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oo ae sf by

atior on - Department Bulletin oN

Ses clans matter A afaie 24, ok, at a Post Office at Albany, nm Fe,
em _ under the act of July 16, 1894] . . °

yas aioe ALBANY, N.Y. OcTOBER I, I9I0

> : N ew York State Museum er
-‘Jouy M. Cuan. Director $* ane
Museum Bulletin 143
GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW. YORK ;
‘ae 5 BY j
me. Med a te fa ; ; :
‘Shy: 2ST D. H. NEWLAND - Re -
eer Y é ay Bh " 1k ‘a
Brock AND | Lo ard at
HENRY LEIGHTON | 2 af
; 5 «
PAGE PAGE une
uc 6 eee 5 | Permanence ofthegypsum supply 61 ~ Ae
iNew of the gypsum industry Methods of prospecting and ex- %
New York... c 5 eos a ee 6 ploiting the gypsum deposits.. 61
osition and characters of sap Pi .
ERS ae 8 Origin of gypsum............... 64 :
A ae .... 11 | Properties of gypsum and theory
1 geology. ‘ae oe 15 of its transformation to plasters. 71
s of the distribution of gyp- || Technology of gypsum plasters. .
‘sum in New York............. 26 BiblideraphyS devsakssaclecl.. ce
Character of the gypsum in New Ind
Y ork; chemical analyses. . eee: 50 Oe Ee abe hie, Suen Ok Wie pasion
Ree a ag . re \
| a sxsonian insej
‘| ox tug
ALBANY |

by 1910

UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Noy 4.4.
i“ Toso: Baw rr lige Kr sev)

STATE OF NEW YORK
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
Regents of the University
With years when terms expire
1913 WHITELAW Reip M.A. LL.D. D.C.L. Chanceiee New York _
1917 St Crain McKetiway M.A. LL.D.Vice Chancellor Brooklyn

1919 Danie, Beacu Ph.D. LL.D. - - — — — Watkins
1914 Puny T. Sexton LL.B. LL.D. - - - —- -— Palmyra
1912 T. GuitForp Smita M.A.C.E. LL.D. - —- — Buffalo

1918 Witiiam NottincuaM M.A. Ph.D. LL.D. —. — Syracuse
1922 CuEsTER S. Lorp M.A. LL.D. - - -— -— —- New York
1915 ALBERT VANDER VEER M.D. M.A. Ph.D. LL.D. Albany |
1911 Epwarp LaurersacH M.A. LL.D. - - - —- New York
1920 Euvcene A. Puitsin LL.B. LU.D. —- — — “New foam
1916 Lucian L. SH#ppen LL.B. LL.D. - - —- — Plattsburg
1921 Francis M. CARPENTER — -—- -— -— —- ~ -— Mount Kisco

Commissioner of Education

Anprew S. Draper LL.B. LL.D.

Assistant Commissioners
Avcustus §. Downine M.A. Pd.D. LL.D. First Asststant
Cuarves F. WHEELOCK B.S. LL.D. Second Assistant
Tuomas E. Finecan M.A. Pd.D. Third Assistant

Director of State Library

James I. WvYEr, JR, M.L.S.

Director of Science and State Museum

Joun M. Crarxe Ph.D. Sc.D. LL.D.

Chiefs of Divisions

-Administration, Georce M. Witey, B.A.

Attendance, James D. SULLIVAN

Educational Extension, WILLIAM R. EastMAN M.A. M. L.S.
Examinations, HarLAN H. Horner B.A.

Inspections, FRanK H. Woop M.A.

Law, Frank B. GiLBert B.A.

School Libraries, CHARLES E. Fitcu L.H.D.

Statistics, H1ram C. Case

Trades Schools, ARTHUR D. Dean B.S.
Visual Instruction, ALFRED W. ABRams Ph.B. /

~ New York State Education Department
Science Division, March 8, 1910

Hon. Andrew S. Draper LL.D.
Commissioner of Education

Sir: Among the more important mineral resources of this State
is gypsum. A large capital is invested in its development and its
annual production is of growing moment. The actual development
however, of this industry is far within the possibilities and it has,
therefore, seemed wise to summarize the statistics of the gypsum
industry and to indicate the lines along which its development may
be profitably prosecuted.

Accordingly I submit to you herewith a treatise on the Gy pit
Deposits of New York, which has been prepared by D. H. Newland,
Assistant State Geologist, assisted by Henry Leighton, and recom-
mend this for publicaticn as a bulletin of the State Museum.

Very respectfully
JouHN M. CLARKE
Director

State of New York

Education Department
COMMISSIONER’S ROOM

Approved for publication this oth day of March IQIO

Commissioner of Education

Education Department Bulletin

Published fortnightly by the University of the State of New York

Eatered as second-class matter June 24, 1908, at the Post Office at Albany, N. Y., under
the act of July 16, 1394

No. 480 ALBANY, N. Y. OcTOBER 1, I9I0

New York State Museum

JoHNn M. CLARKE, Director

Mus3um Bulletin 143

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK
BY
D. H. NEWLAND
AND

HENRY LEIGHTON

INTRODUCTION

Gypsum has been mined in New York for the last century. The
present development of the industry dates back, however, scarcely
more than a decade. During this interval the production has grown
to many times its former proportions, and from a relatively insig-
nificant position the State has advanced into prominence with re-
gard to both the mining and manufacture of gypsum. The basis of
this progress is supplied by great natural resources combined with
unexcelled market advantages.

The field investigations in connection with this report have ex-
tended over the whole area within which workable deposits are
known to exist. Some of the occurrences visited have not been
noted hitherto; the recent extensions of productive operations,
moreover, have permitted a more detailed study of the deposits
and their distribution than was possible a few years. ago.

Acknowledgment is due the mining companies and others for -
many courtesies received by the writers. The privilege of inspect-
ing the workings and plants was freely granted, and records. of

6 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

exploration and other information were furnished, without which
the report could not have been prepared.

The field notes have reference mainly to conditions in the sum-
mer of 1909. They were made by Mr Leighton. | |

HISTORY OF THE GYPSUM INDUSTRY IN NEW YORK —
Statistics of production

The discovery of the gypsum deposits must have been practically
coincident with the first permanent settlement of central and west-
ern New York, which followed close upon the termination of the
War of the Revolution. The earliest mention that is still a matter
of record relates to an occurrence on lot 90, Camillus township, —
Onondaga co., said to have been discovered by W. Lyndsay in 1792.
In 1808 a stock company was organized to exploit this deposit for
land plaster. The beds in Sullivan township, Madison co. were
worked during the War of 1812 and the output was shipped to the
Hudson river and as far away as Philadelphia. It appears that gyp-
sum was quarried at Union Springs as early as 1811 and by 1822
several thousand tons are reported to have been shipped each year
from that place to Pennsylvania. The sole use of the product was
as agricultural plaster.

At the time of the first geological survey (1836-41) the quarry-
ing of gypsum was actively pursued along the Salina belt from
Madison to Genesee county. The reports of that survey mention
operative quarrics in the towns of Wheatland, Leroy, Seneca Falls,
Union Springs, Phelps, Manhus, Camillus and Sullivan; and their
output was then nearly as large probably as at any time in the suc-
ceeding 50 years.

Though the deposits were under active exploitation long before
those of Michigan, Ohio and the Middle Western States had be-
come productive, they have played little part in the development
of the trade in calcined plasters or their technology. It was only
after this branch of the industry had become firmly established in >
other parts of the country and American practice had become
fairly perfected that the local deposits began to receive attention
as a source of material for calcined plaster. The first production
of plaster of paris was reported in 1892 and amounted to 75 tons.
With the successful issue of the early undertakings the natural
advantages of the State for manufacture and marketing have con-
tributed a powerful impetus to this branch of the business, which |
is now the most important of all.

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK -

The production of gypsum and gypsum plasters, so far as statis-
tics are available, is shown in the accompanying table. The figures
for the years 1889 to 1903 inclusive are taken from the annual
volumes of The Mineral Resources, while those subsequent to the
latter year are abstracted from the bulletins of the New York State
Museum. The total for 1843 is an estimate based on information
given in the early reports of Hall and Vanuxem.

While the production for the years previous to 1889 can not be
stated definitely, it is estimated that the aggregate output since the
beginning of the industry in the State has been between 4,000,000
and 5,000,000 tons. A total approximating the truth may be de-
rived by using the known figures for the period 188q—1908 and by

Production of gpysum and gypsum products in New York State

SOLD AS LUMP SOLD AS LAND ee AS CALCINED

ate GYPSUM: PLASTER PLASTER
YEAR

Short Short Short Short

ees aValue ted Value Paes Value ere Value
2 eS eee Pe CRO shee ee Mieae ee, eae elie eae osl a. x ese co ands.o) oan “od: SM ee cca Si [tas Glade are a
ees, = 5s. 5a 608)'$79 476) 2: 537) $2r 642|\ 31 071| $57 Sg4)--.-.5..f........
1890 32 903| 73 093 3 072 Pee § 2Q) SBT’ FO” BZ Stee a etege ss is book, woke.
* ee S0urast 58-571 6 730 Reagesien 22 AOS! 535° Bx eastern ce ef ce aicinace's
MI). . Ss 32 394| 61 I00 7 887 5 661} 24 407] 55 039} 75 $400
a. 5 a ae 36 126| 65 392] 10 979 8 198; 22 802] 49 221) I 813 7 973
eeeeaoe se... 31 798| 60 262} I0 554 4 885! 16 804] 36 993 | 3 33 5|> ES 384
MAG ee on ss 33587) 59 321) 12 182 6 492] 16 765| 36 664 3 480} 16 165
MRE cies 3 2s 23-325) 32 S12] 10 256 ON Ty Th TS TOOS | Me ZOLGas or wots, ial Seeercaee ee
iY ae 33 440] 78 684 5 394 3 516] 15 826] 34 368) 9 200| 40 800
“a eee ote 05514685. 965 2 243 I 353 I7 Ir2| 40 066} 9.2451 140 550
ES aa ks 3 52 149] I05 533 I goo x. O77 I3 924] 25 290| 26 443 78 566
3 a 58 890) 150 588 I 402 E222) °2r 444)- 47° 292]. 27.979) 102.774
MADEN are sis. oes BEGUSOS| 245 O60] “12 678) ro 908| 33 59I| 61 093| 55 273| 169 668
ee IIo 364] 259 170 9 153 I5 184| 25 981| 43 750| 60 184] 200 236
eee 137 886) 462 383 9 304] 15 439} 37 850| 77 392| 75 613] 369 552
MEEEAIS GS rss ISI 455|. 424 975 9 768] 14 652] 33 712) 62 438] 88 255] 347 885
OS ae I9I 860} 551 193} 27 980] 34 095] 19 815] 39 O14| 130 268] 478 084
a 262 486) 699 455| 34 626) 58 076} 20 656] 46 094] 163 451| 595 285
Oc 32g 4231.75r 556). or o60] 175 432 IS 441] 38 859] 145 684| 533 265
MOOS... s+ ss 318 046] 760 759) 95 146] 171 747 5 7r2| 14 265| 160 930} 574 757

a Value is based on the marketed products.

estimating the previous production according to reasonable aver-
ages. The estimate for the year 1843 and the reported outputs
for several years after 1889 show that until late years there was a
fairly steady market for the gypsum as land plaster material. It
is probable that the production did not average over 10,000 tons a
year previous to the opening of the Erie canal, for until then the
facilities for shipment were limited. From the year of its opening
(1826) until 1889 the average was probably about 35,000 tons. For
the period 1810-88 the production may be estimated accordingly at

8 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

2,400,000 tons, while the actual output in the period 1889-1908 has
been 2,063,995 tons. The combined total in round numbers is
4,464,000 tons.

The production and imports of gypsum for the United States
during the period 1890-1908 are given in the table herewith.

A comparison of the statistics in the two tables shows that New
York has held its place in the general industry of the country which
has increased its output over 800 per cent ‘since 1890. The local
output in 1908 was approximately 18 per cent of that recorded for
the United States in the same year. There is litthe doubt that the
use of gypsum: in this country will continue to expand during the
immediate future, though most likely at a slower rate than that
exhibited in the last few years. |

Production and imports of gypsum for the United States

PRODUCTION@ ~ IMPORTS Db
YEAR |
Short tons Value Short tons Value

BBO Ora fie east: «alae 182 995 $574 523 178 857 $229 859.
BOONE ciao ts se ee 208 126 628 o51 I1g 817 226 319
BIO) «See ati. Soe aa, Eee 256 2509 | 695 492 187 936 308 O11
BOOB: eRe ee ee 253 (615 696 615 167-663 211 924
MODM:.. Vea tee 226 312 761 719 { HOd Say 196 o60
BOOS sso weet cee 205 503 797 447 195 844 239 “B21
ESO... 2 cea eethn ote 224 254 573 344 183 561 215 526
1307 322 ee Rie koe 288 982 755 864 165 865 195 714
OOO sean ial Renee PLOW eK) 755 280 169 039 199 865
BOO’. <spoeacer -hetare un 486 235 I 287 080 199 844 230. 854
BOOO: Vnitr yee ees 594 462 I .02°74203 212 9go 249 057
EQOU 5 3c0 eke es aoa 632 “FOr r 506 641 238° 350 258 067
EQO2 Sas eps ine pee 816 478 20890345 309 O14 208 167
BOO D6 Sictak eto I O41 704 3.992) 943 269 484 324) 5ag
TOGA Shak om tiie ee 940 917 2 I as OG 207 520 332 582
POOS: Hetsnt < see T1043 202 3°29 '-227 403 IIQ | 42 weg
TOOOF sit oaks se cates I 540 585 2 837-075 440 586 487 546
EQOY wie, cuevesets See T9751, 748 4 942 264 445 890 499 930 |
EQOOS 2 ais «0: sar cues 172 826 4-130 360 302) 04 7an 327 827

a The figures of production are based on the crude gypsum, while the values are’ for the
marketable products.
b Includes crude and calcined gypsum, but not manufactured plaster of paris.

COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERS OF GYPSUM
Chemical and mineralogic characters. Gypsum is a hydrated
calcium sulfate with the formula CaSO,. 2H,O. Its ideal composi-
tion is represented by the following percentages by weight: lime

NY A NY 5

“5

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK F 9

(CaO) 32.5; sulfuric acid anhydrid (SO,;) 46.6; water (H,O)

20.9. The crystallized variety of gypsum may show a close ap-

proach to these percentages, but the ordinary rock and earthy gyp-
sum employed in the industries contains a variable proportion of
foreign matter which amounts generally to several per cent of the
whole mass.

The crystals of gypsum belong to the monoclinic system and are
usually formed by a simple combination of faces. According to
the relative development of the latter, they may be tabular or flat-
tened, prismatic, or elongated into acicular individuals. They are
sometimes twinned so as to yield arrowhead forms. The common
types of crystals are represented by the accompanying figures. The

Fic. 1 Cryst :lsof gypsum. Attherightatwinnedforn. (H. P. Whitlock, del.)

crystals are characterized by an easy cleavage parallel to the prin-

cipal plane (face 0 in figures). Thin flakes so produced are flex-

ible, but not elastic like mica to which they bear some resemblance.
If bent sharpiy they break in a diagonal direction with the produc-
tion of fibers.

The cleavage plates of gypsum can be distinguished from foliated
talc by their greater hardness, which is inferior, however, to that

_ of anhydrite or calcite. Gypsum occupies the second place in the

Mohs scale of hardness, according to which certain minerals are

_ selected as standard and numbered in order of increasing hardness

from 1 to 10. In this scale talc is 1 and calcite 3. The specific
gravity of gypsum when pure is 2.3. .

Gypsum is only slightly soluble in pure water (one part dissolv-
ing in 415 parts of water at 32°F. and in 368 parts of water at
100.4°F.) but its solubility is considerably increased in the presence
of salts of the alkalis, such as sodium and potassium chlorids. Con-
centrated acids are generally poor solvents, sulfuric having no

19 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

effect; dilute hydrochloric acid is the common solvent for labora-
tory purposes. |

Gypsum parts readily with its water of crystallization. By par-
tial dehydration it is converted into the half hydrate (CaSQO,.
¥%4H.O), which is plaster of paris. In ordinary practice of plaster
manufacture where the dehydration is performed in closed recep-
tacles, the temperature is not allowed to exceed about 400°F. If
the temperature is maintained above that point for any length of
time, complete dehydration results and the product then has the
composition of the mineral anhydrite (CaSO,). This mineral is
insoluble and useless for plaster, but the artificial product, if cer-
tain conditions are observed in burning, is capable of uniting with
water and enters into special grades of plaster. The dehydration
of gypsum can be accomplished at temperatures much lower than
those in manufacturing practice under the influence of hygroscopic
materials like concentrated acids or currents of dry air.

Varieties of gypsum. Crystallized gypsum is commonly known
as selenite. It is colorless and transparent in pure condition. It
finds limited application in optics and has been used in the past as
a substitute for glass for some purposes.

Satin spar is the name given to the fibrous variety, which is really
an aggregate of parallel or radiating acicular crystals. It ranges
from white to colorless, has a pearly luster and is often found in
veins which intersect the larger bodies of massive gypsum and its
inclosing rocks.

Rock or massive gypsum is the usual gypsum of commerce. It
is generally made up of an intricate intergrowth of small crystals.
- The white or delicately tinted variety of even texture is the ala-
baster used for sculptures and objects of art. More often the rock
gypsum has a dark color such as gray, drab, brown or nearly
black, according to the character and amount of impurities present.
These include organic matter, lime and magnesia carbonates, clay,
iron oxids and silica. The actual proportion of gypsum in rock
from different localities ranges within wide limits, from as low as
50 or 60 per cent up to 97 or 98 per cent in exceptionally pure
types.

Still another variety of gypsum, known as gypsite or gypsum
earth, is common in some parts. It is an incoherent surface de-
posit consisting of small gypsum crystals mixed with quartz, lime
carbonate and organic matter. It occurs in the Middle Western
States, where it is used to some extent for plaster manufacture, and
in Europe. . 7

GYPSUM DEPCSITS OF NEW YORK Lt

Anhydrite. This mineral is mentioned here on account of its
close relation to gypsum. It differs chemically in the absence of
any water oi crystallization and like overburned plaster lacks the
property of setting when mixed with water. If exposed to weather-
ing influences for a long time, however, it will absorb moisture and.
change to gypsum, a process that has probably taken place fre-
quently in nature. The change involves an increase of 60 per cent
in volume. The reverse reaction — the change of gypsum to anhy-
drite — may also occur under the influence of heat and pressure
superinduced for instance by the burial of gypsum beds beneath a
great thickness of overlying strata.

Anhydrite crystallizes in the orthorhombic system and cleaves in
three directions normal to each other. Cleavage fragments are thus.
rectangular. Its hardness is from 3 to 3.5, noticeably greater than
that of gypsum.

Beds of anhydrite occur frequently in association with gypsum,
as might be expected from their similar origin. From a solution of
calcium sulfate which is saturated with sodium chlorid ether anhy-
drite or gypsum may be deposited according to the temperature.’

THE USES OF GYPSUM
Crude and ground gypsum

Ornamental and building stone. Alabaster, the semitranslucent
white gypsum, which comes mostly from England, Italy and Spain,
finds a demand for ornamental uses, less in this country than
abroad. Very little gypsum is now used for ornamental or build-
ing purposes in the United States. According to the lowa Geologi-
cal Survey,’ the gypsum around Fort Dodge was quite extensively
quarried at one time for various kinds of structural work and for
sidewalks. The stone has a tendency, it is said, to bleach and crack
on the surface when exposed to the sun though it does not actually
disintegrate to any harmful extent.

Agricultural plaster. The most important use of raw gypsum
is as a soil amendment, for which purpose the rock, pure or impure
as it may be, is simply crushed and ground to a powder. The em-
ployment of land plaster is of very ancient origin, going back at
least to Roman times, and its beneficial influence has been advo-
cated repeatedly by prominent writers on agriculture. But of late

1Van’t Hoff, J. H. & Weigert, F. Sitzungsber. Akad. Berlin. rgor.
p. 1140. The deposition of anhydrite from sea water takes place at a tem-
perature of 25° C. or 70° F

fan. Rept. 895. <v: 3; pt 2, p. 293.

12 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

there is manifest a decided decrease in the land plaster industry,
which seems to indicate a growing uncertainty among agriculturists
of the positive value of gypsum as a general fertilizer. The enor-
mous development of the trade in calcined plasters, however, may
have had something to do with bringing about this decline by divert-
ing the attention of the producers to a broader, if not more re-
munerative, outlet.

The literature on the subject of land plaster is so voluminous
that it can hardly be summarized profitably in a few pages. In
fact the real action of gypsum on soils appears even now to be
little understood. Storer,! one of the more recent writers, ascribes
the effects to a combination of chemical and mechanical processes. —
According to him ground gypsum acts mechanically in flocculating
loose soils and disintegrating stiff clay soils. In a chemical way
it releases part of its oxygen to combine with nitrogenous and car-
bonaceous substances in the soil and also decomposes silicates like
feldspar, from which it sets free potassium sulfate available for
assimilation by the plant roots. The last reaction is thought to be
the more important. Aside from the possible benefit of the con-
tained lime, gypsum appears thus to add no direct fertilizing ele-
ment to land.

Gypsum in portland cement manufacture. According to E. C.
Eckel? gypsum is universally employed as a retarder in portland
cement manufactured by the rotary kiln process, such cement being
characterized by a high lime content and rapid set. From 2 to 3
per cent of gypsum is added usually to the clinker before grinding,
in order to insure thorough incorporation. Besides its function in
retarding the set of portland cement, the gypsum seems to exert+a
strengthening influence, at least in the early stages of setting. The
addition is more often made in the form of raw gypsum than as
calcined plaster, though of course the latter is more effective weight
for weight. The lower value of raw gypsum, however, more than
counterbalances the increased quantity necessary, as compared with ©
calcined plaster.

Miscellaneous uses. Raw white gypsum is ground and made
into crayons which are said to be superior in some respects to chalk
crayons. The American Crayon Co. of Sandusky, O. manufactures |
such crayons along with a variety of similar materials.

Finely ground white gypsum is sold under the name of terra
alba for various purposes. It is a common basis of cheap white

1 Chemistry of Agriculture. 1887. 1:206.
2Cements, Limes and Plasters. 1905. p. 534 et seq.

WG Aaa 55

ee a

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK 13

paints and has been found in food stuffs. Its more legitimate uses.
are in the preparation of insecticides and pharmaceutical supplies.

A peculiar use of gypsum is found in the wine-growing districts
of Spain and Greece, where it is said to be added to red wines to

hasten their ripening before bottling and to give them a more fiery

color! The process is called “plastering.” The gypsum unites
with the tartar or argol to form tartrate of lime which precipitates
and clears the wine, while the soluble potassium sulfate that is
formed reacts upon the phosphates releasing phosphoric acid which
enhances the color intensity.

The presence of small amounts of gypsum in waters used for
brewing is said to be advantageous. |

Various processes have been devised for hardening blocks of
crude gypsum so as to imitate marble and other materials. The
blocks after being dehydrated by heat so as to render them porous
are treated with chemicals such as ammonia, ammonium sulfate,
copperas etc. A cheap substitute for meerschaum is made in this
way with the use of stearic acid or paraffin.”

Uses of calcined gypsum

Molding and casting. The ordinary calcined gypsum, or plaster
of paris, has a great number of uses. A very familiar one is as a
material for making casts and molds. The value in casting objects
is due largely to its property of swelling slightly as it sets, thus
filling out the mold perfectly. The pottery industry consumes
large quantities of plaster of paris annually in the form of molds
for casting china and porcelain wares; the porous nature of such
molds is an important advantage, permitting the water of the clay
to escape.

The manufacture of plate glass likewise calls for large quantities
of plaster. The glass sheets are imbedded in the plaster during the
process of grinding and polishing. It is estimated that over 40,000
tons are consumed each year in the United States by the glass
industry. |

Building and construction. Stucco and staff are but other
names for plaster of paris; the former in its application to interior
decorations and as a white coating for wal! surfaces and the latter
to building construction and exterior decorations.

A related use of plaster of paris, first introduced in Germany but
of rapidly growing importance in this country, is in the manufac-

1 Scientific American Sup. 1907. 63 :26033.
* Mich. Geol. Sur. An. Rep’t. 1904. 9:206.

iA NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

ture of plaster boards or blocks for the construction of walls and
floors. The boards or sheets are built up in alternating layers of
plaster and some supporting material such as paper, excelsior,
fibrous talc, etc. They are nailed directly to the studdings and
joists of buildings and are then covered with a fresh coat of
plaster. Further details of their manufacture are given on page
45.

The employment of gypsum wall plasters in the place of lime
plasters has developed rapidly of late years and now represents
the most important single application of gypsum, at least in this
country. Wall plasters consist of plaster of paris and some fiber-
like hair or wood with the addition of a retarder. Their advan-
tages over lime plasters are many, including more rapid set, greater
spreading power, less shrinkage on drying, and ability to unite
with coloring agents so as to produce any desired tint. On the
other hand they are somewhat more expensive than lime and in-
ferior to it in deadening sounds. A special preparation of plaster,
glue and pigments is sold under the name of alabastine for the
tinting of walls. ne ah

The manufacture of anhydrous plasters, of which Keene’s ce-
ment and flocring plasters (“ Estrichgips” of the Germans) are
examples, is not carried on to any- extent in this country. They
are characterized by slow setting and superior hardness. Keene’s
cement, which is representative of a number of materials. sold
under special brands for hard finishing of walls, is made by cal-
cining gypsum at red heat, after which the dehydrated plaster is
immersed in a solution of alum and again ignited at high tempera-
ture. “Estrich”’ gypsum is the soluble form of artificial anhy-
drite prepared by calcination of gypsum at a temperature of about
500° C. for a period of not more than four hours. Further details
concerning these plasters are given in another chapter. |

Gypsum mortar can be made by using plaster ground to about
the size of building sand and mixing with five to eight parts of ©
water... Tests prepared with German plaster show a crushing
strength which for a number of different mixtures averages II.1
kilograms per square centimeter, higher than the results obtained
with lime mortar and exceeded only by those for cement mortar.

In mixing plaster for wall plaster or mortar it is pointed out
that the plaster should be added to the water, the lumps quickly
broken and the mass stirred as little as possible.2 The plaster

1 Scientific American Sup, 1907. 64:18.
2 Scientific American Sup. 1907. 63:26207.

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK 15

attains its greatest hardness with small amounts of water, 33 per
cent being sufficient, of which 22 per cent remains in the hardened
plaster. Plaster made with a large excess of water, as much as
200 per cent being often used, must necessarily be porous and less
coherent as the crystals are not so tightly interlaced. It is also
more absorbent of moisture and more liable to disintegration gars
change of temperature.

Other uses. Plaster of paris is also used in various printing
processes.t Gypstereotyping is the process for the production
from movable types of a solid printing plate of type metal. The

printing form to be cast is secured in a metal frame or “ chase,”
the type metal oiled and the space above it filled with plaster paste
struck off even with the upper edge of the frame. After allow-
ing it to set 15 minutes there remains a plaster mold into which
the molten type metal can be poured. ;

In galvanoplastic work plaster molds saturated with stearin or
wax and coated with graphite are used, and in rubber stamp mak-
ing the rubber substance is pressed into a plaster mold and
vulcanized. :

GENERAL GEOLOGY
Occurrence of gypsum in New York State

The workable gypsum deposits are restricted to the Salina stage
of the Upper Siluric or Ontaric system. The Salina includes also
the rock salt beds of the State and is the equivalent practically of
the Onondaga salt group as described in the early reports by Hall
and Vanuxem. According to present nomenclature it is the basal
subdivision of the Cayugan group, the uppermost of the three
groups which together constitute the Upper Siluric succession in
this region.

The Salina strata occupy two main areas within the State. The
larger area contains the original sections which have become the
types for comparison, and is the more impcrtant from an economic
standpoint. It is represented by a belt that extends with uninter-
rupted continuity from Albany county on the east through central
and western New York to the Niagara river and thence into the
Province of Ontario. Its approximate limits are shown on the
sketch map [pl. 1].

The belt terminates within or near the town of Knox, Albany
co. by the thinning out of the strata, which in this part consist of
only a few feet of shale. From Albany county westward the Sa-

Scientific American Sup.. ‘1907. ~63:26033.

—
’ “”

15 _ .. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

lina beds follow the range of hills that borders the Mohawk valley
on the south, their outcrop being at first weil up the slopes and
at a distance cf about 15 miles from the river itself. They parallel
the Mohawk as far as Oneida county, where, owing to increased
thickness of the members and the flatter topography, they begin
to spread out so as to occupy a surface from 1 to 3 miles wide.
Their course thus far is quite sinuous due to the numerous deep
north and south valleys tributary to the Mohawk which produce
long upstream deflections. Beyond Oneida county their outcrop
rapidly broadens; it is about 12 miles wide at the west end of

Oneida lake and fully 20 miles on the line of Cayuga lake where

it attains the maximum width for the State. The outcrop in west-
ern New York is more regular, maintaining an average of from
7 to 10 miles and running almost in a straight line parallel to the
shore of Lake Ontario. a:

The Salina of this area is mainly a shale formation. The other
elements are gypsum which occurs in the upper shale beds; salt
near the middle of the section; and an impure limestone which
forms a thin capping to the shale in the central and western parts
and discontinuous bands within the shale itself. The great mass
of shale, except for a few feet at the base, is devoid of fossils;
therefore, in subdividing the Salina, use is made of these elements
which have a fairly constant horizon. The detailed stratigraphy
of this belt will be discussed later under a separate head.

The second area within which the Salina beds appear is in south-
eastern New York and here they show a quite different develop-
ment. They are found in two principal belts, one of which begins

in Ulster county near the Hudson and follows the Shawangunk

mountain uplift in a southwesterly direction across the State line
into New Jersey and the other is in Orange county beginning near
Cornwall and running parallel to the first along the Skunnemunk
ridge. It may be remarked that the true sequence of the strata

in this region has only recently been_established. Our knowledge —

of the wide development which the Salina here shows has come
largely through the work of C. A. Hartnagel’ whose conclusions
derived from stratigraphic evidences have been fully confirmed by
study of newly discovered fossil-bearing sections. The main mem-
bers of the Salina are conglomerate at the base, shale and sand-

1 Notes on the Siluric or Ontaric Section of Eastern New Vork. Ne Y.
State Pal. An. Rep’t. . 1903. p. 342 et seq. Also Upper Siluric and Lower
Devonic Sections of the Skunnemunk Mountain Region. N. Y. State Mus.

Bul. 107. 1907. P=39 et seq.

4

A mS ST ne a a = - a ed

EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
JOHN M. CLARKE
STATE GHOLOGIST

UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK

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DISTRIBUTION OF SALINA STRATA

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GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK L7

stone, with some limestone at the top. The conglomerate is the
well known Shawangunk grit which was formerly regarded as the
equivalent of the Oneida conglomerate of central New York. The
shales (High Falls) are a minor feature of the northern sections
of the area, though they gain in strength progressively toward.
the south and on the New Jersey border have a thickness of sev-
eral hundreds of feet, so as to predominate over the other members.
They are of reddish color, pyritic, and in places graduate upward
into sandstone. With their exception, the strata of the region pre-
sent a coarser phase of sedimentation than that inherent to the
Salina of the type localities.

The variation in the character and sequence of the strata com-
posing the two areas is explainable by their accumulation in
scparate basins which received land drainage from different parts
of the Siluric continent. This condition is indicated by the
diagram [fig. 2] which shows the relations of the Upper Siluric
formations of central New York. The Salina beds of this

region were deposited in the interior or Mississippian sea which

received the drainege from the continental lands to the north. To
the east the sea was shut.off from the Atlantic basin by a barrier
of Lower Siluric and earlier formations which extended along the
Appalachian protaxis and which had been augmented just previous
to the opening of Upper Siluric time by the Taconic uplift. Dur-
ing the whole of the Salina age there seems to have been no free
communication between the two basins, so that the sediments
formed on the Atlantic side of the barrier must have come from
the adjacent Appalachian highland. The detritus was brought down
to the sea probably by short swift streams: whereas in the inte-
rior basin there was a much more gradual slope from the Adiron-
dack and Canadian highlands owing to the existence of a wide
coastal plain that had been in process of construction from the
early Paleozoic times, and the slower moving tributary rivers were

able to transport only the finer materials to their outlets.

From these considerations, it is apparent that the geographic
features which were conducive to the deposition of salt and gyp-
sum in the first region may have been wholly wanting in the other.
The available evidences are, however, scarcely sufficient to warrant
the assumption that these minerals do not occur in southeastern
New York. The Salina of this region has been so recently recog-
nized that little attention has been given to its exploration and
the descriptions are based wholly on surface exposures. It is

IS | NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

highly improbable that any valuable deposits occur in the northern
sections, where conglomerates and sandstones are the prevailing
strata. If present at all, they will be found in the extreme south-
ern part near the: New Jersey border, in association with the
shales which, as before stated, are here much thicker and even be-
come the predominant member of the series.

In so far as the climatic factor may be concerned in the forma-
tion of the salt and gypsum, conditions must have been very simi-
lar in the two regions. The long continued concentration of the
_ Salina seas by evaporation was widespread throughout the north-
eastern section of the interior basin as shown by the occurrence of
one or both minerals in the Salina of Ontario, Ohio and Michigan,

and there is no reason for believing that the climate was essentially —
less arid or otherwise different in the nearby part of the Atlantic

basin, especially as the intervening barrier had undergone steady
submergence during the epoch and was to disappear wholly before
the close of Siluric time.

The colors of the strata in both regions are very similar. Deep
red shales which some geologists regard as indicative of arid cli- .

matic conditions are a prominent feature of the sections in south-
ern Orange county as well as of the Lower Salina of central New
York.

Salina stratigraphy

The Salina stage as developed in central New York is divisible
into five parts. The different members are seldom sharply de-
limited by physical features and owing to the scarcity of fossils
throughout the beds their demarcation on the map is only possible
in a general way. ‘They are usually connected by zones cf grada-
tion; or sometimes the transition from one member to another is
marked by a sequence of alternating layers. The latter is the con-

dition, for example, of the passage from the waterlime that caps

the formation, to the underlying shale.

The full series is found only in the part of the belt that lies west

of Madison county. To the east they overlap wpon the lower
formations and gradually thin out to disappearance. The general

relations of the members are shown in the accompanying diagram

[fig. 2].

Bertie waterlime. This is an argillaceous, more or less magne-

sian limestone which forms the top member of the Salina stage. It
is a persistent formation of quite uniform character. It extends
from the Province of Ontario, where the type locality is found,

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GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK

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20 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

eastward as far as Schoharie county. In field exploration it serves
as a very useful indicator, since the gypsum horizon lies just below,
in the shales. 3 7

The limestone carries an eurypterid fauna which is also pe
teristic of the Pittsford shale at the base of the Salina. The inter-—
vening beds, however, are almost devoid of fossil remains, due
undoubtedly to the unfavorable conditions for life that prevailed in
the highly saline waters in which they were laid down. A common
physical feature of the limestone is conditioned by the presence of ©
numerous small cavities, which may so abound as to lend the ap-
pearance of a porous lava or slag. The cavities or cells are rounded
or irregular in shape, sometimes elongated like worm.tubes, and
are frequently lined with a caicareous deposit. The structure was
considered by some of the early writers to be of organic nature and
the limestone was commonly designated the Vermicular limerock.
This view of the origin of the celis was controverted by Vanuxem
who pointed out the fact that they are often accompanied by hopper-
shaped casts and impressions that have the clear outlines of rock
salt crystals. There is little doubt but that they are due to the
former presence of rock salt deposited with the limestone and after-
ward dissolved away. .

The limestone possesses fyiradhe stanCEees and has been burned
for hydraulic cement.. The natural cement industry which was car- —
ried on for many years at Buffalo and Akron made use of this
limestone which was employed to some extent also by the plants —
in Onondaga county. Its thickness varies from 60 feet in Canada
and 50 feet in Erie county to 10 feet or less in eastern New York.

Camillus shale. Underneath the waterlime occurs a bed of soft
shale, containing intercalated layers of magnesian limestone. The
workable gypsum beds are found in this shale, at varying horizons, ~
but mainly near the top. The color of the shale is commonly drab-
or gray with variations to olive-green and sometimes red. There
are no fossils, except one or two species found in the intercalated
limestones. :

The thickness of the shale, together with the gypsum beds, aver-
ages perhaps 300 feet in the central part. Its outcrop is usually
found just north of the line of ridges (known as the Helderberg
escarpment in the eastern part of the State) formed by the great
beds of overlying limestone and spreads out as a flat more or less
swampy surface, physically continuous with the area of the Vernon
shales. In the centrai section the outcrop is .2 or 3 miles wide.

The gypsum deposits are seamed more or less with shale which

GYPSUM DEPCSITS OF NEW YORK Zi

divides them into separate beds, though there is little regularity in
the number or thickness of the beds from place to place. The shale
intercalations range ail the way from mere films to layers several
feet thick. While the main body of gypsum is usually found near
the top of the Camillus shale, in some places directly beneath the
waterlime, there are noduies, veins and layers of gypsum distrib-
uted all through the mass.

The limestone layers accompanying the shale represent transition
stages toward the Bertie waterlime and are more abundant in the
upper part. They show the same porous structure and hopper-
shaped casts due to halite and contain varying percentages of
magnesia. They are inclined to be more argillaceous than the char-
acteristic waterlime, as might be expected, and on that account dis-
integrate rapidly when exposed to the weather.

The whole body of shale is impregnated more or less with lime
and is often called marl in the reports of James Hall. The lime,
however, is not of organic origin, but a precipitate probably from
infiltering waters subsequent to the consolidation of the beds.

Syracuse salt. This is a very variable member composed of alter-
nating beds of rock salt and shale, occupying a position between the
Camillus and Vernon shales. There is no definite plane of demar-
cation at the top or bottom, and some geologists consider it a part
of the Vernon shale rather than an independent unit, inasmuch
as the presence of rock salt constitutes the only criterion for its _
_ recognition. Even that feature does not hold along the outcrop, for
_ the salt has been removed in solution wherever the covering is less
than about 1000 feet thick.

From the records of deep wells, the salt horizon is recognizable
in the Salina from Madison county westward to Erie county. At
Morrisville, Madison co. a single bed of salt about 12 feet thick
occurs. In Onondaga county there are as many as four beds of
salt separated by shale and the extreme thickness of the salt and
included rock is not less than 300 feet. At Ithaca seven beds of
salt aggregating 248 feet and six beds of included shale witha total
thickness of 222 feet are shown in a well record. In the Genesee
valley, at the Retsof mine, the salt beds include 15 feet of rock and
measure altogether 124 feet. In the Oatka valley of Genesee county
the salt-bearing strata are from 100 to 135 feet thick. In Erie
’ county they appear to range between 100 and 200 feet thick.
1The data relating to the thickness of the salt deposits are taken from

Luther’s ‘‘ Geology of the Salt District.” N. Y. State Mus. An: Rep’t 50,
Vv. 2. 1896. ~

22 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Vernon shale. The thickest member of the Salina beds is the
Vernon shale’ It is a soft shale which by its usual deep red color
can be distinguished more or less readily from the shales above the
salt horizon. The strong ferric-oxid color is particularly prevalent
in the eastern section where the beds can be traced across the
country by the red, greasy clays that result from their decomposi- —
tion. In the western part they are banded with greenish and gray-
ish layers and bear some resemblance to the Medina shales. They
are exposed from Herkimer county westward across Oneida, Mad-—
~ ison, Onondaga and Cayuga counties, but beyond the Genesee river
are generally buried under the drift, and as their color is no longer
uniform, their line of outcrop is not so readily determined in that
part. Thin layers of limestone also appear in the western counties,
as shown in well sections. : |

The thickness of the Vernon shale reaches a maximum in Onon-
daga and Cayuga counties, where it probably averages about 500
feet. At Syracuse the salt well section shows 525 feet. Toward
the east the shale thins rather rapidly and apparently disappears
entirely in Herkimer county. Westward its thickness also dimin=
ishes, but from the information afforded by the few wells that have —
penetrated the Salina the shale seems to persist as far as Erie ©
county at least. At Gardenville, in that county, a well record shows
200 feet of shale below the salt horizon. Most of the salt wells
and shafts do not go below the lowest salt, though in one well at
Warsaw the shale has been penetrated for a little over 100 feet. ©

The absence of any extensive deposits of gypsum in the Vernon
shale is a noticeable feature, and one which seems to detract from
the validity of the usually accepted view that the salt and gypsum
beds are due to evaporation of sea water. If the sea during Siluric
times approximated in composition the ocean of the present day as
regards saline constituerits — and the evidences strongly indicate a
similarity of conditions — there should be a considerable deposit of —
gypsum below the salt beds. It is fairly certain, however, that the ©
salt and gypsum do occur in their normal order. In some of the
deep wells, as for instance at Attica and Aurora; gypsum was found
below the salt, while there may be a large amount of gypsum in
the aggregate disseminated through the mass of the Vernon shale,
as has been suggested by Hartnagel.’. It can only be said that the
conditions generally were less favorable for the deposition of large
and continuous beds of gypsum in the Vernon shale than later in

1 Geologic Map of Rochester and Ontario Beach Quadrangles. N. Y.
state Mus. Bul: 114. ). 1997. p. 30. ;

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK 23

the period represented by the Camillus shale. This may have been
due to the influx of fresh waters at frequent intervals, to which the
great body of silt may be attributed.

Pittsford shale. In a few localities, the base of the Salina
series is marked by a bed of dark shale which rests upon the Lock-
port dolomite. Though of no great thickness, the bed is given an
independent position in the stratigraphic column on account of its
fauna, most interesting of which are the eurypterids, found also in
the Bertie waterlime. The Pittsford shale is a local phase of the
Salina, first recognized a few years since from exposures at Pitts-
ford near Rochester.

General structure of the Salina beds

The Salina strata which outcrop from Albany county to the
Niagara river have been little disturbed since their emergence from
the sea. They are nowhere involved in local folds and if at all
_ faulted the displacement must be so slight as to escape general ob-
servation. They dip uniformly toward the south, the direction rang-
ing from due south to a few degrees east or west of south.

Within the central and western parts their inclination averages
about 40 or 50 feet to the mile, or roundly 1 foot in 100. This is
probably no. more than the slope of the sea floor on which they
were laid down. In the eastern section the dip 1s somewhat higher,
owing to the fact that the beds here experience in some measure
the influence of the Appalachian disturbance, which came at the
close of the Paleozoic era.

If the whole belt be considered as a unit it becomes apparent that
the uplift has been accompanied by a certain amount of differential
movement. This is wel] shown by a comparison of altitudes at dif-
ferent places along the outcrop. The following approximate ele-
vations have reference to the outcrop of the gypsum beds in central
and western New York. The localities are given in order from west
to east.

LOCALITY ALTITUDE
Feet

a ICL ee Meet i Ain ne 640
0) te an bwin hans 735
I ORTOR OG id bie like esi e vee dale eect 570
RE RU a 560
NT it ho hai, ha wd ae wok kau eswvadacveedes 500
Tg Sh Oe ee ae a ae 400
MTG CAVES CO... 56 neces ke evs cee eee pee ee ened 460
TESS Ss tp Ue ig 600
Beeesville, ONC aga CO hepa e kk. es Rete oo: aN ut 580
SEER UINI PS 00. (asp eos Oe wala ee vac haces ev eveans - 640

Sutitic, Madison CO...... cscs: eccvavnaeces ere gant mom 650

24 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

In tracing the beds farther east, the gypsum disse as a.
prominent feature, but the top of the Salina is found at about goo —
feet at Clinton, Oneida co. and between 1400 and 1500 feet in Her-
kimer county. Beyond Herkimer county the elevation drops off
rather rapidly so that in Schoharie county the single member of the |
series outcrops at about 600 feet. |

The lowest point of outcrop is nearly on line with Cayuga lake
where the belt is widest. There is a rise of about 300 feet between
that point and Genesee county and of over 1000 feet in the interval
between Cayuga lake and southern Herkimer county. The main
part of the belt has thus the structure of a broad shallow syncline —
with an axis running north and south and with its eastern wing ~
rising well above the western.

Nature of the gypsum deposits

The gypsum forms regularly stratified beds which are usually
heavy and range from several inches to 5 feet or so thick. The
impure argillaceous gypsum is, however, rather thinly bedded, thein- —
dividual layers being separated by shale intercalations. The strata are —
not, of course, absolutely continuous along the Salina belt, but have —
the shape of elongated lenses which succeed each other along the
strike and dip, perhaps after intervals occupied only by the accom- —
panying shale and limestone. The workable deposits are thus sepa- —
rated into more or less well defined areas, on the borders of which —
the gypsum diminishes or entirely disappears.

The lenticular form of the deposits is well illustrated by the area
near Akron which has been fairly well delimited by exploration —
underground and by numerous test holes [see map facing p. 50].
The bed averages about 4 feet thick and extends for nearly 2 miles
in an east-west direction before it thins out. On the north or out-
crop side it apparently diminishes very slightly and then terminates
abruptly, a feature which is due probably to removal of the gypsum
by erosion. The extension of the bed on the dip has not been thor-_
oughly explored, though the available evidences indicate a 2 gradual a
thinning in that direction.

In surface exposures the beds may exhibit Toda modifications of
the lenticular form. Several occurrences illustrative of such irregu-
larities have been described and sketched by Hall! with considerabie
detail. Two of his sketches are reproduced herewith [fig. 3, 4].
In explanation of the features shown in figure 4, Hall expresses the

1 Survey of the Fourth Geological District. 1843. p. 119 et seq.

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK 25

opinion that they are attributable to the removal by underground
waters of the shale along the contact which has caused it to subside
and to fill in the hollows between the gypsum masses. He does not
give, however, any explicit reasons for the peculiar shapes assumed
by the gypsum and one might even conclude that he considered
such masses to occur very generally throughout the Salina belt.
The significance of these irregular discontinuous deposits has been
misinterpreted in some descriptions, owing. to which the sedimentary
origin of the gypsum seems to have been seriously questioned by
geologists. There can be no reason to doubt that they are of super-
ficial distribution and represent the remnants of former lenses of
normal type partly dissolved away by ground waters. If followed
along the dip of the strata, they would be found probably to lose
their irregular form and merge into the usual bedded deposits. The
solvent effect of ground waters upon the gypsum is shown in numer-
ous places on the outcrop; the joint and bedding surfaces are often
deeply pitted, and secondary veins of gypsum may be observed ex-
tending into the shales.

Fic. 3 Irregular bodies of gypsum resulting from solution of a once continuous bed.
(After Hall)

ee _

UM

i ae -
HUTT l MATT TT
a UTE TANCE

——o

Fic: 4 Bed of gypsum partly dissolved away. (After Hall)

26 j NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

DETAILS OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF GYPSUM IN NEW YORK: WITH
DESCRIPTION OF MINES, QUARRIES AND MANUFACTURING

PLANTS
Herkimer county

The most easterly occurrence of gypsum that was ever worked
commercially is a deposit in southeastern Herkimer county. It was
discovered previous to 1837 in an adit run into the hillside on the
James Crill farm in the western part of Starke township. The open-—
ing was intended to explore a supposed silver vein. The gypsum
is said to have been found in a roundish mass and to have had a>
white color. Some 20 or 30 tons were removed by Mr Crill.
Present interest is chiefly connected with its situation so far east ©
and with the fact that it is described by Vanuxem as occurring in
a white sandstone of Clinton age which at this point immediately
underlies the Camillus shale and can be seen in outcrop a little
north of the opening. It seems probable that the deposit is of sec-
ondary character, derived from scattered inclusions of gypsum in
the shale above. . .

Oneida county

The Salina shales have a small areal distribution in Oneida
county and there are no records to show that gypsum has ever been
worked within its limits, though the occurrence of small deposits
seems very likely, specially toward the western boundary of the
county in Vernon, Augusta and Kirkland townships.

Madison county

~ The gypsum beds of Madison county, so far as known, all le near

the upper or southern part of the Salina outcrop in a belt running
east and west across the northern portion of the county. The town-
ships included are Lenox, Oneida, Lincoln, Sullivan, with a pos-
sible occurrence in the valley regions of northern Cazenovia, Fen-~
ner, Smithfield and Stockbridge townships. |

The gypsum occurs in the form of lenses, pockets, or irregular
masses in the Upper Salina shales, frequently immediately underly-
ing beds of waterlime. The pockets are rarely very extensive, sel-
dom exceeding 25 feet in length and a depth of Io or 20 feet.

The gypsum consists of a mixture of clear selenite plates and a
loose, earthy, dark colored mass consisting of clay and organic
material. The selenite plates are rarely larger than 2 or 3 inches
~ across and are so intermingled with the earth as to make the mass
friable and easy of extraction. The clear, pure, nature of the

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK 27

selenite gives to the beds an appearance of high quality which is
at once dispelled by a glance at the analysis below which is based
on an average sample taken from a 50-ton lot from the bed of
Mr Duane Clock at Clockville, and analyzed by Prof. F. E.
Englehardt.

EINE. STIR) a Te oN ee hee ee See 70.6421
mE erase (CACAO) Vir ive me Seah as ies Sete Aa Re es 6.9073
Seema ecarponate(MgCO ). 8.2. 2. ne ee he teen te 7.1891
Iron oxid (Fe.O, )....--. Sip ae conc hy ED Sy SNE ie ERAT 4.9200
Semin oxid (Al.Q, ).)°

CRIs: Yahi cr ta A LR ee as 2 ai 5 9000
AN PAR I 7. . S ee S S eG ee Ee ee 4.4415

The quarrying and grinding of gypsum for agricultural uses have
been carried on in the county from early times. In the first part
of the 19th century it was a much more important industry than
now. Some of the quarries then in operation were those of Cobb,
Merrill and Wright along Cowaselon creek in the town of Lincoln
(formerly Lenox): those of Judge Seeler and Mr Lawrence on
Clockville creek; and the old Sullivan bed to the east and north of
Ohittenango which was worked during the Revolution and its
plaster shipped as far as Philadelphia. Also the Van Valkenburgh
quarry south of Chittenango, Bull’s and Brown’s quarries between
Sullivan and Clockville, and doubtless many others were in opera-
tion about 1840. In recent years pockets of gypsum have also been
worked intermittently at Hobokenville, where is situated the Tuttle
quarry and mill, and about 1 mile south of Cottons where the mill
and quarry owned by R. D. Button are located.

The gypsum bed at Clockville, now owned by Duane Clock, is as
favorably situated as any in the county for extraction and shipment.
The bed, some 100 feet long and 5 to 7 feet thick, outcrops along
the Elmira, Cortland and Northern Railroad about %4 mile north-
east of the Clockville station, 200 feet north of the railroad bridge
crossing the creek. Another bed outcrops just south of the bridge
while the surrounding hills contain numerous other deposits. The
gypsum is the typical friable admixture of selenite and impure gyp-
seous clay. It is underlain by Salina shales and overlain by clay.
It contains on the average about 70 to 75 per cent gypsum and can
be easily and cheaply mined and loaded directly on cars.

About 5 miles farther west are gypsum beds owned by Cyrus
Worlock and R. D. Button which are of similar character and are
also easily accessible. Other deposits are found near the Erie canal,
such as those between Chittenango and Sullivan. They are in many

28 ; ~NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

cases very heavily topped with a shale and limestone cap which —

must be stripped in quarrying, since it appears too badly broken up

to allow tunneling methods. |
Owing to their somewhat irregular character and to their rela-

tively low percentage of gypsum, the more inaccessible deposits in

this region have little present value, while even the more favorably —

situated and larger lenses are of limited utility.

Onondaga county . a
The Salina shales outcrop in Onondaga county in an east-west
belt varying in width from 10 to 12 miles. The lower beds, known
as the Vernon red shales, outcrop in the northern portion in Ly-
sander, Van Buren, Clay, Salina, Cicero and Manlius townships.
They are described by Luther’ as including many layers of green
shales and mottled red and green shales. “ The red color is, how-
ever, very pronounced, a strong brick-red; the green is a light but
~ generally distinct pea-green. Some of the upper layers near the
contact line are olive. Red is the predominating color in the lower
beds, and green toward the top. The shale is very soft and clayey,
crumbling into dust on exposure, if dry, or turning to clay, if wet.
Some of the green and olive layers are fissile to a slight degree.”
Overlying these shales and outcropping to the south are a series |
of peculiar, cellular, broken limestones containing hopper- shaped
cavities, seams and irregular cavities. These are accompanied by
dark gypsiferous or olive colored shales. This is supposed to be
the horizon of the salt beds of the State and at the surface, along
the outcrop, numerous salt springs were once abundant. Above this
horizon and to the south lie the gypsum or Camillus shales. They —
occupy a belt 214 to 3 miles in width and are bounded on the south ~
by the ridge which is a prolongation of the Helderberg escarpment. |
They also extend in long tongues to the south through the escarp-
ment in the valleys of Limestone, Butternut, Onondaga, Marcellus —
and Skaneateles creeks. The gypsum series consists of gray, drab
or mottled shales with interstratified layers of fine-grained platten —
dolomite, and contains many thick beds of grayish to black gypsum —
and gypsiferous shale. Between the two chief gypsum masses, —
according to Luther,? there lies a 40 to 50 foot course of dolomite
or clayey limestone, containing numerous cells and cavities and
formerly known as “vermicular limerock.” The gypsum beds-

1N, Y. State Geol Rept 15.1808. 1-250:
? Ibid. p. 264.

GYPSUM LEPOSITS CF NEW YORK 29

seem to be most persistent where overlain by the escarpment of |
Bertie waterlime, Cobleskill, Manlius and Onondaga limestones and
for this reason are found mainly in the low hills capped by these
limestones and along the stream valleys cutting through the a
ment.

The beds of massive gray gypsum occur beneath pal hills be-
tween Fayetteville and Jamesville. The first area is a series of

wooded hills ranging in hight from 40 to 100 feet. These lie 2

miles southwest of Fayetteville or 1 mile south or southeast of
Lyndon, a station on the trolley line. They are capped by Helder-
berg limestone and the gypsum beds outcrop on the sides of the
hills, forming a*belt around each hill. The capping of resistant
limestone seems to have served as a protection against the removal
of the gypsum by percolating waters.

Clifford Miller quarry. This quarry is situated 1 mile directly
south of Lyndon, to the east of the road. It has been worked from
early times. It is also known as the Heard or Severance quarry.
The gypsum bed is about 60 feet thick and consists of a number of
alternating layers, varying in purity, color and grain, the individual
layers having local names such as the “ cap rock,” the “ 9-foot,”’ the
“t1-toot,” etc. They range in color from very light drab in the
cap rock to dark or almost black, and at times have a brownish
color from the presence of iron. Despite its varied appearance the
rock runs rather uniform in gypsum, and no attempt is made to
sort the material in the quarry operations.

The gypsum here is overlain by 2 feet of marlite or weathered
shale, followed by 5 feet of thinly bedded blue limestones (Bertie)
then 15 or 20 feet of massive porous Cobleskill limestone full of
cavities, with a varying thickness of glacial drift and soil as capping
to the whole. The heavy mass of overburden becomes more trou-

_ blesome as the quarry is carried farther into the hill and the strip-
_ ping problem becomes a difficult one. The overlying marlite is

usually blasted out until, by caving, the whole overburden falls into

the quarry excavation and work is resumed on the new face of

gypsum. Both hand and machine drills are employed. Black pow-

_ der is used in blasting. The broken gypsum is loaded by hand into

large 20-ton side dump wagons which are drawn from the quarry
_by a traction: engine a distance of over 2 miles to the canal. The

_ grade is mostly downhill and the road is in good condition. The
. installation of traction haulage is a new feature in the district and

seems to be giving satisfaction. At the canal dock, the rock is
dumped down a small embankment, and from there loaded by six

Kio) NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ~

men into a steel bucket which is swung by a boom derrick to the ©
canal boat and dumped. The gypsum is all shipped in crude state ©
to Mr Miller’s plant in New York city where plasters of various’
kinds are made.

Quarry of the National Wall Plaster Co. This quarry is situ- —
ated south and west of the Miller quarry on the same knoll. The
gypsum bed is continuous with that in the Miller quarry but is not
quite so thick. The property includes about 15 acres underlain —
with gypsum. Quarrying is carried on intermittently and at present —
no work is being done. The overburden is similar to that of the
other quarry but stripping is accomplished by excavating the gyp-
sum in such a way as to undercut the limestone beds and the latter
are then allowed to fall into the vacant space. The rock was for- ©
merly hauled to the canal and to the mill but the latter now stands
idle. The equipment of the mill consists of a Sturtevant jaw crusher,
a set of Hoagland rolls, Cummer kiln and cooling bin, two 1o-ton
kettles, and a buhrstone mill. The rock was first crushed, then
passed through the Hoagland rolls which reduced it to the size of —
corn. A large quantity of it was shipped in that state to cement
manufacturers. Some of this crushed rock was passed through the
Cummer kiln at a temperature of 340° and shipped without grind-
ing. Some was also ground in the buhrstone mill and calcined in
the kettles. The future of this company is still an unsettled —
question. 3 |

Quarries at Fayetteville. To the east of these quarries are
those of H. H. Lansing, now idle; and also idle quarries formerly
owned by the Adamant Wail Plaster Co. and C. A. Snooks, buy
now controlled by Clifford Miller. a

Large amounts of a similar grade of gypsum are found in all of -
these quarries and extending into the several hills. What is most
needed at present is an outlet for shipping, such as would be fur-—
nished by a railway switch now being contemplated, or by aerial
tramways or bucket carriers to the railroad or the canal. Another
improved method, not yet introduced in the region, is mining by
means of adit tunnels driven into the hillsides. This would obviate
the necessity of closing down in bad weather and would do away
with the expense now incurred in stripping. 1

At Fayetteville there are mills owned by Bangs & Gaynor and
F. W. Sheedy. Each is equipped with jaw crusher, nipper and
buhrstone mills, and grind gypsum. Their mineral is purchased |
from the neighboring quarries. The ground gypsum is sold as land
plaster or to fertilizer companies.

IN 143 PLATE 2

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LIST OF WORKINGS

1. Quarry,
2. Dock,
Clifford Miller Co.

ce Quarry,
4. Mill,
National Wall Plaster Co.

Zo 5-8, 13-15. Abandoned workings,

g. Mill,
T. W. Sheedy

1o. Mill,

Bangs & Gaynor
11. Mine
16. Mill,

Thomas Millen Co.
12. Mine
17. Mill,

E. B. Alvord Co.

UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK

CATION DEPARTMENT
OHN M. CLARKE STATE MUSEUM BULLETIN 143 PLATE 2
STATE GEOLOGIST zs =

1
Manhus Station, A

=

LIST OF WORKINGS

. Quarry,
. Dock,
Clifford Miller Co.

Abandoned workings.

. Mill,
T. W. Sheedy

. Mill,
Bangs & Gaynor

. Mine

. Mill,
Thomas Millen Co.

. Mine

. Mill,
E. B. Alvord Co.

loa.
NY

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KEEL FAM Pa Pte)

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK 31

Quarries at Jamesville. The second area in which active opera-
tions have been conducted is 2 miles north of Jamesville and east
of the road leading to Dewitt (Orville). As in the other quarries
the gypsum outcrops on the slope of a hill capped with Helderberg
limestones. The north and west faces of this hill are abrupt slopes

of which the lower portion is gypsum.

~ The quarry of Thomas Millen Co. is situated about 14 mile east

_of Reals station on the Jamesville trolley road. The gypsum is very
similar to the Lyndon product and occurs in the same manner. It
averages about 30 feet in thickness and is overlain by 50 feet of
limestone. Until two years ago quarrying was carried on in the
usual manner, but now the gypsum is excavated underground by
means of a tunnel driven along a 6-foot layer of the best rock. In
the fall of 1908 the workings extended 150 feet into the hill and
100 feet to the west. Much timbering is needed. The rock is
drilled by electric drills, and the mine equipped with electric lights.
The broken rock is loaded into I-ton side dump metal cars which
are hauled by wire cable from the working face to the entrance
and up an inclined trestle, the cable being operated by a small engine
and drum. Owing to the grade of the tunnel, the cars return to
the face by gravity. From the cars the rock is dumped directly
into 3-ton wagons and hauled by a team to the mill. The mill is
situated about % mile north of Jamesville station, on the Delaware,
Lackawanna & Western Railroad. No plaster of paris is made, the
rock being shipped crude or after a preliminary crushing in a But-
terworth & Lowe jaw crusher.

One half mile east of Millen’s mine, on the same escarpment,
is the mine of E. B. Alvord & Co. The gypsum is overlain by a
few feet of thin shale, 15 feet of massive limestone and 20 feet of
thinly bedded limestones. The company has recently begun mining
the rock by means of a tunnel driven in an old quarry. A 5-foot
layer is worked. The mine is lighted by electricity and the drills
operated by the same power. No mine cars or track are used, but
the wagons and horses are driven directly into the mines and to
the working face. This necessitates wide gangways and large
rooms, but no trouble is experienced with the roof. The mill of
this company is situated at Jamesville, across the river from the
post office. The power is furnished by a 7o-horsepower turbine
and the equipment consists of a jaw crusher, cracker and buhr-
stone mill as well as an unused kettle. The rock is sold crude, or
with only preliminary crushing, to cement factories, or is ground in
the buhrstone mill and sold as land plaster.

32 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The gypsum bed appears at several places around the western
flank of the hill where there are abandoned quarries, and in an

abandoned tunnel near Fiddler’s Green, a station on _ the Jamesville

trolley line. :

The close proximity of the railroad to this area is a jena that
should bring about its greater development. The track is now only
a mile from the mines, but there is a difficulty in the way of extend-
ing the switch because of the steep valley of Butternut creek.

Other quarries in Onondaga county. The deposits in other sec-

tions of the county are mainly of the pockety type and consist of

mixtures of white gypsum, selenite flakes and crystals and fibrous
gypsum veins with shale. As in Madison county, they rarely run
over Io feet in thickness and 25 feet in diameter. They are usually
surrounded by shales and layers of impure limestone and occur both
immediately under the Bertie waterlime or in the shales forties to
oe north. . 3

- In the eastern portion of the county the deposits are quite numer-
ous in the town of Manlius, the hilly area between Chittenango, -

Mycenae and Fayetteville containing many such deposits. Many
of the knolls have been opened up from time to time and the gypsum
worked for land plaster, but at present no production is made.
Westward there are no beds, with the exception of those in Dewitt
township, already discussed, until the Onondaga valley is reached.
The heavily glaciated area between Butternut creek’ and Syracuse
probably contains gypsum beds, but as yet they are uncovered.

Two and a half miles south of Syracuse, A. E. Alvord formerly
quarried a gypsum deposit. Vanuxem in his third annual report
[p. 256] mentions the working of gypsum deposits along the rail-
road from Syracuse to Split Rock, and no doubt Bap are ee
small deposits in that section.

In the construction of the railroad from Syracuse to Adie
large quantities of gypsum were unearthed along the south side ef @
Nine Mile creek between Camillus and Martisco (formerly - Mar- q
cellus station ). Thousands of tons of the material were taken out ;
and the deposits attracted great attention. The gypsum: bed. con- 7
sists of a mixture of limestone, shale and selenite or at times a

whitish gypsum with wavy markings. At no part of the extensive

cut was gypsum in pure masses observed, and if quarrying were

undertaken the whole impure mass would need to be excavated and
the percentage of gypsum would run low. The ease of mining
and its accessibility to the railroad may render it of some value in

the future. Other outcrops occur farther to the west, at Martisco. —

‘09 BSepuoUyD ‘UOpUAT JeoU ‘UINsdAS Ul BdeF ALIeNC)

or

GYPSUM DEPCSITS OF NEW YORK 33

_ One outcrop is at tre prominent point or hill northwest of the sta-

tion where a 1o-foot layer has been quarried. The material is simi-

. lar to that already described.: Following south up a branch of Nine
Mile creek another outcrop is seen just south of the station (Mar-

tisco) on the Marcellus Falls Railroad. It is about 20 feet in

_ thickness and extends for some 150 feet along the road.

A few miles to the west the Auburn Railroad runs through a
steep sided valley, and on either bank gypsum deposits are fre-

quent. Probably the purest deposit of gypsum noted in the county

Was encountered in this ledge in an old quarry about half way
between Halfway and Martisco. The quarry is now the property

of Fred Chapman of Martisco and Monrce Hill of Elbridge. It

is situated just off the road about %4 mile south of the Auburn
track on the face of an escarpment. The gypsum bed appears at

an elevation of about 100 feet above the railroad. The quarry

shows about 15 feet of gypsum in all, of which 4 feet is of much
better grade than the average for Onondaga county. It is a grayish
to white crystalline mass dotted with brown cleavable crystals and
resembles the rock found at Oakfield, Akron and Garbutt. It 1s

overlain by 20 feet of limestone, and the expense of stripping is

the probable cause of idleness. No other outcrops were found
in the vicinity, so that no idea of the extent of this stratum could
be formed. It seems, however, a deposit well worth investigation,
since a few test holes back on the ledge and along the outcrop would
soon fix the boundaries of the good rock. Its favorable situation
for working and its accessibility are evident. Some form of gravity
tramway or aerial bucket tram could easily be constructed, a tunnel
driven into the hillside, and the rock shipped on the Auburn road.
The quarry was formerly owned by Abner Taylor and the rock was

ground by Dwyer & Canear in their mill, long since abandoned.

The abundance of gypsum outcrops on the sides of the deep cut
valleys between Camillus and Halfway would seem to indicate the
former presence of a persistent and continuous gypsum bed over
that region and it is probable that underlying the Helderberg lime-
stones on most of the hills, gypsum beds would be found. From
Halfway on to the western boundary of the county no gypsum de-
posits have been recorded, although there seems no reason to doubt
their existence in that section.

Bay) oe NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Cayuga county

The area covered by Salina rocks in the county varies from 14
to 20 miles in width and falls within the towns of Conquest, Cato,
Montezuma, Mentz, Brutus, Throop, Sennett, Springport and Aure-
lius. The Cobleskill limestone which forms the southern boundary
of the area, immediately overlying the Salina, extends across the
county as follows: Beginning at a point near Skaneateles falls the
outcrop follows directly west to a point about a mile south of Sen-
nett, where it crosses the New York Central tracks, turns southwest
and crosses the northeastern corner of the city of Auburn, thence
southwesterly to Hills Branch, and then south to Howland point
and Frontenac island near Union Springs. :

The topography of the northern portion of the Salina permits of
but few outcrops. The area bordering the Seneca river is low and
marshy while outcrops in other areas are completely obscured by a
heavy covering of glacial drift, usually taking the form of drum-
lins. On this account very little is known as to the gypsum deposits
in that portion of the county. About 1% miles north of Throops-
ville, along the river, pockets of gypsum were worked in 1837, the —
owner being N. Marble of Port Byron. Otler impure deposits have
been reported in the vicinity of Montezuma.

Along the southern border of the Salina and immediately under-
lying the Salina waterlime and Cobleskill are the important gypsum
beds of the county, in early times the most important in the State.
These beds are exposed at three localities: in the town of Spring-
port north of Union Springs; at Cayuga Junction, 1% mile east of —
Cross Roads station; and on the boundary of the township 1% miles
north of Cross Roads. The gypsum in these localities varies from
Io to 40 feet in thickness, and is of a gray or bluish color, firm
and massive, with plates and veins of selenite coating some of the
blocks or mixed with the more impure material. In a few places

it is overlain by waterlime rock but usually has an immediate cover- _

ing of glacial soil varying from a few feet to 25 feet in thickness.

The occurrence, as well as the character of the rock, is very similar

to that of Jamesville and Lyndon. The stratigraphy of the Union 3
Springs region has received the close attention of many geologists
and much has been written concerning it. The points involved seem
to have no direct bearing, however, on the present treatise and will
not be discussed.
In the early days many quarries were in operation in the Cayuga
Junction area, 2 miles north of Union Springs (then Springport)

q _ GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK es

‘and the plaster was shipped by canal all over the country. Mr
“Yawger is quoted by Vanuxem as stating that plaster was used
there as early as 1811 while by 1842 the quarries were producing
; 10,000 tons yearly, the price delivered by boat to Ithaca being $1.50
to $2 per ton. From Ithaca it was transported by the [thaca-Owego
Railway and Susquehanna river to points in Pennsylvania. In 1840
five quarries were in operation, owned by Richardson, Partenheimer,
‘Cresis, Howland and Yawger, while the Cross Roads quarry was
owned by Mr Thompson.

At the present time and for some years pack the only active
‘quarry has been that of the Cayuga Plaster Co., of which C. T.
Backus of Union Springs is president. The mill and quarry of
‘this company is at present leased and operated by the United States
Gypsum Co. The mill is situated along the Ithaca branch of the
Lehigh Valley Railroad, about 2 miles north of Union Springs at
Cayuga Junction. It is equipped with a Sturtevant cracker and
nipper and five buhrstone mills. The rock is sold in lump or ground
form to cement factories and others; none is calcined. The quarry
is situated about 44 mile back Frain the mill. The gypsum varies
‘from 20 to 30 feet thick and is overlain by.as much as 25 feet of
‘glacial drift that contains many waterlime boulders. Stripping is
effected by means of a steam shovel, and the earth is carried to a
convenient dumping place at one side. The gypsum is worked at
the present time by quarry methods and by means of a tunnel
be into the lower course of the gypsum. Steam drills ‘are used
and on the open face the rock is blasted off in benches. The tun-
nel has been only recently opened and extends but a few feet into
‘the face. The rock is loaded on cars and transported to the mill
on a narrow gage cable railway.

An analysis of the plaster as quarried in 1903 showed the pres-
ence of 80 per cent lime sulfate.

_ The future of this field depends upon the uses which can be
found for rock of this grade. Transportation facilities are good,
the deposits are large, and mining could be carried on cheaply.
‘Although the cement firms at the present time are demanding, gen-
erally, a higher grade of gypsum, which is supplied by the beds of
western New York, the low cost of production and the adv antages
for shipment are favorable to an increased dev elopment at Union
Springs, and in time the once flourishing industry may be revived.

Another gypsum deposit was formerly worked at Cayuga Bridge
(now Cayuga), the gypsum occurring both above and below the
bridge. This deposit was in small pockets, however, and was soon
abandoned for the better material south of it.

36 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM /

Seneca county

The area in Seneca county covered by the Salina shales lies in
the townships of Junius and Tyre with a small outcrop in the town
of Seneca Falls. In the two former townships outcrops are rare.
The soft character of the Vernon and Camillus shales rendered
them susceptible to speedy erosion during the glacial period and
there has been formed a broad shallow east-west depression bounded
by the more resistant limestones on the north and south. This area
is heavily blanketed with glacial deposits, kames, drumlins etc. and
is frequently marshy. It is almost devoid of rock exposures.)
Where the Seneca river has cut its channel through the Cobleskil
and Bertie waterlimes, however, the Camillus shales have been un-
- covered and their gypsum masses exposed. The Camillus shale
series according to Luther! “is composed in the lower part of thin
dolomitic limestones and thin layers of soft shale and at the to
has a bed of gypseous shale 35 feet thick, some parts of which ar
of sufficient purity to have, when pulverized, some economic value
as land plaster and wall plaster. Gypsum was quarried about 184
near Black brook west of Nichols corners and the bed has been
penetrated in wells of that vicinity. It is not exposed along that
stream now.”

The exposures of gypsum along the Seneca river have been de-
scribed by John Delafield,? as follows: “ The greatest exposures of
the rock are on the north bank, on the farm of Mr Frederick Swaby
and also on the ground of Mr Cady. The rock on Mr Swaby’s
farm was extensively worked at one period, and before the pur
chased the property; but, owing in some degree to the limited size
of the beds, but chiefly to the neglect of the parties who worked
the quarries, they are not productive. The difficulty seems to
have arisen from the omission of separating the rock fnom the
shales and marly limestone which surrounds it. . . ‘The hight
of the cutting is about 40 feet and the upper bed of rock, the drab
colored limestone (Bertie waterlime) is covered by a few feet of
soil; it is about 6 feet thick.”

He speaks of the plaster as occurring in large unconnected masses
in the shale, one being 15 feet high and 35 feet broad. Gypsum
occurs on the south side of the river in the bluffs but is not ex-
posed. It is again exposed farther east on the north side of the
river at the railroad bridge; and it was uncovered on. the south

1N. Y. State Mus: Bult28) eroce.” "p. 7.
2N. Y. State Agric. Soc. Trans. for 1850. 1851. 10744142.

5:

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK a7

‘side, in a cut made by the railroad company for the purpose of
filling in low ground, the gypsum occurring in courses 4%4 and
2¥% feet in thickness and very accessible. At one time, as men-
tioned by Mr Delafield, the plaster industry along the Seneca river
‘Was an important one, and the output amounted to 5000 tons an-
“nually. It has been abandoned for a long period, however, and
there is little prospect of its resumption. The deposits are all, no
doubt, of the impure “mixed” type, while any that might be en-
‘countered under the drift of Junius or Tyre townships would re-
autre shaft mining and that too under unfavorable conditions such
“as wet ground and the like.

~ Wayne county

Only the northern or lower portion of the Salina shales outcrops
in Wayne county and that only along the southern border in a belt
averaging perhaps 6 miles wide. Although the contact between
the Camillus and Vernon shales is not sharply defined, we may
infer from the thickness of the Salina shales in the county that
the exposed part lies below the Camillus and in the main perhaps
below the horizon of the salt beds. Wells drilled in Clyde show
the Salina to be 840 feet thick at that point, and at Alloway it is
580 feet thick.

Gypsum is said to be exposed at various places along the line of
the canal and the New York Central Railroad. At Clyde it is
found in wells at a depth of 25 feet, at Lyons at 4o feet, and at
Palmyra at the same depth. Gypsum was at one time quarried
at a point 2 miles west of Newark, where the railroad and canal
pass between two hills. North of the canal, on lot 85 owned at
that time by Winslow Heth, quarries were opened as early as 1832
and by 1839, 2000 to 3000 tons had been extracted. The gypsum
is described by Hall' as being ‘‘ mostly lamellar, transparent and
of that variety which receives the local name of isinglass plaster.”
Tt was said to occur with varicolored gypseous marl and to have
the form of “ large rounded, irregular masses.”

South of the canal was Blackmar’s quarry which was worked at
the same time and contained plaster of similar quality. Gypsum
has also been quarried around Port Gibson [sce descriptions under
Ontario county] and undoubtedly many similar pockets underlie
the area northeast of Port Gibson in Wayne county. Occurring as
they do in the lower Vernon shales, the deposits are not likely to

*Geol. Rep’t 4th Dist. (1837) 1838. p. 326.

BOT. _ NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

prove of commercial value. The gypsum is all of the quality known
as “mixed,” i. e. consisting of selenite plates, reddish, granular and
fibrous gypsum interstratified and seamed with clay shales, marlites,
impure shaly gypsum, etc.; and it is found in small irregular
deposits. te
Ontario county

The Salina group is represented throughout the county by fre-
quent exposures of Camillus shale, Bertie waterlime, while the over-—
lying Cobleskill waterlime and in the eastern part of the county”
‘the Rondout waterlime are also encountered. Of these the Camillus ©
shale is the only one of present interest and in it are found all the
gypsum deposits. This shale occupies the entire northern portion
of the county, and varies in width from 6 miles in the eastern por-
tion to 2 miles-in the western. In character it varies but little
from its general type, a greenish or dark shale becoming light gray
on exposure and containing interstratified platten dolomites at inter-
vals. Where exposed, it frequently contains the pockety beds of
gypsum so characteristic of the beds to the east. In the greater
portion of the area, however, actual exposures are rare, owing to
the heavy drift mantle. .

Beginning 4n the eastern part of the county, the first exposures
of gypsum are those brought to light by the Canandaigua outlet
between Phelps and Gypsum. Of these the best grade of rock is
represented by the beds of the Empire Plaster Co., owned by Mr
A. D. Miller of Phelps. Mr Miller’s main quarry lies on the north-
ern bank of the outlet 1 mile north-northeast of Phelps Junction,
near the bridge. The rock is a gray, impure gypsum, heavily)
seamed with fibrous white gypsum varying from %4 to 1% inches
in width. It occurs in masses of 100 up to 3500 tons in weight and
is gotten out by blasting. The material is hauled by wagons to the
mill, located near the bridge, 1 mile west on the outlet. This mill
is equipped with a cracker, nipper and buhrstones and is run: by
water power. The mill has been idle for two years but formerly
carried on an active business in land plaster. ; |

Across the road from the mill is an abandoned quarry from which
Mr Miller formerly extracted gypsum masses from 25 to 3000 tons ~
in weight. In early times many mills were in operation in and
around Phelps and Gypsum, and the annual production of land
plaster in the early forties along the outlet was 6000 tons.

From Manchester on to Victor the Salina beds are heavily cov
ered or swampy, and no gypsum thas been reported although well

%

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK 39

drilling may bring some to light. The various cuts made by the
Ganargua creek northeast of Victor have uncovered several gypsum
“masses of the pockety type, and quarrying was at one time under-
taken. A mill and quarry were operated on the C. M. Conover
farm 1%4 miles east of Victor on the north side of the creek. The
gypsum, for its kind, was of good grade, 40 feet thick, and had a
large sale for land plaster. The quarry has been idle for 15 years.
In the later years of quarrying, stripping became such a trouble-
_ some feature (there is 30-40 feet of drift) that a tunnel was driven
at the base of the hill, with a breast of 14 feet. Gypsum was also
quarried at one time in the Goose Egg, an oval hill about 114 miles
north of the Conover farm.

On the Conover farm there have been Ea by core drilling two
layers of gypsum resembling in appearance that seen at Garbutt,
Akron and Oakfield. This is the most easterly occurrence of such
pure beds in the State and is, accordingly, of great interest. The
series of core drill holes were put down in the flat area near Ganar-
gua creek about two years ago under the supervision of Mr C. L.
Tuttle; after going through 19 feet of soil and 16 feet of water-
limes, the first gypsum vein, 8 feet thick, was encountered. At 104
feet, a second seam was struck, its width being 6 feet thick. The
cores were examined by the writers and the gypsum appeared to be
of good quality, the lower vein being light colored and fine textured,

resembling the Oakfield gypsum, while the upper one was less pure
and dark colored, though firm and massive, resembling the Garbutt
rock. An analysis of the material made on chips taken along the
whole gypsum portion of the core shows 96 per cent gypsum accord-
ing to Mr Tuttle. Calcining tests show the lower vein to burn and
set to a whiter color. The Victor Gypsum Co., of which Mr C. L.
Tuttle of Rochester is president, controls this deposit, having an
option on the Clara Conover, the Eliza Conover and the Mark
Gourley farms, in all amounting to 265 acres. Plans have been
completed for a switch from the main line of the Lehigh Valley
Railroad to the proposed shaft house, but the actual operations have
“been delayed for two years. If the deposit should prove extensive,
a large industry could probably be established, since the Lehigh
Valley Railroad passes right through the district and connects di-
rectly with the large portland cement factories of Pennsylvania.

‘The Lehigh Valley Portland Cement Co. attempted to locate
gypsum on the hill nearby and it is stated that they struck 5 or 6
feet of medium grade gypsum but decided not to work it. Other

49 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

reports indicate that they simply drilled through the 4o feet of
mixed gypsum on the hill and struck limestone, not going as deep
as did Mr Tuttle. The Atlas Co. is also said to have drilled neigh-
boring farms without success. Conflicting opinions as to the extent
and value of these deposits, as well as a lack of information as to
several well records, make it impossible to arrive at any definite
conclusions concerning the deposits. Judging by the more western
-areas we feel sure, however, that deposits of good gypsum will be”
discovered along the line of the Lehigh Valley Railroad, both to
the east and to the west. The Bertie waterlime which, exclusive
of the surface soil and drift, is the surface rock of the region aver-
ages 4o feet in thickness, so that in prospecting for the gypsum,
one might have to pass through a heavy drift mantle and perhaps
the whole 40 feet of waterlime before encountering the Camillus
shale in which the gypsum lies. 3
Irregular pockets of gypsum occur near Port Gibson and have
been worked for land plaster for years but are no longer pro-)
ductive. The most recent working has been that of Mr Ezra
Grinnell who owns a water-power plaster mill along the creek and
who obtained his gypsum from an 18-foot deposit near the mill.
The gypsum in the area is said to occur under beds of argillaceous
limestone in low knolls and hillocks, in the form of flattened
spheroidal masses. - It is fine grained, compact and contains no
selenite veins.

Livingston county

No gypsum beds have been recorded in the county, due to the
fact probably that they are heavily covered with limestone. The
northern border of the county is occupied by the drab colored
limestone of the Bertie formation, which overlies the gypsum beds.
The Garbutt and Wheatland gypsum bed lies at an elevation of
about 570 feet A.T. With an assumed dip of 40 feet to the mile,
a fair average inclination, the bed on the border of the county
would lie at about 490 feet A.T., so that at a suriace elevation of
600 feet the bed would be pierced at 110 feet. There is reason to
believe, however, that in the region between Caledonia and Mum-
ford and in the area north and northeast of Maxwell, the horizon
of the gypsum approaches nearer to the surface. Though the pros-
pect of finding gypsum within these regions seems good, it will
require exploration with the drill to determine the matter definitely,
since in all probability the beds are not absolutely continuous with
the Camillus shale,

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK Al

Monroe county

The Camillus shale crosses the county from east to west, out-

cropping im southern Perinton, northern Mendon, southern Hen-
‘rietta, northern Rush, southern Riga and Chili, and the greater part
of Wheatland townships. Its northern limit is uncertain owing to
the heavy drift covering and to its merging gradually into the Ver-
‘non shale below. Its southern limit is the outcrop of Bertie water-
lime beds.
_ The gypsum deposits of value seem to be limited strictly to the
“town of Wheatland in the southwestern corner of the county. Here
the Bertie beds, underlain by gypseous shales and the gypsum
layers, are exposed for a distance of several miles along Allen’s
creek between Garbutt and Mumford; while small gypsum deposits
have been exploited along its banks as far west as Fort Hill in
Genesee county. The Wheatland township deposits are among the
most important of the State. The area at present worked occupies
about 3 square miles.

“The gypsum at present developed, occurs in two continuous layers
“below 40 or more feet of scil and waterlimes. The upper layer
lies at a horizon above the level of the stream while the lower layer
is probably at the stream’s level. The upper layer varies in thick-
ness from 5 feet to 7 or 8 feet, but rarely can good rock be ob-
tained with a thickness of over 5% feet. The second layer, or
“second bottom” as it is locally termed, has been found in prac-
tically all the workings. It is separated from the upper layer by a
hard, bluish limestone varying in thickness from 6 to 12 feet. The
gypsum in this layer varies also from 5 to 7 or 8 feet in thickness
and in some mines contains from 1 to 2 feet of whiter gypsum than
that of the upper layer. Its general average would probably run
about the same. At present, the upper layer alone is being devel-
oped, although the lower layer has been exposed and its qualities
are known. The descriptions of the individual properties follow.

Empire Gypsum Co. This company owns the most eastern mill
of the group, situated southeast of Garbutt station and east of the
north-south highway. The mine is situated west of the road, en-
trance being made to it by a slightly inclined tunnel, opening on the
Toad. The gypsum averages 5 feet, 5 inches in thickness of which
the middle 2 feet appears to be of the best quality, and the lower 2
feet is harder. The layer is overlain by a good limestone roof and
underlain by 10 feet of limestone, below which is a second gypsum
bed not yet developed.

A2 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The labor employed in the mines is mainly Italian. Drilling is
done with hand auger drills, and blasting with dynamite. The}
workings extend about 144 mile in a southwest direction and a e |
based on a room-and-pillar method. The mine at present is lighted
only by torches, but the management is considering the installation
of electric haulage and lights. The rock is loaded on wooden mine
cars and hauled by mules to the surface and then across the road
over a trestle to the mill. At the mil the rock is crushed with a
jaw crusher and then by one of the usual nippers. It then passes |
4nto a rotary drying cylinder,“is dried and then ground in a Unie
versal pulverizer, a unique method ins New York gypsum mills.”
After grinding, the dust is collected by a fan which saves screening
the whole product. The remainder is screened on inclined shaking
screens. The ground material is then calcined at a temperature of
280° to 350° in three 1i-ton kettles with solid bottoms. Material §
calcined at this temperature is said to be “ first settling” and is
“ereasier and smoother” than that calcined at a higher tempera-
ture. Some of the material is calcined at 450° or second settling,
and is then sold to the Pittsburg Plate Glass Co. for bedding plate
glass. The mixing room is equipped with two 5-compartme t
Broughton mixers; two 12-tube bagging machines and a fiber shred-
der of the type in which the log of wood is pivoted and the knives
revolve against it. This machine is capable of grinding 2500 pounds
per day. The fiber is blown by a blast of air into the bins, the
aeration also separating the dust from the fibers and loosening the
mass. The wocd used is mainly willow and basswood. Some of
the crude rock is shipped directly, being dumped from the mine
cars on the trestle into the gondolas below; a switch runs directly y
under the -trestle, from the Buffalo, Bocectar & Pittsburg Rail- a
road.. This plant is superintended by Mr G. J. McEntyre. :
Garbutt Gypsum Co. This company, one of the oldest in the
district, has a mill west of the Empire mill on the west side of ne
road, and on the north bank of the creek. The mines are located
about a mile southeast of the mill, on the top of the south bank of
the creek, and are reached from the mill by the roads to the
south and west. In former days entrance was had to the gypsum
bed by a tunnel driven into the north face of the hill, but this
has been abandoned and at present the bed is reached by two
small shafts. One of these was sunk four years ago to a depth
of 70 feet, and the other, 100 feet to the west, was sunk in October
1908 to the depth of 68 feet. The covering consists of 40 feet of
soil and 22 feet of limestone, the gypsum layer being from 5 to

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SBT YOY SE SZ TEAS UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE oF
JOHN M. CLARKE NEW YORK

STATE GEOLOGIST STATE MUSEUM

BULLETIN 148 PLATE 4

‘\\ GENESEE

3

LIST OF WORKINGS

1. Abandoned adit,
McVane farm
2. Mill,
4. Mine,
Empire Gypsum Co.
3, Mill,
9, 10. Shafts,
Garbutt Gypsum Co,
5. Mill,
6, 7, 8. Mines,
Lycoming Calcining Co,
Y 11. Gypsum deposit,
yoo Jah 7 ‘ m. } - f M. Rogers farm
— tel i 12, Shaft and Crusher,
Monarch Plaster Co.
13. Adit,
14. Mill,
15. Shaft,
Consolidated Wheatland
Plaster Co.
16, 17. Abandoned workings

VA Sk
LIVINGSTON-CO. \—

| (Ea Fa H

MAP OF WHEATLAND DISTRICT

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AS
a GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK 43
8 feet thick. The gypsum appears to be of remarkably good qual-
ity for the region and resembles the Genesee and Erie county rock.
The purest, whitest layer occupies about 2 feet in the middle of
the face. The new shaft, now worked, is a two-compartment shaft,
one compartment being occupied by the stairway and the other by
the bucket. Mining is carried on by two men in the mine, the
rock being simply gophered out with little system and wheeled or
carried to the shaft. Here it is loaded on a scoop or square bucket
and hoisted to the surface by a cable and derrick operated by a
small donkey engine. The bucket is swung around to the wagon
and dumped or, in case the wagon is full, it must be dumped on a
teserve pile and later loaded by hand on the wagon. Two men
operate the engine and hoist. - 3
The purity of this rock warrants a larger equipment and a>
more systematic, scientifc mining and handling of the product. It
is said that they mine all that can be handled in the mill. Further
exploration ought to reveal similar deposits on nearby properties,
and with better equipment and a mill location more easily acces-
sible to the mine, it seems possible that the area south and west
of the mine could be developed. If a way could be opened up to
transport the rock down the slope to the north and west, either
by gravity, railroad or areal tramway, and a mill be located along
the railroad at a convenient point, an important economy could be
effected. 7
The rock is now hauled by wagons over thé road more than a
‘mile to the mill. The mill is equipped with one 15-ton kettle, one
Butterworth & Lowe nipper and cracker, a buhrstone mill for
grinding the gypsum, and a Broughton mixer. Power is furnished
by a steam engine. Originally water power was used and later that
was supplemented by a gas engine. Calcining is carried on at 38°
_and to calcine a kettle takes about four hours. |
Lycoming Calcining Co. The mines of this company are
i located west of the Garbutt mill on the south bank of Allen’s creek.
_ Previous to 1900 the bed at this point was worked by means of
H a vertical shaft on the top of the bank, but when the property
_ Was acquired in 1900 by the present company a tunnel was driven
into the side of the creek bank about one half way up and after
drifting some distance through “‘ ashes ” or shaly decomposed mate-
' tial, the firm “vein” was disclosed. The bed is now worked by
_ three tunnels, the two nearest the trestle being connected, while
the ewer third tunnel will be connected with the others in six
months’ time. The bed of gypsum varies from 6 to 7 feet in

Sy

. AA NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

hight. The rock is a light gray to brown gypsum with thin fibrous
gypsum veins running through it. The lower 2 feet are harder and
of poorer quality. The mine has a good limestone roof, separated
from the gypsum by a thin parting of shaly rock known as rotten
rock. The second “bottom” or layer of gypsum is 12 to 15 feet
below the first and is separated from it by limestones. It appears
to be of a grade equal to the upper rock. The mining operations
have been conducted systematically, with pillars left every 21 feet.
The mine workings now extend about 2500 feet into the hill. Mine
no. I, or that nearest the trestle, is about worked out. The mines
are equipped with electric lights. Drilling 1s done with new auger
coal drills and biasting with low grade dynamite. The whole face
of gypsum is utilized, with no sorting, but care is taken to so ar-
range the cars that the poor and good grades alternate at the mill. —
At present the ore is hauled in steel cars by mules to the scale
house, and then strings of cars are hauled across a wooden trestle
to the mill by a horse. At the time of our visit in August, tun-
nel no. 3 was being opened out at its mouth so as to permit of a
straight-away switch being laid, and they were preparing to in-
stal a system of electric haulage, to abandon mine no. 1 and haul
the product. of nos. 2 and 2 out. of no. 3. Mine no. 3 is ‘less
‘troubled with water and contains the best quality of gypsum. The ©
electric system will necessitate a new trestle over the creek to the
mill. Waste rock in the mine is utilized in banking up the sides
of the gangways “and very little needs to be removed from the
mine. In mine no. 1.a shaft has been sunk through the lime-
stones to the lower layer, and enough of the gypsum removed
‘to prove that it is of good quality. By lowering the floor of the
no. I tunnel an incline could be built and the lower layer. easily
worked. Some such plan is under consideration at present. After —
crossing the trestle, the cars are drawn up an incline by cable to
the second floor of the mill and automatically dumped. The rock
passes through a Butterworth & Lowe cracker and nipper, there
being two of each, and is thus ground to % inch. It is then ele-
vated and fed by a screw feed into two Cummer kilns equipped
with American automatic stokers and with a Bristol recording
thermometer, which records on a paper in red ink the time and
temperature. The dust is separated in the furnaces by an air blast,
and is said to make a high grade of land plaster. From the kilns
the steaming gypsum is carried by screw conveyors to the large
bricked-in cooling bins where it is allowed to finish cooking for
24 hours or so. The kilns can each calcine about 11 tons an hour. .
.
2

Plate 5

Plant of the Empire Gypsum Co., Garbutt

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK A5

It is then ground by four vertical Sturtevant “rock emery” mills
and is ready for mixing or for shipment as stucco.

The prepared wall plasters are mixed in the west end of the
building by the Diamond Wall Plaster Co., the materials used being
cottonwood fiber, hair, sand and stucco. One mixture contains two
parts sand to one of stucco with a small proportion of hair and
Tetarder. The sand is obtained from Wheatland Center, 2 miles
west, between the farms of Frank Kingsbury and Albert Mudge.
Before use it must be dried and screened.

_ The Sackett Wall Board Co. occupies a large building adjoining
this plant on the north. The company manufactures the large thin
slabs of plaster board used so extensively for interior walls. The
stucco is obtained from the Lycoming mill. It is mixed with water
and placed by special machinery between many sheets of paper
and the whole rolled into a cardboardlike sheet which when dried
_ becomes the plaster board.

Monarch Plaster Co. The next mill in order is that of the
Monarch Plaster Co., a little over a mile west along the Buffalo,
Rochester & Pittsburg Railroad. The mine and mill are situated
just north of the creek and railroad track near the railway bridge.
The mine consists of a tunnel driven into the hill to the north.
Drilling is done by auger electric drills and the mine is lighted by
electricity, power being furnished by a gasolene engine in the mine.
The gypsum bed is 6 feet thick, but owing to poor quality the
lower 2 feet is left as a floor and only 4 feet of gypsum extracted
in the rooms. The cement companies, it is stated, do not care to
purchase the bottom rock. The mine is dry and the roof solid
so that large rooms can be made, and open spaces 30 feet square
are frequent. Mule haulage is employed. Six feet below the bot-
tom rock is a second layer of gypsum which is 6 feet in thickness,
1 foot of which is of exceptionally white gypsum. Nothing has
_as yet been done with this lower layer.

“At present the cars are hauled up a slight incline from the
mouth of the tunnel and the material dumped into a small jaw
crusher and cracker and the crude crushed rock sold to cement
-manufacturers. The company is installing, however, a large up to
date crushing plant, in which the cars can be drawn by a cable
directly from the mine to a considerable hight above the track and
the rock dumped into the largest of Sturtevant jaw crushers, and
‘from it into the bin and* thence through a chute into the
‘ears. The power will be furnished by a gasolene engine. The
steel scales will be placed in front of the chute at the loading place.

40 ie ae _ NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

This company is said to control a larger tract of land south of |
the creek which may be worked at some future time. The product
is all sold as 1 inch or % inch material to. cement factories. ”

Consolidated Wheatland Land Plaster Co. A short distance —
west, along Allen’s creek, is the property of the Consolidated
Wheatland Land Plaster Co. The old mine consisted of a tunnel
driven from the north bank of the stream; a 6-foot layer was
mined and the product hauled across a bridge to the mill. Dur-
ing the past year, however, a shaft has been sunk a short distance |
southeast of the mill. The shaft is 35 feet deep and by it access
is gained to the same 6-foot layer that is mined by the Monarch.
As in the Monarch, the layer consists of 4 feet of gray streaked —
gypsum with 2 feet of “bottom” rock which is of lower grade.
The mine cars are run on a platform hoist and are hoisted to
the surface by a drum and engine overhead. They are then run —
over a track directly to the mill. There is also a lower layer 6
feet below, which is 6 feet thick and has a 1-foot white layer. In
the mill the rock is crushed by a jaw crusher, ground in two 4-foot
buhrstone mills, of Turkey Hill, Pa., stone, made by the Monroe
Burr Co., and is then calcined. at 380° in two solid bottom kettles.
The sales include crude crushed rock, land plaster, stucco and wall —
plaster, the latter made with patent retarder and purchased wood
fiber from Massachusetts. Some of the stucco is sold to the Rock
Board Co. who have a small plant nearby. The plant is operated
by: steam or water power, according to conditions. = ©
“ Possible occurrences of gypsum elsewhere in Monroe county.
The known deposits of gypsum in the region around Garbutt and
Wheatland are largely controlled by the operating companies and
a few other companies not now operating. Prospecting for new
deposits must now be carried on south of the creek on the uplands.
The beds here lie under a heavy covering of soil and rock, and
would be found at a depth of from 50 to 100 feet.

Aside from the localities described, the gypsum beds have not
been much explored in the county. To the north of Allen’s creek, —
pockety impure gypsum has been found at Beulah, on the Har-
man farm near Belcoda and on the Rogers and McVean farms 1
mile north of Garbutt. In the Rogers farm the gypsum was found
at a depth of 40 feet, being overlain by 27 feet of soil and 13
feet of limestone. On the McVean farm gypsum was at one time
extracted from the hill by a tunnel, now abandoned, and from ap-
pearances there is a possibility of its future utilization. Gypsum
was also encountered in a well on the farm of Mr Clapp in North

Plate 6

Shaft of the Garbutt Gypsum Co., Garbutt

re

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK 47

oy . = ag’
us ea wusy Hd, 0 UM

Rush. In the region south of the outcrop, gypsum has been en-
countered in various wells at Mumford and Caledonia at 60 feet
depth, and Mr Jenkins, a well driller of Scottsville, states that
_ an apparently good belt of gypsum runs from Wheatland to Max-
well, 4 miles southeast and that it lies about 45 feet deep across
_ the whole belt. He also states that gypsum was encountered in
a well at the State Industrial School. ;
Opportunities for further prospecting are afforded along the
_ northern boundary of the Bertie waterlime north of Mendon Cen-
: ter; in the area between Rush and North Rush; in the hilly region
between Garbutt and Maxwell, and in the hills north and northwest
of Mumford.

Genesee county

The northern half of the county is occupied entirely by the Salina
shales, and as yet these have not been differentiated into the Ver-
non and Camillus shales. Succeeding the shales are the waterlime
beds with their attendant gypsum bodies, while above and to the
south the Onondaga limestones and underlying waterlime beds
stretch across the county in a well marked escarpment, called locally
mie ~ ledge.” ; 7
According to Hall’ the shales in the center of the towns of
Bergen, Byron, Elba and Alabama are gray or ash colored and
contain thin seams of fibrous gypsum, selenite and occasionally
small masses of granular gypsum. Succeeding the shales are a
series of bluish, slaty and drab colored impure limestones which, he
says, embrace large beds of gypsum. These gypsum deposits, so
important in former days, are no longer quarried, and their location
is almost forgotten. They have interest, however, as sources of
supply for the future. 7
Near the eastern boundary of the county, gypsum beds have been
uncovered on the banks of Allen’s creek, and at one time large
- quantities of plaster were quarried near Fort Hill.
About 3 miles northeast of Fort Hill, or about midway between
_ Fort Hill and South Byron, on lots 118, 144 and 182 large amounts
of gypsum were formerly quarried. The deposit on tot 118, ac-
cording to Hall, belonged to Mr Hughes and Mr Cash and was
“a white gypsum free from seams and intermixture of clay.” It
was covered by a bluish limestone with shaly seams. On lots 144
and 182 the gypsum was “clay colored” and was overlain by a
drab limestone containing species of Avicula. These quarries be-

¥ *Geol. N: Y. pt 4. 1843. p. 464-65.

48 _ NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

longed to Messrs Bannister, Collins and Clifford. The plaster —
sold at 50 cents a ton at the bed and for $3.50 a ton, ground. The
three lots furnished in all almost 3000 tons annually.

The next locality mentioned in the early reports is that of Oak-
field, or as Hall’ says “ Gypsum is also found in the western part
of Elba, near the junction of the Pine Hill road with the Batavia-
Lockport turnpike.” ‘Since western Elba is now Oakfield town-

ship, the locality mentioned must be in the vicinity of Oakfield.
_ The masses were small and were 8 feet below the surface. They
were never extensively quarried. |

No further mention of gypsum localities in the county is found
in literature until the records relating to the discovery of the large
deposits at Oakfield and later at Indian Falls and Akron on the
Erie county border.

The pioneer in the Oakfield district was Mr Olmstead who for
some years previous to 1892 carried on a business in land plaster.
In 1892 he installed a kettle, the first one in the State and began
the manufacture of calcined plaster. For comparison with the
present development of the Oakfield’ beds we quote the following
from Merrill? in regard to the industry in 1893. Speaking of the
two active shafts of Mr Olmstead, he says:

The most easterly pit is worked by four men. The shaft is 8
by 12 and 31 feet deep. A former owner ran a tunnel to the
north which is now closed up. There are two tunnels at present,
one 75 feet long, the other 55 or 60 feetlong. These are separated
80 or 85 feet at the ends. The 55-foot tunnel is at present being
worked. The deposit is only about 4 feet thick, not so much as
this in many places. The-only timbering is a few short stulls. The
rock is very much the whitest plaster'seen in New York,-and when
ground is like flour. The material is loaded in flat cars running on
a track made by laying stringers and nailing cross pieces and coy-
ering with hoop iron. This lessens the labor of handling and
increases the output. At the bottom of the pit the material is 7
loaded into an iron bucket fastened to an iron chain which is oper-
ated by a horse whim and derrick atthe surface. = 9 99geeeeee
capacity of Mr Olmstead’s pits is about 15 tons per day. :

From this period on, the industry has shown rapid growth. The
Olmstead property was purchased by the English Plaster Co., and
a mill was erected and equipped with a Blake crusher, nipper and —
five kettles and five buhrstone mills. The Genesee Plaster Co. in —
Ig01 erected a mill with three calcining kettles, and to this mill

1Geol. N. Y. pt 4. 1843. p. 464.
aN. Y. State Mus. Bul. rz, p. 77.

Entry to mine of Lycoming Calcining Co., Garbutt

Plate 8

Mill of Lycoming Calcining Co., Garbutt

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK 49

there was later added the equipment of the Big Four Plaster Co.
_ The entire equipment consisted of one Blake crusher, one nipper,
- eight buhrstone mills, four kettles, two shaking screens, one single
“mixer, one triple mixer and one sand drier. The Oakfield Plaster
' Co. at about the same time was operating three mines and a mill
that contained one Blake crusher, two buhrstone mills, one bolter,
and two kettles of 10-ton capacity.

At present the industry is in control of two firms, both of whom
-are working on a good sound basis.

_ United States Gypsum Co. This company, which owns gypsum
‘mills and mines in several states, entered the Oakfield district about
1903 and bought up or leased the properties of a number of the
former companies. The company abandoned all but one of the
many shafts, consolidated the mill equipment and instalied electric
power.

_ The present mines and mill are situated about 114 miles west
of Oakfield on the West Shore Railroad. The mill formerly be-
longed to the Genesee Plaster Co. and has already been described.
The company also operates the mill of the Oakfield Plaster Co. a
- short distance to the west. The mine shaft which is situated about
_ ¥Y% mile north of the mill is equipped with a two-compartment elec-
‘tric hoist. The rock is automatically dumped into large hoppers,
‘is weighed and then falls into a steel lined storage bin from which
it is loaded directly by chutes into large cars which are drawn by
a lowcmotive to the mill.

Niagara Gypsum Co. The mill and mine of this company are
situated 14 mile west of the United States Gypsum Co’s plant, or
2 miles west of Oakfield Station, on the West Shore Railroad. The
"manager is Mr M. A. Reeb. The shaft at present operative is
situated about 14 mile north of the mill. Entrance is made
‘through a two-compartment shaft, 45 feet in depth. Transporta-
tion underground at present is by means of hand labor. An elec-
tric hoist raises the rock from the mine to a level above the switch,
where the rock is either dumped directly into cars or on a supply
Pile. The gypsum is conveyed to the mill on cars drawn by a 12-
’ ton electric locomotive. A second shaft nearer the mill has just
been completed. This is 51-feet in depth and will ultimately con-
" nect with the other mine, when all the rock will be conveyed under-
‘ground by electric haulage to the new shaft. Here an electric

hoist will be installed, together with a crusher and cracker also
' electrically driven. At the mill the rock is crushed first by a large
‘totary cracker, elevated by a bucket elevator, passed through two

50 , . NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ~

crackers and again elevated to the bins over the calciners. From
the bins it passes into two large Cummer rotary calciners each with
a capacity of 15 tons per hour. The dust from the calciners is —
collected in overhead bins and with the finished product from the
calciners is elevated and passes into the brick-inclosed cooling bins. —
After remaining in these bins 24 hours the material is ground in
four Sturtevant rock emery mills. It is then elevated and car- ©
ried to the mixing room in the west end of the building. This is :
equipped with two three-compartment Broughton mixers, a large ©
stucco bin, a fiber machine and a hair picker. Power for the mill
is furnished by a 300-horsepower Allis-Chalmers motor. The mill —
and mine are operated day and night with a apa of 500 tons
for each 24 hours.

Additional occurrences in Genesee county. West of Indian
Falls and 8 miles west of Oakfield, gypsum outcrops along the
banks of Tonawanda creek. The stream cuts down through the
escarpment and exposes the limestones and the underlying gypsum 4
beds. A 6-foot layer of gypsum is exposed along the creek from 4
I to 2 miles west of Indian Fails and about 30 feet above the |
creek, while above it lies an 8-foot layer of a more impure and
harder gypsum.

The deposits are included within the Indian Reservation; in ¥
Igo1 the Standard Plaster Co. secured the mineral right to the
whole tract and began’ mining operations. Tunnels were driven 7
into the 6-foot layer, using Howell’s twist drills and black, now-
der. The rock mined was loaded on flat mine cars and pi +hed
by ‘hand to the tunnel entrance where the good gypsum was loaded
on cars and the waste rock thrown on the dump. From the mines ©
the rock was carried by a railroad switch to the main line of the ~
West Shore near Alabama, the switch being 3 or 4 miles long.
The rock was then sent to’ Black Rock where the company had a
mill equipped with a gyratory crusher and screen, one Cummer cal-_
ciner, one cooling bin and five Sturtevant emery mills. The power
was electric. The mines are now completely abandoned. Under- |
ground water and the presence of mud pockets are said to have ~
been the main difficulties in the way of success. Similar trouble —
is encountered in nearly all gypsum workings, and it seems plans
that the conditions in the latter respect at least would have in
proved with the extension of the tunnels for some distance unde
the hill. The beds could also be worked through shafts. =

The known gypsum beds of the Akron district begin 2 miles
west of this locality. These will be discussed under Erie county.

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EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

JOHN M.C
STATE GEOLOGIST

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UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK
STATE MUSEUM

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MAP OF OAKFIELD AND AKRON DISTRICTS

Jalfield

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;

Bre |
f/f ¢ WBushville.

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LIST OF WORKINGS

t. Mill,
2. Shaft,
Akron Gypsum Co,
. Shafts,
American Gypsum Co.
. Test holes,

7. Abandoned workings
Standard Plaster Co.

. Shafts,
to. Mill,
Niagara Gypsum Co,

. Shafts,
. Mills,

U.S. Gypsum Co,

The proven gypsum territory
near Akron is shown by dotted
area.

ete

ck see

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK SI

It seems probable that large quantities of gypsum as yet uncov-
ered must lie near the surface in Genesee county. They are likely
to be found from Fort Hill westward through South Byron and
Newkirk to Oakfield, north of the limestone escarpment; thence
following the escarpment in a westerly direction to Alabama and
southwesterly to Akron. There is also room for development to
the south of the outcrop of the dolomites, but these areas consti-

‘tute a reserve for the future after the exhaustion of the beds near

the surface.
Erie county
Entering Erie county at a point 2 miles northeast of Akron
the escarpment formed by the Onondaga limestone and underlying
waterlimes passes through Akron southwesterly to Clarence, thence

_. westward parallel to and % mile north of the Clarence-Williams-

6 eee ee a ae ee

wa

+:

ort Ce eh de dl

shales.

ville road. It continues through Williamsville and follows rather
closely the road from Williamsville to Buffalo. Within the city
of Buffalo its limits are as follows :!

It follows the general direction of Main street from the Alms-
house to near the New York Central Railroad belt line at Rodney
and Fillmore avenues. After crossing Main street, it passes near
the corner of Oakwood and Woodward to Oakwood and Parkside
and enters the park at the stone quarry, crossing from there into
the cemetery at the corner of the iron fence near Agassiz place.
From here it sweeps around in a curve to Scajaquada creek at Main
street bridge and passes out of sight beneath the drift on the left
bank, about 300 feet below the bridge.

Of the escarpment Bishop says: “ The hydraulic limestone is

_ usually visible at the base, or north side, of this escarpment as a

stratum of variable thickness in the face of the cliff but occa-
sionally forms a terrace ranging from a few feet to 200 yards in
width and approximately parallel to the escarpment. This terrace
is most conspicuous between Williamsville and the Buffalo city
line.” — |

Very few exposures of the Salina shales north of the escarp-
ment are recorded. The area is very flat and uniformly drift-
covered. A small outcrop on the southern end,of Grand Island

and an outcrop along the Canadian bank of the Niagara from near
the International bridge to a point opposite Strawberry island show

the Camillus shales to be “soft light gray or olive gypseous
”2 Borings would seem to indicate an absence of the Ver-

1 Bishop, I. P. N. Y. State Geol. An. Rep’t 15. 1895. p. 312.
Luther, D. D. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 99, p. 8.

™ ——

52 ‘NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

non shales, and Luther places the entire thickness of Salina shales
at 333 feet. The overlying Bertie waterlime thas a thickness of
53 feet at the Buffalo Cement Co’s quarry, while the Cobleskill
above varies from 7 to 9 feet near Buffalo to 12 feet at Falkirk
near Akron. 3 |

Although gypsum beds of good quality no doubt occur below the
Bertie waterlime, no definite information can be obtained of such
deposits with the exception of the important ones at Akron and
those encountered in the wells of the Buffalo Cement Co. at
Buffalo.

Many gas wells drilled in Buffalo and 2 the eastward along the

99 66

escarpment report varying amounts of “ gypseous shales, eray
and white gypsum,” etc., but careful examination of such records
fails to lead to any definite knowledge. They were all drilled by
churn drills in search of gas not gypsum, and little dependence
can be placed on the data relating to the latter, either as to its
quality, thickness or its depth from the surface.

The occurrence of gypsum at Buffalo was well established by
the work of the Buffalo Cement Co. described by Ashburner.’

The Buffalo Cement Co. drilled a series of wells near the Main
street crossing of the belt line in search for gas. Well no. I was
drilled to a depth of 490 feet 6 inches with a diamond drill. Well
no. 2 was drilled 6 feet from well no. 1 with a 554 jump drill to a
depth of 1305 feet. The core of well no. 1 is in the possession of
the Buffalo Academy of Natural Sciences. The record of no. 2 as
given by Ashburner is as follows: “

DEPTH ; - aa MATERIAL
Feet Ft
I-25 Shale and cement rock in thin streaks
25-30 Tolerably pure cement rock
30-43 Shale and cement rock in thin streaks

43-47 Pure white gypsum

47-49 Shale

49-61 White gypsum

61-62 Shale

62-66 White gypsum

66-73 Shale and gypsum, mottled

73-131 Drab colored shale with several layers of white sy psum,
measuring 18 feet in all

131-33 Dark colored limestone

133—37 Shale and limestone

137-40 Dark colored compact shale

140-720 Gypsum and shale, mottled and in streaks
720-25 Limestone :

725—60 Soft red shale

760-85 White solid quartzose sandstone, very hard

785-1305 Soft red shale

Ashburner, C. A. Petroleum and Natural Gas in New York. Am. Inst.
Min. Eng. Trans. 1888. 16:924-27.

5
'
‘

Plate 10

Shaft of U. S. Gypsum Co., Oakfield

s ~ ; - 7
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* a Pe ;
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,

~

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK 53

At 1305 feet the drill was stopped. Permanent water was struck
at 43 feet; gas of fair quality as well as quantity, at 452 feet; salt
water, leaving on evaporation about 12 per cent of salt, was found
at 555 feet. A shaft 20 feet square, was sunk on the premises
later, for the purpose of determining the feasibility of mining the
gypsum, but the rush of water through the gypsum layer at 43-47
feet, was so strong that a pump with a capacity of 2000 gallons
_ per minute failed to make any impression upon it, and the attempt
was abandoned.

Since then no further effort to exploit the gypsum has been
made, though by reason of its quality and situation it seems to
' offer an attractive field which would warrant more thorough inves-
_ tigation than has been given to it.
_ The Akron gypsum “ basin,” as it is locally termed, is situated
northeast of the village of Akron or 20 miles west of Buffalo. The
_ productive area lies south of the West Shore Railroad, with which
_ connections are made by long switches.

The boundaries of the workable bed or beds of gypsum have
been rather well defined by the sinking of various shafts and the
putting down of a number of core drill holes. On the northern
side the boundary seems to follow rather closely along the Bloom-
_ingdale road running northeast from Akron, beginning at a point a

little west of the Akron Gypsum Co’s shaft and running north-
easterly about 2 miles. The drill holes put down by the various in-
terested parties in the vicinity and an unsuccessful shaft north of
the road on the Akron Gypsum Co’s property indicate an abrupt
termination of the gypsum deposit north of the road and a large
-amount of unconsolidated material. There is a possibility that this
low lying area represents a channel formed during the glacial
period and subsequently buried or filled up with glacial till, and
that the scouring out of such a channel has robbed that area of
large amounts of gypsum.
_ In width the basin ranges up to over a mile. The whole area
‘could be represented as pear-shaped with the small end lying just
west of the Akron Gypsum Co’s shaft and the large end east of
‘the American Gypsum Co’s plant.
_ The southern boundary is the least well defined, since the beds
@ end on toward the south under the escarpment of Helderberg
‘and Onondaga limestones, which rises to a hight of 100 feet above
‘the low lying flat on which the plants and mines are situated. It
3 said that a test boring drilled through the limestones on the
“ledge” directly south of the Akron Co’s shaft gave but a foot
Be good gypsum, while two recent drillings made on the Newman

54. ; NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

property along Murder creek just south of Akron showed the ~
presence there of but a small amount of gypsum. These would —
seem to define the limits of the western end of the basin. The
boundaries of the eastern end under the ledge south of the Ameri-
can Gypsum Co’s shaft have received but little attention, and nothing
could be learned concerning them. The bed of gypsum as mined
consists of a 4 to 5-foot bed of light colored crystalline or granular
gypsum, It is overlain by from 25 to 50 feet of thinly bedded ~
impure limestones, and these in turn are rather heavily covered by

a mantle of glacial clay varying from a few feet up to 25 feet in
thickness. The section at the new (no. 2) shaft of the American
Gypsum Co. is as follows:

MATERIAL THICKNESS

E Feet .-" -Fnehes
Drift clay oe a ae et ae Po) eee
Rocks ¢watertimie) ar< ce Sse ay ieee eee eee a 3 4
Cla Yeas 05.2 o Pee ee eo ae a oe RR
Rock-Gvaterlme)y on... wis See ee eee ee 3a 8
Clayoiwater=bearin@. s 296 pies ee Mr egret et Be to: “aye ely aie
Rock (waterlime) 2.35. 8 Sie oe eee eee 2 ee oe
““Ashes:”? :o0.7y 26s Se SS ee es ee tee 4
Gry postin 27-5 yet eae ates ee ha ahd Ss See er ee ae ss T 7 okghoees
Rock, Gwaterlime)-* 2-5 eo a ee eee eae ne es ;
Rock? roof (waterlimie): 2s. 24 32 ee es ee eM ee
“ASHES 77 css cso Beige cgule Selinger at 8
Gry PSUM, |. esc0 0 ei deca see as Oe ane cee ee : 4. oe .

Other sections in the vicinity ‘are very similar, so that the above
might be taken as typical. The clay beds below the drift are evi-
dently a series of soft weathered shales and are frequently a seri- —
ous source of annoyance to mining operations on account of the
large amount of water they contain. They are often so thoroughly
saturated with water as to be veritable “ mud seams” of soft fluid —
clay. Above the main gypsum bed so called “ashes” (an impure —
shaly gypsum or a mixture of selenite and shale) and even more
massive gypsum rack is found in small layers. :

The acreage known to be underlain with eypsum is controlled
mainly by three companies, the American Gypsum Co., the Akron
Gypsum Co. and the United States Gypsum Co., of which the
companies first mentioned are engaged in the minine aaa mi
industry, while the United States Gypsum Co. does not at pre
work its property. The whole field is comparatively new, i
development work having been done in 1903. eae

American Gypsum Co. This company operates a aa cH ig
plant and mines 2%4 miles northeast of Akron on the boundenal
line between Genesee and Erie counties, the lands on which it~
owns mineral rights being situated on both sides of the line. En-

Plate 11

Shaft of the Niagara Gypsum Co., Oakfield

Plate 12

Mill of the Niagara Gypsum Co., Oakfield

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK 55

_ trance is had to the mine by means of a shaft 60 feet deep. This
' shaft is divided into three compartments, one 5 by 8 feet for air
g passage and stairway; one 6 by 8 feet for passenger elevator ; and
_ one 6 by 8 feet accommodating the bucket elevator. Mining is
_ carried on underground much as in coal mines, the most approved

methods being employed to secure economy and safety. The gang-

ir |
| I
los!
eo r
‘On en. et a ee,
poten pi ee i
t l ees
les ork gat ee ct
gig —-'—> --4 /7'—--- A Le ~—
; 20 i=
ima
| 1
\ 1 be ;
, 1 | | i] le or
4 i | |
| ’
al
hts, ne
! ’ | |
eee po

ae
:
\are

———— —

re aekat a takes 6 ~~ -
Wt1? West Gx ; fF
or —— S04 * Weel Goteguey & ef eeiqeey — — d-
ee eee
ee ae
ea ee s=—
Ee a Sar ed oa me ae
mee pees Lid
Pein Soe fete ant
I ; Pte nate eS ae Ay,
\ I y ) IS ae
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eee te Cy
2 EWE West Gongray*) \
fee es a er TW’ cf) *4—-3 L-—
| 10 N22 Fast
li Cy,
tk
; tase
Fic. 5 Mapof the surface plant and eapesaround workings of the American Gypsum Co.,
iy trun

4]

ways are carried 6 feet high and are wide enough to admit of
‘using the 2 feet of barren rock taken from below the gypsum
_ bed for a supporting wall on either side of the gangway. The
“rooms are driven 24 feet wide by 300 feet long and their hight is
‘simply the thickness of the vein, or 4 feet. Pillars 24 feet wide
_and alternately 40 or 60 feet long are left, each being separated by

ih

56 | NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

a 20-foot cross cut. Good ventilation is afforded by the use of a
9-foot Buffalo Forge Co’s exhaust fan operated by a 914-horse-
power motor. Excavation is done by contract, the miner buying’
his blasting materials and hiring his assistant who loads the cars.
For drilling, Howell’s no. 2 air drills are used. The air com-
pressor is driven by an &5-horsepower motor. This compressor
also furnishes power for the pump at the bottom of the shaft.

At present the cars are drawn from the rooms. to the shaft by
means of mules, but the managers are planning a system of electric
haulage which will do away with all mule haulage in the gangways.
The mine is well lighted by electric lights, well ventilated and kept
dry. At the foot of the shaft the mine cars, holding about one
long ton, are dumped by a side dump into a steel hopper which
carries the rock to a point where it is picked up in the buckets of a
vertical bucket elevator which hoists it to the mill overhead. This
elevator is 110 feet long, contains 175 buckets and travels 80 feet
per minute. :

The rock is thus hoisted into the mill built directly over the shaft,
is discharged into a 36-inch by 42-inch Jeffrey crusher where it is
immediately crushed and then screened, all material over 1 inch in-
size being reelevated to the crusher. The crushed rock is then ready
for shipment, the whole product being sold crude to cement fac-
tories. The dust arising from the grinding is carried by suction
through pipes into a series of long vertical cloth sacks where the
air escapes and the dust remains on the inner surface of the sack.
At intervals the bags are shaken and the dust allowed to collect at
the bottom. No use is being made of the dust at present, though
it seems adapted for certain purposes by reason of its fineness and
nearly pure white color. _ i

All the machinery in both mine and mill is driven by electric
power from Niagara Falls. The current furnished at 11,000 volts
over a 3-phase 25-cycle line, is. taken to a concrete transformer
house where it is stepped down to 440 volts. It is then supplied
to an 85-horsepower motor for an Ingersol-Rand compressor, to
a too-horsepower motor for the Jeffreys crusher and bucket con-
veyor, and to a 9!4-horsepower motor driving the 9-foot ventilat-
ing fan. For the electric lighting, the current is passed through a
5-kilowatt transformer.

At the time the plant was visited in June 1g09 a second shaft 64
feet deep had been sunk 1420 feet.west of the working shaft, and
preparations were under way to erect a breaker and extend the

Plate 13

Shaft and mill of the American Gypsum Co., Akron

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK 57

_ tailroad switch to that point. A sketch map of the underground
workings is shown in figure 5, page 55.

There is a large flow of water into the workings, as in all the
shafts of this field, but drainage is accomplished satisfactorily.

Akron Gypsum Co. The mill of this company is situated 1 mile
northeast of Akron on the Bloomingdale road. The mine is situ-
ated southeast of the mill and is connected with it by a narrow gage
gravity railroad. Mine and mill are comparatively new, active
operations having begun in the fall of 1908. Mr George Ralph is
manager. Entrance is had to the mine by a 6 by 12-foot shaft
divided into two 6 by 6-foot compartments, and is 84 feet deep.
Mining is conducted by the company itself and not under the con-

_ tract system. The men are divided into gangs, each consisting of a

machine man operating the drill and doing the blasting, a helper
and two muckers. A large number of Indians from the nearby
Tonawanda Reservation are employed in the mines and are giving
very good satisfaction. Drilling is done by compressed air. The
mining system in vogue is based on the old method of extraction
by means of radiating gangways which center at the shaft. Pillars
are left 30 feet apart and about 10 feet thick. The mine cars are
pushed to the bottom of the shaft by hand, each man being required
to push 30 cars a day and receiving a bonus for all additional cars.
The gypsum bed as mined varies from 4% to 5 feet thick, so that
with the present methods of handling the cars, it is unmecessary to
excavate any bottom rock. When first opened, 4000 gallons of

_ water a minute were pumped from the shaft and although the flow

has since been greatly reduced, a 4-inch pump is still kept in opera-
tion most of the time and the mine is quite wet. No forced ventila-
tion is employed, a small airway on the east side of the shaft giving
sufficient air. The mine cars brought to the bottom of the shaft

_ are run directly on the platform of the hoist and are raised to the
~ surface by a smali drum hoist working in balance and driven by

'asteam engine. The cars are raised to a level above the ground and
are dumped either directly into 2-ton steel cars on a gravity track
or are dumped on the reserve pile. The cars are run by gravity to
the mill and are hauled back in a string by a horse. At the mill

7 which is situated just north of the Bloomingdale road the cars are

hauled up an incline and dumped automatically into a Butterworth

~ & Lowe jaw crusher. From this crusher the material passes di-

rectly to a “cracker” of the usual type, which reduces it to pieces
~ no larger than hickory nuts. It is then elevated and distributed to

58 NEW YORK STATE, MUSEUM

five 42-inch French taest ee where it is ground to a fine powder.
This is then screened on 60-mesh brass shaking screens inclined at
a 45° angle, and all material above 6o0-mesh is returned and re-
ground. Screw conveyors carry the ground material to Butter-
worth & Lowe kettles, three in number. These have a capacity of
10 tons each and have nonsectional bottoms. They are fired by
bituminous coal and use about a ton of coal a week, the calcining
being carried to the point of second settling. The use of a blast —
_of natural gas and compressed air in firing the kettles is being con-
templated. The dust arising during calcining is caught in steam-
filled chambers and returned to the kettles. From the kettles the —
plaster is conveyed to a large storage bin holding 900 tons. Some —
of this 60-mesh stucco is sold to outside companies for mixing, —
while some is reground on three 36-inch Munson buhrstone mills —
so that it is practically of 100-mesh and is thus sold for fine finish- —
ing plaster. The plant is equipped with two five-compartment
Broughton mixers and makes various wall. plasters - with thair and —
wood fiber. They manufacture their own supply of weod fiber, |
obtaining their wood, mostly poplar, willow and basswood, from —
the neighboring farmers. The wood is shredded on a Hoover im-_
proved. wood fiber machine, made at Perrysburg, O. Ihes hair —
used is washed goat’s hair and is purchased in bales. The sand is
obtained from the company’s own pit situated close by the mill.
The wood fiber made is mixed in the following proportion: I ton |
stucco, 30 pounds wood fiber and 10 pounds retarder. The wall
plaster containing hair is mixed in the proportion of 1 ton of stucco
-to23 pounds of hair, when it is then ready for the sand. Raw _
ground gypsum from the buhrstones is also sold as land plaster to.
nurseries, experimental stations and to fertilizer firms. Power for
the entire mill is furnished by three Bessemer gas engines no. 3146, -
speed 180 revolutions per minute, 125 horsepower, developing ~
altogether 400 horsepower. A Rand compressor engine no. 10
also is operated by gas and furnishes compressed air for the. mine
and for a small machine used in dressing the bulhrstones, each of
which requires redressing about every three weeks. The natural
gas used is furnished by the Akron Gas Co. through a direct pipe
line from Alden. It comes in under a pressure of 125 pounds but is
throttled down to 8 ounces for use. The gas costs 25 cents a thou-
sand feet and about 40,000 feet a day are used, bringing the tota:
cost up to $10 a day for fuel. The capacity of the mill is 300 ton S
of plaster a day.

|

t

a.
)

;
7

Plate 14

Mill of the Akron Gypsum Co., Akron

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK: 59

_ CHARACTER OF THE GYPSUM IN NEW YORK; CHEMICAL
ANALYSES

Within the long stretch of Salina strata from Madison to Erie
county are included gypsum deposits of different physical and
_ chemical characters. These variations are conditioned mainly by
_ the relative proportions and nature of impurities present and to a
_ lesser extent by the different conditions in which the gypsum itself
_ is found.
_ While the deposits all belong to the general class of rock gypsum,
from the descriptions of the individual deposits already given it is
possible to distinguish two types that seem to be separate in their
' occurrence and may have originated under somewhat different con-
ditions. The first of these is represented by the dense firm gypsum
in which the impurities. are evenly distributed so as to give the
appearance of a more or less homogeneous mass. This is the usual
_ rock gypsum which forms the basis of the calcined plaster industry
_ in New York and in most places elsewhere. It consists of a ground
mass of finely divided gypsum fibers or elongated acicular crystals
in felted arrangement, with cccasional larger individuals that stand
out prominently by their brilliant cleavage surfaces. The other
type is characterized by a loosely cemented aggregate of gypsum
and shale, the two constituents being plainly discernible. The gyp-
sum is usually in large crystals or crystal aggregates which by
themselves are transparent and quite free from impurities. The
> deposits of this type are built up of successive thin layers of the
~ selenite and shale. When the mass is exposed to the weather, the
shale decomposes quickly and falls away from the gypsum so that
’ in outcrops it may have the semblance of a high grade deposit.
This type is known to the gypsum miners as “ ashes,” owing prob-
ably to the grayish color and powdery nature of the shale. It was
7) quite extensively worked at one time for land plaster, but is evi-
dently unsuitable for calcination.
_ The chemical composition of the gypsum found in different sec-
tions of the Salina outcrop is shown by the accompanying detailed
analyses of samples which were collected during the recent field
work. The samples represent the run-of-mine gypsum as now
utilized, having been collected from the stock bins of the different
mills. The analyses were made by George E. Willcomb.

7

60 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

I 2 3 4 5 6
SiO ani, sae ch ete ree mene a! EAR .40 2.98 SURE 4.00
AlbO3. picts ties eee ee arate) SA Dasei) 1.92 Anh L,. 74
PesOs tea e sent 76) ie? Boh) Le 3 ba i
CaO’ Saas eae 30.62 30.74 30:70 20.27 | 21. oueeeens
MgOe tc Joe eee emce reZo 2.08 tog 8.29 7.207) 2ee
SO3Hs8.5.4icc dete Bae A3.59 42.390 43.78 33:83 930R4 sme
CO Rr a2 55 cee L192 2520 2, SOc. milk ee 9.50 6.38
HgO i. os hele ee ee 20.52 18.19 (197/53 14.87 ~ Easy ees

ee

: 00-44 98.24: 100.54- 100.23 67.39) Ounueum
Gypsum calculated. . 93.74 ° 91.27 °94.26 72:84 65 4ouNe@ eos

1 Akron, Erie co.

2 Oakfield, Genesee co.
3 Oakfield, Genesee co.
4 Garbutt, Monroe co.

5 Lyndon, Onondaga co.
6 Lyndon, Onondaga co.

The following incomplete analyses are from the paper by Arthas q
L. Parsons,! with the exception of no. 8 which is taken from The
Mining and Quarry Industry of New York State for 1907.7

I 2 are 5 oe 8
Gy esi “Fey 82. 5 o: 3 94.03 74:09 64.53 73.92 62. G0;may eam |
Siliea ek Gnisol: 35.1855 ak ene eee 6.05 11.17 +4262 = 320g
Otheramatter:) 227 5 woes 9 5.07 10.86 24.27 ~ 21 AS see

t Wheatland, Monroe co. Under “ other matter ” are included
CaCO, e755 Me COzs 6:
2 Wheatland, Monroe co. Analysis furnished by Iroquois Port-
land Cement Co. ?
Wheatland, Monroe co. Analysis furnished by Consolidated —
Wheatland Plaster Co.
Union Springs, Cayuga co.
Fayetteville, Onondaga co.
Fayetteville, Onondaga co. ; } |
Cottons, Madison co. “ Other matter” includes Al,O,, Fe,O,
1.84; CaCO, 6.575; MeGOs 507. |
Jamesville, Onondaga co. ‘‘ Other matter” includes AJ,O,,
Pe,0,™2.92; (CACO 3-242) Vise ©: 2.06: | |

oN)

“CO a7 yon IS

The analyses indicate that the gypsum content of the rock ranges
between the general limits of 64 or 65 per cent and 95 per cent.
The grade apparently improves toward the western end of the sec-
tion, in Genesee and Erie counties, where the average 1s above g 90
per cent. The rock in this part is also the lightest in color and
yields nearly white plaster.

1N. Y. State Geol. An. Rep’t 23. 1904.
*>N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 120. 1907.

aa!

uoIyy ‘sTeysAr9

o1Aydiod pue sutipueq Surmoys winsdés yoy

SI 93e[q

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK 61

; The impurities of the rock are such as might be expected from
the stratigraphic associations. The principal foreign ingredients
are lime and magnesia carbonates, clay and quartz. The iron shown
Eby the analyses is mostly present probably in the clay. The high
_ percentage of magnesia in the rock of the eastern section is a
striking feature, since it appears to be greatly in excess of the pro-

portions found in dolomites. The presence of free carbonate is
thus indicated.

PERMANENCE OF THE GYPSUM SUPPLY

| There are no sufficient data.on which to base an estimate of the
available gypsum supply, but in view of the magnitude of the

known deposits it would be a gratuitous task to attempt any formal
calculation. The production of 4,000,000 or 5,000,000 tons in the |
_ past is insignificant as compared with the amount that still lies on
the surface. It represents an equivalent of 40 or 50 acres of the
thickest beds, such as are found in Onondaga and Cayuga counties,
or about 400 acres of one of the 4-foot beds in the western section.
The existing mines and quarries could maintain the present rate
of production of 350,000 tons a year for an indefinite time. The
extension of the workings in depth or the opening of additional

areas on the outcrop will bring new supplies, as they are needed,
into the zone of exploitation.

METHODS OF PROSPECTING AND EXPLOITING THE GYPSUM
DEPOSITS

There are certain facts and inferences bearing upon the distri-
bution of gypsum in the New York Salina beds that may be found
useful in the conduct of expioratory work.

The main deposits occur in the upper Salina shales, and there-
» fore their horizon of outcrop is near the southern border of the
belt as traced on the map. Little is known of the character of the
“gypsum which belongs to the salt-bearing shales proper, and if rep-
‘resented anywhere in the present workings its identity has not been
established. The pockets of impure gypsum that are described
from the eastern section of the belt quite likely occur at different
horizons, since they are probably due to solution and redeposition
of the gypsum rock, but they have little industrial importance.

_ 1The deposits once worked at Port Gibson, Ontario co. seem to lie at a
lower horizon than the other occurrences in the State and may be below the
millus shale. The present investigation, however, did not uncover any
ite evidence of their association “with ‘the rock salt series.

62 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The best indicator of the position of the gypsum is the Bertie —
waterlime, which is found above the deposits in exposures along
the sides of valleys or hills, or to the south of them when the
surface is flat. It is much more resistant to erosion than the Salina
shales, and together with the overlying limestones can often be ~
traced in outcrop by the character of the topography. A very —
noticeable escarpment formed by the limestones extends across Erie, —
Genesee and Monroe counties, where it is known as the “ ledge.”
The Salina shales occupy the plain between this escarpment and the
parallel one to the north formed by the Niagaran limestones.

The absence of a protecting cover of limestones leaves the eyp-
sum open to the attack of weathering agencies which may result
in the partial or complete removal of surficial deposits: This seems
to be the prevailing condition in the western section where the
gypsum is very rarely seen in outcrop.

The sampling of gypsum must be conducted vith care and intel-
ligence. The successive layers or strata may show wide variations —
ue purity, and it is generally better to sample each separately so —
that the series of analyses will reveal their individual character. —
Sometimes it may be found practicable to work only certain beds, —
leaving the poorer material in the roof or floor of the mines. In 7
sampling the pocket deposits of friable shaly gypsum, close atten-—
tion is required that the mass of fibers or crystals may not ee un-
fairly sorted from the impurities.

The beds of rock gypsum can be explored to best advantage by
core drilling. It is difficult in most cases to form an accurate esti-
mate of their quality and thickness from exposures, except where
these result from previous quarrying or mining operations. The
sites of the dmll holes should be selected with due allowance for —
weathering and solution of the gypsum near the surface. Besides —
affording accurate samples for analysis the cores will’ give valuable
information as to the character and thickness of the covering.

The core drill is absolutely essential for exploration in Genesee
and Erie counties, since the surface in that section is almost level 4
and the deposits ‘lie at depths of from 40 to 80 feet. Its advantage —
over the churn drill is so obvious and decisive that there can be
little excuse for the continued use of the latter for such work.
After the glacial material is once passed, no difficulty need be an-
ticipated in securing cores of the limestones, shales and gypsum
with a 2-inch diamond drill. As a rule the glacial drift of western

Po ee ae 5 eee MAY Tere Tel ee ar, ate

~

county

Selenite from shaly deposits, Onondaga

,
d
“

i i i is tl ee el

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK 63

New York can be penetrated without much trouble, as boulders are
usually scattered and of no great size.

The extraction of gypsum by open cutting is necessarily confined
to the eastern and central sections. The pocket deposits are worked

only in a small way after the simple methods of early days. More
‘systematic operations are carried on in connection with the rock

gypsum of Onondaga and Cayuga counties. The beds are exposed
along the sides of hills with a thickness of from 20 to 60 feet. The
quarries at Lyndon, Jamesville and Union Springs are opened on
such natural exposures. The overlying limestones and drift are
stripped off or allowed to fall into the excavation left by the re-
moval of the gypsum. As the work advances into the hill an
increasing amount of overburden is encountered and in the course
of time becomes a serious problem necessitating a change to under-
ground mining or the abandonment of work altogether. There are
many abandoned quarries around Fayetteville. At Union Springs
the drift covering is stripped by steam shovels, and the material

_. loaded on cars for removal to a dump. The breaking of the gyp-

sum rock is effected by drilling and blasting with black powder or
dynamite. Both hand and power drills of the percussion type are
used in the quarries, the latter having perhaps less than the usual
advantage over handwork on account of the soft nature of the
material.

In the western section the gypsum is mined underground, and
this practice has also been introduced recently in some of the quar-
ries around Fayetteville to obviate the handling of the overburden.
Entrance to the workings is had through an adit where the gypsum
approaches sufficiently near the surface, otherwise a vertical shaft
is used,

The main adits which serve for haulage are driven from 5 to 8
feet high and from 6 to 10 feet wide. The larger dimensions refer
to the mines near Jamesville, where the gypsum is excavated in
large rooms and removed by two-horse wagons that are’ loaded
directly at the working face. With thin beds the rock is hauled
out on mine cars attached to a cable. In some cases a foot or so of
the floor rock is removed to provide the necessary head room, but

_ this is generally unnecessary. The size of the rooms ranges up to

30 feet square. The overlying limestone makes a firm roof and
little support is needed in addition to that given by the pillars ; tim-
bering or backing is only rarely necessary.

64 | | NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

~ The mines ‘at Akron and Oakfield, as vell as those of the Con-
solidated Wheatland Co. at Wheatland and the Garbutt Gypsum
Co. at Garbutt are entered through vertical shafts from 50 to 70
feet deep. The shafts have either two or three compartments, one
of which serves for a ladder and airway. The underground work-
ings follow the room and pillar system but are more regularly
planned than those of the adit mines and are based on accurate,
surveys. The early methods of extending the drifts radiately from
the shaft or in a haphazard manner are no longer pursued to any
extent. The mines are often electrically lighted, ventilated by
forced draft and when necessary are drained by pumps which raise
the water from a sump at the shaft bottom. Gas, electricity and
steam are used for power purposes, the former being supplied from
the natural gas belt of western New York. Electric locomotives
have been recently introduced for underground haulage, but in most _
mines the cars are either pushed by hand or drawn by mules. The
hoisting is accomplished in various ways. At the Garbutt mine a
derrick.and boom raise the rock which is loaded into.a metal scoop. -
The American Gypsum Co. has installed at Akron a bucket elevator.
Single and balanced platform hoists which raise the gypsum in the
mine cars are most generally employed.

The rock is broken by drilling and blasting.- Auger drills are
used in some mines and percussion drills in others, the former being
employed when the rock is sufficiently soft. With hard or tough
rock they are apt to become heated and to bind in the holes. Some
companies prefer to let the mining on contract, while others main-
tain the wage system. The miners represent all nationalities but
are mainly from southern Europe. A few Indians from the New
York reservations are employed.

The mines are usually connected with the milling plants by —
tracks. In the Fayetteville district, however, the rock is teamed,
except in one case where a traction engine is used to draw a 20-ton ~
wagon, and the haulage is here an important item of the working —
costs. Much of the output of this section is shipped in lumps or
ground form to-cement and plaster mills outside the district.

~ | - mets ee -
= : ge es =
'

ORIGIN OF GYPSUM
General principles and theories
Gypsum is formed by the combination of sulfuric acid with lime —
in the presence of water. The sulfuric acid need not necessarily be —
in free state, since almost any soluble sulfate may react upon lime

pe ee te TPE ee

-

ROT ee ee OR

_ Satin spar in veins formed by secondary deposition in sh
Ontario county

ale,

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK 65

minerals, specially the carbonates, to produce an interchange of
' bases. Wherever a source of sulfuric acid exists in nature, the
q formation of gypsum may be expected under ordinary circum-
stances, as the other essentials are nearly always at hand.
The derivation of sulfuric acid can be traced most commonly to
_ the oxidation of the sulfur occurring in metallic sulfids. The iron
_ sulfids— pyrite, marcasite and pyrrhotite — are particularly wide-

spread both as rock-forming minerals and in ores. When exposed
_ to atmospheric influences they are subject to rapid decomposition,
_ yielding such compounds as hydrogen sulfid, sulfurous and sulfuric
_ -acids, ferrous sulfate and iron oxids. The presence of hydrogen
_ sulfid in the spring waters that issue from the shales and sandstones
| of western New York is an illustration of the decomposition of
_ iron sulfids which are disseminated in the shales. In the Oak Or-
: chard spring at Byron, Genesee co. sulfuric acid of similar deriva-

tion exists both free and combined with lime, magnesia and the
alkalis. Another source of the acid is from the decay of organic
matter, which yields hydrogen sulfid in the first instance. This gas,’
as well as sulfur dioxid, is also given off by volcanos, fumaroles and
hot springs, and gypsum is frequently deposited near their vents by
the action of the acid vapors and waters upon lime minerals.

With the supply of sulfuric acid that is made available in these
ways the formation of gypsum takes place very generally through-
out the zone of weathering and ground-water circulations. Under
some conditions the gypsum may accumulate directly in sufficient
amount perhaps to have economic importance, as when acid solu-
tions from the decomposition of pyrite come in contact with beds
of limestone. But more generally it is carried in solution until the
waters reach the surface and are concentrated by evaporation.
‘Though gypsum dissolves rather slowly in pure water, its solubility

‘is greatly increased in the presence of salts of the alkalis, specially
sodium chlorid, so that sea water for example is a much better
‘solvent than fresh water. It is by concentration of the surface
waters held in some inland basin, lake, or arm of the ocean that
the valuable deposits of gypsum are usually formed.

Deposition of gypsum from sea water. ‘The deposits that result
rom the evaporation of sea water have been investigated by
J. Usiglio, Van’t Hoff and others. Usiglio in 1849 carried out a
eries of laboratory experiments which outline very well the gen-
eral conditions of their formation, though his results have been
amended in some respects by the later works of Van’t Hoff and his
issociates. The experiments were based on samples of water taken

bd

66 | NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

from the Mediterranean, which has a slightly higher content of —
solid matter than the open ocean, but which does not differ notice-
ably in the relative proportions of the several ingredients.

By evaporation of the water, which at the start had a density of
1.02, no marked deposition took place until the specific gravity of
1.05 was reached, when the volume had been reduced to 53 per
cent of the original. Between this density and that of 1.13, the ~
iron oxid and calcium carbonate were precipitated. Then, with a F
volume of only 19 per cent of the original, the solution began to 4
deposit gypsum which, continued to come down until the density —
reached 1.26. At a density of 1.214, when only 9.5 per cent of the ~
solution remained, salt was deposited along with magnesium sulfate —
and chlorid. Further concentration brought down the more soluble
salts in variable order, but sufficient details have been given for the
present purpose.

The sequence of deposits from sea waters accondinetam is first lime- —
stone and ferric oxid, next gypsum, and then salt and magnesium

compounds. Gypsum is precipitated when 81 per cent of the water —
is evaporated and salt when a little over go per cent 1s removed.

The formation of gypsum beds in oun with limestones and 4 |
salt deposits is thus a simple process. But the evaporation of aq
relatively shallow lake or an arm of the sea alone would scarcely 4
afford any considerable thickness of gypsum. Of the total solid —
matter in sea water, amounting to 3.5 parts in 100, Only about 3.6 ©
per cent consists of calcium sulfate. The extensive accumulations
of salt and gypsum are to be explained, probably, by some stich -
method as that advocated by Ochsenius. According to his theory
the deposition occurred in nearly inclosed arms of the sea or
lagoons.. If a bay or lagoon is connected with the sea by a narrow
and shallow channel, evaporation will cause the denser brine formed
at the surface to sink and concentrate at the bottom while its dif-

fusion will be prevented by the shallow opening seaward. Surface
currents may enter from the sea, however, to maintain an equilib-
rium with evaporation. Prevaed there is little land draimage i in
the bay, the salinity of the water will increase until saturated, and
deposition of the constituents will then occur in regular se-
quence. The process may be interrupted of course at any time by
an unusual influx of water, or there may be periodic fluctuations

supply so as to produce an alternating series of deposits. T

this method of concentration affords an explanation for many

the salt and gypsum beds is made probable by the fact that there
are present day examples of its operation. Some of the bays on

=

a ag

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK 67

pe shores of the Caspian sea are now depositing salts, while the
raters of Kharaboghaz, which are almost shut off from the sea by
lor g spits that leave only. a shallow channel: between them, are in
process of concentration and are fed by a surface current that ‘is
estimated to bring 350,000 tons of salt a day into the gulf.

_ According to this theory the evaporating basin is in effect a con-
auous salt pan and the thickness of the deposits that might be
ae is limited only by its depth.

Formation by conversion of limestone in place. Where ground
Waters are supplied more or less constantly with available sulfuric
acid, from pyritic shales for example, it is not improbable that they
n lay convert large masses of limestone into gypsum during the
course of time. The gypsum would retain perhaps the bedded
structures of the limestone and would thus closely resemble the
deposits from sea water. Just what importance is to be placed upon
this method in relation to stratified deposits in general can not be
ated, though some geologists have advocated its application to
extensive occurrences, including those of New York State.

; There is no doubt that this process operates ina small way.
Scattered masses and crystals of gypsum formed by the reaction of
acid solutions upon lime are found in the clay beds along the Hud-~
river. The indurated shales upon which the clays rest are
pregnated with’ pyrite, which affords a source of sulfuric acid,
while the clays themselves contain !ime carbonate to the amount of
e eral-per cent. The gypsum is-often well crystallized in detached

individuals but has no economic value.
_ Gypsum deposited by ground waters. Ground waters holding

talcium sulfate in solution may come to rest in joints, fissures or
other openings in rocks, where evaporation may bring them to the
point of saturation. The gypsum usually separates in the form of
lenite or in the fibrous aggregate known as satin spar. The gyp-
a strata with their inclosing rocks are frequently veined and
. ed by such secondary deposits. The cavities thus filled may
aa e been very narrow at first, but were widened gradually by solu-
and possibly as well by the expansive force of the growing
a ls. The force of crystallization is regarded by some geologists
S$ an peeeant factor in the formation of cavities occupied by
metals deposited from solution. Though its magnitude is not
efinitely established, it is considered in general to be measurable
the crushing strength of the minerals themselves. If such be
‘case, it is apparent that large masses of gypsum might be built

+

A

68 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

up within cavities of originally small compass, such as joints and_
the openings along bedding planes.

An example of the accumulation of salt a gypsum by the work |
of ground waters is found according to G. D. Harris* in the so’
called “ Five Islands” or “ Salt Islands ” of Louisiana which rise”
as dome-shaped hills above the low coastal plain of the gulf. The
domes are not due apparently to differential erosion but have been
actually uplifted en masse, so that the strata dip. away from their
centers on all sides only to become horizontal as the plain level is”
reached. Their wplift has been ascribed previously to different
agencies, including gas pressure, water under a great head, and to
deep seated igneous masses which are working toward the surface.
Harris finds that the domes occur at the intersections of master”
faults and thinks the faults have served as channels for the ascen-
sion of saline waters from great depths. With temperatures cor-~
responding to their source in the interior at the start the waters”
would rise throughout the faulted strata and be compelled to pre-
cipitate their salts as they become cooler on their way. The solvent
power of water for sodium chlorid decreases most rapidly betwee
the temperature of 180° and that of 120° C. so that the precipita-
‘ tion of this salt would take place in greatest amount at considerable
depths. The tendency therefore is to form a cone which, slender
at first and pressing against the surrounding strata, would grow)
broader and longer by deposition at the base. The force of crystal-
lization, it is thought, might move the mass upward spreading out
the strata on al! sides. With the deposition of salt the power of :
holding calcium sulfate in solution increases until the salinity is
reduced to about 14 per cent, after which it rapidly decreases. Cool-
ing of the solution down to about 40° C. also increases the solu-
bility. The formation of gypsum would take place accordingly near
the surface, and it is noted that the gypsum of Louisiana and Texas
usually occurs above the salt. ;

This hypothesis involves a striking, if not a novel, application of
the force of crystallization to the origin of such deposits. It seems,
however, to meet the peculiar conditions that surround the occur
rence of salt and gypsum in the gulf region (as well as in a few
localities elsewhere) conditions which are difficultly explainable by
the more common method of deposition from sea water. While
there is, thus, much in its- favor from a geologic standpoint, there
also need of more knowledge of the physical principle on which
its validity ultimately depends.

|

1 Econ. Geol. 1909. 4:12.

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK 69

Mode of origin applicable to the New York deposits

_ There is no doubt that the gypsum of the Salina beds has been
deposited by evaporation of surface waters and is an integral part
of the stratified succession. This view is advocated or tacitly im-
plied in most descriptions of the New York deposits that have
already been published, though it has not escaped criticism. The
evidences which form the application of this method to the ex-
clusion of other theories may be summarized under the following
heads:

_ I Form and structure of deposits
2 Associations of the gypsum
3 Biologic conditions in Salina time

1 The occurrence of the gypsum in thin lenses which are of the
e degree of continuity as the inclosing strata indicates an ac-
cumulation concordant with the salt, shales and limestone of the
Salina. The lenses, in most instances at least, thin out very grad-
ually, showing only moderate changes of thickness as they are
traced from place to place and few irregularities not common to
Sediments in general. If the gypsum were formed by the reaction
of acid waters upon limestone, variations in form like those found
replacement deposits of metallic minerals would be expected.
The type of deposits in which the gypsum occurs as nodular masses
with a thickness nearly equal to the horizontal dimensions — as fig-
ured by Hall and represented in Dana’s Manual — is certainly the
exception and not the rule and is the result probably of solution
of the larger masses by underground waters. Such deposits are
Diictrated in figures 3 and 4 on page 25.
The undisturbed condition of the beds as generally observed is
also against any theory of secondary deposition either by reaction
upon limestone or by precipitation from ground waters. The change
from limestone to gypsum involves an increase of 90 per cent in
the volume, which would hardly occur without general disturbance
of the adjacent strata. The beds, also, are not faulted or fractured
0 as to permit the easy circulation of waters in vertical direction.

2 The close relation of the gypsum to the salt deposits is such as
vould be expected from the evaporation of sea water. While the
act that the salt underlies the main gypsum beds, whereas the re-
arse is the natural order, seems to controvert this view, an ex-
lanation for it may be found without recourse to extraordinary
“conditions of evaporation and supply of the sea waters. If the

70 : NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

| 7 ae
waters of that time held approximately the same relative prop or-
tions of salts in solution as the ocean of the present day, their
evaporation would afford one part gypsum to something over 20 of
salt. As gypsum occurs interbedded with the salt and probably
distributed more or less through the Vernon shale below the latter,
this relative amount may well be present in its normal order. The
relations indicate, however, that the process of evaporation while
the first gypsum and salt were laid down was subject to frequen nt
vicissitudes from the influx of new supplies of sea water into the
basins. After the salt had been precipitated. by repeated evapora
tions the process was suspended for a time, during which the basins :
were probably invaded by land drainage and shales were accum 1-
lated in considerable thickness. A renewal of the early conditions
with a fresh supply of sea water started the precipitation of gyps
again, but this time the process-was not continued long enough
apparently to bring down salt, or if it were precipitated it wa
redissolved before the overlying strata were formed. sg
Both the salt and main gypsum beds maintain a constant horizot n
throughout their extent. The main gypsum beds are found only i
the Camillus shale and are generally limited to the upper section
‘In the western part of the State they are capped by limestone w ick
shows no evidence of alteration by ground waters, and there 2
layers of unchanged limestone intercalated in the shaie. Ther
seems to be no sufficient explanation for any selective action on |
part of the limestone whereby certain beds were more prone to alte i
ation than others. sz
3 In the discussion of the stratigraphy of the Salina stage it wa
noted that the variations in the character of the strata are ac
panied by marked fluctuations in the abundance of fossil rem
The preceding Niagara stage is characterized by a fairly pr
and varied fauna-which has, however, a peculiar development th
is connected by paleontologists with changes of physical surrount
ings. The Pittsford shale at the base of the Salina holds a’ e
- different fauna that is characterized by eurypterids. Throughout
succeeding intervals represented by. the Vernon shale, ee
Camillus shales, there is little or nothing to be found in the way
fossil remains, and only with the Bertie waterlime, at the close
Salina, do they reappear and are then represented by an asse
related to that of the Pittsford shale. The lack of fossils
gypsum beds may be explainable, perhaps, as the result of so
and breaking down of the strata by underground circulatiot
‘this theory fails to account for their absence in the shales ar

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK FE

changed limestones which aggregate many hundreds of feet in thick-
mess. This circumstance as well as the other facts regarding the
fauna of Salina time becomes intelligible, however, when connected
“with the vicissitudes that life must encounter in sea waters of fluc-
eating salinity.

PROPERTIES OF GYPSUM AND THEORY OF ITS TRANSFORMATION
TO PLASTERS

The composition and peculiar properties of gypsum have been
the subject of frequent study by chemists since the development of
exact methods of analysis. A brief review of the more important
“investigations will serve to show the intricate nature of the prob-
‘lems encountered and assist their explanation in the light of recent
Tesearches, so far as they may have been solved.

We are indebted to Lavoisier for the first definite data on the
composition of gypsum! He dissolved the mineral in water and
found that its solubility was about one part by weight in 500 parts
water. From the solution he was able to crystallize the gypsum
out, and he therefore considered the mineral to be a chemical salt.
Furthermore he determined the nature of the acid and base, as
‘well as the presence of water of crystallization. By experiment it
was found that the cooking of gypsum produced no new compound
but simply drove off the water. In Lavoisier’s opinion all of the
combined water disappeared in the process, though he seems to
‘have been familiar with the fact that commercial plaster of paris
‘contained a small amount of moisture; consequently he was at loss
to understand why plaster heated to a higher temperature than cus-
tomary should be deprived of setting qualities.
Payen, in 1830 found that gypsum heated at 80° C. in a cur-
rent of dry air or 115° C. in a closed space “ began to lose very
slowly a part of its water of crystallization. This drying proceeds
very rapidly as the temperature is raised, but beyond a certain
P point (200° C.) an important modification takes place. The sul-
fate of lime hydrates with difficulty, and when heated at 300-
am C. loses all power to take up water of crystallization.”
In 1840 Berthier? showed that, contrary to the belief of Lavoisier
and others, calcined plaster contained from 3 to 8 per cent of water,
an d his results were confirmed later by Landrin.

1 Acad. des Sci. Compt. Rend. Paris. 1765.
' *Chimie Industrielle 1830 and Précis de Chimie Industrielle. Paris,
S51. ed.2. p. 3or.

Ann, des Mines, 1840, ser. 3, 19:655.

“Ann. de Chimie et de Phys. ser. 5, 3 :440.

¢
_

>

‘ a,
os

72 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

It remained for Le Chatelier! to make the first accurate observa-
tions in relation to the changes involved by the calcination of gyp-
sum. He noted that calcined plaster contained some 7 per cent
water, as shown by his own experiments and by analyses made in
L’Ecole des Ponts et Chausses. “‘ M. Debray has demonstrated,”
says Le Chatelier, “that different hydrates of the same salt are
characterized by different tensions of dissociation, greater as t
proportion of water is greater. This results in the fact that the

160
460
140

120

fo09. . = ; . : e . e
= co) (S 20 25 30 as mndades

Fsc. 6 Temperature gradient far the decomposition of gypsum. (After Davis) — ”

temperature of decomposition of the different hydrates, under a
given pressure will not be the same. In studying from this be
the decomposition of gypsum, I ‘have discovered that it spec place
in two very distinct periods of time.”

To confirm this conclusion he placed two grams of nova
gypsum in a glass tube, which he heated gradually in a paraffin
bath, recording by a thermometer the temperature every five m
utes. Using the time as abcissa and the temperature as ordir
he constructed a curve. This curve did not rise regularly |
contained two horizontal breaks in its regularity. The temp

ture after rising rapidly to 110° rose more slowly from I10’
} s . -—

1 Acad. des. Sci. Compt. Rend. 96, 1668. 1883.

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK 73

_ 120°, stood stationary a long time at 128° and then went on up-

ward more rapidly between 130° and 140°; a second stop analo-
gous to the first but less important took place at 163°. From
the results of this experiment W. A. Davis! has plotted the fol-
lowing curve [fig. 6].

Le Chatelier then says, “These two halts in the rise of the
thermometer were brought about by the absorption of heat which
accompanied the elimination of the water. They indicate the ex-
istence of two hydrates having different temperatures of decompo-
sition. To determine the composition of the intermediate hydrate,
I heated 10 grams of gypsum at a temperature of 155° which from
the above figures is intermediate between the decomposition tem-
peratures of the two hydrates. The loss of weight was as follows:

TIME GRAMS
Hours Minutes
Betas tail abiae Lat Ral Boar ae i whet a = a . 66
C2 2 I ee eee ee 1.36
we - Ne SS Se Sa a ale oe a £52
Ne ae Hie sets Me ee mete: = joy ¥en che wie fal £750
I Tee ory ten Ae ee 1.56

“The loss of weight at 155° tends then to a well defined limit
of 1.56 grams which corresponds exactly to 1.5 molecules H,O
for 1 molecule of CaSO,.”’ This leaves us a material with a for-
mula of CaSO,.44H,O identical with “half hydrate” noted by
Johnston? as found in the form of scale in a steam boiler heated
to 121° C. and by Hoppe Seyler? as formed by gypsum in presence
of water at 140—-60° C.

The same sample was then heated to 200° C. with the following
results :

TIME ; LOSS OF WEIGHT
ger Hours Minutes Grams
NEN ee ee es ihe! Gis wis Bape n 1.506
%F es Mee het aia! 6 wk a 2 ae ye ee
ts Sa Ee ee ee ee 1.98
ae MPT MR aS oes asta ca ine, BAO 1.98
Se WS a ae ee ES ee ea ee 2.08

This loss of 2.08 grams corresponds to two molecules of water to

one of CaSO,, that is, at 200° C. the dehydration is complete.

In summing up his results Le Chatelier says: “These experi-
ments show that there exists at least one inferior hydrate of cal-
cium sulfate having the formula CaSO,.%H,O and that it

1Soc. Chem. Ind. Jour. 1907. 26:728.
2 Phil. Mag. 1838.
*Pogg. Ann. 1866. 127:16r.

74 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

contains 6.2 per cent water. The commercial plaster containing 1 -
the mean 7 per cent water is then almost exclusively made up o:
this hydrate.”

In the past Io years a amie of chemists have taken up stead
question of the decomposition of gypsum, the formation of the
half hydrate and the anhydrite and their mutual relationships.
Among the number are Armstrong, Van’t Hoff, Shenstone, Cun-
‘dail Giger etc. [see Bibliography for references]. The most re- iy
cent investigations are those by W. A. Davis! ie moved by the -
uncertainty and lack of uniformity in the results previously ob-—
tained, has carried out a series of careful experiments, which he
presents along with a summary of the work performed by others. |
This very eae contribution is presented herewith in abstract.

At the time Davis entered upon his investigations there were
recognized, as derived from gypsum, the half hydrate, formed at
128° and decomposed at 163° [Le Chatelier]; the soluble anhy-
drite which according to Van’t Hoff was formed directly by heat-
ing gypsum in a vacuum over concentrated sulfuric acid without
the intermediate formation of the half hydrate, and natural anhy- —
drite, which can be formed by strongly igniting the soluble anhy-
drite. The soluble anhydrite is very Sa in water and sets vera
rapidly to a hard mass.

Davis first heated a series of gypsum samples at temperatures
between 98° and 130° C, and measured their successive loss in
weight or lossin water and derived the following curves [fig. 7a

The influence of the state of division of the gypsum is clearly ey
noticeable. aa

The striking feature in the curves, Was is that loss of. wate a. :
does not fee immediately after the material is heated. In one
experiment a whole hour is shown to elapse before any water is
given off. During this period the monoclinic gypsum is undergoi ng
a creat tite aaa change to the orthorhombic system, or in other
words CaSO,. 2 H.O is dimorphous, as are- nearly all the hy-
drated sulfates of bivalent metals. Further proof of this is shown
in the behavior of the half hydrate on setting. When the plaster
first sets into a coherent mass, microscopic investigation has shown
that all the crystals present have a straight extinction and are
probably orthorhombic. Gypsum crystals subsequently appear
cause the orthorhombic form is labile at ordinary temperate
and, in from a few hours to a few days, changes to gypsum. 7
perhaps explains the fact that plaster when first set contracts (w
the orthorhombic crystals are forming) and expands (at the chan;

a

a

15o0c. Chem. Ind. Jour: 1907. 26:727.

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK 75

removal of water by the air the two dehydrations may go on side
by side as follows:
fo, 2 H.O—CaSO,. % H:0+ 1% H,O ©
fon, 4 HO = CaSO, .+% H,O

_. This view is further substantiated by the heating of gypsum at
98° in an oven crucible with the formation of half hydrate in niné
hours and no further loss or change with eight hours heating.
Commercial plaster, Davis considers to be made up mainly of the
half hydrate, not solubie anhydrite as held by Cloez, since the
water vapor in the mass would immediately hydrate any anhydrite
fermed, cr at least the moisture from the air would soon alter it to
the half hydrate. Bottled samples of freshly made plaster almost

Fic. 7 Curves showi-g rates of dehydration of gypsum under different conditizns. +
(Afcer Davis)

always show 6 to 8 per cent water and are therefore the half
_hydrate.

In summing up then we may say that the change from gypsum
to anhydrite is brought about as follows:

LOSS IN. }
WATER ]
3 1 CaSO4.2HzO monoclinic to CaSO4.2H2O orthorhombic........ none
2 Ca$04.2He20 orthorhombic to CaSO4.4H2O0 orthorhombic. ..... 14mols
» 3 CaSO4.4He20 to CaSO, (soluble) orthorhombic............... 4 mol

_ 4 CaSOx (soluble) to CaSO, insoluble (natural anhydrite)...... none

76 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Of these, the first two steps are carried out on calcining plaster
and their reversal on the setting of plaster.

Davis classes freshly made plasters into four groups:

1 Those consisting mainly of the half hydrate, containing 6 to8 ©
per cent water. :

2 Those containing soluble anhydrite and very hysroueie with |
less than 6 per cent H,O.

3 Plasters containing more than 7.5 per cent H,O and consisting :
of half hydrate mixed with some gypsum.

4 “Dead burnt” plasters containing less than 6 per cent water
but not hygroscopic and setting slowly; these contain’ ordinary —
anhydrite. .

Setting of plaster. The property of plaster, or the calcined gyp-
sum, to set on mixing with water gives it its chief value. Gypsum cal-
-cined at temperatures varying perhaps from 100° C. to 500° C.
and mixed with water will, after a period of from a few minutes
to a day, take up water and become a hard mass. |

The cause of setting has long been an unsettled and debatable
theme, though the fundamental principle was laid down by La-
voisier in the investigations already noted. In addition to the ex- ~
periments that have been described he carried on one more. Into
a large vessel of water he threw some powdered plaster and al-
lowed it to sink. He says, “In passing through the liquid, each
molecule of plaster took back its water of crystallization and fell
to the bottom of the dish under the form of small brilliant needles,
visible only with a high power lens.” Examined with a lens they —
proved to have the regular form of gypsum. He concluded that —
the setting with water “is nothing more than a simple crystalliza- _
tion”; gypsum, deprived of its water, reabsorbs it greedily and
again becomes crystalline. Lavoisier thought that his investiga-
tions left no doubt as to the cause of the hardening of plaster, and ©
that there remained “nothing to be desired in explanation of the —
problem.” Though the change is caused primarily by a crystal-
lization and the taking up of water, the chemical, crystallographic
and physical changes in all their steps are far from clear; as stated —
by Mr Davis,* “the problem has proved to be one of extraor- —
dinary difficulty, and in spite of the investigations made by such —
well known chemists as Marignac, Le Chatelier and Van’t Hoff, —
an amount of .confusion exists with regard to the subject whic
is almost without parallel in inorganic ehecistey a

Landrin? made an elaborate investigation into the setting of pha E
ter and brought forward the theory that the plaster partially dis-

1 loc. cat.
* Ann. de Chimie, 1874. - p. 434.

_ GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK vis

solved in the water which became saturated with respect to it.
The heat of the chemical reaction causes an evaporation of some
_ of the water and a consequent crystallization of the saturated solu-
_ tion, the first crystal developed determining and hastening the
_ crystallization of the whole mass. Le Chatelier later showed, how-
ever, that plaster would set in a vacuum so that evaporation was
not the means of causing the crystallization.

Le Chatelier! in taking up the question utilized the observation
of Marignac? that calctum sulfate in contact with water gives a
supersaturated solution which allows the deposition of crystals of
the hydrous calcium sulfate. With plaster cooked at 140° a solu-
tion is obtained containing 9 grams of CaSO, (per liter, i. e. four
times more than can normally exist in solution. Le Chatelier goes on
_ to say that such supersaturated solutions, capable of uniting directly
with water to form their hydrates are common, for example
Na, SO, Na, CO, etc., all of which salts set when mixed with water.
_ Finally he believes that the set is the result of two simultaneous
_ phenomena: “On the one hand the masses of the plaster mixed
_ with water dissolve themselves on hydrating and produce a super-
_ saturated solution. On the other hand, this solution allows at the
| same time a deposition of crystals of hydrous calcium sulfate. They
_ are added to little by little and bind themselves together.”

G. P. Grimsley,* although agreeing with Le Chatelier and others
that the set of gypsum is due to a formation of a network of
crystals of gypsum crystallized from a saturated solution of the
half hydrate, to account for the cause of the beginning of the crys-

tallization advances this theory: “The effect of heat on gypsum

in the burning of plaster as we have shown, is to remove a certain
percentage of water, and to break up the small masses of the rock
into finer and finer particles, microscopic and even ultramicroscopic
in size. If the heat is not carried too far, certain particles through
the mass may still possess their crystalline form and are true
crystals though small. These minute crystals in the saturated so-
lution would start the process of crystallization. . . If the plas-
ter is underburned the gypsum is not reduced to the proper fineness
and uniformity, and so would not permit the crystallization to go
On in the way it would in a properly burned plaster. But of more
importance, the hydrate represented by plaster of paris would not
be formed. If the plaster is overburned, it will be so completely
comminuted that no minute crystals will be left to start the crystal-

1 Acad. de Sci. Compt. Rend. 96, 714. 1883.
Ann. de Chimie de Physique Tome I, 279. 1874.
_ * Kansas Univ. Geol. Sur. 1899. 5:95. :

ior _ NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

lization. Where the plaster is slightly overburned, the crystals a
extremely fine and crystallization goes on very slowly and
perfectly.” | a
While the presence of any unburned gy psum may hasten or othe: r-
wise influence the setting of some plasters, it does not appear ‘a
the process is absolutely dependent upon that condition for its start.
In the case of soluble anhydrite there is rapid setting on addition of
water, which is hardly explainable by the view taken by Grimsley.
The approximate solution of the problem is undoubtedly to be
found in the work of Davis. “It has always been assumed |
the setting of plaster is due to the regeneration of gypsum by
action of water on the half hydrate. If, however, the setting of.
the half hydrate be carefully observed by means of the polarizing
_ microscope, not a single gypsum crystal can at first be detected in 1
_ set mass; the cake of set material, during the first quarter of an h
_ after it has hardened to a coherent mass, which is only slig'
indented by the finger nail, is made up of crystals: showing a str
extinction only, and therefore probably orthorhombic. The
product of the setting of the half hydrate (or soluble anhydrite)
indeed, the same orthorhombic dihydrate as is produced in the st
stage of the dehydration of gypsum. Gypsum crystals subsequ
make their appearance within the set mass, owing to the fact
the orthorhombic form of the dihydrate is labile at ‘the «¢ ordi
nary temperature, and. undergoes change more -or less rapidly —
during the course of several hours or several days, the time vary P
ing greatly —into the more stable form of gypsum. The series
of changes |

Ss ex:
a CaSO..2H:O <> f CaSO.2H O T= CaSO. % HO ‘5
Gypsum (monoclinic) (orthorhombic) Half hydrate (orthorhombi *

is, indeed, strictly reversible. Before gypsum can undergo d
draticn to form the half hydrate, it passes into the orthorhe
form of the dihydrate, and the latter is also the first a
the hydration of the half hydrate.”
Some recent experiments have been made by Leduc and Pell
on the relation of calcining temperature to the setting of pl: tet
They calcined for an hour or more pure alabaster at Me
peratures and mixed the plaster formed with 85 per cent
The results of their aioe Hes are as follows:

1Le Genie Civil. 1906. 497253.

Plate 18

Jaw crusher

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK 79

SET SET
-@ALCINING TEMPERATURE BEGINNING COMPLETE
2 . APTER | AFTER
2 )
: a e. Minutes ier
eo cu... .... 2 eee Pe ee ARN Ree Ree ees ae ee 8 | 16 minghes
ee dS ceo id aa iam Sota Spat Gpwenn ae 4A = : 4 | 6 minutes
Ik wo 8 area ns hha ten Ee 4 | over 54 hours
ee Pei a Aho etree ks crs) FEES Pee 24 hours
ce ose 1. Gls a a's Dae eeernle Sage Sat ee ae | 24 hours
EE aS ae ee eee ere ry (2 oan | no set
ees”. ae ae ne es a ees Sten wee ea dew odes 4 GISELE
a a 7M Sime EN is ag to Se Be no set
aE Rate pane ee ea: ana Aan ed | no set

Eihis indicates that the most efficient temperature for calcining i is
at about 250°C. (482° F.).

TECHNOLOGY OF GYPSUM PLASTERS

Plaster of paris and wall plasters

_ The manufacture of the different calcined plasters is based on
‘similar methods, though there is considerable variance in the details
‘of practice and equipment of the plants. In every case the crude:
gypsum from the mines or quarries must undergo the two opera-
tions of crushing and calcination. |

_ The plasters made in New York and also practically all those
manufactured in this country belong to the half hydrate class, i. e.
their basis is plaster of paris. Their varied qualities depend mainly
upon the proportion of impurities present in the original rock and
upo the addition of artificial materials to hasten or retard the
setting pages: The anhydrous plasters which include the so called
* cements ” and the German flooring plasters form a distinct group
that can best be considered under a separate head.

_ Crushing. The crushing of the material may be performed
either before or after calcination. The general practice in this
muntry is to make a partial reduction at least before burning,
hough abroad the crude rock is often calcined in arched kilns in
aL omer similar to the burning of limestone. With the kettle
rocess, which is widely used in American plants, the rock is re-
iced to a fine powder before calcination. The introduction of
otary cylinders for calcining among the newer plants involves a
change of the crushing prccess whereby the rock is subjected to

7
So NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

a preliminary reduction to uniform size and after calcination is
given a second treatment for pulverization.

The first step in reduction is performed in a coarse crusher, by
which the rock of size convenient for handling is broken to lumps
of about 1-inch diameter. The crushers commonly used are of the
jaw or gyratory types, the preference in New York plants being
given to the former. One form of jaw crusher or “ nipper”’ spe-
cially devised for gypsum plants is shown in plate 18. The mov-—
able jaw, as well as the end plate, sometimes has a corrugated sur- |
face which prevents the soft material from clogging the outlet. —
The machine shown in the illustration weighs 13,000 pounds and —
will crush each hour from 15 to 30 tons of rock.

From the coarse crusher the gypsum passes into the “ cracker.”
This machine works like a coffee mill, having a corrugated shell
of inverted conical shape within which revolves a corrugated spin-
dle [pl. 19]. The machines have a capacity: of from 3 to 12 tons’
an hour and crush to about pea size.

After this treatment, the gypsum is ready for charging into
rotary cylinders if these are used for calcination. For the kettle
process, however, it is next run through a fine grinder of which ~
there are several forms well adapted for the purpose. In the ™
mills first erected the grinding was universally done by buhrstones, ~
and this practice continues to be quite common, though it has been
superseded in most of the modern plants by more improved meth-
ods. The stones are set the same as in flour mills and may be of
French or domestic make. The small expense of such an oufit is.
its chief recommendation and is offset by the necessity of redress-
ing the stones from time to time, an operation that requires a
high degree of skill. }

An improvement on the horizontal millstones for grinding gyp-
sum is the use of a vertical mill which can be run at a higher
speed. This type is common abroad. The Sturtevant Mill Co
of Boston manufactures a vertical mill of special construction that
has been installed in several plants. The stones are built up of
emery blocks set in a metal shell around a central disk of bulhrstone.
The emery blocks are held secure by metal filled in while molten.
A 36-inch Sturtevant mill is shown in section in plate 20. The
mill is supplied with an automatic feeder from which the gypsun
is carried by a worm conveyor and forced between the stones.

Another machine in use for pulverizing gypsum is illustrated in
plate 21. It is made by the Williams Patent Crusher & Pulver= |

ce

:
.

Type of cracker uséd in crushing gypsum

Plate 20

Section of Sturtevant mill

Plate 21

\

q — 1
AY AX —
Z ®) ‘

LS

CO ri
. a
oa

= be NS

eres Ck ey
Ae iS

Pee Dame ee eh Lida

The Williams pulverizer

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK 8I

izer Co. of St Louis. The reduction is accomplished by means of
hammers carried on a rapidly revolving horizontal axis and work-
ing against a corrugated breaker plate. The machine is said to
take rock that will pass through a 2-inch ring and crush from 12
to 15 tons an hour through a 30-mesh screen.

The Stedman disintegrator, which is characterized by a series of
concentric cages with steel crossbars, the adjacent cages revolving
in opposite directions and crushing the rock by impact, is employed
in some of the western plants. The roller mills in use for grind-
ing flour is also said to be serviceable for gypsum.

There seems to be no standard of fineness for plasters, such as
obtains in cement manufacture. ‘The size of the particles, however,
is not without influence upon the setting qualities, though within
the moderate limits of variation in ordinary practice the degree
of fineness does not appear to be very important. A series of
sieve tests on marketable plaster from the middle western districts
has been published by the Iowa Geological Survey,’ the results of
which show that an average of 70 per cent of the ground plaster
will pass through a sieve with 74 meshes to the linear inch, about
60 per cent through a 1oo-mesh sieve and 44 per, cent through a
200-mesh sieve. .

Calcination. The chemical features of the calcination process
are described elsewhere in detail. Though the process is simple
in theory, as well as in its mechanical requirements, it demands a
degree of experience and skill to insure a uniformly satisfactory
product.

The common kettle method of calcination as used in this coun-
try is an adaptation of the earlier practice by which plaster of paris
was made on a small scale in a cauldron kettle over an open fire.
The modern kettles are cylinders of boiler steel, nearly square in
vertical section, set upright on a brick foundation. Their diameters
range from about 8 to 10 feet. The sides are constructed of sheet
iron 3g to ¥% inch thick, while the bottoms which must withstand
extremes of temperature are usually cast from the best grade of
scrap iron, and their thickness varies from 34 inch at the edges
to 4 inches in the centers. The bottoms are arched upward rising
about a foot at the crown. Some kettles are made with sectional
bottoms, so that in the case of breakage it is only necessary to
replace the broken part instead of installing a new bottom. The
cover is of sheet iron and has a trap through which the charge is
introduced.

1An. Rep’t 12. 1902. p. 162.

OO
i)

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The kettle is inclosed nearly to the top by a brick wall with an
open space between for the circulation of heat. The fire chamber | a
below is a little narrower than the kettle and rises from 4 to 7
feet above the grate’ bars. The heated gases pass through ports ,
into the open space at the base, then into flues which are placed —
horizontally in the kettle itself and out through a stack. The flues —
_are built in sets of two or four. In a kettle of two flues they are —
placed parallel about 8 inches above the crown. The arrangement re
in a kettle of four flues is shown in plate 22 taken from a photo- =
graph furnished by Butterworth & Lowe, Grand Rapids, Mich. The 7
kettle illustrated measures 10 feet, 4 inches across by 8 feet, 5
inches high and will calcine 10 tons of ground gypsum into pi .
of paris at a single charge. The weight of the metal is be 10° —
tons. | | =

The kettles are generally installed in line and worked - in pairs a
with a feeding chute and a pit for the calcined product between — |
each pair. In burning it is necessary to keep the gypsum in con Z
stant agitation, for otherwise the hot mass would soon destroy ei j
kettle bottom. The agitation is accomplished by means of a ver-—
tical shaft to which paddles are attached and which is turned at —
the rate of 15 revolutions a minute by means of a crown wheel .
connecting with a pinion on the mill shafting. From 10 to 254
horsepower is required to maintain the agitation. ; a

The arrangement of an installation in a kettle plant is shown in
figure 8, which is reproduced from a drawing furnished by Butter RE
worth & Lowe. q

In operation, the kettle is charged with ground gypsum through
the trap in the cover and is filled in about an hour. Heat is grad-_
— applied during the process, and wher the temperature reaches _
220° or a little above, the mass begins to boil vigorously from 1e
escape of the mechanically held moisture. After this. is evaporated
there is a noticeable settling, and the steam almost ceases for a time. :
With increasing heat a second ebullition begins between 280° an) id -
- 290° F., causing the mass to rise to the top of the kettle. o
steam now is due to water of crystallization which continues”
come off as the heat is raised. When tke boiling begins to slacken,
the mass settles again and is ready for removal into the fire bra
bins for cooling. The finishing temperature ranges between 3
and 400°, as there is no fixed point. which marks the completion
the process. The Wi: calciner relies a eee phy

Ui

KETTLE FEED BIN

SMOHE STACK

ii

aN Ss ee A

eyes SS
‘ Sieve ppc
s Nee a tee JES By
*h< EARTH FILLING Qy
- 0 Pet aire
Fa ee NS
Aina Sao St
« . a 2 .! Po

Fig. 8 Cross section of 10 ft kettle room BUTTERWORTH E LOWE,
GRAND FRaPips, Micw

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK a 83

operation, though thermometers are used in some plants as a_fur-
ther check. The wide range of temperatures at which the burning
is completed may be ascribed largely to the variation in the purity
of the gypsum. According to Paul Wilkinson’ the temperatures
used in the manufacture of plaster of paris from the Kansas rock,
which averages very high in gypsum, do not exceed 340° F., while
_ they run about 396° F. as a maximum in the calcination of the
impure earthy gypsum. :

If the calcination is finished at too low a temperature the change

_ to half hydrate will be incomplete; the plaster in that case will be
deficient in strength. On the other hand, if the temperature is car-
ried too high, there is danger of converting a part of the whole of
the charge into anhydrite. Soluble anhydrite results when the over-
_ burning is continued for a short time only and insoluble anhydrite
when it is of longer duration and at stili higher temperature. The
presence of soluble anhydrite in plaster freshly burned is perhaps
not t4incommon, though the main ingredient is, of course, the half
hydrate. According to Davis any soluble anhydrite in the product
will take up moisture from the air to form half hydrate, so that its
_ presence in small amount may have no detrimental effect.

The time required for the calcination of a charge ordinarily is
from two and one quarter. to three hours, depending on individual
practice. The fuel consumption with bituminous coai averages from
200 to 300 pounds for each ton of plaster. After cooling in the
pits the product is elevated to a revolving screen, which removes
any coarse material for regrinding, and is then transferred to the

storage bins. 3
The kettle process has been criticized frequently as uneconomical,
and this is undoubtedly a serious drawback. Its simplicity and
the fact that plaster makers have grown accustomed to visual
methods of controlling the burning operation seem to be the main
reasons for its continued-favor. As compared with the rotary kiln
the kettle consumes for each ton of plaster made, more fuel in cal-
cination and more power in agitating the charge, while it is less
efficient by reason of its interrupted operation.
The Cummer rotary kiln is the only continuous calciner in use
in this country. It is made by F. D. Cummer & Son Co. of Cleve-
land. The apparatus as installed for operation is shown in plate 23.
The gypsum rock is not pulverized as in the kettle process but
is crushed to pass through a 34-inch ring and delivered to the stor-
‘age bin over the feed spout of the kiln. This consists of a steel

——

4m. Inst. Min. Eng. 1897. 27:516.

cylinder set on a slight incline and turned slowly on roller bearings
by means of a large spur wheel at the upper end. The rock enters
the cylinder at the same end and gradually works its way down as”
the cylinder revolves, being lifted and dropped by blades attached
to the sides. The hot gases from the furnace are forced by a fan
into the brick chamber surrounding the cylinder where they are |
mixed with sufficient air, admitted through the registers at the base,
to give the desired temperature. From the co-mingling chamber
’
3

84 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM A | 1
| |

the air and furnace gases are drawn by a fan through hoods into
the interior of the cylinder which they traverse in a direction oppo-
site to that taken by the material. The temperature of the interior
is maintained between 400° and 600° F., according to the character
of the rock and the desired product. As the rock remains in the
cylinder only 10 minutes, there is little danger of overheating inci-_
dent to the kettle method. A thermometer is placed in the discharge
spout where the operator can watch it and regulate the flow of
gases so as to give a uniformly heated product.

An indispensable feature of the Cummer process is the calcining
bins into which the steaming material from the kiln is removed.
Four bins are required for each cylinder. They are made of brick
and lined with paving brick which have little absorbing power. The
material remains in the bin for about 36 hours, during which time
the free moisture not driven off in the cylinder is removed as well ©
as a further part of the water of crystallization. While the cal-
cination is going on in the bin, outside air is excluded, thus allow-
ing the heat of the material to equalize itself throughout the mass. ~
Small variations in temperature during the day’s run of the cylin-
der have little or no influence on the character of the product so
long as the average remains fairly constant. With the use of four —
bins the process is absolutely continuous; while one is being filled, —

calcination is going on-in the second and third, while the fourth is —
being emptied. |

The arrangement of a mill in which the Cummer process is used
is shown in figure 9. The kiln is installed in the plant of the Ly-"
coming Calcining Co. at Garbutt, which has a capacity of 50 tons
of plaster in 11 hours. The fuel is soft coal. According to the
manufacturers’ circular the consumption of fuel, when a good
grade of coal is used, averages about 70 pounds for each ton of
calcined material, exclusive of that employed for driving the plas
which is a relatively small item. -

Another continuous process is described by F. A. Wilder’ as in

1 Iowa Geol. Sur. 1902. 12:213.

Four-flue kettle for calcination of gypsum

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK 85

use at Mannheim, Germany. The calciner consists of a fire box
and automatic stoker opening into the chamber that contains the
rotating cylinder. Above the cylinder and connected to it by a pipe
is a chamber through which a spiral conveyor passes. The gypsum
ground to a size not larger than a hickory nut is charged into the
forewarmer, is conveyed by the spiral to the other end and dis-

DUST rrOOM

REVOLVING
CALCINER

ROTARY: &
" CRUSHER G@o-

Fic. 9 Arrangement of installation for Cummer process

charged into the rotary cylinder. A fan forces the hot air and

_ gases from the fire box into the cylinder and this calcines the gyp-

sum and forces it toward the discharge end of the cylinder. The
material is agitated by a continual lifting and dropping brought
about by a series of shelves or buckets on the sides of the revolv-
ing cylinder. The larger lumps which would require a longer period
of heating for calcination, owing to their weight, are moved most
slowly toward the discharge point, and thus receive the most heat,

86 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

while the fine powder which if allowed to remain long in contact |
with the heat would become dead-burned, passes quickly to the rear
end of the cylinder under the blast of air. The gases and hot air
pass out of the cylinder and into the forewarmer where whatever
heat remains in them is utilized in heating the crude gypsum on its
way to the cylinder. The gases and air, then with a temperature of
but 80° F., pass into collecting chambers to recover any dust of
plaster in dete and thence out through the stack. — ;

In Europe gypsum is commonly burned in lump form in arched
kilns, which are built of masonry and somewhat resemble the ordi-
nary brick kiln of this country.1 The heat from the central fire pit
is conducted through radiating channels, which are constructed. of
the larger gypsum blocks, and then finds its way upward in the
spaces between the lumps to issue finally through flues in the roof.

Plaster of paris used in porcelain and china ware manufacture
requires careful preparation, as it must form a light, porous mass
when set. This grade.is made mostly in France and Germany.
The calcination is often carried out~in brick ovens, the gypsum —
being stirred frequently during the process. An improved type. of
oven that is now employed in Germany for making porcelain plaster
takes the form of a long room constructed of brick into which the
gypsum is carried on cars.2 These have racks holding five or more
shelves which are loaded with rock that has been previously crushed
to 1-inch size or smaller. The rcom is heated by a furnace below,
the gases passing through flues in the walls and not coming into
contact with the gypsum. The temperature is maintained uniformly
at 140° C. (284° F.). Three charges are burned in a week, and
the output of each is about 8 or 9 tons of calcined plaster. Be

Resultant product. The product resulting from the operations a
just described is a finely divided calcined plaster. If a pure gyp-
sum has been used it will consist of calcium sulphate plus a small
residue of water, the amount depending upon the degree to which —
the calcination is carried. The ideal composition of plaster of paris
is represented by the formula CaSO,. % H.O which calls for 93.8
per cent of calcium sulphate and 6.2 per cent of water. These per- —
centages are approached in high grade plaster of paris, which finds —
special uses, but most wall plasters contain a considerable propor-
tion of impuritics due to the admixture of clay, lime, magnesia
etc. with the gypsum.

a

t

1 ( aie = G. P. Technology of Gypsum. Mineral Industry. 1899

-

2 Wilder F. A. The Gypsum Industry of Germany. Iowa Geol. Sur...)
‘An.-Rep’t 12. [feGeqae en a

Joursyeo AivjoO1 JowuNy)

€% aed

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK 3 87

The composition of the plaster, other things being equal, is an
index of its setting properties. A pure plaster of paris of normal
fineness when mixed with water ‘will harden in about six minutes.
This is known as the initial. set.’ Impure plasters, on the other
hand, may require an hour or more to harden.

Addition of retarders. Plasters intended for wall and other
structural purposes must be slow setting to avoid difficulty in
manipulation. If this is not a natural property, which may be
found in the impure sorts, it is necessary to induce slow setting by
the addition of some foreign material. As a.matter of fact practi-
cally all wall plasters, however impure, require treatment with a
“retarder ” by which the time of setting is prolonged to from two
to four or five hours, according to need.

The retarders employed by manufacturers of wall pais in-
clude such materials as glue, glycerine, chemically prepared hair,
slaked lime, sawdust, and the tankage from packing houses. Most
manufacturers have a preference for some particular material, the

nature of which, as well as the proportions used, is generally care-

fully guarded. There are also several patented preparations on the
market. The effect of the retarder is probably to decrease the
solubility of the plaster and thus to extend the period of hydration

and recrystallization.

The retarder is added to the cool ground plaster in amount vary-
ing from 2 to 15 pounds a ton and is thoroughly incorporated by

the use of a mixing machine.

Wall plasters also contain some fiber — hair, wood or asbestos —
which is added before ‘mixing. From I to 3 pounds of hair to a
ton of plaster is the general proportion. The hair must be pre-
viously teased out by a picker. The wood fiber is made from a
soft wood like poplar, willow or basswood. The wood, cut into 20-
inch lengths, is run between two revolving toothed cylinders which
rapidly shred it. The mixing of the various ingredients is usually
carried on in a mixing machine known as the Broughton mixer
[pl. 24].

Anhydrous plasters

This class of plasters has as a basis the dehydrated product
which results from calcination of gypsum at a higher temperature
than is used in plaster of paris manufacture. Such plasters are

1 The set of plaster is determined in the same way as in the case of cements.
The apparatus commonly used is the Gilmore needle. A sample pat hav-
ing been made from the plaster, a needle of 4 inch cross section loaded .
with a 4-ounce weight is placed on it. The initial set is wis BNE as soon
as the needle fails to make an impression.

88 - NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

characterized by slow setting when mixed with water and by a
hardness superior to that of the half hydrate class. They are used

more specially as material for floors and for hard finishing of walls,

and corresponding to these uses two general varieties may be
recognized — Estrichgips or flooring plaster which was first intro-
duced in Germany, and the so called cements, of which Keene's
cement is a common example.

The manufacture of flooring plaster is still centered largely in
Germany. Its technology has been described briefly by Wilder.1
The nature of the material is still not well understood, though an
investigation by Van’t Hoff and G. Just® has thrown some light on
the subject.

According to Wilder, Estrich gypsum is prepared by calcination
of rock gypsum at a temperature of about 500° C. The rock is
not crushed, but taken directly from the quarry to the kiln. The
kiln resembles that used in lime burning. The gypsum blocks are
thrown in at the top and pass over an inclined grate which lies
over a fireplace. -They slowly work their way over the grate,
through a constricted space, and finally, when calcined, fall into a
cooling chamber. No attempt is made toward a close control of
temperature.

Estrich gypsum has come into general use in Germany as a floor-
ing material for office buildings, factories etc., where it takes the
place of portland cement. It admits of coloring and polishing, so
as to yield a good imitation of marble or other attractive stone.

Hard finish plasters or gypsum cements are made from anhy-
drous plaster by treatment with some chemical. The best known
representative of these plasters is Keene’s cement, which was first
manufactured in England. The burning process is performed in a
vertical kiln, somewhat similar to that just described, where the
rock reaches a red heat. The dehydrated material is then treated
with a Io per cent alum solution, after which it is again burned at
high temperature and ground for use. The action of the alum is
perhaps to assist the solution of the dead-burned gypsum. The
plaster sets slowly and when quite stiff can be softened again with
water, without impairing its hardening power. The high tempera-
ture at which it is burned tends to oxidize any iron present so that
a perfectly white product can be made only from rock Sypsias that
is practically free from such impurity.

1 OD. ii. pazros

* Kgl. Preuss. Akad. Wissensch. 1903. 1:249. A translation of this

paper appears in E, C. Eckel’s Cements, Limes and Plasters. -

NE Sits Ba ie ot ——

TT
t

.

teu

|

I]
b

i

Se
| Biss

The Broughton mixer

ae ayy oe mG 1A
pengn te eae
og

]
,

GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF NEW YORK 89

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Papers and reports relating to the gypsum deposits of New
York State

Ashburner, C. A. Petroleum and Natural Gas in New York State. Am.
Inst. Min. Eng. Trans. 1888. 16:906—59.

Includes well records, one being the well of the Buffalo Cement Co.

Beck, L. C. Mineralogy of New York. 1842. p. 61-67, 23 7-38.

» Notes on gypsum occurrences, many that are now abandoned.

Bishop, I. P. Structural and Economical Geology of Erie Co. N. Y. State
Geol. Rep’t 15. 1897.%1:305; also State Mus. Rep’t 49. 1898. 2:305.

Contains a number of local well records.

Clarke, W. C. The Gypsum Industry of New York State. N. Y. State Mus.
Beier. 1893. p. 70-84.
A brief description of the deposits.

Conrad, T. First Annual Report on the Geological Survey of the Third
District of New York. Albany. 1837. p.179. (ed. 2, p. 181).

Short description of the deposits of Madison and Onondaga counties.

Eckel, E. C. Gypsum Deposits in New York. U. S. Geol. Sur. Bul. 223.
1904. P. 33-35-

Brief description with map and sections.

Hall, James. Geology of New York. Rep’t 4th Dist. 1843. between p. 421
and 457. ~

Describes deposits in Monroe, Ontario, Seneca and Wayne counties.

Hopkins, T. C. Mineral Resources of Onondaga Co. N. Y. State Geol.
Rep’t 22. (1902) 1904. p. rrog—14; also State Mus. Rep’t 56. (1902)
1904. I:r1og—I4.

Gives notes on the development of the gypsum industry.

_ Jones, W. C. Gypsum Mining. Mines and Minerals. 1909. 29:490.

Describes the American Gypsum Co’s plant, Akron, N. Y.

Luther, D. D. The Economic Geology of Onondaga Co. N. Y. State Geol
Rep’t 15. (1895) 1897. 1:238—303; also State Mus. Rep’t 49. (1895)
Rego, * 2:238—303.

Discussion of general geology and local gypsum deposits.

The Brine Springs and Salt-wells of the State of New York. N. Y.
State Geol. Rep’t 16. (1896) 1899. p. 171-226; also State Mus. Rep’t
50. (1896) 1899. 2:171-226.

Contains good description of the stratigraphy of the gypsum series.

Merrill, F. J. H. Salt and Gypsum Industries in New York State. N. Y.

State Mus. Bul. 11. 1893.

A review of the industrial development of the deposits.

Mineral Resources of New York State. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 15.
1895; also State Mus. Rep’t 48. (1894) 1895. 1:359-595.

Brief notes on gypsum deposits.

Parsons, A. L. Recent Developments in the Gypsum Industry of New York
State. N. Y. State Geol. Rep’t 20. (1900) 1902. p. r177-—83; also
State Mus. Rep’t 54. (1900) 1902. 1:r177-83.

Notes on the different districts.

go : NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

—— Notes on the a Industry of New York State. N: Y.
Geol. Rep’t 23. (1903) 1904. p. 89-157; also State Mus. ee
(1903) 1905. 1 89— 157. .

Sarle, -CeJ- Hecaae Geology of Monroe Co., N. Y. N. Y. State Gee
Rep’t 22. (1902) 1904. p. T75—106; also State Mus. Rep’t = (x9
LQO4: . DT 7S 200. me
Describes the local gypsum beds and their utilization.

Vanuxem, L. Geology of New York. Rep’t 3d Dist. 1842. hee e

Notes on gypsum beds of Madison and Onondaga counties.

Williams, S. G. Geological Relations of the Gypsum Deposits in Cains
Co.) Be We Aa Jour. Sel... 2885. 130°212—18.

Discusses the stratigraphy of the deposits at Union Springs.

List of the more important general works!

Adams, G. I. et al. Gypsum igs SS in the United Statesy “iva Geok,
pur. Bul 23-2904.
Davis, W. A.. The Nature uf the Changes Laaeaeed in the Production: an a
Setting of Plaster of Paris. Chem. Soc. Ind. Jour. 1907. v¥. 26, pt 2.

am
Eckel, E. C. Gcaetaes Limes and Plasters. New York. 1905. ee
General discussion of gypsum, its oeeairrence, properties and manufacture; con

a good bibliography. ae

val

Glasenapp, M.. The manufacture of Hydraulic Gypsum and other Gypsum
Products. Cement & Engineering News. 1910.

Grimsley, G. P. The Gypsum of Michigan and the Plaster Industry. Mic
Geol. Sur. v. 9) 2pt-2. > seo
Contains bibliography.

A Sw
ye

—— Technology of Gypsum. Min. Ind.. 1899.” y 388.

—— &Bailey, E.H.S. Special Report on Gypsum and Gypsum ¢ Cem
Plasters.. Kan: Univ. Geol sur veog. “2 Soe:
Includes a bibliography.

Hunt, .T.. Sterry.- Ong ot ee Chemical and Geological Essay, rs,
ch. WEE.

Keyes, C. R. Gypsum Deposits of Iowa. Iowa Geol. “Sur. 1895.

Le Chatelier, H. Papers on the dehydration and ages of plasters. Con ip
Rendus. v.96. 1883. ; .

Leduc, E., & Pellet, M. The Influence of Temperature of Calcining or
Setting of Plaster. Le Génie Civil. 1906. 49:2 53-

Payen, A. Précis de chimie Industrielle. Paris. 1851. ed. 2. p.
Discussion of dehydration and setting of gypsum. : i }

Van’t Hoff, J: H., & Just, G. Der Hydraulische oder Sogenannte Bs
Sitzungsber. der Kgl. Preuss. Akad. der Wissenschaften. 1903.
Detailed account of the chemical changes involved in the manufacture of floo: i

Wilder, F. A. Geology of Webster Co., Iowa. Iowa Geol. Sur. |
12:651. ae ee

Descriptions of gypsum deposits.

1 For more detailed bibliography on the subject, the reader is referred to C
and Plasters by Eckel; Kan. Univ. Geol. Sur. v. 5, 1899; and to Mich. Geol. |
1904. Fi

4

INDEX

Adamant Wall Plaster Co., 30.
Adams, G. I., cited, go.
Agricultural plaster, 7, 11.
Akron, 48, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 64.
Akron Gypsum Co., 53, 54, 57-58.
Alabama, 47, 51.

Alabaster, II.

Alabastine, 14.

awe. A: F., 32.

Alvord, E. B., & Co., 31.
Allen’s creek, 41, 43, 46, 47.
Alloway, 37.

American Crayon Co., 12

American Gypsum Co., 53, 54-57, 64.

Analyses, chemical, of gypsum, 5961.

Anhydrite, 11.

Anhydrous plasters, 14, 87-88.
Armstrong, cited, 74.
Ashburner, C. A., cited, 52, 8o.
Atlas Co., 40.

» Attica, 22.

Auburn, 34.
Augusta, 20.
Aurelius, 34.
Aurora, 22.

Pa Cc. 7. 35.
Bailey, E. H. S., cited, 90.
Bangs & Gaynor, 30.
Bannister, quarries, 48.
Beck, L. C., cited, 80.
Belcoda, 46.

Bergen, 47..

Berthier, cited, 71.

* 41, 47, 52, 62.

Beulah, 46.

Bibliography, 89-90.

Big Four Plaster Co., 49.

Bishop, I. P., cited, 51, 80.
Black brook, 36.

Blackmar’s quarry, 37.

Brewing, gypsum in waters used for,

13.

Bertie waterlime, 18-20, 36, 38, 40,

Brown’s quarry, 27.

Brutus, 34.

Buffalo, 51, 52.

Buffalo Cement Co., 52.

Building construction, gypsum used
#3.) 538

Building stone, II.

Bull’s quarry, 27.

Butternut creek, 28.

Button, R. D., 27.

Byron, 47.

Cady, mentioned, 306.

Calcination process, 81-86.

Calcined plaster, 6, 7, 12, 48, 79-87;
uses, I3—I5.

Caledonia, 47.

Camillus shale,
ANS [GR

Camillus township, 6.

Cash, mentioned, 47.

Cato, 34.

Cayuga Bridge, 35.

Cayuga county, 34-35.

20-21, 36, 37, 38, 40,

.Cayuga Junction, 34, 35.

Ol

Cayuga Plaster Co., 35.
Cazenovia, 26.

Chapman, Fred, quarry, 33.
Chemical analyses of gypsum, 59-41.
Chili, 41

Chittenango, 27.

Cicero, 28.

Clapp farm, 46.

Clarence, 5!.
Clarke, W. C.,
Clay, 28.
Clifford quarries, 48.
Clock, Duane, 27.
Clockville, 27.

Clockville creek, 27

Cloez, cited, 74.

Clyde, 37.

Cobb’s quarry, 27.
Cobleskill limestone, 34, 38,

cited, &o.

re

92 NEW YORK

Collins quarries, 48.

Conquest, 34.

Conover, Clara, farm, 30.

Conover, C. M., farm, 39.

Conover, Eliza, farm, 39.

Conrad, L.etted-rco:

Consolidated Wheatland Land Plas-
ter’ Co, 40; 64.

Cottons, 27.

Cowaselon creek, 27

Crayons, 12.

Cresis, quarry, 35.

Crill, James, farm, 26.

Cross Roads, 34.

Cundall, 74.

Davis, W. A.,
90.

Delafield, John, cited, 36.

Diamond Wall Plaster Co., 45.

Dwyer & Canear, 33.

cited, 73, 74, 76, 78,

Eckel. 7s
Elba, 47, 48.
Empire Gypsum Co., 41.

Empire Plaster Co., 38.
Englehardt, F. E., analysis by, 27.
English Plaster Co., 49.

Erie county, 51-58; salt, 21.
“Estrich” gypsum, 14, 88.

cited, 12, 89, 90.

Falkirk, 52.
_ Fayetteville,
Fenner, 20.
- Fiddler’s Green, 32.

Flooring plasters, 14.
Port Hille di.47. Sk:

Frontenac island, 34.

20, 63% .tuairiies, 30.

Ganargua creek, 309.

Garbutt, 40, 41, 46, 47, 64.
Garbutt Gypsum Co., 42-43, 64.
Gardenville, 22.

Genesee county, 47-51.
Genesee Plaster Co., 48, 40.
Genesee valley, salt, 21.
Geology, 15-58.

Glasenapp, M., cited, go.

Glass industry, gypsum used in, 13.

Gourley, Mark, farm, 309.

. Howland point, 34.

STATE MUSEUM

Grimsley, G. P., cited, 77, 78, 86, 90.

Grinnell, Ezra, 4o.

Gypsite, 10.

Gypstereotyping, 15. ~

Gypsum (village), 38.

Gypsum, history of industry, 68;
statistics of production, 6-8; chem-

ical and mineralogic characters,

8-II; varieties, 10; uses of, 11-13;
occurrence in New York State, 15—
18; nature of deposits, 24-25; de-
tails of distribution, . 26-58;
chemical analyses, 59-61; character
of, in New York, 50-79; methods

of prospecting and exploiting de-

posits, 61-64; permanence of sup-
ply, 61; origin of, 64-68; deposi-
tion from sea water, 656-7; mode
of origin applicable to New York
deposits, 69-71; theory of trans-
formation to plasters, 7I-79; prop-
erties, 71-79.

Gypsum earth, 10.

Gypsum plasters, technology of, 79-
88.

Hall, James, cited, 24, 37, 47, ae 89.
Harman farm, 46.

Harris, G. D., cited, 68.
Hartnagel, C. A., cited) moma
Heard quarry, 20.

Henrietta, 41:

Herkimer county, 29.

Heth, Winslow, 37.

High Falls, shales, 17.

Hill, Monroe, quarry, 33.
Hills Branch, 34.
Hobokenville, 27.

Hopkins, T. C.,, cited; aa;
Howland, quarry, 35.

Hughes, mentioned, 47.
Hunt, “Es Ss cetted om

Indian Falls, 28, so
Tthaeas salt as

«

Jamesville, 29, 63; quarries, 31.
Jenkins, mentioned, 47. -

> ha

INDEX TO GYPSUM DEPOSITS

Jones, W. C., cited, 80.
Junius, 36, 37.
Just, G., cited, 88, 90.

Keene’s cement, 14, 88.
Keyes, C. R., cited, 90.
Kingsbury, Frank, 45.
Kirkland, 26.

Land plaster, 7, II.

Landrin, cited, 71, 76.

Eaasme, H. H., 30.

Lavoisier, cited, 71, 76.

Lawrence’s quarry, 27.

Le Chatelier, H., cited, 72, 73, 76, 77,
9o.

Leduc, E., cited, 78, 90.

Lehigh Valley Portland Cement Co.,
39.

Lenox, 26.

Leroy, 6. .

Limestone creek, 28.

Lincoln, 26, 27.

Livingston county, 40.

Eases, D.. D., cited, 21, 28, 36, 51;
52, 80.

Lycoming Calcining Co., 43-45.

Lyndon, 63.

Lyndsay, W., 6.

Lyons, 37.

Lysander, 28.

McEntyre, G. J., 42.

McVean farm, 46.

Madison county, 6, 26-28.

Manchester, 38.

Manlius, 6, 28, 32.

Manufacturing plants,
of, 26-58.

Marble, N., 34.

Marcellus creek, 28.

Marignac, cited, 76, 77.

Martisco, 32.

Massive gypsum, 10.

' Maxwell, 47.

Mendon, 41.

Mendon Center, 47.

Mentz, 34.

Merrill, F. J. H., cited, 48, 80.

Merrill’s quarry, 27.

description

93

Millen, Thomas, Co., 31.
Miller, A. D., 38.

Miller, Clifford, quarries, 29, 30.
Mines, description of, 26-58.
Monarch Plaster Co., 45-46.
Monroe county, 41-47.
Montezuma, 34.

Morrisville, salt, 21.

Mortar, 14.

Mudge, Albert, 45.
Mumford, 41, 47.

Murder creek, 54.

National Wall Plaster Co., quarry,
30.

Newark, 37.

Newkirk, 51.

Newman property, 53-54.

Niagara Gypsum Co., 49-50.

Nine Mile creek, 32.

North Rush, 46-47.

Oakfield, 48, 40, 50, 51, 64.
Oakfield Plaster Co., 49.
Oatka valley, salt, 21.
Olmstead, mentioned, 48.
Oneida, 206.
Oneida county, 26.
Onondaga county, 6,
aq. }
Onondaga creek, 28.
Onondaga limestones, 47, 51.
Ontario county, 38-40.
Ornamental stone, IT.

28-33; salt,

Palmyra, 37.

Parsons, « A.~ 4,
cited, 89, 90.

Partenheimer, quarry, 35.

Payen, A., cited, 7I, 90.

Pellet, M., cited, 78, go.

Perinton, 4I.

Phelps, 6, 38. *

Pittsford shale, 23.

Plaster of paris, 6, 7,
79-87.

Plasters, land, 7, 11; theory of
transformation of gypsum to, 7I-
79; setting of, 76-79; technology
of, 79-88; anhydrous, 87-88.

analyses by, 60;

12, 13-15, 48,

O4 F NEW YORK STATE oe

Plate glass, manufacture, 13.

‘Port Gibson, 37, 40, 61.

Portland cement manufacture, gyp-
sum in, 12.

Printing, plaster of paris used in,

15.

Quarries, description of, 26-58.
Ralph, George, 57.

Reeb, M.-A:," 40:

Richardson, quarry, 35.

Riva oar.

Rock gypsum, Io.

Rogers farm, 46.

Rondout waterlime, 38.

Rush, 41, 47.

Sackett Wall Board Co., 45.

Salina.township, 28.

Salina. shales: 15)926)537 abe ecar Gee
stratigraphy, 18-23; gong struc-
ture, 23-24.

Salt horizom 27.

Sarle,-C. J. seited;.90:

Satin (span.ao:

Seeler’s quarry, 27.

Selenite, 10.

Seneca county, 36-37.

Seneca Falls, 6, 36.

Seneca river, 34, 36.

Sennett, 34.

Severance quarry, 29.

Shawangunk grit, 17.

Sheedy, F. W., 30.

Shenstone, 74.

Skaneateles creek, 28,

Smithfield, 26.

Snooks, GC." A.; (3p.

South Byron, 47, 51..-

Springport, 34.

Staifi, 33 ;

Standard Plaster Co., 50.

Stockbridge, 265,

Storer, cited, 12.

Stucco, 13.

| Usiatio, jy 65 ee

Van Buren, 28,

Vernon, 26.

Victor Gypsum Co

Wall plasters, Hy 2

Sullivan bed, 27.

eonee pier quarry,
WPerra “alba, 22; —
Thompson, quarry, roe a
Throop, 34. | ese
Throopsville, 34> 52 ;
Tonawanda creek, 50. |
Ptetler Gales 39.
Tyre, 36, 37. '

Union Spree 6, 34, 35,
United States Gypsum
54. ;

Van't Hoff, J siete cite

«70, 887 GO Tie a
Veanirsem,. tae cited, 3
Van Valiente =

Vernon shale, 22, 8,
Victor, 38.

Warsaw, 22.) 5
Waterlimes, 51.

Weigert, F., cited,
Wheatland, 6, 40, 41

Wilder, i A_; cited sas
Wilkinson, Paul, cit
Willcomb, G. E., an
Williams, S. G., ¢
Williamsville, 51. —
Wine-growing _ ‘dist
ev paare in, ee ;

- New York State Education Department
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Joun M. Crarxe, Director
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MUSEUM PUBLICATIONS

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Geology. 14 Kemp, J. F. Goins, of Moriah and Westport Townships,
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19 Merrill, F. J. H. Guide to the Study of the Geological Collections of
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48 Woodworth, J. B. Pleistocene Geology of aocre County and Borough
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107 Woodworth, J. B.; Hartnagel, C. A.; Whitlock, H. P.; Hudson, G. H.;
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Contents: Woodworth, J. B. Postglacial Faults of Eastern New York.
Hartnagel, C. A. Stratigraphic Relations of the Oneida Conglomerate.
—— Upper Siluric and Lower Devonic Formations of the Skunnemunk Mountain Region.
Whitlock, P. Minerals from Lyon Mountain, Clinton Co.
Hudson, G. H. On Some Pelmatozoa from the Chazy Limestone of New York.
Clarke, a, M. Some New Devonic Fossils.
An Interesting Style of Sand-filled Vein.
—— Eurypterus Shales of the Shawangunk Mountains in Eastern New York.
White, David. A Remarkable Fossil Tree Trunk from the Middle Devonic of New York.
Berkey, C. P. Structural and Stratigraphic Features of the Basal Gneisses of the
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111 Fairchild, H. L. Drumlins of New York. 6o0p. 28pl. 19 maps. July
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hd ee H. P. Geology of the Long Lake Quadrangle. 88p. 2opl.

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g Clarke, J. M. Early Devonic of New York and Eastern North Americas
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Geologic maps. Merrill, F. J. H. Economic and Geologic rae of
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—— Map of the State of New York Showing the Location of Quarri
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—— Map of the State of New York Showing the Location of. its Economie
Deposits. . 1904. Scale 12 miles to 1 inch. 15¢.

Geologic maps on the United States Geological Survey topographic liaud:
scale t in. == 1m. Those marked with an asterisk have. also been pub- —
lished separately. }

*Albany county. Mus. rep’t 49, v 2. 1898. Out of print.

Area around Lake Placid. Mus. bul. 21. 1898. a7 bade

Vicinity of Frankfort Hill [parts of Herkimer and Oneida counties]. Mus. 4
rep't 51, v. r. 1899. ; att

Rockland county. State geol. rep’t 18. 1899. ee

Amsterdam quadrangle. Mus. bul. 34. 1900. Fg

*Parts of Albany and Rensselaer counties. Mus. bul. 42. I9OL.. PXeP, ft a

*Niagara river. Mus. bul. 45. 1901. 2 5c.

Part of Clinton county. State geol. rep’t 19. 1901.

Oyster Bay and Hempstead quadrangles on Long Island. Mus. bul. 4
Igot. i

Portions of Clinton and Essex counties. Mus. bul. 52. 1902. sek

Part of town of Northumberland, Saratoga co. State geol. rep’t 21. 19

Union Springs, Cayuga county and vicinity. Mus. bul. 69. 1902.

*Olean quadrangle. Mus. bul. 69. 1903. Free. ;

*Becraft Mt with 2 sheets of Be Ne, (Scale 1 in. = 4m) Mus. | bu
1903. 20. a

*Canandaigua-Naples quadrangles. Mus. bul. 63. 1904. 2o0¢.

*Little Fails quadrangle Mus. bul. 77. 1905. Free.

*Watkins-Elmira quadrangles. Mus. bul. 81. 190 5. 20.

- *Tully quadrangle. Mus. bul. 82. rg905. Free.

*Salamanca quadrangle. Mus. bul. 80. 1905. Free.

*Mooers quadrangle. Mus. bul. ae 1905. Free.

*Buffalo quadrangle. Mus. bul. 1906. Free. ; ae

*Penn Yan-Hammondsport quad raahles Mus. bul. ror. 1906. 266) 9

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*Remsen quadrangle. Mus. bul. 126. 1908. Free.

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*Rochester and Ontario Beach quadrangles. Mus. bul. 114. 20€, a ¢--

*Long Lake quadrangle. Mus. bul. 115. Free. aa

*Nunda-Portage quadrangles. Mus. bul. 118. 200. . ae bP,
mee.

¥ ‘s

hat i

*Auburn-Genoa quadrangles. Mus. bul. 137. 1910. 20¢. - it ae. ia
*Elizabethtown and Port Henry quads Mus. bul. 138. 1910. gc.
ia

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*Geneva-Ovid quadrangles. Mus. bul. 128. 1009. 20¢, >

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*Port Leyden quadrangle. Mus. bul. 135. 1910. Free. , a

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