LIB RARY O F THL U N I VERS ITY or ILLl NOIS 572 no. 32,- 3 / The person charging this material is re- sponsible for its return to the hbrary from which it was withdrawn on or before the Latest Date stamped below. Theft, mutilation, and underlining of books are reasons for disciplinary action end may result in dismissal from the University. UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY AT URBANACHAMPAIGN 4AN25I973 JAN X a '- ^8197^ JAN 2 1979 APR 3 i) ;2S0 m 9 4 OCT 3 0 JUL 1 0 \m L161 — O-1096 wasBmaamm J '^ r 1MB Return this book on or be. ^ "«t Date stamped be' is made on all MUMMIES By RICHARD A. MARTIN CURATOR. NEAR EASTERN ARCHAEOLOGY Drawings by the Author CHICAGO NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM ANTHROPOLOGY LEAFLET NUMBER 36 1945 iHE LIBRARY OF THt FEB 8 1945 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA BY THE CHICAGO NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM PRESS Copyright \945 by Chicago Natural History Museum Explanation of Cover Design Anuhis, the jackal-headed god who presided over embalming, is testing the heart of the scribe, Ani, on the Great Scales. The heart, on the left pan of the scales, is balanced against a feather, symbol of righteous truth. Ibis-headed Thoth, scribe of the gods, records the result on a tablet. This scene is from the funerary papyrus {the Book of the Dead) buried with Ani at Thebes during the Eighteenth Dynasty. i The Konl rctHrnitig to the mummij in the luttil), an carved on (he black granite sarcopliayux of Pefthaukhunsu {Thirtieth Dynasty, Fourth Century B.C.). The soul is the human-headed bird. Under the leonine couch are the four Carwpic Jars tliat traditionally contained the viscera. By this late period in mummification, however, the jars were usually false, — »4he viscera having been wrapped in linen and replaced in the body cavity of the deceased. i^.^^ M ummies The ancient Egyptians believed in life after death. Contradictions, however, existed side by side in their belief regarding the afterworld. They thought that the dead lived on in the tomb. At the same time they thought of the dead as having gone to a blessed afterworld in some far-distant place. Such inconsistency did not dis- turb the Egyptians: they provided for both. In no other civilization have such elaborate preparations for the afterlife been made in the preservation of the dead. When an Egyptian was born, an invisible corporeal "twin," known as "ka," was born with him. The ka was something of a protecting genius or guardian angel, although his most useful functions were not performed during life but in the afterworld. As long as one was with his ka, he was among the living. When one lost his ka, he died. The ka did not die, but waited for the deceased in the afterworld, where the two were united to live in , happiness forever. In addition to his body and his ka, an Egyptian had a soul, which flew away at death. The soul was thought of as a human-headed bird with the face of the deceased. During life the soul had resided within the body — proba- bly in the belly or in the heart — but after death it flew freely about the world, taking refuge in the tomb at night, when evil spirits might be about. But in order to find the right tomb, it was necessary that the soul be able to recog- Amenhotep III {11^11-1375 B.C.) OS a child, with his ka, an depicted on the walls of the Temple of Luxor. nize the body from which it had come. Hence the body of the deceased was preserved in the best possible way — it was mummified. f* The word "mummy" >is not of Egyptian origin, but is derived -frem the Arabic mumiyah, which means "body preserved by wax or bitumen." This term was used because of an Arab misconception of the methods used by the Egyptians in preserving their dead. The actual process 'of embalming as practiced in ancient Egypt was governed by definite religious ritual. A period of seventy days was required for the preparation of the mummy, and each step in the procedure was co- ordinated with relevant priestly ceremonies. The embalmers' shop might be a fixed place, as in the case of those connected with the larger temples. Often, however, it was a movable one sometimes a tent — which could be set up near the home of the deceased. - Removal of those parts most subject to putrefaction was the initial step in preparing a corpse for mummifica- tion. The embalmers placed the body on a narrow, table- like stand and proceeded to their task. The brain was removed through the nostrils by means of various metal probes and hooks. Such a method necessarily reduced the brain to a fragmentary state, and, as no remains of it are associated with mummies, we may assume that it was discarded. An incision was then made in the left flank of the body to permit removal of the viscera, with 6 the exception of the heart, which was left in the body. The hver, the lungs, the stomach, and the intestines were each placed in a separate jar, the Canopic Jars (Plate 9), and consigned to the protection of a particular divinity. Next came the preservation of the body itself. This was accomplishe^Liji a manner somewhat similar to that of drying fishL/But instead of common salt, natron, a mixture of sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate, with sodium chloride (common salt) and sodium sulphate as impurities, was used. (Natron occurs in Egypt in a few places. Water containing natron in solution comes to the surface and is evaporated, leaving the natron as surface deposits.) Small parcels of natron wrapped in linen were placed inside the body. ' The outside was covered with loose natron or packages 75f linen- wrapped natron. The dry atmosphere of Egypt accelerated the desiccation process. After the body moisture had been absorbed by the natron, the packs were removed and the corpse was given a sponge bath with water. The skin was anointed with coniferous resins, and the body cavity was packed with wads of linen soaked in the same material. The body was then ready to be bound into that compact bundle we know as a mummy. LOnly linen was used in the wrapping. To give a more natural appearance, linen pads were placed in the hollows caused by the drying. The arms and legs, sometimes even Artisans at work on the coffin of Nefer-hotep, superintendent of live- stock on the estate of Amun. This scene is from a painting in the tomb of Nefer-hotep, which was built at the end of the Eighteenth Dynasty during the reign of Eye (ca. 1355 B.C.). the fingers and toes, were bandaged separately. Then some twenty or more layers of alternating shrouds and bandages were wi'apped around the entire bodyj Between every few layers of linen a coating of resin was applied as a binding agent. The proper wrapping of a mummy required several hundred square yards of linen. The shrouds were sheets six to nine feet square, and the ban- dages— strips torn from other sheets — were from two to eight inches wide and three. to twenty feet long. The linen used in wrapping mummies was for the most part not made especially for shrouds but was old household linen saved for this purpose. Often the linen is marked with the name of the former owner, faded from repeated washings. Occasionally bandages bear short religious texts written in ink. When the wrapping had been completed, the shop was cleaned, and all the embalming materials that had come in contact with the mummy were placed in jars for storage in the tomb. This was a fortunate practice, as Egyptian embalmers were none too careful, and any stray toe or ear which may have become detached or mislaid during the long embalming process was usually swept up with the spilled salt and scraps of linen and included in the storage jars. An artist painting the mummy case of Apy. Scene from the murals decorating his tomb (Thirteenth Cen- tury B.C.) at Thebes. An assistant supports the mum- my case as the artist wields his brush. Carpenters engaged in making tomb furniture. The man at the left is shaping a block of wood with an adze, and the other saws a plank tied to a post set in the ground to serve as a vise. The scene is from the painted panels decorating the tomb of two men, Apuki and Nebamun {ca. 1375 B.C.), both of whom bore the title of Superintendent of Sculpture. This tomb is unusual in that neither seemed to rank as "owner." In all proba- bility each had been in turn the husband of the same woman, who survived them both and supervised the decoration of the tomb. It might well be called "The Tomb of the Two Husbands." But the making of a corpse into a mummy was not all that took place during the seventy days. The artisans who were engaged meanwhile in all the activities essential to proper burial might number in the hundreds. The con- struction and decoration of the tomb, if not already com- pleted by the deceased during his lifetime, presented an enormous task. Woodworkers were constructing the coffin — or a series of coffins, each to fit within another — tailored to measure. Artists were busy decorating these coffins. (The fine painting on the coffins was rarely done directly on the wood, but rather on a smooth plaster coating of whiting and glue over linen glued to the wood. The beautiful colors on many cases are pigments from minerals found in Egypt, often covered with a clear varnish; Plate 1.) Countless other helpers were engaged in constructing and assembling the numerous articles to be deposited with the mummy when it was laid to rest in the tomb. An extremely important task also undertaken during the seventy days of mummification was the preparation by priests or scribes of magical texts to be placed in the tomb. These texts, now known as the "Book of the Dead," were written on papyrus rolls varying in length from a few sheets to many sheets, some rolls approaching a length of one hundred feet. Often they were exquisitely illustrated in color. The chapters forming the Book of the Dead contained informatipn necessary to the deceased in overcoming obstacles on his journey and in gaining admittance to the afterworld. An elaborate funeral procession of priests, relatives, friends, servants, and professional mourners accompanied the mummy to the tomb. Attended by priests, the mummy, in its magnificent coffin, was carried on a great sledge pulled by oxen. The mourners followed behind the sledge. In the procession, too, were porters bearing gifts to be placed in the tomb. These mortuary accouterments believed essential for a happy afterlife might be furniture, weapons, jewelry, food, linens — any or all of those things that had made for comfort and happiness in the earthly life. The^Jinal ceremony at the tomb was the "opening of the mouth." Through this ceremony the mummy was Ceremony of the "opening of the mouth" from a painting in the tomb of Roy (Nineteenth Dynasty). The mummy is supported by a priest dis- guised a^ Anubis. At the feet of the mummy kneels the lamenting widow. The Kher-heb priest reads the ritual, while the other priests perform in turn their respective roles. One holds a jar containing liquid for the initial purification of the deceased, another brandishes a rod for wafting incense, and the third bears the magic wand for "opening the mouth." In the foreground are other materials used in the ceremony. These rites were performed in front of the tomb, which is guarded by the eyes of Horus. The hills of the Nile Valley are depicted at the far right. Wailing women, sisters of Roy, complete the scene. thought to regain abihty to move, to talk, and to eat. In order to fulfill his destiny in the afterworld, it was necessary that the priests perform this last rite which would restore to him the functions of a living person. The mummy was then carried into the tomb and sealed in the outer coffin or sarcophagus. The Book of the Dead was placed near him, mortuary gifts were piled about (Plate 2), and priests in the guise of gods made sure no evil spirits lurked in the tomb. But according to Egyptian belief, interment of the mummy did not automatically insure entrance into the afterworld. The deceased had first to appear before a group of forty-two spiritual assessors and convince them that he had led a righteous life on earth." Then in a final trial before Osiris, king of the nether world, the heart of the deceased was placed on the Great Scales and balanced against a feather, symbol of righteous truth. Anubis, the jackal-headed god who presided over embalming, did the weighing, while Thoth, the ibis-headed scribe of the gods, recorded the result on a tablet. If the heart of the deceased passed this test, he was admitted into heaven. If not, his soul was doomed to roam the earth forever. The Pre-Dynastic Egyptian (before 3000 B.C.) was bur- ied in the sand, and was surrounded with pottery jars con- taining food (Plate 3). He was placed on his side in a contracted position, and was occasionally wrapped in reed matting or animal hide. Later, the dead were placed in crudely made baskets, boxes, or pottery coffins, which were buried in the sand or deposited in small natural caves^t the base of the cliffs in the Nile Valley. By 3000 B.C. A Middle Kingdom funeral procession decorating the tomb of Senet, wife of Antefoker, Vizier of Sesostris I {ca. 1925 B.C.), at Thebes. A lector, an embalmer, a representative of the king, and the divine sisters Isis and Nephthys ride the sledge. The mummiform coffin of Senet rests on an outer coffin. Immediately preceding the sledge are the officiating priests, one wearing a tiger skin and the other bearing a staff. Both the tiger skin and the staff are symbolic of the specific priestly responsibility of each. men of importance had small chambers cut for themselves in the rock, often with a shallow pit or niche to receive the coffin. From these beginnings evolved the typical Egyp- tian tomb consisting of two essential parts: the burial chamber and a room in which offerings to the dead were placed. Most impressive of all Egyptian tombs are those of the P>Tamid Age (2800 2250 B.C.). Those colossal tombs that are as famous as Egypt herself developed from a less elaborate form now called "mastaba" (from the Arabic word madabah, meaning "bench," which describes the form of the superstructure of the tomb). The mastaba tombs are low, rectangular structures of brick and stone built on bedrock. The building houses an offering cham- ber, or a series of them, and a secret room containing a statue of the deceased. A vertical shaft in the super- structure leads down into the bedrock to the tomb cham- ber some twenty to eighty feet below. The limestone walls in the offering chambers of the mastaba tombs are covered with sculptured scenes done in low relief. 12 They were originally painted, and some of the color still remains. It is from these skilfully executed scenes depict- ing contemporary Egyptian life that we derive much of our knowledge of the period. The mastaba tombs are for the most part those of nobles, the pharaohs preferring the more monumental pyramids. The great pyramids at Giza, tombs of the Fourth Dynasty kings, are by far the most imposing of the pyramid tombs (Plate 4). _ - ' The Egyptians were mummifying their dead even in the days of the pyramids. Indeed, there are mummies that antedate the pyramids. These ancient mummies are wrapped in the contracted position characteristic of Pre- Dynastic burials, whereas the mummy of the Pyramid Age lies full-length on its back, enclosed in a box-type coffin decorated to resemble a house. - --':. In the early days of mummification only the kings were definitely conceded the opportunity to attain an exalted afterlife. Religious texts to aid the dead kings in gaining entrance into heaven were carved on the stone walls of the mortuary chambers of some of the pyramids. These are now known as the "Pyramid Texts." It is on the walls of the pyramids of the Fifth and Sixth Dynasty kings at Sakkarah — smaller and less imposing pyramids than those at Giza — that these oldest collections of Egyptian reli- gious texts are found. Although nobles of the Pyramid Age were also accorded sumptuous burial, no texts are found in their tombs. 13 By the time of the Middle Kingdom (2100 -1780 B.C.), after the period of the mastabas and pyramids, tombs and their accessory chambers were usually hewn out of solid rock in the sides of the hills along the Nile. Occa- sionally, however, tombs were enclosed by or built under mortuary buildings erected on the plain. These buildings served as chapels or offering chambers. The mummy of the Middle Kingdom was placed on its left side in a rectangular wooden coffm on which was painted religious texts (Plate 5). These Coffin Texts were excerpts from the older Pyramid Texts, with the addition of new thoughts and symbols. Some mummies had a cartonnage mask over the upper portion of the body. These cartonnage coverings — layers of linen or papyrus soaked in plaster — were shaped in human form and painted. Sometimes the entire mummy was enclosed in such a covering, a practice which quickly led to the mak- ing of coffins themselves in mummy form. With the Eighteenth Dynasty (1546 1319 B.C.) the mummiform type of coffin had come into general use. The ritual texts for the deceased which had originated in the ancient Pyramid Texts had developed into the elaborate Book of the Dead, which was written on a papyrus roll and enclosed in the tomb with the mummy. Sections from this book, with exquisite illustrations in color, were painted on the coffins. A person of rank or wealth (and these went hand in hand), would have a series of two or three coffins, each case fitting inside the other, with the inner one the most elaborate. Often the outer coffin would be carved from stone in mummy form, or would consist of a huge stone sarcophagus (Plate 6). It was late in this period, when liberalization of religious concepts extended the privilege of an afterlife to those in less fortunate circumstances than kings and nobles, that beards appeared on mummy- cases. The beard, heretofore worn only by divinities and kings, indicated presumption on the part of the deceased that he would be accepted into their immortal presence. During the time of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasties the rock-cut tombs reached their zenith in the famous Tombs of the Kings in the valleys at Thebes (Plate 7). These tombs consist of corridors, chambers, and halls descending into the solid rock of the hillsides a distance of several hundred feet. The walls are covered with religious texts and scenes, and with inscriptions and pictures portraying every phase in the life of the deceased, all beautifully painted. -— ^^ Mummification practices, too, varied with the passing centuries. The use of the Canopic Jars as repositories was discontinued during the Twenty-first Dynasty (1085- 945 B.C.), and the viscera were henceforth wrapped in packages and replaced in the body or bound with it. Scenes of life after death similar to that enjoyed on earth. This carving of harvesting in the early part of the Sixth Dynasty is from the mastaba tomb at Sakkarah of Mereruka, Vizier of King Teti (ca. 2^00 B.C.). A laborer cuts the grain with a sickle. Others heap the bound grain before the threshing floor, where donkeys tread out the kernels. Two women work at winnowing the threshed grain. Such carvings are his- torically invaluable for the picture they give of life in ancient Egypt. Gifts for the tomb as sculptured on the walls of the offering chapel in the mastaba tomb of Neteruser at Sakkarah (Fifth Dynasty, ca. 2500 B.C.). Above is a slaughter scene, and at the right are porters bearing fruit, fowl, meat, bread, and vegetables. The deceased had hoped that by having such scenes inscribed on the tomb walls the articles pictured would be brought to the tomb in sufficient quantity for the perpetual maintenance of the dead in his tomb. Hollows in the desiccated body were cleverly filled out by placing pads of linen underneath the skin. From this period on, the art of making good mummies went into a gradual decline, even though mummification continued to be practiced for another fifteen hundred years. Less attention came to be paid to the condition of the body itself, and more to the external appearance of the wrap- pings (Plate 8). In Roman times (after 30 B.C.) a garish type of coffin came into use. Showy cartonnage coverings were formed and painted in fanciful likeness of the deceased (Plate 8). At the same time, coffin-makers were building coffins of simple board boxes. On the cover there might be a por- trait of the deceased or a life-sized plaster face (Plate 9). Often the plaster face, modeled after that of the deceased, was placed inside the coffin over the face of the mummy. /Quite naturally, wealth was always a dominant factor in the mummification and burial accorded an individual. Although actual Egyptian records of the cost of mummi- 16 fication are lacking, Diodorus Siculus, a Greek historian who traveled in Egypt, touches on burial costs in his writings. According to Diodorus, at the time he jour- neyed in Egypt (60-57 B.cX'there were three grades of burial. One was expensive, costing sixty-six pounds of silver (one talent), another cost a third as much (twenty minas), and the lowest grade of burial cost much less. Tombs for the common people had no chambers. The coffins were placed in walled recesses in the side of a rock or in shallow holes gouged out of the rocky plain. Mummies of the poor were placed in common repositories, either with or without coffins. The bodies of those with no money at all were given a perfunctory ceremonial cleansing, were sometimes covered with a cloth, and were buried in the sand. The Egyptians believed that a god incarnate assumed the form of an animal. Nearly every deity was associated in their minds with a certain bird or beast, so we find near the sites of ancient cities large cemeteries, often several acres in extent, devoted to the burial of animals. Usually only one kind of animal was buried in a given cemetery. Adjacent to each such cemetery was a temple devoted to the cult of the god identified with the specific kind of ani- mal buried at that place. The animals were mummified, but not always too carefully. Chief stress was laid on the bandaging, the object having been that the package 17 should clearly indicate the kind of animal enclosed (Plate 10). Often these animal mummies were placed in theriomorphic coffins. There are mummies of jackals, cats, ibises, snakes, lizards, gazelles, hawks, bulls, sheep, baboons, crocodiles — in fact, almost every conceivable kind of animal known to Egypt. At some places animal tombs such as those of the Apis bulls at Memphis are found. The tombs of the Apis bulls, which date from the Eighteenth Dynasty and later, consist of subterranean passages and vaults hewn in the rock an aggregate length of some twelve hundred feet. Many of the bulls were placed in huge stone sarcophagi. ""^ The ambition of every Egyptian was to have a well- mummified body and a perpetually cared-for tomb. The children of the deceased were charged with the mainte- nance of this home on earth and the observation of all attendant ceremonies. In the case of a favored govern- ment official a portion of the state revenue might be assigned as an endowment for the care of the tomb. As the number of deceased ancestors and officials multiplied, however, and the consequent cost of tomb maintenance became excessive, the tendency was to neglect those of the remote past and to concentrate attentions on those of the more recently deceased. Thus the living inhabitant of ancient Egypt, with all the faith he placed in the pres- ervation of his own mummy, was constantly faced with the anomaly of neglected and despoiled tombs — for tomb robbers were at work even during the days of mummi- fication. We have Egyptian papyri recording the robbery of royal tombs and the capture and punishment of the despoilers. An archaeologist rarely finds a tomb that has not been previously plundered. 18 PLATES Coffins of a Woman Named Tinto Inner and outer mummiform coffins of a woman named Tinto, Twenty-second Dynasty (Ninth Century B.C.). The smaller coffin was enclosed in the larger wooden one, which in turn was probably encased in a rectangular wooden box. The larger coffin is made of larch wood imported from Europe, excellently finished and decorated. The head and breast are painted to represent an elaborate toilet. A heavy wig, on which rests a vul- ture headdress, frames the face, and a broad collar covers the breast. The inscribed band down the center of the case is a prayer. The smaller and more colorful inner coffin is made of cartonnage, a material consisting of successive layers of linen or papyrus soaked in plaster and molded while soft. The entire case was given a coating of fine plaster, which furnished a hard, smooth surface for paint and varnish. In the making of a cartonnage case, the back and foot were left open until after insertion of the mummy. Then the back was laced shut and carefully sealed with a strip of linen, and the foot open- ing was closed by a block of wood. 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I-. 03 o £.£ =^ — x; ^ O O; 73 rv 03 = 0-2 3 *- £ tj 03 4= ^'TJ 15 13 -3 "C £ o 3 E-i o ^ m 7: -^ 03 c3 03 x: & a-^ _^ a o ■_ o -t-* C^ ti 73 03 :« Fh O '- 03 o! JZ 03 he 73 llT 03 -^ Ql »^ !* 03 73 0) O -T3 3^ bO o _3 i: a X 03 g X 1> 03 ^'03 ■ o 03 03 -Q x: £- -M 5 a o! -r: 03 03 -C bo c 3 03 3 > E-i a-c O 3 03 x: 03 x: -4^ X! O Upper: Coffin of the Middle Kingdom This rectangular wooden coffin, the type most common in the Middle Kingdom, belonged to a man named Itefib. The coffin is higher than it is wide, for during this period the mummy was laid on its left side with the face directly behind the two eyes painted on the side wall of the coffin. In this position the mummy could look out through the two painted eyes. The banded inscriptions are prayers to Osiris and Anubis on behalf of the deceased. It is on the inside wall surfaces of coffins of this type that the Coffin Texts, early forms of portions of the Book of the Dead, are written. Both box and lid are made of irregularly shaped planks joined by wooden dowels and cleats. Lower: Mummiform Coffin and X-Ray Photograph of a Child Coffin and X-ray photograph of the mummy of a boy named Pediamon, Sixth Century B.C. The poorly made and decorated case is indicative of the decline in the l)uriai arts of the time. Even the prayer down the center panel of the coffin lid was painted by an artist unskilled in writing. The X-ray photograph at the right reveals that Pediamon was seven years and six months old. The arms are missing, and both lower limbs are badly broken. Plate 5 'Mam a ■'■■■■ US'". :^.. ? ij-^i t.fl.4...'- :! V. ? U' Stone Sarcophagus Granite sarcophagus of Pefthaukhonsu, Thirtieth Dynasty (Fourth Century B.C.). The photograph shows the lid raised. The sarcophagus measures 5 by 9 feet, ample size to hold a series of wooden coffins. Incised over most of the inner and outer surfaces are graphic and textual excerpts from the Book of the Dead, inter- spersed with the many titles of Pefthaukhonsu, and assurances of the special protection of certain deities. Plate 6 C/5 0 H (J c o -4-1 u t/1 o u u C ri C ■M o .^ -^ ti O •- 1^ (i -t-> cr. O) c O rt "2 CO ~ " 3 OJ > to C o _g = "§ o g -M -^ . ij -4-1 U (1) O) 1 £ 2 § a; *-• o S, -T3 O ^ bJ) ai — - i^ O +j (D •r rj -c -2 P ^ ^ -fi >'C S fe aj oj -w o S S '" K -c O) C3 O '^ QJ C^ bfl M bi 73 a> oJ 3 a a D. ?; o a o s „ 0) aj • g - o rt CTS H ^ re 3 'j: -_- I— ( -M >» -^ J3 'o X «« g -"^' -^ ^ ^ ^ o S g ^ ca "^ ^ '^ c Q bfl ti c ^ ^ > bfl .s 5C ^ g dJ rt ^ -^ & -^ — ^ -^ ^ 15 2: .y 0, o 5 ^ -^ ^-^ - - d O a> a> 75. '5 be .S3 rt -^ - -c bO 3 ^ a o •!= c '^ C a! 03 O) C<3 O 3 bO -S cu 03 O bfl c« a^ _- ^^ **^ o o >:: o) a> c x: o H c - 0) c OJ g 2 o t-' ;£ ^ 4: — bi -^ ?: -e " 0. 1:^ O CO CO _ >..g - "£ J2 W O O! 03 X 0) c E o Oi 0) ^ 03 'T3 .2 ^ Left: Coffin of the Roman Period Cartonnage case for the mummy of a Greek lady, from the Roman period. The crude modeling and the exaggerated detail of the deco- ration are characteristic of the decadence in Egyptian burial prac- tices at this time. Right: Mummy of the Ptolemaic Period Mummy of an adult female of the Ptolemaic period (Fourth to First Century B.C.). All decoration has been centered on the carton- nage mask and chest covering. The coffin is a plain rectangular box of sycamore fig wood. Plate 8 ^ V •-■- . •vim'. K: Upper: Portrait Masks Duriiijf the lioniuii ptTiod, painted plaster masks of the deceased were often made. Sometimes these masks were placed on the lid of the coffin directly al)ove the head of the enclosed mummy. Often they were placed inside the coffin over the wrapped face of the mummy. Plaster feet and hands, too, were made and appropriately placed. Lower: Canopic Jars These are limestone Canopic Jars of the Ninth Century B.C. The viscera of the deceased were placed in these jars and consigned to the protection of the four sons of Horus, as indicated by the four heads surmounting the lids of the jars. ., The jar with the human head con- tained the liver, the jar with the ape head the lungs, the jar with the jackal head the .stomach, and the jar with the hawk head the intestines. » ■•Jars for the viscera of the deceased first appeared toward the end of the Old Kingdom. The.se first jars had plain, flat covers. No jars have been found that were made in the period immediately following, but in some parts of Egypt the viscera were wrapped and placed in compartments in a box. Later, cartonnage portrait masks were made to cover the bundles of viscera. By the Twelfth Dynasty Canopic Jars had reappeared, made with lids formed and painted as portrait heads of the deceased. It is at this time that the jars seem to have become associated with the sons of Horus. The lids carried out the conception of portraiture; three of the heads were bearded and one was beardless. Human-headed lids continued in use until the Nineteenth Dynasty, when Canopic Jars bearing the heads of the four sons of Horus came into general use. In the Twenty-first Dynasty mummification practices changed, and the viscera were packaged and replaced in the body cavity. False Canopic Jars, however — some empty, some solid jars with separate lids, and some completely solid, carved in one piece — continued in use as part of the funerary e(juipment. Canopic Jars were made of stone, wood, or pottery, and often bore carved or painted inscriptions. Frequently they were placed in four separate compartments in decorated wooden chests. Plate 9 Animal Mummies Representative animal mummies dating from the Seventh Century B.C. to the First Century a.d. Left: Crocodile. X-ray examination of this elaborately patterned package shows the complete skeleton of a young crocodile. Upper Center: Imitation cat mummy. The well-wrapped pack- age contains nothing. Lower Center: Cat. X-ray photographs of this mummy reveal the complete skeleton. Bottom: Imitation gazelle mummy. No skeletal material is found on X-ray examination. The shape of the package and the protruding^ gazelle horns identify it. Right: Wooden coffin carved in the form of an ape. Certain identification by X-ray of the enclosed mummy has not been made^ for the skull is lacking and the bandages are very dense. Plate 10 41 _ 7i c ^ o - q; a> t-. t- o . m a; ^ ^ pa ^- ii «^ c o go J2 u 0 -a c n >> B B 3 o a. a. « c a. rt fe £ -^ 'o »- o C r^ c '5 J3 Hj 7; "C c<3 73 0) t- o a; >■ 72 -C 0) & >- 72 £ c ^ a.S D. *-■ O O X *~ a^ o ^ > s >> 8 ^ 2 - -I s -^ S O) c O) c »-. O) D, I C I I C 1-, J= o t) o 0) o a a ^£ O fc- ■tJ o 2 S C *= a; -G 0) rt »- ? 0) ^ & X! 0) 5 ° 72 3 « 5 o c4 ^ O) ^ >»^ ^ Cfl (U ^ ><: .^ ^ -c .£ 9- H -M rt o ^- c o :2 "3 0 , o j= ii 13 ^^ S 1 — (D oj *-" ^ j:; o) o E-i -c CO C8 Acknowledgments The illustrations in this book are adapted from the following sources: Cover Design: Facsimile of the Papyrus of Ani in the British Museum. London: Harrison & Sons, 1894. Page 5: Sarcophagus of Pefthaukhonsu. Chicago Natural History- Museum. Page 6 : Erman, Adolph. A Handbook of Egyptian Religion. London : Archibald Constable & Co., 1907. Page 7: Davies, Norman de Garis. The Tomb of Nefer-Hotep at Thebes. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1933. Page 8: Davies, Norman de Garis, et al. Two Ramesside Tombs at Thebes. Robb De Peyster Tytus Memorial Series, vol. 5. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1927. Page 9: Davies, Norman de Garis, et al. The Tomb of Two Sculptors at Thebes. Robb De Peyster Tytus Memorial Series, vol. 4. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1925. Pages 10, 11: Wilkinson, J. Gardner. The Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians. New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1878. Pages 12, 13: Davies, Norman de Garis, et al. The Tomb of Ante- foker, Vizier of Sesostris I, and of His Wife, Senet. Published under the auspices of the Egypt Exploration Society. London: George Allen & Unwin, Ltd., 1920. Pages 14, 15: Duell, Prentice, et al. The Mastaba of Mereruka. Oriental Institute Publications, vol. 39. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1938. Pages 16, 17: Mastaba of Neteruser. Chicago Natural History Museum. Fii^yttWMHPBI I ;l 1