic structure, but only the bony framework ; if we desire to
exhibit the relations existing between the periosteum, blood-vessels,
and nerves, it will be necessary to soften the bone ; to effect this,
after being cleaned from surrounding tissue, it is to be placed in a
large quantity of one of the following solutions :—Chromie acid,
3 or 4 per cent.; or a mixture recommended by Professor Ruther-

ford,* consisting of nitric acid, 2 per cent.; chromic acid, 1 per .

cent, When the softening is carried on in this solution, the tissues

assume a bright green colour, due to the decomposition or reduction

of the chromic acid into sesquioxide of chromium, Cr,0,. Nitric
* Rutherford, No. 45, ‘Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science.’

for Microscopical Hxamination. 261

and hydrochloric acids in a state of extreme dilution have been
recommended by Dr. Frey * and Dr. Beale.t

Cartilage, whether hyaline or fibrous, needs no preparation.
Glandular, nervous, and muscular tissues, and other soft struc-
tures, require hardening in methylated alcohol, solution of
chromic acid and its salts, either singly or combined, or in union
with sulphate of soda, varying in strength from 2 to 3 per cent.,
or even less. Saturated aqueous solution of picric or carbazotic
acid, strongly recommended by Ranvier ;{ solutions of osmic acid,
¢ per cent. (Schultze), bichloride of platinum (Merkel), bichloride
of mercury, and chloride of palladium (Schultze). Of all these,
chromic acid, its salts, and alcohol are preferable. It is not my
province to enter into the subject of softening and hardening,
suffice it to say that tissues may be made to assume—by subjecting
them to the action of these solutions—a sufficient degree of soft-
ness in the first case, or of solidity in the last, to permit of sections
being made with an ordinary razor or scalpel. For this purpose, a
piece of cartilage, or of any tissue which has been softened or
hardened to a density resembling it, may be held in the hand, or
placed on a small, flat, plate of wax, being fixed in a convenient
position by the middle finger and thumb of the left hand, whilst the
thickness of the section is regulated by the nail of the forefinger of
the same hand. The razor, which should be wetted with water,
spirit, or glycerine, in this case must be held horizontally, with the
cutting edge directed downwards; the section is made by drawing
it from before, backwards. This method has been in use for some
time at the London Hospital, and is universally liked.

For the purpose of hardening, the following agents may also be
employed :—Aqueous solution of oxalic acid; drying, or boiling in
a mixture composed of creosote, vinegar and water, and then drying;
but they cannot be recommended ; all have been deservedly superseded
by those previously enumerated, and are now entirely relinquished.

III. We will now direct our attention to the preparation of
sections from those tissues classed in the third division, which
includes nearly all fresh material, from which good preparations
cannot be obtained, without the assistance of some special arrange-
ment, é. g. Valentine’s knife, embedding, or freezing.

(A.) The double-bladed knife invented by Professor Valentine is
especially recommended by Dr. Beale.§ It has been made to assume
an endless variety of forms, every maker of the instrument modifying
it in some way. Four forms only are worthy of notice. (1.) The
original consists of two blades, differing in length; the longer is
firmly secured in an ivory handle, the shorter is fixed to the longer

* Frey, ‘Das Mikroskop und die Mikroskopische Tecknik,’ American transla-
tion by Dr. Cutler.

{ Beale, ‘How to Work with the Microscope.’

t Frey, loc. cit. § Beale, loc. cit.

vu 2

262 On Cutting Sections of Animal Tissues

by means of a screw, the distance between the blades being regu-

lated by a second screw situated nearer the cutting portion of the
knife ; the blades are sharp at the point and wide at the base, so
that the cutting-edge slants downwards from the point. (2.) The
second form is that made by Mr. Matthews: the whole of this
knife is constructed of metal, the blades being continuous with the
handle; they are short, and of equal breadth throughout; the
cutting-edges are convex from point to base. An eye is attached
to one blade, and on the other—in a corresponding position—is a
longitudinal slot. In bringing the two portions of the knife
together, the eye passes through the slot, and they are secured in
position by sliding through the eye a spring-side thumb catch.
The distance between the blades is regulated by one or two screws.
(3.) The next form is that invented by Dr. Maddox, and manu-
factured by Mr. Baker, of High Holborn. It is a triple-bladed
section knife. The circumstances that led to this invention are
briefly described by him* as follows :—“ I felt the want of some
method by which a double section might be cut, so as to present,
when removed, the opposite, but contiguous, surfaces of the part
through which the section had passed, and which with the ordinary
double-bladed knife is quite impossible.” This knife overcomes
the disadvantage referred to; at the same time by removal of one
of the outer blades it is convertible into an ordinary double-bladed
knife.

In using these knives a difficulty will be experienced in regu-
lating the blades so that the interval between them may be equi-
distant throughout ; to render this more easily accomplished, Mr.
Hawksley, of Blenheim Street, has constructed an improvement on
Matthews’ form. (4.) A spring is fixed between the two blades,
the distance being regulated by one screw, which has a graduated
milled head. By this arrangement parallelism is obtained with
facility ; it also has the additional advantage of indicating and
regulating the thickness of the section.

The tissue to be operated on may be placed on cork, on the
wax tablet before referred to, or on leather, and held steadily
between the fingers and thumb of the left hand, or may be simply
retained between the fingers and thumb. The method devised by
Dr. Fenwick is remarkably good for membranous structures, e. g.
a portion of stomach is drawn around the thumb and held in posi-
tion by the fingers, the section being taken from that part covering
the thumb nail. The knife must be drawn by one continuous
stroke completely through the tissue, then the cutting-edge slightly
turned, so that the section may be severed from the surrounding
material. The section is now made, and is to be liberated by
opening the blades and gently agitating the knife in water, when

* Maddox, No. 1, ‘ Monthly Microscopical Journal.’

for Microscopical Examination. 263

it will float off; or it may be displaced from the blade with a camel’s-
hair brush. In removing thus, great care is necessary, otherwise
the section will be lacerated. As regards wetting the blades, the
same precaution obtains here as in the method described in Sec-
tion II.

(B.) Finer sections can always be made when the tissue is firmly
supported, For this purpose embedding is necessary. Various
mixtures have been proposed by different authorities, of which the
following is at best an incomplete list :—

Stricker * employs equal parts of white wax and oliveoil. Drs.
Urban Pritchard and Ferrier | recommend a mixture composed of
solid paraffin, five parts; spermaceti, two parts; lard, one part.
Hist covers the object in pure paraffin, and a mixture of white wax
and cocoa-butter is used by Mr. Moseley. §

Of the above mixtures, perhaps the best and cheapest is the wax
and oil mass. In its preparation the finest white wax and purest
-olive oil must be used; the proportion of wax to oil will greatly
depend upon the firmness of the tissue to be embedded. The
greater the density, the larger will be the amount of wax required,
and vice versa; but the mass generally used is made as follows :—
Equal parts of the ingredients.are placed in a porcelain dish and
heated till all the wax has melted, beg continually stirred with a
glass rod, that the mixture may be well incorporated; the mass is
now ready for use. If the material from which sections are to be
made has been hardened in aqueous solutions, it must be removed
and steeped in ordinary methylated or absolute alcohol, so that the
water may be replaced by spirit; this will occupy a longer or
shorter time, according to the strength of the alcohol and size of
the tissue. When perfectly saturated with spirit, an oblong piece
is to be removed from it with a scalpel. A paper box must now be
made according to the size of the piece, and about half as long
again, the breadth and depth being in proportion ; say, for example,
the piece to be embedded is 1 in. long, and } in. in breadth and
depth. We must take a piece of stiff, well-glazed paper, 2} in.
long and 14 in. broad, which is to be folded on itself for about $ in.
on both sides in the long diameter, then the ends for a similar
distance, so that it now appears to be only 4 in. broad and 14 in.
long. Now unfold the sides to half the distance, so that four walls
are formed ; the triangular pieces projecting from the corners are
to be folded on the ends, so that they overlap each other, and, kept
in position with a little gum or a pin, our box is now complete.

* Stricker, in Introduction of ‘Manual of Human and Comparative Histology,’
translated for New Sydenham Society, by H. Power, M.B., &c.

+ Pritchard and Rutherford, p. 16, No. 45, ‘Quarterly Journal of Microscopical
Science,’ and p. 382, No. 48, ibid.

t Frey, Joc. cit. -

§ Moseley, p. 337, No. 40, ‘Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science.’

264 On Cutting Sections of Animal Tissues

It should be placed on a flat piece of cork and filled with the melted

mass, sufficiently to cover the piece of tissue; as soon as the wax
mixture begins to solidify around the edges of the box, the tissue is
to be introduced as follows : *—“ A needle is stuck slightly ito the
end opposite to that from which sections are to be cut, and the bit
is plunged into the mass with its long diameter horizontal, and in
such a position that the end furthest from the needle is near, but
not in contact with, the side of the box, and consequently the other
end is at a considerable distance from the side. In this way,
although the whole is surrounded with the wax mass, there is a
greater thickness around the end into which the needle is stuck, so
that the whole can be securely and conveniently held.” By
passing the needle directly through the tissue and into the cork
upon which the box rests, “the operator is saved the trouble of
holding the needle till the wax mixture solidifies. In finally with-
drawing the needle, the greatest care must be taken to give it a
twisting motion, as otherwise, especially if the object is thin, it is
apt to be displaced.” “Ifa thin membrane is to be embedded, of
such tenuity that a needle could not be introduced without danger
of destroying it, the following method may be used:—A box is
half filled with the mass, and then, as soon as it begins to solidify,
the membrane is applied to the half solid surface ; the box is then
filled with a thoroughly fused mass, eare being taken that it is not
too hot.” In embedding any of the fatty masses, great care should
be taken that the surfaces of the piece are dry previous to immersion
in the mass, otherwise the medium will not adhere to it.

Besides the media already mentioned, others, as gum,f and a
mixture of gelatine and glycerine, t have been used for some tissues
with great success. The first is prepared by making a clear
concentrated solution of the pulverized gum acacia. The gelatine
mixture is prepared as follows :—Two parts of concentrated solution
of isinglass and one part of pure glycerine. It is not necessary to
place the tissues in alcohol previous to embedding in these. A
paper box or cone haying been prepared, it is filled with the
mixture—the gum cold, the gelatine hot; the piece of tissue is then
thrust into it. The gelatine mass when cold becomes solid. Both
are then placed into common alcohol until a sufficient degree of
hardness is attained; on releasing them from the paper they are
ready for further treatment.

When cavernous structures, as lung-tissue, cochlea, &c., are
embedded by the foregoing methods, good sections cannot always be
obtained, in consequence of the tissue not being supported within,
as well as without; but if it be placed in any one of the melted

* Klein, in ‘ Handbook for the Physiological Laboratory.’

+ Stricker, loc. cit.
t Klebs in Frey, (oc. cit.

i a

for Microscopical Kxamination. 265

embedding mixtures, or in the gum mass cold, under the receiver of
an air-pump, and exhausted till bubbles cease to come from the
tissue, the mass will penetrate into the spaces, previously occupied
by air; after solidification has taken place they may be dealt with as
an ordinary embedding, and in this way it will be possible to obtain
fine preparations.

Professor Quekett used to inject hot tallow through the
bronchi into the air cells of an injected lung, which after cooling
and drying yielded a splendid mass. All transparent lung injec-
tions put up by Mr. Topping are prepared in this way ; although
this plan answers the purpose very well, it is doubtful if it be even
equal to the last.

For making sections of the tissues thus embedded, razors or
section knives are used. I have employed for a considerable time
the flexible-edged, concave-sided razors made by John Heiffor, and
stamped “made for the army”; they are extremely thin for some
distance from the edge, and the hollowed-out surface holds plenty of
alcohol; this is absolutely necessary to prevent the section sticking
to the blade. Mr. Moseley * also strongly recommends them for
histological work. Dr. Klein’s section knife has one side flat, and
the other concave ; the blade is eight inches in length. The razors
previously referred to are equal and considerably cheaper, being
obtainable from any cutler for the small sum of one shilling each.
Previous to cutting the tissue embedded in any of the fatty masses,
the instrument must be wetted with ordinary spirit, or, still better,
absolute alcohol ; in which liquid the sections must be placed as
soon as made, to clean them from the surrounding material, after
which they are ready for staining. If embedded in gum or gelatine,
water or glycerine must be used to moisten the knife, and the sec-
tions cleaned in water. For lung injected with tallow, the razor
is kept wet with turpentine, in which fluid the sections must be
immersed ; the tallow will readily dissolve, and the sections may be
put up at once in Canada balsam, or solution of damma or balsam
m benzole.t

(C.) It is often desirable to obtain sections of perfectly fresh tissue,
for the purpose of immediate examination, or perhaps for impregna-
tion with some metallic salt. It is obvious that no assistance can
be looked for from hardening fluids or embedding, and very little
indeed by means of the double-bladed knife. We must have recourse
to one of the refrigerating methods. (1.) The process generally
adopted is that described by Klein in the ‘Handbook for the
Physiological Laboratory,’ from which the following is quoted :—
“A freezmg mixture is prepared by introducing alternately small
quantities of broken ice, or snow (not so advantageous), and of

* Moscley, loc. cit.
+ Bastian, p. 96, No. 2, ‘Monthly Microscopical Journal.’

266 On Cutting Sections of Animal Tissues

finely-powdered salt, into a large vessel, mixing the two ingredients —

thoroughly after each addition. The object, which must be small,
should be cut to an oblong form, and placed on a flat cork, much
wider than itself. It must be pinned to this cork at the end
opposite that from which the sections are to be cut. In the case
of a membrane the object must be folded, and fixed in the same way.
The whole is then placed in a platinum crucible, which has been
. previously plunged into the freezing mixture. The crucible must
be at once covered, and a little of the freezing mixture placed on
the top of it. The section knife, which must be sharp, is cooled by
laying it on ice. As soon as it is ascertained by exploration with a
needle that the preparation is firm enough, the knife is handed to
an assistant, who wipes it, and holds it in readiness. ‘The cork is
then taken out with the forceps, and seized by the fingers of the
left hand in such a way that they do not come into contact with
the preparation. A succession of sections having been rapidly made,
the number varying with the skill of the operator, the cork is
replaced in the crucible.” This method, perhaps giving very satis-
factory results in dexterous hands, seems to be excessively tedious,
awkward, and rather primitive, in comparison with that to be next
described.

(2.) The best way to obtain sections of fresh, hardened, or
softened tissues for immediate examination or further treatment, is,
undoubtedly, by freezing in the refrigerating microtome. I refer
to Mr. McCarthy’s modification of Professor Rutherford’s micro-
tome, made by Khrone and Sesseman, of Whitechapel Road. It
consists essentially of a brass plate having a hole in the centre; to
the under surface a tube is fixed whose bore corresponds to, and is
continuous with, the hole; a thin plug is accurately packed in the
tube, capable of being moved up and down by means of a graduated
screw: external to the tube is an oblong box, through the bottom
of which the screw passes into the tube. A small tap communi-
cates with the interior of the box to carry off water, if necessary, as
produced by the ice. The plate rests on, and occupies about the
middle fourth of two sides of the outer box. The whole is capable
of being securely fastened to any table by a second screw. The
machine is made of brass, and the sides are padded externally with
leather.

The machine is first fastened to a table, a large square piece of
flannel being interposed between them, the tap turned on, and the
plug forced to the bottom of the tube, after displacing the graduated
screw. The pieces of tissues—I say “ pieces,” because two or more
different portions may be cut at the same time, if it be possible to
distinguish the sections by the shape or colour from each other ;
e.g. lung and intestine may be readily distinguished by their shape,
and easily separated after being cut into sections of extreme

alle i a

for Microscopical Hxamination. 267

tenuity—are placed in the desired position in the tube, which is
then filled up with water, the aperture and contents being protected
by placing a small piece of oil-skin over the plate. A thin layer of
ice, divided into small pieces, is now placed in the box and on the
oil-skin, over this is sprinkled a quantity of pulverized salt, another
layer of ice is then added, and again more salt, and so on till the
refrigerating mixture is piled over the plate; finally, the whole
mass, machine included, is covered up with the flannel. After an
interval of about twenty minutes from the completion of the
operation, the tissues will be sufficiently frozen for cutting. All that
is now necessary is to remove the ice mixture above the plate and
sides of the machine, when the tissue embedded in ice will be
exposed ready for cutting. By turning the graduated screw—the
thickness of the section depending upon the number of turns or
part of a turn given to this screw—the frozen mass will be elevated,
a razor is placed at a slight angle on the brass plate and drawn
obliquely through the mass projecting from the tube ; the sections as
they are cut can be easily floated off the razor into water. The
razors used for this machine must be flat and kept sharp by fre-
quent stropping.

Tissues hardened or preserved in spirit must be placed in water,
or a very dilute solution of bichromate of potass to withdraw the
spirit, otherwise the freezing of it will be retarded, if not entirely
prevented. _

By this method I have cut large and beautiful sections of
uniform thickness of softened teeth and bone, of cartilage and
tendon, and of hardened and fresh tissues of every description.
Further, I may safely say that, if the given directions be rigidly
followed, failure will be impossible ; moreover, should you give this
method a fair trial (a certain amount of experience in this, as in all
things, being necessary), I am confident you will readily concur in
Stricker’s* assertion : “ The simplest and most elegant mode is that
of refrigeration.”

* Stricker, loc. cit,

( .268 -°)

1V.—Remarks on the Aperture of Object-glasses. By Assistant-
Surgeon J. J. Woopwarp, U.8. Army. With a Note by
F. H. Wenuam, V.P.R.MS.

Puate XIX. (Lower portion).

Frsruary 17, 1873, I received a note from Mr. A. B. Tolles of
Boston, asking me if I would measure the balsam angle of a th
objective for him. Having agreed to do so, the objective came to
hand before the close of the month. My intention was to measure
the angle by the modification of Lister's method proposed by Mr.
Wenham,* and afterwards used before a committee of scientific
gentlemen in measuring the jth rashly sent by Mr. Tolles to
London for that purpose.t Mr. Tolles, therefore, at my request,
supplied a sector and tanks.

Having had some previous experience with the ordinary method
of measuring angles of aperture with the sector, I was well aware
of the erroneous result likely to be obtained by its use in the
case of high angles, but supposed that for the reduced angles to be
measured, when the nose of the objective was immersed in water or
balsam, it, would prove at least as nearly accurate as for similar
angles measured in air. I soon found, however, that this was not
the case, if the screw collar was fully closed.

I first measured the ~th sent by Mr. Tolles with the screw
collar adjusted to the open point, that is, for uncovered objects.
The sector, used precisely as described by Mr. Wenham, gaye the
angle in air at 160°. When the nose of the objective was im-
mersed in a tank of water, the angle was reduced to 93°, and in
fluid balsam to 76°, as nearly as could be read by the sector.
When, however, the screw collar was adjusted for the thickest cover
through which it could work, that is, when the combination was
closed as far as possible, I failed to get definite results either in air,
water, or balsam. At no angle was the field of view bisected
fairly, bright on one side and dark on the other; but the light
gradually faded away in such a manner that no sharp limit could
be fixed.

I did not feel at liberty to escape this difficulty as Mr. Wenham
did, in measuring the Tolles’s 5th sent to London, by setting the
screw collar at some more open point (“the best adjustment of a
Podura scale,” for instance), for I had found by trial that when the
lens sent to me was closed as far as its screw collar would go, it
would still define very well, provided it was used on an object covered
by a correspondingly thick covering glass. Worked at this adjust-
ment the lens, in fact, would show the beads of Plewrosigma angu-

* ‘Monthly Microscopical Journal,’ August, 1872, p. 84.
¢ Ibid., January, 1873, p. 29.

TheMonthlyMicroscopical Journal Jimel 1873. = PL XTX.

yall
bt

Aperture of Obj ect-Slass es
RLM admat del. camlhacd. WWest& “oma

va Lay f

FF oe
eh

:

Remarks on the Aperture of Object-glasses. 269

latum or the strie of Grammatophora subtilissima beneath a
covering glass one seventy-fifth of an inch thick (by actual measure-
ment). It is fair to say too that this power of working through a
thick covering glass with good definition is possessed in a high
degree by both the y,th and jth immersion objectives of Mr.
Tolles, described by me in former papers in this Journal. I note,
for instance, that both these glasses will work with good definition
through covers of the thickness just mentioned, which none of
the ,ths, #ths, or 1ths, and no other high-angled 1th in the
Museum collection, will do.*

Having determined, then, that I ought to measure the angle
when the combination was closed, and having satisfied myself that
the sector was not to be trusted under the circumstances, I devised
the following plan, which may be commended for its simplicity and
for the definite character of the results.

I had long used an easy mode of measuring the angles of
objectives in air, which is, in fact, a modification of the plan of Dr.
Robinson, so justly commended by Mr. Wenham.{ I screw the.
objective into a tube which pierces the shutter of my dark room,
the back of the objective being towards the light, and I throw
through it, by means of a solar mirror, a parallel pencil of sunlight,
which, of course, is brought to a focus in front of the lens and
crosses, forming a cone of light. By adjusting a white cardboard
protractor horizontally in the middle of the cone with its centre at
the visible focus, I measure at once, and without the necessity of
any calculation, such as was proposed by Dr. Robinson, the angle
of the pencil which crosses at the principal focus; and this angle, as
Dr. Robinson has correctly shown, is not materially greater than
the angle which would be formed if the light radiated from the
conjugate focus used to obtain distinct vision with the eye-piece at
the extremity of the microscope body.

To measure the angle in balsam on the same principle, I
simply made a thin tank rather more than three inches square, by
filling with hot balsam the space between two sheets of plate-glass
held about the sixth of an inch apart by narrow strips of glass on
three slides. When the balsam had cooled I had, of course, a layer
of solid balsam of the size of the tank, with one side open. ‘The
tank was carefully levelled horizontally in the cone of light, as the
cardboard protractor had been, and a drop of fluid balsam on the
side where the solid balsam was exposed served to make contact

* T may remark here that the thickness of cover through which an objective
will work is not limited by its aperture, though this limits the working distance
on uncovered objects, but by the extent to which the motion of its posterior com-
binations neutralize the increasing aberration produced by increasing thickness
of cover. The character given to the posterior combinations by the maker deter-
mine the available limit in each case.

t ‘Monthly Microscopical Journal,’ November, 1872, p. 233. See also ‘ Pro-
ceedings of the Royal Irish Academy,’ vol. vi. p. 38, 1854.

270 Remarks on the Aperture of Object-glasses.

with the face of the lens. When now the solar light was thrown
through the lens as before, a superb amber-coloured triangle of
light started into view, the sharp, well-defined edges of which per-
mitted the angle at the focus to be measured with ease by a card-
board protractor held beneath the flat tank, or by any similar device,
taking care, of course, that the eye should be perpendicular to the
edge of the light-triangles at each reading, to avoid displacement by
the refraction of the upper glass of the tank, which would have made
a small error. The cut, Plate XIX. lower portion, Fig. 1, which
is a diagram of the objective and tank as seen from above, will, I
hope, make the arrangement clear. The plan has the advantage
that no part of the objective is exposed to the balsam except its
face (which is easily cleaned by a little coal oil), besides which the
measurements are much more quickly effected than with the sector,
and are not liable to the errors which affect its use when the lenses
are closed.

By this method, then, I measured the balsam angle of the
yoth Mr. Tolles had sent me, with the following results: uncovered
75°, or nearly what the sector gave; completely closed nearly 80°.
I subsequently extended the measurements to the immersion 5th
and ;,th by Mr. Tolles, belonging to the Museum, and found that
the maximum balsam angle of each was less than 80°. These
results, it will be seen, fell within the limits laid down as possible
by Mr. Wenham.

To measure the water angle of Mr. Tolles’s 1,th, I now con-
structed a thin water tank by cementing strips of glass between the
edges of two sheets of plate glass about three inches square, so that
they should be held about the sixth of an inch apart. All four
sides were closed, but one side had in the centre an opening half an
inch long, and the edges of the stripes adjoining this were bevelled
as in the cut, Fig. 2. When this tank was filled with water, I had of
course a thin sheet of water, which would not run out when the
tank was held horizontally, and by levelling this, as had been done
with the balsam tank, in front of the objective, the angle was measured
in the same way. ‘The luminous pencil was by no means so
brilliant as in the case of balsam, but its limits were sharp and
clear, and it could readily be measured. With the 5th the results
were about 90° at the uncovered point, nearly 100° when the
objective was corrected for the thickest cover through which it
would work. Neither the }th nor the ~;th exceeded 96° when
closed as far as possible.

I promptly communicated these results to Mr. Tolles, and was
immediately requested by him to examine yet another objective, a
ith, which reached me March 22nd.

On measuring this objective in balsam, precisely as I had done the
others, I got somewhat oyer 90° at the uncovered point, somewhat

a a

Remarks on the Aperture of Object- glasses. 271

over 100° when the combination was fully closed. Measured with
the water tank, the angle at the uncovered point was about 130°.
Now, in the first place, I must remark that the objective was
certainly an exceptional one, and apparently put together with a
view to this controversy. Instead of three combinations, I found
it to be constructed with four; the posterior two resembled those of
other fifths of Mr. Tolles, and were together moved by the screw
collar, the anterior two remaining stationary; of the anterior
combinations the front was very small, and about a ninth of an inch
in solar focus. (It magnified 108 diameters at twelve inches’
distance from micrometer to screen.) Immediately back of this
was a very much larger combination, concave anteriorly and convex
posteriorly. I inferred from the manner in which the brasswork
was put together (having no information from the maker on the
subject) that these two combinations had been substituted for the
front of a previously constructed objective.

In the next place I must remark that, notwithstanding its
exceptional construction, this objective, when used as an immersion
glass, had certainly very considerable defining power for a 3th. It
worked, it is true, even when fully closed, only through the thinnest
covers, but it resolved the Amphipleura pellucida and Frustulia
Saxonica, both mounted in balsam (Moller’s type-plate), and on
my Nobert’s nineteen-band plate clearly separated the lines of the
fifteenth band. Used dry it would not work through any cover,
but when fully open it resolved the twelfth band of a Nobert’s
nineteen-band plate, remounted with the lines uppermost and not
covered. In this performance the front of the objective appeared
to be in actual contact with the object. I may add that the
combination when in use maguified at twelve inches’ distance sixty
diameters at the uncovered point, and seventy-five diameters when
fully corrected for cover.

As the results of the measurements of the angle of the objective
last described are quite in disaccord with the sweeping opinion
expressed by my esteemed friend Mr. Wenham, in his recent
controversy with Mr. Tolles, I have thought it right to imitate his
prudent example,* and secure the testimony of competent witnesses
as to the accuracy of my results. I therefore repeated the measure-
ment of the balsam angle of this objective before Professor Simon
Newcomb, of the United States’ Naval Observatory, and Mr. Renel
Keith, of Georgetown, formerly also a professor in the same
institution. Both these gentlemen are professional mathematicians,
and both are well acquainted with optics as a science. They have
not only verified my measurement of the balsam angle of this
particular objective, but they agree with me that in the heat of the
discussion Mr, Wenham has gone rather too far in concluding that

* ‘Monthly Microscopical Journal,’ January, 1873, p. 29.

22 Remarks on the Aperture of Object-glasses.

it is theoretically impossible to construct an objective which shall
transmit from balsam a pencil greater than 80°. ach of these
gentlemen has written a memorandum on the subject, which, with
their permission, I append to this paper.

The position taken by Mr. Wenham is certainly true for
objectives as ordinarily constructed ; that it is not necessarily true
for all possible constructions will be seen by a moment's reference to
his figure in the November number of this Journal (page 232).
The deductions drawn from that figure are in strict accordance with
optical theory only so long as we suppose the lines d, a, and 8, e,
which represent the course of the extreme rays in the crown-glass
front of the supposed objective to remain constant. It is not
possible for the extreme rays to have greater obliquity if the light
passes from air into the glass; but if the radiant is m water and
nearer than the point f, or in balsam and nearer than the point g, it
does not follow that the rays cannot enter the glass front, but
simply that they will take a course more oblique than the lines d, a,
and b, e. In the case of balsam of the same index as the glass front
there will of course be no refraction at the line of junction between
the balsam and the glass, and rays of any degree of obliquity can
enter. To what degree of obliquity it will still remain possible for
such rays to emerge into air from the posterior hemispherical surface
of the front lens, will depend upon the precise form given to it, and
how far it is possible to collect these rays soas to form an image at
the eye-piece will depend upon the construction of the posterior
combinations.

In the same way in the excellent paper of the Rey. S. Leslie
Brakey, in the March number of this Journal (p. 108), the conclu-
sions drawn by the author are only true so long as we suppose the
direction of the ray O, X (which precisely corresponds to the line B, e,
in Mr. Wenham’s figure) to remain unaltered ; the same reasoning
applies in both cases. Mr. Brakey remarks that it follows from his
demonstration, “that the results are entirely independent of the
kind of glass used for the objective front,’ which is quite true as
far as “the results” go, but both he and Mr. Wenham seem to
have overlooked the fact that their demonstrations do not touch the
question of the angle possible to be transmitted through an objec-
tive from a radiant in water or balsam, but only, to use Mr.
Brakey’s own accurate expression, the “reduced angle” in water
or balsam corresponding to a fixed air-angle. Suppose, however,
an objective to have such a construction that, when a parallel pencil
of solar light is transmitted from behind, the extreme rays shall
finally reach the flat surface of the front lens at an angle greater
than that formed by the line O, X, in Mr. Brakey’s figure, of course
if there is air in front of the lens every such ray will suffer total re-
flexion, while if water or balsam be substituted it will be transmitted.

» Remarks on the Aperture of Object-glasses. 273

I am in hopes that the foregoing brief explanation will be suffi-
ciently explicit, and that Mr. Wenham himself will frankly admit
that he has overlooked the possible case of an objective made to
perform only in water or balsam, without reference to its perform-
ance in air. Whether the increased angle which theory demonstrates
can be gained at this price, will have any practical value, or be any
addition to our optical resources, is another question altogether, and
one into which I do not propose to enter at the present time.

Memorandum on the foregoing. By Professor Suton Newcoms,
U.S. Navy, Foreign Associate of the Royal Astronomical Society.

I assisted in the measures above described by Dr. Woodward.
The angle in balsam, when the lenses were fully closed, measured
more than 100°.

The reason why the angle exceeded the limit laid down by Mr.
Wenham was quite obvious to me during the experiments. Whether
the objective was open or closed, the light was dispersed in air at all
angles up to 180°, showing that the light which struck near the
circumference of the anterior surface of the objective must have
suffered total reflexion, and so made an angle with the normal to
the surface exceeding the limit assumed by Mr. Wenham.

Stuon NEwcoms.

Memorandum. By Mr. Renet Kartu, of Georgetown.

I witnessed the measurement, by Dr. Woodward, of the balsam
angle of the 1th of Mr. Tolles, the method used being that described
in the foregoing communication. The angle was over 90° when
the lenses were fully open, over 100° when they were fully closed.
This result does not seem to me inconsistent with theory. Mr.
Wenham’s experiments, alluded to in his article in the ‘Monthly’ for
January, indicate an explanation, and it seems singular that they
did not suggest to him long ago a method of obtaining what
Mr, Tolles has obtained—an objective with large angle for objects
covered in balsam. Let O, Plate XIX., lower portion, Fig. 3,
be the lenses of an ordinary objective in adjustment for an
object uncovered. Let R be the radiant at such a distance
that a cone of large angle is brought to a focus at the eye-
piece. In order that this state of things shall not be disturbed,
when the object at R is covered in balsam, mount in front of O the
lens B, so that when in water-contact with the cover it shall be part
of a sphere with its centre at R. It will exactly neutralize the
negative surface of the cover, and the light will radiate from R>
without refraction until it meets the objective at O.

274 Remarks on Mr. Henry Davis’ Paper.

It follows that when a lens of ordinary glass makes balsam-
contact with the cover of a balsam-mounted object, the exposed
surface of the lens is to be regarded as the first refracting surface,
and the angle with which a pencil of hght may emerge depends
upon the curvature of that surface, and has nothing to do with the
plane surface of the submerged cover. How much of the pencil
may be brought to a focus depends upon the succeeding lenses in
the combination. ‘This is strictly true for glass and balsam, having
the same refractive index, and is nearly true in all practical cases,
even if water be substituted for balsam between the lens and
the cover.

Renew Kerra.

Remarks. By Mr. Wenuam, V.P.R.MS.

After my final reply to Mr. Tolles was sent for publication, I
received a letter from my respected friend, Col. Woodward, cour-
teously inviting me to read the above before appearing in print, in
order that I might append my remarks. At the same time, I
am pleased that the settlement of the question should rest with
Col. Woodward, whose phraseology and demonstrations I am sure
to comprehend. As the proof, however, came to hand late, scarcely
leaving me time to consider all the points at issue, and without
any diagrams,* I prefer making my remarks in the next Journal.
I can only say at present that, after reading the article, I do not
see that there is much left to controvert, as Col. Woodward sub-
stantially corroborates my position, any apparent differences, pro-
bably arise from some statements that have been lost sight of
during this long and tedious correspondence.

F. H. Wennam.

V.—Remarks on Mr. Henry Davis’ Paper “On the Desiccation
of Rotifers.” By C. T. Hupsoy, LL.D.

Tue alleged revival of Rotifers after a thorough drying has always
been a perplexing chapter in their natural history. Those who
have written on the subject have come to very different conclusions.
Some relate apparently trustworthy experiments in which Rotifers
have been subjected to the drying effect of a vacuum produced by
an air-pump and sulphuric acid, and to that of an oven heated to
200° Fahr., without losing their vitality. Other experimenters
equally trustworthy declare that, if the heating ke carried some
degrees higher, the Rotifers do not recover ; while, of the authorities
who sum up the evidence, some say that Rotifers may be “com-
* They had been sent to the artist—Ed. ‘M. M. J.’

“ On the Desiceation of Rotifers.” 275,

pletely desiccated” and yet recover, and others that they do not
recover when “a certain degree of desiccation has been exceeded.”

The latter statement is, of course, a very safe one; but, cautious
as it is, it does not in the least meet the real difficulty of the case,
which is briefly this, vzz. that every Rotifer, when isolated and laid
with a drop of clean water on a slip of clean glass, dies if the water
be allowed to evaporate. Now, if a Rotifer will bear drying in an
air-pump with sulphuric acid, or in an oven, why will it not bear
simple evaporation on a slip of glass? No one will maintain that
one’s sitting-room is drier than the inside of an oven at 200° Fahr.
or of a receiver ; and if dryness kills the animals on the glass, why
does. not the greater dryness of the air-pump, or oven, kill them?
Doubtless Rotifers can be killed by heated air; that might have
been taken for granted ; but, if they survive such heat and drying
as have been detailed above, why cannot they recover from the
effects of evaporation in the comparatively moist air of a sitting-
room ?

It has been suggested that particles of sand or dirt saved the
Rotifers in the air-pump; and that the animals died when isolated
on a glass slip from not being able to bury themselves under
protecting rubbish. But this explanation will not meet the case of
the Rotifers that survived a heat of 212° Fahr. It is of course
easy to conceive that an animal which lives in water may le
dormant out of it, provided its own internal fluids are not dried up ;
but how can sand as hot as boiling water help to protect from
evaporation the internal fiuids of a soft-bodied Philodine ?

Once more I state what appears to me to be the real point at
issue. Why will not Rotifers when freed from extraneous particles
bear drying in the open air, and yet survive when surrounded with
such particles after drying in a vacuum or an oven? This is the
riddle; and of this riddle no one, I believe, but Mr. Davis has
attempted the solution. Mr. Davis states that it is by secreting a
gelatinous coat that the Rotifer in the air-pump resists a desiccation
which would be otherwise fatal to it. The question at once arises,
“ Why does not the Rotifer do the same when freed from the sand ?”
Mr. Davis’ answer on this point is equally complete; the evapo-
ration on the clean glass slip is too rapid to permit of the necessary
secretion, and the animal algo is too restless under the unpleasant
circumstances in which it finds itself to attempt to form the
protecting coat, even if it had the time for doing so. I have dried
hundreds of Philodines on glass, and have watched their actions
while the water evaporated, and I can fully corroborate Mr. Davis’
assertion. I can add also that not one of those many hundreds
ever came to life again.

It might be imagined from such discussions as the above that
Rotifers are as a class very tenacious of life; but the fact is that the

VOL. IX. x

276 Remarks on Paper “On the Desiccation of Rotifers.”

great majority die only too easily, and decay rapidly. Very few
Rotifers will bear even a momentary withdrawal of the water in
which they swim, and all the species that I am acquainted with can
be easily smothered by being kept in a small air-tight cell. Un-
fortunately the student can obtain but little advantage from so
killing them, as they usually begin to disintegrate the instant they
die ; the trochal disk, for instance, disappearing as it ceases to move.
The case is no better if they die naturally. I have seen, for
instance, a Triarthra suddenly roll down dead to the bottom of a
live cell, and decay so quickly that the outline of its muscles had
become indistinct before I could change a low power for a high one.

The notion that any sort of treatment and any dirty water will
do for Rotifers is a very erroneous one. It is true that Rotifers
are to be found in very dirty ponds; but every species has its own
habitat, and it would be as useless to look for Brachionus angularis
in a clear pool, as for a Huchlanis in a farmer’s duck-pond.

A slight alteration in the conditions of life is fatal to most of
them ; and, so far as my experience goes, it is impossible to preserve
the finer species in tanks at home for more than a few days. A
student of Rotifers must therefore be one who knows all the ponds
for miles round his own house, and who is constantly out looking
for fresh specimens; and he will find that neither air-pumps, nor
sulphuric acid, nor hot ovens are wanted to lull off his live stock,
but that they will die of their own accord with the most provoking
regularity.

I have been tempted by my subject into a rather long digression ;
but I cannot conclude my paper without reverting to Mr. Davis’
happy suggestion, that the Philodines protect themselves against
the effects of drought by secreting a viscid envelope during the
slow evaporation of water entangled among particles of sand. Most
of the Rotifers possess, in some degree, the power of secreting such
a fluid. Some (as Hydatina, Synchexta, Rhinops, and Pedalion)
use it to enable them to adhere to external bodies, others (as
Melicerta, Limnias, Cicistes) to form an inner tube, round which
their outer cases are built. Mr. Davis now tells us that some of
the Philodines put this secretion to a hitherto unsuspected use, and
that they coat themselves all over with it so as to resist a drying
that would otherwise be fatal to them. This solution of a much-
vexed question is as ingenious as it is probable and new; and
although it may possibly require confirmation from future observers
and experimenters, I have little doubt that such confirmation it will
receive.

CPT"

PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

A Parasite on Peziza.—‘ Grevillea’ for March contains a valuable
note by its editor, Mr. M. C. Cooke, M.A., on this subject. The writer
says that he has lately received from C. J. Muller, Esq., of East-
bourne, a very interesting specimen of a Sarcoscyphous Peziza, which
appears to be P. hemispherica, Wigg. The surface of the hymenium
is rough, with the projecting upper portions of semi-immersed, pale
brownish perithecia, each of which is furnished at the mouth with a
tuft of delicate, erect hairs. The perithecia are themselves mem-
branaceous and translucent, sometimes wholly immersed in the hyme-
nium, as if proceeding from the inferior stratum, and composed of
hexagonal cells, with a brownish tint, so as to render them con-
Spicuous amongst the surrounding hymenium. Many of the asci, and
septate paraphyses of the Peziza are normally developed. These
parasitic perithecia contain free lemon-shaped spores, reminding one
of the sporidia of certain spherie which occur on dung, as S. stercoraria,
&c. The spores are dark brown, and near -001 inch in length, but
in no instance could we detect asci, or sterigmata, nor obtain any
direct evidence of the mode in which the spores are produced in the
perithecia. No perithecia were found with the spores in their early
stage, and before acquiring colour, but in all instances they seemed to
be matured and free in the perithecia. From these circumstances we
have been led to regard the parasite as coniomycetous, although not
agreeing with the characters of any genus of which we have any
knowledge. It has been suggested that these perithecia are not truly
parasitic, but that they are another form of fruit of the Peziza. Such
is not impossible, but, from present experience, we are disposed to
consider it as rather improbable, although the fact that the perithecia
seem to originate from the lower cellular stratum would favour the
conjecture. Under any circumstances, the specimens in question are
of a very interesting character, and we have at once placed on record
all the facts which have come to our knowledge, in the hope that by
turning attention to the subject, other specimens may be found, and a
more complete history elaborated for this rather anomalous production.
The whole of the features of this parasite seem to favour the sup-
position that it may be a species of Melanospora, but not asci having
been found, it would be too great an assumption to place it in that
genus until an examination of specimens in an earlier condition settle
the question whether the spores are produced on peduncles, or whether
they are at first enclosed in asci. No species of Melanospora has
hitherto been recorded as occurring in Britain.

Distribution of Blood-vessels in the Membrana Tympani.—This subject
is very well dealt with in a recent paper by Dr. Burnett, of America,
He describes the arrangement of the blood-vessels in the tympanic
membrane of the dog, cat, goat, and rabbit. These are arranged in a
double series of loops, one of which is composed of vessels which run
from the periphery directly toward the handle of the malleus, and at a

“2

278 PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

point from one-half to a third of the distance between the periphery —
of the membrane and the handle of the malleus return abruptly upon
themselves, thus forming a series of vascular loops round the edge of
the membrane. The second series of loops run from the handle of
the malleus toward the periphery of the membrane. In consequence
of this arrangement a portion of the membrane between the annulus
tympanicus and the handle of the malleus remains free from capillaries
in its normal condition. In the guinea-pig these vascular loops do
not exist, but the vessels are arranged in the form of a net with coarse
meshes of a quadrangular or pentagonal form. In this animal, moreover,
the radiate are strongly developed in comparison with the circular fibres
of the membrana tympani. The arrangement of the nerve in these
animals is described as “fork-shaped,” the prongs embracing the
loops, while the handle unites with a similar projection from the
opposite series of loops. In the human tympanic membrane the
arrangement of the blood-vessels resembles that of the guinea-pig in
the absence of loops. The vessels themselves, however, are coarser,
and the meshes finer than in that animal. The radiate and circular
fibres are, moreover, equal in amount. The conclusions from these
observations are the following :—1. There is a distribution of vessels
in the membrana tympani of man peculiar to him. 2. There is @
distribution of vessels in the tympanic membrane of the dog, cat,
goat, and rabbit, constant in as well as peculiar to them. 3. The
arrangement of these vessels in the guinea-pig is peculiar to it.—
The American Quarterly Journal of Medical Sciences, Jan., 1873.

On Mobile Filaments in the Blood.—In the ‘ Irish Hospital Gazette’
(April 1st), Dr. Ponfick, of Berlin, writes concerning the recent im-
portant researches of Herren Obermeier and Nedsvetzki on the above
subject. He says that the former, one of the physicians of the Charité,
has, within the last few days, directed attention to the presence of a
foreign body in the blood; and Professors Virchow, Frerichs, and
Langenbeck have acknowledged and confirmed the same. Dr. Ober-
meier has very kindly submitted several specimens for the writer's
examination in the Pathological Institute. The blood recently taken
from patients suffering from relapsing fever was immediately brought
under the microscope without any addition. On the persistent con-
templation of a fixed portion of the microscopic field, peculiar filiform
bodies—which are about the same size as the finest filaments of fibrine,
with a length of three red corpuscles, and with a very delicate contour
—are seen to emerge in the plasma, amongst the blood corpuscles.
As long as the blood remains fresh, distinct movements are observed,
which manifest themselves not only as undulatory movements in the
filaments themselves, but also as a power of locomotion, which enables
them to travel across the field of vision. It is seen, especially, that
the bodies exhibit spiral contractions, then again extend themselves,
sometimes appearing, and as quickly disappearing from the view. Dr,
Obermeier has always failed to find these bodies in the blood of healthy
persons, and also of patients suffering from other zymotic diseases, It
is worthy of observation, that they are visible in the febrile stage, but
are not scen in the stage of remission, and shortly before or during

PROGRESS OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE. 279

the crisis. On the occasion of a short communication which Dr. Obcr-
meier ‘made in the Medical Society of Berlin describing his discovery,
Langenbeck pointed out the great importance of this fact. Dr. Neds-
vetzki also discusses the elementary mobile corpuscles observed in
normal blood by Zimmermann, Hensen, Schultze, Kiihne, and lately
by Vulpian, and known by Sanderson’s designation of microzymes.
These corpuscles have been classed by Bettelheim in three grades:
corpuscles visible under an enlargement of 650 diameters, those visible
only under an enlargement of 1500 diameters, and bacillar corpuscles
having half the size of the red blood corpuscles. Nedsvetzki describes
in normal blood a considerable quantity of small corpuscles of the
size of the nuclei of the white corpuscles. They appear clear or
opaque according to the light. They present movements in the
direction of their axis, or lateral oscillations. He proposes to desig-
nate them nuclei of the blood, or hemococci. He describes also fila-
ments, probably of a fibrinous character, which are developed in the
preparations. He dwells on the transformation of these white globules
examined in the wet chamber, and on the movements which the granu-
lations of the white globules present.

The Morphology of Carex.—It is remarkable how much we have to
learn yet on this point. At a meeting of the Linnean Society, March
6th, Mr. Bentham read some remarks on the homology of the perigy-
nium of the female flowers of Carex, and the subject was again
discussed at the meeting on April 14th. He suggested the theory
that the perigynium and seta represent the stamens of the male flowers.
It appears, however, to be certain that the seta is an axial and not a
foliar structure, and that when developed it usually bears rudimentary
flowers, as in C. pulicaris. The perigynium under these circumstances
can hardly be looked upon as perianthial. On the whole Kunth’s
view, according to which it consists of a single bract with anteriorly
connate edges and bearing the ovary in its axil, is probably correct.
Some botanists, taking into consideration the manifest bidentate
condition of the perigynium, will still probably prefer to compare it
with the two lateral bracts in Calyptrocarya.

Dr. Engelmann’s View as to the Structure of Muscle.—One of much
importance, especially now that Mr. Schafer * has rather revolutionized
our ideas on the subject. He (Dr. Engelmann) contributes an article
on the subject of the structure of muscle to Pfliiger’s ‘ Archiv,’ Band
vil. Heft i. He laments the difficulty of obtaining the crystalline
arthropods of the sea, and observes that the tolerably transparent
Cyclops, Gammarus, Asellus, Hydrachinda, and Insect larva as
Corethra plumicoreus of fresh water are only to be obtained in small
and imsufiicient numbers. For the examination of muscular fibres no
reagents or saline solutions should be used; they should simply be
placed in a moist chamber, and be examined as rapidly as possible
after removal from the living body. Insect muscles can undergo great
changes in structure before they lose their excitability. He has used

* We are compelled to “cut out” My. Schafer’s paper through the pressure
caused by the Index.

280 PROGRESS OF MIGROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

a magnifying power of from 200 to 500 diameters, or that obtained
by a Hartnack’s objective 8 and eye-piece EK or F. [The structure of
normal uncontracted transversely striated muscular fibre is: (1) A
light very slightly refracting band divided into two halves by (2) a
dark highly refractile stria ; (3) a moderately dark, tolerably strongly
refracting band, in the middle of which is (4) a brighter, less refract-
ing stria. In every fibre with very broad transverse striz the simple
dark band can be resolved with high powers into three: a middle
darker one, and two lateral clearer or brighter ones. Hence we must
admit that such division still exists even where our present means of
research do not permit it to be seen. Throughout his paper Engel-
mann makes use of the following terms: the stria in the middle of the
isotropal substance he calls the intermediate disk (zwischenscheibe) and
the adjoining striz secondary or accessory disks (nebenscheiben). Both
of these together, when they cannot be distinguished as separate,
constitute the fundamental membrane (Grundmembran of Krause); the
middle layer of the doubly refracting substances forms the median
disk of Hensen, and the two lateral he terms transverse disks. In the
closely striated muscles of vertebrata z and n appear united together
to form a single and simple foundation membrane in which no sub-
division can be seen. The distinctly striated fibres of insects, on the
other hand, show the division well, and the whole series of disks in
one compartment are here sometimes as much as four times thicker
than in vertebrata. The height of each set varies even in different
muscles of the same animal. The greatest height or length of one
compartment Engelmann found to occur in the abdominal muscles of
insects where it amounted to 0°011 mm. The isotropal and aniso-
tropal substances are about equal in height, the proportion of the
former to the latter being as 6: 7. The degree of transparency of the
several parts varies considerably, so that now one, now another, may
be the darker. Where both are of equal transparency the existence of
transverse strie# may at first sight be almost overlooked. The distinc-
tion is always well brought out by the polariscope. The remainder
of the paper is occupied with a special description of each disk in
succession. From his examination of muscle under polarized light
and by other means he has arrived at the conclusion that muscular
tissue is composed of an infinite number of rods arranged parallel to
the longitudinal axis of the fibres which are naturally in immediate
contact with each other, but which after death, or after treatment with
reagents, shrink and exude or excrete the isotropal substance. The
size and form of the rods he supposes to differ in each of the disks
that make their appearance in the above scheme. See also ‘The
Academy,’ May Ist, which contains an illustration explaining the com-
plexity of the structure.

A Protozoon in Urine !—V. C. E. Nelson says, in the ‘New York
Medical Journal’ (March), that a gentleman recently brought him a
phial of his urine to examine under the microscope: nothing what-
ever was seen, with the exception of a single protozoon, which forms
the subject of this communication. Two phials were brought on that
day ; in the urine of one only was this protozoon seen; the urine was
not left in any open dish, but in a well-corked phial, so that the pro-

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 281

tozoon did not enter from the surrounding atmosphere, or owe its
existence to decomposition. The urine of several phials, subsequently
brought to the office, has been carefully examined, but no other speci-
mens have been seen. The microscope used in this instance magnifies
300 diameters; the protozoon figured is drawn of the actual magnified
size, as observed, and at the moment of observation. The protozoon
would now be motionless; now, the neck would swing upward and
downward; now, the worm would bend in sinuosities throughout its
entire length, the movements following in rapid succession; again,
the protozoon would change its position in the field of the microscope
from a horizontal to a vertical one; at other times it would very
suddenly contract, and assume a different appearance, the caudal end
being truncated or club-shaped; in a few seconds it would, with
lightning-like rapidity, shoot out to its full length. The author says
he will not hazard any conjectures as to what kind of protozoon this
is, but it seems to be allied to what is portrayed in Cobbold’s work as
the Dactylius aculeatus.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

The Reproduction of Bacteria.—Herr Grimm, in the ‘ Archiv
fur Mikrosce. Anatomie, describes the reproduction of Bacteria and
Vibriones from his own investigations. He has observed their con-
jugation and fissiparous multiplication, and also has seen leucocytes
breaking up into granular matter, which ultimately assumed the form
of Bacteria.

Spontaneous Alteration of Eggs.—A contemporary states that
M. U. Gayon comes to the conclusion that the main cause of the
decomposition of eggs is the presence of small organisms which must
have formed in the egg while in the oviducts of the fowl.

Mounting in Soft Balsam.—‘ Science Gossip’ for March has an
interesting note on this point by an American gentleman, Mr. W. H.
Walmsley, of Philadelphia. He says that the following directions, if
carefully followed, will invariably result in success :—Select the finest
Canada balsam and slowly evaporate it until upon cooling it assumes
a brittle resinous consistency. Break the mass into small pieces, and
dissolve them in chemically pure benzole, until a saturated solution
about the consistency of rich cream is formed. The specimen to be
mounted, having been previously freed from moisture by drying, or by
being passed through weak and absolute alcohol (the latter being by
far the preferable method), is finally to be placed in oil of cloves, and
carried from the latter to the slide, where, after being properly
arranged with needles, a drop of the balsam is placed upon it,
followed by a core in the usual manner, and the whole laid aside to
harden, which will be accomplished in a few days. This will be
facilitated if, after the lapse of twenty-four hours, the slide be slightly
warmed, the core pressed carefully down with the forceps, and a small
weight laid upon it. The best finish for the edge of the circle I have

282 : NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

found to be made with a camel-hair pencil dipped in the same balsam
that is used in mounting. It makes a very neat and handsome finish,
with of course no tendency to run in and spoil the specimen, as is the
case with all coloured cements used for this purpose. The oil of
cloves is preferable to turpentine for mounting from, since it is more
readily miscible with the balsam, and does not harden the specimens,
which may be left in it for a long while unchanged.

Experiments on Septicemic Blood have been, we understand,
lately performed by M. Onimus, which are somewhat like those made
some time since by Dr. Burdon Sanderson. M. Onimus enclosed sep-
ticemic blood in a dialysing paper, and has plunged this into distilled
water. At the end of twenty-four hours, the distilled water became
milky, and swarmed with myriads of bacteria. He satisfied himself
that these bacteria did not proceed from the septiceemic blood, but
were formed outside the parchment pouch; for the dialysing paper,
when examined by the microscope, did not show any bacteria. He
injected as much as fifty or sixty cubic centimétres of this liquid,
filled with living corpuscles, into a rabbit, without producing the
slightest disturbance. But when on the other hand he injected a drop
of the blood contained in the dialysing paper, the death of the animal
was rapid. He repeated these experiments with albumen, injecting
into the veins of a rabbit albumen, in which bacteria had developed,
and the rabbit survived. M. Onimus concludes that: 1. The sep-
ticemic virus is a non-dialysable substance; 2. Bacteria only, or
bacteria developed in albumen, are not sufficient to produce the putre-
faction of blood; the blood must be injected in toto.

The Professorship of Anatomy and Physiology in the Veterinary
College of Edinburgh has been given toa most worthy candidate, lately
a Fellow of our Society, Dr. James Murie, F.L.8., who will, we doubt
not, be as energetic in the discharge of his duties in Scotland as he
has been—judging by the published list of his numerous researches—
in his various offices in this country.

A Chair of Microscopic Anatomy in Spain.—The ‘Medical
Record’ (May 14) says that a chair of normal and pathological his-
tology has been founded by the Spanish republican government in the
University of Madrid, and endowed with a salary of 5000 pesetas
(210/.). The medical faculty of the University of Valencia has pro-
tested against the establishment of a similar chair in that institution,
on the grounds, inter alia, that the subjects are already taught by the
several professors.

Man infested with Trichine through eating Pork.—We lear
from a contemporary that there has been a number of people attacked
by this worm through eating raw ham, a common practice in North
Germany. It is said that about 200 persons, who had partaken of
some raw pigs’ flesh obtained from a butcher in Magdeburg, have been
attacked with grave symptoms of the flesh-worm disease, due to the
incision of their tissues by hosts of living trichinew. One is dead.
The living trichine have been found in numbers (as is usual), in
small parts of the muscle, and removed by a little instrument devised

NOTES AND MEMORANDA. 283

for the purpose, from the arms of some of the patients (of whom
twelve are in the hospital), among them being the butcher who sold
the diseased pork. The swelling of the face and limbs, and the acute
muscular pain characterizing the disease, have been observed in all the
cases, and some are still considered to be in danger. The penalties
of the Germanic custom of eating raw ham are severe.

A Grant for Geological Microscopy—We understand that the
Royal Irish Academy has given the sum of 40/. to Mr. G. H. Kinahan
in order that he may continue his valuable researches into the micro-
scopical structure of rocks, a subject on which for some time Mr.
Kinahan has been engaged.

Sachs’ Lehrbuch der Botanik—We learn from ‘Nature’ that
this book—which is of interest to microscopical students—is recom-
mended by the Board of Studies in Natural Science of the University
of Oxford to students preparing for examination at the University.
For the benefit of those unacquainted with the German language, the
Delegates of the Clarendon Press have arranged with Prof. Sachs and
with MM. Engelmann, of Leipzig, for an English translation of this
work from the third edition, just published in Germany, and contain-
ing a large amount of additional matter; the whole of the 460 wood-
cuts with which the original work is illustrated will be reproduced in
the English edition. The translation has been entrusted to Mr. A. W.
Bennett, B.Se., who will also annotate the work on points where sufficient
prominence does not appear to be given to recent researches, or undue
prominence seems to be assigned to certain theories, in which part of
the labour he will be assisted by Prof. Thiselton Dyer. The work is
expected to be ready by about the end of the year.

A Prize for the best Essay on the Reproduction of the Lycopo--
diacez to the extent only of 10/. 10s. is offered by the Edinburgh
Botanical Society. This prize is small in amount, and is alone to be
competed for by students who have attended the botanical class of the
Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, during at least one of the three
years preceding the award, and who have gained honours in the class
examinations. The author is expected to give results of practical
observations and experiments made by himself on the subject, illus-
trated by microscopical specimens. The essay and specimens to be
given in on or before May 1, 1876, with a sealed note containing the
author’s name, and a motto outside.

A Ten Guinea Prize is also to be given by the Council of the
Botanica! Society of Edinburgh for the best essay on the structure and
reproduction of the Frondose and Foliaceous Jungermanniaceew. This
prize is subject to all the conditions specified in the case of the
former,

( 284 )

CORRESPONDENCE.

MxasvurEMENT oF ImmersED APERTURES. z
To the Editor of the ‘ Monthly Microscopical Journal,

PapNAL HALL, CHADWELL Heatu, Essex, 37d May, 1873.

Srr,—I am willing to continue discussion so long as any true facts
can be elicited from it, that may add to our stock of practical infor-
mation. I have stated that with Mr. Tolles must be considered as
ended, as my reasoning and experiments seem to be in a style utterly
beyond his comprehension. I now make a few remarks on his method
of measuring balsam apertures with immersion objectives, as I could
only slightly allude to this in my last communications,—having then
no precise knowledge of the means by which he obtained such won-
derful results.

In the last ‘Journal’ for May (Plate XV., page 210) we have a plan
of the arrangement. From this, it appears that Mr. Tolles cannot
get beyond the idea of putting hemispherical or semi-cylindrical
things of glass in front of the objective, so that the light may emerge
“without sensible refraction”? It thus appears that the question
stands hopelessly back at the very commencement. It began with this
plan, and the causes of fallacy that I then figured and described, will
serve still, and need not be repeated. Let us suppose that aperture is
to be tested by this wretched adaptation (containing the seeds of a
crop of refractive errors), strictly with the intention that the object-glass
is in a fair adjustment for giving a correct defining aperture, as fixed
by a known object, and not improperly set back so as to place the
lenses as close as they will go. Now, the optical question is, what is
the loss of aperture which must inevitably ensue, by partly or entirely
destroying the refraction at the frout surface. Well, bring up your
semi-cylindric or hemispheric affair (which we will assume to be so
exceedingly well made, that the centre or radius is on the flat surface),
focus on the surface, precisely on a point in the centre of curvature.
Now, let in your water—will the rays emerge “without sensible re-
fraction” ? By no means! the focal point has shifted its position, and
to get an approximate measurement you must attempt to bring the
focus again on to the surface. Further, the arrangement will not
adapt to various conditions. The loss in water, per se, and other
fluids of different refractive powers, cannot be truly ascertained, and
every degree of refraction of fluids will again throw the focus away
from the plane. The least alteration in the focus in too willing
hands will readily favour the desired result in the way that it is
expected to go, or give a remarkable facility for developing that un-
conscious self-deception,—so characteristic an element in the minds of
mediums and spirit-rappers. Speaking plainly, I am astonished that
any one having the slightest pretence to optical knowledge should
put this forward as more correct, or in preference to simply immers-

CORRESPONDENCE. 285

ing the objective in a glass tank containing the medium. It seems
impossible for Mr. Tolles to comprehend this. With the tank
nothing can go wrong. No focussing is required, and whatever the
depth of immersion, the ray passes straight through the bottom, and
fluids of any refractive power may be used with equal accuracy, the
results remaining correct with all lengths of focus due to the refrac-
tion of the different fluids. Though this is certain, Mr. Tolles may
undertake some unfathomable optical demonstration to disprove this,
which may be amusing, but will need no answer.

Immersed apertures may of course be taken first, as employed on a
balsam object, and the increase of aperture when dry, afterwards
measured by the usual method. Fallacies have at times appeared of
aperture measurements, with the lenses closed within the distance of
definition. Mere light can be seen through a hemispherical lens up
to 180°, far beyond the perception of distinct images.

Finally, I may assure Mr. Tolles that the inflexible laws of light
will not bend to meet his wishes, and as he puts forward, without the
pale of disinterested argument, some extravagant advantages in his
own “peculiar objectives” when used as immersion, which he is
“almost certain that no English objectives will be found to have,”
therefore, for my own part, I willingly accept the challenge, being
rather sure that object-glasses made in this country intended to act
as immersion, will keep their aperture, measure for measure, under
similar conditions to anything that he can produce.

I have no doubt that the committee with any one else that
Mr. Tolles might name, would act again—if possible, to settle this
aperture question. Of course nothing need be stated concerning the
relative performance of object-glasses unless he desires it.

F, H. WEenuAM.

Toe ANGULAR RANGE OF OBJECTIVES.
To the Editor of the ‘Monthly Microscopical Journal,’

Boston, April 17, 1873.
Sir,—I desire to put on record the fact that I have, using the semi-
cylindrical appliance under the stage of my microscope, somewhat, in
the manner indicated in the sketch sent you last month, put through and
utilized successfully an angular pencil of 112° into cylindrical surface
through its substance of glass, through balsam, slide, balsam-mounted
object, glass cover, water, objective, infallibly to the eye, and of that
angular dimension, at the extreme of oblique incidence giving symme-
trical view of the object (N. Amicii), good definition and resolution.
The objective was one of three systems, having a cemented triple
front. This is really my first attempt to exceed 100° of “ image-
forming rays” from (through) object in balsam, with only three sepa-
rate systems. I hope very easily to exceed that angular range with
the aid of the cylindrical condenser,—of which I am not prepared at
present to give a more detailed description.
By putting the light of lamp-flame down the open microscopic tube

286 CORRESPONDENCE.

through the objective, the angle of the emergent pencil was also easily
measured at the cylindrical surface.
Cancelling so many reflecting surfaces of course increased the
volume of the illumination considerably.
Respectfully yours,

Rosert B. Tones.

DzstccaTIon oF Rortirers.
To the Editor of the ‘Monthly Microscopical Journal,’

Sir,—I have read the article by Mr. H. Davis in the May number
of the ‘Journal,’ describing a new rotifer, and demonstrating by an
elaborate series of experiments, the mode by which a rotifer left high
and dry, is enabled to resist the desiccating influence of the atmo-
sphere.

Tio my mind his discovery of the gelatinous envelope fully ex-
plains the phenomenon, and his experiments showing that this enve-
lope, after a prolonged exposure to powerful desiccating agencies,
still contains animal matter in a fluid state, finally disposes of a
question which has been a fruitful source of controversy for many a
long year.

Continuing to turn over the leaves of the ‘Journal,’ in the happy
frame of mind induced by the feeling that in future it might be pos-
sible to take up a scientific publication without the dread of finding
in every page an allusion to the inevitable dried rotifer, I was sur-
prised to find a letter from Mr, Slack stating that Mr. Davis’s dis-
coveries were so far from being novel, that the question had been
settled long ago. —

Now, as I look over most of the periodicals devoted to microscopy,
I began to think that, like a rotifer, I had just been revived after
lying dormant for years, so I turned to Mr. Slack’s quotations, with
the determination of beginning at once to make up for lost time.
But what do I find? 'The quotations resemble Mr. Davis’s paper,
only in the fact that they have to do with rotifers. In no one of them
can I find the slightest allusion to the means by which a rotifer, out
of its element, manages to preserve its moisture and consequently its
vitality.

It should not be overlooked that the quotation from Dr. Pennetier
(perhaps the greatest authority cited by Mr. Slack) is, in sum and
substance, the very same as the quotation from the ‘ Cornhill Magazine,’
given by Mr. Davis himself in his paper.

Whilst fully admitting the importance of carefully investigating
every statement which is advanced as a scientific fact, yet I cannot
help thinking that, in the present instance, an undeserved slur has
been cast upon the result of what appears to have been a long and
successful investigation.

I am, Sir, yours faithfully,

EF. W. Micuert.

CORRESPONDENCE. 287

To the Editor of the ‘ Monthly Microscopical Journal.’

Srr,—When Mr. Slack, at the April meeting of the Royal Micro-
scopical Society, promised to furnish evidence to justify his mitigated
strictures and somewhat patronizing remarks on the supposed want of
originality in my paper on desiccation, a vague uneasiness was left in
my mind which, he may be pleased to hear, his letter at page 241
entirely dispels.

His quotations only show that the most recent writers on the
subject go no further and prove no more than the older experimentists.
The question being—can rotifers survive desiccation? was neatly
“begged” by a method not altogether unknown to Mr. Slack,* for the
creatures being baked and air-pumped, were only admitted to be dry
when they did not revive, while, in the common event of the most
protracted desiccating arrangements failing to lull, the drying process
was pronounced imperfect. Pennetier, indeed, made a lame endeavour
to account for the rotifers’ preservation, but his explanation, and that
a false one, had been anticipated by an anonymous English writer
in 1860.f

Practically, Pouchet in 1859 closed the controversy so far, but
lacking the true explanation of the phenomenon (furnished for the first
time in my paper) only helped to a settlement of the question against
his own theory. It is incredible that if in 1859 or earlier it had been
proved or “settled” (as Mr. Slack affirms) that a perfectly dry rotifer
was destroyed, such an author as Dr. Carpenter could be found to teach
us in 1868 that a perfectly dry rotifer could be revived.t -It is equally
improbable that you, sir, would have invited your subscribers to make
experiments and give you the results if celebrated writers had worked
out and disposed of the subject at least ten years before.§ Further,
if he believed in the finally “settled” facts, how could Mr. Slack
himself, so recently as 1871, be found advocating opinions in direct
opposition to them ? ||

“The whole question” has never “turned upon the amount of
desiccation,’ as the rival theorists always distinctly stated their
opinions for or against “ perfect desiccation,’ which can scarcely be a
comparative term; and when in the ‘ Marvels’ Mr. Slack shows the
necessity for “thorough dryness” (his own italics), he surely does not
mean even a very slight partial dampness.

The truth is that writers on the driest of all subjects just left it in
a state ripe for re-opening whenever new facts could be elicited, and
such facts (although most strangely ignored by Mr. Slack) I submit
are to be found in my small contribution to the Society’s
‘ Proceedings,’

To those Fellows who have kindly testified their unsolicited

* “No chemist would have expected to dry the rotifers by the process which
did not succeed ” (in killing them ?).—Vide Mr. Slack’s letter.

+ ‘Studies in Animal Life.’

t ‘The Microscope and its Revelations,’ 4th edition, pp. 477 and 480,

§ “ Desiccation of Rotifers,” ‘M. M.J.,’ May, 1869, p. 315.

|| ‘ Marvels of Pond Life,’ 2nd edition, p. 132.

288 CORRESPONDENCE.

approval I return my best thanks, and join with them in the belief
that no unfair criticism or semi-official opposition, although sufficiently
annoying at times, will seriously impede our onward progress,
I remain, Sir, yours faithfully,
H. Davis.

—— —_-

Tue Ficvres ry Mr. Sropprr’s Paper ry THE ‘ Lens,’
To the Editor of the ‘ Monthly Microscopical Journal.’

Smr,—Permit me to say to Mr. Slack that I agree with him, that
the “figure” all the figures, intended to illustrate my paper in the
‘Lens’ on Eupodiscus Argus, is “not quite correct” or nearly so.
The fact is, I am no draughtsman, and the sketches were only ex-
pected to give an approximate idea of the appearances, and the printed
figures give but an approximate idea of the originals. I did not see any
proof of the printed figures, or they would have been altered or sup-
pressed. The “irregular hexagons” were distinctly irregular, not the
effect of distortion—Figs. 4 and 5, perhaps, the best representation of
the real appearance of any, but can be seen only by reflected light,
and a high power. Fig. 2 is certainly the worst of all, and is unlike
anything that I saw—as I did not think, and do not now, that the
terms “areole” and “cellules” are confined to botany, but are words
in common use; I use them as descriptive, without regard to any
technical meaning as applied to other plants, if they have any such.

The real structure and constitution of the silicious shell of the
diatoms is a study that will tax the skill, patience, and instruments of
the best microscopists. I hope that some of the English workers will
devote more time to solving the problems. It is of far more worth
than making new species. My ideas of the structure are to be found
in the ‘ Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,’ yol. iii., N. $.,

. 214,
: Following up the investigation since with higher magnifying
powers and immersion lenses, I have found but little reason to change
my opinions. I do not believe that all diatoms are built up alike ; Ido
not believe, notwithstanding all that has been written and published on
the question, that the structure of the Pleurosigmata is settled. Re-
cently I examined one with a Tolles’ th by sunlight. At one focal
adjustment I got hexagons as sharp and distinct as those of Triceratium
favus; a minute change of focus gave beads of all the prismatic
colours. Which is true? Can the appearance of spheres be produced
by transparent in any other shape? The answer to this question in-
volves much more than the structure of a diatom; it affects almost all
investigations with the microscope.
CHARLES STODDER.

( 289 )

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Royat Microscopican Society.
Kine’s Cotnece, May 7, 1873.

Dr. John Millar, V.P., F.L.S., in the chair.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.

A list of donations to the Society since the last meeting was read
by the Secretary, and the thanks of the Fellows were unanimously
voted to the respective donors.

The Secretary read a paper by Dr. Maddox on a Cestoid Parasite
found encysted in the lower part of the neck of a sheep, in which he
described its general appearance and characteristics, and the results of
microscopical examination. Drawings of the minute structure of the
Cyst and Parasite accompanied the paper, which will be found printed
in extenso at p. 245.

The thanks of the meeting were unanimously voted to Dr. Maddox
for his communication.

The Secretary called the attention of the Fellows to the announce-
ment made by circular of the scientific evening arranged for May 14th,
and which he hoped would prove of much interest. The attendance
and co-operation of the Fellows of the Society were requested on behalf
of the Council.

A paper was then read by Mr. W. K. Parker, F.R.S., “On the
Development of the Facial Arches of the Sturgeon,” especially with
regard to the formation of the mouth. The general characteristics of
the Ganoid fishes and their relation to the osseous fishes and mammals,
especially in the embryonic state, were explained and illustrated by
drawings enlarged upon the black board, and the development
and peculiar conformation of the Sturgeon’s mouth were similarly
described. The paper will be found printed at p. 254. The Chairman
expressed his sense of obligation to Mr. Parker, and invited observa-
tions upon the paper.

A vote of thanks to Mr. Parker was then unanimously passed, and
the proceedings terminated.

Donations to the Library, from April 2nd to May 7th, 1873 :—

From
and ands Waterss Weekly 2.05 %.2 13s. Wao “wal tie Sa gene Banar,
NatregwaWeeklys potty. j-cerdt lee) ents od tsetse ee Ditto.
Atheneum. Weekly .. Peco sere Pee ace ace oe Ditto,
Society of Arts Journal. Weekly ws oe bee, ieee, (eee nc WOOGICHIIS
Bulletin de la Société Botanique de Rance eee ee ase Ditto.
Journal of the Quekett Club, Nos. 20, 21, and 22... oe | Club:

West Kent Natural History pies . ‘Report for ee with Presi-
dent’s Address, &e. .. ox on Society.

The following entlettess were dltatad Baling: of the Society :—
William F. Denning, Esq.
Frederick Hovenden, Esq.
Joseph B. Leslie, Esq.
Thomas Rogers, Esq.
Lieut.-Col. J. C. Salkeld.

Watter W. Reeves,
Assist.-Secretary,

290 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. ©

Mepicat MicroscopicaL Soctery.

The third ordinary meeting of the above Society was held at the
Royal Westminster Ophthalmic Hospital on March 21, at 8 p.m.,
Jabez Hogg, Esq., President, in the chair. ;

The Secretary read the minutes of the last meeting, which were
confirmed, and the President then announced that the next meeting
would be considered a Special General Meeting, for the purpose of
electing two new members of Committee.

The papers promised for the present meeting having been unayoid-
ably withheld by their authors, Mr. Schifer described some of the
“methods of observing tissues in the living state,” illustrating his
remarks by means of diagrams and instruments. Having dwelt
briefly on the importance of the subject, Mr. Schafer remarked that
the investigation of a subject was not complete till it had been micro-
scopically studied in the living state, and that such examination, at
least for warm-blooded animals, should be carried on at the tempera-
ture of the body. Much was to be learnt from the investigation of
tissues still attached to the living body, for thus had cell migration
been discovered by Cohnheim in the frog’s mesentery, and experi-
ments on embolism had been made in that animal’s tongue; while the
tail of the tadpole had taught us much about connective-tissue cor-
puscles, and the development of blood-vessels. Muscular tissue was
best seen in the living state, in the smaller crustacee.

Living tissues, removed from the body, allowed of being studied
in many ways: some immediately without any addition whatever, as
red blood corpuscles, and striated muscular fibre; while if any addi-
tion were necessary, a saline solution of 0:75 per cent., or serum would
be best. For some purposes a moist chamber might be necessary,
such as Recklinghausen’s, in which frogs’ blood had been preserved
for days in a living condition (Schultze’s ‘ Arch., 1866). Another form
was Stricker’s putty stage, which was also useful for the application
of electricity in microscopical research by means of two electrodes of
tin-foil, the points of which nearly meet in the centre of the stage.
Mr. Schafer finally described and exhibited various forms of warm
stages, one kind of which, as Schultze’s, was heated by means of a
lamp applied to metal arms, which conducted the heat to the object-
bearers; another kind, as Stricker’s, in which a constant temperature
was maintained by means of a current of warm water kept continually
flowing through it; while another very ingenious form of stage,
somewhat similar to Stricker’s, was so arranged that a constant circu- -
lation of warm water was kept up in a closed system of tubes, the
temperature of which was regulated by a mercurial gas-regulator, and
measured by a thermometer, the bulb of which lay close to the
central chamber. A discussion then took place, and

A vote of thanks was accorded to Mr. Schafer for his interesting
and instructive remarks, and it was then announced that all those
gentlemen proposed at the last meeting were duly elected members of
the Society, after which the meeting resolved itself into a conversa-
zione.

(209d =)

INDEX TO VOLUME IX.

ee

A.

Agchisteus plumosus, on. By E. Par-
FITT, Esq., 210.

Ague, is the Source of, discovered ? 75.

Anatomy and Physiology, the Pro-
fessorship of, 282.

——,,a Chair of Microscopic, in Spain,
282.

Annual Address from the President of
the Royal Microscopical Society, 97.

Apertures, Note on Reduced. By Rev.
S. Lesyie Braxey, M.A., 108.

Aquarium, Microscopy at the Brighton,
12].

Asterophyllites not the Branch of a
Calamite, 227

B.

Bacteria, on the Origin of, and on their
Relation to the Process of Putrefac-
tion. By Dr. C. Bastian, 230.

, the Reproduction of, 281.
Balanoglossus and Tornaria 232.
Balsam, Mounting in Soft, 281.

Bary, Dr. A., on the Reproduction of
the Saprolegnie, 179.

Bastian’s, Dr. H. Charlton, Experi-
ments on the Beginnings of Life.
By Dr. Sanperson, F.R.S., 82.

——, the Beginnings of Life, 118.

— on the Origin of Bacteria, and on
their Relation to the Process of
Putrefaction, 230.

Beaux, Dr., his Theories from an
American point of view, 81.

Binocular, Oblique Illumination for
the. By W. K. Bripemay, 57.

Binoculars for the Highest Powers. By
F. H. Wenuay, 216.

Biogenesis, Experiments on the Ques-
tion of. By Dr. Wm. Roserts, 228.

Blights on Tea and Cotton, 34.

Blood, a Hematozoon inhabiting
Human. By T. R. Lewis, 120.

— Cells (Red) in Mammals, Birds,
and Fish, 79.

—— Corpuscle, Structure of the White.
By Dr. Ricnarpson, 69.

—, on Mobile Filaments in the, 278.

, Experiments on Septicemic, 282.

Bog Mosses, Dr. BRAITHWAITE on, 12,
15, 214.

Botrydium granulatum, the surface of,
ite

VOL. IX.

BratruwalTe. Rosert, M.D., on Bog
Mosses, a Monograph of the Euro-
pean Species Sphagnum subsecun-
dum, 12; Sphagnum neglectum, note
on, 15; Sphagnum papillosum, 214;
Sphagnum Austini, 215.

Brakey, Rev. S. Lesiie, M.A., Note on
Reduced Apertures, 108.

Brivemay, W. K., on Oblique Illumina-
tion for the Binocular, 57.

BrowninG, Joun, the History of the
Micro-spectroscope, 66.

C.

Callidina, a New Species of. By Hrnry
Davis, 201.

Cancer, the Development of, 176.

Canella alba and Pomegranate Barks.
By Mr. H. Pocxuineron, 234.

Carex, the Morphology of, 279.

Cerebellum, the Anatomy of the, 73.

Cholera, a Report of Microscopical
and Physiological Researches into
the Nature of the Agent or Agents
producing. By T. R. Lewis, M.B.,
and D. D. Cunninenam, M.B., 225.

Cochlea in Man and other Mammals, on
the Structure of the Rods of the. By
Urpan Prircuarp, M.D., 150.

Controversy, the Gull and Johnson,
182.

Cornea, the Nerves of the, 81.

Corpus Spongiosum and the Corpus
Cavernosum, &c., &c., in Man, the
Histology and Physiology of the.
By Aex. W. Stem, M.D., 16.

Correspondence—

ABRAHAM, JOHN, 239.

Davis, Henry, 287.

Mi.eTr, F, W., 286.

Rusticus, 124.

Siack, H. J., 36, 89, 186, 241.
Smiru, SaMvEt, 36.

Stopper, CHaR.es, 288.
Tou.es, Ropert B., 121, 285.
Tyro, 239.

WENHAM, 88, 122, 123, 185, 284.

Cotton, the Microscopic Examination
of, 72.

D.

Davis, Henry, on a New Callidina,
with the Result of Experiments on
the Desiccation of Rotifers, 201.

Y

292

Diatomaces, a Review of the New
Conspectus of the Families and
Genera of, 35.

, Professor Smith’s Conspectus

of the. By Captain F. H. Lana,

114.

, Professor Smith’s Conspectus

of the. By F. Krrron, 165.

, Professor Smith’s Conspectus of
the. By Professor H. L. Smrrn,
219.

Diatoms in Hot Water, 71.

——, the Bailey, at the Boston Society
of Natural History, 78.

, How to pick out in Mounting,

86.
Dolerite, Columnar, under the Micro-
scope, 71.
Draw-tubes versus Deep Eye-pieces, 85.
Dredging Results, American, 78.

E.

Ear, Larvee in the Human, 72.

Echinus (Podophora atrata), Note on
the Calcareous Parts of the Sucking
Feet of an. By CHARLES STEWART,
M.R.C.S., 55.

Eggs, Spontaneous Alteration of, 281.

Entozoon with Ova, found encysted in
the Muscles of a Sheep. By Dr.
R. L. Mappox, 245.

Eupodiscus Argus, the Structure of.
By Samvet WELLS, 110.

Eye-pieces and Objectives, on finding
Microscopically the Focal Length of.
By Dr. G. W. Royston-Picort, M.A.,
2, 51.

Eyes, Microscopical Experiments on
Insects’ Compound. By Dr. F. Grir-
FIN, 182.

F.

Foraminifera, Ehrenberg’s, 177.
Frustulina Saxonica, as a Definition
Test, 86.
G.

Gaver, Epwarp J., a New Form of
Micro-spectroscope, 1, 147.

GrermreockK, Herr P., on the Union of
Divided Tendons, 180.

Glasses, the Battle of, 239.

Glycerine, the Use of it in Microscopy,
84

Grrr, Dr. W., Microscopical Experi-
ments on Insects’ Compound-Hyes,
182.

H.

Hemoglobin in the Animal Kingdom,
the Distribution of. By Mr. E. Ray
LANKESTER, 171.

INDEX.

Hair in its Microscopical and Medico- -
Legal Aspects. By Dr. E, Hormann,
167.

Hormann, Dr. E., on Hair in its Miero-
scopical and Medico-Legal Aspects,
167.

Houtman, Mr. D. S., on a New Slide for
the Microscope, 237.

Hupson, Dr. C. T., Remarks on Mr.
Henry Davis’ Paper “On the De-
siccation of Rotifers,” 274.

I.
Insect Muscles, their Structure, 181.

J.

Jaw, Pathological Appearance of the,
after Resection of the Maxillary Bone,
180.

KS

Kidneys, Muscles in the, 121.

Kirron, F., on Professor Smith’s Con-
spectus of the Diatomacez, 165,

Ku, Dr. E., on the Rabbit's Ovum,
its Fecundation and Development,
19.

L.

Lane, Captain F. H., on Professor
Smith’s Conspectus of the Diato-
maces, 114.

Lanxester, Mr. E. Ray, on the Distri-
bution of Hemoglobin in the Animal
Kingdom, 171.

Larvex in the Human Ear, 72.

Lehrbuch der Botanik, Sachs’, 283.

Lens-Micrometer, an Improved Form
of, for Huyghenian Eye-pieces. By
Dr. G. W. Royston - Picort, M.A.,
2, 51. A

Lewis, T. R., a Heematozoon inhabit-
ing Human Blood, 120.

and D. D. CunnincHAM, a Report
of Microscopical and Philosophical
Researches into the Nature of the
Agent or Agents producing Cholera,
225.

Life, the Beginnings of. By Dr. H.
CHARLTON Bastian, M.A., 118.

Life-Slide, a Microscopical, 35.

Lycopodiacesw, a Prize for the best
Essay on the Reproduction of the,
283.

M.

Mappox, Dr. R. L., on a Simple Form
of Mount for Microscopie Objects, 12.

INDEX.

Manppox, Dr. R. L., some Remarks on a
Minute Plant found in an Incrusta-
tion of Carbonate of Lime, 141.

on an Entozoon with Ova, found
encysted in the Muscles of a Sheep,
245.

Mediterranean, Microscopic Life at the
Bed of, 33. j

Membrana Tympana, Distribution of
Blood-vessels in the, 277.

Micrographie Dictionary, the, a Guide
to the Examination and Inyvestiga-
tion of the Structure and Nature of
Microscopic Objects. 3rd Edition.
By J. W. Grirriru, M.D.; the Rev.
M. J. Berrkevry, M.A.: and T.
Rupert Jones, F.R.S., 67.

Micrometer, on an Aérial Stage. By
Dr. G. W. Royston-Picorr, 2.

Microscope, a New Slide for. By Mr.
D. S. Houman, 237.

Microscope Stand, a “ Society’s,”’ 239.

Microscopic Mounting, a Manual of,
with Notes on the Collection and
Examination of Objects. By Joun
H. Martin, 67.

Microscopie Life at the Bed of the Me-
diterranean, 33.

Microscopie Specimens, shall they be
Photographed, or Drawn by Hand?
87.

Microscopy, Pathological, 121.

Micro-spectroscope, a New Form of.
By Epwarp J. Gayer, 1, 147.

—,the History of the. By Joun
BROWNING, 66.

Mite, a, in the Ear of an Ox, 33.

Mount, a Simple Form of, for Micro-
scopic Objects. By Dr. Mappox, 12.

Mounting in Soft Balsam, 281.

Muscle, Dr. Enciemann’s View as to
the Structure of, 279.

N.

NEEDHAM, JOSEPH, on Cutting Sections
of Animal Tissues for Microscopical
Examination, 258.

Negro, Note on the Scalp of a. By
CHARLES STEWART, M.R.C.S., 54.

Nerve Fibres, the Structure of the, 76.

O.

Object-glass, a new Formula fora Micro-
scope. By F. H. Wenuam, 157.

Object-glasses, Remarks on the Aper-
ture of. By Dr. J. J. Woopwarp;
with a Note by F. H. Wenuay,
268.

Ba) Apertures of. By F, H. Wenuam,

293

Objective, an Apparatus for obtaining
the “ Balsam” Angle of any. By
Roper Tougs, U.S.A., 212.

Osmic Acid, the Use of, 86.

Ovum, the Rabbit’s, its Fecundation
and Development, 79.

Ox, a Mite in the Ear of an, 33.

i

ParFitt, EpwaArp,
plumosus, 210.
Parker, W. K., F.R.S., on the Develop-
ment of the Skull of the Tit and

Sparrow-Hawk, 6, 45.

—., Annual Address to the Royal
Microscopical Society, 97.

on the Development of the Skull

in the Genus Turdus, 102.

on the Development of the Face
in the Sturgeon (Accipenser sturio),
254.

Petasites fragrans, the Pollen of, 236.

Peziza, a Parasite on, 277.

Picort, Dr. G. W. Roysron-, on an
Aérial Stage Micrometer: an Im-
proved Form of Engraved “ Lens-
Micrometer” for Huyghenian Eye-
pieces, and on fiuding Microscopi-
cally the Focal Length of Eye-pieces
and Objectives, 2, 51.

on the Spherules which compose

the Ribs of the Scales of the Red

Admiral Butterfly (Vanessa Ata-

lanta), and the Lepisma Saccharina,

59.

on Agchisteus

—— on Spurious Appearances in Micro-
scopic Research, 112.
Plant, a Minute, found in an Incrusta-
tion of Carbonate of Lime, some
Remarks on. By Dr. R. L. Mappox,
141.
Pockiineron, W. H., on Canella alba,
and Pomegranate Barks, 234.
PowELL’s 3, Objective, 84.
President of the Royal Microscopical
Society’s Annual Address, 97.
PritcHarD, Dr. URBAN, On the Struc-
ture of the Rods of the -Cochlea in
Man and other Animals, 150.
Prize, a Ten Guinea, 283.
PROCEEDINGS OF Socinries :—
Brighton and Sussex Natural His-
tory Society, 43, 91.

Eastbourne Natural History Society,
196.

Liverpool Microscopical Society, 94.

Manchester Microscopical Society,
SNE

Medical Microscopical Society, 42,
134, 190,290.

294

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES—continued.
Oldham Microscopical Society, 193.
Reading Microscopical Society, 92.
Royal Microscopical Society, 37, 40,

89, 125, 187, 242, 289.
Sheffield Naturalists’ Club, 199.

R.

Red Admiral Butterfly and the Lepisma
Saccharina, on the Spherules which
compose the Ribs of the Scales of the.
By Dr. G. W. Roysron-Picort, 59.

RicHarpson, Dr., on the Structure of
the White Blood Corpuscle, 69.

, Dr. J. G., on a New Method of
Preserving Tumours and Urinary
Deposits during Transportation, 221.

Ropers, Dr. Witi1aM, Experiments on
the question of Biogenesis, 228.

Rotifers, Results of Experiments on the
Desiccation of. By Henry Davis,
201.

——,the Desiccation of. By H. J.
Suack, 241.
, the Desiccation of, Remarks

on Mr. Davis’ Paper on.
C. T. Hupson, 274.

Ss.

Saprolegniz, the Reproduction of the.
By Dr. A. de Bary, 179.

Sections of Animal Tissues for Micro-
scopical Examination, on Cutting.
By JosppH NEEDHAN, 208.

Septic Virus, Vulpian on. By Dr. J.
B. SANDERSON, 234.

Smrtu’s, Professor H. L., Conspectus of
the Diatomaceze, 219.

Sphagnum subsecundum, 12.

neglectum, Note on, 15.

papillosum, 214.

Austini, 215.

Sponges, Hackel’s Work on the Calca-
reous, 177.

Spurious Appearances in Microscopic
Research. By Dr. G. W. Roysron-
Pigott, 112. j

Srem, Arex. W., M.D., on the Histo-
logy and Physiology of the Corpus
Spongiosum and the Corpus Caverno-
sum, &c., &c., in Man, 16.

Srewart, CHArLes, M.R.C.S., Note on
the Scalp of a Negro, 54.

——, Note on the Calcareous Parts of

By Dr.

END OF

INDEX.

the Sucking Feet of an Echinus
(Pcdophora atrata), 55.

Sturgeon, on the Development of the
Face in the. By W. K. Parker,
E.RS., 254.

Sunlight, Monochromatic, by means of
Glass Plates, 84.

T.

Tea and Cotton, Blights on, 34.

Tendons, the Union of Divided. By
Herr P. Ginrersocg, 180.

Thysanurade, an interesting paper on,
84.

Tissues, Animal, on Cutting Sections
of. By JosrpH Nerpsam, 258.

Tit and Sparrow-Hawk, on the Deve-
lopment of the Skullin. By W.K.
PARKER, 6, 45.

Totus, Robert, an Apparatus for ob-
taining the “ Balsam” Angle of any
Objective, 212.

Trichine, Man infested with, through
eating Pork, 282.

Tumours and Urinary Deposits, a
New Method of Preserving during
Transportation. By Dr. J.
Ricwarpson, 221.

Turdus, on the Development of the
Skull in the Genus. By W. K.
ParkeEr, F.R.S., 102.

Tympanum, Histology of the, 233.

U.

Ulcers, Delhi, 78.
Urine, a Protozoon in, 280.

NG
Virus, the Septic, 236.

W.

We tts, Samvet, on the Structure of
Eupodiseus Argus, 110.

Wenuam, F. H., on the Apertures of
Object-glasses, 29, 274.

, 2 New Formula for a Microscope

Object-glass, 157.

on Binoculars for the Highest
Powers, 216.

Woopwarp, Dr. J. J., Remarks on the
Aperture of Object-glasses. With
a Note by F. H. Wrenuam, 268.

VOL. IX.

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