mate Son a a Seem g Tat meter : l A MUCK MANUAL, Tb¢ FOR 2 ITT be . FARMERS. Fa rf "A BY SAMUEL L. DANA. rt “ It is usual to help the ground with muck, and likewise to recomfort with muck, put to the roots; but to water it witk _muck-water, which is like to be more forcible, is not prac- tised.”—Bacon. * SECGND EDITION, WiTH ADDITIONS. EE eee Bu WE lite: BIXBY AND WHITING. 1843. « 7 , E. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1842, by SamuEL L. Dana, in the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. W. SCHOULER, PRINTER. TO THE CITIZENS OF LOWELL, THESE PAGES, THE PITH OF EIGHT LECTURES ON THE CHEMISTRY OF SOIL AND MANURE, DELIVERED BY THEIR REQUEST, ARE RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED BY THE AUTHOR. LowELL, Jan. 1, 1842. x 4 4 oy 4 fy it = 2 A s ? ie ek betel ® shh 5 AD ant ¥ beac ek ‘ siyha wehe ryt WyZ KS au 72 wz "¢ ? rs PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. | _ Tur dedication prefixed to this volume, shows its origin and object. By an accidental correspondence with Pro- fessor Hitchcock, the Geological Surveyor of Massachu- setts, the Author unexpectedly found himself placed before the public, as an agricultural chemist. He had no imtention of pursuing inquiries relating to agriculture, other than those arising from his researches, on the action of cow dung in calico dyeing. Attached as chemist, to the largest establishment of that art in our country,—daily, almost hourly employed in duties connected with it, he éarried forward inquiries bearing upon practical farming, im answer only, to the many questions asked him by vari- ous persons, especially by Professor Hitchcock, and Mr. Colman, the Agricultural Commissiéner of Massachusetts. Their published remarks induced some of the most active and intelligent of his fellow citizens to request of him a course of lectures on Agriculture, in the winter of 1839— 40. Perfectly unexpected as was this request, it was ac- ceded to with great diffidence. Whatever ideas the Author may have had on this subject, they assumed no systematic shape till this application, and then the lectures were prepared as they were weekly delivered. The Author’s agricultural reading had been very limited, and that confined chiefly to the chemistry of farming. 4 iv PREFACE. Perhaps this was no serious loss to his hearers, as the lectures were expected to embody chiefly, the Author’s’ peculiar views. This circumstance is alluded to, only to explain the reasons why so few references are made, by name to others. The statements were made from mem- ory, from general impressions, called up during the act of preparing the notes for the lectures. Repeatedly urged, the Author reluctantly consented to their publication. Throwing off all the dress of a lecturer, and omitting the many details and illustrations, befitting the lecture room, the manuscript notes were thrown into paragraphs.— While the main drift of the whole was preserved, that the volume might not exceed a readable size, it was conden- sed, perhaps ‘“‘even to a fault.’” The amount of this con- densation, may appear from the fact, that nearly one- third of the whole course, has here been compressed into about thirty pages. In preparing the notes for the press, the Author often found it impossible to put/his finger upon the passages of all the writers, whose opinions, he may have introduced. References to names have been gener- ally omitted, except where the freshness of the results, entitled the authors to the humble tribute which such mention could eonfer. It is hoped that no injustice has been done, by omitting the name of those, whose ideas are embodied in these pages; ideas which have been so long before the world, that they have become almost common property. The remarks relating to the geographical distribution of plants, are drawn up from a paper by De Candolle, pub- lished in one of the English journals, from the Biblio- theque universelle de Geneva. In the chapter on the physical properties of soil, the Author has derived yal- uable assistance from a paper by Professor Schubler, of Tubingen, published in the journal of the Royal Ag- ricultural Society of England. PREFACE. Vv Some of the principles of Agricultural chemistry laid down by the Author in this volume, especially the Ist, 2d and 3d, have been thought to be too broad by some per- sons, especially by a writer in the American Journal of Science, for whose opinion is felt all that profound respect, which exalted science and candor command. Upon a careful review of these principles, it seems to the Author that they are true as general expressions of facts. They may not be more limited and guarded than they already are, without destroying their force. Less limited than they are would remove them farther from truth. It was hoped before a second edition should be called for, that _the analysis undertaken by the writer, of the soil of pine barrens, to ascertain its quantity of alkali, would have been finished. The first edition of the following work having been wholly exhausted within six months from its publication, and large orders remaining unsupplied, anew edition goes to press, with fewer additions and improve- ments than the Author intended. It may be observed that this edition is enlarged, it is hoped, enriched, by several pages of new matter. Among the principal additions are several articles on manures, and a sketch of the cele- brated Mulder’s researches on geine, which will be found in the appendix to the fourth chapter. The whole has been carefully revised; a few unimportant errors have been discovered and corrected ; a fuller table of contents, and a copious index—the last, prepared by the kindness of the Author’s ingenious young friend, Mr. Samuel Webber Jr., are added. The author would here publicly express his thanks to the editors of the various scientific and literary journals, who have inserted notices of his work, in their various publications. He feels under great obligations to the ed- itors of the different agricultural newspapers, for the favor- able opinion, they have, as far as the Author knows, uni- vi PREFACE. versally expressed of this volume. Coming from all parts. of the country, unsolicited,and from writers personally unknown to the author, he deems their opinion the best index of the value placed upon his humble labors by the agricultural community, 5. L.D. Lower, Oct. 1842. 4 CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. GEoLocy or Som, : : : sob a4) ec) spimge FE Objects of agricultural sth ites objects and nature of agricultural geology ; definition of the terms, primitive and secondary; rocks have one common origin; the terms primary and secondary soil are. useless; rocks and soil are to be classed by their origin and distribu- tion ; in their origin all rocks are igneous or by fire ; chemical constitution of all rocks similar; there is one rock and one soil; chemical constitution of rocks does not affect the vegetation over them; geographical dis- tribution of plants; the laws which govern it; rocks do not form the soil which covers them; general uniform- ity of chemical composition of soil. CHAPTER II. | Cuemicat Constitution or Rocks anp Sorts, : 24 _ Different views taken of rocks by geologists, mineralogists and chemists ; farmer takes only the chemical view; nature of agricultural mineralogy ; farmer must under- stand the results of the analysis of minerals; division of the twelve substances forming rocks, into silicates, urets, salts—explanation of these terms; chemistry of soil; chemical notation ; the three laws of affinity ex- plained; constitution of simple minerals composing rocks ; rocks are masses of silicates; the whole is di- vided into three classes only. CHAPTER III. PROPERTIES AND Cunsienan ACTION OF THE a or Bore, :": 5 ye eee ‘The common: eich of the atiats of wilichbeal charac- ters of the class urets; particular description of sili- con, or the base of flinty earth ; composition of granite Vill CONTENTS. and the soil which it forms; quantity of alkalies in barren plains; all soil contains lime, alkali, &c.,— enough for any crop grown on it; action of air and moisture upon soil, preduces salts; origin of sulphate and phosphate of lime in soil; all soil contains these substances. CHAPTER IV. Or tue Oreanic Constituents or Soir, : : : : 50 Number of substances forming plants; what the organic constituents of soil are ; they are formed by the action of the living plant ; plants draw their inorganic constit- uents ready formed from the soil; two great divisions of the elements of soil into the organic and inorganic ; soil composed of either division alone, barren; of the laws of isomprphism, which affect agriculture ; of geine, its nature, properties and relations; it is divided into two classes, that which contains, and that which does not contain nitrogen ; geine is essential to agriculture ;_ of the chemical history of geine, and recent researches of Mulder on this subject. CHAPTER V. OF THE MUTUAL ACTION OF THE ORGANIC AND INOR- GAaNic ELEMENTS OF Soit, : : : oS ae Theoretical and practical farmers both aim at the same object; the action of the elements of soil to be consid- ered in two ways—Ist, the mutual chemical action of the organic and inorganic parts—2nd, the influence of growing plants on this action ; of the importance of salts to this action ; of the action of carbonic acid and the carbonates upon the silicates of soil; of the modifica- tion produced upon this action by the presence of life ; of catalysis or the action of presence, by which life acts ; of the action of mineral manures in agriculture ; their earthy or alkaline part always acts one way ; their acid part produces differences of action; illustration and explanation of theaction of salts or mineral manures ; of the action of nitre; of lime; of ashes; of the com- position of leached and unleached ashes. CHAPTER VI. MANURE,: : : iG eqeeen, sii Manures contain all the laldmnoints wie lainds want— are divided into three classes; choice and determina- CONTENTS. ix tion of a standard of value for manures; nitrogen de- termines the value of manure ; pure cow dung the type of all other manures; its composition and analysis; yearly produce of salts and geine by one cow; the ac- tion of manure referred to the joint effect of all its components; its action due chiefly to its ammonia; origin of this in dung; of the composition and value of horse dung; of the composition and value of night soil ; of hog manure ; of sheep manure; of the quantity of sheep manure from 1000 sheep daily ; of the composi tion and effects of guano ; its actual money value to the farmer; of poudrette; of the value of the droppings of domestic fowls; of the composition of fish, flesh, fowl, gristle, skin, sinews, &c.; they allafford mineral, vege- table, and animal salts ; of the composition of the great bulk of animal bodies, fibrine, albumen, caseine ; vege- tables afford similar products; these similar and identi- cal products form proteine ; of its composition and value as a manure ; of the value of sinews, gristle, skin, hair, horns, nails, wool, and feathers; all animal and vegeta- ble products form two classes, that which does and that which does not contain nitrogen; of the composition and value of bones as a manure; of fats and oils; of soot; of the spent ley; of artificial spent ley ; of liquid animal manures ; of the peculiar principle which gives them their value ; its analysis, composition and action ; of the analysis of cattle urine—its value as a manure; urine of the horse, sheep, and hog; of human urine— its value and composition. CHAPTER VII. ArtiricraL Manure anp Irrigation, : : : : 160 Of the nature, analysis and composition of peat, swamp muck and pond mud; what is wanting to give these the value of cow dung is alkali; of the relative val- ue of ammonia, potash, and soda, ashes and which may be used for this purpose; of the quantity in which these may be added to acord of peat; of the compost of peat with animal manure; of the various substances used for forming artificial manure with peat, and their relative value ; of the principles of irrigation; of the action of pure and impure water ; of the composition of the deposites from freshets; the nature, action, and value of rain and snow, in agriculture ; ‘“* snow the poor x CONTENTS. man’s manure,’’—how far this is true; of paring and © burning; of turning in green and dry crops. CHAPTER VIII. PuysicAL PROPERTIES OF Sort, : : : : : : : 190 Great differences in soil depend upon physical not upon chemical properties; physical characters of soil are de- — pendent on its relation to heat, moisture, consistency, — and electrical state; in all these relations, geine acts _ the chief part; of the quantity of water produced by the decomposition and waste of geine; the amount | evaporated per acre from this source; the quantity evaporated from woodland, exceeds the amount of rain which falls; of the waste of geine caused by this evap- oration of water; of the proportion of carbon which is derived from the soil, and from the air by forest trees. —— CHAPTER I. GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 1. AcricutturaL Chemistry aims to explain all the actions of earth, air, and water, upon plants. It refers to all their chemical relations, to the geology, mineralogy and chemistry of soil. 2. Agricultural geology explains the relations which soil bears to plants, and the manner in which that affects vegetation. 3. Agricultural geology confines itself to facts. It digs into the earth, observes what composes that ; how its components act upon plants. Conversant only with facts, or logical deductions from these, it leaves to geology proper, the vast mass of observa- tions, supported by the highest modern science, which teaches the origin, mode of formation, origi- nal condition, and successive changes which our globe has undergone. 4. The terms, primitive and secondary, used by geologists, are almost parts of common language; yet, need to be explained to the farmer. 5. Large tracts of all extensive countries are composed of rocks of a granite texture. This needs no definition, Such rocks having been observed to underlay all others, in the scale of rocks com- posing the earth’s crust, were called primary. It was supposed that these were first formed. Out 12 GEOLOGY OF SOIL. of the ruins of these, no matter when or how ruined, other rocks have been made, called secondary. The ruins of the primitive rocks have been trans- ported by water, and then gradually deposited layer upon layer. Under immense pressure, these layers of mud, sand, fine gravel, rolled stones, &c., have been hardened into solid rock ; forming sandstones, slates, or even rocks presenting the crystaline struc- ture, or texture of granite, by the action. of heat, which the facts of modern geology teach, exists in the interior of our globe. 6. This internal heat is supposed to be the cause of volcanoes, and the primitive rocks themselves, to have been the ejection, under circumstances un- known, of the melted mass of the globe ; ejections, similar in kind, to those of modern ‘lava, but greater in degree. 7. Intermediate between modern lava, and prim- itive rocks, and actually passing into either, is a large class of ancient volcanic rocks, called trappe- an; such are basalt, trap, and highly crystalline porphyry. 8. However named and classed are the rocks of the earth’s surface, they have one common origin, the molten matter of the globe. Hence, having a common origin, their ultimate chemical constituents are similar. If granitic rocks have a certain chem- ical constitution, then sandstone, slate, &c., having been formed from worn out and worn down oranit- ic rocks, have a constitution chemically like them. 9. To the agriculturist, the terms primary and secondary, are useless. Equally so are all distine- tions of soil based on these terms. : 10. Soil is the loose material covering rocks, and often is included in that term. It is supposed to have been formed from decayed rocks. Both are GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 13 to be classed by their origin. The origin of rocks refers not only to the mode of their first formation, but to their subsequent arrangement. The origin of all rocks, geology teaches, is from the molten matter of the globe. These have been, afterwards, im some cases, removed by water, and in part re- modified by heat (5). Referring rocks to their or- igin, they are divisible into two great classes. Ist. ‘Those formed by fire. 2d. Those formed by water. il. This division relates both to the origin and distribution. In their origin all rocks are truly igne- ous or by fire. In their distribution they are aque- ous or by water. ‘This is the only division neces- sary to the farmer. It is the division taught and demanded by Agricultural Geology. 12. The first class includes all the highly crys- talline rocks, granite, gneiss, sienite, greenstone, por- phyry ; it includes also, basalt, lava, voleanic sand. The products of volcanoes, whether ancient or modern, agricultural geology places in the same class, including thus all that portion which forms the largest part of the earth’s surface. 13. ‘The second class-includes sand, clay, gravel, rounded and rolled stones of all sizes, pudding- stone, conglomerates, sandstones, slates. When these various substances are examined, a large part of sand is found to be composed essentially of the ingredients of the igneous rocks. This is true also, of sandstone,-slate, of conglomerates, of bowlders. 14. There isa large deposit, or formation in some districts, composed almost wholly of one of the chemical constituents of the igneous rocks, united to air. The constituent is lime, the air is carbonic acid, forming by their union, carbonate of lime. Marble, limestone, chalk, belong to this formation. 14 GEOLOGY OF SOIL. These are not to be ranked as original igneous pro- ducts, subsequently distributed by water. The lime, originally a part of igneous rocks, has been sepa- rated and combined with air, by animals or plants, | by a living process, called secretion. ‘The modern production of carbonate of lime, is still going on under the forms of shells and corals. Though belonging to neither division, the subject will be simplified by referring limestone to the second class of rocks ; but it is truly a salt, and it will be dis- cussed hereafter. 15. The chemical constitution of .all rocks is similar. If rocks are divided into two classes, the first composed of those usually called primary, such as granite, gneiss, mica slate, porphyry; and the second class, composed of rocks, usually called trappean, as basalt, greenstone, trap, then the great difference in their chemical constitution is this: The first, or granitic class, contains about 20 per cent. more of silex, and from 3 to 7 per cent. less of lime and magnesia and iron, than the second or trappean class. . | 16. If the language of geology is borrowed, and rocks which present the appearance of layers, or a “stratified structure,” are divided into two classes, fossiliferous and non-fossiliferous, or those which do, or do not contain remains of ‘animals or plants, it will be found that the fossiliferous are neither granitic nor trappean, yet are they to be classed with the last, agreeing with them, in containing less silica, and more lime, magnesia, and alumina. 17. The stratified non-fossiliferous rocks agree in chemical composition with the granitic, and the fossiliferous with the trappean and volcanic. 18. The trappean and fossiliferous contain the most lime and magnesia ; the granitic and non-fos- GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 15 siliferous, the most silex. The great difference in chemical composition, between the two classes, is produced by lime and magnesia,—two substances, which, more than all others, have been thought to influence the character of soil. 19. The amount of this difference is about from 4 to 7 per cent.; yet notwithstanding this, the gen- eral chemical constitution of all rocks approaches so nearly to identity, that this may be laid down as the first principle in agricultural chemistry, that there is ONE ROCK, CONSEQUENTLY ONE SOIL. 20. To the farmer, all soil is primary. The question then arises, how do rocks and soil affect vegetation? As a consequence of the first propo- sition, it may be laid down as the second principle of agricultural chemistry, RocKS DO NOT AFFECT THE VEGETATION WHICH COVERS THEM. 21. This is opposed to the geological doctrine of the times, and may seem to be opposed to the statement in section 18. The difference there stat- ed, may be thought to produce corresponding ef- fects in vegetation. ‘This would be true if rocks - exerted any influence on soils, due to their chemi- cal constitution. A survey of the geographical distribution of plants, used for food, will show that the common doctrine of the chemical influence of rocks on vegetation, is not so well supported, as to be considered an established principle. It is not intended to deny that rocks do, by their physical constitution, affect vegetation. Unless it is shown that their physical depends upon their chemical constitution, the principle must be admitted as a general truth. 22. The plants used for food are cultivated on every variety of rock foundation which the earth presents. Their cultivation is limited neither by 16 GEOLOGY OF SOIL. granitic nor trappean, by fossiliferous nor non-fossil- iferous rocks. ‘Their product varies not more on different, than on the same geological formation. Every where, over every variety of rock, the culti- vation of the food-bearing plants, repays the labor of the farmer. 23. Surveying Massachusetts, it is evident the grain crops are not influenced by the peculiar rock formations over which they are grown; for im this State, with the exception of modern volcanic rocks, all the various formations which the earth presents, are found. Yet no difference in the quality and quantity of crops of rye, oats, barley, wheat, Indian corn, is found, which can a attributed to diffusa geological tracts. 24. All plants have a natural limit, a peculiar re- gion, in which, unaided by the human race, they flourish and spread spontaneously. -'The smaller the limit of this natural boundary, the more difficult is the cultivation of the plant. Yet we find that the natural boundary is passed, and so plants come to live in an artificial region. There is a natural, and there is an artificial ‘‘ habitat,” or region ; and this last is either horticultural, or agricultural. The first is unlimited, the second is limited by the great external circumstances of temperature and moisture. 25. The extreme north and south limits, which bound the cultivation of the food-bearing plants, are determined wholly by physical, physiological and social causes. ‘Temperature is the great agent, which limits the agricultural ‘‘ habitat” of the grain- bearing plants. 26. The distribution of plants is governed by the two following laws: lst. The polar agricultural limits are bounded by lines passing through places of equal summer heat. GEOLOGY OF SOIL. Ve - 2d. The equatorial limits, by lines of equal winter heat. | These lines are called respectively, isotheral, and isochimenal. They by no means coincide. They often cut each other at right angles, and generally, from about 45 degrees north latitude,—they are parallel neither to one another, nor to the latitude. . They are often highly curved. And-now for the proof of these general laws. Beginning with barley, the grass or grain which has been cultivated the farthest north; its fields are found in the extremity of Scotland, in the Orkneys and Shetland Isles, 61 degrees N.; in the Feroe. Isl- ands, between 61 and 62 1-2 degrees N.; in Western Lapland, near North Cape, in latitude 70 degrees ; on the borders of the White Sea, in Western Russia, between 67 and 68 degrees, and near to Archan- gel, in Eastern Russia, about 66 degrees, in Central Siberia, the limit of barley is between 58 and 59 degrees N. There are no extended observations of the temperature of the northern portions of our own continent, and therefore the limit of barley in Northern America is left undefined. But its Euro- pean line wiil probably define that which will limit grain cultivation in America. - Tracing a line through the points above named, it is the northern boundary of all the cereals, or grains. A little beyond this line is the boundary of the potato, and the belt between the two, is remark- able. It is the zone between agriculture, and fish- ing, and hunting, between races of men, subsisting on animal, and on vegetable diet, and those whose chief food is animal. The northern cultivation of barley is bounded, if its course is traced, by a very curved line. Is this determined by geological causes, or do causes purely physical erect-a barrier 18 GEOLOGY OF SOIL. to its farther northward advance? The answer will be found, in tracing the temperature of the sea- sons of the different places, through which the limit ~ of the northern cultivation of barley passes. It will be evident that the line of this limit is isotheral, for the mean temperature, Fahrenheit, is as follows: Latitude. Year. Winter. Summer. Feroe Isles, 61—62° -+-45° +39° +519 W. Lapland, 70 +33°8 +21:2 +46°2 Russia, at the mouth of the White Sea, 66—68° +32 +102—8°8-+ 46:3. Casting the eye on this table, it is evident that the annual and the winter temperature have little in- fluence on the barley limit, and that a mean sum- mer temperature from 46 to 47 is the only in- dispensable physical condition, to the cultivation of barley. On the Atlantic islands, a mean tem- perature from 3 to 4 degrees higher is necessary, which compensates for excessive humidity. It is remarkable, that all the cereals have failed in Ice- land, though its mean temperature is above that necessary for barley. Nor is this owing to its ge- ological structure. In that, it agrees with the fer- tile shores of the Mediterranean. It is volcanic. So far as nitrogen, and carbonic acid, and ammonia, may be supposed to be evolved from the earth, and to contribute to the growth of grain, Iceland should equal fertile Italy. But such is not the fact, and it goes to prove that rocks affect very little the crops grown over them, even when the great physical element, temperature, is as high as is necessary. | That grains fail in Iceland, is due to the excessively tempestuous rains with which that country is visit- GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 19 ed. If then, the limits of barley are defined by an isotheral line of 46 1-2 degrees in Europe, that will also limit its cultivation in America. So far as observation has extended, this is true, and the line of boundary is equally curved, and winding. If a similar table for the limits of wheat is constructed, by drawing a line through the most northern places, where this grain has been cultivated, the physical conditions, essential to its cultivation, will be found as follows : Mean temperature, Fahrenheit, of the Latitude. Year. Summer. Winter. Scotland, (Inverness) 58° -+46°3 +-57:°3 + 36:5 Norway, (Drontheim)64° -+-39°5 +59 -+23°5 Sweden, 62° +39°5 +59 -+23°5 St. Petersburgh, 60:°25-+38 -+60°8 +15°6 North latitude 64 degrees, appears then, to be the utmost limit of wheat. It is evident by inspec- tion, that this is not determined by the cold of win- ter ; for spring wheat would not be affected by it ; and even if sown in autumn, in these far northern regions, the seeds would be effectually preserved from the rigors of winter, by that thick mantle of snow, which becomes thicker and more lasting to- wards the north. ‘The temperature of the air exerts no influence on seeds of plants buried under snow. Nor does the mean temperature of the year exert any effect; it is seen ranging 9 degrees, while the summer temperature varies only 3 1-2 degrees. The summer temperature alone defines the limit of northern wheat cultivation, and this is an isotheral line of 57-4 degrees. Yet it is found, that there are places, where, as in Russia, the means of spring 20 GEOLOGY OF SOIL. and autumn, both depending on that of winter in part, are too low to allow wheat to.be raised under this line of 57:4 degrees. In truth, the relation of climate to cultivation cannot be accurately deter- — mined without observations on the mean tempera- ture of the days which elapse between sowing and harvest, and to this point the philosophic farmer should direct his attention. In our country, the isotheral line of 57-4 degrees, starting from Labra- _ dore, 51 degrees, and passing between Hudson’s Bay and Lakes Superior and Huron, 50 degrees, | then turning north it approaches 58 degrees. At * Cumberland House, 54 degrees north, Capt. Frank- lin found fields of barley, wheat, Indian corn. The — line approaching the Pacific ocean turns more southerly to compensate the increasing humidity. As the limits of barley mark the boundary~between the races of shepherds, and hunters and fishers, and thus presents itself in a moral view, so the limit of wheat becomes interesting from coinciding in some parts with that of fruit trees, as apples and pears, — and also with that of the oak. The whole aspect not only of agriculture, but also of the orchard and forest changes at once on approaching, the isothe- ral line of 57:4 degrees, the northern limit of wheat. It would be easy to extend these remarks to rye, still the staple food of a large part of the popula- tion of Europe, and to oats, little used for food for man out of the “land o’ cakes,” yet growing in Norway, as high as latitude 65 degrees. Each of these grains has a distinct isotheral line parallel to that of wheat and barley. Indian corn and the po- tato have each its isotheral line. ‘Turning to the equatorial limits of the grains it will be found, that extreme heat arrests their cultivation., Observations in these regions, and experiments peformed by pro- GEOLOGY OF SOIL. » 21 found vegetable physiologists, confirm this state- ment. They have proved that the seeds of the food-bearing plants, even after germination has be- gan, can support greater degrees of drought and heat, than ever occur in the hottest climates. The grains all germinate in a soil of a temperature from 104 to 105 degrees, and require at least from 116 to 120 degrees to arrest this process. Barley ceas- es to germinate at the lowest temperature. After barley, follows wheat, then rye. Indian corn en- dures the highest heat, viz: 120 degrees, before its germination is arrested. ‘The grains flourish under a mean annual temperature of from 77 to 80 1-2 degrees. Defining their equatorial limits, they are bounded not by lines of equal summer, but equal winter temperature ; the reverse of their polar limits. Hence, climate, always determines the sowing season. In Bengal, wheat, barley, oats, , are sown in October and harvested in’ March and April, while rice and maize are sown in May, to be harvested as with us in October. It is this line of equal winter temperature, or rather that of the cool- est months, which allows the grains to be cultivated in many places within the torrid zone, and the line of 68 to 70 degrees, which constitutes the tropical limits of wheat culture, varies between 20 and 23 degrees latitude. The other grains enduring from 5 to 7 degrees lower temperature, are found in higher latitudes. 27. The wide belt of our globe, comprised with- in these limits, extending from 20 to 70 degrees north latitude, presents every variety of geological structure ; yet, nowhere, in all this space is: the quantity or quality of crops affected, by the chem- ical nature of the underlaying rocks. 22 GEOLOGY OF SOIL. 28. A similar principle governs the growth and cultivation of the grain-bearing plants on mountains. Their limits are found at heights, which correspond to the latitude, which marks the isotheral line. In ~ the Swiss Alps, the grains cease growing at the fol- lowing heights. Wheat at 3400 ft. corresponding to lat. 64 deg. Oats...) **; 3500,“ 6. MB “ Rye 73 4600 66 73 (74 67 74 Barley *“ A800 “< (4 66 70 66 This shows a beautiful correspondence between latitude and altitude, and leads a step farther in the proof of this principle, that rocks do not affect the vegetation which covers them. 29. The space which has thus been surveyed, presents amid great diversity of rocks, a singular identity in chemical composition of the soil. These facts lead to the third principle of agricultural chem- istry, ROCKS HAVE NOT FORMED THE.SOIL WHICH COVERS THEM. 30. Everywhere, with the exception of the tops of some mountains, the rocks of the globe are cov- ered, from a few inches, to some hundred feet in depth, with gravel, sand, clay, rolled stones, some- times alternately with each other, sometimes in con- fused heaps. ‘The best attested, and most univer- sally admitted fact of geology, is, that the loose ma- terials of our globe have been transported, from a few, to many hundred miles from their original sit- uation. With a few exceptions, the soil which now covers rocks, has been derived from places distant, and from rocks distinct, from those on which it now reposes. ‘This is peculiarly true of soilon limestone districts, which does not contain more lime than the soil reposing on granite. 31. Transportation of soil, isa fact so well estab- — GEOLOGY OF SOIL. oO lished, that it needs only to be mentioned. There has been a universal mingling of the loose material, soil, derived from worn down and mingled rocks. 32. The same uniformity of chemical composi- tion characterizes soil, which characterized rocks ; that is, great similarity, but not identity, and it is on limited patches only, that soil partakes decidedly of the character of the underlaying rocks. 33. The extensive analyses of soil, executed by the geological surveyor of Massachusetts, taken from every variety of rock formation, present a re- markable uniformity, both of chemical constitution, and mineralogical composition of the earthy ingre- dients. ‘The same truth is presented by the analy- sis of soil from various parts of the globe. It isa conclusion, warranted by the widest examination, that the mineral constituent of 100 parts of the soil of our globe, is composed of sand or silicates about 89-28; salts of lime, about 00°85.—The terms salts and silicates, will be explained in the next chapter. 24 CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. CHAPTER II. CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION OF ROCKS, AND SOIL. 34. TxHE geologist, the mineralogist, the chemist, each views rocks with a different eye. The geolo- gist regards the rocky mass; the mineralogist, the simple minerals composing the rock; the chemist, the simple elements which compose the minerals. 35. Elements are substances which have not as yet been proved to be compound, as oxygen and hydrogen among the gases, or iron and lead among metals. Minerals are called simple which have certain definite, external, physical characters, though they may be composed of several elements. Rocks are called compound, which consist of sey- eral simple minerals, as granite which consists of quartz, felspar, and mica. 36. The only point*of view which the farmer takes, is that of the chemist; his pole-star is “ fruit and progress ;”’ and his philosophy, guided by this, teaches the nature and mode of action of the sev- eral elements of minerals. Without a knowledge of the chemical constitution of minerals, the science which classifies and labels these is useless. The mineralogist merely names his mineral, labels it, and places it in his cabinet; yet a farmer must know a few of these names, and talk to the miner- alogist in terms which he can understand. He CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 25 must give to the assemblage of elements which composes a mineral, that name which the mineral- ogist bestows on the assemblage of external char- acters, which determines the species. 37. The mineralogy of agriculture is no more than this, that the farmer be able, ever to connect with a certain name, a certain chemical composi- tion. Hearing mica (which is isinglass,) named, he immediately connects with that, the chemical properties which belong to the species, as he would connect with the term isinglass, the physical prop- erties of that substance ; such as transparency, di- visibility into thin plates, which are flexible and elastic. 38. The amount of this mineralogical knowledge is very limited. Seven simple minerals compose all rocks, viz: quartz, mica, felspar, hornblende, talc, serpentine, carbonate of lime. Other miner- als are found in, but these seven compose all rocks termed geological formations, and which form the crust of the globe. 39. The chemical constitution of rocks, the na- ture, properties and relations of their elements, prove to be of the highest value, when it is known, that the elements of these seven minerals are also the earthy parts of all plants. The farmer should therefore be so far a chemist, as to understand the xesults to which-the analysis of minerals conducts. | 40. The number of elements which chemistry has detected, is fifty-five. Of these, some are me- tallic, others are earthy, others inflammable, orwol- atile. Of the fifty-five elements, thirteen chiefly compose all rocks. This includes the elements of water, or oxygen and hydrogen. Excluding the last, and retaining oxygen in its various compounds, there remain twelve substances only in rocks. Of 26 CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. the earthy and metallic, eight; and of the volatile and combustible, four only are found in soil. These all are called by names so familiar, that their enumeration conveys at once an idea of their distinguishing properties. These twelve substances, are divided, for the convenience of the farmer, into three classes. First, silicates—second; urets—third, salts. The term urets, is here only used provis- ionally, and it is by no means intended to burthen science with a new name, an act to be deprecated, where an old one will as well answer. But there is no old term, which includes the substances, to which, in the present subject, reference must be frequently made. It is more convenient to use a new term defined, than to enumerate by name, several substances, whose action in agriculture has a common character, whenever this action is men- tioned. The word inflammable, or acidifiable com- bustible, the usual chemical designation might be used. But the farmer-wants some more expressive term, which, while it conveys all that is intended by the common word, shall also remind him of the » peculiar character of those compounds with metals, and with each other, which by common consent, end in “uret.”” This word, from the Latin, “‘uror,” to be burned, seems well adapted to express the character of inflammability, while, by its addition to carbon, &c., it forms the common chemical des- ignation of the class when combined with metals. 41. The substances which make up all rocks, may be conveniently divided into four pairs, which are, the alkalies, potash, soda; the alkaline earths, lime, and magnesia ; the earths, silex, and alumina ; and the metals, iron, and manganese. ‘These form the first class, or silicates. \ \ \ \ CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. Q7 42. The silicates are formed into two divisions ; first, that with acid, and second, those with alkaline properties ; potash, soda, lime, magnesia, iron and manganese, have alkaline properties; silex, acid properties. Silex iscommonly considered an earth, but truly it is not; and alumina, though generally acting as an alkali, sometimes acts as acid, as does silex or silica. 43. The inflammables, sulphur, phosphorus, car- bon, and silicon, united with the bases of the alka- line division of the silicates, form the second class, or urets. 44, The four elements (43) united to oxygen, form acids. These acids, united to the alkaline division of silicates, form the third class, or salts. 45. The principles (41, 42, 43, 44) may be con- veniently tabulated. Twelve substances form all rocks, and they are divided into three classes—silicates, urets, salts. FIRST DIVISION. Ist.—Silicates. Acid, Silex. di ty SECOND DIVISION. eg Alkaline—Potash. Soda. a Lime. Magnesia. Alumina. Iron. Manganese. 2d.—Urets. pee | United with the 7 Sulphur, bases of division 2d, Phosphorus, f elass Ist. Silicon, 3d.—Salts. Urets, with oxygen form acids, and these, with division 2d, class Ist, form salts. The 28 CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. silicates are truly salts, but are distinguished not only by their stony, earthy appearance, but by their great insolubility in water. Carbonate of lime is a salt, with the ‘insolubility, and earthy character of the silicates, but in agri- culture it acts only as a salt, and will be treated of as such, and not as a rock formation. (14.) 46. The terms, salts, urets, silicates, may need a further explanation. Pearlashes and vinegar are well known substances. One is an alkali, the other an acid. Pearlash, has the alkaline properties of a bitter, burning taste, the power of changing vege- table blues to green, and pinks to blues. Vinegar has the acid property of sour taste, of causing a hissing or effervescence, when poured on pearlash. This action ceasing, there are neither acid taste nor alkaline properties. The characters of the vinegar and pearlash have-disappeared. These substances have united, they have formed a new substance called a salt. Their properties are neutralized, and lost in the salt. This is no longer either pearlash or vinegar. 47. The fact to be observed in the action (46) is, that an acid and alkali mutually neutralize each other. ‘The vinegar is said, in this case, in coms mon language, to * kill” the pearlash. So soda, potash, lime, magnesia, iron, and manganese would all be killed or neutralized by vinegar; they would all be dissolved by it, and lose their distinguishing characters. In ithe case, a neutral salt would be formed. Such a class of salts, is termed acetates, being ‘formed of alkalies, alkaline earths, or metal- lic oxides united with acetic acid. 48. Silex or silica, or the earth of figs as it has been called, is in its pure state a perfectly white, insipid, tasteless powder. In various combinations CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 29 \ of minerals, it unites with the alkaline class (42, 45,) forming neutral salts, termed silicates, from the silicic acid, for silica is an acid formed by the uret silicon with oxygen. ‘Thus is formed, as in the case of vinegar, or acetic acid, (47) a large class in which are found silicates of soda, of potash, of lime, of magneisa, of alumina, of iron, and of manganese. ‘This class forms the great bulk of all rocks and soil. 49. The seven substances last mentioned (48) are all metals united to oxygen. ‘They are metal- lic oxides. If the oxygen is removed, and replac- ed by carbon, sulphur, phosphorus or silicon, com- binations are formed, called sulphurets, carburets, phosphurets, siliciurets. 50. Urets are combinations of unmetallic com- bustibles, with metals in their pure, or unoxidated state. 51. Salts are combinations of unmetallic com- bustibles, with oxygen, and the metals in their rust- ed or oxidated state. 52. When the combustibles, carbon, &c., (48) are united with oxygen, they become acid ; thus are formed carbonic, sulphuric, phosphoric acids. When these acids unite to the alkaline class, (42) salts are formed, called carbonates, sulphates, phos- phates. 53. Hence, when a substance is named, for ex- ample, sulphate of lime, a definite idea of the na- ture of this is conveyed. It is, on the principles stated, at once known to be a salt, that is a sulphate, that is, sulphur and oxygen united to lime. So too phosphate of lime is seen to be a salt of lime. 54. If the thirteen elements, which enter into the composition of rocks, had each an equal ten- dency to unite with the other; or in other words, if 30 CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. their affinities were mutual, then there would be as many different combinations as it would be possible to form with thirteen different substances. If these combined in all proportions, then the possible num- ber of combinations, would be. infinite. 55. This can never be. Affinity is not equally powerful. There is election or choice among the particles of inanimate matter. When the Creator impressed this property upon matter, He also limit- ed its combinations. He assigned to each element power to combine with other elements, only in fixed, definite, invariable proportions. He gave to each its form, weight, and measure. And thus were limited, the number of combinations, and the pro- portions fixed, in which these combinations should ever, from the dawning, to the end of time, occur. The Genius of modern chemistry, has taught, that all bodies combine, only by infinitely small parti- cles. Holding her balance over invisible elements, she has taught, that each can be weighed. It is the relative, not the absolute weight, which chemistry determines. The mode may be thus il- lustrated: Take 9 lbs. of water, pass its steam over a known weight of pure iron turnings, heated red hot in an earthern tube. No steam escapes from the tube, only air which may be inflamed and burned. It is hydrogen gas, one of the constituents of water. That liquid has been decomposed. ‘What has become of its oxygen? It has united with, and oxidated the iron. What proportion of the 9 lbs. of water did it form? 8-9ths. If the iron is weighed, it will be found heavier in propor- tion of 8 lbs. for every 9 lbs. of water evaporated. Whatever is the proportion of water used, 8-9ths are oxygen. Deducting from the 9 lbs. of water, 8 oxygen, the balance 1 is hydrogen. ‘These are CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 31 . respectively the weights of their combining pro- portions. Chemical theory supposes combination occurs, only by the ultimate, indivisible particles or atoms of matter. Hence, the combining number, is the relative weight of these atoms, referred to some one as unity. In these pages, hydrogen is considered as 1, or unity. As the atoms may be thus expressed by numbers, it is customary in re- ferring to chemical compounds, to speak only of the number of atoms, in which each element enters _ into their composition. The modern system of chemical notation, substitutes for the name of the elements its first, or two first letters, and writes after it the number of atoms, existing in any com- pound, as the powers of roots, are expressed arith- metically by exponents. Where only single atoms combine, their exponents are omitted. Thus, H is hydrogen, O is oxygen; then water is H O, that is, one atom each of hydrogen and oxygen. C is carbon, O oxygen; then C O® is carbonic acid, that is, 1 carbon and 2 of oxygen. ‘The combining number of carbon is 6, and of oxygen 8, then 1 carbon =6, and 2 oxygen (8 X 2) =16. ‘Then the atomic number of carbonic acid is 22, (64-1622. ) One little conversant with chemistry is apt to con- found the combining number with the number of atoms, especially when the first is called ‘ atomic number.” A distinction is to be here remembered, the atomic number is one thing, the number of atoms another. When itis said, that water is com- posed of 8 parts of oxygen to 1 part of hydro- gen, by weight, an ultimate fact only is expressed. When it is said that water'is composed of an atom of oxygen united to an atom of hydrogen, we ex- press a theoretical opinion. The difficulty lies, in understanding how water can be both a combina- 32 CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. tion of 1 to 1, and of 1 to 8; that 9 of water can yet be only composed of 1 to 1. This discrepancy vanishes, where the distinction is remembered, be- tween the combining or atomic number, and the number of atoms. Water is an example, where single atoms are united. But cases continually oc- cur where the combining number of one body unites to more than one combining proportion of another. In this case, as the atoms are indivisible, combina- tion can occur only, by twice, thrice, &c., the quantity of that of the first compound ; for instance, 1 carbon may be combined with 1 oxygen, form- ing oxide of carbon, or with 2 of oxygen, and form carbonic acid. There is, and can be no interme- diate step. Having determined the combining atomic number of oxygen, that of all other bodies, may be found by determining how much of each is necessary exactly to unite with 8 of oxygen. For instance, the iron used in the experiment of decom- posing water, increases in weight ; if it is all equal-— ly oxidated, it is found to increase 8 lbs. for every 28 lbs. of iron used. If therefore, 28 lbs. of iron are used, and 9 lbs. of water, the iron may be wholly oxidated by the 8 lbs. of oxygen of the wa- ter. Deducting this from the total weight of the oxide of iron, 36 lbs. the balance is the combining or atomic weight of iron. The sum of 8-+-25=386 is therefore the atomic weight of oxide of iron. The atomic weight of all compounds is the sum of the atomic weight of their constituents. ‘The num- ber of atoms in any compound, whose proportional constituents by weight are given, is found by divid- ing each by its respective atomic weight. For in- stance, the composition of carbonic acid above, gives in 22 parts, 6 of carbon, and 16 of oxygen. Each divided by its atomic weight, gives 1 carbon, CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. ap i 2 of oxygen, =22 of carbonic acid. So in a com- pound of several elements, having their proportions per cent. given; each divided by its atomic num- ber, gives the relativé proportion of the atoms. These reduced to simplest terms, and affixed to the letters or symbols of the elements, constitute what is called the chemical formula of this compound. Three laws discovered by multiplied observation, confirmed by repeated experiments, govern all chemical science. ‘These laws are: Ist. Bodies combine only in definite proportion. iis HS, e multiple proportion. a TC *¢ equivalent proportion. These are the laws of chemical combination. The atomic theory attempts to, and does account for them. Once admit the principle, that bodies combine only by indivisible atoms ; these laws fol- low as consequences. If bodies only unite by atoms, atom to atom, their composition must be definite. Ifa body unites an atom to two or more of another, then as atoms are indivisible, the second or other added portion, must be a multiple of the -first, by a whole number. When bodies unite in proportions which imply half atoms, it is because union has occurred between two atoms of one, and three atoms of another, as iron may unite with ox- ygen so as to be seemingly a compound of 1 iron to 1 1-2 oxygen. ‘Truly this is a compound of 2 iron, to 3 oxygen. Again, if bodies unite only by atoms, the atom of one may be replaced by that of another ; or, which is the same thing, the combin- ing proportion of one may replace the combining proportion of another, for they are equivalent to each other. One body may be thus successively united to others, in doses which represent their atomic weights. 34 CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 56. Calculating on this fixed principle, that the combining weight of any substance, is the quantity necessary to unite with 8 of oxygen, it is found, that the proportions in which the elements of silicates combine, are 8 oxygen, 8 silicon =16 silica, 10 aluminum —18 alumina, “< = 20 calcium =28 lime, “© 12 magnesium 20 magnesia, 40 potassium =—48 potash, “24 sodium =82 soda, “ 28 iron =86 oxide of iron, “« 28 manganese —36 oxide of manganese DBDDMDDDDOD®D When any of these oxidated substances unite to an acid, it is only in these proportions. ‘The num- bers are equivalents—that is, 48 of potash are equal in saturating power, to 32 of soda, or 28 of lime. All equivalents, entering into the composition of soil, contain the same quantity of oxygen. Hence, if from each of the above numbers in the third col- umn, 8, the constant quantity, is deducted, the re- mainder represents the equivalent of the respective pure metals, which chemists represent by the ter- mination in wm, or tum; and wiry are formed, potassium, sodium, &c. 57. The equivalent of sulphur is 16, adding 3 oxygen —24 parts, sulphuric acid is formed. Of phosphorus is 12, adding 2 oxygen = 16 parts, phosphoric acid is formed. Hence, the equivalents of these acids are 40, 28, numbers produced, by adding the proportions of oxygen, to the respective bodies. These acids combine, in their above equivalent proportions, with the bases of silicates, forming neutral salts, or with two or more proportions of acid form super-salts, or CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 3D with a larger portion of base, form sub-salts, and thus form fixed and invariable compounds. Sul- phate of lime, is therefore in proportion of 28 of lime, to 40 of acid. Carbonate of lime, 28 to 22. Phosphate of lime, 28 to 28, or neutral phosphate, or with a larger proportion of lime, the phosphate of lime of bones, or bone earth, so called; and the equivalent of each of these salts, is the number produced, by adding that of the lime, to that of the acid. 58. If sulphur, phosphorus, carbon, silicon, are added to the metallic base of silicates, (45) the combination is a uret—the combination can take place only in the equivalent proportions. It is thus evident, that soil, consisting of silicates, urets, and salts, is a fixed, unvarying, chemical combination of these substances, though in proportions, somewhat varied by local causes, yet presenting, in the mass, a great identity of composition. When the subject of the composition of the vegetable portion of soil, is discussed, the value of a slight knowledge of chemical notation, and of combining proportions will be manifest. It is not to be neglected, howey- er unconnected it may seem with practical farming. The doctrine of chemical equivalents is important to the farmer, even if he pursues it no farther than to understand and remember the combining pro- portions of a few substances, known to him only by name ; such are the common acids, oil of vitriol, aquafortis, spirits of salt, or sulphuric, nitric, and muriatic acids ; the usual alkalies, ammonia, potash, soda, lime; acids and bases, which combine only in their equivalents. It is sometimes remarked, in agricultural experiments, with different salts, that equal quantities, if correct comparative trials are to be made, should be used. ‘The doctrine of equiv- 36 CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. alents, teaches not an equal, but an equivalent por- tion—that is, 28 of lime are equal to 48 of pure potash. It may assist the memory here, and fur- nish a good “rule of thumb,” to recollect, that the three alkalies, ammonia, soda, potash, are to each other, as 17 : 32: 48, or as 1:2: 3, nearly. When the subject of manures is considered, the doctrine of equivalents will be found important, in determining their relative value. Though the numbers here used, are those of some chemists of high authority, they are not all universally admit- ted. ‘They have the convenience of being small whole numbers. ‘They are readily retained in the memory, and simplify the subject, by freeing the calculation from multiplication and division of equivalent numbers. ‘They are easily apprehend- ed, and for all practical agricultural purposes, cor- rect. } 59. Viewed in this light, rocks are masses of sil- icates. The simple minerals composing rocks are truly only silicates in fixed proportions. ‘The sim- ple minerals are quartz, felspar, mica, hornblende, tale, serpentine. Their composition is presented in the following TABLE OF CONSTITUTION OF SIMPLE MINERALS. G = ~ ey = => lel Fl ile B | Sse Sof So) fy ie ee ee = Qa=> S £5 a bP [oe af Bini Bear eta is) Felspar.:: . odie: 66°75 | 17-50] 1:25]12-00| .... “13, Mica, grey ..... 50-82 | 21:33]... .] 986] .... | 9-08 ( prOWH . . «6 | 40/00 | 22-401 :.. AL-OH, Iusts 1:79 Hornblende,—in- } 9. s .2g Clading trayroske | 4569 | 12:18 | 13:83] .... | 18-79 | 7:32 | PCR neers a 58-2 sof water | 35-2 4:6 Serpentine. ..... | 43-07 | 0-95 | 0-50 | 12°75 | 4037] 1-11 CHEMISTRY OF SOIL. 37 In each, the silex acts as an acid. This is not only the most constant, but the most abundant in- eredient of rocks. Nextisalumina. The average quantity of these elements in the most important rocks, is silica 62°79, alumina 25:15 per cent. 60. In each simple mineral, the alkaline bases (45) being combined with silica, a compound, or silicate is formed. In this case, the few simple minerals forming rocks, may be arranged in three classes, and it will be perceived, that notwithstand- ing their great variety of external appearance, their ultimate chemical composition resolves itself into classes of double, or simple silicates, in which sili- cate of alumina is united with potash, or lime, or with magnesia, forming thus, three classes only of simple minerals which compose rocks and soil. Ist. Silicate of alumina and potash forms felspar and mica. 2d. Silicates of alumina and lime with magnesia form hornblende. 3d. Silicate of magnesia forms serpentine and tale ; and silica almost pure, 1s quartz. 61. The iron and manganese in the table, (59) are regarded as accidental mixtures of silicates of these metals. Silicate of soda is often present in place of potash, and this constitutes an extensive variety of the felspar family. It will be observed, by the chemical reader, that truly eleven elements, excluding those of water, are found in soil. The division into twelve sub- stances, including oxygen, is more consonant with popular ideas, and is adopted; though by this mode, silicon occupies a double position. 38 PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. CHAPTER III. PROPERTIES, AND CHEMICAL ACTION OF THE ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 62. Tue bases of the silicates, have common properties, which are: Ist. Alkaline. Whatever may be our idea of the effect of an alkali, as exhibited by potash or soda, the same in kind, but in degree less, is exhib- ited by lime, magnesia, and alumina. Placing potash as the type of alkaline power, the same pow- er, in a decreasing order is found in lime, i cig sia, and alumina. 2d. They are, most of them, soluble in water. Potash stands here also first, and the solubility de- creases in lime, magnesia, and totally disappears in alumina. This may have some connection with the fact, that widely diffused as it is in all soil, it is very seldom found in plants in large quantity. 3d. They exhibit great affinity for carbonic acid. | The order of affinity is potash, soda, lime, magne- sia ; alumina, if it possesses it at all, exhibits it only feebly. The alkalies form soluble, and the alkaline earths, and alumina insoluble compounds with car- bonic acid. 4th. They have all great affinity for water, com- bining with it, and forming what are called hy- drates. Potash parts not with this chemically com- PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 39 ; bined water, by any heat which has been produced ; lime and magnesia give up their water readily, ata red heat: alumina requires for this purpose, a full white heat. ‘This is the only case, where alumina stands next to potash. Sth. They are all fusible, in the order of potash, lime, magnesia, alumina. 6th. They have already been described as defi- nite combinations of metals, and oxygen (56). The — same law governs their combinations with water. Such compounds are termed hydrates, from “‘udor,” water. Water is a compound of eight parts of ox- ygen, and one part of hydrogen, forming one part _ of water, whose equivalent is 9. ‘Taking the num- ber representing the base, (56) or rather the basic oxide, the equivalents of the hydrates are obtained by adding to each, 1 part =9 of water, Thus— Potash, 48 united with 9 water, forms 57 caustic potash. Soda, 32 bi 9 41 “ — soda. Lime, 28 “ 9... @ “37 = slacked lime Magnesia,20 “e ~ Shieb «29° «~~ magnesia. 63. The same law pervades all these various combinations. There are strong resemblances in the alkaline family, which show their relation, yet each is marked with its individual peculiarities. Alumina stands alone, and seems a natural link connecting the silicates with the urets. . 64. The gradual passage of the characters of the metallic elements of the silicates, into the un- metallic of the urets is observed. ‘The first, show alkaline powers by combining with oxygen. Ex- hibited in the highest degree by potash, and lowest in alumina, which shows both alkaline and acid properties. By the last, it is allied to urets, silicon, sulphur, phosphorus, carbon. ‘The three last are so well known, that they need only to be mentioned. 40 PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. — 65. The characters of the class urets, are as fol- lows : Ist. They all combine with the pure metallic base of the alkaline division of silicates, (46) and form siliciurets, phosphurets, carburets, sulphurets. Thus are formed carburet of iron, or plumbago, sulphuret of iron, or iron pyrites, sulphuret of potas- sium, or liver of sulphur. 2d. The urets chemically combine with each other. ‘Thus are formed sulphuret of carbon, and sulphuret of silicon. 3d. The urets all form acids, by combining with oxygen. Thus are formed sulphuric, carbonic, phosphoric, silicic acids. (53.) 66. While the metals, combine with oxygen only in one proportion, to form alkalies, producing it al- ways, for each, of one uniform strength, the urets combine with different proportions, and form acids of different strength. The rule followed in nam- ing the acids, is, first, that each is called after the substance forming it, the uret having ous added to it to designate the weaker, and ic, to designate the stronger acid ; thus, Sulphur 16--2 oxygen =16 is sulphurous acid. Ho SEG ty |e8 24 is sulphuric acid. So are formed phosphorous and phosphoric acids. Silicon forms but one acid, the silicic. It is the only member of the class urets, which requires & detailed notice of its properties. 67. Silicon, the base of 'the earth usually called silex or silica, forms, next to oxygen, the largest part of all rocks and soil. It has been already noticed, (64) how the earthy character, gradually increased from potash to alumina; and how this last, connected itself with the urets, and in the first member of this series, the earthy character appears PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 4l fully developed. It is the earth of flints, it is pure rock crystal, it is common quartz, agate, and cal- cedony, and cornelian. All these are silicon, acid- ified by oxygen, hence called silicic acid. It is this which forms with potash, the hard coat of the polishing rush; the outer covering of the stalks of grasses. Wheat, rye, oats, barley, owe their sup- port to this covering of silica. It cases the bamboo, and rattan with an armor of flint, from which may be struck sparks. Entering into the composition of all soil, and hard and unyielding as it appears, forming not only the solid rock, but the delicate flower, which that supports; forming combinations with the metals of soil whose gradual decomposi- tion is the birth of fertility, silicon demands a detail of its properties, commensurate with the high func- tions it performs. 68. Silicon, in the purest state, yet obtained, is a dull, brown powder, soiling the fingers. It dis- solves in fluoric acid, and in caustic potash. Heat- ed in air or oxygen gas, it burns vividly, and is partly converted into silica. Heated in a closed crucible, it shrinks very much, but does not vapor- ize. Heat has altered all its properties. It has be- come a deep chocolate color. It sinks in oil of vitriol, one of the heaviest of fluids; it will dissolve in no acid, except a mixture of nitric: and fluoric ; caustic sili has no action on it, nor will it burn, if the intensest flame of air or oxygen gas. No other si imple substance is so changed by heat. The only substance exhibiting analogous properties, is the uret, carbon. Silicon burns in vapor of sulphur, and forms sul- phuret of silicon. This easily dissolves in water, sulphuretted hydrogen escapes, and silica remains 42 PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. in solution. These are facts of the highest import- ance in agriculture. 69. Whether heated or not, silicon is oxidated when heated with dry potash, and converted into silicic acid. In its pure state, this is a rough, gritty, tasteless powder. When heated, it runs “Tike red- hot ashes, and the lightest puff blows it away. It is not melted in the strongest heat of a wind fur- nace. Silicic acid exists in two states, soluble, or insoluble in water. It is perfectly insoluble, after having been heated red-hot. Sulphuret of silicon, as has been noticed (68) dissolves in water, and gives silica, in solution. If this is evaporated, a * jelly-like, sizy mass is obtained, which may be again dissolved in water. Acid, added to the solu- tion, when evaporating, renders silica insoluble. Alkalies, boiled with insoluble silica, render it sol- uble, no change occurring in the alkali. These singular changes, are due probably, to a new ar- rangement of the particles of silica, produced by that power called catalysis, or the action of pres- ence, that is by the presence of a third body, tak- ing no part itself, in the action, but simply influenc- ing the changes which occur. 70. Soluble silica’ exists in some minerals, and is produced, when a silicate is melted with an alka- li, and dissolved in dilute acid. It is in conse- quence of this ready solubility of silica, that a small quantity is contained in all natural waters ; associ- ated with alkaline carbonates in mineral springs, it is often an abundant product. 71. The general properties, which silicic acid exhibits in its combinations, are these : Ist. All its compounds, with excess of alkali, are caustic, and soluble in water. ‘Those with an ex- cess of silica are mild, and insoluble. Glass is an PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 43 example of the last, and so are the rocks. Green bottle glass, is but a fused rock, a mixture of sili- cates of potash, soda, alumina, lime, magnesia, and iron. ‘These are the silicates which have been al- ready enumerated, (60) as composing rocks ; and the amount, and origin of these several elements of soil, can now be conveniently understood. This is practical ground, and shows the value of chemical analysis of rocks. Whatever opinion respecting their origin, is adopted, and whether or not, granite is supposed to have produced the soil above it, or that it is only overlaid by granite drift, it is evident, from the table (59) that all granite rocks contain lime and alkali. ‘These will be in proportion to the mica and felspar, for granite (35) is composed of these and quartz. 72. ‘The composition of granite, composed of two-fifths quartz, two-fifths felspar, and one- ~fifth mica, is, in every 100 parts. me See 909 FEST RATES ANS GEM AL OAD Soe 74-84. mina). 62 oh File GR 12-80. meee Ne eee Doe Ie TAS es 7:48, ir Cia eet Ake ae leo 58. Sa a Se as a 37. Benae or lront, 68 bee a OU 1:93. bmente Of Manvanese, se ed aN. In every 100 lbs. of granite, 7 1-2 lbs. of potash, and 3-8 lb. of lime. Differ, as opinions may, about the how, and the why, of the operation of lime, and alkali, it is evident, that unexhausted and exhaust- less stores of these substances are already in barren pine plains. '73.Let it be supposed, that these aye formed of the drift of granite, composed as stated, (72) and the amount per acre of lime and alkali, taking the soil only six inches deep, would be as follows. ‘The 3 44 ALKALIES IN SOIL. cubic foot of such soil weighs about 90 lbs. or at six inches deep, 45 lbs. The acre at this depth, con- tains 21780 cubic feet, which will afford 3626 lbs. of lime, and 73311 lbs. of potash, or nearly a ton and a half of lime, and thirty-six tons of potash. 74. The lime in such a soil, would be enough to supply that contained in a crop of rye, at 20 bush- els per acre, for 7400 years ; for at twenty bushels per acre, and at 50 pounds per bushel, each acre would afford 1000 pounds of grain, which contain nearly 1-2 Ib. of lime, or 049, (Schreder,) divid- ing 3626 by this, the quotient "7400 is the number of years the lime would supply the grain. Wheat will not differ much from rye, and if the time is diminished, by the amount of lime contained_in the straw, it will be seen, that the actual amount of lime and potash, in what is called poor soil, will hardly begin to diminish at the end of a long lease, cropping every year, 30 bushels of wheat. Allow- ing thus, for example, the proportion of straw which such a crop would afford, to be about 5000 pounds, and this is not far from the truth; the straw gives 0-044 of its weight of ashes, or 220 lbs. of which, one-fifth is soluble in water, and consists of one- half of that dissolved, of potash. ‘The spent ashes, or that part not soluble in water, contains 5°80 per cent. of lime. On these data, an acre of wheat straw, or 2 1-2 tons will give 220 Ibs. of ashes, containing 22 lbs. of potash, and 10 lbs. of lime. The potash will last at this rate for the straw, three thousand years! It will be hereafter shown, that when the lime fails, the crop will not. 75. Were similar calculations extended sto soil supposed to be formed of any other rock, the amount of lime and alkali, would still be seen to be almost inexhaustible. And whether rocks be sup- ACTION OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 45 posed or not, to form the soil over them, it may be established, as the fourth leading principle of agri- cultural chemistry, ALL SOIL CONTAINS ENOUGH OF LIME, ALKALI, AND. OTHER INORGANIC ELEMENTS, FOR ANY CROP GROWN ON IT. 76. These elements do not exist in soil, free ; they exist as silicates, urets, or salts, compounds regulated by the unbending laws of affinity, and fixed, as are the laws of gravitation. ‘The decom- pounding of these combinations, or the gradual de- cay of rocks and soil, takes place also by similar laws. Gradually acted upon by the carbonic acid of the air, the agency of growing plants, the action of various salts, formed by urets, in atmospheric exposure, the silicates yield to new affinities. The alkalies, freed from the embrace of silica, dissolve, and are borne seaward, the silica itself is dissolved by the water used for drink ; the insoluble alumina remains, forming the great mass of clays, or mixed with granitic sand, forms loam. 77. Felspar, mica, hornblende, are constantly acted upon by air and moisture. This action is chemical. It is twofold. 1st. The action of the carbonic acid of the air, or of carbonates, upon sil- icates. The potash, or alkaline part of the silicate is by this means separated. The mineral no longer held by the bond which had held its components, falls into dust. The silica, lime, alumina, magne- sia, thus form the finer portions of soil. In obedi- ence to a well established fact, in chemistry, the seemingly insoluble silica, and alumina, and mag- nesia, in the very moment of their disunion, are each soluble in water. They may then be taken up by plants, or dissolved by various acids, formed in the soil, form salts. 46 ACTION OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 78. The second mode of action, of air and mois- ture, is upon the urets, upon the sulphurets, the phosphurets, and silicurets. The action of air upon all these is, to oxidate, both the metallic base, and the unmetallic element. In a word, the urets, by air and moisture, become salts; the unmetallic part, becoming acid, and the base an oxide, which combine. 79. The fact most important to the farmer, in these changes is, that the urets are continually, in all soil, becoming salts. Whenever iron pyrites, or sulphuret of iron is found, and it is very widely diffused, exposure to air and moisture, acidifies the sulphur, it forms oil of vitriol, or sulphuric acid. This immediately combines with iron, and forms copperas, or sulphate of iron, or with alumina, forming alum, or with lime, forming Plaster of Paris, or with magnesia, forming Epsom salts; all these are salts, and liable to be decomposed, by any free alkali, which may begproduced, by the decom- position of silicates. 80. Among the most abundant salts in soil, aris- ing from the actions (79) are those, which are very insoluble in water, and not liable, therefore to be drained off, when not required by plants. ‘These are sulphate of lime, and phosphates of lime, and of alumina, and iron. The sulphate of lime is par- tially soluble, and hence, is found in all river and spring water; but phosphates are more insoluble, and are always found in soil. 81. That sulphate of lime might possibly exist in soil, has been admitted by all who understood the actions, (79) and adding to this the fact, of the gradual decomposition of the silicates, by carbonic acid, the function of sulphate of lime in soil, was easily admitted. The double silicates of lime and ACTION OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 47 potash, are universally diffused, and in the order of affinities, sulphates of alkalies, and of lime result. 82. It is not so easily understood, how phosphate of lime should exist in soil. The true source, both of sulphate, and phosphate of lime, and of the sol- ubility of silica, is yet to be detected, by exact chemical analysis. It is to be looked for in the sul- phurets and phosphurets of silicon, which probably exist in rocks. ‘The action of sulphuret of iron, as explained, would demand its universal diffusion, to account for the presence of sulphate of lime. Sul- phuret of iron, must either now exist, or have ages ago existed, as widely diffused as the silicates. But though common in rocks, its presence as a sul- phuret, will not account for the quantity of sulphate of lime found in soil. Vast quantities of this salt are annually borne off in crops; while at the same time, a large portion of that hardest, and as is gen- erally supposed, utterly insoluble earth, -silex is withdrawn by every plant which grows. How is this rendered soluble ? 83. This question may be answered, if it be ad- mitted, that a large portion of the silica of rocks, exists as a sulphuret of silicon. The action of air, and moisture upon this, will be understood by refer- ing to section 68, where it is stated, that sulphuret of silicon, is decomposed by water. ,The sulphur, in this case, is evolved as sulphuretted hydrogen gas, the silica deposited, and in this state, is abun- dantly soluble in water. The sulphuretted hydro- gen, would act on the lime of the silicates, and gradually, sulphate of lime would be formed. Here is an abundant source, not only of the solu- bility of silica, a point always of difficult explana- nation, in vegetable physiology, but also of the pro- duction of sulphate of lime. 48 ACTION OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 84. Similar remarks are applicable to the pres- ence of the phosphates of lime, and iron, and alum- ina in soil. Phosphate of lime is not a very uni- versal ingredient in rocks. In certain localities it is abundant, yet its occurrence is too rare to account for the vast amount of phosphate of lime in soil. The phosphorus possibly exists, in combination with silicon, as phosphuret of silicon. ‘The effect of air and moisture on this, has already been ex- plained, and accounts for the production of phos- phates in soil. Similar remarks are applicable to the source of the chlorides or muriates ; for instance, common salt in the potash of commerce. May not their source be in chloride of silicon? These are conjectures, but conjectures only because, refined as modern chemical analysis is, it may not be so deli- cate, as to detect the possible combinations, which nature presents in silicates. What is the source of that phosphoric odour, produced by the friction of fragments of pure quartz on each other? If not due wholly to electrical excitement, may it not arise from the presence of phosphoric elements? The elements are Protean, and assume new dresses, by the very processes adopted to unfold them. What- ever may be their origin, their constant presence leads to this fifth principle of Agricultural Chem- istry, ALL SOIL CONTAINS SULPHATE AND PHOSPHATE OF LIME. 85. This principle is of the highest importance in agriculture. ‘The author of these pages, stated the fact, to the Geological Surveyor of Massachusetts, in 1837, and it was published in his Report. Slow- ly admitted at first, the fact, that phosphates exist in all soil, has been established by the widest obser- vations. Its proofs are both chemical and agricul- tural. The chemical proof is found in the extensive a ACTION OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 49 analyses of soil, contained in the various Geological Reports, especially those of Massachusetts, pub- lished within a few years. The agricultural proof, may be stated in a few words. j 86. First, the bones of all graminiverous animals, contain ahout half their weight of phosphate of lime. It can be derived only from their food, and that only from the soil. Hence, the soil contains phos- phoric acids in some chemical combination. Sec- ondly, the actual result of chemical analysis, con- firms this statement. Beets, carrots, beans, peas, potatoes, asparagus, cabbage, afford phosphates of lime, magnesia, and potash, varying from 0°04 to 1 per cent. of the vegetable. Indian corn contains 1 1-2 per cent. of phosphate and sulphate of lime. Rice, wheat, barley, oats, all contain notable por- tions of sulphate and phosphate of lime, not only in the grain, but in the straw. Smut and ergot, show free phosphoric acid. Cotton gives 1 per cent. of ashes, of which 0-17 are phosphates of lime and magnesia. The cotton consumed weekly, in the Lowell Mills, is 400,000 Ibs. containing 680 Ibs. of phosphate of lime, and this would furnish the bone- earth, for the bones of 17 horses, allowing 90 lbs. to each skeleton, of which 40 lbs. would consist of phosphate of lime. ‘That beautiful yellow powder, shed by pine forests, the pollen of its flowers, waft- ed about in clouds, and descending with the rain, covering the surface of water with its sulphur-like film, is composed of 6 per cent. of phosphates of lime and potash. ‘The ashes of all wood, contain sulphate and phosphate of lime. Garget contains in its leaves beautiful crystals of phosphate of lime and ammonia, whilst the little delicate plants, grow- ing almost beneath its shade, mouse-ear-everlasting, and early saxifrage, contain in their leaves carbon- ate of lime. 50 ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL. CHAPTER IV. / OF THE ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL. 87. THE mineral elements of soil, become part of plants. Under the -influence of the mysterious principle of life, they no longer obey the chemical laws, but are parts of a living structure. Life sus- pends all chemical laws. It organizes inorganic matter. To what laws obedient, to what purposes subservient, are the elements of soil-during the brief moment, in which they are endowed with life, it is not intended to inquire. Plants by their living pow- er, select from the fifty-five elementary substances, fifteen only ; of these, three are gaseous, oxygen, hydyogen, nitrogen ; one, chlorine, exists only as a component of a salt, as in common salt; seven be- long to the class silicates, second division, and four to the class urets. (44.) 88. Every plant does not, nor does every part of the same plant contain the same elements ; but every part of the same plant, at the same age, prob- ably contains the same elements, united in definite proportions. Whenever plants die, their elements are again subject to the laws of affinity, and during the decay of vegetables, they return to the earth, not only those substances which the plants had tak- en from the soil, but also those which have been — ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL. . oh elaborated by their living structure. The former are Silicates and salts, or the inorganic elements ; the latter, are the organic parts of soil. In the first edition of this work, chlorine was not enumerated as an element of plants. Its presence in them was considered accidental, because its source was not detected in the rocks, from whose ruins, soil has been formed. Plants are good ana- lysts, and may detect elements, where chemistry cannot; yet it is difficult to believe, that chloride can exist as abundantly in soil, originally, as their presence in plants indicates, and yet elude our pro- cesses. The possible existence of chloride of silicon has been noticed. If this is not the source of the chlorine of plants, it must be supposed to be evapo- rated as a chloride from the ocean, and conse- quently to exist in that state, dissolved in air. If derived from this salt in soil, then that is extraneous. Its origin was suggested to be oceanic. An exam- ination of the rain-water, of each fall, since March last, has shown that this suggestion is correct. Prob- ably muriates are universally contained in rain- water. As therefore, common salt, the chlorine, and soda of plants is derived by evaporation from sea-water, then as sulphate of lime has been detect- ed in snow and hail, it becomes a question, whether other inorganic salts of plants, may not have a similar origin, and exist dissolved in air. 89. It is thus seen, that soil presents itself ina new view. Soil consists of two grand divisions of elements. Inorganic, and organic. The inorganic are wholly mineral, they are the products of the chemical action of the metallic, or unmetallic ele- ments of rocks. They existed before plants or ani- mals. Life has not called them into existence, nor 52 ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL. ‘created them, out of simple elements. Organic elements are the product of substances once en- dowed with life. This power influences the ele- ments, recombines them in forms, so essentially connected with life, that they are, with few excep- tions, produced only by a living process. They are the products of living organs, hence termed, organic; and when formed, are subject to chemical laws. The number of elements in the inorganic parts of soil, is twelve. Oxygen, sulphur, phos- phorus, carbon, silicon, and the metals, potassium, sodium, calcium, aluminium, magnesium, iron, and manganese. (56) The number of elements in or- ganic parts of soil, does not exceed four, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen. 90. The great difference between these two di- visions, is this, that while the inorganic are simple combinations of two elementary substances, the or- ganic, are combinations of three or four elements, but never less than three. These are variously combined. ‘They have formed the great body of vegetable products ; continually changing, the mere abstraction of a part of once of their elements forms a new product. The three elements, (89) exist generally in such proportion, that the oxygen and hydrogen would, by their union, produce water, with- out excess of either element, while the carbon would thus be liberated. It would be found free were it not also acted upon by air and moisture, and changed to carbonic acid. There is not oxy- gen enough in the organic part, to convert the car- bon into carbonic acid, and the hydrogen into water. They are constantly changing, assuming new forms. This susceptibility of change, is the foundation of tillage. ast ORGANIC ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 53 91. The relation of agriculture, to silicates and salts, and to the composition of plants alluded to, (89) is of the highest interest. As silicates and salts compose all the earthy ingredients of soil, so are they equally constant in plants. The deduc- tion to be drawn from this, is the sixth principle of agricultural chemistry, SOIL, CONSISTING CHIEFLY OF ONE SILICATE, OR SALT, IS ALWAYS BARREN. 92. It is not probable that soil, thus chemically constituted, exists. Admitting such to occur, even then, when dressed with the food of plants, it would not be fertile. The want of a mixture of earthy ingredients, which are as essential to the growth of plants, as are air and moisture, would effectually prevent the growth of crops. Only a portion of the elements, thus essential to plants, exists in them, in that state, in which they exist in soil. The silica, and potash, and lime, exist in plants as in soil, as silicate of potash, and sulphates and phosphates of lime and potash. When the ashes of plants are examined, we find carbonates of bases, which did not exist as such in the soil. A large portion of carbonates of lime and potash is found in ashes. 93. The origin of these, is to be sought in acids, which, by heat produce carbonic acid. This is the effect of heat upon all salts, formed of vegetable acids. Such are tartaric, malic, citric, oxalic, and acetic acids. The inorganic elements of plants, exist in combination chiefly with organic or vege- table acids. Each plant forms acids, in definite quantity, proportionate to the size, age, and part of the plants; the acid being constant, the bases to saturate them, will be equally constant. 94. A curious and beautiful chemical law gov- erns this saturation, of the vegetable acids. It is the law of isomorphism, or the law of similar forms. 54 LAW OF ISOMORPHISM. — >. 4 In minerals which are crystallized, it was formerly thought that similarity of external form, indic identity of chemical composition. Later ervas tion has established the fact, that minerals and exist, with perfect similarity of external form, yet of totally different chemical constitution. For ex- ample, the alumina in alum, may be replaced. by oxide of iron. The form will-not be changed; but all its chemical properties and relations are de- stroyed. This is called an isomorphous substitu- tion, of one element for another, which produces a like form. The law of this substitution is, that the body, replacing another, must be, not an equal, but an equivalent proportion (56) ; that is, replaced by a proportion, containing the same quantity of oxygen. 95. The relation between agriculture and _ this law is so wisely and beneficially ordained, that it might well be called, a law of compensation, by the Natural Theologian. It is a well established fact, that plants, growing on soil, containing a due mix- ture of earthy ingredients, always select a due pro- portion of each, according to their functions; yet, if to such soil, an excess of either of the alkalies, or of the alkaline earths is given, an excess of pot- ash, soda, lime, magnesia, may be taken up by the plants, to the exclusion of the usual proportion of another ; hence, it may be established, as the sey- enth principle in Agricultural Chemistry, ONE BASE MAY BE SUBSTITUTED FOR ANOTHER, IN AN ISOMOR- PHOUS PROPORTION. 96. This is a very important law, in the agricul- tural relations of the inorganic parts of soil. What- ever may be the office, performed by these, in the living structure, none is of higher value than this, that they may be thus substituted, the one for the other. It is a fact, of the highest practical value. Its value \ ir LAW OF ISOMORPHISM. 55 . » oe willbe parceneel, when it is considered, that if soil, taining originally all the elements, essential to a “crop, becomes exhausted of one, yet another may si of the which combining with the organic ac nt, enables this to perform and per- fect a . Aeechons, If a crop fails, this is often Siphd fetiongthe deficiency of lime in the soil. It has been already shown, that this is quite impossi- ble, yet granting it true, so long as the law of iso- morphism exists, so long may potash, soda, mag- nesia, that is, ashes, supply the place of lime. 97. Isomorphous substitutions in plants, relate only to the bases combined with the vegetable or organic acids. The mineral or inorganic acids, exist already saturated in the soil, as sulphates, phosphates, or muriates. 98. In consequence of the law of isomorphism, the oxygen in the bases of organic acid salts isa constant quantity, although ashes of the same plant may, by analysis, show a great diversity of compo- sition; this can arise only from the fact, that the organic acids exist, probably in a definite propor- tion, in each family of plants. The acids are formed by the essential vital functions of the plant. To the perfection of this process, the silicates and salts of the soil, are not less necessary, than is life to the vegetable ; but though one element may be substituted for another, yet no one element may supply the place of all others. This is a problem yet to be solved. Nor may any possible mixture of mere silicates and salts, give fertility to a barren soil. Fertility depends on the presence in soil, of matter, which has already formed a part of a living structure, or the organic elements of soil. 99. The inorganic are simple combinations; the organic simple in number, but wonderful complex 56 ORGANIC ELEMENTS OF SOIL. in their combinations. It is an established fact, that all complex compounds, are unstable. They are prone to form new combinations. The more com- plex, the easier decomposed is any compound. The more complex, the more liable to decomposition. Hence, the moment life, departs, the plant or ani- mal speedily undergoes new changes ;_ its elements, which life had organized, obey now, not the law of life, but the laws of chemistry. The solids and fluids of a living body, when life ceases, escaping in part as air or gas, leave in a solid form, a sub- stance, differing equally from any living organic product, and from inorganic elements. The pro- duct of the spontaneous decomposition of organic substances, still may exhibit the character which distinguishes this division, viz: complexity, great susceptibility and ease of decomposition. 100. Hence, in the products of the decomposi- tion of organic bodies, a variety is formed, differing according to the circumstances, and’ the time, and progress. of decay. However varied, there is one constant product of organic decomposition in soil, which is, ever the result of that process, in or upon the earth. This product is termed GEINE. Ge is the Greek for earth, and the suffix ine, is in con- formity to chemical names, given to those vegetable or other organic products, whose independent ex- istence has been determined ; for example, quinine, morphine, Wc. 101. While the great mass of organic matter of soil, is a well defined chemical compound, termed geine, consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, there are traces of other general products of decay, which, in addition to the elements above, contain nitrogen. There is thus naturally pointed out, a di- vision of the organic matter of soil, into two classes ; GEINE. 57 that which does not, and that which does, contain nitrogen. 102. The first class, or non-nitrogenous, com- prises three substances, which have been termed, Ist, extract of soil, or of humus; 2d, geine, or hu- mic acid; and 3d, carbonaceous soil, or humin. These are chemically the same, passing from one state to the other, without changing the relative proportions in which they were combined. _ 103. The second class, or nitrogenous, comprises two substances—crenic and apocrenic acids. These approach the three above named ‘in their constitu- tion, and by some authors, they are considered identical. ‘The distinction of geine into nitroge- nous, and non-nitrogenous, is founded in nature. These classes cannot mutually pass, the one to the other. The presence of nitrogen, in crenic and apocrenic acid, proves unanswerably, that the geine of chemists, cannot be composed of a mixture of these acids. ‘They may not be made members of the class to which that element belongs, except by a change of chemical constitution. ‘The question whether this ever occurs, though philosophically in- teresting, is of no practical consequence. Nor is it of practical utility to discuss the question, whether plants draw their carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitro- gen, from the air, or from the soil. ‘The nourish- ment drawn from air, depends on the great physical elements, air, temperature, moisture. Agriculture may not control these. It can palliate them, only by controlling that within its power, the state of the soil. With all above ground, the farmer has little concern. If plants are nourished, chiefly from the air, it is evident that the farmer, is concerned only to produce that state of the developement of the organs of plants, best adapted to the aspiration of Y att 58 GEINE. the aerial elements. This state is influenced chiefly by the soil. There is the farmer’s true field of action. . 104. Differ as opinions may, about its ultimate chemical constitution, and the mode of action of geine, whether by being taken up as a solution of geine, and of its compounds with the earths and metals, called geates, or only as a source of car- bonic acid, the great practical lesson of all agricul- tural experience, teaches that geine is essential to the growth and perfection of seed; that without geine, crops are not raised. Geine is as essential to plants, as is food to animals. So far as nourish- ment is derived from the soil, geine is the food of plants. It may be laid down as the eighth princi- ple of agricultural chemistry, GEINE, IN SOME FORM IS ESSENTIAL TO AGRICULTURE. 105. In all its forms, it is agriculturally one and the same thing. They are all included in the terms humus, or mould, or geine. Geine, in its agricul- tural sense, is a generic term. It includes all the decomposed organic matter of the soil. It concerns the farmer less to know the chemical constitution, than it does the practical, agricultural value of a class of compounds, termed geine. Restricting that term to the definite compound, which chemists call geine, an account of its relations, will convey a full idea of whatever other organic compounds are found in soil. . 106. It has been stated already, that geine is the product of decomposition of bodies, once en- dowed with life. For the present purpose, it may be considered, as the result of vegetable decom- position. . 107. Life, and the manner how plants grow, may not be understood. Growth is a living process. GEINE. 59 Decay is a chemical process. Its laws are not only understood, but its products may be limited, con- trolled, hastened. Decay is fermentation, and this marked by its several stages, ends in putrefaction. Putrefaction is the silent and onward march of de- cay. Its goal is geine. 108. If dry vegetable matters are soaked in wa- ter, that is soon discolored, a product of decompo- sition is obtained ; its peculiar character is, solu- bility in water. This solution, being exposed to air, soon becomes filled with little flocks, which gradu- ally subside. This sediment is still a very little soluble in water, but so very sparingly, that it may be said to be insoluble. If the sediment is exposed a little time, to air, it regains the property of solu- bility in water, is easily dissolved in part, by potash ley, or any alkaline ley, whether caustic or mild. 109. The original brown solution may be consid- ered as extract of mould. The sediment as geine and carbonaceous mould. ‘These are either soluble or insoluble in water, or alkali; and hence, geine is divided into soluble and insoluble. The soluble is dissolved by water, by alcohol, by alkalies. The insoluble cannot be dissolved by any of these agents, nor by acids. ‘The properties of geine, in water and alkali, or its behavior, as it is termed; is of the highest importance to the farmer, and are to be considered in detail. 110. The first and earliest product of decay, is that which is so easily soluble in water (108). If it could be at once seized upon, it would be, doubt- less, a perfectly colorless solution, but it changes to a brownish color by exposure to air. This charac- ter is very common in solutions of organic matter. It is due in this case to the formation of the insolu- ble state. 60 GEINE. 111. If a little alum is dissolved in the watery solution of geine, and then a few drops of spirits of hartshorn, or sal volatile, or as it is termed by chem- ists, water of ammonia, are added, the earth alu- mina will be let loose from the alum, and it will immediately combine with, and precipitate the geine, that is, little flocks fall down gradually in the liquor. Hence, is derived an important char- acter. Geine has a great affinity for alumina. If lime had been added to the solution of geine, the same effect would have followed. ‘The same effect would be produced, by magnesia, by oxide of iron, and by manganese. 112. Alumina, lime, magnesia, oxides of iron, and manganese, will therefore in soil, immediately seize upon any soluble geine, and forming com- pounds with it, detain it there. The air and water will have now little action upon it. 113. But supposing that none of these elements (112) are present in soil, the fact stated (110) shows that all soluble geine, or solution of extract in water, soon passes to a mixture of soluble and insoluble, forming a dark brown powder. This is thus with- drawn, deep in the soil, from the immediate action of the air, and undergoes no further change. It may remain unchanged an indefinite time. If ploughed up, exposed any how to the action of air or mois- ture, it again becomes partly soluble in water, and exhibits its former characters, viz: great afhnity for earths and metallic oxides. In this state it is VEGETABLE MOULD. 114. Vegetable mould then, is a mixture of the organic, and inorganic elements of soil. It is a compound of soluble geine, with earths and metals, mixed with soluble and insoluble geine. It is a chemical compound of organic with ihorganic parts GEINE. 61 of soil, mixed with a large portion of free organic matter. . 115. The inorganic elements of mould are, Ist. Those which already had existed in plants, com- bined with vegetable acids. These last, by decom- position escape as carbonic acid, or.in acid vapors and water, while the bases, or earths and oxides with which they were combined, remain, and are immediately seized upon by the forming geine ; while the uncombined geine passes to the state of a brown coally powder. 116. The properties of this brown powder of mould, are, Ist. Partial solubility in water. Cold water dissolves only about one-twenty-five-hun- dredth part of its weight, hot water a little more. 2d. It is*a perfectly neutral substance, exhibiting neither acid, nor alkaline properties, but all alkalies develope it in acid properties. In this state it is termed geic or humic acid. It is evident therefore, that geic or humic acid can never exist free in soil, so long as free bases are there present, as lime, alumina, iron, &c. It is produced by the action of alkaline bases, and immediately combines with’ them, forming salts, which are termed geates. 117. A third property of the brown powder of mould is, that after alkalies have acted on it, and developed acid properties, its solubility in water is considerably increased, while it continues in a moist state. If dried, in this acid state, it becomes almost insoluble in water. 118. The geates found in soil, have the following characters. Ist. All the alkaline geates are very soluble in water. The solution is of a brown color, according to its strength, from a light brown to a deep coffee color, almost black; acids precipitate this solution, and the geine falls in light brown 62 GEATES. flocks, exceedingly bulky. ‘This precipitate may be washed in water, rendered a little acid; but sim- ple water, in consequence of the great solubility of geine, developed by its combination with alkah, will dissolve nearly all the precipitate. 2d. Lime water, added to a solution of an alka- line geate, forms a precipitate of geate of lime. It is to be observed, that a cautious and gradual addi- tion of lime water forms a precipitate, which imme- diately re-dissolves. This is soluble geate of lime. It requires 2000 parts of water to dissolve it, being a very little more soluble than geine itself, and only half as soluble as lime alone. An excess of lime water precipitates all the geine as insoluble geate of lime. The properties of this insoluble geate of lime, are, 119. 1st. Almost perfect gi morme in water and alkalies. 2d. Decomposable by alkalies. 120. Geate of magnesia is easily soluble in water. It is the most soluble of all the earthy geates. It requires only 160 parts of water to dissolve one of geate of magnesia. It is decomposable by alkalies, and then both acid and base are dissolved. ‘The geates of lime and magnesia when exposed to air, absorb carbonic acid; a salt is formed, containing an excess of geine, that is, the carbonic acid unites with a part of the lime. These super-geates, as they are termed, are always much more repr: than the neutral geates. 121. Geate of alumina, is soluble in water, dod in alkali, without decomposition. It requires 4200 parts of water to dissolve it, but is — solu- ble in alkali. 122. Geate of iron requires 2300 parts of water to dissolve it. Like geate of alumina, it dissolves easily in alkaline carbonates. GEATES. 63 123. Geate of manganese requires 1450 parts of water to dissolve it, and though soluble in ammonia, is insoluble in potash or soda. 124. The properties of the geates are of the highest _ practical importance. ‘The three earths, lime, magnesia, and alumina, are universal constit- uents of soil, and the two first are constantly pres- ent in plants. In their relation to geine, these all combine with that, they all form soluble compounds, _ in the moist state, but after having been thoroughly dried, these geates are msoluble, even sun baking diminishes their solubility. In this dried state, they are earthy powders, and have long been mistaken _ for earthy portions of soil. ‘The fact, that lime and magnesia form super-salts, (120) may help to ex- plain why the free use of lime, may often require a long time to develope any beneficial effects. At first, its action renders the geine insoluble; and it is only when by exposure, the lime is changed in - part to a carbonate, and thus rendered inert, that a super-geate of lime, which is very soluble, forms and begins to show its effects upon vegetation. The easy decomposition of geate of lime, by alka- line carbonates, teaches also, that if to geate of lime is added an alkaline carbonate, the geine may be dissoluble, aiid brought into use. It is probable, that when land has been overlimed, the evil can be corrected only, by the use of ashes. The car- bonate of lime will act on the silicates, as will be hereafter shown. 125. The properties and relations of geine with water, are also of the highest agricultural value (116). The great insolubility shows at once how small must be the amount of this portion of soil, which can be ever removed by drainage or filtra- tion, by flood, or rain, and that in the practice of 64 EFFECT OF ALKALI ON GEINE. irrigation, very little effect can be due to the solvent power of water on geine. Its almost total insolu- bility, seems a wise provision, of-a far-reaching _ Providence, that an element of soil, which has been and can be produced, by the decay of organic bodies only, and chiefly by plants on its Surface, should not be borne away by the first falling shower. 126. Not less important to the farmer, are the relations of geine to alkalies, its solubility is won- derfully increased by their action; this is a most valuable, because available property ; it allows the farmer to bring into use, by the application of alka- lies, the geine, which, in its insoluble state is quite useless. ‘This remarkable property, is not confined to that portion of geine, which it may be supposed, is chemically combined with alkali. Alkali, by the | mere action of presence, by its catalytic action, which will be hereafter explained, renders an in- definite, but large quantity of geine soluble in water. This is a principle of high practical value, and were the results of the principles detailed in the forego- ing pages, to terminate in this fact, that alone right- ly pondered, would account for a vast number of facts, in vegetable physiology, and lead to new views in the pursuit of agriculture, not less import- ant than practical. * 127. Hitherto the action of geine on soil only, has been considered, and its chemical composition pointed out, sufficiently for all practical purposes. The chemical proportion of the elements of geine is unconnected with the practical question, how far it is essential to plants. ‘The fact, that the most barren soil contains these elements in vast quanti- ty, that exhausted land is nearly equally rich in these, as is the highly productive, has been -over- looked. The amount of nitrogen in geine, even in _ EFFECT OF ALKALI ON GEINE. 65 exhausted soil, is sufficient to supply that element, to several crops of grain. ‘The amount of carbon, _ oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, in a poor, sandy, barren soil, has been proved, by chemical analysis, to be not less than 34 tons per acre, taking the soil at only a foot in depth. If the light of modern chemistry, shall hereafter teach, that these are ney- er taken from the geine of soil, it will teach also, what the true action of geine is. If no approach ‘to the solution of this important question, has yet been made, still the absolute necessity of geine in soil, is admitted by all practical men. Some attempt to explain this fact, will be presented in the next chapter; and the following appendix may be omit- ted by those to whom practical results are of more value than speculations of philosophy. It is hoped, however, that the new and important analyses, con- tained in this appendix, will amply repay the labor of studying their results, now for the first time laid before the American farmer, 66 HISTORY OF GEINE. APPENDIX, TO CHAPTER ke HISTORY OF GEINE. Some account of the chemical history of a sub- stance which has caused no little discussion in late agricultural reports, and publications, may not be here misplaced. It may tend to soften the doubts of those who are, and with reason, apt to mistrust the utility of a substance, upon whose chemical nature, there is such an apparent difference of opin- ion. If farmers are to wait till doctors agree, there will be no harvest. Happily this discussion is in no wise connected with the practical application of geine. It isa difference about names, not things. In 1797, Vauquelin, a distinguished French chem- ist, gave an account of a substance which had ex- uded from the bark of an elm tree. It was a shin- ing, brittle, black substance, insoluble in alcohol, soluble in hot water, with a brown color, and con- tained potash. In 1802, Klaproth, a Swedish analyst, received from Palermo, a specimen of this elm gum, and found it contained a portion of resinous matter, and confirmed Vauquelin’s observations. In 1810, Ber- zelius, the most acute chemist of the age, in exper- imenting on the barks of-.yarious trees, noticed products similar to the elm gum, particularly in pine bark, Peruvian bark, and especially in the elm, whose properties will be presently mentioned; but . HISTORY OF GEINE. 67 he not only gave these products no name, but point- ed out marked differences between them. The substance found in pine, is allied to what is called pectic acid, that in Peruvian bark approaches starch, while that from the elm is only a variety of vege- table mucilage. In 1812, James Smithson, an English chemist, gave to the Royal Society of London, an account of his-experiments on elm gum, which he had re- ceived from the same place and person, who origi- nally sent the article to Klaproth. Smithson thought the substance more allied to extractive matter, than to resin, and noticed that it contained 20 per cent. of potash. A similar substance obtained from the exudation of an English elm, contained a larger per centage of potash, but no trace of this new sub- stance was detected in elm sap. In 1813, Dr. Thomas Thomson, the Corypheus of British chemists, experimented on this elm gum in its several varieties, and embracing the prevalent opinion of its distinct nature, not however, because prevalent, but from his own researches, erected it into a distinct vegetable principle under the name of uLmIN, from ulmus, the Latin forelm. He con- founded under this name, the several products noticed by Berzelius, in bark ; and hence, thinks there are several varieties of this substance, though Berzelius does not countenance this idea. ‘Thom- son was the first who ever procured ulmin pure, but this was not the elm mucilage, but the extractive matter, and he thus gave the name ulmin, to the apotheme of Berzelius. Not long after this name had become the prop- erty of Chemists, Braconnot found, in experiment- ing on the action of alkali, on woody fibre, that a substance was produced analogous to elm gum and a 68 HISTORY OF GEINE. the varieties of ulmin, and in 1830, Boullay noticed that ulmin had acid properties, and gave to it the name of ULMIC ACID. The properties and relations of ulmin and of ul- mic acid, now engaged the attention of many ex- pert chemists. It was found to be the product of a great many vegetable decompositions by various agents, by alkali, by acids, earths, oxides, by fire, by water. All these hasten the process of decay. As a general law, it may be stated that all sub- stances oxidating, and gently acting on organic matter, produce ulmin. Hence it was found in @ vast variety of substances, and even cast-iron was found to contain about 2 per cent. of a compound, so analogous to ulmin, that it is so called. But above all, it was found to be the great product of spontaneous decay of plants, and hence existed abundantly in peat and soil. Sprengel, directing his attention particularly to its existence in soil, be- fore that form of it was universally allowed to be identical with ulmin and ulmic acid, bestowed on it the name of humic acid, from the Latin, humus, or mould. Sprengel investigated minutely the various salts of this substance, and first endeavored to de- termine its chemical constituents. Boullay soon followed in the same path of inves- tigation, and with almost similar results. There were marked differences between all the forms, yet observed, that is, between elm gum of Palermo, the product of bark, the artificial ulmin of Braconnot, and that of soil. A multitude of different, but anal- ogous substances were confounded under a common name, which began to be applied to the matter of all vegetables, which after having been treated with alcohol and water, yielded to alkali a solution, pre- cipitable in brown flocks, by an acid. Under these . HISTORY OF GEINE. 69 circumstances, Berzelius objected to the term alto- gether, and if there is a substance to which he would apply the name ulmin, it is to the mucilage of elm. As this has been the source of no small confusion, an account of it may be here introduced. Elm bark is treated with alcohol. ‘The tincture is evap- orated dry, and the extract treated with water, which dissolves a brown extractive matter, leaves an insoluble residue, which, being treated with ether, leaves a small quantity of a brownish matter, anal- ogous to the extractive of chemists, or the brown apotheme of Berzelius. ‘The sap of elm contains acetate and carbonate of potash. Here, then, are all the elements of elm gum, as examined by Vau- quelin, Klaproth, Shatter Thomson. Not only the elm, but other trees, under diseased action, ex- ude these matters, and under the influence of air, and the potash, the diseased exudation from the elm bark, is changed to true ulmic acid, which unites with the potash, and both with the mucilage. The mucilage, may, by processes, not here necessary to be detailed, be procured pure, as a hard, opaque, colorless, insipid, and inodorous gum. It moistens easily, swells in water, becoming a semi-transparent mucilage. It is insoluble in alkali, affords no am- monia by dry distillation. Boiled with alkaline ley, it affords a clear mucilaginous liquor, which browns by being exposed to air. If this ley or solution is exactly neutralized by acetic acid, lime-water and salts of lime produce no precipitate in it, and it is only rendered slightly turbid by sulphuric, nitric and muriatic acids. It is not precipitated by ace- tate of lead, nor by sulphate of iron. With alcohol and sub-acetate of lead, it affords a mucilaginous precipitate. It is evident that it differs widely from artificial ulmin, and from ulmin of soil, and there- 70 HISTORY OF GEINE. * fore, when Berzelius turned his attention to that, having advised the abandonment of the name ulmin, as inapplicable to any one substance, he bestowed on the ulmin of soil, the name of GEINE, from the Greek ge, earth. If a distinction is therefore to be maintained, it may be said, that ulmin is the pro- duct of life; geine, of decay. The mass of matter called mould or humus, has many analogies with the artificial ulmin of authors; but taken as a whole, there are decided differences, Thgse were noticed by Berzelius, and hence he di- — vided, in an edition of his chemistry, (French trans- lation of 1832,) the constituents of the organic part of mould: or humus, into Ist. Extract of mould. 2d. Geine. 3d. Car- bonaceous mould, or coal of humus, as it is often termed. He noticed that these mutually passed into each other. This shows a great similarity if not | identity of chemical constituents. He did not pre- tend to determine that, but by his citing, in order to determine the elements of his No. 2, or geine, the analysis of Sprengel, of humic acid, and of that of © ulmic acid by Boullay, it is evident that he consid- ered his geine, identical with their humic and ulmie acids; but still he considered new researches to be necessary, to determine accurately the composition of either. Later experiments have not only con- firmed the accuracy of Sprengel and Boullay, but the progress of discovery has proved the perfect identity of ulmin, humin, geine and of ulmic, hu- mic, geic acid, and hence, Berzelius has withdrawn the name geine, and returned to that of humic acid, the usual term applied to the organic matter of soil. He could not, consistently, have gone back a step further, and substituted ulmin for geine, particularly e HISTORY OF GEINE. 71 after he was violently attacked by Raspail, for aban- doning that ancient, and much abused name. ~ The great distinction pointed out by Berzelius, in his three varieties of mould, was founded on their solubility or insolubility, ky water and by alkalies. The author of these pages, while engaged in re- searches upon the action of mordants, and of cow- dung, in calico printing, began in 1883, before he had met with the work of Berzelius, had also no- ticed this marked distinction, and several other new and important facts relating to what he then called, from its analogies, ulmi. For all-practical pur- poses, the distinction was enough. When a few years after, his attention was accidentally called to soil, the name of Berzelius, geine, was given by him to the whole organic matter of mould, or hu- mus, and that matter was also, as a convenient practical division, separated into soluble and insolu- ble, including the various geic salts, which he de- tected in soil. In the edition of Berzelius, above cited, two other organic compounds are noticed, as being among the general products of putrefaction, traces of which Berzelius noticed in soil. These were called crenic and apocrenic acids, from “‘ krene,” Greek, for fountain, having been first de- tected in spring water. The French for spring, being ‘‘ source,” as if to make confusion worse con- founded, the French translator of Mitscherlich, called these ‘‘ sourcic and oxygenated sourcic acid.” The presence of nitrogen was detected by Ber- zelius, in crenic and apocrenic acid. This sufhi- ciently distinguished them from geine, extract of, and carbonaceous mould. Though these acids were detected after the name of geine had been ap- plied, yet the presence of nitrogen in these, would at once have led Berzelius ta examine geine anew, nt / 72 . HISTORY OF GEINE. if he had any suspicion that it contained that ele- ment, or that he had mistaken the chemical nature of that substance. Unless we suppose, with Ras- pail, that nitrogen in these acids, exists, and acts _ only as he supposes it dees in gluten, as an acci- dent, or as an ammoniacal salt, it cannot be sup- posed that geine and these acids are identical, or can ever pass into each other. Nor has the pro- gress of chemical discovery led to the abandonment of geine as a distinct principle. ‘The existence of crenic and apocrenic acids, is not admitted, by some of the highest authorities of the day, the justly cele- brated Liebig, and the no less expert and astute Graham, of the London University. Both admit, however, of ulmic acid and ulmin. Malaguti had procured, by boiling sugar with dilute acid, ulmic acid in distinct crystals. By long boiling in water, it is converted into ulmin, losing its solubility in al- kali, without any change of composition. The existence of these principles is recognized in the seventh edition of Turner’s Chemistry, edited by Liebig and Gregory. The organic part, under the eye of Liebig, may be supposed to contain only well established chemical facts, and among these the results of Malaguti are given, under the names of sacchulmin and sacchulmic acid—the one is so- luble, the other insoluble, in alkali; their constitu- tion identical, and Boullay’s analysis of ulmic acid is cited to establish their constitution. The whole doctrine of naming the elements of soil may be tabulated. HISTORY OF GEINE. 13 The Organic Elements of Mould, or Humus, by Berzelius’s division. 1832. 1840. Vegetable extract of 1. Extract of Mould,|1. Extract of Mould,| authors, apotheme cf Berzelius. : . : Ulmic of Boullay ard Beiieine,.. 2.2% 5.. 2. Humic acid,... others, Nonehatewe of Lieb ig. 3. Carbon. mould, .|3. Humin,....... Ulmin of authors, sac- ; chulmin of Liebig. 4, Crenic acid,,...|4. Crenic acid, ..) |Not admitted by Lie- { big and Graham; ad- 5. Apocrenic,..... 5. Apocrenic acid ) | mitted by most others It becomes, therefore, a question whether the term geine, is not the only proper term to be re- tained, applicable to the various forms found in soil; and its distinction into soluble and insoluble, well founded, for all practical purposes? This question may be answered by a reference to the analysis of geine. It includes not only that, so called in 1882, by Berzelius, the equivalent of which, by the table, is ulmic and humic acid, but also, all the three forms, except the nitrogenous. On this subject, during the imperfect state of organic analysis ten years ago, there may have been room for doubt ; especially when the most consummate organic an- alyst of the age, Liebig, asserts that it is exceeding- ly difficult to estimate quantities, less than one half © per cent. Even now, when the results of the most expert analysts, have thrown a shade of doubt over the determination of the true proportion of carbon, in carbonic acid, a proportion for so 7 years, considered one of the best established facts of chemistry,—it may be doubted whether later anal- yses of geine, approach nearer practical truth than those executed, almost in the infancy of the science. The constitution of geine as determined by Boullay ¥ 74 HISTORY OF GEINE. and Malaguti, admitted by all, to be worthy of con- fidence, is thus stated :— Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. P. Boullay, (Thomson) 56°7 4:8 38°50 “¢ jr. (Lassaigne) 57°64 4°70 37°56 Malaguti, (Dumas) 5748 4°76 37-06 Average, 57°30 8=4°75 37°70 But it may be said, that these refer only to the artificial productions. They may be quite other compounds, from that found in soil. Let us then place the analysis of geine of soil, as determined by Sprengel, side by side, with the average, above stated. This result of Sprengel, is given in Ber- zelius’s ‘system’ of 1832. Geine of Soil. Artificial Geine, Carbon, 58: 57°30 - Hydrogen, 2°10 4°75 Oxygen, 39°9 37°70 The difference, it has been suggested, is owing ~ “to the difficulty of procuring” geine, “ pure, from soil.”” But the analyses of mould or geine, taken from decayed trees, show also, great differences. The process of decay, when air is freely admitted, combines a portion of the oxygen of air, with the hydrogen of the geine ; the whole of the hydrogen is thus removed as water, while the oxygen of the geine, combining with the carbon, escapes as car- bonic acid.” ‘There is not enough oxygen to convert we all the carbon; hence, a portion remains. But if water, be present, during decay, and the air par- tially excluded, then, a portion of water yields oxy- gen to the carbon. In order to make correct com- parative analyses, the substances should each have ‘ HISTORY OF GEINE. 75 proceeded to the same point of decay, and who may determine that? ‘The geine of soil appears to have been favorably situated for the abstraction of its hydrogen, or in other words, it has formed water faster than carbonic acid. Still the proportions are so near those of the artificial, that it seems difficult to believe, that when these are so near alike, that their agricultural effects would not be identical. While some deny the separate existence of crenic and apocrenic acids, and others assert, that they are identical with gene, they may be included in that ; or excluding these, geine seems to be allow- ed-on all sides, and under its. several forms to be identically the same chemical substance, differing chiefly by its being soluble or insoluble, in alkali or water. ‘The name and division adopted by the au- thor, are not therefore inapplicable to the organic part of soil, whether the term geine be used gener-- ically or specifically, whether we “speak agricul- turally or chemically.” Still, the author is quite indifferent by what name the organic matter of soil is called, and perhaps he may be allowed to quote his remarks on this subject, as published in the third re- port on the agriculture of Massachusetts, by Mr. Colman, in 1838: ‘“*‘ Whethex we consider this as a simple substance or composed of several others called crenic, apocrenic, puteanic, ulmic acids, glairin, apotheme, extract, humus or mould, agri- culture ever has and probably ever will, consider it one and the same thing, requiring always sim- ilar treatment to produce it; similar treatment to render it an effectual manure. It is the end of all compost heaps, to produce soluble geine, no mat- ter how compound our qgmistry may teach this substance to be,” Unless, therefore, better reasons for a change of 4 76 HISTORY OF GEINE. name are. offered, than have yet appeared, the name geine will be retained. } During the last two or three years, Mulder, in whose analytical tact, all chemists place the utmost confidence, has examined the various forms of non- nitrogenous geine. He is now publishing the elab- orate results of his long labor. The following sketch of these, which shed such a new light over this complicated subject, is chiefly drawn from Ber- ' zelius’s. Report for 1841, in which he speaks of them in high praise. While it will be seen that Mulder refers to the various forms of geine, under. names used by Berzelius, he confirms the fact, that their great difference depends upon their being sol- uble or insoluble in alkalies, and has added a crowd of new. facts, which connect all the forms in a beautiful and consistent manner. Stein had already, by repeating the experiments of Malaguti, arrived at products, whose analytical results, differed from Malaguti’s. Mulder, repeating the process of boil- ing sugar with weak acid, and examining the pro- duct, has confirmed Stein’s results, and also what has been advanced, that the forms of geine, thus produced, are, as Malaguti had observed iden- tical in composition ; and has shown, that the vari- ous forms, depend on the circumstances of the manipulation. The catalytic action of weak acid, boiled upon sugar, produces first, ulmin, and ulmic acid. It is, remarkable that these products are not formed in vacuo. ‘This is due, not to the want of oxygen, but to the want of pressure. Boiled, under the pressure of hydrogen, or nitrogen gas, ulmin and its. acid are produced. The products formed from sugar and weak acids,%n a vacuum, are humin, and hu- mic.acid Ulmin, and ulmic acid Sze therefore the HISTORY OF GEINE. 77 primary products of this action in air or under pres- sure. If these are separated and again boiled with weak acid, in contact with air, they are changed into humin, and humic acid. ‘These are therefore secondary products. Humin, and humic acid, are produced directly, by allowing a free, and abund- ant access of air. Ulmin, and ulmic acid, are then rapidly transformed to humin, and huimic acid. Strong acid also hastens this transformation, but at the same time, changes humic acid to humin. For- mic acid is always produced, and distils off during the process; and also two other new acids. The discoverer of one, was Peligot, in 1838, which Mul- der now calls glucic acid, and he himself has add- ed another, produced from this, which is called apo- glucic acid. Passing over these, it is difficult to procure the other acids, and neutral bodies free from mixture. Whatever may be the quantity of sugar, or the circumstances of the manipulation, it is impossible to convert more than one-fifth of the sugar into ulmin, and ulmic, and humin, and humic acid. The other four-fifths are changed into for- mic, glucic, and apoglucic acids. Having effected the change of one-fifth of the sugar, the ulmic and humic acids are separated from ulmin and humin, by potash. Ammonia cannot be used for this purpose.. The reason will appear in the sequel. Having separated the sev- eral substances, their analysis presents the follow- ing results. The proportion, per cent., the author has deduced for the greater part, from Mulder’s _ formule. What a chemical formula is, will be readily understood from (55). A formula is mere- ly the true expression of an analysis, by the num- ber of combining proportions. It presents to the eye at once, the constitution of any compound, and 78 HISTORY OF GEINE. affords a readier mode of comparing several bodies like-constituted, than does the proportion per 100 parts. That is added, for those, whose taste may have led them to omit the details. (55.) But it may here be stated, that C stands for car- bon, H hydrogen, O oxygen, Am. ammonia, a com- pound of 3 hydrogen, and 1 nitrogen; and Aq. stands for water (aqua), a compound of 1 of hydro- gen, and | of oxygen; 2 aq. is 2 water. Table of Composition of fet | &c. Per 100 parts. ormule. Carbon. Hyd’gn. Oxygen. Ulmin, cio Hié Ol4 § 65°30 430 30-40 Ulmic acid, C# H!4 Ol? 68°95 423 26°82 Humin, —6C40 AIS O15 64-67 4:32 31-01 Humic acid, C40 H® Ol2) 69:25 3:42 27-33 It is thus seen, that ulmic and humic acid, dif- fer from ulmin and humin, by containing the first 2, and the second, 3 atoms of the elements of water, more than the neutral bodies, from which they are formed. Ulmic and humic acids above, are sup- posed to be perfectly dry. Each may combine with a definite proportion of water, forming hydra- ted acids. In this case, they contain the same ab- solute and relative number of the same elements as do ulmin and humin. They are thus said to be isomeric with them. The composition of the hy- drated acids is— Ulmic, C40 H14 Ol2 +2 aq. or2 hydro. and 2 2 oxyg: Humic, C# Hi? Ol2 13aq.or3 “ ~ "These acids combine with bases. If: xh acids are dissolved by ammonia, and precipitated by an acid, they fall combined with ammonia. Ulmate of ammonia, precipitated by metallic salts, forms double salts of ammonia and a metallic oxide. The compéesition of these salts of ammonia, is— HISTORY OF GEINE. 79 Ulmate of ammonia, C40 H14 O12 + am. +2 aq. Humate $ C40 F12 Ol2 + am. +3 aq. Or per cené. Carb. Flyd. Oxy. WNitrog. Ulmate of ammonia, 64°75 5°06 2692 3:97 Humate ee 64°58 4:22 27:46 3°74 Mulder, having thus shown the composition of these artificial products, proceeds to trace similar natural products in peat, decayed wood, and soil. Here his labors have a direct bearing on agricul- ture. He points out their relation with those above, in so clear and masterly a manner, that it is impos- sible not to believe, that in agriculture, the artificial and natural products would produce like effects. In the natural formation of these substances, Mul- der remarks generally, that during decay, without free access of air, ulmin and ulmic acid are formed, as in peat of a brown color, while, as in black peats with free access of air, humin and humic acids are produced from the primary products. This agrees with his experiments, in air and a vacuum. Peat of a brown color, haying been treated with alcohol to remove all resinous matter, was then treated with carbonate of soda. All the soluble matter was thus extracted, that is, the ulmic acid. The insol- uble geine, is ulmin. The soluble, precipitated, has all the characters of the ulmic acid of sugar. It differs only in this, it may not be heated above 140° Fahrenheit, without decomposition, and then produces formic acid, and water. Sugar-ulmic acid, undergoes this change at 195° F. Humic - acid was prepared by a similar process, from black peat. It has all the external characters of sugar- humic acid. It differs by containing ammonia. _ Its soda solution, precipitated by muriatic acid, gave a precipitate containing one atom of humic acid, to one atom of ammonia. It loses no water at 140° F. 80 HISTORY OF GEINE. at about 180° it evolves ammonia; at 195° acetic acid. Humic acid was also prepared from the black mould of an old white willow, by a similar process as above. It suffers no change below 150° and at 163° it evolves water and acetic acid. Di- gested with caustic potash, it evolves ammonia. Continuing this digestion for twelve hours, and then ' precipitating the humic acid, it is found converted into ulmate of ammonia, with two portions of acid. It is a biulmate of ammonia, similar to that from peat. If digested with carbonate of soda, the pro- duct then is biulmate of ammonia, like that from sugar. Soil was treated by Mulder, first, with boil- ing alcohol, then with water, then with carbonate of soda, and the acids precipitated as usual, by muriatic acid. These precipitates were with diffi- culty obtained pure. They were repeatedly wash- ed in cold water, dried, and again heated with al- cohol, to remove every trace of crenic and apo- erenic acid. This care of Mulder, to separate crenic and apocrenic acid from his geine, is new evidence that the last is not a compound of these acids. ‘These being removed, the precipitates were again dried, as in fact, were all the products above described at 140° F. They were then analyzed. It is remarkable, that all these products are ammo- niacal combinations. It is a combination, not as a salt, in which case, the geine of soil would be at once soluble in water, but a compound of humin and ulmin, or of their acids with ammonia, prob- ably like the compounds of ammonia, with sul- phates, and other salts. ‘The whole may be. best presented in a table, and that these natural, may be at once compared with the artificial products, these are also included. 81 HISTORY OF GEINE. TABLE. OF THE COMPOSITION OF ARTIFICIAL AND NATURAL GEINE. FORMULE. RM oe bce oe aio. rE Bde Si oe ee oe eR PROG She Be xe ye ge ee Humic acid, . . CAP Hydrated ulmic acid, nee hae Hydrated humic acid, erg Bi. Peat ulmit.acid,...2 . +0 ew « @40 Peat humic acid, . ee ere Willow mould buipaie ania. ete eo Fruit orchard soil, C40 Do. treated by am. and dried, C40 Kitchen garden soil, . . . C0 Field (mowing) silt; C40 Oak plantation soil, . . ffx 2ee Proteine humic acid, ... C40 HI6 Ow H14 lz Hb ols Hl2 012 Hl4 Ql2 HE ol HI8 O16 H15 015 HI6 (Olé H20 O17 Hl2 oOl4 H!5 ols H1l4 014 H!l7 ol7 H!2 012 2 water less than ulmin, C water less than huminz, +2 aq. +3 aq. 2at. aq, more than sugar acid. (3 66. (4 74 i) | ) ) + lammonia 6G * Carbon. Hydrog. 65°30 68°95 64:67 69°25 65°30 64:67 62°62 64:44 62°94 58°49 56:24 61°65 60°11 58°98 64:67 PER CENT. Oxygen. Nitrog. 4°30 3040 ... 4°23 26°82 ... 4°32 31:01 ... 342 27:33 ... 4:30 3040 ... 432 3101 ... | Geer oo Dds GARE vcr 412 32°93 ..-. 9°60 32:52 3:37 598 31:27 6:51 4°54 30°24 3:57 S41 27:52 6:96 4:83 32°77 3:41 4:32 3101. .... HISTORY OF GEINE. 82 , , The salts of ulmic and humic acid from these varied sources, have, dried at 140 de- grees Fahrenheit, the following composition, viz : Carbon. Hydrog. Ulmate of ammonia, the aciafrom C20 H14 Ol2-+-am. 64:75 Humate of ammonia, sugar C40 AI? Ol2+am. 64:58 Humate of ammonia, from protein, C1? H!? O12 +-am. 64:58 Ulmate of ammonia, Froid Seat C# Hl4 Ol2?+-am+2aq. 61:43 Huimate of ammonia, Peas C40 HI2 Ol2+am+3 aq. 60-13 Ulmate of ammonia—willow, C” H!6 Ol6+am, 75:08 5°06 4°22 4°22 4°92 4°74 5°83 ~ Oxyg. Nitrog. 26:92 27°46 27-46 30°61 31:55 14-73 397 3°74 374 3°04 3°61 4°35 ‘ HISTORY OF GEINE. 83 These are beautiful and valuable results. Exe- cuted by one of the great masters in organic anal- ysis, they show a wonderful coincidence between the artificial and natural products. This has a di- rect connexion with agriculture. The source of the nitrogen of plants, depends upon these com- pounds of ammonia with the geine of soil. The composition of that substance shows, that by mak- ing it soluble, the farmer commands the same ben- eficial effects, which may be produced by nitre. But the researches of Mulder do not terminate with the analyses. He has examined the compounds which these forms of geine produce with other acids, particularly with muriatic and nitric. The com- pound of nitric and humic acid, is called nitro- humic ; ulmin and dfmic, humin and humic acid, ‘are decomposed by weak nitric acid. They are converted by gentle heat, immediately into a rust colored powder, and by prolonged action evolve oxalic and formic acids and nitrate of ammonia. Nitro-humic acid, the rusty brown powder, above, is soluble in water. Alkalies evolve ammonia from it. Its analysis affords— C48. FI I6 O26 N2: or per cent. Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. Nitrogen. 55°43 = 349 38°10 2.98. It is highly probable, that this product is con- nected with the action of nitrates, or saltpetre in agriculture. All these products, observes Berzeli- us, are connected by an unknown thread. ‘These black and almost insoluble acids, have a very weak saturating power, in comparison with their oxy- gen. This last exceeds that of the base, by 10, 12, or 14 times. Hence, Berzelius suggests, that all these organic acids may have a composition, anal- 84 ‘HISTORY OF GEINE. ogous to sulpho-benzoic acid. ‘This last is compos- ed of benzoin and sulphuric acid, which determines the saturating power of gulphobengoic acid. Hence if these forms of geine, are united to an organic acid, which acts lke the acid in sulpho-benzoic, they may have an analogous composition. Notwithstanding the objections raised by Berze- lius, founded upon a want of correspondence be- tween the oxygen and saturating power of these forms of geine, they are probably, modifications of one principle, differing not so much in their phys- ical properties, as do fibrine, aibumine, and caseine, or flesh, white of egg, and curd of milk. These are identical in composition, modifications of a common principle to which the name, proteine, is given by Mulder, its discoverer. It is*hot among the least curious of his results, that proteine is, by weak. acids, changed into humate of ammonia, its acid being perfectly identical with that from sugar. In 1838, Prof. Hitchcock, in his report, published the following extract from one of the author’s letters, when speaking of geine as the product chiefly of vegetable matter, it was added: ‘“ Animal sub- stances afford a similar product, containing nitro- gen.” ‘The author supposed at that time, that the nitrogen in geine was of animal origin ; but since, it has been proved, that proteine is equally derived from vegetables and animals, the results of its de- composition by Mulder, leave no doubt, that the proteine of vegetables is the source of the ammoni- acal compounds of geine, found in soil. That nei- ther Mulder nor Berzelius, have the slightest doubt, that these ammoniacal compounds, are wholly dis- tinct from crenic and apocrenic acid, is evident from the care of Mulder, to separate these last from the soil, and from the total silence of Berzelius, HISTORY OF GEINE. 85 respecting any mistake he may have been suppos- ed to commit, by confounding geine with them. New facts are wanting. The several organic principles of soil are probably oxides of a peculiar - base or radical, to whose several modifications, the term geine, may like the term proteine, be applied- These modifications, may be found, even when ful- ly known, to affect the practice of agriculture, as little, as did the true chemistry of oil and fat, affect soap making, 86 ACTION OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. CHAPTER V. OF THE MUTUAL ACTION OF THE OR- .GANIC AND INORGANIC ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 128. In agriculture, little and seemingly unim- portant discoveries are valuable. Nothing is to be despised, which may lead to a rational and true the- ory of agriculture ; this only can lead to successful practice. Practice, founded on sound principles, can be taught only by a knowledge of the manner how, the elements of soil affect each other, and vegetation. This knowledge cannot be obtained without the application of theoretical opinions. ‘The opinions of merely scientific men, may be wholly theoretical ; but what is science ? It is, says Davy, ‘refined common sense, the substitution of rational practice, for unsound preju- dice.” In no department of human industry, is there so great a demand for the union of theory and _ prac- tice, as in agriculture. The book farmer and the practical farmer, must now shake hands. They have been too long wrestling, and trying to get each other down, at arms’ length, and now grap- pling in side-hug, they find the closer the embrace, the longer they stand. So it should be, theory and practice should mutually support each other. ACTION OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. 87 129. The theoretical and the practical farmer aim at one common object. The latter is employ- ing certain means to effect certain ends; the former unfolds the laws of nature, which limit and control the operations which are performed to effect that end. ‘Theory may teach a rational and successful practice ; this last may lead to a rational theory. © But without a knowledge of the elements of soil, and of their mutual action, which is to be learned from chemistry only, the practical application of science to agriculture, is but the dream of enthu- siasts. 130. How do the elements of soil act? The an- swer involves two important considerations. Ist. The mutual chemical action of the elements of soil, their organic and inorganic parts on each other ; and 2d. This action, as influenced and modified, by the presence of living, growing plants. 131. The elements of soil, are silicates, salts and geine. The silicates, as such, have no tendency to react on each other. These are gradually decom- posed by the action of the air. The great agent in this action is its carbonic acid, which gradually combines with the alkaline base of the silicates, and the potash, and soda, are converted into soluble salts, while the silex and alumina remain. 132. The result of this action is, that the land becomes gradually more clayey and tenacious ; while the alkaline bases, carried away by drainage or filtration, enter brooks and rivers, and are finally found in sea water. The potash of the ocean, arises from the decomposition of rocks and soil. ‘This action though very marked on felspar, is compara- tively nothing except on the naked and exposed surface of rocks. Soil suffers but little from this a 4 88 ACTION OF ELEMENTS OF SOIL. cause. The silicates of soil may be considered as stationary. 133. If the class, salts, be now introduced, those only which act upon silicates by mutual decompo- sition are earthy carbonates. The silicic acid acts on the lime, forming silicate of lime, while the car- bonie acid, now let loose, acts as such upon other silicates, and-_eliminates or frees the alkaline bases. Let it be supposed that there is silicate of alumina, that is clay, or silicate of potash and alumina in the soil. Let carbonate of lime, that is marble, and slacked lime, shells, &c., be added to the soil. The result is, that slowly but surely, chemical action takes place, the silicic acid pulling one way and the carbonic acid another, the lime is changed to sili- cate of lime, and the carbonic acid escapes, and now in its turn acts upon silicates as did carbonic acid of air. The alumina remains, the soil becomes ~ more clayey. ‘Thus sands by liming are amended. 134. This principle, of the action of carbonates, unravels the mysterious action of a vast variety of substances, which appear to be very inert and inef- ficient. It must be remembered, that the action of silicates and salts is alone under consideration, unin- fluenced by the presence of geine or plants. That action in its simplest form constitutes the following, which may be laid down as the ninth principle of agricultural chemistry, CARBONIC ACIDJ\AND THE CARBONATES, DECOMPOSE THE EARTHY, ALKALINE, AND. METALLIC SILICATES OF SOIL. 135. The result is, that the potash, soda, lime, magnesia, alumina, and metallic oxides are set free, and where silicate of alumina exists, the soil be- comes more clayey, while the carbonic acid again acts upon silicates of alkalies and forms carbonates of alkalies. A clue is thus given to the action of f / / aw cr Na ACTION OF CARBONATES IN SOIL. 89 peat ashes, or coal ashes in amending a sandy soil. These ashes act by their carbonate of lime as above stated, freeing the alkali of the silicate of potash. 136. Hitherto, the action of the inorganic ele- ments has been explained, uninfluenced by the or- ganic or geine. Referring to the properties of this element, it will be ‘recollected, that this is soluble or insoluble, that it combines with alkalies, earths, and metals. This element exerts a twofold action. Ist. ‘The geine combines with the potash, soda, lime, alumina, magnesia, which have been let loose by _ the action of carbonic acid, and of carbonates, and forms geic salts or geates, while the carbonic acid which may be let loose from any carbonate of lime, acting upon these geic salts, forms super-geates, which readily dissolve. It is thus evident, that geine exerts an important and powerful influence upon soil. It is the agent, prepared by nature, to dis- solve the earthy constituents of soil, rendering them so soluble, that they become fit for food, or con- stituents of plants. 2d. The free alkalies, produced as has been de- scribed by the influence of carbonic acid, and car- bonates act on geine. ‘They render this soluble. The curious and important fact, that a small quan- tity of alkali, renders an indefinite quantity of geine soluble, has been noticed (117); and it may now be added, that probably all the alkaline earths, and oxide of iron and manganese possess this power of converting vegetable fibre into geine. ‘This effect has long been known to be produced by potash and lime. These hasten decay; and next in poweg to lime, in this singular process, is alumina, then oxide of iron, in passing from a lower to a higher state of oxidation. 137. This remarkable process, this power, ener- 90 CATALYSIS, OR ACTION OF PRESENCE. gy, function, influence, property, called by whatso- ever name it may be, which is thus exerted, by the elements of silicates upon vegetable fibre, and in- soluble geine; and the power of developing acid properties in that principle, is intimately connected with the action of growing plants upon soil, The joint effect of organic and inorganic elements of soil and plants, may be better understood by advert- ing to the probable cause of this property of earths, alkalies and oxides ; though in the present state of science this cause may be apprehended only by giving ita name, which, while it arranges many facts under one view only, hides as deep, the source of this classification. The cause of this effect, of alkalies, upon geine, is to be sought in that power, which has been denominated catalysis, and which the French designate as the action of presence. That is, the mere presence of a body, influences the nature of a second body, so as wholly to change its properties. It causes the elements of organic compounds to enter into new arrangements, by which they produce a totally different substance. The catalytic body, the present body, the chang- ing body itself, suffers no change, except, perhaps, in some cases of ferments, whose activity depends upon their being in a state of decomposition, while the changed body loses nothing of its substance. {t often gains oxygen and hydrogen, or the ele- ments of water. For example, starch is converted into sugar by oil of vitriol. ‘The acid suffers no change. It acts by catalysis, and converts the starch to sugar, simply by the addition of water, or its’elements. So the peculiar principle found near the eye of the potato, converts starch first into gum, called dextrine, and then converts this into sugar of starch. So malt, by its gluten, converts starch in- > CATALYSIS OF LIFE. 91 to sugar in the process of brewing beer. But the ~ ~ effect of this action, may not be confined to organic compounds only. It has lately been extended, by an acute German chemist, to all chemical changes ; and it has been maintained that all chemical de- composition takes place in obedience only toa third substance, acting by its presence. Hence, this ex- tension of the principle, will allow the decomposi- tion of the mineral elements of soil, to be attribut- ed to the catalytic action of the plant. 138. Having considered the action of the organ- ic and inorganic elements of soil upon each other, it is seen, that though great, this action would be but very little, in centuries. The geine itself, would be dissipated in air, were it not that by this provision, it is combined with the earthy part of the soil, and there retained for the use of plants, which may grow near it. 139. Let plants be grown in the soil, whose ac- tion has been considered. This introduces life into the process, and it gives life to all around it. It is not pretended to explain what the action of life is. It has many relations with chemical processes. By the refined chemistry of the present day, many products are formed, which have been usually, and in fact, are now considered products of living ac- tion only; the peculiar product of life, urea, is formed artificially ; so of other products, and out of carbon, nitrogen, and water, may be formed as many, and as complex products as are ever elabo- rated by a living process ; yet, life is not a chem-- ical process, and were it attempted to explain how,. out of the four simple elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, all the variety of vegetable products are formed, it might be said that life is a catalytic power. ‘The vital principle by its pres- 92 CATALYSIS OF LIFE. ence, impresses the same power on the food we take, that the peculiar principle in malt and in po- tato, called diastase, impresses on starch. It mere- -ly by its presence, gives to the elements power to enter into new combinations, and then these combi- nations occur in obedience only to the well known, established, eternal laws of chemical affinity. 140. So too, the presence of a growing plant, of the root, of a seed, where life is, impresses, on the soil, both on the organic and inorganic elements, power to enter into new arrangements. The soil, then, is not external to the vlants; so far as life is concerned, it is as much internal as if the plant had a mouth and stomach, through, and into which the soil might be fed. 141. Call this power life, electricity, galvanism, or by any other name, still the great fact, that the mere presence of a living, growing plant in soil, in one year effects a greater amount of its decompo- sition, than all atmospheric influences, in many years, is one of the very highest- interest, in a prac- tical view. It is, perhaps, of more value than all the other actions which have been considered. 142. It is this decomposing action of living plants, on the inorganic elements of soil, which af- fords a reasonable explanation of the action of salts in agriculture. The catalytic power of life dissoei- ates the elements of salts. They enter into new combinations. ‘The base and the acid, are sepa- rated by the action of the living plant. 143. On no subject in agriculture, are opinions more divided, than on the manner, how salts or mineral manures act. Their amount in soil is small. That is soon exhausted. They cannot be artificially supplied, in excess, without inducing very serious injury, and in fact, often produce bar- \ \ ACTION OF SALTS OR MINERAL MANURES. 93 renness; yet are often decidedly beneficial. It is not less difficult to account for the good, than for bad effects of salts. Among all the variety of sub- stances acting as salts, a distinct theory is generally framed and adopted for each. If any attempt has been made to arrange all the facts relating to this subject, it has ended in this that they are stimulants. They are to the plants, what condiments are to the food of man. This may do very well as an illus- tration, and it has been elsewhere said, that ‘the soil is the plate, the geine the food, the salt the seasoning.” 144. This leads to no practical result, except it be this, that if salts are seasoning, like the season- ing of our food, they must be used sparingly. Some general law is wanting, which shall at once, ac- count for the effects of salts, and while it points out how so very minute a portion as the four-hund- redth part of one per cent. of the soil produces un- questionably good effects, one per cent. will be in- jurious. Some general principle is wanted, which will enable the farmer to say what the action of a salt will be; and whether he may apply one, or less than one per cent. of it, without risking his crop. 145. Such a general principle, can be deduced from the known chemical action of the elements of soil, aided by the living plants, upon each other. It is this tenth principle of agricultural chemistry, THE BASE OF ALL SALTS, ACTS EVER THE SAME IN AGRICULTURE. PECULIARITY OF ACTION DEPENDS ON THE ACID OF THE SALT. 146. Forget, reader, all other principles which have been presented to you. Banish from your mind, if you will, all that has been said, on the ori- gin and nature of soil. Put it down, all, all to the 94 ACTION OF SALTS. account of book farming. Let it be branded all as theory, and that too as the worst of theories, theory fruitless, a goodly blossom bearing no fruit, a Dead Sea apple ; but do not condemn the principle now enunciated. Let that stand alone, by itself, for it- self. In all its length and breadth, it is the great practical principle of agricultural chemistry. It opens veins, rich in results, more precious than mines of gold. 147. The action of salts in agriculture, is to be regarded in a twofold light. First, a large propor- tion of salts is found in plants, composed of alkalies and alkaline bases of earths, united to a mineral acid, such as sulphuric, muriatic, phosphoric. These salts are taken up by the roots of plants when dis- solved in water, and thus form a constituent of veg- > etables. Secondly, a large quantity of alkali and alkaline earths, is united in plants, with a vegetable acid. In this case, the salts of the soil, have been decomposed by the living plant. What is the con- sequence? The base, if alkali, lime, alumina, magnesia, iron, acts upon geine, rendering that sol- uble, and it is then taken up as such, or it forms an alkaline or earthy, or metallic geate, which enter- ing the plant as such, is there decomposed by the vegetable acid produced in the living plant; while the acid of the salt thus let loose in the soil, acting on the silicates, forms new salts, which in their turn, play a similar part to that produced by the original salt. 148. The effect of this action of salts is, that they continually reproduce themselves. The effect may be illustrated by yeast, which added to dough, begets a new portion of the fermenting principle, which again added to new dough, still begets new leaven, and this without end. — It is not to be under- \ ACTION OF SALTS. 95 stood, from this illustration, that the action of salts is fermentation. 149. But let this action be farther illustrated ; suppose there is added a salt, composed of muriatic acid and soda, that is common salt, to the soil. By the action of the living plant, this is decomposed. Its soda or base, then acts on geine. If this has been long in an insoluble, and perfectly useless condition, it is now remdered soluble, and hence supplies plants with food. A very marked and de- cided effect is perceived from applying a small quantity per acre, of a salt, which certainly of itself, contains no nutriment for plants. 150. The effects here produced, may be due to the small quantity of alkali, acting on an indefinite quantity of geine ; but the effect so often observed, of the minute quantity of salts, say one-hundredth of one per cent. of the soil, seems hardly compati- ble with the explanation. So far as it goes, this is its action; but very probably the quantity of alkali in the salt sown, is taken up as a geic salt, and im- mediately carried into the plants. ‘The base then is withdrawn, yet the action continues. It contin- ues through the whole time the fruit is forming. Some other source, therefore, of the permanence of this action must be sought. That is due to the acid constituent of the salt. That, when the plant decomposed the salts, was let loose and now acts on the silicates of the soil. It decomposes these, uniting first with the alkalies, and thus reproducing itself. It is‘again decomposed by the growing plant. The same round of action continues. Suppose all this had been witnessed on a worn out, almost bar- ren field. It is concluded at once, that there is some peculiar virtue in the salt applied, that it is of itself food, or manure; whereas the whole action is 96 ACTION OF SALTS. in obedience to a general law applicable to all salts, 151. Suppose plaster or gypsum has been ap- plied; the effects of a bushel of plaster per acre, or even the one four-hundredth part of one per cent. of thesoil produces effects on alluvial land, which show its good results, as far as eye can reach. It seems almost incredible, that so minute a portion of a mineral can act at all, yet how beautifully is this result explained, by the principle, that plants decompose, first, this salt; the lime, for plaster isa sulphate of lime, then acts on geine, which is thus rendered soluble ; while the acid, the oil of vitriol ~ or sulphuric acid, immediately acts on silicates. If silicates of alkali exist in the soil, we have now changed sulphate of lime for an alkaline sulphate, and if silicate of lime is also present, the potash or alkali, having been exhausted, plaster of Paris is formed anew. So long as there is in the soil or- ganic matter, this action continues, and will con- tinue till the plant has gradually withdrawn for its own use, the acid of the salt which was intreduced. 152. Fertility depends wholly on salts and geine. Without the last there is no fruit formed; without the salts the geine is locked up, is insoluble. Con- sider now the application of this principle, that the base of the salts acts always in one uniform way, its action is wholly upon geine; that the acid of salts, acts upon silicates. Apply this principle to all mineral manures, as they are called. They are all connected by one common mode of action of their base. There is no speculation, there is no mystery, as to the mode how they act. The ef- fect produced by such wonderfully minute quanti- ties is no longer astonishing. It is no more won- derful than that leaven should make dough rise ; it. is even less mysterious. ACTION OF SALTS. 97 _ 153. Apply this principle to acids, which have sometimes been used. Sprinkle a small portion of oil of vitriol on the soil; supposing no free base present, the silicates are decomposed by the oil of vitriol, and sulphates of alkalies, and alkaline earths are formed. ‘These new formed salts are, in their turn, decomposed by the living plants ; and the ac- tion on geine commences, as has been explained. 154. Consider how salts and geine are linked. It is at once seen how essential to the action of salts is the presence of organic matter, or geine in the soil. It is the want of a principle like that which has been stated, which has led to a waste of time and money, in applying mineral manures, to worn out and barren soil. Whereas, the principle (145) leads to the application of both salts and geine. The salts alone, would be useless. Their first effect in either case, would be the same on silicates ; but with geine, this action, like fer- mentation, goes on, begetting new salts; without it, this action ceases after the first chemical changes have occurred. In the first case, it goes on. In the second, it stops. 155. Salts without geine, act only on silicates of the soil. If now, these silicates contain any portion of aqueous rock, (11) they usually contain also, distinct traces of organic matter. This matter is due for the most part, to the geine, held in solution in the water, from which the rocks were deposited. It is certainly within the bounds, not only of a chem- ical possibility, but of a high degree of probability, that the carbon under the influence of growing plants, may unite with oxygen or hydrogen, that is, with the elements of water, and form thus food for plants. Hence, on such soil, the mere application of salts, or of mineral manures, yea, and does pro- 98 ACTION OF SALTS. duce marked and wonderful effects. This would be the effect of salts, applied to soil produced by the decomposition of slate ; even gneiss soil, which occurs occasionally in extensive patches, would be _ benefitted, but much less by such application. But such soil forms an exception, both to the general law, which has been stated, of the uniformity of mineral composition, and to the necessity of apply- ing salts and geine in conjunction. ‘These remarks may explain a seemingly possible anomaly to the principle, that the base of all salts acts in one uni- form manner upon geine, and that peculiarities of action depend on the acid of the salt. ‘The effects of the first part of this proposition have been ex- plained; the effect of the second, is now to be con- sidered. 156. Perhaps no principle in agriculture, is bet- ter established than that an excess of any salt in the usual acceptation of that term, is a cause of bar- renness. Yet it is quite as well established, that the quantity of different salts admits-of some lati- itude ; and that some salts do produce better results than others. Referring to the acid constituents of these salts, it will be found that some acids are or- ganic. ‘They consist of hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, all which under the influence of the living plant, may be dissociated, and their element form geine. Other acids consist of oxygen and nitrogen, essen- tial constituents of plants; others consist of chlo- rine; others of sulphur and oxygen, and others of carbon and oxygen. In other words, the acids are composed of elements, which form food for plants, or of elements which enter in a small proportion only, into the composition of plants. 157. In the first case, the salts admit of a larger quantity being applied, than inthe second. By the ACTION OF SALTS. 99 first, are fed, by the second, plants are poisoned ; for the base of all salts acting, as has been explain- ed, the acid is eliminated ; if this is set free in large quantities, and its elements can be taken up and converted by the plant, well, good effects follow ; if on the other hand, the elements of the acid are such as the plant, like poison on the animal econ- omy. 158. Let salts be divided into two classes, on this principle of the peculiarity of action depending upon the acid of the salts, the first nourishes, the second poisons plants. ‘The first class contains, first, carbonates—second, nitrates—third, phos- phates. 159. The action of the first class is to be stud- ied under its three divisions. First, the carbonates. These include a very large portion of all salts used in agriculture. It includes, limestone, (14) marble, old mortar, shells, shell marl. In all these cases, the base or lime, let loose by the action of the liv- ing plant, acts at once, as caustic lime upon insolu- ble geine, and unconverted vegetable fibre, chang- ing these into soluble vegetable food; while the carbonic acid acts immediately upon silicates, de- composing these, and upon the geates in the soil, converting these into super-geates. Carbonates of alkalies, as ashes, &c., act at once. They are sol- uble, their alkali acts immediately upon the geine. Their carbonic acid acts upon silicates and geine. Immediate and decided good effects follow their ap- plication ; while carbonate of lime acts slower. It often requires many years to bring out the good effects of carbonate of lime, and though ultimately these effects, it is believed, have never failed of be- ing witnessed ; yet so slowly, that its use has been often condemned. The principle which is here 100 ACTION OF SALTS: 4 discussed, may account for this apparent discrep- ancy. Suppose a barren, worn out, exhausted soil, containing yet, a large portion of insoluble geine, and decayed vegetable matter, between the state of wood and insoluble geine, or even a portion of un- decayed, dead wood. It seems too unpromising to give it manure; little of that is to be spared, and that is bestowed upon better land. If this isina country where lime is cheap, that is purchased, and freely applied, as it is in England, at the rate of about a cask to the rod. Even in this case no change is produced, the soil is as unproductive as ever. ‘The experiment has failed, and is charged to book farming. 160. ‘The properties of lime, and geine, are here to be remembered. Lime in excess, renders geine insoluble, granting it to have been in a soluble state. Lime changes vegetable fibre -into soluble geine, but being applied in excess it forms an insoluble salt. Now by the supposition, there was no great excess of vegetable matter, and the lime, rendering only a small portion of that soluble, is itself then, always in excess, and though it converts, it at the same. time locks up that geine which it had con- verted. ‘The reasoning will hold good, whether a cask to the acre, or a cask to the rod, has been ap- plied. 161. The lime has been perhaps, in a caustic state, fresh. from the kiln, and as soon as it falls into. powder it is spread and covered in. It is greedy of carbonic acid, so long as it remains caustic, it ab- sorbs this gas, and slowly becomes caybonate of lime. It is now like shell marl, clam, oyster and. muscle shells. ‘The mode of reasoning applies to all these forms. Slowly, but surely, it may not be. for some years, a gradual improvement in the lim- bd ~ o. / ACTION OF SALTS. 101 ed soil of the exhausted field, is perceived. The -earbonate of lime begins to act on the silicates; and the alkalies of the silicates are eliminated. These solve or decompose the geine and geates, which the lime had locked up; at the same time the silic- ic acid acts on the carbonate of lime, volumes of carbonic acid gas are let loose. ‘The carbonic acid itself reacts on silicates, eliminating a fresh portion of alkali, and upon the geates, converting these into super-geates. A round of changes goes on, till perhaps, every particle of vegetable food is withdrawn; crops are no longer raised. Having witnessed, though slow to believe it, good effects from liming, the farmer again applies it to the ex- hausted field ; but no good effects can now follow, unless manure or decayed vegetable matter is also applied. This may be furnished in two ways, either artificial or naturally, that is by allowing the scanty crop of all sorts of weeds, grass, mullein, &c. to decay on the soil where it grew. But this ‘sub- ject will be considered in another place. 162. It has been attempted to show how the contradictory and anomalous effects of lime are ex- plicable, on the principle (145); and here the gen- eral theory of the action of lime may be adverted to, much of which has been anticipated. Lime isa general term, it includes all forms of calcareous matter. It is the lime, the base of the salts which acts, and that always as lime, no matter how itis applied ; whether as marble, as marl, shells, air slacked lime, bones or plaster. In a restricted and usual acceptation of the term, lime refers only to that which has been burned, or stone lime. Its ac- tion is threefold, each distinct; first, as a neutraliz- er—secondly, a decomposer—thirdly, a converter. ' Ist. Wherever free acids exist in soil, lime acts 102 ACTION OF SALTS. as a neutralizer. It has been asserted, on undoubt- ed authority, that occasionally free phosphoric, mu- riatic, geic, acetic and malic acids exist in soil. 2d. Soil may contain abundant geates, particu- larly geate of alumina, the least of all demanded by plants. Long formed and sun-baked, they are scarcely acted on by rain or dew, and are almost useless. Here, lime, by decomposing these earthy and metallic geates, forms a combination which in its nascent state, is readily dissolved. If the car- bonate of lime, acts better than the hydrate, it is because, following a well known law, double de- composition is easier than single. If any acid geine exists in the soil, or any free acids, carbonic acid is then liberated, it acts on the geate of lime, super- geates result, and these are easily soluble. od. The great use of lime is as a converter, turning solid and insoluble geine, even solid vege- table fibre into soluble vegetable food. Here is the point, where philosophy seems to give the choice, to réfer this action to one of the numerous cases of catalytic change, which are every day becoming more and more familiar; or to explain the whole process by referring it to saponification. This word is used as conveying at once what is meant, but it is not meant to say that the product of lime and vegetable matter is soap. The action of lime on geine, may be similar to its action on oil and fat. It is well established, that animal and vegetable oils: and fats, are converted into acids, by the action of alkalies, earths, oxides, and even by vegetable fibre itself. The general law is, that whenever a sub- stance, capable of uniting with the acid of fat or oil, is placed in contact with fat or oil, it determines the production of acid. Now it has been shown, that alkali produces a similar change on geine, it ‘ 7 ACTION OF SALTS. 103 deyelopes acid properties. If alkali has converted vegetable oil and geine into acid, it isa reason why a similar action may be produced by all those sub- stances which act thuson oil. Hence lime, earths, and metallic oxides, convert geine into acid; as fast as this takes place, so fast it becomes soluble. Then too, the long action of air on insoluble geine rendering it soluble, is it not analogous to the action of air onoils? Both evolve in this case, vast vol- umes of carbonic acid, the oil becomes gelatinous and soluble in alkali, does not a similar change oc- cur in geine? It is possible that during the action of lime on geine, a soluble substance maybe pro- duced, bearing the same relation to this process that glycerine does to saponification. These views need to be followed out experimentally, and may be possibly hereafter considered. 163. In the acid soil, lime acts to eliminate car- bonic acid, which then acts on silicates and geine, as has been explained. All fat acids or fats and oils, act in the same way upon silicates, partly by their own acid properties, and partly. by the evolu- tion of carbonic acid gas, which is evolved during their conversion into the acid state. The quantity of carbonate of lime which may be applied is un- limited, and the quantity of alkali depends on the presence of insoluble geine. The more abundant is the last, the more freely may alkalies be applied. ‘The carbonates include ashes of all kinds, and agri- culturally viewed, all kinds of lime, for the quick soon becomes mild.. The value of ashes in agri- culture, depends upon its being a combination of salts derived from plants, all of which have a pow- “erful and decidedly beneficial effect. ‘The question is often asked, what is the relative value of spent a 104 ACTION OF SALTS. or leached and unleached ashes. It may be an- swered by reference to the analysis of ashes. Burning reduces these constituents to two classes, ashes and volatile salts. ‘The last are found in soot. The ashes are formed of salts and silicates. These vary in quantity and quality, not only in different plants, but, as is well known, in different parts of the same plant. Let us take oak, beech, basswood, birch, as the types of the composition of hard wood ashes; yellow pine,—(pinus abies)—as the type of soft wood ashes; and wheat straw as the type of the ashes of the grasses. The average quantity of ashes from 100 parts of dry oak, beech, birch, &¢., is 2°87. Ashes are di- vided by the simple process of leaching, into two parts, soluble and insoluble in water. 100 parts of hard wood ashes thus afford—soluble, 13°57; in- soluble, 86°43. 100 parts of the soluble contain: Garboniesaeid;.. i. age Cosme. ai-« 22°70. Sulphuriewaeldy:,;.0vi6 salteocang biog. 6°43. Muriatic'acid;: ..s.. aoe dion olsods 1-82. Sides, od l. (sett acheiag. adh odd aeoeenas "95: Potash and. sodlajin. (oie awl Qe ait 67°96. 99-86. 100 parts of the insoluble contain : VarhbgMle.acldy 3 3:5 alsa Jha shemanete 35°80. Phosphoric acidy..« 5.) . alee. aqme 3°40. OK esr ey - ome sel oar oriietee aietone 4°25, Oxide Gf I@Riin ‘s:) +!\e ou,pede, scope Bae “52, . Oxide of manganese,.......... 2°15. Magnesia, ..... ih ® mive? ter! ate « Semel 3°55. TRE Ge ee eee le 35°80. ACTION OF SALTS. 105 _ Pine,—(pinus abies) —100 parts of dry wood af- ford only ‘83 |b. ; of which 100 parts afford soluble, 50; insoluble, 50. . 100 parts of the soluble contain : Carbeme ‘acids. 2. eee. 13°50. PAMPMUTIC"AGIG TEL tN 6:90. Pee ATOR PQ Pee Ole 2° Potash and*soday 2 8) vee en, 69-70. Mpemens 24h Bote Lope ty 7:90. 100: 100 parts of the insoluble contain : cg apy are ligand ertea y'g plies oh age oT oe. Beeeeee UCN ye ce eee ye hs 1.80. ea ne te Ehren tco¥ ie abs 13° Rl ag alin te 0 gy f= 8°70. SE a eet af a eos 22°30. Reece OF Wanirainese, sos ke nn 5°50. eR ee ee 2, ste Sika 4 27°20. 100° Wheat straw—100 parts yield 4:40 lbs. of ashes ; 100 parts of which afford, soluble, 19; insoluble, 81. 100 parts of the soluble contain : SRNITICNRCMS 2 hi pore winded. ene 0-2. Mens ARES | his ecle ey ldo wre bec wlelie ay MAM eer Riis waar ae rae add ascleps 35°6. Eutashyandsodan} es a dos sadn 50: 100 parts of the insoluble contain : Wuemonorm acid, . iw. ed dicho 1-20. ss MS a POG. orcas oe 73° Sede el mon; >>.220 8 hors. te ode. 2:50. Toime;2 os ident; Apetog 7 580. rmmmrnennre. G) sésboe 2 om) ia oan 15:50. 106 ACTION OF SALTS. Peat ashes abound in carbonate, sulphate, and es- pecially phosphate of lime. Free alkali may be al- ways traced in peat ashes; but alkali exists in it, rather as silicate, as in leached ashes. Anthracite coal ashes contain carbonate of lime, alumina, and oxide of iron. It is good, so far as these abound. The above are calculated on the analyses of Ber- their, who has detected soda in the ashes of many plants. ‘The elements are stated singly ; because we have thus at one view, the amount of each, and, it is the base chiefly which acts. ‘The agricultural value of ashes may be determined by reference to these tables. In what state these elements may be combined in plants, we can only determine theoret- ically. Thus, the phosphoric acid, by its affinities, would be united in the hard woods as above, with the lime and iron, forming in each 100 parts of the insoluble portion of ashes, phosphate of lime, 5°40; phosphate of iron, 1:86. The composition of the insoluble part of ashes gives nearly the constituents of leached ashes. If the soap-boiler’s process was as perfect as that _ which the chemist employs, still his leached ashes would show more lime, than the above tables, be- cause he always employs a portion of lime to make his ley caustic. This isa variable portion ; whatev- er it is, it adds so much to the value of the leached ashes. Besides the soap-maker always leaves a portion of alkali, which is combined with the silex. | Exposure to air decomposes this, and then the alkali can be extracted by water. This is one great source of the active power of leached ashes. 164. A bushel of good ashes contains about 5 1-2 Ibs. of real potash. In leaching ashes, generally about one peck of lime is added to each bushel of ashes, and as it loses no bulk during the operation, ACTION OF SALTS. 107 a cord of leached ashes contains about the follow-_ ing proportions, allowing the usual proportion two be leached out, or 4 1-2 lbs. perbushel :— MeMesphoricacidy:or. octee. Vs ub ielba: MNFRS RT tS... cartel GAS, tgp 146 * Dee eb iremsticexdcdw. diten.o8). yee pretamanpamesey() : rex 1G io Ble Bence bs rotaliinas. ani sim 110u9 Carbonate of lime, including that add- pdum-leachings sia ees ,.8. -BOTRAS Potash combined with silica,. ... . 50 “ Spent ashes, therefore, belong to the class of carbonates. 165. It may be here remarked in relation to sili- cate of potash, that this substance forms a greater part of the residuum produced in the conversion of pot into pearl ashes, for the purposes of glass man- ufactures, &c. This residuum has been used with the most signal success, when mixed in the propor- tion of a barrel of this material, with ten horse-cart loads of soil alone.—(See Colman’s fourth Report, page 344.)—The silicate of potash, depending en- tirely for its conversion into carbonate of potash, is properly considered in the class of carbonates. 166. The second class of salts, belonging to the first division, or nourishers, are the nitrates, includ- ing not only saltpetre, both East India and South American, or nitrate of potash and nitrate of soda, but also all. composts of lime, alkali, and animal matter. ‘These produce ammonia, which, without the lime would act on geine, and render that sol- uble. Ammonia, by the mere act of presence, hastens decay; but without the. influence of lime, ammonia is changed to a nitrate of ammonia, 5 108 ACTION OF SALTS. 167. Thus in a compost of animal matter with- out alkaline bases, not only has not all the geine been rendered as soluble, as is usually supposed, by the action of ammonia, before its full action has occurred on the organic matter, to be converted into a nitrate of that base. But if the lime exceeds that which the nitric acid can saturate, then the soluble geine is seized upon, and becomes inert. Nitrates act under the influence of the growing plant, the base let loose acts on geine, the acid is decomposed, and nitrogen given up to the plant, and it becomes one of their essential elements. The elements of nitrate of ammonia are all taken up both acid and base. If there are any salts which can be called vegetable food, they are the nitrates. The organic constituents of plants, are hydrogen, and oxygen, carbon and nitrogen. The two first form water; the two middle carbonic acid, the first and last, ammonia. Water, ammonia, and carbonic acid then, or their elements, compose the organic part of all plants. Water and carbon exist in the first divis- ion, and nitrogen in the second division of geine, which thus contains the elements of water, ammo- nia and carbonic acid, or the whole food of plants. The nitrogen, also, exists in the air. It forms 80 per cent. of it. In this state it cannot be assimilat- ed by the plant till that has put forth its leaves. Its only source for the roots and for the germinating seed, is that arising, either from the geine, or from ammonia evolved by the fermenting dung, or from nitrates. In either case, whether the nitrogen aris- es from the geine or from the nitrates, decomposi- tion takes place, by the action of the living plant. 168. Under this view, nitre is found to be one of the most active of salts; yet bland and_ beneficial in all its actions. Nitre is alkali, and acid com- ACTION OF SALTS. 109 posed of one part of nitrogen to five of oxygen. The plant decomposes these. The disposition of the alkali or of the base, has been already consid- ered. The disposition of the alkali or of the base, has been already considered. What becomes of its acid? That too, slowly is decomposed. What ‘becomes of its elements? The one part of nitro- gen is taken up by the living plant, or it may, un- der the combined influences to which it is now sub- jected, be in part reconverted, into ammonia by the hydrogen of the geine, and so act on that, as alkali. What becomes of its five parts of oxygen? The answer is full of the highest interest. It is a mas- ter’s key, unlocking the chambers of mystery. The oxygen acts, first on the geine of the soil, and sec- ondly on the silicates. And first on geine ; let it be supposed that this is wholly insoluble, perfectly inert. It has been already said, that air converts this into soluble geine. This action depends on the oxygen of the air acting on the carbon, by which carbonic acid is formed; the geine is thus rendered “soluble, while the carbonic acid escaping, acts on the silicates of the soil, and these are thus decom- “posed. There is no mystery now in the action of saltpetre or nitrates of alkalies. The immediate effects are due, to the liberated alkali, acting on the -geine. Its permanent effects, for experience has proved permanency of effect, peculiarly due to ni- trates, is owing to the liberation of an immense dose of oxygen which is produced from the gradual decomposition of the acid. Now the insoluble geine condenses this in its pores, like charcoal. This condensation like that of gas by charcoal, produces heat; it is like fermenting manure, while the con- ‘densed oxygen acts slowly on the geine, forming earbonic acid. It has upon the geine, buried in the 110 ACTION OF SALTS. soil, the same effect that tillage would have, ren- dering it soluble, with this additional advantage— that its carbonic acid instead of escaping acts on the silicates. New portions of alkali are thus lib- erated, supplying for years that which was first ap- plied, as a part of saltpetre. The nitrates then, hold the very first place among salts, in agriculture. 169. Thirdly, phosphates—this includes bones, horn, nails, hoofs, and claws, and a large portion of the salts found in the liquid excretions of animals. These act much like nitre, the acid forming a con- _ stituent of the plants. It is not probable that the acid in this class is decomposed. It has not yet been proved that carbonates and nitrates exist al- ready formed except ina very few plants. The quantity of salts which may be applied, will be greatest in the carbonates, next in the nitrates, and thirdly in the phosphates. The quantity of any salt which may be used will, after the largest amount, which can be safely employed has been ascertained, depend upon the farmer’s ability to produce it. Carbonate of lime, may be used to any extent, according to the farmer’s idea of its value. Carbonates of alkali may be used with _benefit. The largest quantity which has been known to be used without injury, has been 53 bush- els of ashes per acre, which are equal to 240 lbs. of potash. The quantity of the carbonates of al- kali, which may be used, will be stated more fully hereafter. It is not the object of this work, to state quantities to be used, so much as to point out the principles on which salts act. The quantities used, must be determined by experiment, and perhaps when the largest amount, which has been stated, is taken for a new starting point, the ultimate quantity, ACTION OF SALTS. 111 will be found limited only by the geine in the soil, or applied in conjunction with the salt. - 170. If we now turn to the other division of salts, the poisons; that is, those whose acid forms but a small portion of the elements of plants, we find two classes: First, sulphates, as plaster, copperas, Glauber’s salts, all of which in small quantities, are beneficial. An explanation, which attributes the action of sulphate of lime or plaster, to its power of decomposing and fixing in soil, carbonate of ammo- nia ought to show, Ist. the actual presence of that salt in air; 2d. that sulphate of ammonia is not de- composed by the resulting carbonate of lime in the cold; 3d. that common salt, would in equivalent quantity with plaster, produce equally good effects. It never has, and therefore this explanation is not correct. Secondly, Muriates or chlorides, as they are strictly called, as common salt, muriate of lime, bittern, spent ley from soap-works. Common salt has been found beneficial when applied at the rate of 30 bushels per acre; and at 14 bushels per acre, was found to produce effect, next best to 53 bushels of ashes per acre, but quick lime at 26 bushels per acre on the same land, produced no good result. 171. In all this action of saits, it is seen that the presence of life seems almost essential. Whatever the vital principle may be, itgmay be best represent- ed as analogous to electricity and galvanism. In this point of view, the salts present themselves in a new relation. Ina relation, in which alone, they may be said to be stimulants or excitants. Plants and soil act, it may be supposed, for illustration, by forming galvanic batteries, or piles with each other. The most active element in the pile, is the growing plant. It is an acknowledged fact, that chemical 112 ACTION OF SALTS. action, if not the source is ever attended by elec- trical effects. An acid, in contact with an alkali, or metal, always produces chemical action; but the silicates of the soil, are already combinations of ~acid and metals ; hence as such, they have no ten- dency to act on each other. If there be added to these a salt or an acid, chemical action, decompo- sition begins. ‘The electricity i is, We may say, ex- cited by “salts—they are in this sense, and in no other, excitants or stimulants. The very first act of vegetation, the germination of seeds, induces this electric action, this decomposition of the elements of soil. Germination produces carbonic acid, by decomposing water. This has been so abundantly proved, by late experiments in France, that it ap- pears to be a good argument against the theory, that the only action of humus is, its production of carbonic acid, to supply the wants of the plant, be- fore nature has clothed it with those organs of aspi- ration, dhe leaves, by which the carbonic acid is withdrawn from the air. It seems hardly probable that nature should require the presence of humus or geine, merely as a laboratory of carbonic acid, to supply the wants of the young plant. The very first act of life in a seed is to evolve carbonic acid, by its carbon combining with oxygen of air, and its second act is to decompose water. Its oxygen combines with the @arbon of the seed, a single bean, produces many times its bulk of carbonic acid gas; and in the soil would surround itself with an atmosphere of carbonic acid. Thisevolved, begins its action upon the silicates. The living seed be- gins the electric action, and the plants exert and keep up this influence. Salts act in a similar way, but above all, over all, influencing all, is the living plant. This eléctric action induced, extends to un- ACTION OF SALTS. 113 determined distances; hence there is a transfer, as is usual in all cases of galvanic decomposition, of substances remote from the plant, to its root, where they are taken up. It is not the potash and lime, &c., immediately in contact with the root, which alone supplies the plant, but under the galvanic in- fluence, an undetermined portion of soil is decom- posed. ‘This decomposing agency of plants, whol- ly destroys all confidence in experiments, under- taken to prove that pure water alone, can nourish plants. ‘The containing vessel, that is the vessel in which the experiment is made, is itself always decomposed. If to guard against an error, glass is - used, it has already been shown, that this is only a combination of silicates, and these will be transfer- red from the glass to the plant. 114 MANURE. CHAPTER VI. MANURE. 172. Tue true farmer, no less a sage than the ancient orator, who gave to action, the first, second, and third place in eloquence, will answer if it is asked him, what is his first requisite? Manure. What second? Manure. What third? Manure. These answers are to be united. Action and ma- nure are the first and last requisites in agriculture, and in the attempt to show what is the last, and how it acts, will be offered every inducement to action. 173. Manures are compounds of geine and salts. They of course contain the whole elements of fer- tility. Having discussed the nature and mode of action of salts, and of geine, the way is prepared for the discussion of manures. The proportion in which these elements exist in manures is now to be examined. 174. The immense variety of substances, used and recommended for manures, would seem to ren- der this subject both extensive and complicated. It is capable of simplification. Manures are general- ly considered and treated of, under the division of animal and vegetable. This common and ancient division, indicating little of the nature of manures, actually confounds those, whose elements are es- MANURE. 115 sentially alike. Manures are to be divided by their elements, into three classes :—* Ist. Those consisting chiefly of geine. 2d. Those consisting chiefly of salts. od. Mixed, or consisting of salts and geine. , 175. ‘This seems to be a rational and practical mode of classifying a vast amount of materials, and the explanation of their action in classes, is prefer- able to a specific account of each individual sub- stance composing these classes. 176. By far the greater part of manures belongs to the third class. Such are all composts, all stable” manure, and all the usual products of the cow-yard and hog-pen. In discussing therefore, this subject, there ought to be some starting point, some stand- ard common measure of value, to which can be re- ferred all manures, and by which their worth can be determined. 177. In selecting a manure for this purpose, if it _ can be ascertained, how much of geine, what, and in what proportion salts enter into its constitution, what gases it evolves, what chemical action it in- duces upon silicates, it will determine the relative value of all,manures, they will approach or depart from the standard, in exact proportion to the geine and kind of salts they contain. 178. Manures then, are the elements of fertility. They contain, beside the inorganic salts, the organ- ic elements of plants, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen. The quantity of ammonia which each manure can afford, will be in direct proportion to the quantity of nitrogen which each contains ; and perhaps the only true and scientific view, which should be taken of manures, is that, which states their components not as compounds, but as simple elements ; a statement which should give at a glance 116 MANURE. the exact quantity of the four organic elements which enters into their composition. To a limited — extent this can be done, and in the attempts to il- lustrate this subject, this mode of stating the value of manures, will be united with a more detailed ac- count of their ingredients. 179. And first, for the choice of some substance which shall form the type of manures, and be con- sidered the standard of value. Let it be pure, fresh fallen cow-dung, and what is its composition ? Water, hay, and bile, with a few salts. The au- thor has repeatedly analyzed this form of the food of plants, and it is found that the water is a very uniform quantity at all seasons and with various food. Others have found a few per cent. less ‘than that which will be here stated; while some late and distinguished German chemists, have giv- en results agreeing with this statement within a fraction of one per cent. ‘’ 180. The proportions of organic matter and salts, = ? and water, in 100 Ibs. of cow-dung, are— « Peer ee ou ee ee ee 83:60 | Re cate ca! oh co Ta ee 14-60 — cial Bile and resinous & biliary matter, 1-275 brs 0 eR eager ee GC SUNG A sinheh oii ogi niente aesgelen 14 Sulphate, of Potash, éio0c5 a: tebeanes 05 igeaie.of Potash... :sskes te eee 07 Salts. Muztate.of Soda, )-:iné rake harman ‘08 Phosphate of Limes. .i:4 2) 4: «yee 23 pralpitate, Of; Eimey. v0 is:. «Yn viele ‘12 ( Carbonate of Lime,......... 12 99°86 Te sos at 0:14 MANURE. 117 181. 100 parts of cow-dung by Morin’s analysis, consist of a tee st. ee ge ee 70° emeneNe Fetes 6. ret eet! 24:08 Green resin and fat acids, ....... 1°52 Undecomposed biliary matter,..... 0-60 Peculiar extractive matter,....... 1.60 to oS lied OE at ARMIES, a Raa LD a 0:40 DN NEO oe a a a 1:80 100-00 182. 100 parts of cow-dung, by the analysis of M. Penot, in 1885, consist of ES PM Sl oe ban gua 69°58 EE gi Gl hewn aio oh ie 0:74 Weel SUDSIANCE, 6-6-6. vice eae Says ke 0:93 RMT Ne so i. tre ins nie ge 0-28 EN eta eho ay cue 5 See 0°63 OE AL BORE .. gore te Cah oop phe % 008 Paponete Of potash... . - rl 6 ee 0:05 Peete OF TINGS OE eS es ak 0 25 Rmrponate-of lime eo eee 0:24 Bepemmicte (0 UNG, 5. kg = ie ne ces 0:46 Peermonsin Gk IONS ‘560 RR tial th, Fo Adie UM orete ya poe 204 PAPER Soha! SR sikh, Jeaite ST oh te 824 Re a een Be et 4:818 187. From these data may be calculated how much ammonia will be formed; for one part of nitrogen unites with three parts of hydrogen to form ammonia, or in the atomic proportions by weight : 14 of nitrogen, 3 of hydrogen, which form 17 of real or pure ammonia. 100 parts of fresh fallen cow-dung will afford therefore, 0-614, or 5-8 of a pound of pure ammo- nia, or 2°13 lbs., or about 2 lbs. 2 oz. of carbonate of ammonia of the shops, called sal volatile or salts of hartshorn. 188. Cow-dung then, the type. of manures, re- _ solves itself into geine, free alkali, and salts. ‘The salts, considering the nitrogen as carbonate of am- monia of the shops, will form about three per cent. of the weight of the dung; or a bushel of 86 lbs. 120 MANURE. - will contain, in round numbers, 2: 1-2 lbs. of salts of / ammonia, potash, soda and lime. P 189. The cow, then, is the great manufacturer of salts and geine, and it is a question of the high- est interest, what is the daily produce of her man- ufactory? In order to determine this, the follow- ing experiment was conducted with great care, at the barn. connected with the print works of the. Merrimack manufacturing company, in Lowell. A single cow, being only an average producer of the article in question, was selected from the 50 cows usually kept at the establishment. She was fed as usual, and as the other cows were. The food and water were accurately weighed for seven days. She consumed in this period, Water, 612 lbs. Potatoes, 87 *“ Hayy 267" Total, 866 “ food and drink, and voided, free from her liquid evacuations, 599 lbs. of dung. From the facts which have been now stated, it is evident, that one cow prepares, daily, from 24 lbs. of hay, and 12 lbs. of potatoes, about one bushel, or 85°57 lbs. of dung. This affords only 14 1-2 lbs. of solid manure, composed of hay so acted on by the digestive organs, as to form geine, when united with ammonia produced by putrefaction. One cow daily forms therefore— 12 lbs. geine, 1-5 “ say 3 oz. of phosphate of lime, 1:10 “ say 1 1-2 oz. of plaster of Paris, 1-10 “ say 1 1-2 oz. of chalk. MANURE. 12] Or per year: 4400 lbs. of geine, 17 “ of bone dust, 37 “ of plaster, 37 * of lime, marble, or chalk, 25 “ of common salt, 15 “ of sal enixen, or sulphate of potash. These are equal to one cow, or a cord of green cow-dung, pure as dropped, would be formed, daily, by 108 cows. A cord of dung weighs 9,289 Ibs., which + 86 lbs. = 1 cow, = 108 cows. And one cow daily produces in excrements, salts of lime suf- ficient for half a bushel of corn. 190. Multiply the quantity produced by one cow, by the number of cows kept, and it may easily be calculated, how much salts and geine, are annually applied to soil, in this form. ‘This is better done, than the estimate by cords or loads. ‘The manure from one cow is a definite comprehensible quantity, and it may be expressed by saying, that one cow is spread per acre. 191. Estimating the nitrogen as ammonia, the yearly product of one cow is 155 lbs. of nitrogen equal to 188 lbs. of pure ammonia, or equal to 550 lbs. of carbonate of ammonia of the shops. A sin- gle cow, will therefore give annually, fed on hay and potatoes, 31,025 lbs. of dung, containing 4,400 lbs. of geine, 550 “ of carbonate of ammonia, 71 * of bone dust, 37 “ of plaster, 37 “ of chalk, 24 * of common salt, 15 “ of sulphate of potash. 122 MANURE. 192. It is perfectly evident from this view, that the main agricultural value depends on the ammo- nia or nitrogen, and the geine. The lime in its forms of salts, goes but little way towards this value, yet valuable, so far as they exist. It is evident from section 74, that the lime in the above salts of lime, the annual product of one cow, is sufficient to supply the grain and straw of a crop of wheat, of twenty bushels per acre, on three acres. ~ 193. If these, then, are the elements of plants which are found in cow-dung, is it to the organic or the inorganic portion, that the enriching power is due? ‘The great value of dung as a manure, has been supposed to be dtie to its animal matter. The common idea of animal matter includes substances» which contain much nitrogen, but is. it to the nitro- gen, or to salts, that the chief value of manure is due? ‘To the nitrogen, chiefest and first, and that too, as it exists in the albumenous portion of dung. The nitrogen of the hay contributes very little to the value of manure. The hay furnishes the geine, and probably all its nitrogen is employed in pro- ducing those forms of it, which contain that ele- ment, that is crenic and apocrenic acids. That it is the nitrogen of dung, only, the part not contained in the hay, which evolves ammonia, is evident ; for if the nitrogen of the hay only, was the essential element of manure, then hay, which contains about one per cent. of nitrogen could supply its place ; 50 pounds would be equal to 100 pounds of dung. It is well known that such effect is never produced by planting on hay. 194. It is not to the nitrogen only, in dung, to which can be referred the action of this manure. It depends on its other elements, salts and geine. The action of nitrogen is referred to its power of MANURE. 123 forming ammonia, and this then acts in two ways. First, upon geine or the hay part ; secondly, upon silicates. First, it is a powerful alkali. Now it has been.shown that all alkaline earths convert in- soluble, into soluble geine. Secondly, it is a well established fact, that the production of nitre, is not necessarily dependent on the presence of animal matter; but that, under the influence of porous ma- terials, aided by alkalies or lime, the elements of air combine and form nitric acid and nitrates. This action is greatly assisted by ammonia, which acts by catalysis. The great use of the animal matter is to produce this alkali oryammonia. If no alka- line base is present, it bec@™es the source of the formation of nitrate of ammonia. This salt being decomposed by the living plant, its nitric acid acts on the silicates, and saltpetre or nitrate of potash is produced. ‘The agency of this as a manure, has already been considered (167, 168.) The action, also, of other salts in dung, will be easily under- stood by reference to the fourth chapter. 195. There is still a powerful effect due to the geine, or to the hay in its conversion to that state. During this process, an immense quantity of car- boric acid is liberated. The decomposing action of this upon silicates of the soil, and the consequent liberation of their alkali, has also been explained, (133.) All these actions are to be remembered, in accounting for the action of cow-dung. The geine, salts, nitrogen, each acts—the geine has an action, the salts an ‘action, the nitrogen an action. They all contribute to one end. Three substances, but one result, viz: Vegetation. 196. The nitrogen then, in dung, is that organic element, to which must be attributed its chief en- riching quality. ‘The nitrogen is the basis, both of 124 MANURE. the production ammonia, and of the formation of nitrates. Hence, the quantity of nitrogen in ma- nures, will form a very good element in the esti- mation of their value. Manures will be found rich, in proportion to their quantity of nitrogen, or their power of forming nitrates. This is the great and first cause of the enriching power of dung. Though the action of all excrements has been referred to their inorganic parts only, Common experience tends to the explanation which has been given of the joint action of all their parts. 197. The source of nitrogen in dung is an inter- esting question. Is igjgever produced from the hay? That food daily take does not contain so much nitrogen as is contained in the evacuated solids. By reference to 189, it appears that a cow consum- ed 612 lbs. of water, 87 lbs. of potatoes, 167 lbs. of hay. Deducting now, the water drank, the water in the hay which is about 4 per cent., and the wa- ter of the potatoes 75 per cent., 182 Ibs. of solid food were consumed in seven days, or 26 Ibs. per day. The daily evacuation of solids, deducting the water, was 14 pounds. The evacuated dung contained 3°03 nitrogen. The hay originally contained 1:67 “ 1:36 Hence, nearly double the amount of nitrogen contained in the hay eaten, has been voided. Its source must be looked for in the potatoes, and in the atmospheric air, absorbed by the water which was drank. But it is evident from these facts, that dung owes not its value to the nitrogen only, of hay ; nor will the effects be different, if the salts only of equivalent portions of dung and hay be taken. } MANURE. 125 — 198. If a cow assimilated all the nitrogen of her hay, 25 lbs. of hay would increase her weight daily, by about 8 lbs.; but no one expects such a result, and the balance of the nitrogen goes off in milk, or in liquid excretions. Hence, a milch cow fats not. So long as a greater part of the nitrogen is voided by milk or otherwise, a cow fats not. If she is not parting with nitrogen in milk, a greater portion goes. off in dung. Hence, a common observation, that the manure of fattening cattle is richer than that of milch cows, or of cattle not fattening. 189. The difference in the quantity of bile, slime, &c., in a cow fed on hay or on meal, is not very great. A cow was fed six days on meal and water. She consumed in this period, Indian meal, 96 Ee dl sh day, fs lhe, Hay, 30 Water, 330 * $s 2 ae 76 lbs. There were voided during this period, 330 lbs. of dung, or 55 lbs. daily. She scoured and lost flesh. The evacuation had all the appearance of night soil, and soon evolved a great quantity of ammonia, and though covered in an earthen pot, was soon studded with a crop of exquisitely beautiful fungi. Compared with hay dung, its composition was, Geine, 17°48, 14°45 in common CUE Salts, “93, 95 be Water, 81°64, 83-60 % * Probably the nitrogen’ was 2 1-2 per cent., or five times that of common cow-dung. 200. Doubtless the value of all excrements will depend somewhat upon the food of the animal, and the manner of feeding. It may be stated as a gen- eral fact, that the manure of cattle, summer-soiled, P “i 126 MANURE. is nearly twice the strength of that from the stalls in winter ; and all fattening cattle, whether in win- ter or summer, produce, as _ has been stated, a still richer vegetable food. Animals fattening on oil cake, gave manure, 12 loads of which exceeded in. value of crops raised, 24 of common stock. These remarks show, that some allowance is to be made for the food. The standard refers only to hay and potatoes. But the value due to different food, may not be so great as is commonly supposed. The ac- tual amount of nitrogen, even where vegetable and animal food is concerned, is not materially different. There were two dogs, which were fed, the one on vegetable food alone, the other on animal ; at the appointed time, these animals were sacrificed on the altar of physiological experiment, and the chyle | examined. ‘The following were the results: fegetable Food. Animal Food. : Water, 93°06 89-02 Fibrine, 06 ‘08 Albumen, 4°6 4:7 Salts, ‘8 Y | These are the sources of ammonia, if the chyle had been allowed to putrefy. 201. The ammonia in dung, as has been ex- plained, is the source both of the rapid conversion of the hay into soluble geine, and of nitrates. The action of unfermented dung needs no explanation after this exposition. The geine, the salts, carbon-. ic acid, and ammonia, must be formed among the silicates and roots of plants on which they are to act. y 202. Having determined the mode of expressing the value of manures, and fixing the standard of value, other manures containing salts and geine, MANURE. 127 may now be compared with that, and their value determined, by detailing their constituents. 203. Horse-dung contains : Ss Mien 3 6 ee ee eS 71-20 Hay, bile and slime, - - - - - - - Q7: I meme me ee we 64 Phosphate of lime,- - - - ----- ‘08 Carbonate of lime,- - ------ - 30 Phosphate of magnesia and soda, - - °58 Pees ee EN Le. 2. 20 100-00 The food of the horse will of course affect these results, and hence there is found a great discrep- ancy in the amount of the elements, at different times. . 204. Expressing the value compared with cow- dung, we have— Geile, jo ~)a er spe - ee wie 27 PS = oe 6 eS a ee ae 96 Writer, <= <== oui ye = =e 71-20 The geine then, is nearly double that in cow- dung, and the salts, which are mostly phosphates of lime, magnesia, and soda, are about the same. If the nitrogen is regarded, it is found about 50 per cent. greater, than in cow-dung. Hence during the chemical actions of the production of ammonia and nitrates, if the heat is in proportion to that ac- tion, we may possibly assign a reason, why horse- dung is a hotter manure than cow-dung. The nitrogen in horse-dung is about 3-4 of one per cent. or, this manure contains, in 100 parts : Geine, -------------- QT: ee a eae i ‘S6 128 MANURE. 205. Hog manure and night soil. ‘These may be both arranged under one head. ‘Taking night soil in its purest state, its composition may be thus stated : Water, ------+-+-+--+ eee 75°3 Geine, ----*++*-e eee 23°5 Salts, --.--+--e +e se 222 1-2: These salts are nearly three-fourths of the whole composed of carbonate, muriate and sulphate of soda. The remainder being composed of phos- phates of lime and magnesia ; the last is particular- ly abundant in night soil. Its average quantity of nitrogen, is about 3 1-4 per cent. Night soil, in- cluding that of the hog, contains, per 100 parts : Cae aie gn) mS eee mle ee 23: Salts, eee et tte tee eee 1:2 Carbonate of ammonia, - - - = - - 15°32 No. analysis has yet been made of hog manure, but in its characters it approaches night soil suffi- ciently, to be ranked with it, for the present pur- pose. It is the manure of fattening swine only which is to be classed with night soil. The estray and running animals produce cnly a “cold” ma- nure of little value. The manure of the penned animal, is always combined with his liquid evacu- ation. This, whose value is stated, (247) gives hog manure a value which places it with night soil. Sheep-dung probably is in this class. Sheep may be said to digest better than cattle. They cut their food finer, and chew it better; they void thus less vegetable fibre. ‘Their excrement is more convert- ed into geine. Fed on hay alone, their excrement is, composed of : MANURE. 129 Water ------+--+---+-+-+++-2-. 67:9 Bilious and extracted matter, - - - - = - ee | Humus with slime, - - --------- 12°8 Hay and vegetable matter, - - - --- - 8-0 Silica, -----+--++--+2+--e-- 6:0 Carbonate and phosphate of lime, - - - 2°0 Carbonate, sulphate, and muriate of soda, 1°6 100°0 Sprengel. The nitrogen is abundant, and the amount of matter containing this, nearly three-fifths greater than that of cattle dung. The whole is finer divid- ed, and hence speedily putrefies, and evolves am- monia. It is thus one of the hottest of all manures. But, containing as it does, little water, and being in fine compact balls, air cannot act upon it as it would upon cow-dung. Hence, unless moisture is present, sheep-dung undergoes little change. Great care is required in its use. Its ammonia is abund- ant, hence if uncombined with geine, it burns up the crops. Hence, when there is little geine, little sheep-dung must be used. Where the soil is wet, and that too with little vegetable matter in it, there decomposition rapidly occurs, and the virtue of the dung, its ammonia is lost. It is said that 1000 sheep folded on an acre of ground one day, would manure it sufficiently to feed 1001 sheep, if their manure could all be saved. So that by this process, land which can, the first year, feed only 1000 sheep, may the next year, by their own droppings, feed 1365. - So said Ander- son, forty years ago, (Rural Essays.) Sprengel allows that the manure of 1400 sheep for one day, is equal to manuring highly, one acre of land. 206. Thus the three most common substances, 130 ; MANURE. used for manure, cow, horse and hog-dung, includ- ing night soil, are reduced to geine, salts and car- bonate of ammonia, or nitrogen, its equivalent. It need not be said, that the experience of ages, has proved that these three varieties of manure, possess very different fertilizing properties. These depend not on the salts alone, whose amount and quality is nearly the same in all. Nor on the geine, for that is nearly the same in human and horse excre- ment. Their fertilizing power then, depends not, as has been asserted, on the salts which would ren- der their agricultural value equal. All experience would prove such an assertion unfounded. But it is said that their relative value depends on their power of producing ammonia. 207. This is a practical view of a practical sub- ject. The nitrogen present in the manure express- es its true value. ‘This position is substantiated by the experience of practical men. The experi- menis undertaken by order of the Saxon and Prus- sian authorities, to ascertain whether the contents of the sewers of the cities of Dresden and Berlin, could be applied to fertilizing the barren lands in their vicinity, may be offered to prove its correct- ness. These varied in every form, and continued for a long period, prove that if a soil without ma- nure, yields a crop of three for one sown, then the same land dressed with cow-dung yields 7 for one sown,—with Horse-dung, 10 Be ian Human manure, 14 so a Now the nitrogen in these has been shown, tak- ing the minimum of nitrogen in the human, at 1 1-2 per cent. is as 1 : 1°50: 3, whilst the above num- bers are to each other, as bh : 1-43 :2. Considering how varied is the composition of MANURE. 13] night soil, and how much diluted by various mix-_ tures, this agreement is as near as ought to have been expected, in experiments whose objects were so totally different from that of ascertaining the quanti- ty of nitrogen in each different manure. 208. Each substance used for a manure, cannot be considered in detail. Their general composi- tion only, will be mentioned. Among the mixed manures, poudrette, and guano, rank next to night soil. Poudrette, is night soil partly dried in pans and mixed up with variable quantities of ground peat and plaster. Its value will depend on the circumstance, whether its ammonia is saved, or lost, in the manufacture. If sulphate or muriate of lime is added before drying, then the volatile carbonate of ammonia, will be changed into sulphate of am- monia, and sal ammoniac. ‘Thus not only the most valuable portion of night soil will be retained, but, the salts of lime will be much increased. The peat not only retains a portion of gaseous ammonia, but its geine by this act is rendered more soluble. All night soil from vaults has began to evolve ammonia, hence the advantage of mixing ground peat or plas- ter with night soil, before drying. 209. It is evident therefore, that the value of poudrette, depends on the skill, and honesty of the manufacturer. But allowing these to be what they should be, no consumer of poudrette will think him- self wronged, if he discovers ground peat in the article ; and allowing this, and the plaster, or other salts added, to compose one-half the weight of this manure, the farmer buys in every hundred pounds of poudrette, 200 pounds of the best human excre- ment, and in form not only portable, but perfectly inoffensive. The value of good poudrette, depend- 132 MANURE. ing on its ammonia, is, compared with cow-dung, as 14 to 1. 210. There is yet another form of poudrette, which though much used in France, has not been introduced here. It is almost one-third animal mat- ter, and it is formed without any offensive evolu- tion of gas, by boiling the offal of the slaughter- house, by steam, into a thick soup, and then mix- ing the whole into a stiff paste, with sifted coal ashes, and drying. If putrefaction should have be- gun, the addition of ashes, sweetens the whole, and the prepared “ animalized coal,” as it is termed, or poudrette, is as sweet to the nose, as garden mould. It is transported in barrels from Paris to the interior, and is a capital manure. 211. Guano is the excrement of sea-birds. It is found on our northern rocks and islands, but its great deposite is on the islands of the southern ocean, between 138° and 21° south latitude. It there forms immense beds, from 60 to 80 feet thick. What a length of time must have elapsed, or how incredible the number of birds, to have produced that pile of guano, whose base, washed by the sea, was observed by our countryman, Mr. Blake, to stretch a mile in length, and to tower 800 to 900 feet high! ‘The composition of ancient guano, countenances fhe idea of its being the excrements of birds; probably they belonged to that ancient flock, whose huge foot-marks have left their im- press on the shores of an estuary, which has since become the sandstone of the Connecticut river valley. 212. The latest analysis of guano, is that of Voelckel, and may be here cited. MANURE. 133 Urate of ammonia, - -----+------ 9: Oxalate of ammonia, - --------- 10°6 Oxalate of lime, - ---------+- 7: Phosphate of ammonia,- - - - - - - - - 6: Phosphates of ammonia and magnesia, - 2°6 Sulphate of potash,- ---------- 55 Sulphate of soda,- ----------- 38 Muriate of ammonia, - - - - ---- = - 4:2 » Phosphate of lime, - - - -------- 14:3 Clay and sand,--------+-+---- AY which about 12 per cent. are soluble in water, a trace of salts of iron { and water, ------+-+---- 5) Undetermined organic substances, of 32°3 100- An analysis of one sample indicates little of ‘the general character of the deposit. _ Its value depends chiefly on its volatile constituents, which vary from 1 to 3. Two samples from the same parcel, yield- ed, Professor Johnston : No. 1 Water, salts of ammonia, and organic matter, 23°5 Sulphate of soda, -------+-----+-- 18 Common salt and phosphate of soda, - - - - 303 Phosphates of lime and magnesia, and carbon- ate of lime, ------+-+-+-+-+s-++-2- 44:4 100- No. 2. Water and volatile matter, --------° 51°5 Ammonia, --------+--+-s-5-+e+-+55 i Uric acid, ---+-----+-+--+-+-+-+---- ‘8 Common salt and sulphate & phosphate of soda, 11°4 Phosphate of lime, -----+--+-+-+---- 29°3 ae MANURE. Ammonia is the most valuable ingredient; next, a peculiar acid, called uric acid, which gradually affords ammonia, after these the bone earth of guano, gives it a permanent effect. ‘The volatile matter acts in the earlier stage of vegetation. It is con- * , tmually escaping. Hence, fresh fallen guano is al- ways best. It is probably like the recent droppings of the present race of fish-eating birds. These con- sist almost wholly of uric acid. The excrement of the sea eagle gave in the Solid Evacuations. Liquid Evacuations. © Ammonia, - - - - 9°20| Uric acid, - - - - 59: Uric acid, - - - 84°65 | Other salts, - - - - 41: Phosphate of lime, 6°13 100- ait. Ke 100- Compared with these, guano contains 1-5-to 1-7 of its original organic elements. No substance yields more substances for the wants of plants, in all stages of their growth, than guano. It is an article of commerce. .There are three varieties known in trade. The white, the dark grey, the red brown, which is the most com- mon. ‘The white isthe most recent, the red brown the most ancient, and decomposed, the grey inter- mediate. The actual money value of guano, to the farmer, in England, where it is now somewhat used, does not exceed $5 per cwt. At this price, ac- cording to the experience of fair dealers, it can be imported ata reasonable profit. Beyond this, prac- tical men, who have used it, say that the farmer cannot afford to employ it. Mr. Blake thinks it may be afforded for 1 1-2 cent per pound, deliver- ed in the United States. It is much used in Peru, where a spoonful is applied to each hill, as soon as MANURE. 135 the corn shows itself. The effects are what the most sanguine could expect, from this natural, con- centrated poudrette, consisting both of salts and gee. Allowing, as has been asserted, that the land itself in Peru, contains not a particle of organ- ic matter, guano can be no proof that plants re- quire not geine, containing as it does, by analysis, 12 per cent. of soluble organic matter. 213. The dung of all domestic fowls, and of birds in general, contains salts similar to those in guano ; and while this subject is under consideration, * the fact may be mentioned, that it has experimental- ly been proved, that the dung of pigeons is 2-7ths stronger than horse manure. And for stoved mul- berries, vines, peaches, and other plants, the drop- pings of the barn yard fowls, 1 part to from 4to 10 of water have been found to produce excellent re- sults; the trees having, at the end of two years, the most healthy and luxuriant appearance imaginable. The poultry yard is, toa careful farmer, a rich source of vegetable food. How much a single hen can contribute to increase the crops, may be seen from the following account, from Vauquelin. 214. In ten days a hen eat 7474 grains of oats, which contained of Phosphete*of limie,.\') 2 2-2) 91-8348 grains. RRL EP, 20S 141-8616 “ During this time two eggs were laid, whose shells weighed ..... 308814 * And contained phosphate of lime, 17-5975 “ Carbonate of lime, ...... 276°7095 * rere PE PARE INE TNO, 9°8725 “ The excrements during the same time, gave of ashes, ...:. 348521 “ Composed of carbonate of lime, 39°3511 “ Phosphate of lime, ...... 184°5348" “* 1386 MANURE. Sitiew, <2 4 chee . 2... . 1246851 grains. Thus voiding in eggs and excrements, Carbonate of lime, ...... 3150606 * Phosphate of lime,....... 202°1323 “* Now this is 17°2267 grains less than silica; and in round numbers, 110 grains of phosphate, and 316 grains of carbonate of lime more than the food — eaten contained. Probably in all such experiments, where confined to food different from usual, and deprived of their customary habits, all animals draw upon, and in such cases, may be said to eat them- selves. ~The daily amount of bone dust, however, which one hen thus produces in her various. drop- pings, is about 18 1-2 grains, and of carbonate of lime, 3-9 or an annual amount in round numbers, of these two salts, of 1 pound and 3 ounces. Esti- mating the salts only, it is found that the agricultu- ral value of a single hen per annum, equals the salts contained in 20 bushels of wheat. This places in a strong light, the very great effects produced by a spoonful of guano, toa hill of corn. In Belgium, the annual value of the dung of 400 or 500 head of pigeons, much used in manuring flax, is $25 to $30. 215. And here, having adverted to eggs, atten- tion may be called to a sadly overlooked fact. All around is heard the requiem of departed wheat fields. The burden of the chant is, carbonate of lime! carbonate of lime! The wail is, it is gone! gone! The want of this is the grand characteris- tic of our soil. The sole cause, in the estimation of some, of all our barrenness, and fruitless at- tempts, as they say, and would have us believe, at raising wheat. An egg-shell shall put such reason- ing or dreaming to flight. A common sized hen’s egg weighs about 1000 grains, of which the shell is MANURE. 137 about 106 grains. Two per cent. of the shell is albumen or animal matter; 1 per cent. phosphate of lime and magnesia, and the balance or $7 per cent. carbonate of lime. At an egg a day, this is equal to 1 1-2 ounces of dry chalk per week. Whence comes this? From soil, from brick-dust, from grain, meal, &c. But it exists not in soil as carbonate of lime. Animals, like plants, decom- pose the silicate of lime of soil, and recombining the base, form carbonates, to form egg-shells. Con- sidering the countless thousands of eggs, which are produced by the birds of every feather in New- England, how big a bit of chalk would their shells produce! So of fresh water clams; their shells common throughout New-England, are carbonate of lime. These facts speak volumes. Whenever birds cease to lay eggs, or clams to form shells, then, and not till then, may it be said that New- England soil is barren, because it contains no lime. 216. Flesh, fish, fowl, all animal solids, muscle, gristle, skin, sinews, &c., all afford geine by putre- faction, and evolve vast volumes of ammonia. Salts are more or less present in all animal sub- stances. There are uniformly found in the soft.or fluid portions some of the following salts : ) Sulphate and phosphate of lime. Minaya at le of soda, magnesia & ammonia. les Sulphate and muriate of potash and soda. : { Carbonates of potash, soda, lime and mag- nesia. Benzoate, pepe me Acetate, Of potash, soda, lime. ca Oxalate, Animal ( Urate of ammonia. Salts. Lactate of ammonia. Oxides of iron, manganese, and silica. 1388 MANURE. ~ In a word, are found in animals, the inorganic parts of soils, the elements of silicates, united with the inorganic acids which existed in the soil, added to the organic, produced by the animal itself. These salts are common to animals and plants, but except in bones, they form only a small part of the living body 217. In plants there are certain principles, as al- bumen and gluten, so like animal products, that they have received the name of vegeto-animal. But very late discoveries have proved that they are identical with the fibrine and albumen of animals. That these animal and vegetable products, are mod- ifications of a principle called proteine, has been al- luded to, page 84. The late analyses of these various products shed a clear light over the multi- _ . form substances, from the animal kingdom, used for manure... ‘They show, how like products arise from the decomposition of plants, and thus assimilate animal and vegetables in the process of forming — composts. Fibrine, or the basis of flesh, or muscular fibre, al- bumen, nidish caseine, or the sua of milk and basis of cheese are composed as follows, by Mulder’s analy- ~ SIS :— : Fibrine. Albumen. Caseine. ‘ OF eggs. Of serum. Carbon, 54:56 54:48 54:84 54:96 Nitrogen, 15-72 15°70 15°83 15°80 Hydrogen, 6:90 7°01 7:09 715 Oxygen, Phosphorus, 22:83 22:81 22-24 23-09 Sulphur, __ ee ee os 100: 100- 100- 100: MANURE. 139 The corresponding products of vegetables are, Ist, gluten, and 2d, its peculiar principle detected by _ Liebig, called vegetable fibrine ; 3d, vegetable albu- men; 4th, legumine, or vegetable caseine. The two last are identical in composition and properties, with the albumen and caseine of animals. Indeed it has been suggested, that animals, never create either of the above, but draw them ready formed from plants. The composition of the vegetable principles, author- ises such a conclusion. By the analyses of Drs. Scherer and Jones in the laboratory of Liebig, these are constituted as follows : Gluten. Vegetable fibrine. Albumen. Caseine. Average of 3 trials. ped 2 gy Carbon, 55°22 54345 ° 54°86. 54-188 Nitrogen, 15°98 15°733 15°88 15°672 Hydrogen. 7-42 T2792 731 7-156 Oxygen, a." 21:38 . 22-647 21:95 23-034 > 100- 100-100. Caseine contains no phosphorus, but both animal and vegetable principles, comprised under the above names, are always combined with alkalies, lime, magnesia, iron, sulphur, and phosphoric acid. The above are the organized principles of living bodies, and are distinguished from all others by their nitro- gen. Substances not containing this element are said to be organic, but not organized. 218. ‘The above substances, which form the great. bulk of animals and no small part of plants, de- ducting their inorganic elements, compose proteine, whose constituents are : Sulphur, Phosphorus, * sage . ; 140 MANURE. OE Ve it a a ae ena, were he 55°742 EAVOTOPOM, hoy c biel eco tin eye eit eae —-6°827 ULC ROR» eke «on nui) delenit Oe 16°143 DY EN gains is ght >is) ye pp Sle 21:288 100- This compound is the basis of the animal solids, and soft parts: fibrine or flesh, and albumen, are only compounds of this with sulphur. All the paris of the animal frame are modifications only of proteine. The peculiar princple of glue, or size, or jelly, called gelatine, never exists in the healthy animal body. It is the product of catalysis. Boiling wa- ter is the catalytic agent, and produces it from ten- don, ligament, cartilage, skin and bone. The com- position of these, will show at once their relation to proteine. Tendon. Cartilage, or gristle from ribs. Carbon, 50874 50°895 Hydrogen, 7152 6-962 Nitrogen, 18:320 14-908 Oxygen, 23°754 23°235 ( Scherer.) Horny matter is equally allied to proteine. Its several variations have been divided into two class- es: Ist, soft, and 2d, compact. The first ineludes skin, or the outer part, called cuticle ; and the del- icate lining membrane of the internal passages, and sacs; and these substances are like constituted. The cuticle of the sole of the foot is componng of : Caragls. 2:0? oni cia) one a, eg , 50°894 Hydrogen, iwc: fargo og 2 “OTE Niindgengef.ioi seo OO, 17225 Oxygen, Subbur oe saci tase 25-099 1 ( Scherer.) MANURE. 141 Compact horny matter includes hair, horn, nails, claws, hoofs, scales. Like all the other compounds of proteine, these contain sulphur, lime, magnesia, &ec., and from 1-2 to 2 per cent. of bone earth. The effect of these as phosphates, has been advert- ed to, section 169. These all give varied portions of ashes. The beard gives about 0°72 per cent. ; blond colored hair, 0°3, and the black hair of a Mexican, 0°2; nails, 0°53; wool, 2, and bone, 0°7 per cent. of ashes. ‘These all evolve ammonia by caustic alkali, an effect, which might have been predicted from their composition, which is, accord- ing to Scherer : Hair. Horn. Nails. Wood. Carbon, 50°652 «51540 51:089 50653 Hydrogen, 6769 6799 6824 7-029 Nitrogen, 17936 17284 16901 17°710 ate } 24643 24397 25186 24-608 ulphur, Hair affords a substance, in addition to its pros teine, and to which feathers are analogous. ‘The composition of the last is, OS it obeys iiamge eee ESE rie airs Spey ial) fe a ee ee eee 17:893 DI eh otc) 6, 5 ooh siniaete ap 22°467 Bone itself is allied to proteine by its cartilage which composes nearly one-third the weight, and which boiling water, under pressure, completely ex- tracts in the form of gelatine, or glue. 219. All these varied forms of proteine may be tabulated so as to express at a glance, their rela- tion to each other, if the elements, Carbon, Hydro- gen, Nitrogen, and Oxygen, are expressed by C. H. N.Q., and to each are added figures, which represent ” 142 MANURE. the number of atoms, entering into the compound. This is called chemical notation, and each seta chemical formula. (55.) Pistemeye yo too 2, SO C48 86 N6 Olt Gelatine of tendons, .... . C48 H4! N15 C18 Chondrine,or gelatine of cartilage,C# H*? N®& 0° Compact horny matter, ..... C48 89 NT OT Beathery!) tonto ok 2. C48 939 NZ Clé ilarity of constitution, is, that it enables the chem- ist to present at one view, animal and vegeta- But the great practical lesson, taught by this sim- ble substances, as carbon, water ammonia, and car- buretted hydrogen. ‘This is the view which the farmer takes, for he knows that these are the ele- ments of manure. Proteine may be resolved into: Hydrogen. 4:242-++0°707= 4-949 Carb. hydrogen. 51500 51-500 Carbon. Oxygen, 21:388-+2-661=23:949 Water. Nitrogen, 16°143-+-3:459= 19-602 Ammonia. Carbon, 93:173-++-6:°827—100:° _ Proteine. This is the agricultural view, and expresses at once that this. vast variety of substances is compar- ed to cow dung as 32 to 1, when used dry, as ma- nure. | 220. For the purposes. in view, all animal and vegetable products, may be divided into two classes 3 that which does, and that which does not, contain nitrogen. The action of these is very distinct, on the elements of soil, and as manures. The first class putrefies, the second does not. The first class forms alkali, the second forms acids: The action of the first depends on nitrogen, that of the second on carbon. : MANURE. 143 221. The first class contains flesh in all its vari- eties ; blood, skin, sinew, gristle, cartilage, tendons, hair, feathers, wool, hoofs, horns, nails, scales, and one-third, nearly, of bones and teeth. ‘The second class contains fats and oils in all their variety. 222. It is easily understood, then, how woollen rags and flocks become powerful manure. They afford ammonia, and 100 lbs. containing 17 of ni- trogen, should be nearly 34 times stronger than 100 lbs. of fresh cow dung. Connected with flocks and wool, there is a very valuable product, rich in all the elements of manure, which is often lost or not used for agricultural purposes, namely, the sweat, or natural soap of wool. Fresh clipped wool loses from 35 to 45 per cent. of its weight by washing. This is due to a peculiar matter exuded from the wool, and which consists chiefly of potash, lime, and magnesia, united to a peculiar animal oil, form- ing an imperfect soap. It is remarkable that this soap of lime, in all other cases insoluble, is here soluble in water. ‘The experience of the best French agriculturalists, is full of testimony to the good effects of this wool sweat. It has been caleu- lated that the washings from wool, annually con- sumed in France, are equal to manuring 370,000 acres of land. . 223. Bones consist of variable proportions of car- tilage, bone earth, and carbonate of lime. The bone earth may be estimated at one-half the weight. It is a peculiar phosphate of lime, containing 8 parts of lime to 3 of phosphoric acid. A great part of the value of bone as manure, depends on its cartil- age. The animal part of bones being one-third of their weight, the ammonia is equal to 8 or 10 times that of cow dung, while, if we regard the salts only, 100 lbs. of bone dust, contain nearly 66 times as - 144 | MANURE. much as an equal weight of cow dung. Such state- ments while they express the chemical facts, are almost, if not quite, supported by the testimony of those who have, in practical agriculture, applied these concentrated animal manures. It is a com- mon opinion, that bones from the soap-boiler have lost a large portion of their animal matter. It is erroneous. Boiling, except under high pressure, extracts very little of the gelatine, and not all the fat and marrow. Heads and shoulder-blades and the smaller bones still contain, after boiling, 3 1-2 per cent. of fat and tallow. If the phosphate of lime of such bones is dissolved cut by acid, the an- imal portion remains, with all the form and bulk of the bone. Bones which are offered in the market, are quite as rich in the elements above stated, as are unboiled bones. ‘The phosphate of lime is ren- dered quite soluable by its combination with gela- tine and albumen. ‘The class of mixed manures, containing nitrogen, has thus been considered. The principle of their action and the foundation of their value, pointed out. ‘The action of the second rom: or dee not containing nitrogen, remains to be ex plained. 224. All fats and oils exposed to air give offa great quantity of carbonic acid, and end by becom- ing acids. As their ultimate elements are the same as those of plants, it may be inferred, that under the influence of growing plants, fats and coils are decomposed and become vegetable food. But there is another action of fats and oils on silicates; they not only let loose the alkali of silicates by the car- bonic acid, which they evolve, but the oils now be- come acids, immediately combine with this alkali, and imperfect soaps are formed. Soaps are truly chemical salts, and hence we have at once a clew to the action of oil and fat. MANURE. ; 145 225. Among the most powerful of manures in the class composed of geine and salts, is soot. There is no one substance so rich in both. Its composition allies it to animal solids, and is as fol- lows: Se aciae xia ce plage sighed paginas oe co 7 eee Pragopene ng 20: Salts of lime, mostly chalk,...... 25°31 pot alley lien i -oinetealiarinedad Detar Rene 1:50 Salts of potash and soda, and ammonia, 6°14 engl af OG ah Sao eaiiiaiite hia ail » 108 3°85 Lote emma yap ma tanta Dias ween ih 12-50 100: On the principles adopted for determining the value of manure, the salts in 100 lbs. of soot, are equal to 1 ton of cow dung. Its nitrogen gives it a value, compared with cow dung, as 40 to 1. 226. Soot forms a capital liquid manure, for the floriculturist. Mixed with water, in the proportion of 6 quarts of soot to 1 hogshead, it has been found to be a most efficacious liquid, with which to water green-house plants; and being not only a come-at- able, but a comely preparation, it may recommend itself to the cultivator of flowers, by these lady-like qualities. The most decided good results have been pro- duced in England on Stinchcombe farm, contain- ing 200 acres of arable land, by soot, barn yard manure, and sheep dung. ‘The rotation is turnips, potatoes, wheat. The average produce of the po- tatoes, 315 bushels; of the wheat, 28 bushels per -acre. The turnips are manured by that produced by 12 oxen and 5 horses, 4 of which are em- ployed in carting the crops to market and hauling 146 MANURE. back soot, often a distance of 25 miles. The tur- nips are fed off by sheep, and each acre, in turnips receives at the rate of the manure of 2000 sheep for one day (205). The potatoes and wheat are each manured with soot only, at the rate of between 11 and 12 bushels per acre. ‘The annual quantity used, being about 3000 bushels, at the cost of about a 6d English, say 12 1-2 cts per bushel. By this treatment for 30 years the quantity of crops and the quality of the land have improved year by year. Anthracite coal soot, as it may be called, contains no geine. It contains abundant salts of ammonta. Mixed with swamp muck and alkali at the rate of two bushels per cord, there can be no doubt that the good effects of soft coal, or wood soot would be produced. ‘The fine dust which collects about the flues of boilers when anthracite is used, thus be- comes of great agricultural value. From an accu- rate experiment on 106-504 pounds of coal, I find the quantity of this ash, collecting about flues is 5° 09 per cent. of the coal consumed. 227. Among the mixed manures, is the salt, or spent ley of the soap-boiler. It seems to offer a natural passage, from this class to those consisting of salts only. To understand its components, the chemical composition of oil and fat must be briefly studied. No products of life are now better under- stood, than the fatty bodies. ‘They are all acids, combined with a peculiar organic base, which acts the part of an oxide. This is never obtained except in combination with oxygen and water. In this state it has long been known under the name of glycerine. The acids @ombined with it, are stea- ric, magaric and oleic. By the union of these acids with glycerine, stearine and margarine, or fats, and oleine or oil is produced. In soap making, the alkali MANURE, 147 used, decomposes stearine, and oleine, combining with their acids, which thus are converted into ste- arates, margarates, and oleates of alkali, or soap, while the glycerine remains free in the spent ley with the salts, which that contains. 228. The proportion of glycerine, in fat and oil, is about 8 per cent. Its composition is— Carbon, 40°07 ( These -are ai Carbon, 24°77 | such proportion Oxygen, 51-00 Fee earvon and ror Car hyd. 17:85 \ free carbon and carburetted hy- Hydrogen, 8-92 | drosen. | Water, 57°37 Glycerine is transparent and liquid, and was cal- led the sweet principle of oils, from its sweet taste. 229. The glycerine is thus the organic, or geine part of salt ley. Its proportion in that will vary, if the spent ley is boiled, as is usual, upon a fresh portion of tallow, which adds its quantity of glyce- rine, in proportion to the alkali in the ley. 230. The salts are various, and depend on the kind of alkali used to form the ley. The alkali is derived from barilla, from soda or white ash, from potash, or from ashes. Hence no general state- ment can be given, which shall express the value of spent ley salts. ‘That some idea may be form- ed, of its components, it may be divided into two kinds: 1st, that produced from soft soap, or from ashes, or potash ; 2dly, that from hard soap, baril- la, or soda ash. A boil of 2000 lbs. of soft soap, requires 150 bushels of ashes, and its spent léy contains, in addition to a little free potash, the fol- lowing salts, derived from ashes : 130 lbs. of Sulphate of potash, 6 “ of Muriate of potash, 36 “ of Silicate of potash, 148 MANURE. allowing the ashes to have been a mixture of oak, bass, and birch woods. Besides these, in the pro- cess of soap making, in order to make the soap “grain,” common salt is added. A chemical change is thus induced, the potash soap, is changed to soda soap, or the soft to hard. The soda of the salt entering the soap is replaced by the potash, which combines with the acid of the salt,.that is chlorine or muriatic acid. In other words, com- mon salt, or chloride of sodium, or muriate of soda is changed to chloride of potassium, or muriate of potash, which is thus added to the spent ley. The proportion of salt added, varies, but it may be sta- ted in general, 7 bushels, or 500 Ibs. to 150 bush- els of ashes. In a boil, then, of 2000 Ibs. of soap, 1200 lbs. of fat or tallow, containing 100 Ibs. of glycerine, 150 bushels of ashes, 7 bushels or salt, afford about 200 gallons of spent ley. This con- tains the glycerine and salts above, (230) and af- fords per gallon, Geine or glycerine, 1-2 lb. Salts Muriate of potash, 95 1-3 lbs. > Sulphate of potash, 1 1-3 lbs. Silicate of potash, 2 1-2 oz. 231. The spent ley from soda soap, contains the sulphate and muriate of soda of the soda ash, which rarely amounts to 12 percent. As less salt is here added, the spent ley is less rich in salts. In a boil of 2000 pounds of hard soap, 600 weight of white ash are used. Including the one bushel of salt usu- ally added, the spent ley contains, MANURE. 149 Sulphate of soda, 84 Ibs. or per gallon, 6 3-4 oz. Muriate of soda, 106 “ ¥ 1-2 lb. Glycerine, 100: <5 tf 1-2 |b. 232. The value of spent ley has been tested for a series of years. It has shown its good effects on grass lands, for four or five years after its applica- tion. ‘There is great advantage in carrying it out upon snow. It has then the effect of converting any carbonate of ammonia in the snow, into sal am- moniac, or a volatile into a fixed sali. 233. When it is thus understood, on what the value of spent ley depends, it would seem probable, that the farmer may himself prepare it, and unless he resides in the neighborhood of a soap-boiler, at a cheaper rate than he can buy and cart home this liquid manure. A hogshead of spent ley, of 100 gallons, contains, if from ashes, 50 pounds of glycerine or geine, geen 1G° muriate of potash, ae sulphate of potash. The salts may easily be supplied. It becomes a highly interesting question, whether the glycerine has any specific action, any action which the light of chemistry may not kindle in similar substances. By reference to (228) its chemical constitution, ap- proaches geine, and they are here presented side by side. Glycerine. Geine of Soil. Carbon, 40-07, 58°00 Hydrogen, 8:92, 2°18 Oxygen, 51:60, , 39°80 234. The glycerine resolves itself into water, free carbon and carburetted hydrogen, or the gas of marshes or stagnant pools; the geine into car- 150 MANURE. bon and water. In the series of changes which they may undergo, let it be supposed, that carburet- ted hydrogen gas, is evolved by glyceripe. There is no reason for assuming, as do some, that carbon- ic acid, is the only source of the carbon of plants. The volumes of carburetted hydrogen produced in the decay of plants, may be intended as well as car- bonic acid for their nutriment. Suppose, of which there is no doubt, that carburetted hydrogen of gly- cerine, contributes to this effect, there remains then free carbon, which being perfectly insoluble and changeless, acts only by condensing gases in its pores. 235. Geine, by tillage, air and moisture, evolves also, carbonic acid. As gas, no one will deny that it thus affords carbon to plants ; its carbonic acid is absorbed and its carbon assimilated, and hence, if either glycerine or geine afford carbon, the circum- stances under which they may be applied to the land, are less favorable to the production of carbu- retted hydrogen, than of carbonic acid. The bal- ance then Is in favor of geine. 236. There are two circumstances wherein geine- and glycerine differ. The latter is soluble to any extent In water, it is applied to the land in spent ley, already dissolved. The action so evident, is due to one of two causes, or to their joint action. Spent ley, acts either by its organic, or by its inor- ganic part, by its glycerine, or by its salts. ‘Those who take the ground, that humus or-geine, never is taken up by plants, will then attribute all the deci- ded good effects of spent ley to its salts. Glauber’s and common salts applied in equal quantity, to that contained in soda spent ley should produce equally good effects. It is well known that such is not the fact. Nor will those who maintain this doctrine, MANURE. 151 admit that glycerine acts by its evolving gases, for then, an equal weight of peat would answer. It is well known that such is not the fact. 237. If spent ley then.acts neither by its salts, nor its evolved gas, it acts by the perfectly dissolv- ed state of its glycerine. That such is the case, admits not of a doubt, and goes to show that plants appropriate the geine or humus of soil, by absorb- ing it as geine or geates. 238. The spent ley acts, both by its salts and its geine. The action of salts has been explained. The soluble state of geine is the most important fact to be borne in mind, if it is attempted to make spent ley on a farm. Swamp muck, or peat, ashes, and common salt, will afford all the elements of spent ley, and the following may be proposed, as an imitation of that from soda soap. Fine .dry snulfy. peat, .... + .). +... 50 Ibs. RE a hE os 1-2 bushel. /s aiphijerpga tS pag ganar ar pia apie Veen ] < | ae ean Ee rte ER HR 100 gallous Mix the ashes and peat well together, sprinkling with water to moisten a little, let the heap lie for a week. Dissolve the salt in the water, in a hogs- head, and add to the brine, the mixture of peat and ashes, stirring well the while. Let it be stirred oc- casionally for a week, and it will be fit for use. Apply it as spent ley, groundsand all. Both ashes and salts may be doubled and trebled, with advan- tage, if convenient. The mixture of ley must be used before it begins to putrefy; this occurs in three or four weeks. It then evolves sulphuret- ted hydrogen gas, or the smell of gas of rotten eggs; this arises from the decomposition of the sulphates in the water and ashes, by the vegetable . 152 MANURE. matter. A portion of the geine is thus deposited from the solution. 239. Having thus considered the class of mixed manures, or those composed of geine and salts, those consisting of salts only, are to be now ex- plained. They are next in value to the mixed manures. ‘They are chiefly the liquid evacuations of animals, and when artificially combined with geine, their value exceeds that of the solid evacua- tions. ‘These liquids equal, in fact, the mixed ma- nures of the most fertilizing energy. The liquid evacuations are truly salts only, dissolved in water ; but they are salts of a peculiar character in many cases, and are formed of an animal acid. ‘This is it which renders a detailed account of these ma- nures interesting to the farmer. It-is not enough for this purpose to refer the action of these liquids to the general eflect of salts on mineral manures. 240. The peculiar animal acid to which refer- ence has been made, becomes like nitric acid in nitrates, the food of plants. ‘The element from which it is derived gives a marked and highly valu- able character to the liquid evacuations of the farm yard, and household. ‘This peculiar animal princi- ple is urea. It may be obtained from these liquids, in transparent, but colorless crystals of a faint but peculiar odor. Cold water dissolves more than its weight, and boiling water an indefinite quantity of crystals of urea. The pure crystals undergo no change, when dissolved in pure water, but if they are mixed with the other ingredients of the urine, decomposition rapidly ensues, and they are resolved almost entirely into carbonate of ammonia. Alka- lies and alkaline earths induce similar changes on urea. The practical value of this fact will be easily understood. me BY MANURE. 153 241. Pure urea has no distinct alkaline proper- ties. It unites with aqua fortis, or nitric acid, and forms a sparingly soluble salt, composed of about equal parts of each of its ingredients. 242. Urea is composed, according to Dr. Prout, of carbon 19-99, oxygen 26°66, hydrogen 6°66, ni- trogen 46°66. These elements are so beautifully balanced, that they afford only carbonic acid and ammonia; though the chemistry of every reader, _may not understand how these elements produce cyanic acid and ammonia. ‘The salt cyanate of ammonia, has actually been formed by modern chemistry, which has thus succeeded in forming a true organic product, or product of living action, or rather of chemical action guided by living prin- ciple. In all animal evacuations containing urea, that may be considered, as so much carbonate of ammonia of the shops. 243. The peculiar animal acid which has been mentioned as forming so essential a part in these liquid excretions, is called uric acid. It is not, like urea, changed by exposure, into ammonia. It con- tains a large portion of nitrogen, which, under the influence of growing plants, is let loose, and may then form ammonia. Its composition is as follows : carbon 36°11, hydrogen 2°34, oxygen 28°19, nitro- gen 33°36. The peculiar principles of the liquid evacuations having been explained, their constitution may be now stated. They are, it will be remembered, at the head of the class of manures composed of salts. First, the liquid evacution of cattle, what is its agri- cultural value asa manure? Its composition will form the answer. Cow’s urine was long ago examined by Brandt, whose results, have formed the basis of all calcula- 154 MANURE. Beye * tions of its value for almost half a century. It is evidently defective. The more exact analysis of cattle urine, by Sprengel, who has devoted particu- lar care to the subject, gives, as the average of many trials, the following, in 1000 lbs. . Withee eave ik aUs repens eR 926°24 i eT ee me ee 40-00 BRU B i: nino: hee iter tee -10 Mueus of, alinges: si ceor''. er iene 1-90 Hippuric acid, ) combined with pot- ‘90 Lactic acid, ash,soda and ammo- 5°16 Carbonic acid, ) nia, forming salts, 2°56 Mtermapetei, vids srg ee eee! satagte eT 2°05 Ee R hy gk city tayral tered Peo 6°64 Sebi ait aula fe win eigere! nt Sf BORA He 5:54 Sulphuric acid, ) combined with so- 4:05 Phosphoric acid, da,lime & magne- Chlorine, sia, forming salts, Lidia hie od y's karat - hatived sa ees “65 Ma spesigns:. «: uterets «ier igi cee “36 A lepaigae) «shies cent Boil ote acek 02 hisade of Anoie:. «<6: is co meaner et Be ‘04 Oxide of manganese, ........ “O1 RIG Res ec st Jadot eelknpeeeer gee 36 , 1000-00 Let this now be compared with the standard of value, cow dung. - 100 lbs. of that afford 2 lbs. of carbonate of ammonia; while this evacuation gives 4 lbs. of ammonia -in its urea, besides that in its other ammoniacal salts. 244. The quantity of liquid manure produced by one cew annually, is equal to fertilizing 1 1-4 acres of ground, producing effects as durable as do the solid evacuations. A cord of loam, saturated with urine, is equal to a cord of the best rotted dung. MANURE. 155 If the liquid and the solid evacuations including the litter, are kept separate, and soaking up the liquid by loam, it has been found they will manure land, in proportion by. bulk of 7 liquid to 6 solid, while their actual value is as 2 to 1. 245. 100 lbs. of cow’s urine afford about 8 lbs. of the most powerful salts which have ever been used by farmers. The simple statement then, in figures, of difference in value of the solid and liquid evacu- ations of a cow, should impress upon all the impor- tance of saving the last in preference to the first. Let both be saved. If the liquids contained natu-’ rally, geine, they might be applied alone. It is the want of that guiding principle which teaches that salts and geine should go hand in hand, which has sometimes led to results in the application of the liquor, which have given this substance a bad name. 246. It has been proved that the ammoniacal salts of urine have a forcing power on vegetation. The value of ammonia was long ago understood by Davy, and its carbonate was his favorite application. Plants watered with a simple solution of sulphate of ammonia, an abundant salt in cow’s urine, are 15 days earlier than those watered with pure wa- ter. Grass land watered with urine only, yields nearly double to that not so manured. In a garden on land of very poor quality, near Glasgow, urine diluted with water, nearly doubled the grass. But upon wheat, sown on clay land, it*did no good ; it injured barley, potatoes grew rank and watery, and on turnips the effects were only half as good, as mere unfermented dung. The circumstance of the soil in this last ease, was probably a deficiency of geine. rf 247. The liquid evacuation of the horse is com- posed of 156 MANURE. Water | or. ote net ik » drive ath Ghee 94: Diem). ie Kideat Sek Sea 7 Chatiiiriss 4 Bi Ved: Siete Spt, te ware (Carbonate ob seday'. \. Soy Mgt wet 9 ‘Hippurate of ‘sodage at oa BF oftiweda 2°4 Muriate: of potash, 13). ce. ae eal NE ‘9 The hippuric acid is not peculiar to the horse. The urine of most herbiverous animals contains hippurate, formerly called benzoate of soda, its acid having the fragrance of gum benzoin. If man takes benzoic acid, hippuric replaces uric acid in the urine. According to the composition, horse stale, pound for pound, is equal to the value of cow dung. Sprengel found the urine of sheep to afford, in 1000 lbs., WA SIGG sd is Xisciew ocblis °¢ OF sheep: trine; sone. i, aowas 3 2°80 * Mai he@srarine yi 508. eye) 8) a Gee 5.64 ‘ It is at once seen, how valuable are swine, as man- ufacturers.of manure. 249. The urea being called equal to ammonia, it _is seen that the ammoniacal salts in human urine are very nearly the same as those in cow dung, but its effects in actual practice are found to be nearly double those in cow dung. The, actual amount of salts in 100 parts of human, cow, and horse dung, 158 MANURE. is in round numbers, | per cent., while in the liquids it averages 5°88, being in the cow 7:4, and in the human 4°24 per cent., horse 6. 250. All urine of course varies with the food of the animal, the season, and its age. White turnips give a weaker liquor than Swedish. Green grass is still worse. Distillers’ grains are said to be bet- ter than either of these. ‘The more water the ani- mal drinks, the poorer the urine. Doubtless the liquids of fattening kine are richer in ammonia dur- ing this period, for it contains a part of that nitrogen not carried away in milk. In winter, urine con- tains much less urea than in summer, sometimes only one-half. Putrefaction changes urea to am- monia. ‘The time required for this varies. Urine putrefying for a month, contains double the ammo- nia of fresh urine. It does not wholly decompose in a month; but during all this time, gives off ammonia. Unless then mixed with loam, or peat, or swamp muck, or where kept in tanks with its bulk of wa- ter, it loses ammonia. Urine is fully ripe, when it | contains neither caustic ammonia, nor urea. What- ever may be the food, it is evident from the above statements, that rivers of riches run away from farms, from want of attention to saving that which ordinarily is allowed to be wasted. 251. Each man evacuates annually, enough salts, to manure an acre of land. Some form of geine only is to be added to keep the land in heart, if the farmer has but the heart to collect and use that which many allow, like the flower unseen, “to waste its sweetness on the desert air.” 252. But with all the farmer’s care, with every convenience for collecting and preserving these ani- mal products, still the amount which can be so col- lected, is often wholly inadequate to the wants of MANURE. 159 the farmer of small means. All these accumula- tions presuppose a goodly stock of animals on the farm. ‘This again is limited by the means of keep- ing, and so one influences the other. The farmer wants some source of manure, which while it pro- duces the salts and geine of an unlimited amount of stock, hogs and hens, shall yet require no more - _ barn room, fodder or team, than every man who means that his hands and lands shall shelter, feed, and clothe him, can easily command. 160 ARTIFICIAL MANURE. CHAPTER VII. ARTIFICIAL MANURES, AND IRRIGATION. 253. Tue class of salts as manure, is to be dis- tinguished from the salis, called mineral manures, by this circumstance, that they contain large por- tions of peculiar animal products, called urea, and uric acid. ‘These afford ammonia, in large quan- tity, by their decomposition. Having considered the relative value of the two classes of manure, those composed of salts, and of salts and geine, that consisting chiefly of geine, is now to be explained. 254. First and foremost in this class, is swamp muck, mud, or peat. This class includes also, dry leaves, dry vegetables of all sorts; ploughing in of green or dry crops, irrigation. These are fruitful topics. ‘The principles only of their action, can be pointed out. ‘The application of the principle, must be left.to the farmer. The why, of things has been shown; the how, must be deduced from the why, by practical men. 255. Peat is too well known, to render it neces- sary to say, that it is the result ‘of that spontaneous change in vegetable matter, which ends in geine. Peat is, among manures consisting chiefly of geine, what bone dust is, among manures, consisting of : —_ ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 161 animal matter. Peat is highly concentrated vege- table food. When the state in which this food ex- ists, is examined, it is found not only partly cooked, but seasoned. 256. Peat consists of soluble and insoluble geine and salts. ‘The proportion of these several ingre- dients must be known, before the value of peat can be compared with similar constituents in cow dung. This proportion is exhibited in the following table of constitution of Massachusetts peat per 100 parts Noluble Insoluble Total Sulis and ‘ Locality. Gene. Geine. Geme. Silicates. 1. Dracut, - 14: ‘ee: 86° 14. 2. Sunderland, 26: 56°60 85:60 14:49 3. Westborough, 48°80 43°60 9240 760 4. Hadley, 34: 60- 94: 6° 5. Northampton, 3830 4415 82:45 1755 6. sf 32° 54:90 86°90 13:10 7. i 12: 60°85 72°85 27:15 8. a 10- 49°45 59°45 40°55 9. Ms 33° 59- 92° 8: 10. és 46° 46°89 9280 720 Average, 2941 55:03 8444 1555 11. Watertown, 25 510 890 14 86° 12. Danvers, 23 810 650 1460 84:40 257. Under the general name of peat, are com- prised several varieties, which may be distinguished as, Ist. Peat, the compact substance generally known and used for fuel, under this name. 2d. , or swamp muck, by which is to be under- stood, the paring which is removed before peat is dug. It is a less compact variety of peat. It is common in all meadows and swamps, and includes the hassocks. Both these varieties are included in —_—-——_—_—— ee 162 ARTIFICIAL MANURE. the above, from No. 1 to No. 10. It includes also, the mud of salt-marshes. 3d. Pond mud, the slushy material, found at the bottom of ponds when dry, or in low grounds, the wash of higher lands. This seldom contains more than 20 per cent. of geine. Nos. 11 and 12, are of this description. _ 258. These varieties comprise probably a fair sample of all the peat and swamp muck and pond mud, which occur in the various parts of the coun- - try. The results stated, (256) are those of the sev- _ eral varieties, when dried, at a temperature of 240° F. The composition of peat ashes has been al+ luded to (163). They contain, in fact, all the in- - organic principles of plants, which are insoluble, with occasional traces of the soluble alkaline sul- phates, and of free alkali. 259. It is well known that all peat shrinks by drying, and when perfectly dried, at 240° F. loses from 73 to $7 per cent. of water. When allowed to drain as dry, as it will, it still contains, about 2-3 of its weight of water. It shrinks from 2-3 to 3-4 of its bulk. A cord wet becomes 1-4 to 1-3 of a cord when dry. ‘To compare its value with cow dung, equal bulks must be taken, and hence, to dry peat, a bulk of water must be supposed to be added, in ‘proportion above stated, or still better, because easier done, the pile of dry peat is to be estimated by the pit left after digging. It will be found on the above data, that 100 parts of fresh dug peat, of average quality, contain— ee eee. Ge se a ee ats at Cts OF Seng Sse te nena eee 50 WHREUCMT OS Ore ee ee ee 50 er gE Me sa AI eet Magento at 14: ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 163 This does not differ much from fresh cow dung, so far as salts, geine, and water are concerned. The salts of lime, are actually about the same, while the alumina, oxide of iron, magnesia, in the silicates added to the salts of lime, make the total amount of salts in round numbers, equal that of cow dung. If the bulks of these are compared, it will be found, that at 90 lbs. per bushel, full measure, and 103 bushels being allowed to a cord,—each con- tains and weighs as follows, in pounds : Weight Soluble Insoluble Total Salts of Geime. Geine. Geine. Lime. Dung, 9289 128 1288 1416 982 No.9 peatoftable,$216 376 673 1049 91 No. 10 “ “ 9216 .519....529.,.1048'. .8] A cord of pond mud, (No. 11,) weighs when - dug, 6117 lbs. and contains solid matter, 3495 lbs. composed of geine, 495 lbs.; of silicates and salts, 3005 lbs. The salts of lime in pond mud, are 2 1-2 er cent. 260. The salts and geine of a cord of peat are equal to the manure of one cow for three months. It is certainly a very curious coincidence of results, that nature herself, should have prepared a sub- stance, whose agricultural value approaches so near cow dung, the type of manures. ‘This subject may have been now sufficiently explained. Departing from cow dung and wandering through all the va- rieties of animal and vegetable manures, we land in a peat-bog. ‘The substance under our feet is analyzed, and found to be cow dung, without its musky breath of cow odor, or the power of gene- rating ammonia. ‘That process is over—a part of the ammonia remains, still evident tu the senses by adding caustic potash. It exists in part, either as a 164 ARTIFICIAL MANURE. component of crenic and apocrenic acid, or com-— bined with geine, or as phosphate of ammonia, and when the presence of ammonia is added io the salts, whose existence has already been pointed out, it may be said, that peat approaches dung, moistened with the liquid evacuation of the animal. 261. The power of producing alkaline action, on the insoluble geine, is alone wanted to make peat good cow dung. Reviewing the various matters, from whatever source derived, solid or liquid, which are used as manure, all possess one common prop- erty, that of generating ammonia. The conclusion then of this whole matter, is this; the value of all manures, depends on Selle. geine, and ammonia; and it is directly in proportion to the last; it fol- lows, that any substance affording these elements, may be subsiituted for manure. 262. The great question comes, how is to be given to peat, a substance which, in all its other characters, Is so nearly allied to cow dung, that lacking element ammonia? How is that to be sup- plied? Without it, cow dung itself would be no better than peat, nay, not so good; for in peat, nearly one-half of the geine, is already in a soluble state. Passing by the fact, already alluded to, that peat contains traces of ammonia, which, evolved when treated with caustic potash, exerts its usual action ; it may be added, that possibly in the pro- cess of vegetation, when the decomposing power of the living plant is exerted on peat, and the silicates, caustic potash is produced, and ammonia evolved. Considering peat as a source of nitrogen only, it is evident that the action of alkali is of the highest practical importance. 263. In this part of the subject of manure, prob- abilities and possibilities are no longer admissible. ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 165 There are two facts well established by experience, relating to the action of ammonia in dung. — First, it has been shown (166) that dung produces nitrates. Porous substances and alkali, possess the power of forming nitrates; these substances, alkali and po- rous substances, act like spongy platina, they in- duce a catalytic power, and the consequence is, that the elements of the air, oxygen and nitrogen unite, and form nitric acid, this combines with the alkali, and consequentiy nitrates are produced. ‘The oth- er well established fact, in relation to the action of ammonia in dung, is the power of dissolving and converting geine, which has been explained in Chap. IV. ‘The most valuable of these two prop- erties is that of producing soluble geine. The formation of nitrates may be quite, and ordinarily is prevented. It is the alkaline action which is sought. 264. By then, the addition of alkali to peat, it is put into the state, which ammonia gives to dung. The question then arises, how much alkali is to be added to swamp muck or peat, to convert that into cow dung? Recurring to the doctrine of chemical proportions, whose value to the farmer is thus made evident, it will be remembered that the equivalent of potash and soda, that is, that portion of one which can take the place of the other, is as 2 to 3; that is, 2 parts of soda are equal to 3 of potash. If either of these is compared with ammonia, it will be found that one part of ammonia is nearly equal to two of soda. When these substances are met with in commerce, it is in the state of salts;as carbon- -ate of ammonia of the shops, or white ash or pot- ash and pearlash. ‘The equivalent of these, is de- duced from determining the pure alkali of each, ad- ding the equivalent of carbonic acid, and to this the usual impurity. It is found that 166 ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 59 parts of ammonia, are equal to lla soda, or white ash, or to gi ible Ist quality pot or pearlash, or = id 2d quality pot or pearlash. 265. For all agricultural purposes, is may be considered, that salts of hartshorn, or carbonate of ammonia, and white or soda ash, are equal, pound for pound, and that pots and pearls may be taken at one-half more. | : 266. If all the nitrogen in dung, becomes am- ' monia, then as has been shown, (187) each 100 lbs. affords 2 lbs. 2.0z. Discarding fractions, let it-be called 2 lbs. Hence, if to 100 lbs. fresh dug peat, there are added 2 ibs. sodaash, or 3 lbs. of pot or pearl ashes, all the good effects of real cow dung will be produced. Peat or muck, thus requires 2 per cent. of soda ash, or 3 per cent. of potash. 267. By (259) a cord of green peat weighs 9216 lbs.; 2 per cent. are 184 lbs. Hence a cord requires that amount of soda ash, or 276 lbs. of pot- ash. Butif the peat is quite dry, so as to have lost 3-4 of its bulk, then 736 lbs. of soda ash, or 1104 lbs. potash will be necessary. ‘Two per cent. of al- kali seems enormous. It is stated, in the hope that it may lead to experiments on the free use of alka- li. But as it will be hereafter shown, that this is to be reduced by mixing with loam or other matter, this quantity, even if applied to one acre, will prob- ably produce very good effects. It has repeatedly been proved for other purposes, that a cord of fresh dug peat neutralizes 100 lbs. of soda ash, or 400 lbs. toa dry cord. Further, dry peat, by. boiling with, neutralizes, 12 1-2 per cent. of its weight of potash, and in actual practice, alkali to the amount of G6 per cent. of the weight of the geine, in pond. ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 167 mud, has been used. _ It would therefore appear to be safe to use the theoretical proportion. 268. But the nitrogen in cow dung, does not all tell. It is impossible but that some portion of the elements of ammonia, enter into other combina- tions, and part also escapes as gas. Besides, it is not all brought at once into action, and hence, a less portion of alkali than above indicated, may be used. It is probable that not a third of the ammonia acts. Let it be taken at that quantity. Then the equiva- lents are 100 lbs. fresh peat, and 10 2-3 - so- da, or 1 lb. of potash, or 1 per cent. of the Weight of the peat in commercial potash. 269. This proportion will allow in round num- bers, to every cord of fresh dug peat, $2 lbs. pot or pearl ashes, or 61 Ibs. of soda, or 16 to 20 busheis of common house ashes. Having no guide here, from experience, of the quantity, which may be used per acre, yet in order to arrive at conclusions, which could be recom- mended safely, the alkali has been calculated in the quantity of saltpetre which has been used, with such signal success by O. M. Whipple, Esq., of Lowell, no less distinguished for the good sense with which he undertakes an experiment, than fer the public spirit’ which urges him onward to its successful conclusion. On the principles which have been developed, when saltpetre is used, the whole alkali is let loose by thegaction of the growing plant. The experience of Mr. Whipple, is a guide to the quantity of alkali which may be safely used. He has used from 50 to 150 lbs. saltpetre per acre. The real alkali in saltpetre, may be called, 1-2 of its weight; or the real alkali used, has been from 25 to 75 lbs.=36 1-2 lbs. and 109 1-2 Ibs. pure. carbonate, orin round numbers, an average of com- 168 : ARTIFICIAL MANURE. mercial Ist and 2d quality, of 49 to 149 Ibs. per acre—giving an average of 99 lbs. which is nearly 1 per cent. of the weight of a cord of green peat, which agrees with the estimate (268). If then, this is mixed with the usual proportion of geine, which the dung used contains, equally good effects per acre ought to be produced. 270. There are other practical facts, which may help to a solution of the question, how much alkali is to be added to a cord of peat. According to the expe eof Mr. Phinney of Lexington, an author- ity 1 may not be questioned, a cord of green dung @onverts twice its bulk of peat, into a manure, of eqtal- value to itself—that is a cord of clear sta- ble dung, composted with two of peat, forms a ma- nure of equal value to three cords of green dung. Indeed, the permanent eflects of this compost, ac- cording to Mr Phinney, exceed those of stable dung. On this fact, 2 lbs. of ammonia in 100 of cow dung, should convert 200 lbs. of fresh dug peat in- to good cow, dung. The equivalents of these, as has been shown, (265), are 2 lbs. of soda ash, or 3 Ibs. of potash. Allowing the gaseous ammonia to be divided equally among the 800 Ibs. of dung and peat, this is in proportion of 10 2-3 oz. of soda ash, or 1 lb. of potash to 100 lbs, of fresh peat. Now this calculation, deduced from actual experiment, confirms the theoretical proportions (268,) suppo- sing only 1-3 of the nitrogen acts, though that was made before the author met with the statement of Mr. Phinney. 271. There is a coincidence here of proportions, which makes it quite certain, that the quantity re- commended, (269) is a perfectiy safe basis for agricultural use. By theory, the proportions are, 1 cord peat, 61 Ibs. soda _ 92 lbs. rn As des ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 169 duced from the compounds of dung and peat, 61 Ibs. soda ash, 92 Ibs. potash. _ This proportion gives each cord of peata value equal to that of cow dung ; if 1-3 of its nitrogen acts, it may be com- posted, as that is, with loam or still better, mixed up at once with its proportion of peat. If this is done, then the result will be, in round numbers. 1 cord of fresh dug veat,—20 lbs. of soda ash, 380 Ibs. potash. In March, 1849, the author, in a letter addressed to the commissioner for the agricultural survey of Massachusetts, threw out the fallowing hint, which was published in the second rt of of Mr. Colman: Take 100 lbs. of peat as sold or the fime part from the bottom of a peat stack—at any rate, bruise the peat fine, put it into a potash kettle, and 2 1-2 lbs. of white ash, and 130 gallons of water ; boil for a few hours: let it settle, dip off the clear for use, add 100 lbs. more of peat, 2 1-2 lbs. white ash, fill up with water, as much as you have dip- ped off, boil again, settle and dip off. ‘This may _ be repeated five times. How much oftener | know —_—- not; probably as long as the vegetable part of peat remains. ‘The clear liquor is an alkaline solution of geine. The three first boilings contain geine, alumine, iron, magnesia, and sulphate or phosphate ofalkali. The dark colored solution contains about half an ounce per gallon, of vegetable matter.” “Jt is to be applied by watering grass lands. The ‘ dregs’ may be mixed up with the manure or spread as a top dressing ; or put in the hill. Ex- perience will teach—I only suggest.” — The principle which should guide the farmer in the making of artificial manure, has now been con- | sidered. The author of these pages is not a practi- cal farmer, agriculture is not his pursuit, and he 170 ARTIFICIAL MANURE. has studied his chemistry, only asa recreation from the daily duties of life. He has thrown out suggestions, the result of researches, undertaken with reference to a totally different object, and these suggestions have been acted upon by practical men, whose results confirm his previous anticipa- tions. He has no theory on this subject to main- tain, his opinions must stand or fall by practice, speak for themselves. Yet he is not altogether indifferent to the practical results which may follow his suggestions, and he should consider that he had infli a serious injury on agriculture by the pub- lication’ of erroneous opinions. When a man’s character is to be established in a court of evidence, what is the rule? The good old English rule? To call upon the bystanders, the- country present, taken indiscriminately from all who may have known the person. Do not summon persons whose interest may throw a shadow of suspicion, on the testimony of the witness. And so here, let it be proved if it can be, whether the principles here ad- vanced, are of practical value, by calling upon the stand, those gentlemen who have tested his opin- ions, and of some of whose operations and results he was ignorant, till he met with them in the agri- cultural publications of the day, or in accidental conversation; others have been requested to state by Ictter their results, after these pages were pre- pared for the press. The evidence on this point is contained in the appendix to this volume. 272. Attention might here be called, to the extended use of peat, composted with lime and ani- mal manure; but it will be observed, that it is wished to direct the thoughts at this time, to a com- post or artificial manure, without lime or. animal manure. ‘The author does not go for lime, but for ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 171 soluble alkali. Carbonate of lime alone, is not ex- pected to produce immediate results, and seldom has, nor can be expected to produce visible effects in the first year of its application. The why and the wherefore of this has been already explained, and it is merely adverted to now to guard against any inference favorable to the action of lime, be- ing deduced from the following facts. Mr. George Robbins, of Watertown, is an extensive manufac- turer of soap and candles and of starch, and still bet- ter, a man who employs the refuse of these trades, in enriching and gladdening his land. For foubcnss and it is believed his crops will compare with any _ of the best cultivators around him, he has not used a spoonful of manure made by any animal, walking either on two legs or on four. He keeps a large number of horses and hogs, and several cows; he. uses not a shoyelful of their manure, but selling that, he uses peat and swamp muck, mixed with his spent barilla ashes. The proportions are, one part of spent ashes to three of peat, dug up in the fall, mixed in the spring. After shovelling two or three times, it is spread and ploughed in. The ef- fect is immediate, and so far, lasting. The effects of this spent ashes alone on sandy loam, are excel- lent; it makes the whole quite ‘“ salvy.” 273. The composition of spent ashes has already been alluded to; a certain portion is carbonate of lime; it is well known, that as such, it would pro- duce no better effects than so much chalk. A large part of silicate of soda exists in the spent ashes. This is decomposed by the carbonic acid of the air, the alkali then acts on geine, but this action. is greatly assisted by the carbonate of lime. It is perhaps the most powerful agent in the decomposi- tion of the silicate of soda. Here then the action 7 ' 172 ARTIFICIAL MANURE, of carbonates on silicates tells. And it may be worth while to be reminded here, that this action was explained in detail, in order that it might be understood, how spent ashes could act so rapidly on swamp muck. 274. Alkalies and peat, or swamp muck, are within the command of almost every farmer. Lime is not within reach, and besides, requires no small» skill in its management. In the preparation of ma- nure, price is every thing. Let the cost be esti- mated per cord, of artificial manure, prepared in the proportions stated (270). Peat or muck, may be called worth fifty cents per cord, and the labor of digging, say one dollar, $1,50 92 Ibs. potash, 6 cts. $5,52 ) , yer: ume pa oh 2,44 p Srerage of alkalies, 3,65 or, 24 bush. ashes, 124 cts. 3,00 J 3)10,96 $5,15 3,65 - Were they really good hard wood ashes, about 16 bushels would be sufficient, but an excess here is allowed, to compensate for variation in quality. This may appear a very high price, but it is to be remembered, that its value is to be compared with that of a cord of clear cow dung. What is the value of cow dung? It appears from the barn account of the Merrimack Manufacturing Company, that for 9 1-2 years, ending October, 1838, a bushel of clear cow dung, costs 21 1-3 cents. During the same time dung of inferior quality was delivered at the Print-works, by the neighboring farmers at 20 cents per bushel. Clear dung, is delivered at the Print-works in Dover at 12 1-2 cents per bushel, \ ‘ ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 173 and at several of the Print-works in Rhode Island, at 16 cents per bushel, giving an average of 17-45 cents per bushel, and as a cord contains, in round numbers, 100 bushels, its price is $17,45 Deduct from this the price of an artificial cord, 5,15 $12,30 It is hence evident that an artificial cord ‘is only about one-third of the price of a natural cord, and if the last may be mixed with two parts of loam or swamp muck, so may the first, which will reduce the price of a cord of de a manure, to $2,71. Now this is equal, according to all experience, cord for cord, to stable manure ;, the value of that may be estimated at $5, so that an artificial cord costs only about one-half. ‘The best plan for preparing the artificial manure, would be to dig the peat or swamp muck in the fall; in the spring of the year let this be mixed in the proportion of 30 Ibs. of pot- ash, or 20 lbs. of soda ash, or 8 bushels of common house ashes, to every cord of fresh dug peat, esti- mating this by the pit dug out, and allowing noth- ing in the spring for shrinking. If ashes are used, they may be mixed in at once with the muck, but if soda ash or potashes are used, they must be dis- solved in water and the pile evenly wet with the solution. ‘he pile is then to be well shovelled over, and used as is other manure. But it has been found by experience, that the peat may be dug in the spring, immediately mixed with the alkali, and used forthwith. If spent ashes are used to prepare this muck, add one cord of spent ashes to three cords of peat or swamp muck. 275. But there are still other forms of cheap alkali, which may be recommended, though it may appear inconsistent with what has been advanced ” 174 ARTIFICIAL MANURE. respecting lime, but in this case, the lime is con- verted into a perfectly soluble salt. The soda is eliminated caustic, acts on’ the geine, renders it soluble. During the exposure to the volumes of carbonic acid, evolved from the peat, the caustic soda becomes carbonated. ‘This carbonate of soda, immediately decomposes the soluble salt of lime, and an insoluble salt of lime with a soluble salt of soda, is the result. The effects of these various ac- tions, are, first, the geine is made soluble, ammonia evolved, which is converted into a nitrate, carbonate of lime produced, which acts*as that does in spent ashes, and a soluble salt of soda or common salt remains jin the mass, producing still farther good effects, en its alkali is let loose by the action of growing plants. Here are rounds of changes taking place, which though the farmer may not readily understand, he may easily produce, with lime and common salt. It may be stated, in farther explan- ation of these changes, that common salt is a com- pound of soda and muriatic acid, or muriate of soda, using here the old language of chemistry, which is more intelligible to the farmer, though not philo- sophically correct. By mixing quicklime with com- mon salt, its soda is let loose, the acid combines with the lime, forming a soluble salt of lime, and as long as the soda remains caustic it has no effect on the muriate of lime, but as soon as the soda be- comes mild or carbonated, decomposition of the muriate of lime is produced, and the common salt regenerated. Commencing then with quicklime and salt, we pass on to a soluble salt of lime and caustic ene and from that, to mild soda, and to carbonate of lime and the original common salt. 276. If these various changes take place in the midst of peat, or geine, it is evident, that the caustic \ ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 175 soda acts upon the geine, and also evolves ammonia from that substance; secondly, that the muriate of lime in its finely soluble state insinuates itself among all the particles of the geine, that the soda also is equally diffused, and that when the soda becomes carbonated, it produces an almost impalpable car- bonate of lime throughout the whole: mass, which, by its equal diffusion through the soil with the geine, acts upon the silicates, as has been heretofore ex- plained. In order to produce these effects, take, 1 bushel of salt, 1 cask of lime. Slack the lime with the brine, made by Jissolving the salt in water sufficient to make a stiff paste with the lime, which will be not quite sufficient to dis- solve all the salt. Mix all the materials then well together, and let them remain together in a heap for 10 days, and then be well mixed with three cords of peat; shovel well over for about 6 weeks, and it will be fit for use. Here, then, are pro- duced 3 cords of manure, for about the cost of $2,10 per cord. 9 SO pera gts ees epee $0,60 JP ogee Mf ls ae ie Aa ee 1,60 Peat, . Ee er ae ee 4,50 3)$6,30($2,10 From experiments made in a small way, it is be- lieved that this will be found an effectual manure ; the author suggests it, in the hope that it may lead to cautious experiment. But there is still another form in which this artificial manure may be pre- pared—that is by the addition of ammonia, the real Simon Pure of cow dung. ‘Take 176 ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 3 cords of peat, 61 lbs. sal ammoniac, 1-4 cask, or about 61 Ibs. lime. Slack the lime, dissolve the sal ammoniac, and wet the peat well with the solution through every part. Then shovel over, mixing in the lime accurately. We have here then, 3 cords of manure, at a price as follows: SPOT eo ee a $4.50 — 61 Ibs. sal ammoniac, at ls.,. . 10,17 GEM dimes. yb ne ee eho, 0,27 3)$14,94($4,98 It will be observed that three cords are used in these calculations, because the quantity of salts used is equivalent to the ammonia in a cord of dung, and that is supposed to be composted with 2 cords of loam, or meadow mud. Whether the estimates are correct, each one will determine by the value he may place on his peat and manure, and can apply his own estimate. When a cord of stable or barn- yard manure is usually estimated worth $4, the price of a cord of clear pure cow dung will not be thought high at $17. In fact, it probably, when mixed with the usual proportion of litter, straw, stalks and the usual loss by waste of its value, would become worth only about $5. But these questions do not affect the principle—that from al- kali and peat, as cheap a manure may be prepared, and as good, as from stable dung; for let that be called $5,00 then adding 2 cords of peat, 3,00 3)$8,00 7 $2,66 per cord. ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 177 277. There are other sources of alkali, for con- verting peat into soluble manure. Of these the chief is animal matter. Here we have ammonia produced. It has been actually proved by experi- ment, that a dead horse can convert 20 tons of peat into a valuable manure, richer and more lasting than stable dung; ‘a barrel of alewives is equal to a wagon load of peat.” The next great and pro- lific source of ammonia is the urine. The urine of one cow for a winter, mixed up as it is daily’ col- »lected, with peat, is sufficient to manure 1-2 an acre of land with 20 loads of manure of the best quality, while her solid evacuations, and litter, for the same period, afforded only 17 loads, whose value was only about one-half that of the former. 278. It need only be added in confirmation of all that has been advanced, that those who have had the prudence to fill their yards and hog-pens with meadow mud, which has thus become saturated with wiitialonibies have in no wise lost their reward. If they have been satisfied with their practice, per- haps they will be no less firm in their belief of suc- cess, when science offers them a reason, for the faith that is in them. 279. Having thus considered all the classes of manure, and shown-the possibility of enriching bar- ren fields, without the aid of animals, other subjects, intimately connected with this discussion, may be here introduced. These are, the application of manure in the form of rain, snow, and by overflowing streams, and the humble attempt to imitate these natural processes, by irrigation. ‘The effects in these cases are alike. They are due to two distinct causes, first, to the air of the water, and secondly, to the salts and other materials, dissolved by, or suspended in the water. | 178 IRRIGATION. First, before it can be understood how irrigation acts, let it be considered, how pure water acts; it’ is not said rain water, for that acts ina double way, both by its purity and impurity. ‘The more impure, the better manure is water. The purer water is, the less is it fit for irrigation. 280. Pure water acts only by its air. All water exposed to air, absorbs different proportions of its oxygen and nitrogen. This is a very slow process. It is ‘found that most natural waters give out, by boiling, from every hundred cubic inches of water, 3 1-2 cubic inches of air. This air contains 8 or 9 per cent. more oxygen, than an equal bulk of commonair. Water is generally filled or satura- ted with air; it will take up no more by a month’s: exposure. If this water is boiled, and again expos- ed to air, it will absorb, in 24 hours, as follows ;— Let there be taken any number of measures of air, which are composed of 20 of oxygen and 80 of ni- trogen. If 100 measures are absorbed by water, it is in this proportion : a Re a ye al tale cathe I Mh 46°43 Crear een, *. ee eee ne 53°57 so that oxygen is three times more absorbable than nitrogen. 281. If now, there is expelled by boiling, the air from pond or river water, it is found to contain, PSGPOON (sn 2) Po os eee ele 45°29 et er ae ewer eee, 18.63 so that two-thirds of the oxygen have disappeared ; this is the only fact which concerns the farmer. The oxygen has been absorbed by natural waters: and two-thirds retained. What has become of it? It has gone, it is not said all of it, but in irrigation a large portion to convert insoluble into soluble IRRIGATION. 179 geine. Irrigation is chiefly employed on grass- lands. The green sward here may not be broken up—what if it was? What if by ploughing, it was exposed to the action of the air? Remember the properties of geine. Air converts the insoluble to soluble, by forming carbonic acid, that is, the air combines with the carbon of the geine, and forms that gas. Give the geine this oxygen, condensed in water: wet it with this concentrated oxygen, » crowd it into geine, as would be done by overflow- ing a meadow with water. It penetrates every crack and cranny, and every mole’s-eye-hole ; it expels the carbonic acid imprisoned under the sod. It is doing the same work upon the untouched green sward, which would be effected by ploughing and tillage. The long and the short of the whole action of irrigation with pure limpid water is, that its ab- sorbed oxygen converts insoluble to soluble geine. Is this.explanation which science offers, confirmed by practice? ‘The appeal is made to all who have attended either to the theory or practice of irriga- tion, to bear witness to its truth. Is it not admitted that the running waters are alone fit for this pur- pose? That after remaining a few days they are abated, and a new flood must cover the land? Is not this necessity of renewing at short periods, the covering of water which shows no deposit, a proof that it has given up some invisible agent to fertilize the earth? This invisible agent is oxygen. Is it not evident from the extreme slowness with which air is absorbed by water, that if it were not for the running water, which every few days replaces that which has acted, that the practice of irrigation with pure water could be never successful ? 282. This is the principle—a principle which, having been wholly overlooked, has led to a waste 180 IRRIGATION. of time and money, and has given to irrigation, in many minds, the odour, if not of a bad, at least, of a useless practice. Where, guided by this light of science, grass lands can be irrigated, let it be done. If the experience of the most enlightened agricultu- rists in Europe is not all deception, by simple irrigation with running water, the farmer may cut two tons of hay where he toils and sweats to rake off one. 183. But by far the most fertile source of increas-» ed crops by irrigation, is found in the impurity of water; the salts and suspended matter, the slime and genial mud of freshets. Perhaps the effect due to this cause, cannot be better illustrated, than by a statement of those substances, and shu amount, which fill the waters of the Merrimack ; a flood of blessings! which rolls by those engaged in the din and hot haste of manufactures, as unheeded as was the earthquake which thundered and trembled, and rolled away under the feet of the fierce soldiery in an ancient battle. In the year 1838, during twenty-three days of freshets, from May till No- vember, no less than 71,874,063 lbs. of geine and salts rolled by the city of Lowell, borne seaward. .During the five days of the great freshet, from Jan- uary 28th to February Ist, ‘1839, no less than 35,- 970,897 lbs. of the same matter rolled by at from the rate of 112,128 lbs. to 20,405,397 lbs. per day ; each cubic foot. of water bearing onwards, from 1 1-2 to 30 1-2 grains. ‘This is only the suspended matter. That which is chemically dissolved by the waters, the fine filmy deposit, which occurs ina few days after the coarser and grosser matters sub- side—and the matter ordinarily suspended in the water of the river added to the above for the year 1838, give a grand total of 839,181 tons of salts IRRIGATION. 181 and geine, which were rolled down in the water of the Merrimack river. 284. What is this matter? Is it of any agri- cultural value? ‘The answer to the first question will answer both. The dissolved salts are sulphate and geate of lime, and the fine deposit occurring after the water has settled, is composed of one- half geine, and the remainder of salts of lime and silicates. The great agricultural value is found in the clayey deposit, which occurs in the first few -days. ‘The coarser part, that which collects about the foot of rocks, and falls, and eddies is composed, as follows : E SR 21, Wear SOUPS MAT IO] Ot Fe ae ae 3.92 een. , SPO PO pa 72°70 ame OF ORE YO eee a BS Pen OTE ray See Pi Pee 8°30 rey Petes, Te, OE Pg) Oty am 0-51 eeeermne ey UIC TRS ee 0:10 But considering the elements as we have usually treated them, as silicates, salts and geine, the com- position.of the several deposits is shown in the fol- lowing table : Geine. ——_——~ Sulphate Phos. of «.-)- Soluble. Insol. of lime. lime. Silicates. The coarse de- ; 2:06 186 0°74 0.90 94-44 posit above, Freshet, 1839, 540 650 2:34 1:20 84°66 Freshet, July ; : ; 718, 239, t 880 6:30 320 0-60 8120 285. If the doctrine of the action of silicates, salts and geine, upon each other when aided by growing plants, is considered, it cannot fail to be perceived, that the fertility of soils, periodically overflowed by turbid waters, is owing to the ele- 182 IRRIGATION. ments, salts and geine which it contains, and to the exquisitely finely divided state of the silicates which form the bulk of the deposit. The carbonic acid of the air, acts on each atom of silicate, while owing to the geine, having been, as it were, irrigated, the oxygen of the air and water, must put that into a state to evolve carbonic acid. Hence, the silicates are at once decomposed, and their alkali liberated. How beautiful! It seems like»a special. interposi- tion of that beneficent Power, whose blessings, while they fill us with wondering admiration, at the in- finite skill, which directs every change in the ma- terial universe, should teach us also, that, these changes are held up to us, not only to admire, but in some humble degree to imitate. . Whenever man —‘‘ the faithful servant and interpreter of nature,” has thus learned the lessons propounded by an In- finite Mind, he finds, when he humbly imitates na- ture’s laws, she is a kind and indulgent parent. She opens her hand liberally, and gives fertility by irrigation, and rivers and streams like holy water, sprinkled by a reverend father, fructify all they bedew. With hearts thus attuned, by the observa- tion of the laws of nature, they respond to the gentle vibrations, caused by the descent of genial and fer- tilizing showers. 286. Rain is only natural irrigation; the water is found like that of rivers, rich in oxygen, and or- ganic matter. The fertilizing power of rain, is referred to the same causes, which lead to irriga- tion, to the salts and geine, which rain water con- tains. Several chemists have proved the existence of salme matters and organic substances in the air. The falling rain carries down with it salts of am- monia, of soda, of lime, and organic matter.— These all may be supposed floating in the air. ‘The IRRIGATION. 183 dry soils, give to the winds an impalpable dust, its silicates. and geine. When hailstones which have been formed in the regions of perpetual frost, exhibit almost the same substances, which are contained in rain water, the height at which these matters float, would almost compel the supposition that they ex- ist in a gaseous state. From the examination of hailstones, by Girardin, a French chemist, it ap- pears, that no sensible trace of ammonia was de- tected during the evaporation of their water, but there was found a notable quantity of lime and sul- phuric acid; and above all, a large proportion of an organic substance containing nitrogen. Melted hailstones have the appearance of water, contain- ing a drop or two of milk; by standing, the water grows clear, and the flocky matter which settles, burns with the smell of animal matter, and evolves ammonia. It is a question whether, even at the Giessen Laboratory this was not the source of the ammonia, there discovered in rain water. It is taken for grant- ed, that the ammonia in rain water existed as a vol- atile carbonate, because it was found to pass over in distillation. So did a volatile product, which always discoloured the crystals of sal ammoniac, pro- cured by adding muriatic acid to the distilled wa- ter. This discolouring matter, was noticed a cen- tury ago by Margraf. Later chemists have also’ detected ammoniacal salts in rain water, but no volatile carbonate of that base. It is well known that muriate of soda arises in evaporation, so does chromate of potash, and several other salts. If in distilling rain water, the ammonia did not pass over in the volatile organic discolouring product, it may have gone over as muriate of ammonia. It is not questioned that ammoniacal salts exist in rain and 184 © IRRIGATION. snow water. The fact that it there exists as car- bonate, seems to be assumed, and is incompatible with the salts which have been heretofore obtained, from rain, snow and hail. This subject has of late excited much attention, and as the existence of salts in snow, is intimately connected with the old saying, that ‘snow is the poor man’s manure,” it may be worth while to examine the foundation of this proy- erb. Like all others of this class, it will be found to rest on observation, and is supported by experi- ment. In 1751, Margraf, in the neighborhood of Berlin, after it had snowed several-hours, collected in glass vessels, as much falling snow as afforded 3600 ounces of water. This carefully evaporated, afforded 60 grains of calcareous matter, with some grains of muriatic acid, and traces of nitrous vapor. An equal quantity of rain water, afforded 100 grains calcareous matter, with some muriatic acid; and in both cases the matter was discolored by an oily substance. A similar result was obtained long ago in Ireland, by Dr Rutty, who found in a gallon of snow water, 4 grains, and i in one gallon_of rain wa- | ter, 6 grains of calcareous matter. This is about the proportion found by Margraf, and would give for each inch of snow water about 10 lbs. of salts peracre. From the existence of free acids in this case, it is evident that no carbonate of ammonia. could have there existed. ‘There are some experi- ments performed by our countryman, Dr. Williams, formerly Hollis Professor of Mathematics and Nat- ural Philosophy in Harvard College,and detailed in the first volume of his history of Vermont, where the experiments were performed. In 1791, 6 gal- lons of fresh falling snow water, afforded by evapo- ration, 11 grains calcareous matter, 2 grains of sa- line matter, 5 grains of a dark brown oily matter. \ IRRIGATION. we 185 In January, 1792, 6 gallons of snow water, from snow lying three inches deep on the grass, on an area of 16 square feet, where it had lain 59 days, covered with a depth of 27 inches of snow, afforded® the same salts as above, and 105 grains of this oily matter. This is the most remarkable fact, and may afford some weight to the suggestion before made, that organic matter exists gaseous in the air. It must have been drawn up by capillary attraction, or evolved from the surface_of the earth. It is there condensed by the snow, and returned to the earth, impregnated with its salts of lime and ammonia.— The snow is “ the poor man’s manure.” It not on- ly adds salts and geine, but prevents the escape of the last. But is it possible that it should escape in the cold? Doubtless it does when the ground is not frozen. _ ‘The snow by its warm mantle actually prevents the earth growing colder, and as has been ingeniously suggested, keeps up an imperfect vege- tation. ‘The snow thaws frozen ground. In 1791, Professor Williams found that the ground which had been frozen 6 inches in depth, before the snow fell, not only had this frost extracted in a few weeks by snow, but that the ground, 6 inches below the sur- face, had a temperature of 39 degrees. This slight elevation of temperature was enough to allow the gaseous exhalation of organic matter, which was found to exceed that of fresh fallen snow, by 20 times. This quantity in snow 3 inches deep, would give per acre 40 lbs., and to this are to be added 5 Ibs. of salts. If this geine is not a natural addition in weight, it has undergone a transformation and become soluble. Besides, every inch of fresh fal- len snow actually adds a little of this same matter ; it will not be extravagant to estimate the total addi- tion of geine at 50 lbs. per acre for the winter.— 186 | PARING AND BURNING. This added to the warming effects of snow, shows that it may have a genial and enriching power on vegetation, independent of its ammonia. The old notion of the existence of nitre in snow is not sup- ported by evidence ; but in whatever view we con- -sider the salts of lime, in snow and rain water, it is difficult to believe that carbonate of ammonia exists in atmospheric alr. 287. There are still other sources of manure, or the elements of fertility, which the farmer can com-_ mand. Among these, age paring and burning, and the ploughing i in of green, and dry crops. It is not intended to go into the detail of these operations. All experience proves their great fer- tilizing power. Their whole action, mysterious as a part of it may appear, depends for its success up- ‘on the formation of geine, salts, and silicates. And first,—burning, in which is to be considered the effects of simply burning the earthy parts of soils. In the description of silicates, Chap. I, the frequent occurrence of pyrites, or sulphuret of iron, was de- scribed, and this is especially the case in all clays. The effect of burning is, to disengage sulphurous acid, and the red and seared appearance of .the fo- liage in the neighborhood of a brick kiln, which may be often observed, is due to the disengagement of acid gases, during the process of burning the bricks. . This acid gas being liberated, in the ope- ration of burning soils, hastens the formation of sul- phates and salts. It divides the silicates, and thus reduces them to a state in which the carbonic acid of the air more easily decomposes them. If we go one step further, and burn the vegetable matter of the soil, a portion of geine is lost, and ashes are formed, whose operation has been already consider- ed, Chap. Il. They dissolve any geine in soil, GREEN AND DRY CROPS. 187 hence the practice of burning the parings of a peat meadow, whose ashes, bring the balance into culti- vation. ‘The whole practice of burning vegetable soil for its ashes,is wasteful. The original mode of paring and burning, and which forty years ago was so common in Europe, is still followed in many pla- ces in England, where the paring, from the opera- tion, is called push ploughing. It has been more often given up, from the excessive crops it has pro- duced, exhausting the soil, than any inherent sin in the practice itself. Instead of paring and burning, it should rather be called paring and roasting. The process should never go beyond a good scorching. The effects of scorching insoluble geine, and inert vegetable fibre, may be illustrated by reference to the effects of roasting coffee or rye. A tough green berry, or dry seed, which is quite insoluble, is made by this process very soluble. Toasting bread hasa like effect, and so has baking, on the dough.— Though in roasting coffee, a large portion of char- coal seems to be made, yet in the grounds of cof- fee, vegetable fibre is in that state, in which air and moisture act, as they do on the geine of soils, con- verting the insoluble into soluble. If ever decided good effects have been witnessed from the applica- tion of charcoal, independent of rain water, they are due to the cause here pointed out. 188. Turning in green crops is returning only to the soil, the salts, silicates and geine, which the plant has drawn out of it, together with all the or- ganic matter, the plant itself has elaborated, from oxygen and hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen, from whatever source derived. It has decomposed, dur- ing the short period of its growth, as has been al- ready pointed out,’more silicates and salts, than the air only, could effect during the same period, which 188 GREEN AND DRY CROPS. being turned in, restore to the soil from which they grew, Salts and silicates in a new form, whose ac- tion on vegetation is like that of alkalies. But, powerful as are the effects of green crops, plough- ed in, it is the experience of some practical men, that one crop allowed to perfect itself and then die where it grew, and then turned in dry, is superior to three turned in green. The whole result is ex- plained by the fact, that dry plants give more geine than green. Green plants ferment,—dry plants decay. A large portion escapes in fermentation as gas and more volatile products are formed, than during decay. ‘The one is a quick consuming fire, the other a slow mouldering ember, giving off dur- ing all its progress, gases, which feed plants, and decompose the silicates of soil. 289. ‘The power of fertility which exists in the silicates of soil is unlimited. An improved agricul- ture must depend upon the skill with which this power is brought into action, It can be done only by the conjunction of salts, geine and plants. Bar- ren sands are worthless, a peat bog is little better ; but a practical illustration of the principles, which have been maintained, is afforded by every sandy knoll, made fertile by spreading swamp muck upon it. This is giving geine to silicates. The very act of exposure of this swamp muck, has caused an evolution of carbonic acid gas; that decomposes the silicates of potash in the sand; that potash converts the insoluble into soluble manure, and lo! a crop. That growing crop, adds its power tothe geine. If all the long series of experiments under Von Voght, in Germany, are to be believed, confirmed as they are by repeated trials by our own agriculturists, it is not be doubted, that every inch of every sand knoll, on every farm, may be changed into a soil DECOMPOSITION OF SOIL. 189 in 13 years, of half that number of inches of good mould. 290. That the cause of fertility, is derived from the decomposing power of the geine and plants, is evident from the fact, that mere atmospheric expo- sure of rocks, enriches all soil lying near and around them. It has been thought among the inex- plicable mysteries, that the soil under an old stone- wall is richer than thata little distance from it. In- dependent of its roller action, which has compress- ed the soil and prevented the aerial escape of its geine, consider that the potash washed out of the wall has done this, and the mystery disappears. The agents to hasten this natural production of al- kali, are salts and geine. ‘The abundance of these has already been pointed out in peat manure. Next to this, dry crops ploughed in ; no matter how scanty, their volume constantly will increase, and can sup- ply the place of swamp muck. Of all soils to be cultivated, or to be restored, none are preferable to the sandy light soils. By their porousness, free access is given to the powerful effects of air. They are naturally in that state, to which trenching, draining, and subsoil ploughing are reducing the stiffer lands of England. Manure may as well be thrown into water, as on land underlaid by water. Drain this, and no matter if the upper soil be almost quicksand, manure will convert it into fertile arable land. The thin covering of mould, scarcely an inch in thickness, the product of a century may_be imitated by studying the laws of its formation. This is the work of ‘* Nature’s ’prentice hand ;”” man has long been her journeyman, and now guided by science, the farmer becomes the master workman, and may produce in one year, quite as much as the apprentice made in seven. 190 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL. CHAPTER VIII. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL. 291. In all attempts at improving soil by manure, two objects are intended, which form the golden rule of applying salts and geine ; to make “heavy land lighter, light land heavier, hot land colder, and cold land hotter.” Are there thén, notwithstanding all that has been offered and said, differences in soil? Have not, it may be asked, all the preceding pages been based on the fact, that there is but one soil? ‘True it has been so said, it is said so now. Chemically, the inorganic elements of all soil are alike. The silicates and salts are nearly the same in all; the organic portion, the geine varies, and that to a greater degree, than any other ingredient. While the silicates compose with great uniformity, from 80 to 90 per cent., and the salts of lime, sul- phate, and phosphate, from 1-2 to 3-4 per cent., the geine varies from 1 to 20 per cent. The sili- cates may be finer or coarser, more sandy or more clayey. All these circumstances, affect, not the chemical, but the physical properties of soil. The physical properties then, are the foundation of the great diversity which soil exhibits. The subject of soil, will be very imperfectly treated, if a few pa- ges are not devoted to this important subject. The physical characters of soil, are embraced under the PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL. 191 terms, cold, hot, wet, and dry land. These char- acters are dependent on four circumstances. 292. First, the absolute weight of a given bulk of soil, Secondly, its colour, Thirdly, its consistency, Fourthly, its power of retaining water. In other words, the physical characters of soil may be considered under— A First, its relation to heat, Secondly, its relation to moisture and gas, Thirdly, its consistency, Fourthly, its electrical relation. The relation to consistency makes soil light, or heavy ; the relation to heat and moisture, makes soil hot or cold, dry or wet. ‘The great natural va- rieties of soil are, sand, clay, and loam; first, the great distinction in the scale of soil, is sand and clay: all intermediate varieties proceed from mix- tures of these, with each other. Now the sand may be siliceous, or caleareous—that is, silicates, the distinguishing character of soil in this country, or mixed with a salt of lime, the feature of much European soil. By clay is meant common blue clay, or sub-silicate of alumina, consisting of alu- mina, 36; silica, 68; oxide of iron, and salts of lime, and alkalies, 6. Sandy clay is—clay and sand, equal parts. Loamy clay is—3-4 clay, and 1-4 sand. Peaty earth is—geine. Garden mould is—S8 per cent. geine. Arable land is—3 per cent. geine. Taking these several varieties, it is found, that sand is always the heaviest part of soil, whether dry or wet; clay is among the lightest part; geine has the least absolute weight, so that while a cubic . 192 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL. of sand weighs, in its common damp state, 141 lbs., clay weighs 115 lbs., and geine 81 lbs.; hence garden mould and arable soil weigh from 102 to 119 lbs. The more geine, compound soil con- tains, the lighter it is. 293. Among the most important physical char- acters of soil, is the power of retaining heat; this will be found to be nearly in proportion to its abso- lute weight. The weight of soil, determines with tolerable accuracy, its power of retaining heat. The greater the mass in a given bulk, the greater is this power. Hence sands retair heat longest, three times longer than geine, and half as long again as clay. Hence, the dryness and heat of sandy plains. Sand, clay, and peat, are to each other as 1, 2, and 3 in their power of retaining heat. But while the capacity of soil to retain heat, depends on the abso- lute weight, the power to be warmed, another very important physical character depends on four prin- cipal circumstances : first, the colour ; second, the dampness; third, the materials; fourth, the angle at which the sun’s rays fall. First colour, the blacker the colour, the easier warmed. White sand and gray, differ’almost 50 per cent., in the degree of heat acquired in a given time. As peat and the varieties of geine, are almost all of a black, or dark brown colour, it is seen how easily they may be- come warm soils, when dry; for secondly, damp- ness modifies the influence of colour, so that a dry, light colored soil will become hotter, sooner than a dark wet one. As long as evaporation goes on, a difference of 10 or 12 degrees will be found be- tween a dry and a wet soil of the same colour. Thirdly, the different materials of which soils are composed, exert but very little influence on their power of being heated by the sun’s rays. Indeed, PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL. 193 if sand, peat, clay, garden mould, all: equally dry, are sprinkled with chalk, making their surfaces all of a color, and then exposed to the sun’s rays, the differences of their temperature, will be found in- considerable. Colour and dryness then, exert a most powerful influence on the capacity of soil to be warmed. Fourthly, the last circumstance to be noticed, is the different angle at which the sun’s rays fall. The more perpendicular, the greater the heat. The ef- fect is less in proportion, as these rays by falling more slanting, spread their light out over a greater surface. But this point, which seems external to soil, need not be enlarged on. Now, the great fact to be observed, in this relation, of soil to heat is, that geine exerts the most marked influence. If soil heats quickly, it is because it has a large pro- portion of geine. Does it cool quickly? it is the geine which gives up heat quickly, referring here to the soil in a dry state, the modification produced by dampness, having been already considered. 294. The relation of soil to moisture and gas, is not less important than that of heat. All soil, except pure siliceous sands, absorb moisiure, but in differ- ent degrees. Geine possesses the greatest power of absorption, and no variety of geine equals in its absorptive power, that from animal manure. The others rank in the following order, garden mould, clay, loam, sandy clay, arable soil. ‘They all sat- urate themselves with moisture by a few days’ ex- posure. It is a very interesting question, does soil give up this absorbed water speedily and equally ? Is its power of retaining water equal? Asa general fact, it may be stated, that the soil which absorbs fastest and most, evaporates slowest and least. Geine evaporates least in a given time. The pow- 194. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL. er of evaporation, is modified by the consistence of soil ;-by a different degree of looseness or compact- ness of soil. Garden mould, for instance, dries faster than clay. As it has been already shown, that the power of being warmed is much modified by moisture, so the power of a soil to retain water makes the distinction of a hot or cold, wet or dry soil. In all the relations to moisture, as to heat, geine exercises the greatest influence. 295. Connected with this power of absorption of moisture, is the very important relation of soil to gas. All soil absorbs oxygen gas, when damp, nev- er when dry. Of the ingredients of soil, geine forms the only exception to thisrule. That absorbs oxygen, whether it be wet or dry: Geine has this power in the highest degree, clay next; frozen earths not at all. A moderate temperature increa- ses the absorption. When earths absorb oxygen, they give it up un- changed. They do not combine with it. They merely induce on the absorbed moisture, power to imbibe oxygen. But when geine absorbs oxygen, one portion of that combines with its carbon, pro- ducing carbonic acid, which decomposes silicates, and a second portion of oxygen combines with the hydrogen of the geine, and produces water. Hence, in a dry season well manured soils or those abound- ing in geine, suffer very little. The power of geine to produce water, is a circumstance of soil almost wholly overlooked. Itis one, whose high value will appear by a comparison with the quantity of water, produced by a fresh ploughed, upturned sward, with that from the same soil undisturbed. The evaporation from an acre of fresh ploughed land is equal to 950 Ibs. per hour; this is the great- est for the first and second days, ceases about the PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL. 195 fifth day, and again begins by hoeing, while at the same time the unbroken sod affords no trace of moisture. This evaporation is equal to that which follows after copious rains. ‘These are highly prac- tical facts, and teach the necessity of frequent stir- ring of soi-ina dry time. Where manure or geine is lying in the soil, the evaporation is from an acre, equal, to 5000 Ibs. per hour. At 2000 Ibs. of wa- ter per hour, the evaporation would amount in 92 days to 2,208,000 Ibs. which is nearly equal to the amount of rain which would fall in the same time in this climate. But the evaporation from wood- land actually exceeds the amount of rain which falls. The evaporation from an acre of woodland was determined by Professor Williams, (see his Hist. of Vermont, vol. I,) as follows: two leaves and a bud ofa branch of a growing maple were sealed in a bottle, while yet attached to the tree. The expired water, collected, and weighed, was found to amount in six hours to 16 grains. The tree was 8 1-2 in. in diameter, and 30 feet high. It was felled, and the leaves carefully counted, were in number, 21,192. Supposing these all to have evaporated like those in the bottle, they would have expired, in twelve hours, 339,072 grains of water. A moderate estimate, and below the usual quantity of wood per acre of similar land, gave four such trees to a rod, or 640 per acre. Estima- ting 7000 grains to a pint, 3,875 gallons of water, or 31,000 lbs. were evaporated from an acre of woodland in 12 hours. At Rutland, in Vermont, where this experiment was made, in 1789, the Professor notes, that on the 26th of May, the ma- ple leaves were 1-6 of their full size, and on the: 15th of September following, these leaves began to turn white. Throwing out the 15 days in Septem- 196 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL. ber and the 4 in May, the leaf may be considered as fully developed for three months. During these 92 days, the evaporation would have amounted, at 12 hours per day, to 2,852,000 lbs. The rain at the place during this period, was 8,333 inches or 43 4-10 of a pound to every square foot of surface, ~ equal per acre of 43,560 feet, to 1,890,504 lbs. The amount of evaporation during the time jin which the tree was in full leaf exceeds that of the actual fall of rain, by nearly 1,000,000 of lbs. This ex- cess arises from the decomposition of geine in the soil, and consequent formation of water, by the ac- tion of the living plant. If we allow the process to go on, during 15 hours per day, then in 92 days, as above, 3,565,000 lbs. of water would be evapo- rated. One may easily understand how exhausting a process must be vegetation, where every year, all above ground is cut and carried away. Not only the geine, whose carbon and water, have become parts of the plant is thus withdrawn, but a still lar- ger portion, disappears as water and carbonic acid. In forests, the annual fall of leaves and wood, in fields, the ungathered crop, may add more than the amount thus withdrawn from soil. That plants do form from carbonic acid and water,a great amount of vegetable matter, is byall admitted. ‘This amount in dry or green crops turned in, increases the geine of soil. There is yet another view of the effect of the conversion of geine into water. Allowing, as has been asserted, that all land, forest or cultivated, produces annually about the same amount of car- bon, then the amount of water, transpired above from woodland in 15 hours, is nearly equal to dis- solving one-half of the geine, to produce that amount leaving the balance to be derived from air. An PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL. 197 acre of woodland produces, it is said, annually, about 1783 English pounds of carbon. If water dissolves only — part of its weight of humus or geine, then 3,965,000 dissolve 1426 lbs., which, at 58 per cent Carvon are equal to ..".. .. . ...» 827 lbs. Leaving to be derived from air, .. . 956 lbs. 1783 lbs. This is taking geine in its most insoluble state. The great increase of solubility when combined with alkali would render the annual amount of wa- ter transpired, equal to dissolving, as geine, all the carbon which has been added to the plant. The advantage of a light porous open soil is now evident; it lets in air, it lets off steam. This steam charged with carbonic acid, acts on silicates, eliminates alkalies, waters and feeds plants. Salts, geine, and barren pine plains, are the elements of a western prairie. Nature never bestowed upon man, soil of greater capability of being made last- ingly fertile, than the sandy light soil of New Eng- land. 296. It is evident that the terms of heavy and light, given by the farmer to soil, do not refer to their absolute weight (293). These distinctions depend on firmness or consistency of soil. This produces a very marked difference in the fertility and tillage of land. ‘The terms light and heavy, mean lighter or heavier to work. It is well known clay lands are heavy to work, sandy soil is the lightest and easiest, next to this is a soil containing a small portion of geine. All light soil becomes heavy when wet, but it is a well ascertained fact, that heavy soil always becomes lighter by frost. Hence the reason of breaking up with a plough be- 198 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL. fore winter. Moist earth then becomes frozen, and its particles being driven asunder by frost, it be- comes lighter—in truth it has been found, that the consistency of clay, is diminished nearly one-half by frost, and loamy clay, one-half to two-thirds. It is essential to this change from heavy to light land, that the soil be wet enough to freeze. It is well known, that if by frost, the nature of the soil is thus changed, that if it is ploughed while wet af- ter freezing, the labor of the fall ploughing is lost. A lasting injury is done by ploughing land too wet. 297. In reference to the electrical relations of soil, the dry sands are non-conductors, the clays weak imperfect conductors, they are in the nega- tive state. Geine is always positive towards the elements of soil. 298. In whatever view we regard geine, it is the basis on which rests the whole art of agriculture. It is this which causes the great difference of soil. It is a difference of physical characters. The chemical characters are uniform. If then, geine is the soul of fertility, if it makes soil, hot, cold, wet, dry, heavy or light, the proportion in which it exists in soil, becomes an agricultural problem of the highest value. ‘This would lead to-chemical anal- ysis. The lectures in which the principles set forth in this book, were explained, terminated with a practical exhibition of the process of analysis of soil. Having already greatly exceeded the limits to which it was intended to confine these pages, the - subject of analysis, and several other topics may be resumed at some other time. APPENDIX. No. 1.—Dr. Nichols’s Statements, from the Essex County Agricultural transactions, 1839—40. To the Committee to whom was referred the communication of Andrew Nichols, on the subject of Compost Manures, §c. GenTLemenN :—Persuaded of the importance of the dis- coveries made by Dr. Samuel L. Dana, of Lowell, and given to the world through the medium of the reports of Professor Hitchcock and Rev. H. Colman, to the Legisla- ture of Massachusetts, concerning the food of vegetables, geine, and the abundance of it in peat mud, in an insolu- ble state to be sure, and in that state not readily absorbed and digested by the roots of cultivated vegetables, but rendered soluble and very easily digestible by such plants by potash, wood ashes, or other alkalies, among which is ammonia, one of the products of fermenting animal ma- nures, I resolved last year to subject his theories to the ‘test of experiment the present season. Accordingly I di- rected a quantity of black peat mud, procured by ditching for the purpose of draining and reclaiming an alder swamp, a part of which I had some years since brought into a state highly productive of the cultivated grasses, to be thrown in heaps. During the winter I also had collected in Salem, 282 bushels of unleached wood ashes, at the cost of 121-2 cents per bushel. These were sent up tomy farm, a part to spread on my black soil grass lands, and a part to be mixed with mud for my tillage land. Two hun- dred bushels of these were spread on about six acres of such grass land, while it was covered with ice and frozen hard enough to be carted over without cutting it into ruts. These lands produced from one to two tons of good mer- chantable hay to the acre, nearly double the crop produ- ced by the same lands last year. And one fact induces 200 APPENDIX. me to think, that being Supe al on the ice, as abovemen- tioned, a portion of these ashes was washed away by the spring "freshet. The fact from which I infer this, is, that a run below, over which the water coming from the mea- dow on which the largest part of these ashes were spread flows, produced more than double the quantity of hay, and that of a very superior quality to what had been ever known to grow on the same land before. Seventy bushels of these ashes, together with a quanti- ty not exceeding thirty bushels of mixed coal and wood ashes made by my kitchen and parlor fires, were mixed with my barn manure, derived from one horse kept in sta- ble during the winter months, one cow kept through the winter, and one pair of oxen employed almost daily on the road and in the woods, but fed in the barn one hundred days. This manure was never measured, but knowing how it was made, by the droppings and litter or bedding of these cattle, farmers can estimate the quantity with a good degree of correctness. These ashes and this manure were mixed with a sufficient quantity of the mud above _mentioned by forking it over three times, to manure three acres of corn and potatoes, in hills four feet by about three feet apart, giving a good shovelfull to the hill. More than two-thirds of this was grass land, which produced last year aboutshalf a ton of hay t to the acre, broken up by the plough in April. The remainder was cropped last year without being weil manured, with corn and potatoes. Gentlemen, you have seen the crop growing and matured, and I leave it to you to say whether or not the crop on this land would have been better had it been dressed with an equal quan- tity of pure, well rotted barn manure. For my own part, [ believe it would not, but that this experiment proves that peat mud thus managed, is equal if not superior to the same quantity of any other substance in common use. as a manure among us; which, if it be a fact, is a fact of immense value to the farmers of New England. By the knowledge and use of it, our comparatively barren ‘soils may be made to equal or ‘excel in productiveness the vir- gin prairies of the West. There were many hillsin which the corn first planted was destroyed by worms. A part of these were supplied with the small Canada corn, a part with beans. The whole was several times cut down by frost. The produce was three hundred bushels of ears of sound corn, two tons of pumpkins and os \ and some APPENDIX. 201 potatoes and beans. Dr. Dana, in his letter to Mr. Col- man, dated Lowell, March 6, 1839, suggests the trial of a solution of geine asa manure. His directions for prepar- ing it are as follows: ‘‘ Boil one hundred pounds of dry pulverized peat with two and a half pounds of white ash, (an article imported from England,) containing 36 to 55 per cent. of pure soda, or its equivalent in pearlash or potash, in a potash kettle, with 130 gallons of water; boil for a few hours, let it settle, and dip off the clear liquid for use. Add the same quantity of alkali and water, boil and dip off as before. The dark colored brown solution contains about half an ounce per gallon of vegetable mat- ter. It is to be applied by watering grain crops, grass lands, or any other way the farmer’s quick wit will point out.”’ In the month of June, I prepared a solution of geine, obtained not by boiling, but by steeping the mud as taken _ from the meadow, in a weak ley intubs. I did not weigh the materials, being careful only to use no more mud than the potash would render soluble. The proportion was something like this: peat 100 lbs., potash 1 lb., water 50 gallons—stirred occasionally for about a week, when the dark brown solution described by Dr. Dana, was dip- ped off and applied to some rows of corn, a _ portion ofa piece of starved barley, and a bed of onions sown on land not well prepared for that crop. The corn was a portion of a piece of manured as above mentioned. On this the benefit was not so obvious. The crop of barley on the portion watered, was more than double the quantity both in straw and grain to that on other portions of the field, the soil and treatment of which was otherwise precisely similar. The bed of onions which had been prepared by dressing it with a mixture of mud and ashes previous to the sow- ing of the seed, but which had not by harrowing been so completely pulverized, mixed and kneaded with the soil, as the cultivators of this crop deemed essential to success, consisted of three and a half square rods. The onions came up well, were well weeded, and about two bushels of fresh horse manure spread between the rows. In June, four rows were first watered with the solution of geine above described. In ten days the onions in these rows were nearly double the size of the others. All but six _ rows of the remainder were then watered. The growth of these soon outstripped the unwatered remainder. — 202 APPENDIX. Mr. Henry Gould, who manages my farm on shares, and who conducted all the foregoing experiments, with- out thinking of the importance of leaving at least one row unwatered that we might better ascertain the true effect of this management, seeing the benefit to the parts thus watered, in about a week after, treated the remainder in the same manner. The ends of some of the rows, how- ever, which did not receive the watering produced only very small onions, such as are usually thrown away as worthless by cultivators of this crop. This fact leads me to believe that if the onions had not been watered with the solution of geine, not a single bushel of a good size would have been produced on the whole piece. At any rate, it was peat or geine rendered soluble by alkali, that produced this large crop. The crop proved greater than our most sanguine ex- pectations. The onions were measured in the presence of the chairman of your committee, and making ample allowance for the tops which had not been stripped off, were adjudged equal to four bushels to the acre. In these experiments, 7 lbs. of potash which cost 7 cents a pound, bought at the retail price were used. Potash, although’ dearer than wood ashes at 124 cents per bushel, is, I think cheaper than the whitewash mentioned by Dr Dana, and sufficiently cheap to make with meadow mud, a far cheaper manure than such as is in general used among’ our farmers. The experiment satisfies me that nothing better than potash and peat can be used for most if not all our cultivated vegetables, and the economy of watering with a solution of geine, such as are cultivated in rows, [ think cannot be doubted. The reason why the corn was not very obviously benefitted, I think, must have been, that the portion of the roots to which it was applied, was , already fully supplied with nutriment out of the same kind from the peat ashes and manure put in the hill at planting. For watering rows of onions or other vegetables, I should recommend that a cask be mounted on light wheels, so set that like the drill they may run each side of the row and drop the liquid manure through a small tap hole or tub from the cask, directly upon the young plants. For preparing the liquor, I should recommend a cistern about three feet deep and as large as the object may require, formed of plank and laid on a bed of clay and surrounded © by the same, in the manner that tan vats are constructed ; APPENDIX. 203 this should occupy a warm place, exposed to the sun, near the water, and as near as these requisites permit to the tillage lands of the farm. In such a cistern in warm weather, a solution of geine may be made in large quanti- ties with little labor and without the expense of fuel, as the heat of the sun is, I think, amply sufficient for the purpose. If from further experiment it should be found economical to water grass lands and grain crops, a large cask or casks placed on wheels and drawn by oxen or horse power, the liquor from the casks being at pleasure let intoa long narrow box perforated with numerous smali holes, which would spread the same over a strip of ground, some 6,8, or 10 feet in breadth, asjit is drawn over the field in the same manner as the streets in cities are- watered in summer. ANDREW NICHOLS. I certify that I measured the piece of land mentioned in the foregoing statement, as planted with corn, on the 21st of September, 1839, and found the same to contain two acres, three quarters, thirty-one rods. Joun W. Proctor, Surveyor. Dr. Andrew Nichols’s Statement of 1840. GENTLEMEN :— Having invited the attention of the Trustees of the Essex Agricultural Society to our con- tinued use of, and experiments on, fresh meadow or peat mud, as a mauure, it is of course, expected that the re- sult of these experiments should be laid before them. The compost with which we planted most of our corn and potatoes the present year, was composed of the same ma- terials, and managed in the same manner as that which we used last year for the same purpose. Four acres of corn, on the same kind of soil, was ma- nured in the hill with this compost, and one acre of corn on a more meagre portion of the same field, was manured in the same manner, with a compost consisting of the same kind of mud, half a cord of manure taken from the “pigsty, and forty pounds of potash, second quality, dis- solved in water, sprinkled over and worked into the heap, 204 ; APPENDIX. with the fork, in the same manner that the dry ashes were into the other compost. Of both kinds the same quantity, a common iron or steel shovel full to the hill, was used, and no difference in the crop which could be ascribed to the different manures, could be perceived. The hills were four by three feet apart on an average. In the borders and adjoining this piece of corn, one acre was planted with potatoes. The compost used in some portions of this consisted of rather a larger portion of coarse barn manure composed of meadow hay, corn fod- der waste, &c., wet with urine and mixed with the drop- pings of cattle, and less meadow mud. The whole six acres was hoed twice only after the use of the cultivator. The whole amount of labor after the ground was furrowed and the compost prepared in heaps on the field, is stated by the tiller of the ground, H. L. Gould, to have been forty-nine day’s work of one man previous to the cutting of the stalks. Pumpkins, squashes, and some beans were planted among the corn. The produce was four hundred and sixty bushel baskets of sound corn, eighty bushels of potatoes, three cords of pumpkins, one and a half bushels of white beans. On one acre of the better part of the soil, harvested separately, there were one hundred and twenty baskets of corn ears, and a full proportion of the pumpkins. On one-eighth of an acre of Thorburn’s tree corn treated in the same manner as the rest, the produce was nineteen baskets. A basket of this corn shells out seventeen quarts, one quart more than a basket of the or- dinary kinds of corn. The meal for bread and puddings is of a superior quality. Could we depend upon its ri- pening, for, Thorburn’s assertions to the contrary not- withstanding, it is a late variety of corn, (though it ri- pened perfectly with us last season, a rather unusually warm and long one,) farmers would do well to culfivate it more extensively than any other kind. The use of dry ashes on our black soil grass lands showed an increased benefit from last year. But our ex- periments with liquid manure disappointed us. Hither from its not being of the requisite strength, or from the dryness of the season, or from our mistaking the effects of it last year, or from all these causes combined, the re- sults confidently anticipated, were not realized ; and from our experiments this year we have nothing to say in fa- for of its use, although we think it worthy of further ex- APPENDIX. 205 periments. On the first view of the subject, a dry season or a dry time might seem more favorable to the manifest- ations of benefit from watering plants with liquid manure, than wet seasons or times. But when we consider that when the surface of the earth is dry, the small quantity of liquid used would be arrested by the absorbing earth ere it reached the roots, and perhaps its fertilizing quali- ties changed, evaporated, or otherwise destroyed, by the greater heat to which at such times it must be exposed— it is not, I think, improbable that the different effects no- ticed in our experiments with this substance, the two past years, might be owing to this cause. It is my inten- tion, should sufficient leisure permit, to analyze the soil cultivated and the mud used, and prepare a short essay on the subject of peat mud, muck, sand, &c., as. manure, for publication in the next volume of the transactions of the society. Yours, respectfully, , ANDREW NICHOLS. Danvers, December 29, 1840. No. U—Extract from Dr. Nichols’s Letter. "Davee Jan. 28, 1842. Dear S:r:—I am sorry to say that I have no new facts to communicate. Nor have I any thing that con- tradicts my former views on the subject of peat, as ma- nure. We used it in composton about nine acres of corn and potatoes last summer, one-half of which was the same land on which it was used the preceding season. Its ef- fect seemed not to be lessened by this second trial in the same soil. The compost was as formerly composed by mixing the mud, barn manure, ashes or potash together in the field, in spring, two or three weeks before the corn was planted; in a part of it, say, the manure for two acres, about 20 lbs. of nitrate of potash were used. Wherev- er the nitre was used, worms were absent; other parts of the field were more or less injured by them. This was all the good that we could positively ascribe to the nitre. Our oils were ina most flourishing condition on the morning of the 30th of June, in the afternoon and evening 206 APPENDIX. of that day, a violent tempest and two showers of hail, blew down my barn, half my fruit trees, and prostrated and mangled the corn. I should have bargained readily with any one who would have insured me half the crop realized the preceding year from the same land and man- agement. But the healing powers of nature and genial influences of summer suns and showers, in a few days re- stored the field again to a flourishing condition. A drought more severe than that of the preceding season followed in August; and our crop of corn per acre, was about 1-4 less than the crop of that year. My farmer, H. L. Gould, from his success with the mud which you analyzed, was strongly impressed with the belief that other peat mud would not prove as good. I requested him to make an experiment, which he accordingly did, with two cart loads of peat, such as makes good fuel, taken directly from the ‘swamp, mixed with ashes, and used in the same quantity by measure, as the other compost. He planted with this four rows of corn through the piece. And, contrary to his expectations, if there was any difference, he acknowl- edged that these rows were better than the adjoining ones. The mud you analyzed, contained, you recollect, a large portion of granitic sand; this peat much less sand but more water, it being quite spongy. The same bulk, therefore, as taken from the meadow and used in our experiment would probably have weighed, when dry, not more than 1-3 or 1-4 as much as the other> The quantity of geine in the shovelful of the two kinds, varies not very much after all. Lregret that Mr Gould did not repeat his experiments with the solution of geine last sea- son. My farm is seven miles from my residence, and, like yourself I turn no furrows with my own hand, nor can I oversee in their various stages, experiments there. I suggest, advise, and leave him to execute. He found himself too much hurried with his work, to attend to this subject at the proper time. In answer to your question I say—that the solution the 2nd year was not applied to the same land, and although used in much larger quantities, it was not as strong as that used the past year. Yours, respectfully, . ANDREW NICHOLS. To S. L. Dana, M. D. APPENDIX. 207 It will be ohserved that about three cords of swamp mud and 33 bushels of ashes, have been used per acre, in 1839,.and 40 lbs. of potash in 1840. The number of hillsis 3630 per acre. Then caleulating the real potash, there were given to each hill of corn, about 1-2 pint of ashes, or 32 grains of alkali in 1839, and 45 grains in 1840. . If three cords of swamp muck, were used in 1840, about 6 oz. of dry geine have been applied per hill—the muck being like pondmud. Now 45 grains of alkaliand 6 oz, of geine, and a of a cord of pig manure per hill, have here produced effects equal to guano. No new source of ni- trogen has been opened to the corn. The effects are due then, to the alkaline action on geine, and of salts upon silicates. The failure of the solution in the second year, is probably owing to the formation of sulphuretted hydro- gen, see section (238). es No. Il.—Letter from Hon. Wm. Clark, Jr. NortHampton, 10th Fres’y, 1842. Dear Sir :— The results of the few trials I have made with alkalies to neutralize the acididity of swamp muck, have not been ascertained with that precision that is necessary to deter- mine conclusively which is best. I will, however, give | you the experiments (if they deserve the name,) as they were made, with the apparent results. The first was with fine well decomposed muck, from the swamp of which you had samples, numbered 5,6, and 7. In the spring of 1840, 16 lbs. of soda-ash or white ash, dissolved in water, were carefully mixed with two estimated tons of the muck, and the mixture applied as a top dressing for corn. Two other estimated tons of the muck were served with eight bushels of dry wood ashes, all well mixed together and spread on one side of the muck that was served with the white ash, and further on, an equal quantity of fresh barn yard manure was spread, and still further om, an equal quantity of compost, made of one part barn manure, and two parts muck, mixed and fermented before using. 208 APPENDIX. The land was a light sandy loam, on the border of a pine plain, and the whole field was treated alike in all respects, except the different kinds of manure, all of which was spread on the turned furrow, and harrowed in before planting. The corn planted where the wood ashes and muck were spread, early took precedence of all the other parcels, and continued apparently much the best through the season. Among the other parcels, no striking differ- ence in growth or yield was manifest. The whole field was harvested together without separate weight or meas- urement; and the advantage which the ashes and muck apparently gave over the others, rests (where no experi-_ ment should rest,) on the opinion of those whose attention was called to it, while the corn was growing. A similar trial of ashes and muck, and soda and muck, was made the same season on grass land; and the ad- vantage was decidedly in favor of the soda-ash and muck, as on the corn land, it was in favor of the ashes and muck. Why the soda-ash should act relatively, more favorably upon the muck spread on grass land, than when spread on corn land, Iam unable to determine, unless it be the partial shade which the grass affords to protect it from the direct rays of the sun, and measurably preserve its moisture and softness. This inference is strengthened by the fact that muck, treated as in the above cases—with soda-ash in solution,(which makes it somewhat pasty,) in the only instance I have tried it—spread on the surface of an old field, without a protecting crop, or subsequent har- rowings to cover it in the soil, became apparently sun baked so hard, as to defy, for a time at least, the soften- ing action of water. This hardening effect was not ob- served to take place with the muck treated with the dry ashes, or in the manure compost, and may have arisen from the insufficient quantity of alkali used in the case mentioned. In another case, one lb. of soda ash, and one lb. of soft soap, were mixed with four bushels of muck, and all put in a fifty gallon tub, and the tub filled with water, and left to stand five or six days, with an occasional stirring ; at the end of that period, the dark coloured water was dipped off and applied to various garden plants and yege- tables, and the tub again filled with water, and the muck stirred up, and after a day or two the water was again APPENDIX. 209 ‘ dipped off and applied as before, and the tub again filled with water. This process was continued for two or three weeks in the early part of the season, and the muck, though gradually wasting, without additional alkali, con- tinued to ferment from time to time, and yield black li- quor, to appearance nearly as rich as at first. Rapid growth of the plants, followed in all cases when it was applied, and its effect upon a lot of onions, would have been ascertained with considerable accuracy, had not a ‘hired man,” took it into his head that the few rows pur- posely left for comparison, were suffering by unwitting neglect, and gave them a “‘ double dose,’’ thereby equali- zing the growth, and sacrificing the experiment to his honest notions of fair dealing, which required that all should be treated alike. In another case, a muck compost dressing, formed by previously slacking quicklime with a strong brine of common salt, to disengage the acid of the salt, thatits soda might act on the muck when in contact, was applied asa top dressing for corn, without any percep- tible effect, perhaps for want of skill in compounding. Facts abundantly testify to the fertilizing properties of swamp muck and peat, when brought toa right state, and the subject of your enquiry, perhaps yields to no other, at the present time, in point of importance to our good old . Commonwealth. Taking your estimate of the weight of fresh dug muck or peat, and Professor Hitchcock’s esti- mate of the quantity in the state, and the saving of one cent per ton, in the expense of neutralizing its acidity, and fitting it for use in agriculture, when applied to all our swamp muck and peat, will amount to an aggregate saving to the industry of the Commonwealth, of over five anda half millionsof dollars. Is there a reasonable doubt that more than ten times this one per cent per ton will be saved over any present process, when chemistry has shed its full light on the subject ? The magnitude and importance of a small saving in this matter, must certainly have been overlooked by some who have given advice on the subject of making muck compost. Respectfully, Your most ob’t serv’t WILLIAM CLARK, Jr. S. L. Dana, M. D., Lowell. Mass. 5 aaetde pant a i sii are . Besant slaiy! rs te at WA wit “ts nt, a vy es a i 4 ‘ 4 p nt a pep yiacan as Le \ ficial rp i " i‘ ; , ay hee ie ee Le ‘ - pe Aa poi nd to aw. Sep sty Big a ssn atten INDEX. A . Section. ACETATES, fomeaanicn of, . 47 pads, 44, 52, 65 we in plants, 93, 98 s “ salts necessary to, 98 “ action of, 46, 47, 153 “ és on alkalies, . 46 “in salts, action of, 150 +h “ cause of peculiarity of action of, 145 “« difference in constitution of, 156, 157 “different strength of, 166 “rule for naming, 66 *¢ combine only in their equivalents, 58 *¢ in soil, when free, 5 162 mi:, Crenie,, > (page 79) 103 « ~~ Apocrenic, 103 a and Crenic, nitrogen in, 103 «¢ ~~ Phosphoric, 163 «« ‘Sulphuric, 153 « weak, action on sugar, (p. 77) Agriculture, ‘improvement of, mineralogy of, 37 or value of small discoveries in, 128 a relation to silicates and salts, 91 aereion Chemistry, aims of, 1 ae first principle of, 19 a ie second ‘“ 20 - “ third ;..‘¢ 29 “e fourth ‘ 75 212 INDEX. Section, Agricultural Chemistry, fifth “ , . 84 ke ee * “¢ chemical proof of, 84 * - os “ agricultural “ 85 = “ sixth ¢¢ 91 ae - seventh “ 95 ee “ eighth “ . 104 . . ninth 134 “ = rs, result of, 135 ” ws tenth“ 145 2 Geology, 2,3 Albumen, analysis of, 217 . in dung, 184, 201 Alkalies, Al i properties of, 46 vv strong resemblance in, 63 ae catalytic action of, ‘126 ee combine only in their equivalents, 58 ee sufficiency of in soil, t 7) « in soil not free, 76 effects on geine, 126, 128, 136, 142, 162 264, 276, 137 ap ~ “ cause of, 137 ee in ashes, 163 ne action of carbonates on, 159, 169 a action on vogeaee fibre, 136 2a “ connected with growth of plants, 137 - soluble, 272 4 ‘¢ — within the reach of all, 274 = other forms of cheap, 275 3 action of salt on, 275 “ stearate of, 227 “ margarate of, 227 Alkaline geates, 118, 124 - bases, 62 sed “« _ affinity of, for carbonic acid, 62 Alum, formation of, 79 om pepe geate of, 121 phosphate of, 80 ms silicate of, 48 se insolubility of, in water, 62 a quantity of, in rock, : 58 “combining weight of, 56 peculiarities of, 64 Ammonia, INDEX. in manure, in cow dung, produced yearly by one cow, the main valne of manure, catalytic action of, sources of, in proteine, in bone, in all animal matters, in peat, action of, in dung, chemical equivalent of, 213 Section. 186, equal to soda for agricultural purposes, Ammoniacal salts of urine, salts of, Animal matter, 6s 6c s A. eee of (p. 79) “¢ all affords geine, ammonia and salts, ‘¢ source of alkali for peat, ‘¢ products may be divided into two classes, ig first class of, ee second “ Animalized coal, Anthracite coal, ashes of, —— acid, ‘¢ nitrogen in, anon, action on soil, val ue of, “6 beaidacnin of, “ divisible in two parts, 74 of hard wood, analysis of, ue soluble part of, f insoluble “ ‘¢ pine, analysis of, 66 wh eat straw, “© anthracite coal, “leached, value of, cc e contents of cord of, - salts in, Atoms, combinations of, a weight, “ theory of, Mathior, not a practical farmer, 166 178 187 191 192 194 (p. 79) Z 214 INDEX. B Section. ey, limits of, . 20,28 6 cause of, 26 «temperature necessary to growth, 26 “ “ of germination, 26 Bases, alkaline, 41 “ properties of, : 62 “ “ equivalents of, 62 ee 6 action on geine, (147 “metallic, " 58 “< _ carbonates of, in ashes, 92 _ separated from the acid, 142 “of all salts, acts ever the same, 145, 152 Bones, constituents of, : 223 « bone earth in, 223 «¢ tallow in after boiling, 223 ere of crops, 287 “effects of, : 287 Carbon, chemical equivalent of, ~~). 57 “in sandy soil, : 127 “¢ sulphuret of, 65 Carbonates, 52, 159 “ of ammonia, 265 me of lime in leached ashes, 164 Carbonic acid, formation of, 57 Bs chemical equivalent of, 57 4 “« affinity for alkaline bases, 62 s “ cause of, 93, 170 6 ‘¢ absorbed by geates, 120 &s *“* action on silicates, 133, 134, 159 ¢ at 44 ‘ result of, 135 ae “in plants, 167 * “ composition of, 55 Carburets, 49 Cartilage of bone, as manure, 223 Caseine, analysis of, ‘ 217 Catalysis, action of, 137 ¢ definition of, 69 Catalytic power, 129, 140, 141, 142 Gueical equivalent, definition of, 56 a important to farmers, 58 oc formule, of proteine, 219 proportion of combination, INDEX. 215 Section. Chlorine in soil, 89 Chlorides, 170 ~ source of, 84 Chalk in eggshells, 215 ee clamshells, 215 Combining number, 55 Compost of animal matter, 167 Copperas, 170 Cotton, phosphates in, 86 Cow date, the type of manures, 179 composition of, 179 6c analysis of, 180 # value of, dependent on food, 200 - water in, 183 s general analysis of, 105, 188 “ ammonia in, 186, 107 fh ultimate analysis of, 186 ™ quantity produced by one cow, 189 ee compared with horse-dung, 284 e cost of, 276 9 from meal compared with from hay, 199 ie richer in summer than winter, 200 - action of, 201 Crenic acid, (p. 79) _ nitrogen in, a . ‘oe . Decay, definition of, 107 “© first product of, 110 ‘¢ hastened by potash and lime, 136 e c alumina, 136 - E Eggshells, lime in, 215 Elements defined, 35 es number of, 40 a atomic, 55 cd earthy and metallic, 40 - volatile and combustible, 40 . division of, 41 - ee adopted, 61 “— unequal affinity of, 54, 55 - combination of, 55 73 56 216 INDEX. Section Elements of soil, action of, 130 6 “ defined, 131 “ “two classes of, 101 66 “ first class of, 102 “ “ second * ~ 103 “ metallic, change to unmetallic, 64 “ mineral, cause of decomposition of, 137 ee number selected by plants, 87 ee wherein plants do not obey chemical laws of, 87 cc susceptibility of change, 90 - open en of, in organic parts of ot 89 - inorganic ‘ 89 tk organic, complex combination of, 99 3 inorganic, simple wha’ 99 = organic, character of, 99 ae “« _ products of decomposition of, -. a a “one constant, X 100, 101 es inorganic, : 115 e organic, of plants, 167 ce relative weight of, 55 “ of silicates, laws of combination of, 56 Epsom salts, formation of, 79 Evaporation from soil, 294 ee s woodland, 295 F Farmer, the, a chemist, 39 philosophy of, 36 ee pole-star of, 36 ec knowledge ‘of terms, 36 important fact to, 79 6 true field of action of, 103 ec first requisite of, 172 Fats, action of air on, 224 * action on silicates, 224 «< chemical composition of, 224 Feathers, analysis of, 218 Felspar, ingredients of, 60 «¢ soda in, 61 ag action of air and moisture on, 77 Fertility, what dependent on, 98, 152 Fibrine, analysis of, 217 Flowers, salts in, 86 Fruit trees, limits of, 26 INDEX. 217 G Section. Geine, researches of Mulder, (p- 76) “history of, (p. 72) “ first discovery of, * “ ~~ contents of, (p- 73) i potash in, | “ «¢ called ulmin in trees, . 74 ye same as ‘ (pp. 77, 78, 70) “constitution of, (pp. 82, 84) “ names of, p. 83 “definition of, 101, 101, 102, 106 * ~=—s- distinctions of, 103 “ essential to crops, 104 s in all forms the same, 105 “ a generic term, 105 “ described, 108, 109 + pee divided, 109 “© ~~ soluble, what dissolved by, 109 “¢ — properties of, important to the farmer, 109 «¢ passage from insoluble to soluble, 110, 113 sc affinity for alumina, lil 6 “ lime, magnesia, 111, 126 “ e oxides of iron and manganese, 112 ee uncombined, 115 “ ‘6 properties of, 160, 116, 117 ‘¢ properties of, with water, 125 «« relations to alkalies, 126, 136 “© quantity in soil, 127 es twofold action of, 136 «c cause of effect of alkalies on, 137 “sc how retained in soil, 138 “ fertility dependent on, 151 fs necessary with salts, 153 “ action of oxygenon, ~ 168 sis as required by nature, 171 ¥ in cow-dung, 185 ss formed daily by one cow, 189 + 66 66 yearly 6 6 189 ‘¢ the main agricultural value of manure, | 191 se action of, in manure, 195 “© in horse-dung, : 204 s¢ compared with glycerine, 233, 234, 235, 236 “ein spent ley, ; 238 218 reame, in peat, ce INDEX. Section. 256. in rivers at freshets, 283 intention of application of, 291 varies much in soil, 291 lightest part of soil, 292 absorption of moisture by, 294 = gas by, 295 slow evaporation of, 254 effect of conversion into water, 295 electrical relations of, 297 basis of agriculture, 298 table of composition of, 81) modifications of, (P. comparison of natural and artificial,(pp. 81, 83) (p. 85) Geates, character of, 118 * properties of, : 124 “ formation of, 136) as abundant in ‘soil, 162) ‘© action of lime on, 162) ee of lime, 118! “ ~—s of magnesia, 120) « of alumina, 121 ¢ of iron, 122) “ of manganese, 123, Geic acid, 116 Gelatin, description of, 218) " analysis of, 218) Glass, green, composition of, 71 Glauber’s salts, 170) Glycerine, 227 ee composed of, 227' os the organic part of ley, 229! - compared with geine, 233, 234, 235, 236. “ difference from geine, 236, Grain, crops of, in Massachusetts, 23) «© northern boundary of, 26 «failure of, in Iceland, 26 oe ee ee cause of, 26 ‘¢ = temperature ‘“ of germination, 26 Granite, formation of, athe. =: composed of, 71, 72 Guano, great quantity of, 211 “analyses of, 212 “ an article of commerce, 212) INDEX. 219 Section. ‘Guano, use of, 212 _ ammonia in, 212 a *. varieties of, 212 Gypsum, application of, 151 ie action of, 151 H / . Hair, analysis of, 218 Hail, fertilizing power of, 286 Hay, action of catalysis on, 184 Heat, absorbed by soils, ; 293 Hen, food of, 214 “ analysis of, 214 “ egosof, “€ 214 “© excrements of, “ 214 “ oe salts in, 21 agricultural value of, 214 Hog manure, 205 “ 66 value of, 205 Horn, analysis of, 218 Hornblende, ingredients of, 60 action of, air and moisture on, 77 Horse dung, analysis of, 203 mM «< . value compared with cow dung, 204 Hog urine, analysis of, 247 Humic acid, (pp. 75, 82) ee Flumin, Humus, (p. 75) 102 * constituents of, (p. 77) ee formation of, Humin, formula of, (p. 78) Humic acid, “ (p. 80) Humate of ammonia, (p-. 79) Hydrogen, 40 = in sandy soil, 127. : a considered as unity, 5d : “ combination of, “ 55 Be: I _ Indian corn, northern limit of, 26 eh “« temperature od germination, - 26 ~ Trrigation, 254, 279, 281, 282, 283 “ most fertile source of benefit from, 283 sc natural, 286 220° INDEX. Section. Tron, carburet of, 65 geate of, 122 “ phosphate of, 80 | *¢ silicate of, 48 ‘¢ sulphate of, formation, 79 “6 sg action, 82 “© sulphuret of, 65 6 s decomposition of, 79 *“ combining weight of, 56 Isinglass, physical properties of, 37 Isotheral line, 26 Isochimenal line, 26 Isomorphism, law of, 94 Kasimorphoys substitution, 94 « importance-of this law, 96 es a4 relates only to organic acids, 97 L Life, a catalytic power, . 139 ‘© first action of, : 171 Lime, action of, 159, 161, 162 “ aig on vegetable fibre, 160, 162 wt ec on free acids in soil, 162, 163 “¢ properties of, 160 te secretion of, 18 * in soil, 30 e sufficiency of, in soil, 75 s = not _ free 76 © combining rete of, 56 ss in dung, 192 © in eggshells, 215 “© in granite, 72 s¢ in pine plains, ) 73, 74 ss = in wheat straw, 74 s¢ = place of, may be supplied, 96 “ — corrective of too much, 124 se hastens decay, 136 s¢ misapplication of, 160, 161 sé = caustic, 62 "= - greedy of carbonic acid, 161 sc = carbonate of, 14, 45, 57 aus “ in ashes, 92, 164 = Me extent of use, 169 6s 6c in flowers and leaves, * 8&6 INDEX. 221 Section. Lime, composts of, 166 “ geates of, 118 id bd soluble, 118 6 se insoluble, 119 ‘¢ phosphate of, a7, 82 - es cause of, eS 84 ve ee - inall soil, 84 “ as in bones of graminiverous animals, 86 & ae in vegetables, 86 “ - in grain and cotton, 86 “© silicate of, : 48 “¢ sulphate of, 53, 57, 80, 82, 83 = 7 in all soil, 84 “¢ muriate of, 170 Loam, formation of, 76 sound Magnesia, 18 “s combining weight of, 56 & caustic, 62 ee may supply the place of lime, 91 e geate of, 120 phosphate of, in vegetables, 85 Ph silicate of, 48 Man, the journeyman of nature, 290 Manganese, geate of, 123 “ silicate of, 48 Manure, 172, 252 & the farmer’s first requisite, 172 6 what composed of, 172 a immense variety of, 174 86 divisible into three classes, 175 6 chiefly of the third class, 176 te standard measure of, 177, 179 &s the elements of fertility, 178 ts contents of, 178 % the type of, 179 “ * composition of, 179 & from one cow, 189, 190, 191 ¢s chief value of, 193, 194, 195, 261 $6 rich in proportion to nitrogen, 196, 261 sc what reduced to, 206 ss three varieties, different properties of, 206 ‘6 “ comparative value of 207 222 INDEX; Section, Manure, various sorts of, 208 ee eave of fowls, 213 “ “good results from use of 213 “ not containing nitrogen, 224 4 from salts only, 239 + a chiefly from liquid animal - evacuations, 239 ? of peculiar salts, 239 “ of animal acids, 239, 240 ee aac of cow, composition of, 243 + “© compared with dung, 243 “ wy «¢ quantity annually from one cow, effects of, 244 . us se of horse, 245 ce man, 248 es natural, insufficient for all, . 252 a artificial, 253 = distinction of, from animal, 253 ed = first in this elass, 254 “eg ie others “ «& 254 a green, action upon peat, 270 as = cost per cord, 274, 276 ~ s compared with cow dung, 274 a es preparation of, in best manner, 274 “ other sources of, 284 * sheep, analysis of, 205 “ ~—shog, 205 - sheep, value of, 205 Margarine, ‘ ‘227 Margaric acid, 227 Metals, 41 Mica, properties of, 37 “ ingredients of, 60 ‘¢ aetion of air and wet on, : 77 Minerals, simple, 35 a ss number of, 38, 59 oe 6c limited knowledge of, 38 © + « elements of, 39 “ us table of constitution of, 59 «e ¥ three classeswof, 60 Mould, organie elements of, acc 'e to Berzelius, (p. 81) Muck, action on sand, - 289 Mud, value of, : 258, 259 INDEX. 223 Section Mud, compared with dung, “of freshets, analysis of, 284 Muriates, ~ 170 x source of, 84 Nails, the, analysis ‘of, P 218 N ature, beneficence of, 285 Night soil, Perzession of, 205 sd nitrogen in, 205 ll 166 es action of, 167 Nitre, composition of, 168 ‘¢ one of the most active salts, 168 Nitro-humic acid, {p. 83) eeerogen: 1 in soil, 101 in sandy soil, 127 a in crenic and apocrenic pelea, 103 ae in geine, 127 6s in air, - 167 ee source of, for roots and seeds, 167 e in manure, 178 e produced yearly by one cow, 191 6c action of, 194 és the chief enriching quality in manure, 196 « the basis of ammonia, 196 * in dung, source of, 7 = in hay, what becomes of, 198 ” in horse dung, 204 & in night soil, 205 - in cow dung, 268 * distinguishing feature of organized bodies, 217 Oats, limit of, 26, 28 “ temperature of germination, _ 26 Oils, action of air on, 224 “action on silicates, 224 Oleine, 227 Oleie acid, 227 Poponie matter in cow dung, 180 a according to Morin, 181 6c 73 66 66 M. Penot, 182 “ “6 ec ultimate analysis of, 186 Oxides, metallic, 49 «¢ of iron, combining weight of, 56 224 INDEX. Section Oxides of manganese, ‘‘ 6 Oxygen, 40, 49 oe combining weight of, 56 “ in bases of organic acid salts, 98 oe in sandy soil, 127 se sade of, on geine, 168 6 silicates, pao inGae 168 “ in cnet action of, 281 P Pearlash, properties of, 46 " to be used one-half more than soda-ash, - 260 Peat, tc 254, 255 “© analysis of, ‘6 varieties of, 297 ‘6 =6water in, 259 “value of, : 259 ‘6 ashes, contents of, — 163 ‘¢ compared with cow dung, 254 * salts and geine in, 260 ‘¢ resemblance to cow dung, 260 ‘¢ ammonia in, 260 *¢ power wanting in, 261 es 6 * how to be given, 262 ‘6 addition of alkali to, 264 a quantity of alkali to hundred weight, 266 + ig cord, fresh dug, 267, 269 ie ae és “” aty, 267, 269, 271 *« dung to be added to, 270, 276 ‘¢ action of dung on, 276 boiled with alkali, 271, 272 ‘¢ mixed with spent ashes, 272 ‘6 ~within reach of all, 274 ‘¢ action of lime and salt on, 276 a ts sal ammoniac on, 276 “* converted by other sources into soluble manure, 277 *¢ » mixed with urine, 277, Bia“ “natural products in, (p. 79) ri. dung, 213 “value of, 214 Pine ashes, analysis of, 163 ‘¢ plains, lime and potash j in, 73, 74 is for food, 22 “product of, 22. INDEX. 225 Section «repay labor of cultivation, 22 “natural limit of, 24 “artificial ‘ 24 “limits of, what determined by, 25 ‘laws of distribution of, 26 “ irregularity of limits of, 26 *¢ limits of grain bearing on mountains, 28 ‘¢ earthy parts of, 39 ‘¢ not all contain same elements, 88 ‘© elements of, return to earth, 88 “always contain salts and silicates, 91 “always form acids, 93 “galvanic action of, 171 “¢ decomposing action of, 171 et Sansa principles in, 217 sed a analysis of, 217 Plaster of Paris, formation of, 79 os “¢ application of, 151 Be “ action of, 151, 170 Phosphates, 52 6 action of, 169 Phosphorus, equivalent of, 57 sas existence of, 84 Phosphoric acid, . 57 ” equivalent of, 57 Sepmarets, 49 action of air on, 78 Potash, silicate of, 48, 165 combining weight of, 56 ‘¢ solubility in water, 62 ‘“¢ caustic, 62 “ in granite, 72 ‘¢ carbonate of, in ashes, 92 “may supply the place of lime, 96 «hastens decay, 136 ‘© to be used one-half more than soda, 265 Potassium, sulphuret of, 65 Ploughing in of crops, 287 . “ — great fertilizing power of, 287 “ “green, action of, 288 “© compared with dry, 288 Potato, limits of, 26 Poudrette, 208, 209, 210 3 226 Rqudzette, composition of, ammonia in, ag peat in, c salts in, Proteine, “ description of, “ chemical formule of, 66 action of weak acid on, Quartz, formation of, “© odor produced by friction, Rain, natural irrigation, “ fertilizing power of, “© ammoniacal salts in, INDEX. Q R eo, primitive, Lad ee secondary, trappean, origin of, chemical constituents of, two great classes of, distribution of, first class of, : second chemical constitution of, ce ce fossiliferous, non-fossiliferous, cause of difference, amount of only one, in truth, not affect vegetation, what covered by, different views of, compound, composition of, number of elements in, great bulk of, enrich soil, action of, on soil, Rye, limit of, «« temperature of germination, 4 difference in, Section. 208 p. 85) 218 218 219 (p. 84) INDEX. 227 Section. S Sal ammoniac, action of, 276 Salt, action of, 149 “use of, 170 Salts, 40, 44, 45, 46, 50, 76 “ super, sub, neutral, 57 “¢ very insoluble, and abundant, 80 s¢ action on silicates, 133, 171 + “ of, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 171 S “ on of plants, 147 fertility dependent on, 151 *¢ connection with geine necessary, 154 «© action of, without geine, 155 “2 ac on soil of slate, 155 + 4 « gneiss, 155 “© excess of, the cause of barrenness, 156 “ some of better effect, than others, 156 s¢ divided into two classes, 158 “first class, three divisions, 159 “ constant in plants, 91 “© second class of, 166 “quantity of, which may be used, 169 “© two classes of, poisonous, 170 “ in cow dung, 180 ae - “© by Morin, 181 “6 ee cc M. Penot, 182 “in bushel of dung, 188 *¢ formed daily by one cow, 189 “© formed yearly by one-cow, 191 «¢ in horse dung, 204 «in night soil, 205 *¢ in excrements ofa hen, 214 “© in animal matter, 216 *¢ annually evacuated by one person, 251 ¢¢ jn urine, 243, 249 «¢ in mud and peat, 256 «sin rivers, at freshets, 283 *¢ im rain and snow, 280 * intention of application of, 291 Saltpetre, 166 ec action of, 269 6c alkali in, 269 133 Sand improved by liming, 228 INDEX. Section. Sand, composition of, 13 “¢ action of muck on, 289 ‘¢ best to restore, 290 ‘¢ heaviest part of soil, 292 Sandstone, formation of, 5 Science, definition of, 128 s application to agriculture, 128, 129 Sea eagle, excrement of, 212 Serpentine, ingredients of, 60 Seeds, heat and cold borne by, 26 Sheep, urine of, 247 Silex, 42, 48, 62, 69 “formation of, 48 “quantity of, in rock, 59 “¢ as an acid in simple minerals, 59 Silica, combining weight of, - : 56 “soluble, 70 Silicates, 40, 41, 42, 45, 46, 76 3 decomposition of, 76 c action of, carbonic acid on, 77, 131, 134, 285 og selected by plants, 87 id constant in plants, 91 - no action on each other, 131 us of soil, stationary, 132 4 of potash, 165 a action of oxygen on, 168 ae of soda in spent ashes, 273 6 unlimited fertility of, 289 ad uniformity of, 291 ee laws of combination of, 56 Silicon, 43 “ action of, with oxygen, 48 «¢ sulphuret of, 65, 83. ‘¢ properties of, 67 Silicic acid, 69, 71 Siliciurets, 49 c action of air on, 78 Slate, 5 Skin of the sole of the foot, an analysis of, 218 Snow, salts in, 286 Soil, 10 “© only one, 19 “© all primary, 20 INDEX. 229 Section. Boil, transportation of, 30, 31 chemical composition of, 32, 33 “analysis of, 33 “bulk of, 48 “ elements in, 40 “ unvarying, 58 “decay of, 76 “¢ organic parts of, 88, 89 “¢ inorganic “ 89 s 6 number of elements in, 89 “¢ organic - - 89 “inorganic, difference of, “© carbonaceous, 102 *¢ not external to plants, 140 “ decomposed by plants, 141, 147 “ result of action of carbonates on, 135 ‘6 sandy, best to restore, 290 “¢ physical properties of, 291, 298 ee Bs ce characters of, 291 oad s 5 what dependent on, 292 as 7 Wl relations of, 292 ‘6 varieties of, 292 “sand heaviest part of, 292 ‘¢ most important character of, 293 ab a * - determined by weight, 293 ‘¢ color and dryness important to, 293 “ relation to moisture and gases, 294, 295 ‘¢ fresh ploughed, evaporation of, 295 “© light, advantages of, 295 ‘6 action of cold on, 296 “¢ electrical relations of, 297 « chlorine in, 298 Soda, 42 “silicate of, 48 = as combining weight of, 56 «¢ may take the place of lime, 96 “ =muriate of, action of, 149 Soot, a powerful manure, 225 “salts in, 225 “analysis of, 225 “nitrogen in, 226 “ capital liquid manure, 226 “ good results of, in England, 226 230 INDEX. Soot of anthracite’ coal, Epent ley, salts of, ee ‘¢ alkali in, vie “ two kinds of, ee. Can, See, analysis of, ¢ 6&6 geeond 6 “9 “value of, - “ action of, “. from soda soap, imitation of, Spent ashes, composition of, Starch, converted into sugar, Stable manure, composition of, Stearine, ‘ Stearic acid, Stinchecombe farm, Sulphur, od equivalent of, Sulphates, Sulphurets, 6 action of air on, Sulphuric acid, formation of, sie “ equivalent of, Sulpho-benzoic acid, Super geates, Swamp mud, Sugar, action of weak acid on, fy Talc, ingredients of, Temperature, effects of, Theoriés, the evils of, Turf, U Ulmin, composition of, ce “ production of, «¢ _ relation to ulmic acid, “ first called geine, Ulmic acid, i ‘© = formation of, e “¢ composition of, Urea, formation of, Section. 170, 297 230 230 230 230, 233 231 232 936, 237, 238 938 (p. 139, 240, 242 INDEX. Urea, properties of, “~ composition of, oe definition of, number of, « characters “of, “ different prop’ns of combination with oxygen, “ action of air and moisture on, “« continually becoming salts, “ selected by plants, Uric acid, “« composition of, Urine of cow, composition of, “of one cow, annually, «salts in, «“ effects of watering with, “ of horse, analysis of, ae « — s-value of, «© ~human, e analysis of, compared with horse and cow, «6 varies with food, _ * action of putrefaction on, _ « mixed with peat, “ of hog, analysis of, « ‘sheep, ce oe Vv de >maian mould, = inorganic elements of, " = brown powder of, ‘ «se cc ce oe Vegetable products, two classes of, Vinegar, properties of, as action on pearlash, _ Vital principle, ’ Volcanoes, cause of, “ products of, W Water, elements of, *“¢ ~ composition of, « in plants, “© pure, action of, on land, 6c 66 air in, properties of, 231 Section. 43, 45, 58 65 66 78 79 87 243 243 243 244 245, 246 246 247 247 248 248 248, 249 250 259 277, 278 247 247 113, 114 115 115 116 220 246 246, 247 171 6 12 40 62, 55 167 280 280 232 INDEX. ei ‘¢ with air expelled, Wheat, limits of, ? «conditions necessary for, “ temperature of germination, «straw ashes, analysis of, Wood, hard, ashes, analysis of, Woodland, evaporation of, Wool, analysis of, «¢ natural soap of, for manure, ne aj = 35 to 40 per cent. of, - = ee used in France, Woollen rags, powerful manure, ms “stronger than cow dung, CORRECTIONS. Page 99, seventh line from top, after word “plant,” ‘ ii 66 6e read ‘‘ants not, they act.” 108, fourth line from top, after ‘¢ammonia,’’ read 6 but.” * fifth line from top, for ‘to be,”’ read, ‘‘zs.”’ 121, third line from top, for ‘¢ 17,” read, ‘¢71.”’ 142, read the 11th line, between the 8th and 9th. Ata meeting of the Board of Trustees of the Massa- chusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture, held 9th July, 1842 :— Voted, That Mr. Phinney be a committee, to ascertain the price of Dr. Dana’s treatise on Manures, and report his opinion of the expediency, and the best mode of dis- tributing this work for the interests of Agriculture. Ata subsequent meeting of the Trustees, on the 10t ; September, 1842, Mr. Phinney made a verbal report, com mendatory of Dr. Dana's treatise, and it was— : Voted, That the Treasurer be authorized to purchase one hundred copies of Dr. Dana's treatise on Manures, for immediate distribution ; and that Mr. Phinney, with the Secretary, be requested to take charge of the books, and of their distribution. A copy from the records. a3 BENJAMIN GUILD, Ast’nt Rec. Sec’y, of Mass. Soc, for Prom’g Agr. LRA deT 2 (a ee i in x * Lea, . € i hs p LIBRARY OF CONGRESS INUIT 00027554635