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THE MUSEUM

TURAL HISTORY

BEING A POPULAR ACCOUNT OF THE

STRUCTURE, HABITS, AND CLASSIFICATION OF THE VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS OF

THE ANIMAL KINGDOM

• iiabrupcbs, ^irbs, glcptihs, aitb JlnsEtts

INCLUDING THE INSECTS DESTRUCTIVE TO AGRICULTURE.

BY

SIR JOHN MCl^RDSON, C.B., F.E.S. Lond., Hon. F.R.S. Edin.

Fauna Boreali Americana ; Arctic Search after Sir John Franklin.

WILLIAM S. DALLAS, F.L.S., and T. SPENCER ^OBBOLD, M.D., E.L.S.

ASSISTED BY

WILLIAM 5AIRD, M.D., E.L.S., and ADAM WHITE, Esq.

CURATORS IN THE ZOOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM.

WITH A

HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN FAUNA

BY

JOSEPH B. HOLDER, M.D.

FELr.OW OI’ THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OP SCIENCES, ETC. ; ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT
AMERICAN MUSEUM OP NATURAL HISTORY, NEW YORK.

VOL. II.

NEW YORK

JAMES S . VIRTUE

12 DEY STREET.

^Copyright, 1877, i)(/ Virtue ifc yorsiore.J

THE MUSEUM

OF

NATURAL HISTORY.

ZOOLOGY.

Class III. — REPTILES (Reptilia).

The term Keptile is derived from the latin word repto,
to creep or crawl, and, in a general sense, sufficiently
well characterizes the class of animals to which it is
applied. An uncouth, elongated body, supported by
remarkably short legs, which scarcely elevate them
above the soil they creep upon; little glancing, glitter-
ing eyes; and a capacious mouth, the jaws often fur-
nished with most formidable teeth — -render many of
them hideous and repulsive to the sight : whilst the total
absence of legs, their sinuous, tortuous body, gliding
along the surface of the ground, and the presence of
fangs endued with deadly poison, cause others to be
viewed with fear and horror. “ Of all the animals,”
says the Abbd Bonnaterre, “ which Nature has scattered
over the surface of the globe, and which she appears to
have thrown across the great scene of her works, in
order to animate the vacant space and produce motion
in it, reptiles are those which have the fewest of her
gifts. Their body presents only an ill-formed mass,
heavy and inactive; their senses are obtuse; their
instinct is reduced to sensations the most coarse ; and
their life is confined to seeking their food upon the
limits of earth and water, in those vast marshes where
everything conjures up the images of monstrous growths
from the ancient slime. In fact, they have neither the
grace nor the liveliness of other terrestrial animals;
they do not know, like these latter, how to amuse them-
selves, to enjoy each other’s company, nor to take their
pleasant sports either upon the earth or in the air ; but
they" glide on the ground, along the borders of lakes, in
the hollows of rocks, or under sterile thickets. Some
delight in the rays of. the sun ; others remain in gloomy,
moist, retired places during the day, and only quit them
at night so as to conceal their deformity, and to avoid
producing in man the sentiment of fear, disgust, and
horror, which their presence inspires him with.” This
apparently natural loathing and abhorrence seems even
to prevent the generality of naturalists from making
them their study, and deters scientific travellers from
collecting them. Reptiles, however, notwithstanding
this gloomy picture, are well worthy of attention.
There is, perhaps, no other class of animals in which
VoL. II. 57

such a great diversity of form and external configura-
tion is to be found. The little harmless lizard; the
fierce, gigantic crocodile ; the gliding, hissing serpent ;
and the unwieldy, slow tortoise — though differing so
much in general appearance, all possess characters in
common, sufficient to enable them to be united in the
same class. Amongst them, too, are many which, for
beauty, do not yield to any species belonging to any
other class of the animal kingdom. For rich and varied
hues, and for graceful and lively action, few exceed the
green lizard of the south of Europe ; and what can be
more beautiful than some serpents, which are endowed
with the brightest colours, and clothed in scales flashing
in the light with a thousand varied metallic reflec-
tions—

“ Terribly beautiful,

Wreath’d like a coronet of gold and jewels.

Fit for a tyrant’s brow?”

In an economical or utilitarian view, reptiles are not
of much value to man. The flesh of many, as the
guanas, is eaten by the inhabitants of the countries
where they are found, and is said to be both delicate
and well flavoured ; while that of the turtle, in many
instances, proves of great value to navigators in length-
ened voyages, and its gastronomic repute, especially
amongst English epicures, is too well known to inquire
particular notice. The shell of these latter animals,
known as “ Tortoise-shell,” is the most valuable pro-
duct derived from the class of reptiles, being extensively
used in the arts and manufactures.

From the earliest ages the forms and habits of rep-
tiles have arrested the attention of mankind. Numerous
passages in the Old Testament show, that many of them
were well known at the time the Scriptures were
written, whilst the ancient monuments of Egj^pt prove
how much they had been noticed by that earlj" race of
people.

Though not the most ancient inhabitants of the globe
(Crustacea, Polyps, Mollusca, and some fishes, having
made their appearance before them), they yet precede
Birds and Mammalia ; and, to use the words of Bory
St. Vincent, “ were, perhaps, the attempt by which

Genhral Characters. KEPTILES. General Characters.

nature passed from forms peculiar to creatures of the
waters, to those which characterize the vertehrated
animals of the land.” In the account of the creation,
in the first chapter of Genesis, we appear to have rep-
tiles mentioned twice. At the commencement of the
fifth day, or epoch, after the waters had been gathered
together, and dry land had made its appearance, lighted
up and warmed by the rays of the sun, “ God said. Let
the waters bring forth abundantly the moving creatoe

that hath life.” While the land was still in a soft,
miry state, these huge aquatic reptiles of an amphibious
nature, the remains of which are now found in the
deposits of the fifth period, made their appearance,
mixed with “ great whales,” and other moving animals
“ which the waters brought forth abundantly.” Then
were formed those immense creatures of most fantastic
forms, the massiveness of whose bodies required deep
ponds in which they could disport themselves, and in

the thick mud at the bottom of which their impress has
renwined. They perished, no doubt, in proportion as
moisture failed tliem on a soil in process of evaporation;
and by the time the crust of the earth had become firm
and hard, the immense Ichtliyosauri and Plesiosauri,
animals with the body of lizards, the fins or paddles of
the turtle, and the neck of the serpent, had disappeared
as living beings. At this period it was, or on the sixth
day, that terrestrial reptiles were formed, when “ God
said. Let the earth bring forth the living creature after
his kind, cattle and creeping thing.” By the time the
clief-d' ceuvre of creation, Man, made his appearance,
many species of reptiles had not only lived tipon the
globe, but had disappeared from its surface. Mixed up
with the traditions of almost all nations, and veiled in
the liaze and obscurity of antiquity, tliere have been
handed down also to us accounts of curious monsters,
dragons, &c., which have been generally looked upon
as fabulous and treated with derision. Along with the
Ichthyosauri and Plesiosauri mentioned above, wliich
lived exclusively during tlie fifth period of creation, in
the muddy waters on the surface of the earth, there
existed extraordinary creatures, which were provided
with wings after the manner of the bats of the present
day, by means of which they were able to raise them-
selves in the air. These animals are known by the

name of Pterodactyles, and their form and proportions
are such as might realize those of these mythological
dragons mentioned above. Bory St. Vincent does not
liesitate, alluding to this subject, to say, “ that it would
not be rash to conjecture, that in the sixth age (anterior
to that which sanctifies the repose of the sabbath) some
of those monstrous reptiles which might have joined to
the characters of Plesiosauri the wings of Pterodactyles,
infested the flat shores where the people that lived upon
fisli had begun to establish themselves.” “ We do not
find their skeletons,” he adds, “ any more than we do
those of man ; but the remembrance of their existence
is preserved by tradition, in the dragons of China, of
Japan, Siam, and Greece, as well as in the Hydra and
Lerna” of the latter country. Be this as it may, the
belief in the existence of wonderful and monstrous forms
of reptiles has not yet disappeared, as even in the nine-
teenth century, the semi-fabulous monster, the Sea
Serpent, “ though repudiated by all sufficiently learned
to be sceptical,” still forms part of the creed of honest
Jack-tars and other dwellers on the mighty deep, and
which is reported still to pay an annual visit to tire
Scandinavian fishermen on the shores of Norway !

In Great Britain, the number of species of existing
reptiles is very limited, and the numerical proportion
of individuals likewise is very small compared with ho*

UfiNERAL Characters. REPTILES. General Characters 3

climates. One general inherent condition for the mnl-
tiplication of reptiles is the reunion of equatorial heat
with moisture. It is in the immense and submerged
savannahs or in the depths of virgin forests, in tropical
countries, that these creatures most abound. Hence
we find them in such vast abundance under the ardent
sky of the Moluccas, in the isles of Sunda and of New
Guinea, where they are the terror of the human race.
Guiana too, and the intertropical parts of Africa and

Fi;

America, demonstrate to us the fact, that it is in the
countries near the equator that reptiles are most
numerous and most largely developed in size.

The class Reptiles {EepHlia), according to Cuvier
and many other naturalists, contains the Batrachians,
that is, frogs, toads, newts, salamanders, (S:c., as well
as lizards, serpents, crocodiles, and tortoises. The
most recent systematic zoologists, however, are now
agreed to constitute the Batrachians into a distinct

2.

Iclithyosauriis iiitermudius. — Oonyteare.

class, under the name of Amphibia* or Batrachia
and in the following pages we shall adopt this arrange-
ment : —

The class Reptiles, then, thus limited, may be
defined — cold and red-blooded vertebrated animals,
with a heart trilocular, that is, formed of three cavities,
which consist of two auricles and one ventricle ; pos-
sessing true lungs, the respiration being exclusively
pulmonary throughout life ; having a hard and dry
integument, which is generally covered with broad
plates or imbricated scales; oviparous, the young, that
is to say, being produced from eggs, which are depo-
sited by the mother in such situations as to be hatched
by the rays of the sun.

When we say that Reptiles have cold blood, we mean
that their natural temperature is not much, if at all,
above that of the atmosphere or water in which they
live ; that their power of producing animal heat is so
limited as scarcely to be appreciable, and therefore not
sufficient to prevent the system being immediately
affected by the lowering of the temperature of the
medium by which they are surrounded. In cor se-
quence of this, we find that in our climate, and in
countries where the temperature is low, they undergo
a state of torpidity in some sheltered retreat, to which
as a refuge instinct directs them, and where they remain
during the continuance of winter. The mode in which
the blood is circulated is ore of the principal charac-

• Awpliibios having a double life.

+ Batrnchos a frog

teristics of reptiles. The heart — which consists of three
cavities, viz., of two distinct auricles opening into one
common ventricle — transmits at each contraction only
a portion of the blood through the lungs, the rest being
sent directly to the other parts of tire body, without
being specially subjected to the influence of the respira-
tory organs ; thus differing from the higher classes of
animals. Mammalia and Birds, in which the whole of
the blood must pass through the lungs before it is sent
back to the more distant parts of the circulating system.
The routine of the circulation is this : the right auricle
receives the vitiated blood sent from the different parts
of the body by the veins ; the left auricle the arterialized
blood returned from the lungs ; and both auricles convey
their contents into the cavity of the ventricle. These
two kinds of blood are in this ventricle mixed together,
and part of this mixed fluid is sent through the aorta,
or great arterial trunk, to supply the system, and pail
through the pulmonary arteries, to undergo a further
degree of oxygenation in the lungs. “ It is clear then,”
says Mr. Bell, “ that the blood is by this mechanism
but partially changed by the action of oxygen ; in other
words, that the quantity of respiration, speaking with
reference to the physiological meaning of the term, is
comparatively small. Hence arises the circumstance
that these animals have what is called cold blood ; for,
as it is from respiration that the blood derives its heat,
and the temperature of the body is thereby sustained in
animals which have more perfect respiration, it follows
th.'it where this function is but imperhctly performed

4 Oenf.rai. Characters. REPTILES. General Characters.

the animal heat, musculai’ force, and all the other func-

moveable, but in the tortoises and turtles the air is

tions dependent upon respiration, will be diminished.”

introduced into the lungs by a sort of act of deglutition

Hence it follows that reptiles possess but little power of

or swallowing.

sustaining muscular action, for though several species

Tlie integument or skin of reptiles is dry and hard.

are capable of moving rapidly for a short time, it is only

and is covered with either horny plates or with scales,

when they are supplied with that degree of temperature

which structure forms an excellent character for

externally which is denied them from an internal source.

arranging them in two large groups, the scaly and

that they are capable of exerting any energy at all.

shielded coat of mail reptiles. Their limbs are either

When deprived to a certain extent of exteimal heat.

four or two in number, or are wanting altogether, at

the^' then, as has been mentioned above, pass into a

least externall3''. When present, they are in almost

state of torpidity or hibernation. In temperate and

all cases very short, and so formed as in most instances

cool climates, the lizards and serpents retire during

to prevent their possessors having a rapid motion.

winter to holes in trees, under stones, beneath dead

They possess the senses of sight, hearing, taste, smell.

leaves, or in such like places, where many species.

and touch. In general the eyes are small, and not so

especially serpents, congregate in large numbers, and

well developed as in the higher classes of animals.

ax’e found closely entwined together. The land tortoises

They are largest in the tortoises, crocodiles, and lizards,

take refuge from the cold in excavations, which they

and smallest in the serpents. In these latter animals

often dig for themselves, and the fresh-water tortoises

there are no apparent eyelids, and, in consequence,

in holes in the muddy banks, or in the mud at the

their eyes seem fixed and always wide open. In the

bottom of their native lakes or rivers. “ Here they

lizards we find two lids; the tortoises and crocodiles

j)ass the winter in a state of almost lifeless repose, the

have three, whilst the chameleons have only one, and

functions of life so nearly suspended, that none of the

that a very singular one. The sight itself in general

external signs of its existence are visible. The circu-

is very acute, for on this sense depends their pursuit

lation is extremely slow, the respiration apparently

of food and their perception of the approach of enemies

altogether stopped, digestion absolutely suspended.

The organ of hearing is, in general, not so highly de-

Tlxe return of the genial warmth of spring calls them

veloped in Reptiles as in Mammalia and Birds. They

again into action. The circulation is restored, the

never possess any external ear; and the sense of hear-

blood is again fitted for its various offices by the return

ing varies a good deal in the different orders. It is.

of regular respiration, the functions of the digestive

perhaps, the most obtuse in the tortoise tribe, and the

organs are again performed, and the animal resumes

most acute in serpents. In these latter animals and in

its former habits, without having undergone any

lizards we see that the sound of music imparts to them

material change.”* A similar state of torpiditj' takes

great delight, aud this is well known to the serpent-

place in many reptiles within the tropics. This

charmers of the East. In most cases the internal organs

summer torpidity, or, as it may be called, estivation, is

of hearing are entirely covered by the scalyr investment

governed by the times of drought. Crocodiles or

of the head; but in the crocodiles, “the external orifice.

alligators, and large boas, are frequently found in a

instead of being thus permanently closed, is provided

lethargic state in the dry mud, and Humboldt’s anec-

with a firm, hard, moveable lid, or operculum, by means

dote has been frequentl}'' quoted, of an Indian in

of which the aperture may be either stopped or kept

South America having built a hut over the spot where

open. Thus, while basking on the margin of the river,

a crocodile lay buried in the hardened clay, and was

or lying there in ambush for prey, the crocodile has

only made aware of his mistake by the rains moisten-

the power of raising the earlid, in order to listen atten-

ing the ground, and bringing the huge creature into

lively to every noise ; but when he dives beneath the

animation again.

water, either for safety or to drown the victim he has

All Reptiles possess true lungs, and their respiration

seized, the entrance of water into the auditory cavities

is exclusively pulmonary throughout the whole of

is prevented by the firm shutting of the lid, which

their existence. This forms one of the most impor-

accurately fits the orifice.”* The sense of smell is

tant differences which have induced zoologists to sepa-

comparatively feeble in reptiles. Indeed their manner

rate the Frogs and Toads, &c., from true Reptiles;

of living would lead one to infer that they would have

the respiration in these animals, and those arranged

little use for acuteness in that organ. It is much the

along with them, being carried on by means of

same with the sense of taste. In a large proportion of

branclnoi or gills during the earlier period of their life.

reptiles their food is swallowed whole and entire, and

changing — in some totally, and in others only partially

the structure of the tongue in some of those which tear

— to the pulmonary character, in the adult condition.

their prey, as the crocodiles, is such as to show that

The lungs are two in number, right and left, nearly of

that organ is not fitted to be of much use for the pur-

equal size, except in the serpents, and cellular or

pose of tasting. The sense of touch does exist in rep-

spongy. Their structure differs somewhat in the

tiles, but only in a low degree. The skin of their bodies

different orders, but in all it is such as only to admit a

and feet, covered with dry scales or horny plates,

jiortion of the venous blood from the heart, instead of

does not seem adapted for the possession of any acute

the whole. In the Saurian Reptiles and Serpents, the

degree of sensation; and even in those species, such

act of respiration is carried on mechanically by the

as the Geckos especially, in which the toes are dilated.

action of the ribs, which are more or less free and

this structure is more for the purpose of enabling

* Bell — Bdtisli Reptiles.

* Martin — History of Reptiles.

SyrsTEiiATic Arrangement. REPTILES. Systematic Arrangement.

them to adhere firmly to the surface of the objects upon
which they move, than to serve as organs of touch.

Reptiles eat and drink very little, and they are
capable of undergoing long fasts. The greater number
of them are carnivorous, very few subsisting entirely
upon vegetable substances. Amongst the vegetable
feeders are the land tortoises and some of the marine
species. In the case of almost all the rest, it is living
prey only that they eat, and the animals upon which
they feed are generally swallowed entire. The struc-
ture, form, and position of the teeth in the carnivorous
reptiles vary much, and form good characters for
dividing them into generic groups. Besides the teetli
whicli are planted in the jaws, there are others which
are inserted upon the bones of the palate. In tlie
herbivorous tortoises, and all the Chelonians, teeth,
however, are entirely wanting. In these animals the
jaws have a considerable resemblance to those of biids,
being sharp-edged and horny. The lower jaw shuts
within the upper, and the portions of food are cut or
snapped off, as it were, on the principle of shears.
Digestion is very slow, and indeed is carried on only
in proportion to the degree of temperature of the sur-
rounding atmosphere. “ Many Serpents,” says Mr.
Bell, “ are more than a fortnight after taking their
food before the undigested remains are voided, during
which period they usually fast. If the temperature
in wliich they are placed be very low, it is greatly
retarded, and during hibernation it ceases altogether ;
for I have known a tortoise, which had fed largely
upon grass immediately before it became torpid, retain
the grass unchanged in the stomach during the whole
of tlie winter ; so that, on opening the body after its
death, which took place immediately on its awaking
in the spring, and before it had any access to food, the
stomach was found filled with a large quantity of grass
wholly undigested.”

Reptiles are for the most part oviparous, that is,
they lay eggs which are hatched after expulsion. The
mother buries them in the sand, or deposits them in
some place of concealment, exposed to the rays of the
sun; and in due time, without any further assistance
from the parent, the young are hatclied. In a few
instances, however, the female retains the eggs within
her body, till the young are ready to burst the shell,
which are then excluded perfectly formed. Such is
the case with the common lizard and viper of this
country, and some other serpents, the blind- worm, &c.

The following is the arrangement adopted in the
British Museum, where there is an extensive collection
of reptiles. The method is that of Dr. Gray : —

Class. — REPTILES (Reptilia), from the Latin word repto,
to creep, or crawl.

Animal furnished with a distinct bony skeleton. The skin
clothed with horny imbedded plates or imbricated scales, which
are covered with a thin, and often deciduous epidermis. They
respire by cellular lungs. The heart is trilocular, that is, it
has a single ventricle divided into two or more cells, giving
origin to two arteries, and receiving the cold red blood by two
veins, from two auricles. Oviparous, but the egg sometimes
hatched in the body of the mother, often covered with a thick,
more or less calcareous shell. The young like the parent, and
not undergoing any transformation.

Reptiles are divided into two large sections, the Real;/ and
Shielded, according to the structure of the scales or plates
with which the skin is covered, and the formation of the skull.

Section I. — Scaly Reptiles {Squaniata), from the Latin
word squama, a scale.

Body covered with overlapping scales. Skull formed of
separate bones; the ear-bone external, and only articulated to
the rest. Tongue free, elongate, nicked at the tip, often
extensile.

This section is composed of two orders, containing all the
species denominated Saurians or Lizards, and Ophidians, Ser-
pents or Snakes. "

Order 1. — Lizards {Sauria), from the Greek word sauros
{(ra-u^os), a lizard.

Mouth not dilatable, jaws toothed, lower jaw-bones
united by a bony suture in front ; eyes generally with
distinct eyelids ; limbs four, distinct, rarely in such a
rudimentary state as to be hidden under the skin ; body
elongate, rounded, covered with imbricated or granular
scales ; tail elongate, tapering, occasionally prehensile,
generally covered with whirls of scales.

This order is divided into two sub orders, from the
structure and form of the tongue.

Sub order 1. — Slender-tongued Lizards [Lepto-
glosses), from the two Greek words, leptosO-t^-ros),
smooth, and glossa (j-AwititkI, a tongue.

Tongue flat, elongate, bifid. To this sub-order
belong the Monitors, the Tegucxins, the true
Lizards, the Scinhs, <fcc.

t

Sub-order^. — Tiiick-tongued LiZARns(Puc7t?/pioxs(B),
from the two Greek words, pachus thick,

and glossa {rZaira-a.), tongue.

Tongue thick, convex, attached to the gullet at
the base. To this sub-order belong the Gechos,
the Iguanas, the Dragons, the Agamas, and the
Chameleons.

Order 2. — Serpents [Ophidia], from the two Greek words,
ophis a serpent, and eidos f^‘hos), form or

shape.

Mouth very dilatable ; bones of the lower jaw sepa-
rate from each other, only united by ligaments ; facial
bones moveable ; limbs none, or only in the form of
short spurs on the sides of the vent; tongue very long,
retractile into a sheath at its base, apex forked, very
long, slender, tapering ; one lung very large, the other
small or rudimentary.

Tiiis order is divided into two sub-orders, the Viperine
Serpents [Viperina], and the Colubrine Serpents [Colu-
brina) .

Sub-order 1. — Viperine Serpents (Viperina), from
the Latin word vipera, a viper.

Jaws weak, upper jaw toothless, with large
fangs in front, lower toothed. Head large behind,
crown flat, generally covered with scales, rarely
with shields. Hinder limbs not developed. Eyes
lateral; nostrils lateral, apical, open. This sub-
order contains the eminently poisonous serpents,
such as the Rattlesnalccs and the Vipers.

Sub-order 2. — Colubrine Serpents [Colubnna),
from the Latin word coluber, a snake

Jaws strong, both toothed, sometimes with some
fangs in front, or grooved teeth behind. Head
moderate, or indistinct ; crown often covered with
regular shields. This sub-order contains the Water-
snahes, some of which are poisonous, the Boas, and
numerous harmless serpents, such as the True Ser-
pents, the Wood Serpents, the Tree Serpents, &c. ;
and the Naja group, which contains the Cobra de
Capello, and other venomous species.

Section II. — Shielded Reptiles (Cataphraeta), from the

Greek word Icataphrasso {xxro!,<fex,(ri!-u), to cover or protect.

Body covered with square imbedded plates, generally form-
ing a dorsal and central shield ; bones of the skull agglutinated
together, hard, with the ear-bone sunk into its substance ; jaws
united into a solid mass ; mouth not dilatable ; tongue short,
affixed to the mouth, scarcely exsertible ; the egg covered with
a hard shell.

Tliis section consists of three orders, containing the Tortoises
or Chelonians, the Crocodiles or Emydosaurians, and the Am-
phisbnenians, Amphisbeenia.

6

Lizards. REPTILES. Lizards.

Order 1. — Tortoises [Chelonia), from the Greek word
cTielone a tortoise.

Body short, depressed ; the bones of the thorax ex-
ternal, surrounding the muscles of the body like a case,
out of which the head, limbs, and tail are protruded;
jaws toothless, covered with a horny coat (like a bill) ;
the upper bill covers the lower like a box.

This order contains the Land Tortoises, the Terraperis
or River Tortoises, the Soft Tortoises, and the Turtles,
&c.

Order 2. — Ckocodii.es and Alligators {Emydosauri),
from the Greek words emys, emydos {tn-u;, tf^uios),
a lizard, and sauros (a-xv^cs), a lizard.

Body spindle-shaped, covered with square bony plates
placed in longitudinal lines. Head large ; jaws with
teeth. Limbs four, free, short ; tail compressed.

This order is composed of the Crocodiles and Alli-
gators.

Order 3.— Amphisbasnians {Amphishmnid), Rom the Greek
words ampliis both ways ; and baino

to walk.

Body elongate, cylindrical, covered with square im-
bedded plates placed in cross rows. Tail short, con-
tinuous, blunt. Limbs none, or very short, and placed
anteriorly, weak ; jaws with teeth.

This order contains the Ampliisbcenas or Double-
walkers, the Trigonophes, the Ckirotes, or Two-handed
worm, &o.

Such is a general sketch of the an-angement we
I propose to adopt of the Class Reptiles.

Order I.— LIZARDS (Sauria).

The first order, that of the Saurians or Lizards, is
what may be termed the typical order of the class.
The species included in it, have more affinity with the
Mammalia, both in the variety and rapidity of their
movements, than any others; for we find amongst
them, animals which creep, walk, run, climb, swim,
dive, and even, to a certain extent, fly. Not hut what
the essential external characters of the class to which
they belong are sufficiently apparent and ivell stamped.
For though examples do occur in their ranks of crea-
tures that are capable of executing a great variety of
movements, yet the elongated and proportionately
bulky body of the greater number, supported upon
their short limbs with ap[)arent difficulty, constrains
them to walk slowly and with an air of embarrassment,
very different from the light gait of the generality of
mammiferous quadrupeds. Their arms and thighs are
short, slender, but slightly muscular, and jointed so as
to have a direction outwardly, while the elbows and
knees are too angular, and the legs too far asunder
from each other, to support with ease, when in a state
of repose, the superincumbent weight of their body.
They vary very much in habits and manner of living,
and their organs of motion are always in harmony with
these, and the particular situations for which they are
designed. Some have slender and highly-developed
toes, with a long, conical, and pointed tail, like the true
Lizards. These are evidently fitted for an exclusively
terrestrial mode of life, and a residence in sandy plains
or stony deserts. Others have their toes expanded on
their under surface, short thick feet and tail, and a
broad flattened form of body, like the Geckos. These
creatures are clearly thus constructed to enable them
to adhere to smooth surfaces, to tiaverse walls or ceil-
ings like a fly, and to remain fixed there for any length
of time.

In a third set we see membranous expansions on
each side of the body, supported by elongated ribs, and
capable of being spread out like a fan, as in the Dragons.
T'hese are evidently formed for balancing themselves
in the air, as if by means of a parachute, and darting,
by long flying lea))8, from one branch or tree to another.

In another group still we find animals endowed with,
comparatively speaking, long and slender feet, the toes

placed in opposite directions, like pincers, and a pre-
hensile tail, as the Chameleons. These animals, it
may at once be seen, are well adapted for climbing
trees and perching upon the branches like birds.

Finally, several genera occur, the species of which
have a serpent-like form, and are either almost deprived
of feet or have them exceedingly short, as the Blind
Worm, the Glass Snake, &c. These animals, we may
therefore at once conclude, are destined to live in
ground covered with herbage, and glide along like the
snakes to which they bear such a striking general
resemblance. The Saurian reptiles, in general, have
the body of a lengthened form, in proportion to the
size of the other parts of their frame. This arises from
the great number of separate bones, or vertebrce, of which
their spine is composed ; these amounting sometimes,
in species with long tails, as the Iguanas, &c., to the
number of one hundred and forty separate pieces, and
even in those with very short tails, to upwards ot forty.
With the exception of a few abnormal forms, they have
four short legs, and their toes are armed with claws.
Their skin is covered with scales of various sizes and
figures, or with granulations. They shed their skin several
times in the course of the year. This takes place espe-
cially in the spring, after which they appear in brighter
colours — the male particularly so. The brain is only
moderately developed in the Saurian reptiles, as is also
the case with the various organs of sense, except that
of sight. They are cenacious of life, and even when
their head is cut off, they do not die immediately. If
the tail or feet are amputated, they are not fatally
injured in consequence, but on the contrary the lost
parts are after a short time reproduced. As the skin
and feet are covered with hard scales, it follows that
the sense of touch must be very imperfect ; and as
they live exclusively upon living animals, which they
seize the moment they see them, it may he easily con-
ceived that the organ of smell is but slightly developed,
that sense not being much required. The sense of
taste is in like manner very slightly developed ; for, as
they do not masticate their food, and have very little
saliva, a keen perception of the flavour of the articles
of which their diet consists, is not required. They all,
I however, have a tongue, whii-h is in general pretty

Lizards. REPTILES. Slendeu-tosgued Lizards. 7

long, fleshy, and movable. They are not much better
off with regard to the sense of hearing ; but the organ
of vision is much more highly developed, and their
sense of sight is, in consequence, very active in most
of the species. In this, however, there are exceptions ;
as, in the case of the Blind Worm, for instance, this
sense is almost entirely wanting.

The animals belonging to this order live entirely
upon living prey, their food consisting of small mam-
malia and birds, fishes, mollusca, and insects. They
are remarkable for their voracity, devouring a great
quantity of food at a time, though one meal suffices for
several days. The jaws are furnished with teeth, which
are small, simple, conical, unequal, isolated, and without
true fangs. The mouth is destitute of lips, is generally
large, so as to admit of their swallowing large pieces of
flesh, and the hinder nostrils open into its back part.
The tongue varies a good deal in the different families.
In the Monitors and true Lizards it is protractile, is less
so in the Geckos, but in the Chameleons is exceedingly
long, cylindrical, and worm-like in appearance. The
structure of the heart and lungs, and the circulation of
the blood, are the same as has been already described
in the preliminary remarks upon Reptiles. One of the
most distinctive characters of the Saurian reptiles, is
the existence of a breast-bone, or sternum, which is
generally of large size, and of a cartilaginous structure.
This sternum, along with the shoulder-bone, forms a
protection for the heart and large vessels. The species
of Reptiles belonging to the Lir.ard order grow very
slowly, and the duration of their life is in general very
lengthened. Many of them, in course of time, acquire
large dimensions, as the Monitors and Iguanas. They
are chiefly to be found in very warm and humid
climates. Egypt, for example, the temperature of
which is so burning hot, while the soil is periodically
moistened bj’ the overflowing of the Nile, possesses an
immense number of Saurians, especially of the Lizard
family, and they are remarkable there for there lithe-
ness, their agility, and the vigour of their movements.
Bruce, speaking of them, says — “ There is no genus of
quadrupeds that I have known in the East so very
numerous as that of the lizard, or of which there are
so many varieties. The eastern or desert parts of
Syria, bordering upon Arabia Deserta, which still have

moisture sufficient, abound with them beyond a possi-
bility of counting them. I am positive that I can say,
without exaggeration, that the number I saw one day
in the great court of the temple of the Sun at Baalbec
amounted to many thousands ; the ground, the walls,
and stones of the ruined buildings, were covered with
them, and the various colours of which they consisted
made a very extraordinary appearance, glittering under
the sun, in which they lay sleeping or basking.” A
very limited number of species, and these all of small
size, inhabit our island, and the parallel and more
northern countries of the adjacent continent. As we
advance into cold climates they disappear altogether,
but when we pass southwards, their number, specifically
considered, increases ; and among them some occur of
unexpectedly large dimensions, as, for example, that
beautiful species, the Eyed Lizard, measuring sixteen
or seventeen inches in length, and rvhich is a native of
Spain, Italy, and the South of France.

The flesh of many Saurians is held in high repute
in the countries in which they are found, as an article
of food. Dampier, in his “ Voyage,” tells us that the
island of Blanco (in the South Seas) was plentifully
stored with “Guanos. Their flesh,” he says, “is
much esteemed by privateers, who commonly dress
them for their sick men; for they make very good
broth.” In America the Iguanas are regarded by
epicures as a great delicacy ; and in Asia the Scinks
are considered to have aphrodisiac powers. Medicinal
properties have been attributed to many, especially by
the Arabian physicians. But this belief was not con-
fined to the East. “ One species,” says Mr. Martin,
“ the Adda of the Arabians (Scincus officinalis), for-
merly obtained a place in the British Materia Medica •
its flesh was supposed to be a restorative, and of great
avail in leprosy and other diseases. It was one of the
ingredients in that compound known as theriaca or
confectio damocratis; the ‘wild exuberance,’ as Dr.
Lewis expresses it, ‘ of medical superstition in former
ages.’”

None of the Lizard order are poisonous, though the
ancients regarded many as poisonous in the extreme ;
and the vulgar, in our own times, frequently look upon
them with great horror, and entertain a strong suspi-
cion of their noxious qualities.

Sub-Order I.— SLENDEK-TONGUED LIZAEDS.

The Slender-tongued Lizards are divided into two
tribes, the Ring-scaled Lizards (Cydosaura), and the
Tile-like Scaled Lizards (Geissosaura), so named from
the structure and arrangement of the scales with which
their body is covered.

Tkibe L— CYCLOSAURA.*

This tribe contains ten families, and is thus character-
ized. Scales of the belly square, in cross bands ; those

* From the two Greek words, Iculdos a circle, and

saura {trauma), a lizard.

of the back and tail rhombic and imbricate, or circular
and subgrannlar, placed in cross rings; of the sides,
generally granular, rarely like the back. Tongue elon-
gate, flattened, base sometimes sheathed, generally free,
only attached to the gullet by a long bridle, and with
two elongate, cylindrical, horny tips. Tail elongate,
with whirls of scales, generally conical, tapering, some-
times compressed, with two elevated crests above.
Eyes diurnal, with two valvular lids. Feet formed for
walking. Toes unequal, compressed.

One hundred and fifty-four species of this tribe are
enumerated. Our space, of course, will not allow us

8 Lizards. REPTILES. Slender-Tongued Lizards.

to enter into minute details of these, nor would a dry
definition of them, according to their zoological charac- '
ters, he at all interesting to the general reader. “ The i
truth is,” says Mr. Griffiths, “ that when we come to
treat in detail concerning the reptile tribes, there is an
abundant scantiness of that sort of information con-
cerning them, which would prove interesting to the
majority of readers. However useful and curious may
be the investigation of their specific characters, it must
be owned to the many it is dry and repulsive. Tt is
caviare to the general.” We will therefore only select
a few of the more important or interesting.

THE MONITORS [Monitor idee) — Monitor, one who
gives warning or admonishment, from the Latin word
moneo, to warn or admonish ; these animals being
believed to give warning of the crocodile’s approach —
form the first family we shall mention. The Monitors
are the largest of all the lizard order of reptiles. Their
body is very long, of a rounded form, and without any
crest along the back. Their tail, in most of the
species, is slightly flattened on the sides, and at least
twice the length of the body. Their feet ai-e strong;
the toes are five in numlier, very long, but of unequal
size, and terminate in strong hooked claws. The skin
on the head, back, and flanks is furnished with small,
round, tubercular, projecting scales, which are always
arranged in circular bands or rings. It varies in
colour from black to a more or less deep green, with
spots scattered throughout, assuming the form of
regular patterns, and presenting the appearance of
beautifully arranged mosaic work. From the firm
structure of this integument, and the hard ' sym-
metrical arrangement of the scales, it has been often
used for covering little trinket cases and other small
articles, as it is well adapted for resisting the effects
of friction. They have a long, fleshy tongue, which,
like that of the serpents, is deeply forked, and is
capable of being withdrawn into a sheath jdaced at its
base, and protruded again to a considerable extent.
Their eyes are large and bright, and the openings of
their ears are very apparent, and seated low down on
the skull, near the angles of the mouth. The head is
covered with small many-sided shields.

The Monitors are only found in the warmer parts of
the Old World, none having ever been discovered in
Europe. They live near the water’s edge, and the
greater number are aquatic in their habits. A few,
however, are completely terrestrial, living in dry,
sandy deserts. Tlie structure of the tail indicates
their special residentte. lu the aquatic species, this
organ is compressed laterally, and is surmounted by a
crest formed of two series of flattened scales. It thus
becomes a powerful organ of progression, when the
animals are in the water ; with it they propel them-
selves along with considerable swiftness, moving it
from side to side, with powerful and rapid action, and
steering the body by means of it also, as by a rudder.
In the terrestrial species, the tail is conical in shape,
and of a rounded form, appearing as if its only use
could be to act as a counterpoise to the weight of
the rest of the body, or, as it rests upon the ground
it may assist the animals in springing upon their prey.
Their motion along the surface of the ground is

rapid but sinuous, like the serpent ; they run swiftly
' on the level plain, but are not capable of climbing
i rocks or trees. The Monitors are carnivorous animals ;
they live upon small quadrupeds, birds, and the larger
kinds of insects. They often devour the eggs of
crocodiles and aquatic birds ; and even small fishes,
lizards, and tortoises fall victims to their voracity.
M. Dumeril informs us, on the authority of M.
Leschenault de Latour, that some of the aquatic
species unite on the borders of rivers and lakes, in
order to attack quadrupeds coming there to quench
their thirst ; and that that traveller had seen them
fasten upon a young deer which was trying to swim
across a river, pull it under the water, and drown it.
He had, moreover, found the thigh-bone of a sheep, in
the stomach of an individual which he was dissecting.

THE NILOTIC MONITOR [Monitor Niloticus) — Plate
1, fig. 1. About twenty-three species of Monitors
have been described. Of the aquatic species, which
are by far the most numerous, tlie best known is the
one just mentioned. The Nilotic Monitor is about
five or six feet long, and of a greenish-grey colour,
mottled with black. The nape of the neck presents
four or five horse-shoe marks of a yellow hue ; and
along the back seven or eight rows of spots of a
yellowish-green tint, extend from the shoulders to
the root of the tail. The tail is compressed through-
out nearly its whole length, and strongly crested
or keeled on the upper edge. It is one half longei
than the body, and is marked on the upper half
with circular bands composed of spots like those
on the back, and on the lower moiety with rings of
greenish-yellow. The legs are strong, and the toes
are long, and armed with compressed, very sharp, and
hooked claws. The teeth are short, and consist of
twenty-two in the lower, and thirty in the upper jaw.
It is a native of Africa, inhabiting most of the rivers of
that country. It is very common in the Nile ; and is
also found in the rivers of North Africa, Western
Africa, and South Africa, as far as the Cape of Good
Hope. This animal is held in great veneration by the
natives of Egypt, who assert that by the hissing noise
which it produces, it gives warning of the approach of the
crocodile. Hasselquist informs us that the Egyptians
have also an idea “ that it is hatched from the eggs of
the crocodile that have been laid in the sand, whilst the
crocodile itself is the produce of those eggs which have
been deposited in the water.” He gravely adds— “ I
have no need to say that this is false ! ” Representa-
tions of the Nilotic Monitor occur on the ancient
monuments of Egypt, and Cuvier has suggested that
this may have arisen from the belief amongst that
early people, that they devoured the eggs of the
crocodile. Its food consists of small animals, insects,
&c., which it always takes alive. M. Geoffrey St.
Hilaire says that it is very voracious, and that even in
captivity, it attacks all the little animals which it can
reach, and throws itself with the utmost avidity upon
the food presented to it. When irritated, it whistles
violently, and tries to bite or strike with its tail. It
would appear from Sparrmann’s account of an individual
caught by him at the Cape of Good Hope, that it is
very tenacious of life. “ One of this species,” he says,

Monitoks. REPTILES. Lack Lizaud.s

of the middle size, which, together with its two
young ones, I brought home witli me from Agter
Brunijes-lioogte^ was al)out two feet long in the body,
and three in the tail. Having caught her by the neck,
so that she could not bite me, and finding that it
required some strength to hold her fast, I got a large
worsted needle, and gave her several punctures with
it, not only in the heart, but in every part of the
cranium which was in contact with the brain. This,
however, was so far from ariswering my purpose,
which was to kill her in the most speedy and least
painful manner, without mangling or mutilating her,
that she seemed still to have life enough left to be able to
run away. After this my host undertook to put an end
to her ; and after having given her several hai'd squeezes
abbut the chest, and tied her feet together, he hung her
up by the neck in a noose, which he drew as close as he
possibly could. From this situation she was found in
the space of forty-eight hours to have extricated her-
self, though she still remained near the farm, appearing
at the same time to be almost entirely exhausted.
Upon this, we tied her feet close behind her, so that
with her long and sharp claws, of which she had five
upon each foot, she could not damage the serpents and
other animals wIiIl'Ii I kept in a cask of brandy, and
among which I put her with mj'' own hands, holding
her a long time under the surface of the li(juor ; yet she
was so far from being suffocated immediately by the
strength of the liquor, that she flounced about a good
deal in it ; and even a quarter of an hour afterwards,
convinced us by her motions that she had still some life
remaining in her.” “ This species of lizard,” he con-
tinues, “ I found to bo amphibious, living in water as
well as on land, and likewise that it grew to a still
greater size ; consequently, it appears to be an extremely
long-lived animal, and, as well on account of this
property, as of that of not being killed without great
difficulty, to have an important office assigned it in the
genei’al s^'stem of the economy of nature. It was sup-
posed (and not without foundation) by the people among
whom I resided, that this creature might easily be made
tame, and that it was not in the least of a malignant or
venomous nature.” A large j'eptile, probahlj" a nearly
allied species of this genus, was found on the banks of
the Tigris, by the gentlemen engaged with Colonel Sir
Henry Kawlinson in excavatiiig the ruined mounds of
Babylon. Tlie account given to the writer of this, of
the extraordinary tenacity of life exhibited by the
unfortunate animal, bordered on the marvellous. After
being firmly secured, deep gashes were made right
across the spinal column in several places, without
destroying or apparently injuring its motive power. A
large quantity of strong prussic acid was then poured j
down its throat, but without any rcsidt. It was then |
placed in a large tub of water with a weight attached,
so as to keep it sunk to the bottom, and it was allowed
to remain there for twenty-four hours. This seemingly
having the effect desired, and life appearing at last to
be extinct, it was taken out of its watery tomb and laid
on the ground, preparatory to its skin being removed
in order to make a stuffed specimen for the British
Museum. No sooner, however, had the operator made
his first cut with the scalpel through the skin, than, |
Von. II. 58

h

suddenly recovering its suspended animation, and
shaking itself loose from his hands, it made with all
haste to the river !

THE ■WHITE-THROATED MONITOR {Rcgcnia nllo-
gularis) is another aquatic species of this family, which
grows to the length of five feet, and is found in South
Africa. It is an inhabitant of rocky places abounding
in springs and streams, and feeds upon frogs, crabs,
and small quadrupeds. It is regarded as sacred by the
natives, who assert it cannot be injured without fear of
producing a drought. Sir A. Smith met with this
reptile in his South African expedition. “ Though no
specimens of this species,” he says, “ were obtained
South of Lattakoo, yet there is reason to believe that
it occurs occasionally within the limits of the Cape
Colony. It is in all probability the animal called Das
Adder by the natives, and which is much dreaded,
under the idea of its being very venomous. It is
usually discovered in rocky [)laces, or on low, stony,
hills ; and when surprised seeks concealment in the
chinks of the former, or in the irregular cavities of the
latter. When any inequalities exist upon the surface
of the rocks or stones, it clas[)s them so firmly with its
toes that it becomes a task of no small difficulty to dis-
lodge it. Under such circumstances, the strength of
no one man is able to withdraw a full-gTOwn individual ;
and I have seen two persons required to pull a speci-
men out of a position it attained, even by the assistance
of a rope round one of its hinder legs. The moment
it was dislodged it flew with fury at its enemies, who
by flight only saved themselves from being bitten.” —
The terrestrial Monitors, or those which live exclusively
in dry places, are few in number.

THE OUARAN, or Land Monitor of Egypt
{Psammosaurus Scuicus), is the best known. This
species is about three feet long, and is distinguished
by its tail being round, without any keel, and con-
siderably more slender than that of the Nilotic
species, the scales of the greater part of the body
being round instead of oval, and the teeth being-
very small, very fine, and very sharp. Its general
colour is of a clear brown, with square spots inter-
spersed of a pale greenish-yellow. It is a native of
the dry and arid deserts of Egypt, and is called by
the Arabs, Ouoran el-hard, or Lizard of the Desert.
Herodotus makes mention of it, and calls it the
Terrestrial Crocodile. This species is less voracious
than the Monitor of the Nile, and in capti^'ity refuses
food, and can only be made to take nourishment by
forcing it to swallow what is put into its mouth. Tra-
vellers in Egypt, however, inform us that it is used by
the jugglers of Cairo for performing their tricks, after
having extracted its teeth.

THE GIGANTIC LACE LIZARD {Hydrosa.urus gigan-
teus). Two or three remarkable species of IMonitors
occur in Australia, known by the name of Lace Liz-
ards (Hydrosaurus). They have the nostrils placed
near the apex of the muzzle; their teeth are compressed,
sharp-edged, and denticulated; and their tail has a
double-edged keel on the upper part. They are very
prettily variegated, and one species, the Gigantic Lace
Lizard, is remarkably handsome. A specimen may be
seen in the British Museum seventy-eight inches long.

10

Liza HUS. KEP FILES. Slknueu-tongueu Lizards.

THE CALTETEPONS, or Heloderms {Helodermidm),
liave been separated from the Monitors, and form a
fondly by themselves ; though as yet only one species
—the Rough Caetetepon {Hdoderma horruluni),
fig. 3— has been discovered belonging to it ; it is rare
in collections, and is a native of Mexico. The body

and head are covered with large convex scales, and
the teeth, unlike those of other Saurians, have a groove
behind, like the fangs of serpents. Hernandez, in his
“ History of the Plants and Animals of New Spain,”
was the first to make us acrpiaiuted with this curious
animal. He describes it as “ a terrific kind of lizard.

Fi;

:. 3.

Tlie Rough Caltetepoii fllelodeniia horriduni).

called Scorpms by the natives, two ells in length, with
a long tail, short legs, a broad, red, and bifid tongue,
which it sometimes rolls about, and a twisted head ;
heavy and slow of motion, and covered with a hard
skin variegated with brown and white spots, like small
jiearls or the seeds of the Lithospcrmnm, wfiiich, from
the hinder legs to the e.xtremity of the head, are dis-

Fig. 4

j)Osed in various forms, but on the tail form rings,
chiefly of a brownish colour, which also surround the
body trivnsvcrsely at intervals.” “ The bite of this
animal,” he adds, “ is hurtful, but by no means deadly,
so that it is more horrid to the sight than in realit}^,
and attacks nobody unless injured or irritated.” The
flesh of this animal, he further informs us, w’as con-

sidered by the natives of New Spain as an aphrodisiac,
and prized as much as that of the scink rvas in the
East.

THE SAFEGUARDS {Sauve-gardes of the French
authors), or Teguexins {Teidcv), have also been de-
scribed by many authors under the name of Monitors,
and no little confusion has in consequence been created.

The name, no doubt, has originated
in the same belief th.at these animals
w'ere useful to man, in giving warning
of the approach of the crocodile or
alligator. By retaining the name of
Monitors for the first group, the con-
fusion will be removed by assigning
to the latter the name of Teguexins,
a name given to one of the sjiecies by
the Indians of South America. In
this family the head is covered with
large regular shields, whilst the inte-
guments of the back and limbs have
only small scales, which arc not dis-
posed in tile fashion, but in trans-
verse bands. The skin of the throat
generally forms two or three simple
transverse folds. The tongue is long,
flat, extensile, and only occasionally
sheatb.ed at the base. The legs are pretty strong, and
the tail is usually rounded. The species belonging to
this family are all natives of the warm parts of the
New World, and some of them grow to a considerable
size, reaching the length of four or five feet.

THE COMMON TEGUEXIN (I'eius Teguexin) — fig. 4
— is the best knowm. It is a native of the greater ])or-

Tegukxin. REPTILES. True Lizards. 11

tion of South America and the West Indian Islands.
Madame Merian found it in Suiinam, and deseribes it
as growing with time nearly as large as the alligator.
It never attacks human beings, she says, but lives upon
insects, the eggs of birds, &c., and wages war occasion-
ally upon small fishes. “ When it wishes to lay its
eggs, nature teaches the female to make hollows in the
sand, on the bank of some river, and leave to the sun
the care of hatching them.” These eggs are as large,
she says, as that of a small fowl, and are much
relished by the Indians. Azara, an acute observer, in
his description of the animals of Paraguay, informs us
that these lizards are called by the natives of that
country the Teyu-giiazu,* and that they are generally
tound on the edges of woods, and in dry plains, in
which latter places tliey form burrows, into which they
retreat during the winter. Their motion is very swift,
and being rather timid animals, they plunge into the
water when pursued or alarmed, and remain there till
the danger is over. He confirms Madame Merian’s
statement that they live upon insects, aVid further
says, they eat frogs, serpents, young birds, and eggs.
Dumeril and Bibron have always found the remains of
insects in the stomachs of those they have opened,
and, on one occasion, mi.xed up with the remains ol
some beetles, portions of the skin and bones of a lizard.
The natives of Paraguay informed Azara that the
1'eguexin is very fond of honey, and that to obtain it
the reptile approaches close to the hive, and strikes it
a pretty smart rap with its tail ; it then runs off, but
shortly returns, and with repeated attacks of this kind
succeeds in frightening away the bees, and finallj'
regales itself upon the dainty meal thus cleverly
obtained. Its flesh is esteemed as good eating. The
colour of this species is highly beautiful, consisting of
an elegant variegation of brown, blackish, and purple
spots, on a pale bluish-white, and, in some parts, yel-
lowish ground. In length it is in general about thirty-
eight inches ; the tail is round for the first half, but
the latter portion is somewhat compressed. When it
walks the belly and tail trail upon the ground, while
the head is kept erect. The flattened structure of the
tail shows its fitness for oceasionally inhabiting tlie
water, while its strong claws prove its adaptation for
digging in the sand.

THE AMEIVAS {Ameivina) resemble the Teguexins
in general form, but the head is more slender and
compressed; the extremity of the muzzle is pointed,
and there is no division in size between the neck and
the body. The tail is more than two-thirds of the
length of the whole body, and is of a rounded tetra-
gonal form. They do not like them, however, frequent
the neighbourhood of water; they only inhabit arid
places. They live on worms, insects, snails, and herbs.

THE COMMON KWEVi h. {Ameiva Sunnamenns) is a
native of Guiana and Brazil, being spread all over the
latter country. It is about a foot, or a little more, in
length, and has the back more or less picked out and
spotted with black, and vertical rows of white ocelli
bordered with black on the flanks.

* Teyu is the general name for lizards, giiazU alludes to
its size ; this sjiecies being larger than any oilier lizard of
Paraguay.

THE TEYU-HOBY, or Green Lizard of Paraguay
{Acrantus teyou), dilVers from all the other species
belonging to this family, in having only four toes on
the liinder feet, like the Crocodiles. The head is short
compared with the Amoivas, and the tail is thick at
the root, and terminates in a very sharp point. It is
nine inches long, tail ineluded, and its eolouration is
very beautiful. The head is of an enamelled green,
this colour being prolonged in a line along the back,
and the body is marked with six yellow rays, three on
each side ; each of the intervals between the rays being
filled up with a series of tolerably large black spots.
This green lizard is very common in Paraguay, in the
thickets, living there till the end of October, and at
the approach of winter retiring into holes. It runs
very quickly.

THE CROCODILE-TAILS {CrococUlurina)* in size
and aijuatic habits, and in the form of the tail, approach
the Crocodiles. They frequent the large rivers, lakes,
or wide morasses of South America, and pass a great
portion of their life in the water.

THE ADA, or Great Di!AGON {Ada Gnianensis),
is an example. It attains the length of from four to
six feet, and is a native of Guiana. Its flesh is accounted
excellent by the natives, who eornpare it to that of a
fowl. Its eggs are also in request.

THE TRUE LIZARDS (Lacei'tida;) eomprise amongst
them some of the smallest and prettiest species belong-
ing to the Saurian order of Reptiles. They are rathei
numerous, upwards of fifty distinct species being enu-
merated by Dr. Gray in his British Museum Catalogue
of Lizards. They are distinguished by having a pyra-
midal head, covered with regular many-sided shields ;
a scaly throat, often with a cross fold in front, and a
collar of larger scales behind; a lengthened, flat tongue,
not sheathed, but free at the base, divided at the tip
into two long forks, and capable of being projected
to a considerable length. Their teeth are hollow at
the roots internally. They are all natives of the Old
World and Australasia, and are all terrestrial. We do
not know a single species which is really aquatic.
Their tail, instead of being compressed and capable of
acting as an oar, as in some of the preceding groups,
is perfectly round, and in general very long. But
though they are all terrestrial, they do not all inhabit
the same kind of places, nor do they possess the same
habits and manner of living. For instance, many of
them cannot exist except in such situations as abound
more or less in vegetation and herbage, whilst others
are only found in desert and arid places. The first set
are those which are found climbing habitually upon
shrubs in thickets, or upon walls or hedges and palings
which serve as inclosures of our habitations. In these
the toes are always simple, compressed, and quite
SRiOoth. The second set never rise from the sandy
soil, upon the surface of which they run with great
rapidity; for, however unfavourable at- first sight such
a surl'ace might appear for walking upon, the struc-
ture of their feet enables them to traverse it with
the greatest ease. The toes in these are exceedingly
flattened, keeled beneath, and dentated, or hhiged on

* From the two Greek words, crocodilus (xioxeSsiXos), a
crocodile, and oum a tail.

12 Lizards. REPTILES. Si.endeu-tongued Lizards.

the sides, and this structure prevents them from sink-
ing into the sand. This adaptation of structure to
their particular habits of life, forms a good character
for -dividing this family into two groups, the smooth-
toed lizards, and the rough-toed lizards.

Lizards are remarkable amongst Reptiles, for the
agility of their movements. Any one who has noticed
these animals, must have observed with what rapidity
they dart from one point to another, and how they can
cling to walls and rocks by means of their long and
crooked claws. In intertropical countries, however,
they are much more nimble and more active in their
habits than in our temperate climes; for here, as soon
as the cold weather commences; their motions become
slower and slower, and they finish in winter by fall-
ing into a complete state of lethargy. Lizards in
general are very gentle, timid creatures. Children
in Europe make playthings of them, and the ancients
used to call the lizard “ the friend of man.” They
have, however, a considerable degree of courage, and
notwithstanding the gentleness of their natural man-
ners, they w'ill bite pretty severely when laid hold of.
Some species, as the “eyed lizard,” have even been
known to show figlit to dogs and serpents, and though
not often conquerors in such combats, to have inflicted
severe wounds upon their enemies. Their bite is not
poisonous, as was for a length of time believed; but
still, from their teeth being placed in a series of rows,
and thus acting as a sort of saw, it is often very sharp
and severe. Their strength and courage depend much
iijioii the temperature. Under the trojiics they are
hold, some rather dangerous, and of considerable size.
In more northern countries they are timid, because they
are weak and of small size. But they are not stupidlj'-
timid, as those who have watched them in their native
haunts have explained to us. Should a slight noise
strike upon its ear, or an unaccustomed object suddenly
come in view, the little lizard previously, perhaps,
lying basking in the rays of the sun, may be seen to
raise itself immediately ujion its feet, to draw back its
head, and in that attitude carefull}' watch everything
around it. A leaf may have suddenly fallen to the
ground, it starts, watches the object for a time to see
whetlier it will move again, then carefully advancing
nearer and nearer, examines it well, and satisfying
itself of its nature, returns to its position and lays itself
down again to enjoy the warmth it loves so much.
Should the danger be real, however, it flies like
lightning. Lizards generally live in burrows or holes
which they dig in the ground or sand, often a foot or
more in depth, or in the hollows of rocks, or in crevices
of old w'alls, choosing always such situations as are
exposed to the sun. They are not sociable animals,
and never appear to unite together in numbers, for the
purposes of attack or defence. The instinct of pro-
curing food or of increasing their species, alone appear
to bring them together for even a very short time.
They feed exclusively upon living prey; insects of
various kinds, worms, snails, and any small animals
they meet with. In securing their prey they are very
cautious. When a lizard wishes to catch an insect, for
instance, it does not throw itself inconsiderately upon
it, but it follows attentively all its movements ; remain-

ing motionless itself with outstretched neck, it waits
the favourable moment for action ; several times it
advances and withdraws its head as if to make sure o^
its aim, and then all due precautions taken, it darts
forward the head, at the same time opening wide
its mouth, in which the poor insect is immediately
engulfed and held fast by the numerous small teeth
with which the jralate is furnished. Lizards are also
accused of eating birds’ eggs, and it is even asserted
that they will eat their own eggs when pressed-much
by hunger. They eat seldom, however, and digest
slowly. Losing little by transpiration, they can endure
long fasts. It was formerly thought that these animals
did not drink at all, but that is now ascertained to be
incorrect, as they lap water in the same way as a dog
does, wfith their tongue. Though not sociable 'ani-
mals, lizards live in pairs ; the male and female, it is
said — more especially of the “ grey lizard of the walls”
— remaining in a happy state of union during many
years, sharing the arrangement of the household, the
care of excluding the young from their numerous eggs,
of carrying them into the sun, and in placing them hi
shelter from cold and humidity. With one exception
{Zooloca vioqmra) they lay eggs, from seven to fourteen
in number, depositing them in small holes, which the
female abandons immediately after they are laid, leaving
them to be hatched by the warmth of the sun. They
are said to be long lived, and the Abbe Bonnaterre
relates tliat he had watched for twenty years the same
lizard daily leave its burrow to come and bask in the
sun. The tail differs in the two sexes, and this forms
a characteristic mark ; in the male it being flat, broad,
and furrowed longitudinally ; and in the female being
round and narrow. This organ is remarkably brittle,
and frequently snaps asunder by the mere exertion ot
the animal attempting to escape from danger. They
possess the faculty of forming a new one, which, how-
ever, has only a central cartilage in the place of bones,
and is often covered with scales different from those of
the rest of the tail. “ The least touch,” says Mrs. Lee,
“ makes them fall off, and as long as tails are necessary,
it is happy for them that Nature has given them the
power of reproducing their lost member. A super-
abundance of this power, however, has occasionally
some awkward results, for if the accident merely crack
the tail on one side, a new tail will sometimes spring
from the crack, and thus give them two at a time. On
a certain road in Madeira, it was observed that all the
lizards were without tails, and the circumstance was
accounted for by its being the favourite resort of the
midshipmen, who landeil for a day’s pleasure from the
dift'erent ships of war which touched at the island, and
a part of that pleasure consisted in knocking oft the
lizards’ tails.”

SMOOTII-TOED LIZARDS.’"

THE GREAT GREEN or EYED LIZARD {Lacertn
ocelluta), represented in Plate 1, fig. 2, and Plate 8,
fig. 11, is the largest of the family; a native of the
south of France, Italy, and other southern countries of
Europe; also met witli in Northern Africa, on the shores

* The T.ciodacfylesof Puiuenl anrl Bihroii, from the two Greek
words leios (ae/o?), smooth, and daJctulos (SazniAos), a too.

Eyki) Lizaki>. — — liEi'TILES. Vivii’Auous Iazakd. 1*-’

of the Mediterranean. It frequents dry, arid places,
among rocks, &c., exposed to the influence of the sun,
and may be frequently seen in the neighbourhood of
Montpellier, climbing along the bushes and hedges, or
over large stones in search of insects. It is usually
about sixteen inches in length, though sometimes it
1 caches -that of two feet and upwards, and is of a bright,
glossy, green colour on the upper parts of the body,
ornamented with round spots of gold and blue, and
with rings and irregular markings of black ; the under-
part is white, with a fine glace of green. Its food con-
sists of insects, especially beetles and grasshoppers,
worms, frogs, mice, shrews, and other small verte-
brated animals. It is a bold creature, and will bite
severely. If attacked by a dog it will defend itself,
and fastening on his muzzle, will allow itself to be killed
lather than let go its hold. There is nothing poison-
ous, however, in its bite, as was at one time erroneously
liolieved. Laurenti, an Italian naturalist, made a num-
lier of experiments upon this subject, which were
perfectly conclusive of this fact. The Eyed Lizard
runs with gi’eat swiftness, and is said to be able to
leap remarkably high. Dante, in his Inferno, canto 25,
alludes to the fondness for heat, and the quick motion
of this lizard, which is known in Italy by the name' of
llamarro. lie says —

“ As underneath the dog-star’s scorching ray,

The ramarro, darting swift from hedge to liedge.
Appears like lightning if he cross the way.”

^Vhen young, it digs for itself a burrow in form of a
trench, in the furrows of fields, especially where the
soil is sand ; and when adult, it excavates its retreats
in a hard sand, often between two layers of a cal-
careous rock, having an abrupt slope, and exposed
more or less directly to the south or south-east. It
cannot bear the eflects of cold ; and thus the assertion
of some naturalists that this lizard is found in northern
climates is doubtful. On the authority of Ray and
Linnmus, however, it is said to inhabit Sweden, and also
Kamtschatka. In this latter country, we are informed
that the natives regard it with terror, and consider it
as an envoy of the infernal jiowers !

THE. COMMOH GKEEN IIZARD {Lacerta virulis) is
much smaller than the preceding, and is a native of
the same countries, extending, however, as far as the
island of Guernsey, one of the Channel Islands. In
general, it is of a beautiful metallic green colour,
becoming paler on the under surface of the body, and
fading into a yellow tint. The back is often freckled
with black, and sometimes the head is blue. Its
f ivourite places of resort are tangled brushwood, brakes,
and thickets, where it may be seen climbing the stems
of the bushes with great facility, and feeding upon
insects. It is a confident little creature, may be readily
tamed, and taught to come to the hand for its food,
and to drink from the hollow of the palm of any one to
whom it is accustomed. It will lie coiled up between
the two hands, enjoying the warmth, and not offering
to escape. This little Green Lizard is often brought
in cages to this country by Italians for show or sale.
Its movements are very quick and graceful. Indeed,
as Mr. Martin remarks, “ its beauty and gracefulness
are such recommendations that it is often kept in cages.

which should have an inner compartment, filled with
dried moss or bran, amidst which it buries itself it.
order to pass the winter.” “It seldom,” he, adds,
“ attempts to bite; and, indeed, as we have experienced,
its bite is a pinch scarcely to be felt.” It is very
impatient of cold, and its chief delight is to lie and
bask in the rays of the sun, in which it glitters with
metallic effulgence. Its ordinary size is about fifteen
inches, though individuals are occasionally met with
one and a half feet long, the tail being usually twice
I he length of the body.

There are trvo species of Lizards found in Great
Britain — the Sand Lizard and the Viviparous or Scaly
Lizard. The first of these —

THE SAND LIZARD {Lacet'la agilis) is smaller
than the green lizard, and is short in proportion to its
thickness. The legs are short, and the tail, wdiicli is
rather thick and swollen at its root, is usually about
one-third longer than the body. The usual length
of the Sand Lizard is about seven or eight inches ;
the bod}', including the head, measuring about three
and a half, and the tail four and a half inches; but
Mr. Bell has seen individuals in this country nearly a
foot long. In colours, individuals vary very much ; in
general, however, the tint of the upper parts is sandy-
brown, with obscure longitudinal marks of a darker
brown, and a series of black rounded spots down the
sides, each spot marked with a white or yellowish dot
in the centre. The sides are often tinged with green.
It is a northern species, rarely occurring so far south
as Italy, but not uncommon in the northern parts
of France, and the middle districts of the European
Continent ; it is not very frequent in this country, but
extends as far north as Sweden and Denmark. Mr.
Bell, in his excellent work on the “ British Reptiles,”
informs us that the Sand Lizard is common in the
neighbourhood of Poole in Dorsetshire, its general
abode being on sandy heaths, “ where it is generally
seen crossing the small by-paths with considerable
swiftness.” It is also occasionally seen on the sunny
sides of green banks, basking in tlie sun’s rays, and
retreating quickly on the approach of any intruder.
Mr. Martin says he has often seen it in this country in
sandy places covered with brushwood, and in warm
copses. “ It is quick and active, and its movements
as it runs along are serpentine. When pursued, it
makes for its burrow, or dives beneath the matted and
thick herbage, escaping from sight with singular rapi-
dity. If seized it will turn and bite, but its bite is very
trifling. Unlike the green lizard, it is impatient of
confinement, and soon pines to death, never becoming
familiar.” The female lays her eggs, to the number of
twelve or fourteen, in hollows in the sand, which she
excavates for the pmqjose, and having covered them
carefully with sand, she leaves tb.em to be hatched by
the solar heat. The other British species —

THE VIVIPAROUS or Scaly Lizard {Zootoca
vivipara) is mueh smaller and more graceful in its
movements than the sand lizard. The head is more
depressed, the feet are more slender, and the body is
more slim in general form. It is usually from five
to six or six and a half inches long, and, though
it varies much in markings, its ordinary coloui' is

1 4 Lizards. REP'J

greenish or olive-brown, with a daih brown line down
tlie middle of the back, which is often somewhat inter-
rupted. A broad band extends parallel with this
on each side, and in the intervals between these are
olten one or more rows of black dots. In the male, the
under part of the body and base of the tail are bright
oi'ange spotted with black ; in the female, pale greyish-
green without spots. It is a pretty, active, gentle little
creature, and is chiefly found in dry,- sunny banks,
thickets, and copses. In England it is very common,
much more so than the sand lizard, and is also met with
in Ireland. On the Continent it is not so abundant,
but it exists in France, Italy, Germany, and Switzer-
land. In this latter country, we are told by M. Tschudi,
that it frecpients in preference the forests of dry pines,
making its runs under the fallen leaves. To these it
retreats on the appearance of danger. Its motions are
singularly rapid and sudden, and it darts on its insect
prey with the velocity of an arrow. “ Its sight,” says
Mr. Martin, “ is very acute ; the instant it perceives an
enemy it takes refuge in its burrow. Its hearing
appears also to be good. Some years since, while in a
small wood in Lancashire, seated on a felled tree, we
saw several of these animals sporting within a few
3'ards of us, and chasing their prey. We could not
but admire their light but graceful actions, and for a
cunsiilerable time forbore to make either the slightest
noise or movement ; suddenly, however, we snapped a
dried branch asunder, and in an instant they had all
disappeared ; in a short time, allured by the bright
sunbeams, they emerged from their retreats, and on
repeating the experiment, they again hastened to their
burrows as before. The ground was covered with
half-decayed leaves, and vegetables springing up
through the moss, and it was in vain to endeavour to
obtain one ; we turned over heaps of leaves and grass,
but they made their way more quickly than we could
follow them. We thought at the time, and have often
thought since, of die utility of these little creatures in
gardens and greeidiouses, insects and larvie being their
subsistence.” Instead of depositing her eggs in the
sand to be hatched by the warmth of the sun, as is the
case with the’ other lizards we have mentioned, the
female of the present species retains the eggs within
lier body until the young are ready to leave them, and
thus they are produced alive. Hence the name given
to it of VioiiKirous Lizard. These young, when brought
forth are fully formed, and capable of running about,
and very shortly afterwards of taking their own food.
Their ordinary number is four or five. They are often
seen in company with their mother, and are, probablj'’,
for some time under her immediate guidance, though it
is scarcely probable that this continues for any consider-
able period.

THE TILmUERTA, or Gkey-wall Lizard {Z.
mnralis), is another species of the same genus
Zaoiuca, and is the most common Saurian reptile
in France, and in all the temperate parts of Europe.
It is from five to six inches long, and inhabits sandy
places, and frequents the walls of gardens, on which
it climbs with a surprising degree of agility. It lives
on flies, ants, and other insects. The vivacity of
its motions, the grace of its rapid gait, its agreeable

ITLES. Sluxdeu-toxgued Lizards.

and slender form, cause it to be very generally remarked.
M. Latreille has given such a graphic description of
it that we will quote it at length. “ Every one,” he
says, “ knows this lizard ; and there are few who have
not, in childhood, made it an object of amusement : it
is almost domestic ; and its presence is the more desir-
able as it thins the hosts of annoying insects. The
ancients called it the ‘ friend of man.’ It is a harmless
little creature, and lives in the chinks of walls and old
buildings, where it deposits its eggs. AVhen — on fine
spring days — a bright sunlight illumines a sloping,
verdant bank, or a wall which reflects the heat,
this lizard may be seen stretching itself on the
grass newly springing, or on the stones, as if in the
enjoyment of pleasure ; it revels in the grateful warmth,
and testifies its satisfaction by gentle movements of
its slender tall. It darts like an arrow upon its
prey, or into some more commodious spot ; but so
far from flying on the approach of man, it appears to
regard him with complacency. At the least noise,
however, which alarms it, at the falling even of a leaf,
it rolls itself up, tumbles down, and remains for a little
time as if stunned ; or, it darts oft", is agitated, returns,
again conceals itself, reappears, and in an instant
describes a maze of tortuous circuits, which the eye
can scarcely follow, folds itself up repeatedly, and at
last retreats to some hiding-place, where it remains till
its fear has subsided.” It is so common in the environs
of Vienna, that Laurenti declares that it might serve
during the entire summer for the support of a great
number of poor persons. Its flesh, wholesome, and
productive of appetite, according to this observer,
might be baked or fried, like that of small fishes.
Formerly, the properties of this same flesh, were
highly vaunted as a remedy agaiiiSt cutaneous and
lymphatic complaints, &c., but its use is altogether
abandoned at present for any medical purposes.

ROUGll-TOED LIZARDS.*

The particular arrangement and form of the scales
of the head and belly, &c., of this group of lizards, give
them, for the most part, a peculiar physiognomy, which
enables the scientific observer to distinguish them very
readily. Several species are described; little is known
of their habits. The greater number are natives of
South Africa, and we are indebted to Sir A. Smith for
the chief part of what we do know.

THE CAPE SPINE-EOOT (Acanthodadylus Capensis)
is a lizard about ten inches in length, the tail forming
six of this. It is of a yellowish -brown colour above,
the flanks being black-brown, and variegated with
two series of spots, and two longitudinal lines of the
same colour. The toes are long, slender, and each
externally edged with a serrated fringe of slender,
pointed scales. “ This lizard is found in the sandy
districts of Great Namaqua land, and where the surface
of the country is irregular, it is generally met on the
highest spots. WHiere small sand hills occur, it resorts
to them in preference to the other localities, and, from
the peculiar assistance it derives from the serrated fringe
which edges its toes, it runs over the loose sand, on the

* The Prisliflnctijles of Dumeiil and Ih'bron, from the two
Greek words, a saw, and daktulos {SxxTvXoi),a,toti.

The Garkiques. REPTILES. Shield Lizards. 15

Bleep surfaces of these slopes, with great rapidity. It

they can creep. They may be often seen during the

feeds upon small insects.”

day, enjoying the heat of the sun, and occasionally

THE GAERIQUES (Psammodromus Edwardsii) is a

darting upon insects which form their food. They vary

species common in tlie soutli of France and Spain.

in size from about live inches to seven or eight ; the

Duges, in mentioning the habits of this animal, says.

tail generally measuring about twice the length of the

that it is found in the environs of Montpellier, in the

body.

sterile, mountainous districts called by the inhabitants

THE CORDYLES {Zonuridcc)* form a tolerably numer-

“ garrigues," and that it is also very common in the fiat

ous family. They are very like the True Lizards just

sandy shores of the Mediterranean. There it hollows

described, but the back and belly are covered with

out, at the foot of a tuft of rushes, a shallow, cylindrical

large, nearly square shields, and the sides, which are

hole, towards wdiich it darts with the rapidity of an

only dilated when the animal has eaten a full meal, are

arrow, at the approach of danger. The rapidity of its

marked with a distinct longitudinal fold, and covered

flight is so great, that it almost escapes the sight, and

with small scales. The tongue is flat, and nicked at

might cause it to be taken for some large insect flying

the tip. They have generally four pretty strong legs.

close to the ground.

but in some they are either rudimentary or entirely

THE EREMIAS, or Argutas {Eremins), are for the

wanting. Eighteen distinct genera are enumerated by

most part natives of South Africa. Sir Andrew Smith,

Dr. Gray in the British Museum Catalogue of Lizards,

in his “ Illustrations of South African Zoology,” has

the chief characters being taken from the form and

described eight or nine species found in the neighbour-

disposition of the scales of the head and body. Several

hood of the Cape of Good Hope and other parts of

species are natives of South Africa, and have been

the colony. He tells us that they inhabit arid, sandy

described at some length by Sir Andrew Smith.

flats, and that they are wild, extremely watchful, and

THE SHIELDED ZONURE {Zonurus cataphractus)

move from place to place with great rapidity. When

— fig. 5 — and THE FALSE CORDYLE {Pseudocordylus

frightened, the}' conceal themselves under loose stones.

microlepidotus) are found inhabiting rocky situations.

decayed wood, or any other material beneath which

I'iS

and when they have a choice, they invariably prefer

5.

lHHP

The shielded Zonure (Zonurus cataphractus).

precipices and the stony walls of difficultly acces-

ated themselves. Some of the species, as the Bough-

sible ravines. In these situations, they wander

scaled Cordyle {Zonurus cordylus), are very widely

carelessly in search of food and warmth, unless

distributed over Southern Africa, and, as Sir A. Smith

alarmed b}' what they may regard as enemies. On

informs us, “ there is scarcely a strong knoll, a pre-

being closely approached in their retreats, they seek

cipice, or an exposed rock, which docs not afford a

concealment under rocks or in crevices ; and when

habitat for one, two, or more individuals.” They vary

they get into such positions they are with difficulty

from six to eighteen inches in length, the tail being

captured, as by aid of the prominences on the hinder-

generally longer than the body, and spined.

edge of each temple, they hold on with a tenacity
which is quite suiqirizing, and by them they occasionally
offer such an effectual resistance to the force applied
from behind, that the tail breaks off from the body

THE SHIELD LIZARDS {G errhosauri)-\ are allied
species, but the tail is smooth instead of being spiny.

They are found in sandy arid districts in South Africa.

'before the reptile is secured. Indeed, to effect their

* From the two Greek words, gona a band, and oura

capture, it is often necessary to displace the masses of

{ovsoi)^ a tail.

t From the two Greek words, gerron a shield, and

1

stones between which tire creatures may have insinu-

savros [irccu^es), a lizard.

Ifi Lizards. REPTILES. SLENDiiR-'roNGUiiD Lizards.

“ They run -with such extraordinary rapidity, tliat it is
almost impossible for the eye to follow them in their
flight. The instant they are discovered, they seek a
place of concealment, and that they generally find in
the loose sand which is commonly found accumulated
under the shrubs with which the district is furnished.
In this sand they burrow with amazing rapidity, and it
requires an experienced eye to trace their course in it,
though that is seldom far below the surface.” —

Several other species are natives of South America.
These are the Buckleu-backs {Gorrhonoti).'^ They
have the body of an elongate, spindle-shaped form,
with very short legs, no true neck, and a long round
tail, gradually becoming more slender as it approaches
the extremity.

Of the habits of tliese animals little is known ; but
they lead on to another group of lizards, which are
characterized by having still more elongate and slender
bodies and tails, and either only two legs, which are
quite rudimentaiy, or none at all. Their general
appearance, in consequence, is that of a serpent, and
indeed with that order they used formerly to be classed.
These are the False-feet {Pseudopus) and the Glass-
snake {Ophisnurus).

THE FAISE-FOOT or Siieltopusik {Pseudopus
Palassii) — Plate 1, fig. 3 — is a native of Europe, and
is about three feet long. Cuvier placed it among
the serpents ; and as Uumeril and Bibron remark, if we
consider only the form of the body, which is exceedingly
long, and almost destitute of feet, this animal ought
not to take its place amongst Saurian Reptiles. If we
attentively observe the ensemble of its organization,
however, both internally and externally, it may be said
to be only a Buckler-back, or Gerrlionote, without feet.
The tongue, teeth, nostrils, ears, and scales of the
body, constitute it truly Saurian. Externally there is
not the slightest appearance of fore-feet, but internally
we find them represented by a bony tubercle on each
side of the breast-bone. The hinder-feet are in the
form of two very short appendages, mere vestiges of
legs. It has no distinct neck, and the tail has the
same form as the body, but is at least a tbird longer.
In the adult, the upper parts of the bod}' are of a chest-
nut colour, picked off with black ; but in the young
animal the neck and back are banded with cross bars
ot a brown colour on a grey ground. The False-foot
is a native of the Crimea, Istria, the Morea, and the
southern districts of Siberia. It was first described by
the celebrated Pallas, who found it in the sandy desert
of Naryn, near the river Volga. The natives of the
districts where it abounds, give it the name of S/ielto-
puslk. It dwells in preference in the shady valleys
where grass grows abundantly, and where it can pro-
cure its favourite food, which consists of small lizards
and insects. It is timid and harmless, conceals itself
amongst the tangled brushwood, and flies when any
one approaches it. By the French naturalists engaged
in the “ Scientific Expedition to the Morea,” this reptile
was found in the Peloponnesus. Being unknown to
them at first, they supposed it to belong to'the serpent
order, and the first individual which was seen by them,

• From the two Greek words, gerron a buckler, and

ruitos {yairti;), the bark.

while basking in the vernal sun, after emerging from
its winter retreat, was instantly killed with the butt-end
of their guns. They were siuqirised to find it destitute
of fangs, and not poisonous. Many other specimens
were taken after that, and kept alive in rooms, theii
quiet inoffensive disposition rendering them easily
reconciled to such a degi'ee of captivity. They were
fed upon hard-boiled eggs, but, upon one occasion, one
of the captives obtained access to a nest of young
birds, which it soon swallowed up.

THE GLASS-SHAKE {Ophisaurus ventralis) is a
native of North America, and is about eighteen inches
long, the tail being about three times longer than its
body. It is quite destitute of feet, for the body does
not even offer the slightest vestiges of the hinder feet
seen in the Sheltopusik. With the head of a lizard, it
has a body exactly resembling that of a serpent ; but
still in its organization it is a true Saurian. The upper
part is of a greenish-brown colour, regularly and ele-
gantly marked with numerous spots and streaks ot
yellow. Catesby, in his “ Natural History of Caro-
lina,” was the first who gave us any account of this
singular reptile, and he considered it as a true serpent.
“ The skin,” he says, “ is very smooth and shining,
and of a different structure from that of other serpents.
A small blow with a stick will cause the body to sepa-
rate, not only at the place struck, but -at two or three
other places ; the muscles being articulated in a singu-
lar manner, quite througli to the vertebrae. They are
generally said to be harmless. They appear earlier in
tire spring than any other serpent, and are numerous in
the sandy woods of Virginia and Carolina.” It is a
harmless and timid animal, and feeds upon insects,
small reptiles, frogs, &c. The extreme brittleness of its
tail has long been well known, and this, with its shining
appearance, has jirocured for it its peculiar name.
Bartram, in his “ Travels in North America,” has also
described this reptile as he met with it in Carolina.
“ Stopping again at a natural shrubbery,” he says, “ on
turning my eyes to some flowering .shrubs, I observed
near my feet the surprising Glass-snake {Anguis
fragilis). It seems as innocent and harmless as a
worm. It is, when fidl-grown, two and a half feet in
length, and three-fourths of an inch in thickness ; the
abdomen or body part is remarkably short, and it
seems to be all tail, which, though long, gradually
attenuates to its extremity, yet not small and slender
as in Switch-snakes. The colour and texture of the
whole animal is exactly like bluish-gi'een glass, which,
together with its fragility, almost jiersuades a stranger
that it is in reality that brittle substance ; but it is
only the tail jiart that breaks off, which it does like
glass, by a very gentle stroke from a slender switch.
Though it is quick and nimble in twisting about, yet it
cannot run fast from one, but quickly secretes itself at
the bottom of the grass, or under leaves. It is a vul-
gar fable,” he adds, “ that it is able to rejiair itself
after being broken into several pieces; which jiieces,
common report says, by a power or faculty in the
animal, voluntarily approach each other, join, and heal
again.”

Following the family of Cordyles {Zonnridai)i there
succeeds, in the arrangement of Dr. Gray, a series of

Bkassy Lizakd.- REPTILES. Rump-foot Lizard. 17

small families, containing several species, the habits of
which are little known. They are for the most part
very serpent -like in their form, and their legs are either
very short, or even quite rudimentary. Such are —

THE BRASSY LIZARDS {Chalcida) which have four
legs that are only in a rudimentary state, the hinder
feet in some not being even divided into distinct toes.
Their body is elongate and cylindrical, and their ears
are hidden under the skin.

THE COMMOH BRASSY LIZARD ( Chalets flavescens)
— fig. 6 — is about two and a half -inches long, and
is a native of tropical America. The scales of the body
form very distinct circular rings. The legs are only
about a line in length, and the fore-feet are situated

very near the head. Its colour is rather sombre, the
prevailing tint being brassy — hence the name.

Tribe II.— GEISSOSAURA.*

This second tribe of slender-tongued Lizards con-
tains eleven- families, and is numerous in species — not
fewer than one hundred and eighty-three having been
enumerated by Dr. Gray in his Catalogue. Formerly,
they all entered into the great family of Scinks.

In this tribe the scales of the body are rounded,
quincuncial, that is, placed in a fivefold order, and
disposed in an imbricate form, or like the tiles of a
house, one overlapping the other, in this respect resem-
bling the scales of the carp and some other fishes. The
tongue is narrow, short, flat, and slightly nicked at the
end. Body fusiform, or spindle-shaped, or somewhat
cylindrical.

Some of them are remarkable for having only very
rudimentary eyelids, or these organs are wanting alto-
gether, and the eyes are quite exposed. Others, and
by far the greater number, have distinct eyelids, which
can close over the eyes.

• From the two Greek words, geiasm (i'amt), a tiled roof,
and aaura a lizard.

VoL. II. S9

In the first group, or Naked-eyes, are the family
of Gape-eyed Scinks {Gymnophthalmidce), which are
distinguished by tlie eyelids, when present, being
indistinct, circular, ring-like, and immovable. The
ears are distinct. The limbs are four, but weak and
unequal.

THE AMERICIMA {Gymnophthalmus lineatus) is
completely destitute of eyelids, and the front feet have
only four toes, the hinder five. In general form this
lizard, which is a native of Brazil, resembles very
much our common viviparous lizard. It is of a brown-
ish-green bronze colour, the sides being blackish, with
a slight yellow streak above and below.

The Ablepharus has the rudiments of eyelids, but
they form merely a portion of a circle
on the back part of the eye.

THE HUHGARIAH ABLEPHAEHS
(Ablepharus Pannonicus) has the
body long and slender, and the feet
sliort. It is of a coppery-green
colour on the upper parts of the
body, with a chestnut-coloured band
on each side. The belly is of a
yellowish-white. This lizard is found
in very different parts of the world,
being met with in Australia, in the
Morea, and in Hungary, in which
latter country it was first observed.
The naturalists connected with the
scientific expedition sent by tlie
French Government to the Morea in
1826, found it in considerable abun-
dance amongst the ruins of Pylos,
and in the neighbourhood of Nava-
rino. “ This innocent and pretty
little Saurian hides itself under stones,
where it rolls itself up like an lulus,
which it resembles in appearance,
and in its polished steel colour.” It lives upon
insects, such as beetles, gnats, and grubs.

THE RUMP-FEET LIZARDS (Pygopidee) have rudi-
mentary eyelids, but only two feet.

THE COMMOH RUMP-FOOT (Pygopus lepidopodus),
— Plate 1, fig. 4 — is a native of Australia, and resem-
bles a serpent. There are no fore legs, and the two
hinder ones are mere appendages, which look like small
fins covered wfith scales, and seem to be in no way
adapted for walking. They are placed far back on
the trunk of the body, just at the commencement of
the tail. The animal altogether resembles in form the
smooth snake, and is of a coppery -gray colour, with
several series of black spots and streaks on the side of
the neck and body.

Family.— SCINCIDHU.

In the second group, that in which the eyes are
covered, are the true Scinks (Scineidee), a large family
containing forty-five distinct genera, and many species.
They have regular distinct eyelids, which move up and
down and cov er the eyes. The body is spindle-shaped,

* From the two Greek -woria, gymnos {yuf^vas), naked, and
ophthalmos [(xfSaKftss), the eye.

Fig. 6.

The Common Brassy Lizard (Chalcis flavescens).

Lizards. REPTILES. Si.ender-Tongued Lizards.

18

or of a rounded form gradually attenuating to the tail,
which is of a very elongate conical form, being, at the
base, about the same size as the inferior portion of the
body, and with difficulty distinguishable from it. The
scales with which the body and limbs are covered, are
usually smooth and polished on the surface, so that
most of these animals can glide along the ground, and
are able easily to insinuate themselves into small holes.
Their mode of progression is a creeping sort of motion,
the body possessing a sinuous and undulating move-
ment like that of serpents. The species are widely
diffused. They occur not only in the most arid dis-
tricts of temperate regions, and in climates the tem-
perature of which is always high, but extend even
to countries where the temperature would apparently
not pei'init the existence of reptiles ; the Blind worm
{Anguis fragilis), for instance, being found as far
north as Sweden. They are most abundant, however,
in the islands of the Pacific, and in Australia. From
the shortness of their jaws they cannot open their mouth
wide, and, as their teeth are very slender, they seem
able only to catch insects or very small animals.

The family of Scinks may he divided into two
groups ; first, those which have the scales of the body
smooth, not striated nor keeled ; and second, those in
which the scales are thick, bony, rugose, striated, or
one or more keeled.

The genus SciNCUS belongs to the first division — •
the smooth scales ; and as now restricted, contains only
one species —

THE OFFICINAL, or Common Scink or the Scink of
the shops {Scincus officinalis) — Plate 1, figs. 5, 6, and
Plate 8, fig. 10 — is a small lizard about six or eight
inches in length, and is subject to considerable variation
in its colouring. Its upper parts are usually j'ellow, or
of a silvery gray, mingled with brown and black in
transverse hands ; the under parts are generally of a
silvery white. It is a native of Syria, Egypt, Nubia,
Abyssinia, and Arabia ; and is also found in Senegal.
It has been frequently mentioned by travellers, and its
history is rather curious. Hasselquist in his journey
to the Levant met with it. “ This animal is found,”
he says, “ in Arabia Petrsea, near the Red Sea, and in
Upper Egypt on the banks of the Nile. The people of
the East employ it as an aphrodisiac ; hut the Europeans
do not care to imitate them. Its flesh is given in the
form of powder in some irritating vehicle, and the
Arabians even make broth of its flesh.” Bruce in his
travels through Abyssinia, describes it at some length.
“ It is a native,” he says, “ of Athara beyond the rains,
in that situation where we have said the island and
city of Merbe formerly were. This lizard is called
El-adda. It burrows in the sand, and performs this
operation so quickly, that it is out of sight in an mstant,
and appears rather to have found a hole than to have
made one, yet it comes out often in the heat of the
day, and basks itself in the sun ; and if not very much
frightened, will take refuge behind stones, or in the
withered ragged roots of the absinthium, dried in the
sun to nearly its own colour.” “ Almost the whole of
this large tribe of lizards, is by the Arabians, described
as poisonous. The El-adda is one of the few which
the Arabs in all times have believed to be free of

poisonous qualities, and yet to have all the medicinal
virtues that they have so abundantly lavished upon
the more noxious species. Though its legs are very
long, it does not make use of them to stand upright,
but creeps with its belly almost close to the ground.
It runs, however, with very gre.at velocity. Its
tail is perfectly round, is exceedingly sharp-pointed,
and very easily broke. Its jaws have a number of
short, fine, but very feeble teeth, and when holding
it in my hand, though it struggled violently to get
loose, it never attempted to make use of its teeth ;
indeed, it seems to turn its neck with great difficulty.”
A later traveller confirms this account of Bruce in
several of his minute details. M. A. Lefebure, we are
told by Dumeril and Bibron, found the Scink in
abundance in the oasis of Bahrieh, living on the little
mounds of fine light sand which the south wind accumu-
lates at the foot of the hedges which inclose the culti-
vated grounds, and around the roots of the tamarisk
trees which grow on the confines of the desert. There
he saw it quietly basking in the hottest rays of the sun,
and occasionally giving chase to beetles and other
insects which came near it. It runs with considerable
swiftness, and when threatened or frightened it buries
itself in the sand with singular rapidity, digging in a
few instants a burrow several feet in depth. When
caught it struggles to escape, but never attempts to bite
or defend itself with its claws. It was for its great
reputed medicinal virtues, however, that the Scink was
formerly best known.

THE MABOUYAS {Mahouia) of the West Indies, are
particularly mentioned by Sloane in his “ History of
Jamaica,” as small animals, with a very dark appear-
ance. Hence the name of Mabouya given to them by
the natives of North America — that word meaning
anything which inspires disgust or horror. They
climb upon trees, and the roofs and rafters of the huts
of the Indians and negroes. In general they live in
the crevices and holes of rotten trees, but during the
heat of the day they come out to bask in the rays of
the sun. They seem very sensitive to wet, for at the
approach of rain they make a great noise and leave
their positions. The natives dread them as poisonous,
but there is no proof of their being so.

THE NIMBLE MABOUYA [Mahouia agilis), one of
the species has been well described by Mr. Gosse. “ In
the parts of Jamaica with which I am familiar,” he
says, “ this pretty, active little Scink is abundant. It
is most numerous in the lowlands, and on the gentle
sloping hills of moderate elevation that form the charac-
teristic feature of the southern side of that beautiful
island. The fences there are largely composed of
‘ dry wall,’ built of rough, unhewn stones, without
cement. On these walls the Mabouya ma}' be seen
crawling, and often lying quite still in the sunshine ;
when alarmed, it darts with lightning-like rapidity into
one of the crevices which abound in all parts of such a
structure. Indeed, it rarely ventures far from some
refuge of this kind, and I presume that the facilities for
instant retreat afforded by these pervious walls are the
chief cause of its preference for them. It is scarcely
ever seen on the ground, except when avoiding danger,
nor on the trunk or branches of trees or shrubs ; but

Lizakds.-

-EEPTILES.-

-Slendbu-tongued Lizauds.

19

ia the concavity of a pinguin leaf (Bromelia pinguin)
it is occasionally observed to lie, basking in the sun.
The rounded form of the head and body, devoid of pro-
jections; the close-lying and glossy scales; the shortness
of the legs, bringing the belly flat upon the ground ;
and its constant habit of resting with the chin on the
ground also — give to the Mabouya an asfiect very much
unlike that of our other common lizards, and cannot
fail to remind even the least observant of its alfiuity
with the serpent tribes. The negroes,
in the recognition of this proximity
doubtless, have bestowed upon it the
appellation of ‘ snake’s waiting - boy,’
or, more briefly, ‘snake’s boy.’ From
the shortness of its legs results also
another resemblance to a snake ; for
owing to the shortness of its steps, if
made only with the legs, it throws the
shoulder and hip forward at each step ;
and this throwing out of the sides at
different parts alternately, produces a
wriggling motion, somewhat serpentine
in appearance. They are too wary and
too swift to be caught by the hand.

A smart tap with a switch, however
across the shoulders, disables them for
a while; but if the blow descend on
the tall, that organ instantly separates
with the like brittleness as in other
lizards. Cats not unfrequently catch them. The
beautiful provision for protecting the eye, without im-
peding vision, shown by the lower (and larger) eye-
lids having a sort of window, a transparent, glassy,
circular plate in the centre, immediately opposite the
pupil when the eye is closed, is ■well worthy of admira-
tion as an obvious example of creative wisdom and
providential care. Habitually darting to and fro in the
narrow crevices of walls and heaps of stones, the eyes
of this Scink, if unprotected, might be continually liable
to injurious contusions, while, as it feeds on the insects,
at least in part, that resort to such situations, undimmed
vision would be essential to it while permeating them.”
The Nimble Mabouya is found to be viviparous. Its
total length is about nine incbes.

We then come to a series of genera in which the
limbs are weak, far apart from each other, and the body
and tail much lengthened ; the series terminating in
the genus Anguis, wdiere the limbs cease to be visible,
the bones being rudimentary in structure and hidden
under the skin.

THE BLIND-WORM, or well-known Slow-WORM of
English authors [Anguis fragilis) — fig. 7 — is the only
recognized species belonging to this genus. Professor
Bell has given us a very good account of this little
snake-like lizard, in his excellent work on British
Reptiles. Its total length is about ten or twelve inches,
sometimes even fourteen, the tail being nearly half the
length of the body. The general colour is yellowish-
brown or yellowish-grey, with a pearly lustre. A dark,
or black line, runs down the middle of the back, and
generally one or two parallel rows of small dark
spots down each side. The under parts are of a
bluish-black, with whitish reticulations. It is a native

of Great Britain, and is found in almost every part of
Europe, excepting the extreme north, and is capable of
enduring a much colder climate than most other rep-
tiles, even of our own country. It is plentiful in
Russia, Siberia, Poland, Denmark, and Sweden, as well
as the more temperate parts of Europe, as far south as
Italy. The Slow-worm, in this country, makes its
appearance at an earlier season than any other of our
scaled reptiles. It frequents warm banks, where, like

Fig. 7.

The Blind-worm (Anguis fragilis).

almost all other Samians, it delights to bask in the
rays of the sun. In autumn, it retires under masses of
decayed wood or leaves, or into soft dry soil covered
with heath or brushwood. Its general habitation is in
holes in the ground, which it bores for itself to a con-
siderable depth, and from which it comes up for the
purpose of breathing. The habits of the Slow-worm
are exceedingly gentle and inoffensive. Even when
handled roughly, it rarely attempts to bite, and when
it is irritated so as to induce it to seize upon the finger,
the teeth are so small as scarcely to make an impres-
sion. From its serpent-like form, it is not at all
wonderful that it should obtain the unenviable repu-
tation of being exceedingly venomous. Amongst the
uninformed, accordingly, it really does possess this
character. “ Here,” says Mr. Gosse, alluding to this
belief amongst our peasantry, “ here is Hodge the
hedger ; perhaps from his occupation he may have
some acquaintance with the bit of dingy wire : what say
you, Hodge ? ‘ ’Tis a zneak, dang un ! ’ and he makes

a spiteful blow with his stick across the back of the
poor animal, with the apologetic asseveration, ‘ ’Tis a
deadly pizon varmin ! ’ But see, the blow has effec-
tually demolished it, and that in a strange manner ; for,
as if it had been made of glass, it has snapped across
in four or five places; and we at once perceive the
propriety of one of its Latin appellations, that of
fragilis.” * This fragile or brittle property, is so
remarkable in this little creature, that on being laid
hold of or alarmed, it contracts its body so forcibly as
to become perfectly stiff, and then it will break in two
with the slightest blow or attempt to bend it. The

• Excelsior, vol. vi.

20 Rough Stusip-tail. REPTILES. Bridled Sphaenops.

food of the Slow-worm consists of insects, worms, and
sings, the latter of which seems its favourite article of

SNAKE-LIKE LIZARDS.

diet. A Slow-worm kept in captivity for some time by

Immediately following the true Scinks, in Dr. Gray’s

Mr. Daniel, was observed to feed chiefly upon the little

arrangement, there succeed a series of families of

white slug, so common in fields and gardens. “ It

snake-like Lizards, many of which have been, and by

invariably took them in one position. Elevating its

some authors are still, arranged amongst the serpents.

head slowly above its victim, it would suddenly seize

The feet are often altogether wanting, and the body

the slug by the middle, in the same way that a ferret

resembles that of a snake ; but the structure of the

or dog will generally seize a rat by the loins. It would

scales of the head and muzzle, the firm manner in

then hold it thus, sometimes for more than a minute.

which the bones of the head are united, and the small-

when it would pass its prey through its jaws, and

ness of the mouth, which they cannot open wide like

swallow the slug head foremost.” * This reptile is.

the true Serpents, distinguish them from these reptiles.

like our common Nimble Lizard, ovoviviparous. The

They evidently, however, form a sort of connecting

young are hatched before they come into the world.

link between the Lizards and Snakes.

and the number produced at one birth varies from

Such are the Ophiomores {OphiomoriclcB), and a

seven to twelve or thirteen. They become very active

family as yet represented by only one species —

almost immediately after they are born, and soon learn

The Seps family (Sepsidm) which contains several

to feed upon small soft insects, and probably small

species, resembling in general form the Slow-worm,

worms, snails, or slugs.

except that they possess limbs, though weak, far apart,

In the second group, or those species which have

and more or less rudimentary in structure. The body

the scales thick, bony, rugose, and keeled or striated.

is cyclindrical and elongate, and covered with round

the legs are generally strong, and the body fusiform.

imbricated scales. The tongue is short, thick, and

Amongst them are the curious-looking creatures called

nicked at the tip, and the eyes are distinct, and pro-

Stump-tails {Trnchydosaurm), natives of Australia.

vided with eyelids.

In them the body is thick, spindle-shaped, and the

The genus Sph^nops, belonging to this latter family.

back rather flattened on each side. The scales are

has a wedge-shaped head, and its elongate body is

thick, convex, rugose, imbricate, and those of the

angular below.

under side crenulated round the hinder edge. The tail

THE BRIDLED SPHAIHOPS {S. capistrafus), the only

is short, convex, covered with large eon vex scales like

species known, is about the size of a small slow-worm.

the back, and rapidly tapering at the end.

of a pale brown colour, with several series of black dots

THE ROUGH STUMP-TAIL {T. rugosus) is of con-

arranged longitudinally along the body, and a black

siderable size, and is of a pale brown colour, with

streak on each side of the muzzle. It is a native of

broad, rather irregular, yellow cross bands. It is the

Egypt, over which it is widely dispersed. M. A.

species here represented — fig. 8.

Fi.

Lefebure found it very abundantly in the oasis of

j.a

Rough Stump-tail (Trachydosaurus rugosus).

Bahrieh, on the little ridges of the rice-fields, at the

Egypt. M. Lefebure found it embalmed and placed in

foot of the hedges which border the habitations, or on

a small coffin of sycamore wood, ornamented with some

the edge of the wheel- ruts in the miry roads in the

degree of taste, in the neighbourhood of Thebes. It

valleys. According to him it burrows, but very super-

seemed to have been embalmed with considerable care,

ficially, in the soil, the least sinking of it produced by

and it is the only reptile, with the exception of the

the feet of the passer-by discovering its retreat. Its

Crocodile, that has been found as a mummy in Egypt.

motions are very active, but it allows itself to be taken

The genus Seps, which gives its name to the family,

very easily, without its ever trying to defend itself.

has a pyramidal-shaped head, and a conical simple

But one of the most curious parts of its history is, that

muzzle. The body is cylindrical, elongate, and the

it has been found, like the Crocodile, as a mummy in

^ Seps— a name anciently applied to one of the species by
jElian and Pliny — derived from the Greek word, sejjo (irjiirai),

• Bennet’s Edition of White’s Selbome.

to putrefy.

Lizards. REPTILES. Slbnder-tokgued Lizards. 21

sides rounded. The legs are weak and placed far
apart, and the feet have three toes which are unequal,
and furnished at their extremities with claws.

THE CICIGNA, or Three-toed Seps (Seps tridacty-
lus), represented in Plate 1, fig. 7, is a snake-like
lizard, about a foot long, the tail being conical, pointed,
and not quite so long as the body. It has weak small
legs ; they are four in number, two placed very near
the head, and two far back near the commencement of
the tail. They are about two lines long in individuals
twelve inches in length. The animal appears scarcely
to be able to touch the ground with them ; and yet,
notwithstanding their apparent inutility, it moves them
with considerable quickness, and seems to derive much
advantage from them when it walks. The general
colour of the body is a steel-grey above, with four
longitudinal brown rays, two on each side of the
back, and whitish-grey beneath. It is a native of the
south of France, Italy, Spain, all the islands of the
Archipelago, and the shores of Africa bordering the
Mediterranean. It lives in holes which it digs in
the ground, concealing itself in them in winter, and com-
ing forth in spring to take up its abode in gr.assy spots
and near marshes. In such situations it spends the
summer, feeding upon spiders, small snails, and insects.
The ancients regarded this poor little reptile as highly
venomous, but Sauvages has demonstrated the erro-
neous nature of this belief, and Cetti, in his “ Natural
History of Sardinia,” says that throughout that country
he had never heard of its bite being attended with any
bad consequences, and that by the natives it is con-
sidered perfectly harmless. He asserts, however, that
when cattle, and especially horses, have swallowed them
in the grass they have been eating, their belly swells
up, and they are in danger of dying, unless they
have administered to them a draught composed of
oil, vinegar, and sulphur. Like the slow-worm, the
Cicigna appears to produce its young alive and fully
formed.

The family of Acontias {Acontiidee)* contains only
three species, which are either entirely destitute of
limbs, or have them extremely rudimentary. They
were formerly arranged amongst the true serpents, but
Cuvier separated them from the Ophidians, and later
Naturalists have shown their true position to be
amongst the thick-tongued Saurians. Their body is
C3dindrical and elongate, like that of the Slow-worm,
but the tail is short, being only about the fifth or sixth
part the length of the body. They have a conical-
shaped head, with the muzzle inclosed as it were in a
cap-shaped shield. Their eyes are very small, and
they have only one eyelid, the lower one. The ears
are hidden under the skin, and the tongue is scaly and
nicked at the end.

THE SPOTTED ACONTLAS (Acontias meleagris) is a
native of South Africa, in the neighbourhood of the
Cape of Good Hope, where it is very common. The
body is of a brown colour, and the centre of each scale
is marked with a chestnut spot. It has no visible
external limbs, and the tail is cylindrical, short, and
rounded at the end. The eyes are very small, and the

* From the Greek word akontias (xxotTiccf), a javelin — the
name given by the Greeks to a serpent.

only eyelid it has (the lower one) is short, scaly, and
opaque.

The family of Blind Lizards (Typhlopsidce \ is
more frequently arranged amongst the serpents, but
various characters have decided later naturalists to
place the different species which compose it amongst
the Saurian reptiles. The body is covered with small
imbricated scales, like those of the Slow-worm, but the
head is depressed, broad, rounded in front, with a large
oblong, erect plate on the muzzle. The mouth is
small, and they have teeth only in one jaw, sometimes
the lower, at others the upper. The tongue is rather
long, flat, and forked at the tip, and the eyes are either
wanting or only visible through the scales which cover
them. One lung is four times the size of the other.
The body is slender, cylindrical, sometimes rather
larger behind, and the tail is cylindrical, suddenly con-
tracted, obliquely convex, and scaly at the extremity,
and the tip is covered with a conical or spinose shield.
As Cuvier — who places them amongst the Ophidia —
observes, these animals are “ little serpents which on,
a careless glance, resemble earthworms.” They live
in moist places, or under stones, and like earth-worms
burrow under the soil and form little subterranean
galleries, sometimes three or four feet deep. They are
natives of the warmer portions of the globe, move with
considerable celerity, and are quite innocent, not
appearing even inclined to bite. Dr. Gray observes,
that the diameter of the body of these reptiles, after a
certain age, appears to increase during growth, much
more rapidly than the length.

The Claw-headed Snakes ( Onycliophis) | are
natives of Africa and India, and have short round
tails. Two or three species are described by Sir
Andrew Smith as natives of South Africa.

lAIAND’S CLAW-HEADED SNAKE (0. Delalandii)
is found at the Cape of Good Hope, and is pretty
widely distributed over the southern parts of Africa.
“ It is generally found under large stones and trunks of
decayed trees, or in soil broken up by the plough, or
otherwise displaced by the spade or pick-axe, as often
happens in digging up shrubs and dwarf trees for the
purpose of clearing ground for cultivation. When it
is exposed to view, it endeavours to conceal itself under
whatever is nearest to it, and if unsuccessful, it rolls
itself into a mass, and remains quiet unless seized, when
it immediately endeavours to escape.” Another species
is found in Western Africa at Cape Coast. Mrs. Lee
(formerly Mrs. Bowdich) relates an amusing anecdote
of an individual of this species, at the capture of which
she appears to have been present. “A report was
spread,” she says “ that the large tank on which the
inhabitants of the castle solely depended for the supply
of water was infested by an enormous serpent ; and not
only was the idea of drinking the water repugnant, but
many decla'red the water would be poisoned. The
governor determined to have the tank examined,
although he was told that the serpent was so fierce it
would kill any one who would dare to approach it; that
it was some great fetish (false god) ; and that no one

f From the Greek word typhlops blind.

i From the Greek words onux a claw, and ophis (o?<5),
a snake.

22 Claw-headed Snake. REPTILES. Thick-tongued Lizards.

would venture to approach the tank any more. It

heads, and thus was not only doubly poisonous, but if

was impossible to convince those who believed this,

he seized it near one head the other would turn up and

by any reasonable means ; so, sending for his head-

bite him. A glass of rum on the spot, and more pro-

cook named Yahndee, who was a celebi'ated snake-

mised when the feat was performed, reanimated Yahn-

killer, the governor offered him a handsome reward if

dee’s courage ; be wrapped a cloth round his naked

he would capture the animal. Yahndee shook his

arm, and brought the reputed monster out in triumph.

head, and muttered something about the fetish, upon

A closer examination proved that, instead of two heads.

which the governor offered him a present for the fetish.

there was, in common parlance, no head at all ; both

This altered the case ; and the priests and their deity

extremities being alike, with the exception of a small

propitiated, Yahndee opened the tank, and the enor-

orifice, and a closing valve at one of the ends. It was

mous serpent turned out to be about a foot and a half

never dissected, but was put into spirits, and was pre-

long, and he was going to seize it by the head, when

sented by Mr. Bowdich to the British Museum.” This

he suddenly recoiled with horror, and declared he could

species is still in the collection, and has been described

not touch it. On being questioned, he said it had two

as Bowdich’s claw-headed snake (0. punctata).

Sub-Order II.— THICK

-TONGUED LIZAKDS.

The Thick-tongued Lizards are divided into three

and form a row quite round the jaw. Their mouth is

tribes — the Nocturnal Lizards, (Nyctisaura) ; the Cone-

large ; and as the under jaw is articulated behind the

tailed Lizards {Strohilosaurd) ; and the Tree Lizards

cranium like the crocodiles, it permits a wide separa-

(Dendrosaura) ; so named from their habits in life, and

tion of the jaws, which the animals have the power of

the structure of the scales of the tail.

keeping open for a length of time. In consequence of

this structure, also, they possess the faculty of closing

Tkibe I.— NYCTISAURA.'^-

the entrance to the back part of the throat, by applying

the base of the tongue to a hollow formed on the pos-

In the first tribe, or Nocturnal Lizards, the eyes

terior part of the palate, while the jaws remain widely

have circular eyelids, which cannot close and open ;

separate, and the mouth broadly gaping. The inside

the pupil is narrow and vertical, and contracts in a

of their capacious gullet is strongly coloured ; some-

strong light. The scales of the belly are small, of a

times with bright orange or yellow, and at others with

rhombic form, and imbricated ; the head is without

a rich black. Their eyes are large, and of a green

plates, and naked, or covered merely with granules.

colour ; and the eyelids being very short and united

The feet are formed for walking on the ground, or

into one, only leaving a broad opening through which

on flat substances.

we see moving a nictitating membrane, gives them a

peculiar appearance. These peculiarities of structure

Family— GECKOTIDAE.

are admirably adapted to their manners and habits

of living. They are nocturnal animals, and thus their

There is only one family in this tribe, the Geckos

eyes are constructed so as to enable them to discern

{Geckotidoi), the species of which are natives of both

with facility objects in the obscurity of the night.

the Old and New Worlds. The Geckos never attain

The pupil enjoys a degree of mobility, similar to that

a large size. They have in general a large flat head.

possessed by nocturnal birds of prey, and other animals

a narrow neck, and a depressed, squat body, which is

which seek their food at night. They can dilate it to

sometimes fringed on the sides. Their legs are short,

a considerable extent when they require to collect the

stout, wide apart, and the toes are all nearly of equal

rays of light, and are able to contract it to the dimen-

lengtli. These are generally broad, flattened beneath.

sions of only a narrow slit, when the eyes are likely to

and furnished with scales or plates laid one over the

be injured by two bright a glare.

e ther, like the tiles of a house. The skin is apparently

Their food consists of insects, caterpillars, &c., and

naked on the upper parts of the body, being only

these they procure by entrapping them, or pursuing

roughened with granules, giving it a shagreened look.

them into obscure holes and cavities. The construe-

The tail is scarcely as long as the body, and is gener-

tion of their feet enables them to do this effectually.

ally covered with small granular scales like those of

The imbricated plates with which they are furnished

the body. It is very brittle, is easily broken off, and

on the under surface, act like suckers, and enable these

when reproduced, h.as the scales small, square, uniform.

animals to adhere firmly to the surface of even the

and placed in a cross series, which give it a different

smoothest bodies, permitting them to run with the

appearance from the normal state, and must be taken

greatest celerity in all directions, to traverse ceilings.

into account in describing the species. The tongue is

or suspend themselves on the under side of a leaf,

short, broad, fleshy, and not extensile, but is free at its

while they watch the movements of their prey. Their

extremity, which is rounded and slightly nicked. Their

toes, armed with hooked claws which are sharp and

teeth are very small, close set one against the other.

retractile like those of a cat, give them the power of

From tlie two Greek words, nyx (vi/J), niRht, and saura

climbing trees with perfect facility, of penetrating the

a lizard.

cavities and clefts of rocks, and of ascending steep

Oeckos. REPTILES. Geckos. 2.3

■walls for the purpose of finding chinks or hollows in
which to conceal themselves during the day, and in
which they will remain motionless for hours, affixed by
their feet with the back downwards. Their flattened
body, which is flexible in every direction, when insinu-
ated into small crevices moulds itself as it were to
them; and the variable colour.s of the skin enable
them to harmonize with the dull tints of the objects
with ■which the body is in contact. The usual colour
of the skin of the Geckos is of a gray or dull yellow-
ish hue. In a few species, however, bright patterns
ornament some portions of the body, and according to
some observers, the various tints of blue, red, and
yellow which are shown, appear and disappear at the
creature’s will. Wagler states on the authority of
some travellers, that certain species occur in India,
which become luminous or phosphorescent in the dark.
The varying colours of the skin thus enable them to
conceal their presence from the animals which they
prey upon, as well as from the little birds of prey and
other enemies which seek to destroy them.

The Geckos, for the most part, are inhabitants of
hot climates, and in almost all the countries where
they live are objects of horror and repugnance.
Nevertheless, they seem to have a preference for the
dwellings of man, and love particularly to take up their
abode in inhabited houses — probably from the fact
that they are there enabled to find a greater number of
insects which are themselves attracted by the sub-
stances used as food by the families living in them.
Their repulsive appearance causes them often to fall
victims to the fear they produce, for popular prejudices
endow them with many hurtful properties.

The species of Geckos are numerous, upwards of
ninety being described by Dr. Gray in his Catalogue.
Some, as we have said above, are so far domestic as
to live in houses ; others are wilder, and live in sandy
desert places; whilst a third set live in a great
measure on trees, and chase their prey by springing
from branch to branch. The name of Gecko is
derived from the peculiar noise they make, which is
like the sort of sound by which horses are urged to
greater speed, and which the natives of different
countries have tried to imitate or express by the names
of Gecko, in Europe ; Tolcaie, in Siam ; and Geitze, in
South Africa.

The species may be divided into two large groups :
first, those which have the toes dilated, and possess
under the dilated part two rows of membranaceous
plates ; and second, those which have the toes more or
less dilated, but which possess only a single series of
transverse plates beneath.

Amongst the species of the first group, we may
mention two or three which have the transverse scales
under the toes divided by a longitudinal furrow, which
is deep enough to permit the claws to be withdrawn
as into a sheath, and which are called Sheath-claws, or
Thecadactyles.

THE TUENIP-TAELED GECKO {Thecadacfylus rapi-
cauda), one of these, is remarkable for the shape of its
tail. On being caught, in its exertions to escape it
often parts with its tail, which is round and tapering,
but which when reproduced assumes an almost globu-

lar shape. Even when thrown alive into spirits it
does the same, and the tail then contracts and becomes
rounded in form. As it is usually found in this state
in collections, it has in consequence received its specific
name of Turnip-tail.

THE HOUSE GECKO, or Fan Foot {Ptyodactylus
Gecko), another species, which abounds in Egypt. It
is found also in Arabia, Syria, and Barbary, whence it
has spread to the southern countries of Europe. It
frequents the humid and gloomy parts of houses, and
there may often be heard croaking somewhat like a
frog. Hasselquist tells us that it is very common in
Cairo, and asserts it to be poisonous. Its claws are
very sharp, and he says “that he had occasion to
convince himself of the acrimony of its venom, as it
ran over the hand of a man who wished to catch it.
His hand was instantly covered with red pustules, and
became inflamed as if it were stung by a nettle. At
Cairo it has received the name of Ahou-hurs (Father
of leprosy), from the belief the natives have that its
poison produces this disease. Cats, we are told, pursue
the Gecko, and feed upon it; and the natives keep
their kitchens free from its visits by keeping in them
a large quantity of garlic. Its eggs are spherical,
with a hard calcareous shell, and about the size of a
small nut.

THE EAMOCAHTRATA, or Fringed Gecko {Uro-
plates Jimhriatus), is a third species of the Sheath-
claws, and few reptiles are more remarkable for
singularity of form. It partakes somewhat of the
appearance of the chameleon, the gecko, and the
salamander. In its head and skin it resembles the
former, and in its tail that of the latter. Its head is
very flat, and of an elongate triangular shape ; the eyes
are extremely large and prominent, and its throat of
immense extent. Its tail is broad and flat, like that of
the beaver, and much shorter than the body. It is
covered with a membrane which extends on each side,
and gives it somewhat the form of the blade of an oar.
The toes are united for half their extent by a broad
membrane, which is covered underneath with small
square scales or plates, and are only dilated at their
tips. The body is flat and elongate, and is remarkable
for having a prolongation of the skin, in form of a
slashed membrane, extending like a frill along its sides
the whole length from the muzzle to the tip of the
tail, including the legs. In colour it varies like the
chameleon, presenting successively the various shades
of red, yellow, green, or blue. This curious animal is
found in Madagascar, and is the lizard mentioned by
Flacourt in his history of that island in 1658. This
author informs us that the natives regard it with a
kind of horror. As soon as they see it they turn away,
cover their eyes, and even fly from it with great haste.
He says, moreover, that it is a very dangerous animal ;
that it darts upon the negroes, and that it attaches
itself so strongly to their chest, by means of its
fringed membrane and sharp claws, that it can only
be removed by the use of a razor ! This state-
ment, however, is contradicted by a later observer, M.
Bruguieres, who says they are perfectly harmless, that
he has often taken them in his hand, and that he has
allowed them to squeeze his fingers between their jaws

24 Geckos. KEPTILES. Geckos.

without any bad effects having followed. He believes
that the fear with which they inspire the negroes, is
caused by their not flying from them when encountered ;
but, on the contrary, boldly walking up to them with
their mouth wide open, in spite of any attempt they
make to frighten them away. The Famocantrata lives
generally upon trees like the chameleon, retiring into
holes during the day, and leaving them only at night.
Upon the approach of rain it may be seen leaping from
branch to branch with great agility. If it falls to the
ground, however, it is unable to leap up again, but it
crawls to the nearest tree, creeping up the smoothest
bark, and then recommencing leaping from one branch
to another. It walks with difficulty on the ground,
like the chameleon, and what appears to add to its
awkward gait is, that its fore-feet are much shorter
than its hind ones, and its head forms, underneath,
such an angle with the body, that at every step it takes
it strikes its nose against the ground. Its food consists
exclusively of insects, and it may generally be seen
moving about with its throat wide open, ready to
catch them.

In this first group we have also several genei’a, the
species of which are distinguished by having their toes
dilated only at their base, the two last joints being free,
compressed, and clawed. These, are the Half-ioes, or
Hemidactyles.

THE WARTY GECKO {Hemidactylus verruculatus).
one of these, is one of the few Geckos found in Europe.
It is a native of all the countries bordering upon the
Mediterranean, and is found in Northern Africa, in the
neighbourhood of Trebizond, in Greece, Sicily, Italy,
Spain, and the south of France; and, according to M.
Bibron, it would appear to be even found in Senegal
and in Chili, It is of a grayish colour, marbled with
brown.

THE MABOUYA OF THE WALLS {Hemidactylus
Mabouia), another Hemidactyle, is extremely common
in the West Indies and Brazil, living in houses, and
where it receives this name, to distinguish it from the
Turnip-tailed Gecko, which the negroes call the
Mabouya of the Bananas. It is of a fawn colour on
the body, with a number of five-sided brown spots
across the back. Little is known of the particular
habits of these two animals.

In the second group, those which have only a single
series of transverse plates underneath the toes, we find
a number of genera, the species of which have the toes
dilated throughout their whole length, and the plates
beneath the toes membranaceous and smooth. These
are the Flat-toes, or Platydactyles.

THE TRUE GECKO [Gecko vcrus), one of these, is
of a thicker and stouter form than most others of the
family, having a large and somewhat triangular flat-
tish head, a wide mouth, large eyes, and a broad flat
tongue. The back is covered with numerous, distant,
round warts, or tubercles, and is of a reddish-gi-ay
colour, spotted with white. It is a native of India,
being found both on the continent and throughout the
islands of the Indian archipelago.

THE FRINGED TREE-GECKO [Ptychozoon homalo-
cephala) is one of the most remarkable species of this
group. The sides of the head, the lateral parts of its

body, the front and back parts of its feet, and the sides
of its tail, are fringed with membranes which are quite
entire along the flanks, but scalloped along the edges
of the tail. These membranes on the temples give the
head the appearance of being more than a third larger
than the skull. On their external margin they are very
thin, but where they approach the body of the animal,
they assume a greater thickness, owing to solid bundles
of muscular fibres. The eyes are large, and the toes
are united to each other throughout their whole length
l;y a web or broad membrane. The body on the upper
parts is of a brown colour, marked with several black
lines en chevron; a dark-brown streak runs along the
head from the back of the eye along the neck, termi-
nating on the shoulder ; and the membranes of the
head and flanks are white. This curious Gecko is
found in Java. It appears to live on trees, and makes
use of the expanded membranes with which its body
is furnished as parachutes, to assist its movements from
one branch to another.

The genus Tarentola [Platydactijlus) contains
several well-known species.

THE WALL GECKO [Tarentola Mauritanica), is one
of the most common. It is said to be a most hideous
reptile, concealing itself in holes of walls and heaps
of stones, and covering its body with dust and ordure.
It is a native of temperate climates, being found all
round the Mediterranean Sea, even as far as Provence
and Languedoc, where it is very common, and is
called there Tarente. The AVall Gecko likes warmth,
and avoiding low and damp situations, takes up its
abode under the roofs of ruined houses and old habita-
tions of all kinds, in which kind of places it spends
the winter, but without becoming perfectly torpid.
At the first approach of spring, it leaves its hiding
place, and betakes itself to some warm spot to bask
in the rays of the sun ; but it does not go far from its
retreat, returning there upon the least noise, or on the
approach of rain. Its food consists of insects chiefly,
and to find these it can run quickly up walls or along
the ceilings of rooms back downwards. Like most
repulsive looking animals, the Wall Gecko has the
credit with the vulgar of being venomous. This, how-
ever, is a mistaken notion, as they are perfectly harm-
less. Lacepede, on the authority of M. Olivier, says
that this species, unlike the generality of the family,
utters no cry; and that M. Olivier has frequently taken
hold of them with a pair of pincers without being able
to elicit from them any sound.

THE EGYPTIAN GECKO [Tarentola Egyptiaca),
represented in Plate 2, fig. 1, very nearly resembles
the Wall Gecko, differing only in a few particulars,
and being a little larger. Geoffrey says that full-grown
individuals measure five feet in length from the muzzle
to the extremity of the tail. It seems peculiar to
Egypt, and its habits are nearly the same as those of
the last. Two or three species of this same genus are
found in South Africa.

BIBRON’S TARENTOLE [Tarentola Bihronii), and
the CAPE TARENTOLE [T. Capensis), are described
by Sir A. Smith, as being found in the interior, though
not very abundantly. They occur chiefly in rocky
precipitous places, and in outhouses badly lighted.

Iguanid/e. REPTILES. Guaa'as. 25

“On tlie inecipices,” he says, speaking of the first of

The species may be divided into two groups : —

the two species, “it occurs generally in the crevices of

those which live on frees or are formed for perching;

the rocks, and is cluefly ohserved in dull obscure situa-

and those which are teri’estrial in their habits.

tions. It advances on the face of a perpendicular

The Perchers, or tho.se of the first group, have the

rock with great facility', and also ascends with ease

body compressed, and covered with rings of squarish,

glass or wood placed vertically. When discovered

small, often keeled scales.

and exposed to the light of day it immediately seeks

THE COMMON GUANA of America [Iguana tuber-

concealment, as if inconvenience was a consequence of

culata) — Plate 2, fig. 2, and Plate 8, fig. 5 — is one of

such exposure.”

the best known species of the grouj), and indeed of the

family to which it gives its name. This animal is from

Tribe II.— STROBILOSAURA.

four to five feet long, and its general colour is green,

shaded with brown. It has a strong and distinct crest

The second tribe, the Cone-tailed Lizards

running along the whole length of the back and tail.

{Slvohilosmira),* are diurnal lizards, their eyes having

and a large dewlap or pouch under the throat, the edge

movable eyelids and round pupils. The scales of the

of which is attached to a caitilaginous appendage of

belly are small, rhombic, and, like those of the back.

the bone of the tongue. The tail is very long, slender.

are imbricate or jdaced one above another, like the tiles

compressed, and covered with small, imbricated, keeled

of a house ; while the tail is generally covered with

scales. It has a very formidable look at first sight, and

whirls of scales so disposed as to resemble somewhat

when irritated, it puts on a very menacing apjiearance.

the scales of a fif-cone. The tongue is thick, short.

swelling out its throat pouch, erecting the crest on its

and convmx, with the extremity sliglitly nicked. The

back, aijd lashing its tail about with great violence.

feet arc formed for walking and are furnished with

It is, neverthele.ss, a harmless creature, unless laid hold

unequal, compressed toes.

of, when it bites with considerable force.

This tribe contains the two large -families of the

The Guana is very common in all the warm parts of

Guanas {IguanhJai) and the Agamas {Agamidce), which

America, and was at one time abundant in Jamaica

are distinguished from each other chiefly by the struc-

and other West Indian islands, though now nearly

ture of the teeth.

extirpated. It is generally seen in woods, near rivers.

and in the neighbourhood of springs of water. It

FAXiiLY— IGUANIDiE.

jiasses most of the time in trees, and lives on leaves.

flowers, fruits, grain, &c. It is very tenacious of life.

The Family of Guanas {Iguanuhe) is a numerous

and can live a long time without food. Browne, in his

one, ujjwards of one hundred and twenty species having

“ Natural History of Jamaica,” informs us that he kept

been described or enumerated by Dr. Gray in his

a grown Guana about the house for more than two

Catalogue of Lizards in the British Museum. Thej'

months. “ It was very fierce and ill-natured at the

are all confined to the New World. Their teeth are

beginning, but after some days it grew more tame.

round at the root, dilated, compressed at the tip, and

and would at length pass the greatest part of the day

toothed 01} the edge. They are qdaced in a simple

upon the bed or couch, but always went out at night.”

series in a furrow on the inner side of the jaws, just

The females are smaller than the males, but their

below the edge, and covered on the inner side by the

colours are much more brilliant. At a particular

gums. They are replaced bj' the young teeth, which

season of the year they go to the sea-shore to lay their

grow at the base of the old ones, and gradually cause

eggs, which they deposit in the sand, leaving them to

the absorption of their roots. The palate is furnished

be hatched by the genial warmth of the sun. A single

with one or two rows of teeth on each side. The

female will lay about six dozen. These eggs are about •

greater proportion of the species have a horny crest or

the size of those of a pigeon, but a little longer, and of

ridge, extending along the middle line of the back and

equal thickness at both ends. The shell is white, even.

tail ; and many have a compressed dewlap or pouch

and soft. They are entirely filled by the j'olk, which

under the throat, while others have only a foil of the

does not become hard by boiling. Their flavour is

skin there. The toes are free, distinct, and all furnished

very agreeable, and they are much sought after in

with nails or claws. In general they are nimble in

Surinam and Guiana as articles of food. The flesh of

their movements, and are very quarrelsome, fighting

the Guana is considered delicious eating, being white

with great ardour when they meet. The compressed

and delicate. It is in great estimation throughout all

and A'ery long tail of many amongst them, is most

the warm parts of America, and at Paramaribo it is

useful as an organ of pi’ogression when swimming

sold, we are told, at a high price, and is much piizcd

across the inundated savannas ; for though they are

by epicures. The Guana is hunted by dogs, and is

not amphibious animals, they do not fear or dWike the

also occasionally taken by a noose attached to the

water. As many of them live on trees, their long

end of a stick. When it has taken refuge in a tree.

hooked claws are useful in climbing, and assist them in

it appears to depend upon the security of its situation.

pursuing the smaller animals upon which they partly

and never oilers to stir. Mr. Gosse tells us that this

feed, enabling them the better, also, to reach the fruits

operation is much facilitated by particular sounds. He

and grains, and leaves, which in many sj)ecies form

made a noose of small twine, fastened it to the end of

their usual sustenance.

a switch, and went gently towards one of them, whist-

* From the two Greek words, strolilos a fir-cone,

ling a lively tune. This so fascinated it, that it allowed

and saura [irccv^x], a lizard.

the noose to be passed over its head, and itself to be

Von. II. 6o

2(j Guanas. REPTILES. Guanas (CYcr.up.F.s).

caught. As long as the whistling continued it was
very quiet, hut when the sound ceased it became very
savage, and hit at ever^’thing within its reach ; its
green colour became hla-.'kish, and at last changed
to a bluish-black, with darker bands upon the body,
brownish-black upon the tail, and the only trace left
of its original colour was about the eyes. It fiercely
seized a piece of linen, and would not let it go for
hours. When put into a cage it darted wildly about,
and tried to bite everything it could lay hold of. At
night it became gi’een, and the changes were very
rapid. After four weeks’ confinement it changed its
skin, and died in the operation. In former days, when
those srd).stances known under the name of Bezoars
were famed for their wonderful virtues in curing
diseases, that found in the stomach of the Iguana was
highly ])rizod in America. In the present day, these
concretions are fallen into the most complete disrepute.

THE RHINOCEROS GUANA (^Iguana rhinolog^hus) is
distinguished from the preceding species bj^ having on
the muzzle two short horns, with five or six tubercular
scales surrounding them, and being fuinished with
fewer scales forming the dorsal crest. This species is
a native of the West Indies, and attains the length of
five, and sometimes even of six feet, the tail being
about one-half or three-quarters the length of the body.
'The general colour is a bright green in the young,
and a dirty gray in the old individuals, with about
six black streaks across the body, and fifteen across
the tail.

The genus Cyclura has been separated from
Iguana, from its having no dewlap or true throat
j)ouch, hut only a lax fold of .skin plaited across, and
the tail being covered with scales forming rings, alter-
nating with rings of spines. The habits of the Cyclui es
are very similar to those of the true Guanas.

THE CLOUDED CYCIURE, or Guana of Carolina
{Cyclura nuhila), has been described at some length by
Catesby in his “ Natural History of Carolina.” “ This
kind of lizard,” he says, “ somewhat resembles the
crocodile or alligator in shape, but has a shorter head,
and a serrated crest on the ridge of the back, extending
from behind its head to the middle of the tail. They are
of various sizes, from two to five feet in length ; their
mouths are furiushed with exceeding small teeth, but
tlieir jaws are armed with a bony beak, with which
they bite with groat strength. They inhabit warm
countries only, and are rarely to he met with anywhere
noi th or south of the Tropics. Many of the Bahama
Islands abound with them ; they nestle in hollow rocks
and trees; their eggs have not a hard shell like the
eggs of alligators, hut a skin only, like those of turtle,
and are esteemed good food; they lay a great number
of them at a time in the earth, which are there hatched
by the sun’s heat. These Guanas are a great part of
the subsistence of the inhabitants of the Bahama Islands,
for which purpose they visit many of the remote Kays
and islands in their sloops to catch them, which they
do by dogs trained up for that purpose, which are so
dexterous as not often to kill them, which, if they do,
they serve only for present spending ; if otherwise, they
sew up their mouths to prevent their biting, and jmt
them into the hold of their slooj) till they have catched

a sufficient number, which they either carry alive for
sale to Carolina, or salt and barrel up for the use of
their families at home. Those Guanas feed wholly on
vegetables and fruit, particulaily on a kind of Fungus
growing at the roots of trees, and of this and others
of the Anona kind. Their flesh is easy of digestion,
delicate, and well tasted ; they are sometimes roasted,
but the more common way is to boil them, taking out
the leaves of fat, which they melt and clarify ; this they
put into a calabash or dish, into which they dip the
flesh of the Guana as they eat it. It is i-emarkable
that the fat which adheres to the inside of the abdomen,
imbibes the colour of the fruit they eat last, which I
have frequently seen tinged with pale red, yellow, and
sometimes of a purple colour, which last was from
eating the Prunus maritima, which fruit at the same
time I took out of them. Though they are not amphi-
bious, they are said to keep underwater above an hour.
When they swim, they use not their feet, but clap them
close to their body, and guide themselves with their
tails. They.swallow all they eat whole. They cannot
run fast ; their holes being a greater security to them
than their heels. They are so impatient of cold that
they rarely appear out of their holes but when the sun
shines.”

THE SHOULDER-CRESTED CYCLURA {Cyclura lo-
jdioma), a species found in the island of Jamaica,
has a very interesting account given of it by Mr.
Gosse in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society
for 1848. This animal is about three feet long, the
tail alone measuring twenty-one inches. It is of a
russet-green colour, with obscure, confluent, dark olive-
brown spots, and its crest is high along the upper
part of the back, and continued over the shoulders,
but interrupted over the loins. The skin of the throat
is loose and transversely wrinkled, is of considerable
size, and can be distended by the animal at will.
This Cyclure appears to be found only in particular
parts of the island. Mr. Hill, in a comnnmication
addressed to Mr. Gosse, says that its ordinary haunt
is a low limestone chain of hills along the shore
from Kingston harbour and Goat Island, or to its
continuation in Vere. Succulent herbs, growing in
the forests of these hills, supply its food. These hills,
however, he says, are so little suited for this sort of vege-
tation, that hardly anything more than aromatic and
resinous trees and balsamic plants grow there. In the
occasional hollows a little mould has been collected
from decayed leaves, mingled with marl, extremely
stony and- sterile, and there a little more succulent
herbage prevails. The rocks have numerous caverns ;
and the springs that break out at the foot of the clitfs
are an impure brackish water, though extremely trans-
parent. It is this district that is almost exclusively
the haunt of this creature. When excited, it assumes
a menacing attitude, and directs its eye to the object
of attack with a peculiar sinister look. “ At this time,”
says Mr. Hill, “ it inflates its throat, erects the crest
and dentclations on the back, and opens the mouth so
as to show the line of its peeuliarly-set white teeth,
with serrated edges,” so well adapted for cutting and
cropping its vegetable food. “ In dclending itself from
attack, the Cyclure converts its long flexible tail into

CitissTUD AMiii.YuiiiNCiius. RKrTILES. Basilisk.

no iinimpoitant weapon. The dentelated upper edge,
drawn rapidly over the body and liinba of an eneinj^,
cuts like a saw. The twisted attitude which it assumes
when approached, is converted into a quick turn, in
which movement the tail is nimbly struck by an over-
blow from one side to another, and then jerked round.”
The negroes informed IMr. Hill, that dogs in attacking
these reptiles frequently received desjierate punish-
ment, from the gashes and lacerations that were made
in the thick muscles of their legs by the rapid flinging
round of the animal in defending itself. The sudden
jerk with which it threw back its tail was said bj' them
to be suflident to rasp the veiy flesh oft' the bone.

The Galapagos Islands abound in two species of
lizards of the Iguana family, which appear to be exclu-
sively confined to that archipelago, and have been
described at considerable length by Jlr. Darwin in his
“Journal of a Naturalist” during the voyage of the
Adventure and Beagle. One is aquatic in its habits,
the other terrestrial.

THE CRESTED AMBLYRHYHCHUS {Amhhjrhynchua
or Orcocephalus cristatus), the aquatic species, is
extremely common on all the islands throughout the
group, living exclusively on the I’ocky sea-beaches,
and never being found ten j'ards in-shore. It is
a hideous-looking creature, of a dirty black colour,
stupid and sluggish in its movements, and growing to
the length of three and even four feet. When in the
water, to which it often takes, being sometimes seen
several hundred yards from the shore, it swims with
pei’fect ease and quickness by a serpentine movement
of its body and flattened tail, the legs being motionless
and closely' collapsed on its sides. The creature seems
very tenacious of life. A seaman on board, says Mr.
Darwin, “ sank one with a heavy weight attached to
it, thinking thus to kill it directly; but when, an hour
afterwards, he drew up the line, the lizard was quite
active.” The food of this animal consists exclusively
of sea- weed. It does not appear to have any notion of
biting ; but when much frightened, it squirts a drop of
fluid from each nostril. It is mentioned as a curious
fact in this creature’s habits, by Mr. Darwin, tliat
though it is decidedly aquatic, yet when frightened, it
cannot be made to enter the water. If driven down to
a point overhanging the sea, it will rather allow itself
to bo laid hold of than take to the water ; and if taken
up and thrown into the sea, it will immediately' return
in a direct line to the shore, crawl up the rocks, and
shullle away as fast as possible. “ Perhaps,” says this
observer, “ this singular piece of apparent stupidity may
be accounted for by the circumstance, that this reptile
has no enemy whatever on shore, whereas at sea it
must often fall a prey to the numerous sharks. Hence
probably, urged by a fixed and hereditary instinct that
the shore is its place of safety', whatever the emer-
gency may be, it there takes refuge.”

THE SUB -CRESTED AMBLYRHYNCHUS (Amhlg-
rhynchus or Trachycephulus suhcristatus),A"^Q terrestrial
species, is confined to the central parts of the archi-
pelago, and is a little smaller than its aquatic brother.
As described by Mr. Darwin, these lizards are ugly'
animals, of a y'ellowish-orange colour beneath and of
a brownish-red above, and have a peculiarly stupid

27

look. They' are exceedingly numerous, and live in
burrows which they excavate for themselves in the
dry soil. Mr. Darwin tells us in an amusing manner
that he watched one of them forming its burrow, and
looked on till half its body was buried. “ I then
walked up and pulled it by the tail ; at this it was
greatly astonished, and soon shuffled up to see what
was the matter, and then stared me in the face, as
much as to say — “What made you pull my tail?”
They are perfectly harmless, but are not timorous.
When encountered by any one, they' curl their tails,
and raising themselves on their front legs, nod their
heads vertically with a quick movement, and tiy to
look very fierce. If the observer, however, only stamp
his foot on the ground, down go their tails, and oil they
shuflle as quick as they can. When cooked, these
animals yield a white meat, which by many people
is much relished. This species is herbivorous also, and
is very' fond of the cacti which grow on these islands.

Under the once dreaded name of “Basilisk,” we
have another species belonging to the group of perch-
ing Iguanas. The Basilisk of the ancients and of
romantic fable was an animal generally referred to the
serpents, but usually represented with eight feet and a
crown upon its head. It was said to infest the deserts
of Africa, and that no other animal dared to dwell in
its neighbourhood, of which it retained the sole and
undisputed dominion. It was said also to possess the
power of siriking its victim dead by a single glance.
Lucan, in his celebrated poem of Pharsalia, thus men-
tions it —

“ But fiercely hissing through the poisoned air,

The basilisk exerts liis deathfiil glare ;

At distance bids each vulgar pest remain.

And reigns sole monarch of his desert plain.”

Seba in his great work, “ Le tresor de la Nature,”
figures a species of lizard, with its head surmounted by
projecting lines, and its back furnished with a broad
vertical crest extending over the tail. Thi.s creature
he calls the Basilisk or dragon of America, and sfieaks
of it as a flying amphibious animal. The reptile from
which his figure and description were taken, formed
part of the collection ceded by Holland to France, and
is now in that of the Museum of Natural History in the
Garden of Plants at Paris. Of this species Laurenti
formed the genus Basiliscus, which has been adopted
by all succeeding writers on Reptiles, and is readily
distinguished front its congeners.

THE HOODED OR MITRED BASILISK {Basiliscus
mitratus or Americamts) is the only' species. The
head of this animal is of an elongate shape, produced
backwards, and furnished with a compressed, vertical,
triangular crest of skin. The throat has a small
pouch and a well marked cross fold of skin. The
back and tail are furnished with a high compressed
crest, which is much more distinct in the males than
in the females, and is supported by bony rays. The
tail is long and compressed, and the outer hinder
toes are webbed at their base. 'When full grown,
the Basilisk measures upwards of two feet in length,
of which the tail usurps more than the half. Its
colour is of a yellowish-brown, passing into whitish
on the under parts; and a longitudinal stripe of white.

28 Lined Anolis. REPTILES. Tapayaxin.

edged with black, extends from each eye to tlie sides

these combats, and perhaps these ■witnesses of their

of the back, and then blends with the general tint.

prowess are the females which become the prize of

Not much is known of the habits of this animal ; but

the victor. The weaker of the two combatants, when

we do know that, notwithstanding its formidable name

worsted, takes to flight ; its opponent follows up its

and aspect, it is very harmless, and that it chiefly lives

victory, and if it can overtake it, quickly devours it ;

upon grain and vegetables. Though its life is for the

sometimes, however, it only gets hold of its tail, which

most part spent on trees, like the other species of this

snaps ofi:' in its mouth, and which it stops to swallow.

grou[), it often takes to the water like the Guana, for

thus allowing time for the wretched caitiff to escape.”

which [ urpose its compressed tail and' partially webbed

THE ANOLIS OF CAROLINA, The Gueen Lizard

toes admirably adapt it. It is a native of Guiana,

OF Carolina of Catesby {Anolius j^'iitcipuUs), has no

Martinique, and Vera Cruz.

crest on the back, and its tail is rounded, thick at the

The last of the perchers we shall mention are the

base, and furnished with a central series of larger, more

Anolis. The genus Anolius of former authors con-

keeled scales above. Catesb}^ in his “ Natural History

tained numerous species, some of which are very rare in

of Carolina,” says, “ These Lizards are usually about

collections. Distinctions which lused to be considei'ed

five inches long, of a dusky-green colour. They fre-

only specific, have of late been thought of sulficient

quent houses, are familiar and harmless, and are sulfered

importance to establish generic divisions; and these

with impunity to sport and catch flies on tables and

genera are now numerous enough to form a small sub-

windows, which they do very dexterousl}^ and no less

family Anoliina. The members of this little group

divertingly. They appear chiefly in summer, and at

are characterized by their having the toes dilated

the approach of cold weather they retreat to their

under the last joint but one into a rather broad plate.

winter recesses, and lie toi'pid in the hollows and

which is covered underneath with small transverse

crevices of rotten trees. These lizards change their

scales, like the Geckos, and which assist them in climb-

colour in some measure like the chameleon, for in a

ing trees. Their throat pouch is distinct, of consider-

hot day their colour has been a bright green ; the next

able size, and largely dilatable. The back, in many of

day changing cold, the same lizard a]ipeared brown.

the species, is furnished with a crest, which is prolonged

They are a prey to cats and ravenous birds. It fre-

to the extremity of the tail. In others it is simple, or

quently happens that a few warm sunshinj' days so

onl\^ furnivshed with a slight crest of small scales. The

invigorate them that they will come out of their

tail is long, swollen at intervals, and crested.

winter retirements and aiqiear abroad ; when on a

The Anolis are animals which live chiefly upon trees

sudden the weather changing to cold so enfeebles

and shrubs, and feed upon insects, fruits, and berries.

them that they are incapacitated to creep to their

Their .skin is generally of a green hue ; and, like the

winter holes, and die of cold.”

chameleons, thej' have the power of changing their

In the second gvoup, or those whose habits are

colours quickly. They are lively creatures, run quickly.

terrestrial, the body is subtrigonal, covered with large

and leap with agility from one branch to another.

keeled scales directed obliquely towards the back.

They bite ratlier fiercely if laid hold of, but their bite

THE LION LIZARD {Leiocephalus Schricbersli), one

is not attended with any bad results.

of these, has been described by Catesby. The crest of

THE LINED ANOLIS {Anolius Uneatas) is one of

the back and tail in this species is very small, the tail

the species which have the crest well marked and

is roundish, slightly compressed; and, unlike the pre-

extending all along the back, and is a native of the

ceding species, the animals do not change colour.

island of Martinique, and probably several other of

nor do they dilate their throat. The Lion Lizard,

the West India islands. It is of a gray colour, and

according to Catesby, is usually tibout five or six

the body is marked with two interrupted black

inches long. It is of a graj'' colour, streaked with lines

streaks on each side. The throat pouch is large.

of a lighter gray ; the legs are long. “ It cocks its tail

and marked with a large black spot, and the tail is

with a round twirl, and looks fierce, from which it

long and compressed. Father Nicholson, the Jesuit,

may perhaps have taken its English name. They are

lias given an account of this little Anolis in his

inoflensive, frequenting the rocks on the sea-shores of

“ Natural history of the island of St.’ Domingo.” It is

Cuba, Hispaniola, &c. They are nimble, and run

very lively, he saj’s, and is a hold litt’e creature ; it is

with surprising swiftness, yet are a prey to sea-gulls

so familiar (hat it walks without fear into apartments,

and other ravenous birds.”

creeping up on the tables, and even walking over the

THE TAPAYAXIN of Mexico (/V/ry)w.90?«ffl orhiculure)

guests seated at them. Its attitude is graceful, and it

— fig. 9 — another, and a singular-looking species, has

looks steadfastly, observing everything around it with

been quaintly described by Hernandez in his “ Natural

such a degree of attention, that one would almost

History of New Syiain.” fl'he body of the animal is

believe it was listening to what was said. It feeds

short, oval, very flat, and has on each side a scaly

tqion flies, spiders, and other insects, which it swallows

ridge, but no crest either on back or tail. The upper

entire. These Anolis often fight with cacli other.

parts of the body are rough with tubercles. The limbs

“ When two of them commence an attack,” says

are very short, and the tail, not the length of the body.

Nicholson, “ they come forward boldy" and proudly.

is flat and broad at the root. Hernandez, who was

and seem to menace each other, by rapidly shaking

the first author that has mentioned this reptile, thus

their heads. Their throat swells, their eyes sparkle ;

describes it: — “Amongst the difl'erent varieties of the

they seize each other with fury, and fight savagely.

lizard, is apparently the Tapayaxin, although it has

Several other individuals are generally sjiectators of

always the body of an orbicular shape and flat, re.sem-

Tapayaxin. KKl’i'lLES. Tapayaxin.

bliiig ill a certain degree tlie form of the ray fish, only
that it is much smaller, scarcel}^ reaching four inches
either in length or breadth. It is of a cartilaginous
consistence, however, and varied with many colours;
it is always found cold to the touch, walks very slowly,
and seldom changes its place, even if laid hold of and
handled. But its head is very hard, elevated, and
bristling with a number of spines, disposed in the form
of a garland. It delights in being taken hold of by
man, to be carried in the hand and fondled, remaining
immovable, and enjoying a degree of jilacid security
and tranquility; wdierefore it is usually called by the
n (lives, the Friend of man. What is wonderful in this
animal, and common to no other as far as I am aware,
is, that if the head be compressed) or the eyes be
trovd)led, or if it be roughly handled, it can pour out
from them drops of hlood and eject them to a distance,
in the same way as blood is wont to be drawn from a
man in sound health ; sometimes it is thrown out with
such force as to roach a distance of three paces.”
Wonderful virtues were attributed by the superstition
of the natives to this blood, especially in the syphilitic !
diseases which, soon after the conquest of Mexico, !

Fitr.

211

overrun that country. The Tapayaxin lives in the
mountainous and cool parts of Mexico, where it is
found generally diflused,

The family of Agajias {Agamickc) contains a con-
siderable number of species, upwards of eighty having
been described by Dr. Gray in his Catalogue. These
are distributed through a variety of genera, which are
distinguished by the teeth being inqjlanted into the
suhstance of the jaw, adhering intimately to it by tbeir
fangs. In none of them is the palate armed w'ith teeth.
The thumb of the hind feet is on the same plane as the
other toes. These characters separate them distinctly
from tlic Iguanidae, and, moreover, they are all inhabi-
tants of the Old World, wdth the exception of two or
three from Australia, whereas the Iguanidaj are all
natives of the New World. In other respects they
resemble the latter family very much, and by many
writers on reptiles are made merely a subdivision of
them. Like them also they may be arranged in two
groups — those which chiefly live upon trees ; and those
w’hose habits are terrestrial.

I Amongst the members of the fi'st group, or those
! which live on trees, are the harmless little Flying

. 9.

Tapayaxin of Mexico (I'lirynosoma orbictiiare}.

Lizards or Dragons. To no w'ord, perhaps, are
attached ideas more extraordinaiy, and of greater anti-
quity than to that of Dragon. In all ages and in all
countries the name Draco has been one of fear and
mj’stery, and has not been dropped by modern natural-
ists, wdio, however, instead of giving it to a creature of
romance, have conferred it upon a real, substantial,
winged rejitile. The genus Draco contains several
species, which are small and inolT'ensive, but which,
nevertheless, are still equally curious in the eyes of an
attentive observer. Their chief character is, in fact,
one of the most beautiful examples of the resources, at
once simple and varied, that Nature uses in order to
arrive at her ends. Destined to live on trees, it was
necessary that the Diugons, in order to move them-

selves W'ith an agiliiy equal to that of the other animals
of the tribe to w'hich they belong, should have their feet
furnished with toes possessing free claws ; but as the
Insects of which their ordinary food consists fly rapidly,
in order to reach them and shoot with celerity from
one tree to another it was necessary besides that they
should be furnished with w’ings. We thus see that the
skin of the flanks is expanded in the manner of a para-
chute, and sustained by the ribs behind the sternum,
wdiich separate themselves bilaterall}', in place of con-
verging towards the inferior line of the body, a unicpio
example of such an arrangement — Plate 8, fig. 17.
The genus Draco has a small head ; ' the body covered
with small imbricate scales; the throat furnished with
three pouches ; six ribs on each side, which are long.

Lizauds. REPTILES. TTiick-ioa'gued Lizaiids.

30

exsorted, and give support to the wing-like lateral
expansions of the skin ; a long tail, and live free hat
nneqrial toes on each foot. The species are all of a
small size and very harmless. They are found living
in the bosoms of the forests which cover some of the
burning regions of Africa and a portion of the large
islands of the Indian Ocean, particularly Java and
Sumatra. T heir wings are capable of being folded up
and developed like a fan, at the will of the animal.
In a state of repose they are horizontal, but when
expanded they support the body like a parachute, when
the creature leaps from branch to branch. They
have not sufficient power, however, to strike the air
and elevate it like a bird. Their food consists of
insects, which they pursue with dexterity and quickness,
and may almost bo said to take them on the wing.
They appear to have no objection to the water, as they
have been seen swimming in a river at some distance
from land.

THE COMMON FLYING LIZARD {Draco volans)
is the species most frequently met with, and the best
known. The colour of this animal is of a uniform green-
ish hue, with the exco[)tion of the wings, whitdi are of a
very pale brown, and are each of them marked with four
transverse brown bands, fringed at their sides with little
white points. Bontius tolls us that this pretty little
reptile, which is common in the island of Java, inflates its
yellowish goitre wh")! it flies, that it may be more light
in the air, without, however, being able to traverse any
great space. It only shoots from ti'ce to tree, a distance
of about thirty paces, and produces b}' the agitation of its
wings a slight noise. It is a native also of Borneo and
the Philippine islands.

THE LINED FLYING LIZARD {Dracunculus Ihicaf ns),
the species represented in Plato 2, fig. 4, is much rarer
than the former, and is found in the great woods of
the islands of Java and Amboina. Its habits are, we
believe, mucli the same as the common species, but,
being rare, the animals have not been much observed.
In this species the drum of the ear is hid under tlie
skin, whilst in the other it is exposed — hence it now
forms a separate genus, under the name of Dracunculvs.

The Ci{ESTi':i) Lizards {Loplmrce) belong to this
group also. These reptiles are remarkable for the
crest which they possess, which extends from the
head to the extremity of the tail, and is supported
throughout its length by long rays. The toes are
long and are furnished on each side with a margin
of horizontal scales, which scales are so developed in
the hind feet as to form a sort of web or first expansion.

THE CRESTED LIZARD OF AMBOINA {Loi^lmra
Amhoinmsis) is a handsome sj)ecies, and often attains
a length of three or four feet. It was first described by
Schlbsser as a native of Amboina, and it is also found
in Java and the Phillipine islands. It is the represen-
tative in Asia of the Basilisk of .America, and has by
several authors been described as a species of that
genus. It has a small throat pouch, with a lax (old of
skin in froiit of the neck, and the tail is nearly three
times as long as the body. It is of a green colour, with
black lines above and white beneath. This reptile-
frequents the neighbourhood of large rivers, climbing
the trees growing on their banks, and there passing its

time tranquillj', feeding upon fruits, seeds, small worms,
and insects, and depositing its eggs in the sandbanks
and little islets of the rivei', as if it sought to ])lace them
there in safet3'. It is a timid creature, easily alarmed,
and flies at the least appearance of danger, without
making any attempt to defend itself. Should the river
be near it plunges into it, swimming with ease and
rairiditjq and hastening to conceal itself under (he rocks
and stories. The flesh is said to be very good, superior
even to that of the Guana, and hence the natives hunt
them with aviditj'’ for the purpose of using them as
food. They follow them into the water, and when laid
hold of the poor creatures makes no attempt at defence,
and utter no cry. “ This mildness of disposition,” s.ays
Laedpede, “ has by many been called stupidity ; but
how often have not quiet and unostentatious qualities
been designated by that name!”

We have mentioned that two or three genera of these
arboreal Agamas are natives of Australia. One of the
most curious of these is the Fuili.ed Lizard (C/ila-
mydomuruH), which has neither the crest on the back or
tail, or cheek pouches, but has the neck furnished with
a large plaited membrane on each side, expanded like
a broad frill. The edge of this frill is serrated, and the
whole of it is covered with small keeled scales. The
frill increases iii size, out of proportion to the size of the
animal, as it becomes older. When young, it does not
reach to the base of the fore limbs, but in the adult it
becomes much fuller, and reaches considerablj' be^mnd
the armpit.

KING’S FRILLED LIZARD {Chlamydosmirns Kinffii),
the only species known to exist, is a native of Bort-
Essington, and of a fulvous colour, varied with brown.
The head is of a pyramidal form and short; the
tail is long and tapering. Little is known of this
curious lizard, but it was observed by Sir George Grey,
in his travels in Australia : — ‘‘ As we were pursuing
our route in the afternoon,” he says, “ we fell in with a
specimen of the remarkable F rilled Lizard. This animal
measures about twenty-four Inches from the tip of the
nose to the point of its tail, and lives principall}' in trees,
although it can run very swiftly along the ground.
When not provoked or disturbed it moves quietly about,
with its frill lying back in plaits upon its body; but it
is very irascible, and, directly it is frightened, elevates
the frill or riilfs, and makes for a tree ; where, if over-
taken, it throws itself upon its stern, raising its head
and chest as high as it can upon the fore legs, then
doubling its tail underneath the body, and disjilaying a
very formidable set of teeth from the concavity of its
large frill, it boldly faces any opponent, biting fiercely
whatever is presented to it, and even venturing so far
in its rage as to fairly make a fierce charge at its enenqv.
We repeatedly tried the courage of this lizard, and it
certainly fought bravel}' whenever attacked. From the
animal making so much use of this frill as a covering
and means of defence for its body, this is most probably'
one of the uses to which nature intended this appendage
should be applied.”

Amongst the members of the second group, or the
terrestrial species, are the true Agamas (Ayamiiiu),
which give the name to the whole family. The name
Agama is derived from a word used by the colonists of

Varying Agama. REPTILES. .Voi.ocii-i.izakd.

31

Guiana to designate a peculiar kind of lizard, and which,
by a mistake of M. Daudin, was conferred as a generic
name upon a group of Sanrians, of which the represen-
tative unfortunately happened to he a native of Africa.
'I’he genus Agama^ as now adopted, is characterized
liy the species having their body thick and covered
with strongly-keeled scales, amongst which there are
some which form groups of spines upon the regions of
the nape of the neck and ears. The skin is loose, and
can be itiflated at the will of the animal. In most of
tlie species there is a crest which runs along the back
to the tail, and the throat is furnished with some longi-
tudinal and cross folds. The tail is elongate, tapering ;
in some rounded ; in others compressed. The species
known are most of them natives of South Africa and
Egypt, a few being also inhabitants of the eastern
portion of the world. They frequent humid places
ill hot countries, and never issue from their retreats
till evening. Some of them are remarkable for the
power they possess of changing their colours like the
Chameleon. In consequence of this, Cuvier gave these
species the name of Changeants, or Changeable lizards.

THE VAKYIKG AGAMA (^Agama vuriuhilis or Tra-
pelus ruderatua), one of this group, is particular!}^
noted for this faculty. M. Isidore Geoflroy St.
Hilaire, in his description of the reptiles of Egypt,
thus mentions it : — “ If this little animal had been
known in ancient times ; if, abundantly spread over
some of the countries frequented by Europeans, it had
happened to have become the subject of frequent
observation, doubtless the name of the Chameleon
would not have been so celebrated in our days, nor
would it have been so frequently made the emblem of
inconstancy and Hatteiy. In fact, the Varying Agama
is subject to changes of colour even more prompt and
more rapid than those of the Chameleon, although this
latter can in a few minutes paint itself with a crowd
of different tints.” This species of Agarna is of small
size, being only five and a half inches long from the
tip of the muzzle to the extremity of the tail ; this
latter organ forming nearly the half of the total length.
The head is of a very remarkable form, triangular, and
as broad at its posterior part as it is long. The tail
broad, and a little depressed at its base, is slender and
rounded for the rest of its length. The scales with
which the body is covered, are remarkable for tlieir
being all smooth, not spiny, and extremely small.
“ Individuals,” continues the same author we have
quoted above, “ which have been preserved in cabinets
for some years, generally appear of a brownish-gray
colour above and whitish beneath. But these colours
do not in any way resemble those which the animal
presents when alive; it is then often of a beautiful deep
blue, tinted with violet, with the tail barred with black,
and with some indistinct reddish spots disposed upon
the back in such a manner as to form four or five
small rather regular transverse bands. In a few more
seconds the blue is replaced by clear lilac ; then the
head and the feet are ordinarily tinted with green, and
there is nothing left to recall the remembrance of the
first colours except the small red spots of the back.”

The species represented in Plate 2, fig. 3, is the
Hispid or Spiked Aga.\ia [Agama acideata), which

is a native of South Africa, in the neighbourhood ot
the Cape of Good Hope.

THE STELLION [Stellio cordylus or vulgaris) —
Plate 3, fig.l — is another animal belonging to this
group. It is a native of the Levant, being found
abundantly in the islands of the Grecian Archipelago,
tlie Morea, North Africa, Egypt, and Asia Minor. It
is usually about a foot in length, the tail forming more
than the half of this. It has rather a bulky head,
somewhat flattened, and of a triangular shape. The
throat has a lax, posterior, cross fold, and the body is
depressed, with a longitudinal plait on each side. The
tail is conical, round, and ringed with whorls of spinose
scales. In Greece the Stellion is called Koskordilos
(xoffxopdvXog), and the Arabs know it by the name of
Ilardiin. It appears to live in preference amidst the
ruins of old edifices, amongst heaps of stones, or in the
clefts of rocks, and is often also found in a kind of
burrow, which it has the art and industry to excavate
for itself. It is extremely agile in all its movements,
and feeds upon the insects which flutter over the sand.
In the scientific expedition sent by the French govern-
ment for the purpo.se of exploring the Moreu, this
animal came under the especial notice of the naturalists
attached to the party. “ They found it,” says M.
Bibron, “ at Delos as well as at IMyconia. In this
latter island especially, it is prodigiously common, and
is found upon the little walls of dry stone with which
the fields are surrounded. It retires into the crevices
amongst the rough stones at the least noise. It is
suflii'ient, in order to take it, to lift the stones ; then it
assumes a grotesquely-menacing posture, puffing and
blowing, and opening a large but inoffensive throat.
It is reckoned venomous ; but, in spite of this, the
children are every day handling them, and killing them
with perfect impunity. Their colour enables them to
be easily confounded with the rocks, stones, and grayish
dust amidst which they live ; the quickness of their
movements alone calling attention to them. They
leap with great nimbleness. The greater number of
adult individuals are covered, or rather powdered, with
whitish, mealy spots, which give them a leprous look,
which, however, disappears when the animals are
placed in spirits.” In Egypt, according to Belon and
some other authors, the people in the neighbourhood
of the pyramids and the tombs of the Thebais collect
with care the excrements of this animal ,foi' phar-
maceutical pur[)oses. In olden times this substance,
known utider the names of Cordylea, Crocodileu, and
Stercus Lacerti, was used in Europe as a cosmetic, and
is still sometimes employed by the Turks even at the
present day. The Mahommedans have a particular
dislike to this poor little creature. They pursue it and
kill it whenever they meet with it, because, they say,
it mocks them, by lowering its head in the same
manner as they themselves do when engaged in their
devotions !

In this terrestrial group of the Agamas are several
species which arc not remarkable for their beauty : —

THE MOLOCH [Moloch horridtis), for instance, is an
uncouth and horrid-looking creature from Western
Australia. The body of this extraordinary reptile is
covered from head to extremity of tail with numerous

32

Lizards.

■REPTILES. Tiuck-tonoukd Lizards.

si)ines. It is of a depressed form ; the head is small
and furnished with two or three veiy large spines over
the eyebrows. “ The external apjiearance of this
lizard,” says Dr. Gray, who first made it known, “ is
the most ferocious of any that I know, the horns of the
head and the numerous spines on the body giving it a
most formidable aspect.” “ I have named this genus,”
he adds, “ from its appearance, after ‘ Holoch^ horrid
king.’ ” These animals are highly coloured, especially
on the under surfaces, which are covered with black-
edged dark red spots. We do not know their habits,
but they are harmless enough.

Tribe III. — DENDROSAURA.

The third tribe of Thick tongued Lizards, and the
last of the Saurian reptiles, is that of the Tree Lizards
{Dendrosmtra).* In this tribe the scales of the belly,
sides, and back are gi-annlar merely, and di.sposed in
circular bands. The toes are five in number on each
foot, and disposed in two groups, which are opjiosed to
each other, and admirably adapted for grasping the
branches of trees, &c.

This tribe contains only one family, that of the
CiiAJtELEONS {Chameleonidai) ; and this family consists
of only one genus (C'/<a?nefeo),f and eighteen sjiecies.
They are all natives of the Old World, being confined
to Africa and Asia, though one of them has become
naturalized in Southern Europe.

The Chameleons are truly singular animals, whether
we regard their internal or their external structure.
They dilfer so much from all other Saurians, that
Dumeril and Bihron place the famil}' in a section
by themselves between the crocodiles and lizards.
“ These animals,” say these authors, “ have such a
bizarre structure, and so dilferent from that of all
other reptiles, that it is almost necessary to separate
them from the rest of the Saurians. It is with difficulty
we can observe even the slightest analogy between any
species of Chameleon and any other lizard, whether
we look at the granular and variable disposition of the
integuments, or at ihe arrangement of the different
jiortions of the skeleton. In fact, none of them have
the slightest relation, either in the form and move-
ments of the tongue, or in the structure and mode of
articulation of the limbs, or, lastly, in the conforma-
tion and uses of the tail.” In Dr. Gray’s arrange-
ment, however, they close the series of the Lizards,
and this seems to be their true position. The essential
characters which separate the Chameleons from all the
other families of the Saurians are three : — 1st. The
existence of a cyclindrical, worm-like, very long tongue,
which is terminated by a smooth, ileshy tubercle, lubri-
cated by a viscid saliva. 2nd. Their having their five
toes, in each foot, connected together as far as their
last joint, but divided into two unequal sets, three in
one and two in the other. 3rd. Their body being
compressed, covererl with a shagreened skin, and their
tail being conical and prehensile.

* P’rom the two Greek words, detulron a tree, and

saurn (iraufai, a lizard.

t Eroni the Greek word chamaileon a little

lion.

The integuments of the Chameleons are destitute of
true scales ; the skin is rugose, tubercular, and finely
shagreened by unequal projecting granules, which are
dLstributed in symmetrical groups. It appears veiy
loose, adhering seemingly to the muscles only on the
head, back, the free extremity of the tail, and the feet.
Besides this, throughout its whole extent, numerous
vacancies or free spaces are left, into which the air
from the lungs c.an penetrate, so as to inflate it. In
this skin there exist two layers — 1st. A mucous tissue
variously coloured by a pigment ivhieh appears to be
gifted with a jieculiar chromatic property; and 2nd.
A true transparent epidermis which forms a continued
layer, and moulds itself most exactly upon all the
inequalities of the surface. The body is compressed or
flattened sidewise, from right to left, and surmounted
on the back by a projeciing sharp ridge, a similar one
being seen also in some sjiccies along the belly. Their
legs are slender, elevated, and much longer in projior-
tion than those of any other reptile, so that they can
raise the body so high, that their belly never rests upon
the surfaces upon which thej' walk or climb. The
tail is rather long, of a conical shape, and like that
organ in some of the monkey tribe is prehensile ; that
is, capable of twisting itself round, and grasping the
various substances upon which they move. The striic
ture of this organ and that of their feet fenders those
animals truly arboreal in their habits. The toes, as
we have mentioned above, are divided into tw'o sets,
three on one side and two on the other, and these are
disposed inversely; that is, the set containing tw’o toes
is placed externally on the fore feet, and the set con-
taining three is placed externally on the hind feet.
I'hese two parcels of toes are opposed to each other,
and thus form regular pincers, by means of which they
can firmly grasp and retain hold of the branches of trees,
upon w'hich they live. The head of the Chameleons is
very large and generally more or less strongly ridged,
and tlie neck is so short that the head appears to rest
U])un the shoulders. There is no external ear apparent,
these organs being hidden under the skin. The orbits
are very largo, and the eyes are particularly prominent,
the globe being in a great measure situated outside
the cavity. The whole of this organ is covered with a
single eyelid, which is a continuity of the skin of the
head, and is pierced with a small dilatable hole in the
centre, forming, in fact, a true external pupil, which
the animal can dilate or close at will. It can even
vary the shape of the opening, for we see it sometimes
become transverse or vertical. From the peculiar
arrangement of the nerves and muscles, each of the
eyes can move independent of the other. They can
move in dilferent directions, one upwards, the other
downwards ; the one foiwvards, the other backwards ;
and in all sorts of ways, without the head undergoing
any change of position. “ You cannot tell,” says Mr.
Gosse, “ whether the creature is looking at you or not ;
he seems to be taking what may be called a (jeneral
view of things; looking at nothing particular, or
rather, to save time, looking at several things at once.
Perhaps both eyes are gazing upwards at your face ; a
leaf quivers behind his head, and in a moment one eye
timis round towards the object, while the other retains

CiiAMEi,EONS. REPTILES. Chameleons. 83

its Tipwavd gaze ; presently a fly appears, one eye
rapidly and interestedly follows all its movements,
while the other leisurely glances hither and thither, or
remains steady. Accustomed as we are to see in
almost all animals the two eyes move in unison, this
want of sympathy produces an effect most singular and
even ludicrous.” The Chameleons have a very large
mouth. When shut, it is closed so exactly that we
can scarcely distinguish the line which indicates the
separation of the jaws, though in reality it is deeply
cleft. The teeth are sharp-cutting, with three lobes,
forming a single line or series upon the sharp edge of
each jaw. There are none on the palate. The tongue,
however, is the most extraordinary organ in the body,
and indeed, as a piece of mechanism, is unique. In a
state of repose, and when contained in the mouth, it
forms a round fleshy tubercle, white and solid, about
ten lines long, three in breadth, a little flattened at its
extremitjq and lubricated with a glutinous secretion.
When, however, it wishes to catch its prey, or to
quench its thirst with a drop of water, it can launch
it out from its mouth with extreme rapidity, and to
a distance as great at least as the length of its whole
bod}'. When thus protruded, we then see that nine-
teiiths of its extent consist of a fleshy tube which is
hollow, and possessed of such great contractility that
it can be withdrawn with great celerity into the mouth
again, folding in upon itself, somewhat in the way a
pocket telescope is shut up. This motion is performed
without making the slightest noise, and in the twinkling
of an eye, without any change in the position of any
other part of the body. Some portions of the internal
structure of these animals, are no less singular than
those of the external characters just mentioned. The
lungs, for instance, deserve a moment’s consideration.
When empty, they sink down below the heart, like
two small fleshy masses ; but as soon as air penetrates
them, they swell out so much that they cover the
whole of the intestines, and are too voluminous to be
contained even within the abdominal cavitjn They
are divided into seven or eight lobes or ajipendages on
each side, which terminate in points, and these pene-
trate into the various parts of the abdominal cavity,
and into the hollows or vacant places already mentioned
in the skin under the muscles. They thus appear to
be more or less directly connected with that remark-
able pro[)erty these animals possess of changing the
colour of their skin. This property, as we have seen,
in treating of the Agamas (page 29), is not peculiar
to the Cliameleons ; and besides, though celebrated in
fable and in poetry for this faculty, it would appear
to be much exaggerated. The commonly received
opinion upon the subject is, that the Chameleon
assumes the colour of any object upon which it is
placed, or which may be presented to it.

Mr. Martin informs us that numerous living speci-
mens of the Chameleon had come under his observa-
tion. “ To say what is the natural colour of the
Chameleon is rather difficult; that which was most
permanent in the animals we have seen was a dull
yellowish, tinged with a livid hue ; the latter pre-
vailing more especially on the limbs. Sometimes,
however, the universal colour was a straw-yellow.

VoL. 11. 6 1

When the animals were teased or irritated, the lungs
seemed to empty themselves, the sides collapsed, every
rib became visible, and the colour changed to dark
livid. AVhen in good health, and enjoying the warmth
of the sun to which these animals are very partial,
delighting to bask for hours in the genial rays, the
yellow of the skin became changed into a delicate
green ; but not always so, for sometimes the skin
appeared spotted with yellow upon a dull greenish-
gray, and at other times marbled with olive and straw
colour. The changes were in general instantaneous,
especially from a light to a dark tint ; at other times
the transition was more slow ; and this was the case,
as it appeared to us, when the skin became marbled or
mottled. As night came on the tints became more
dull, and the general hue was frequently a dusky
olive or a dark grayish -brown, not unfrequently tinged
with blue.” Several observers have noticed the curious
fact that sometimes onl}' one side of the animal changed
colour. Mr. Slight, in a short account of two Chame-
leons which lived for some time in his possession, saj's
that he had often seen one side of a stone colour
and the other a black green. Dr. Weissenborn, who
had for some months a Chameleon in his possession, has
also recorded the fact, and attempts to account for it
by the efiect of involuntary galvanic or nervous cur-
rents, distinct from each other, independent of each
other, and occupying separate halves of the body ; the
remote cause being the way in which the light acts
upon the animal. Another curious circumstance with
regard to the change of colour in this animal, is, that it
never assumes a quite white nor a pure red colour. It
seems also, from some accounts given us, that it has a
strong antipathy to things of a black colour. Forbes,
in the “ Oriental Memoirs,” tells us that one which he
kept, uniformly avoided a black board which was hung
up in the chamber; and what is more remarkable, when
it was forcibly brought before the black board it trem-
bled violently and assumed a black colour. Various
theories have been promulgated to account for this
phenomenon, the change of colour. M. Milne Edwards
states that there exist in the skin two layers of colour
called pigment. The deeper-seated is of a deep green
or violet-red colour, while the superficial layer is of a
grayish hue. The deep-seated pigment is contained
in branched cavities, and is movable. Sometimes
these two appear blended together, while at others,
one entirely conceals the other; and thus by their
partial accumulation and varying proportions, the
changes of colour are produced. In addition to this,
Dr. Weissenborn believes that these pigments must
possess of themselves the faculty of changing their
hues, as no mechanical mixture, he says, of two given
colours could produce those various tints which the
skin of the Chameleon exhibits at different times.

THE COMMON CHAMELEON iChameleo vulgaris) is
a native of India and Africa. It occurs in Egypt and
in Northern Africa, and is the species which has been
naturalized in Southern Europe. It has thus, above
all others, afforded opportunities for observation when
alive. It is represented with its tongue launched out,
in Plate 3, fig. 2, and Plate 8, fig. 4. This Cliameleon
was well known to the ancients, who believed it lived

34 Chameleons. REPTILES. Serpents.

upon air. They had observed its variation in form,

at it; the insect is caught and swallowed in an instant.

according as its lungs were distended or not with air,

Mr. Slight fed his pets upon cockroaches. “ I was

and were familiar with its faculty of changing colour.

accustomed,” he says, “ to put six or seven in a shallow

These peculiarities were highly exaggerated by the

tin vessel, and to place the Chameleon on its edge, its

early writers ; and the fictions invented by them were

head projecting over the brim, to w’hich its forceps were

still further embellished by the poets, who made the

generally so firmly attached that it was often difficult

poor creature the emblem of hypocrisy and incon-

to remove them. After making a circuit round some

staricy. It is a dull, slow animal, languid and heavy

portion of the circle, the animal would distend the pouch

in its movements, often remaining in the same posi-

beneath the jaws, expanding them two or three times

tion for hours together, basking motionless in the rays

in a trifling degree ; and, stretching forwards its body

of the sun. In their natural state they live entirely

on the fore legs, it would suddenly dart out its tongue

amongst the branches of trees, and their mode of

with such force as to make a very sensible ring or noise

progression is ludicrous in the extreme. Thej' can

on the opposite side of the tin ; would catch the beetle

neither walk on a plane surface nor swim ; but, from

or roach on the trumpet-shaped extremity of the tongue,

the structure of their pincer-like feet and their prehen-

which was retracted as quick as lightning, and [masti-

sile tail (which serves them as a fifth limb), tliey are

cation and] deglutition followed.” These individuals

able to cling to the boughs with great tenacity. When

observed by Mr. Slight, did not feed more than once

a chameleon wishes to change its position, it begins by

in three or four da3's. Like the rest of the Lizard

separating the two sets of toes of one of the fore legs ; it

tribe, they can, indeed, endure a long-continued absti-

then bends the fore arm, raises it, and carries it slowly

nence, apparently without injury. Hasselquist kept one

forwards. F or a short time this foot remains suspended.

twenty-four days, without giving it the slightest chance

as if the creature felt a degree of uncertainty as to the

of getting any food. It gradually, however, he says.

point to which to guide it, groping about with it in all

began to get thin ; it would fall back when it was

directions, in order to meet with some object upon which

climbing in its cage, and at the end of that period an

to rest. When it has found this, it appears as if it

accident put an end to its life. Mr. Martin, however.

wished to ascertain the solidity of its resting-place ; and

tells us that he has known individuals live for months

it is only when satisfied upon that subject, that the two

without eating. The female deposits her eggs in holes

sets of toes lay hold of it and take a firm grasp. Iinme-

made by her in the ground ; she then covers them with

diately after this, the hind foot on the opposite side

earth, which she scratches up with her feet as cats

begins to execute a similar manceuvre. Then the other

do when they cover their faeces, and over all jdaces a

fore foot unfolds its pincer-like toes, cautiously moves

lajmr of dry leaves. The eggs are often as many as

forward, and is soon succeeded by the opposite hinder

thirty, and are round, with a calcareous shell, white.

extremity. Then, but not till then, the tail begins to

spotless, and very porous. The male is distinguished

untwist itself from its coil round the substance it had

from the female by the base of the tail being thickened.

previously seized to support itself, and follows the move

Out of the eighteen species enumerated, seven are

made by the other members. So they progress with

natives of Madagascar.

great slowness and regularity, preserving all the time

THE FORK-NOSED CHAMELEON ( Chameleo hifurcits) ,

a ridiculous look of affected gravity. The only part of

is singular from the shape of the head. The crown

the animal which moves with quickness is its tongue.

is flat; but the muzzle is prolonged into two distinct

The food of the Chameleons consists of insects and

branches, which are compressed, strait, and dentated

their larvae, <&:c ; and they will remain motionless,

along the upper and under margins. The object of

perched upon a branch, watching for hours their uncon-

this strange formation is unknown, as the animal has

scious prey. The moment it stirs, the tongue is darted

not been much observed in its native haunts.

Order II.— SEEPENTS (Ophidia).

The passage from the Lizards to the Serpents is by

neck visible. Certain species have the body and tail

a succession of very gradual modifications of develop-

very slender and nearly filiform ; this is especially the

merit. In general form, as we have seen in treating of

case with those which inhabit trees. Others, like the

the former animals, some of the species approach very

Vipers, &c., have a short tail. In tlie Boas and Pythons

nearly to that of the latter — such as the Blind-worm

this part of the body is prehensile ; and in the water-

{Anguis fi-agilis), &c. — so much so, indeed, that some

snakes it is more or less flattened, so as to act some-

authors have considered Lizards and Serpents as con-

what like a fin. None of the serpents have any cre.st.

stituting only one order. Serpents differ, however, in

either on the back or tail, such as we see in many of

some important respects; and all zoologists are now

the Lizard order. The skin in many species is suscep-

agreed in forming them into a distinct order.

tilde of a certain degree of extension ; and the parti-

Serpents are reptiles clothed in a scaly skin ; the

cular disposition and arrangement of the scales, which

body being always long and nearly cylindrical, though

cover it and the head, form good characters for assisting

more or less produced into a point behind. The head

in forming genera and species. Serpents change their

is continuous with the body, there being nothing like a

skin pretty often, an operation which is generally known

y Kui'ENTs. REPTILES. SicRrBNTs. 35

by the term sloughing. It comes off in a single piece
from the head to the tail, without tearing in any part ;
and after it has been thrown oft' it preserves all the
external characters so well, that a person may recognize,
by finding the skin, the species of serpent to which it
had belonged. The eyes have no true eyelids, but are
covered by the common skin, which is perfectly pellucid.
They have no visible external ear, and their nostrils are
situated on the side of the front part of the muzzle.
Serpents have a very capacious and very dilatable
mouth. This arises from the very peculiar disposition
of the bones of the jaws and the muscles which move
them. The bones forming the jaws and the face are
all loose and disunited, being connected only by skin
and ligaments. The upper jaw is in two pieces, is sus-
pended, as it were, distinct from the cranium, and acts
Bubordinately to the movements of the lower jaw. The
lower jaw is also in two pieces, and consists of two dis-
tinct lateral branches, each branch being, in fact, itself
made up of two portions, united by a loose kind of
suture. Instead of being secured b^^ firm joints to the
skull, the lower jaw is attached on each side by a lax
joint to a movable bone, called the tympanic portion of
the temporal bone. This joint admits of a natural kind
of dislocation, so that it gives way in the act of swal-
lowing, and recovers its position when the prey is
swallowed. From this mobility of the jaws and bones
of the face, the mouth is rendered capable of being
very much increased in size; and the animal is enabled
to take into it the bodies of animals of a large size.
The tongue of these reptiles is long and very movable,
and is capable of being withdrawn into a sort of sheath
at its base. It is slender, tapering, and forked at the
tip. This forked nature of the tongue gives it some-
what of a malignant appearance, and accordingly, by
the ignorant, it is looked upon as a deadly weapon, and
called the dart. Shakspeare has embodied this idea in
several passages of his immortal works. Thus King
Lear, telling of the wrongs sustained by him from his
daughter Goneril, is made to say —

“ She has abated me of half my train ;

Looked black upon me; struck me with her tongue,

Most serpent-Ulce, upon the very heart.”

Again, in the “ Midsummer Night’s Dream,” Hermia,
reproaching Demetrius for the supposed murder of
Lysander, says —

“ And hast thou killed him sleeping ? 0 brave touch !

Could not a worm, an adder, do so much ?

An adder did it; for with doubler tongue

Than thine, thou serpent, never adder stung I"

This double tongue, however, possesses no hurtful pro-
perty, It forms, in ffmt, the chief organ of touch ;
appears rather destined to seize aliments than to per-
ceive savours; and evidently serves more for assisting
the animal to swallow, than for tasting its food. The
teeth of serpents are numerous, and are inserted upon
all the bones of the mouth, as well as the two jaws.
The number and proportion vary, and they form good
characters for distinguishing genera and species.

Serpents, indeed, are generally divided into two
groups, the poisonous and harmless; the chief, and
sometimes almost only perceptible difference between

them, consisting in the structure of their teeth. In the
latter group, the harmless or Colubrine serpents, the
teeth are disposed in two rows in the upper jaw, and
a single row in the lower. They are sharp-pointed,
regularly inclined backwards, so that the hand may be
passed down over them with impunity, but not drawn
back; for then they pierce the skin immediately.
Hence while they offer no impediment to the passage
of food, they securely detain the struggling victim. In
the poisonous or Viperine serpents, on the contrary,
there is only a single tooth oh each side of the upper
jaw, properly speaking ; these are the poison fangs, the
other teeth being placed in a single row on the bones
of the palate. The lower jaw is only partially furnished
with teeth. The poison fangs are thus decribed by Mr.
Waterton : — “ They are invariably on the upper jaw,
but they are not fixed on the bone. They are always
curved downwards like the blade of a scythe. There
is a little opening on the convex part near the point.
From this opening to the point, which is as sharp as
a needle, the fang is quite solid, but hollow from it to
the root. This point may aptly be styled the pioneer
of death, as it makes the wound into which the poison
of the irritated serpent flows through the hollow part of
the fang. It is the fatal weapon which causes a snake
to be so much dreaded, and condemns the whole race
to universal detestation; although, in fact, not one
snake in ten has been armed by nature with the deadly
fang. When not in readiness to inflict a wound, these
two poison fangs resume a recumbent position, so as
not to interfere with the action of the ordinary teeth,
which are firmly fixed and are very small, and most
admirably formed to seize their prey, and to send it
down into the stomach.” * The glands which secrete
the poison are found on the sides of each branch of the
upper jaw behind the orbit, and almost below the skin.
Two muscles destined to raise the fangs, traverse them
from back to front, one outwards, the other underneath,
so that they cannot act without compressing the gland
and impelling the poison into its excretory canal, which
conducts it to the base of the fangs, where it penetrates
by a cleft which prevails throughout their whole extent,
and opens toward the point obliquely, “ like the cut
of a pen.”

When the irritated animal bites its victim, these fangs
are raised iqrright by means of the mobility of the jaw-
bones. They never strike their prey more than once ;
should they miss their aim they withdraw themselves
for a time. “ Armed with a poison fang,” says Mr.
Waterton, “ the snake at one single stroke (never
repeated, as far as I could see) avenges itself on the
unfortunate animal which has trodden upon it, or has
put it in bodily fear by disturbing its repose.” The
nature of these poison fangs, and the situation of the
gland which secretes the venom, seem to have been
known to the Jews at a very early period. David in
his prayer to be delivered from Saul and Doeg, in the
140th Psalm, says — “ Deliver me, 0 Lord, from the

* This description of the poison fangs applies chiefly to the
pre-eminently venomous or Viperine group, as for instance, the
rattlesnake, &c. In the poisonous serpents belonging to the
Colubrine group, as the cobra de capello, &c., the poison
fangs are fixed, and are not movable. ISee — Cobra.

36 SnKPENTS. -KEPTILES. Serpents.

evil man: presei’ve me from the violent man; which
imagine mischiefs in their heart ; they have sharxiened
their tongues like a serpent ; adders' poison is under
their lip)s." As Kitto observes, “ tiie usage of the
Hebrew language renders it by no means improbable
that the fang itself is called Lashon, “the tongue,” in
the present text ; and a serpent might then be said to
sharpen its tongue, when, in preparing to strike, it pro-
truded its fangs. The situation of the poison, which is
in a manner behind the upper lip, gives great propriety
to the expression, “ adders’ poison is under their lips.”
It would appear, on good authority that this poison
retains its power for some time after the death of
the serpent; M. Diimeril says, even after it has been
for some time preserved in spirits. It is necessary,
tlierefore, he adds, to be extremely cautious in hand-
ling or examining specimens which have been so pre-
served. Wonderful stories to this effect have been
told, but Dr. Cloquet in a paper communicated to the
Philosophical Society of Paris in 1827, relates some
experiments made by Dr. Emmanuel Pousseau, demon-
strator of anatomy at the Jardin du lloi, who had at
his disposal a rattlesnake which had been dead for two
days, and who found that even in the colder climate of
France, the poison retained its power though the snake
was dead. A pigeon was procured, its pectoral muscles
were pierced by the poison fang being inserted by
force, and the pocr bird died within a very short period
indeed. From a variety of experiments made on the
nature of this poison, it appears, according to Schlegel
and others, to be neither acid nor alkaline. That of
the viper, which has been most observed, was found
not to redden the tincture of turnsol, or turn green the
syrup of violets.* Plowever fatal the poison of ser-
pents is when introduced into the system, it is perfectly
harmless when taken into the stomach. This was
well-known to the ancients ; the celebrated Roman
physician, Celsus, was well aware of it, and Lucan in
his “ Pharsalia” makes Cato expound the same truth
to the soldiers under his command—

“ And now with fiercer heat the desert glows.

And mid-day gleaniings aggravate their woes.

When, lo 1 a spring amid tlie sandy plain
Shows its clear mouth to cheer the fainting train.

But round the guarded hank in thick array.

Dire aspics roll’d their congregated way,

And thirsting in the midst, the Dipsas lay.

Black horror seized their veins, and at the view.

Back from the fount the troops recoiling flew.

When wise above the crowd, by cares urquelled,

Their awful leader thus their dread dispell’d ;

Let not vain terrors thus your minds enslave.

Nor dream the serpent brood can taint the wave:

Drged by the fatal fang, their poison kills.

But mixes harmless with the bubbling rills.

Dauntless he spoke, and bending as he stood.

Drank with cool courage the susi)ected flood.”

When we observe the motion of serpents, we see
that to them eminently applies the term Reptiles, their
mode of progression being truly reptation, or creeping.
Many mistakes, however, are made with regard to

* Dr. Harlan on the other hand asserts, from direct experi-
ments, that the poison from the rattlesnake, when tested with
litmus paper, invariably displayed acid properties ; and Dr. Can-
tor fo\md the jioison of no fewer than seven different species,
in all his experiments, to redden litmus paper.

their method of moving along the ground, especially
by artists. Mr. Waterton very jtistly remarks upon
this subject — “ All snakes in gliding onwards take a
motion from right to left, or vice versa, but never tip
and down ; the whole extent of the body being in con-
tact with the ground, saving the head which is some-
what elevated. This is equally observable on land
and in water. Thus when we see a snake represented
in an up and down attitude we know at once that the
artist is to blame.”

The vertebrce, or bones of the spinal column, are very
numerous, amounting in some species to more than
three hundred ; and are united to each other by a ball-
and-socket joint, the head of each separate bone being
received into a deep cuplike cavity of the one suc-
ceeding it. This mode of articulation allows of great
mobility, each joint, separately, possessing a considerable
degree of motion ; and all, united, giving the body very
great flexibility. With the exception of the first two
or three next the head, all the vertebrae — those of the
tail not included — give origin to two ribs, one on each
side. These ribs form a great portion of a circle, so as
to embrace nearly the whole circumference of the body,
and are the real and efficient organs of locomotion.
Serpents can glide along with considerable velocity, and
it is generally said and believed, that they can spring
vigorously and dart their body to a great distance.
Stories are told of their springing at a single bound
over the head of a man riding on horseback.* When
they repose upon the ground, they generally form
with their body several circles placed one above another,
or around the others surmounted by the head. The
body is thus coiled up by the contraction of the muscles
of one side ; and it is by the sudden relaxation of these
muscles, and the violent and instantaneous action of the
muscles of the other side uncoiling them, that the pro-
pulsion of the body is accomplished. This motion is
compared to that of a spiral spring, the coils of which
are distinct. These being pressed upon the table tdl
they close, and suddenly released, the whole body ot
the spring is at once propelled forwards. From the
structure of the vertebral column and ribs, however, as
described above, we have great doubts whether any
serpent has the power of raising the whole of its body
at any time by a sudden bound, from the ground upon
which it rested. When a serpent prepares to attack
its prey, or any animal which has suddenly roused or
irritated it, it raises its head and part of its body erect,
and when it strikes, it darts forward merely that part
which is not resting upon the soil.f The sensibility
of serpents is, like that of other reptiles, very obtuse ;
and in winter they pass a long period of it in a state ol
complete lethargy. Their irritability, however, is very
great ; their heart will still pulsate for a long time after
it has been plucked out, and they will open and shut

* Poets have often made allusions to this pretended power
of serpents. Montgomery says —

“ Anon he flew

Straight as an arrow shot from his own rings.

And strnck his victim, shrieking ere it went

Down his strain’d throat, that open sepulchre.”

■f Azara, an accurate observer, in treating of the serpents si
Paraguay, observes — “ In order to seize their prey, they employ
no other means than address and surprise. They approach it
by slow degrees, because they never leap."

Serpents. KEPT I LES. Serpents.

tlie'T moufli after the head has been separated from tlie
bod}' for several hours. The sense of hearing does not
appear to be very fine, and the sense of smelling seems
to be very incomplete also ; whilst that of taste is still
feebler, and less developed than that of smell. The
sense of touch exists all over the body, but appears to
be blunted by the scales, and by the horny epidermis
which embraces them in all parts. Their muscular
power is very great. The Boa constrictor for example,
by twining itself round them, can suffocate the largest
quadrupeds between its folds.

The growth of serpents is rather slow, but they
sometimes attain a very great size. There are some
species which in time acquire a length of thirty or forty
feet. Adanson mentions onein Senegal which was nearly
fifty feet long and two and a half in diameter; and Mr.
VVaterton tells us, that a Spaniard in Angostura, the
capital of the Orinoco, showed him part of a serpent’s
skin, which, judging from its amazing thickness, could
not have been less than seventy feet in length. An
immense serpent is recorded in ancient history, which
was said to have occupied a situation on the banks of the
river Begrada, between Utica and Carthage. Many of
the soldiers, then under the command of Kegnlus, were
said to have been destroyed by it, whilst going to the
river for the purpose of procuring water. No ordinary
weapons could produce any effect upon the huge mon-
ster, and Regulus was obliged, according to the state-
ment of Valerius Maximus, to use the military machines
then employed for throwing large stones. A ponderous
stone at length laid him low, and his skin which the
commander took with him to Rome, is asserted to have
measured one hundred and twenty-three feet in length !
The food of serpents consists of living flesh. The smaller
mammalia, birds, and frogs constitute their usual food ;
but in default of such prey, they will content themselves
with the eggs of birds and fishes, insects and mollusca.
By far the greater number of them attack their prey
while alive, and although deprived of limbs, they easily
make themselves master of them. Their food is swal-
lowed entire. The oesophagus or gullet is very dilatable,
and this, along with the capacious mouth and mobile
jaws, enables these reptiles to swallow animals of much
larger diameter than themselves. The common snake
of this country will swallow frogs, rats, and mice, whose
bodies much exceed their own in size ; and the Pythons
and Boas of warmer climates will engulf within their
capacious throat deer, goats, and even, it is said, small
oxen. One repast will suffice them for many weeks ;
and we have evidence to show that adders and vipers
can be kept six months without any aliment whatever,
and without losing a particle of their energy and
activity.

The generality of serpents are oviparous, though
there are some, like our common viper, which bring
forth their young alive. The eggs are arranged in two
ovaries in the form of chaplets, to the number of fifteen
or twenty, and not agglomerated in a mass. They are
rounded, ovoid, and enveloped by a soft membrane, not
porous, and slightly encrusted with a calcareous shell.
The yolk is orange-coloured and oily. Hot-beds, heaps
of manure, and similar places, are generally chosen by
the female, in which to deposit them ; but the larger

37

kinds, as the Pythons, have been observed to surround
them with their folds, and thus cause them to undergo
a kind of hatching. They often take care of their
young in early age, and some are said to have been
seen to receive their family into their oesophagus at the
moment of danger, and eject them again as soon as the
alarm was over.

Serpents are spread all over the warm and temperate
parts of the globe; but, like other reptiles, they are
larger and more numerous in hot countries. A small
number are circumscribed within narrow limits. Rattle-
snakes for instance are peculiar to North America;
Boas are almost confined to South America; and
Pythons to the torrid climes of the Old World. Some
prefer wooded countries for their habitation, some live
in marshy places, while others are only found in dry
sandy plains; and others still are aquatic in their habits,
living in the sea, and being seldom seen except far from
land. The most exaggerated notions prevail with
regard to the numbers of serpents in hot climates, and
especially the numbers of poisonous species. Modern
travellers, however, unite in ridiculing the terrors thus
inspired by such ideas. Mr. Waterton, as far as regards
the New World, says upon this subject : — W^hen we
consider the immense extent of tropical America, and
view its endless woods, we are forced to admit that
snakes are comparatively few. I have seen more
monkeys in one day, than I have found snakes during
my entire sojourn in the forests. I have been for weeks
together in the swamps of the river Orinoco, barefooted
and up to the knees in water ; but as for snakes, I
seldom saw them.” Dr. Davy, in his “ Interior of
Ceylon,” thus speaks as regards a portion of the Old
World : — “ It is commonly supposed that Ceylon
abounds in snakes, that they are very dangerotis, and
that they cannot be too carefull}' avoided. All this is
greatly exaggerated. Where the fears are much con-
cerned, the reason is generally weak ; and snakes from
time immemorial — Indeed in all ages and countries —
have been objects of av'ersion and dread, and subjects
for superstition and fable. Snakes are neither numerous
in Ceylon, nor much to be apprehended. Those who
have most experience have the greatest confidence ; the
old sportsman, in pursuit of game, plunges into the
wildest jungle without dread or apprehension, whilst
the newly-arrived European does not cross a lawn but
with fear, almost amounting to trembling, of snakes in
the grass. The latter is terrified by his imagination —
the former is fearless from the knowledge of his security.
One of the best and keenest sportsmen in the island,
who has lived several years in the Megam-patloo, a
district almost deserted by man and extremely infested
with wild animals, has assured me, that in all his
rambles and excursions he has never met with a
poisonous snake. My object in making these remarks
is to endeavour to remove senseless horrors, which
apprehension of snakes in Ceylon too often gives rise
to, and which if not opposed or subdued detract more
from the comfort and happiness of life than can well
be imagined, excepting by those in whose mind is still
impressed the memory of the miseries produced in
childhood hy the dread of hobgoblins.” Fortunately
for man, only a small proportion of the known species

38 Serpents. REPTILES. Serpents.

of serpents possess the property of secreting a poisonous
liquid. Out of the twenty different sjiecies found hj^
Dr. Davy in Ceylon, only four were really poisonous.
Multitudes are harmless, at least as far man is con-
cerned, and many are as beautiful in their colouring as
graceful in their forms ; still, few or none are favourites.
It is well, however, to remember, that serpents very
seldom attack man without provocation ; on the con-
traiy, as all people who have been in hot climates
know, they usually appear to dread his presence.
Although cunning, they are timid and fearful. The
common snake of England, for instance, may be domes-
ticated, and the coral snake of Florida, which is very
beautiful and gentle, is often kept tame, and allowed
by the women to entwine itself round tlieir necks as a
necklace. It is gratifying to find from travellers and
others who have seen serpents in their native abodes,
that their fear of these reptiles diminished as they
became better acquainted with them, and found from
experience how safe they were in countries which their
fears had previously depicted as almost uninhabitable.

But though we have thus attempted to do away
with the exaggerated notions of the immense numbers
of serpents, and tried to lessen the too great fear and
horror entertained by peo[)le in general against them,
we by no means wish to make light of the formidable
nature of the weapons of defence and offence carried
by the poisonous species, or the fatal and deadly effects
produced by them. Instances of death in the human
subject from the bite of snakes, even in this cold cli-
mate, are too numerous and too well authenticated to
be lightly treated.

Many per.sons have attempted to express in a clear
manner the characters by means of which we might be
able to distinguish venomous serpents from those which
are not so, but they have not succeeded. Mr. IMartin
says “ that there is something more tlian usually repul-
sive in the aspect of poisonous serpents. Their thick
broad head, their wide jaws, armed with horrible poison
fangs, together with their brilliant eyes, give them a
ferocious expression ; and man and beast instinctively
recoil from their presence.” The eyes of all serpents
are brilliant, the mouth in all is wide when opened,
and it is only when the jaws of poisonous snakes are
extended that the fangs can be seen. There remains,
therefore, of this definition, only the thick broad head
which can be of use in distinguishing them; and though
this is correct in the case of the Viperine serpents, it is
a character which cannot he depended upon in all the
poisonous species, as the Cobra de capello and many
others in form and general characters belong to the
Golubrine group, or tliose which are for the most part
harmless. We will enlarge, however, a little more upon
the characters which mark the eminently poisonous
or Viperine serpents when we come to treat of them
more particularly. Serpents are said to possess a
peculiar power of fascinating their intended victims,
so that their prey is literally drawn into their mouths.
According to some authors and travellers, who assert
they have witnessed the fact, we are assured that,
being fixedly regarded by a serpent bissing, and dart-
ing its forked tongue out of its mouth, squirrels and
birds are constrained, as it were, to fall from the sum-

mit of the trees into the mouth of the reptile, which
immediately swallows them up. Hares, rats, frogs,
and other animals, seem to be petrified by terror ; and
far from attempting to fly, will precipitate themselves
upon the fate that awaits them. Even when they are
at a sufficient distance to escape, they are paralyzed
by the sight of their dreaded foe, and deprived of all
their faculties in a manner that appears wholly super-
natural. Much has been written upon this subject,
and many arguments have been used both for and
against. Mr. Waterton, already quoted, does not
believe in the fascinating power of serpents. “ I am
not a believer,” he says, “ in the evil eye of snakes.
Their eyes are very beautiful, and no doubt they would
be much admired did the beholder lay aside his pre-
judices, and consider that the snake before him has
no intention to create alarm, nor to meditate a woik
of mischief.” Sir Andrew Smith, on the contrary,
speaking of this power in some of the snakes in South
Africa, observes — “ Whatever may be said in ridicule
of fascination, it is nevertheless true that birds, and
even quadrupeds, are, under certain circumstances,
unable to retire from the presence of their enemies ;
and, wdiat is still more extraordinary, unable to resist
the propensity to advance from a situation of actual
safety into one of the most imminent danger. This I
have often seen exemplified in the case of birds and
snakes.” The subject is still involved in a considerable
degree of obscurity. The most probable explanation
of the fact, however, is, that in the case of squirrels,
rats, &c., fear of their known and dreaded enemy
deprives them of all energy ; they are unable to escape,
and thus fall easy victims. In the case of birds, in all
probability, it is the instinctive desire, natural in them
and strongly developed, of protecting their nests and
young, that leads them into danger. The mother sees
the reptile gliding up the tree, and along the branches,
to where her nest is placed; she endeavours to ofipose
the serpent’s progress, and thus exposes herself to the
most imminent hazard ; she will often attack it with
her wing, her beak, or her claws, and venturing thus
too near the creature’s mouth, falls a ))rey to its vora-
city. Kalm, the Swedish traveller and naturalist, says,
in regard to the rattlesnakes of North America, that
the assumed fact of squirrels and birds being fasci-
nated by the gaze of the reptile, and dropping from the
trees into its mouth, may be explained thus; — The
animals have been wounded by the snake, and have
made their escape to the tree, where they expressed
by their cries and emotions the violent action of the
poison left in their blood ’oy the fangs of the reptile.
Becoming enfeebled by the continued action of the
venom, they have hopped and fluttered from branch to
branch, and at last have fallen close to where the ser-
pent lay, who has been following, with inflamed eyes
and eager looks, eveiy motion of the poor creatures,
and then anew darted upon them when nearly deprived
of life and motion. It is commoidy believed, and cer-
tainly frequently asserted, that serpents emit from their
bodies a disgusting odour, especially after gorging them-
selves with food. When opened after death, some time
after they have had a full meal, the feetor exhaled from
their body is very great; but that in a living state

Serpents. REPTILES. Viperine Serpents. 39

tliey slioiild send forth such a foetid emanation as some
autliors assert is extremely doulitful. We rather agree
witli Mr. Waterton upon this subject, who gives his
opinion thus: — “The nauseous smell, or foetor, which
is said by some authors to come from the bodies of
these monster snakes (the large Boas of Guiana), and
to infect the atmosphere, is fabulous. The whimsical
account of it deserves a place on the shelves of a nursery
library. I have never perceived anything of the sort,
although it has been my good fortune to come in con-
tact with great serpents. Did such a foetor really exist
to the extent which authors have described, other
animals could not live with any comfort under its suf-
focating influence, and it would be a salutary warning
to them that an enemy was in the neighbourhood.
Their precipitous retiring from it would be the means
of starving the serpent to death for want of ordinary
nourishment.” Serpents have numerous enemies always
on the look-out for them. They are pursued without
relaxation, Azara tells us, by all kinds of eagles, hawks,
falcons, storks, herons, and by individuals of the same
order to which they belong. In self-defence they have
almost no other resource than their fangs, or concealing
themselves in the holes of mice, armadillos, or other
burrowing animals, or in the pasture grounds where
the grass is high. The manner in which the secretary
bird, and some others of the rapacious order, attack
serpents, is worthy of observation. As if well aware
of the danger they encounter, the birds approach the
serpent in a sidelong manner, making a shield of one
of their wings, which they half open and allow to fall
on the ground. They try at the same time to strike
with their beak the reptile’s head. Succeeding in
this, they are sure to kill them, and then they devoui'
them.

In all times, and amongst almost all nations, serpents
have fixed the attention of the human race. The great
tempter of mankind assumed the form of a serpent,
and under its guise crept into Paradise. When in
the wilderness the Jews were bitten by “fiery-flying

serpents,” Moses made, by command of God, a brazen
serpent, which he j)laced upon a pole, so that those
who looked upon it might live. In the times of their
idolatry this very brazen serfient, being preserved by
them, became an object of their idolatrous worship ;
“for unto those days,” the days of Hezekiah, “the
children of Israel did burn incense unto it.” Amongst
the Egyptians, as would appear from some of the bronze
relics in the British Museum, the Cobra de capello was
regarded in some sense as sacred. A serpent was one
of the gods of Babylon ; and in the Hindoo mythology
serpents were regarded as malignant genii which
tenanted the infernal regions. The serpent Python
figured as an important agent amongst the ancient
Greeks. Amongst the Romans the serpent was sacred
to Hfsculapius, and he himself was worshipped under
the form of that reptile. The ancient Mexicans wor-
shipped the Boa, and offered human sacrifices to it;
and in Africa some of the nations paid similar honours
to a serpent.

Notwithstanding all this respect and adoration, and
in spite of the natural dislike almost all people have
for them, serpents are often used as food. They arc
also regarded in many countries as affording aid in
curing some diseases. The Anacondas and other Boas
supply the natives of the countries which they inhabit
with wholesome nourishment. Rattlesnakes are much
sought after in some parts of North America, where
they are considered excellent food; and vipers are eaten
by many people in the South of France.

The method of dentition, and the structure and dis-
tribution of the scales, form the great characters upon
which the arrangement of serpents is based. In most
popular works they are divided into two large groups,
solely from their possessing venomous fangs, or being
destitute of them. In the arrangement of Reptiles
which we have adopted, viz., that of the British
Museum, serpents are divided (see p. 5) into two
sub-orders, tbe Viperine and Colubrine— both of which
groups contain species that are poisonous.

Sub-order I. — VIPERINE SERPENTS (Viperina).

The species of this sub-order are pre-eminently poi-
sonous, and their mischievous nature is indicated by
many external characters. Their general appearance
and physiognomy have something so peculiar in them,
and the impression which their look creates is so vivid,
that they may be for the most part immediately recog-
nized by any one who has ever examined a single
species. Their jaws are generally weak. The under
one is provided with a series of sharp-pointed teeth ;
hut the upper jaw is destitute of any, except the mov-
able poison fangs, which have been fully described in
a previous page (p. 35). The head is extremely broad,
flattened on the crown, and heart-shaped or trigonal.
■Instead of being covered with plates, like the Colubrine
snakes, it is clothed in scales similar to those of the
back. Their eyes are small, have a vertical pupil, are
sunk deep in the sides of the head, and are shadowed

by the projecting plates of the eyebrow. The upper
lip is swollen and hangs down, in order to conceal the
long fangs. In form they are heavy and squat, the
body being pretty thick in the middle, somewhat com-
pre.ssed ; the back slightly keeled, covered with rough,
keeled scales ; and the belly broad, convex, and covered
with broad, band-like shields or scuta. The tail is
short, conical, thick, but never blunt at the tip.*

Their manners, habits, and method of living assist

* The difterences visilile between the poisonous and inno-
cuous groups of serpents were known to early oliservers.
“The viper.” says Catesby (meaning by the term viper, the
whole of this sub-order), “hath the neck small, the head broad,
the cheeks extending wide, their scales rough, the body short
and thick in most; is slow of motion, can swell his head
and neck; when irritated, hath the aspect terrible and ugly.
Whereas snakes (the Colubrine species of serpents) have the
head small, the body long, the scales smooth, are nimble, and
of a harmless aspect.”

j

40

SiiiiPENTS.— REPTILES. ViPEEiNE Serpents.

mateiialh' likewise in distinguishing the Viperine from
all other serpents. Their dull, heavy disposition, their
slow mode of progression, the extreme sluggishness of
all their movements, would naturally render their search
after pre}’ unavailing; but gifted with a tranquil nature,
they calmly wait till chance bring past their retreats
the animals destined for their food. When these
approach, or when they are disturbed by an enemy,
they then display their activity ; they raise erect their
head which was negligentlj’’, as it were, elevated while
in a state of repose ; they open their mouth so wide
that the two jaws form an obtuse angle ; they erect
their fangs ; the body uncoils like a loosened spring ;
and the serpent, aiding the sudden assault by resting
upon its tail, darts at a single bound upon its victim,
to inflict the fatal wound. The act is the work of an
instant ; the head, by the sudden and violent contrac-
tion of its flexor muscles, executes, with the rapidity
of lightning, and sometimes (though Mr. Waterton
denies this) reiteratedly, a movement, bj^ which it
jilunges its fangs deep into the flesh of its prey. The
jioor creature, feeling the effects almost immediately,
and being unable, in consequence, to make its escape
by flight, falls into the power of its enemy. “We
have reason to believe,’' says Schlegel, “ that this mode
of attack is peculiar to these Ophidians, and that the
other poisonous serpents seize their prey in the same
manner as the non-venomous s{)ecies ; that is, seizing
it after pursuing it and holding it between their jaws at
the moment of biting it, never letting go their hold,
after making sure of their victim by giving it a mortal
wound. The Viperine serpents, on the contrary, never
keep hold of their prey, after having bitten it; or, more
correctly speaking, they do not bite at all. It is only

a blow of the head executed with extreme \dolence,
and almost always seconded by a bound which deter-
mines the direction. The fangs are withdrawn imme-
diately after having given a deep wound, the lower jaw
appearing to take no part in the act at all.” The
Viperine serpents are viviparous; that is, they nil bring
forth their young alive, whilst the Colubrine species
lay eggs, from which the young are afterwards hatched.

The Viperine serpents are arranged in two families,
the Rattlesnakes (CVota^fcfo;), and the Vipers (F^pm'cfcc).

Family I— CROTALID^.’*

The species belonging to the Rattlesnake family
are distinguished by having a large pit on each side of
the face placed between the eye and the nostril. The
head is large behind, and the crown is flattened. It is
covered with scales, or small shields, except in the
genus Crotalophorus, it which it is covered with large
shields. The jaws are weak ; the upper ones being
furnished with long fangs in front, and being destitute
of teeth. The belly is covered with broad band-like
shields, or scuta ; those under the tail being undivided.
They differ from the Boas (family Boidw), to be after-
wards described, in having no spurs on each side of
the vent. The species are all venomous, most of
them eminently so ; and they produce their young
alive, or are viviparous. Some of tlmm have the tail
ending in a spine, while others have this organ termi-
nating in a rattle.

Amongst the former, or spine-tailed species, are the
Lance-heads [Craspedocephalina) of the New World.
Several species are natives of the West India islands,
as well as the continent of America, where they inspire

Fi-r. 10.

The Fer-de-la»ce (Ciaspedocephalus lanceoiatus).

the natives with great fear and horror. The poison of
their fangs is very deadly, and yields in nothing to that
of the Rattlesnake. They are bold, fierce, and power-
ful, and, as if aware of their superiority, ajipear tran-
quilly to await the approach of their enemies. Rolled
up in spiral convolutions, or negligently stretched on
the ground in the midst of the warm and humid forests,
tliey lie in wait for their prey. Once touched with
their deadly fangs, the poor animal attacked soon dies,
and affords a meal for their powerful foe.

THE FER-DE-LANCE of the West Indies {Craspe-
docephalus lanceoiatus) — fig. 10 — is one of the most
deadly species of this group. This much-dreaded serpent
is generally, when adult, about five or six feet long,
though specimens have been taken which measured seven
and a half feet in length, and from four to five inches in
circumference. It varies ve'-y much in colour. Some are
of a yellow hue of different shades ; some are brown,

* From the Greek rvord krotalon (»ei>T*X(>»), a bell or rattle.

Eattlksnaices. REPTILKS. The Jarauaca.

blackish, ami baTuled. Otliers are spotted with brown,
3'ellow, and black. The body is elongate, cylindrical,
and the tail conical and slender, and terminated by a
claw. The head is larger in dimensions than the body,
broad and flattened on .the upper part, and nearly tri-
angular, in consequence of the lateral projection of the
jaws at the point of junction, giving a general resem-
blance to the head of a lance — whence its name. For
one of the fullest and most interesting accounts of this
serpent (though perhaps a little exaggerated), we are
indebted to M. Moreau de Jonnds, who lived some time
in Martinique, where it abounds. It is said to be con-
fined to the islands of Martinique, St. Lucia, and Becouia,
a small island near St Vincent; but we now know that
it is also a native of Brazil, Demerara, and other parts
of the continent of America. The natives of Martinique
have a tradition that it was first introduced into their
island bj' the Arrouages Indians, a tribe which in-
habited the country near the mouth of the Orinoco.
However this may be, the Lance-head is the most
abundant of all serpents in the islands of Marti-
nique and St. Lucia at the present day, notwith-
standing various means have been tried to extirpate
them. The number of young produced by this reptile
at one birth is immense. Moreau de Jonnes seldom
found fewer than from fifty to sixty young ones in such
females as he had opportunities of opening. At the
moment of birth these young are complete!}' formed,
are very nimble, ready to bite if irritated, and from six
to eight inches long. These creatures, at the time of
M. Moreau de Jonnes’ visit to Martinique, were so
abundant, that, as he says himself, they peopled the
marshes, the tilled grounds, the forests, the borders of
rivers, and the mountains, from the level of the sea to
the region of the clouds. He has seen them creeping
in the mud, struggling against the currents of rushing
streams which would otherwise hurry them out to sea,
and balancing themselves on the branches of forest-
trees more than one hundred feet above the ground.
He has met with them on the edge of the crater of the
naked mountain which overhangs the town of St. Pierre,
at a height of more than five thousand feet above the
sea. They do not appear to shun inhabited places,
bnt are often found in houses, especially in country
districts, where the huts of the negroes (for they seem
to prefer them) are surrounded by bushes and high
grass, Their principal haunts, however, are the plan-
tations of sugar-cane. Concealing themselves under
the debris of the long leaves of these plants with which
the earth is strewn, they carry on a constant war against
lizards, small birds, and rats. This latter animal forms
the chief part of their food. Originally introduced by
Europeans, this little creature has multiplied amazingly.
Compared with the indigenous smaller mammalia, such
as the agouti, pilori mouse, marmot, &c., the rats
now count ten thousand to one. The Lance-head is
remarkably active and lively in its motions, and is said
by the author quoted above to attack passengers who
may happen to encounter them. He says he never
found this reptile stationary, but when it was in an
attitude of offence. It coils itself up in four circles of
equal diameter, placed one above the other, under the
last of which is placed the tail, as if on a pivot. The
Von. II. 6a

41

head, which terminates the upper extremity of the coil,
is a little raised and drawn backwards. It then throws
itself with the rapidity of an arrow upon its victim ;
and were we to believe the accounts given by some of
the residents, it can spring to a considerable distance.
In the proceedings of the Zoological Society for 1849
Lieutenant Tyler, R.E., gives a similar account of a
species of Lance-head, which infests the island of St.
Lucia.

THE EAT-TAIL is the name by which it is known to
the inhabitants. In this communication the Rat-tail
is described under the name of Craspedocpplialus
atrox, but in size and shape it appeals to differ very
little from the preceding species. The name of Rat-
tail is given to it, because the tail, instead of gently
tapering from the body, becomes suddenly small, “ and
is much like that of a rat.” It is not very rapid in its
movements, and when not in motion, is almost invari-
ably coiled up in a circle, with its head on the top.
Like the rest of the group, the Rat-tail is viviparous,
and the natives of St. Lucia say, that the mother after
jiroducing her young, leaves them for a short time, and
that she devours those which she finds in the same spot
on her return. Lieutenant Tyler, however, considers
this to be a mistake, and that if individuals have been
found with young ones in her stomach, this is most
probably from the fact that in cases of danger the
female opens her mouth, and the young for protection
rush into it, and may find their way even into the
stomach. “ An important point in the history of this
serpent,” says Mr. Tyler, “ is the method of treating
its venomous bites. If the wounds caused by these be
not at once attended to, the most fatal consequences
ensue, and within a short space of time. Should the
fang penetrate any large bloodvessel, and inject there-
in any of the poisonous matter, I suppose that no
remedy would be of avail ; but under ordinary circum-
stances, if the wound can be at once laid open, a liga-
ture tied between it and the heart, and sucked, then
rubbed with a mixture of lime-juice, rum, and salt, and
intoxication and sleep produced by administering rum
punch with plenty of lime-juice in it to the patient,
there is little danger of loss of life ; as is proved by the
fact, that out of thirty soldiers treated in this way some
time since in this island only one died. The person
sucking the wound has nothing to fear, if he has no sore
in his mouth.” When young, this species of Lance-
head is distinguished by the tail being white, and has
been described in that state under the name of the
White-tailed Lance-head {Craspedocephalus leu-
curus). It occurs, according to M. Spix, very fre-
quently in the province of Bahia in Brazil, being found
under the bark of trees ; and the inhabitants of that
province are unanimously of opinion that its poison
yields in nothing to that of the rattlesnake, death
occasionally taking place some hours after its bite.
The natives call it Xiraraya Mirim.

THE JARAEACA {Craspedocephalus hraziliensis) is
another deadly Lance-head, and is a native of Brazil.
According to the account given of it by M. Wagler,
in Spix’s ‘‘ Serpents of Brazil,” this has a more hideous
aspect than any other serpent in that country. It
has a large, triangular head, fierce-looking eyes, and a

42 Serpents. REPTILES. Viperine Serpents.

thick, s^vollen-looking body, becoming sliglitly more
slender towards the tail. The colour is dark olive
above, and yellowish- white beneath. It is found in
Bahia, and the hotter parts of Brazil towards the banks
of the river Amazon, where it feeds upon birds and
small mammalia, as squirrels, &c. In length it varies
from three and a half to four and a half feet, with a
circumference of four inches about the thickest portion
of the body.

THE BODROO PAM of India ( Trimesurus viridis) —
Plate 4, fig. 2. As the Lance-heads are natives of
the New World, so the Trimesuri are confined to the
hot regions of the Old World. They are almost all
found in Asia. The head of the Bodroo Pam is flat,
and much broader than the neck, and its mouth is
large and furnished with very long fangs. It is about
two feet six inches in length, and is of a fresh green
colour. The first and almost the only account we have
of this snake is given to us by Dr. Patrick Russell, in
his “ History of the Serpents of India.” A specimen
was brought to him by some natives of the upper
country from Tranquebar. When he first saw it, he
tells us, it looked fresh and lively, was very alert, hissed,
and snapped at everything opposed to it, yet did not
offer to touch a chicken which was walking about in
the same room. In preparing for an attack, it wreathed
its neck and part of its trunk into rather close turns,
and at the same time retracted its head. “ The remark-
ably long slender fangs, exposed on opening the mouth,
betokened its being highly noxious ; but the peasants
who brought it uffinned that its power of killing
extended only to the smaller animals — not to dogs or
sheep ; and that to man its bite caused various dis-
orders, but never death.

THE SOHROUCOUCOtlS, belonging to the genus
Lackesis, are natives of Brazil and Peru. They are
known also by the name of the Dumb Rattlesnakes,
from their resemblance to the real Rattlesnakes, with
the exception of their tail having no rattles, and their
being therefore incapable of making the noise these
latter serpents produce by means of that organ.

THE BRAZILIAN SOUROUCOUCOU {Lachesis muius)
is one of the best known of all the poisonous snakes of
that country. It is also the largest, for Spix informs us
that it sometimes acquires a length of nine or ten feet,
and a circumference in body of more than twelve inches.
It is found in tolerable abundance throughout the
whole of Brazil, inhabiting dark, sombre forests, where
it keeps concealed under leaves. Its food consists of
small mammalia, birds, and some kinds of reptiles.
The bite of this snake is said to be fatal.

The Cenchrina are also natives of America, but
appear to be confined to the United States,

THE WATER VIPER, or Water Moccasin {Cenchris
piscivorus), is a native of the Carolinas, of the Floridas,
Alabama, and the tributaries of the river Mississippi,
as far as Tennessee. It is about two feet in length, and
five inches in circumference round the body, which is
very robust and thick, even to the tail, where it con-
tracts suddeiiljn The tail is short and tliiek, convex,
and terminates in a horny point. The head is very
large and triangular, and the eye is large, though it does
not appear so at first sight, from the projection of the

superior orbital plate. Catesby, in his “Natural History
of Carolina,” was the first to describe this snake. “ The
back and head of this serpent,” he says, “ is brown, the
belly marked transversely with black and yellow alter-
nately, as are the sides of the neck. The neck small,
the head large, armed with the like destructive weapons
as the rattlesnake, which next to it is reckoned the
largest of any viper in these parts, and, contrary to
most other vipers, are very nimble, and particularly
dexterous in catching fish. In summer great numbers
of these serpents are seen lying on the branches of
trees hanging over rivers, from which, at the approach
of a boat, they drop into the water, and often into the
boat on the men’s heads. They lie in this manner to
surprise either birds or fish ; after these last they plunge,
and pursue them with great swiftness, and catch some
of a large size, which they carry on shore and swallow
whole.” Holbrook, in his “ North American Herpe-
tology,” gives a similar account of this snake, adding a
few particulars in addition to what has been given
above by Catesby. He informs us that it is found
about damp, swampy places, or in water — far from
which it is never observed. “ In summer numbers of
these serpents are seen resting on the low branches of
such trees as overhang the water, into which they
plunge on the slightest alarm.” Catesby, he thinks, is
wrong in considering that they select these places in
order to watch for prey. They merely choose them,
he says, in order to bask in. the sun, for in situations
deprived of trees, such as the ditches in rice fields, they
may be seen basking near these on dry banks. “ They
are the terror of the negroes that labour about rice
plantations, where they are dreaded more than the
rattlesnake, which only bites when irritated, or in self-
defence, or to secure its prey. The Water Moccasin, on
the contrary, attacks everything that comes within his
reach, erecting his head and opening his mouth for
some seconds before he bites. I have placed,” con-
tinues Mr. Holbrook, “ in a cage with the Water
Moccasin several of the harmless snakes at a time ;
they all evinced the greatest distress, hanging to the
sides of the cage, and endeavouring by every means
to escape from the enemy, who attacked them all in turn.
Two animals of his own species were then thrown into
the cage ; he seemed instantly aware of the character
of his new visitors, and became perfectly quiet. Indeed,
I have often received four or five of these animals in
safety, after their having peaceably travelled together
a journey of fifty miles in the same hox. The food of
the Water Moccasin is such fish as he can overtake —
and few exceed his velocity in swimming — and what-
ever small reptiles, as frogs, toads, tadpoles, &c., that
fall in his way.”

The species belonging to the second group, or those
which, instead of a spine at the end of the tail, have
this organ terminated by a series of plates called a
rattle, are few in number. Three of these belong to
the genus Crotalophorus, a genus in which the rattles
at the end of the tail are few in number and not well
developed, and consequently make but a feeble noise,
or even sometimes none at all.

THE GROUND RATTLESNAKE, or S.mall Rattle-
snake {Crotalophorus miliaris) is the best known

Ratti^esnakes. REPTILES. True Ratxi.esnakes.

species of the three. This serpent has a very large
head of a triangular shape, broad behind, and trun-
cate at the snout. It has large eyes, with black pupils
and a brilliant iris, the upper half being very bright
yellow, and the lower black. The mouth is large, and
provided with strong jaws. The neck is greatly
contracted, and the body is elongated, but thick in
proportion, even to tlve tail. This organ is short,
conical, and sustains an uncertain number of rattles.
The general colour is pepper-and-salt gray, with a
central series of brown spots along the back, and a
double series of blackish spots on each side. It is
about sixteen inches in length. The Ground Eattle-
snake is very common in the Southern States of
America, and has a wide range, abounding in Carolina
and Georgia, passing round the southern extremities of
the Alleghanies to Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana.
It is chiefly in dry places where it is found, living
amongst leaves and in high grass, amongst which it may
be often seen searching for small fleld-mice, on whicli
it feeds. Holbrook informs us that it is greatly
dreaded, as it gives but a very slight warning with its
rattle. Hence it is often trodden upon ; and, from its
habit of frequently coiling itself on fallen trees, logs, or
the stumps of felled timber, persons have been known
to sit upon it, ignorant of its presence till bitten. It is
a bold animal, will frequently be the aggressor, and will
not retreat when threatened By the common people
its bite is erroneously thought to be more destructive,
and its venom more active, than some of the species
which are much larger.

TRUE RATTLESNAKES.

There are two distinct species of Rattlesnakes — one
peculiar to South, and the other to North America. They
have been celebrated from the earliest periods after the
discovery of the New World, both from the dangerous
nature of their bite, and the peculiar appendages, called
rattles, attached to their tails. When that vast con-
tinent was sparsely inhabited, and formed the abode
only of the wild Indian; before civilization had spread
her blessings over the country — Rattlesnakes must have
abounded to a much greater extent than they do at the
present time. Indeed, were we to trust to the relations of
many of our earlier travellers, America would appear to
have been almost uninhabitable, in consequence of their
ravages, and the terror they inspired. Like other wild
and savage animals, however. Rattlesnakes fly before
the advance of civilized man. According to the state-
ments of some of the early writers on America, these
snakes were often found seven, eight, and even ten feet
in length, and Bartram assures us that he has often
seen them six feet long, and as thick as a man’s thigh.
At the present daj', however, few are found which
arrive to any great size. To the religious respect in
which they were originally held by the savage occupiers
of the soil, who regarded the death of one of these
serpents as a public calamity, has succeeded a hatred
so inveterate that in many settlements a price has even
been set upon their heads. They have accordingly
become so rare, that M. Bose says that some years
ago, in the neighbourhood of Charleston, he saw but six
or seven individuals in the course of a year. A later

43

writer still, Mr. Holbrook, says: — “At present the
Rattlesnake is seldom met with, keeping far from all
settlements where its greatest enemy, the hog, is to be
found. Even sportsmen are seldom under any appre-
hension on this account.” The Rattlesnakes have a
peculiar aspect. Their head is large, broad, triangular,
and generally flattened through its whole extent. The
hinder part of the cranium is covered with scales like
those of the back; but the muzzle and temples are
clothed in large scales in the form of plates. The
body is stout and of a robust form, elongated, cylin-
drical, and covered above with keeled scales. The tail
is short, cylindrical, and rather thick, and is termi-
nated by a series of large, dry scales, termed the rattle.
The number of these is very uncertain, varying from
one to thirty, or even more. These rings or scales are
all exactly like each other in form, and often even in
size. They are composed of a brittle, elastic, and semi-
transparent matter, of the same nature as that of the
ordinary scales. The one nearest to the body, and with
which it is immediately connected, forms, as do likewise
all the rest, a sort of a hollow quadrangular pyramid,
the two opposite faces of which are much larger than
the two others. United, they form a kind of sheath
which envelops the last joints or vertebrae of the tail,
being moulded upon them. The}' are all received within
each other, to such an extent that only one-third of
each is visible externally. The ring situated at the
end of the rattle, is the only one the whole form of
which is seen, and thus the rattle is composed exter-
nally only of that ring and the upper thirds of the
others. The two lower thirds of each ring, which
cannot be seen, are placed within the following piece ;
they occupy the hollow of it, keeping the ring in its
place, and preventing it separating from the rest ot
the rattle. But, as the diameter of tlrat portion of the
ring is less than that which receives it, each one
plays freely within the other. None of them, except
the one nearest the body, is united to the skin of the
animal, nor do they hold an}' connection with the body
by any muscle, nerve, or bloodvessel. They conse-
quently receive no nourishment from the body, and
do not increase in size ; they form only an external
envelope, which moves when the animal agitates its
tail, in the same manner as any foreign body would
move, which might be attached to it. All the rings
of the rattle being very dry, placed one above the other,
and having all sufficient play within each other, to rub
mutually against each other when they are shaken, it is
not surprising that they should produce a very sensible
sound. “ Indeed,” says Lacepede, “ we have proved
that a rattle of moderate size will produce a noise
similar to that of the crumpling of a piece of parch-
ment, which may be heard at the distance of more than
sixty feet ; and it is much to be desired that it could be
heard still further, in order that the a])proacli of a
Rattlesnake, being less unforeseen, might also be less
dangerous.” Mr. Bose, however, who has had oppor-
tunities of seeing these reptiles alive, says that the
noise produced by them could not be heard further otf
than from twelve to fifteen paces ; and that when the
animal was moving at its usual rate, it was necessary
to be close to it, and even listen very attentively to dis-

Serpents. RE PTILES. Viperlse Serpents.

44

tinguish tlie sound. Eattlesnakes are said by many of
our earlier writers to e.xbale a nauseous and fetid odour,
which spreads to a considerable distance around them.
By many fond of marvellous tales, this is believed to be
the secret of the fascinating power ascribed so commonly
to this reptile. With regard to this attribute of serpents
we have already made some general remarks at page
38, to which we refer the reader. We will only further
quote Mr. Holbrook’s opinion upon this power in the
Kattlesnake : — “As to the fascinating or charming
power of the Kattlesnake, I have every reason to
believe it a fable ; a modification of that of the basilisk
of the ancients, a creature whose deadly glance would
alone prove fatal. The Rev. Dr. Buchanan, an excel-
lent naturalist, also informs me, that he has more than
once observed Rattlesnakes watching for hours at the
root of large trees, on the branches of which sported
some innocent squirrel, unconscious of the ‘charmer
below ; ’ but woe betide him should he descend to the
earth in search of water, or of fallen nuts or acorns.
Tliere are even still more tales of the charming power
of the Black snake than of the Rattlesnake, to whom it
would be useless; for he is bold, lively, active, and
climbs the loftiest trees in pursuit of his prey, wh le the
Rattlesnake waits patiently below,” The food of the
Rattlesnake consists of biids, squirrels, rabbits, rats,
&c. ; and in addition to his so much vaunted fascinating
power, he has been endowed by some writers with the
gift of climbing trees with great dexterity. This, how-
ever, does not seem to be the case, and as Mr. Hol-
brook justly observes, his organization seems ill adapted
for it. His body is thick and clumsy; the tail is short,
and not apparently calculated for laying hold of objects;
and the rattles too which terminate this organ would
form an awkward appendage in climbing. On the con-
trary, in those serpents which do climb trees with faci-
lity the body is slender, the tail very long and delicate,
and may with ease be used as a prehensile instrument.
When full grown, the Rattlesnake is naturally of an
indolent and sluggish nature. His movements are
slow and inactive, and he lies quietly in wait for his
prey, stretched on the ground in the form of an S, and
never attacks man unless provoked or irritated. He
seems to have somewhat of a magnanimous dispo-
sition, and never wantonly destroys other animals,
except as food for himself. A very slight touch, how-
ever, or even a noise close at hand, will disturb his
repose, and he then immediately coils himself up,
shakes his rattles violently in sign of rage, and strikes
at whatever is placed within his reach. In his native
woods one may pass within a few feet of him unmo
lested, though aware of the passenger’s presence. He
either lies quiet, or glides away to a more retired spot.
Mr. Holbrook says, “ He never follows the object of his
rage, whether an animal that has unwarily approached
so near as to touch him, or only a stick thrust at him
to provoke his anger, but strikes on the spot, and pre-
pares to repeat the blow; or he may slowly retreat like
an unconquered enemy, sure of his strength, but not
choosing further combat. It is remarkable that he
never strikes unless coiled ; so that if once thrown
from this position, he may be approached with less
danger.”

Though the natural habit of the Rattlesnake is that
of indolence and sluggishness, his movements, when
he is roused to bite, are extremely rapid ; and, contrary
to the ordinary custom of most serpents, he is not con-
tent with biting once, but bites again and again with
astonishing celeritj'. Spix describes the motion of his
head at such times to be like that of the woodpeckers
tapping the trees in search of insects; and LacepMe
informs ns that, in reference to this rapidity in striking
his pre}', the Rattlesnake is called in Mexico Ecacoatl,
or the Wind. In the colder parts of America, Eattle-
snakes pass the winter in a lethargic state. They take
up their abode in secluded spots, in holes in the ground
along with toads, &c., or under masses of the sphagnum
or bog moss, in marshy soils, and remain there till after
the vernal equinox. During this time they appear to
have no inclination to bite ; and even when they do,
as long as the cold weather continues, their bite is not
dangerous. In the summer months, however, and
more especially in the month of August and in the
beginning of September, their poison is very fatal.
The slightest prick at such times, it is said, will suffice
to kill the largest animal. The effects of the poison
of this reptile upon man are very alarming. They
depend, however, a good deal upon circumstances. It
does not affect all individuals equally. For example,
it is said — and experience seems to eonfirm the fact — it
has less influence upon a fat than upon a thin person,
less upon an Indian or negro than upon a white man,
and more upon a stranger than a native. It is less
dangerous, also, according as it has wounded only
fleshy parts ; whilst it is almost sure to be fatal if the
fang has punctured the smallest bloodvessel, especially
if it be on the upper part of the body. Many remedies
have been employed against the direful effects of such
poison, but up to the present time few are known that
possess any efficacy. Rattlesnakes, as has been already
mentioned, are viviparous, and they have, most pro-
bably unjustly, been accused of eating their young.
M. Palisot de Beauvois, and most naturalists who have
observed them in their native haunts, deny this ; and
this last-mentioned traveller accounts for the asserlion
so boldly made by some writers, by stating as a fact
that they, in times of danger, receive their young into
their mouth and throat as a place of refuge. In the
first journey made by this naturalist in the country of
the native Tcharlokee he saw a Rattlesnake in his
path, and approached it as softly as possible. At the
moment when he was about to strike it, the animal
shook its rattles, opened its throat wide, and received
into it five little ones, each about as thick as a goose
quill. At the end of ten minutes, however, during
which he had watched the reptile’s motions, believing
itself out of danger, he observed it open its mouth
again, and let the young ones out, receiving them into
it afresh at the appearance of a new danger. These
reptiles have many foes, but their chief foe is the com-
mon hog, which devours them in great numbers in
places where they may happen to abound. Other
serpents, too, larger than themselves, destroy them ;
and man, with his progress of civilization, is now
sweeping them before him. In former times, and to
a certain extent in some places still, the Indians never

Rattlesnakes.-

-REPTILES. The Boiquira.

45

killed the Rattlesnake, as they believed that if they
did, the spirit of the killed snake would cause his
living kindred or relations to revenge his death upon
them. Bartram relates some amusing instances of this
superstition among these people iu his “ Travels in the
United States.”

THE COMMON OE BANDED RATTLESNAKE ( Urop-
sophus durissus) has the widest range of all the species
of this family, being found, according to Mr. Holbrook’s
account, in nearly all parts of the United States.
Kalm, the Swedish naturalist and traveller, saw it in
north lat. 45°, near liuke Champlain, and Mr. Hol-
brook says he has seen specimens from the borders of
the Gulf of Mexico and as far west as Red river,
while Say met with it in north lat. 40°, on the Missis-
sippi. It is the species figured in Plate 4, fig. 3.
The head is very large and triangular, broad, and
truncate anteriorly, covered with plates only in front,
and with minute scales on the crown and back part;
the nostrils are large, and very near the snout, but
open laterally ; the eyes are large, and extremely
brilliant when the animal is enraged ; the mouth is
large, and the jaws strong; the neck is very much
contracted, and covered with carinated scales larger
than those on the head ; the body is elongated, but
thick, and covered with rough, carinated, rhomboidal

scales above, and broad plates below ; the tail is
short, slightly conical, and sustains a greater or less
number of rattles ; the neck and body are of a pale
ash colour, with a line of yellow along the back,
including three scales; the body is marked with a
triple series of dark irregular blotches and bars along
the back; the belly is of a diity reddish-straw colour,
freckled with minute black dots.

The Banded Rattlesnake was first made known to
naturalists- by Catesby. In his description of poisonous
snakes in the Carolinas, he says — “ Of these Vipers
the Rattlesnake is most formidable, being the largest
and most terrible of all the rest. The largest I ever
saw was one about eight feet in length, weighing
between eight and nine pounds. These are commonly
believed to be the most deadly venomous serpent ol
any in these parts of America. I believe they are so,
as being generally the largest, and making a deeper
wound, and injecting a greater quantity of poison.”

THE BOIQUIRA, or Cascavella, by which names
the other species of Rattlesnake is known (Crotalus
horridus) — represented in Plate 8, fig. 3 and 3a (skele-
ton and skull), and fig. annexed — is a native of Brazil,
Peru, and many other parts of South America; rang-
ing indeed, according to Spix, as far as the Straits of
Magellan. It was first made known by Marcgrave,

Head of Boiquira or Cascavella

who described it soon after the discovery of America,
and names it the Boicinininga. Its habits are much
the same as the species described above. It is larger,
however, and, Spix says, may easily be distinguished by
its very strong musky smell. Being larger and more
powerful than the Banded Rattlesnake, it is no wonder
that in the early periods after the conquest of America,
the Cascavella should have created great dread and
fear amongst the Europeans. In Brazil, Spix says, the
bite of this reptile is generally fatal within thirty-six
hours.

Family II. — VIPERIDH3 ( Vipers).

The second family of the Viperine snakes consists
of the true Vipers ( and form a very natu -
ral group. They are distinguished from the Rattle-

snakes (Crotalidce) by their face being destitute of the
pit or depression which, in these latter, is observable
on each side between the eye aud the nostril. The
rostrum or muzzle is covered with large scales, or
shields, which are broad and band-like. The scales of
the body are (with one exception — the genus Acan-
thophis) always keeled, and those of the head are, in
many species, elongated into a point, so as to form
a kind of horn, which, placed as they generally
are above the eye, give a very peculiar physiognomy
to these reptiles. In form they are generally more
thick-set and heavy-looking than the Rattlesnakes, and
their tail is always short and conical. They rarely
grow to any considerable size, varying from two or
three to four feet. Their food consists of mice, frogs,
lizards, and birds, &c. They prefer as their place of
abode, open places, dry, arid, sandy, or covered with
a sparse vegetation, and are exclusively natives of
the Old World. With the exception of one .species

• From the Latin word vivipara, viviparous.

46

Serpents. REPTILES. Viperine Serpents.

discovered in Australia, and one which inhabits Great
Britain, the}' are chiefly found in India and Africa, or
in the South of Europe.

In some of the species belonging to this family, the
head is covered with acutely -keeled scales ; whilst in
others it is covered more or less with large scales,
plates, or shields.

Genus Cuotiio.

In the first group the genus Chtlio is most numerous
in species, all of which are natives of Africa. The
scales of the body are acutely keeled, the keels often
terminating in spines.

THE PUFF-ADDER— fig. 12— of the Cape of Good
Hope (Clotho arietavs) is one of the best known spe-
cies. This serpent is one of the most dreaded of all

in South Africa, and is sometimes met with three and
even, though rarely, four feet in length. The body is
squat-shaped, and there are few species wiiich have
such a heavy-looking form. The tail is thick, blunt,
a little compressed near the tip, and very short. The
head is exceedingly broad, very much flattened, quite
distinct from the neck, heart-shaped, and rounded
on the sides. The eyes are .small and nearly lateral,
and the nostrils are placed near the extremity of the
muzzle. It is of a yellowish-brown colour on the
upper part, and is marked with three rows of large
brownish-black spots, edged with yellow. The under
surface is of a uniform yellow. It receives its name
from its habit of attac;k. It is said that it can never
injure a person placed in front of it, because, when it
bites, it does so by making a spring and moving its
head backwards. This is the common opinion amongst

Fig. 12.

Head of Puff-Adder (Clotho ariefans).

the colonists of the Cape, and is particularly alluded
to by Dr. Burchell, who met with this serpent in the
interior of that colony.

THE HORNED SNAKE {Clotho cornnta) is another
species found at the Cape and in various parts of tlie
colony, and is equally dreaded with the last. It is
called by the colonists the Hornsman, from the fact
that the scales over the eyes are prolonged into a elump
of lengthened spines, forming a sort of short horn. In
form this species is robust, the body being thick in the
middle, and the tail short, conical, and pointed. It is
from fourteen to eighteen inches in length, the tail
measuring only about one and a half. Sir Andrew
Smith has given a good description ami figure of
this serpent in his “ Illustrations of the Zoology of
South Africa.” “ Dry sandy districts,” he says,
“ constitute the favourite habitats of this viper, which
manifests all that indolence of character so remark-
able among the various species of the family, and on
account of which they are more dreaded by the natives
of South Africa, than even snakes jrossessed of more
virulent poison, but disposed to action on the approach
of danger. According to good testimony, this species
will continue for da3's together in one position ; and as

it never seeks to avoid danger, however imminent, its
presence is rarely discovered unless when trampled
upon, and the offending parts wounded by its fangs.
Though generally inactive, it is by no means so when
injured ; its movements are then performed with acti-
vit}' ; and when once it seizes the obnoxious object, it
retains its hold with great determination, and some
considerable exertion is often required to detach it.”*

Genus Cerastes.

In describing the Horned Viper of the Cape {Clotho
cornnta), we mentioned the circumstance of some of
the keeled scales of the head being prolonged so
as to form a kind of horn, and in our preliminary
remarks upon the Vipcridce (p. 45) we stated the fact
as one peculiar to this family. This disposition and
structure of these scales is in none of the vipers so
remarkable as in the Cerastes or Horned Viper of
Egypt. Over each eye we see one of these scales

* This descrififion of the bite of this viper is different from
what is observed in the species of the Rattlesnake family. See
w’hat we have said upon this subject at p. 44, and compare
with p. 47 in the case of the common viper, Pelias beriis.

Vipers. REPTILES. Common Viper. 47

developed much more than any of the others, elongating
tliemselves into a point, and presenting exactly the
appearance of a horn on each eyebrow. As Schlegel
remarks, this anomaly in the organization of this ser-
pent, more curious than of any real scientific value, has
not failed to excite in the highest degree the admi-
ration of mankind, and to occupy their imagination
from the earliest periods of time to our own days. The
Egyptians, of whose country this viper is a native, and
who were fond of the marvellous, have accordingly
frequently figured it in their hieroglyphical writings on
their ancient monuments. It was pointed out by them
to strangers as one of the most redoubtable of beings,
and it was related of this formidable reptile, that in
some remote period of antiquity an invasion of a host
of them had actually depopulated a part of their country.
The name of the genus, Cerastes, has been given to it
from these horns, being derived from the Greek word
keros (xssaj), a horn. These appendages, however,
do not exist in all individuals, and perhaps are peculiar
to the males ; though the want of them haS induced
some naturalists to describe those in which they were
absent as constituting a distinct species.

THE CERASTES {Cerastes Hasselquistii) — Plate 4,
fig. 4 — resembles in general form our common viper,
but its body is much thicker in the centre and less
compressed. The back is somewhat keeled, and the
(ail is slender, very short (only about a tenth of the
whole length) and terminates in a very fine point.
The head is very large, distinct from the bodyq and
covered with scales of an irregular form, smaller than
those of the trunk, and all keeled. In the males, one
of these scales developes itself into a lengthened point
two or three lines long, which rises immediately over
the ey’cs on each side, and gives a resemblance to a
small horn. They are furrowed throughout their whole
length, and are very movable. Their uses, if they can
be at all of use to the animal, are entirely unknown,
but numerous conjectures and assertions have been
made about their nature. . The eyes have a yellowish-
green iris, and their pupil is narrow and vertical. The
Cerastes is generally' of a very pale brown colour, or a
pale yellow shading into grayish-brown, on the upper
part of the body, with five or six rows of deeper spots of
rather irregular shape and unequal size, but generally
pretty regularly disposed. The under part of the body
and throat are usually white. The tail is often black
at the tip. The usual length of this species of serpent
is about two feet, though Bruce says, it is only thirteen
or fourteen inches. We are indebted to this traveller
for many interesting particulars with regard to the
Cerastes. It inhabits the vast, burning deserts of
Northern Africa. Shunning humid and marshy situa-
tions, it is found only in the hot, arid sands of Egypt,
Syria, and Arabia. It lies all day in holes in the sand,
and is found in close contiguity to the Jerboa, which
lives in similar habitations, and which forms part of
this reptile’s food.

Genus Viper a.

In the second group of the true Vipers, or those in
which the head is more or less covered with large scales,

plates, or shields, the genus Vipera is pre-eminent.
There are three sjjecies natives of Europe, and all
resembling each other in general appearance. They
differ, however, in the arrangement of the plates, and
in the shape of the head ; and according to some of the
latest writers, have even been divided into two distinct
genera. In form they are rather less squatly-shaped
than the .species whicli we have just been describing,
and they are more slender at the two extremities. The
head is not so large as in many of the other viperine
snakes, and is more elongated. It is flat on the crown
and scaly, high on the sides, and shielded in front.
The muzzle is rounded. The eyes are always shaded
by' a plate over the eyebrows, and the pupil is oblong
and erect.

THE COMMOH VIPER or Adder ( Vipera or Pelias
herns, represented Plate 4, fig. 3) is the most abundant
and the widest-spread of the three species. It seldom
exceeds two feet and a half in length, and in this
country perhaps never reaches that extent. The cir-
cumference of the body is generally that of a man’s
thumb. The head is somewhat depressed, almost oval,
slightly widening behind the eyes, and terminat d by' a
somewhat conical muzzle bluntly rounded at the tip.
In general it is of an olive or brown colour, with a series
of confluent, rhomboidal, black spots along the back,
and a row of small, irregular, triangular spots on each
side. The colours, however, vary' considerably accord-
ing to sex, age, climate, &c., and in the female the body
is somewhat thicker than in the male, while the tail
is shorter and more slender. This species is spread
over the greater part of Northern and Central Europe,
extending probably to some parts of Asiatic Kussia.
It is common in Great Britain, and is happily the sole
representative of the poisonous serpents in these isles.
It is abundant in many parts of Scotland, England, and
Wales, but has never been met with in Ireland. It
frequents heaths, dry woods, and banks; preferring
districts exposed to the rays of the sun, where there
exists a plentiful supply of food, and which contain
numerous holes which may serve it as places of retreat.
Its food consists in great part of field-mice, and thus
we find the Adder always most abundant in such places
as these little mammalia are in the habit of frequenting,
and it is such holes as they dig that these reptiles
choose as their place of abode. Oti the continent ot
Europe it appears to shun places covered with large
trees, and forests where the rays of the stm do not
penetrate, preferring on the contrary rocky' places, oi
situations covered with small brushwood. Wherevei
it is found it is universally dreaded. In this country
its bite is seldom or never attended with fatal results ;
but at the same time the symptoms produced by the
venom are distressing in the extreme, and in warm
countries, and during the height of summer, may even
terminate in death. The manner in which the Viper
inflicts a blow is thus described by Professor Bell : —
“ The animal generally throws itself in the first plaC'"*
into a coil more or less close, and the anterior part ot
the body is raised. The neck is bent somewhat
abruptly backwards, and the head fixed almost hori-
zontally. In an instant the head is, as it were,
launched by a sudden effort toward the object of its

Sehpents. REPTILES. Viperine Serpents.

48

anger, and the erected tooth struck into it, and with-
drawn with the velocity of thought. The action, how-
ever, by wliich it takes its prey is very difl'erent from
that whicli it emploj's in its defensive attack, and
resembles that employed bj' the harmless snakes. It
seizes its prey at once, and immediately begins to
swallow it. In winter the Viper seeks some safe and
secret place where it passes the cold weather in a state
of torpidity, and in this retreat — holes made by field-
mice, &c. — we may often see several twined together.
The Viper is ovoviviparous ; that is, the moment the
mother expels the egg, the membrane investing it
bursts, and the young serpent immediately crawls
about and assumes all the activity and virulence
which distinguish the species, throwing itself into
an attitude of defence if molested, and hissing with
anger. The number of young produced at each birth
varies from twelve to twenty, or even more. We
have already said, that the bite of the Viper seldom
or never proves fatal in this country. “ We are not
aware,” says Mr. Broderip, “ of any well authenticated
case of a person bitten by a Viper terminating fatally
and to this fact, more than to the remedies used, is
perhaps to be attributed the exemption from evil con-
sequences of the old viper-catchers who, in Dr. Mead’s
time, used to parade their experiments and vaunt the
efficacy of their infallible cure. In the presence of this
physician some of these men, confident of their remedy,
suffered themselves to be bitten by active-ffioking
vipers. The method of cure consisted in rubbing the
wound with olive oil over a chafing-dish of coals, and
taking large closes internally. Formerly the fiesh of
vipers was considered to possess wonderful virtues in
the cure of disease, and the belief in the efficacy, as an
invigorating restorative, of “ viper broth,” lingers still
in many parts. “ Sir Kenelm Digby’s beautiful wife
was fed on capons fattened with the fiesh of vipers.”

THE ASP OF LIlfN^lUS {Vipera aspis), another
European viper, is considered by many naturalists as
merely a variety of the common viper. It is, however,
a distinct species, and the mistake has arisen from the
fact, that in France the common viper is not suffi-
ciently well known, and thus some varieties of the asp,
which is the more common of the two species in the
southern parts of that country, have been mistaken for
it. It differs, hovvever, in being of a thinner shape,
in the head being broader, the crown being covered
with small smooth scales, and the nose being some-
what elevated and recurved. The general colour is
olive, and it has along the back four rows of dark,
generally isolated spots, the two rows along the spine
being c.lose together, and sometimes running one into
the other. The asp is very common throughout all
France from 49° of N. lat. to Savoy, the Pyrenees,
and the coast of the Mediterranean. It abounds at

Fontainbleau and in the woods of Montmorency; but
towards the north of France, and in Burgundy, it is
replaced by the common viper. It is found also in
the dry rocky countries of Italy, has been observed in
Switzerland, and extends from that as far as Venice.
The habits of the asp are much the same as those of
the common viper. This species must not be con-
founded with the asp of Cleopatra, which is a species
of Naja, see p. 65.

THE AMMODYTE {Vipera ammodytes), the “Sand-
natter ” of the Germans, is the third species of Euro-
pean vipers. Though similar in colour and general
appearance to the other species mentioned above, it
nevertheless varies in several res])ects. Its body is
very thick in the middle, narrowing towards either
extremity, especially the hinder, and terminating in a
very short and slender tail. The principal character-
istic mark, however, and one which separates it from
the others, is the tip of the muzzle being elongated
into a conical, fleshy nose, elevated perpendicularly.
This orgafi is covered in front with two pairs of small
plates, and behind by several small scales. The pre-
vailing colour, like that of the two preceding vipers,
is an olive, the back being marked with a broad streak
of brownish- black, of an angular or zig-zag appear-
ance. The under surface is pale, and the sides are
closely, darkly pnnctulated. The tip of the tail is
most frequently of a fine red hue. The Ammodyte
attains to a large size. Schlegol mentions an indivi-
dual being as thick in circumference as a child’s arm.
It inhabits Dalmatia and Illyria. Carinthia and Hun-
gary possess it ; but it is doubtful whether it occurs
at all in France, though it has lately been discovered
in Sicily and in the Morea. Its habits are much the
same as those of our common viper, and its places
of abode are dry, rocky, or sandy countries, open or
covered with a sparse vegetation. M. Cantraine in-
forms us that he very often met with it in Dalmatia in
the course of his rambles, and that it is so common in
certain places, that people are obliged, when walking
out, to wear thick boots to protect themselves from its
bite. When it bites it raises its head and draws it
backwards, previous to inflicting the stroke. Though
naturally of an indolent disposition, it becomes more
lively and active during the hot weather of summer.
The Ammodyte, according to the testimony of M.
Host, appears to he a nocturnal species of serpent,
and commits great havoc amongst field-mice, small
birds, and many lizards. It falls a prey itself, however,
to one of that tribe of animals. The Scheltopusik
{Pseudopus Pallasii) is one of its most redoubtable
and bloody enemies Shielded by its cuirass of tile-
like, hard scales, it is proof against the fangs of the
viper, attacks it with impunity, and devours it at
leisure.

CoLUBBiNE Serpents. REPTILES. Pelagic Serpents. 49

Suborder II.— COLUBEINE SEEPENTS {Colubrina).

The Colubrine Serpents are distinguished from the
Viperine Serpents by their having strong javi's, both
of which are furnished with one or more series of teeth.
In some of the species the upper jaw is provided with
fangs in front, which are fixed, not hollow, but grooved
on the hinder edge, which groove communicates with a
gland placed on the side of the face. The head is of
moderate size compared with the body, and the crown
is often covered with large plates or shields. A great
proportion of the species belonging to this extensive
and numerous suborder are perfectly harmless, but
there are a small number, those having grooved fangs
communicating with a iioison gland, which are truly
venomous, and some among them dangerously so.
This suborder contains two sections, whicli again are
divided into several families ; but these, as they differ
very much in their habits and method of living, will be
best described separately.

The first section is characterized by the belly being
covered with narrow elongated shields or scales, nearly
resembling those of the back.

This section contains two large Families, the Water-
serpents {Hydridce) and the Boas {Boidce),

Family I. — WATER- SERPENTS {Hydridca).

The Water-serpents {Hydridce), as their name im-
ports, are all natives of the salt or fresh w'ater, and
are chiefly natives of the Eastern seas. Their nar-
row belly-scales are hexagonal or band-like. The
nostrils are placed on the upper part of the muzzle,
and are furnished with valves. The eyes are situated
towards the upper part of the head, and are furnished
with a small round pupil. The fangs, when present,
are of moderate size, and are intermixed with the max-
illary teeth. In some the tail is con. pressed, but in
others it is round. Many of these serpents are found
exclusively in the sea, in the months of rivers, or in
salt-water lakes, whilst others live entirely in fresh
water.

THE SEA OR PELAGIC SERPENTS (Rydrina) are
not very numerous in species, thirty-two only being
described in Dr. Gray’s catalogue ; but thej^ are ex-
tremely abundant in individuals, and unlike the terres-
trial serpents, are always met with in numbers together.
So much is this the case, that their appearance serves
as a mark to mariners that they are nearing the shore.
“ On my approach to Bombay,” says Dr. Cantor, “ I
remember the sailors looking out for this phenomenon,
until shoals of these animals made their appearance as
signs of approaching land.” My own experience con-
firms this fact, while approaching the mouths of the
Hoogly from the Bay of Bengal. Their geographical
distribution is entirely limited to the tropical seas, and
although the flood-tide carries them as high up the
rivers as the brackish water, yet they are purely
pelagic, and as Dr. Cantor well observes, are no more
VoL. II. 6^

found in fresh water than on dry ground ; they form
par excellence the natatorial type of the order Ophidia.
We do not know a very great deal of their habits, but
their whole organization proves that these reptiles are
destined only to live in the water, and that their organs
of locomotion arc in no way formed for progressing on
land. Their body, in order more easily to cleave the
waves, becomes slender towards the two extremities,
and much compressed or flattened towards the tail.
The belly is narrow and most frequently prolonged
into a more or less sharp keel — “ a conformation,” says
Sc.hlegel, ‘‘ absolutely similar to the keel of a ship.”
The tail short, but so compressed or flattened as to
offer little breadth compared with its extraordinary
height, is the chief organ of locomotion ; for by this
form, by its vertical position, and its great degree of
flexibility laterally, it exercises at once the double
function of oar and rudder. The head is small, more
or less elongated, conical towards the snout, and almost
of the same proportion as the neck ; so that it is weli-
fitted for overcoming the resistance offered by the water.
The eyes, placed laterally, are directed a little upwards
and forward, and thus these serpents are enabled to
look in all directions, so as to be able to seize their prey
or escape the dangers they are incessantly threatened
with. The muzzle is elongated into a downward but
pointed shield, which closes the mouth and thus pre-
vents the water from entering ; and in order to effect
respiration without the serpent having need to expose
any part of its body out of the water, the nostrils are
placed near each other upon the summit of this muzzle,
and are provided with a membranous valve which opens
to admit the air, and closes to prevent the entrance of
the water. A single instant suffices the creature to
perform the act of breathing ; which effected, it plunges
again into the depths of the sea, the water of which
cannot enter either by the nostrils or the mouth. The
tongue is much less developed in the sea than the
terrestrial serpents. As long as they are below the
surface of the water they never make use of this organ;
but when they are out of the element, and the animal
is blinded, as it were, by the light, it appears of material
use as a feeler. The eyes are generally small, and the
pupil is always round. The mouth is only of moderate
size, and the jaw-bone is sufficiently long to give room,
in addition to the fangs, to several small solid teeth.
Hence it follows that these sea-snakes cannot erect
their fangs so much as the viperine serpents, and in
biting their prey, they retain hold of it with their jaws.
The fangs are marked on their hinder edge with a
furrow, which communicates with the orifice of the
duct which conveys the poison from the gland. They
are much smaller than in the colubrine venomous
snakes, and therefore have escaped the observation of
many naturalists, who, like Dr. Patrick Russell, deny
their existence in several of the species. The other
teeth are exceedingly small and numerous. The

50

Seepents. REPTILES. Colubkinb Serpents.

poison gland is also less developed than in the true
venomous serpents, forming a narrow pear-shaped sac.
The skin which covers the body, is very loose and
easily detached, and tlie scales upon it are generally
small, in some so much so, that when the skin is dis-
tended the body looks as if deprived of its epidermis.
There is a peculiarity in the structure of the lung (for
there is only one) in sea-snakes which adapts them for
their method of living. It is a long narrow canal,
swollen out in some parts of its course into tolerably
sized sacs ; and as it extends as low down as near the
extremity of the intestine, it fulfils at once both the
function of an organ of respiration and a swimming
bladder.

Sea-serpents were known to the ancients, but unfor-
tunately they often confounded with them various fishes
of an elongated eel-shaped body. They seem to be
confined to the intertropical seas, or those in the neigh-
bourhood of the tropics. They are sometimes found in
the open ocean at great distances from land, but in
general they appear to prefer living near the shore, or in
the mouths of large rivers where they find an abundant
supply o'^ food ; such places as the Sunderbunds which
form the delta of the Ganges. All the species belonging
to this family, without exception, are venomous, though
some naturalists have asserted the contrary. Differ-
ences of opinion, too, exist with regard to their nature
and disposition ; several naturalists and travellers assert-
ing them to be of a gentle and peaceable temper, while
others maintain the opposite. Dr. Kussell found in
one or two species, that no provocation could excite
them to bite. M. Lesson, after inclosing them in
vessels with fowls, was not able to make them attack
the birds. M. Siebold, on the testimony of Schlegel,
asserts that the pelagic serpents are not of a fierce dis-
])osition, and that during his voyage from Batavia to
Japan, he has caught many with a hand net, landed
them into the boat, and that the sailors handled them
without fear or any had effects. Professor Reinwardt,
who has frequently met with these serpents, confirms
Siebold’s account of their quiet, gentle disposition. Dr.
Cantor, on the contrary, who had abundant oppor-
tunities in India of seeing them, declares that they are
highl}’’ venomous and dangerous. After taking notice
of the opinions mentioned above, he says, “ an asser-
tion like this, may easily mislead travellers, who by
carelessly handling animals provided with weapons of
the most dangerous description, are, if wounded, certain
to pay with their life for their temerity. I must there-
fore from my own experience, assert that those species
which I have observed in the Bay of Bengal and the
Gangetic estuaries, are of very ferocious habits, as well
in as out of water.”

Their motion in the water is very active and grace-
ful, and is described as being a sort of gliding on the
surface, when the sea is calm, raising from time to time
their head above the wave, perhaps to breathe. They
are able swimmers, and their movements are executed
byrepeated strokes of the tail from righttoleft, succeeded
by a lateral and undulatory motion of other parts of the
body. At times their agility is described as being
extreme, and their swimming most rapid. When
removed from the sea, however, they become blinded.

by the light contracting the pupil ; and then, in addition
to the difficulty which they experience whilst attempt-
ing to support their sharply-keeled bodies on dry land,
their movements become just as uncertain and mal-
adroit as they are nimble and swift in their own element.
Taken from the sea, and placed on dry ground or in
fresh water, they soon die.

The size of these serpents varies in the different
species. Some are not more than two feet and a half
long, whilst others reach a length of five feet. The
females are ovoviviparous, but the sexes cannot be
distinguished externally. These sea-serpents are
usually of a yellowish colour, shading sometimes to a
green, sometimes to a blue, or to white, and most
frequently relieved by numerous blackish bands, or by
large lozenge-shaped spots disposed in a transverse
manner along the back. In the young the colours are
generally of a brighter hue than the adults, and these
feed upon small floating Crustacea.

THE BLACK-BACKED PEI AMIS (Pelamis hicolor),
or the Nalla-whalagellee pam — represented in
Plate 4, fig. 5, and fig. 13 annexed — being common
in all the parts of the sea frequented by sea-snakes, is
perhaps the one best known in European collections.
It is about two feet four inches in length, and about
three inches in circumference in the thickest part
The skin is very loosely attached to the body, and is
uniformly covered with small hexagonal scales disposed
in such a manner as to. resemble the stones of a pave-
ment. The body is strong and thick, of a cylindrical
form in the anterior part, but becoming compressed pos-
teriorly, and terminating in a short, thin, flat tail, of a

Fig. 13.

The Black-backed Pelamis (Pelamis bicolor).

lanceolate form, and broadest at its extremity. The
head is long, compressed, and projecting into an obtuse
beak. The mouth is large, and the eyes are lateral
and of good size. The head and beak are of a black
colour, and the sides and belly yellow, with some
obscure, black, round spots towards the tail, which is
singularly spotted with white, black, and yellow. This
species is the most widely diffused of all the Pelagic
serpents. It is common on the coast of Coromandel,
Pondicherry, Malabar, and Bay of Bengal. It has
been met with on the coasts of Java, Borneo, New
Guinea, in the Sea of the Moluccas, near the Celebes,

Pelagic Sekpents. REPTILES. Acuociioude oe J.wa. 51

off Port-Jackson in Australia, and on the coast of New
Zealand. It occurs also in the Pacific Ocean, and is
said to be eaten by the natives of Tahiti. Dr. Russell
says that the fishermen of Vizagapatam assert that it
seldom approached the shore, and that it was a very
dangerous reptile.

THE EAHELL KAGAM {Microcephalophis gracilis)
is also a native of the Indian seas ; Dr. Russell, who
was amongst the first to describe it, having received
his specimens from the coast of Tranquebar. It has
a very small head, a very long and slender neck, and
the body, which is of a considerably larger size, be-
comes a little compressed as it approaches the tail,
which is short, flat, and two-edged. It has a narrow
mouth, small teeth, and very small globular eyes. It
attains the length of two feet nine inches, and is of a
bright blue colour, with cross yellow bands, more
especially on the neck and tail. The belly is of a
lighter yellow, with faint blue bands. According to
Dr. Russell, the bite of this serpent is reputed by the
natives of India to be not less dangerous than that
of the cobra de capello.

THE VALAKADYEH {Enhydrina valakadyen), from
the Indian seas, has a cylindrical body, of nearly equal
thickness throughout, or slightly swollen in the middle,
and a short, compressed, double-edged tail. It has an
oblong, compressed head, a wide mouth, a blunt muzzle,
and small round eyes, placed high on the head. It is
about three feet three inches long, the tail of itself being
four and a half inches. The upper part of the body
is of a bluish-gray colour, and the belly yellow.

The Valakadyen, as it is called by the natives of
India, is represented by them as very venomous, its
bite being asserted to be infallibly mortal, if proper
remedies are not instantly applied. Schlegel considers
this species to be identical with another serpent de-
scribed by Dr. Russell under the name of the Hoogli
Pattee. This snake was one of which Russell had
living specimens, and which he kept in order to test
their venomous powers. A fowl bitten in the thigh
by an individual of this species expired, he says, in
five minutes.

THE ACROCHORDIAHS {Acrochordina) are inter-
mediate between the Pelagic or Sea serpents and the
Fluviatile species. In this small family the head,
instead of being covered with shields, is covered with
small scales like those of the body, which are described
by Dumeril at)d Bibron as granulated tubercles inserted
into the skin. The species too, are for the most part
found living in rivers. Schlegel considers them as
boas ada{)ted by their organization to live in water.
They have the prehensile tail of these larger ser-
pents, but at the same time this organ is in general
flattened so as to serve the purpose of an oar or rud-
der. The head and teeth are on the same type as the
boas ; but the position of the nostrils and eyes, the
manner in which the mouth can be hermetically closed,
the compressed form of the body, which is furnished
with a keel on the under surface, and the absence of
the spurs or hooks at the side of the vent, all bring
them more closely to the Pelagic or Sea serpents.
They have not yet been experimentally proved to be
poisonous, nor are they incontestably innocuous. The |

species are few, and as yet have only been observed in
intertropical Asia.

THE BANDED CHERSYDRUS {Chersydrus granula-
tiis or fasciatus) is found in the rivers and on the edge
of the sea, in the peninsula of Malacca and neighbour-
ing islands, in the Bay of Manilla, New Guinea, Timor,
Java, Sumatra, and the coast of Coromandel. In size
it does not exceed three feet. Dr. Cantor found it in
tolerable abundance in the Sea of Malacca, where it
often occurs amongst the fishes taken in the fisher-
men’s nets. A female taken in that way, he says,
three or four miles from the coast of Penang, mea-
sured three feet long and four inches in circumference,
and had six eggs. These were cylindrical, soft, or
with a whitish membranous shell, and were an inch
and a half long. Each egg contained a young one,
eleven inches long. By its mode of feeding and its
general habits, he adds, this serpent resembles the
venomous Pelagic species. In the water it is lively;
but on land, and especially in the light of day, it
appears blind, and its movements slow and uncertain.

THE ACROCHORDE OF JAVA {Acrochordiis Javani-
cus) — represented in Plate 4, fig G — is of a very
robust form, with a flattened belly and a conical tail,
which is very short in proportion to the body, and
terminates in a point rough with tubercles. The
Swedish naturalist Hornstedt was the first to describe
this serpent as occurring in the island of Java, and Dr.
Cantor has since found it in the island of Penang. The
Malays, says Dr. Cantor, declare this serpent to be
rare. During a sojourn of twenty yeai’s at Singapore,
Dr. Montgomery only observed a specimen once.
The Malays know it by the name of U'lar Karong
or U'lar Laut. The physiognomy of this serpent is
said by Dumeril to resemble very much that of an
English bull-dog, the head being broad and the muzzle
short and blunt. The individual mentioned by Horn-
stedt measured eight feet in length.

THE FLUVIATILE OK FRESH- WATER SNAKES {Ho-
malopsind) are nearly equal in number to the Pelagic
group, about thirty-six being described in the Museum
catalogue. We know relatively very little of their
habits, most of the species which have been observed
living almost continually in the water. They are
almost all natives of intertropical countries, and have
been met with in India and China, Java, Borneo, the
West Indies, and the warm parts of North and South
America. Many of them attain considerable dimen-
sions, but they rarely exceed four feet in length,
though they are as thick as a man’s arm. The great
proportion of them are truly aquatic, and appear par-
ticularl}' formed for peopling the immense extents of
fresh waters found in the intertropical countries of
Asia and America, and which swarm with fisli, of
which they make their chief food. Thej'' have a
peculiar api>earance. The great disproportions of form
— a short, conical, and robust tail ; a head extremely
broad, thick, blunt, short, and covered with plates of
a very irregular and inconstant form ; a short obtuse
muzzle ; small nostrils, and little eyes directed upwards
— all these characters concur to render the aspect of
these animals at once hideous and disgusting. Never-
theless they are quite harmless, in spite of the malignity

52 Skrpents, KEPT'

of their appearance. The species are, generally speakin^,
of a very somhre hue. The upper part of the body is
of a brownish olive or blackish tint ; the under part is
generally yellow, marked with large square spots, and
some of the species are spotted, while others are
adorned with rays or transverse bands. The young
are usually marked with more lively colours than the
adults.

THE LARGE-CHEEKED HOMALOPSIS {Homalopds
huccata) — fig. 14 — is one of the most characteristic
species of the group, and one of the best known.
This serpent attains the length of four feet, and a cir-
cumference of an inch and a half. The body is a little
compressed, and the tail, which occupies about a quar-
ter of the total length, is conical, robust, and is not
distinct from the trunk, which, however, becomes con-
siderably more slender towards the posterior extremity.
The head is broad at the base, extremely thick, high,
conical. The muzzle is short, and truncate at the tip.
The muscles connected with the jaws are well deve-
loped, and the salivary glands are very large. This
produces a swelling in the region of the cheeks, which
are very projecting, and gives the head a heart-shape
that causes it to resemble that of the vipers. Indeed

FiR. 14.

The Large-cheeked llomalopsis (llomalopsis buccata).

this serpent has been described as venomous, and some
authors have, on account of the viperine aspect of the
head, actually placed it amongst the truly venomous
species. The teeth too of this Ophidian are much
more curved posteriorly than in ordinary cases, and at
the posterior part of the jaw they show a grooved or
furrowed structure, which has given rise to strong sus-
picions as to its venomous nature. ISchlegel, however,
asserts that all the species of this group are innocuous.
It was considered at one time that this serpent was
peculiar to Java, where it was oilginally found inhabit-
ing the large fresh-water lakes in tlie western parts of
that island. Besides Java, however, it lias been found
in Bengal and Sumatra.

THE ‘WAMPUM SHAKE {Fai'ancia fasciatci) is another
species of this group, but instead of inhabiting Asia is
found in America It attains a length of near five feet,
and a circumference of three and a half inches. The
body is elongated and almost cylindrical, tapering
only towards the commencement of the tail, which is
remarkably short, conical, and terminates ratherabruj)!!}'
in a slight point. It is of a bluish-black colour above,
the sides being marked with tiansverse blotches of
bright red. A sjiecimen was kept alive in the menagerie
of the Garden of Plants at Paris for fifteen months, but
during the whole of that time it could not bo induced
to take any nourishment which was presented to it. It
is a native of North America, being found in Louisiana
and South Carolina. Catesby was one of the first

ILES. Boas.

authors to make this species known. He says it “ re-
ceives its name from the resemblance it has to Indian
money called wampum^ which is made of shells cut
into regular pieces, and strung wiih a mixture of blue
and white. Some of diese snakes are large, being five
feet in length ; yet there is no harm in their bite ; but
as all the largest snakes are venomous, so will they
devour what animals they are able to overcome.”

Family II. — BOAS {Boidee).

The family of Boas (Boidm) contains a considerable
number of species, upwards of forty being described in
the Museum catalogue. They are, generally speaking,
the largest of all the serpent tribe, and are characterized
by several very distinctive marks. The greater number
of them have, in the proper signification of the word, a
prehensile tail, which, though short, is excellently fitted
for grasping branches of trees or other such objects.
They possess rudimentary hinder extremities, which
are developed under the skin. These consist of several
small bones, which terminate in a horny spur not unlike
the spurs of the common fowl, and which penetrate the
skin and project externally a little in front of the vent.
The body is particularly well organized for twisting and
twining round other bodies ; and the scales which cover
it are small and numerous. As they advance upwards
upon the head and forwards upon the belly, it causes
the abdominal plates to be small and very narrow, and
those on the head to be of a less regular form than in
most others of the Colubrine order.

According to Pliny and some later authors, the name
Boa is derived from the Latin word bos, an ox, because
they believed that the young reptiles were in the habit
of following the cattle in the fields, and living on the
milk of cows. This fable is not the only one that is cur-
rent in early writers concerning these huge creatures as
is the case for instance with regard to their size. Aris-
totle speaks of African serpents of such a length as to
be able to overturn a galley with three oars. Pliny
tells us of an Indian species swallowing large stags and
bulls. Elian mentions huge serpents of from eighty to
one hundred cubits in length, and Suetonius asserts
that there was exhibited at Borne, under Augustus
Cffisar, a living serpent fifty cubits in lengih. Modern
travellers and writers are not much behind these
ancient authors in their marvellous tales of the size of
the Boas. George Andersen, in his “ Travels in the
East,” tells us that in the island of Java there are ser-
pents large enough to swallow men entire. Baldseus,
in his “Description of Ceylon” informs us that he found
serpents there, eight, nine, and ten ells long (from thirty
to thirty-six feet), but that there are much larger ones
in Java, as well as in Banda, where one was taken
which had swallowed a stag, and another which had
swallowed a woman entire. Charles Owen, in his
“ Natural History of Serpents,” says, that in Batavia
there are serpents fifty feet in length. Marco Polo
tells us in his “ Travels,” that in the island of Carajan
very large serpents are seen, ten paces in length, and
ten hands-breadtlis in circumference. Father Gumilla,
in his “ History of Orinoko,” mentions the occurrence
there of serpents upwards of forty feet long. Bosman,

in his “Description of Guinea and the Gold Coast,”
informs us tliat thougli the largest he saw himself was
twenty feet, that there existed many much larger in
the interior, where his countrymen often found in their
stomachs not only whole animals, hut men entire.
Labat tells us that on the river Kurbali, on the west
coast of Africa, serpents are to be seen thirty feet long,
and capable of swallowing an ox ; and in the Moluccas
we are told of serpents upwards of thirty feet in length
and one foot in circumference. Schlegel, however, a
cautious and conscientious author, remarks upon this
subject, that though the Boa constrictor is generally
held up as of an enormous size, he is perfectly satisfied
that it rarely attains a length of nine or ten feet ; that
the largest Pythons seldom exceed eighteen or twenty;
and that the Anaconda itself (the largest species of the
family) is now-a-days never met with exceeding twenty
or twent\’-five feet, and of the circumference of a man’s
thigh. M. Boie, who in his travels in India had many
opportunities of observing these animals, tells us that in
spite of his assiduous researches he was never able to
procure Pythons even of the size we have mentioned.*
It is said that after having killed their prey, they
lubricate the body all over with a thick layer of saliva,
in order to accelerate its putrefaction and facilitate its
deglutition. Now, says Schlegel, the mouth of the
Boas is really not wider than in many other serpents,
the jaws are not more dilatable, and the salivary glands,
which ought to be able to secrete such a prodigious
quantity of saliva, and therefore ought to be very large,
are on the contrary much less developed than in a
great number of other serpents. Mr. Broderip, in the
article Boid(v in the English Cyclopaedia says, “ There
is generally in these descriptions an account of the fleshy
tongue of the reptile, and of its application to the dead
animal for the purpose of covering it with saliva previous
to the operation of swallowing it. We have fre-
quentlj' watched constricting serpents while taking their
prey,and it is almost superfluous to add that they never
covered their victim with saliva from their tongue before
deglutition. The mucus is not poured out till it is
required to lubricate the dilated jaws and throat for the
disproportioned feast.” M. Boie, quoted above, in
India, and the Prince of Neuwied, in America, agree in
stating that these large reptiles only prey in general ui)on
mammalia of a small size, adult individuals alone being
able to master young pigs and those small deer known
by the name of Muntjac. Large mammalia and man,
they affirm, are never in danger , of being attacked by
these creatures, and the natives could not inform them
of even a child having ever run any risk. Enough of
sober truth, however, remains to make the study of
these large serpents exceedingly interesting. The body
diminishes in size gradually towards the two extremities,
being much thicker in the middle. It is always con-
siderably compressed. The tail is short, somewhat
conical, and most frequently terminated in a short, blunt
point. It is always prehensile — that is, owing to the
direction of the articular surfaces of the vertebrae it can

* Tlie l.^rp:est specimens of stuffed snakes in the collectinn
oi tlie British Museum are as follows; — Python Schw, tifieen
feet; Boa ccnstricto?', thirteen feet; and Anaconda, twelve
t'eet.

permit themselves to be laid hold of, and is thus able
to sustain the weight of the whole body without the
serpent being obliged to emjiloy much force for that
pnipose. The head is always distinct from the trunk,
broad, rather long, conical, dejiresscd, and terminated
by a muzzle, which is most frequently elongated and
blunt at the tip. The plates or scales which cover
the edges of the lips (the labial jilalcs) are in a number
of species (more particularly the Pythons) hollowed
out in the form of more or less deep pits, an organiza-
tion peculiar to these animals, and of which we do not
know the use. The bones of the head are exceedingly
strong. The teeth are pretty large, all solid, close set,
and pointing backwards, and increase in size as they
approach the tip of the muzzle. The palate is in
general provided with teeth also, nearly as well
developed ns those of the jaws. The ribs are robust,
long, and curved ; and the articulating surfaces of the
vertebrae are directed in such a way that the body
of the serpent can easily be rolled spirally inwards.
We have already alluded to the existence of rudi-
mentary hinder extremities in this family. These
consist of a legbone, or tibia, two tarsal bones, and
a metatarsal bone, all developed under the skin, and
to the last of which is attached a horny spur, or nail,
which penetrates the skin and projects externally. — See
Plate 8, fig. 18. These spurs are moved by small
muscles attached to the bones, and are useful to the
animal in climbing trees and perhaps in holding fast its
prey. Boas are endowed with prodigious muscular
force, and though this may be also exaggerated, we
may yet conceive, from an inspection of the muscles
attached to the l ibs, of what amazing power a serpent
twenty feet long, and as thick as a man’s thigh, may
really possess.

They are very rarely seen, however, to use this
power in captivity. Such as have been seen in Europe
are generally very gentle, no provocation being able to
incite them to put forth their strength, and their move-
ments are very slow. They are, many of them, ot
brilliant colours, though these disappear after death.
Unlike the generality of serpents, their colours do not
become pale with age, but, on the contrary, become
more vivid, the design remaining very distinct at all
periods of their life. “As far as our experience goes,”
says Schlegel, “ the females appear to be thicker in the
body than the males, while the rudimentary legs, on the
other hand, appear to be more strongly develoj)ed in
the male than in the female.” The Boas are well known
to take their prey by stratagem. “Hot steaming
morasses, the swampy margin of rivers, the borders of
lakes, the tangled underwood that skirts the dark and
marshy forest — tliese are their favourite abodes;” and
there, with its prehensile tail twisted round some
aquatic shrub or tree, the huge reptile lies in wait
silently and patiently, stretched on the bank, or half
floating in the water, till some unfortunate animal
chance to pass that way, or ventures to the water to
quench its thirst, when, with amazing velocity, it darts
upon its victim, seizes it with its sharp strong teeth,
and, with the quickness of thought, twists its huge bulk
in many folds round the body of its prey, and crushes

Boas. REPTILES. Boas. 53

easily roll itself inwardly, fasten itself to objects which

ConJBKiNis Serpents. EEPTILES. Boas.

54

it to death. When thoroughly flattened out, it slowly
begins to swallow it, commencing always with the head.
If the animal it has devoured be large, the act occupies
some considerable time, and the huge creature then
sinks into a state of lethargic stupor, and may easily be
mastered. Boas may Ite tamed as well as Rattlesnakes,
and both in America and Africa have had religious
rites and homage paid to them.

The species of the family Buidce are divided into two
large sections : — I. Those which have the tail strongly
[U'ehensile, the spurs large and exposed, the head
elongate, distinct Irom the neck, and the muzzle trun-
cated. The eyes are noctuiTial, the pupil being oblong,
erect. II. fl’hose which have the tail very short and
only slightly prehensile, or, in some, not prehensile
at all. The head in these is very small, and not
distinct from the body. The spurs are small, in some
being quite distinctly visible externally, but in others
hidden under the skin.

In the first division we have two subfamilies, the
Pythons {_Pylhonina) and the Boas {Boina).

The Pythons are distinguished by their having the
plates under the tail (subcaudal plates) in two rows;
distinct intermaxillary or canine teeth ; the upper part
of the orbit formed by a particular bone ; and the
plates on the lips (labial plates) more or less deeply
pitted.

The Boas are distinguished by their subcaudal
plates being entire, in only one row, and no inter-
maxillary or canine teeth at all. The Pythons are all
natives of tlie Old World. The greater number of the
Boas are natives of America.

THE EOCK SNAKE (Fython molurus) — represented

in Plate 5, fig. 1, Plate 8, figs. 2, 2a (skeleton and
skull), and fig. 15 annexed — is one of the most remark-
able species of this subfamily, and is a native of
India, and some of the large islands, as Java, &c. It
generally occurs from seven to thirteen feet in length,
but even Schlegel mentions having himself seen one
that measured twenty feet. The colours are brilliant
and lively. A pale yellowish coffee-brown colour pre-
dominates on the upper parts, losing itself in numerous
gray marblirigs on the flanks, which scarcely allows the
beautiful yellow colour of the ground to be seen, hut
which spreads uniformly over the belly. The head is
variegated with red; the muzzle is marked with a
square brownish -black spot, another is seen above the
eye, and a third, broad and club-shaped, is prolonged
from beliind the eye to the neck. The iris is of a
golden yellow colour. The adults are more brilliantly
coloured than the young. The head is distinct from
the body, is tolerably broad, elongate, depressed on the
summit, and terminates in a narrow rounded muzzle.
The nostrils, large and round, are slightly distant from
each other, and are directed backwards. The eye is
nearly lateral, and directed slightly forwards. The tail
is much smaller in circumference than the trunk, and
is rather short and conical. On the continent of India
this serpent is known to the natives by the name of
the Bora or Pedda Poda, but by the English is called
the Rock Snake. Russell, who describes it, says he
never saw one exceeding ten feet in length, and states
that he has observed them twisting themselves round
tne arms of the snakemen, who merely complained of
the arm being benumbed by their grasp. In the island
of Java, however, they would appear to grow to a much

Ftp;. 15

Head of the Kock Snake (Python molurus;.

larger size. M. Reinwardt, as Schlegel informs us,
brought from thence to Europe a skeleton of this
species which exceeded seventeen feet. “ The Malays
of Java,” he says, “call it Oular-Sawa or Oular-Rava.
It inhabits low, shady, marshy, or inundated places,
and apj)ears to delight in rice-fields. It is said to reach
the length of twenty -five feet, but the largest I have
ever seen only measured seventeen. The natives draw
a good omen from the neighbourhood of this serpent.
I have sometimes found in its stomach the hoofs of
deer, and it attacks also pigs.” M. Boie, a corre-
spondent of Schlegel, and who has been mentioned
before, thus writes: — “This Python sometimes attains
an enormous size. It attacks pigs, and the deer called
Muntjac, but human beings have nothing to fear from

it. Its muscular power is astonishing. An individual,
the thickness of a man’s thigh, which had just been
taken, escaped from a cage made for containing wild
animals, breaking the iron bars which closed the
entrance. Individuals of such a size, however, are
very rare.” Specimens of this species have not unfre-
quently been brought alive to Europe, and not long ago
four examjfies of it were to be seen in the Zoological
Gardens, Regent’s Park. An account of the habits of
some which were kept alive in Paris has been given us
by Schlegel. They were from seven to ten and thir-
teen feet long, and were brought from Bengal. In
their general disposition they were mild and gentle,
and very slow in their movements, even although pro-
voked, They were kept in a box enveloped in flannel.

Boas. REPTILES. Guinea Rock Snake. 55

and lay quite tranquil, allowing themselves to be taken

consists of mice, rats, and birds, but occasionally much

out to be exhibited to the numerous spectators who

larger animals are made its victims. The predominat-

visited the menagerie. They appeared to be in a con-

ing colours of this serpent are blue and yellow, or gold

tinual state of stupefaction, not paying the slightest

and black.

attention to atu'thing that passed around them. Food

The African species of Python are equally remark-

was given to them once in eight days, but even then

able with those of India.

they were not always disposed to seize the animals

THE GUINEA KOCK SNAKE [HortuUa Seba), con-

given to them, refused even to attack them for two or

sidered by some authors as a mere variety of the

three days, and sometimes were absolutely obliged to

preceding species, is peculiar to Africa, especially the

be provoked to bite them. When they did attack them,

west coast, and attains to a large size. Adanson

they always seized hold of them by their teeth, and

mentions having seen individuals in Senegal twenty-

having once secmred their prey by plunging their

two feet in length, and eight inches in circumference.

teeth into the poor creature’s head, they twisted their

Two or three years ago a live specimen was to be seen

body in folds around it, and crushed it to death at once.

in the Zoological Gardens, Regent’s Park, which was

Having killed the animal, they licked it before they

estimated to weigh about a hundredweight. It is

began to swallow it, and made no haste to execute this

remarkable for the brilliancy of its colours and the

operation, which, on the contrary, lasted sometimes

lustre of its scales. The upper part of the body pre-

two or three hours. They always began with the head.

sents, on a yellow ground, a series of large rings of a

and the prey was evidently introduced into the gullet

brown or black colour, edged with grayish-white, and

by the efforts of all the muscles of the anterior part of

so placed as to form a sort of chain along the back.

the body being brought into action simultaneously.

This species of serj)ent has been described by several

This action being repeated only at considerable inter-

travellers, who mention it as being held sacred by the

vals, the process of deglutition occupies a pretty con-

natives of the west coast of Africa. In the beginning

siderable space of time. In the Zoological Journal

of last century, Bo&man, a Dutch traveller, in his

Mr. Broderip gives a very intere.sting account of the

description of the coast of Guinea, gives us a good

method of these creatures’ seizing, killing, and swal-

many details of the worship paid by the inhabitants

lowing their pre^^, as observed by him in the menagerie

of that coast to this serpent. Desmarchais, a French

of the Tower of London, but we must refer the

traveller, gives a somewhat similar account of this

reader to the original. It is a curious fact in the

serpent-worship amongst the natives of the kingdom

history of serpents that the Pythons place their eggs

of VVhidah. This serpent, he says, is one of the most

in a group and cover them with their body, as if

remarkable species that superstition has made a

hatching them. This circum.stance was first noticed

divinity of. In the kingdom of Juida (Whidah), on

by Mr. Bennett in this country, who gives in his

the west coast of Africa, it is very common, and altars

account of it a figure of the snake on its eggs.

are erected for its worship. This pretended god.

M. Lamare Picquet communicated this fact to the

which is called the Serpent Fetiche, which signifies

Academy of Sciences in Paris, when the fact was also

the Presei'ver, has as magnificent a temple erected

verified in the Garden of Plants. A specimen of

to it as can be made by the rude art of the Negroes.

Python was sent over by Mr. Kuhl, and placed in the

It receives there the richest offerings : stuffs of silk.

menagerie there. She laid fifteen eggs, collected

trinkets, the best meats and drinks of the countr}’, and

them together, and coiled herself round them in the

even herds of cattle. Thus the priests who serve it

shape of a spiral cone, her head at the top, the eggs

enjoy a considerable revenue, possess immense lands.

lying within. The temperature of the snake, it was

and command a great number of slaves. In order

observed, was increased during the time, and she ate

that nothing might be wanting for the gratification

nothing, but drank greedily, during fifty-six days.

of their pleasures, they force the priestesses, each year

Directly the young were born she left them to them-

about the time the maize begins to grow green, to

selves, though she had never quitted the eggs during

run all over the town of Juida and the neighbouring

the above period.

villages. Armed with a thick club, and seconded by

THE ITLAE-SAWA [Python recticulatus) is another

the priests, they knock down without pity all who dare

East Indian Python. This species is a native of the

to resist them, and force the most beautiful Negresses

continent of India, the island of Java, and Borneo. It

to follow them into the temple. The load of super-

has often been confounded with the preceding, and in

stitious credulity weighs so heavy on the head of the

Java both are designated by the same name. It is

Negroes, that these girls believe that they are going to

rather smaller, attaining to the length of from twelve

be honoured by the approach of the Protector Serpent,

to sixteen feet, and the circumference of rather more

and that it is to his love they are to be given up.

than a man’s arm. Lacepede says it is one of the

Previous to the time for being admitted into the pre-

most beautiful, and at the same time largest serpents

sence of the pretended deity, they are obliged to sub-

of the island of Java, and receives from the inhabitants

mit to a painful and barbarous ceremony, for cruelty

the name of Oular-Sawa (serpent of the rice fields),

almost always springs from superstition. Their skin

because it prefers to make its dwelling in these places.

in all parts of their body is stamped, by means of iron

Its general length in such situations, he says, is about

bodkins, with figures of flowers and animals, especially

nine feet ; but individuals which live in thickets in open.

serpents. The priestesses thus consecrate them to the

elevated regions, attain a much larger size, and have

service of their god ; and it is in vain that the unfor-

been compared to the height of a tree ! Its chief food

tunate creatures utter the most plaintive cries in order

56 Seupknts. REPTILES. Colubkine Sekpents.

to arrest the torment they are experiencing; nothing

“ South African Zoology ” measured only twelve feet

stops their inlriman zeal. When the skin of these

three inches ; but he says it occasionally attains a much

poor victims is healed, it resembles, it is said, a flowered

greater size, and the natives informed him that indivi-

black satin, and renders them for ever afterwards the

duals have been seen whose circumference was equal

object of the veneration of the Negroes. When the

to that of the body of a stout man. He himself saw a.

time arrives for the god to receive the favoured Negress,

skin which measured twenty-five feet, though a portion

she is made to descend into a dark cave, whilst the

of the tail was deficient. Though not worshipped by

priestesses and the other young girls celebrate her

the natives of South Africa, there is a superstitious

destiny by dances and hymns, which they accompan}'

regard for it, mixed up with the horror with which

with the music of many clamorous instruments.

they view it, that is something akin to the respect paid

When the young Negress leaves the cavern she receives

to its relative by the Negroes of Western Africa. When

the title of the serpent's wife.

it has gorged itself witli food, like the rest of its species.

Nor a long time this Kock Snake was very rare in

it remains for some time in a nearly torpid state, and

European collections, because the natives in that part

may then easily be killed. But tlie South Africans,

of Africa in which it is found were ]>rohibited, under

we are told, seldom avail themselves of these oppor-

pain of death, from sending specimens out of the

tiinities of ridding themselves of a reptile they view

country, or even giving any skins to strangers. They

with horror, as they believe it has a certain influence

were not allowed to be killed or even injured in

on their destinies; and they affirm that no person has

the slightest degree. *• The reverence and respect

ever been known to maltreat it, without sooner or later

which the Ife(/roes preserve for this snake is so

paying for his audacity. Dr. Savage tells us also that

great,” says Bosman, “ that if a Black should dare

three or four individuals having made their appearance

touch one of them with a stick, or any otherwise hurt

upon a certain piece of land, the owner abandoned it

him, he is a dead man, and certainly condemn’d to

from the superstitious notion that it could not, in con-

the flames. A long time past, when the English first

sequence, yield a crop. The Natal Bock Snake has

began to trade here, there happen’d a very remark-

the body of a fusiform shape, and the head nearly of

able and tragical event. An English captain being

the same thickness as the neck, is depressed and much

landed, some of his men, and part of his cargo, they

broader behind than before the eyes. The whole

found a snake in their house which they immediately

surface has a strong metallic gloss in certain lights.

killed without the least scruple ; and not doubting they

According to Sir A. Smith, this snake was formerly an

had done a good work, threw out the dead snake at

inhabitant of the districts now within the Cape Colony,

their door; where being found by the Negroes in the

“ and the traditions,” he says, “ of the older Hottentots

morning, the English preventing the question who had

abound with instances of its miraculous powers. At

done the fact, ascrib’d the honour to themselves ; which

present it is not to be found within hundreds of miles

so incens’d the natives, tliat they furiously fell on the
English, kill’d them all, and burned the house and
goods.” The habits of this serpent are very gentle,
because it has no enemies in that part of the country
to fear or to defend itself against. Out of their religious

of the boundaries of the colony, and few specimens
have been obtained nearer than Port Nabal.”

Boas {Boinn).

respect for it, the natives try to remove all such animals

Linnaeus described a large species of this family

as might prove hurtful to it. Even such as might prove

(Buidev) by the name of Boa constrictor ; a name

benelicial to the country otherwise, are excluded from

which has now become familiar to all the world, and

their shores should they threaten to injure their vene-

here iii Great Britain has even passed into an English

rated snake. The hog especially, which preys ])arti-

word. It has, indeed, given the name to the whole

cnlarly upon several s]>ecies of these reptiles, and which

family, so that b\' travellers and early writers all the

is well known to attack with impunity the most veno-

accounts of the huge serpents met with in various parts

rnous of them, is pursued in the kingdom of Whidah

of the world, whose immense size and incredible vora-

as a public enemy ; the Negroes seeing only in this

city' have been so variously described and highly exag-

valuable animal an enem}" which devours their god.

gerated, have been indiscriminately referred to that

Iti consequetice of this protecting care and kindness to

species as the type of the family. The species, how-

them, these large snakes appear to be quite familiar

ever, belonging to the Old World, we have already

with man, and are said to be so tame as to readily allow

shown, form now a separate sub-family under the

themselves to be taken up and handled and played

name of Py'thons, wdiilst the true Boas, those which

with, without the slightest danger being inctirred.

are for the most part iiihabitants of the New World,

They make a good return too for the kindness they

and which contain the real Boa constrictor, form a

receive at the hands of the natives, for they attack and

subfamily by' themselves under the name of Boina.

destroy the venomous serpents with which the kingdom

About twenty species of these have been described.

of Whidah abounds, and seetn to coniine their antii)athy

tw'o or three of w'hich are very remarkable.

to injurious reptiles, and insects, and worms which

THE BOIGUACU (the true Boa constrictor)— 5,

devastate their fields.

fig. 2 — is the one which is most widely known, by name

THE NATAL ROCK SNAKE, another species of Python

at least. This serpent is remarkable for the beauty and

{Ilortalia natnlcnsis), is found is South Africa, where

variety of its colours, and is in general easily recognized.

it attains a large size. It was first described bv Sir

It has a heavier look than any other species of the

Andrew Smith. 'I’lie specimen figured by him in his

family. The body is very thick in the middle, and a little

Boas. REPTILES. Anaconda. 57

compressed, but becomes considerably more slender
towards the tail, which organ is onlj' about tlie sixth
or seventh part of its total length. The head is heavy-
looking and thick, elongated, distinct from the neck,
and heart-shaped. Its prominent muzzle and swollen
cheeks and rijgion above the eye, give it an air of fero-
city which in reality however does not belong to its
character. The eye is small, lateral, and has a ver-
tical pupil. The colour of the ground is a rosy purple,
varied and marbled with pale brown. On the under
surface and towards the tail this passes into white, but
on the ujiper jjarts, on the contrary, into a pale choco-
late brown. A broad brownish-black ray runs along
the sides of the head to behind the nostrils, and extends
in a serpentine form along the neck and along the
flanks, enlarging at irregular intervals in order to unite
with that of the opposite side. The tip of the tail is
generally of a red colour. The scales of the body are
remarkably smooth, and extend also over the whole
head, so that it possesses no plates except those of the
lips, which are also smooth, and not pitted. The Boa
constrictor is a native of tropical America ; it has
been found in Brazil, Para, some of the West India
islands, and is particularly abundant in Surinam, where
it is known by the name of Papa-serpent. Very
exaggerated statements have often been made as to
the size of the Boa, partly owing to many authors
confusing other species of the family with it. Modern
travellers have seldom seen it exceeding twelve feet
in length, though individuals are mentioned as much
surpassing that extent. The specimens sent to Europe
from Surinam vary in general from seven to eight feet
in length, and in diameter to the circumference of a
man’s arm. According to the account given to Schlegel
by his correspondent M. Dieperink, no person in that
colony regards the Boa with any feelings of fear. On
the contrary, it is often tamed, and it contracts habits
so inoffensive, that it holds the rank there of one of the
domestic animals with which it frequently lives in per-
fect harmon}'. This gentleman occasionally kept various
Boas in the same chamber, without any mischief ever
occurring. He fed them upon eggs, of which they
appeared to be very fond. Individuals have often
been known to have lived without food for six or eight
months. The Prince ofNeuwied, during his travels in
South America, had frequent opportunities of seeing
and studying the habits of this snake, and his account
appears to be both veiy interesting and trustworthy.
He often met with them in various parts of the east
coast of Brazil, especially in the country to the south
of Rio Janeiro, and near Cape Frio. They, appear to
prefer the woody parts of the interior to the open
places near the coast, and in such [daces, and in the
large forests of that country, they^ are often to be seen,
either hanging suspended to a branch of a tree waiting
for their prey, or retired into holes in the clefts of
rocks or under the trunks of old trees, collecting there
in small companies of several individuals. Their food
consists of the small mammalia of that country, such
as rats, mice, agoutis, pacas, and capybaras. The
adults, however, are said sometimes to attack goats,
and the natives often in consequence call them Cohra
de Veada. Nobodyq says Prince Neuwied, fears them,
Voi,. II. 64

and the inhabitants often attack and kill them with
sticks. The native hunters laugh at the absurd idea
so often entertained by strangers, that the Boas ever
attack man, but they' afiirm that they will attack and
devour other reptiles, and also dogs. Unlike the
Pythons, the Boa never goes into the water, but lies
concealed in burrows, the entrance into which is easily
recognized by its being regularly, as it were, polished
by the rubbing of its huge body against the sides. It
is caught by the Brazilians placing nets at the entrance
of this burrow, and these serpents are hunted thus for
their skin and fat. Of the former they make boots,
saddle-cloths, &c., and the fat is used for anointing
painful joints, &e.

It was either this snake or an allied species, the
Emperor Boa {Boa Imperator), that was worshipped
in Mexico. At the first discovery of that country' by
the Spaniards, this “ snake-worship”, was very com-
mon, and the idols have been described by the early
historians of the conquest. Southey, in his fine poem
of “ Madoc,” describes this horrid worship, the idol,
and the priests, and Peter the Martyr gives the following
account of the idol found by the Spaniards at Cam-
peachy : —

“ Our men were conducted to a broade crosse-way,
standing on the side of the towne. Here they show
them a square stage or pulpit, four steppes high, partly'
of clammy bitumen, and partly of small stones, whereto
the image of a man cut in marble was joined, two
foure-footed unknown animals fastening upon him,
which, like madde dogges, seemed they' would tear
the marble man’s guts out of his belly'. And by the
image stood a serpent, besmeared all with goare blond,
devouring a marble lion, which serpent, compacted of
bitumen and small stones incorporated together, was
seven and fortie feet in length, and as thick as a gi-eat
oxe. Next unto it were three rafters or stakes fas-
tened to the grounde, which three others crossed
under-propped with stones ; in which place they punish
malefactors condemned, for proof whereof they saw
innumerable broken arrowes, all bloudie, scattered on
the grounde, and the bones of the dead cast into an
inclosed courte neere unto it.” It was to this idol
that the ancient Mexicans offered human victims : and
the priests, taking advantage of the knowledge they
had of the usually gentle habits and docility of these
large snakes, always kept one alive to show to the
deluded worshippers.

THE ANACONDA {Eunectes murinus) — fig. 16 —
is the largest, however, of all the serpents belonging to
the Boa family'. This serpent is perhaps the largest
Ophidian of America, and probably' surpasses in size all
other serpents in the world. It is to this species that
we must refer the greater number of the highly exag-
gerated tales of travellers, of the enormous size, the
ferocious habits, and the extraordinary voracity of
those monstrous serpents that have been found in the
New World. In reading the accounts of some of our
earlier travellers of the vast size of various serpents
met with by them, and comparing them with the rela-
tions of our modern zoological travellers, we are often
led to pause and ask the question. How are we to
account for such discrepancies ? In other matters,

58

SEHPENT3.-

-REPTILES.-

-CoLUBRiNE Serpents.

the description of plants, for instance, and various
inammiferous quadrupeds, &c., the account given by
these writers is often ver}' correct, and not at all
exaggerated. Why should tliey then, when they come
to treat of serpents, alligators, &c., launch out into
what appears to us now-a-days to be such highly-
coloured tales ? Dr. Shaw in his lectures has noticed
this, and says that it is probable that many ages ago
much larger specimens of such animals might have
occurred than are to be found at the present day, the
increased population and cultivation of most countries
I laving tended more and more to lessen the number of

i-iL'. 16.

such creatures. It is the same in our own country with
other classes of animals. Take, for instance, the account
given us by anglers and zoologists of repute as to the
size and weight of o’u- salmon in the river Tweed only
a few years ago, and comyiare them with the dimen-
sions of the largest individuals taken now. Formerly
salmon were taken in that river “ weighing seventy or
even eighty pounds. Such, however, are never seen
now, owing to the perfection of the means of capturing
them at the mouth of the river, by which the chances
are very greatly against any fish escaping the various
dangers by which it is environed, for such a succession
of years as is likely to admit of its attaining to its full
dimensions.” So we suspect it may have been with
reptiles in former ages, living in the wild uncultivated
tracts of marsh and fore-t lands in America and Africa.
Undisturbed by man and enjoying abundance of food,
they acquired a size and bulk which they are seldom
or ever permitted now to attain. The Anaconda
appears to be spread over a considerable portion of
intertropical America, being common in Brazil and in
tluiana. It is of a rather more slender form than the
Boa constrictor, the body not being so thick, and the
tail being only .about a fifth of the total length. The
head, too, is much smaller and thinner, and nearly of
the same size as the body, and the muzzle is elongated
and rounded at the tip. The nostrils are yilaced on
the summit of the muzzle, close to the extremity'’, and
are very small, which marks the animal as an inhabi-
tant of the water. It is also less varied in colour than
the Boa, being, on the upper parts, of a fuliginous
brown shading into olive on the head, with two rows

* Baird’s Cyclopocdia of tlie Natural Sciences. Art. &?-
monidee.

of round black spots extending along the back. Under-
neath it is of an ochre-yellow colour, and the flanks,
which are of the same hue, are marked with a double
row of eye-shaped spots. The Prince of Neuwied, in
his “Travels in Brazil,” has recorded a number of
interesting facts connected with the history of the
Anaconda. The native name for it in Brazil, he
says, is Cuenriuba or Cumriu. Speaking of its size,
he says he has seen individuals twenty feet long, but
that the inhabitants assured him that it arrives at a
much greater size in uncultivated and uninhabited
places. It passes the greater part of the day in the
water, sometimes swimming with
great facility, at others allowing
itself to float on the surface and
be carried down tbe stream by tbe
current without exerting the least
motion. It dives, he says, with
great dexterity, and often remains
a long time at the bottom of the
water, where it reposes, if it is not
deep, only exposing its head at the
surface. At other times it lies
stretched out on the banks of a
river, on the sand or on trunks of
trees, where it patiently waits for
its prey coming to quench its thirst
at the waters edge. Its principal
food consists of small mammalia,
such as the capybaras, the agoutis, and pacas ; and it
is said that it even preys upon fishes. Their pairing
season is from November to February, at which period
they are most frequently to be met with, and may be
heard uttering a dull bellowing sound. It is a very
timid animal, and is always on the watch, so that it can
only be surprised by chance. The natives kill it when-
ever they can, either by shooting it with a gun or bow
and arrow when in the w.ater, or by beating it with
cudgels if they meet it on dry land, for its movements
then are very slow. It is tenacious of life, and the
body has been seen to move after it has been disem-
bowelled and the skin stripped off. The flesh is eaten
by some of the natives ; the fat is melted down and
used for various purposes, as in rheumatic pains,
sprains, &c. ; and the skin is made into shoes, port-
manteaus, &c. The Anaconda appears to be vivi-
parous. Schlegel received a specimen from Surinam,
which upon opening he found to contain twenty eggs,
each containing a foetus, nearly quite developed, from
one foot to eighteen inches long, and possessing very
bright tints, but similar to those of the mother.

The specific name murlnus [Eunectes murinus) was
given to it because it was believed to prey chiefly uj)on
mice, and the French naturalists have adopted the
same name, and call it the lioa rativora or rat-eating
Boa. But though these small animals may form the
principal food of the young Anacondas, the adults are
powerful enough to attack and overpower much larger
game. One of its provincial names is El Traga
Venado or Deer-swallower, and sufficiently indicates
the idea the natives have of the n.ature of its food.

THE ABOMA (Epicrates cenchia) is another species
of Boa, but much smaller than the last mentioned. 1 1

Boas. REPTILES. Coral SjsaivIS. [>l

is about six feet long, about as thick as a child’s arm,

find individuals exceeding two or three feet in length.

and is remarkable for its fine colours. Tlie ground

The young are more brilliant in hues than the adults,

colour is a more or less deep but clear reddish-brown

and possess a somewhat longer tail. The species

fading into yellow, and a double row of round brownish-

have been found in the hot parts of both Old and New

j’ellow spots edged with black runs along the upper

Worlds. They have, in particular, been noticed in

parts, which, however, often become confluent, running

several of the Polynesian islands, in Java, Bengal, and

into each other and then forming a single row of large

in Surinam. Individually they are not widely spread.

spots. On the flanks, three other rows of a blackish-

with the exception of the Eryx, which inhabits tern-

brown colour may be seen. The head of the Aboma

perate climates, and is found in the South of Europe,

is nearly of the same size as, and on a line with the

Western Asia, and the North of Africa, being a native

trunk, is small, narrow, elongate, conical, and flattened

of Greece, Tartary, Persia, Arabia, Syria, and Eg^'pt.

on the crown. The muzzle is very compressed and

They frequent dry grounds open and exposed to the

prominent, forming a kind of nose. The nostrils are

sun, such as sandy deserts. Living continually on

open, lateral, and are placed very near the extremity^

tlie ground, they form little burrows to shelter them-

The tail is very short, conical, always curved inwardly

selves from their enemies. They are never seen on

and terminates in an obtuse point. The Aboma is a

trees, and appear to avoid the water. It a|)pears that

native of South America and the West Indies. The

they are not much embarrassed in their choice of food.

Prince of Neuwied observed it on the east coast of

as they swallow indiscriminately small quadrupeds and

Brazil, where the natives call it the Jihoya, and say

reptiles, &c., provided the size of the prey is not too

that it possesses similar habits and manners of living

much for them. Mice, cecilim, &c., are what have

to the Boa constrictor, which they also know bj’ that

been chiefly found in the stomachs of such as have

name. It ascends trees and often establishes itself in

been opened. Their bite is attended with no bad

hollows in the ground, but never frequents the water.

effects ; but by the common people of the countries

Its food consists of small mammalia.

where they are found they are believed to be danger-

In the second group of the family Boidce, or those

ous. The species of this family are most probably

with only a slightly prehensile tail, and the spurs small

oviparous. They are few in number, ten having been

or even hidden under the skin, the head is very small

described in the Museum catalogue.

and indistinct. It is nearly of the same size as the

THE CORAL SNAKE ( Tortrix scytale) is one of the

neck, and the body is cylindrical, and of nearly equal

best known, perhaps the most beautiful of all, and is

circumference throughout all its length. The throat

the only species found in the New World.* It is a

is not wide, nor does it admit of such extension as in

native of Surinam, and is often brought to Europe by

the greater part of the Ophidians, and the eyes are

sailors. The body, which is well marked by alternate

small. The scales with which they are covered are

rings of red and black, is of a cylindrical form, elon-

almost always smooth, and are all of the same form.

gate, and of the same thickness throughout its entire

with the exception of those which are on the head and

length. The head is nearly of the same size as the

under part of the body. The species which, according

trunk, somewhat conical, and with a rounded muzzle.

to Schlegel’s idea, form only one family, the Tortri-

The nostrils are round and very small, as also are the

cina^ are arranged in the British Museum catalogue

eyes, which are placed vertically on the head. The

in four small families, their characters being taken

prevailing colour in the living specimen is a beautiful

from the distribution of the scales of the head, the

vermilion red. Numerous rings, close set, of a deep

presence or absence of intermaxillary teeth, &c., <S:c.

shining black, often divided into two, or interrupted

As these characters, however, are only important for

and alternate, surround the body and the tail through-

the purpose of methodical arrangement, and as there

out all its length. A broad ring, which occupies the

is not much known of the habits of many of the indi-

posterior part of the head, and the red pointed tail.

viduals belonging to the group, we will consider them

are more constant than any other characters. The

here as all being referrible to one subfamily.

points of the scales on the body are often marked with

THE BURROWING SNAKES {Tortridna) are peace-

black, giving the appearance of a very pretty network

ful and harmless serpents, mild in disposition, and slow

pattern. "With the exception of size, the young and

in their movements. They are always found living

old resemble each ether closely, as do also the two

on the ground, and prefer for their place of abode open

sexes, which are not distinguishable from each other

and sandy places. For enabling them to move with

by any exteinal characteristics. When full-grown,

celerity on such kind of ground, nature has furnished

the Coral Snake is ordinarily about two feet, or from

them with a cylindrical body, a narrow belly, and a

that to two feet six inches in length. A curious fact

short but strong and sometimes prehensile tail.

has been noticed in this reptile with regard to its eyes.

Their teeth are short, but pretty strong, conical in

When old, the eye often becomes opaque, the covering

shape, and not very numerous. The nostrils are either

of the eye being hardened, and blindness is the result.

orbicular or elliptical, and most frequently vertical.

It is very common in Guiana, but is scarcely ever seen

The eyes are very small, somewhat vertical, and except

to the north of Surinam. In the colony it is known

in one or two species, with a round pupil. The pre-

by the names of the Serpent with the two heads and

vailing colours are red, brown, and yellow, but they

the Coral Snake. It is erroneously believed by the

vary much in different species. In general they are

natives to be venomous, a belief entertained also by

iridescent and exhibit a considerable play of colours.

* With the exception of one from California (Clianna bottcv),

They never acquire any great size, and it is rare to

of which very little is known.

60 Serpents. REPTILES. Colubrine Serpents.

some writers, such as Laborde and Father Gumilla.
It is always found living on the ground, and api>ears
to feed chiefly upon small re[itiles, such as the cecilise,
typhlops, &c. Schlegel informs us that he possessed
an individual which was killed at the moment it was
occupied in devouring a cecilia of the same size as
itself. The female is viviparous.

True Colubrine Serpents,

The second section of the Suborder Colubrina, or
those in which the belly is covered with broad band-
like shields, and which have a conical, tapering tail,
are exceedingly numerous, and form the true Colu-
brine serpents. The number described by Dr. Gun-
ther in the British Museum catalogue amounts to
three hundred and eighty-eight species, and they have
been divided, according to the structure of their teeth
(or method of dentition), into three groups. — I. Those
which are perfectly harmless, and are destitute of either
grooved oi- perforated fangs in front of the jaws — the
Innocuous serpents {Oplndia inmcucC)\ II. Those
which have a permanently erect, grooved fang in front
— the Venomous colubriform serpents {Elapidee) ; and
III. Those which have a permaneiithj erect, perforated
fang in front {Atractaspididce and Dendraspididai).

Group First— THE HARMLESS COLUBRINE
SERPENTS {Opliidia innocud).

This group contains by far the greatest number of
species, not fewei than three hundred and forty having
been enumerated. They are widely distributed, being-
found in all parts of the world. Dr. Gunther divides
them into no fewer than twelve small families — each
family representing some leading genus in the former
arrangements.

Family I. — CALAMARS {Calamaridce).

This, the first family we shall mention, is termed by
Schlegel the “ verrnilorm snakes.” The Calamarsare
small terrestrial snakes, which present a sort of worm-
like or vermiform appearance. Their body is almost
cylindrical, sometimes resembling a piece of whipcord.

Fig. 17.

Head of Linnaeus’ Calamar (Calamaria Linnaei).

and terminating in a tail usually short, cylindrical, and
tapering. Their head is usually about the same size as
the body, and not distinct from the neck; and the muzzle
is rounded or pointed.

Forty-four species have been described.

IINN^IUS’ CALAMAR {Calamaria Linnaei) — fig.
17 — is one of the best known. It is a native of
the island of Java, and is about a foot in length.

The colours vary very much, but generally the ground
is a fine red carmine or vermilion, deeper beneath,
where it often passes into brown, black, or bluish-black,
and variegated with quadrangular black spots. It is
said to be very common in Java, lives always on the
ground, and is very slow in its movements. The
Malays know it by the name of Ular-lema, and it is
looked upon by them as perfectly harmless

Family II. — CROWN-SNAKES {Coronellidce),

The Coronellas or Crown-snakes exceed the Cala-
mars in size, but never attain large dimensions. Their
body is of moderate size, nearly cylindrical in form,
but slightly thicker towards the middle. The tail is
rather short, more slender than the body, and tapering
insensibly to a fine point. The head is more or less
distinct from the neck, rather depressed, and generally
with a short rounded muzzle.

The genus Coronella contains seventeen species, and
representatives of them are found in almost every part
of the globe. Two are European.

THE SMOOTH CROWN-SNAKE {Coronella austriaca)
appears to be spread over nearly the whole of Europe.
It was first observed by Laurenti in the humid valleys
in the neighbourhood of Vienna. It has since been
described as a native of various parts of France, Italy,
Hungary, Thuringia, Switzerland, Germany in several
quarters, Hanover, the Low Countries, Sweden, and
also in Sicily, &c. Still more recently, it has been
found in England. It difl'ers from most of the other
species of this family in its habits and manner of liv-
ing, preferring in general as its places of abode dry,
heathy, rocky, and wooded situations, instead of moist
meadows. In Thuringia it is found living on high
gi'ound, even near the summit of lofty mountains,
where it has been observed taking refuge under stones,
moss, or herbs It is easily known by its shining
skin, which is of a rather sombre brown colour, marked
with rounded, irregular, dark spots, somewhat like the
common viper; and indeed it is often found in com-
pany with both it and the ringed snake. The pea-
sants often confound it with the viper, and dread it
much in consequence. When full grown the Smooth
Coronella seldom exceeds two feet in length. Its body
is elongated and cylindrical in shape, slightly tapering
at the two extremities. The head is distinct from the
trunk, the eye is small, and the iris is of a lively red.
The colours varj" very much in the adult specimens,
but the young at first leaving the egg are quiie white.
Small animals, as mice, moles, little birds, lizards,
worms, and insects, constitute its food. It is very
alert in its movements, and makes its escape with
great swiftness when any one approaches it. When
attacked it del'ends itself with boldness and energy,
bites with fury, and does not easily let go its hold. If
laid hold of by the tail, it will twist itself up and seize
with its teeth the hand which holds it. Its bite, how-
ever, is perfectly harmless. According to the obser-
vations of Lenz, this serpent is viviparous ; the eggs
require three or four months’ time to develope, and the
young are about the number of twelve. In captivity
it retains its wild disposition lor a length of time after

FuKsn-WATiiU JbNAivEs. REPTILES. Common Ringed Snake.

it has been canght, but if taken quite young it may be
rendered very gentle and familiar. When provoked
it makes no hissing noise unless some mice are intro-
duced into its cage, of which it is very fond. It does
not leap, but it can climb trees ; and though it does
not frequent water, yet it has been seen to swim well.

Several species of Coronella are natives of Africa ;
while others, remarkable for the brilliancy of their
colours while alive, are found in South America.

THE CORAL SNAKE (^Erythrolamprtis vcnustissimns)
is one of these, and is indeed one of the most beautiful
of the w'hole order of Ophidians. The ground colour
of this beautiful serpent is a strikingly fine vermilion ;
the scales are all pointed with black, and the body is
encircled with from twelve to fifteen pairs of black
rings, edged with greenish-white, and placed at regular
intervals. It is a native of Brazil, being found in
the forests in the ueighboui hood of Rio Janiero.

Family III.— FRESH- WATER SNAKES
{Natricidce).

This family contains forty-two species, by far the
greater number of which are natives of India and
America, though species are found in almost all parts
of the world. They are of moderate size, with the
body rather stout, generally depressed, and the belly
flat, or in some cases rounded. With the exception
of one species from West Africa. {Grayia silurophaga)
the tail is rather short, more or less distinct from the
trunk, and tapering to a point. In the greater num-
ber of the species the head is depressed, rather broad,
and distinct fi om the neck. 1 he muzzle in most is
rounded, and the mouth is very large. They are
generally found living in the immediate neighbour-
hood of fresh-water lakes or streams, into which they
often plunge in search of shelter or food. By far the
greater number of the known species of the family are
contained in two genera, Xenodon and Trojaidonotus.
W e have only space for the latter.

The genus Tropidonotus contains twenty-four spe-
cies, which are found scattered in nearly all parts
of the world. They are of moderate size, and appear
to prefer for their place of abode the neighbourhood of
fresh water, which they veiy often frequent, either
for the purpose of withdrawing themselves from the
pursuit of their enemies or of searcliing for food.
This habit is so well known in the various countries
where they are found, that they are almost universally
called “ Fresh- water serpents.” The various species
are all closely allied in form. Some of the species
are small ; others, on the contrary, attain a length
of four or five feet, with a circumference of about
an inch and a half or thereabouts. The greater
jiumber are natives of India and America. Two are
European, and only one has as yet been discovered
in Australia. They abound especially near lakes,
rivers, or brooks, the banks of which are shaded
with trees. Stretched there upon a rock, or clinging
upon the branches of the shrubs near the water, they
rest waiting for their prey, which consists chiefly of
frogs and fishes. Upon these the}'^ dart with great
rapidity, the moment the poor creatures show them-

selves at the surface of the water. They swim with
great ease and elegance, holding the head and neck
above the surface ; they even dive with much dexte-
rity, and are able to remain a length of time at the
bottom of the water without requiring to renew the air
in their lungs. Although they are able to creep on
dry land and climb upon trees and other elevated
objects, yet, being able and expert swimmers, they
prefer taking to the water, when in danger, to seeking
their safety in flight upon the ground. All kinds of
situations are apparently indifl'erent to them as places
of abode, provided they are such as can furnish them
with sufficient food ; and this accounts for the fact
that frequently the same species is found inhabiting
plains covered with brushwood, meadows, the borders
of woods removed from water, equally with dense
forests and the sides of mountains to a considerable
height above the level of the sea. Other species,
however, never appear to quit the immediate neigh-
bourhood of fresh-water lakes and rivers. They take
up their abode in holes in the ground which have been
excavated by burrowing animals, and to these they
retreat at the approach of danger; or, in temperate
climes, at the approacli of winter. They are oviparous.

THE COMMON RINGED SNAKE {Tropidonotus
natrix) is the best-known species. It is common
throughout almost all Europe and part of Asia. When
full grown, it sometimes attains a length of five feet,
though in this country it seldom exceeds four at the
utmost. The body is long, the middle of the back
elevated ; the neck is narrow, and the tail very tapering
and rather pointed at the extremity ; the head is broad
and depressed, distinct from the neck, and the gape of
the mouth is as long as the head, slightly curved, and
rising posteriorly ; the teeth are small, curved back-
wards, and the tongue is long, excessively flexible, and
bifid to about one-third of its length. The ujiper parts
of the body and head are of a light brownish-gray
colour, with a green tinge, sometimes approaching to
a dull pale olive. Behind the head, on the upper part,
is a broad collar, or two lunate spots, of a bright
yellow colour, and immediately behind these are two
broad transverse spots of black ; down the back run
two rows of small black spots, arranged alternately,
with larger ones at the sides. The colours and mark-
ings, however, vary very much. It is gentle in its
habits, and may be easily tamed. When attacked, or
seized by the hinder part of its body, it rolls itself up
in a spiral form, and defends itself by ejecting at its
assailant a disgusting fetid liquor, secreted by certain
glands w'ithin the vent. It seldom bites when taken
hold of; but Schlegel says, that occasionally it has
happened to him, when he has suddenly approached
the edge of a wood where a numerous society had
established themselves for the purpose of laying their
eggs, that a large individual of the number attacked
him with fury, whilst the others were making their
escape into the holes in the ground, where they took
up their abode in times of danger. The holes they
prefer to burrow in are such as are made by moles,
mice, and other small mammalia. They seldom form
them for themselves. Loving heat, they often frequent
the neighbourhood of human habitations, and are

62 Seupents. REPTILES. Colubkine Serpents.

occasionally met with in dung-heaps, &c. In England,
with the exception of the little common lizard, it is the
most ahnndant of all our true reptiles It inhabits all
our woods, heaths, and hedgerows, especially in the
neighbourhood of water, where it tinds the principal
part of its food. This consists chiefly of frogs and
other batrachians and fishes, though it also eats small
birds and their eggs, mice, lizards, insects, and worms.
Frogs, however, in this country, appear to he its
favourite diet. In temperate climates the Einged
Snake becomes torpid during winter. When the
temperature falls, it seeks some deep hole in the
ground where the cold is not able to penetrate, and
there it remains, often in company with several
others, till the genial warmth of spring brings it forth
again. In the month of April it changes its skin,
and this process may be repeated several times during
the summer. It is easily tamed, and may be made
to distinguish those who caress and feed it. It con-
tracts habits of great gentleness. Mr. Bell says that
he had one which knew him from all other persons,
and that when let out of his box would go to him and
crawl under the sleeve of liis coat, where it seemed
to enjoy the warmth. It used also to come to his
hand for a drauglit of milk every morning at breakfast,
which it always did of its own accord ; but it flew from
strangers, and hissed if they meddled with it. This
serpent is truly oviparous, depositing its eggs a con-
siderable time, generally three weeks, before they are
hatched. This process takes place by the heat of the
sun, or the artificial warmth of a dung-heap, in which
the mother often places them. The eggs are generally
laid about the month of August, are usually from six-
teen to twenty in number, and are connected together
by glutinous matter.

Family IV.— TKUE SNAKES {Coluhridce).

The species of this family are about forty-six in
number, and are chiefly natives of Europe, India, and
America. Almost all of them attain a considerable
size, measuring generally four or five feet in length,
though individuals occasionally occur that reach from
seven to eight.

The True Snakes are terrestrial animals, living prin-
cipally upon the ground, and only taking to the water
when compelled. The greater number climb with
ease upon shrubs and branches of trees, where they
remain lying in wait for their prey. Some inhabit
marshy countries; others frequent large woods and
forests ; whilst there are others again which prefer
open, dry, and sandy localities. Their food consists of
small mammalia, birds, and reptiles. There are several
species found living in Europe.

THE SERPENT OF ESCUIAPIUS {Coluber Esculapii)
is one of the most remarkable, and is perhaps the
best known. “ The ancient Greeks,” says Schlegel,
“ adored the god of medicine in dilferent places and
under very dilferent forms. They gave to him, as his
attribute, a serpent, the emblem of wisdom, and so
renowned for its healing qualities, that several Greek
tribes took the serpent for the god himself. It was
particularly at Epidaurus, a flourishing town of Pelo-

ponnesus, that the inhabitants erected, in a sacred
wood frequented by snakes, a magnificent temple in
honour of these reptiles. The Homans, terrified by a
dreadful pestilence which ravaged their capital in the
year 461, sent an embassy from Rome to Epidaurus
to inquire for this imaginary deity — one which they
might have found in abundance in their own country.
The island formed by the Tiber was the place where
these serpents were kept, and where the figure of one
sculptured in marble may still be seen in the gardens
of St. Bartholomew.” Chandler, in his travels, tells
us that the neighbourhood of Epidaurus abounds at
the present time with harmless serpents, which are of
gentle habits, and are not molested by the inhabitants.
And though those described by him are of a yellow
colour, and may therefore not be this species, yet this
serpent is one of the most widely distributed of all the
genus to which it belongs, and inhabits the greater part
of Europe. It is found in Austria, Hungary, Dal-
matia, Italy, France, and the southern parts of Swit"
zerland. In the neighbourhood of Rome it is called
Saettone. It attains a considerable size, reaching from
four to five feet in length. The Iiody is rather com-
pressed, the belly somewhat angular, the tail of mode-
rate dimensions, thick at the base and pointed at the
extremity. The scales of the trunk aie of a rhorn-
boidal form, of moderate size, and generally smooth,
though on the hinder parts of the body they are slightly
keeled. The head is scarcely distinct from the neck,
is of an oblong shape, and has the muzzle somewhat
conical, blunt, and rounded. The upper parts are of
a more or less deep uniform brownish gray, the under
parts yellowish or marbled with gray. The lips, and a
large spot on the neck, forming with that of the oppo-
site side a kind of collar, are of a pale yellow, becom-
ing effaced, however, in old individuals. This serpent
is very nimble in its movements, and readily climbs up
trees, but never takes to the water except when com-
pelled. It is ovij)arous. Its food consists of frogs,
lizards, and small birds ; but in a state of captivity it
will never take any sustenance. When attacked it
defends itself with boldness and vigour, but a few days
are sufficient to render it tame. Schlegel tells us that
there used to be always a number of these serpents
kept alive at the museum in Vienna, and that they had
such gentle habits that they allowed themselves to
be caressed by children and played with by them for
hours together.

Family V.— WOOD SERPENTS {Dryadidw).

This family comprehends a number of species that
are intermediate between the last family, or True Ser-
pents {Colubridce), and the long and slender Tree Ser-
pents {Dendrophidoe). Many attain a considerable
length, while others do not exceed two feet. They
climb upon trees, resting on the branches in order to
wait for their prey, and are far more at ease in such
situations than upon the ground, upon which they
move with much less facility. They are rather fierce
animals, springing with surprising velocity upon their
aggressors, and attacking them with fury.

THE COACH-WHIP SNAKE OF NORTH AMERICA

Wood Serpents. REPTILES. Tree Serpents. C3

{He)-petodrijas flagelliformis) is one of the most re-
markable species of the family The neck of this
serpent is small, and the body very long. The tail is
long and slender, one-fourth the length of the body,
and attenuated like a piece of whip-cord, which it
further resembles in appearance from the peculiar
arrangement and form of the scales. It is from this cir-
cumstance that it has derived its name. The upper part
of the head and neck, and nearly a third of the body,
are of a glossy raven-black colour, gradually becoming
paler as it approaches the tail, which is of a light
brovvn or tawny colour. The colour, however, varies
very much, as they have been seen of a cream colour,
a clay colour, and sometimes almost white, hut always
raven-black near the head. Catesby was the first to
describe the Coach-whip Snake. He says : — “ This
is a very long, slender snake, particularly the hind
part ; it diminishes gradually to the tail, and from the
resemblance of a coach-whip has received its name.
The colour of it is brown ; it is very active and nimble,
running very swiftly. The}' are inoffensive, yet the
Indians report (not without gaining many proselytes
to their silly belief) that they will by a jerk of the tail
separate a man in two parts.” It is inoffensive in its
manners, but defends itself with great dexterity when
attacked, by twining its long body round the enemy.
Bartram witnessed such a scene, and thus describes it.
When riding along he observed, he says, “ a large
hawk on the ground in the middle of the road. When
coming up near him I found him bound up by a very
long coach-whip snake, that had wreathed itself several
times round the hawk’s body, who had but one of its
wings at liberty. Beholding their struggles a while, I
alighted off my horse with the intention of parting
them ; when, on coming up, they mutually agreed to
separate, each seeking his own safety, probably con-
sidering me as their common enemy.” According to
Mr. Holbrook, though in general this serpent is about
five feet long, individuals are said to occur seven feet
in length.

Passing over the next family of Innocuous Serpents,
the Psammopliidce, which have nothing particularly
interesting in them, and which muster only about
eight species in all, we come to —

Family VII.— THE SPINE-TOOTHED
SERPENTS {Racliiodontidce).

This familj' is small in number, but very interesting
from the peculiar method of dentition or conformation
of their teeth. Only two species are known, and both
are natives of Africa. They are almost destitute of
maxillary teeth, having only from four to seven in
their mouth, and these, exceedingly small. Their
throat or gullet, however, is furnished with a series of
instruments which supply the place of teeth, and are
admirabl}' contrived for enabling the reptile to take its
natural food. This consists of the eggs of birds ; and
the instruments in the throat supplying the place of
teeth, consist of the inferior spinous processes of the
seven or eight vertebrae of the neck, the extremities of
which are capped by a layer of hard cement, and
penetrate through the upper surface of the gullet.

Sir Andrew Smith and Professor Owen have both par-
ticularly pointed out this curious contrivance, and
wonderful adaptation of means to an end. The latter,
in his “ Odontography,” observes — “ If the teeth had
existed of the ordinary form and proportion in the
maxillary and palatal regions, the egg would have been
broken as soon as it was seized, and much of its nutri-
tious contents would have escaped from the lipless
mouth of the snake in the act of deglutition ; but
owing to the almost edentulous state of the jaws, the
egg glides along the exi)anded opening unbroken, and
it is not till it has reached the gullet, and the closed
mouth prevents any escape of the nutritious matter,
that the shell is exposed to instruments adapted for its
perforation.”

THE ROUGH SPINE-TOOTH (Dasypeltis scah'd) — fig.
18 — is a native of the Cape of Good Hope, in the south-
eastern districts of the colony and in KafSrland, and
is frequently found concealed under the loose bark of

Fig. 18.

The Rough Spine-tooth (Dasypeltis scabra).

dead trees. Sir Andrew Smith had frequent oppor-
tunities of seeing this reptile in a living state, and
found that it subsisted entirely on eggs. After describing
it at some length, he says : — “ The paucity and small-
ness of the teeth in the mouth are favourable to the
passage of the egg, and permit it to progress without
injury, whereas, were they otherwise, many eggs
which have vei'y thin shells would be broken before
they entered the gullet, and the animal in consequence
would be deprived of its natural food when ivithin its
reach. The instant the egg is broken by the exertions
of the animal, the shell is ejected from the mouth, and
the fluid contents is conveyed onwards to the stomach.”

Family VIIL— THE TREE SERPENTS
{Dendropliidce).

The Tree Serpents are particularly adapted for
inhabiting the vast forests of hot climates, and are
more particularly abundant in America and India.
They usually have a very elongated form, attaining a
length of four or five feet, and only a thickness of the
little finger. The tail, being very fine and slender,
round or flattened underneath, is well calculated for
assisting these animals to cling to the branches of
trees, to suspend themselves there while they lie in
wait for their prey ; while at the same time it seconds

Serpents. REFTILKS. Colubiune Serpents.

G4

tlie sudden spring which they make upon it, and thus
enables them to twist themselves round their victim
and strangle it in its numerous folds. They have in
general a mild, gentle look, and are usually adorned
with lively colours, elegantly disposed. The species
all inhabit the intertropical regions of both hemi-
spheres. They are very brisk in their movements,
and climb with extreme agility. They seldom quit
the forests, where they are always to be met with
upon the branches of shrubs and trees, reposing them-
selves amongst the leaves, and lying in wait for the
small animals upon which they feed, such as birds,
small saurian reptiles, &c., and which inhabit similar
situations. They also feed upon mice, frogs, toads,
&c., to obtain which they are occasionally obliged to
descend to the ground.

THE BOOM-SLAHGE [Bucephalus capensis) is the
only species we have time to mention. It is long and
slender, with a high, subquadrangular head, very dis-
tinct from the neck, very large eyes, the body covered
with elongate, narrow, sti'ong, and keeled scales, and
the hinder teeth larger than the others, and furrowed.
In colour it varies very much, and these varieties differ
greatly in size. It has been well described and
tigured in several of its varieties by Sir Andrew Smith.
“ The Boom-slange,” he says, “ is generally found
upon trees, to which it resorts for the purpose of
catching birds, upon which it delights to feed. Tlie
presence of a specimen in a tree is generally soon dis-
covered by the birds of the neighbourhood, who collect
around it, and fly to and fro, uttering the most pierc-
ing cries, until some one more terror-struck than the
rest actually scans its lips, and almost without resist-
ance becomes a meal for its enemy. During such a
proceeding the snake is generally observed with its
head raised about ten or twelve inches above the
branch I'ound which its body and tail are entwined,
with its mouth open and its neck inflated, as if anx-
iously endeavouring to increase the terror which it
would almost ajqiear it was aware would sooner or
later bring within its grasp some one of the feathered
group.

We must pass over the remaining four families
without notice, and hasten on to the consideration of
the venomous species of Colubrine serpents.

Ttroup II.— the venomous COLUBRIFORM
SERPENTS [Elapidce).

In this second group of true Colubrine serpents, or
those which have a permanently erect grooved fang
in front, many are exceedingly interesting, and some
are even of classic and historic renown. Forty-three
species have been described by Dr. Gunther in the
Museum catalogue.

These serpents, though furnished with venomous
fangs, and endowed with highly poisonous qualities,
approach in general outward form so nearly to the
harmless species, that even an experienced eye has no
little difficulty in distinguishing them at first sight.
They differ from the venomous sea-snakes by the
absence of the flattened tail ; and they cannot be con-
founded with the Viperine serpents, as they have

neither the heavy shape, the broad, triangular head,
the vertical pupil, nor the keeled scales. Their body
is more slender than either of these two families.
Their tail is rather short, often conical, or of equal
thickness throughout, and rounded at the extremity.
The head, which is generally of the same size and on
a line with the neck, is small and short, with a thick,
slightly conical, and most frequently a blunter rounded
muzzle. The eyes are rather small, sometimes verti-
cal, and the pupil is round. The scales with which
the body is covered are numerous, and, with one
exception, always smooth. The organs constituting
the poison apparatus are much less developed than in
the Viperine species ; they do not appear to have the
power of opening their jaws so wide as these latter
serpents have, and consequently are not able to ele-
vate the fangs so much, nor cause such deep and dan-
gerous wounds. The v'enomous teeth or fangs are
fixed in the maxillary bone, are less developed, and
are open on the anterior surface by a groove or furrow,
which unites the two orifices.

One of the most important of all the genera con-
tained in the family is the genus Naja. Though, as
now constituted, it contains only two s|)ecies, yet these
are both of great interest, and are well known. One
of them is a native of India and the large islands in
the Indian archipelago ; the other of Africa, from
Egypt to the Cape of Good Hope.

THE COBRA BE CAPELLO, THE HOODED SNAKE,
OR SPECTACLE-SNAKE ( Naja tripudians) — represented
in Plate 5, fig. 5 — is remarkable alike for the ele-
gance of' its form, the strength of its body, and the
danger which attends its bite. It derives its name of
Spectacle-snake from a black mark it has on the exten-
sible part of the neck, and which gives a more or less
exact representation of a pair of spectacles, such as
used to be worn, and were called barnacles. The
pattern consists of two large eye-shaped spots, white,
with a black centre and border, and united in front by
an arched line. It is sometimes very distinct, but at
others it is not visible at all, or consists of a number of
black irregular marks. The predominating colour of
the Cobra is a yellow- ochre with a brownish shade,
sometimes very clear, at others very dull. The body
is of rather stout proportions, and the tail, which is not
very long, is robust and conical towards the extremity.
The head is pretty large, and not very distinct from
the body ; the occiput is swollen and broad, and the
muzzle is rather short and rounded. One of the most
striking characters, however, shown by this serpent,
is the power it possesses of expanding the skin of the
neck and raising it in form of a hood. Hence its
name of Hooded Snake. This remarkable expansion
of the skin is a voluntary action, and is quite distinct
from that inflation which all serpents when irritated
are more or less capable of. The Cobra is a bold and
courageous reptile, and as it attains considerable
dimensions, measuring often from four to six feet in
length, it becomes a formidable antagonist. When
suiprised by some imprudent traveller, or irritated and
roused to anger, it rises on the lower part of its body,
elevates its head, expands its neck, hisses loudly, and
by its actions and the bright glance of its eye, evinces

The Cobra. EEPTILES. The Cobra. 55

great resolution, for it will not only attack its opponent,
but will repeat its attack, and pursue him with fury.
In these exhibitions, which we have witnessed our-
selves in Calcutta, it is generally believed that the
poison fangs of the Cobra are previously extracted,
and that the serpent is trained for exhibition by a
course of severe discipline. Dr. Davy, in his “ Inte-
rior of Ceylon,” distinctly, however, asserts that this is
not the case in that island. “ Frequent exhibitions,”
he says, “ are made of this snake in Ceylon, as well
as on the continent of India, by men called snake-
charmers. The exhibition is rather a curious one, and
not a little amusing to those who can calmly contem-
{ilate it. The charmer irritates the snake by striking
it, and by rapid threatening motions of his hand , and
appeases it by his voice, by gentle circular movements
of his hand, and by stroking it gently. He avoids
with great agility the attacks of the animal when
enraged, and plays with it and handles it only when
pacitied, when he will bring the month of the animal
in contact with his forehead, and draw it over his face.
The ignorant vulgar believe that these men really
possess a charm by which they thus play without
dread, and with impunity from danger. The more
enlightened, laughing at this idea, consider the men
impostors, and that in playing their tricks there is no
danger to be avoided, it being removed by the abstrac-
tion of the poison fangs. The enlightened in this
instance are mistaken, and the vulgar are nearer the
truth in their opinion. I have examined the snakes I
have seen exhibited, and have found their poison fangs
in, and uninjured. These men do possess a charm,
though not a supernatural one — viz., that of confi-
dence and courage. Acquainted with the habits and
disposition of the snake, they know how averse it is
to use the fatal weapon nature has given it for its
defence in extreme danger, and that it never bites
without much preparatory threatening. Any one pos-
sessing the confidence and agility of these men may
imitate them, and I have made the trial more than
once. They Avill play their tricks with any hooded
snakes, whether just taken or long in confinement, but
with no other kind of poisonous snake.”

Sir J. Emerson Tennent confirms Davy’s statement,
and relates an instance in that island where one of
these performers, having been provoked by some of
his audience to attempt some unaccustomed familiarity
with a cobra, was bitten in the wrist and died the
same evening.

The Cobra is venerated very much, and is even
made the subject of adoration in some parts of India
and in Ceylon. On the coast of Malabar its figure
is one of the most usual ornaments of the temples ;
and prayers are addressed and offerings made to it.
The Brahmins conjure and exorcise it, and the super-
stitious natives bring milk and various aliments out to
it in the forests which it infests, and the roads which it
frequents. Dr. Davy tells us, that in Cejdon the natives
in general venerate more than dread the Cobra.
Campbell, in his “ Excursions in Ceylon,” and Sir
J. Emerson Tennent, in his history of tliat island,
inform us that this serpent is generally found living
in the deserted nests or conical mounds made by
VoL. II. 65

the white ant or termite, and there, says the latter
of these authors, “ it may be seen watching from the

Fig. 19.

Fig. 20.

Section of the neck of a cobra, to show the muscles that elevate
and depress the hood.

apertures in them for the toads and lizards upon which
it preys.”

66 Serpents. REPTILES. Colubrine Serpents.

THE ASPIC (Nuja haje). — This is the serpent so
celebrated among the ancients under the name of
Aspic. It is nearly of the same size as the Cobra de
Capello, and besides resembles it very much in general
appearance. The colours are somewhat different ; the
spectacles-mark is generally absent, and the neck is
less expansible ; the muzzle is more conical, and the
plates or scales belonging to the lips differ in structure.

The Aspic owes much of its European reputation
to the belief that it was this serpent which produced
the death of the celebrated Cleopatra, queen of Egypt.
The story, as told by almost all historians, is well
known. Abandoned by fortune, who had so long
smiled upon her, she commanded a reptile of this
species to be brought to her, concealed in a basket of
flowers and fruit. Placing the serpent in her bosom,
she caused it to bite her, and thus put a period to
her existence. Amongst the monumental and hie-
roglyphical paintings of the ancient Egyptians, the
portrait of the Aspic is seen in great abundance.
Engraved upon the portals of a great number of
ancient temples, it testifies the veneration of which their
superstition has made it the object. The figure of
this serpent may be still seen printed in colours on the
covers of their sarcophagi, and its efiigy cast in bronze
was used in the form of bracelets and other ornaments.
One of their chief deities was represented, in symbolical
writings, under the form of a serpent twisted round a
globe, or placed in the centre of a disc ; and the figure
of this serpent surmounting the royal crown, or attached
round the arm, was the distinctive ornament of the
high priestess. In fact, the ancient Egyptians revered
the Haje, as it was called by them, as the emblem of
the protecting divinity of the world, and the faithful
guardian of their fields. This opinion appeared to take
its origin from a remarkable habit this serpent has. As
soon as it perceives any person approaching it, the
Haje raises its head, evidently watching for its own
safety, and taking care not to be surprised without
being ready for its defence. Misinterpreting this move-
ment, the superstitious Egyptians gave it the character
of benevolence to man and a certain amount of wisdom,
as if it were really watching the fields it inhabits. We
are indebted to the celebrated expedition of the French
into Egypt under Napoleon, and to the naturalists
attached to it, for a knowledge of the fact that this
serpent was the true Aspic of the ancients. This
classic reptile had been by many referred to the species
of viper called the Asp, and which was known to
inhabit the forest of Fontainebleau, Vipera Aspis. By
Bruce and others it was considered to be the Horned
Viper, or Cerastes ; while the traveller Forskahl main-
tained that it was the Libetina, Echis arenicokt. The
Froncli savans, however, during the expedition referred
to, and still more recent travellers, have proved that
the serpent known to the natives of Egypt by the name
of Haje was the true Aspic of Cleopatra. It is spread,
according to M. Isidore St. Hilaire, who has given an
excellent account of the species in the great work on
Egypt, in considerable abundance over that country.
It lives, he says, sometimes in the ditches, but more
frequently in the cultivated fields. The labourers are
thus frequently exposed to encounter it; but although

they are not ignorant of the danger of its bite, its pre-
sence near them seldom compels them to leave off their
ordinary work. Understanding the habits of this for-
midable reptile, they know well that they have no rea-
son to fear an attack, unless they are imprudent enough
to go too near it. They know that as long as they keep
at a respectable distance from it, the Haje will content
itself with keeping its eyes upon them, and raising aloft
its head in an attitude of attention. When irritated,
however, it swells out its neck, raises its body, and
springs with a single bound upon its enemy. The
poison is very virulent, as many sad accidents have
proved, and Forskahl found, in making experiments
with the venom, that the bite was always fatal. In one
instance, the smallest quantity introduced into an inci-
sion made in the thigh of a pigeon sufficed to produce
immediately profuse vomiting, violent convulsions, and
finally death at the end of a quarter of an hour. Many
singular opinions of the effects of the poison produced
upon human beings were entertained by the ancients.
They believed, for instance, that though inevitably
mortal, it produced no pain, and merely occasioned a
gradual loss of strength, which was followed by a quiet
and lethargic sleep that “ knows no waking.” Galen
tells us that in Alexandria, to shorten the punishment
of criminals condemned to death, they were bitten in
the breast by an Aspic, of which he declares himself to
have been an eye-witness, and that it was with much
difficulty the traces of the wound could be discovered.
A variety of tbe Haje is found in South Africa, and
has been welt described by Sir Andrew Smith, who
observes, that he could not detect any specific differ-
ences between it and the common Egyptian species.
This opinion is confirmed by Schlegel, who, after a
comparison of manj' specimens from both South and
North Africa, declares them to be mere varieties of the
same. The colour of the South African variety is
generally either entirely yellow or purplish brown, or
they have the two tints existing distinctly, more or
less, in the same individual. These serpents are
known by the name of the Yellow snake and the Brou n
snake ; and another variety is called by the colonists
the Spuugh-slang , or Spitting-snake. This appellation
is bestowed upon it from a belief that it possesses the
power of ejecting its poison to a considerable distance.

In the course of this work we have several times had
occasion to refer to the practices, with various reptiles,
of the jugglers of Egypt. Of all the reptiles used by
these men, this Haje is the one which they know how
to turn to most account. After having taken out the
venomous fangs, they tame it, and teach it a great
number of tricks more or less singular, and produce
effects with it which astonish the ignorant people of
Egypt, and which, as M. Isidore St. Hilaire says,
“ would without doubt astonish still more the savans
of Europe.” One of their cleverest tricks is, as they
profess, to change the serpent into a stick, and oblige
it to counterfeit death. The celebrated French natu-
ralist quoted above informs us, that when the jugglers
wish to produce this effect they spit into its throat,
force it to close its mouth, and lie down on the ground.
Tlum, as if to give it the final command, they press
their hand on the nape of its neck, and immediately

The Banded Bungarus. REPTILES. Shielded Reptiles. 67

the serpent becomes stiff and immovable, falling into
a sort of catalepsy. Afterwards they waken it up
whenever they please, by seizing its tail and rolling it
briskly between their hands. From the earliest times
the saliva of man was considered to possess great efB-
cacy and power over serpents. Pliny mentions this ;
but though the use of the saliva is still kept up by the
modern serpent-charmers and jugglers of Egypt, it
would appear that the chief effects just mentioned are
caused by the pressure on the back of the head. “ My
father,” says M. I. St. Hilaire, “ having often been an
eye-witness in Egypt of these remarkable effects, was
persuaded that of all the actions of which the practice
of these men consisted, one alone had any efficacy in
producing sleep (if one might use such an expression).
Wishing to verify this suspicion, he tried to induce
a juggler to confine himself to touching merely the
upper part of the serpent’s head. The man, however,
received the proposal as one full of horrible sacrilege,
and refused to comply with the request, in spite of all
the offers that could be made. The conjecture of my
father, however, was well founded ; for Iiaving pressed
his finger rather strongly upon the head of the Haje,
he saw it immediately manifest all the phenomena which
usually attended the mysterious practice of the juggler.
The man, at the sight of such an effect, believed that he
was the witness of a prodigy, as well as at the same time
a frightful profanation, and he fled struck with terror.”

THE BANDED BUNGARUS {Bungarus fasciatus) —
another venomous species of this group, represented in

Plate 5, fig. 4 — is a native of India, China, Java, and
Ceylon, and is known on the coast of Coromandel by
the name of Bung arum Pamah. It attains a length of
six feet, and is considered by the natives of India as
very deadly. The body is nearly of equal size through-
out, the head being rather small, and scarcely distinct
from it. Its tail is short, keeled above, nearly of equal
size as the body, and terminating in a conical top or
round blunt point. It is only about five inches in
length. Its body is encircled by large black bands,
and generally, either in an adult or young state, there
is a large white spot on each side of the neck, sending
off a white streak to the crown, the two meeting there
and forming an arrow-shaped mark. Ur. Russell tells^
us that he had a live specimen sent to him from Manoor
Cottah, but in a very languid state. Being set at
liberty, it remained for some time without moving, but
soon began to crawl slowly towards a dark corner. A
chicken was presented to him, but he took no notice
of it, though when placed on his back the claws of the
bird were so fast that he dragged the snake a little
way. After the lapse of an hour it was forced to bite
the chicken on the naked thigh, and the poor bird died
within twenty-six minutes after being bitten.

Of the third group of Colubriform serpents, viz.,
those which have venomous fangs permanently erect,
the species are few and little known. We must there-
fore pass them over, and hasten to the consideration of
the remaining orders of reptiles, the Tortoises and the
Crocodiles.

SHIELDED REPTILES (Catapheacta).

In the synopsis of the orders and families of Reptiles,
pp. 5, 6, we have already mentioned that the Shielded
Reptiles {Cataphracta) are divided into three Orders —
the Tortoises and Turtles {Chelonia), the Crocodiles
and Alligators {Eniydosauria), and the Amphisbae-
nians or Double-walkers {Amphisbosnia) .

The number of species contained in these three
orders of reptiles are very few compared with the
Lizards and Serpents, and as we have devoted so
much space to the consideration of these latter and
more typical forms, we must now limit ourselves to a
more brief description of the present group.

Order L— TORTOISES and TURTLES (Chelonia).

The form and structure of Tortoises are such that
they cannot be confounded with any other order of
animals in existence. They appear, in fact, to be
animals turned inside out, for their skeleton is exter-
nal, and the muscular and vascular systems are inter-
nal. They may be all arranged in three large groups,
according to their habits of life, viz.. Land tortoises.
Fresh-water tortoises, and Marine tortoises or turtles.
The same general structure, however, is found in
them all, as the body is inclosed within a case or
double buckler, which only allows the head and neck,
the tail, and the four limbs to be piotruded or with-
drawn (in the greater number) when the animal
requires to do so in order to protect these parts.

This case or double buckler acts the part of a solid
armour. Invested with it, they can shelter themselves
very effectually from the attacks of all their adversaries
except man, and some few animals of great strength
and power. The upper portion of this case, which
has always a more or less rounded and vaulted form,
is called the carapace, and the under part is called the
plastron, and is usually of a flattened form. These
two parts are united by their margins. The carapace,
which is equivalent to the thorax or chest in the higher
classes of animals, is formed by the soldering and weld-
ing together into a compact vaulted plate, of the ribs
and back-bone, the former being broad, and consisting
of eight pairs, and the latter retaining motion only at

Shielded Reptiles. REPTILES. Land Tortoises.

68

its two extremities, the head and tail. The plastron
is equivalent to the breast-hone or sternum in birds
and mammals, and is composed of nine pieces, which
in general are firmly united together — fig. 21. It covers
all the lower part of the belly of the animal, is solid
in the land and most of the fresh-water species, but
varies very much in form and structure. Round the
edge of the carapace there are a series of bones joined
together, ivhich represent the cartilages which join the
ribs to the sternum in birds, &c. From this structure

Fig. 21.

there results, of course, a complete immovability in
all these parts, and an immense degree of strength.
Their head is generally rather small, and of a flattened
form, and the jaws are covered with a hard, sharp,
horny beak, the lower portion of which shuts within
the upper. This structure supplies the place of teeth,
and the portions of food are cut or snapped otf on the
principle of shears. Though they do not bite very
readily, jmt, when they do, they bite very severely.
There is no possible means of making them let go
their hold. Even killing them will not always suffice.
They will retain the piece unless the jaws be completely
broken. So forcible, indeed, and so violent is their
bite, “ that I have known,” says Mr. Bell, “ a stick of
half an inch in diameter at once snapped asunder by
the jaws of a Snapping Turtle ; and a specimen of
Trionyx, lately in the possession of Mr. Cross of the
Surrey Zoological Gardens, snapped off the finger of a
sailor when on his voyage to this country.” The
limbs of tortoises and turtles present a great contrast
to that of most other vertebrated animals. They are
short and thick, and in all are far removed from the
centre of gravity. The form and structure of the feet
differ much in the different groups, according to their
habits of life. In the Land tortoises they are too short
to be able to sustain for a long time the weight of the
body, or to elevate it above the level of the ground
sufficiently to make locomotion easj'. They are clumsy
and club-shaped, and these animals therefore only drag

themselves slowly along the ground, their plastron or
breast-plate almost pressing upon it ; and as they move
along, their walk is tottering, uncertain, and extremely
slow. The marine species, or Turtles, and those which
live in rivers, have their feet changed into regular
paddles or oars, and endowed with great muscular
power. They are thus able to swim well, and their
motion through the liquid element, in which they live,
is rapid and not without grace. Those species which
live in ponds are intermediate between the other two
groups, and have the toes webbed and the claws sharp.
They are thus able to move along both in the water
and on the land ; whilst the Land tortoises would perish
in the water ivere they to live in its immediate neigh-
bourhood, and are consequently only found on dry
land. Tlie neck in tortoises and turtles is generally
cylindrical and capable of great extension, .and though
the skin is almost always covered with small scales,
which are separate and hard, it is the most defenceless
part of the animal, and tliat in which it may most
easily be killed. The legs and feet are generally
covered with scales also, which serve as a considerable
protection to them from accidents or injury ; and the
texture of this skin is so solid, that the sharpest instru-
ments can with difliculty penetrate it. The senses
possessed by these creatures are in general far from
being acute. The range of their sensations may be
said to be confined to the strictest limits of necessity,
or, in other words, merely to what is indispensable tor
the purposes of self-preservation and reproduction.

LAND TORTOISES {Testudinidce).

The land species are all comprised in one family,
Testudinidce, or Tortoises properly so-called; and of
all the Chelonia are those which have their shell
composed of the thickest and heaviest pieces. In
the adult state it is covered with horny, concen-
trically-grooved shields, which are marked with a
permanent areola ; and thus the shell is never smooth
on the surface, as is the case with marine turtles,
&c. The head is in nearly all the species pro-
portionally of the same size; in general it is short,
thick, and quadrangular. T'he eyes are placed laterally
and on the same level with the head. The eyelids are
cleft obliquel3^ in such a way that the anterior angle is
nearly of the same height as the nostrils, whilst the
hinder angle is a little higher. The nostrils open at
the extremity of the muzzle. The tongue is thick and
covered on the upper part with papillce. The horny
sheaths which cover the bones of the jaws are very
solid and sharp-cutting, or, in some, more or less
toothed ; and the jaws themselves close like the lid of
a box, and can onl}' act in one way, like the blades of
scissors. The head and neck can alwaj's be withdrawn
within the shell. But the most distinctive character
of the Land tortoises resides in the structure of the feet.
The hinder and fore legs are nearly or quite of the
same length; the foot is hard, and of a truncated stump
form, like that of the elephant. When they w'aUr, or
as it w'ere drag themselves slowly along, this foot is
turned obliquely outwards, for it never rests completely
on the ground, the claws in fact forming the sup-

Land Tortoises. KEPTILES. The Greek Tortoise.

port upon which the body rests. All hut one genus
{Homopus) have five claws on the front feet, and four
on the hind ones; or if they have five on the latter
also, the last is merely rudimentary, and remains con-
cealed under the skin. They are in some species
elongated, nearly straight, and sharp ; in others they
are short, blunt, and resemble in a slight degree the
hoofs of some mammalia. These claws are useful to

Fig. 22.

Fore and hind leg of Testudo actinodes.

the animals, in holding down substances while they
tear them with their jaws, and in bun’owing or digging
holes in which to deposit their eggs, or to take refuge
from their enemies or from the cold in situations where
they cannot obtain the use of burrows previously
made by other animals. The skin which clothes the
legs is generally covered with scales — -fig. 22. The tail
is covered with tubercular scales, and varies very much
both in length and form. Sometimes it is very short,
scarcely extending be^mnd the carapace, whilst in other
species it reaches nearly to the extremity of the hind
feet ; and occasionally it terminates in a kind of spur
or horny sheath enveloping the last joint. The female
tortoise is generally larger than the male. The eggs
remain a long time within her body, and are there
covered with an external calcareous shell previous to
their exclusion. They are all laid nearly at the sane
time, are of a spherical form, and the shell is pretty
solid, not flexible like those of serpents. The newly-
hatched young differ considerably in appearance from
what they are when adult. Just previous to their
birth, they possess at the extremity of their beak a
horny point or protuberance, which enables them to
break the shell, and thus make their escape from it.
Though the Land tortoises never take to the water, yet
they are generally found living near it. Their chief
places of abode are woods and places well furnished
with herbs, and where they can either find or make
shallow holes or burrows, into which, when the cold
weather comes, they are able to retreat, and in which,
in cool climates, they remain during the winter in a kind
of torpidity. Their food consists chiefly of slugs and
snails, and vegetables. In a state of domesticity, they
have been observed to prefer lettuce to any other kind
of food. The species appear to be scattered nearly all
over the globe, except in Australia, where none have
yet been found.

Only two species of Land tortoises are found in
Europe : —

THE GREEK TORTOISE, TARTARUGA, OR COMMON
LAND TORTOISE {Testudo grceca) — represented in Plate

6, fig. 1 — is the best known. One of the first naturalists
who has given a description of this species was our
countryman, John Ray. It was well-known, however,
to the ancient Greeks ; and it is said to be the tortoise
which the celebrated Phidias sculptured, and placed at
the feet of his statue of Venus, as the symbol of gentle-
ness. The Tartaruga appears to be peculiar to the
northern part of the Mediterranean basin, and the
opposite coast of Africa. It is extremely common in
the Morea, is abundant in Calabria, Sicily, Sardinia,
and Corsica, and is found all along the Barbary coast,
especially in the neighbourhood of Algiers. It is said
also to be found in Spain, in the province of Andalusia,
and even to extend eastward to the shores of the
Caspian Sea and the foot of the Caucasus. The shell
is of an oval figure, a little broader behind than in front,
and is swollen or convex. The plates of the carapace
are generally smooth, or occasionally striated concen-
trically, and are generally of a yellowish -green and
black colour, with black triangular spots and rings.
The tail is rather long, in the European individuals
being terminated by a rather long and pointed claw ;
and in the African variety (which has been described
by some authors as a distinct species, under the name
Testudo Mauritanica, or the Moorish tortoise) being
blunt and clawless. The ordinary size of tliis animal
appears to be from six to eight or ten inches in length.
Wherever it is found, it occurs in considerable abun-
dance, and it seems to prefer sandy and woody spots
as its places of abode. Its food consists of herbs, roots,
worms, and snails, the shells of which it breaks with
facility, and swallows the animal. During the cold
weather of winter, these tortoises retire into holes,
which they dig for themselves in the ground to the
depth of two or three feet, and in which they remain
in a sort of torpid state till the warmth of the months
of April and May revivifies them. Like the generality
of reptiles, they delight in warmth, and love to bask in
the rays of the sun. In Sicily and Italy these tortoises
are sold in the markets as food ; but their flesh is less
esteemed than the soup made from it. In Paris the
soup made from the individuals sent from Algiers,
known as soupe a la tortue is much esteemed by
many people. The habits and disposition of the Tar-
taruga are very gentle, and it is easily domesticated.
It is often kept in gardens, where it is very useful, as
it destroys insects, slugs, and snails, which are often so
pernicious to the flower-beds. It never does any harm
provided it is furnished occasionally with nourishment.
Lettuce leaves, according to Messrs. Dumeril and
Bibron, are its favourite food, preferring these to any
other kind of sustenance. According to some Italian
writers, these tortoises breed in the gardens of Italj’-,
where they are often kept. They appear to grow very
slowly, and live for a considerable time, individuals
having often been kept for upwards of forty years.
Who has not read of the “ old family tortoise,” so
exquisitely described by the inimitable author of the
“ Natural History of Selborne ? ”

Though the land tortoise is generally very slow in
its movements, at the pairing season it becomes much
more active. When several males assemble in one
place, they attack each other fiercely, butting with

70 Land Toetoises. KEPTILES. Fbesh-water Tortoises.

their heads and biting severe!}'. The female lays her
eggs about the middle of summer, depositing them in
a little hole, always well exposed to the sun. These
eggs are generally from four to twelve in number,
spherical in form, white, and about the size of those
of a pigeon. The female covers them with earth, and
leaves them to be hatched by the warmth of the sun,
taking no farther care of either them or the young after
being hatched, which generally takes place in autumn.

THE MARGINED TORTOISE {Testudo marginata) is
the other European species. This animal derives its
specific form from its having the hinder edge of the
carapace expanded horizontally, so as to form, as it
were, a margin all round. The shell is of an oblong,
oval form, and the upper part is much swollen, and is
nearly as high as it is broad. The plastron or breast-
bone is somewhat movable in its hinder part, the
animal being able to bring it close to the carapace,
without however being able to touch it. The jaws are
strong, sharp-edged, and slightly toothed on the sides.
The tail is conical, thick, and short, scarcely extending
beyond the edge of the shell. The skin of the legs is
imbricately covered with thick, flat tubercles. The
general colour of the head, neck, tail, legs, and cara-
pace is deep black, the latter having the areoloe of a
fine yellow. The under part of the shell is of a dirty
yellow. In size this species exceeds considerably the
Greek tortoise, being from fourteen to sixteen inches
in length, and ten or twelve broad. It is a native of
North Africa, being found in Barbary, Algeria, and
Egypt. It has lately been found also in Europe, the
gentlemen attached to the French expedition into the
Morea having discovered it there.

Three species of Land tortoises have been described
as natives of India: —

THE BLACK OR INDIAN TORTOISE ( Testudo Indica),
sometimes called the “ Elephant Tortoise,” is the most
remarkable of these. It is a native of the continent of
India, of the Isle of France and the Seychelles, and
is particularly abundant in the Galapagos islands.
It is said to be found also in California. It is not
improbable, however, as has been stated, that these
tortoises are originally natives of the Galapagos archi-
pelago, and that they have been carried off these
islands by the buccaniers, who used to frequent them
much, and distributed through various parts of the
world. The carapace or shell is about three feet long,
compressed in front, and elevating itself above the
head at the anterior edge. In old individuals, how-
ever, the size here mentioned is far surpassed. A
specimen which was for some time kept alive in the
Zoological Gardens in London, and mentioned in the
Proceedings of the Zoological Society in 1833 as ori-
ginally from the Seychelles, measured along the curve
of tlie back four feet four inches and a quarter, and
was four feet nine inches in breadth. Mr. Darwin,
in his “Journal of a Naturalist,” gives some very
interesting particulars in regard to these natives of
the Galapagos, but we must refer our readers to his
graphic sketch of them in the above-mentioned work.

There are not fewer than six species of the genus
Testudo, natives of Africa and the large islands adjoin-
ing. Amongst these are —

THE GEOMETRIC TORTOISE {Testudo geomelrica),
one of the most beautiful of the whole family of land
tortoises, and —

THE LEOPARD TORTOISE {Testudo pardalis), which
is found at the Cape of Good Hope. Only two species
of land tortoises are found in America, and both of
these belong to the genus Testudo —

THE GOPHER OR MONGOPA {Testudo Gopher) is
a native (and the only one) of North America, being
found from Florida to the river Savannah.

FEESH-WATER TORTOISES.

Of these there are three families, two of which are
numerous in species, living in ponds, marshes, and
streams, but coming frequently to land ; the third con-
taining fewer species, and which live in rivers and
seldom quit the Avater. The two first families are
Pond or Marsh tortoises. They inhabit ponds and
marshes, though many live also in moist ground
Avhere Avater fails. They are much more numerous
than Land tortoises. The structure of their feet — the
toes of Avhich are distinct and movable, furnished
Avith hooked claAvs, and the phalanges united at the
base by means of a flexible skin, Avhich permits them
to separate from each other, preserving at the same
time their strength and presenting a larger surface —
allows these animals to Avalk upon the ground, to sAvim
either at the surface of or at a considerable depth in
the water, and at the same time they are able to cling
to and climb up upon the banks of lakes and similar
tranquil Avaters, in which for the most part they make
their habitual sojourn. They thus form a natural
transition betAveen the truly aquatic species, such as
the Soft tortoises {Trionycidce), and Marine turtles
{Cheloniidce), and the Land tortoises. The habits and
manner of life of the two families of Avhich these marsh
tortoises consist, renders them in fact a natural group,
but in some parts of their organization they differ con-
siderably. Some, for instance, have a cylindrical neck,
covered Avith a loose skin, Avhich is movable in con-
sequence of the slight adherence of it to the muscles,
and acts as a sheath ; and this neck they can AvithdraAv
entirely Avithin the carapace. The head is nearly
conical ; the eyes are placed laterally, and upon the
sides of the cheeks ; and the bones of the pelvis or basin
are united only to the vertebrae. These are the Crijp-
toderes of Dumeril and Bibron, the Terrapens or Emy-
didce of Dr. Graj'.

Other species, again, have the neck long and broad,
and covered Avith a tight skin closely adhering to the
muscles under it, so that it is not retractile Avithin the
shell, but admits only of being contracted and bent
under the side of the shell, either to the right or the
left, when the animal is in a state of repose. The head
is broad and much depressed, and the eyes are placed
near each other on the upper part of the face, and
directed upAvards. I'lie bones of the pelvis or basin
are united not only to the vertebrae, but are also solidly
fixed to the plastron or breastj)late. These form the
Pleuroderes of the French authors, the Chelydes or
Chelydidce of Dr. Gray.

Of all the families into Avhich the Chelonians are

The Terrapens. REPTILES. The Salt-water Terrapen. 71

divided, the two which compose the Pond or Marsh
tortoises are the most numerous in species. Speci-
mens are found in both the Old and New Worlds, and
Australia. America, which produces only two species
of Land tortoises, contains more of these Pond species
than all the other parts of the globe united. Thus, out
of one hundred and thirteen specimens enumerated by
Dr. Gray in 1855 as belonging to these two families,
sixty-eight were exclusively American ; the remaining
forty-five being divided between the various parts of
the Old World and Australia. The cause of this is no
doubt the configuration of the American continent,
with the immense quantity of water, in the form of
lakes, marshes, and ponds, which covers a certain por-
tion of its surface, as well as the large rivers and tri-
butary streams which traverse it in all directions.

THE TERRAPENS {Emydidce).

The Terrapens are not only characterized by their
being able to retract completely, within the shell, their
long, cylindrical neck, with its lax and sheathing skin ;
they are, moreover, distinguished by their head being
nearly as thick as it is broad near the occiput ; their
eyes being always placed laterally on the sides of the
face, and the orbit being so large that this cavity occu-
pies nearly the fourth part of the total extent of the
cranium. The jaws are very strong, with a naked,
horny beak ; sometimes simply cutting, at others more
or less dentated. The tip of the beak of the upper
jaw is notched in most of the species, and on each side
of the notch there is a pretty strong tooth, and gene-
rally the corresponding extremity of the mandible is
curved in a sharp point towards the muzzle. In some
instances the upper beak resembles very much in form
that of certain birds of prey, such as the falcons. The
toes are generally webbed nearly to the claws. The
bones of the pelvis or basin are articulated with the
internal face of the carapace by a caitilaginous sym-
phisis corresponding with what is known in other ani-
mals as the os sacrum, and is quite free on the side of
the breastplate. This allows several of these Terrapens
to move slightly that part of their long shell.

The great bulk of the species of Terrapens, how-
ever, are contained in the genus Emys, and are chieily
natives of Asia and America.

THE CASPIAN EMYS {Emys Caspica), a small tor-
toise about six or seven inches long, is the only species
found in Europe.

THE PAINTED TERRAPEN {Emys picta, the Ghry-
semis picta of Gray) is perhaps the most beautiful, as it
is certainly one of the most common and best marked
species of the genus. It is a native of America, and
has a wide range of habitat, for it extends along the
Atlantic border from Maine to Georgia. This animal
may be readily distinguished, says Mr. Holbrook, from
all others of the genus by the beautiful colours and
markings of the shell. In general it is of a very dark
brown, approaching to a dark olive, with yellow lines,
which in old animals are of a fawn colour, but in the
young are so bright, especially when seen under water,
as to resemble golden bands. The marginal plates are
all marked with a bright red spot in the centre, which |

is surrounded by concentric lines of the same colour,
and at times their upper surface appears clouded with
red, resembling the mineral called blood-stone. The
sternum is entirely yellow, except at the wings, where
it is somewhat dusky. The head above and the jaws
are dark, almost black, with several small yellow lines
running along them. The neck itself above, as well
as the throat, are black, marked with longitudinal lines
of orange and red. The anterior extremities are black,
with one or two red lines in front, while the posterior
surface is mottled with orange or red. The posterior
extremities are black, both above and below, but the
dark colour is relieved by orange lines. The tail is
dark above, and mottled at its base with red spots.
These colours, however, vary greatly in degree ; they
are always brightest in the young. This species is
not a large one, the shell in an adult specimen being
about six and a half inches long, and four and a half
broad. It is of a suboval or oblong shape, with a small
head, rounded in front. The upper jaw is notched
anteriorly, and the lower is slightly hooked or turned
upwards in front. The eyes are large and brilliant,
the pupil being black and the iris golden, with a black
band passing through it horizontally.

The Painted Terrapen frequents ditches, ponds, and
pools, and abounds in rivers where the waters are slug-
gish. It spends almost the whole day, according to
Mr. Holbrook, basking in the sun on the banks of
rivers, or upon fallen trees or logs. It is very timid,
and makes a very rapid retreat when disturbed. It
retires early to its winter quarteis, and is the first to
be seen in spring. It feeds upon insects, tadpoles,
young frogs, earthworms, &c. It takes the hook
readily, and is on that account very troublesome to
anglers. Its flesh is used occasionally as food, but it
is not much esteemed.

THE HICOTEE {Emys decussata) is a native of the
West Indian islands, and is about ten or eleven inches
long. The shell is oblong, bluntly keeled, the hinder
edge slightly toothed. The shields of the carapace are
a little wrinkled, irregularly radiately grooved, and of
a uniform pale-brown colour ; but the animal itself is
green. Dampier mentions this species in his “Voyages.”
“ Two sorts of tortoise or turtle,” he says, “ are found
in the West Indies. One is called by the Spaniards
Hecatee. Another sort is called the Terrapen. Both
these sorts are very good meat. They are in great
plenty on the Isle of Pines, near Cuba : these the
Spanish hunters, when they meet them in the woods,
bring home to their huts and mark them by notching
their shells, then let them go. When these hunters
return to Cuba, after about a month or six weeks’ stay,
they carry with them three or four hundred or more of
these creatures to sell, for they are very good meat,
and every man knows his own by their marks.”

THE SALT-WATER TERRAPEN {Malaclemys con-
centricd). — The species of Terrapens we have already
mentioned have the head covered with a thin hard
skin, and are purely fresh-water tortoises. There is
a species, however, that has the head covered with a
soft, spongy skin, and the habit of the animal is to live
in salt water marshes. This is the Salt-water Terra-
pen. The shell is seven and a half inches long, and

72 The Salt-water Terrapen. REPTILES. The Chelydes.

is of an oval form, rather convex, and slightly tnber-
culated. The shields are of a pale yellow colour,
marked with brown, impressed, concentric rings. The
legs, neck, &c., of the animal are gray, with black spots
and lines. The head is very large, and the jaws are
strong and sharp-edged. The neck and tail are both
short and thick. The males are smaller than the
females, and the concentric stri® are more deeply
impressed. This animal, as has been said above, lives
in salt water and salt marshes, and is never met far
from them. In their immediate neighbourhood it
forms its winter habitation. It is described as a timid
animal, easily disturbed, and hiding itself on the least
alarm. It swims with great rapidity, and even on land
it moves quickly. Mr. Holbrook informs us that this
species of Terrapen is widely distributed in America,
abounding in marshy places from Rhode Island to
Florida. It is found also along the northern shores
of the Gulf of Mexico. “ This seems,” he says, “ to
be the only Terrapen common to North and South
America, and it is not singular when we consider that
all others of the tribe live in fresh water — this alone in
salt ; consequently, it might be driven by currents from
island to island, and from one shore of the gulf to the
other, like the Chelonia or Sea-tortoises ; and yet I
have never received them from any of the West India
islands, nor have I any evidence of the existence of
this species among them. They are very abundant
in the salt marshes around Charleston, and are easily
taken when the female is about to deposit her eggs, in
the spring and early summer months. They are then
brought in immense numbers to market ; yet, notwith-
standing this great destruction, they are so prolific that
their number appears undiminished. Their flesh is
excellent at all times, but in the northern cities it is
most esteemed when the animal has been dug out of
the mud in a state of hybernation.”

The Box tortoises, including the genera Cistudo
and Kinosternon, are remarkable species belonging
to this family, and form a natural group distinguished
by several important characters, the most peculiar of
which consists in the species having their plastron or
breastplate separated, as it were, into two {Cistudo) or
three {Kinosternon) divisions, which are movable upon
each other.

The genus Cistudo has an oval plastron with an
entire margin, which is divided by a cross suture
between the pectoral and abdominal plates. It thus
consists of two sections, the hinder of which is the
larger. These sections are joined by a hinge formed
of a sort of articular cartilage, which allows by its elas-
ticity of their having a degree of motion sufficient to
enable the animal to open the shell so as to move its
limbs without inconvenience, or, on the other hand,
to bring it into close contact with the upper shell, and
thus inclose itself within a complete box — hence the
name Box tortoise. The genus is represented by —

THE THREE-STREAKED BOX TORTOISE {Cistudo
or Cvora trifasciata) — Plate 6, fig. 4. The cara-
pace, which is of a clear brown colour, is somewhat
oblong, and marked with three distinct keels of a
black hue, and the toes are strong and widely
webbed to the claws. The head is long, narrow, and

somewhat depressed, and is of a yellow colour, with
two horizontal black or deep-brown streaks on each
side, passing from the nostrils across the orbit to the
back part of the head, where they unite. The neck
is very long, ashy above and yellow beneath. The
tail is rather long and slender, and without any horny
appendage at the extremity. A live specimen of this
species was to be seen a few years ago in the gardens
of the Zoological Society in London ; but as to its
habits in the wild state we have no particular informa-
tion, except that it is a native of China.

The other genus of Box tortoises, Kinosternon, is
characterized b}^ the species having the plastron or
breastplate formed of three distinct lobes or sections.
It is divided by two cross sutures, the central lobe
being fixed to the carapace by a bony attachment, and
having the anterior and posterior lobes articulated to
it by a ligament, and movable. The species are all
natives of America. Some of them are odoriferous.
There are two, especially, which are found in the
same localities, very much resembling each other, and
exhaling a strong odour of musk.

THE MUD TERRAPEN {Kinosternon Pennsylvanicum)
is about four inches long, and inhabits ditches and
mudd}^ streams from New Jersey to Florida. It preys
upon small fish, according to Le Conte, and other
aquatic animals ; bites readily at the hook ; and is
therefore very troublesome to anglers. It takes hold
of the bait very gently, and draws it slowly to the bot-
tom of the water, and frequently it allows several
minutes to elapse before it seizes it in such a manner
as to allow of its being taken.

THE SCENTED KINOSTERNON {Kinosternon odor-
atum), the other species alluded to, is often called the
Mud Terrapen also in the Southern states. Its odour
appears to be stronger than the preceding, very dis-
agreeable to many people. Mr. Storer, in his Report
of the Reptiles of Massachusetts, in the Boston Journal
of Natural History, says : — “ This species has a very
disgusting odour, and is hence sometimes called Stink-
pot. It is found burying itself in the mud in ditches
and small ponds, frequently covered with a thick coat
of foreign matter, from which circumstance it has
received the common name of Mud tortoise." It is a
little smaller than the preceding, being about three and
a half inches long, and is found in the same locali-
ties as it.

THE CHELYDES {Chelydidce).

In addition to the distinguishing characters of this
family of Fresh-water Pond tortoises, given at p. 70,
we may remark here, that in all the genera but one
the nostrils are simple, and open in the upper part,
and in a notch of the horny sheath of the upper man-
dible. In the case of the Matamata alone, they are
prolonged beyond the muzzle, in the form of a small
proboscis. In general the head is naked, and the jaws
are never toothed, but are sharp-edged. The neck is
always enveloped in a lax and flexible skin, which in
some is naked, in others granular, and in others
furnished with appendages or plates of floating skin ;

The Chelydes. REPTILES. River Tortoises. 73

and with the exception of the genns Chelodina we
always observe two small barbels under the skin. The
limbs are not much provided with scales, and the toes,
which are deeply webbed, have in all but the genus
Chelodina the fifth toe of the hind feet destitute of a
claw. They are natives of ponds and rivers in warm
climates ; eat flesh, feeding only in the water, and
swimming with their whole shell under the surface.

About thirty-four species have been described, which
are nearly equally distributed in Africa, America, and
Australia.

Forming a sort of passage from the Terrapens to the
Chelydes, we first come to notice the genus Sterno-
TH.ERUS. In it the sternum or breastplate is mov-
able, as well as in the Box tortoises ; but unlike that
of the genus Cistudo, which has the sternum divided
by two cross sutures, the central lobe being attached
to the thorax by a bony suture, in this genus the
breastplate is broad, and it is the front lobe only which
is movable. It is rounded in front, and furnished on
each side of its hinder edge with an internal bony pro-
cess. The species are all natives of Africa.

THE NATAL STERNOTHERE {Sternothmruscaslaneus)
has been described and figured by Sir Andrew Smith
in his “ Illustrations of the Zoology of South Africa. ”
“ The first specimens,” he says, “ of this tortoise were
discovered in rivers to the north of 25° south latitude ;
and in situations only where the water was very deep.
They were usually observed during the heat of the day
lying upon rocks which projected above the surface of
the water, and were so vigilant that it was almost im-
possible to approach them within a moderate distance
before they vanished. Many of them were struck by
musket balls, yet no wounds which were thus inflicted
ever appeared to impede their movements. At last,
by means of hooks baited with flesh, we succeeded in
obtaining a few specimens, though against such means
they were also guarded ; for even where individuals
existed in abundance, perhaps not one could be secured
by four or five fishermen, after spending many hours
in the pursuit.” This is the only species of the family
that has the breastplate movable. In all the others
it is solidly fixed.

Amongst the species which are natives of America,
one is very remarkable

THE MATAMATA OR FIMBRIATED TORTOISE
[Cheli/s matamata) is an animal of a very singular
and unpleasing appearance, and is distinguished from
all others by the extraordinary projection of its body
out of the shell, so that when in a state of repose, el-
even when suddenly wounded, it can only retract part
of it within the shell. The neck is remarkably thick
and flat, is seven and a half inches long and four and
a half broad, and is fringed on each side and under-
neath with a number of membranaceous appendages,
disposed longitudinally, and alternately larger and
smaller. The head is large and flat, rounded in front,
and edged on the sides with a number of warty, mem-
branaceous appendages similar to those of the neck.
The muzzle is cylindrical, and is elongated in form of
a tubular proboscis ten inches long, and pierced by the
nostrils at the tip, where they are separated by a car-
tilaginous division. The mouth is large and wide,
VoL. II. 66

and the jaws are simple and covered with soft lips.
The shell is ovate, oblong, and the shields with which
it is covered are elevated, acute, and form three keels.
The breastplate is narrow, broader and rounded in
front, and narrower and bifid behind. The colour of
the carapace is a uniform deep-brown above, a little
paler below. The total length of the animal is two
feet three inches ; the shell being one foot three inches,
and the neck seven inches long. It is a native of South
America, and is known to the aboriginal inhabitants of
the district of Cayenne, in which it used to occur plen-
tifully, by the name of Matamata. Bruguidre was the
first that gave an accurate description of this curious
looking tortoise. According to him, it inhabits Guiana,
in some parts of which it is very common, but is now
become rare in the rivers of Cayenne, on account of its
being so much in request as a highly prized article of
food. It remains concealed during the day, and only
sallies forth at night to feed. Its food is said by this
author to consist of the herbs which grow upon the
borders of the rivers and ponds in which it lives ; but
this is denied by Martin, who affirms it to be carnivor-
ous. “ It inhabits,” he says, “ fresh- water ponds and
rivers, and conceals itself under the leaves of aquatic
plants, with only the extremity of its nose, which is like
a small proboscis, above the surface; in this position it
awaits the approach of young birds, fishes, and small
aquatic animals, which it seizes as they pass near it.
It swims with rapidity, and darts eagerly on its prey.”
About the latter end of last century, M. Gautier,
governor of the Senegal Company of France, had
several specimens collected by himself in Cayenne, one
of which he kept alive in Paris for several months.
During its captivity it was fed upon bread and herbs,
which it ate readily, and before it died it laid five or
six eggs. One of these, which was kept in a drawer,
very unexpectedly excluded a young one.

Several species of the family of Chelydes are, as we
have mentioned above, natives of Australia, but we
have not space for these.

SOFT TURTLES or RIVER TORTOISES
{Trionycidai).

The species of this group of tortoises are compara-
tively few in number, but they form a very natural
family. Although inhabitants of the fresh water,
they differ from the preceding families considerably
in their conformation and structure, as well as in
their habits. Like the Marine turtles, to be hereafter
noticed, these River tortoises are compelled to live
constantly in the water, but, unlike the Pond or Marsh
tortoises, which we have already considered, and which
sojourn in still water, as ponds, marshes, and slow run-
ning muddy streams, these creatures inhabit large and
rapid flowing rivers. They swim well and with great
rapidity, and to answer this purpose their toes are
deeply webbed to the very claws with broad flexible
membranes. Their feet in fact, both fore and hinder,
are changed into true fins, which are no longer fitted
for progression on land, but are admirably adapted for
propelling them through the water. Their neck is
generally very long and protractile ; the head is narrow

74 Rivbe Tortoises, REPTILES. Marine Tortoises.

in front and pointed, the bones composing it being
nearly naked. The jaws are horny, and covered witli
a dependent, fleshy fold of skin resembling lips, and
which can cover the mouth. The nostrils are pro-
longed into a thin cylindrical tube, like a small mov-
able probcscis. Their carapace is very broad, and
nearly flat— fig. 23. It is soft, destitute of plates, and
covered with a flexible and cartilaginous sort of skin,
which extends al^ round the edges of the shell. These

Fig. 23.

Carajiace of Trionyx.

edges are soft, and destitute of bones, and the ribs are
only united together and to the vertebraj above, wliilst
they are separate below. The plastron or breastplate
is formed of a ring of bones, the centre not being ossi-
fied, and covered with a continuous skin. In adult
individuals these bones are furnished with rough
callosities on the prominent parts. The legs are short
and strong, and nearly of equal length behind and
before.

None of the species are European, all that have as
yet been described being found in the large rivers and
deep lakes of the hotter portions of the globe. The
Nile and the Niger in Africa ; the Euphrates and
Ganges in Asia ; the Mississippi and Ohio in America,
are the principal places of abode of these animals.
Some of them attain a very large size. Pennant men-
tions individuals which weighed seventy pounds, and
he had one which lived in his possession for three
months that weighed twenty pounds, and was twenty
inches long in the shell. The neck measured thirteen
and a half inches in length. Individuals of the species
known as the Sewteree {Chitra Indica), a native of
the- Ganges and other rivers of India, have been taken,
which, according to Dr. Cantor, weighed two hundred
and forty pounds.

The River tortoises are in a great measure noctur-
nal animals. At night, when thej' consider themselves
free from danger, they come forth from the water to
stretch themselves out on the rocks in the little islets,
or take up a position on the trunks of trees overturned
in the rivers, but from which they precipitate them-
selves again into the water at the least noise or appear-
ance of danger. They are very voracious, and very

nimble in pursuit of their prey. This consists of fishes,
reptiles, and mollusca, to which they are continually
giving chase, and which they pursue while swimming.
They in their turn are eagerly sought after by man, for
their flesh is much esteemed as an article of food. In
order to catch them it is necessary to angle for them,
and to bait the hook with live fishes or other small
animals, to which motion must be given, for they will
not touch carrion or motionless prey. When they
seize their prejq or when they are called to defend
themselves, they dart their head and long neck forward
with the rapidity of an arrow. They bite severely,
nor will they let go their hold without taking out the
piece seized. Their bite in consequence is much
dreaded by the fishermen, who generally cut olf their
heads as soon as they are caught. The males appear
to be less numerous than the females, or at least they
are less frequently seen near the shore, the females
being obliged to come to land to lay their eggs. These
they de])osit in large holes which they dig out in the
sand, of sufficient size to hold fifty or sixty. They are
white, spherical, with a shell which is solid, but only
membranous or very slightly calcareous.

THE TYRSE OR SOFT TORTOISE OF THE NILE
{Trmiyx Niloticus) — represented in Plate G, fig. 7 —
is a good illustration of the family. The carapace is
rather convex in the centre, oval or somewhat orbicular
in shape, covered with a skin which is coriaceous,
rough to the touch, and of a greenish colour or blackish-
brown, dotted with white or yellowish spots. The
breastplate is white, the rough callosities bluish. The
head is rather long, the jaws very strong, the lips
much developed and thick, and the tall is conical,
thick, and pointed. The Tyrse (for by that name it
is known on the banks of the Nile) sometimes reaches
three feet in length. It inhabits the river Nile, but is
found in other rivers both of West and North Africa.
These animals are said to he very destructive to the
young crocodiles, devouring them in great numbers as
soon as hatched.

This is the only species of Trionyx that inhabits the
Nile. Several other species are found in the rivers in
India and America, but we have not space to mention
them.

MARINE TORTOISES or TURTLES
(Cheloniidce).

Of all the species of the Tortoise race, the Marine
species or Turtles are those which have more especially
attracted the attention of mankind from the earliest
periods of antiquity. Aristotle distinguishes them
from all the others by the term Tkalassios (DaXaasiog
or SaXuTTiog), a term derived from the Greek, meaning
those animals which “ frequent the sea.” There are
two groups into which they may be divided, according
to the structure of the carapace, viz., those which have
this part of their shell, as well as their neck and feet,
covered with more or less hard and horny scales, and
those the carapace of which, and the external parts of
their body, are covered with a hard, thick, horny skin.
The structure of the limbs is one of the most remark-
able characters of this family, and distinguishes them

Marine Tortoises. REPTILES. Marine Tortoises. 75

from the species of all the other families, both land
and fresh water. The feet, though the toes are all
formed of distinct pieces, expanded at the end and
often armed with sharp claws, are changed into flat,
depressed fins, which are not fitted for any movement
but that of swimming, an act which these animals per-
form with great vigour and celerity. The fore legs
are very much longer and larger than the hinder ones,
and this forms a very characteristic feature of the
species. They are not retractile within the shell.
The whole structiu'e of the Marine tortoises shows
an exact correspondence with their manner of living,
which is essentially aquatic. Their carapace, as well as
their legs, is exceedingly flattened, a form well adapted
to admit of rapid movement through the water. It is
almost always heart-shaped, and has a defined bon}"
margin. The Land and Fresh-water tortoises have no
voice except a sort of hissing noise when irritated or
suddenly laid hold of ; the marine species, on the con-
trary, some of them more especially, as the one well
known by the name of Luth (Sjihargis), have a
remarkable cry, and when caught in the net or severely
wounded, utter a loud roaring sound, from which,
indeed, the generic name (Sphargis) is taken — a name
derived from the Greek word sphargizo
which means “ to utter a sound with a distended
throat.”

The principal food of the Marine tortoises consists
of marine vegetables, which the structure of the jaws
just described enables them to cut and masticate with
facility. Some few, however, especially such as the
Hawksbill and Loggerhead, which exhale an odour of
musk, feed also upon certain Crustacea and mollusca,
more particularly cuttle-fishes. They scarcely ever
appear to leave the water, except at the time of laying
eggs. Some of the species, however, it is said, come
out at night, and creep up on the shores of deserted
islets, where they clamber up the rocks to browse
upon the marine plants which form their food. In
calm latitudes, even seven or eight hundred leagues
from any land, these animals are often met with lying
stretched out on the surface of the sea, and in a state
of absolute immobility, as if they were dead. It is
believed that they assume that position in order to
give themselves up to sleep. They have, all of them,
the faculty of swimming under water for a length of
time, owing to the fact of their possessing very exten-
sive lungs. This family of Marine tortoises contains
some of the largest species of the order to which they
belong. As we shall see when we come to mention the
species in detail, some individuals of the Coriaceous
turtle or Luth have been found to weigh from fifteen
hundred to sixteen hundred pounds, and others of the
true turtles to weigh from eight hundred to nine hun-
dred pounds, with a shell fifteen feet in circumference,
and nearly seven feet long. They live long, and are
slow in growth. The males in general are smaller
than the females. The time during which the sexes
remain united together lasts a fortnight, or, according
to some observers, nearly double that time ; and the
act of reproduction always takes place in the water.
When the time arrives for depositing her eggs, the
female has often to traverse spaces of sea more than

fifty leagues in extent, the male accompanying her or
following after. By a peculiar kind of instinct, almost
all the females of the same latitudes, from all parts and
at nearly fixed periods, repair to the sandy shore of
some desert island for this purpose.

The Marine tortoises or turtles are found in the seas
of all hot climates, but chiefly towards the torrid zone.
In the equinoctial ocean they abound on the shores of
the AVest Indian islands, as Cuba, Jamaica, the Cai-
mans or Alligator Islands, St. Domingo, and the Gulf
of Mexico ; in the Atlantic Ocean they are found in
equal abundance at the Cape Verde isles and Ascension ;
in the Indian Ocean they frequent the shores of the
Isle of France, Madagascar, the Seychelles, and Kodri-
guez ; in the Pacific Ocean they are found at the Sand-
wich Isles and the Galapagos.

Amongst all the species of the class Reptilia, the
Marine tortoises are those which are the most useful
and advantageous to man. In consequence of this,
in climates where they abound their capture becomes
an object of gveat importance ; some for their carapace
or shell, and others for their flesh as an article of food,
their fat, and their eggs.

In those countries where turtles abound, and where
they attain a large size, the natives use the carapace
as canoes or boats to creep along the coast in. This
is mentioned by Pliny and Diodorus Siculus, who speak
of a tribe of Ethiopians on the shores of the Red Sea,
called from their living so much upon the flesh of these
Chelonians, “ Chelonophagi,” or Turtle-eaters. And
that this is not a mere invention of these ancient authors
seems to be proved, and the. statement corroborated, by
a fact mentioned by Dampier : — ■“ I heard,” he says,
“ of a monstrous Green Turtle once taken at Port-
Royal in the Bay of Campeachy, that was four feet
deep from the back to the belly, and the belly six feet
broad. Captain Rock’s son of about nine or ten years
of age, went in it as in a boat, on board his father’s
ship, about a quarter of a mile from the shore.” These
shells are made use of also in some parts by the natives
as a covering for their huts, as troughs for the domestic
cattle to drink out of, and as baths for their children.
“ In the Gulf of Manaar,” says Sir J. Emerson Ten-
nent in his account of Ceylon, “ turtle is frequently
found of such a size as to measure between four and
five feet in length ; and on one occasion, in riding
along the sea-shore north of Puttam, I saw a man in
charge of some sheep resting under the shade of a
turtle-shell, which he had erected on sticks to protect
him from the sun — almost verifying the statement of
iElian, that in the seas of Ceylon there are tortoises so
large that several persons may find ample shelter be-
neath a single shell.” As a delicious article of food the
flesh of the Turtle is well known. At first it was made
use of by our navigators, who found it a healthy, agree-
able, and nourishing food after their long sea-voyages,
and an excellent remedy against the ravages of scurvy.
It came afterwards, however, to be used at better tables,
and, as is well known, is now and long has been an
especial article of luxury in this country at the ban-
quets of the wealthy. In Jamaica and elsewhere yire-
seives have been established where turtle are kept, and
from whence they are distributed to other countries as

76 Makine Tortoises. REPTILES. Marine Tortoises.

an article of commerce. The introduction of turtle as
an article of luxury into this country dates more than
one hundred years back. The fat of certain species,
when fresh, is used instead of butter or oil in cooking ;
and tliat of those species which smell of musk is em-
ployed in preparing leather and giving it suppleness, as
well as for burning in lamps. This fatty or oily matter
is so abundant in these animals, that frequently thirty
pints of it have been extracted from one individual.

The eggs of the greater number of species are very
much sought after as affording an excellent article of
food. The white part or albumen does not coagulate
by heat, but the yolk is much esteemed. Even in the
musky species the eggs are of excellent flavour. Mr.
Holbrook informs us, that in the Tortugas Islands
(four or five uninhabited sandbanks in the Caribaean
Sea, visited only by turtles and wreckers, but which
are a favourite haunt of the Green Turtle), the eggs of
this species are taken wholesale. “ The ‘ egger,’ ” he
says “ uses a small stiff rod, with which he ‘ probes ’
the sand in those places where Turtles usually deposit
their eggs ; and in this way myriads are collected, as
may be supposed, when it is recollected that many
hundreds of turtles lay their eggs on a small space of
sandbank. The ‘ eggers,’ however, do not confine
their depredations to the nests of the Green Turtles,
but they seize upon those of all other species, as well
as upon the eggs of thousands of sea-birds that seek
the same localities during the breeding season.”

The horny lamime or plates which cover the cara-
pace and breastplate of the Marine tortoises can veiy
readily be detached. In the greater number of species
they are too thin to be employed with advantage in
the arts or manufactures ; but those of the Hawk’s-
bill Turtle {Chelonia imhricata) are thicker, stronger,
and more transparent than those of any other species,
and are accordingly much esteemed and made great
use of for ornamental purposes, under the name of
“ Tortoise-shell.” This substance appears to differ
essentially from horn, because, as Messrs. Dumeril
and Bibron remark, it is not formed of parallel fibres,
and because it appears rather an exudation of solidified,
muco-albuminous matter, the tissue of which is homo-
geneous, but which can be cut and polished in every
way like horn. Besides, they add, it is susceptible of
being softened by the application of heat, and then can
be made to assume various forms, which it preserves
after cooling. Thus, though in the rough state these
plates are fragile and brittle, when properly treated,
from the fineness of its tissue, its compactness, the
admirable polish and impressions it can receive, its
ductility, the facility with which it can be moulded,
and its fragments soldered together and amalgamated
by means of their own substance reduced to powder,
tortoise-shell is in great demand in the manufacture of
ornamental objects of furniture, and has become an
article of considerable commerce. In order to obtain
the plates from the carapace of this animal, it is onl}"
necessary to subject the shell to the action of heat.
According to Dumeril and Bibron’s account of this
process, the convex part of the carapace is submitted
to the effect of a strong fire, by which means the plates
start up and are then detached with great facility. In

his account of Ceylon, Sir J. Emerson Tennent says,
that as the shell becomes clouded and milky after the
animal’s death, the natives of that island, in order to
take it freshly coloured, catch the turtles as they come
to deposit their eggs, and “ suspend them over fires,
till the heat makes the plates on their dorsal shields
start from the bone of the carapace ; after which the
creature is' permitted to escape to the water.” In the
rough state these plates vary much in colour. Some
are transparent, and are called “ white, or spotless ;”
others are marked with a reddish-brown colour, more
or less deep, which is disposed in round, irregular
spots, or in streaks, and are called “ speckled ;” others,
again, are quite brown or black. The ancients
appear to have been exceedingly fond of the use of
this beautiful substance in the decoration of their
houses, apartments, &c. This luxury was carried to
an excessive degree by the Eomans in the time of
Augustus. Bruce, in his Travels, informs us that
“ the Egyptians dealt largely with Kome in this article
of commerce. Pliny tells us that the cutting of them
for veneering or inlaying was first practised by Carvi-
lius Pollio, from which we would presume that the
Romans were ignorant of the Arabian and Egyptian
art of separating the lamina by fire placed in the inside
of the shell when the meat is taken out. Martial says
that beds were inlaid with it. Juvenal, and Apuleius
in his tenth book, mentions that the Indian bed was
all over shining with tortoise shell on the outside, and
swelling with stuffing of down within. The immense
use made of it in Rome may be guessed by what we
learn from Velleius Paterculus, who says, that when
Alexandria was taken by Julius Cmsar, the magazines
or warehouses were so full of this article, that he pro-
posed to have made it the principal ornament of his
triumj)h, as he did ivory afterwards, when triumphing
for having happily finished the African war. This,
too, in more modern times, was a great article in the
trade to China, and I have always been exceedingly
surprised, since nearly the whole of the Arabian Gulf
is comprehended in the charter of the East India Com-
pany, that they do not make an experiment of fishing
both pearls and tortoises.”

Such being the value of Marine tortoises, no wonder
that their capture is a business of great importance, and
that many methods are employed for that purpose. On
some coasts advantage is taken of the usual time when
the females land upon the desert islands to deposit their
eggs. Their time for doing this, as has been already
mentioned, is the night. The turtlers, who frequent
these places, wait in perfect silence till they have left
the water; they then intercept them, and with their
hands, or with a lever when they are too heavy, turn
them on their back. As they cannot turn or “ right
themselves” when once placed in that position, they
remain there till morning, when the men return and
carry them ofi' to their boats. They are often left in
this same position, on the deck of the vessels on board
which they are taken, for twenty days ; the only pre-
caution adopted being to wet them with sea-water
several times a day. They are then deposited in the
preserves or pens, or, as they are called in America,
crawls, made for the purpose of keeping them, and

Marine Tortoises. EEPTILES. The Hawk’s-bill. 77

which are so constructed as to he filled at every flood
tide. Here they are kept till taken to market or sold.
In the South Seas, skilful and practised divers take
advantage of the moment when they find these turtles
asleep on the surface of the ocean ; they dexterously
swim right under them, so that on coming up they
may seize hold of them and retain them there till both
are hauled on board the boat. Mr. Darwin mentions
the same process at the Keeling Islands, and thus
describes the capture of these animals : — “ The wafer
was so clear and shallow, that although at first a turtle
quickly dives out of sight, yet in a canoe or boat under
sail, the pursuers, after no very long chase, come up
to it. A man standing ready in the bow at this
moment dashes through the water upon the turtle’s
back; then clinging with both hands by the shell of
its neck, he is carried away till the animal becomes
exhausted and is secured. It was quite an interest-
ing chase to see the two boats thus doubling about,
and the men dashing head foremost into the water
trying to seize their prey.” These animals are also
taken by means of harpoons. In the open sea, when
they come to the surface to breathe or to sleep, thej^
offer a fair mark to the fisherman. The point of this
instrument is sharp and arrow-shaped, and to the
extremity is attached a ring to which a long cord is
fastened. The animal when wounded dives and carries
with it the harpoon and cord, but is soon hauled up
and dragged alongside the boat. At the Bahama
islands the natives are, according to Catesby, very
dexterous in taking these animals by means of an
instrument called a peg • and Holbrook tells us that
the very same instrument is used in the Tortuga
islands at the present day. He quotes Audubon, who
says that he saw a man who with his peg had been
known to secure eight hundred grown turtles in one
year ! But the most singular method used for catch-
ing turtle is one practised in the Indian and China
seas, and on the coast of Mozambique. This consists
in the use of the sucking-fish {Echeneis remora), which,
as Dumeril and Bibron say, are “ taught this manoeuvre,
like our hunting dogs, and are called in consequence,
hunting -fish." The fact was known to Columbus, was
verified by Cemmerson many years afterwards, and
has since more recently been confirmed by Mr. Salt.
The sucking-fish is thus employed : The fishermen
have in their boats buckets which contain several of
these animals, with a ring through their tails, to which
a long slender cord is attached. As soon as they
perceive at a distance, several turtles asleep on the
surface, but which they know a slight noise might
awaken, they throw one of the sucking-fishes overboard,
giving it a long play of rope. As soon as the fish sees
the turtle floating, it approaches it, darts upon it, and
fastens itself by its sucker to the under surface of its
carapace. To this it adheres with such force, that in
withdrawing the rope, both fish and turtle are hauled
in together. Mr. Salt, when in the Mozambique, had
a specimen of a sucking-fish given to him as a present.
“ All the Portuguese gentlemen whom I conversed
with,” he says, “ on this subject, agree in assuring me
that fish of this kind were employed on the coast in
catching turtle.”

THE CAREY ( Chelonia virgata) forms our illustra-
tion of this family — see Plate 6, fig. 3. This turtle
has a great range of habitat, as it is a native of the
coasts of South America, the Cape of Good Hope, and
the Indian Ocean. It has also been found off Tene-
rilfe, at New York, and in the Red Sea. The shell of
the Carey is about two feet nine inches in length, and
the carapace is proportionally shorter than that of any
other species of the family. It is truncated, as it
were, in front, forms an obtuse angle behind, and is
very much arched on the sides. The colour of the
carapace, head, and fins, is a deep chestnut, rayed
with brown mixed with yellow ; and the breastplate is
gamboge or greenish-yellow.

THE GREEN TURTLE [Chelonia viridis) is the spe-
cies which excels all the others in the delicacy and
excellent flavour of its flesh. It is the Turtle par
excellence, so well knowm in this country to all “ bons
vivants.” What would the Lord Mayor’s dinners at
the Mansion-house of London be without the Turtle !

The Green Turtle surpasses all the other species
(except the Coriaceous Turtle) in size and weight.
The ordinary length of adult specimens may be about
four feet ; but individuals not unfrequently occur which
measure six or seven feet in length, and weigh upwards
of eight hundred pounds. Le Maine, in his “ Voyage
to the Canary Islands,” informs us, that near Cape
Blanco turtles are found of the enormous size of fifteen
feet in circumference, and that the flesh of one of them
would be a sufficient meal for thirty men !

The carapace is oval, somewhat heart-shaped, and
slightly convex. The head is rounded, and, compara-
tively speaking, rather smaller than in most other
marine tortoises. The lower jaw is strongly toothed
and hooked in front, and the upper jaw is notched in
front and serrated on the si<les.

The Green Turtle is very common upon low, sandy
coasts in both continents, but principally within the
torrid zone. Its chief food consists of marine plants,
and more especially the Zostera marina, which in
consequence is known by the name of “ Turtle-grass.”
According to Mr. Audubon, it cuts this near the
roots, in order to procure the most tender and succu-
lent parts, which alone are eaten, while the rest of the
plant floats to the surface and collects there in large
fields. This, when seen, is a sure indication that the
feeding ground of the Green Turtle is near.

THE HAWK’S-BILL TURTLE or Caret [Caretta
imhricata). — If the Green Turtle excels all others as
an article of food, the Hawk’s-bill Turtle is the most
valuable as producing a substance of great importance
in the arts and manufactures. It is smaller than the
Green Turtle, for it is rare to find one from three hun-
dred to four hundred pounds weight. The shell is
depressed, oval, or somewhat heart-shaped, and covered
with plates, which are laid one above the other like
the tiles of a house — hence its specific name imhricata,
or imbricated. The breastplate is large, full and
entire in front and behind, but hollow and depressed
in the centre. The head is oval, elongate, and com-
pressed at the sides. The upper jaw is greatly pro-
longed, and hooked in front like the beak of a hawk,
from which circumstance the common English name

Marine Tortoises.-

■REPTILES. Crocodiles.

78

of the animal — the Hawk’s-bill — is derived. The
edges of their jaws are entire and without teeth or
sense. The Hawk’s-hill Turtle is a native of the
Indian ocean and the American seas. It is taken at
Ceylon, Amboyna, the coast of New Guinea, and
North Australia, the Seychelles, the coast of Cuba,
and other West Indian islands, the Eed Sea, &c. ;
and individuals have even strayed as far north as the
coast of Great Britain. As we have said before, how-
ever, it is the substance known by the name of Tor-
toise-shell, which is the produce of this animal, that
makes the Hawk’s-bill valuable. Other species have
the same kind of plates that cover the carapace ; but
in no other are these plates sufficiently thick to be of
any value in the arts. Tortoise-shell is not considered
of the best quality unless the animal has reached to a
certain size, weighing about one hundred and sixty
pounds ; before that state it is too thin. The quantity
obtained from a single individual varies much. It is
stated by some authors that eight pounds may be
gained from a large turtle. Mr. Holbrook says that
fifteen pounds is the largest quantity that is ever
obtained, but that only from animals of the largest
size. M'Culloch, in his “ Dictionary of Commerce,”
says that the best tortoise-shell is that of the Indian
archipelago ; and that the finest of that quarter is
obtained from the Spice Islands and New Guinea.

Of the second group of Marine tortoises, or those
which have the carapace and the external parts of
their body covered with a leathery skin, only one
species is at present known.

THE CORIACEOUS TURTLE, or Luth, as the French |
authors call it {Sphargis coriacea), is undoubtedly the
largest of all the family, individuals having been occa-
sionally found weighing twelve hundred pounds, and
measuring eight feet in length. Though not a common
species, it seems to have a wide range, as specimens
have been taken in the Mediterranean ; in the Atlantic,
as in Chesapeake Bay on the coast of North America,
and the Tortugas or Turtle islands of Florida ; at the
Cape of Good Hope ; on the coast of Chili ; and in
Japan, where it is known by the name of Jalafa.
It has also been occasionally taken off the coasts of
France and England. Borlase, in his “ Histoiy of
Cornwall,” tells us that two individuals of a large size

were caught off that coast in the mackerel nets, in the
summer of 1756; and Pennant informs us of another
specimen having been caught on the coast of Dorset-
shire, and which is now in the British Museum. In
Augmst, 1729, a specimen was captured off the mouth
of the Loire, about thirteen leagues from Nantes, which
was upwards of seven feet long.

The carapace of this species of turtle is somewhat
heart-shaped, narrow, and pointed behind, and is
marked on the back with seven longitudinal keels.
Tire breastplate is large, very full in front, and perfectly
flat, without any prominence or tubercle whatever.
The head is very large, and the jaws of great strength
and very sharp on their edges. The upper one has
three remarkable notches, one in the centre which is
angular, and one on each side at a short distance from
the former, which are rounded. The lower jaw is very
acute at the point, and somewhat hooked, coiTespond-
ing with the central notch of the upper. Tlie neck is
very short, very thick, and covered with a coriaceous
skin. The fore legs are large and well developed —
twice the length of the hinder. Both are covered with
a coriaceous skin. The tail is short, acute, and scarcely
extends beyond the carapace. The whole surface of
the animal is covered with a smooth, leathery skin,
quite destitute of horny plates or scales. It is of a
very dark-brown colour, with the exception of the
ridges or keels on the back, which are tinged in differ-
ent places with obscure dirty white. Mr. Audubon
states that the Coriaceous Turtle, in resorting to tlie
Tortugas or Turtle islands of Florida for the purpose of
j depositing its eggs, is later than the other species in
arriving there. The average number of eggs laid by
it, he says, may be three hundred and fifty, in two sets.
It appears also to be less cautious than the Green
Turtle or Hawk’s-bill in choosing the places for this
important operation. Its food consists of mollusca,
fish, Crustacea, sea-urchins, and various marine plants.
Pennant says that it becomes extremely fat, but that
the flesh is coarse and bad. The ancient Greeks, it is
said, were well acquainted with this species of marine
tortoise ; and it has been often confidently asserted,
though we think without sufficient proof, that it was
from the shell of the Coriaceous Turtle that the first
lyre was fabricated.

Order TI. — CKOCODILES AND ALLIOATOES (Emydosauria).*

Of all the families of which the class of reptiles is
composed, that of the Crocodiles contains the bulkiest
and strongest species. In general appearance thej^
resemble gigantic lizards, but they differ from the
order Suuria, or Saurian repffiles to w'hich the lizards
belong, in having the body covered with square, keeled,

* From tlie Greek words, emits tortoise, and sauros
[ffoiv^cs] lizard.

bony plates, imbedded in the skin, and placed in longi-
tudinal lines ; in the solidity and formation of their
skull ; and in the vent being longitudinal. In size
they vary from ten or twelve feet to fifteen or twent)’’,
and some even attain the length, it is said, of twenty-five
or thirty. Distinguished as they are by their great
magnitude, they have also the character of great fero-
city. “ Inhabiting the margins of the mighty streams
of tropical climates, they are the terror of all who

Crocodiles. REPTILES. Crocodile of the Nile. 79

approach them ; they prey upon every animal which
comes within their reach, and man himself is not free
from their attacks, for instances are by no means rare,
both in ancient and modern times, of their suddenly
seizing upon human beings, and carrying them off to
their watery haunts.” They are often called the
tyrants of the fresh waters, and their capacious mouth
and numerous strong and conical teeth fit them well
for a rapacious life. James Montgomery happily
describes the family in a few words : —

“ The crocodile, the dragon of the waters.

In iron panoply, fell as the plague.

And merciless as famine, cranched his prey.

While from his jaws, with dreadful fangs all serried,

The life-blood dyed the waves with deadly streams.”

In general form the body of the Crocodiles is de-
pressed ; and the tail is long, tapering, thick at the
base, and compressed at the sides, so as to form a sort
of paddle or oar. The legs are so very short, that
they appear as if they could never support the weight
of the body. They have no clavicle or collar bone.
The fore feet have five toes, the two outer of which
are destitute of claws. The toes in the hind feet are^
only four in number, the outermost of which alone
wants a claw. These latter are connected together
by a membrane or web, while those of the fore feet are
free. The partially webbed feet, the flat compressed
tail, and the position of the nostrils at the tip of the
muzzle, all sufficiently show the aquatic nature of the
Crocodiles.

The female deposits her eggs in the sand. In some
species she makes a sort of nest in which she lays
them, then covers them with leaves and debris of
plants, and thus leaves them to be hatched by the heat
generated there from the fermentation of the vege-
table matters. Some of the Crocodiles are said to lay
three times after short intervals; and about from
twenty to thirty each time. The eggs are covered
with a hard white shell, are about the size of those
of a goose, and are said to be good eating. The
young are hatched in about twenty or thirty days, and
the moment they quit the shell, they make with all
speed to the water. A great many of these eggs are
destroyed by the ichneumon and tupinambis ; and vast
numbers of the young are devoured by the fresh- water
tortoises, voracious fishes, various amphibious animals,
and even, it is said, by the old Crocodiles themselves,
when pressed by hunger. In all probability these
animals live to a considerable age, perhaps at least
that of man ; and their growth appears to be slow.
They are able, like other reptiles, to sustain long fasts,
and some of the species, where the heat is not so very
great, bury themselves during the winter in the mud.
Their principal places of abode are the banks of large
rivers and marshy lakes; and they are often found
living in society together in large troops. Their chief
food consists of fish, frogs, water-birds, and any other
animals they can secure. Even dogs, swine, and oxen,
it is said, cannot always escape their voracity. Man,
himself, sometimes falls a victim. In order to obtain
their food they often have recourse to artifice ; swell-
ing out their lungs with air, so as to make their bodies
specifically lighter than water, they allow themselves

to float immovable on the surface of the river, where
they look exactly like a branch of a tree, and thus
their unsuspecting prey come around them.

The Crocodiles are all strangers to Europe, and with
the exception, perhaps, of one or two, are equally so to
Australia. In the three other parts of the world, how-
ever, they are found, and often in great numbers. In
Dr. Gray’s arrangement of this order, these animals
are divided into two families, the true Crocodiles and
the Alligators. The latter are peculiar to America,
while the former are common to both worlds.

Family of CROCODILES {Crocodilidce).

The species of this family are chiefly characterized,
and distinguished scientifically, by the teeth. The
lower canines fit into a notch in the edge of the upper
jaw when the mouth is closed. At the same time
they are known by the muzzle behind the nostrils
being much narrowed by the hind legs having a fringe
of compressed scales behind, and by the toes being
webbed to the tip.

The family contains three genera, and about fourteen
species.

THE EGYPTIAN CROCODILE or the CROCODILE OF
THE Nile {Crocodilus vulgaris) is the species which
forms our illustration of the genus Crocodilus — Plate 7,
fig. 2 ; and Plate 8, fig. 5 (teeth). This huge creature,
which often reaches the length of from twenty-five to
thirty feet, is a native of the Nile, the Senegal, Niger,
Gambia, and probably most of the rivers of Northern
and Western Africa. It appears to have been well
known from the earliest periods, and it even seems to
have been worshipped in Egypt previous to our historic
records of that country. At Memphis it was reared with
the greatest care by certain priests who had charge of
it, and who nourished it with abundant food. Sacrifices
and offerings were presented to it, it was adorned with
trinkets and jewels, and lodged in a lake or basin in the
midst of the temple. Treated in this manner, the Cro-
codile lost its ferocity, and became so tame as to be led
about in religious processions and ceremonies. When
the celebrated Greek historian Herodotus visited Egypt,
which was about 400 years before the birth of Christ,
the habits of this animal were well known. His object
was, in a great measure, to investigate the religious
history of that people, and therefore he was insensibly
led to the study of an animal which was so mixed up
with their sacred rites as the Crocodile. At that time
he informs us that the inhabitants of the Thebais and
the shores of the lake Moeris regarded these creatures
with the highest reverence. Each person in that dis-
trict reared a Crocodile which they trained up, suspend-
ing gold and jewels from its earlids, and adorning its
fore feet with rings of gold. They fed it carefully and
with delicacies, and when it died it was embalmed and
placed in some consecrated repository. Numerous
mummies of young Crocodiles in the British Museum,
obtained from their primitive repositories after a lapse of
more than two thousand years since their embalmment,
and still in perfect preservation, attest the truth of that
statement. The description given us of the Crocodile

80 Crocodiles. REPTILES. Crocodiles.

of the Nile by this distinguished historian is declared
by M. Geoffrey St. Hilaire, who, during the invasion
of Egypt by the French under Napoleon I., had great
opportunities of studying and observing the habits of
the creature, to be true in most respects as we find it at
the present day. It would appear that at the time he
wrote, the Crocodile was found in Lower Egypt, but
now it is only found in Upper Egypt, and is never seen
below Thebes. In such situations the temperature is
very high, and accordingly it is never found in a lethar-
gic state, as is the case with the species found in America
and elsewhere. It is nocturnal in its habits. During the
day it comes ashore, taking up its abode in some quiet
retreat for the purpose of sleeping ; but when evening
comes on it resumes its activity and returns to the
water, where alone it is able to successfully secure its
prey. Their principal place of abode is a series of
small islands in the river, and there they live in society.
Mr. St. John, in his “ Travels in the Valley of the
Nile,” tells us that he saw numbers of them during his
passage up the river. “ These islands (sand-banke at
Pharos) are the usual haunts of the Crocodile ; but as
they love to bask in the warm sun, and have an aver-
sion to cold, there is little danger of encountering them
early in the morning, or when the wind blows. In
fact they seem never to rise out of the water but when
the surface of the Nile resembles that of a pond, and
the whole sandy shore is glittering in the sun, when
you see them lying in troops along the edge of the
stream.” The different individuals of the troop select
and keep their own particular spot. These are flat
shores where spurs of fine sand stretch a considerable
distance, and conduct to tbe water’s edge by a gentle
declivity. Each troop or society remains faithfully
attached to the localities where they were born, and
never go far from them except when in search of prey.
This occupation fulfilled, they return at particular
hours to their resting-places on the sandy shore, which
had been previously selected b}' the foresight of the
old chiefs of the family ; and placing a sentinel to give
the alarm in case of danger, they there abandon them-
selves securely to sleep. The sentinel, placing his
ear partly on tlie ground, listens for the least noise,
and if disturbed, the troop make direct to the water.
M. G. St. Hilaire says he has watched them at such
times, and has seen them turn themselves slowly, and
march at first apparently carefully and with measured
steps, but after a certain distance they would leap
briskly into the water, clearing at a bound a consider-
able distance. Tbe egg of the Crocodile is white, and
of a spheroidal form. It is not much larger than that
of a goose, and the young Crocodile at its birth is only
two and a half decimetres in length.

The very name of Crocodile excites the idea of an
animal alike formidable for its size and ferocity ; of an
animal unequalled in its own orders, and which is the
tyrant of the fresh waters. The story of the little bird
called Trochilos by Herodotus, which, according to his
account, frees the mouth of the Crocodile from the
leeches which infest it — or, as Pliny asserts, picks or
cleans the huge reptile’s teeth — is probably familiar to
every one. We will allow Mr. St. John to tell the
tale: — We shot and ate a siksalc, the Trochilos of

Herodotus, a sort of gentleman in waiting on the Cro-
codile, about wbich history and tradition tell strange
stories. What they say is this, that the Crocodile
being too much addicted to live in water with his jaws
open, allows a number of leeches to creep down his
throat, where, vigorousl}' sucking his blood, they prove
extremely troublesome. Against these enemies, how-
ever, he finds a faithful ally in the siksak, which, as
soon as he perceives, he opens his delicate mouth, and
the bird, rendered bold by instinct, leaps like another
Curtins into the gulf, not to be swallowed up how-
ever, but to swallow. He kills and devours the leeches,
and then hopping out, receives the thanks of the Cro-
codile. Sometimes this lumbering animal, getting
sleepy during the process, mechanically closes his jaws,
so as to deprive his little friend of air; upon which,
extending his wings, furnished with sharp spikes on
the tips of the shoulders, he wounds the Crocodile’s
throat, and reminds him that it is his business to be
civil. “For the truth of the story,” he adds, “ I will
not answer ; but certain it is that I seldom, perhaps
never, saw a Crocodile without a siksak standing close
beside him on the sand, evidently within his reach, but
without his exhibiting the slightest desire to molest
or injure it.” Herodotus was the first author that
mentions this curious tale; and M. Geoffrey thinks,
that if we use the word generally translated leeches, to
mean merely anything that sucks blood, the- story is
not at all destitute of reality. There are thousands of
gnats and musquitos in these localities he says, which
suck blood; and he asserts that as the Crocodile has
no movable tongue to sweep them awa}^ its mouth
is infested with these troublesome insects to a great
degree. Moreover, he affirms that there is a small
bird called siksak by the natives, which he has fre-
quently observed hopping about in all directions round
the Crocodile, and even going into the mouth of the
reptile as it lay asleep, or was feigning to be so.
Attracted by these insects, upon which it feeds, he has
no hesitation in saying the bird does enter the reptile’s
mouth when wide open, and there picks up the insects
which it finds in abundance. This bird is recognized
at once as a species described by Hasslequist, under the
name of the Egyptian plover {Charadrius TEc/yptius)]
and as to this apparent cordiality between two such
animals, there is nothing very extraoi'dinary in it, as
similar affections arising from mutual good offices, ar
exemplified in other cases in the animal kingdom.

If the Crocodile has a good friend in the little siksak,
it finds powerful enemies in one or two other small
animals. The ichneumon, a small animal about
eighteen inches long, belonging to the Viverridoc or
Civets, is particularly destructive. It is very fond of
eggs, and in Upper Egypt searches with great avidity
for the eggs of the Crocodile in the sand. It devours
great numbers, and it was thought to check so much
the increase of these large reptiles, that it is one of
the animals which were formerly held sacred by the
natives ; divine honours having been paid to it in the
ancient city of Heraclea. The tupinambis too, a
large lizard, is a powerful enemy, for, as it swims well,
besides eating the eggs, it destroys a great number of
the young after they have reached the water. Though,

Ckocodile of the Nile. REPTILES. The Gavial. 81

as we have stated above, Crocodiles in some parts of
Egypt were held sacred and had divine honours
paid to them, there were other parts of that country
where they were held in great detestation, the natives
pursuing them as enemies, and even eating them. A
sentiment of religion was at the bottom of this feel-
ing also, and it was because they believed that Typhon
the murderer of Osiris and the genius of evil, had
transformed himself into a Crocodile. In Afiica the
negroes eat the flesh of the Crocodile at the present
day, and are bold and skilful in capturing them. M.
Adanson, who found hundi'eds of these animals in
the Senegal during his residence there, tells us that
one of his negroes killed a Crocodile seven feet long.
“ He had seen him lying asleep amongst the brush-
wood at the foot of a tree on the bank of a river. He
approached so quietly as not to disturb it, and then
very adroitly inflicted with his knife a blow on the
side of his neck, undefended by the bones of the head
or by scales, and drove it nearly through and through.
The animal mortally wmunded, writhing back though
with difficulty, struck the negro such a violent blow on
his leg that he knocked him down. He rose imme-
diately, however, without letting go his hold, and that
he might not have anything to fear from the murderous
jaws of the Crocodile, he enveloped them in a piece of
cotton cloth, whilst his comrade held him by the tail.
In order to assist him I mounted him upon his back ;
then the negro drew his knife, and cut off his head,
which he separated from the trunk.” In Dongola at
the present day, the Crocodile is also caught by means
of a harpoon for the sake of its flesh.

In the latter years of the Republic and in the early
part of the Empire, the Romans were made well
acquainted with the Crocodile of the Nile. About fifty-
eight years before the Christian era, the edile Scaurus-
exhibited at Rome five Crocodiles from that river.
Strabo mentions, on another occasion, that the inhabi-
tants of Denderah brought many to the great capital.
But the most astonishing spectacle of this sort ever
witnessed, was when the Emperor Augustus caused the
Flavinian Circus to be filled with water, and there
displayed thirty-six Crocodiles, which were encountered
by an equal number of gladiators, for the amusement
of the Roman populace.

M. Geoffrey St. Hilaire describes several species of
Crocodile as inhabiting the Nile, and particularly points
out two, which, however, are now considered as mere
varieties. The first of these is a small species which
he calls Crococlilus suchus, from the Greek word souhis
{eo'Mn), by which name Strabo informs us it was
known, and which he says is the true Sacred Crocodile
of the ancient Egyptians, worshipped at Arsinoe. The
second is much larger and fiercer, C. vulgaris, and is
the species which was detested, hunted, and eaten by
the natives. The smaller or sacred species, he says,
followed the inundations of the Nile and the smaller
tributaries of that river, and was often found therefore
at a distance from the banks of the Nile. It was
inoffensive ; and its appearance being connected with
the annual overflow of the river, upon which their crops
and subsistence depended, it was looked upon with a
feeling of reverence, and became in time to be wor-

VOL. II. 67

shipped as a deity. The extremity of the muzzle of
the Crocodile, according to this same author, is very
sensitive, and he thinks that the secret of the priests
succeeding in rendering their sacred individuals so
tame as they were described to be, consisted in their
touching this sensitive muzzle, by doing which, he adds,
the Crocodile will naturally open its mouth, so that it
may be fed. A third species was described from a
mummied specimen taken from the Crocodile mummy
caves at Thebes. These caves he visited himself, and
found many Crocodiles embalmed and in perfect pre-
servation. “ From the hand of the person who had
deposited there the sacred relics,” he says, “ they
passed into mine. The two acts succeeded each other
without any further interruption than a night of thirty
ages having rolled between them.” We will finish this
account of the Crocodile, by stating that this is not the
Egj'ptiau name for the animal. The name of Crocodile
{a^o-AohsiXog) was first applied to it by the lonians, from
the resemblance it bore to that of the lizards which
they were in the habit of seeing on their walls, and
which they called by that name. Herodotus tells us
that the ancient Egyptian name for it was Champsa.
The Coptic name at the present day is Temsah, which
is no doubt a corruption of the old word Champsa.

Two or three species of Crocodiles are natives of
India and America, but we must pass on to the next
genus, Gavialis : —

THE GAVIAL {Gavialis Gangeticus) — Plate 7, fig. 1;
and Plate 8, figs. 14, 14a (upper jaw and teeth) — differs
from the crocodiles in having the jaws very long and
very narrow ; so much so, that they form a kind of sub-
cylindrical beak that offers a strong contrast to the size
of the head. At the end of the beak, where the nostrils
are j laced, we see in the male a large swelling of an oval
form and cartilaginous structure, forming a kind of sac
or nasal pouch, which is divided into two internally by
a partition. The teeth are not so unequal in size and
length as in the crocodiles, but are much more numer-
ous. In general, they are from one hundred and
eighteen to one hundred and twenty in number, and are
all pretty equal, with the exception of the five or six
first pairs in both jaws. The canines are small, quite
anterior, and those of the lower jaw fit into a notch
in the edge of the upper. The Gavial is a native of
India, more particularly of the Ganges, and is one of
the largest species of the order of reptiles to which it
belongs. It is about seventeen feet long ; though
Lacepede mentions the fact of there being the jaw of an
individual in the collection in Paris which, when alive,
must have measured upwards of thirty feet. It was
first described by our countryman Edwards in 1756 ;
and the name of Gavial was first applied to it by Lace-
pede, from its Indian appellation. The Gavial feeds
on fish chiefly, and, notwithstanding its large size, does
not appear to be dangerous to men. It seems to have
been known to the ancients, as HSlian speaks of a
species of crocodile being found on the banks of the
Ganges, which had a kind of horn on the snout. Taver-
nier, a traveller in the East about the years 1648-50,
seems to have encountered this species on the Ganges,
below Tontipour. He saw a number of them lying on
the sand on the banks of the river, and, firing at one of

82 Alligators. REPTILES. Alligators.

them, shot it in the mouth ; but not wounding it mor-
tally it escaped into the river. The day after he again
saw another band lying on the banks of the river, and
succeeded in shooting two of them.

Family of ALLIGATORS {Alligatoridce).

The Alligators are distinguished from the crocodiles
by having the canine teeth of the lower jaw fitting into
a pit, instead of a notch, in the edge of the upper, when
the mouth is closed. The hind legs are destitute of
the fringe of scales on the hinder part, and their toes
are scarcely webbed. The species are not numerous,
and they are peculiar to the New World. Nine or ten
only have been described, and they are arranged in
three distinct genera, Alligator, Jacare, and Cayman.
The genus Alligator has the jaws of an oblong figure,
depressed, and is more particularly distinguished by
having a small longitudinal rib between the orbits.
The hind feet are webbed ; and the nostrils are sepa-
rated by a bony septum.

THE ALLIGATOR., par excellence, the Pike-muz-
zled Cayman of some authors {Alligator
piensis) — Plate 8, figs. 7, 7a (skeleton and skull) — is
one of the best known. The head is elongated, sub-
oval, rounded in front, truncated behind; having the
general form of that of the well-known fish called
the pike. The superior surface of the snout is elevated
for the nostrils, and the forehead is subdivided by a
short sharp keel into two halves. This ridge is peculiar
to the Alligator. The nostrils open on the upper part
near the snout, and are (even in their early youth)
separated from each other by a bony plate or partition
— a formation found in no other species of the order.
The eyes are large and prominent ; and there are three
eyelids, the upper one of which is covered with two
large plates, and several smaller ones. The jaws are
slightly curved, and armed with forty teeth above and
below, of which the fourth inferior pair is the longest
of all, and received in sockets of the upper jaw when
the mouth is closed. The body is elongated, rounded
above, full at the flanks, and flat below. The chest and
belly are protected by broad, smooth, quadrilateral plates.
The tail is large, long, compressed and thick below, and
surmounted above with a double, strongly serrated crest
on its anterior, and by a single crest on its posterior half.
The fore legs are large and strong, but the hind are nearly
twice the size. The body of the Alligator, in the old
animal, is of a dusky colour above, the throat yellowish-
white. The common size is between nine and ten feet,
but they often grow much larger. Holbrook says he
has seen one in Carolina thirteen and a half feet long ;
Catesby has seen them fourteen feet; and Bartram
tells us that he has seen them twenty feet in length,
and that some are supposed to grow to even twenty-two
or twenty-three feet. Waterton asserts that he himself
“ once saw an alligator in the Oronoque thirty feet in
length, and another of the same size in the Essequibo.”
Bartram’s description of this huge creature is very
graphic : — ■“ When full grown,” he says, “ it is a very
* large and terrible creature, and of prodigious strength,
activity, and swiftness in the water. Their body is as
large as that of a horse ; their shape exactly resembles

that of a lizard, except their tail, which is flat or
cuneiform, being compressed on each side, and gradually
diminishing from the abdomen to the extremity, which
with the whole body is covered with horny plates or
squamae, impenetrable when on the body of the live
animal even to a rifle ball, except about their head
and just behind their fore legs or arms, where it is said
they are only vulnerable. The head of a full-grown
one is about three feet, and the mouth opens nearly the
same length; their eyes are small in proportion, and
seem sunk deep in the head, by means of the promi-
nence of their brows. The nostrils are large, inflated,
and prominent on the top, so that the head in the water
resembles at a distance a chunk of wood floating about.
In the forepart of the upper jaw on each side, just
under the nostrils, are two very large, thick, strong
teeth or tusks, not veiy sharp, but rather the shape of
a cone. These are as white as the finest polished ivory,
and are not covered by any skin or lips, and always in
sight, which gives the creature a frightful appearance.
In the lower jaw are holes opposite to these teeth to
receive them. When they clap their jaws together, it
causes a surprising noise, like that which is made by
forcing a heavy plank with violence upon the ground,
and may be heard at a great distance.”

The Alligator is a native of North America. It is
first observed on the Atlantic border of the United
States, in North Carolina. From this point, they
abound near the mouths of all the creeks and rivers
that empty into the Atlantic Ocean, or into the Gulf of
Mexico, as far as New Orleans, ascending up the Mis-
sissippi as high as the entrance of Red River, a distance
of six hundred miles. Their chief places of abode are
the low stagnant ponds and deep morasses of the
Southern States, where hundreds of them can be seen
at a time, either on the flat marshy banks of creeks
and rivers, or on sandy or muddy shores left diy by
the ebb of the tide. Here they remain motionless for
hours, apparently asleep, and are often mistaken for logs
of dead and decaying wood, as well from their colour
as from their perfect immobility ; but, when disturbed
by the approach of enemies, they suddenly retreat to
the water. At other times, they may be observed float-
ing on the surface of the water, and only directed by
its current ; suddenly they skim along wdth the greatest
velocity, either in search of food or their mate. In his
native state, the Alligator is exceedingly voracious, and
feeds on any animal substance that falls in his way.
As Catesby says, he springs upon domestic animals,
such as pigs, sheep, or oxen, that are imprudent enough
to penetrate into their solitudes ; but he seems in
general to be mostly attracted by fish and other animals
in motion, as minks, musk-rats, dogs, &c., so as to
render it almost impossible for them to cross even
small streams without danger at certain seasons of the
year. Holbrook tells us that Alligators are said to lie
in wait for their prey on the banks of creeks and rivers,
and when it approaches they sweep it into the water
with their tail ; “ and it is certain,” he adds, “ that the
animal uses the tail in defence, striking with it the
enemy, and turning the head to the same side, at the
same instant, so as to represent nearly a circle. There
seems to be some difi'erence of opinion amongst authors

The Alligatou. REPTILES. The Yacake. 83

as to the ferocity of the Alligator and his motions on
land. Mr. Holbrook says that this animal is much
more timid than is commonly supposed, and he believes
that there is no well authenticated instance in Carolina
of their having preyed on man. It moves but slowly
and with difficulty, he says, on land, in consequence of
the shortness of the extremities compared with the
great length of the body. “ He raises himself on his
legs, advances for a short distance, dragging along the
thick heavy tail ; now he falls upon the belly, apparently
to rest for a time, before he proceeds on his journey.”
Waterton, however, asserts that in Guiana this creature is
bold and ferocious, and by no means slow-paced on land.

Bartram’s testimony as to the ferocity of this species
corresponds with this account given by Waterton. The
stories given by this traveller of his different encoun-
ters with Alligators in Florida are most amusing, whilst
at -the same time his description of its habits is so
correct in many particulars, that, romance as it may
appear, we cannot refuse credit to his statements. He
travelled in Carolina, Georgia, and through East and
West Florida between the years 1773 and 1788 ; and,
as Holbrook remarks, though his description appears,
with our knowledge of these animals at the present
day to be one that should be received with caution,
yet it is very possible that the encroachments of man
upon their dwelling-places, since Bartram saw them,
may have rendered them more timid and distrustful.
We have already made a similar remark when describ-
ing the rattlesnake — see p. 44.

In the spring of the year and early summer months,
and during the period of incubation, and specially in
cloudy days or in the evening. Alligators make a great
noise. Their croak, according to Holbrook, is not
unlike that of the bull-frog, but louder and less pro-
longed. The females construct peculiar nests in which
to deposit their eggs. Mr. Holbrook informs us that
they mount small sandy hillocks, or construct small
mounds witlT mud and vegetable substances, for this
purpose. The eggs are hatched by the heat of the
sun in about thirty days ; and for some time after they
are born, the young appear to live only upon the larvte
of insects and very small fishes. The Alligator, like
other reptiles, can remain a long time without eating ;
and on the approach of winter the}^ seek out holes in
the earth, where they remain torpid till spring or the
warmth of the weather excites them again to life and
activity. In the Southern States many are dug out of
these retreats, in this state of hybernation, by the
slaves, who esteem the tail as an article of food, and
which is even declared by Holbrook to he “ tolerable.”
The eggs are also used as food. According to Water-
ton they are about the size of a turkey’s, and the
outside is rough and of a dirty-white colour.

The name of Alligator is most probably derived
from the Spanish word lagarta, a lizard. Waterton
says that the British having seized on the settlements
in America formed by the Spaniards, soon became
acquainted with this reptile, and on hearing the Span-
iards exclaim “ una lagarta ” when the animal made
its appearance, they, in their turn, called it “ an alli-
gator for so the two Spanish words, “ una lagarta,”
sounded in the English ears.

The genus Jacaee differs from Alligator^ in having
a ridge across the face between the eyes, and the nos-
trils being separated by a cartilaginous septum. The
jaws are oblong, depressed ; the hind feet are scarcely
webbed ; and the eyelids are fleshy.

THE SPECTACLED YACARE {Jacare sclerops).—T\iQ
species represented in Plate 7, fig. 3, is a native of
Brazil, and derives its name from the native appel-
lation of this reptile, the Guaranis calling it the Yacare.
Azara who tells us this, informs us also that it is
common in all the rivers, lagoons, and estuaries in
Paraguay, where it may be seen in the mornings
and evenings lying under the water, showing only
its eyes above the surface. About mid-day, however,
it leaves the water and comes ashore to sleep on the
sandy banks and bask in the sun. There it sleeps
profoundly, returning precipitately to the water the
moment a man or dog approaches. This Yacare grows
to a considerable size, eight feet being an ordinary
length, though it often reaches to still larger. Azara,
in his “ Travels in South America,” gives a very good
description of the Yacare. The head, he says, is flat
above, is long, and the muzzle so deeply cleft, that
from its tip to the angle of the throat is fourteen inches.
Its tail constitutes nearly half its total length, and is
rather singular in form. Its posterior part is triangu-
lar and prismatic, and there extends all along it a
series of scales in form of a crest. The upper part of
its body is covered with a skin of a dark colour, under-
neath which it has scales impenetrable to the balls of
a musket. It has them also underneath, so that they
can only be killed by striking them in the eyes, which are
small, or at the flanks. This reptile has no incisives,
and the rest of the teeth are so disposed that we may
at once infer that the animal can make no use of them
to cut with, not even to tear their prey, but that it is
obliged to swallow the fishes which it seizes without
masticating them. In Paraguay the natives do not
appear to fear the Yacares, and do not hesitate to
bathe and swim in the rivers frequented by them.
Sometimes, however, they seize dogs traversing the
stream, pull them under water and drown them. The
female lays about sixty eggs, which are about the size
of those of a goose, and are white. She buries them
in the sand, covering them over with herbage, and leaves
them to be hatched by the heat of the sun. These
eggs are much sought after by the Indians, who esteem
them as an article of food ; and they eat the flesh of
the animal also, which is white and well tasted, though
dry.

The third genus. Caiman, differs from the two
others, principally by the eyebrows being defended
with three bony plates. There are three species
described — one, the native habitat of which is not well
known, further than it is from South America, Caiman
trigonotus ; another a native of Brazil, the Eye-browed
Cayman, C. palpebrosus ; and the third, an inhabitant
of Tropical America, the Swollen-headed Cayman,
C. gibhiceps. Very little is known of their habits, and
the specimens are very rare in European museunis.
The toes are scarcely webbed, which might lead us to
suppose that these animals were more terrestrial in
their habits than the Alligators and Yacaris.

84 AMPHISBiENlANS. KEPTILES. Amphisbasnians.

OpvDer III. — DOUBLE WALKERS, or AMPHISBiENIANS (AMPiiisBiENiA).^

This last order of Reptiles, the Amphisbsenians, are
peculiar-looking animals, and are not of much general
interest. In some systematic arrangements they take
their place along with Serpents, and in others they are
placed amongst the Lizards. In the system we have
adojked in this work they form an order by them-
selves, and are placed at the end of the whole class of
Reptiles. In many of their characters they differ
from all the other orders we have been describing. The
body of the various animals which compose the order,
is elongate, of a c3dindrical form, and naked, but sur-
rounded with rings of square scales or plates, placed
crosswise, and divided into two sets, in all but the
Lejndosternons, by a slight longitudinal groove on
each side. The appearance of these square plates has
been compared to that of a piece of mosaic work. The
tail is short, continuous with the body, and about the
same dimensions. It is blunt, and generally of a
conical form. The head is the only part of the body
which possesses scales or plates similar to those of
lizards or serpents. The eyes are very small, and in
general appear like two simple black points, shining
through the skin b} which they are covered. The ears
are hidden under the skin, and no external auditory
holes are visible. The mouth is small and the jaws
are not extensile, the upper being fixed to the skull
and intermaxillai’y bones. The tongue is not sheathed
and extensile like that of serpents, neither is it forked,
but only notched at the end, and terminates in two
smooth threads. It is flat, short, and broad, and the
greater portion is covered with large flat papillae or
scales. The nostrils are small and placed on the
side of the muzzle. With the exception of the genus
Chirotes, the}' are totally destitute of limbs ; and even
that species which has them, possesses only the two
front members. AVith the exception of about two
species, they are all natives of the New World.

The Amphisbaenians in the catalogue of the Reptiles
in the British Museum consist of about fifteen species,
which are distributed in four families.

Family— AMPHISBJilNID^.

This family, that of the true Amphisbaenas, have the
teeth fixed on the internal edge of the jaws. They
arc placed in a single row, are conical, slightly curved,
simple, pointed, unequal, and distinct from each other.
The square scales or plates with which the body is
covered, are all of the same size and shape throughout.
The scales of the head, however, are variable in form.
There are no traces of limbs. The tail is short. The
species are chiefly found in America and the AVest
Indies. They live in the nests of the white ants, or
termites, and feed upon the larvae of these animals. A
number of febles have been related of these animals by
some of our earlier writers. It w'as said for instance,

* From the Greek word aTtijjhishcEtiio to walk iu

two ways.

and even believed, that if an Amphisbaena were cut in
two across the middle, the two heads would mutually
seek each other ; and that when they met, the cut
extremities united again, the blood serving as a sort of
cement for making them adhere. It w'as also believed
that if cut into three pieces, each head sought the side
to which it belonged, and that wdien the fragments
were united the animal w'as as whole as ever. This
reptile was also said to be difficult of being killed. The
only means of doing so was by cutting off the two
heads with a small part of the body, and suspending
them to a tree by a cord ; but that this was not to be
depended upon: for if the birds of prey did not eat
them, and if the cord rotted and allowed the dried
portions to fall to the ground, these parts became
revivified by the first rain which fell and moistened
them, and coming together, united again into a perfect
animal. Such belief is attributed to the natives of
Brazil at the present day; and Stedraan in his “ Voyage
to Surinam ” says, that “ the flesh of the Amjphislama,
dried and reduced to a fine powder, is confidently
administered as a sovereign and infallible remedy in
all cases of dislocation and broken bones— it being very
naturally inferred that an animal which has the power
of healing an entire amputation in his own case, should
at least be able to cure a simple fracture in the case of
another.”

THE AVHITE AMPHISBAINA {Amphishcena alba) is
the species selected for illustration — see Plate 3, fig. 3;
and Plate 8, fig. 9 (skull). This animal is a native of
Brazil, and, we are told, is know'n in that country by the
name oilbriaram, which signifies “ Lord of the earth.”
It is of a white colour, often spotless, and the body
possesses two hundred and twenty-three rings of scales,
and the tail from fifteen to twenty more. Azara met
with it in his travels in South America, and says that it
is common in Paraguay, but that he never saw it beyond
the thirtieth degree of south latitude. Margraave, an
early writer on America, was the first to describe this
Amphisbaena, but his description is not to be relied
upon. He relates, for instance, that the “serpent,”
as he considers it, wounds w'ith its tail as well as its
head, and that the bite is extremely venomous — both
assertions equally erroneous. He says, moreover, that
it lives underground, and that it attacks ant-hills, so as
to drive out the ants in large flocks as soon as they
Iiave got their wings. In all probability, like the fol-
lowing species, it feeds upon ants, and this may have
given rise to Margraave’s story.

THE SOOTY AMPHISBAlIfA {Ampldsbcenafuliginosa)
is a much larger species than the preceding, being from
one and a half to two, and even, according to Stedman,
three feet in length. It is of a very dark colour varied
with white, and has two hundred and twenty-two rings
on its body, and twenty-eight on the tail. It is a native
of Brazil, Cayenne, and some of the AA^’est Indian
islands; and its habits and manner of life are very
similar to those of the preceding species. It burrows

Lepidosxeenons. REPTILES. The Chirotes. 85

under ground, feeds upon earth-worms, slugs, insects,
&e., and it is said to make especial war upon ants’ nests.

Family— LEPIDOSTERNID^.

The second family, that of the Lepidosternons, differ
chiefly from the true Amphisbsenas, in having their
chests covered with shields of a larger size and a differ-
ent shape from those of the rest of the body, and by
the body having three lines which divide the rings of
scales into three sets. There are only three species
described, all natives of Brazil,

known. This curious-looking animal is about eight or
ten inches long, and is a native of Mexico. The
structure of its teeth, and the rings of scales with
which its body is covered, connect it with the Amphis-
baenas, otherwise its shape and short legs would lead
one to place it amongst the lizards, close to the Chal-
cides. The scales of the body are nearly square,
and, like the true Amphisbsenas, are divided into two
sets by a lateral line on each side. The tail is short,
cylindrical, rounded at the extremity, nearly of the
same size as the head and body ; and the rings are
entire, not divided by the line which runs along the
sides of the body, but which terminates at the vent.

The number of rings upon the body amounts to one

Family— CHIROTID^.

The third family, that of the Chirotes, differ from

hundred and fifty, and those of the tail to about thirty-

the two preceding families by the possession of two

one. The head of the Chirotes is rounded in front.

legs. These are the front members, and are placed

and scarcely distinguishable from the body; and the

near the head. They are, however, very short and

eyes are almost imperceptible, covered with a trans-

weak, but are furnished with five toes, four of which

parent skin, and destitute of eyelids. The feet are

possess a claw.

only about four or five lines long, and are covered with

THE MEXICAN CHIROTES [Chirotes lumhricoides)

rings of scales similar to those of the body. Little or

— represented in Plate 3, fig. 4 — is the only species

nothing is known of its habits.

Class — AMPHIBIA. — Frogs, Toads, Salamanders, &c.

The term Amphibia, amphibious animals, is derived

with persisting gills.” By many naturalists, the Am-

from the Greek word amphibios [ai^fi^ioi), which

phibia, instead of forming a class by themselves, con-

signifies “ having a double life.” The denomination is,

stitute only an order of the great class. Reptiles. They

in general language, applied very loosely, to mean any

differ, however, so much in many essential characters

animal that is so organized as to resort habitually to.

from all the other orders of that class, that they are

and seek its food in the water as well as on land ; to

fairly entitled to the rank of a distinct class of animals

any animal, in short, such as the walrus, the otter,

by themselves. Instead of being covered with scales.

water rat, &c., whose habits are aquatic as well as ter-

plates, or shields, the skin is naked, smooth, and often

restrial. Strictly speaking, however, the term Am-

moist, and lubricated with a fluid secretion, and aids

phibious applies only to such animals as have both

the lungs by affording a surface for the aeration of the

internal lungs to fit them for breathing atmospheric

blood. The lungs are equal in size on both sides, and

air, and gills, such as fishes have, to enable them to

of a cellular structure ; and the young are subject to a

breathe in the water. The number of animals so

metamorphosis. The body of amphibious animals is

organized, when they have arrived at an adult state.

either depressed, and squat, as the toad, &c.; elongated.

is very small; but there are many which at an early

like the salamanders and newts, &c.; or rounded, as

stage of their existence are so organized, and at differ-

the csecilias. The head is depressed and joined to the

ent periods of their life possess both lungs and gills.

body without any distinct neck or division. They

Both of these groups of animals belong to the present

have all a distinct and well-developed sternum, but the

class, and the general name of Amphibia has been

ribs are either only rudimentary or are altogether

retained by systematic naturalists for them exclusively.

wanting. The vertebrse or bones of the spine, in the

In those which at an early age are furnished with

back, are variable and not easily distinguishable from

gills, and like fishes, respire water, those organs in due

each other — in the tailless species, as the frog, being

time become obliterated, and the lungs then develope.

only ten, and in the sirens, being ninety in number.

These are the frogs, toads, newts, &c., and are called

In many of the species the body is destitute of a tail ;

Caducibranchiate amphibia, or “ amphibious animals

while in the others, this organ is well developed. The

with perishable gills.” In the other group, the gills

limbs vary in form and number ; in some being well

ai'e permanent organs, remaining after the owners have

developed, in others being very incomplete, and in

acquired lungs, and thus the animal can live indiffer-

several altogether wanting. The toes are destitute of

ently either in the water, respiring like fishes, or on

nails or claws, or, at the most, are only provided with

land, breathing like mammalia. These are the Axo-

small horny sheaths. They are in general, however.

loti, Lepidosiren, Proteus, and Siren, and are called

well adapted for receiving the impressions of touch.

Perennibranchiate amphibia, or “amphibious animals

The sensorial functions are blunt. Though the nerves

86 Amphibia. REPTILES. Amphibia.

are very distinct and robust, the cavity of the cranium
is very small, and even that is by no means fil’ed with
brain. The eye in general is contained in a large
orbit, in most of them is protected by three lids, and
in some is moistened by a fluid analogous to tears.
The pupil, except in the tailless species, whose habits
are nocturnal, and in which it is angular or linear, is
round and very dilatable. There is considerable dif-
ference in the structure of the organ of hearing; in
some the auditory canal is visible externally, and in
others is not apparent. The nostrils in the great
majority of the Amphibia are inclosed in a bony case ;
and the internal nostrils open into the middle of the
palate, as in the frogs, &c.; but in some there is no
bony case, and the internal nostrils open between the
lips and bones of the palate. The tongue is in general
of a good size, is very soft and fleshy throughout, and
in most is armed with a tenacious, viscous secretion.
The mouth is very wide and without movable lips.
In a few species the teeth are wanting; but in most of
them they are present, and are implanted in the jaws.
Generally they are numerous, simple, of small but
equal size, and close set, either in a single row, or
aggregated like the teeth of a rasp. The heart con-
sists of a single ventricle and two auricles in the adult.
The circulation is simple, part of the blood passing
through the lungs or gills, and then returning into the
general current. The blood is cold, and has large and
elliptical globules. They all have lungs, which are
formed of large cells, and float in the cavity of the
belly. In general they are two, but in some, as in the
salamanders, there is only one, which resembles a
bladder. In early life they are furnished with gills,
a:ialogous to those of fishes, which are supported by
cartilaginous arches resulting from the prolongation of
the bone of the tongue, the os hyoides. When in a
perfect state, the greater number lose this gill appa-
ratus, whilst others preserve them during life. 'I'he
act of respiration is carried on by the muscles of the
throat, and is somewhat similar to that of deglutition
or swallowing, it being necessary for inspiring air that
the mouth should be closed. Most of the Amphibia
are oviparous; some, however, being ovoviviparous.
In the males there are no external genital organs
visible, and the act of reproduction consists in a simple
contact, which endures for several days. The eggs
have a membranous envelope, are most frequently
laid before fecundation takes place, and increase in size
after they are laid. The young undergo a variety of
transformations. At first they do not possess limbs,
but are furnished with a tail ; and when they become
nearly adult, they assume four members, and the
greater proportion of them lose their tail.

The Amphibia almost all live in the water or in
moist places. In early life they are herbivorous, but
they become carnivorous as they pass into the perfect
state. They never, however, feed on the dead car-
casses of animals.

The Amphibia have been arranged in different ways
by different naturalists. Some take the absence or
presence of a tail in the adult state as a means of
division into two great groups — the Tailless and the
Tailed. Others consider the character of the gills,

whether caducous or persisting, as a better method of
arrangement — the Caducibranchiate and the Perenni-
branchiate. “ The division adopted by many zoolo-
gists of the present day,” says Professor Bell, “ accord-
ing to the mere presence or absence of the tail in the
perfect state, is not only liable to the objections which
belong to all merely dichotomous arrangements, but
appears to be far less natural, and far less consistent
with the physiological characters of the groups, than
that which is derived from the absence or presence and
the duration of the branchiae.” In the arrangement of
the animals of this class adopted by Dr. Gray in his
catalogue of the Amphibia in the British Museum, and
which we propose following in these pages, the struc-
ture of the nostrils, with the condition and duration of
the gills, are the principal characters relied upon.

The greater proportion, as we have before observed,
have the nostrils inclosed in a bony case, and open
internally on the sides of the middle of the palate.
These form the group Tritones. The others, which
have no bony case to include the nostrils, and have
them opening internally between the lips and the bones
of the palate, form the group Sirenes.

The first group. Tritones, is divided into three
Orders : —

I. Batrachia, containing the Frogs, Toads, and
Salamanders, and distinguished by the well-developed
gill of the young animals disappearing when they reach
the mature form, and being then provided with well-
developed lungs and four limbs.

II. PsEUDOSAURiA, containing the curious and sin-
gular animals called the Hell-bender {Protonopsis),
and the Congo snake {Amplduma) ; and distinguished
by their having the gill rudimentary or internal, with
the gill apertures permanent throughout life. The
limbs, which are four in number, are either short or
almost rudimentary.

III. PSEUDOPHIDIA, containing the anomalous-
looking animals called the Cmcilise ; and distinguished
by having a rudimentary or internal gill like the pre-
ceding order, but with the gill apertures, which are on
the side of the neck, becoming closed in the adults.

The second group, Sirenes, contains but few spe-
cies, and is divided into two Orders : —

I. Meantia, containing the well-known animals
the Proteus and Siren ; and characterized by their
having well-developed gills which remain throughout
the w'hole life of the animal, rendering them, as they
possess lungs also, truly amphibious. The limbs in
some are four in number, in others only two, but they
are only weak and rudimentary organs.

II. PsEUDOiCHTHYAS, Containing the very interest-
ing but disputed animal called the Mud-fish {Lepido-
siren) ; and characterized by having both an external
and an internal gill and four very rudimentary and
elongate, narrow limbs resembling the fins of fishes.

The animals contained in this order appear to con-
nect the Reptilian Class with that of the Fishes, and
by Professor Owen, Sir John Richardson, and some
others, are placed amongst these latter animals. As
Sir John Richardson is engaged on the article Fishes
for this work, we will leave the further notice of these
curious creatures to him.

Batkachians. REPTILES. Frogs. 87

OEDEE, OF BATEACHIANS (Batrachia).

In all the Batrachia the skin is soft and smooth, and
generally more or less moist. It possesses the power of
secreting fluid, and thus materially assists in effecting
those changes in the blood which in other animals are
performed by the lungs or gills. All the Batrachians,
the history of which we are well acquainted with,
undergo a series of transformations or metamorphoses
while advancing from youth to maturity. The young
enter life under an entirely different form from that
which they are afterwards to assiime. At first emerg-
ing from the egg, and for some considerable time after-
wai'ds, their form and structure are essentially similar
to those of fishes. They have an elongated body, no
feet, a laterally compressed tail, and external gills.
The mouth, which is small, is furnished with horny
hooks or teeth for the separation of vegetable matter,
and they have a small tube on the lower lip for attach-
ing themselves to aquatic plants. In this state they
are known by the name of tadpoles. At a certain
period of their growth a gradual change takes place.
In some the external gills disappear, and become
covered with a membrane, being placed in a sac under
the throat. The creature now breathes as a fish. Soon
the hinder limbs begin to make their appearance,
showing themselves near the origin of the tall ; the
anterior limbs are then put forth. The lungs, which

hitherto have been rudimentary, now begin to be
developed ; the gills are removed by absorption, and
the animals respire like perfect reptiles.

All the Batrachians, in their first state especially,
swim well, and the greater number can also, at least in
the adult state, walk upon the earth, and can climb and
even leap with great facility. The form of their body
indicates as it wmre beforehand the nature of their
movements. Thus, for example, all those which pre-
serve the tail in their adult state walk only slowly;
they can merely drag- their bodies along the ground,
and usually live in the water, as the Salamanders.
Those, on the contrary, which lose this member, as
the Frogs, w'alk on the ground, climb trees, and leap
with great agility. Taking these their habits into con-
sideration, as well as their form when in the adult
stage of existence, naturalists have in consequence
divided the whole Order of Batrachians into two sub-
orders or large groups. The first is the sub-order
Salientia or Leaping Batrachians, by many authors
called Anouka, or Tailless Batrachians ; and con-
tains the Frogs and Toads. The second sub-order
is that of the Gradientia, or Walking Batrachians,
called by many authors Urodela, or Tailed Batra-
chians ; and contains the Salamanders, and Tritons or
Newts, &c.

Sub-order I. — BATEACHIA SALTENTIA, or ANOUEA (Tailless Batrachians).

In the catalogue of the species of the Batrachia
Salienfia in the British Museum, compiled by Dr.
Gunther, and which amount to the number of two
lumdred and eighty, this suborder of Batrachians is
divided into three groups, according to the presence

Fig. 23.

Mouth of Polypedates Schlegelii — to show form and structure of
tongue of the Opisthoglossa.

or absence and form of the tongue. The greater num-
ber have their tongue, which is fleshy and somewhat
bifurcated at the tip, adhering to the jaw in front,
whilst it is more or less free behind — forming the
group called Opisthoglossa. or Front-tied tongues —
fig. 23. A few have this member free in front, and
form the group Proteroglossa ; whilst there is a small
number again which have no tongue at all. These are
called Aglossa.

The first group, the Front-tied tongues {Opistho-
glossa), contains more than seven-eighths of the whole

number of species, and is divided into sections accord-
ing to the structure of their toes ; one set having the
toes sharp at their extremities {Oxydactyla), while
another has the tips of the toes dilated into small pads
{Platydactyla). The sharp-toed section is composed
of the true frogs and toads, Panina and Bvfonina,
while the flat-toed section contains the tree-frogs,
Hylina ; —

Kanina, or Frogs.

The Frogs are in general of a slight, thin form, with
the hind legs much longer than those in front. When
in a state of repose on the ground, they carry their
head very high, and their hind legs are then doubly
folded on themselves, forming an angle of 45° with the
length of the body. The muscular system is well
developed, and the muscles of the thigh and leg parti-
cularly so, presenting a great analogy with those of
man. They possess a gi-eat degree of elasticity, and
in consequence of this, the leaps which these animals
take when suddenly roused or alarmed, are very great,
extending sometimes, it is said, over a space more
than fifty times the length of its body. Frogs gene-
rally feed upon the larvae of aquatic insects, worms,
small mollusca, &c. ; and they are sure to select for
their prey an animal which is alive and in motion.
They always reject dead animal matter. To obtain

88 Bateachiaus REPTILES. Bateachians.

this prey they watch with great patience till it comes
within their reach. They then dart upon it with great
velocity, shooting out the tongue in order to catch it
by means of the viscid secretion by which it is covered.
This fluid appears to retain the object seized, while the
two points of the bifurcation seem to twist round it.
The prey once seized, it is speedily swallowed, the
animals pushing it into the oesophagus with the thumbs

of their fore feet. In consequence of their feeding on
worms and mollusca, frogs are useful animals in gar-
dens, as they destroy great numbers of slugs and
worms, which are so hurtful in these places. Frogs,
having the toes of the hinder feet webbed, swim remarlo-
ably well in the water ; and on land their mode of
progression is by a series of successive short leaps —
fig. 24. These animals are generally found in moist

Fig. 24.

Mouth and fore and hind feet of Kana Occipitalis-rto show structure of toes and tongue of the group Kanina, or Frogs*

places, in the grass of meadows, and on the banks of
streamlets, into which they continually leap and dive.
In summer, during or after w'arm rain, they make their
appearance in our meadows in such vast quantities, that
many people have imagined that it had rained frogs.
This is an ancient belief, and is still in full credit in
the provincial pai'ts of many countries of Europe.
Several of the old authors have mentioned this sudden
appearance of these creatures ; and Aristotle, in noticing
the phenomenon, calls the frogs so suddenly called as
it were into existence, diopetes {hlu’Zirrig), or “ sent
from Jove.” The males of some species, especially
the Edible or Green frog, have two sacs called vocal
pouches, on each side of the throat, which in general
are only manifested externally by the swelling which
is produced in them when filled with air. These ani-
mals have a peculiar and sonorous cry, louder and
stronger in the species with the vocal sacs, which is
known in this country b}^ the name of croaking. It is
chiefly during rain in warm weather, and in the morn-
ing and evening, that we hear this noise, which must
be familiar to every one. In autumn, when the sum-
mer heats are over, these animals appear to lose their
voracity, and cease to take food ; and when the cold
becomes more considerable, they protect themselves
from its rigour by sinking into the mud of deep waters,
or by taking up their abode in holes on the banks of
streams and ditches. They sometimes assemble in one
place in such quantities as to cover the soil to the
depth of a foot, and thousands may thus be taken in a
few minutes. In this country they revive upon the
return of spring, and emerge from their winter retreats
to recommence a life of activity and obey the grand
law of nature — the reproduction of their species. The
arrival of the season for this important function is
shown in the male bj^ the appearance of a black wart

on the fore feet, and the belly swelling. The male
frog leaps on the back of the female, to whom he clings
by the aid of these warts on his fore feet. During the
cohesion of the two sexes, which lasts for a consider-
able period, sometimes for fifteen or even twenty days,
the female commences depositing her eggs, which are
fecundated during their passage by the seminal fluid of
the male. When first expelled these eggs are globular,
black on one side, and whitish on the other. They
are enveloped in a glairy or glutinous transparent
mass, which serves for the nutriment of the embryo,
and swell greatly in the water after they are laid.
They are, in the case of the common frog of this
country, deposited at the bottom of the water, and
then float on to the surface, and are left there to hatch
by the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere. The
number deposited at each laying is very great, as many
it is said as from six hundred to twelve hundred
annually. Swammerdam once counted eleven hundred,
and Montbeillard thirteen hundred, from one female.
The development of the young is more or less rapid
according to the temperature of the atmosphere. In
a few hours after its expulsion the egg begins to show
a slight change. At the end of about fifty hours, when
the temperature is high, the embryo may be seen
within the egg, with the head well marked, the tail
somewhat elongated, and even the rudiment of the
membrane or web which is destined to form its fin is
visible. The development then goes on gradually, till,
according to Professor Bell, in the ordinary temperature
of this country, at the end of a month the young crea-
ture bursts its shell and comes forth in the well-known
state of a tadpole. At this stage of its existence it is
blind and destitute of feet. It has a large liead, a
globular belly, a long tail, and external gills by which
it respires. It feeds solely on vegetable substances,

Fkogs. REPTILES. Common Frog. 89

and is only adapted for living in the water. This
state does not last very long. Changes continue to
take place as the development of the little creature
progresses. No sooner have the external gills attained
their greatest development, than they begin to diminish
in size; they become obtuse, and are gradually so
reduced as to be withdrawn within the branchial
cavity, and concealed by a little operculum of the
integument. The eyes are now perfectly formed ; the
mouth has acquired movable lips ; and the web or
membrane of the tail has become considerably deve-
loped, and serves for very varied and rapid locomo-
tion. By and by the legs begin to show themselves
— the hinder extremities first, and the fore legs shortly
after. As the hinder extremities increase in size,
the tail becomes less, until it almost disappears by
being absorbed. The gills then disappear ; the animal
respires air by means of its lungs, and now acquires
the form which it is destineddo preserve for the rest of
its life. They grow very rapidly after this, assume their
carnivorous tastes, and come on to the dry land to
search for worms and insects. During the summer
frogs change their skin several times — at least they
throw off their epidermis. They are said to he long-
lived, though there is no certainty as to the exact
number of years. It is ascertained, however, as a
fact, that they do not retain their reproductive powers
beyond three or four years. The flesh of frogs is
white, delicate, and contains much gelatine. In Eng-
land frogs are not eaten, indeed are rather looked upon
with disgust as an article of food ; but in France and
some other parts of Europe a great consumption of
these creatures takes place. They are taken in various
ways — caught with a hook, or in little nets, or drawn
to the shore by means of rakes. Sometimes they are
fished for at night, and with the aid of torches, the
light of which attracts them. They are considered
best, as food, in autumn, just previous to their seeking
their winter’s retreat ; for at that period they are fatter
and in better condition, and their flesh is of a more
delicate flavour. In spring they are less delicate, and
not so well flavoured ; but notwithstanding that, many
are taken at that season, as they are then more easily
caught. In some places on the continent there are
depots, where frogs are kept in reserve to be sold at
all seasons of the year. Gardens are furnished with
pieces of water for the purpose, and surrounded with
walls to prevent their escape. About a century ago,
or perhaps more, frogs were much more in request as an
article of food than they are now. A native of Auvergne,
it is said, of the name of Simon, made a considerable
fortune in Paris, by fattening up, in a suburb of that
city, the frogs which he had collected in his own
country. Even at the present day in France, and in
various parts of Italy, these ci’eatures are to be found
at certain seasons in most of the markets. In Ger-
many too, they form a portion of the food of the people,
and in that country, it is said, all parts of the animal
are eaten except the skin and viscera; whereas in
France only the hind legs are used for that purpose.
They are dressed like fish, and served up with wine or
white sauce.

The species of this group, the Tailless Batrachians,
Voi.. II. 68

are found in all parts of the world. Many species
have been described; seventy-five distinct members
of this section alone (Kanina) being enumerated in the
Catalogue of the British Museum. It is a curious fact,
that some have been found existing in the waters of
hot springs. Spallanzani has recorded their being
seen by him in the hot baths of Pisa, in a temperature
of 37° of Reaumur — equal to 115° Fahrenheit. None,
however, it would appear, have ever been found in any
volcanic islands. This euT ious fact was stated by Bory
St. Vincent, and since then has been confirmed by Mr.
Darwin.

RANA TEMPOKAEIA. — This is the most abundant
of all the species of the Ranina in this country. In
Great Britain it is called the Common frog, hut on the
continent it is known by the name of the Red frog
— to distinguish it from the Green or Edible frog,
which is their common frog. It is tolerably abun-
dant throughout all Europe, and lives much on land
during the summer season. In this country it is
found in moist meadows and gardens ; and while
the Green frog rarely forsakes the water, this species
must be sought for amongst bushes and long grass,
even a long way from the neighbourhood of streams.
The male does not possess the vocal sacs, and from
its not in consequence having such a loud croak, it
has been sometimes called the Mute frog. It does,
however, emit this sound, but, it is said, chiefly when
under water. The Common frog is of a brown colour,
inclining more or less to yellowish or reddish-brown
on the upper side, spotted irregularly with black, brown,
or brownish-gray, with transverse bands of the same
colour on the legs. The under surface is yellowish-
white, sometimes with spots similar to those on the
back, but smaller and fewer. One of the most char-
acteristic marks of the species is an elongated patch of
brown or brownish-black behind the eyes, on each
side, and extending from the eye to the shoulder. It
is from this distinguishing mark that it has obtained
the name of temporaria — in allusion to this patch on
the temples. The skin is naked and smooth, and the
animal is remarkable for its changes of colour. These
changes, says Professor Bell, although certainly much
less striking and considerable, are scarcely less varied
than those exhibited by the chameleon. At the
approach of winter they retire to their hybernating
retreats, and remain during that season in a state of
torpidity. Their winter quai’ters are generally at the
bottom of ponds, amongst the mud, and they are some-
times to be found in such places in large numbers,
embracing each other so closely as to appear like
one continuous mass. Though, as we have stated
above, the Common frog of England is found through-
out the greater part of Europe, and, according to
Dr. Gunther, even in Japan, in China, and North
America, it has been frequently related that it does
not exist, as an indigenous species, in Ireland. Any
person travelling in that country at the present day
can have no difficulty in ascertaining the fact of their
existence ; but it would appear that they were only
introduced there a little after the beginning of the
eighteenth century.

THE EDIBLE, OR GREEN FROG {Rana esculenta oi

90

Batbachians. REPTILES. Batbachians.

viridis) — Plate 1, fig. 1 — is rather larger than our
Common frog. It varies very much in colour, accord-
ing to the locality in which it is found. In general the
upper parts of the body are of a beautiful green tint,
irregularly marked with brown or blackish spots or
patches of nearly equal size, the limbs being marked
transversely with bands of the same colour. It differs
from the preceding species in wanting the dark mark
extending from the back of the eye to the shoulder, and
in having three distinct narrow bands, of a fine golden
yellow, running down along the back. The male is dis-
tinguished by having a vocal sac on each side, behind
the angle of the mouth. When filled with air in the
act of croaking, they become large and globular, stand-
ing out, one on each side of the head. The Edible
frog is essentially aquatic in its habits. It is found
in running streams as well as in stagnant waters ; in
rivers as well as in ponds ; in marshes, ditches, and
even the smaller pools of standing water. It seldom
comes to land, and never remains far from the banks
of streams or ponds, hut throws itself precipitately into
the water the moment it hears any noise, nor does it
expose itself again until certain that all danger is past.
In general it is in muddy places where reeds and other
aquatic plants grow, that this frog is found ; and there
either lying motionless on the surface of the water, or
perched on some aquatic plant, as water lilies, &c., it
pours forth during most of the summer season the most
intolerable croakings. The female, which wants the
vocal sacs, produces more of a groaning kind of noise,
but the croak of the male is exceedingly powerful, from
the air which it forces into these sacs causing a great
vibration in them ; and they croak by day as well as
by night. As the name imports, it is this species

which is eaten on the Continent. In France it is
the Common frog ; and there, and in other parts of
Eui'ope, a considerable consumption takes place an-
nually. In Vienna, it is said, they are fattened up for
sale, and kept in preserves called Froggeries (Grenouil-
lieres), constructed for the express purpose. The food
of this species, like that of the preceding, consists of
insects, small aquatic mollusca, and worms, provided
they be alive and in motion. They are voracious
creatures, and may be taken during the heats of sum-
mer by a line baited with a piece of scarlet cloth,
which is kept iu motion so as to give it the appearance
of a living creature. They are also captured by a line
having a round ball of bread or dough attached to it
and put in motion. Being suddenly swallowed, before
the animal has time to open its mouth to permit the
bait to be rejected, a sudden jerk of the line lands it
on the bank. The Edible frog has a wide range ; it
is found throughout the greater part of Europe ; in
Northern Africa, in Persia, China, and Japan. Its
existence as a British species, however, has only been
very lately recorded. It was first, we believe, made
known as a denizen of our isle by Mr. F. Bond, who
published a short notice of its capture in Cambridge-
shire in the Zoologist, in 1843. It was found by a
friend of his in Foulmire Fen, and was then thought
to be very rare. Subsequently, however, Mr. Bond
found them in considerable abundance, and describes
the male as having, when croaking, “ two large blad-
ders, one on each side of the mouth, which give it a
very curious appearance.” Pie expresses his surprise
that they were never seen before, their croaking being
so very different from that of the Common frog ; “ the
sound,” he says, “ is more of a loud snore, exactly like

Fig. 25.

Bull Frog (Kana muglens).

that of the barn owl {Strix flammed). The whole fen
was quite in a charm with their song!” He further
remarks that it is a very timid animal, disappears on
the least alarm, and is not very easy to catch. Pro-
fessor Bell, iu the same work {Zoologist), says, the

croaking of this frog is so loud and shrill as to have
obtained for them the name of “ Cambridgeshire
Nightingales,” and “ Wh addon organs!” In a later
number of this journal (1849), Mr. Doubleday ofEpping
is said to have turned out some specimens of this

Bull-fkog. EEPTILES. Toads. 91

species, received from Cambridgeshire, into a pond
near hia own residence, and that they soon migrated to
another pond, and there made themselves perfectly at
home.

THE BULI-PKOG {Rana mugiens, ov pipiens) — fig. 25
— a North American species, is of a large size, reaching
even to the length of twenty-one inches, the body alone
measuring seven lengthwise, four or five across, and
weighing about two pounds. The head of this species
is very large, broader than long. It has a very large
mouth, great prominent eyes, and the vocal sacs are
internal. The body is thick and massy, smooth above,
and in front it is of a green colour ; dusky, with only
a greenish tinge behind, and marked with irregular
blotches of dark -brown. On the sides and belly it is
of a yellowish tint, fading almost to a dusky-white.
Bull-frogs are found in almost every marsh and pond
of North America, and in general are solitary in their
habits, only collecting together in the breeding season,
at which time hundreds maybe seen in one small pond,
and then, says Mr. Holbrook, “ the croak uttered by
the males is so loud as to resemble the distant roaring
of a bull, and can be heard on still evenings at the dis-
tance of half a mile. During the day they are generally
quiet, and only begin their noise at the approach of
twilight or in dark cloudy weather.”

There are some species of frogs in South America
which are distinguished from all others by having the
edge of the upper eyelid more or less produced into a
point, so as to form a long horn. Azara tells us that
in Paraguay the residents do not distinguish frogs from
toads, but call all the animals of this order by the
general name of toad. At Chaco, he says, “ there are
some toads which weigh several pounds, and there are
others very large, which are seen leaping in all the low
grounds when there is moisture. They are neither
very ugly nor very sw'ollen, and one would say that
they had ears straight like horns.”

These frogs constitute the genus Ceratophiiys, of
■which four species have been described.

THE HOENED FEOG {Ceratophrys cornuta), which
is found in Cayenne and Brazil, is the best known. It
is a large species, equal in size to the bull-frog of North
America. The bead is very depressed in form, and
very broad behind, and the mouth is enormously large.
The skin is covered nearly all over with tubercles, and
is of a cinereous yellow colour, striped with lines of
obscure grayish-brown. “ It is difficult to find an
animal,” says Shaw, “ of a more singular appearance
than the present, not so much from the general shape
of the animal as from the extraordinary structure of
the upper eyelids, which are so formed as to resemble
a pair of short sharp-pointed horns ; while the width
of the mouth is such as to exceed that of any other
species, and even to equal half the length of the body
itself.” The Prince of Wied informs us that it lives in
the large, obscure, and moist woods, and particularly
in the marshes of Brazil, although it is also met with
in cultivated and even dry places. It leaps well, and
towards evening may be heard uttering a monotonous
croaking. Its food consists of small mice, birds, and
small frogs, molluscs, and other diminutive animals.

All our readers are familiar with the plague of frogs

brought as a punishment upon Pharaoh for refusing
liberty to the Hebrews. Though this was a mii'aculous
visitation, ordered by God for a special purpose, it was
not contrary to nature. The plague consisted in its
unexampled intensity and magnitude, indicated by the
fact that the immense heaps of the carcasses of these
animals ultimately corrupted the land ; “ and still more,”
as Dr. Kitto observes, “ by the fact that their numbers
were such as to force them when alive to forego their
natural habits, and, instead of confining themselves to
the waters and moist soils, to spread over the country,
intruding even into the most frequented and driest
places^ — the most private chambers, the beds, nor even
the ovens being exempt from the visitation.” The
frog was one of the sacred animals of the Egyptians ;
and in this instance the object of their superstition
became the instrument of their punishment. Frogs are
still very abundant in the Nile, —

THE DOTTED FEOG {Rana — Pelodyte.s — punctata),
which is of an ash-colour, dotted above with dark spots,
being the common species of the country. It is said
to change colour when alarmed, and is also found in
Europe.

Bufonina, or Toads.

The Toads are distinguished from the Panina or Frogs
by their having no teeth in the jaw, and by their hav-
ing a well-developed ear. In general the tongue is not
notched at the tip, but is entire, and longer than in the
frogs. Many of them have a smooth skin, but the
true toads, species of the genus B%ifo, have it covered
more or less all over with warty tubercles. The head
varies very much in size and form, being sometimes
very small, at others very large ; and the shape of the
body is equally various. In all of them the processes
of the sacral vertebrae are dilated, and the greater num-
ber possess those glands known by the name of paro-
tids. The extremities vary much in length, but in
many of the species the hinder ones are much shorter
than in the frogs. The fingers are four in number,
all free, and the toes are five, more or less webbed ;
while on the plantar surface, in the greater number,
there is a tubercle, sometimes greatly developed,
which from its position resembles a sixth toe. The
males have either one only or two vocal sacs, which
are in all of them internal. In the toads as in the
frogs we find a number of small glands scattered
over the skin, which secrete a viscid fluid. It is said
these animals have the power of increasing at will this
secretion, and cause it to run out like a dew at all
points. This humour was at one time considered to
be poisonous, and though this notion is now rejected
by naturalists, and the liquid proved to be innocuous,
it is yet perhaps possessed of some use as a means of
defence. It is somewhat fetid and of an acrid quality,
is neither acid nor alkaline, but when evaporated yields
a transparent residue, which acts on the tongue like
extract of aconite. The use, according to Dr. Davy,
may be to defend the reptile against the attacks of
carnivorous animals, and may serve, also, he thinks, as
an auxiliary to the function of the lungs. This poi-
sonous reputation of toads, however, is still a common

92 Batkachians. REPTILES. Bateachians.

belief among the vulgar, and will perhaps continue to
exist as long as Shakspeare is read. The poor reptiles
will still be held up as moral beacons, and bad men
will still be

“ Marked by the destinies, to be avoided

As venom toads, or lizard’s dreadful stings ! ”

— Heni-y VI., Part 3.
Shakspeare’s belief in the poisonous nature of toads
seems very strong, so often does he introduce the
image. In Richard the Third, for instance, the Lady
Anne, in that “ keen encounter of their wits,” seems
to come to a crisis in her passion, when she tells the
“ hunchback” as she spits upon him, that —

“ Never hung poison on a fouler toad.

Out of my sight! thou dost infect mine eyes.”

and Queen Margaret can find no fitter name for him
than

“ That poisonous hunch-backed toad.”

■ — Bichard III.

The negroes of Africa, however, have no such super-
stition. Knowing from experience that the skin of the
toads is cool, from the great amount of evaporation
which takes place from the skin, they, as Adanson
informs us, “ in traversing the burning sands of Sene-
gal, are in the habit of applying one of them alive
to the forehead for the purpose of cooling it.” The
reproduction of toads, and the metamorphoses of the
young, are in all essential points similar to those of the
frogs. The ova, however, instead of being expelled
in a mass, are arranged in a double series, placed
alternately and perfectly regular. The jelly-like
mass in which the embryos are enveloped, forms a
continuous line about the eighth or sixth of an inch
in thickness, and extending to the length of three or
four feet. They are deposited about a fortnight later
than those of the frogs, and the only difference in the
tadpoles is that they are darker and smaller.

The food of toads consists of small molluscs, worms,
and insects, which must be alive or in motion, as
the}' never touch dead or motionless animals. When
about to feed, the animal remains quite still, with its
eyes turned directly forwards upon the object, and the
head a little inclined towards it, and in this attitude it
remains until the insect or other animal moves ; when,
by a stroke like lightning, the tongue is thrown forward
upon the victim, which is instantly drawn into the
mouth. So rapid is this movement, that it requires
some little practice, as well as close observation, to
distinguish the different motions of the tongue. They
are for the most part truly nocturnal in their hahits,
seldom issuing from their sombre retreats till night
comes on, or after the hot rains of summer. Toads
can live a long time without eating. Instances have
occurred, apparently on good authority, of their having
been found shut up for years in old walls, hollow trees,
or in the substance of the earth, without their having
been able to get out, and without losing life.

The feet of toads are seldom used for walking.
These animals, in fact, only creep, and when they are
suddenly laid hold of or surprised, they do not attempt
to seek safety in flight. They stop suddenly, swell the
body, render it hard and elastic, distil from the tuber-

cles on the skin a white and fetid humour, emit a
peculiar fluid from the anus, and attempt to bite.
Their bite, however, occasions no great inconvenience,
merely producing at times a slight degree of inflamma-
tion. In temperate countries, or where the weather is
cold, toads pass this season of the year in retired and
sheltered holes, hollow trees, or spaces amongst large^
stones, and there, in a state of torpidity, remain until
the return of spring calls them again into a state of
life and activity.

Of the Bufonina forty-four species have been de-
scribed by Dr. Giinther in the British Museum Cata-
logue.

THE COMMON TOAD {Bufo vulgaris) — Plate 2, fig.
1 — is very abundant throughout Europe, and occurs
also in China and Japan. At all times this poor crea-
ture has been condemned as a disgusting, odious, and
venomous reptile, and has in consequence suffered
more undeserved persecution than almost any other
animal of the class to which he belongs. As Professor
Bell observes, in Great Britain the Common toad is
held up as the emblem of all that is malicious and
hateful in the human character, is placed under uni-
versal ban, and treated as an outlaw both by man and
boy throughout the country. “ As loathsome as a
toad,” “ the loathed toad,” is still the language used
in reference to this poor inoffensive animal. In general
form it is certainly far from being prepossessing, for
the body is puffed out and swollen, the head is large
and flat on the top, the muzzle rounded and very
obtuse. The body is covered with warts, which are
larger above and more numerous beneath, and on the
nape of the neck are two thick, prominent, and porous
glands called the parotids. The colour is sombre ; a
lurid brownish-gray, with reddish-brown tubercles. It
is about three inches to three and a half in length.
The Toad is terrestrial in its general habits, and is
usually found in obscure and sheltered places. It is
nocturnal in its mode of life, coming out in the evening
to seek for its food. It is “ heavy-gaited,” as Shak-
speare well observes, and its mode of progression is by
crawling, its quickest movement being an imperfect
leap. To compensate for this, the rapidity with which
it darts out its tongue to seize its living prey is some-
thing extraordinary. Insects and w'orms form its chief
supply, and generally the animal is swallowed alive.
Earth-worms are a favourite article of food, and it is a
very curious eight, says Professor Bell, to watch the
manner in which the powerfid and writhing worm
is secured: — “If the toad happens to take it by the
middle, the extremities of the worm are twined with great
force and activity around the muzzle in every direction,
in its attempts to escape ; but the Toad pushes one
portion after another into its mouth by means of the
fore feet, until it all disappears, when it is swallowed
whole.” The Toad sheds its skin at certain intervals,
and the process as described by Mr. Bell is rather a
curious one. The old skin splits in the middle down
the back and along the belly. In a short time these
halves become wrinkled, and by means of the con-
tinued twitching of the animal’s body, the skin is
brought down on the sides in folds. The legs are
then forced from the old cuticle, first the hinder, then

The Natter-jack. REPTILES. Tree-frogs. 93

tlie fore ones, and finally the whole is detached,
pushed by the two hands into the mouth in a little
ball, and then swallowed at a single gulp !

THE NATTER-JACK {Bu.fo calamita) is another
European species, and is found, equally with the com-
mon toad, in various parts of Great Britain. It is,
however, much more local than the other, and appears
confined to certain districts. It is said to be truly
indigenous to Ireland, the only instance of an indi-
genous native reptile in that country. It is not quite
so large as the common toad, the body being only
about two and three quarter inches in length. It is of
a light yellowish-brown colour, clouded with dull olive,
a bright yellow line running along the middle of the
back. The Natter-jack is not so “ heavy-gaited” as
the common toad, for when it is excited it runs toler-
ably quick, its body being raised considerably above
the ground during its progress. It is far more capable
of sustaining drought than the other species, and is
often observed to climb on walls and trees, and con-
ceal itself in holes. Professor Bell says that this
animal is very common in his garden at Selborne,
and that he has often found several of them lying
under the shallow layer of turf covering the top of a
wall of a ha-ha there, exposed to the powerful rays of
the summer’s sun, in the hottest and dryest situation
in the garden. It is common in France, and in Saxony
it is frequently found in the houses. It never goes to
the water but for the purpose of reproduction ; the
union of the two sexes taking place in spring, in the
water, and the metamorphosis of the young undergoing
the same stages as the common toad. The skin of
the Natter-jack is said to exhale a strong odour of gun-
powder.

America produces a number of toads, and of various
sizes, but we hasten on to the curious “ Tree-frogs.”

TBEE-FEOGS {Hylina).

The second series of Batrachians with the tongue
adherent in front {Opisthoglossa), is composed of
species which have the fingers and toes dilated into
discs at the extremities — fig. 26. These form the

Fig. 26.

Ilyla— fore feet and dilated toes of two species.

Broad-tced Opisthoglossa {Opisthoglossa platydactyla),
and are synonymous with what are well known as Tree-
frogs. The species are numerous, and by far the greater
number belong to the section Hylina, which is charac-

terized by the animals belonging to it having maxillary
teeth and a well and perfectly developed ear. Tree-
frogs form a very natural group of Batrachians, and
the distinguishing character of the fingers and toes being
dilated into discs covered with a viscous secretion, is
most important, and influences their whole mode of
existence. By means of this organization these crea-
tures can adhere to smooth surfaces, as glass, leaves of
plants, &c. ; and they are thus enabled to climb trees,
to leap from branch to branch, and to traverse with
facility the moving leaves of plants, shrubs, and trees
agitated by the wind. Their actions are more like
those of a bird than a reptile, and their great agility
and extraordinary suppleness render them able to
make their way with great dexterity on the most
flexible branches. The mode, however, in which
these animals are qualified for their arboreal habits
yet remains to be explained. “ The monkey,” as Mr.
Martin remarks, “ grasps with his paws the perch on
which he rests ; the bird with its claws ; the snake
entwines itself around the branch ; the iguana uses
its long toes and hooked nails ; the chameleon holds
the bough tight between its vice-like toes ; but the
foot of the Tree-frog acts differently from the foot of
these animals. It is not a grasping organ, nor is it
furnished with claws for clinging ; but it is provided
with suckers, analogous to those we have noticed in
the foot of the gecko. On the under surface of each
finger (both of the fore and hind paws) at the tip,
which is enlarged and rounded, is placed a sucker,
consisting of a little cushion, moist with a thick glutinous
fluid, and applying itself so closely to the surface it
touches as to support the creature’s weight. This
mechanism is, however, under the animal’s control,
as it can disengage or fix its fingers at will.” The
Tree-frogs feed upon all kinds of insects, small worms,
&c., and during the fine weather of summer they pur-
sue their prey amongst the leaves of the trees, on which
they then reside, with astonishing agility. Later in the
season, however, they retire to the bottom of ponds,
and, like frogs, pass the winter there in a state of tor-
pidity. The union of the sexes takes place also in the
water, the spawn is deposited there, and the develop-
ment of the eggs and young take place in the same
manner as in the frogs and toads. They are noc-
turnal in their habits. In the day-time, and particu-
larly when the heat of the sun is greatest, they shelter
themselves in shady places, where the trees afford a
thick foliage ; but when twilight begins they put them-
selves in motion, and enjoy their sports and gambols
in security. The males are provided with large vocal
sacs, and the croaking noise which they produce is
stronger even than in the Edible frog itself. During
or previous to rain, and in the middle of the fine nights
in summer, the Tree-frogs may often be seen assem-
bled in numbers on the tops of trees, sending forth in
chorus their hoarse and discordant music. Besides
the dilated tips of the fingers and toes possessed by
these animals, they have another character which dis-
tinguishes them from the tribes already noticed. This
is the existence of numerous small granulations with
glandular openings on the inferior surface of their
belly. Their hind legs also are very long.

94 Batrachians. REPTILES. Batrachians.

Only one species of this family is found in Europe —
THE COMMON TREE-FROG {Hyla arhorea) is a
pretty and interesting little creature, and one of the
smallest of the European Tailless Batrachians. It is
very common in the southern, and indeed in most of
the countries of Europe, Great Britain excepted ; and
is also found in North Africa, Asia Minor, China, and
Japan. It has a short, thick head, large projecting
e3'es, a thick, round tongue, a short body of a some-
what triangular figure, and a smooth skin, except
under the throat, chest, and bellj\ The hinder limbs
are of considerable length, and the fingers and toes
are partially webbed. The general colour on the
upper parts of the body is a fine, delicate green,
except on the fingers and toes, which present a slight
rosy hue, whilst the under surface is white. A yellow
stripe bordered with pale violet stretches along the
sides of the head and body, and down the hind legs to
the feet, while a similar stripe branches off and extends
down the arms to the fore feet. After the breeding
season, however, the animal becomes of a reddish-
brown, which soon changes to gray, mottled with
spots of a reddish hue. The colour next assumed is
one passing into blue, and in spring this changes again
to its proper livery, green. The males are always
larger than the females, and possess large vocal sacs
under the throat. These, when swollen up, resemble
a protuberance as large as the whole head, which at
such times appears like a large globular bladder. Its
chief food consists of insects, and, as Roesel remarks,
its stratagems for securing its prey resemble very much
those of the bat as it watches a bird or a mouse. “ It
is in the midst of the woods, among the foliage and
branches of the trees, that the Tree-frog passes the
greater portion of the summer. So adhesive are the
glutinous cushions of its toes, that, however smooth
and polished the surfaces may be on which it rests,
they affix themselves intimately to them ; nay, it mat-
ters not whether the creature adhere to the under or
upper surface of a leaf ; in either place it is alike
secure. All the summer long, in the warm and sunny
regions of the South, may this little animal be watched
among the leafy woods, engaged in the pursuit of various
insects, darting after them as they pass within the dis-
tance of its spring. It seizes them with its glutinous
tongue, and rapidly draws them into its mouth ; and
having swallowed one insect, it darts at the next that
flits bj'. This restless activity, this unceasing repeti-
tion of leaps, not unlike the short, darting flights of a
bird, from leaf to leaf, or from bough to bough, have
induced some to compare it to the Fly-catcher [Mus-
cicapa grisola), which takes gnats and flies much in
the same manner, by an abrupt attack on such as pass
near its perch of observation. But the Tree-frog does
more ; it lurks under the leaves of the highest branches,
and seizes such unwaiy moths or flies as settle within
tlie reach of its tongue, which it can launch out to a
considerable distance.” — Martin. The alertness and
agility which this little frog displays, are truly astonish-
ing. It is able to leap a distance of many feet, and
though Catesby’s assertion that it leaps to a distance
of twelve feet at a single bound may be exaggerated,
yet the leaps which it does take are surprising, not

only from their extent, but from their address and
precision. As the season for reiuoduction advances,
the Tree-frogs leave their abode upon the trees and
take to the water. The union of the sexes takes place
in the end of April, or not till the beginning of June,
according to the temperature of the season. At that
period the males croak very loudly, and when, as is
usually the case, numbers are collected together, the
clamour caused by them is so great, that at a distance
it might be taken for the cry of a pack of hounds in
full chase ; and when the wind blows gently in the
right direction, it may be heard at the distance of more
than a league. When this season is over, they again
seek their favourite haunts amongst the foliage of the
trees, where they remain till the autumn sets in ; and
then, warned by the cold, they begin to prepare for
their winter repose. Thej^ withdraw themselves to the
water, and, plunging to the bottom, bury themselves
there in the soft mud, where they tranquilly sink into
a state of torpor, in which they remain till spring
returns. From their agreeable colours and sprightli-
ness, the Tree-frogs are sometimes kept as pets. “ At
Schwetzingen,” says the late Mr. Loudon in his Maga-
zine, “ in the post-house we witnessed for the first
time what we have since seen frequently, an amusing
application of zoological knowledge for the purpose of
prognosticating the weather. Two frogs of the species
called Rana arbwea are kept in a crystal jar, about
eighteen inches high and six inches in diameter, with a
depth of three or four inches of water at the bottom, and
a small ladder reaching to the top of the jar. On the
approach of dry weather the frogs mount the ladder ;
but when moisture is expected, they descend into the
water. In the jar they get no other food than now
and then a fly, one of which we were assured would
serve a frog for a week, though it will eat from six to
twelve in a day if it can get them.”

A great many species of Tree-frogs are natives of
the New World. In most of them, as well as in the
species already mentioned, the discs at the extremities
of the toes are large and well developed ; but there are
some of the Hylina in which these organs are very
small, while the toes themselves are broadly webbed.

THE ACRIS GRYLIUS is an example of this group.
This little Tree-frog is commonly known in the
United States of America by the name of the Savan-
na Cricket. It is only one and a half inch in length,
is very common in Carolina and Georgia, and is found
extending from lat. 43° north to the Gulf of Mexico.
The body is slender and elongated, of a dusky colour
above, with a vertebral line of bright green or reddish-
brown, and of a silvery white beneath. As Mr. Hol-
brook says, this is a merry little frog, constantly chirp-
ing like a cricket, even in confinement. Bartram met
with these little creatures in his travels, and thus de-
scribes them ; — “ There is yet an extreme diminutive
species of frogs, which inhabits the grassy verges of
ponds in savannas; these are called Savanna Crickets,
are of a dark ash or dusky colour, and have a very
picked nose. At the time of very great rains, in the
autumn, when the savannas are in a manner inundated,
they are to be seen in incredible multitudes, climbing
up the tall grass, weed, &c., around the verges of the

Surinam Toad. KEPTILES. Common Salamander. 95

savannas bordering on the higher ground ; and by an
inattentive person might be taken for spiders or other
insects. Their note is very feeble, not unlike the chat-
tering of young birds or crickets.” This species of
frog, like the others already mentioned, feeds upon
insects, and is very active and nimble, making immense
leaps to secure its prey, or to escape from its pursuers.
It can easily be domesticated, and takes its food readily
from the hand.

A number of Tree-frogs are also found in Africa,
but we have not space to describe any of them.

Of the Second division of Anourous or Tailless
Batrachians, the Proteroglossa, or those which
have the tongue free in front instead of adhering,
there is only one genus, Rhinophrynus, and only one
species of the genus, i?. dorsalis; a toad-like reptile,
with a broad, depressed, and rounded body, of a
bluish-gray colour, marked with yellowish spots on the
sides and along the back. It is a native of Mexico.

Of the Third division, the Tongueless Frogs
{Aglossa), or those which have no tongue at all, the
species are few in number ; but amongst them there is
one which, from its curious organization, is well worthy
of attention : —

THE SURINAM TOAD [Pipa Americana) — repre-
sented in Plate 2, fig. 2 — is this species. The genus
PiPA is remarkable among the Anourous Batrachians
from the female having pouches on the back, in which
the eggs are placed by the male, and which are hatched
there instead of in the water, as in all the other Batra-
chians. This is the only species known, and is a native
of South America. It is common in some parts of

Brazil and in Guiana, where it is often found taking
up its abode in obscure corners of houses. It is more
especially common in Surinam — hence its common
name of Surinam toad. By the natives of Brazil it
is called tedo and curu-curu. The Surinam toad is a
larger species than our common European toad, and is
remarkably ugly. It is from six to eight inches in
length, and four or five in breadth. In shape it is
horizontally flattened, the head being short, broad, and
triangular. The skin is of a dirty brown colour, thickly
studded with reddish tubercles. The most remarkable
part of the history of these animals, however, is the
peculiar method of reproducing their young. The
female has the back fitted with a great number of cells
or small pouches, and at the time of spawning, the
male, firmly clinging to her, carefully deposits the eggs,
to the number of about one hundred, as they issue
from her, in those cells, and there impregnates them.
The mother then hurries to the water, where she
remains. In a short time the skin becomes slightly
inflamed, a kind of irritation is set up, the skin swells,
the pits deepen, and in due time the eggs become
developed into the tadpole state. These young ani-
mals, however, remain in that position till they are
fully developed, not leaving their place of abode till
they have assumed the perfect form. They then take
refuge in the water, and the mother returns to dry
land. Notwithstanding the repulsive and somewhat
disgusting appearance these animals present to the
eye, in many parts of South America the natives use
them as food. Three species have been described,
but in reality there is only one.

Sub-Order II.— BATKACHIA GEADIENTIA, or UEODELA (WAiiaNG

or Tailed Batrachians).

This sub-order of Batrachians differs from the pre-
ceding in having the body elongate and tapering in
form, and in the animals of which it is composed being
possessed of a tail at all times of their life. The meta-
morphosis, or change which the young undergo in
their progress to maturity is less complete than in the
tailless species.

The Urodeles or Tailed Batrachians may be divided
into three Families : SalamandriDjE, MoLGiDiE, and
Pletiiodontiuae, characterized by the position of their
teeth.

Family I. — SALAMANDERS {Salamandridm).

In the animals belonging to this family, the teeth on
the palate are placed in two longitudinal diverging
series on the inner hinder edge of the elongated tri-
angular vomerine bones. The skull has in general a
more or less well-developed bony orbit above the eyes.
The tongue is broad, only slightly attached, being free
on the sides, and partially so behind.

Salamanders are either terrestrial or aquatic. They
are generally found in moist places ; the aquatic species

living in lakes, ponds, and ditches. They prefer still
water, and choose retired and shady places. Their
food consists of animal matters, such as aquatic insects,
earth-worms, small leeches, molluscs, and planariae,
&c. The tail, which, as we have already mentioned,
in all the other species of the sub-order is persistent
through life, is either round, or flattened and com-
pressed. In general the species are of small size, and
the greater number are natives of Europe and North
America. None have as yet been found in South
America, India, Australia, Madagascar, or in either
Central or South Africa. North Africa furnishes a
few, and there are some found in Japan. Eighteen
species have been described in the Catalogue of Am-
phibia in the British Museum.

One of these was well known to the ancients, and
has been the source of abundant fables and extrava-
gant assertions.

THE COMMON OR TERRESTRIAL SALAMANDER

{Salamandra maculosa) is the species, and is repre-
sented in our Plate 3, fig. 3, and Plate 8, fig. 19
— (skull). The Salamander was formerly, and still is
in many places, believed to be able to brave the violence

96

Batkachians.-

-REPTILES.-

-Batkachians.

of fire, to pass through it unhurt, and even to extinguish
it in its course ; nay, it was even asserted that when it saw
the flame, “ this daughter of fire with the body of ice”
charged it as an enemy which it knew how to conquer.
This belief of the power possessed by this animal over
fire is of very ancient date, for Aristotle mentions it as
an opinion entertained by the common people previous
to his time. “ The Salamander,” he says, “is an evi-
dence that the bodies of some creatures are not wasted
or consumed in the fire, for (as some say) it walketh in
the fire and extinguisheth the same.” It was also
asserted by some of the early writers, that a kind of
fireproof cloth could be fabricated of the skin of the
Salamander ; that a portion of this salamander-cloth
was sent by a Tartar king to one of the popes, and
that the holy napkin of our Saviour is preserved in it.
Marco Polo, who mentions this cloth, observes shrewdly
enough that it was no doubt made of some mineral
substance, most probably asbestos, which the old writers
actually call Salamander’s wool. Another belief was
that the Salamander was exceedingly venomous. “ The
biting of it,” says Topsell, “ is very exitial and deadly,
and therefore the French men use this speech upon the
biting of a Salamander : —

‘ Si mordu t’a line aressade,

Prens ton linceuil et ta flassade.’

That is, if a Salamander bite you, then betake you to
the coflin and winding-sheet. The Rhcetians do ordi-
narily affirm, that when a man is bitten by a Sala-
mander, he hath need of as many physicians as the
Salamander hath spots. And Arnoldus saith, that it
hath in it as many venoms and means of hurting as it
hath colours distinguished one from another.” Such
are only a few of the many absurd stories which were
believed in by our forefathers, and which still linger
among the peasantry of many parts of Europe. No
wonder that “ the sight of it is abominable and fearful
to man.” And yet this poor little reptile is in fact
harmless and inofl'ensive. It is from six to eight inches
long, is “ thicker and fuller than a lizard, having a
pale white belly, and one part of their skin exceeding
black, the other yellow, like verdigris, both of them
very splendent and glistering, with a black line going
all along their back, having upon it many little spots
like eyes.”

The Salamander inhabits principally Central Eu-
rope, and it occurs in many parts of France. During
the day it lives generally under ground, but at night
it leaves its subterranean retreats and sallies forth to
seek food. This consists of worms, small molluscs,
and insects, &c. In winter Salamanders retire to
some hollow tree, some hole in an old wall or in the
ground, where they coil themselves up and remain in
a torpid state till spring revives them. In such places
numbers of them are sometimes to be met with inter-
twisted together. The skin of the Salamander is
largely covered with warty glands. These secrete a
milky tliiid of a glutinous and acrid nature, like that
of the common toad. When irritated, it can, it is
said, shoot out this liquid to the distance of several
inches; and it was the abundance of this secretion
that no doubt gave rise to the idea that it could
quench the heat of fire and flame. As from some

experiments, made by Laurenti, this milky fluid is
found to be poisonous to lizards and some other small
animals, it is to its existence, no doubt also, that we
owe the accounts of its fearful poisonous powers. Its
walk is slow and heavy, and though it has been said
to be very courageous, its want of fear for the presence
of man, or other larger animals than itself, would
appear to arise rather from stupidity than from auda-
city. The Salamander utters no cry, and except at
the time of producing its young, it is quite terrestrial
in its habits of life. When thrown into the water, it
tries immediately to get out again, and comes to the
surface every moment to respire. Unlike most of the
other Batrachians, the Salamander is ovoviviparous.
The young are developed in the oviducts of the mother,
remaining there till fully formed. When excluded
from the parent, they only differ from her in appear-
ance by the possession of branchiae or gills, by the tail
being compressed, and by their being of a black colour.
They are deposited in the water by the mother, where
thej' live a purely aquatic life for some time, till losing
their gills they become sufficiently matured to live on
dry land. The young are pretty numerous, amounting
sometimes to forty and even fifty. M. Joly observed
a Salamander bring forth twenty-five living young in
one day.

The aquatic species of the family are much more
numerous than the terrestrial. They are generally
known in this country by the name of Newts or Efts,
and are distinguished by their tail being always flat
instead of round, and by the absence of the glands on
the sides of the head, called the parotids. They are
entirely aquatic in their habits, passing almost their
whole life in the water. Several species are natives
of this country, and some of them are very abundant.

THE COMMON WARTY NEWT or Great Water
Newt {^Triton cristatus) — represented in Plate .3, fig.
2 — is one of the most common, and the largest of all
the British species. When adult it is about six inches
long. It has a flattened head, an obtuse and rounded
muzzle, and a slightly pendulous upper lip. The body
is continuous with the head, the neck being only dis-
tinguished by a small fold of skin beneath. The body
is thick, round, and corrugated, and the skin is thick
and covered with small warts or tubercles. The tail is
about two-fifths of the entire length, considerably com-
pressed and keeled on both upper and under edges.
In the breeding season a crest appears on the back of
the male, running the whole length, and separated from
the corresponding crest of the tail by a notch at the
loins. The Great Water Newt is of a blackish colour ;
the upper parts being of a blackish or yellowish-brown,
with black round spots, while the under surface is of a
bright orange, with round black spots. The sides ai-e
dotted with while, and in the male more especially,
the sides of the tail are of a beautiful shining pearly
white. It is a native of ponds and large ditches in
many parts of England, and is also found in several
places on the Continent. It lives upon aquatic insects
and other small animals. In spring a great part of its
food consists of the tadpoles of the common frog, of
which it appears to be very fond ; and, according to
Professor Bell, it devours also the smaller or smooth

The Smooth Newt. REPTILES. The Glutinous Salabiandee.

newt, which he says he has seen swallowed by these
animals, when so large as to occasion great difficulty
and delay in the act of deglutition. They are seldom
found out of the water, and in winter they commonly
remain torpid at the bottom of ponds and ditches until
the warmth of spring recalls them into activity. During
this period of retirement the male loses his dorsal crest.
It does not fall off, however, but is gradually absorbed.
They shed their skin at particular seasons. It comes
off in shreds, and is washed away as it becomes loose.
The principal organ of progression in the water is the
tail ; and during the act of swimming the legs are
turned backward, so as to admit of the smallest degree
of resistance. Impregnation is effected in the water,
according to the observations of Professor Bell, by
simple contact, and the manner in which the female
deposits her eggs is very interesting and curious.
Selecting some leaf of an aquatic plant, especially the
common Spotted Persicaria {Polygonum Persicaria),
she seats herself as it were upon its edge, and folding
it up by means of her hind feet, deposits a single egg
in the duplicature of the folded part of the leaf. The
two sides are thus glued firmly together, and the egg
effectually protected from injury. As soon as this one
egg is deposited, the creature leaves the leaf, and soon
afterwards seeks another to place upon it another egg.
The period of time during which the female is thus
engaged, is much longer than is the case in the tailless
Batraehians, extending over some months, or from the
middle of April to the middle of July. Rusconi, an
Italian naturalist, has W'atched this process with great
care, and has followed up the development of the young
animal to its full growth. The metamorphoses they
undergo resemble very much those of the frog, and
the time occupied varies according to the temperature
of the season. An egg deposited on the 23rd of April
was sufficiently advanced by the 6th of May to produce
a tadpole, and allow it to escape from its envelope ;
but it did not reach the full maturity of that state till
the 18th of July. On the 27th of the same month the
gills had disappeared, the animal respired atmospheric
air, and had arrived at its perfect state.

THE SMOOTH NEWT, Small Newt or Eft, Ask
in Scotland {LopMnus or Lissotriton punctatus), is
another species which inhabits this country. It is con-
siderably smaller than the preceding, being less than
four indies in length, and has the skin quite smooth,
like that of the common frog. The colours vary very
much at different periods of the year and in the two
sexes. The male is usually of a brownish-gray above,
passing into yellow beneath, which in spring becomes
a rich, bright orange, and is everywhere marked with
round dark spots of unequal size. The crest in
spring is often tipped with bright red or violet. The
female is commonly of a light yellowish-brown, or even
buff, with scattered brown dots. The flat, compressed
tail terminates in a sharp point, and the crest of the
back and tail are continuous. This species is very
abundant, being found in almost every ditch and pond
throughout the country. It affords food to several
kinds of fish, as well as to the Great newt just described,
and feeds itself upon small aquatic insects, worms, and
molluscs. The Smooth newt is not so strictly aquatic
VoL. IL 69

in its habits as the Warty newt, as in June many of
the young which have recently arrived at the perfect
state are to be found on land, creeping about amongst
the herbage in the neighbourhood of water, or in damp
places, frequently concealing themselves amongst the
roots of shrubs and plants, and sometimes venturing
even into damp cellars. The reproduction and meta-
morphosis of these animals resemble almost entirely
those of the preceding species ; but the growth of the
young during the summer and autumn is very rapid,
as they reach their full adult size the first year. It
was on this species that the Abhd Spallanzani tried his
well-known experiments on the reproduction of por-
tions of the legs and tail. This little reptile, accord-
ing to Mrs. Lee (late Bowdich), occurs in Ireland, and
she says a curious superstition is current among the
peasantry about it. It has, according to them, a pro-
pensity to jump down their throats, making a lodging
in their stomachs, and to multiply there in the most
frightful manner. The only cure is to find a stream
running directly south, and to lean over it with the
mouth open, when the efts will come out, one by one,
and plunge into the water.”

Family IL— THE MOLGES {Molgidce).

In this family the teeth of the palate are disposed
in two converging series, each line being in the outer
hinder edge of the vomerine bones. The head is de-
pressed, and there is no bony orbit above the eyes.
The tongue is large and adherent, and the ribs are
either rudimentary or altogether wanting.

There are only two species described, both natives of
Japan, the habits of which are very little known.

Family III.— THE PLETHODONS
{Plethodontidce).

In this famil}'’ the palatine teeth form a short, inter-
rupted, cross series in front of the palate, between the
internal nostrils, each series running across the hinder
end of the vomerine bones. In most of the species
the head is large, and the tongue broad and more or
less adherent. The skin is generally smooth, rarely
granular, and without pores. Thirty- four species are
described in the Museum Catalogue of Amphibia, and
the number known to exist may be about forty.

The genus Plethodon contains two species, both
of which are natives of North America. In these the
head is broad and depressed, and the tongue is large,
broad, expanded, and attached nearly the whole of its
length by a linear central band, the sides and hinder
end being free.

THE GLUTINOUS SALAMANDER {Plethodon gluti-
nosum) is about seven inches in length, and is of a
beautiful bluish-black colour on the upper surface.
The back and tail are dotted with small white spots,
and the sides are marked with larger spots of the same
colour, often confluent. The head is of a semi-oval
form, and the muzzle is rather pointed. The mouth
is rather large, and the nostrils lateral and near the
snout. The eyes are large and prominent, and the
pupil is black. The body of this amphibian is elon-

98 Batrachians. REPTILES. Batkachians.

gated and cylindrical in shape, and the tail, which is

decaying trees, and they are frequently so numerous

round, is nearly twice its length. The hinder extre-

that many are found under the same tree. Fallen

mities are nearly twice the size of the fore ones, and

trees, indeed, seem to be the favourite residence of

are terminted by five toes, while those of the front are

these animals, probably, says Mr. Holbrook, because

only four in number. It lives most of its time con-

the insects they prey upon choose the same locality.

cealed under rooks, or under the bark of fallen and

F

After rain, however, they emerge from their place of

ig. 27,

The Glutinous Salamander (Plethodon glutinosum).

concealment, as also in the dusk of the evening, when

after the manner of slewed eels, and served up with a

they sally forth in search of food. Mr. Holbrook con-

rich sauce. Hernandez, the Spanish historian of the

siders the Glutinous Salamander to be the most com-

conquest of Mexico, is the first writer who described

mon of all the North American Salamanders, and the

this animal. The Spaniards of that period found it in

most widely diffused — fig. 27. The specific name has

great abundance in the lake, and Hernandez expressly

been given to it in consequence of the animal exuding

mentions it as having been used by the ancient Mexi-

from its skin a quantity of glutinous matter when it is

cans as an article of food, and says it was considered

taken up in the hand.

by them as an aphrodisiac ; that its flesh was whole-

Want of space prevents tis noticing other species of

some and agreeable, and tasted like eel. Considerable

this family ; hut we cannot dismiss this sub-order of

difference of opinion exists among naturalists as to the

Tailed Batrachians, or Urodeles, without particularly

true nature of this curious animal. Some regai'd it as

mentioning a curious animal, which, in the opinion of

a perfect form, and include it amongst the Sirenidce^ or

many naturalists, is only the immature form of a large

those Amphibians which retain their gills throughout

species of Salamander. This creature is the Axolotl

their whole existence ; while others consider it only as

of Mexico — represented in Plate 4, fig. 2.

an immature form, the larva or tadpole state of some

THE AXOLOTL {Axolotes Mexicanus) is distinguished

hitherto undescribed and gigantic tailed Batrachian.

by having gills formed of three long ramified or branch-

Cuvier at first regarded it as a larva, but afterwards

like processes on each side of the neck, teeth in both

admitted it amongst the Perennibranchiate species.

jaws and on the vomerine bones ; four toes on the

As Dr. Gray, in his Catalogue of Amphibia, remarks,

anterior, and five on the posterior extremities. The

the skull differs veiy little from that of the young

tail, which is nearlj' as long as the body, is compressed

Triton marmoratus, which had not gained its second

on the sides like that of the Water-newt, and keeled

pair of legs. Dr. Baird also, an able American erpe-

on both upper and under edges, the crest or keel on

tologist, says that it resembles so much the tadpole of

the upper edge being prolonged on the back as far as

a species of the family Plethodontidce (the Ambystoma

between the shoulders, but gradually becoming nar-

Carolince), both in external form and internal struc-

rower as it ascends from the tail. The head is broad

ture, that he could not but believe it to be the larva

and flat, the nose blunt, and the eyes situated near the

of some gigantic species of that genus. True, it has

muzzle. The largest specimens measure about eight

been long known to naturalists, and the specimens

or nine inches in length. The ground colour is a uni-

collected, as well as those sold in the markets, always

form deep-brown, thickly mottled both on the upper

retain the same form and structure ; but, as Dr. Baird

and under surfaces of the head and body, limbs, tail,

justly observes, “ the non-discovery of the adult is no

and caudal fins, with numerous small black spots.

argument against its existence. I had caught hundreds

The legs are short, and the toes are free and uncon-

of the very remarkable larva of Pseudotriton {Spelerpes

nected by intermediate membranes. The Axolotl is

salrnonea) near Carlisle before I found an adult. Until

very common in the Lake of Mexico, and is found

then I knew nowhere to refer the animal, supposing

also in mountain lakes at a considerable elevation

this species to exist no nearer than the mountains of

above the plains surrounding the city. At the present

New York and Vermont.”

day it is commonly sold in the markets of Mexico, and

We must now pass on to the consideration of the

is esteemed a luxury by the inhabitants. It is dressed

second order of Amphibia, the False Lizards.

Gigahtic Salamandek. REPTILES. Congo Snake. 99

Order II. — FALSE LIZAEDS (Pseudosauria).

This second order of Amphibians is distinguished from
the preceding (the Batmchia) by the animals belong-
ing to it not undergoing any metamorphosis or change
during the whole period of their lives. Their body is
elongate, lizard-like (hence their name), and furnished
with a tail. Their gills are rudimentary, internal ;
and they have an orifice or gill aperture on each side
of the neck, which remains open during all their exist-
ence. They breathe by means of vesicular lungs. They
possess four legs, but in some of the species these are
nearly rudimentary. They have teeth both in the
jaws and on the palate. The number of species con-
tained in this order of Amphibia is very small, only
five or six having been described. They may, how-
ever, be divided into two separate families ; the one
having tolerably well-developed legs, and the palatine
teeth disposed in a transverse arched series, Proto-
NOPSiD.<E ; the other having weak, slender, almost
rudimentary legs, and the palatine teeth disposed in
two longitudinal diverging series, Amphiumid^.

Of the first family, the Peotonopsid.®, one of the
most singular species, is one which was discovered by
the celebrated naturalist Von Siebold in Japan. This
animal has received the name of its discoverer, and is
now known to naturalists as the Sieboldia maxima.

THE GIGANTIC SALAMANDER {Sieboldia maxima)
has a large trigono-ovate head, thickly covered with
glands ; a depressed body, with tranverse folds ; and a
long, thick, cutaneous appendage along each side.
The hinder feet have a crustaceous -appendage, and
the toes, which are four in number in anterior and
five in posterior feet, are free, small, and provided
with a depressed, lateral, cutaneous lobe. The tail is
round at the base, but very much depressed in the
middle and behind. The eyes are very small, and
scarcely distinguishable ; the nostrils placed near each
other on the anterior margin of the upper jaw ; and
the tongue is not distinct, but united to the skin of
the base of the mouth. The Sieboldia is of consider-
able size, and was found in a lake on a basaltic moun-
tain in Japan. Siebold brought away a living pair, a
male and a female ; but during the passage home the
former devoured his companion, though he himself
survived the long voyage, and lived for some time at
Leyden. A live specimen of this curious animal (the
Sieboldia) is now in the Zoological Gardens.

Another large species is a native of the fresh waters
of North America —

TEE HELL-BENDEE, MHD-DEVIl, GROUND PUPPY,
or Youkg Alligator of the Anglo-Americans
{Protonopsis horrida) — figured in Plate 3, fig. 1 —
is fifteen inches in length, and is of a pale slate colour,
mottled with dusky. The head is large, flat, and
broad, and the mouth wide, and covered with thick,
fleshy lips. It has a stout, thick, subcylindrical body,
and a large, laterally compressed tail. The neck is
contracted, and there is a single spiracle or branchial
slit on each side. It has a thin, very indistinct tongue.

very small nostrils placed close together, and minute
black eyes. The legs are short and thick, and broadly
fringed on the outer edge. The toes, whicli are four
in number on anterior, and five on posterior feet, are
short, webbed, and without claws. The Hell-bender
is found in the Alleghany river and its tributaries, and
no doubt inhabits also many of the branches of the
Ohio and Mississippi rivers. It lives entirely in the
water, and is very voracious. It feeds on fish, worms,
and mollusca, and indeed nothing that it can devour is
spared by it. The fishermen dread it very much, and
believe it to be poisonous. Specimens have been
found two feet in length.

The second family, Amphigmid^, contains only
two species. One of these is known by the name of
the Congo Snake.

THE CONGO SNAKE {Amphiuma means) — fig. 28 —
is a native of North America, being found in South
Carolina, in the Floridas, Alabama, Mississippi, and,
it is said, abundantly in Louisiana. It is about thirty
inches long, and is of a deep, bluish-black on upper
surface, tinged with violet, and of a dark purple hue
beneath. The body is in shape like that of an eel ;

Fig. 28.

The Congo Snake (Amphiuma means).

the neck contracted, with a transverse fold at the
throat, and a single branchial slit on each side; and
the tail is very long, round near the base, and com-
pressed laterally towards the tip. The head is very
large and oblong ; the mouth large, with thick lips ;
the tongue broad, oblong, flat, attached posteriorly;
the nostrils small, situate at the very margin of the
upper lip, and placed close together ; and the eyes are
very small, and covered with a production of the skin.
The extremities are but imperfectly developed, being
short, slender, jointless, and of little use for progressive
motion. The feet are in each extremity terminated

100 False Lizards. REPTILES. Fai.sb Snakes.

by two rudimentary toes. The Congo Snake has re-

stomachs. Sometimes, like eels, they are found on dry

ceived its name from the negroes, who erroneously

land, but for what purpose they approach it is unknown.”

regard it as exceedingly venomous. It lives in muddy

Mr. Harlan tells us, that an individual in the possession

waters or in mud, being found sometimes three feet

of Dr. Mease escaped from the vessel in which it was

deep in mud of the consistence of mortar, and bur-

confined, and when found several days afterwards was

rowing in it like the earth-worm. “ They inhabit the

brisk and lively. They pass the winter season in the

ditches of our rice-fields,” says Holbrook, “ and feed on

mud, collecting together at that time in great numbers.

small fish and various fresh-water-shells, as unios, &c.

and remain in a state of torpidity till the spring. The

beetles and other insects have also been found in their

other species possesses little interest.

Order III, — FALSE or NAKED SNAKES (Pseudophidia).

The animals belonging to this order, though essen-

ground for placing this family amongst the former

tially amphibious, have a strong resemblance to ser-

group. Little is known with regard to their general

pents. They are destitute of legs, and have an elongate,

habits ; but they have been observed to bury them-

cylindrical body, and the smooth, wrinkled skin has

selves in the moist earth or soft mud of the marshes.

minute scales embedded in its substance. The tail is

piercing through it like worms, often to the depth of

very short, and the vent opens at the extremity of the

many feet. They creep slowly on the ground, and

body. The vertebrae or bones of the spinal column

when in the water swim like eels, striking to the right

resemble very much in their articulation those of fishes ;

and left with their tails.

they have short ribs, and no sternum or breastbone.

THE GLUTINOUS CAICILIA {Ccecilia or Ichthy-

The opening for the gills on the side of the neck is

ophis glutinosus) is a native of Ceylon, It is some-

closed in the adults, but is open, according to the

what spindle-shaped, with a depressed, elongate head.

observation of the celebrated anatomist Muller, in

and a blunt muzzle. The eyes are distinct, and the

young individuals. In these it was found, that in the

teeth are slender, acute, and hooked. Sir James

opening on each side of the neck there were to be seen

Emerson Tennent particularly notices this animal in his

black-coloured fringes, or a kind of gills, apparently

“ History of Ceylon.” “ The Rocky Jungle,” he says.

fixed to branches of the hyoid bone or base of the

“ bordering the higher coffee estates, provides a safe

tongue, and that the gill openings freely communicated

retreat for a very singular animal, introduced about a

with the mouth.

century ago to the notice of European naturalists by

There is only one family, and the species belonging

Linnaeus, who gave it the name of Ccecilia glutinosa,

to it are few in number. This family, CiECiLiiD^, is

indicatory of two peculiarities manifest to the ordinary

distinguished, in addition to the characters given

observer — an apparent defect of vision, from the eyes

above, by the skin being covered with a viscous secre-

being so small and imbedded as to be scarcely dis-

tion, and marked by a series of rings or annular fur-

tinguishable ; and a power of secreting from minute

rows. The head is depressed ; the eyes, beneath the

pores in its skin a viscous fluid, resembling that of

skin, are either minute or very indistinct, if not alto-

snails, eels, and some salamanders. Specimens are

gether wanting ; the tongue is thick, velvety, of a

rare in Europe, from the readiness with which the

round form, and, besides the true external nostrils.

frame of the animal decomposes after death, breaking

there is a little pit or depression, termed a false nostril.

down into a flaky mass in the spirits in which it is

generally placed beneath the former. They possess

attempted to be preserved. The creature is about the

teeth both on the jaws and the palate. The species

length and thickness of an ordinary round desk ruler.

so nearly resemble serpents, that Cuvier retained

a little flattened before and rounded behind. It is

them among the Ophidians, forming a separate section

brownish, with a pale stripe along each side. The

for their reception under the title of “ Naked serpents

skin is furrowed into three hundred and fifty circular

and Dumeril and Bibron, and other naturalists, consider

folds, in which are imbedded minute scales. The head

them as forming a link between the Amphibia and

is tolerably distinct, with a double row cf fine curved

Ophidia, or Snakes. Muller’s discovery, however, of

teeth for seizing the insects and worms on which it is

the existence of gills in the young animals, is sufficient

supposed to live.”

Order IV.— PEKENNIBEANCHIATE AMPHIBIA (Meantia).

The animals referred to this order of Amphibia are

true lungs ; so that on dry land the}^ can respire

very remarkable. To them, and them only, truly

atmospheric air, and in the water extract air from the

belongs the title amphibious, or creatures possessing.

liquid element in which they are submerged. They

as it were, a double life. The branchiae or gills, which

can thus live at pleasure either in the air or under

all the species of this class possess in their young or

water. Their body is elongate, naked, and smooth,

tadpole state, in the Meantia remain external and well-

and their tail is compressed. Their legs, which in

developed during their wdiole life. They also possess

some species are four, and in others only two in num-

Snake-like Proteus. REPTILES. Proteus op the Lakes. 101

bcr, are merely rudimentary, being very weak, and
provided with short, weak toes. The gills — large in
the Proteus, but smaller in the Siren — are well deve-
loped, and divided into three branches. The internal
nostrils open between the lips and the palate bones.
The palate and lower jaw are provided with teeth, but
the upper jaw or maxillary bones are nearly wanting,
or reduced to a mere bony point. The eyes are small
and destitute of eyelids. The seven species of which
the order consists are arranged in two families, the
Proteid.® and the SiRENioiE. The Proteidoe have
four legs, and there is only a single series of teeth on
the front edge of the vomerine bone. The Sirenidce
have only two legs, the anterior pair ; and the palatine
teeth are arranged in numerous cross series on the
vomer.

In the first family we find an animal which has
excited very great interest amongst naturalists, and
whose history has produced a good deal of discussion.

THE SNAKE-lIKE PROTEUS {Proteus a7iguinus) —
represented in Plate 4, fig. 3 — is a native of the
subterranean caverns of Adelsburg in Carniola. Pro-
fessor Wagner of Erlangen in Bavaria, has communi-
cated to us the results of an anatomical investigation
which he was enabled to make of some specimens he
had received alive. He found the pulmonary sacs or
vesicles to be so constructed, that they could in reality
perform the functions of lungs. The specimens were
male and female, and in the latter he found the eggs
very beautifully developed. The blood globules he
ascertained to he of very large size, about twelve or
fifteen times the size of those of man, and distinctly
visible to the naked eye. He sent a living specimen
to this country, which was kept alive for some time
(in 1837) in the Zoological Gardens of London. The
native place ot abode of the Proteus is the water of
some subterranean cavities in the limestone formation
of Southern Europe. One of the most romantic and
splendid caverns in the world, is the grotto of the Mad-
dalena at Adelsburg in the duchy of Carniola. This
cavern was visited by the late Sir Humphrey Davy,
who has left us a very interesting account of it and
its curious inhabitants : — “ At first view,” says Sir
Humphrey, “ you might suppose this animal to be a
lizard, but it has the motions of a fish. Its head, and
the lower part of its body, and its tail, bear a strong
resemblance to those of the eel ; but it has no fins,
and its curious branchial organs are not like the gills
of fishes. They form a singular vascular structure,
almost like a crest, round the throat, that may be
removed without occasioning the death of the animal,
which is likewise, furnished with lungs. AVith this
double apparatus for supplying air to the blood, it can
live either below or above the surface of the water.
Its fore feet resemble hands, but they have only three
claws or fingers, and are too feeble to be of use in
grasping or supporting the weight of the animal ; the
hinder feet have only two claws or toes, and in the
larger specimens are found so imperfect as almost to
be obliterated. It has small points in place of e3'’es, as
if to preserve the analogy of nature. It is of a fleshy
whiteness and transparency in its natural state ; but
when exposed to light its skin gradually becomes

darker, and at last gains an olive tint. Its nasal
organs appear large, and it is abundantly furnished
with teeth, from which it may he concluded that it is
an animal of prey ; yet in its confined state it has never
been known to eat, and it has been kept alive for many
years by occasionally changing the water in which it
was placed.” It was at first supposed that these crea-
tures were immature forms, or mere tadpoles of some
large unknown animal which inhabits these subter-
ranean lakes ; but what we have stated above, of Pro-
fessor Wagner’s finding both male and female, and of
this latter having well-developed ova within her body,
sufficiently proves the inaccuracy of the supposition.
Specimens have been taken of various sizes, from the
thickness of a quill to that of the thumb, and about
one foot in length. The tail is compressed laterally,
like that of an eel, and is used in the same manner in
swimming. Individuals which have been kept alive
for some time in England, were observed to shroud
themselves in the darkest part of the vessel in which
they were placed, when the covering was taken off
in order to inspect them ; and to betray a sense of
uneasiness by their actions when exposed to the light
of open day, creeping round the sides of the vessel,
or under the shelter of any substance which threw a
partial shadow on the water.

THE PROTEUS OF THE LAKES {Necturus maculosus),
another species of the family, is a native of North
America, and is only found in Lakes Champlain and
Erie, and their tributary streams. It has an elongated,
subcylindrical body, and a long, compressed tail. The
skin is smooth, permeated by many pores, and the
colour is a dark cinereous gray, with somewhat cir-
cular spots of a darker hue irregularly dispersed. The
head is large and flattened, and it has a wide mouth,
covered by thick, fleshy lips. The eyes are small and
placed far asunder, and the small nostrils are placed
very near the margin of the upper lip. The gills,
which resemble fringe of the finest texture, are of con-
siderable size, and when the animal is alive, are of a
fine, rich, crimson colour. They are in constant motion.
Little, however, is known of the habits of this animal
in its native state. “ In general,” says Mr. Holbrook,
“ it remains at the very bottom of the waters it inha-
bits, where it swims or creeps along the ground with a
slow, serpentine motion ; it is said rarely to leave the
water and crawl to the shore. It is seldom taken,
except in the months of April and May, which is their
spawning season. At this time they are found about
waterfalls, where they conceal themselves in crevices
of rocks, and are now often caught with the hook
baited for cat-fish {Silurus) or eels, though little desired
by the fishermen, by whom they are regarded as poi-
sonous, and are consequently seldom taken in hand.
Their eggs are about the size of peas, and as many as
one hundred and fifty have been counted in a single
female. It feeds on various kinds of worms, insects,
shell-fish, and crustaceous animals. Though living
almost entirely in water, it does not appear that it
opens its mouth, or that the water passes through it to
the branchial arches, as in fishes, during respiration ;
but that function seems to be performed simply by
the vibratory motion of the gills in water. When

102 Perennibkanchiate Amphibia. REPTILES. Perennibranchiate Asiphibia.

kept in a vessel containing a large quantity of water,
or in which the water is frequently changed, it mani-
fests but little disposition to rise to the surface for
atmospheric air ; but when the quantity of water is
small, or not often changed, it soon finds the air in the
water insufficient for its purposes, when it ascends to
the surface, takes a mouthful of air, and sinks again
with it to the bottom.”

In the second family of this order, the Sirenida:,
we have only space to mention particularly one species.
This is well known by the name of the Mud-eel.

THE MUD-EEL or Siren {Sirenlacertina) — represented
in Plate 4, fig. 1 — is a native of South Carolina and
Georgia, and is about nineteen inches in length, and
even sometimes reaches two feet, while it measures
four or five inches in circumference. In its general
form and aspect it bears a great resemblance to an
eel, and the surface of the body is very smooth and
slimy. The tail is long and compressed, and is mar-
gined for several inches both above and below by a
narrow, rayless fin, which greatly assists it in moving
through the water. It is of a deep blackish-brown
colour, rather paler beneath, where it is partially
tinged with a bluish hue, with a tinge of violet, and is
marked all over with numerous small white or milky
spots. The head is rather small for the size of the
animal, is depressed, of a suboval form, and the muzzle
is blunt and flattened. The mouth is not wide, but is
covered with tolerably thick lips. The nostrils are
small, placed near the anterior angle of the upper jaw,
and the eyes are very small, dim, of a blackish colour,
and covered with a prolongation of the skin. The
gills, according to the late Mr. James Wilson, to whose
memoir we refer the reader, consist of three fleshy
peduncles, which increase in size from the first to
the last. They are beautifully branched from beneath,
and along their lateral and terminal edges ; and these
little branches are divided and subdivided into still
more minute ramifications. This elegant fringe-work
forms the true gills, the central and fleshy stalks serv-
ing merely as their support. Beneath, and rather in
advance of these bodies, are three nearly vertical
clefts, through which the water is ejected backwards
from the inside of the mouth upon the gills, though
with a much more languid and less perceptible action
than in fishes. The feet are only two in number, the
anterior pair ; they are but slightly developed, how-
ever, and of little service, if any, in progressive motion.
They are in constant motion, as the animal moves from
place to place on land, and are folded back when it
swims in the water. They are each terminated by
four toes, the extremities of which are rather pointed,
* slightly curved, and terminate in semi-corneous tips.

This animal, as its English name indicates, lives chiefly
in mud, and, according to Mr. Holbrook, is abundant
in the rice-fields of Carolina. “ It is often thrown
out,” he says, “ in great numbers, at certain seasons,
when the ditches are cleaned. Being regarded, how-
ever, as venomous by the slaves, they are instantly
killed or dreadfully mangled, and left to serve as food
for racoons or for turkey-buzzards, ever on the watch.
Sometimes they leave the soft mud in which they
commonly burrow and take to the water, in which
they swim with great swiftness. They are occasionally
taken by persons angling for the common perch of
Carolina {Pomotes vulgaris), with a bait of earth-
worms. Sometimes they leave the water entirely, like
eels, and are found on dry land ; but whether in search
of food, or to rid themselves of parasitic animals, can-
not at this moment be ascertained.” From its living
in muddy places, it was called by the inhabitants the
Mud Iguana. Its food is generally believed to con-
sist of earth-worms, insects, &c. A specimen, which
was kept alive in the Zoological Gardens, Eegent’s
Park, in 1841, was supplied with about a dozen and a
half of earth-worms daily. This individual was twenty
inches long, and as large as the wrist of a stout child of
six months old. Another specimen was kept alive by
Dr. Patrick Neill, at Canonmills, near Edinburgh, for
three or four years, and was made the subject of an
elaborate memoir by the late Mr. James Wilson.
During the whole of this period no change took place
in its gills or lungs. Dr. Garden was the first person
who discovered the Siren, and he sent an account of it
to Linnaeus through our countryman John Ellis. These
three naturalists, and the celebrated John Hunter, con-
sidered it to be a perfect animal, and Linnaeus estab-
lished a distinct order for it amongst the Amphibia,
which he called Meantes. Pallas, Count Lacepede,
and some others, considered it only a tadpole of some
large species of Salamander ; and the celebrated ana-
tomist Camper even went so far as to place it amongst
the fishes. Cuvier, however, established most satis-
factorily that the Siren was a perfect animal, and a
true Amphibian, which respires at will throughout its
life, either in the water by means of branchiae, or in
the air by means of lungs. The blood-globules of the
Siren were ascertained by Professor Owen to be, like
those of the Proteus mentioned above, of a very large
size ; and it appears now a well-established fact, that
these globules are of a greater relative magnitude in
the Perennibranchiate amphibians, or those which have
persistent branchial apparatus, than in any other ani-
mals of the class to which they belong.

As we have mentioned, at p. 86, the order PsEU-
DOiciiTHYAS will take its place in the article Fishes.

END OF REPTILIA.

INDEX

TO

REPTILES.

Page

Page

Ablepliams, the Hungarian, AhTepliarus Pannoniciis

17

Bucephalus capensis, the Boom-shnge . .

64

Ablepharus Piiniionicus, the Hungarian Ablepliams

17

Buckler-backs, Gerrhonoti ....

16

Aboma, the, Epicrates cenckria

58

Bungarus, the Banded, Bungarus fasciatus . •

Bungarus fasciatus, the Banded Bungarus .

67

Acanthodactylus Capensis, the Cape Spine-fool .

14

67

Acontias, the Spotted, Acontias meleagris

21

Bungarum Pamah, the, Bungarus fascialus . .

67

Acontias meleagris, the Spotted Acontias

21

Bufo calamita, the Natter-jack ....

93

Acrantus teyou, the Teyu-hohy

11

Bufo vulgaris, the Common Toad

92

Acris gryllus, the, or Tree-frog

94

Acrocliorde of Java, the, Acrochordus Javanicus,

51

Csecilia, the Glutinous, Ichthyophis glutinosus . .

Caecilia glutinosus, the Glutinous Ccecilia

100

Acrochordina, the Acrochordians

51

100

Acrochordians, the, Acrochordina

51

Caiman gibbiceps, the Swollen-headed Cayman .

83

Acrochordus Javanicus, the Acrochorde of Java

51

Caiman palpebrosus, the Eye-broioed Cayman

Calamar, Linn®us’ Calamaria Linnod . . .

83

Ada, the, Ada Guianensis

11

60

Ada Guianensis, the Ada

,

11

Calamar LinnEei, Linnceus' Calamar . . ,

60

Adder, the Common, Vii^era or Pelias beriis

Agama, the Hispid, Agama aculeata . .

47

Caltetepon, the Rough, Heloderma hurridum

10

31

Caret, the, Caretta imbricata ....

77

Agama, the Spined, Agama aculeata

31

Caretta imbricata, the Caret . , ■

77

Agama, the Varying, Agama variabilis . .

31

Carey, the, Chelonia virgata . . . .

77

Agama aculeata, the Spined Agama . ,

31

Cascavella, the, Crotcdus horridus

45

Agama variabilis, the Varying Agama .

31

Cayman, the Eye-browed, Caiman palpebrosus .

83

Alligator, the. Alligator Mississippiensis

S2

Cayman, the Pike-muzzled, Alligator Mississippiensis .

82

Alligator Mississippiensis, the Alligator

82

Cayman, the Swollen-headed, Caiman gibbiceps

83

Amblyrhynchus, the Crested, Oreocephalus cristatus

27

Cenchris pisoivorus, the Water Viper

Cerastes, the. Cerastes Hasselquistii

42

Amblyrhynchus, the Sub-crested, Trachycephalus sub-

cris

47

tatus .....

27

Cerastes Hasselquistii, the Cerastes

47

Ameiva, the Common, Ameiva Surinarnensis

11

Ceratophrys cornuta, the Homed Frog .

91

Ameiva Surinamensis, the Common Ameiva

11

Chalcis flavescens, the Common Brassy Lizard .

17

Ameivas, the, Ameivina

11

Chameleon, the Common, Chameleo vulgaris . .

33

Ameivina, the Ameivas

11

Chameleon, the Fork-nosed, Chameleo bifurcus .

34

Americima, the, Gymnopthalmus lineatus

17

Chameleo bifurcus, the Fork-nosed Chameleon .

34

Ammodyte, the, Vipera ammodytes

48

Chameleo vulgaris, the Common Chameleon . .

33

Amphisbmna alba, the While Amphisbcena

84

Chelonia imbricata, the Hawk's-bill Turtle . .

76

Amphisbsena fuliginosa, the Sooty Ampihisbmna ,

84

Chdlonia virgata, the Carey ....

77

Amphisbaena, the Sooty, Amphisbcena fuliginosa

84

Chelonia viridis, the Green Turtle . .

77

Amphisbasna, the White, Amphisbcena alba

84

Chelydes, the, Cheydidm ....

72

Amphiuma means, the Congo Snake

99

Chelys matamata, the Fimbriated Tortoise

73

Anaconda, the, Eunectes murinus . .

57

Chersydrus, the Banded, Chersydrus granulatus, or fasciatus

51

Anguis fragilis, the Blind-worm . .

19

Chersydrus granulatus, or fasciatus, the Banded Chersydrus

51

Anolis, the Carolina, Anolius principalis

28

Chirotes, the Mexican, Chirotes lumbricoides

85

Anolis, the Lined, Anolius lineatus

28

Chirotes lumbricoides, the Mexican Chirotes

85

Anolius lineatus, the Lined Anolis

28

Chlamydosaurus Kingii, King's Frilled Lizard .

30

Anolius principalis, the Carolina Anolis . .

28

Chrysemis picta, the Painted Terrapen .

71

Ask, the, Lissotriton pimctatus

97

Cicigna, the, Seps tridactylus ....

21

A.sp, the, of Limimus, Vipera aspis . ,

Aspic, the, Naja haje ....

48

Cistudo trifasciata, the Three-streaked box Tortoise

72

66

Clotho arietans, the Puff-adder

46

Axolotes Mexicanus, the Axolotl

98

Clotho cornuta, the Horned Snake

46

Axolotl, the, Axolotes Mexicanus

98

Cobra de Capello, the, Naja tripudians

64

Coluber Esculapii, the Seipent of Esculapius

62

Basiliscus mitratus, the Hooded or Mitred Basilisk

27

Cordyle, the False, Pseudocordylus micrulepidotus

15

Basilisk, the Hooded or Mitred, Basiliscus mitratus

27

Cordyle, the, Zvnuridce ....

15

Blind-worm, the, Anguis fragilis

19

Coronella austriaca, the Smooth Crown-snake

60

Boa constrictor, the Boiguacu .

56

Craspedocephalus atrox, the Rat-tail

41

Boa Imperator, the Emperor Boa , .

67

Craspedocephalus braziliensis, the Jararaca

41

Boa rativora, the, Eunectes murinus, , .

67

Craspedocephalus lanceolatus, the Fer-de-Lance

40

Boiguacu, the, the True Boa constrictor ,

Boiquira, the, Crotalus horridus

56

Craspedocephalus leucurus, the White-tailed Lance-head

41

45

Crocodile, the Egyptian, Crocodilus mdgaris

79

Boom-slange, the, Bucephalus capensis .

64

Crocodile of the Nile, CVocoA'ftw

79

Born, the. Python molurus

54

Crocodile-tails, the, Crocodilurina

11

ii INDEX TO

REPTILES.

Page

Page

Crocodile, the Terrestrial, Psammosaurus Scmcus

9

Gerrhosauri, the Shield lAzards

15

Crocodilurina, the Crocodile-tails

11

Glass Snake, the, Ophisaurus ventralis .

16

Crocodilus vulgaris, the Egyptian Crocodile

79

Gopher, the, d’estudo Gopher

70

Crotalopliorus niiliaris, the Ground Rattlesnalce .

42

Ground Puppy, the, Protonopsis horrida

99

Crotalus horridus, the Boiquira

45

Guana, the Carolina, Cyclura nubila

26

Crown-snake, the Smooth, Coronella austriaca .

60

Guana, the Common, Iguana tuberculata

25

Curu-curu, the, Pipa Americana

95

Guana, the Rhinoceros, Iguana rhinolophus

26

Cuora trifasciata, the Three-streaked box Tortoise

72

Gymnophthalmus lineatus. the Americima

17

Cyclure, the Clouded, Cyclura mibila

26

Cyclura lophoma, the Shoulder-crested Cyclura .

26

Heloderma homdum, the Rough Caltetepon .

10

Cyclura nubila, the Clouded Cyclure

26

Hell-bender, the, Protonopsis horrida .

99

Cyclura, the Shoulder-crested, Cyclura lophoma .

26

Hemidactylus Mabouia, the Mabouya of the W(dls

24

Hemidactylus verruculatus, the Warty Gecko

24

Draco volans, the Common Flying Lizard .

30

Herpetodryas flagelliformis, the Coach-whip Snake of

Dracunculus lineatus. the Lined Plying Lizard .

30

North America ....

63

Dragon, the Great, Ada Guianensis

11

Hicotee, the, E7nys decussata

71

Dasypeltis scabra, the Rough Spine-tooth

63

Honialopsina, the Fluviatile Snakes

51

Homalopsis buccata, the Large-cheeked Ilomalopsis

52

Eft, the, Lissotriton pwnctatus .

97

Homalopsis, the Large-cheeked, Homalopsis buccata

52

El Traga Venado, the, Eunectes murinus

58

Hooded Snake, the Naja tripudians

64

Emperor Boa, the. Boa Imperator

57

Hornsman, the, Clotho cornuta .

46

Emys Caspica, the Caspian Emys

71

Hortulia natalensis, the Natal Rock Snake

56

Emys, the Caspian, Emys Caspica

71

Hortulia Seba;, the Guinea Rock Snake

55

Emys decussata, the Hicotee

71

Hydrosaurus giganteus, the Gigantic Lace Lizard

9

Emys picta, the Painted Terrapen

71

Hydi'ina, the Sea Serpents

49

Enhydrina valakadyen, the Vahhadyen

51

Hyla arborea, the Common Tree frog

94

Eremias, the Eremias, or Argutus

15

Erythrolamprus venustissimus, the Coral Snake .

61

Ibriaram, the, Amphisbmna alba

84

Eunectes murinus, the Anaconda

57

Iguana rhinolophus, the Rhinoceros Guana

26

Epicrates cenchria, the Aboma .

58

Iguana tuberculata, the Common Guana

25

False-foot, the, or Sheltopusik, Pseudopus PalassU

16

Jacare sclerops, the Spectacled Yacare .

83

Family Alligators (_AlligatoridcB)

82

Jalafa, the, Sphargis coriacea .

78

“ Amphisbainidae

84

Jararaca, the, Craspedocephalus braziliensis

41

“ Boas (^Boidce) . = .

52

Jiboya, the, Epicrates cenchria

59

“ Cix\a.maxs,,(^Calamaridai) . .

60

“ Chirotidaj ....

85

Kinosternon odoratnm, the Scented Kinostemon

72

“ Crocodiles {Crocodilidce) ,

79

Kinosternon Pennsylvanicum, the Mud Terrapen

72

“ Crotalids ....

40

Kinosternon, the Scented, Kinostemivn odoratum

72

“ Crown-snakes (^Coronellidce) . .

60

“ Fresh-water Snakes airicidce) .

61

Land Tortoises, Testudinidas

68

“ Geckotidae ....

22

Lacerta agilis, the Sand Liz rd

13

“ Iguanidre ....

25

Lacerta ocellata, the Great Green or Eyed Lizard

12

“ Lepidosternida;

85

Lacerta viridis, the Common G^-een Lizard

13

“ Molges, the (^Molgidce) .

97

Lachesis mutus, the Brazilian Souroucoucou

42

“ Plethodons, the {Plethodontido’)

97

Lance-head, the White-tailed, Craspedocephalus leucurus

41

“ Salamanders (^Salamandridos) . ■ .

95

Leiocephalus Schriebersii, the Lion Lizard

28

“ Scincidse ....

17

Lizards, the Blind, Typhlopsidoe

21

“ Spine-toothed Serpents, the (Rachiodontidai)

63

Lizards, the Brassy, Chalcidm .

17

“ Tree-serpents, the {Eendrophidm')

63

Lizard, the Common Brassy, Chalcis flavescens .

17

“ True Snakes {Colubridm)

62

Lizard, the Common Flying, Draco volans

30

“ Viperida; ( Vipers')

45

Lizard, the Crested Amboina, Lophura Amboinensis

30

“ Water Serpents (Hydridce)

49

Lizard, the Gigantic Lace, Hijdrosaurus giganteus

9

“ Wood-serpents (^Dryadida;)

62

Lizard, the Common Green, Lacerta viridis

13

Farnocantrata, the, Uroplates Jimbriatus

23

Lizard, the Great Green or Eyed, Lacerta ocellata

12

Fan F’oot, the, Ptyodaclylus Gecko

23

Lizard, the Green, Anolius principalis

28

Farancia fasciata, the Wampum Snake .

52

Lizard, Green, of Paraguay, Acrantus teijou

11

Fer-de-Lance. the, Craspedocephalus lanceolntus

40

Lizard, the Grey-wall, Zootoca muralis .

14

Frog, the Bull, Rana mugiens .

91

Lizard, King’s Frilled, Chlamydosaurus Kingii .

30

Frog, the Common, Rana Temporaria .

89

Lizard, the Lined Flying, Dracunculus lineatus .

30

Frog, the Common Tree, Hyla arborea .

94

Lizard, the Lion, Leiocephalus Schriebersii

28

Frog, the Dotted, Rana-Pelodytes-punctala

91

Lizard, the Sand, Lacerta agilis

13

Frog, the Edible, Rana esculenta

89

Lizards, the Shield, Gerrhosauri

15

Frog, the Green, Rana esculenta

89

Lizard, the Viviparous or Scaly, Zootoca vivipara

13

Frog, the Horned, Ceratophrys comuta . .

91

Lizard, the True, Lacert'idee

11

Lophura Amboinensis, the Crested Lizard of Amboina

30

Garriques, the, Psammodromus Edwardsii

15

Lophinus punctatus, the Smooth Newt .

97

Gavial, the, Gavialis Gangeticus

81

Luth, the, Sphargis coriacea

7B

Gavialis Gangeticus, the Gavial

81

Gecko, the Egyptian, Tarentola Egyptiaca .

24

Mabouia agilis, the Nimble Mabouya

18

Gecko, the Fringed, Uroplates Jimbriatus

23

Mabouya, the Nimble, Mabouya agilis .

18

Gecko, I’he House, Ptyodaclylus Gecko .

23

Mabouya of the Walls, the, Hemidactylus Mabouia

24

Gecko, the True, Gecko verus .

24

Malaclemys concentrica, the Salt-water Terrapen

71

Gecko, the Turnip-tailed, Thecadactylus rapicauda

23

Marine Tortoises, Cheloniidm

74

Gecko verus, the True Gecko

24

Matamata, the, Chelys matamata

73

Gecko, the Wall, Tarentola Maurilanica

24

Microcephalophis gracilis, the Kadell Nagam

51

Gecko, the Warty, Hemidactylus verruculatus

24

Moccasin, the Water, Cenchris piscivorus

42

1

INDEX TO

REPTILES.

iii

Page

Page

Moloch horridus, the Moloch

. 31

Saettone, the. Coluber Esculaqm

. 62

Moloch, the, Moloch horridus . . .

. 31

Salamander, the Common, Salamandra maculosa

. 95

Monitors, the, Monitoridce

8

Salamander, the Gigantic, Sieboldia maxima

. 99

Monitoridae, the Monitors

8

Salamander, the Glutinous, Plethodon glutiuosum

. 97

Monitor, tlie Nilotic, Monitor Niloticus .

8

Salamandra maculosa, the Terrestrial Salamander

95

Monitor Niloticus, the Nilotic Monitor .

8

Salamander, the Terrestrial, Salamandra maculosa
Sandnatter, the, Vipera ammodytes

. 95

Monitor, the Land, Psammosaurus Scincus

9

. 48

Monitor, the White-throated, Regenia albogularis

9

Scincus officinalis, the Officinal

18

Mongofa, the, Testudo Gopher .

. 70

Seps tridactylus, the Ciciyna

. 21

Mud-devil, the, Frotonopsis horrida

99

Serpent of Esculapius, the. Coluber Esculapii

. 62

Mud-eel, the. Siren lacertina .

. 102

Serpent Fetiche, the, llortidia Sebm

. 65

Serpen^, the Sea, Hydrina

49

Nagam, the Kadell, Microcephalophis gracilis .

Naja haje, the Aspic ....

. 51

Shielded Reptiles (Cataphractd) . .

. 67

. 66

Sieboldia maxima, the Gigantic Salamander

. 99

Naja tripudians, the Cobra de Capello .

. 64

Siren lacertina, the Siren . . .

. 102

Natter-jack, the, Bufo culamita

. 93

Siren, the. Siren lacertina . . .

. 102

Necturus maculosus, the Proteus of the Lalccs

. 101

Snake, the Brown, Naja haffi .

Snakes, the Burrowing, Turtricina

66

Newt, the Common Warty, Triton crisiatus

. 96

. 69

Newt, the Great Water, Triton cristatus ,

. 96

Snake, the Coach-whip, of North America, Herpetodryas

Newt, the Small, Lophinus punctatus . .

. 97

flagelliformis ....

. 63

Newt, the Smooth, Lissotriton punctatus .

. 97

Snake, the Common-ringed, Tropidmotus natriv

. 61

Snake, the Congo, Amphiuma means

99

Officinal, the, Scincus officinalis . .

. 18

Snake, the Coral, Erythrolamprus venustissimns

. 61

Ophisaurus ventralis, the Glass-snake

. 16

Snake, the Coral, Tortrix scytale

. 59

Onychophis Delalandii, Laland's Claw-headed Snake

21

Snakes, the Fluviatile, Homalopsina

. 51

Order. — Batrachians {Batrachia')

. 87

Snakes, the Fresh Water, Homalopsina

. 61

“ Crocodiles and Alligators (^Emgdosauria)

78

Snake, the Guinea Rock, Ilortulia Sebce

, 55

“ Double Walkers or Amphisbaenians (^AmpliL

Snake, the Horned, Clotho cornuta

. 46

bcenia') ....

. 84

Snake, Laland’s Claw-headed, Onychophis Delalandii

. 21

“ False Lizards (Pseudosaurid) .

. 99

Snake, the Natal Rock, Hortulia natalensis

. 56

“ False or Naked Snakes (JPseudophidia')

. 100

Snake, the Rock, Python molurus

. 54

“ Lizards (ffiauria')

6

Snake, the Spitting, Naja haji

. 66

“ Perennibranchiate Amphibia (^Meantid)

. 100

Snake, the Wampum, Farancia fasciata

. 62

“ Serpents (f)phidid)

. 34

Snake, the Yellow, Naja hajd .

. 66

“ Tortoises and Turtles (^Chelonia')

. 67

Soft Turtles, Trionycidce

. 73

Oreocephalus cristatus, the Crested Amblyrhynchus

. 27

Souroucoucou, the Brazilian, Lachesis mutiis
Speetacle-Snake, the, Naja tripudians .

. 42

Ouaran, the, Psammosaurus Scincus

. 9

64

Oular-Sawa, the. Python recticulatus

. 55

Sphsenops, the Bridled, Sphcenops capistratus

. 20

Sphsenops capistratus, the Bridled Sphcenops

. 20

Pam, the Bodroo, Trimesurus viridis

. 42

Spine-foot, the Cape, Acanthodactylus Capensis

14

Pam, the Nalla-Whalagellee, Pelamis bicolor
Papa-serpent, the. Boa Constrictor . .

Pedda Podda, the. Python molurus . .

. 60

Spine-tooth, the Rough, Dasypeltis scabra

. 63

. 57

Sphargis coriacea, the Coriaceous Turtle

. 78

. 54

Spuugh-slang, the, Naja haje .

66

Pelagic Serpents, the, Hydrina

. 49

Stellio cordylus, the Stellion

. 31

Pelamis, the Black-backed, Pelamis bicolor

Pelamis, bicolor, the Black-backed Pelamis

. 50

Stellion, the, Stellio cordylus

. 31

. 50

Sternothserus castaneus, the Natal Sternothere

. 73

Phrynosoma orbiculare, the Tapayaxin .

. 28

Sternothere, the Natal, Sternothcerus castaneus .

73

Pipa Americana, the Surinam Toad

. 95

Stump-Tail, the Rough, Trachydosaurus nigosus

. 20

Plethodon glutiuosum, the Glutinous Salamander

. 97

Sub-Order — Thick-Tongued Lizards

. 22

Proteus anguinus, the Snake-like Proteus

. 101

“ Coluhrine Serpents (_Colubrind)

. 49

Proteus of the Lakes, the, Necturus maculosus .

. 101

“ Viperine Serpents ( Viperina)

. 39

Proteus, the Snake-like, Proteus anguinus

. 101

Protonopsis horrida, the Hell -bender

. 99

Tapayaxin, the, Phrynosoma orbiculare .

. 28

Psammodromus Edwardsii, the Garriques

. 15

Tarentola Bibronii, BibrorUs Tarentole

24

Psammosaurus Scincus, Land AJonitor of Egypt

9

Tarentola Capensis, the Cape Tarentole

. 24

Psammosaurus Scincus, the Ouaran

Pseudocordylus microlepidotus, the False Cordyle

9

Tarentola Egyptiaca, the Egyptian Gecko

24

• 15

Tarentole, Bibron’s, Tarentola Bibronii

. 24

Pseudopns Palassii, the False Foot oi' Sheltopusik

. 16

Tarentola, Mauritanica, the Wall Gecko

. 24

Ptyodactylus Gecko, the House Gecko .

. 23

Tarentole, the Cape, Tarentola Capensis .

. 24

Ptychozoon homalocephala, the Fringed Tree-Gecko

. 24

Tartaruga, the, Testudo grceca

Tedo, the, Pipa Americana

69

Puff-Adder, the, Clotho arietans

. 46

, 95

Py^opus lepidopodus, the Common Rump-Foot .

. 17

Teguexin, the Common, Teius Teguexin

. 10

Python molurus, the Rock Snake

. 54

Teius Teguexin, the Common Teguexin .

. 10

Python recticulatus, the Ular-Sawa

. 55

Terrapens, the, Emydidce

. 71

Terrapen, the Mud, Kinosternon Pennsylvanicum

. 72

Rana esculenta, the Edible Frog . .

. 89

Terrapen, the Painted, Emys picta

71

Rana mugiens, the Bull Frog . . .

. 91

Terrapen, the Salt-water, Alalaclemys concentriea

. 71

Rana-Pelodytes-punctata, the Dotted Frog

. 91

Testudo grseca, the Greek Tortoise

. 69

Rana pipiens, the Bull Frog

. 91

Testudo gopher, the Gopher

70

Rana Temporaria, the Common Frog

Rat-Tail, the, Craspedocephalus dtrox .

. 89

Testudo geometrica, the Geometric Tortoise

. 70

. 41

Testudo Indica, the Blaok Tortoise . .

. 70

Rattlesnake, the Common or Banded, Uropsophus durissus 45

Testudo marginata, the Margined Tortoise

. 70

Rattlesnake, the Ground, Crotalophorus miliaris
Rattlesnake, the Small, Crotalophorus miliaris .

. 42

Testudo Mauritanica, the Moorish Tortoise

. 69

. 42

Testudo pardalis, the Leopard Tortoise .

. 70

Regenia albogularis, the White-throated Alonitor

9

Teyu-Hoby, the, Acrantus teyou

11

River Tortoises, Trionycidce

. 73

Thecadactylus rapicauda, the Turnip -tailed Gecko

. 23

Rump-Foot, the Common, Pygopus lepidopodus

. 17

Tiliquerta, the, Zootoca muralis

14

IV

INDEX TO REPTILES.

Page

Toad, the Common, Bufo vulgaris . . .92

Toad, the Surinam, Pipa Americana . , .95

Tortoise, the Black, Testudo Indica . . .70

Tortoise, the Common Land, Testudo grceca . . 69

Tortoise, the Elephant, Testudo ludica . . 70

Tortoise, the Fimbriated, Chelys matamata , .73

Tortoises, Fresh-water . . . . .70

Tortoise, the Geometric, Testudo geometrica . .70

Tortoise, the Greek, Testudo grceca . . .69

Tortoise, the Indian, Testudo Indica . . .70

Tortoise, the Leopard, Testudo par dalis . .70

Tortoise, the Margined, Testudo marginata . .70

Tortoise, the Moorish, Testudo Mauritanica . . 69

Tortoise, the Mud, Kinosiernon odoratum . .72

Tortoise of the Nile, the Soft, Trionyx Niloticus . 74

Tortoise, the Three-streaked-box, (Jisiudo tr^dsciata . 72

Tortricina, the Burroicing Snakes . . .59

Tortrix Scytale, the Coral Snake, . . .69

Trachycephalus subscristatus, the Svh-Crested Amhlyrhynchus 27

Trachydosaurus rugosus, the Bough Stump-Tail
Tree-Gecko, the Fringed, Ptychozoon homalocephala
Tribe — Cyclosaura
“ Dendrosaura
“ Geissosaura
“ Nyctisaura
“ Strobilosaura

Trimesurus viridis, the Bodroo Pam

20

24
7

32

17

22

25
42

Trionyx Niloticus, the. Tyrse
Triton cristatus, the Great Water Newt
Tropidonotus natrix, the Common Ringed Snake
Turtles, Cheloniidm

Turtle, the Coriaceous, Sphargis coriacea
Turtle, the Green, Chelonia viridis
Turtle, the Hawk’s-bill, Caretta imbricata
Typhlopsidae, the Blind Lizards
Tyrse, the, Trionyx Niloticus .

Ular-Sawa, the Python recticulatus
Uroplates fimbriatus, the Famoenntrata
Uropsophus durissus, the Common or Banded Rattlesnake

Valakadyen, the, Enhydrina valakadyen
Viper, the Common, Vipera or Pelias berus
Yiper, the Water, Cenchris piscivarus .

Vipera ammodytes, the Ammodyte
Vipera aspis, the Asp of Linnmus
Vipera, or Pelias berus, the Common Viper

Yacare, the Spectacled, Jacare sclerops

Zonure, the Shielded, Zonurus cataphractus
Zonuridse, the Cordyles

Zonurus cataphractus, the Shielded Zonure .

Zootoca muralis, the Tiliquerta
Zootoca vivipara, the Viviparous or Scaly Lizard

Page

74

96

61

74

78

77

77

21

74

55

23

•45

61

47
42

48
48
47

83

15

15

15

14

13

THE MUSEUM

OP

NATURAL HISTORY.

ZOOLOGY.

CLASS IV.

“ Forthwith the sounds and seas, each creek and bay
With fry innumerable swarm, and shoals
Of fish that with their fins and shining scales
Glide under the green wave, in sculls * that oft
Bank the mid-sea : part single, or with mate
Graze the sea-weed their pasture, and through groves
Of coral stray, or sporting with quick glance
Show to the sun their wav’d coats dropt with gold,

Or in their pearly shells at ease attend
Moist nutriment, or under rocks their food
In jointed armour watch.”

— Milton's Paradise Lost, vii. 399.

Fishes rank in the scale of animated beings as the
lowest division of V ertebrals. In the preceding pages
of this work, the reader has been informed how the
massive bony frame-work and other parts of the
mammalian structure are modified in the instances of
Seals and Cetaceans, to adapt an air-breathing vertebral
for an aquatic life; and also how the Penguins are
able to live the life of a fish, through peculiarities of
their ornithic constitutions. These and similar facts
afford us glimpses of the inexhaustible and admirable
methods by which the great Creator has constructed
animals for the performance of their special functions,
yet without effacing the structural type of the particular
class to which they belong. The discovery and just
appreciation of such instances of creative wisdom, are
delightful rewards of zoological study. By the contem-
plation of the creatures to which our attention is now
to be directed, we perceive, at the outset, that the
ponderous bones of terrestrial quadrupeds, or even
the much lighter yet firmly knit skeletons of air-
cleaving birds, are not essential for animals breath-
ing and moving in a medium nearly as heavy as
their bodies, which receive no shock in cleaving a
way through it with the rapidity of an arrow. The
nature of the medium in which they dwell not only
allows great variety in the density of the skeletons of
fishes, but also a diversity of external form surpassing
anything that has been noticed among the higher
groups of Vertebrals, whose aggregate numbers are,
in fact, very inferior to those of the finny tribes,

• Aiie:lo-Saxon sceote, an assembly.

—FISHES.

whether we look to species or individuals. Some
fishes have little or no bony matter in their bodies,
and one small fish, occupying the lowest place in the
ichthyic scale, is actually destitute of the head and
brain, so characteristic of the more highly organized
members of the division.

Using the term Fishes in the broadest sense in
which it is employed by naturalists of the present time,
to denote a group of vertebrals living habitually in
water, and respiring that fluid during the whole course
of their life, and not merely temporarily, like the
Amphibians, our purpose is to present such a view of
the whole group as may be useful to the student of
ichthyology, without overpassing the limits assigned
to the subject by the projectors of “ The Museum.”
The Natural History of two orders of osseous fishes
only, written by Cuvier and Valenciennes, extends to
twenty-two thick octavo volumes ; * the work of
Muller and Henle on the Sharks and Rays, exceeds
two hundred pages folio ; f and the admirable lectures
of Professor Owen on the Anatomy of Fishes, fill three
hundred pages of small type. J The space allowed to
the class in this work will not suffice for more than
an attempt to present the characters of the Orders
and principal Families, with brief notices of some of
the fisheries ; and to add a very few facts evincing
intelligence or natural affection in some members of
the Class.

The marine abodes of fish, secluded from continuous
observation, limit our knowledge of their habits ; and
some kinds that are objects of important and costly
fisheries, are known only in that epoch of their exist-
ence in which they approach the shores for the
purpose of spawning. Several large species residing
habitually in deep waters, and coming to the surface
under the accidental circumstances merely of injury or
disease, have been captured at rare intervals, by seamen

* Histoire Naturelle des Poissons, par M. Le Baron Cuvier
et M. A. Valenciennes An. 1828-1849. Tom. xxii. A Paris.

f Beschreibung der Plagiostomen, von Dr. J. Muller and
Dr. J. Henle, 1841. Berlin (60 plates).

I Lectures on Comp. Anatomy of Vertebrate Animals, by
Eichard Owen, F.E.S., 1846. London.

104 Introduction. FISHES. Classification.

who, unable to draw up a recognizable description, have
whetted the curiosity of naturalists, but have left the
species which chance had placed in their hands to hold
an uncertain niche in our systems.

A general acquaintance with the principal facts of
ichthyology is of national importance to a maritime
country like Great Britain, with an increasing population
and a limited area of arable land. At the present time,
the cost of fish renders it rather a luxury for the rich than
food for the masses ; but there is no doubt that, not-
withstanding the number of people at present employed
in catching, curing, and carrying fish to the markets,
this source of food might be incalculably extended. We
are still behind the Dutch and Biscayans in some of
the fisheries carried on in the narrow seas ; and Europe
at large is vastly surpassed by the Chinese in the
skill with which supplies for a teeming population are
extracted from the ocean, or in the economical rearing
of fish in everj" pond ; a sheet of water in China being-
made as productive of food as the same extent of good
arable land. Of late years cod-liver oil, having been
ascertained to be a most valuable remedy against the
national malady consumption, has already become an
extensive article of traffic ; and very recently, experi-
ments made in France have shown that oil obtained
from the livers of sharks is not less useful in the same
disease. Now in March, 1858, when an unbroken
scull of one kind of shark (the Picked Dog-fish) beset
the northern coasts of Scotland, and extended twenty
miles out to sea, filling every harbour and bay — had
proper fisheries been established, not only might an
incredible quantity of high-priced oil have been pro-
cured, but vast stores of sharks’ fins might have been
prepared for export to China, where they are in great
request for the purpose of making excellent soup. It
is, perhaps, too much to expect that Englishmen should
lay aside their prejudices, and learn from the Chinese
the modes of converting parts of these fish rejected by
our fishermen as useless, into palatable and nourish-
ing food. Not from the observations of our own
seamen, but from researches made by order of the
Dutch government, have we learnt that the Herring-
fishery is productive in those parts of the sea only,
whose temperature ranges between 54° and 58° of
Fahrenheit’s thermometer.

Agassiz, a most important authority in classification,
has carried the subdivision of the vertebrate animals
further than his predecessors, and distributes the
Fishes, as defined above, into four classes, viz : —

1st. Myzontes, composed of two orders, Myxinoids
and Cyclostomes.

2nd. Fishes Proper, of two orders, Cterwids and
Cycloids.

3rd. Ganoids, of three orders, Coelacanths (fossil),
Acipenseroids, and Sauroids, with the addition of o-ther
three orders, whose true position is to be ascertained
by future research : these are Siluroids, Plectognailis,
and Lojjhobranclis.

4th. Selachians, of three orders, Chimceroids,
Galeodes, and Batides. This arrangement, considered
to be in part provisional, and depending on the result
of investigations now in progress, is not adopted in
the ensuing pages, though occasionally referred to ;

the fishes being treated in this work as a single class,
having a common character — the oxygenation of the
hlood hy air diffused in water.

Professor Owen has recently taken a very dlffereni
-view of the arrangement of the inferior vertebrals from
the above, and proposes to unite the Fishes, Amphi-
bians, and Keptiles into one class, which he names
HiEMATOCRYA.

“ Our little systems have their day ;

They have their day and cease to he ;

They are but broken lights of Tltee,

And thou, 0 Lord ! art more than they.”

— Tennyson, In Mem. vi.

That a correct knowledge of the structure and
development of any group of animals is as necessary
to the zoologist as an acquaintance with their phy-
siognomy and habits, is so evident, that it seems
unnecessary to affirm that no one can hope to become
an accomplished ichth3mlogist unless he submits to the
labour of patient anatomical investigation. F or reasons
already assigned, however, the notices of structure will
not be extended in this work beyond what is requisite
for explaining the terms used in characterizing the
orders and family groups.

Scales. — In some fishes scales are not developed,
the skin being generally in that case thick, smooth,
and slippery, owing to the abundance of defensive
mucus secreted by its numerous gland.s. Comparative
anatomists distinguish the internal more or less firm
framework by the name of endo-skeleton, from the
external or exo-slceleton, which is intimately connected
with the skin or developed in its textures, and is
therefore sometimes called the dermal skeleton. The
Myzontes of Agassiz, or Dermopleres, furnish an instance
of an entire order (or, as the author just named con-
siders them to be, a whole class) destitute of scales, and
with so little approach to the secretion of bony matter
that systematic authors call the exo-skeleton “ muco-
dermoid,” or indurated mucus secreted from the skin,
the internal skeleton at the same time being cartilagi-
nous or membranous. Almost all the other great gi-oups
of fishes contain some species without scales, but allied
by the rest of their structure to the scaly fishes with
which they are classed. Scales, when present, originate
in a little pouch of the external skin, technically named
a follicle, and resembling the fold of the gum from
which the germ of a tooth is evolved. Agassiz, when
studying fossil fishes, was led to distinguish four kinds
of scales, which he termed cycloid, ctenoid, ganoid, and
placoid.

Cycloid scales are smooth on their discs and edges,
but when examined through a lens, exhibit numerous
concentric lines, variously flexed, yet having always
a certain relation to the border of the disc. Most
generally in that part of the scale which remains in
the follicle, and is covered by the scale immediately
before it, these lines of structure by dipping and undu-
lating produce furrows radiating like the sticks of a
fan. In all the most important groups of those fishes
which are clothed with cycloid scales, the bones of the
skeleton contain radiated or fusiform bone corpuscles.*

* Kblliker, Proceedings of the Royal Society, ix. p. 656.

Introduction,-

FISHES. Structure. 105

Ctenoid denotes an arrangement of processes like
the teeth of a comb, and designates scales with a row
of acute points on their margins, or on the concentric
lines of their discs. These teeth or serratures are
almost always confined to the uncovered posterior part
of a scale, and do not extend to the anterior part of
the disc which remains in the follicle, and which is
most commonly radiately furrowed, as in the cycloid
scales. There is a general association between ctenoid
scales and spinous processes on the bones of the head,
shoulder, and gill-cover, as well as with firm and pun-
gent or bony rays in the fins, these pieces of structure,
variously combined, being more or less constantly pre-
sent in the order of fishes named Acanthopteres. It
is to be observed, however, that with a few exceptions,
the skeleton of the Acanthopteres is formed of what
Kolliker calls a “ homogeneous or tubular osteoid
substance ” whieh does not contain bone-corpuscles,
and is not, therefore, of so truly bony a nature as the
skeleton of the cycloid fishes. The cycloid and ctenoid
scales belong to the “ True fishes ” of Agassiz, and are
not now considered by him as of equal value for the
purpose of classification with the ganoid and placoid
kinds, which serve to characterize two groups of verte-
brals to which he assigns the higher value of classes.

The ganoid scale has a hard shining enamelled
surface, with a bony base containing radiated corpuscles,
or, as Kolliker expresses it, the exo-skeleton of the
ganoids is composed of real bone, partly associated
with a homogenous osteoid substance (ganoin) and
with dentinal tubes.

Placoid scales want the enamel of the ganoids.
They are sometimes in form of large plates, sometimes
in shape of small points — forming, when prepared with
the skin for use in the arts, the. substance called
“ shagreen at other times, they have the shapes of
prickles, thorns, or spines. They occur in existing
fishes in Agassiz’s fourth class of vertebrals, the
Selachians. None of these fishes, according to Kolliker,
possess real bone-cells in their hard parts, which are
formed merely of cartilage-cells in a matrix indurated
by the deposition of earthy matter. The spines of the
Selachians are constructed of dentine.

All the hard or horny productions of the skin are
considered, when spoken of generally, to be scales ; the
designations of spines, thorns, prickles, bristles, hairs,
plates, shields, scutes, &c., being merely descriptive of
form. In some fishes the cranial or pelvic bones, or
other parts of the endo-skeleton, appear on the surface ;
and when that is the case, their discs are very often
modified so as to assume the appearance and function
of a dermal production, by various kinds of sculpturing,
or the existence of muciparous cells, &c. The cranial
scutes of sturgeons, though evidently of dermal origin
externally, have internal surfaces of smooth compact
substance like an endo-skeleton.

Fins are of two kinds, differing from each other in
their relations to the endo- and exo- skeletons. One
kind is always developed in the mesial plane of the fish,
aud is formed of a duplicature of the skin either solely
or with the addition of rays, which may be solid and
pungent when they are named spines ; or binate,
flexible and jointed, and simple or branching, when
Von. 11 70

they are termed soft rays. In the Dermopteres the
consistence of the mucoid rays is often so small that
they can scarcely be traced. These vertical fins appear
in the embryo fish as a cutaneous seam edging the
whole upper and under outlines of the body. Parts of
this seam are arrested in their growth, and disappear,
while other parts continue to increase ; and thus several
fins are formed. Those on the dorsal aspect are named
dorsals, and those on the ventral one anals — the mar-
ginal seam, with one or two exceptions only, uniformly
vanishing before the vent, behind which opening there-
fore the anal or anals are always situated. The ter-
minal fin is named the caudal. In some fishes, as in
the common eel, the continuity of the fin membrane
remains during life along the back, round the tip of the
tail, and along the ventral surface forwards to the vent
— (Plate 1, figs. 4 and 6). The caudal fin may be
pointed, crescentic, or forked. When the tapering
extremity of the vertebral column is prolonged through
the upper lobe of the caudal, and the lower lobe is
developed in its greatest breadth further forward, the
caudal acquires a lengthened unsymmetrical form called
“ heterocercal” — (see Plate 17 e) — and is characteristic
of the fossil fishes detected in the ancient strata.

The form of caudal which prevails in existing fishes
is named “ homocercal,” the lobes being alike nearly in
size and shape, and having an even, crescentic, forked,
or a tapering and acute termination — (see Plate 17 c).
This symmetry is produced by a peculiar arrangement
of the irregular flat bones called “ interneurals,” to
which the rays of the caudal are attached ; and in the
salmon, and many other fishes which have homocercal
caudals, the tip of the vertebral column may be seen
inclining upwards among the terminal interneurals
without affecting the external equality of the caudal
lobes. In the mackerel tribe — (Plate 10, No. 51) — the
end of the back-bone is more direct, and the upper and
under lobes of the caudal are more distinctly separated.
Homocercal fishes have not been discovered in the
magnesian limestone, or in any formation beneath it.
They make their first appearance in the oolitic strata.

The lateral fins are not, like the vertical ones, mere
dermal productions, but are appendages to the endo-
skeleton, and are strictly homologous with the limbs of
a quadruped. The pectorals representing the fore-feet
are attached to the inverted bony or cartilaginous arch,
composed ehiefly of the eoracoids, and suspended in
osseous fishes through the scapula and suprascapula to
the skull ; but having a position under the foremost
spinal vertebrae in sharks, and being firmly united to
these vertebrae in the skates.

Attached to two triangular pieces called pubic bones,
the ventrals represent the hind feet of a quadruped, yet
are less constant in their position than the pectorals,
being sometimes far behind the coracoids and connected
with them only by intervening soft parts, when they
are named abdominals; at other times, they are situated
under the face, and receive the designation oi jugulars;
and when under or nearly under the pectorals, they
were termed by Linmeus thoracic ventrals. Cuvier
changed the latter appellation to suh-brachuin, and
extended it to all that have pubic bones joined to the
coracoids, even though the fins might be somewhat

1 OG Intkou ucTiON. FIS H ES. Structure.

posterior, designing thereby to render the term more
applicable as a distinctive character to his order of
Acanthopteres, whose ventrals have a spinous ray in
front, and need the firm support of the coracoids when
used as a defensive weapon. Only in a very few
instances are the pubic bones united directly to the
spinal column as the hind legs are in quadrupeds ; they
are almost always merely suspended in the soft parts.
The term apodal, applied to fishes, indicates that the
ventrals are absent; and ahrachial, in like manner,
denotes the non-existence of pectorals.

Lateral line. — Most fishes have pores in the skin
from which a lubricating fluid is poured out, in some
very copiously, as in the glutinous hag, for which it
suffices to convert the surrounding water into a jelly.
These pores are rarely absent from a row of dermal
bones that run under the eye, and are therefore
named suh-orhiials ; and they may generally be traced
over the temples, in a chain of ossicles called sur-
temporals, and onwards b\'^ the suprascapula to the
side of the fish, which they traverse towards the tail,
following the line of decussation of the two great lateral
muscular masses. In this position the porous row
acquires the name of the “lateral line,” and it is a
character of which special mention is generally made
in the description of the external aspect of a fish. The
scales that it traverses most commonly differ from the
others in size, figure, or in being perforated, or tubular,
or notched, and they form the points of meeting
between the oblique rows of dorsal and ventral scales.
In many fishes which have no other scales, the ducts
of the lateral line are jirotected by cartilaginous or
osteoid cases. Sometimes the lateral line runs only a
short way behind the pectoral, sometimes it goes to the
base of the caudal rays, sometimes onward to their
tips ; or it may be Interrupted, and recommence again
on a lower level ; or, finally, it may be altogether
imperceptible or absent, as in most sharks ; or there
may be two, three, or many lateral lines, as in the
Mullets and Chiri.

Water-tubes. — Agassiz has discovered that in
many fishes tliere exist external openings which have
hitherto been mistaken for muciferous pores, but whose
function is to admit water into the circulating system
through a series of tubes that end in the blood-vessels
near the heart. They are easily seen in the head of
the common shad, but none have been detected in the
Selachians; and they are generally few in fishes that
live habitually in shallow waters. He considers them
to be safety-tubes for balancing the system on sudden
alterations of pressure. An analogous system exists
in Molluscs, by which water can be admitted into the
heart from the exterior.'*'

Endo- skeleton. — The very numerous groups of
fishes cannot be described or recognized without a
more frequent reference to the parts of the internal
skeleton than is requisite in characterizing the fewer
divisions of the Mammals or Birds. But we are
restrained in this work from lengthened anatomical
descriptions, and must confine our brief notices of the
bones to those pieces whose names enter into the
definitions of the family groups of fishes.

*■ Duthiers, Proceed. Hoy. Soc. x. No. 37, p. 193. Dec. IS.'iO.

In the skull of an osseous fish five ridges are some-
times very conspicuous. A mesial one, chiefly deve-
loped on the super-occipital, which is the hindmost
bone on the top of the skull, and is conspicuous in
figure c of Plate 17. The distal point of this ridge is
frequently called the “occipital spine.” This mesial
ridge is often prolonged forwards on the mid-frortal
between the orbits. Next follow the pair of intermediate
ridges, one on each side developed on the par-occipi-
tal, exteriorly to the super-occipital, and running for-
wards over parietal and mid-frontal near the upper
edge of the orbit. To the distal point of the interme-
diate ridge one limb of the chevron-shaped supra-
scapula is attached. Still more exterior or lower down
on the side of the head run the external ridges, also a
pair, one on each side. To the distal end of this ridge,
which is a process of the mastoid bone, the lower limb
of the suprascapula is attached ; the fore part of the
ridge reaches to the hinder margin of the orbit on the
post-frontal. Fishes with round heads like the loaches
want these five ridges ; some, as the carp, have merely
the occipital spine. In the Choetodons the mesial ridge
is greatly elevated, and in the Sclerogenids the whole
five ridges are more or less conspicuous.

The upper profile of the face or snout is supported
by the nasal hone; and on each side of it are the
nostrils, opening by one or two small orifices into the
pituitaiy sacs, but not penetrating to the cavity of the
mouth. Under the nasal bone are the jaws, variously
formed in various groups of fishes, but retaining their
relative positions and connections pretty exactly. The
premaxillaries, a pair of bones applied to each other
on the mesial line, form the middle part of the upper
jaw, and in a considerable number of osseous fishes
border the entire upper half of the mouth. Articulated
to the palatine, behind the premaxillary, lies the
maxillary, whose lower end in many fishes comes for-
ward to the corner of the mouth, and enters into the
composition of its upper border. When the jaws are
protractile, each premaxillary sends out a long pedicel,
which glides backwards and forwards by the side of the
nasal on a tubercle of the maxillary. The mandible,
composed of two limbs, each consisting of two or more
pieces, makes up the lower jaw. Underlying the nasal,
within the roof of the mouth on the mesial line, is the
vomer; and on each side of it is one of the pair of
palatine hones. In the back part of the roof of the
mouth, over the gullet, is the sub-occipital, which is
confluent with the sphenoid that articulates anteriorlj^
and above with the vomer. All the bones here named
as belonging to the orifice of the mouth or its roof are
dentiferous in one species of fish or another. Interiorly
between the limbs of the mandible there is often a
lingual or tongue-hone, frequently bearing teeth, and
opposed to the vomer. There are also in almost all
cases teeth on the branchial arches or on parts of the
hyoid bones connected with them.

The Gills and Hvoid Apearatus.— -Descending
from the mastoid bones of each side a series of pieces
meet at the tongue, and form an elastic inverted chevron
like the letter V. Running backwards in the lower
angle of the V, and on the mesial line from the tongue,
between the limbs or cornua of this arch, there is a

Introduction. FISHES. Structure. 1 07

narrow isthmus of ossicles, which are frequently studded
with haif-like teeth; and, rising in backward curves
from thp isthmus, there is a series of successive pairs
of branchial arches, whose upper ends are connected to
the sub-occipital by membrane. Each arch consists of
several pieces with joints, rendering it pliable and
elastic ; and each has, a litUe above the middle of its
limb, a larger joint, which enables it to fold up on itself
when necessary. On the interior edge of each arch
there are two rows of knobs, cones, plates, or lancet-
shaped processes beset with fine teeth ; these are
named ralcers, and act as sieves in straining the water,
and preventing gross substances from passing between
the arches. To the extero-posterior side of each arch
are attached the gills, whose general aspect needs no
description, but which present considerable modifica-
tions of form and arrangement in particular groups of
fishes. Generally there are four gill-bearing arches,
but sometimes the gills are fewer. In the embryo fish
six arches may be perceived, and even seven are
indicated, but the first is atrophied before the sixth is
developed, and only five are matured. The last arch
does not in general carry gills, but is modified into a
pair of pharyngeal jaws, being dentiferous on its sides,
having two bony, dental plates or groups of plates
below named the inferior pharyngeals, and very fre-
quently similar superior plates lining the sub-occipital
and called superior pharyngeals. The union of the
inferior pharyngeals into a single bone is an essential
character of the group of Pharyngognaths.

In cartilaginous fishes the jaws and parts of the skull
are so different as to need special descriptions. The
gills of these Selachians, though adherent to the sides
of gill-chambers, each of which opens externally, have
essentially the same ultimate structure and the same
function as the gills of fishes proper, which is to submit
the blood extensively to the action of the oxygen
contained in the waters that fishes inhabit.

In osseous fishes the tips of the gills are free, and there
is only one external opening on each side, by which all
the water that bathes the gills flows out. This opening is
regulated by a valve called the operculum or gillcover,
which consists of four pieces — viz., thQ pre- operculum,
a chevron-shaped or crescentic bone, bounding the
cheek posteriorly ; the operculum, often quadrangular,
and filling the space between the pre-operculum and
upper part of the gill-opening; sub-opcrculum, lying
as its name denotes under the operculum, and bordering
the lower part of the gill-opening; and, fourthly, of the
intcr-operculum, which lies before the sub-operculum,
and runs forward under the lower limb of the pre-oper-
culum towards the mandible. Between the sub-oper-
culum and inter-operculum of the one side and those
of the other a membrane named the brancJiiostegous
stretches across the throat, and fills the interval between
the limbs of the mandible. It is distended on rib-like
bones called branchiostegals, which are articulated to
the horns of the hyoid bone. Care is generally taken
to note the number of the branchiostegals in the
description of a fish, and in some groups the number is
very constant, furnishing in that case a good character.
When the gill-opening is large, and runs forwards to
the root of the tongue, the branchiostegous membranes

are narrow and are completely separated from each
other. On the contrary, the membranes are continued
into one another when the gill-opening is small and
high up.

The Heart. — In fishes all the blood is propelled
through the gills by the heart, which, lying behind
them, is protected by the coracoid arch. This central
organ of the circulation consists of a single series of
chambers — viz., in the osseous fishes, of the venous
sinus, the auricle, the ventricle, and the arterial bulb
or stem. There are generally two valves at the auriculo-
ventricular opening ; but the Bays have three valves
there, the Sun-fish four, and in the Sharks there is one
large valve like a parachute with several marginal
attachments. The numbers and arrangement of the
valves in the arterial stem serve as a primary character
of the Ganoid fishes ; and in the Sharks and Rays also
the valves are numerous.

Swim-bladder. — The swim-bladder, or air-bladder,
is an organ peculiar to fishes, and lies in the belly near
the spinal column. In some fishes it is closed com-
pletely, and then the included air is found to consist
chiefly of oxygen ; iii other fishes it opens through
a tube directly into the stomach or oesophagus by a
valvular orifice, and then it is found to be distended
with azote and a small proportion of oxygen ; but in no
case have its contents been found to be atmospheric
air. In some groups of fishes the air-bladder is con-
nected with the acoustic organs by chains of small
bones.

Hearing. — In the class of fishes the organs of hear-
ing are wholly within the head and cannot be disco-
vered except by dissection, the Plagiostomes alone
having a fine tube leading to an external orifice from
the interior labyrinth. This external opening is not
easily detected, and it is not surprising that the sense
of hearing has been denied to fishes by some authors ;
but many facts may be cited both from ancient and
modern writers, showing that when kept in stews fishes
will come to the call of those that feed them, or may be
assembled at the sound of a whistle or bell. It is
probable that the senses are less acute in fishes than
in animals higher in the vertebral scale ; but as they
are furnished with nerves of touch, taste, sight, and
smell, as well as of hearing, there is no reason to sup-
pose that they are not endowed with all the five senses
in greater or less perfection ; and as certain large nerves
are in a few species supplied to galvanic or electric
organs, we have an instance of a nervous function
peculiar to this class. A notice of this galvanic power
will be more appropriate when we have to speak of the
groups in which it is displayed.

With respect to intelligence, fishes in stews have
been known to recognize those that feed them ; and
we have seen one kept in a glass tank that, though
very shy of strangers, evidently distinguished the lady
who supplied it with food. The gregarious fishes that
move about in large sculls cannot be expected to evince
much individual attachment ; but some that live in
pairs are known to have refused to eat, and to pine
away when deprived of their companion. Many fishes
make elaborate nests for their eggs, some instances of
which will be alluded to hereafter.

Table of Arrangement.-

■FISHES.

Dermopteres.

108

Sub-order A. — Apodal Malacopteres, or Serpentiform
Apodals.

In tlie ensuing pages the Primary Groups of Fishes
will be ranged in the following orders : —

TABLE OP ARKANGEMENT.

I. Order. — Dermopteres (Owen), equivalent to the
Myzontes of Agassiz, who considers them to hold the
rank of a Class in the Vertebral Branch of Animals,
Sub order A. — Pliaryngdbranchs or Cirrlwstomes,
represented only by the Lancelots, which Agassiz
surmises to be merely embryos of more highly
organized fishes.

Sub-order B. — Marsipobranclis (sacculated gills), or
Cyclostomes (round mouths), called also Suchers.

The next four orders belong to the Fishes proper of
Agassiz, and are considered by him to constitute a class,
divisible into Ctenoids and Cycloids : —

II. Order. — Anacanths (no spinous fin-rays) having shut
swim-bladders, and no radiated or fusiform bone cor-
puscles in their skeletons.

Sub-order A. — Helmichthyans or Tape-Jishes of
Kblliker.

“ B. — Apodal Anacanths.

“ C. — -Thoracic Anacanths.

“ D. — Heterosomes (Bonaparte), Dissimilar

sides, or Flat-fish.

“ E. — Colacides, Parasites or Ship-stayers.

III. Order. — Pharyngognaths, whose right and left inferior

pharyngeal bones are confluent, forming one piece.
Their skeletons are destitute of bone corpuscles.
Sub-order A. — Malacopterygian Pharyngognaths.

“ B. — Acanthopterygian Pharyngognaths.

IV. Order. — Acanthopteres, with ossified endo-skeletons

without bone-corpuscles ; one or more anterior rays of
the fins, especially of the ventrals, unjointed or indexible
spines. Ventrals more generally situated in the thoracic
or guttural regions ; swim-bladders closed.

Sub-order A. — Ctenoids (Owen).

“ B. — Cycloids (Owen), Scomberoid-scaled

fishes.

V. Malacopteres or Ph ysostomes, have open air-bladders,

flexible, articulated fin-rays, and most generally true
bony structure in their skeletons.

“ B. — Abdominal Malacopteres.

The Ganoids, as an order of vertebrals in the usual
acceptation of the name, consist mostly of palseozoic
fishes, and have comparatively few existing representa-
tives. Professor Owen enumerates their essential char-
acters, as they appear in fossil remains, in these words
“ Endo-skeleton in some osseous, in some cartilaginous,
in some partly osseous, partly cartilaginous ; exo-skeleton
formed by enamelled bones ; fins usually with the first
ray a strong spine.”

Agassiz ranks them as the third class of vertebrals,
and includes in the class the six following orders, but
the first three merely provisionally, and dependent on
further investigation for their true position in his system.

VI. Order. — Sildroids (Agassiz).

VII. Order. — Lophobranchs, or fishes with tufted gills.

VIII. Order. — Plectognaths, named from the confluence or

union by indented suture, of the right and left halves
of the upper-jaw and mandible respectively.

This structure of the jaws is not, however, altogether
confined to this order.

IX. Order. — Acipenseroids, or Sturionidans.

X. Order. — Sadroids (Agassiz), or Lizard-Fishes.

XI. Order.— CcELACANTHs (Agassiz), or Hollow Spines.
A palaiozoic order which became extinct before the
tertiary epoch. The dermal spines were ossified only
externally, and are found hollow in the fossil state.
The vertebral column ends in a prolonged appendage
which separates the upper caudal lobe from the under
one, as in some few existing fishes.

The fourth class of Vertebrals, according to Agassiz,
is composed of Selachians, a term which is equivalent
to that of Plagiostomes (oblique mouths) of Dumeril.
It embraces the three succeeding orders : —

XII. Order. — Holocephalids or Chimasra: of Agassiz,

XIII. Order. — Galeodes or Sharks of Agassiz. {Squali or

Haijische of Muller and Henle.)

XIV. Order. — Batides (Agassiz), Rays and Skates of other

ichthyologists. Raice or Rochen of Muller and Henle.

XV. Order. — Protopteres of Owen, an osculant form
between Fishes and Keptiles, considered by some
zoologists to be Amphibians, llchthyodi of Agassiz.)

OiiDER I.— DEEMOPTERES.

Pai,a:ontologists have by successive discoveries car-
ried back the first appearance of Fishes to an early
period in the formation of the crust of the earth ; and
Professor Agassiz is of opinion, that it would not be
difficult to show on physiological grounds, that their
presence in primaeval oceans dates contemporaneously
with that of the Radiata, Mollusca, and Articulata ;
the plan of structure and means of subsistence of these
three great types of the animal kingdom, constituting
with the Vertebrals a mutually dependent system.
There is, however, as yet no unequivocal evidence of
fossil fishes below the newer silurian beds. The earliest
remains of fishes have an embryonic character in the
position of the mouth on the ventral aspect of the
head, in the heterocercal caudal fin, in the absence of
a hard internal skeleton, and in other parts of structure,
which, as far as they can be made out, seem not to
have been so highly developed as in the modern osseous
fishes. The Dermopteres have a more decidedly em-
bryonic aspect than any of the other existing groups of
fishes. No remains of them have been identified in

the palaeozoic strata, either because they were not early
creations, or because the softness of their textures mili-
tated against their preservation, so as to be recognizable
in indurated deposits diat have been subjected to the
action of heat, great pressure, and sundry displace-
ments. Ichthyologists now concur in ranking this order
at the bottom of the scale of fishes, and consequently,
as the lowest of the vertebrals ; but though in common
parlance the Dermopteres are said to be comparatively
feebly organized, they are not imperfect, being in every
way adapted to fill their station in nature, and to per-
form their allotted functions.

The essential characters of the group, as drawn by
eminent zoologists, are the want of the lateral pairs
of fins representing hands and feet, that is, they are
abrachial and apodal, with long vermiform bodies;
their internal skeleton is not ossified, being either
cartilaginous, or merely membranous: their external
skeleton does not take even the consistency of scales, but
remains in the condition of soft, muciferous skin ; and
the fin-rays and teeth when present are muco-dermoid

Dermopteres. FISHES. Amphyoxids. 109

or mere albuminous concretions, wanting the structure
of cartilage or of bone. They have no air-bladder,
and no pancreatic apparatus to assist in digestion.
Their jaws also differ from those of other fishes, having
more the character of pharyngeal arches than of maxil-
laries and mandibles. They are divided by Professor
Owen into two sub-orders : I. the Pharyngobranchs or
Cirrhostomes, of which the Lancelets are the only
representatives ; and II. the Marsipohranchs or Cyclos-
tomes, embracing the families of the Myxinoids or
Hags and the Petromyzontids or Lampreys.

Family L— AMPHYOXIDS.

THE lANCElET {AmpMoxus lanceolatus or Brancli-
iostoma luh'icum) was first detected on the Cornish
coast, and a specimen being sent to Pallas, lire cele-
brated naturalist of Russia, was described by him as a
slug. The Cornish ichthyologist, Jonathan Couch,
Esq., of Polperro, rediscovered it in 1 831 on the same
coast where it was first found, and many examples have
since been obtained on the English, Scottish, Irish,
Norwegian, Mediterranean, and West Indian coasts,
principally by dredging in water of various depths down
to fifty fathoms. The same, or a closely resembling
species, has been brought from China, so that this
embryonic type of a vertebral is wide’y diffused in the
ocean.

One is not surprised that when modern zoology was
in its infancy, this curious creature was taken for a
mollusc, and that it was left for the late Mr. Yarrell
to detect the nervous axis and establish its piscine
character, since it has no head, being as its generic
name imparts sharp at both ends, no gills, no heart, no
stomach distinct from the small gut, and no other fins
than a narrow border of skin above and below. It is
a thin, transparent animal, destitute of that swelling of
the proximal end of the spinal marrow (or myelon)
which is called the brain. As the brain of fishes,
though composed of several pairs of tubercles of ner-
vous substance, and of some single mesial ones, is
small in comparison of the cranial cavity in which it is
lodged, it is to the absence of the skull, the jaws, the
hyoid apparatus, and the other parts connected there-
with, that the sharpness of the proximal end of the
Lancelot is to be attributed. The vertebral chord con-
sists of a series of discoid cells closely pressed together
in a fibrous sheath, whose upper layers separate and
form a tube for lodging the myelon ; and in like manner
the lower layers of the sheath form behind the vent a
haemal canal, no cartilaginous deposits being traceable
in either. Very simple is the neural axis itself, as it
exhibits none of the fibrous or tubular structure which
exists in the brain and myelon of the higher vertebrals,
but is composed solely of isolated cells, forming a ner-
vous tract, which is riband -shaped in the middle third,
and a little more round towards the ends. In its course
it gives off about sixty pairs of nerves, which spring
from single roots.

The entire nervous system of the Lancelet is so
simple, that Professor Owen considers it to be typified
bj’’ that of the entozoons or intestinal worms. The
eye is a mere speck, which some able anatomists have

failed to detect; and as it is not furnished with muscles
for motion, vision can scarcely extend beyond the mere
perception of light. The animal, however, is very
active, and when disturbed speedily hides itself among
sand or gravel.

The length of this fish is generally under two inches;
and its longitudinal mouth, situated under the proximal
acute extremity, is fringed by feelers supported by the
only parts of the skeleton that have the consistence of
cartilage. The cavit}' of the mouth and the commence-
ment of the digestive canal are of great comparative
dimensions, since they make up half the bulk and length
of the fish. The pharynx is a kind of barrel-shaped
cage, with more than a hundred vertical slits beset
with vibratile cilise, and opening into the cavity of the
abdomen in which the cage is suspended. A great
dorsal and ventral blood-vessel encircles the interior
of the animal longitudinally, and sends numerous
branches to the pharyngeal cage, which thus serves
both for the passage of the aliment, and for the oxy-
genation of the blood, through exposure to the air
contained in the water that flows through it. The
alimentary particles pass into a simple intestinal canal
issuing from the distal end of the pharyngeal cage near
its dorsal aspect; and the w'ater of respiration escaping
through the lateral ciliated slits into the cavity of the
belly, finally issues by an external ventral opening
situated between the intestinal vent and the mouth.
Through this single ventral gill-opening the eggs of the
animal are also extruded. In animals low in the scale,
we find a single viscus performing two or more func-
tions for which special organs are assigned in animals
of a higher order. Duges ascertained that during the
first hour of a tadpole’s existence, the blood is aerated
solely through the medium of the skin, and that a
special organ of respiration is not developed until the
second or third hour after the animal has made its
escape from the egg. Moreover, in several osseous
fishes the digestive canal acts an auxiliaiy part in the
oxygenation of the blood. The misgurn loach (cohitis
fossilis), for instance, sw'allows atmospheric air by the
mouth, and discharges azote through the vent after the
oxygen has been consumed in its passage through the
intestinal tube, while the gills at the same time exhale
much carbonic acid.* Except that it is not aided by
gills, the greatly developed pharynx of the Lancelet
has a similar function. Owen, however, considers
some fringe-like processes of membrane which float
in the cavity of the mouth of the Lancelet to be “ free
inoperculate gills.”

Family II.— MYXINOIDS.-(Plate I, fig. 1.)

The term Marsipobranch applied to the second sub-
order of Dermopteres, means “gills in pouches;” wdiile
the other appellation of Cyclostome used by Cuvier,
has reference to the circular suctorial mouths which
all the adult members of the group possess, and which
is in fact an essential part of their structure, since all
these fishes after passing their larval stage are parasites,
and live by sucking in the fluid and soft parts of the

* Bischoff ; Baumert, &c., quoted by Milne-Edwards, Phys.

Dermoptbbes. FISHES. Petromyzontids.

110

fishes to which they adhere by their mouths. In the
Myxinoids, the water of inspiration enters by a single
opening on the ventral surface of the body of the fish,
into the pharynx, from whence it passes by six or
seven short tubes into an equal number of suborbicular
or discoid sacs, to whose walls the gills adhere in form
of highly vascular radiated and plaited folds. After
having imparted oxj'gen to the blood circulating in the
minute branches of the branchial vessels, the water
passes out by as many short tubes and openings on
each side of the neck as there are gill-sacs (in Bdellos-
toma) ; or the short expiratory tubes of one side open
into a common canal that leads to an orifice close
to the inspiratory one, which is single, and interposes
between the expiratory ones, which are a pair, as in
the Glutinous hag or Myxine — (Plate 1, fig. 1). The
other characters of the group are, a naso-palatine tube
or solitary mesial nostril, with a valvular opening in
the roof of the mouth ; a feebly organized eye ; and
a mouth furnished exteriorly with barbels, and armed
interiorly by two rows of lingual teeth, with a solitary
movable tooth on the palate. In the Myxinoid fishes
the spinal column is of firmer structure than that of
the laucelet, which has merely a membranous envelope
to the myelon. It is an elastic, very flexible gelatinous
chord, technically called notochord, composed of a
central band of fibres and an exterior sheath, whose
dorsal layers separate and form a canal for lodging the
myelon ; as do its ventral layers behind the vent, for
inclosing the large blood-vessels. No part of this chord
is cartilaginous, and the greater part of the skull
I’emains soft, though the acoustic capsules and some
other parts of the head are of cartilage. A cartilage
also represents the lingual hone, and sustains the lower
teeth. None of the Dermopteres have a mandible,
and thej- are, moreover, destitute of a distinctly organ-
ized upper jaw. Teeth, however, exist on the palate,
which resemble indurated mucoid papillae. There are
also some cartilaginous rings in the single mesial nostril
tube, whose inner membrane is longitudinally plaited.
These fishes are destitute of an arterial bulb or stem,
but they have a contractile organ, or portal heart, for
expediting through the liver the venous blood coming
from the viscera of the abdomen.

THE GLUTINOUS HAG {Myxine glutinosa) — Plate 1,
fig. 1 — of the northern seas, is the best known member
of the sub-order. Bloch called it G aster ohranchus
cozens, from the situation of its gill-openings and the
minuteness of its lowly-organized eyes, giving it the
appearance of blindness. By English fishermen it is
frequently named the “ Borei',” because of its presumed
habit of perforating fishes. Sundevall, who studied it
in the Norwegian seas, says that it is common in places
where cod-fish abound, choosing a clayey or muddy
bottom, and avoiding a sandy one ; living habitually
in a depth of water varying from thirty feet to seven
hundred. When placed in a vessel full of salt water
it lies as if dead, or if disturbed swims slowly like an
eel ; and if put into fresh water it speedily dies. lie
is of opinion that it does not attack living fishes, but
enters dead ones bj'' the gill-openings. As many as
twenty of these parasites were found in a haddock,
which had died when suspended to a hook. They

had consumed all the flesh to within two or three inches
of the gills. When from any cause a series of hooks
have not been visited for a week or so, the fishermen
on taking them up often finds merely skeletons of fish
hanging to them, the Borer having picked the bones
clean. ' On this account the Norse fishermen name
the plunderer, Pir-al, or Pil-al (the Picking-eel or
Pillager).

The southern member of the family was discovered
in Queen Charlotte’s Sound, New Zealand, during
Cook’s second voyage. Forster says that it is lively
and nimble, and that it was often taken adhering to
pieces of fish let down into the sea as bait. It shed
mucus of a milky hue copiously. The New Zealanders
roasted and ate it, notwithstanding its disgusting aspect.
There is a third species in the seas of Chili {Bdellos-
toma polytrema), which has fourteen stigmata on each
side.

Family III.—PETROMYZONTIDS or LAM-
PREYS.—(Plate 1, fig. 2.)

In this family there are seven stigmata on each side
of the neck, each entering a transversely oblong gill-
sac, which internally communicates by a small opening
wnth a mesial tube common to all the sacs of both
sides, and lying beneath the oesophagus or commence-
ment of the digestive canal, but distinct from it. This
pharyngeal respiratory tube is closed at its distal end,
and anteriorly communicates with the gullet by a
valvular opening. A¥hen the mouth is free, the water
of inspiration enters by it, fills the pharyngeal tube,
and then flowing into the gill-sacs, and bathing the
fixed gills lining their sides, is finally expelled by the
seven stigmata on each side of the neck. When a
Lamprey adheres by its suctorial mouth to another
fish, or to a stone, access being then denied to the
respiratory fluid through the proximal opening of the
pharyngeal tube, the water enters the lateral stigmata
and is expelled again by them, the current in and out
alternating. Professor Owen experimenting on a Lam-
prey found that when the fish w'as allowed to fix itself
to the side of a vessel, and was held so that the stig-
mata of one side only were out of the water, the respira-
tory currents were observed to enter by the submerged
orifices, and to be discharged with force through the
exposed ones. The gill-sacs of the Lampreys are sup-
ported by what Muller has well named a cartilaginous
basket, which is w’anting in the myxinoids, and yet has
an obvious homology with the soft respiratory pharyn-
geal barrel of the laneelets. It is a firm but elastic
frame-work of cartilage, perforated by numerous wide
interstices in addition to the seven on each side for the
gill-openings, which are themselves, each encircled by
its own detached, cartilaginous ring. The basket is
suspended by about seven pairs of cartilages to the fore
part of the spinal cord, and occupies most of the dia-
meter of the fish. Thin cartilaginous plates exist in the
fibrous sheath of the spinal cord itself, being an advance
in the structure of the neural arches from the mem-
branous neural canal of the myxinoids ; a broad, heart-
shaped cartilaginous plate of the skull covers the
suctorial mouth, and various cartilaginous processes

Dekmoptekes. FISHES. Petkomyzontids. 1 1 1

support the large tootli-bearing tongue. When a
Jly.xinoid or a Petromyzontid is preserved in spirits,
the teeth readily flake off in cap-shaped layers, leaving
a comparatively soft, conical nucleus, and furnishing
evidence of the muco-dermoid origin of these organs in
the Dermopteres. The arrangement and form of the
labial, palatine, and lingual teeth of the difl'erent Petro-
myzontids supply the generic characters of the various
groups that compose the family. One Australian genus
( Geotria) has a remarkably large guttui al pouch before
the gill-openings, corresponding to the rudimentary
dilatation of the same part in the common Marine
Lamprey, and having an external resemblance to the
goitre of the iguana.

The single mesial nostril-tube of the Dermopteres
is flask-shaped in the Lamprey, and descends to the
base of the skull, but is there closed by the imperforate
mucous lining of the palate, differing in that respect
from the naso-palatine tube of the rnyxinoicls, which
terminates by a valvular opening on the roof of the
mouth. In the Lampreys, the eye-ball is supplied
with muscles for effecting its various movements, which
are wanting in the rudimentary optic organs of the
myxinoids ; and, on the other hand, the acoustic cap-
sules are less conspicuous on the base of the skull than
in myxine, such prominence being an embryonic
character. There is also a greater extension of the
organ of hearing of the Lampreys into a membranous
vestibule, a fenestrum, or as Breschet names it an
aqueduct, and an accessary sinus, but there are neither
semicircular canals nor otolites. The author just
named, considers the organ of hearing in the Lam-
preys to have a stronger resemblance to that of the
crustaceous or cephalopode molluscs, than to the
acoustic apparatus of osseous fishes."* None of the
Dermopteres present a greater development of the
hyoid apparatus, than that which consists in the presence
of a lingual cartilage, and some ligamentous bands
which we shall notice below, as existing in the larval
state of some members of the group.

A small Dermoptere, inhabiting the streams fre-
quented by the Lampreys throughout Europe, and
known in England under the various names of Prid,
Pride, Sandpride, Sandburker, Stonegrig, andMudlurker,
was ascertained by Auguste Muller some few' years ago,
to be merely a larval condition of the Fringed Lampern.
Its eyes are so small, that it was named the Blind
Lamprey by the distinguished British naturalist Bay ;
and its mouth, instead of being circular, has a horse-
shoe shape, and cannot act as an adhesive sucker;
but the rudiment of a future suctorial muscle is per-
ceptible in it. Neither is the pharyngeal inspiratory
tube as yet distinct from the oesophagus, and the gills,
instead of being wholly adherent to the w'alls of the
gill-chambers, have their tips free. This part of the
structure is an approach to the free gills of the osseous
fishes, and is suited, doubtless, to the free non-parasitic
habits of the larva or ammoccete — so the young Lam-
preys are now called; the appellation having been taken
from the generic name Ammocoetes, given when the fish
was supposed to be a distinct species, and which is trans-

* See Recherches sur I’organe de L’ouie des Poissons par
G. Breschet. Paris, 1838.

lated “ mud-lurker.” In the ammoccete, then, each gill-
sac communicates directly with the pharynx, and opens
on the side of the neck, as we shall hereafter show to
be the case in the Selachians. No teeth are formed in
the mouth of the ammoccete, but very early in its
life a valve is developed within the mouth, which
allows the water to enter, but prevents its reflux ; and
this muscular membrane is fringed so as to act as a
strainer out of noxious particles. The food of the
Pride consists chiefly of infusorial animalculse (Bacil-
laria). Auguste Muller watched Lamperns in the
act of spawning, secured the roe, kept it under obser-
vation until it was hatched, and afterwards carefully
observed the larval or ammoccete life of the
fish. In the fourth year of its existence, he saw the
transformation to the adult form begin, and go on to
completion in the course of ten days. There is no
increase of size, but in that time the respiratory
pharyngeal tube is formed, teeth are evolved, the valve
or velum in the mouth disappears, the intestinal canal
is sensibly abbreviated, and the roe which was pre-
viously transparent, becomes opaque. This transfor-
mation, though not so remarkable externally as that
which occurs in the Tadpoles, was, previous to Auguste
Muller’s time, unsuspected in the class of fishes. The
facts he have stated, has been testified too by other
observers; and the Ammocoetes, not only of the Fringed
Lampern, but of other European Lamperns and Lam-
preys have been detected.*

The following genera compose the Petromyzontid family : —
Petromyzon, Lampetra, Geotria, Velasia, Caragola, and Mor-
dacia, all of which are characterized by Dr. Gray in one of his
catalogues of the Fishes in the British Museum.

THE LAMPREY {Petromyzon marinus) — Plate 1, fig.
2 — is the species best known, and the only one so far
as we know, that is used in Europe as food. It is
said to be a highly esteemed fish for the table in the
United States of America, and has long been held
to be a delicacy in England. Henry I. is said by
Matthew of Paris, to have died, in 1135, at St. Denis
le Ferment, of a sudden illness occasioned by eating
too plentifully of lampreys, as the poet Pope is reported
to have done in more recent times ; and Henry IV.
is stated by Pennant, quoting from Rymer’s Foedera,
to have granted protections to such ships as brought
over lampreys for the table of his royal consort,
Henry VI. contracted with William of Nantes for
a supply to his army, whithersoever it might march,
of lampreys to be taken betw'een the mouth of the
Seine and Harfleur. It was anciently a custom of
the city of Gloucester, to present the British sovereign
with a lamprey pie. Camden, speaking of the lam-
preys of the Severn, says, that they are finest in the
spring, being then more tender, and that, in his time,
the Italians prepared them for the table by drowning
them in Cretan wine, placing a nutmeg in the mouth
and a clove in each gill-opening, rolling them up
spirally in the flour of filbert-nuts and crumbs of

* Dr. M. S. Schultze has written still more recently on the
early life of Petromyzon Planeri up to six weeks after its
exclusion from the egg. At that age the small eye is buried
under the skin, and the oral velum of the ammoccete is present
instead of a separate respiratory tube, so that thus far the
memoir confirms Auguste Muller’s observations.

5 12 Anacantiis. FISHES. Leptocephai.ids.

bread mixed with oil, spices and Cretan wine, and
then boiling them carefully for some time in a cloth.
In Pennant’s day, vast quantities of lampreys were

OltDER II.— ANACANTHS

Fins supported by flexible or jointed rays ; ventrals
present in some groups, absent in others; when present,
most commonly beneath the pectorals. Skeleton soft
or indurated, but in the latter case, having merely an
osteoid structure, differing from true bone in the
absence of radiated or fusiform bone - corpuscles.—
{Kdlliker.) Dermal skeleton in the form of cycloid
scales in some, in others as ctenoid scales. Swim-
bladder having no air-duct ; often wholly absent.

With this order we enter on the Fishes Proper
of Agassiz, which have one gill opening on each side
with an operculum, though in a few instances the
openings are so approximated on the mesial line of the
throat, as to appear single externally. The heart
consists of a linear series of four cavities, viz., the
venous sinus, the auricle, the ventricle, and the arterial
hull). This bulb has generally a pair of semilunar
valves at its orifice, but wants the interior rows of
valves which exist in the Ganoids and Placoids or
Plagiostoines.

Family I.— LEPTOCEPHALIDS.— (Plate3,fig. 12.)

Kolliker, who has examined skeletons of the Lepto-
cephali or Tape-fishes under the microscope, says, that
the bones are structureless homogeneous substances,
and, indeed, in most of the species the induration is
confined to the jaws, teeth, and some portions of the
skull, so that, when one of these delicate creatures is
laid out on paper, and suffered to diy, it becomes a
mere film, in which, nevertheless, the internal structure
may be traced. One species, named the Morris, occurs
on the British coasts; and the others which much
resemble it, are fishes of a small size, greatly com-
pressed, with a lancet-shaped profile, destitute of scales,
and so diaphanous that the arrangements of the mus-
cular fibres and of the internal organs are distinctly
visible. The dorsal and anal fins are narrow cutaneous
seams which unite at the point of the tail to form an
acute or a bluntish, and, in one species, a forked caudal
fin, with generally perceptible rays. Some members
of the family have pectorals, others want these fins,
and only one known species (Esunculus) has ventrals.
Some Tape-fishes have a series of strong acute teeth
on the jaws ; others appear to be toothless. The
genera belonging to the family, which is co-extensive
with the sub-order of Helmichthyans are charac-
terized by Dr. Kaup in his catalogue of the apodal
fishes in the British Museum, under the following names,
Esunculus, Hyprorus, Oxystomus, and Leptocephalus,
and are generally diffused over the temperate parts of
the ocean in both hemispheres. The British species
called Morris {Leptocephalus Morrisii), inhabits the
Mediterranean sea also ; and in the museum of Haslar

taken in the Thames, near Mortlake, and sold to the
Dutch, who salted them for use as baits in the Turbot
fishery.

(No Spinous Fin-rays.)

Hospital there is a specimen, which, having been
brought up from the deep in the eruption of Graham’s
i.sland, was picked by a naval officer from the smoking
cliffs of that short-lived volcano. Stoma siunculus and
Porohranchus are two new Leptocephalid forms
recently discovered by Dr. Kaup.

Family II.— OPHIDIOIDS.— (Plate 2, fig. 9.)

These Apodal Anacanttis are elongated cycloid-
scaled fish, more or less compressed and lancet-shaped
posteriorly, without ventrals, and having the tip of the
tail edged by the vertical fins without a break.

The genera are — M achcerium, Opliidium, Gymnelis, Fierasfer,
and Encheliopliis, the last-named being destitute of pectorals as
well as ventrals.

None of these fish are of importance in an eco-
nomical point of view, though tlieir transitional char-
acters, and the uncertainty of their true affinities have
directed the attention of systematic ichthyologists
towards them. The Bearded Ophidium, which is a
Gymnelis, and Drummond’s Fierasfer, itdiabit the
British seas.

Family III.— AMMODYTIDS.— (Plate 2, fig. 10.)

This family is composed of Sand-launces, which
are elongated, scabhard- shaped, apodal fishes, with
large lateral gill-openings, cycloid scales, three sei)arate
vertical fins, supported by unbranched but jointed rays,
and having the anal opposite to the posterior half of
the long dorsal. They have neither pyloric coeca
nor a swim-bladder. Ammodytes is the only genus ;
and two species, known on our coasts by the names of
Sand-eels, Horn-eels, Sand-launces, and Biggies, bur-
row in the moist sands when the tide ebbs, and are
raked out by fishermen to serve as bait.

Family IV.— GADOIDS.— (Plate 6, figs. 29, 30.)

These Thoracic Anacanths are second in importance
to no family of fishes, the fisheries established for their
capture yielding a great quantity of nutritive food, and
being the means of training up many thousands of
able and hardy seamen. The members of the family
are more or less elongated, generally with tumid
bellies. The ventrals are suhbrachial or jugular, have
seldom much spread, and are sometimes mere fila-
ments; the dorsals are one, two, or three in number, all
anacanthous ; the scales are cycloid, small and soft.
Card-like or rasp-like patches of teeth cover tho
jaws, front of the vomer, and occasionally the palatines.
The branchiostegals are seven in number ; the air-

Anacanxus. FISHES. Gadoids. 1

bladder is large, is often indented, and contains a
vaso-ganglion, but like the air-bladders of the rest of
the order, it has no pneumatic tube. The stomach is
capacious, with a sac-like projection below the pylorus,
and the pancreatic coeca are numerous.

The genera are — Gadus; Gadiculus (Guichenot); Merlangus;
.Iferluccias I Lota; Motella; Brosmius ; Brotuia; A teleopus
(Schlegel); Phyds ; Raniceps; Bythites (Reinhardt); Homa-
/o2^ci?72?(s (Girard) ; Xenocephalus ; and Uraleptus.

The Cod-fish {Morrliua callarias) anciently called
Keeling, is an inhabitant of both sides of the North
sea from Greenland, Iceland, and the North Cape,
down to the 35th parallel of latitude. It inhabits
considerable depths, varying from fifteen to eighty
fathoms, beyond which, fishing by the line becomes
so laborious as to be practically useless, but between
thirty and sixty fathoms on certain banks it is most
productive. The great haunts of the fish are the
Dogger Bank, certain banks lying off Ireland and
the Hebrides, Fiskar Bank off Loffoden on the Norway
coast, the Great Bank of Newfoundland, the Green
Bank, and others on the Atlantic coasts of British
America. Very recently a most productive fishery
has been discovered round Rockhall, an islet lying off
the west coast of Scotland.

When they deposit their spawn, the Cod are said
to emerge from the greater depths to banks rising
nearer to the surface, and the young fish remain in
the shallower water during the earlier stages of their
growth. The Cod fishery has doubtless been pro-
secuted in the North seas from the earliest times,
and must indeed have been coeval with the launching
of a sea-going boat. The Scandinavian Ohther in
his conversation with King Alfred about the year
890, ineidentally mentions the residence of Finnic
fishermen on the coasts of Norway beyond the limits
of the then existing settlements of the Northmen, and
the Icelandic annals of the colonization of Greenland
and of the discovery of America in the tenth century
speak of the summer fisheries as yielding a supply of
food to the settlers. The Cod fishery of Western
Greenland is at the present day one of the chief stays
of the inhabitants. The importance of the Cod fishery
was recognized by England very early, but the Statute
of Herrings made in 1360 in the reign of Edward III.
is the first act of Parliament in which there is a special
reference to this fish, contained in a clause giving
power to regulate the buying and selling of Stock -Jish
of St. Botulf. Another statute made in the same
year ordains that the price of Dogger-fish shall be
assessed at the beginning of the fair, and that no
Loych-fish be chosen, only in three parts, that is to
say. Lob, Ling, and Cod. Instructions are also given
with respect to Orgeys, “ that is to say, fish greater
than Lob.” Only masters of ships and fishermen by
profession were allowed to buy hooks and nets in
Norfolk ; and doggers and landships pertaining to
Blakeney * were to discharge their fish in that port

* Blakeney is still a fishing village, but of much less note
than formerly, having ceased to be the resort of German
merchants. John de Baconthorpe, whose metaphysical learn-
ing made him the wonder of his age, was educated in the
Carmelite monastery of Blakeney, and died in London in
1346.

VoL. II. 71

only, or on the adjoining coasts of Suytor, Wyneton,
Clay, Salthouse, Shiringham, and Crowmer. In the
reigns of later kings, the statutes regulating the sea-
fisheries are numerous.

Previous to the discovery of Newfoundland, the
British Cod fisheries were established chiefly on the
Dogger Bank, oft' the Hebrides, and in the seas of
Iceland. The Danes complained to Henry VI. of the
irregularities committed by English fishermen at Ice-
land, and in the reign of Edward IV. the English were
excluded by treaty from the fishery there. In the
twenty-fifth year of Henry VHI. it was ordained that
only merchant adventurers to Iceland for Salt-fish,
Stock-fish, Ling, Haberdine, or Lob-fish, or doggermen
or fishermen by profession, shall buy of these fish for
sale again at the fairs of Sturbridge, St. Ives, or Ely ;
and in the third year of Edward VI. the admiral of
England was forbidden to tax merchants and fisher-
men adventuring and journeying to Iceland, New-
foundland, or Ireland, for the getting of fish, under
pain of treble forfeiture.

The Cod fishery is carried on solely by lines and
hooks ; one very long kind of line called hiilter, which
is used chiefly on the Cornish coast, is furnished with
hooks attached at regular distances by snoods, and
baited with Sand-launces or Molluscs. This line,
when properly armed, is laid across the run of the
tide during slack water, and is anchored and buoyed.
The other kind is the hand line, depending from the
side of the vessel, so that the baited hook is kept about
a yard from the bottom, and two of these lines are
managed by each man. Much of the fish caught on
the British coasts is brought alive into the Thames;
and Yarrell states that a few years ago two hundred
and fifty well-boats engaged in supplying the London
market with Cod and Flat-fish, were manned by two
thousand fishermen, whose earnings needed to be
£140,000 before the capitalists who furnished the
boats and fishing gear received any dividend.

In the year 1854 the numbers of fish of the Cod and
Ling {Lota molva) kind taken in the Scottish fisheries
were three millions and a half, of which less than a
moiety were caught off the Shetland islands. The
weight of wholesome food thus extracted from the sea,
amounted to about five thousand five hundred tons ;
and so far from having any sensible effect on the
productiveness of the fishing banks, one pair of fish,
supposing all the eggs of the female to come to matu-
rity, would supply the annual waste thrice over, for
the number of eggs in a moderate sized Cod-fish has
been calculated at nine millions.*

Cod are cured in the Orkneys and Hebrides in the
manner described as follows by James Wilson : — The
fish are generally gutted before they are brought ashore.
As soon as they are landed, the splitter with a large
knife lays them open from head to tail, and extracts
the upper half of the back-bone. He then hands them
over to the loasher, who, with a brush and sea-water,
cleanses them from every particle of blood. When
all the fish are split, washed, and allowed to drain, they

* Leuvvenhoek reckoned nine million three hundred and
eighty-four thousand eggs in a cod-fish of middling size. —
[Penn. Zool.)

114 Anacajiths. FISHES. Gadoids.

are handed to the sailer, who places a bed of salt at
the bottom of a large wooden vat, and over it a layer
of fish, and so on alternately, salt and fish, till the vat
is filled. Above all are laid heavy stones to keep the
fish beneath the pickle. After some days they are
taken out, well washed, brushed, and laid in small
heaps, called clumps, to drain. They are then spread
upon the shingly beach slantingly, with the back under-
most, and exposed to the sun and air ; after alternate
clamping and exposure, they are huilt into larger heaps
caWdA steeples, which are taken down and rebuilt several
times, on purpose that each fish may be subjected to
ecjual pressure. The completion of this drying process,
or piniug, as it is technically called, is indicated by a
white effiorescence, or bloom, appearing on the surface
of the fish, and then the whole are transported to a
dry cellar, lined with wood, where they are piled up
until shipped off to market. The Yorkshire curers,
who are thought to be the best, expedite the process of
drying by laying the fish on wooden bars raised three
feet above the ground, so as to allow a free current of
air to pass below them. Fish for the Spanish market
are required to be rather lightly salted, to have a pure
greenish colour and transparent aspect, and to be very
hard dried. Care must be taken that the fish are
neither sun-burnt, blistered, nor scalded by being laid
on stones that are too much heated by the sun’s
rays.

The same distinguished ichthyologist gives the fol-
lowing account of the Newfoundland fishery : — Each
fisherman has a stout line of sixty or seventy fathoms’
length, to which is attached a lead of five pounds. Fi om
this proceeds the pennant, a cord three feet long, hav-
ing a copper swivel at its end, that supports the middle
of the craft. The cord bearing this latter appellation
is two and a half feet in length, is stiffened by three
strips of whalebone, and has at each of its extremities
a smaller swivel, to which the gauging of the hook is
attached, the whalebone serving to keep the hooks a
foot apart being so named. The men arrange them-
selves on the windward side of the deck, with the hooks
ready baited, throw over their leads and reel out their
lines, till the lead rests on the bottom. It is then drawn
up, so far that the hook shall touch the bottom with
the downward pitch of the vessel. The fish on taking
the bait gives a slight jerk, to which the fisherman
replies by a sudden pull so as to fasten the hook in the
fish’s mouth, and then standing back, hauls in the line,
hand over hand, till the fish is landed on the deck. It
is then uidiooked, and thrown into a square box called
a hid; and the hooks being baited afresh, are hove over
again. Early in the season, clams are the bait used,
and are mostly taken from the stomachs of Cod already
caught; afterwards lobsters, then herring and sand-
launce; and in June, capelan are resorted to; herring
coming into use again in August. While the line is
descending, the fisherman picks up the Cod that he
has caught and cuts out its tongue. Towards night
the fish are counted out from each man’s kid, and
thrown into a large receptacle near the main hatch,
called the dressing hid. Each fisherman keeps his
own account, and reports to the skipper, who enters
the several catches in the log-book. The dressing gang

consist of a thruater, a header, a splitter, and a salter.
The three first, operating as indicated by their names,
reduce the fish to the shape in which they come to
market ; and the salter, stationed in the hold, builds
them up in alternate kenches, or layers of salt and fish.
The decks are then washed down, and the vessel
anchored and made snug for the night.

The voyage of John Cabot in 1497 led to the modern
fishery on the banks of Newfoundland ; and the most
authentic notice of that voyage, taken by Hakluyt from
Cabot’s map cut by Clement Adams, reports that
“ especially there is great abundance of that kind of
fish which the savages call Baccalaos ” — a name of
Basque origin, by which, with little change, the Spa-
niards designate the Cod to this day. Ramusio in his
third volume, published in 1565, says with the enchant-
ment lent to his view by distance, that the Bacchalaos
are in such quantities on the coast of Newfoundland,
as at times not to leave room for a carvel to pass ! and
that the Bretons and Normans call these fish Molve,
and go every year to derive great profit from the
fishery. The voyage of Verazzano in 1524 led to the
subjects of France engaging in this fishery; and at
first the Bretons seem to have sent more vessels to
Newfoundland than the English. In 1578, according
to Mr. Anthonie Parkhurst, in a letter published by
Plakluyt, there were one hundred sail of Spaniards,
fifty Portuguese ships, and of French and Bretons one
hundred and fifty sail of small tonnage, engaged in the
Newfoundland Cod-fishery, the English still being in
inferior numbers, but lording it over the strangers who
came into their neighbourhood, causing them to fish
for them and to supply salt, in return for protection
they afforded against pirates. In the present dajq six
thousand ships of all nations are calculated to be
employed in Cod-fishing, and the produce is supposed
to amount to thirty-six millions of fish prepared in
various manners, the whole of which immense quantity
would be replaced by the eggs of four fish coming to
maturity, according to the estimate made above. M.
Valenciennes says that France now emplo3's twelve
thousand seamen in four hundred vessels in taking
Cod. The fishery of the United States must find occu-
pation for a much greater number of seamen, and
Newfoundland is a great nursery for our own navy,
which was valued so much even in days of compulsory
service, that the fishermen while engaged in their
occupation were protected from impressment.

The Haddock {Morrhua ceglefinus) is finer on the
Scottish coasts than in the southern parts of England,
and is consumed in large quantities in Edinburgh,
Glasgow, and other important towns. Dried in a
peculiar way at Findhorn, it becomes the “ Finnan
Haddie,” which is a northern delicacy, and is exported
to London, but deteriorates greatly if kept beyond a
very few days. Dried more perfectly, so as to keep
longer, it is called “ Speldron,” a much inferior article
to the other. The Finnan, Buckie, and Bervie smoked
Haddocks, are the most prized. The Bib [Morrhua
lusca), and Whiting [Merlangus vulgaris), are smaller
but good fish, brought in great numbers to market
during the season. They are used only in the fresh
state. The Coal-fish [Merlangus carbonarius) visits

Anacanths. FISHES. Macrouhids. 1 15

the surface more frequently than most other Gadoids,
and is often taken by a bait towed after a vessel which
is making some way through the water. The young
Coal-fish, under the various local names of Sillock,
Piltock, Kuth, Harbin, Cudden, Seth, and Ley, afford
excellent sport to the angler, as they leap eagerly to
a white feather, and may be caught
as fast as the line can be thrown.

The Lythe, or Pollack {Merlangus
pollachius), tlie Hake [Merluccius
vulgaris), the Ling {Lota rnolva),
and the Torsk {Brosmius vulgaris),
are also goo4 fish, the last named
being most abundant among the
Zetland Isles; and the Hake and
Ling on the Cornish coasts. Several
other merebers of the family, of
smaller si^e and less value, inhabit
the British seas. The Burbot {Lota
vulgaris), which is found in a few
English rivers, is the only Euro-
pean fresh-water species. In the
temperate and colder parts of the
southern hemisphere, there are also
various representatives of the family.

In Rupert’s Land a very nutritious
bread is made of the eggs of a
Burbot mixed with a little wheatcn
flour.

Family V.— MACROURIDS.

This family is composed of a single genus of fishes,
Macrourus of Bloch, or Lepidoleprus of Risso, and
belongs, like the Gadoids, to the Thoracic sub-order
of Anacanths. By many the genus is annexed to the
Gadoids, instead of being made the type of a separate
family, to which distinction, however, its peculiar
dermal skeleton seems to give it a strong claim. Species
exist in the Greenland and Norwegian seas, in the
Mediterranean, and on the coasts of Australia, but
none have been detected in the British Channel, per-
haps from their being inhabitants of deep water beyond
the action of trawl nets. They seldom exceed a foot
in length. They have the turbinals or nostril-bones
largely developed, so as to form, by the apposition of
their vertical plates, a mesial crest on the snout,
which is flanked on each side by a wing-like lateral
process. These bones, in conjunction with the broad
reverted pre-orbitar plates, support an acute snout.
The body is highest and fullest in the pectoral region,
and is compressed posteriorly, tapering gradually into
the thin acute pointed tail, at whose tip the broad
anal and long second dorsal unite, without any separate
caudal being interposed. Teeth villiform ; mouth
inferior, behind the projecting snout, with a barbel
on the chin. The premaxillaries border the anterior
half of the mouth, and are protractile directly down-
wards, their long pedicels moving in the vault of the
turbinals. The scales are armed on their discs with
acute spines, and the head is encased in bones with
scaly and muciferous surfaces. The Branchiostegals
are six.

Family VI.— PLETIRONECTIDS. (Flat-Fishes.)
Plate 6, figs. 31, 32, 33.

This family is distinguished among vertebrals by a
want of symmetry — the two sides being not only dis-

similar in colour, but having the lateral fins differently
developed, and the bones of the base of the skull and
face so twisted that the two eyes are placed one over
the other on the coloured side of the fish. On this
account Prince Charles Bonaparte named the family
Heterosomata (diverse sides), and it had previously
been denominated Pleuronectidce, or “ Swimmers on
the side.” In these fishes the body is very greatly
compressed, so that both the ventral and dorsal edges
are acute, and the sides are circumscribed in the forms
of round, oval, ovate, or elliptical discs, the paler side
being beneath in the usual position of the fish when
swimming, and simulating the bell}'. The dorsal fin
edges the whole back, and in some genera runs for-
ward over the forehead to the nostrils, the anal fringing
the ventral edge in the same manner. Sometimes
these two fins unite at the point of the tail ; in other
species they fall short of the end of the back-bone, and
a good-sized caudal is interposed. Branchiostegals,
six. No air-bladder. There is no want of symmetry
in the spinal column posterior to the scapulo -coracoid
arch ; the interneural and interhiemal spines are in
pairs, each pair supporting one dermo-neural, or dermo-
hffimal spine.

The genera are Platessa (Plaice, Fluke, Flounder); Ilippo-
(jlossus (Holibut): Psetta (Turbot, Brill); Zmgopterus (Top-
knot); Solea (Sole); Monocliir; Achirvs; Playusia; Paralicihys
(Girard); PlaliclUhys (Girard); Pleuronichthys (Girard); Paru-
phrys (Girard) ; and Psettichthys (Girard).

The Flounder family, or Pleuronectids, are of much
importance in the fish-diet of England, Fiance, and
Germany, as they keep longer after death than other
fish, and can therefore be safely ti'ansported to a
greater distance inland. In certain districts of Eng-

^ io Anacanths. FISHES. Echeneiuans.

land that still lie at a distance from the railways as
well as from the coast, Soles are almost the only
marine fish that can be procured. The Flounders and
Soles come into shallow water ; and on the flat sands
of the Solway Filth are often taken by the women and
children wading over the sank-banks, who, when the
fish is felt under the naked foot, press it down until
it can be grasped behind the head, and transferred to
a basket. Greater quantities are captured in weirs or
trawl nets ; and the Turbot and Holibut which inhabit
deeper water, are mostly taken by lines and hooks
baited with herrings, pilchards, smelts, lob-worms,
molluscs, &c.

THE TURBOT {Psetta maxima, or Passer of Valen-
ciennes) is the most highly esteemed for the table of
this famil}' of fishes, and bears a high price in the Lon-
don market, as being, while it is in season, indispen-
sable at all formal dinner parties. Not only are great
numbers of British fishermen employed in procuring
this coveted article of luxury, hut recourse is had to
the industry of other nations for a sufficient supply
to our markets. Yarrell informs us that the Dutch
receive annually £80,000 for turbots carried to the
London market; and the Norwegians £15,000 for
lobsters, to make sauce to them. Turbot fisheries are
pursued on the coasts of Scandinavia, Holland, France,
and Britain. Those which are caught in rocky places
are supposed to have the firmest flesh and the finest
flavour.

The mode of taking Turbots by the Scarborough
fishermen is described as follows by Pennant : — Each
person is provided with three lines, which are coiled
on a flat oblong piece of wicker-work, the hooks being
baited and placed regularly in the centre of the coil.
Fourteen score of hooks are attached, six feet two
inches apart, to each line, by sneads of twisted horse-
hair twenty-seven inches in length. In fishing there
are three men to each coble, and, consequently, nine
lines, which being joined together end by end, reach
nearly three miles, and hear two thousand five hundred
and twenty hooks. A buoy and anchor are fastened
to each line, and the whole series is placed at low
water across the current of flood and ebb. The best
baits are herrings and lampreys — the latter being
brought in the winter-time from Tadcaster. Small
shell-molluscs put on the hook alive, are also favourite
baits ; and the Turbot will not take a bait cut from a
fish that has been above twelve hours out of the sea.
Tlie lines are shot and hauled at every turn of tide ;
and some fishermen shoot one set of lines while they
are taking up the other.

THE HOLIBUT {Hippoglossiis vulgaris) is the largest
fish of the family, and has been taken on the Scottish
coast weighing three hundredweight. It is often sold
in our markets under the name of Turbot, hut is of
inferior quality to that fish. It is very voracious, and
devours cod, skates, and crustaceans, attacking even
large fish and biting pieces out of them. The Holibut
is sold fresh, cut in slices ; and on the Norway coast
the slices are salted like herrings, or, after being
slightly salted and rolled, are hung up in the shade and
dried. A distinction is made of three different portions
of the prepared fish — viz., the fins, which arc named

in Danish raff; the fat slices, which are called rcedcel ;
and the lean ones share flog. The Holibut was called
Helgar flshar in the old Norse language ; and its
English denomination has a similar meaning of Holy
flounder — hut or hot being the Dutch for Flounder. The
Helgar flshar is mentioned in the Icelandic annals as
having been procured abundantly on the coast of Massa-
chusetts by the Greenlandic discoverers of America in
the eleventh century. In the following list of fishes,
taken by Havelock the Dane, the Turbot, the Flounder,
and the Sole are included : —

“ Mani god tish ther inne he tok,

Both with neth and with hok.

He tok the sturgiun and the qiial;

And the turbut and lax withal ;

He tok the sele and the hwel ;

Keling he tok, and tumberel ;
liering and the malxrel ;

The hutte, the schulle, the thornbaJce ;

God paniers did he make.”*

Family VIL— -ECHENEIDANS, or SHIP-
STAYERS.

Puppis retinct in inediis Echeneis aquis. — (Lucian, p. 675.)

The position of this family has not been satisfac-
torily ascertained. Some ichthyologists considering the
cephalic disc to be a modified spinous dorsal, have
ranged the Echeneidans with the Squamipennes or the
Scomhrids. We prefer placing the group provision-
ally among the Anacanths. The members of the
family are included in the single genus Echeneis, a
Greek appellation, which is translated Remora by
Pliny ; and are remarkable and peculiar in having the
perfectly flat top of the head occupied by an adhesive
organ, by means of which the Remora attaches itself
strongly to other fishes, or to rocks or ships’ bottoms.

The adhesive disc is formed of pairs of transverse
ridges or plaits, edged with short slender bristles. As
to general form, the Echeneidans are longish, and taper
towards the caudal fin, without keel or crests on the
tail. The head is the widest part ; and the mouth,
which is small or of moderate size, is cleft horizontally.
Villiform bands of teeth arm the jaws; and the vomer
and tongue are likewise rough. Branchiostegals seven
or eight in number. Skin smooth to the touch, hut
containing minute imbedded scales. Stomach large,
with a hag-like projection, followed by a short, wide
intestine, and a moderate number of pyloric caeca. The
air-bladder is absent.

The Remora swims awkwardly ; and owing to its
convex throat, and flat head and nape, has the aspect
of a fish with the belly uppermost. Its disagreeable
appearance jnevents it from being often used for food;
but sailors sometimes eat it, and it is not poisonous.
Seemingly it prefers being transported from place to
place on ships’ bottoms, or the bodies of sharks, to
swimming far by its own exertions ; and in the warmer
parts of the ocean it avails itself of that mode of ges-
tation in banrls of nine or ten, or more individuals.

* From Notes and Queries. Second series, vi., 317.— Qual
and hwel, grampus, or porpoise; Lax, salmon ; Sele, seal ; Keling,
cod-fish; Tumberel (?), Tumlare, porpoise (?) ; Butte, flounder;
and Schulle, sole.

Pharyhgognaths.-

•FISHES. SCOMBEKLUCEDS.

117

When one of the sharks to which a Remora is clinging
is caught by a hook, and is pulled out of the water, the
little parasite drops off, and makes for the bottom of
the ship. As long as a ship remains within the tropics,
numbers of Remorse cling to its bottom, whether that
be coppered or not, whence they dart off occasionally
to pick up any morsels of greasy or farinaceous matter
that may be thrown overboard, returning again rapidly
to their anchorage.

Commerson relates that in the Mozambique a species
of Remora is employed to catch turtles. A ring with
a long cord attached to it is fixed on the tail of the
fish, which is carried out to sea in a bucketful of salt
water. As soon as a turtle is perceived asleep on the
surface, the fishermen paddle towards it very gently,
until they come sufficiently near, when they throw
out the Remora, which makes for the dormant turtle
with speed, and fastens on it so strongly that both
can be drawn to the boat and secured.

That a large scull of Remorse sticking to a ship will
impair her sailing, much as a bottom foul with barna-
cles is known to do, can scarcely be doubted ; but the
Greeks, and after them the Romans, believed with a
love of the marvellous inherent to imperfect knowledge,
that a single Remora could stop a ship of the largest
size ; and Pliny, quoting Trcbius Niger as his authority,

tells us that one not exceeding a foot in length, and of
the thickness of five fingers, had that power. Even
when preserved in salt, the dead fish was supposed to
retain the power of sucking up gold from deep wells.
One of these fishes was said to have stayed Anthony’s
galley in the fight of Actium, allowing Caesar to obtain
the advantage in the onset; and when Caligula was
returning from Astura to Antium, his ship alone of a
fleet of five-banked vessels of war was stopped in spite
of the strenuous exertions of eighty rowers to urge it
on. On searching for the cause, a Remora was found
sticking to the rudder, which being brought to the
emperor, he was very indignant that a thing like a
slug should be able to arrest his noble ship. It was
taken in his case for a presage of death, for on arriving
at Rome he was slain by his soldiers. Pliny, who
relates these stories, moralizes on the vanity of man,
whose magnificent war-ships, lofty naval bulwarks,
with brazen prows and poops, can be overcome and
held by the might of a little fish only half a foot long.
He seems never to have seen the fish of which he thus
speaks, but quotes Mutianus, who describes it as being
a mollusc, and reports that it detained the ship ordered
by Periander to convey a party of noble Corinthian
youths to be mutilated by the tyrant of Sicily. It
was also thought to be able to delay lawsuits.

Order III.— PHARYNGOGNATHS.

In this order the internal skeleton owes its hardness to
the osteoid substance of Kolliker, which is cartilage
penetrated by earthy matter, but destitute of true bone
corpuscles. The swim-bladder is shut, having no
pneumatic tube ; there is onl}' a single gill-opening on
each side , the heart and arterial bulb are formed as in
the true fishes generally ; and the order has for its
distinctive character the union of the right and left
under-pharyngeals into one bone. This the term
Pharyngognathi (Pharyngeal jaws) is meant to denote.
In some members of the order the scales are cycloid,
in others ctenoid ; some have thoracic ventrals, and
others abdominals.

Family I.— SCOMBERLUCEDS.— (Plate 5, fig. 25.)

So we have translated the scientific name of this
family, Scomberesocidce, as being a somewhat shorter
word than Mackerel Pikes.* The technical character
of the family is deduced from the form of the jaws, the
maxillaries being coalescent with, or adherent to the
pi'emaxillaries, at the corner of the mouth. The fins
have no spinous rays, and this family has therefore
been reckoned as constituting a sub-order of Malacop-
terygian Pharjmgognaths, Thej' are for the most
part thin and often slender fishes, whose delicate bluish
scales, combined in some instances with detached or
spurious fiiilets on the tail, give them somewhat of a

• Luce is au archaic name for a pike.

mackerel aspect. Some have a long pike-like bill,
well furnished with teeth.

The genera are — Belone ; Scomberesox, or Sayris, which have
long bills ; Hemiramphis, whose mandible is long and the upper-
jaw abbreviated; Exocostus^ with no peculiarity in the snout,
but with pectorals large enough to sustain the fish in a sliort
flight through the air.

As a general rule the Scomberluceds have large,
closed air bladders ; but some species of Scomberesox
want this viscus, though others have it ; and the same
thing occurs in the Mackerels {Scomber). The Balla-
haw {Hemiramphus) is remarkable for its cellularly
reticulated air-bladder. Panchax inhabits the ponds
and paddy-fields of Bengal. The British seas nourish
the Gar-fish {Belone vulgaris), and the Mackerel-gar-
rick or Skipper {Scomberesox camperi) ; also one kind
of Flying-fish {Exocoetus evolans), and perhaps a second
kind. Considerable quantities of Gar-fish are eaten
by the working classes in London and in the seaports,
but many people are afraid of them because their
hones have a bright green colour. This tint, however,
is produced by an oil, and not by any noxious ingre-
dient. The gambols of the Skippers on the surface of
the water afford amusement to the residents on the
Cornish coasts.

The Flying-fish visit our seas in comparatively small
sculls; but in the warmer districts of the ocean they
exist in extraordinary numbers, and are never-failing
objects of contemplation and speculation to navigators
crossing the tropics. Multitudes are taken in the

1 18 Pharyngognatus. FISHES. Cyclolabroids.

West Indies ; and in Barbadoes they constitute an
important part of the negro diet. Two thousand people
of that island are estimated to live by the fisheries, and
at Bridgetown fifty boats may be seen coming in of a
morning, each, when fully charged, carrying three tons
of fish. The fishery is carried on at some distance
from the shore, during the night, with hoop nets baited
with pounded fish. The Flying-fish are gutted and
cleaned as they are caught. Thus prepared they keep
over the day, having in that respect the advantage
over most of the fish of the Caribbean seas. Some
method of preserving the fre.shness and firmness of
fi.sh caught near the equator, and keeping them from
becoming tainted before they can take the salt, is
needed, before the very productive fisheries of hot cli-
mates can be of the economic value to which they
might be raised. Weak sulphureous or pyroligneous
acids might, perhaps, be used to advantage ; and the
skill of chemists could not be better directed than in
seeking for some cheaper and more effective material.
So much has been written eloquently on the flight of
flying-fish by the lamented Humboldt, and other scien-
tific voyagers, that we shall not enter on the subject
here.

Family II. — CHROMIDANS {ChromididcB).

The Chromides of Muller have an interrupted lateral
line, villiform teeth, a single dorsal, and only one nos-
tril or opening to each pituitary sac. They are short,
moderately compressed, symmetrical fishes, with large
ctenoid scales, spinous rays in front of the dorsal and
anal, and scaly integument enveloping the bases of
these fins. The ventrals have a spine in front of the
five soft raj's, and are situated behind the pectorals.
The stomach is ciecal, and the pancreatic caeca are
•few in number. The family belongs to the sub-order
of Acanthopterygian Pharyngognaths, and is made up
of the following genera : —

Chromis, inhabiting the Nile ; Sarotheroden (Riippell), fre-
quenting the Bight of Benin; and Acara, Chietobranchus,
Creniq/chla, Geophagus, fleros, all Brazilian genera, described
by Heekel ; also Cycla (Bloch) from Surinam.

The Bolti {Chromis nilotica) is said to be the best
fish in the Nile. It is compressed, with a sub-orbicular
profile. A Crenicychla of the fresh waters of the island
of Trinidad is known locally by the name of Le Brocket
or Pike. Haligenes, is a chromidan genus recently
characterized by Dr. Gunther.

Family III.— CTENOLABROIDS (Plate 5, fig. 2G).

This family, named by some Foma centr idee, is com-
posed of oval or oblong fishes, with the head forming
part of the general elliptic profile. The scales are
large and ctenoid, and the general aspect is neat, com-
pact, and peculiar, so that 'the family is readily' recog-
nizable by those who have seen a few species. The
dorsal and anal are placed on the posterior curves of
the oval profile, and are supported in front by spinous
rays. The naked part of the tail intervening between
the three vertical fins is short and moderately high.
There is only a single nostril to each pituitary sac, as

in the Chromidans, and the closed air-bladder is with-
out appendages. The ovisac opens externally by a
tube that issues behind the vent. There are no caverns
in the outer walls of the cranium, as in the Scisenoids ;
between which and the Ctenolabroids there is some
resemblance in form.

The genera are — Caprodon (Schlegel); Amphiprion ; Prem-
nas; Pomacentrus ; Pristotis (Riippell); Dascyllus; Glyphiso-
don ; Eiroplus ; and Heliases.

They are inhabitants of the warmer districts of the
ocean, are of small size, do not assemble in sculls, and
are not the objects of any special fishery.

Family IV.— CYCLOLABROIDS {Cyclolabridce).
Plate 5, figs. 27, 28.

In this family cycloid scales are associated with spin
ous fin-rays, a combination which impairs the exactness
of the distinctive characters which Agassiz had at first
assigned to his ctenoid and cycloid orders. Systemat-
ists have always met with similar impediments to their
grouping animals by one or two peculiarities of struc-
ture. The members of the family are more or less
compressed scaly fishes, with an oval, elliptical, or
oblong profile, and generally with a parallel-sided naked
part of the tail intervening between the vertical fins.
The ventrals are thoracic, with one spine and five
branching rays. The dorsal is single, with anterior
spinous rays, which have frequently membranous pro-
cesses behind their tips ; and there is always a distinct
well-developed caudal. The lateral line is either con-
tinuous or interrupted. The jaws are covered by fleshy
lips, and their dentition varies with the genera, being
villiform, or subulate, or conical, and in one group incor-
porated with the bones so as to form horseshoe-shaped
jaws, which have been compared to the bill of a parrot.
The palate is smooth, without teeth, and there is one
pharyngeal bone below and two above, which are armed
sometimes with cylindrical teeth having flat cusps,
sometimes with lamellated plates, sometimes with flat
teeth simulating mosaic, and sometimes the pharyngeal
teeth are card-like. The air-bladder is simple and
closed, as in the rest of the order. There are no pan-
creatic cseca, and the eggs are discharged through a
tube which opens behind the vent.

The genera are — Labrus ; Cossyphus ; Crenilabrus ; Cteno-
labrus; Acanthulabrus ; Coricus; Clepticus ; Lachnohimus ;
Tautoga ; Koplarchus {Kaup') ; Malacanthus ; Cheilio ; Malap-
terus; Jiilis ; Chierops (Riippell); Anampses ; Gomphosus;
Xyricht/iys ; Novaculti ; Ckeiliiius ; Cirrkilahrtis (Sclilegel) ;
Epibubis; Scarus; Cullyodoti; and Odax.

In Xyrichthys and Novacula some of the front rays
of the dorsal are detached forwards, forming, as it were,
two dorsals. The British species are the Wrasse-
conner {Labrus bergylta) ; the Comber W rasse {Labrus
comber)-, the Cook or Red Wrasse {Labrus mixtus); the
Gorkwmg {Cre7iilab7-us melops); the Corkling (Crem-
labrus 2>7tsillus) ; Goldfinny ( Ctenolabrus rupestris) ; the
Scale-rayed Wrasse {Acantholabrus couchii); the Sea-
wife {Acantholabrus Tjari-ellii) ; the Rock-cook {Acan-
tholabrus exoletus) ; and the Rainbow Wrasse {Julis
Meditei-ranea). Some of these species are plentiful

j

l^HAUYNGOGNATHS. FISHES. EMBIOTOCIUS. 119

on our coasts, but none are in much request for the
table. They abound on the Cornish shores, and at
some seasons are shipped in quantities for consumption
by the poor of the eastern districts. As they are com-
mon fish in the Mediterranean, they must have been
well known to the ancients; but, from the want of
precise descriptions, few of the species named by the
Romans can be recognized with any degree of certainty,
though some of the generic names have been bor-
rowed from ancient writers. The Turdus and Merula
are supposed to have been Labri. Some Crenilabri
are so brilliant that they are called in Rome at the
present time Papagelli, or Parrakeets. Our fishermen,
probably from their gay dress, also name several of the
family Maids or Wives ; sometimes Old Wives. The
Tautog or Black-fish of New-York {Tautoga nigra)
is much esteemed, and fetches a high price in the
market. It is fed and fatted in preserves. During
the winter it refuses to eat, but regains its appetite as
the weather becomes warmer in the spring. Later in
the season the Tautog procures its food so easily that
it does not take the fishermen’s hook readily. These
habits are expressed by the following lines : —

“ When chestnut leaves are as big as thumb-nail,

Then bite Black-fish without fail ;

But when chestnut leaves are as long as a span.

Then catch Black-fish if you can.”

The fishing for Black-fish is, according to Mitchill
from whom these particulars are borrowed, a favourite
New York pastime.

The Epibulus insidiator has very protractile jaws,
which it suddenly thrusts out to seize any unwary
insect that comes within their reach. The slyness
with which it preys on the insect race has obtained for
it from the Dutch of the Moluccas the appellation of
Bedrieger^ or “ the deceiver,” while the Malays call it
Big-mouth.

The term Scarus is considered by Cuvier to be cor-
rectly used in modern ichthyology to designate the
genus to which the celebrated Scarus of the ancients
belonged. This fish was said to utter sounds, to have
great skill in avoiding nets, and if any of its associates
were inclosed, knew how to deliver them by gnaw-
ing the meshes. Aristotle adduces some reasons for
believing that the Scarus ruminates, and that it is
the only fish that does so. Pliny repeats the saying
without hesitation, and adds that therefore it is the
chief of fishes; and Ovid, Oppian, and others, have
sung its praises in verse. Moreover, Seleucus asserts
it to be the only fish that ever sleeps ; and .®lian says
that it is of all fishes the most strongly inflamed with
love of its kind. Pliny assigns to it the Carpathian
sea as its proper habitation, affirming that voluntarily
it never passes the southern cape of the Tread ; and

Horace speaks of it as being driven into the Adriatic
only by winter storms. According to Columella, it
had not even at a later time passed to the westward of
Faro di Messina. In the days of the Emperor Claudius,
however, Optatus Eli'pertius brought some of these fish
from the Troad, and turned them loose near the mouth
of the Tiber. During five years all that were taken
in nets were returned to the sea, after which they
became abundant on the Italian shores. The pains
that Elipertius took to bring a supply of this fish within
reach of the Roman epicures, was justified by the great
value set upon it. Martial speaks of the intestinal fat
of a sea-fed Scarus as most excellent ; and Xenocrates
tells us that the viscera of a Scarus newly brought from
the sea, and not kept in a vivarium, are most agreeable.
The liver was in high estimation, and formed, along
with the melts of murries, the brains of peacocks and
pheasants, and the tongues of flamingoes, the dish
named by Vitellius, “the shield of Minerva.” So care-
ful were Roman dinner-givers to 'have this fish per-
fectly fresh, that, according to Petronius, the custom
was to present it alive to the guests before it was con-
signed to the cook. Its flesh was considered to be
tender, savoury, and easy of digestion. The Scarus
Crelensis is even in the present day esteemed as a
most delicate fish by the inhabitants of Asia Minor ;
but it is said to be taken with difficulty, and only by
highly-skilled fishermen.

Family V.— EMBIOTOCIDS.

The Embiotocidee of Agassiz, or Holconoti^ are of a
compressed oval shape, are clothed with middle-sized
cycloid scales, and their opercular pieces are without
spines or serratures. The branchiostegals are six in
number, the lips are moderately thick, and the orifice
of the mouth is formed above by the premaxillaries —
the maxillaries being excluded. Both these bones are
somewhat protractile, and support teeth, as do also the
mandible and pharyngeals — the vomer and palatines
being smooth. A stripe of integuments along the base
of the dorsal fin on each side is destitute of scales.
The fronts of the dorsal and anal are supported by
spines, and there is a spine and five branching rays
in the ventrals. The family name has reference to
the development of the young in a manner which
Agassiz considers to be analogous to that of the
kangaroos.

The genera are — Embiotoca; Ilolconotus (Agass. in Trosch.
Archiv. fiir Naturg., 1854, and Sillim. Journ. of Sc., 1853) ;
Phanerodon (Giv&rd)-, Damalichthys ((i\xaxE) \ A 6eona (Girard);
Rachochilus (Girard) ; Heysterocarpus (Girard) ; Ennichtliys
(Girard ) ; and Amphistichus.

Order IV. — ACANTHOPTERES.

Muller’s Acanthopleri include the greater part of the being excluded). In this order the internal skeleton
Acanthopterygians of Linnaeus (certain Pharyngo- is indurated, but none of them, except the Tunnies,
gnaths and some other groups of soft-finned fishes develop true bone-corpuscles in their hard parts — the

120 Ctenoid Acanthopteres. FISHES. Uranoscopians

bone they form being merely the substance called
“osteoid” by Kblliker. The dermal or exo-skeleton
exists generally in form of ctenoid scales, though some
Acanthopteres have cycloid scales, and some are desti-
tute of scales. The ventrals are situated in the great
majority of the order on the thorax, and have a spine
in front. The first dorsal, or when that fin is solitary,
its anterior rays and the front rays of the anal, are
spinous. In many, spinous angles or processes are
developed on the cranial or opercular bones, there being
a considerable variety of defensive armour exhibited
by different members of the order. Normally the
number of branching or jointed rays in the ventrals are
five, but there are many exceptions, and some families
want ventrals. The swim-bladder when present is

closed. All the fishes of this order have a single gill-
opening on each side, generally four pairs of double-
ranked gills with free tips, and but one pair of valves
at the root of the arterial bulb, guarding the ventriculo-
arterial orifice, and no spiral rows of valves in the inte-
rior of the bulb. The maxillary bone lies behind the
extremity of the premaxillary, and does not constitute
any part of the upper border of the mouth.

The first sub-order of Acanthopteres has most gene-
rally ctenoid scales, there being only a few exceptions
in which the scales are small, tender, and cycloid ; but
the other parts of their structure agreeing closely with
the ctenoid genera, it has not been thought expedient
to separate them. On the limits of the sub-order,
genera and species destitute of scales occur.

Sub-order I.— CTENOID ACANTHOPTEEES.

Family I.— PSEUDOCHROMIDS {Pseudo-
cliromidcc).

The members of this group are scaly Acanthopteres,
with a long dorsal fin, preceded by a few spines either
in a detached fin, or joined to the soft rays by mem-

brane. Their lateral line is interrupted ; the cheek is
not cuirassed by the second sub-orbitar, and there are
no sharp serratures or spines on the opercular bones.
Branchiostegals six.

The family includes the following genera — Ciahlops ; Pseu-
dochromis; Pseudoplesiops (Bleeker); (Richardson).

Fig 30

Leather-headed Notothen (Nototheuia coriiceps).

Notothenia is a genus of the high southern latitudes,
discovered on the antarctic voyage of Admiral Sir
James Clark Ross.

Family II.— URANOSCOPIANS, or SKY-
GAZERS. — (Plate 7, fig. 35.)

This family group, equivalent to the Trachinidai of
Bonaparte, consists of fishes whose ventrals of one
spine and five soft rays are situated before the pectorals,
or close behind them, and which have either a naked
skin, or scales of cycloid structure. The vent is gene-
ralh’ before the middle of the fish, so that the tail

exceeds the body in length. The caudal is distinct
from the other vertical fins, and the spinous dorsal is
usually abbreviated, and sometimes absent. A pro-
jection of the mandible in some genera gives a vertical
aspect to the orifice of the mouth, which is always
terminal, and is bordered above its angles by the pre-
maxillaries to the exclusion of the maxillaries. No
sharp points or serratures exist on the sub-orbitar or
preopercular pieces, but in some cases a strong spine
issues from the surface of the operculum or from the
shoulder-bone. The branchiostegals generally number
six or seven ; more rarely five. Occasionally the
cavity of the abdomen is prolonged past the vent into

Ctenoid Acanxhopxebes. FISHES. Sclerogenids.

the substance of the tail, compensating for the shortness
of the body. The stomach is csecal; and there are
from three to twelve pancreatic caeca, these organs
being absent in one genus only. In many members of
the family the tips of the rays of one or more fins are
enveloped in thick, sensitive membrane.

The genera are — Trachinus ; Percis ; Apkrites ; Sillago ;
Eleginus ; Epicopus (Guichenot) ; Percopkis ; Bovichthgs ;
Trichodon ; Ilelerostichus (Girard) ; Gadopsis (Richardson) ;
Uranoscopus ; Agnus (Gunther) ; Anema (id.) ; Kathelosloma
(id.) ; Le2)tuscopus (id.) ; Pinguipes ; and Latilus.

Two species of Weevers [Trachinus) represent the
family in the British seas. They are littoral fishes,
frequenting flat, sandy coasts, and are capable of
inflicting dangerous punctured wounds with their very
sharp spines, which are vulgarly accounted to be
venomous. Their Latin generic name is derived from
the Italian Trascina, a corruption of Dracaena, mean-
ing a dragon ; and their English one comes from the
Anglo-Saxon Wivere, a serpent or wyvern.

Family III. — SCLEROGENIDS [Sclerogenidce).
Plate 7, figs. 36, 37.

This group of fishes was characterized by Cuvier as
consisting of fishes whose second sub-orbitar deflects
from the inverted arch of the other sub-orbitars, to
cross the cheek and abut against the hollow curve of
the preoperculum. In the Gurnards this second sub-
orbitar expands over the whole cheek, whence Cuvier
named the group Joues Cuirassees a term which has
had many Latin translations, as, Cataphracti, Caia-
phractoridm, Scleropareii, Buccoiloricatce, and in
English, Mailed cheeks.

121

The forms of the Sclerogenids are exceedingly
variable, some of them being grotesque or even
hideous, and thence recei\flng such names as Devil-
fishes ; others are not less remarkable for elegance of
form, and the splendour and beauty of their colours.
Several of the genera have fewer than five rays in
their ventrals, a departure from the normal number
among the Acanthopteres. Many are fringed with
cutaneous tags or filaments on the head, body, or fins ;
and some genera of bottom-feeders have their inferior
pectoral rays detached and resembling fingers, to serve
as organs of touch. In some the scales are cycloid,
in others spiniferous, and some Gurnards are clothed
with a mixture of cycloid and spinous scales ; but
many of the genera have well-marked ctenoid scales.

The genera are — Trigla ; Lepidolrigla (Giinther) ; Prionotus ;
Bembras ; Monocentrh ; Platycephalus ; Polycaulis (Gunther) ;
Ptyonotus {id.) •, Artedius (id.)-, Hemilepidotus ; TWy/o^s (Rein-
hardt) ; Icelus (Kro3’er) ; Centridermichthys (Richardson, or
TVacAirfcmis, Heckel) ; Cottus; Phoheior [KxoyeP)-, Scorpenich-
thys (Girard); Nautichthys (id.); Po(fa6?us (Richardson); Chori-
daclylus (id.) ; Pelor ; Minous ; Micropus (Gray or Car acan-
thus, Kroyer) ; Synanceia ; Synancidium ; Ampkyprionichthys
(Bleeker) ; Hemitripterus ; Sthenopus (Richardson or Tricho-
pleura, Kaup) ; Aploactis (Schlegel) ; Prosopodasys (Cantor) ;
Apistus; Enneapterygius (Riippell) ; Tetraroge (Gunther);
Pentaroge (id.); Centropogon (id.); Taniaiiotus ; Pteroi-
dichthys (Bleeker) ; Pterois ; Glyptauchen (Gunther) ; Gna-
thanacanthus (Bleeker) ; Scorpcena ; Sebastes ; Aspidophorus
or Agonus ; Aspidiphoroides (Lacdp.) ; Peristedion or Peri-
stethus ; Dactylopterus ; Cephalacanthus ; Xystophorus (Rich-
ardson) ; Chirus ; Stichwus ; Ophidian (Girard) ; Agrammus
(id.) ; Zaniolepis (id.) ; Agriopus ; Centropus (Kner) ; and
Gasterosteus.

The genera that are most remarkable either for
their ugliness or beauty live within the tropics. The
British species are — the Red Gurnard, Rotchet, or«

Fig. .SI.

Saddlehead (Glyptaachen panduratus).

Gaverick [Trigla cucidus) ; the Rock Gurnard [Tr.
lineata) ; the Sapphirine Gurnard [Tr. hirundo) ; the
Little Gurnard ( Tr. pceciloptera) ; the Piper ( Tr. lyra) ;
Vo I, IT. 72

the Grey Gurnard, Crooner, Girnat, Goukney, or Woof
[Tr. gurnardus); Bloch’s Gurnard [Tr. hlochit) ; and
the Long -finned Captain [Tr. luccrnd) ; all of which

122 Ctenoid Acanthofteees. FISHES. Sclerogenids.

are firm and wholesome fish, and are more or less
common in our markets. Also we reckon among the
British fish the Mailed Gurnard {Peristedion malar-
mat) ; the Miller’s Thumb {Cottus gobio) ; the Sea-
scorpion or Sutor {Acanthocottus scorpius) ; the Father
Lasher {Cottus bubalis) ; the Horned Bullhead {Acan-
thocoltus quadricornis) ; the Kaniok {Acanthocottus
grosnlandicus) ; the Poggie or Lyrie {Aspidophorus
europceus) ; the Bergylt {Sebastes norvegicus) ; the
Rough-tailed Stickleback {Gasterosteus trachurus) ;
the Half-mailed Stickleback {GoMerosteus semiar-
matus) ; the Smooth-tailed Stickleback {Gasterosteus
leiurus) ; the Short-spined Stickleback {Gasterosteus
brachycentrus) \ the Four-spined Stickleback {Gaste-
rosteus spinuloms) ; the Tinker {Gasterosteus pungi-
tms) ; and the Bismore {Gasterosteus spinachia).

The Gurnards are remarkable for producing sounds
by some meohanism which has not been clearly de-
monstrated. The fact, however, has long been known
to fishermen, and has been productive of various
speculations by physiologists. Many of the local
names of the species have reference to the sounds
they produce when in the act of being drawn from the
sea. The Prionotus pilatus is called “ Pig-fish” on
the coasts of New Jersey, because of its loud croaking
or barking as it is drawn to the shore in a seine. Mr.
Spencer Baird, secretary of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, who had an opportunity of witnessing the phe-
nomenon, thought the sounds were produced in the
belly of the fish. Dr. Davy has discovered flat grind-
ing teeth in the oesophagus of the Red Gurnard.

By the great size of the pectoral fins the species of
dactylopterus, called at Barbadoes the “Guinea-man”
— (Plate 7, fig. 37) — are able to rise from the water and
fly through the air like the Exocceti or Flying-fishes
already mentioned. With such force does the Dacty-
lopterus pursue its flight, that it will spring upon the
deck of a ship of war ; and it has been known to strike
a sailor on the forehead in its flight and knock him
down. In the clear waters of the Bocca Tigris, off
Trinidad, great sculls of these fish may be seen near
the bottom, perpetually fluttering their large wing-like
pectorals. Synanceia horrida is the Ikan-swangi or
Sorcerer-fish of the Malays, and Synanceia bracliio is
the abhorred Fi-fi of the negroes of the Mauritius.
The Sticklebacks or Benticles abound in the fresh-
water ponds and streams of Europe and North Ame-
rica, and multiply to such a degree that they are taken
by cart-loads for the purpose of manuring the land.
Some species inhabit the sea or fresh-water indiffer-
ently, and they flourish far within the arctic circle.
In the Catalogue of Fishes in the British Museum,
formed by Dr. Albert Gunther in 1859, the Stickle-
backs form a proper family named Gasterosteidm.

Many fishes, having deposited their eggs in suitable
places, visit them no more, and evince no traces of
parental instinct ; but this is not true of all, and both
ancient and modern observers have recorded instances
of the boldness and pertinacity with which certain fishes
defend their progeny. The action of this instinct in
the Sticklebacks has attracted attention of late years;
and as these small fishes breed readily in glazed vivaria,
the principal facts have been verified by several ichthy-

ologists. Mr. Thomas Crookenden published Obser-
vations on the Nidification of the Stickleback in the
“Youth’s Instructor” for 1834. Signore Costa and M.
Lecoq watched the proceedings of these fish in the
Mediterranean in 1846, and sent accounts of what they
saw to the Academie des Sciences, since published
in Wiegman’s “Archiven fiir Naturgeschichte,” and
in D’Orbigny’s “ Dictionnaire d’Histoire Naturelle.”
Albany Hancock, Esq., read a paper on the same sub-
ject before the Tyneside Naturalists’ Field Club, and
Messrs. R. Q. Couch, Kinahan, and Warrington sent
interesting accounts of their observations to the
“Zoologist” for 1852-54.

All the Sticklebacks, whether they are inhabitants
of fresh or salt water, make nests for their eggs, and
the methods the different species pursue do not differ
much ; though some species give a preference to one
situation, others to another. The Rough and Smooth-
tailed Sticklebacks, for instance, prefer a muddy or
sandy foundation, while the Tinker and Bismore select
a niche among the leaves or branches of water plants.
Some species make a nest resembling a mole-hill in
form ; others construct one like a muff, open at the
two ends. Signore Costa is the authority we chiefly
follow in giving the ensuing details. The work of
nidification is performed solely by the male Stickle-
back, the female taking no part in the labour; and
when the spawning season arrives, the male fish, having
assumed a brilliant nuptial lustre, shows extraordinary
activity in securing a site for his edifice, and trans-
porting the building materials thither. These are
fragments of plants of all kinds within his reach, which
he often seeks at a distance and brings home in his
mouth. He arranges them so as to form a kind of
carpet-work, but as there is some danger of the current
carrying away the light materials, he brings sand to
weigh them down and keep them in their places.
Then having entwined them with his mouth to his
satisfaction, he slides gently over them on his belly,
with a vibratory motion of the body, and glues them
together with the mucus that exudes through his pores.
Having in this manner firmly established the floor of
his edifice, he seeks somewhat more solid materials for
the walls, sometimes bits of wood, sometimes pieces
of straw, which he always seizes with his mouth, and
lays either on the surface of the floor or sticks into its
sides, withdrawing them and thrusting them in anew
until he is satisfied ; or if he cannot adapt a piece
properly to his building, he carries it to some distance
from the nest and rejects it. After the side walls
are raised, the tiny architect proceeds to throw over
the chamber a roof of the same materials with the
floor ; and to give firmness to the whole structure, he
again and again creeps over it, and by the rapid action
of his fins, and the vibratory movements of his tail,
fans out the light and useless particles. In carrying
on his building operations he takes care to preserve
a circular opening into the chamber, often thrusting in
his head and great part of his body, widening and con-
solidating it so as to render it a fit receptacle for the
female, whose belly is distended with eggs. When
choosing building material, the fish has been seen
trying its specific gravity, by letting it sink once or

Ctenoid Acanthopteres. FISHES. Surmullidans. 123

twice in the water, and if its descent were not rapid
enough, finally abandoning it=

The time occupied in collecting building materials
and constructing the nest is about four hours, and
when all is ready the male proceeds to seek a female,
and, having found her, “ conducts her,” says Signore
Costa, “ with man}' caresses and polite attentions to the
prepared apartment ; ” or as Mr. Warrington describes
his motions, “ darting round her with the' madness of
delight.”

The female enters the nest by one door, and having
in a few minutes laid several eggs, escapes by the
opposite outlet, leaving the eggs exposed to the current
of cool water which flows through the nest. Then
the male establishes himself as guardian of the precious
deposit, not suffering even the female to approach it
again. Every fish that comes near, even though much
larger than himself, is furiously attacked ; and he gives
battle valiantly, striking at their eyes and seizing their
fins with his mouth. His acute dorsal and ventral
spines are effective weapons in these combats, and able
to rip up the belly of a small fish. The constant
watchfulness of the male is fully needed ; for if he is
removed by way of experiment, the Sticklebacks and
other fish lurking in the vicinity rush with one accord
upon the nest, and devour the eggs in an instant of
time. F or a whole month does the male parent pro-
vide for the safety of his offspring. In the first few
days the openings are enlarged so as to admit a larger
current of water to the eggs ; and about the tenth day
the male employs himself in tearing down the nest and
transporting the material to some little distance. With
a lens the fry at this time may be observed in motion.
Round these the male guardian continually moves,
suffering no encroachment; and as the young brood
gain strength and show an inclination to stray beyond
bounds, he drives them back within their precincts,
until they are advanced enough to provide for them-
selves, when both old and young disappear from the
place of observation.

There are several American fishes which take an
equal care of their young, some of which belong to the
genera Catastomus, Exoglossuin, Pomotis, and Pimelo-
clus. The species of Exoglossum are named “ Stone-
toters,” because they pile up little heaps of small
stones, among which they deposit their spawn. Pro-
fessor Agassiz describes the operations of the Pomotis,
or Sun-fishes, after watching them for eight successive
years, as follows ; —

When the breeding season approaches, a pair of
Sun-fishes approach the shore of the pond in which
they live, and, selecting a shallow gravelly spot over-
shadowed with pond- weed, water-lilies, or other aquatic
plants, clear a space of about a foot across, rooting out
the plants by violent jerks of their tails, and carrying
away the coarser gravel in their mouths, so as to leave
an area of fine sand. There the female deposits her
eggs, embowered under the overhanging aquatic plants.
In this inclosure one of the parents keeps watch over
the eggs, driving off intruders — an office which is
shared alternately by the male and female. The
fierceness with which the watcher attacks an enemy,
and the anxiety which it manifests for the safety of its

charge, show the strength of the parental instinct.

The pairs of Sun-fishes are not solitary in their selec-
tion of a breeding-place. Hundreds may be seen
along the same bank of a pond establishing nests near
to each other, and often separated merely by a parti-
tion of plants, living peaceably together, and passing
over one another’s domiciles when they go in search
of food, without producing any disturbance ; but an
unmated fish is chased away from the nests as being
an unprincipled intruder. In about a week the young
are hatched, and the parents soon cease to take further
care of them. The Cat-fish [Pimdodus catuP) clears
a space for the eggs like the Sun-fish, but the young
brood remain longer, after being hatched, under the
superintendence of the parent fish.

Family IV.— SURMULLIDANS {Mullidce).

Plate 7, fig. 38.

This small but very natural family is distinguishable
from other groups of the same order, by two dorsals
widely separated from each other by the large, strongly-
ciliated, easily-detached scales of the head and body ;
the steep facial profile ; and a pair of barbels attached
to the skin under the tongue, close to the symphysis of
the mandible, and retiring between the limbs of that
bone when not in use. These appendages are, how-
ever, wanting in the foreign genus Acropoma. The
preorbitar is high and narrow; the mouth is small,
with feeble teeth; and the head is unarmed, except
merely by an angular point of the operculum in some
species ; the gill opening is wide ; and there are from
four to seven branchiostegals. The muco-ducts of the
scales forming the lateral line are arborescent. The
stomach is bent like a siphon, the pylorus being at the
end ; and the prancreatic caeca are numerous.

The Romans named these fishes Mulli, because they
are coloured like the bright red buskins worn by the
kings of Alba, and subsequently by various Roman
officials.

The genera are — Mullus; Upeneichthys (Bleeker); Upene-
oides (Bleeker); Mulloides (Bleeker); Upeneus; and Acropoma
(Schlegel)

In the present day a well-fed Surmullet {Mullus
barhatus) is considered to be an excellent fish, and
being generally cooked with the entrails, is often called
the “Sea-snipe” by epicures. It was still more
highly prized by the Romans in the luxurious days of
the empire. Pliny says that it surpasses other fishes
in excellence and beauty ; that it seldom weighs more
than two pounds, and will not grow in a fish-pond.
Martial speaks of a fish of this size as a costly gift,
exacted from him by his mistress; and says that a
Surmullet of three pounds was an object of insane
admiration, while the cost of one of four pounds was a
ruinous extravagance — Calliodorus having paid £10
sterling for such a fish. Seneca reports that a Sur-
mullet of four pounds and a half being presented to
Tiberius, that emperor, in an excess of economy, sent
it to the market. Apicius and Octavius bid for it
against one another, and the latter carried away the
prize at the cost of £39 of our money. Juvenal men-

124 Ctenoid Acanthoptebes. FISHES. Polyne.mids.

tions one weighing nearly six pounds that was obtained

and ready for market, two ounces, and is considered to

for £46 sterling. And the consul Asinius Celer, in

be good isinglass, worth from twenty-five to thirty

the time of Caligula, paid upwards of £62 for one ; on

Spanish dollars per pikul. Under the name of Loo-pa

which Pliny exclaims that had the prodigious Surmullet

the Chinese traders collect these air-bladders from

of eiglity pounds, caught by Licinius Mutianus in the

various parts of the Indian peninsula and Malay archi-

Eed Sea, been taken in the vicinity of Rome, what

pelago, to sell in their native country ; and the trade

wealth the luxurious fish would have brought to the

yields a quick return and good profit. Among the

captor! At length Tiberius, in consequence of £2.34

European merchants the article is named indifferently

sterling having been given for three Surmullets, made

isinglass or fish-maws, and is the produce not only of

a sumptuary law to repiess this extravagance, and to

the Sele, but of fish of other families; Dr. Cantor,

tax the provisions brought to market.

from whom these facts are obtained, enumerates the

Though the Surmullets did not improve in vivaria.

following species as yielding fish-maws of good quality:

and bore confinement ill, the Romans took great pains

— Lutes heptadactylus ; Polynemus Indicus ; Otolithus

to rear them ; but the mortality was so great that only

hiauritus, ruber, argenfevs, maculatus; Johnivs diacan-

a few survived of several thousands put into a pond.

thus; Lobotes erate; Arius truncatus; and A. militaris.

Tills attempt at keeping them was made for the pur-

In the course of ten years the export of fish-maws

pose of presenting them alive at banquets, and allowing

from Penang alone, amounted in value to nearly seventy-

them to swim down rivulets made to flow under the

four thousand dollars. Crawfurd says that the {irice

tables, or to die in glass vessels, so that the guests

of fish-maws at Bombay is sometimes £14 per huu-

might enjoy the play of colours exhibited by the fish

dredweight ; and that the exports from that Presidency

in the agonies of death. Nothing, says Seneca, is finer

vary from one thousand five hundi ed to two thousand

than a dying Surmullet. The struggles it makes against
death diffuse over the body the most brilliant red tints,
which end in general paleness ; but in the passage from
life to death, what beautiful shades of these two colours

five hundred hundredweight. Bengal exports about
four thousand pounds, and Madras fifty hundrcidweight.

are displayed ! Apicius prepared a garum from the
livers of Surmullets, in which he drowned the fish pre-

Family VI.— CIRRHITIDS {CirrUtida:).

sented alive on his table, and then sent it to be cooked.

The Gurnards, and some other members of the
Sclerogenid family, have the under rays of the pectorals

Family V.— POLYNEMIDS.

detached from the rest, and organized like tapering,
slender, flexible-jointed fingers, for examining the hot-

The Polynemidm, equivalent to the Polynemini of
Bonaparte, are a group of Acanthopteres, with ventrals
situated on the belly, but attached to the scapulo-cora-
coid arch by long pubic bones. The principal genus
consists of the Paradise-fishes — so named because the

tom of the sea by touch. Cther fishes have sensitive
tips to some pectoral rays not detached from the rest,
but probably serving to direct the motions of the animal
along an uneven bottom, where the eyes being on the
upper aspect of the head, need such aid. A similar
function is, perhaps, performed by the mandibular bar-

under pectoral rays are detached from the rest iu form
of tapering threads, which are as long or longer than
the fish itself, and, together with the brilliant colours.

bels of the Surmullets, and the long, thread-like pectoral
rays of the Polynemids. The Cirrhitidm are connected

produce a fancied likeness to the bird of paradise. The

w'ith these groups, by some of the rays of the pectorals

family name, of Greek derivation, meaning “ many

having simple tapering tips extending beyond the mem-

threads,” has reference to these elongated pectoral raj^s.

brane. They are Acanthopteres, with a depression at

The two dorsals are far apart — the second one opposed

the junction of the spinous and articulated portions ot

to the anal being also at some distance from the caudal.

the dorsal, which in some amounts to a complete sepa-

The ctenoid scales are feebly ciliated, and extend to

ration into two dorsals. The ventrals of one spine

the head much reduced in size ; the vertical fins also

and five branching rays are situated behind the pec-

are scaly ; with the exception of some serratures on
the preoperculum there is no armature on the bones of
the head. The stomach has an obtuse sac-like pro-
jection below the pylorus. The air-bladder in some
species is fringed by many projections ; in others it is
wanting. Gill-openings wide. Branchiostegals six.
Pentanemus and Galcoides are subordinate groups of

torals, but their pubic bones stretch forward to the
coracoids. Sometimes the preoperculum is serrated
on the edge, more generally it is entire and smooth ;
and the operculum has often two thin, flat, bony angles,
but is not armed with strong spines. The jaws are
formed like those of the Percoids or Scisenoids, with
terminal mouths, but are in general more protractile.

the Paradise-fishes.

Sometimes there is a cluster of teeth on the vomer.

Some of the Polynemes are highly valued as articles

but none exist on the palatines. The scales are in

of food, and among others the Salanghi or Salliah

some cycloid and smooth ; in others, striated on the

{Polynemiis tetradactylus), which inhabits the Bay of

edges, or ciliated. The stomach is csecal, and rather

Bengal and the coasts of the Malajmn peninsula. The

small ; the pyloric cseca are few in number, seldom

Sele, or Ikankurow {Polynemus indicus)^ also a fre-

exceeding four ; and the air-bladder is simple, or wholly

quent fish among the Malay islands, has a large
thick-skinned, silvery air-bladder, with about thirty or
thirty-six appendages. One of these organs taken from

absent.

The genera are — Cirrhites; Cirrhittchys (THeeker) •, Oxycir-
rhites (id.); Chironemus; Chilodactylus; Nemadactylvs; Latris;

1

a fish of from four to six pounds, weighs, when dried

Mendosoma (Gay) ; and Aplodactylvs, or Haplodactylus.

[

Ctenoid Acanthoptekes. FISHES. Scminoids. 125

Familt VII. — SGIJENOIDS (Scicencedce),

Plate 7, fig. 39.

In this group the bones of the head abound in muci-
ferous cells and excavations, the jaws have but little
protractility, and there are no teeth on the vomer or
palatines, in which respect they difl'er from the typical
Percoids. The dorsals are two in number, or one
only; and the anal spines are few, and generally slender
and feeble. Seven branchiostegals support the bran-
chiostegous membrane on each side, the operculum is
spiniferous or denticulated, and the preoperculum is
variously armed in the various genera ; but the cheeks
are not cuirassed by the second suborbitar, as in the
Sderogenids. Most frequently the scales are ctenoid ;
but they are often thin, tender, and nacry, and are
arranged obliquely and peculiarly. In many the
swim-bladder is curiously fringed or lobed, and fishes
so provided are noted for emitting strange grunting
noises.

The genera are — Sctcsna ; Scicenoides (Blyth^ ; Collichthys
(Gunther); Otolithvs; Ancylodon; Corvina; Johnius; Leioslomm;
Larimus; Nebiis; Lepipterus ov Paehyurus (Agassiz)-, Boridia;
Conodon; Eques; Vmbrina; Lonckurus; Pogonias; Micro-
pogon; Hosmulon; Pristipoma; Diagramma; Pristipomoides
(Bleeker); Cheilutrema (Schudi); Ilapalogenys (Richardson);
Anyperodon (Gunther) ; Hyperoglyphe (GUuther).

The term Scicena is from a Greek word signifying a
cloud, and has reference to a great Mediterranean
species which appears in the water like a cloud. This
is the Scicena aquila (fig. 39) of modern ichthyologists,
whose range extends to our coasts, where it is known
by the name of Maigre, borrowed from the French
fishermen. Its weight occasionally exceeds forty
pounds, and its length six feet. From its size it is
necessarily sold in slices, and its flesh, although dry, is
considered to be good and wholesome. Formerly the
head was reckoned a handsome gift; and in the fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries it was the custom to otfer it as
a valuable perquisite to the three conservators of the
city of Rome. Bishop Paul Jovius, who published a
work on fishes in the year 1531, relates a story of a
noted parasite named Tamisio, who flourished in the
year 1480. This gourmand, being wont to station his
servant in the fish-market to bring him intelligence of
the destination of the finest fish, learnt from him that
a Maigre of unusual size had been brought in. Tamisio
instantly hurried to wait on the conservators, in expec-
tation of an invitation to dinner ; but as he ascended
the steps of the capitol, he met the head, adorned
with flowers, and borne, by order of the conservators,
as an offering to Cardinal Riario, nephew of Pope
Sixtus IV. Tamisio, being well acquainted with this
prelate, gladly joined the procession ; but Riario,
delighting in a play of words, said that the head of the
greatest of fishes should go by right to the greatest of
cardinals, and sent it accordingly to Cardinal St.
Severin, who was of extraordinary bulk. St. Severiu,
in his turn, despatched it in a golden dish to the
wealthy banker Chigi, to whom he owed money. This
time Tamisio, in his eager pursuit, had to traverse the

whole city and to cross the Tiber in his way to the
Farnesian palace which Chigi had built. Chigi, how-
ever, did not retain the much-prized head, but after
replacing the faded garlands by newly-gathered
flowers, sent it to his mistress, whose abode lay a
good way off. There at length Tamisio, who, though
fat and unwieldy, had tracked the object of his desires,
under a hot sun, over the whole city, was at length
permitted to partake of the luxury he had endured so
much toil to obtain.

The name of Corvo (or Crow), given to one genus
of Scisenoids by the Italians, has reference probably to
the croaking noise these fish at times produce. One
species, probably for the same reason, is called El ron-
cador in central America. Some people attribute the
sound of a bell, which occasionally issues from the
depths of the Mediterranean sea, to the Corvo ; others
think that these curious sounds are produced by sbelly
molluscs. On the coasts of the United States of
America certain species are called “Drums,” and in
the autumn a loud drumming noise, which seems to
come from the bottom of a ship, and is accompanied
with some degree of tremor, is said by the fishermen
to be caused by the Drums. At that season the tails
of the Drums are infested by long thread-like worms
(Filarid), and it may be that the fishes find relief by
beating their tails on the bottoms of the ships. The
author of these pages has been prevented from sleeping
by like sounds when on board a ship at anchor on
the coast of Carolina. The fact had long before been
mentioned by Schoepff in the Berlin Transactions.

Lieutenant John White mentions in the narrative
of his voyage to China, published in 1824, that when
his ship was anchored in the mouth of the river Cam-
boya, the crew were amazed at the strange sounds that
rose from the water, resembling the base of an organ,
mingled with the tones of a bell, the croaking of an
enormous frog, and the clang of an immense harp.
These sounds swelled into a general chorus on both
sides of the ship, and were attributed by the interpreter
to a scull of fish.

Baron Humboldt mentions a similar occurrence
which he witnessed in the South Sea. About seven
o’clock in the evening the sailors were terrified by an
extraordinary noise in tbe air, like the beating of tam-
bourines, followed by sounds which seemed to come
from the ship, and resembling the escape of air from
boiling liquid. It ceased at nine o’clock. It was
judged to proceed from a scull of Scisenoides.*

The Umbrina vulgaris is a rare visitor of the British
seas. Many members of the family are in request for
the table in Asia and America. The Bolapama
(Scicena) is the whiting of the Calcutta fish-market.
Otolithi and Johnii are also fished in the Indian seas
for the isinglass made of their air-bladders. The
highest price in the market is got for the isinglass of
the Salampai (OtoUthus bi-auritus). The King-fish,
Weak-fish, or Scuppey (OtoUthus) are well known in
the New York markets, and a West Indian King-fish
is dreaded for the severity of its bite. He can strip the
flesh from the arm of a fisherman.

* Hist, de Pois., vol. 198.

Ctenoid Acanthoptbres. FISHES. Apogonids.

126

Family VIII. — APOGONIDS {Apogonina, Giinther).

In the method of Linnaeus the genus Perea included
a very large part of all the Acanthopteres then known,
and the group was not, in the condition of the
ichthyology of that day, altogether unnatural ; but
when additional species were discovered, and further
subdivision became expedient, trenchant characters for
the dismemberments could not be found. The Cuvieran
families of Percoids and Scioenoids were intended to
comprehend Acanthopteres without prolonged second
suborbitars, but having their cranial bones or gill-covers
serrated or spinous ; and these two families were dis-
tinguished from each other chiefly by the presence or
absence of teeth on the roof of the mouth ; though this
character cannot be strictly adhered to, as in many
species the vomerine teeth, and in some the palatine
ones also, are deciduous. Dr. Gunther in his catalogue
of the PercidiE {Perca:dce) in the British Museum, has
made the Cuvieran family more nearly co-extensive
with the Linnsean one, by scattering the members of
the Sciaenoid group among the sub-families of the
Ferccedee and their allies. In this elementary treatise
some of Dr. Gunther’s minor groups are treated as
separate families.

The Apogonids are small or moderate-sized sea-fish,
a few species only existing in fresh waters. Their
scales are generally large and easily deciduous ; their
bodies compressed and elevated; their mouths obliquely
cleft, approaching to vertical; and their gill-plates
toothed or spinous. They have most generally teeth
on the palate-bones, and their branchiostegals are
generally seven, but sometimes only six. The dorsals
are two in number.

The genera aie — Ambassis; Microickthgs (Uup'pe]\); Apogon;
Aponichthys (Bleeker) ; Cheilodipterus ; Scombrops (Schlegel) ;
Pomatomus; and Acropoma (Schlegel).

These fish are of little economical importance.
Some species of Amhassis inhabit hot springs. In
Pondicherry the Selintan (A mhassis Commersonii) is
given to sick people as an excellent article of diet.

Family IX. — THERAPONIDS {Theraponidoe).

Seven branchiostegals is the number of the typical
Percoids. The Theraponids have seldom more than
six — sometimes only four or five ; but in their general
structure and external aspect they have much simi-
larity to the common Perch. The scales are often
ctenoid, but sometimes cycloid ; the opercular pieces
are variously denticulate or spinous, or even unarmed.
They have villiform teeth, often mixed with larger
ones on the jaws, and villiform teeth also on the
palatines and vomer, from which they in some cases
disappear with age. The dorsals are two, or one only
with the fore part spinous ; and the thoracic ventrals
have one spine and five soft rays. The air-bladder
is in some genera contracted in the middle. Distinct
pseudobranchiae. No barbels.

The genera are — Tiieraponina — Therapon; Helotes;
Dalnia; Pelates; Macquaria; Priacanthus ; Loboies; Scolopsis;
Heteroqnathodon (Bleeker); Pules; Badis (Bleeker); Arlina

(Girard); Estrella (lA.'); Alvordius (\A.') ; Boleosoma (JDekay);
Pileoma (id.); Lepisoma (id.); Paralabrax (Girard); and
Polycenti'us (Muller).

GiiYSTiNA( Giinther) — (GUnther); Grystes;Homodon
or Arripis (Jenyns); Huro ; Percilia (Girard); Pomanotis
(Giuchenot) ; Centrarchus ; Bryttus ; Pomotis ;Anoplus (Schlegel) ;
and Odontonectes (Gunther).

Both these groups are comprised in Dr, Gunther’s
family of Pristipomidee.

Many members of the second group, and some of
the first, are inhabitants of the fresh waters of North
America, Asia, or Australia. They are wholesome
eating, but are not objects of special fisheries. The
Trout of Carolina is the Grystes salmoides, which has
merely a very distant resemblance to the Salmon.
The Sea-trouts of Australian seas belong to the genus
Arripis, The Trouts of the Australian rivers are,
however, Galaxias of a totally different family.

Family X. — PERCOIDS {Perccedoe).

The Common Perch (Perea fluviatilis) conveys a
good notion of the aspect of this family, being the type
round which Cuvier grouped the other members.
With us the family is restricted to a single division of
Cuvier’s Pereoides, namely, to that having seven
branchiostegals and five branching rays only, with one
spine in the sub-brachian ventrals. Other characters
of the family are common to allied groups, such as
an oblong body; clothed with ctenoid scales; opercular
bones variously serrated or spiniferous; teeth on the
vomer and frequently on the palatines, as well as on
the jaws ; fins always amounting to seven in number,
or when there is a separation between the spinous and
articulated dorsal, to eight ; a csecal stomach ; few and
not bulky pancreatic cseca ; no barbels, except in one
or two instances ; and no extension of the second sub-
orbitar across the cheek, as in the Sclerogenids. The
skeleton is firm and hard, but is destitute of true bony
corpuscles.

Some of the genera have two dorsals or a deep notch between
the spinous and articulated portions. Such are — Pekcalnina
(Giinther) — Perea; Percichthys (Girard); Labrux; Bates;
Cnidon (Miiller); Psammoperca (Richardson); Percalabrax
(Schlegel); Acerina; Percarina (Nordmann); lAtcioperca;
Aspro; Etelis; Grammistes; Pogonoperca (GmdAiex) ; Centro-
pomus ; Niphon ; Enojjlosus ; Lembus (Giinther) ; Oreosoma.

Others have one dorsal only — Sekanina (Giinther) — Aprion;
Apsiltis; Centropristis (Giinther); Callanthias (Lowe); Anthias;
Serranus ; Prionodus (Jenyns) ; Plectropoma ; Trachypoma
(Gunther) ; Polyprion ; Rhyptievs ; Aulococephalus (Schlegel) ;
Diploprion; Myriodon (Barneville) ; Biacope (vel Genyoroge,
Cantor) ; Alesoprion ; Glaucosoma (Schlegel) ; and Pentaceros.

Most of the typical Percoids are light agreeable
articles of diet, and some are in high esteem. None
has been more celebrated than the Basse (Lahrax
lupus). By the ancient Greeks it was so highly
valued, that Archistratus calls a Basse brought from
Milet, “Offspring of the gods.” It had replaced the
Sturgeon as highest in repute at feasts, in the days of
Augustus ; and it was a matter of importance to ascer-
tain the exact locality of the capture of a Basse. At
certain seasons the Basse of rivers was most prized,
particularly those taken between the two bridges over
the Tiber. These were the younger fish, and were

Ctisnoid Acanthopteres. FISHES. Holooentkids.

127

spotted. The finest were named lanati (woolly), because
their flesh rivalled wool in softness and whiteness.
According to Columella, the cultivated taste of Marcius
Philippus first taught the Romans to prize the Basse
that were taken while exhausting their strength in

stemming the current of the Tiber ; and Horace satiri-
cally asks. Whence is it that your palate can distinguish
between the Tiberine Basse, and those taken at sea?
and why do you dislike the older fish of that kind,
when you praise insanely an over-grown Surmullet?

Fig. 32.

Jew-iish (Glaucosoma hebraicum).

To this he himself replies, that it is solely because the
Basse is naturally of larger growth, and the Surmullet
of less, and rarity adds to the value.

The Basse was supposed by the ancient writers to
be veiy careful of its safety. Aristotle calls it the
most cunning of fishes ; and Ovid and Alllian say that
when inclosed by nets, it will burrow in the sand, and
allow them to pass over it. It will strike off a bait
with its tail, or if caught by the hook, it will twist
about so as to widen the wound, and suffer the barb to
come out. It received its ancient name of Lupus,
from its cunning, and that of Lahrax, from its voracity.
The Keschr {hates nilotica) has been supposed to be
the fish mentioned by Strabo as forming the object of
worship at Latopolis, or Esne, in Egypt, but no repre-
sentation of it has been found at the temple there ; and
it is still doubtful whether modern ichthyologists have
fixed the species correctly or not. The Syakoup, or
Cockup {hates nohilis), is a large Indian fish, of whose
air-bladder isinglass is made ; but the coats of the vessel
are thin, and when dried do not exceed an ounce in
weight. The Camuri {Centropomus undecimalis) is
common on the warmer coasts of South America,
where its roe is salted and dried in cakes, so as to
form a caviare like that known in Italy and Sardinia
by the name of Botargo, wdiich is mostly made of the
eggs of mullets or of tunnies.

As the rearing of sea-fish in fresh- water is a project
of much utility, could it be extensively realized, the
successful experiment of Mr. R. Poll of New York,
described in the following extract from the ninth annual
report of the Smithsonian Institution, is well worthy of
notice : — “ I have succeeded in rearing the Striped
Bass {Lahrax lineatus), known in our river as the
Croton Bass, thus ; Male and female were placed in a
small pond, the water of which was salted twice a- week,
until the small fry appeared, when the salting ceased.
Sixty days afterwards the old became excessively
weak, and in ten days more died. The small fry of

the Bass, and also of the Shad grew rapidly, and when
six weeks old were placed in a larger pond, and their
progeny became fresh-water fish ” (p. 322).

FA.MILY XL— HOLOCENTRIDS.

This is another group of Cuvier’s Percoids, which
is distinguished from the rest by having more than
sevmn branchiostegals, and upwards of five articulated
rays in the ventrals, in addition to the spine. Its
members are recognizable by their general aspect,
their large strongly serrated scales, the existence of
sharp furrows and streaks on the bones of the skull,
face, or gill-covers, the serratui'es or spines of the
opercular bones, and the general stoutness and acute-
ness or angularity of the spinous fin-rays. The dorsals
are single and even, or deeply notched between the
spinous and articulated parts, or there are two con-
tiguous dorsals. Several spines are incumbent on
the bases of the caudal lobes above and below. The
otolites or acoustic bones are large, and the air-bladder
is connected with the otocrane or capsule of the in-
ternal ear, through an ossicle and the tympanum or
drum. The pancreatic caeca are numerous, being
from eight to twenty, or more. The group displays the
more prominent characters of the ctenoid Acanthopteres.

It comprises the following genera — Iloloeentrum ; Rhynchic-
thys; Myripristis ; Beryx; Anoplogaster (Gunther); Heteroph-
thalmus (Bleeker) ; Hoplostelhus ; Trachichthys ; Polymixia
(Lowe), with half the usual number of branchiostegals.

Many of these have brilliant red and blue colours, or
golden tints. None enter the British seas ; but they are
ornaments of the intertropical seas, and some of them
have been named “marine gold-fish,” others matejuelo,
meaning a soldier armed cap a pie. One {Holocentrum
longipinne) is called the Welshman in Jamaica, the
Red-man at St. Thomas’, the Cardinal at St,
Domingo, and the Squirrel in Carolina ; names spring-
ing from their red tints of colour.

128 Ctenoid Acanthoptekes. FISHES. Spaboids.

Family XII. — SPAROIDS. — (Plate 8, fig. 41, 42.)

In this family the dorsal is single, with the spinous
part scaleless or nearly so, falling into a furrow when
not in action, and equal to or surpassing the articulated
portion in extent. The pectorals and ventrals are
acute, and the caudal, which is not connected with the
other vertical fins, is crescentic on its distal edge.
The mouth is terminal, and when it is in the act of
closing, the maxillary glides beneath the edge of the
generally high preorbitar. The jaws are but little
protractile, and the snout does not project beyond
them. The family differs from the Sciasnoids in the
bones of the skull not being cellular externally, and
from the Scimnoids, Percoids, and Sclerogenids, in
having neither armature nor strong serratures on the
gill-covers. The branchiostegals are generally six in
number, sometimes five, and more rarely seven.
There are no palatine teeth. The scales are peculiar,
being described by Agassiz as thin, broader than they
are long, with the lines of structure parallel to the
posterior or free border ; and circulating round a centre
of growth which is situated near that edge, they
become longitudinal and parallel to the sides as they
proceed towards the base.

Several genera are remarkable for their flatly-rounded posterior
teeth or molars, of which are — Sargus ; Charax ; Chrysophrys ;
Pagrus ; Pagellus ; Sphcerodon (Ruppell) ; and Lethrinus.

The other genera are — Peniex; Synagris (Gunther); Pentapus;
Canfharus; Box; Ohlata; Boxaodon (Guichenot); Scathai'us;
Crenidens ; Girella (Gray) ; Tephrceops (Gunther) ; Pachyme-
topon (id.) ; Proterocanthus (id.) ; Dipterodon ; Doydixodon
(Valenc.); and Gy mnocrotaphus (Gunther).

The following species are British — the Gilt-head
(Chrysophrys aurata), the Braize or Becker (Pagrus
vulgaris)., the Orphus (P. orphus), the Pagel or Saro-
fino (Pagellus erythrinus), the Bezugo (Pagellus
acarne), the Sea Bream, (Pagellus centrodoutus), the
Sparus (Sparus dentex), the Choupa (Cantharus gri-
seus), the Bogue (Box vidgaris). None of them are
much prized for the table. According to ^lian and
Oppian, the Sar (Sargus Rondeletii) is a polygamist,
and fights desperately to protect his harem from
other males. He constructs, they say, a bower of the
leaves of marine plants, into which he compels his
females to enter, and goes in last himself. Modern
observation has neither proved nor disproved these
reports. The Sparulus of the Romans, a fish held in
small esteem, was, according to Cuvier, a Sparoid.
Martial, comparing his own diet with that of a more
luxurious feeder, says, “ You eat oysters from the
Lucrine ponds, I merely suck in a mussel ; you dine
on turbot, I on a Sparulus only.” What the Sparus
of the ancients was has not been as yet ascertained,
but it was said to be more nourishing than most other
fishes, and to be, like the Scarus, such delicious food,
that the gods themselves did not throw away its excre-
ments. Such praise does not belong to any of the
family found in the British seas ; but Dr. Mitchill,
speaking of an American Sparoid called the Sheep’s-
head (Sargzis ovis), says, that it is the most highly
esteemed of New York fishes, and fetches the highest

price, with the exception of fresh salmon and trout.
Nothing, he says, can exceed boiled Sheep’s-head in
the opinion of a New-Yorker. This fish attains a
weight of eighteen pounds. It is in season from the
beginning of June till the middle of September; and
is taken with the seine. As it also bites at a baited
hook, fishing parties are elaborately got up for the
capture of this desirable fish ; and the incidents of
the sport furnish the successful fishermen with topics
of conversation to a distant date, much skill being
required to allure and secure a Sheep’s-head. Dr.
Mitchill laments sorely that the want of a sufficient
supply of ice often allows this valuable fish to spoil ;
but, as in the half century that has elapsed since Dr.
Mitchill wrote ice has become more abundant in the
New York markets, the Sheep’s-head is not only
brought cool and fresh to the hotels of that city, but
is transported also to Philadelphia and more distant
quarters. The fisheries established on the coasts of
Long Island for its capture, are of considerable im-
portance in an economical point of view.

The Porgee (Sargus rhomhoides) is no less esteemed
at the Bermudas, than the Sheep’s-head is at New
York. Fishing for Porgee is the chief amusement of
the Bermudians, and parties go out to the coral reef of
North Rock, forty miles from the shore, to enjoy it. The
same species frequents the coasts of the United States,
and the name of Porgee is extended to other Sparoids
of America, such as the Pagrus argyrops, which is
esteemed to be a most excellent fish, and is termed by
Dr. Mitchill, the Big Porgee. The Chrysophrys of the
Greeks, and Aurata of the Latins, is the Gilt-head of
English fishermen. The most esteemed Gilt-heads
were. Martial says, those which had fed on the shell-
fish of the Lucrine Lake. Sergius Grata is said by
Pliny to have invented Oyster-nurseries at Baia before
the Marsian war ; not to pamper his own appetite, but
as a mercantile speculation. The same inventive genius
found out hanging baths, and furbished up villas for
sale. He first also pronounced the Lucrine oysters to
be the best, and extolled the Basse taken between the
two bridges of the Tiber, the Turbots of Ravenna, and
the Murries of Sicily. His surname of Orala arose
from his cultivation of the Gilt-head in ponds. The
British shores were not yet subdued, says Pliny, when
Sergius rendered the Lucrine Lake famous. The Sand-
wich oysters were consequently then unknown.

Family XHI.— MONOIDS (Moen, dm).

Plate 8, fig. 43, 44.

This group was considered by Cuvier to be merely a
subdivision of the Sparoid family, from which its
members differ chiefly in the protractility of the mouth.
They have short villiform teeth on the jaws. Their
premaxillary pedicels are long, and permit these bones
to be thrust directly forwards when there is a corre-
sponding length of mandible; but when the latter bone
is abbreviated, then the premaxillaries incline down-
wards as the mouth opens, being bridled by the soft
parts, and compelled to move in that direction. Some
genera have no teeth on the palate, others have small
ones on the vomer. The ventrals are situated under

Ctenoid Acanthopteres. FISHES. Labyrinthibranohs.

129

the pectorals, and the dorsal is clothed with very fine
scales, dift'ering in size and appearance from those of
the body. The stomach is of moderate size, and the
pancreatic caeca vary in number from four to seven.
The swim-bladder is large, rounded anteriorly, and
divided very generally into two posterior pointed
lobes.

The genera are — M(ena; Smarts; Casio; Gerres; Datnioides
(Bleeker) ; Emmelichthys (Richardson) ; Ditrema (Schlegel) ;
Diplerygonotus (Bleeker); Apogenoid.es (id.); Mendosoma
(Guichenot); Pentaprion (Bleeker); Velifer (Schlegel);
Achames (Miiller and Troschel); Aphareus; Chcetopterus
(Schlegel); and Eucinostomus (Baird and Girard).

None of these are British, and they are of compara-
tively little importance in human economy. The
Mediterranean species are alluded to by Aristotle and
his Roman copyists under the names of Mainis and
Smaris. Martial speaks of them with contempt, as
being unsavoury and of bad odour. In the Dutch
eastern settlements some of the family pass by the
name of Wakkura, meaning probably, wide-awake or
vigilant.

Fajiily XIV.— labyrinthibranohs {Laby-
rinthibranchii). — Plate 9, figs. 46, 47.

The structure of the upper pharyngeals is the spe-
ciality of this family, whose members in external form
of body resemble in one direction the Sparoids, and in
the other the Mullets. By the expansion of the upper
pharyngeals into numerous, undulating, leaf-like folds,
many winding passages and recesses are formed, in
which water may be retained for moistening the gills
in times of drought. To make room for this appa-
ratus the gill-covers are more than usually convex,
and they fit tightly to the shoulder, so as to prevent
the water from escaping. If the gills are kept moist
and their processes well separated, they can hi several
fi.shes, perhaps in many, extract oxygen from atmos-
pheric air. In the Labyrinthibranchs the scales are
generally large, and those covering the head are little
inferior in size to those on the body. The mouth is
cleft past the orbits in one genus only ; in most the
gape reaches only half-way to the eye, and in all it is
terminal. The dorsal is single, and the ventrals,
which are composed of five or six soft rays, with or
without the addition of a spine, are situated under the
pectorals, or in some cases a little farther forwards.
The lateral line varies, being straight, deflexed, or
arched, and either interrupted or continuous accord-
ing to the genus. The branchiostegous membrane
most frequently shuts up under the scales of the throat
and mandible, so as to be concealed when the mouth
is closed.

The genera are — Anahas; Helostoma; Poiyacantlms ; Cteno-
poma (Peter); Bella (Bleeker); Colisa; Macropodus ; Os-
phronemus ; Trichopus ; Spirobranchus ; and Ophicephalus ;
which last is named from the resemblance of its flat scaly
head to that of a serpent, an aspect more or less characteristic
of most of the other genera.

The author of a work on “ Fishes that live in dry
Von. II. 73

places,” supposed to be Theophrastus, who flourished
in the fourth century before our era, says that in India
certain little fishes resembling the Mullets leave the
rivers for a time and return to them again. Although
a commentary on this treatise was published in 1665
at Naples by Severinus, it was not properly understood
until 1797, when M. Daldorf communicated to the
Linnsean Society his observations on the Tree-climber
{Anabas scandens), one of which he had himself cap-
tured as it was in the act of ascending the palm called
Borassus flabellifwmis, which grew near a pond. The
object of the fish in making this ascent is said to have
been to reach a small reservoir of rain-water collected
in the axils of the leaves, and full of insects. This
faculty of climbing has been vouched for by some
other observers, and denied by several. Dr. Cantor
says that in the Malay countries the Anabas is eaten
by the poorer classes, who do not attribute to it either
the medicinal qualities or the climbing propensities for
which it is celebrated in Bengal. It can live long,
however, out of water, and is frequently sent in a dry
vessel, from the marshes of Yazor to Calcutta, a jour-
ney of several days, which it survives.

The Plalcat of Siam {Macropodus pugnax) is
domesticated by the Siamese, with whom it is a great
favourite, being kept in jars of water and fed with the
larvae of mosquitoes. A variety reared by artificial
means and trained to fight is mentioned by Dr. Cantor,
who says — “ When the fish is in a state of quiet, with
the fins at rest, the dull colours present nothing
remarkable. But if two are brought within sight of
each other, or if one sees its own image in a looking-
glass, the little creature becomes suddenlj'’ excited, the
raised fins and the whole body shine with metallic
colours of dazzling beauty, while the projected gill-
membrane, waving like a black frill round the throat,
adds something grotesque to the general appearance.
In this state of irritation it makes repeated darts at
its real or reflected antagonist. But the fish, when
out of each other’s sight, instantly become quiet.
This description of their actions was drawn up in
1840, at Singapore, by a gentleman who had received
a present of several from the king of Siam. They
were kept singly in glasses of water, fed with the
larvBB of mosquitoes, and had thus lived many months.
The Siamese are as infatuated with combats of these
fishes as the Malays are with their cock-fights, and
stake considerable sums, and sometimes their liberty
and that of their families, on the issue. The licence
to exhibit fish-fights is farmed, and yields a consider-
able revenue to the crown.” The Osphronemus olfax
has been naturalized at Penang and Malacca, having
been originally brought from China. It becomes so
tame as to approach the hand of the feeder, and will
rise to flies, beetles, and certain flowers, especially a
large Hibiscus. This species, named the Gourami
b)”^ Commerson, has been transplanted also to the Isle
of France and to French Cayenne, in both of which
localities it now thrives. Very recently it has been
introduced into Australia. The Ophicephali are named
Langya, or “ living fish,” by the Chinese, because they
are carried about in tubs and sold in pieces cut from
the fish when alive.

130 Ctenoid Acanthopteres. FISHES. — Mugiloids.

Family XV. — MUGILOIDS {Miigilidce).

Plate 9, fig. 48.

This family approaches the last in having also a
greater development of the pharyngeals than other
fishes. The Mugiloids have cylindrical bodies with
broad backs and two widely-separated dorsals, of
which the first is supported by four stiff acute spines
and no more. The ventrals are situated generally
on the abdomen. The large scales are extended
with little diminution of size to the head, as in the
genus Ophicephalus of the preceding family. The
small maxillaries are mostly concealed by a thick
premaxillary lip that presses against the peculiarly-
serrated preorbitar when the mouth is shut ; man-
dible shelving, with a small cutaneous tubercle at the
symphysis that fits into a notch between the pre-
maxillaries ; teeth when present so slender as to be
almost invisible, and they pass through the substance
of the lip. The pharyngeals are so large that they
nearly fill up the gullet, and allow only soft and thin
matters to pass. The branchiostegals number four,
five or six, and the stomach is usually thick, like a
gizzard, with a muscular ascending branch ; in Nestis,
however, the stomach is membranous. The pancre-
atic caeca are few, being mostly two, and not exceed-
ing four.

Four genera have been characterized — Mugil; Ccstmus;
Dajaus , and Nestis.

The British species are the Grey Mullet or Ramado
{Mugil capita) ; the Thick-lipped Mullet or Sciorino
{Mugil chela) ; and the Short Mullet {Mugil curtus).

Mullets abound in the Mediterranean ; and as they
are welcome fish at table, they were well known to the
Greeks and Romans. By the former they were named
Kestrccus or Muxinas, whence the Latin Mugil is sup-
posed to have come. Aristotle distinguished several
kinds of Mullet by the names of Challaries, Chelana,
Myxon, Kephalos., of which some traces survive in the
Sicilian appellations of these fish as reported by
Rafinesque, Calvinu, Cirrinu, Cefalu, and Cefalune.
They are called also in some parts of Sicily, Malettu,
Lampune, Lustru, and Ozzane. In Italy their desig-
nations are still more numerous, one Roman name
being evidently a combination of two of Aristotle’s
epithets, viz., Cefalo musina. The Mullets are quiet,
timid fish, that feed in small sculls ; and as they
approach closely to steep shores, their habits may
be studied in the pellucid waters of the Mediterranean
by a cautious observer. The shadow of a passing
cloud, however, is sufficient to drive them away into
deep water. The fishermen feed them with pounded
macaroni or other farinaceous pastes ; and when they
have been attracted to a convenient locality, and
acquired confidence by several days’ undisturbed feed-
ing, a very small hook enveloped with paste, and
attached to an exceedingly fine line, is dropped noise-
lesslj' into the scull. When the bait is swallowed
dexterity is required to withdraw the hooked fish
without alarming the others, yet an experienced fisher-
man possessing a large share of patience is able to

collect in a day as many as he can carry, and to gain
a comfortable livelihood. Mullets afford sport to the
angler during flood-tide, with which they enter rivers
and rise freely to artificial flies, the gaudier the better.
If inclosed in a net, they begin as soon as they dis-
cover the snare to throw themselves over the head-
line. The ancients supposed that the Mullets were in
the habit of feeding on the mucus that exuded from
their own bodies. The species are numerous in the
rivers and seas of the warmer and temperate regions
of both hemispheres. The roes of Mullet, compressed
into cakes and dried, are sold in the Mediterranean
under the designation of Batargo,

Family XVI.— TETRAGONURIDS
( Tetraganuridw).

This family is founded on a single known species,
the Courpata {Tetraganurus Cuvieri) of the Mediter-
ranean, for which Cuvier had much difficulty in finding
a proper station in his ichthyological system. As it
has, however, several characters in common with the
Mugiloids, he has placed it next that family. This
fish has a lengthened, spindle-shaped body, with an
obtuse snout. The first dorsal is composed of a series
of very short spines, each with its proper membrane
falling back into a dorsal groove ; the more elevated
and longitudinally abbreviated soft dorsal is opposed
to an anal of similar extent and form ; the ventrals
are situated a little behind the pectorals, and the
caudal, which is separated from the other vertical
fins, has a lateral keel on each side of its base, giving
a quadrangular form to a section of the tail, wholly
due to the distribution of the bundles of muscles.
The scales of Tetragonurus are arranged obliquely,
and are grooved with the points of the ridges project-
ing beyond the free margin, as in the genus Chanas.
There is no armature on the head, but many muci-
ferous pores. The peculiarly-shaped mandible is a
little shorter than the premaxillaries, and the teeth
standing on both these bones are uniserial, com- ,
pressed, pointed, and recurved. Teeth exist also on
the chevron of the vomer adjoining the corners of the
palatines and down the mesial line, in addition to
which there are card-like patches on the pharyngeals ;
but the tongue is smooth. The stomach depends
below the pylorus in form of a long narrow bag, and
there is a valve in the interior of the lower intes-
tine and round part of the anal orifice. Numerous
pyloric caeca enter the ascending branch of the stomach,
and the adjoining part of the small intestine. There is
no swim-bladder. Mittenheim examined this some-
what anomalous fish at Messina, and came to the
conclusion that the genus does not enter the Mugiloid
family, nor is it a ganoid, as some have supposed,
since it has neither the heart proper to that order nor
a lieterocercal caudal. Further examination of the
brain is needed, he says, to determine its real affinities.

Family XVII.— ATHERINIDANS {AtherincedcB).

This group consists of the genus Aiherina, or Sand
smelt, and the similar one of Atherinapsis (Girard). The

Ctenoid Acanthopteres.

■FISHES. Cn^asTODONTS.

131

species have moderately compressed, scaly, fusiform
bodies, and usually a silvery stripe along the flanks.
The dorsals are two — the first one supported, as in the
Mullets, by only a few spinous rays, not, however,
limited to four ; and the ventrals are situated under the
belly. The premaxillaries are very protractile, and
the maxillaries taper at their distal ends — a form which
prevails also in the Mugiloid family, but is unusual
among other Acanthopteres. The teeth are slender
and sparse. The preorbitars are not serrated like the
teeth of a comb, as in the Mullets ; neither have the
Atherines the notch in the upper jaw, nor the corres-
ponding mandibular knob. The membranous siphonal
stomach is only a little wider than the rest of the
intestinal canal ; there are no pancreatic caeca ; and the
lining of the belly is coloured by a black pigment. The
air-bladder is large ; the eggs are large for the size of
the fish ; and the vertebrae are more than double the
number of those of the Mullets.

Though the Atherines seldom exceed six or eight
inches in length, yet, as they swim in sculls, and are
easily taken in small-meshed nets ; they are fished in
quantities for sale, and are esteemed to be delicacies.
The young especially, called Nonnat {nouveaux ne's), in
France are prepared for the table by frying in a mass,
or by boiling in milk. The species are numerous in
the seas of both hemispheres. One, the Sand-smelt
{Atherina presbyter), is very abundant on the southern
coasts of England, and is procured largely in Ports-
mouth harbour, where it frequents the mouths of
sewers falling into the sea.

Family XVIII.— CHiETODONTS {Chcetodontidce).
Plate 9, fig. 45.

Called also Squamipennes, are a well-marked group,
composed of pretty, compressed fishes, whose vertical
fins are so covered with scaly integument that the
membrane is mostly hidden, leaving only the spines
and the tips of the jointed rays visible. In profile the
body is generally oval, sometimes so high as to be
nearly orbicular; in other instances the length and
obliquity of the dorsal and anal rays make the height
greater than the length, and the profile is more or less
rhomboidal. It is the gradual thinning off of the body
into the scaly fins without a perceptible line of demar-
cation, that gives the peculiar aspect to the Chsetodonts.
Some of these fishes have serratures on the preoper-
culum ; two genera have an unusually strong spine at
the angle of that bone, and other members of the
family have spines or protuberances on the forehead ;
but the majority are destitute of armature on the bones
of the head. Very frequently some of the bones of
the skeleton swell into bumps ; and one genus is named
“ the Horseman,” because the crest of the skull resem-
bles the helmet of a cavalry soldier. These cranial
bones are frequently brought to England as curiosities
by seamen, and are not uncommon in museums. Usu-
ally the head is small comparatively, the shoulder of
the fish sloping up high above it ; the mouth especially
is small; and the teeth are brush-like, or villiform,
sometimes tricuspid, and in one tribe trenchant. In
the typical genus the teeth resemble hairs closely set

together, as the Linnaean name of Chcelodon indicates.
Most frequently the dorsal is perfectly single, the spines
graduating into the front of the soft raj's, which are the
highest ; but occasionally there is a depression or notch
between the two kinds of rays. In all cases the caudal
is distinct from the other vertical fins.

The beauty of the Chsetodonts, as they are seen
sporting among the coral rocks in the pellucid tropical
seas, caused Cuvier to compare them to the humming-
birds.

The genera composing the family are — Chcetodon; Chelmon;
Megaprotodon (Guiohenot); Herviochus ; Zanclus ; Histiopterus
(Schlegel); Ephippus; Erepane; Scatophagus ; Taurichthys ;
ilolocanthus ; Pomacanthus; Platax; Pseittis; Hypsinotus
(Schlegel); Pimehpleiiis ;* Dipterodon; Panicles (Lowe);
Brama ; Nemobrama ; Schedophilus (Cocco) or Critis ; Scorpis ;
Pempheris ; Toxotes; Hoplegnathus (Richardson), or Scarodon
(Schlegel).

One species called Ray’s Sea-bream {Brama Rail),
inhabits the British seas, and it is not very uncommon
on the coasts of Scotland, Ireland, and England. It
spreads even to the Norway shores, and is abundant in
various districts of the Mediterranean; yet it was long
supposed to be veiy rare indeed, and has been correctly
described only very recently. It is the Castagnollo of
the Genoese, and the Palometa of the Spanish fisher-
men, but was not named in old times so as to be
recognizable now ; and the only Chaitodontoid ascer-
tained to be known to the ancient Greeks or Romans,
is the Mami, or Emperor of Japan {Holocanthus
imperator), of which Hlllian gives a good description
under the name of Citharcedus, mentioning that it is
an inhabitant of the Red Sea. The Chelmons, which
inhabit the sea and rivers of the Indian Archipelago,
have long slender faces, with a small terminal mouth,
from which they can project a drop of water with such
accuracy, as to strike insects from a distance, and
cause them to fall into the water, so that they can
seize them. The Chinese of Java keep these pretty
fishes in vases, over which they place an insect on a
thread or twig, that they may see the Chelmons bring
it down. The Archers {Toxotes), with a much larger
mouth, and a face altogether different in form, procure
their prey in the same dexterous manner, and are said
to be able, at the distance of three feet or more, to
knock down an insect off an aquatic plant, or from
the branches of a tree, by a spurt of water. The
Zanclus cornutus is remarkable for having a horn
over the eye ; and it is said that if the fishermen of
the Moluccas catch one, they bow the knee to it, and
then return it to the water.

Family XIX.— TEUTHYOIDS {Teuthydidce).

These fishes have compressed, oval bodies; small
mouths, which are not protractile, and uniserial teeth
on both jaws, the palate and tongue being toothless.
The dorsal is single, and occupies much of the back ;
the anal also is long ; and the caudal, usually crescentic,
is well separated from both. The ventrals are situated
under the axillae of the pectorals. In some genera

» Pimelepterus, associated with Boridia, form Dr. Gunther’s
group of PiMELEPTERlNA, which he ranks among the Sparoids.

132 Ctenoid Acanthoptebes. FISHES. Gobioids.

there is a recumbent spine in front of the dorsal ; and
in several the sides of the tail are armed by one or
more lancet-shaped thorns. The scales are cycloid ;
and the branchiostegals, usually five in number, are
sometimes onl}' four.

Tlie genera are Amjyhacanthus, which is remarkable for having
the last ray of the ventrals spinous, as well as the first one;
Acanthurus ; Nasetis ; Prionurus; Axinurus ; Priodon; and
Keris.

They are phytophagous fishes, all of them strangers
to tlie European seas. A Seychelle species is known
locally by the name of the “ Coral Shoemaker.”

Family XX. — AULOSTOMIDANS (Aulostomidas).

Plate 10, fig. 49, 50.

In this group the face is a prolonged tube, into
whose construction there enter the nasal, vomer, pre-
operculum, interoperculum, pterygoids, and tympanies ;
the small mouth, formed as usual of the premaxillai’ies,
maxillaries, palatines, and mandible, being suspended
at the proximal end of the tube. The intestines have
no remarkable dilatations, and few or no p\-loric caica ;
and the ribs are either short or wholly absent. The
branchiostegals are few, and an air-bladder is present.
In form the body varies considerably, from long and
slender to short, high, and compressed. It is scaly,
and in some of the family the scales are mixed with
radiated plates. The dorsals are two in some genera,
single in others, and are preceded by strong spines or
bony shields; or they are without that kind of arma-
ture. The anal is opposed to the soft dorsal ; and the
caudal, which is distinct from them, has in some a
long central filament.

The genera are — Fistularia ; Aulostoma ; Polypterichlhjs
(Bleeker) ; Siphonostoma (Richardson) ; Centriscus ; and
Amphisile.

They are named vulgarly Tobacco-pipe fishes, or
Bouches-en-flute, and in Germany Rdhrenmauler.
The Trumpet-fish or Sea-snipe {Centnscus scolopax)
is the only species that has been discovered in the Bri-
tish seas, but is so rare that only six examples are
known to have been taken on our coasts.

Family XXI. — CEPOLIDS (GepoZosefee)— Band-
fishes. — Plate 11, fig. 55.

These are ribbon-shaped or stiletto-formed fishes,
possessing an anal, a pointed caudal, and a long dorsal ;
with small scales, and a medium-sized non-protractile
mouth, which is armed with slender, acute teeth. The
eyes are large or middle-sized, the stomach retort-
shaped, and the pancreatic caeca (unlike those of the
Scomberoids) are neither numerous nor complicated.

The genera are — Cepola ; Lophotes ; Krohnius (Cocco) ;
Bibronia (id.) ; and Pdori.

The only British species resembles the Gobioid
genus Amhlyopus in general aspect, and is rare in
ordinary seasons ; but in some years it is taken abun-
dantly on the Devonshire coasts, where it is called the
Bed Band-fish [Cepola ruhescem). Species of the

same genus are known in the Mediterranean by the
names of Rougeole, Calegnairis, Cavagero, Freggia,
and Lauria.

Family XXII.— GOBIOIDS {GohiidcB).

Plate 12, fig. 59.

In this family the most characteristic genera have
the ventrals united on the belly behind the pectorals
into an oblique, funnel-shaped fin, by continuous mem-
brane, which not only joins the branching rays of the
two fins together, but is also stretched across in front
from one spine to the other, so as to form the proxi-
mal lip of the funnel. Some of the genera, however,
have distinct ventrals, and the family is characterized
chiefly by the simple rays of the dorsal being slender,
flexible, and not pungent, and by the simplicity of the
intestinal canal, which has but very slight dilatations in
its course, no csecal protuberance of the stcmach, and
no pancreatic cmca. Many have a conical papilla
behind the vent at the origin of the efferent duct of
the reproductive organs. The head is not armed by
serratures or sharp points, but the scales are often
pectinated or strongly ciliated. Considerable variety
exists in the form of the dorsal, which is sometimes
single, sometimes double ; and the caudal is in some
species pointed, and united to the dorsal and anal ;
in others distinct and truncated, rounded, or crescentic.
The teeth are very various. The branchiostegals are
five in number.

The genera are — Gohius; Chmnogdbhis (Gill); Lepido-
gohius (id.); Euctenogobius (id.); Gobioides; Apocryptes ;
Clmturichthys (Richardson); Trypauclien; Amhlyopus; Sicy-
dium ; Tridentiger (Gill) ; Tnienophorus (id.) ; Periophthal-
mus ; Boleophlhalnius.

The British species are the Black Goby [Gobius
niger) ; the Double-spotted Goby ((?. rulhensparri) \
the Freckled Goby {G. minutus) ; the C'ne- spotted
Goby [G. unipunctatus) ; the Slender Goby ((?. gra-
cilis) ; and the White Goby ((?. alhus). None of
them are of the slightest importance in an economical
point of view. The Gobies are not the fishes named
Kobios by Aristotle, often produced at feasts, since
that naturalist describes these as possessed of numer-
ous pancreatic caeca. Cuvier was inclined to believe
that Phycis {Phukis or Phuca) was the Greek name
for one of the Mediterranean Go'bies, and Aristotle is
quoted as describing the Phukis to be a littoral fish,
and the only marine one which constructs a nest of
leaves, wherein it deposits eggs. Now Olivi reports
that a male Goby of that sea, which is also the first-
named of our British species, builds a nest of sea-
weeds and zostera, and after the female has there
placed her eggs, watches over the deposit during the
period of hatching, extending his supervision to the
young until they are able to shift for themselves.
Many members of the family pass a part of the day on
sands left wet by the ebbing tide, hunting insects and
minute crustaceans, and seemingly carrying on the
oxygenation of the blood by the direct action of the
atmospheric air on the moist gills. Many of these
fishes, perhaps most of them, can move their eyes
separately, like a chameleon, turning one upwards aud

Ctenoid Acanthopteres. FISHES. Blennioids. 133

the other downwards, or one forwards and the other
backwards, and in fact they squint normally. In
some genera the eyes can be raised out of the sockets
and depressed again, all these circumstances being
teleologically conformable with the temporary resi-
dences of the fish out of the water. In pursuing the
minute crustaceans on which they prey, over the
sands, the pectoral fins perform the office of feet. A
New Zealand species, seen by Cook, obtained from
that navigator’s companions the appellation of the
“running-fish.” The Sunghong {Gobius fasciata-
punctatus) runs very swiftly over the paddy-grounds
of Whampoa, and the Pahkop or “ White-frog ” of the
Chinese {Apocryptes serperaster) is carried about Can-
ton for sale. The “ Flower-fish ” {Hwaya), which is a
common object on China w'are, drawn with a round
mouth and swollen gill-covers, but illuminated with its
natural colours, is the Boleophthalmus Boddcerti of
ichthyologists.

In the Mediterranean the very young Gobies are
called Nonnat, like the young Atherines, and are
eaten fried in the mass. Aristophanes alludes to them
in this condition as being an Athenian delicacy.

Family XXIII.— CALLYONOMIDS {Callionymidai).

This group has such strong affinities with the
Gobioids, that Cuvier included them in that family.
They have the same various expansion of fin, but the
ventrals are separated more or less widely. Generally
the intestinal canal is simple. The branchiostegals
are six or seven in number. Some of the genera are
scaleless.

The genera are — Eleotris ; Fhilypnus ; Asterropteryx (Rup-
pell) ; Callionymus ; Trichonotus ; Harpagifir (Richardson) ;
Platyptents ; Comephorus ; Ckmnichtliys (Richardson) ; Patce-
cus (id.) ; Hoplicthys ; and Opistognathus.

Family XXIV.—DISCOPODES {Discoboles Cuvier).

Plate 12, fig. 60.

This family was considered by Muller to be a sub-
division of the Gobioids, and was named by him Gobie-
socidce. Our epithet has reference to the sucking disc,
formed by the ventrals, used by the members of the
family for attaching themselves to a stone or other
firm support. This disc is either single or double,
and is formed in front by the pectorals, and behind by
the ventrals. The dorsals are either one or two, and
are destitute of spinous ra3's ; hence the group was
ranged by Cuvier with his sub-brachian Malacopteres.
The skin of these fishes is destitute of an ordinary
scaly covering, but in some species rows of hard der-
mal tubercles are developed. Some genera have four
gills, others only three of a side ; and the form of the
body varies from longish to almost orbicular. The
branchiostegals are from four to six in number.

The genera are — LepidugasCer ; Trachelochismus (Barneville) ;
Gohiesox ; Coiylis (Muller and Troschel) ; Sicyases (id.) ;
Sicyogaster (Barneville) ; Cyclopleris ; and Liparis.

The British species are — the Cornish Sucker
{Lepidogaster cornubiensis) ; the Bimaculated Sucker

{Lepidogaster bimaculatus) ; the Connemara Sucker
{Lepidogaster cephalus) ; the Lump or Sea-owl {Cyclo-
pterus lumpus) ; and the Sea-snail {Liparis vulgaris) ;
none of which appear to be commonly eaten, though
the Lump or Cock-paidle is spoken of by Walter Scott
as a desirable fish for the table of an antiquary.

Family XXV.— BLENNIOIDS {Blenniidm).

Plate 12, fig. 61, 63.

With much of the general structure of the Gobioids,
the Blennioids have a character common to most of
the genera in the jugular ventrals, with or without a
spine, and of two soft rays, one of which is sometimes
divided below the integument. Cuvier considered the
Blennioids to be merely a subdivision of the Gobioids,
and to be characterized by six branchiostegals as the
Gobioids were by five ; but some genera associated by
Cuvier himself with the Gobioids have six and even
seven branchiostegals. Some Blennioids want the
ventrals, and some genera have these fins more deve-
loped than in the typical forms. In a large propor-
tion of the members of the family the skin is scaleless,
and even when scales exist, much mucus is poured
out by cuticular glands, a character which is expressed
by the name of the typical genus {Blennius), derived
from a Greek word signifying mucus. In form the
Blennioids are elongated and more or less compressed,
with one dorsal, composed almost entirely of simple,
jointless, but flexible rays. In some aberrant forms
the dorsal is divided into lobes, or even separate
parts. The caudal is distinct, or united to the other
vertical fins. The males have most generally a clus-
ter of anal papillae. The oviduct opens externally
between the vent and the orifice of the urinary canal.
The stomach is thin, without a caecal dilatation, and
there is no air-bladder.

The genera are — Blennius ; Pholis ; Petroscirtes or Blennechis
(Val.) ; Blennophis ; Chasmodes ; Salarias ; Pseudoblennius
(Schlegel) ; Clinus ; NeocHnus (Girard) ; Acanthoclinvs ;
Myxodes; Cristiceps ; Cirrhibarbis ; Tripterygion ; Bregma-
ceros (Thompson) ; Pharopteryx (Ruppell); 7Aocc«tes (Jenyns);
Phucoccetes Gunnellus ; Curelophus (Kroyer) ; Zoarces;

Lycodes (Reinhardt) ; Dictysoma (Schlegel) ; Anarrhichas ;
Anariclithys (Girard) ; Cebidichthys (Girard) ; Apodichthys
(do.); Xiphiodon (do.); Ilameroccetes ; and Stic/iCB?is (Schlegel).

In the British seas the following have been dis-
covered — Montagu’s Blenny {Blennius Montagui) ;
the Butterfly-fish {Blennius ocellaris) ; the Gatto-
rugene {Blennius gattorugene) ; the Shanny {Blennius
pholis) ; Yarrell’s Blenny {Blennius Yarrellii) ; the
Butter-fish {Gunnellus guttatus) ; the Eelpout {Zoar-
cceus viviparus) ; and the Wolf-fish {Anarrhichas
lupus).

The flesh of the Blennies is said to be tender, white,
and well-flavoured ; but in an economical point of view,
the family is of little account. The members of it,
however, being many of them in the habit of remain-
ing in the small pools of water left by the retiring tide,
form interesting subjects for studyq and are pleasing
fish for an aquarium. The following is an extract
from the Zoologist for 1848, p. 2029, giving the obser-
vations of Francis Ross, Esq., Topsham, Devon, on

134

Ctenoid Acantheres.-

-FISHES.-

-Lophioids.

the habits of the Shanny {Blennius plwlis) : — “ A
specimen of this fish was broiiglit to me on the 3rd of
June. On placing it in a glass vessel of sea- water, it
appeared perfectly quiet for some hours, but at length
became restless, and made frequent attempts to throw
itself out of the water. It then occurred to me that on
a former occasion, when occupied by the sea-side, I
had a Gattoruginous Blenny in a vessel with some
Actinice and Serpulce, which regularly passed a portion
of its time on a stone ; I therefore placed a pebble in the
glass. The Shanny immediately leaped on it com-
pletely out of the water. It therefore appears that
these changes of medium are necessary to its existence.
On going to the front of the house, I perceived that it
was near low water. Knowing that it would flow till
ten o’clock that night, I watched the movements of my
little captive, and as the clock struck, had the gratifi-
cation of seeing it plunge again into its natural element.
It has now been five months in my possession, and has
proved throughout that jieriod a regular and correct
tide-indicator. I was well aware that these fish are
constantly left by the receding tide on the rocks,
remaining concealed in small basins or holes under the
weed, till the returning flood ; still I was not prepared
to see a fish voluntarily quit the water, and pass so
large a portion of its existence in a different element,
and by instinct alone time its changes so exactly.
Whilst in the water the colours of the Shanny are
less strongly marked ; but after being a short time
exposed to, and inhaling atmospheric air, the colour
changes to a deeper brown, and the markings become
nearly black, with a regular series of white spots above
and following the course of the lateral line. I have
noticed that it has the power of altering its position on
the stone with great facility, by means of its pectoral
and ventral fins. At times it reclines on its side ; at
others it is perfectly erect, resting on its broad pec-
torals, and turning its head from side to side. It will
take crumbs of bread and small earth-worms, two or
three a day being sufficient. It continues in good
health, and has become so familiar as to take its food
from my hand ; and if it is not attended to, will dash
the water about to let me know that he is on the look
out for his bit of meat or rice.”

The Eel-pout {Zoarces viviparus) brings forth its
young alive; and the apodal Wolf-fish {Anarrhiclias
lupus) is remarkable for its formidable teeth, and their
unusual form.

Family XXVI.— LOPHIOIDS {LopUidce).

Plate 12, fig. 62.

The most obvious peculiarity of the fishes of this
family, is the lengthened arm which supports the pec-
toral fin, whence the German ichthyologists call them
Arm-tinners, corresponding to the French designation
of fishes having pediculated or stilted pectorals. The
skeletons of the Lophioids are fibrous, though but little
indurated, and in some genera are in great part cartila-
ginous. No bone-corpuscles enter into their composi-
tion. Scales are rarely present, except in the form of
tubercles, or of grains supporting spines, which occur
in some genera. The sub-orbitar bones are absent ;

and the gill-openings are restricted to a round hole, or
a short vertical slit. Most of these fishes have strange
and rarely handsome forms. Some have enormously
large heads; others are oval and compressed ; and others
again are greatly depressed, the breadth being aug-
mented by the laterally expanded pectorals. The
dorsals are two, often with some detached flexible or
spinous rays on the head ; more rarely there is only a

Fig. 23.

Three-spotted Cheironect (Chironectes trisignatus).

single dorsal placed far back. The ventrals have five
or fewer branching rays, with or without a spine, and
are mostly placed before the pectorals. The caudal is
distinct from the dorsal and anal. Generally the
branchiostegals are six in number. Some members of
the family have gills on only three of the branchial
arches ; in others, four arches bear gills. Many have
large stomachs ; in all the pancreatic caeca are few ;
and the air-bladder, though present in some genera, is
absent in the greater number.

The genera are — Lophius ; Cheironecies , BracMonichthys
(Bleeker); Halieuiea; Batrachus; Ceratias; and Chaunax.

The only British species is the Angler, Briarbot, or
Wide-gab {Lophius piscatorius), a fish most remark-
able for the capacity of its mouth as compared to the
size of its body, and the bag-like expansion of its
branchiostegous membrane. Though common enough
on the south-coast of England, it is often exhibited as
an unknown fish. It is reported in almost all ichthyo-
logical treatises to be in the habit of attracting other
fishes into its cavern-like maw, by dangling the piece
of membrane attached to one of the long flexible dorsal
rays, which rise from the head, as an angler does his
bait or atificial fly ; but I have not been able to discover
any account of this process related by an eye-witness.
The story occurs first in Aristotle ; and Pliny instances
the “ Sea-frog, called the Fisher,” as a notable instance
of address in fishes, while the moderns have repeated
the story one after the other, seemingly without inquir-
ing into its truth. The Angler is common in muddy
harbours and tideways, where its enticing bait could
scarcely be visible ; and when taken in such places, its
stomach is generally well stored with fishes or crus-
taceans. It is rarely or never brought to table in
England. Democritus, as quoted by Pliny, says that if
the tongue of this fish be plucked out without any other
part adhering to it, and the fish itself returned alive
into the water, then the tongue being laid above the
heart of a sleeping woman, she will give a true reply to
any question put to her. We have not heard that this
mesmeiic process has been revived in modern times.

The Toad-fish of the United States {Batraclim varie-

CrcLosD Acahthopterbs. FISHES. Scabbard-fisher. 135

gatus)f called also Oyster-fish, derives its latter desig-

The fish assiduously watches its eggs until they are

nation from its habit of depositing its roe in oyster shells,

hatched, snapping at a finger or stick thrust near to the

whose inhabitants have died, or on small piles of pebbles.

deposit.

Sub-order IL— CYCLOID ACANTHOPTERES, or Acanthopteres with

ScoMBEROiD Scales.

This sub-order of Acanthopteres is characterized by

to the skull, as in most osseous fishes. They are either

Professor Owen in his “ Palseontology” as being composed

destitute of ventrals, or have these fins situated on the

of teleostiau fishes, having undivided and jointless

belly, and joined together by membrane stretching

spines at the fore part of the dorsal, and smooth, circu-

across. Their dorsal spines are isolated, and the soft

lar, or elliptical scales. It is not represented, he says,

dorsal is sometimes wholly absent ; sometimes repre-

in the fossil world by any species of older date than

sented by only two minute rays in the axilla of the last

the cretaceous epoch. In the present day the Sphyre-

spine ; while in other members of the group, the soft

noid, Scomhride, and Xiphiad families are its richest

rays are numerous. When the ventrals are present,

groups. Among these, the Tunnies are distinguished

they are each composed of a spine, and seven or eight

by the advanced bony composition of their skeletons,

jointed rays; but the membrane which connects the

which are, nevertheless, very light, owing to the loose-

rays, and also the two fins to each other, does not, as

ness of their texture.

in the Gobies, form a funnel. Cycloid scales cover the

Many fish of this sub-order are among the most

head and body, and partially the fins also. A tapering

active swimmers of their class, and frequent the sur-

or conical snout projects beyond the mouth, which is

face of the wide ocean, keeping at a distance from

cleft horizontally to a moderate extent. Only slight

rocky coasts and surf, with which their delicate scales

armature exists on the head, the opercular pieces being

are ill-fitted to contend.

hidden under the scaly integument. The tolerably

wide gill-openings are situated towards the ventral

Family XXVII. — NOTACANTHS {Notacanthidtie).

aspect, being closed above and behind by the scaly

integument. The stomach is cffical; the pancreatic

This may he considered as an aberrant group of

cffica are few ; and the bones contain no osseous cor-

the sub-order, and consists of elongated, compressed

puscles.

fishes, which have the scapulo-coracoid arch suspended

The genera are — Notacanthus ; Mfastiicembelus, and Rhyn-

to the back-bone, as in the cartilaginous fishes, and not

chobddla.

Fig. 36.

Australian Spine-back (Notacanthus sex-spinfs).

The first-named genus is represented by one species

Their heads are low, and their jaw-teeth compressed,

in the Greenland seas, and by another on the coasts of

acute, or lancet shaped, resembling those of the Sphy-

Australia, but none of the family have been detected

rcp,na. Palatine and vomerine teeth are present in

in the British seas.

some of the genera, but absent in others. The ventrals

are small and rudimentary, or wholly absent. The

Family XXVIII.— SOABBAED-FISHES

skin is smooth and nacry, without evident scales, like

{Gempylidm). — Plate 11, fig. 56.

the belly of a mackerel. Six or seven branchiostegals

serve to extend the gill -membrane ; and the stomach

The Scabbard-fishes, or Gempylids, are known

is a long, pointed sac— the air-bladder being also long

by their greatly elongated, compressed bodies, com-

and narrow.

bined with more or less of the mackerel aspect ; but

Most of the members of this family were gi’ouped by

they have no corselet on the thorax, neither keel nor

Cuvier in an appendix to his first tribe of Scomberoids,

armature on the lateral line, and no caudal crests.

named Trichiurini by Bonaparte.

1

136 Cycloid Acanthoptekes. FISHES. Scombeides.

The genera are — Thyrsites; Gempylus; Lepidopus; TricTii-
urus; Epinnula{Po&-f)-, Dicroto (Gunther); AphanopusiLovid)-,
and Ruvetlus (Valenc^.

The Scabbard-fish (Lejndopus argyreus) has been
taken on the Devonshire coast, and is the only British
member of the family. Young ones not more than
ten inches in length have been seen, but the old fish
exceeds five feet One of the latter was in the act of
swimming in Salcombe harbour with amazing velocity,
with its head raised out of the water, when it was
killed by a blow from a fisherman’s oar. Ruvetlus pre-
tiosus of Cocco is studded with bony spines on the body.

Family XXIX. — SCOMBRTDES {Scomhridce).

Plate 10, figs. 51, 52.

The Scomberoid or Mackerel aspect of this family is
easily recognizable, proving the assemblage to be a
natural one. The Tunnies, which are its most active
and powerful members, have bone-corpuscles in their
skeletons, and thus form a transition to the Physos-
tomes, whose bony framework is generally built up of
true bone, and not merely of osteoid structure, like
those of the 'Teleostomi, or Acanthopteres in general.

The texture of the bones of the Scombrides is for
the most part loosely fibrous, penetrated by an oily
secretion, but with a small quantity of earthy matter
compared to their extent of surface. This gives great
lightness to the skeleton, and accords with the habits
of the mackerel tribe, which live on the surface of the
ocean, and delight in skipping into the air, such motions
being effected by their strong caudal muscles, coloured
in part with red blood. The tail at the setting on of
the caudal fin, is much more slender than in other
fishes, but tapers gradually from the fusiform or com-
pressed body ; and the crescentic or swallow-tailed
manner in which the fin expands, gives it much power
as a propeller. In many species the sides of the tail
are keeled, and they are also frequently protected by a
ridge of scutiform pointed plates.

The scales are in this family generally small, tender,
and smooth ; sometimes lost in a shining nacry surface,
as in the common mackerel.

In most Scombrides the jointed portion of the dorsal
fin is separated from the spines by a notch, or by a
naked space, and the membranes are generally delicate,
disappearing partially with age. Sometimes the spines
of the dorsal stand singly, each with a small triangular
membrane behind it, or without a membrane at all ;
and not unfrequently the posterior tufted rays of the
soft dorsal and anal are similarly isolated, in which
case they receive the appellation of ‘‘ pinnules ” (fausses
pinnules of Cuvier). In the majority of the genera, at
least two of the anal spines are detached in front of
that fin. Most generally the ventrals are situated
under the pectorals, but in some rare instances they
are absent. Some species have a short oblique cuta-
neous crest on the base of each side of each lobe of the
caudal fin. No armature exists on the opercular
pieces of these fishes. The branchiostegals commonly
number seven ; sometimes, however, there are no more
than six, and in other instances they amount to eight.

In the structure of the jaws, the Scombrides resemble

the other Acanthopteres, in having the upper lip bor-
dered wholly by the generally dentiferous premaxil-
laries. The edentulous maxillaries lie in the membrane
behind, and approach the corner of the mouth only
when the jaws are widely extended. They are not
serrated ; and a similar smoothness and absence of
projecting angular points prevails in the heads of
these fishes, which have very generally the form of
compressed cones, adapted to swift motion through
the water.

The numerous pancreatic cseca are often so conjoined
as to form a tolerably compact glandular mass. Most
of the Scombrides have a larger and more complicated
brain than the generality of fishes. The stomach is
large and csccal, with folds of the internal membrane
that greatly extend the surface. Some species have
an air-bladder ; others, even in the same genus, want
that organ.

All these characters cannot be found in every
member of the family, being variously combined in
varying numbers in the different groups. The family
as here restricted is less extensive, but more natural
than it was as propounded by Cuvier, having been
made so by the separation of some of his sections of
genera.

The genera axe — Scomber ; Thynnus; Auxis; Pelamys,
Cybium ; Naucrates ; Elecate ; Eypsiptera ; Trachurus ; Caram
gichthys; Caranx;* Argyreiosus ; Micropleryx (Agassiz);
Seriola (Cuv.); Serioklla (Guichenot); SerioHchthys (Bhekery,
Nauclerus ; Porihmeus ; Chorineyaus; Lichia; Temnodon; Tra-
chinotus; Palinurus (Dekay or Pammelus, Gunther); Paropsis
(Jenyns); Olistes; Scyris; Lactarius; Psenes; Nomeus; Ges-
terochisma (Richardson); Cubiceps (Lowe); Neptomenus
(Gunther); Platystetlius (id.)

The British species are — the Mackerel {Scomber
scombrus) ; the Spanish Mackerel {Sc. colias) ; the
Dotted Mackerel {Sc. punctatus) ; the Tunny {Thynnus
vulgaris)-, the Bonito {Th. pelamis); the Belted
Bonito {Th. brachypterus) ; the Germon {Th, ala-
longa) ; the Plain Bonito {Auxis vidgaris) ; the Pilot-
fish {Naucrafes ductor) ; the Derbio {Lichia glaucus) ;
and the Scad ( Trachurus vulgaris).

The Scombrides are objects of fisheries, in the Medi-
terranean and other seas, as extensive and important to
the maritime populations there as the herring fisheries
are in the north. The Tunny is one of the largest of
marine fishes, since it attains the weight of one thou-
sand pounds or more; when under three hundred
pounds, it is termed by the Sards mezzo-tonno or “half-
tunny.” Aristotle mentions one that weighed twelve
hundredweight. The abundance of these fishes in
the Bosphorus, is said to have been the origin of the
name of Golden Horn applied to the port of Byzan-
tium. The Tunny fi.shery was established in a very
early age by the Phoenicians on the coasts of Spain,
both on the Mediterranean and Atlantic sides of the
peninsula, and the fish is represented on the medals of
Carteja and Tartessus.

The Tunny fishery of Sicily has been described in
a spirited manner by Brydone and Dumas, to whose

* Mcgalaspis, Decapterus, Sclav, Carangioides, Leioglossus,
Uraspis Selaroides, Leptaspis, and Gnaihonodon, are dismem-
berments of Caranx, which are not adopted in the catalogues
of the British Museum by Dr. Gunther.

Cycloid Acanthoptekes.-

-FISHES.-

-COKYPH^MDS.

137

well-known works we must refer the reader. Want
of space compels us also to omit the details of the
klackerel fishery, in which British capital and industry
are so largely employed.

The Coulizou or Chicaro {Caranx Plumieri) of the
West Indies becomes so venomous at times when its
bones are red, that it is used as a poison for rats. The
Shoemaker of Martinique is the Blepharis sutor of
ichthyologists ; and the Skip-jack of English mariners
is the Temnodon saltator. The Pilot-fish (Naucrates
ductor) is in the habit of accompanying sharks, not, we
apprehend, as a guide or monitor, according to vulgar
report, but for the purpose of picking up any morsels
of food that may escape from the jaws of the monsters.
The same instinct leads it to follow ships for many
days, to pick up offal.

Family XXX.— CORTPH^NIDS

( Coryphmnoidai) ,

These are thoracic Scomberoids, furnished with a
long dorsal supported by flexible rays, the majority of
which are not jointed. Scales cover the three vertical
fins partially. Body long and compressed, with the
head trenchant above. In some members palatine
teeth are present; others have these bones smooth.
Some genera are apodal. The scales are small.

The family consists of Coryphcsna ; Lampugm ; PteracUs ;
Astrodermus (or Diana, Risso) ; Ausonia (Risso) ; Lampi-is
(or Apolectus) •, Stromatem; Stromateoides (Bleekev); Peprihis;
and Ceniroloplms.

Two species of Centrolophus have been detected in
the British seas — one the rare Black-fish {C. pom-
pilus), and the other the C. hritannicus, of which a
solitary example was taken in the sea off Polperro,
and described by Dr. Giinther. The Coryphsenas, or
Dolphins of modern seamen, are exceeded in beauty
by none of the finny tribes; and the elegance and
rapidity of their movements, the purity and brilliancy
of their varying colours — in which rich blues and
emerald greens predominate — together with a kind of
sociability which causes these fish to accompany a
ship for many days together, render them pleasing
objects of study to the voyager in the tropical seas.
Being oceanic fishes that rarely approach the coast,
they are not objects of any special fishing, yet they
furnish an agreeable change of diet to seamen tired of
salt meat, their flesh being firm though somewhat dry.
No ancient author has given a description of these
fishes by which they can be recognized. The Dolphins
of Orion are cetaceans. The Pomfrets {Stromateus)
are much esteemed articles of diet in the East Indies,
as is also the Harvest-fish {Peprilus) of the Caribbees.

The King-fish {Lampris), a third British member of
the family, attains the weight of two hundred pounds
or more, and is remarkable for the beauty of its skin
and the excellence of its flesh, which is like that of
the salmon in flavour. It is only too rare.

Family XXXI.— ZEIDS (.HeHie).— Plate 11, fig. 54.

These are thoracic fishes, with very protractile
mouths, armed with feeble and not numerous teeth.

VoL. II. 74

Their skin is either naked, or clothed with small scales
imbedded in the skin, and sometimes carrying small,
bony, spiniferous shields along the bases of the fins or
elsewhere. They are closely allied to the Scomberoids
by their cranial crests, their complicated pancreatic
caeca, and by other parts of their internal structure.
Their bodies are high and compressed, and are sur-
mounted by one or two dorsals.

Tlie genera are — Zeus ; Capros ;* Cnprnphonus (MUller and
Troschel) ; Lampris ; Equula ; and Mene.

The Dory or John Dory {Zeus faber) is a British
fish, which has maintained a considerable repute ever
since Quin pronounced it to be a good fish. The spots
on the sides are vulgarly supposed to be the marks
made by St. Peter’s thumb when he took the tribute
penny from its mouth ; and according to Belon it is
called Christopsaron in modern Greek, and is fre-
quently suspended in the Greek churches by fishermen.
The words Zeus and faber are used synonymously by
Pliny, and occur in other Latin authors ; but they did
not, as far as can be judged by the little that is said of
them, mean the Dory. The Boar-fish {Capros aper)
is another British fish, much less common than the
Dory, and of very inferior value for the table.

Family XXXIL— XIPHIADS or SWORD-FISHES
{Xiphicedce) — Plate 10, fig. 53 —

Are elongated fishes, with a long tapering acute snout,
composed for most of its length of the vomer and pre-
maxillaries, but supported at its base by the nasals,
frontals, and maxillaries; the prefrontals lie between
the snout and the orbits. The dorsal fins are single
or double, long and high, but wearing down in the
middle by age, so that a single one becomes two.
Some genera have ventrals, others are apodal; none
have detached finlets. The intestines resemble those
of the Tunny.

This group forms a division of the Scomberoids in the
Bistohe des polssons, and contains the following genera — •
Xiphias; Tetrapiurus; Makaira; Histiopliorus; and Nemichthys
(Richardson).

The Sword-fish {XipAias gladius) has been observed
at various times in the British seas, but is much more
common in the Atlantic and Mediterranean, and was
well known to the ancients. Brydone says that “ the
taking of the Pesce spada., or Sword-fish, is a much more
noble diversion than the killing of the Tunny. No art
is used to ensnare him, but with a small harpoon fixed
to a long line the fisher attacks him in the open seas,
and will often strike him from a very considerable dis-
tance. It is exactly the whale-fishing in miniature.
The Sicilian fishermen have a Greek sentence which
they use as a charm to bring him near their boats, and
they pretend that it is of wonderful efficacy ; but if the
fish should unfortunately overhear them speak a word
of Italian, he plunges under water, and will appear no
more.” Kircher took down the words of the charm

* Microzeus of Blyth (1859), placed by its describer among
the Zeidoe, seems to resemble Capros in many of its external
characters. Its mouth is not protractile, hut the mandible
projects when depressed.

138 Seupentine Apodals. FISHES. Opuisuboids.

alluded to by Brydone, and found that they were not

varies with the genus. The anal is absent. The veu-

Greek, but a mere jargon not traceable to any known

trals are sub-brachial, and in some are small, and

language. It would be well to compare them with

composed of six rays ; in others very long, and con-

Hebrew, as they may be a remnant of the ancient

sisting of only one or two rays. The jointed rays

Phoenician tongue. Strabo describes this fishery,

are not branched, and the raj's of all the fins are so

which he believes was as ancient as the days of Ulysses.

fragile that a complete specimen has scarcely ever been

The flesh of the Sword-fish is excellent, resembles beef,

obtained. The mouth is small and protractile. The

and is generally dressed in form of steaks. It is pre-

skeleton is fibrous, but has little compactness, and is

served by salting, and the fins are prepared in Sicil_y,

easily injured. The stomach is prolonged below the

and sold under the name of Callo. The highly-esteemed

pylorus in form of a conical bag, and the pancreatic

Urceon of the ancients was cut from the tail.

caeca are very numerous. There is no air-bladder.

The great strength of the Sword-fish renders it a
formidable enemy, and it is able to use its beak with
fatal eftect. It sometimes drives this weapon through

The genera are — Trachypterus ; Regalecus ; Gymnetrm ; and
Gtylepliorus.

the planks of a ship, and specimens of beams so trans-

The unusual forms of these fishes render them inter-

fixed are not unfrequent in museums.*

esting. They are well named Tsenioids or Ribbon-
fishes, because of their thinness and length, which in

Family XXXIIL— T.®NI0IDS {Tccnicedm).

some extends to between twenty and thirty feet. The

Plate 11, fig. 57.

tenderness of their fins, and the brittleness of their

bones, unfit them for contending with a rough sea, and

These are sword-shaped or tape-like fishes, with a

it is probable that their habitual residence is in the still

smooth nacry skin, containing delicate microscopical

waters of considerable depths; yet their colours are

scales, and bands of soft or hard tubercles imbedded

brilliant and beautiful. They are obtained chiefly

in the thickness of the skin. Some have rows of super-

after storms, by which they are thrown disabled on the

ficial bony shields. The dorsal fin extends nearly the

shore. The British species are the Vaagmeer {Tra-

whole length of tlie back, and its front rays, standing

chyptei'us logmarus), and Bank’s Oar-fish {Regalecus

on the head or nape, are generally tall. The caudal

Banhsii).

OiiDEE V.— MALACOPTERES or PHYSOSTOMES.

Malacofterous fishes have their fins supported by

Malacopterous Abdominals; the ventrals when

jointed or branching rays, not associated with spines as
in the preceding order ; though in some cases, and more

present in this order being situated on the belly.

especially in the Cyprinoid family, one or more of the
dorsal rays are stout, round, tapering, and stiff, losing
by age their joints, which are visible in the young fish ;

Family I. — OPHISUROIDS {Ophisurida).

Plate 2, fig. 8; Plate 1, fig. 5.

but in these instances the characteristic ventral spine

This familv belongs to the Sekpentifokm Apodals,

of the Acanthopteres is absent. Another important

a group of fish in which the predominant aspect is that

character of this order, is the 2y>’csence of a pneumatic

of a long thick worm, covered with a slimy skin, for

tube leading from the cavity of the air-bladder to the

the most part scaleless, but in two or three families

oesophagus or stomach — hence the appellation of Phy-

producing small imbedded scales. The fins, generally

sostomes. The gills are free, with a single operculated

long and low, are supported by simple rays, not jointed.

external opening on each side, these openings being in

but of a very soft texture. Some groups want the pec-

one or two groups only; approximated on the throat so

torals as well as the ventrals, and are therefore termed

as to appear like one ; the arterial bulb is valvular at
its origin only ; the scales are cj'cloid or absent ; and in
general the bones contain radiated, osseous corpuscles,
these organisms being absent merely in a few minor
groups of this order.

The Malacopteres have been divided into two sub-
orders by the presence or absence of ventral fins,
namely, into Sekpentifokm Apodals {Apodes) and

* The most recent instance that has come to our knowledge
is that of the barque Maudot Tynemouth, which sprung a leak
on her voyage homewards from Ceylon. She arrived in the
Tyne towards the close of May, 1860, and being put into the
middle dock for repairs, one of the planks under the bilge was
found to have been perforated by the beak of a Sword-fi.sh, a
piece of the beak, nine and a half inches long, having been
found still sticking in the wood. — Newspaper paragraiih.

both abrachial and apodal, A few genera are destitute
not only of these lateral limbs, but also of vertical fins,
and therefore exhibit examples of fish wholly without
fins. Ribs are not developed in any of the Serpentiform
Apodals, except in the Congeroids, which have an
extraordinary number of these processes.

The Ophisuroids have csecal stomachs, that is, a bag-
like protuberance beneath the pylorus of that viscus, but
they have no pyloric cteca. Dr. Kaup, in his recent
very complete review of the Apodal sub-order,* divides
it into two sections, one having the posterior openings
of the nostril -tubes exterior to the mouth, and clearly
visible on the side of the face ; the other having the

* Catalogue of Apodal Fish in the British Museum, 1856.

4

I

Serpentine Apodaes.-

FISHES. Anguileids.

139

posterior nostrils concealed by a fold of white integu-
ment within the edge of the lip. These divisions are
named respectively johaneromycteres or “ exposed nos-
trils,” and cryptomycteres, “ concealed nostrils.” The
latter division is conterminous with the single family of
Ophisuroids, which, in addition to the character derived
from the position of the nostril-tube, has another in the
naked tip of the tail, projecting between the upper and
lower vertical fins. In some of the genera the pectorals
are very small, but they are not wholly absent in any
Ophisuroid. Though the gill-openings are lateral, yet
as they are frequently larger in the Ophisuroids than
in other members of the Serpentiform Apodal group,
and are moreover placed low on the side of the neck,
there is often but a very narrow interval between them
on the throat. The Ophisuroids have a smooth mucoid
skin, destitute of scales. In some of them small cuta-
neous tags fringe the upper lip, and in several the
proximal ends of the nostril-tubes protrude like barbels
ou the side of the snout.

This familj' belongs to the warmer parts of both
oceans. A few members of it inhabit the Mediterra-
nean, and one species passes northwards along the
Spanish coasts to the Bay of Biscay.

The genera are — Leiuranus; Centrurophis ; PcBcilocephalus ;
Microdonophis ; Coecilophis ; Ophisurus ; Herpetoichihys ;
Brachysomophis ; Elapsopsis ; Mystriophis ; Murcenopsis ;
Eckiopsis ; Leptorkinopliis ; Plsodonophis ; Lamnostoma ; An-
(juisurus ; Sphagebranchns ; CirrhimurcBna ; Callechelys ; lcli~
thyapus ; Ophisuraphis ; MyropMs ; Mur«nichthys ; and
Myrus (Kaup. Cat.)

Family II.— ANGUILLIDS {Eel Family).

Plate 1. fig. 6.

This group contains but one genus {Anguilla), and
its members, the Eels, are anadromous fishes, some of
them living and dying in fresh water, and migrating
merely from river to lake and back again after spawning;
but generally they descend in autumn from the upper
streams to the estuaries, where the mixture of fresh
and salt water raises the temperature, and there deposit
their spawn. In the ensuing spring the young may be
observed ascending rivers, in dense columns, close to the
banks, swarming up the moist gates of weirs and locks,
and overcoming other obstacles to their upward course.
This movement is called the Eel-fare.

Lateral gill-openings, with opercula and bran-chio-
stegals; conspicuous pectorals; the end of the tail
encompassed b}'^ the union of the dorsal and anal ; and
longish, oval, cycloid scales imbedded in the mucoid
skin, transverse!}" and obliquely, so as to resemble
lattice-work — are characters of 'the family, and of the
single genus it contains. Card-like or villiform teeth
arm the jaws. Dr. Kaup has described, in his Cata-
logue, forty-five species, which are generally diffused
in the fresh waters of both the northern and southern
hemispheres, and doubtless the numbers will be greatly
augmented by future ichthyologists, since hitherto col-
lectors have given but little attention to the foreign
members of the genus.

As furnishing a nourishing food. Eels are in much
request, though the Celtic races generally, and some
other nations, entertain a prejudice against them because

of their resemblance to serpents. Anguilla, the Latin
name for the Eel, is retained in modern Italian, and
means in fact a little serpent. In the time of Juvenal
Eels were consumed by the populace at Borne, but
were despised by the wealthy classes on account of their
feeding in the sewers. No such dislike appears to have
been entertained in England in after-times; and the
cellaress of Barking Abbey is ordered by the statutes
of that religious house to provide “Russaulx” (Rus-
selet pears?) “in Lenten, to bake with Eles on Shrove
Tuesday,” and to have “ Stubbe Eles and Nine-shaft
Eles.”*

In London at the present day Eels are a favourite
delicacy of the working classes. Vast quantities are
consumed in making a rich soup or stew, which is sold
in pennyworths near coach-stands, being cooked on the
spot over portable furnaces. Eel-pie houses are also
numerous on the banks of the Thames, wherein this
fish is served up to a higher class of customers. In
Mayhew’s work on London Labour, ten millions of
Eels are stated to be sold annually in the metropolitan
fish-markets, weighing, at six Eels to the pound, nearly
one million six hundred thousand pounds. Dutch
fishermen are the chief suppliers of this article of food ;
but considerable quantities are imported from Ireland,
Eel fisheries being established on the Shannon and
elsewhere in that island.f A great consumption of
Eels also takes place in the manufacturing districts of
England, so that altogether, though they cannot be
classed as an important item in the staple food of the
nation, they are useful as a variety of diet, and a cheap
luxury. Eels are taken in the fenny districts by
barbed spears of several prongs, which are plunged
into the mud and withdrawn again, often with one or
more Eels impaled on the barbs. In rivers a more
regular fishery is carried on by fixing a barrier of wicker
baskets across the stream. Many are also caught by
hooks, baited with worms or fish, and set over-night.
Frost or bright moonshine are adverse to success in
this kind of fishery. The New York market, according
to Dr. Mitchill, is supplied with Eels at all seasons, the
fishery being carried on in summer by eel-pots, nets,
or by bobbing in the evenings with a bunch of tough
bait; in winter Eels are procured by spearing in the
mud.

Charlevoix in his “ History of Canada,” Hi. 170, gives
the following notice of a productive Eel-fishery estab-
lished above a century ago on the Saint Lawrence.
In the course of the river between Quebec and Trois
Rivieres a prodigious quantity of large Eels are taken
in this manner. On the wet beach, exposed to the
atmosphere by the ebb-tide, boxes are built at certain
distances ranged opposite an inclosure of hurdles,
through which the Eels cannot pass. Hedges of inter-
laced willows diverge from the mouth of each box and
run to the line of hurdles, tufts of grass being attached
to them at intervals. 'When the Hood-tide has covered

* By stubbe Eels were meant probably thick, short ones,
anti if the term nine-shaft be equivalent to “ nine-eyes,” the
second kind of Eels were Lampreys. A shaft monde was a
measure of length equal to about half a foot, but four and a half
feet w’ould be a very extraordinary length for eels.

I The amount of Eels brought annually by sea to London has
been stated at seven hundred tons I — (Simmons’ Cur. of Food).

140

SURPENTIFORM ApODAliS.-

-FISHES.-

-Mur^noids.

the whole erectiou, the Eels, which always follow the
edge of the stream, and are attracted by the verdure,
crowd along the hurdle-palisade in vast numbers, enter
between the willow-hedges, and are by them guided
into the box-traps that are often filled in a single tide.
These Eels, Charlevoix says, are larger than the Euro-
pean ones, are very oily, and whatever he the care
bestowed in cooking them, always retain a wild flavour.
They are supposed, he informs us, to descend from
Lake Ontario, and to return thither again because of
the persecution they encounter from the White Por-
poises when they reach the tide-way. The descent
of Eels to estuaries for the purpose of spawning was
unknown to Charlevoix.

Family III. — MUR.iENOIDS {Muroenccdos).

Plate 1, fig 4.

This family, like the preceding one, belongs to that
division of the Serpentiform Apodals in which the pos

Fig. 35

terior nasal orifices are exterior to the lips, and are
exposed to view. In its members also the gill-openings
are lateral, one on each side, with a considerable inter-
mediate space below ; their smooth and slippery skin
is destitute of scales, and their haunts are almost exclu-
sively marine. They are abrachial as well as apodal,
and some forms, being also destitute of vertical fins,
are wholly ajAerous (finless).

The dentition varies with the genus. The genera are —
MurcBna ; Sidera ; Enchelynassa ; Eurymyctera ; Enchelycore
Tkyrsoidea ; Limamuraina ; Polyurunodon ; Channomurmna
Muranoblenna ; Pcecilophis; Gymnomurcena ; Apkihalmichthys
Ur<^terygius ; Apterichthys ; Primnothonus ; and Moringua
for an account of which the student is referred to Dr. Kaup’s
Catalogue.

No special fishery has been established, as far as we
know, for the capture of the numerous fish of this
family, commonly called Mumes ; and we know little
of their habits beyond their being bold and voracious
animals. One called Pipiro by the natives is men-

The Pipiro (Pcecilophis variegata).

tinned in the narrative of Cook’s third voyage as inhab-
iting the reefs of Palmerston Island, and instead of
shunning its pursuers, coming fiercely towards them,
raising its head out of the water and attempting to
bite.

A Murry, which is not uncommon on both sides of the
Atlantic, as well as in the Australian seas, occasionally
appears off the coast of Cornwall, and is abundant in
the Mediterranean ; it bears the scientific appellation of
Murmna Jielena. During the Empire the Romans, taking
advantage of its abilitj^ to live in fresh water, kept this
fish in stews; and Pliny relates in his “Natural History”
that Vedius Pollio, a Roman knight, one of the intimate
friends of Augustus Caasar, proved the fierceness of
these fish by throwing condemned slaves into his fish-
ponds to be devoured by them ; not, says Pliny, that
he lacked wild animals wherewith to feed his fish, but
because he was of too tender a nature to behold an
entire man torn to pieces in any other way ! ! Cains
Hirrcus, who kept stews for Murries, presented the
public with six thousand of these fish when Caesar

triumphed as dictator. Licinius Crassus trained his
Murries to be obedient to his voice ; Hortensius Orator
is said to have formed so strong an attachment to a
Murry that he wept when it died ; and Antonins
Drusus adorned one that he loved with earrings. The
Murries brought from Tartessus, which were much
esteemed by the Romans, were also of the species
named Murcena helena, which still abounds at Cadiz
and the Straits of Gibraltar. Brydone says that the
Murries of the Faro di Messina were the finest fish he
ever ate, so that it was probably merely the greater
cost of those which were obtained beyond the Pillars
of Hercules that gave them so much favour in the eyes
of the Romans. Pliny attributes to the Mursena the
habit of leaving its ponds and travelling overland,
which the common eel is known also to do. Gym-
nomurcEna is entirely destitute of fins, and in Aphthal-
michthys the only vestiges of a fin are a few soft rays
at the tip of the tail. Apterichthys ccecus has merel}'
rudimentary eye-balls covered with skin, and cannot
possess distinct vision.

Serpentifobm Apodals. FISHES. Congeroids.

141

Family IV.— SYMBRANCHS {Syrribranchidas).

This family name has reference to the two outlets
of the gills into a single external orifice situated under
the throat, either with or without a membranous par-
tition coming to the lip of the opening. The pectorals
and other fins are eitlier wholly absent, or are very
scantily developed. Some members of the family
have scales partially distributed on the body ; others
are quite scaleless.

The genera are — Amphipnous ; Ophisternon ; SynibrancJius ;
Monopterus ; ani Cheilobranchus (Richardson).

The species are not numerous, and are confined to
the southern seas. One example of Cheilobranchus
was taken by Sir James Clark Ross in the high south-
ern latitude of 72°.

There are peculiarities in the branchial system of
some of these fishes, which are deserving of notice.
The Cuchia of the Ganges {Amphipnous cuchia) has
four pairs of gill-arches ; but the first pair is united by
mucous membrane to the succeeding one, and the
fourth pair is similarly bound to the third one, the first
and fourth being unprovided with gills, which are con-
fined to the second and third pair of arches ; and the
branchial processes are long, slender, fringe-like fila-
ments. These rudimentary gills are aided in their
function of aerating the blood by a large air-bag on
each side of the head, having a cellular and very vas-
cular interior, and communicating with the mouth by
an opening before the first branchial arch. This fish,
which is of sluggish habits and very tenacious of life,
lurks in marshy holes, and is truly amphibious in
respect of its respiratory organs.

Monopterus has three pairs of gills ; and Ophisternon
and Symbranchus four pairs. A Monopterus inhabits
the streamlets and estuaries of Chusan, where it preys
on smaller fishes, and is easily captured by a hook
baited with an earth-worm. It is a favourite food of
the inhabitants of that island, and is preserved by them
alive in large jars of fresh water until needed.

Family V. — CONGEROIDS (Congridce).

Plate 2, fig. 7,

The Conger family are, like the Miirsenoids, fierce
and pugnacious fishes, and being better armed on the
jaws, many of them with acute lancet-shaped teeth,
and having moreover the aid of tails which are in
some degree prehensile, and can be wrapped round
a man’s arm or hook on to the gunwale of a boat,
they fight with more danger to their captors. The
first movement, therefore, of the fisherman, when he
has dragged one out of the water, is to batter and dis-
able it by blows from a handspike or other convenient
truncheon. This family of fishes have a dorsal fin
reaching forwards to the head, a naked and scaleless
skin, and for the most part a tapering, compressed tail,
at the point of which the dorsal and anal meet. Pec-
toral fins are present in some, but wanting in other
species. The snout is generally elongated, and the
mandible shuts in behind the upper jaw. A labial

cartilage is developed in the lips, and many slender
ribs spring from the vertebral column, even in the tail.

The genera are — Murmncsox ; Conger or Congrus ; Netia-
soma; Congennurmna ; and Uroconger.

A prodigious quantity of the common Congers are
stated by Col. Montagu to be taken on some banks on
the French side of the Channel, the bait used being
Sand-launces purchased in England. The chief British
fishery for the Congers is carried on along the Cornish
shores, and a great number so caught are sent over to
Jersey, where they form a considerable part of the fish
exposed in the fish-market of St. Hcliers.

Family VI.— GYMNOTIDS (Gymnotidce).

Plate 2, fig. 11.

The Gymnotids inhabit the rivers and fresh-water
lagoons of tropical America, and are Malacopterous
Apodals, with jointed jin-rays, having the vent situated
on the under aspect of the head. The family characters
may be summed up as follows : — Eel-like fishes, with
no dorsal fins (unless the long, elastic, dorsal thong of
Stes'iiarchus be considered as such). In all the genera
the anal is well developed, and edges the whole under-
profile, commencing close behind the vent. In some
members of the family the vent is farther forward than
the eyes, and in none is it situated farther back than
beneath the gills. The skeleton is in advance of that
of the Serpentiform Apodals, having the scapulo-cora-
coid arch attached to the head, instead of being as in
that group feebly framed and appended to the fore part
of the vertebral column. The Gymnotid skeleton also
possesses perfect ventral ribs. The family, moreover,
is characterized by a twofold swim-bladder, the ante-
rior capsule of which is small, and is protected by a
fibrous capsule. This capsule is connected with the
acoustic organs, and is thought by Dr. Kaup to be the
homologue of the membranous labyrinth of the more
highly-organized molluscs. One species of Sternopygus
has a pneumatic tube issuing from each of its air-
bladders. The eggs of the Gymnotids are contained
in ovarian sacs, and do not drop into the common
cavity of the abdomen, as is the case in the Serpenti-
form Apodals. The stomach has a ciecal projection,
and there is a papilla behind the vent. Teeth are pre-
sent on the upper jaw and mandible in some species,
but wanting in others, and none exist on the vomer.
In some genera the faces of the fish are elongated and
tubular, with small terminal mouths ; in others the
jaws are abbreviated and the gape wider.

The genera are — Gymnotus; Carapus; Sternopygus; Rhamph-
Ichthys ; and Sternarchus.

A Carapus of the island of Trinidad is termed
locally the “ Cutlass-fish.” The Sternarchus here
figured must not be confounded with the Mormyrus
oxyrhinchus, or sacred fish of Thebes and Memphis, to
be hereafter mentioned. None of the Gymnotids, as
the name denotes, have fins on the back, but the elastic
whip-thong of the Sternarchus has been considered as
the representative of a dorsal. It lies in a groove run-
ning along the hack, wherein it is generally glued

142

Mai,acopterous Apodals. FISHES. Gysinotids.

down b}' mucus. In tlie woodcut it is shown partially
disengaged.

Professor Hyrtl has shown that Gymnarchus resem-
bles Mormyrus in possessing a side-chamber in the
bulb of the gill-artery ; it has moreover a serpentiform
complication of the air-bladder.

Gymnotus is the only genus of the family which is
scaleless, and it is furnished with a powerful galvanic
apparatus, an organ not hitherto found in scaly fishes.
In the Gymnotus, or Electric Eel, the galvanic organ
occupies about half the thickness of the tail, and is
divisible into four longitudinal bundles ; a thicker

Siiarp-nosed Thong-fish (Steruarchus o.xyrhinchns).

Fig. 36.

upper pair and a slender lower pair laid along the base
of the anal fin. Each bundle is constructed of parallel
membranes and horizontal discs, close to each other,
including multitudes of transverse prismatic cells filled
with gelatinous matter, and largely supplied with nervous
filaments. Humboldt’s description of the way in which
the Gymnotes use their batteries is highl}' interesting.
These fish abound, he says, in the vicinity of Cala-
boza in South America, and the Indians well aware of
the danger of encountering them when their powers
are in vigour, collect from twenty to thirty horses, drive
them into the pools, and when the Gymnotes have
exhausted their electric batteries on the poor horses,
they can he taken without risk. Time and repose are
needed before the batteries are ready to act again.
The horses at first exhibit much agitation and terror,
but are prevented from leaving the ponds by an encir-
cling band of Indians who strike them with bamboos.
“The eels,” says Humboldt, “stunned and confused by
the rush of the horses, defended themselves by reite-
rated electric discharges, and for some time seemed
likely to gain the victory ; for every now and then a
horse overcome by the violence of the shocks he
received, was observed to disappear under the surface
of the water. Some horses, however, rose again, and
though exhausted by fatigue gained the shore in spite
of the exertions of the Indians, where they stretched
themselves out on the ground. I remember a superb
picture of a horse entering a cavern and terrified at the
sight of a lion. The expression of terror there depicted
was not greater than that which we witnessed in this
unequal contlict ; in less than five minutes two horses
had succumbed, and were drowned. The eel, more
than five feet long, glides under the belly of the horse
and by a discharge of its electric organs attacks at once
the heart, the viscei'a, and the gastric nerves. After
such a commencement I was afraid that the fishing
would end very tragically indeed; but the Indians
assured me that it would soon terminate, and that the
first assault of the Gymnotes was chiefiy to be dreaded.
In fact after a time, the eels resembled discharged
batteries. Their muscular motion continued active, but
they had lost the {)ower of giving energetic shocks.
When the combat had endured for a quarter of an hour
the horses appeared to be less in fear; they no longer
bristled up their manes, and their eyes became less

expressive of sttffering and terror. They were no
longer seen to fall backwards, and the Gymnotes swim-
ming with their bodies half out of the water, were now
flying from the horses and making for the shore. The
Indians now began to use their harpoons, and by means
of long cords attached to them drew the fish out of the
water, without receiving any shock so long as the cords
were dry.” Professor Faraday made experiments on
two Eleciric Eels that were brought to London and
kept in the Adelaide Gallery. By the galvanic currents
of the fish, needles were magnetized, heat was evolved,
an electric spark was obtained, and chemical decom-
positions efl'ected ; in short, the absolute identitj' of the
nervous currents of the Gymnote with those of a gal-
vanic battery or Leyden jar was completely established.
Professor Owen says that when he grasped the head of
the Gymnote with one hand and the tail with the other,
he received a stroke which was most painfully felt at
the wrists, the elbows, and across the back ; but Pro-
fessor Faraday showed that the nearer the hands were
together within certain limits the less powerful was
the shock, which was given by the parts of the fish only
that intervened between the hands : the current was
always from the head towards the tail. When the two
examples of this fish were brought to England in 1842,
neither of them weighed above a pound, but in 1848
one of tliem had attained to forty, and the oilier to fifty
pounds, so that each of them had gone on nearly doub-
ling its weight in each succeeding year. So common
is the Gymnote in the neighbourhood of Uritucu, that
a route at one time much frequented had been aban-
doned in consequence of the number of mules killed by
these fishes every year in fording a stream that crossed
the way.

Family VII.— HETEROPYGIANS.

With this family we commence the secondfsub-order
of Malacopteres, or that which has ventrals; and as
these fins are when present in this order always situated
on the belly and are not closely connected to the sca-
pulo-coracoid arch, the sub division has been named
Ahdominales, or Abdominal Malacopteres. The very
forward position of the vent, on the throat, is a char-
acter which the Heteropygians possess in common with
the Gymnotids, and from which they derive their appel-

Malacopterous Abdominals. FISHES. Halecoids. 14,3

lation. These fishes have also minute or rudimentary
eyes, whose optical powers are very low ; a simple air-
bladder, communicating with the intestinal canal; a
caecal stomach ; pancreatic caeca ; and neither pseudo-
branchiae, nor an adipose dorsal. Agassiz is inclined
to consider the group as an aberrant Cyprinoid form,
but reserves his final decision on its position until he
has had an opportunity of investigating the embryology
of the species composing it.

In the recesses of the great cave of Kentucky, miles
under ground, there are waters which no ray of sun-
light ever reaches, and which are inhabited by blind
insects and blind fishes. Dr. Wyman examined four-
teen of these fishes {Amblyopsis spelceus), and in three
or four of them only was he able to detect an e3'e-ball
beneath the skin. These he dissected and found that
the eye was wholly covered by areolar tissue, and was
not organized to receive images of external objects.
Slender optic nerves were detected, but he could not
trace them to the optic lobes of the brain, though they
doubtless proceeded from thence. The family com-
prises two genera, Amblyopsis and Chologaster, the
latter having like the former a guttural vent, but
possessing eyes, and wanting ventrals. It is therefore
an apodal, and furnishes one of many instances in zoo-
logy of the way in which nature oversteps our artificial
classification.

The Malacopteres with abdominal ventrals which
follow, belong mostly to the great Linntean genera,
Clupea, Salmo, and Cyprinus, and are treated ot in
much detail in the xvii., xviii., xx., and subsequent
volumes of the Histoire des Poissons. They have
cj'^cloid scales, a few only being scaleless ; and the
bones of the head, cheeks, gill-covers, and shoulder,
are generally destitute of serratures and spinous points.

Family VIII.— CLUPEOIDS or HALECOIDS
{Clupmdas). — Plate 3, figs. 13, 17.

This, which includes the Herrings, may be considered
as the most important, or at least as one of the most
important families of fish, viewed in respect of the
quantity of wholesome food they furnish to man. It
may be characterized as follows : — Scaly abdominal
Malacopteres having generally elongated and greatly
compressed bodies, with thin, trenchant bellies most
generally denticulated by a series of small dermal bones
interposed between the points of each pair of ribs.
Dorsal fin always solitary; ventrals situated near the
middle of the body ; no spinous rays in any of the fins.
In common with the Salmonoids they have moderately
long premaxillaries which join with the maxillaries to
form the upper border of the mouth ; the maxillaries
are composed of three pieces, which separate readilv’.
Gill-openings are on each side, large, joining the isthmus
far forward between the limbs of the mandible; branchial
rakers long and narrow, projecting towards the mouth;
no pseudo-branchiae. Ribs long and slender, with thread-
like epipleural spines diverging from them and from
the vertebral apophj'ses. Stomach caecal, often fleshy ;
pj’loric caeca numerous and long. Cva very numerous,
and like the milts towards spawning time, occupying
much space in the belly. Air-bladder always large

and communicating through a slender tube with the
point of the caecal cone of the stomach, or in some
species with the dorsal side of that viscus or of the
oesophagus ; rarely does the air-bladder divide poste-
riorly into long conical processes ; its anterior end is
always simple, generally pointed, and does not pass
farther forward than the first spinal vertebra ; neither
are there any ossicles connecting it with the acoustic
capsules, as in the Cyprinoids, nor has it any communi-
cation with the cavity of the skull.

The Clupeoid or Halecoid family contains the following
genera — Clupea; Sardinella; llarenyula ; Pellona ; Prisli-
gasier; Rogenia; Clupeonia; Spratella; Kowala; Meletta;
Alausa; Engraulis; Coilia; Odontognathus or Gnathohulus ;
Chatoessus ; Amblogaster (Bleeker) ; Clupcichtliys (id.).

This family is of great importance to man in all
quarters of the world ; and, of its members, the
Herring {Clupea harengus) merits the first place. For
many centuries it has been the object of a great fishery
in the English seas, but the records of it go no farther
back than to Anglo-Saxon times, and the Welsh appel-
ations of the fish, Fennog and Ysgadeyi, or the Gaelic,
Sgadeii (pronounced Scatten) have not found a place
in the commercial vocabulary. Neither have the Scan-
dinavian terms. Sill or Slid, obtained general currency.
Artedi derives the Latin name Harengus from the
German Haring (in Dutch Haring). M. Valenciennes
thinks that the origin of this German word may have
been the Latin aresco, to diy, while Pennant attributes
it to the German heer, a host, but neither etymology
is satisfactory. The Roman word, Alec or Halec.
denoting any small marine fishes that are salted, as
well as a garum made from them, could, as used by
Horace, Martial, and Plinj', have no reference to the
northern Herring, which does not enter the Mediter-
ranean, yet it was the ecclesiastical name for the latter
at the time of the Norman conquest. In Doomsday
Book, Dunwich is taxed at sexaginta millia alectum
(sixty thousand Herrings), and the same word, Alec,
occurs in the work on natural history written about the
year 1 1 80 by the Abbess of Hildegard de Pinguia. The
Anglo-Saxon Hcering, probably even more ancient than
the German Haring, since it belongs to a maritime
people, has kept its ground in England, with slightly
modified spelling, and the Herring fishery can be traced
to an earlier date in England than on the continenL

In the charter of foundation granted to the monastery
of Barking by Erkenwald, bishop of Loudon, circa a.d.
680, allusion is made to the salting and smoking of
Herrings ; the barrel is ordered to contain five hundred
of them, and the levy of these fishes for the use of the
monks in Lent is called herring-silver. Mention is
likewise made of the Herring in the instructions for
managing the revenues of the monastery' of Evesham
in Worcestershire, founded in 700 by Bishop Edwin.
Edward the Confessor bestowed on the Abbey of
Fecamp a Cheshire salt-work to provide the monks
with salt for their Herrings ; and at the time of the
Conquest very numerous salt-pans in the Isle of Wight,
and along the eastern coasts, were allotted to those
who canned on the Herring fishery. Even at that
early date, Yarmouth in Norfolk was the rendezvous of
Herring fishers from various parts of England, France,

Malacopteuous Abdominals.-

144

FISHES. Haleooids.

and Flanders. Laws were made for the regulation
of the fishery, and its commencement fixed to be on
the feast of St. Michael (September 29), and its close
on that of St. Martin (July 4). In 1128 Henry I.
appointed a mayor to govern the burgh and the fishery,
and to pay over to the crown a ro3'alty of ten thousand
Herrings. Dunwich, then a strong walled town, paid
twelve thousand to the monks of Ely, and twelve
thousand to those of Eye ; but this tax was remitted
by King John, owing to the town having gone to
decay through the encroachments of the sea, which
now flows over its site. An act called the “ Statute
of Herrings” was passed in the reign of Edward III.
lied Herrings and Bloaters seem to have been cured
chiefly at Yarmouth, and the German commercial
designation of them was “English Red Herrings in
straw.” King John granted a charter to Yarmouth, of
which one of the conditions was the presentation of
twenty-four Herring-pies to the king through the
sheriff of Norwich. Red Herrings are mentioned in
an inquisition held in the reign of Henry HI. ; and in
the time of Edward I. they were sent from Yarmouth
to London by the last. The best pickled Herrings
were then sold at twenty the penny, fifteen Eels brought
the same price, and Soles were threepence a dozen.
Edward H. wrote three letters to Haco VI. complaining
of the arrest and oppression of certain English mer-
chants trading to Norway with Herrings and other
commodities. The Earl of Northumberland’s house-
hold book, kept in the reign of Henry VII., mentions
Whyt Herring, Rede Herring, Stockfish, Saltfish, Salt*
Salmon, Salt Sturgeon, Salt Eels, &c., among the
articles of diet to be provided for his famil}^

The Scotch Herring fishery was, according to
Anderson, in a flourishing state in the days of Gregory
the Great, contemporary with Alfred. Many acts of
the Scottish parliament were passed between 1148
and 1284 for its encouragement, and for providing
salt for the same; and ever since the Herring
fisher}' has been considered to be of great national
importance. The curing of Red Herrings does not
appear, however, to have been at any time carried on
with success in Scotland, though attempts were made
to introduce it. In the reign of James VI., a.d. 1613,
Archibald Campbell was privileged to bring in strangers
to make Red Herrings.

Brill is the first port from wdience the Dutch
carried on a regular Herring fishery, and its records
go no farther back than 1164. The art of salting
the fish was greatly improved by William Buckelz
or Beukelen of Biervliet, who died in 1397. His
process gave a pre-eminence to the Dutch cured Her-
rings, which they still retain, and he was considered
to be so great a benefactor to his country that the
Emperor Charles V. honoured his memory by visiting
his tomb.

The earliest documents relating to the Herring
fisheries of France are dated in 1030. The charter of
the abbey of St. Catherine, near Rouen, mentions the
existence in the valley of Dieppe of five salt-pans and
five sheds {salines et mnsures) wherein five thousand
Herrings were cured, and Robert, Duke of Normandy,
granted to the abbey of Fdcamp, in 1088, permission

to hold a fair during the Herring season. These
Norman fisheries then, and for more than a century
afterwards, supplied Herrings to Paris and the country
drained by the Seine. In the year 1859 the Herring
fishery carried on from Boulogne employed fifteen
hundred men, one hundred and nine boats, and pro-
duced four thousand five hundred and fourteen lasts of
fish,* valued at £118,000.

In 1855 Scotland cured seven hundred and sixty-six
thousand barrels of pickled Herrings, and exported
half of that quantity — employing in the business forty
thousand seaman, eleven thousand boats, and twenty-
eight thousand curers and labourers. The average
annual produce of the Scotch Herring fishery for forty-
three years is four hundred and sixteen thousand barrels.
The general sea-fisheries of Ireland, when most flourish-
ing, employ about ninety-three thousand people ; but in
1856 the number so engaged was only forty-seven thou-
sand, and of the boats, twelve thousand. London
receives annually, at Billingsgate, two hundred and
seventy-eight millions of Bloaters,j' and fifty millions of
Red Herrings.

As the Herring has not been observed to pass
Rochelle in the Bay of Biscay, the southern limit of its
range may be stated at about the forty-sixth parallel of
latitude, and some minor sculls only go so far ; few of
any consequence passing the capes of Normandy on the
forty-eighth parallel. Its chief haunts are the seas
encircling the British isles, or washing the coasts of
Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, including the Baltic.
It is comparatively a scarce fish on the coasts of Iceland,
and though Herrings occur in the Arctic seas, they are
of small size, and their specific identity with the true
Herring has not been established by a careful compa-
rison of specimens. The Halecoid called the Pierring
on the Atlantic coasts of North America, is, according
to M. Valenciennes, a different species from the Euro-
pean one. The notion formerly entertained of the
Herring descending from under the Polar ice in vast
columns to the localities we have named, and then
retiring again to the north to breed, was not founded
on exact observation, and has been abandoned. On
the contrary, it is certain that these fishes do spawn in
the Channel, and in the bays and fiords that they enter ;
the eggs having often been found by fishermen adher-
ing to sea-weeds, oystei’-shells abandoned by the
molluscs, and other substances lying at the bottom of
the water; and the Herrings themselves have been
occasionally observed, in shallow water, within half a
mile of the shore, rubbing their bodies against stones
with such vivacity, to promote the expulsion of the
roe, as to detach part of their scales, while towards
sun-rise the quantity of milky secretion from the milt
gave a tinge to a great extent of sea. After the Her-
rings have deposited their eggs, they put out to sea,
and do not return again towards the shore except in
small sculls. A few stray ones sometimes ascend a river
to the fresh-water, and instances of such occurrences

» A last of Herrings contains twent}' cades, or a thousand,
every thousand ten hundred, and every hundred six score. Of
unpacked Herrings, eighteen barrels make a last. — (Mortimer’s
Dictionary of Commerce.)

t “Blote,” according to Hallowel, means “dried;” and
“ bloat,” “ dried in smoke.”

Malacopterous Abdominals. FISHES. Halecoids.

in the Thames, the Tay, and the Seine, are recorded,

Though the Shad and some other Halecoids enter rhe

but they are not frequent. The haunts of the great

British rivers, the Common Herring is not generally

sculls are supposed to be in deeper water, beyond the

believed to do so, at least in any considerable numbers.

reach of nets, but at no great distance from their

far less to pass the winter in them. But Mr. Ffennell,

spawning places, so as to admit of sculls coming towards

inspector of fisheries, stated in 1853 to the Natural

the shore at all seasons of the year, which is the

History Society of Dublin, that he had obtained Her-

case at one station or another. The great fishery

rings from the Lakes of Killarney, whbi'e they are

commences, James Wilson says, in May, off the

named by the fishermen Goureens. To remove doubts

eastern side of Lewis; at midsummer extends along

it would be satisfactory to compare a Goureen with an

the western and eastern shores of Scotland ; and con-

oceanic herring and also with the Coreguni, which are

tinues until August, when it reaches its maximum off

popularly named Fresh-water Herrings.

Caithness. In Loch Fine, and other western sea-lochs,

The Sprat {Harengula sprattus) is another Clu-

the fishery endures into the winter. In Yarmouth

peoid which abounds on some parts of the British

district it commences in autumn and lasts over part of

shores from November through the winter months, and

the winter; and in December it begins again in the

in some seasons is so plentiful as to be sold at sixpence

Firth of Forth, and is carried on there as a winter

a bushel. This low price excludes the Sprat from the

fishery. Finally, in spring the fishery is prosecuted

tables of the rich, but it is excellent when fried, and

at Ballintrae on the Ayrshire coast, though the fish are

furnishes a pleasant variety in the diet of the labour-

then spawning, and in bad condition. From this

ing classes. An immense quantity is disposed of in

J

review, we perceive that there are only a few blank

London, and the surplus is used for manuring the hop-

weeks between the end of March and the middle of

grounds of Kent, at a cost of twenty shillings an acre.

May. The young, adds this accomplished ichthyolo-

The White-bait {Rogenia alba), a still smaller

gist, are too often captured in our firths and bays of

species than the preceding, bears a high price and is

the size of sprats, and give sufficient proof that the

reserved for luxurious tables. Great quantities are

retirement of the parent fish to breed in the arctic

consumed by visitors to Greenwich and Blackwall in

regions is a fable. Recent observations made by order

the summer months ; certain taverns being celebrated

of the Dutch government have shown that the appa -

for the manner in which they are served up, the other

rently desultory movements of the Herring-sculls in

delicacies that accompany them, and the high charges

the fishing season, depend on the temperature of the

for the repast. At the close of a session of the British

sea; the Herrings seeking those parts which have

parliament, the ministers have been so much in the

a temperature between 54° and 58° of Fahrenheit.

practice of late years of concluding their labours by

Young Herrings are very abundant among the

eating White-bait at the West India Dock Tavern

Orkney and Zetland islands in summer, and may be

at Blackwall or at Greenwich, that the dinner having

discovered in the sliallow waters all round the British

become almost an institution, its neglect would be con-

coasts. In Yorkshire they are called the

sidered an unpopular if not a dangerous innovation.

Scandinavian name of Sill, belonging to the species.

For long the White-bait was thought to be the fry of

being restricted there to the young.

the Shad, and the Corporation of London as conserva-

There are, however, other Herrings differing widely

tors of the Thames promulgated numerous laws for the

in their habits from the fish of the British seas, which

repression of the illegal fishery, the punishment by fine

have been nevertheless described under the same name

and imprisonment of the fishermen engaged in it, and

by able ichthyologists and observers. Pallas informs

the confiscation of their implements. Annually the

us that Herrings inhabit the arctic seas from the bay of

lord-mayor and his aldermen descended the river in

Ochotsk, round the coasts of Kamtschatka and Siberia

state to detect infringers of their edicts, and to punish

to the Petchora and White Sea, in immense sculls.

with severit3'any incautious and ill-informed fisherman

About the summer solstice numberless bands of these

that they happened to pounce upon; but they concluded

Herrings enter the bays, and find their way into the

the unwonted labours of the day by dining upon White-

fresh-water lakes, where they spawn. Part winter in

bait. The corruption of the waters of the Thames in

the fresh-water, their return to the sea being often

the summer of 1860 was assigned as a reason for the

prevented by bars of gravel which the autumn storms

scarcity of White-bait then prevalent.

throw up. On the approach of the following spring.

The Twaite-shad {Alama vulgaris) and Allice-

the Plerrings daily visit the gravel bars in search of

shad {Alausa communis) are Clupeoids which ascend

openings whereby they may re-enter the sea, which

certain British rivers, and also the rivers of France,

not finding they retire for the night to the depths of

both on the side of the Baj’ of Biscay and of the Medi-

the lakes. The Kamtschatdales profit by their know-

terranean. The Spaniard Ausonius, in his Latin poem

ledge of these facts, and moving with their families to

on the Moselle, celebrates the Alausa of that river.

the bars, make gaps therein, in which they place bag

The Shads are sometimes called l\Iay-fish, in consequence

nets, by which they capture immense quantities of tlie

of their appearing in our rivers in that month ; and

fish. Baron Wrangell says that the Herring season in

sometimes kings or queens of the Herrings, because of

the Yenisei is of vast importance to the natives inhabit-

their resemblance to an overgrown herring. They are

ing the banks of that river ; and Erman in his travels

full of bones and in no great estimation for the table.

through Siberia, mentions the large bands which annu-

On the coasts of the United States there are various

ally ascend the Obi, and seek the sources of its affluents

kinds of Shads having a general resemblance to the

in the Ural mountains, where they pass the winter.

European species, and bearing in the New York market

VoL. II, 75

Halecoids.

146 Malacopterous Abuominals. FISHES.

the names of Common Shad, Menhaden, Hardheads,
Marshbankers, Spring-herrings or Alewives, Summer-
herrings, Sliadines, &c. {Alausa tyr annus, prcEstahilis,
teres, menhaden, shadina,&c.), some of which are largely
consumed in the fresli state, and are said by Dr.
Mitchill to take salt well and to be highly prized as an
article of food by the people.

The Pilchard of Cornwall, which is the Sardine
of commerce {Alaxtsa jnlchardus), is of much greater
economical imj'ortauce than the Shad. It is known on
the coasts of Normandy and Picardy by the names of
CdAin and Celan, at Bordeaux by that of lioyan, and
in the markets of Paris by that of Ilarengs de Bergues.
On the coasts of Spain and Portugal and in the Medi-
terranean, where it is an abundant fish, it is generally
termed the Sardine, Sarda, Sardella, &c. The best
fishery for the Sardines on the French coast, is stated
by M. Valenciennes to be between Belleisle and the
peninsula of Quiberon. The chasse-marees in which
the fishery is carried on are of eight or ten tons burthen,
and have a crew of from six to ten fishermen, including
a master and a brigadier or mate; the rest being work-
ing men, not sailors by profession, but Breton husband-
men who become fishers for the time. The nets are
from fifteen to twenty fathoms long and two and a half
deep, with meshes under an inch in diameter. Nets
with small meshes are named carahins ; and those
which have meshes approaching an inch,/o//es. The
head-rope isibuoyed up with corks, and leads are affixed
to the foot-rope to preserve the erect position of the
net in the water ; some fishermen, however, preferring
to balance the net with the weight of a stout cable as
a foot-rope. Salted fish-roe is used for bait to allure
the fish to the spot, and is named resure, rave, or more
commonly rogue. The roe of the cod is most in request
for this pui'pose ; but the roe of mackerel mixed with
the pounded flesh of that fish is frequently employed —
this kind of bait being brought from Norway, more
especially from Drontheim. Gueldres and Chevrons
are other sorts of baits formed of small crabs and fish-
fry salted, but they are forbidden by law because of
the great quantities of fish-fry that their empdoyment
consumes. The chasse-marde equijjped and manned,
stands out to sea for two or three leagues, and then
the sail being lowered and the mast struck, it is kept
head to wind by the action of the oars alone. After
unshipping the rudder the net is payed over the stern
by the master; and while the boatmen j)ut it on the
stretch by plying their oars, he throws the bait, reduced
to a proper consistence, to the right and left as far as
he can cast it. When the master, judging by the move-
ments of the corks and a quantity of silvery scales
appearing on the top of the water, tliat the net is pretty
full of fish, he loosens its end from the boat to attach
it to a buoy that he had fastened to the other end, and
so quits it for a time. Then, having cast out in the
same manner five or six nets in succession, he waits
until he thinks the meshes are charged with fish, when
he proceeds to take up the first net, and then the others
in succession. The fish which are caught in the meshes
by the neck are next disengaged and covered with salt,
and the boat returns to port, where the Sardines are
expeditiously landed by the aid of Breton women, who

run with baskets of them on their heads. The produce
of the fishery that does not find a ready market when
fresh, is either salted anew, or is preserved in olive oil
or melted butter, to form an article of export to all parts
of Europe. The Sardines that are too large to enter
the meshes of the Breton nets, proceed onwards into
the Channel, increase still farther in size, and acquire
the name of Celan, but are often confounded in the
Paris markets with the common herring. On the
coast of Portugal the Sardine fishery is carried on in
lateen-sailed boats named bean-cods, from their shape,
by English sailors. The plan of fishing is much like
the French one described above, and the fish salted in
bulk and carried to Lisbon, and other markets of the
peninsula, where they are in great request. The Cor-
nish fishery is described in detail in Yarrell’s “ History
of British Fishes,” and in the publications of Jonathan
Couch, Esq., of Polperro, who for many years has
studied the ichthj'ology of that coast. Tliree stations
are particularly mentioned as points of assemblage for
these fishes ; one between the Lizard and the Start in
Devonshire, eastward of which no regular Pilchard
fishery is prosecuted ; a second station lies between
the Lizard and the Land’s-end ; and the third is off
St. Ives. From five to ten thousand is considered a
moderate capture in one night for a single boat, fishing
with drift-nets, but the take often amounts to twenty
thousand ; and the quantities inclosed in sean nets are
frequently such as to be scarcely credible. Borlase
records the capture of three thousand hogsheads at one
time, each hogshead containing from two thousand five
hundred to three thousand fish ; and an instance is
mentioned in Yarrell where ten thousand hogsheads,
amounting to twenty-five millions of fish, were carried
into one port in a single day. The outfit of a sean
costs about £800 ; of a string of drift-nets about .£6 a
net, and the value of the boat is from £100 to £150;
and the whole capital invested in the Pilchard fishery
is estimated at £450,000. The wages of the fishermen
depend on the success of their labours. A pilchard or
star-gazing pie, with the heads of the fish protruding
through the crust, is a dish peculiarly Cornish. Cam-
den tells us that in his day the “ Pylchard” fishery
was prosecuted from July to November with great
success on the Cornish sea; and that the fish, when
salted, smoked, and pressed, were exported in vast
quantities to France, Spain, and Italy, under the name
of Fumados.

The Ikan-tamhan of the Malay peninsula {Dussu-
miera acuta) and Tdniban nepis or hdtid {Clupeonia
perferrata) of the Straits of Malacca are prepared like
Sardines in oil. The latter bears a close resemblance
to another Clupeoid of the same seas which is very
poisonous, and is itself said to be poisonous when
its usually silvery eyes become red. In 1822, 1823,
and 1825, many natives of Bencoolen having eaten
of these red-eyed fish, were suddenly seiz-ed with
violent vomiting, which, except when remedies were
immediately resorted to, ended fatally in an hour. It
was surmised that the poisonous fishes had fed on a
gelatinouf substance which at that season exudes from
the beautifully-coloured coral reefs ; but Dr. Cantor,
who relates this circumstance, thinks that the Tdniban

Malacoptekous Abdominals. FISHES. Halecoids. 1 47

was confounded with the Meletta venenosa. In the
Straits of Malacca the Tdrtibaa nepis has not been
known to produce injurious effects.

The Trubu of the Mala3's {Alausa toli) is called
Shad or Sable-fish by the English settlers, and is
valued for its flavour ; it is rich, though oily and full
of bones. In the Indian Archipelago it is the object
of an important fishery, principally for the sake of its
roe. It is the Shad which Mr. Crawfurd mentions as
frequenting the great river Siak in Sumatra, and of
which the roe, that grows to an enormous size, consti-
tutes when dried an article of commerce. The Suma-
tran Shad is described in Moor’s “ Notices of the
Indian Archipelago” in the following passage : — “ At
Bukit Batu, opposite Malacca, within the strait formed
by the island of Bankalis, exists an extensive fishery
well known in this part of the world. The fish which
is the object of it is called in the Malayan language
Trubu, and is sufficiently common in the neighbouring
seas, but is found in roe only here. The Trubu,
about a cubit long, is taken in three or four fathoms
of water on a mud bank. About three hundred boats
are engaged at all seasons in the fisher^', with the
exception of four days during dead neap-tides. The
roes are an article of trade seaward, and the dried
fishes are sent into the interior of Sumatra. The rajah
of Siak draws a revenue of seventy-two thousand guilders
yearly from a fixed duty on the quantity taken. From
the amount of this duty the quantity of fish caught is
ascertained to be between fourteen and fifteen millions.
It seems a little remarkable that the spirit of European
monopoly never should have fastened upon so promis-
ing an object of gain. The fishery, from its peculiar
nature, is probably quite inexhaustible, and might
unquestionably be prodigiously improved by European
.skill and industry, and this, too, not only without
detriment but to the great improvement of the revenue
of the native prince, as well as the essential benefit of
the surrounding population.” “ The roe, called Telur
ikan in the Malayan markets, is, like the preparation
of fermented fish and molluscs named Balachan, largely
used by the IMalays and Chinese to render their food
palatable, and it is no less a favourite relish with Euro-
peans. In Sumatra the roe is prepared as follows : — -It
is thoroughly salted when fresh, and next dried until
only a slight moisture remains, in which state it is
pressed closely by hundreds in a cask for exportation,
the price in the Europe.an Malayan settlements being
from three to four Spanish dollars for the hundred
roes. For export to China it is repacked between
layers of salt and sprinkled with arrack. The roes are
fried for use, being first soaked in water for half an
hour. — (Cantor, Malay Fish.) The ngapwee of the
Birmans is a strong-smelling condiment, prepared of
fish like the Balachan.

The Moss-bonker {Alausa menhaden) is taken in
vast numbers on the coasts of New Jersey, and a valu-
able oil being obtained from them by pressure, the
residue is used for manure. Sometimes a fresh fish is
placed in each maize hillock, with the certainty of pro-
ducing a luxuriant crop. — {Baird.)

The Anchovy {Engraulis encrasicholus), a well-
known fish in commerce, is an inhabitant of the British

seas, and was formerly more abundant there than it is
at the present time. Several statutes were passed in
the reign of William and Mary for the regulation of its
fisheries, but enough is not at present caught to affect
the home market, either from inattention, or because
the species has become too scarce to repay the cost of
a proper fishery. It was plentiful on the coasts of
Brittany a century ago, though no longer so ; but it is
still an inhabitant of all the northern seas, from Green-
land and Norway southwards, and is so abundant in
the Mediterranean that the whole world is supplied
from thence. In Sweden it goes by the name of Ans-
jovis ; in Denmark of Bylding and Moderlbse ; the
Catalonians call it Roqueron and Anchoa ; at Nice it is
named Anchoa; and in the Crimea Chanisa. The
greatest quantities are taken on the coast of Dalmatia,
and the fisheries of it are very productive in the seas
of Sicily, Corsica, Elba, and Antibes. The nets, which
are like those used in the Sardine fishery, are shot in
the night, and all the boats carry lanterns.

To prepare the Anchovies they are thrown into
great tubs full of pickle, from whence the workmen
take them one by one, with much dexterity decapitate
them with the thumb nail and pass them to the packers,
who with equal adroitness lay them side by side in
small kegs, alternating with layers of salt. In a few
days they are sufficiently impregnated with the salt,
and the kegs are then headed in for exportation. The
Anchovy sauce so indispensable for Engli.sh tables
seems to be nearly the same with the garum of the
Romans. Pliny says that this liquor, which he calls
“ precious” and “ exquisite,” was the putrid exudations
of the intestines and other ejected parts of the fish,
called by the Greeks garon. A garum made on the
African coast from the Tunny or some other Scom-
beroid, was prized in noble families next to the dearest
ointments.

Alex was an inferior garum imperfectly strained
from the dregs, and was frequently made clandestinely
from small fishes of little price, and also from oysters,
echinoderms, crabs, and the refuse of mullets, being of
more or less value according to its mode of preparation.
Some kinds of alex were so soft and pleasant that they
could be drank.

A delicious condiment, famed in our Indian posses-
sions under the name of “ Red-fish,” the Il:a,n merah
of the Malays, is prepared at Bencoolen in the follow-
ing manner from another species of Anchovy {Engraulis
brownii, commersonianus or fasciata) termed Bddah
or Bunga ayer by the Malay fishermen. Middle-sized
fishes are preferred, and after the heads have been
removed they are deposited in flat, glazed, earthen
vessels, with salt in the proportion of one part to eight
of fish. They are then covered with plantain leaves
or thin boards, upon which stones are laid, and this
pressure is continued for three days ; after which the
fishes are taken out and soaked in vinegar made from
cocoa palm-toddy, with an addition of ginger powder,
and bruised or entire black pepper, some brandy, and
powdered “ red rice.” After three days more the
fishes are placed in bottles or jars, a little more vinegar
is added, and the air carefully excluded. The condi-
ment should be kept five months before it is used. It

148

Malacopterous Abdominals. FISHES. Salmonoids.

is retailed at a Spanish dollar per quart bottle. Red
rice is a glutinous variety of the common rice steeped
in an infusion of cochineal, and is imported frorh China
at an expense of a quarter of a dollar per pound. The
Chinese settled in the Straits of Malacca prepare a
similar condiment from other fishes {Polynemi) cut
ill slices, and from prawns.

Family IX. — SALMONOIDS (Salmonidce).

Plate 3, figs. 14, 15.

A family composed of Malacopterous Cycloid Ahdo-
domiuals, with a soft rayless second dorsal called an
adipose fin ; the upper border of the mouth formed by
the premaxillaries and maxillavies conjointly ; large
and simple air-bladder, without contractions ; numerous

pyloric caeca ; pseudobranchiae on the gill-cover ; a
moderate number of branchiostegals ; and bony gill-
rakers. The genera are — Salmo, Fario, Salar, Osme-
rus, Mallotus, Argentina, Thymallus, Coregonus, and
Stenodus, comprising the Salmons, Trouts, Graylings,
Gwyniads, and other well-known fishes of our rivers
and lakes. So much has been published on their natu-
ral history, and on angling and other modes of taking
them, in popular works, that we may be excused from
entering into detail here on these subjects. They are
natives of the northern hemisphere, and scarcely go
southwards beyond the 30th parallel of latitude, not
having been detected beyond the northern slope of the
Himalayas and of Mount Atlas in the eastern hemi-
sphere, or the high lands of Mexico in the western, but
they are exceedingly numerous in the temperate and

Fig. 37.

Scouler s Salmon (Salmo scouleri).

colder regions to the north. Many of them which
resemble the Chipeoids in external form, maybe readily
distinguished by the presence of the adipose fin, and
the absence of serratures on the belly.

Large Indian populations are supported in Rupert’s
Land and on the west coast of America by the fisheries
of Salmon and Gwyniads, and the species of the latter
known in Arctic America as the White-fish, is scarcely
equalled, certainly not excelled, by any other fish as
an article of diet. The great St. Lawrence lakes yield
vast quantities to the commerce of the United States ;
and similar species, nearly as much prized, inhabit the
waters of Northern Asia. Mr. Atkinson speaks of the
Omul {Coregonus) as being caught in enormous quanti-
ties in Lake Baikal, from whence it is sent preserved by
salt to all parts of Siberia. He says that it is a deli-
cious fish when fresh, and when pickled is equal to the
best Dutch herring.

Family X.— CIIARACINOIDS {Characinidm).

This family group was by Linnaeus included in bis
comprehensive genus Salmo, but Miiller and Troschel
separated them, expounding their reasons for doing so
ill an able monagraph published in their “ Horae Ichthyo-
logicae.” Most of the family are South American,
African, or Asiatic fluviatile fishes, comparatively few
being oceanic.

They are characterized as Abdominal Malacopteres,
with scaleless heads, but covered on their bodies with
cycloid scales (a few only having naked bodies) ; pos-

sessing no pseudobranchiae ; having the orifice of the
mouth formed of the premaxillaries, maxillaries, and
mandible ; villiform pharyngeal teeth ; a caecal stomach ;
numerous pancreatic caeca ; and an air-bladder divided
into two chambers by a transverse constriction, its
fore-chamber being connected to the acoustic organ by
a chain of ossicles. There are a few instances among
these fish of an air-bladder with one chamber only.
The pneumatic tube issues from the posterior chamber,
or much more rarely from the constriction between the
chambers. Branchiostegals four or five in number.
These fishes generally have smooth bellies, in which
they differ from the Halecoids ; but some, as Tometes,
have the keel of the belly serrated like the herrings.
Like the typical Salmonoids they have an adipose
posterior dorsal fin.

The genera are — Ciirimatvs ; Anodns (Spix); Prochdodus;
Stevardia (Gill); Microdus (Kner); Leporimis; Clnlodus (Mil.
u. Fr.) ; Epicyrtus ; Parodon; iSalminus ; Ilemiodus ; Cithar-
inus ; Schizodon (Agassiz) ; Rhytiodus (Kner) ; Piabuca ; Dis-
tichodus; Nematopoma (Gill); Poscilurichthys (id.); Coryno-
poiiia (id.); Plecoglossus; Tetragunopterus; Bryconops (Kner);
Bryciims; Piubticina; Gaslropelecus; Atesles; Myletes; Tometes;
ilyleus; Mylesinus; Chalceus ; Chalcinus ; Serrasalmo ; Pygo-
centrus ; Pyyopristis ; Catoprion ; Ilydrocyon ; Cytiopotumus ;
Cynodon ; Agoniates ; Xiphorhamphus or Xiphorhynclms ;
Xiphosloma; Salanx ; Uydropardus; Gonostoma; Chauliodus;
Astronesthes (Richardsoii) ; Aplochilon*

The Characinoids may be considered as the tropical

* Erytlirimis and Macrodon placed in this family by Miiller
are, in consequence of wanting the adipose fin, ranged by Agassiz
after the Halecoids. Mulacosteus of Ayres also wants the fin.

/

Malacopteeous Abdominals. FISHES. Characinoids. 149

representatives of the northern Salmon family. Many
of them are important articles of diet with the natives.

The Dorado or Pirayu {Salminm orhignyanus),
which receives its popular name from its bright golden-
yellow colour, appears at times in such quantities in
the rivers Uruguay and Parana as to obstruct the navi-
gation, and the fishermen are said to be able to smell
the passing sculls from a distance. The fish is much
esteemed, and is readily caught by a hook baited with
meat. The Pacd {Prochilodus lincatus), a fish of the
same rivers and also of the Plata, is reported to be
delicious. Like the other species which are numerous
in the Brazils, the lips of the Pacu are remarkably
thick, and are fringed densely with teeth as slender as
hairs. The Nefasch {Disticliodus) is a fish of the
Nile, which lives on water plants, cropping them with
its teeth, that are well-formed for the purpose. Fishing
parties are frequently represented on the walls of the
ancient Egyptian temples, with the dried fish suspended
in the boats ; and Herodotus informs us that fish was
an important article of food to the inhabitants of ancient
Egypt. The rowers are represented as standing to
their oars in these boats.

The Caribitos (Serrasalmo) are Characinoids noted
in all the warm districts of America for their extreme
blood-thirstiness. They are compressed rhomboidal
fish, whose jaws are armed with chisel-shaped, very
sharp teeth, with which they attack bathers, carrying
otf a morsel of flesh at each bite so quickly and cleanly
that the sufferer is scarcely aware at the moment of
the injury he has sustained. If an animal falls into the
water it is speedily devoured by swarms of these carni-
vorous fish ; and Humboldt has reported, though with
some I’eserve, a story which was current when he was
travelling in Venezuela: — A gentleman and his horse
in crossing the Orinoco at a ford were half reduced to
the condition of skeletons before they reached the oppo-
site bank. Though this cannot be literally true, it
shows the popular idea of the voracity of these fishes.
Their haunts are at the bottoms of the rivers, but a
few drops of blood suffice to bring them by thousands
to the surface ; and Humboldt himself mentions that in
some pirts of the Apure, where the water was perfectly
clear and no fish were visible, he could in a few minutes
bring together a cloud of Caribitos bj" casting in some
bits of flesh. The Piranha {Serrasalmo piraya) of
the Rio San Francisco is thus mentioned by M. Auguste
St. Hilaire: — “When the country is in flood the horned
cattle resort to little hills that rise out of the water, and
as these would in their turn be submerged, the inha-
bitants go in little boats to make the animals take the
water and swim to the firm land. In these passages
the poor beasts are exposed to the cruel attacks of the
Piranhas, or Devil-fish, which seldom reach two feet
in length, but which swim in large bands, and have
triangular trenchant teeth in their jaws. If an animal
or a man falls into the water, it is instantly attacked
by these fish, and the bite is as keen as the cut of a
razor.” He adds that the Piranhas have firm flesh, of
a very delicate flavour. The Phagrus of the ancient
Egyptians is supposed by M. Valenciennes to be a
Characinoid, which bears the poetic name in modern
Arabic of Gamor el lelleh (Star of the Night), and in

ichthyology of Citharinus Geoffrcei; and the Kell el
bahr, or River Dog {Hijdrocyon Forskalii), is another
of the same family, believed to be the ancient Lepi-
dotus. These two in conjunction with the Oxyrhyn-
chus, according to mythological fable related by
Plutarch, devoured a certain part of Osiris, when his
body cut up into fourteen pieces had been scattered
over the waters by Typho. Isis, the wife of Osiris,
after a painful search recovered thirteen pieces, and to
supply the absence of the missing one consecrated a
representative of it ; but the fish that in conformity
with their carnivorous habits had made the sacrilegious
abstraction, were ever afterwards held in abhorrence
by the Egyptians. The negroes of Senegal, however,
esteem the Kell el bahr to be a very edible fish, though
its flesh is full of slender ribs. They say that it was
sent by its piscine associates to a far country with
man}" messages, and as an aid to its memory, each fish
with its commission gave it a rib ; being, however, made
prisoner on the way, the messages were never delivered,
and the memorial ribs remained therefore in the bodies
of the fish and of its progeny.

The White-bait of China {Salanx Kecvesii) is a
delicate, pale, semitransparent fish of this family, which
makes its appearance with other luxuries on the break-
fast tables of European residents in the East. The
species of PceciUirichthys inhabiting the rivers of Trini-
dad are there called “ Sardines,” and the Curirnati are
termed “ Silver-fish.”

Family XI.— SCOPELIDANS.— Plate 3, fig. 16.

This group consists of scaly or scaleless fishes with
most generally an adipose fin, which in some is so
tender as to disappear during life. The mouth is
bounded above by the premaxillaries, that extend
from corner to corner, the maxillaries lying behind .;
but in a few genera touching the angle of the mouth.
Pseudobrancbise are present, and the swim-bladder
is generally absent. The eggs, which are large
and single, are discharged througli an ovarian tube,
instead of falling loose into the cavity of the belly, as
in the Salmonoids. Muller separated the Scopelidce
from the Characinidce ; but the characters he at first
relied upon were not found on further investigation of
the species to be sufficiently constant, and they are
generally now comprised in one family. As we have
grouped them, the Scopelidans have the upper lip more
completely formed by the premaxillaries than the
Salmonoids and the Characinoids, large mouths, and a
kind of family aspect. Several genera connect both
groups, on the one side to the Clnpeoids, and on the
other to the Salmonoids.

The genera are — Argyrnpelecus; Siernopfyx; Odontostormis ;
Scopelus; Smtrvs; Saurida; Farionella ; Aulopus; Paralepis;
Alepisaurus; together with Mauroleius; Ichthyocociis; Chloroph-
thalmns; and some others of the Mediterranean ichthyologists,
comprised in the Cuvieran genus Scopelus.

The Kowtoo of the Chinese, or “Dog’s-guts” (Savrus
ophiodon), or the Nehar of the Gangetic fishermen, is
fished in vast numbers on the Malabar coast, at the
mouths of the Ganges, at Canton, and Chusan. The
Hindostanees eat it fresh, and when salted it appears on

150

Mackopterous Abdominals.-

-FISHES.-

-Galaxidans.

the tables of the European residents under the appella-
tion of “ Bombay Ducks,” and may be procured by
rbat name in London.

The genus Saurus has evidently received its name
in allusion to the wide, threatening mouths of the spe-
cies, well furnished with lizard-like teeth, which are

Fig 38.

Brilliant Lamp-fish (Scopelus respleudens).

long, slender, and often barbed. Its members inhabit
the Mediterranean and the tropical and subtropical dis-
tricts of both oceans. The Golpin of Madeira {Alepi-
saurus of Lowe) has a wide gape, armed with long-
lancet-, shaped, exceedingly sharp teeth. One small but
interesting fish is the only member of the family known
on the British coasts. It is the Pearl- side {Scopelus
pennanti), and belongs to a genus of nocturnal fishes
which have soft prominences on the head that shine by
night like a glow-worm. Since naturalists have begun
to investigate marine animals with more ardour, and
the practice of towing small nets after ships has become
frequent, the Scopeles have been discovered in all parts
of the ocean. They are very brilliant little fishes,
ornamented by rows of enchased spots on the sides,
that look like strings of pearls.

Family XII. — GALAXIDANS {Galaxidce).

This small family belongs to the fresh waters of
Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, the Falklands, and
Patagonia, and has received from Europeans visiting
or settling in those countries the name of Trouts.
The Galaxidans have in fact to the uninstructed eye the
aspect of the river trout, being similarly spotted on
the sides ; but they have no scales, and want the adipose
fin. The premaxillaries do not reach the corner of the
mouth, but neither does the maxillary form that part
of the margin of the orifice, a thick fold of the upper
lip interposing. Strong teeth arm the jaws, some of
them so much more prominent than the others as to
obtain the name of canines ; and strong curved ones

Fig. 39.

Gag-tootbed Galaxias (Galaxias brocclius).

exist on the roof of the mouth and on the tongue.
All the members of the family are comprised in the
genus Galaxias.

Family XIII.-IIYODONTS {Hyodontidce).

This is a group of three genera which Linnaeus
would have merged in his great genus Clupea^ and

which, together with the family that immediately
succeeds it, is still a part of the Clupeoids of some
more modern ichthyologists. The Ilyodonts have
compressed bodies ; acutely-keeled bellies ; without ser-
ratures ; and pancreatic caeca, though few in number.
Their stomachs are siphonal; and their mouths are
particularly well armed with teeth on the jaws, vomer,
palatines, presphenoids, lingual and hyoid bones. They

Mackopteuous Abdominals.-

-I'lSHES.-

-Ajiidans.

151

are handsome small fishes, of comparatively little eco-
nomic value.

The genera are — Osteoglossmn; Ischnosoma; and ITyodon;
such species as inhabit the waters of the United States being
called Gold-eyes, Toothed Herrings, Moon-eyed Herrings, and
Shiners.

Family XIV.— ERYTHRINOIDS {Erythrinidce).

This small group, named Erythroidcs by Valen-
ciennes, contains some genera whose true affinities
have not yet been ascertained by ichthyologists. The
Erythrinoids have moderately thick bodies, with rounded
backs and bellies. The upper arch of the mouth is
formed by the premaxillaries, and the maxillaries, arti-
culated to their extremities, are both, together with
the mandible, crowded with small conical teeth. Tire
vomerine mesial line is smooth, but on each side of it
an arched plate of villiform teeth lines the vault of the
mouth. The entire cheek is covered by bony sub-
orbitar scales, followed by two temiwral plates which
are characteristic of the family. The stomach is coni-
cal and siphonal, and the pancreatic creca are numerous.
The ovisacs do not communicate with the cavity of
the belly, and the air-bladder is double ; the roundish
anterior chamber being clothed with a thick, exterior,
loosely-adhering capsule, which is inserted into the
processes of the third and fourth vertebrre, but does
not communicate with the labyrinth of the ear ; the
second chamber is cellular anteriorly, without exten-
sive partitions, but with recesses formed by longitudinal
and transverse bridles and folds of the interior coat.
A pneumatic tube leads from the second chamber to
the top of the oesophagus. They are Characini with-
out adipose fins.

The genera are — Erythrinus ; Macrodon ; Lehiasina ; Pyrr-
Imlina; Umhra; Melanura (Agassiz); Dusswniera; and
Etrumeus.

Of these Umbra and Macrodon want cells in their
simple air-bladder. Valenciennes remarks that Ery-
thrinus agrees with the Salmonoids in the structure
of the face ; with the Cyprinoids in the size of the
lateral occipital openings ; with the Clupeoids in the
parieto-occipital foramina, and in the form of the
basilar occipito-sphenoid bone ; with the Cyprinoids
again in the confiuence of the anterior vertebrre, and
in the existence of a chain of ossicles connected with
the first chamber of the air-bladder, but not reaching
to the vestibule of the ear, as in the Cyprinoids. Most
of the family inhabit tropical or subtropical countries.
Erythrinus cinereus is the “ Waubeen” of Trinidad.
The Macrodons bear the native names of Tareira,
Guavina, and H'dimara in South America ; and one
species {Macrodon ferox) is called Yarrow in the island
of Trinidad (Gill) ; Umbra is the Hundjisch of the
Austrians.

Family XV.— ELOPIANS {Elopidoe).

This family group is distinguished from others by
the presence of a sublingual bone between the limbs
of the mandible and behind the branchiostegal mem-

brane ; also by an unusual number of branchiostegals.
The mouth is like that of the Clupeoids, bordered
above by small premaxillaries, and flanked by long,
free maxillaries. Teeth exist on all the dentiferous
bones, but so fine as to appear merely a roughness.
Body long and rounded, without serratures on the
belly. Dorsal fin situated in the middle of the length.
At the base of the deeply-forked caudal, above and
below, there is a large indurated scale ; and long scaly
appendages are seated in the axillm of the pectorals
and ventrals. The head is naked, and the eyes fur-
nished with a waxy-looking membrane. Stomach
conical; numerous pyloric cseca ; air-bladder large,
forked anteriorly, and communicating with the diges-
tive caudal, but not entering the cranium.

The genera are — Elops and Megalops.

These fish have a variety of local names in the
United States and West Indies, such as Silver-
fish, Round-fish, Herrings, Pounders, Pond King-fish,
Cafl’um, Lisa-francesa, Banana, Caballero, Saballo, and
Savale. In the Red Sea they are termed Machnat ;
in Hindostan, Inagore ; and in China, Chuh-Keaou.
They attain a considerable size, and most of the spe-
cies, though sea-fish, thrive in fresh-water ponds,
where they fatten on the guts of fowls and other gar-
bage thrown to them.

Family XVI.— AMID ANS {Amioedee).

The Mud-fish of the United States have attracted
much attention from ichthyologists on account of the
structure of their air-bladders, and M. Valenciennes
remarks that the single genus Amia of ten or twelve
species constitutes of itself a small family of fishes.
The air-bladder is very large, enveloping the oesophagus
and stomach, and communicating with the digestive
canal near the pharynx. It is forked anteriorly, and
its horns, as well as its lateral and superior parts, are
divided into numerous cells, which expand towards
their bottoms, forming bags. This congeries of cells is
provided with a dense net-work of delicate bloodvessels,
and is therefore believed to act a part in the oxygena-
tion of the blood. The pneumatic tube is very short,
but at the same time very wide, and issuing from near
the anterior fork of the air-bladder, enters the oesopha-
gus by an oblong cleft which has two tumid lips like
those of a glottis. Another characteristic of the Ami-
dans, is a sublingual bone like that of the Elopians.
The naked cranium, supratemporals, snborbitars, and
operculum are sculptured, but the interior of the mouth
is like that of a trout, except that there are no lingual
teeth. The ova drop into the cavity of the abdomen
like those of a salmon. The caudal comes farther for-
ward above than below.

These fish can live for some length of time out of
water, and travel from one piece of water to another.
They have a spiral valve in the crecum, but otherwise
resemble tbe Cyprinoids in the simplicity of the intes-
tinal canal without cseca. They have been considered
to be Ganoids, but the latest observations are against
such an arrangement.

152

Malacoptekous Abdominals. -

-FISHES.■

-Mokmyuians.

Family XVII. — MOEMYEIANS (Mormyridai).

These are longish, compressed fishes, with slender
tails, having a slight expansion at the attachment of
the caudal fin. A thick, scaleless skin envelopes the
head, gill-cover, and the six branchiostegals, leaving
merely a slit to serve as a gill-opening on each side.
Premaxillaries that coalesce on the mesial line, like
those of the Diodon bound the upper part of the small
mouth, the sides being edged by the maxillaries. The
temporal bones are simpler than those of other fishes,
and a peculiar cranial canal conducts to the acoustic
labyrinth. No pseudobranchiai have been found ; the
stomach is globular ; there are two pyloric caeca and a
long slender intestine. The air-bladder is simple. The
arterial bulb has a lateral recess or diverticulum, and
Professor llyrtl has found an inner muscular coat cor-
responding to the outer ones of the Ganoids. Living
among the mud like the Gyinnotids, the Mormyrians
resemble them in some parts of their arterial system.

The genera are — Mormyrus and Mormyvops.

The species are numerous in the Nile, Senegal, and
Congo, and several were objects of worship by the
ancient Egyptians. They are timid, nocturnal fishes,
extremely difficult to catch, but being of high value,
the fishermen pursue them assiduously and bring a few
to the markets of Cairo. They are taken with lines,
furnis'hed with many hooks baited with worms. The
Mormyrus anguillaris is carnivorous, but the other
species are more or less exclusively phytophagous,
which accounts for the small success of fishermen using
the hook and line.

The most noted of the fish held to be sacred by
the ancient Egyptians were the Oxyrhinchus, Phagrus,
and Lepidotus. The two latter have been noticed in
page 149, under the generic names of Citharinus and
llydrocyon, and their dentition corresponds to the
reputation they have obtained as devourers of a part
of Osiris ; but the slender tubular faces of the Mor-
myrians show that they scarcely could deserve to be
ranked with the bloodthirsty Characinoids. The Mor-
myrus oxyrhinchus, however, is considered to be one
of the fishes placed under the ban of the priests of
Osiris. It is well represented by a small bronze
figure that was brought from Egypt by Mr. Salt,
and is now preserved in the museum of the Louvre.
A cut of it is also given in Sir Gardner Wilkinson’s
“ Ancient Egypt.” * We are there told that the
Oxyrhinchus is very commonly represented in the
paintings of Thebes, Beni-Hassan, and Memphis, and
that it was the object of special worship in the city and
Home of Oxyrhinchus. The citizens of that city were
so scrupulous that they would eat of no fish taken with
a hook, fearing that the hook might at some time have
been employed in the capture of the object of their
worship ; and when a net was used the draught was
carefully scrutinized, and should a single Oxyrhinchus
be found among the fishes taken, the whole were
returned into the river. Tlutarch relates that the

• See Series ii. page 250.

Cynopolites having insulted the Oxyrhinchians by
eating of their sacred fish, the latter in revenge
killed and consumed the holy dogs of the Cynopolites,
and thus a religious war ensued between the com-
munities.

Family XVIII.— HEEEING-PIKES {Clupesoddcc).

The fish here grouped under this family designation
were either associated with the Pikes by M. Valen-
ciennes, or considered to be types of other small sections.
Muller at one time thought that he had found a dis-
tinctive character between them and the true Clupeoids
in the absence of pseudobranchia; ; but having afterwards
discovered these organs in the Odontognath, a close
ally of Notopterus, he was led to restore the group to a
place among the Clupeoids. We have thought it expe-
dient, however, to retain the Odontognath with its
strongly serrated belly among the Clupeoids, and to
distinguish the Herring-pikes as a family, by the want
of ventral serratures, the absence of an adipose fin, and
of pseudobranchise. Their upper jaws are formed
laterally by the maxillaries ; a few of them have a
simple swim-bladder ; in some one or two pyloric caeca
are present, while in others these appendages are
wholly absent.

The genera are — Stomias ; Microstoma ; Chirocentrus ; Noto-
pterus ; Arapaima or Sudis ; Ileterotis ; and Butirinas.

These genera are interesting to ichthyologists from
peculiarities of structure. The Bntirins are known in
the West Indies by the names of Banana-fish, Ten-
pounders, and Kakamby ; and on the Gold Coast of
Western Africa by that of Kio-lcio. In Tahiti their
appellation is Mohee.

Sudis, Vastres, or Arapaima, is a genus of fishes
remarkable for their bulk of body and for the size and
strength of their scales. One species discovered by Sir
Eobert Schomburgh is appropriately named the Giant
Sudis, and has a skeleton surpassing that of most other
fishes in the strength and firmness of its bones. Its
scales are almost bon}', and are sculptured on the discs
in dendritic and mosaic patterns ; the thinly-covered
bones of the skull also presenting similar appearances.
These fish abound in Guiana and South America, and
other species inhabit the Senegal and Niger. Skeletons
preserved in our museums measure from three to five
feet in length, and the hyoid-bone, which is used as a
file by the natives of the countries where the genus
exists, is often brought to Europe as a curiosity. The
hyoid-bones from the Amazon are named Lingua de
Paes, and those from the Eio Negra de Para are called
Kuare. As some of these bones belong to species not
yet described, the attention of travellers should be
turned to finding and preparing the fish which produce
them. Castelneau says that the fishermen of South
America often mentioned the singular afiection of the
female Piraruca (Sudis) for its progeny. It defends its
eggs with vigour against the male fish, which seeks to
devour them, and affords shelter in its mouth to the
young fish when they are in danger. The fishermen
ascribe the same habits to the large Siluroids.

MaLACOPTEKOUS ABUOillNALS.-

-FISHES.-

-Cypkinoius.

153

Family XIX.

LUCIOIDS {Esocidce).
19.

Plate 4, fii

These are scaly abdominal Malacopteres having no
adipose fin, but possessing covered glandular pseudo-
branchiae on the inside of the gill-cover, and also diffuse
vascular ramifications on the inner side of the skin,
which are peculiar to the family. It consists of a
single genus {Esox), the type of form being the well-
known Common Pike or Luce. The orifice of the mouth
is formed above in the middle by the premaxillaries, and
on the sides by the maxillaries ; these bones with the
vomer and palatines being, as well as the pharyngeals,
set with strong card-like teeth, and being, moreover,
very movable on each other. The stomach is siphonal,
there are no pancreatic caeca, and the swim-bladder is
simple. The Pike bears a variety of names in Great
Britain : as Pickerel, Jack, and Luce in England; Gedd
in Scotland ; and Penhwyad in Wales. Individuals
weighing sixty-nine pounds have been taken in Loch
Lomond and Lough Neagh. The North American
lakes contain a variety of species, some of them attain-
ing a large size. '

Family XX. — CYPRINODONTS {Cyprinodontidca).

Plate 4, fig. 18.

These are small fishes that exist abundantly in the
warmer temperate districts of both hemispheres, and

were originally described as tooth-bearing Carps. They
resemble the Cyprinoids in habit, but have slender
teeth on the jaws, and want the large under pharyngeal
teeth, as well as the opposing basi-occipital tubercles;
their upper and under pharyngeal teeth being slenderly
card-like. No bone corpuscles were detected by Kbl-
liker in their skeletons. The maxillaries are like those
of the Cyprinoids, and the protractile, dentiferous pre-
maxillaries border the upper half of the mouth. The
simple swim-bladder is not connected with a chain of
acoustic ossicles ; there are no pseiidobranchim and no
pancreatic caeca. The stomach is siphonal, and the
branchiostegals are more than three, being usually five
or six. Some members of the family are viviparous.

The genera are — Belonesus (Kaup) ; Pcecilia ,• MoUnesia ;
Xiphophorus (Heckel) ; Cyprinodon ; Funduhis ; Hydrarnyra ;
Gambusia; Gimrdinus ; Limia (Mem. sobre la Hist. Nat. de
Cuba, par Poey) ; Grundulus ; Orestias; a.nd Anableps.

Some Cyprinodons inhabit very isolated pieces of
water, such as wells in the oases of the African deserts.
Artesian wells in Algeria, and the hot-springs of Canea
in Ceylon.

Family XXI.— CYPRINOIDS.— Plate 4, fig. 20.

This family may be characterized as an assemblage
of Malacopteres having single dorsals, ventrals on the
abdomen, and bodies covered with cycloid scales that
do not extend over the head and face : one or two
genera only are scaleless. The orifice of the mouth is

Fig. 40.

Sublime Chondrostome or Tsungyu of China.

small and toothless, and is bordered above by the pre-
maxillaries only, the maxillaries l3dng behind them.
Teeth exist on the inferior pharyngeals alone, and they
are incorporated with the bones rising from them in
one or more rows, to oppose by their ci’owns or cusps
a cartilaginous or bony tubercle which is imbedded in
the basi-occipital. The palate is soft, pulpy, granular,
VoL. II. 76

and sensitive ; the branchiostegals are three only ; and
the biserial gills four. Seated deeply beneath the lining
of the gill-cover there are vaso-ganglionic pseudo-
branchiffi. The swim-bladder is divided by one or
more narrow necks into successive chambers, the fore-
most of which is encased in a thick, soft, fibrous capsule,
and is connected with the acoustic organs by chains of

154 Malacopterous Abdominals. FISHES. Acanthopsides-

small bones ; the second air-chamber communicates
with the gullet by a long tube.

The Cyprinoid genera are divided by Heckel into three tribes : —

1st. The Tiiick-lippep.s {Pacliychili) — Cyprinus; Osleo-
hrama; Carpio; Carassius; Tinea; Barhus; Gubio; Anlopyye;
Rhodius (Agassiz); Abramis; Blicca; Blicco27sis ; Pe/ecus ;
Alburmts; A spins (Agassiz): Leucaspius; Idus ; Scardinius;
Leucos ; Leuciscus ; Sqvalius ; Telestes ; Phoxinus ; and
Phoxinellv.s. These are European genera, some of wliich embrace
also Asiatic species, and a purely Asiatic genus, Epaheorhyn-
chus of Sleeker, is to be added to them.

2nd. Prone-moutukus (Catastomi), having thick, papillose,
or furrowed lips ; and incorporated with the pharyngeal bone a
crescentic series of pharyngeal teeth, whose crowns adapted for
grinding are compressed yet broader than their stems — Cata-
sloynus ; Moxostoma ; Cyckptiis ; Ptychostom’is ; ITylomyzon ;
Rhinichthys; Carpioides ; Jchtliyobiis ; Crossocheilos (Sleeker);
Lobocheilos (id.); and Bubalichthys (id.). These are American
genera, including comparatively very few European or Asiatic
representatives.

3rd. Cutting-i.ippers (C%on<frostow?i), in which the mandi-
ble is sheathed by an almost cartilaginoits lip, whose edge is
thin and incisorial. They are numerous in Asia, and perhaps
still more so in America, but Europe nourishes only one repre-
sentative of the group — Ckondrostoina ; Acrocheilns ; Exoglos-
sum; Campylostoma; Pimephales ; Jlyloborhynchus ; Ilytobo-
gnathus; Ptychocheilus ; Mylocheilus; Aspidoparia ; and Caila.

Many genera of Asiatic Cyprinoids proposed by Dr. M‘Clelland
and others, I'equire to be more fully described before their correct
position can be ascertained. Such are — Peiecus; il/oZa (Blyth) ;
Oreinus (M'Clelland) ; Systomus (id.) ; Perilamjyus (id.) ; Opsa-
rius (id.) ; Capbeta (id.) ; Nuria (id.) ; Dangila (Valenciennes);
Chela; Bengala; Polia; Cirrhinus; Psilorhynchus; Sekisothorax;
Racoma ; Devario (Heckel) ; Schisojiyge (Sleeker) ; Labio ;
Rohila ; Pylognathus (Heckel) ; Biscognathvs (id.) ; Cyrene
(id.) ; and Platycara (McClelland). Labio and the four fol-
lowing genera form the group called Pennochitce by Heckel.

The Cyprinoids are, more exclusively than almost
any other large family, fresh-water fishes, though some
species descend the rivers into the brackish waters of
estuaries or inland seas. Most of them flourish and
multiply in ponds. Their cultivation has been much
attended to in China, whose teeming populations derive
great quantities of food from this family of fishes.

In America the Catastomi, or Sucking-carps, are
most abundant, and yield wholesome supplies to the
natives all the year round, up to the northern extremity
of the continent.

The British species are — The Common Carp
{Cgprinus carpio) ; the Crucian Carp {Carassius lin-
nai) ; the Prussian Carp (C. gibelio) ; the Gold Carp
{C. auratus) ; the Barbel {Barbus fluviatilis) ; the
Gudgeon {Gobio fluviatilis) ; the Tench {Tinea vul-
garis) ; the Bream {Abramis brama) ; the Bream -flat
{Blicca argyroleuca) ; the Pomeranian Bream {Blic-

copsis hvggenbagii) ; the Eudd {Scardinius erythroph-
talmus) ; the Azurine {Sc. ccendeus) ; the Ide {Idus
idbarus) ; the Chub {Id. melanotus) ; the Dobule {Squa-
lius dobula) ; the Dace {Sq. leuciscus) ; the Graining
{Sq. lancastriensis) ; the Roach {Leuciscus rutilus) ;
the Bleak {Alburnus lucidus) ; the Minnow {Phoxinus
loivis).

Cuvier remarks that the name of the Carp, though
mentioned by Aristotle and Pliny, does not occur in
Ausonius, and thence infers that at the end of the fourth
century, when the Bordeaux poet wrote, the Carp, which
came from the East, had not reached the Moselle. It
is not included in the ample list of fish served up at
the feast held in 1466 at the enthronization of the Arch-
bishop of York ; but fifteen years later the prioress of
St. Alban’s, Dame Juliana Berners, in her “Boke of St.
Alban’s,” printed in 1481, calls it “ a deyntous fisshe.”
This passage was doubtless unknown to Leonard Mas-
call, who claims to have introduced Carp and Pippins
into England in the year 1600. The suppression of
the monasteries had probably caused the Carp ponds
to be neglected.

Family XXII.— ACANTHOPSIDES {Acanthopsidai).

Plate 4, fig. 21.

Fishes of this small family have generally a fusiform
body, with tliickish tails and a small head, covered
with smooth skin as far back as the gill- openings. The
preorbital scale-bone, and frequently the bony opercu-
lum, emit one or more spines, in which respect they
differ from the Cyprinoids. Suctorial lips and barbels
surround the orifice of the small toothless mouth A
short dorsal, destitute of bony rays, stands over the
ventrals. Small scales clothe the body ; the gill-open-
ings are short vertical slits; and the branchiostegals are
three in number. No pseudobranchiae are developed.
A globular bony cell, constructed in processes of the
large anterior vertebra, receives the swim-bladder, from
whence chains of bones extend towards the acoustic
organs.

The genera are — Cobifis; Boiia; Acantliopsis; Apw (Blyth);
Prostheacanthns (BhUh); Fangio (id.); Syncrossus (id.);
Schistura (M'Clelland) ; Homoloptera (Kuhl et Van Hasselt);
and Balitora (Gray).

This last form is depressed, is furnished with large
spreading ventrals and pectorals, and has no air-blad-
der. The Loach or Beardie {Cobitis) and the Ground-
ling {Acanthopsis) are British representatives of these
genera.

Order VI.— SILUROID S.

Fishes of this order have either a smooth naked skin
or a lateral line protected by keeled scales, which are
sometimes so expanded as to encase the whole body,
each side being protected by one row above, and
another below the lateral line. In the second family
of the order the scales are disposed in more numerous

rows. The cranial and humeral bones often appear on
the surface, forming with some of the interspinous
bones shields of various forms ; and the skeletons differ
considerably from those of the common osseous fishes.
The sub-operculum is wanting, and the epicoracoid is
reduced to the condition of a mere process of the cora-

SiLUROiDS. FISHES. Glanidians. 155

coid. There are no pancreatic c^ca. There is some-
times only one dorsal, but more commonly two ; the
second being adipose, or in a few species only supported
in front by a bony ray; the caudal is forked, crescentic,
or rounded at the epd. In almost all cases the first
pectoral is a strong, bony serrated ray, which is sus-
tained by a stout scapulo-coracoid arch ; and a similar
strong ray often stands in front of the dorsal,' and is not
unfrequently furnished with a trigger-like apparatus
for fixing and releasing it at the pleasure of the fish.
Fossil bones of this kind are abundant in some strata,
and are known by the name of Ichtliyodorulites. When
the air-bladder is present, it is furnished with a pneu-
matic tube ; hence those who consider the Siluroids to
be merely a family group, place it among the Physos-
tomi of Muller.

Family I. — GLANIDIANS {SiluridcB).

Plate 4, figs. 22, 23.

To avoid using the same designation for the family
that Agassiz has applied to the order, we have bor-
rowed an epithet from Aristotle. The Glanidians iire
a very large family, and resemble the Malacopteres
and also the Ganoids, in having a pneumatic tube to
the air-bladder. Their skins are either naked, or
encased in the expanded plates of the lateral line ; the
mouth is bordered above by the premaxillaries, the
maxillaries being reduced to mere vestiges, or elongated
into soft, flexible barbels : all have barbels either at
the nostrils, or on the borders of the mouth. The
swim-bladder is connected to the acoustic organs by

Fig. 41.

chains of ossicles ; the cavity of the cranium is closed
laterally, as in the Cyprinoids; and the posterior bones
of the skull are generally prolonged to furnish sutures
with the first vertebral spines. The stomach has a
sac-like protuberance below the pylorus ; and the
branchiostegals vary in number from nine to eighteen.

The genera are — Silurus ; Glanis (Agassiz) ; Sckilbes ; Ce-
topsis ; Bagrus ; Cephalocassis (Bleeker) ; Gargota (id.) ; Hara
(Blyth); Plafgstoma ; Galeiehihys ; Pangasivs ; Silundia ;
Sciades (Miill. nnd Trosch.) ; Ariodes (id.) ; Eutropius (id.) ;
Osteogeneiosus (Bleeker); Arius; Asterepbgsus (Kner);
Batracliocephalus (Bleeker) ; Clarotes (Kner) ; Pime-
lodus; Hemipimelodus (Blyth); Pimelonotus (Gill);
Syneckoglanis (id.); Amhlyceps; Rita (Bleeker); Baga-
rim (id.); Euanemus (Miill. und Trosch.); Erethistcs
(id.); Auchenipterus ; Ketengus (Bleeker); Callophysus
(Mull, und Tr.) ; CentromocJilna (Kner) ; Trachy-
lopterm ; Hypopthalmus ; Ageneiosus ; Glypiosiemon
(Blyth); Glyptoihorax (id.); Pseudec/ieneis (id.);
Exostoma (ii.)-, Synodontis; Doras; Callichthys ; Hop-
losternum (Gill); Uoplosoma (Swains.); Arges; Brontes;
Astroblepus; Clarias; Heterohranchus; Saccobranchiis ;

Plotosus ; Trychomycterus ; (Rheinhardt);

PorejWora (Kner); Bunocephalus(\dy,Aspredo; Chaca;

Sisor; Malapterurus; Ailia; Eremophtlus.

The Rita represented by the woodcut is very
strongly mailed, and is a fish of a disagreeable
aspect, common in the mouths of the Ganges,
but few of the natives venture to eat it. It
grows to the length of four feet.

The Sheat-fish {Silurus glanis) is considered to be
the largest of European fresh-water fishes. Pliny
describes it as second in size to the marine Tunny

alone, as devouring all animals that it meets with, and
as frequently drowning horses that attempt to swim
across the rivers that it inhabits. The “ Histoire des
Poissons” mentions that in modern times one was taken
in the Bug which measured sixteen feet in length ; and,
quotes Grossinger, who relates that, on the confines of
Turkey, a poor fisherman captured one of those omni-
vorous fishes which had in its stomach the entire corpse
of a woman, with a ring and a purse filled with money !
Sibbald mentj‘^>'\s the Sheat-fish in his list of Scottish

Fig. 42.

The Kita (Arius rita).

fishes, but gives no details, and no other ichthyologist
has seen a British example.

The Glanis of the ancient Greeks, which inhabits
the river Achelous in Acarnania, and at this day bears

156

SlLUROIDS.-

-FISHES.-

-Glanidians.

the name of Glanidi (in the plural Glanidia), is of a
nearly allied genus. Aristotle says that the Glanis is
conspicuous among river fishes for the care that it takes
of its young; for the female having discharged its
eggs and departed, the male sets himself to watch the
precious deposit, and keeps off other fishes for forty or
fifty days, by which time the young have grown suffi-
ciently to escape from their enemies. Agassiz, speaking
of another member of the family, says. Who can see the
Cat-fish {Pimelodus catiis) move about with its young,
like a hen with her brood, or the Sun-fish {Poniotis
vuhjaria) hovering over its eggs, and protecting them
for weeks, without remaining satisfied that the feeling
which prompts these acts is of the same kind with that
which attaches the cow to its calf? The fishermen of
South America report that many of the large Siluroids
open their mouths for the reception of their young
brood when danger presses, and return them to the
water in safety when no longer threatened. This
report is sustained by the observations of several
travellers, who have observed multitudes of young
fishes dropping alive from the mouth of an old one of
the same species that has been speared.

Fig. 43.

Atipa (Callichthys thoracatus).

According to Mr. Hancock, the Hassars {Doras and
Callichtlnjs), locally named Yarrow, Atipa, Tamoata,
and Mana, travel in the dry season overland in search
of water, moving over the meadows in dense columns,
and when the ponds dry up, burrowing into the mud.
In the rainy season they make regular nests of leaves,
and carefully cover up their eggs, which, during the
process of hatching, are assiduously watched and
courageously defended, by both males and females.
The Callichthys wants the air-bladder.

Aristotle mentions a fish by the name of Choiros, or
Pig, as inhabiting the river Clitor in the Mediterranean,
and as being one of the fishes that have the power of
emitting sounds. The Choiros is enumerated by Strabo
among the fishes of the Nile ; and it is said that the
spines on its head prevent the Crocodiles from attack-
ing it. It is admitted by authors to be a Glanidian,
but the species has not yet been determined. M.
Valenciennes ascribes the sounds which some fishes
produce to the escape of air from their large swim-
bladders, acted upon by strong muscles. This, if
considered to be the only cause of such sounds, would

confine their production to the Physostomi, which have
the power of expelling air ; but we have already men-
tioned the Gurnards, whose swim-bladders are closed,
as being remarkable for grunting.

The following extract may be compared with what
has been said on the subject of sounds uttered by
fishes at page 125 : —

On occasion of a visit to Batticaloa, on the north
coast of Ceylon, in September, 1848, Sir Emerson
Tennent made inquiries relative to the musical sounds
alleged to issue from the bottom of the lake. The
fishermen vouched for the truth of the story, stating
that the sounds are heard only during the dry season,
and cease when the lake is swollen by the freshes
after rain.

“In the evening,” says Sir Emerson, “when the
moon had risen, I took a boat, and accompanied the
fishermen to the spot. We rowed about two hundred
yards north-east of the jetty, by the fort gate. There
was not a breath of wind, and not a ripple, but that
caused by the dip of our oars ; and on coming to the
point ahead}" mentioned, 1 distinctly heard the sounds
in question. They came up from the water like the
gentle thrills of a musical chord, or the faint vibra-
tions of a wine-glass when its rim is rubbed by a
wet finger. It was not one sustained note, but a
multitude of tiny sounds, each clear and distinct
in itself ; the sweetest treble mingling with the
lowest bass. On applying the ear to the wood-
work of the boat, the sound was greatly increased
in volume by its conduction. They varied con-
siderably at different points as we moved across
the lake, as if the number of animals from which
they proceeded was greater in particular spots;
and occasionally we rowed out of hearing of them
altogether, until on returning to the original
locality, the sounds were at once renewed.

This fact seems to indicate that the causes of
the sound, whatever they may be, are stationary
at their several points ; and this agrees with the
statement of the natives, that they are produced
by mollusca, and not by fish.”*

Prenadillas {Arges cyclopum — Plate 4, fig. 23 —
and Brontes iirenadilld) are small fishes which issue
from the bowels of the earth in torrents of muddy and
smoking water flowing from crevices in the sides of
South American volcanoes, elevated sixteen or seven-
teen thousand feet above the sea. Near Ibarra, and
at other places, such vast quantities of these fish have
at various times been cast on the land as to cause very
fatal epidemic fevers. The eyes of these subterranean
Glanidians are very small, like those of other fishes
inhabiting caverns.

The Clarias, Hales, or Heterohranchxis, and Sac-
cobranchus, have branching supplementary leaflets
springing from their gills, which spread in shrub-like
tufts over the superior pharyngeals.

The Stegophilus insidiosus of Reinhardt has the
operculum set with curved spines, which most probably
serve the same purpose with similar organs in a group
of Hypostomes, namely, to enable the fish to attach

♦ Ed. Rev., Oct., 1859.

Lophobkanchs. FISHES. Syngnathids. 157

itself to stones in rapid currents, and so maintain its

their head and body ; the mouth, situated under the

place.

snout, has a ventral aspect, and is bordered anteriorly

A smart galvanic shock can be given by the small

by the maxillaries and premaxillaries ; both these

scaleless Malapteruri which inhabit the rivers of

bones and the mandible are set with long flexible teeth.

Northern Africa. By a correct analogy, the Arabs

and a broad fold of skin surrounds the orifice of the

term these fishes Raad or Thunder. Dr. Barthe men-

mouth ; the branchiostegals are four in number, and

tions islienza as the native name of the Malapterurus

the gill-cover is generally immovable ; the first ray of

on the Niger.

the dorsal and the pectorals, and sometimes of the

The ■ Clarias angtdllaris, known in Egypt by the

ventrals, is bony and spiniferous; some have an adipose

name of Karmoot or Harmouth^ is supposed to have

second dorsal headed by a bony ray.

been anciently called Alahes or Latus, and to have

As in the Glanidians, the absent stylo-coracoid is

been an object of worship in Latopolis, now Esneh.

replaced by a process of the coracoid, and the heart

The Cascadura of Trinidad {Hoplosternum) is very

is lodged in a bony capsule of the last-named bone.

highly esteemed as an article of food, and it is probable

Both families are destitute of pancreatic caeca, but the

that Siluroids are among the fishes used in making

Goniodonts want also the air-bladder. Much phos-

the strong-smelling huni, used in Central Africa as an

pbate of lime exists in the dermal plates, which contain

indispensable medium of exchange.

bone corpuscles, like the plates and spines of the Gla-

nidians. A link between the two families exists in the

Family II. — GONIODONTS {Goniodontidce).

Sisor rhabdophorus, whose skin is naked, and mouth

Plate 5, fig. 24.

toothless.

The members of this family, called by some Lori-

The genera are — Loricaria; Eemiodon (Kner); Acestra

CARINI, were formerly included among the Glanidians,

(id.); Pterygoplichthus (Gill); Khinelepis; Acant/iias; and
Uypostomm, all South American.

but they differ in possessing pseudobranchim, and in

being destitute of a csecal dilatation of the stomach.

Like the Synodonts of the Nile, many of these fishes

A coat of mail, formed of hard angular plates, encases

have the habit of swimming on their backs.

Order VI I. — L 0 P H 0 B R A N C H S.

Plate 14, fig. 69, 70.

The Lophobranchs have an osseous internal skeleton

and a very complete dermal one, which incloses them

Family II. — PEGASIDES (Pegasidce).

like jointed armour, giving them a stiff and curious

Plate 14, fig. 69.

aspect. No bony corpuscles enter into the composition

of the bones. Their jaws are complete and free, but

In these fishes the breast is greatly expanded, so that

the ultimate position of their gills, instead of being

its breadth much exceeds its height ; the gill-opening

disposed like the teeth of a comb in single or double

is lateral, and the operculum flat and depressed to the

rows, is in small tufts, clustered in pairs on the

level of the belly ; the mouth is on the ventral aspect,

branchial arches. The gill-opening is small, and

at the base of the bill, like that of a sturgeon; the

there is no air-duct to the swim-bladder. Very

body is encased in rings, which have each three knobs

little flesh exists on the mailed body, whose armour

or spines, the breast-ring being very broad, bispinous.

is formed of rings that allow a certain degree of

and extended between the gill-covers ; the tail is flat-

flexibility. The fins are in general small. In most.

tish, quadrangular, and spiniferous ; nine or ten firm

the male carries the eggs during the process of incuba-

spine-like rays support each pectoral fin ; the ventrals

tion. The number of fins varies in different groups.

are biradiate and filamentous ; the caudal is ten-rayed.

In all the face is elongated into a tube or snout formed

and the dorsal and anal occupy from two to four rings.

of the nasal, vomer, tympanals, preopercula, and sub-

There is but a single genus in the family (Pegasus) of

opercula, the nasal being a short compressed plate.

three species.

Family I. — SOLENOSTOMES {Solenostomidce).

Family III.— SYNGNATHIDS (Syngnathidce).

In these the orifice of the mouth is at the extre-

These fishes have an elongated form, with a single

mity of a long, compressed, leaf-like snout, and when

dorsal placed nearly above the vent, and a small round

the gill-plate is raised, the whole gills are exposed.

gill-opening high up. The pectorals are present in

The family is represented by a single species (Solenos-

some, and absent in others ; and the anal, which is in

tomus paradoxus) of great interest to ic.hthyologists

no case large, is wholly wanting in some. Most have

from its singular form and roseate colour, with black

egg-pouches that vary in position with the genus, two

ornaments.

genera only being without pouches. Some have pre-

Plectognaths.-

-FISHES-

-Baiastids.

hensile tails. The rings are numerous, and various
knobs on the cranial bones, with the elongated face,
produce a resemblance to the head of a horse, which
was recognized in ancient times, as it is now by the

present inhabitants of the Mediterranean, by the appel-
lation of Sea-horses. Pliny, referring to these fishes,
says — “ As, according to the common opinion, every-
thing that is prodnced on land has its marine repre-

Pig. 44.

Falkland Island Nerophis (Nerophis liymeuolomus).

sentative, our wonder ought to be the less on beholding
the heads of horses springing from such tiny shells.”

The genera are — Hippocampus; Acentronura; Gasieroto-
keus; Soknopnatlius ; Phyllopteri/x ; Halicampus; Trachy-
rhamphus ; Coryihoichthys ; Ichthyocampus ; Synyriaihus ;
Leptonotus ; Siphonostomus ; Leptoichthys ; Stigmatophora ;
Doryrhamplias ; Doryichthys ; Choeroichthys ; Hemithylacus ;
Microphis ; and Nerophis.

These, distributed into four subfamilies or tribes, are
described by Dr. Kaup in his Catalogue of Fish in the
British Museum. The following are British species —
The Short-nosed Hippocampus {Hipypoca-inpus hrevi-
rostris)\ the Needle-fish acMs); the Deep-

nosed Pipe-fish {Siphonostomus typhle) ; the HSquoreal
Pipe-fish {Nerophis cequoreus) ; the Snake Pipe-fish
{Nerophis anguineus) ; the Straight- nosed Pipe-fish
{Nerophis ophidion) ; the Worm Pipe-fish {Nerophis
lumbnciformis) .

In the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal for
April, 1855, there is a statement of the ship Harbinger
having sailed for several hundreds of miles in the
North Atlantic among shoals of dead fishes, supposed
to have been killed by submarine volcanic action. ( Ae
of these dead fish being sent to Sir William Jardine,
was determined by him to be the common Snake Pipe-
fish {Nerophis anguineus).

Order VIIL — PLE CTOGN AT H S.

In this order the maxillary bone is soldered to or
coalescent with the premaxillary of the same side, and
in some groups the conjoined bones of the one side are
blended on the mesial line with those of the other,
forming a solid upper jaw in which the teeth are incor-
porated, and which is opposed to a mandible of similar
form and dentition, having its limbs also coalescent at
the symphj'sis. In other groups the mesial junction of
the lateral halves of the jaws is in form of a serrated
suture. The internal skeleton is partially ossilied, and
has a fibrous osteoid structure, without any bone cor-
puscles. The pieces of the skeleton are fewer than in
the Osseous fishes, having only rudimentary ribs, as
well as wanting some other bones; and the dermal
skeleton ditfering much in aspect from the ordinary
scales, is considered to approach ganoid scales in tex-
ture. The spines of the fins also, when present, are
studded with ganoid grains. Agassiz, because of the
structure of the dermal bony scales, is inclined to range
the order provisionally among his Ganoids ; but Muller,
who relies more on the forms of the central organ of
circulation, does not separate the group from the Osseous
fishes, with which its members agree in having merely
two valves at the origin of the arterial stem, without
the succeeding rows that exist in the Ganoids. The
swim-bladder of these fishes is closed, having no air-
duct, and there are no panc-reatic caeca. The gills are
biserial, and the processes of one series alternate with
those of the other instead of being in opposite pairs.
There are no distinctly-developed ventrals, but their

place is supplied in some groups by a projection of the
pubic bones, sometimes followed by a longitudinal series
of short slender spines.

Family I. — BALISTIDS {Balistidce).

Plate 13, fig. 65.

The characters of this group are a conical face with
a small mouth at its apex, armed with a few more or
less tapering incisorial teeth. Tire skin is protected
by shield-like, ganoid scales, or by small rough points.
The branchise are three only. These are most gene-
rally considerably compressed fishes, with a profile often
approaching to oval or orbicular, but sometimes much
elongated. In one group, the Balistini of authors, the
ganoid mail is divided by diagonal intersecting lines
into small rhomboidal discs ; the stout anterior ray of
the first dorsal is followed by one or two small ones,
winch act as triggers to fix it in an erect position, and
when disengaged, allow it to fall back into a gi’oove.
In the other group (the Monacanthini) the dermal mail
is in form of small, thickly-set spines, of forms varying
with the species, and occasionally resembling in fine-
ness and closeness the pile of velvet.

The genera are — Py odon ; Melichthys ; Xanthicktkys ;
Canfhidermis ; Batistes ; Balistapus ; Monacanthus ; Aluterius ;
and Priacanthus. — (See Kaup, Cat. Brit. AIus.)

The Pig-faced Trigger-fish or File-fish {Balistea
capriscus) is a British species, though very seldom cap-

Plectognaths.-

-FISHES.-

-GyaiNODONTS.

Turkey-fish (Tetraodon meleagris),

and is united at the base to the caudal. No air-bladder
is present, and the small stomach is entered directly by
the bile-duct. The arterial stem is provided at its

origin with four semilunar valves. The skin is smooth
in some species, and in others is armed by scattered
spines. The myelon is greatly abbreviated. The

The genera are — Cibotion-, Doryophrys;
Ostracion; Aracana; and Centawus. — (See
Kaup, Cut. Brit. Mus.)

Family III.— GYMNODONTS
( GymnodontidcB) .

Plate 13, figs. 67, 68.

hired. It is an inhabitant also of the Mediterranean,
Atlantic, and Indian Ocean. — Plate 13, fig. 65.

Fig. 45.

opening is only a short slit, bordered by a skinny edge,
but interiorly it has an operculum and six branchio-
stegals. The box-like mail is in
some species rectangular ; in others
triangular in section, or it is oval or
orbicular. The liver is large and
oily ; the stomach capacious and
membranaceous.

Gilded Trigger-fish (Xanthichthys curassavicus).

The Balistids and Cofier-fishes, or Ostracionids, con-
stitute the family of ScUrodh'mea of Cuvier.

Family II. — OSTRACIONIDS {Ontracionidce).

Plate 13, fig. 66.

These Coffer-fishes have the body inclosed in a
tesselated cuirass of scales arranged quincuncially,
forming a box of little or no flexibility, from out of
which the lips, teeth, pectorals, and tail with its three
vertical fins protrude. The pelvic bones and ventrals
are wanting. The vertebrse of the belly are mostly
coalescent, and the body has but little muscular sub-
stance, its motions being limited. Exteriorly the gill-

This family, characterized by Cuvier
under the name of Gymnodonts, com-
pi'ises his Diodonts., Tetrodonts, Trio-
donts, and Moles or Sun-fish. Its
members have the teeth incorporated
in the gorget-shaped jaws, forming a
bill like that of a parrot. Cuvier’s
genera have been described by Dr.
Kaup as families or sub-families.

The Diodonts have a flexible skin which, in most
species, is inflatible so as to give a globular shape to
the fish, and is armed with spines which diverge every
way when the skin is distended. No mesial division
exists in either the upper or under jaw, each having
the form of a horse’s hoof, with the teeth incorporated
in their bony substance.

The genera axe—Diodon ; Dicotylichthys ; Cheilomycterus ;
Cyclichthys ; and Cyanickthys ; none of which are British.

The Molebuts or Sun-fishes {Orthagorisdni)
have jaws like the Diodonts, and are compressed fishes
incapable of inflation, and a tail so short and high as to
seem as if docked off. The dorsal is high and pointed,

Fig. 46.

160 Sturionidans. FISHES. Aciprnseroids.

only genus is Orthagoriscus or Orthragoriscus, of which

The genera are — Tetraodon; Physogaster (Muller); Chdo-

two species frequent our seas, viz., the Short and the

nodon (id.) ; Cheilichthys (id.) ; and Arothron (id.).

Oblong Molebut {Orth, mola and ohlongus).

Some of these groups have no olfactory sac, or even

The Tetrodonts, forming a family or suh-family

depression, the nerve of smell being expended on a

of some Ichthyologists, is equivalent to the genus Tet-

solid, imperforate barbel.

raodon of Linnaeus and Cuvier. They have their

In the Triodonts the mandible is undivided, as in

gorget-shaped jaws, in which the teeth are incorporated.

the Diodonts, while the upper jaw has a mesial suture

divided above and below by serrated, mesial sutures.

as in the Tetrodonts. An immense dewlap is sustained

forming four dental masses, whence the name. The

in front by a very large bone representing the pubics,

skin is partially and variously armed by spines, which

and resembling the same parts in some Ba'istids. The

are smaller than those of the Diodonts, and in an

fins are like those of the Diodonts, and the asperities of

electric species are wholly absent. Some genera

the body and dewlap resemble those of the Tetrodonts.

have inflatible bodies ; others do not possess the

A single species from the Indian seas is called Triodon

power of inflation, and have a moderately elongated

bursarius, and is described by Lesson and Garnot in

form.

their ichthyology of the voyage of Duperrey.

GANOIDS.

Typical ganoid scales have generally a rhomboid or

osseous fishes. Several Ganoids have an accessory

quadrangular outline, with a smooth, shining coating

branchial organ in form of an opercular gill, which

of enamel. They are seldom rounded, and rarely

differs from a pseudobranchia, and may co-exist with

imbricated, being more commonly arranged in oblique

it. Many have spout-holes {spiracula or blowing-

rows whose edges touch ; but each scale is secured to

holes) like the Plagiostomes. In the arterial bulb or

the one that precedes it bj^ a hinge-like process of its

stem there are several rows of valves. The eggs are

anterior corner. Like ordinary scales, the ganoid plates

generated in ovisacs and discharged through oviducts.’

are developed in follicles, but their epidermal coating

No decussation {chiasma) exists between the optic

is so very thin and so closely adherent as to be nearly

lobes, but merely a lateral cohesion. The swim-blad-

imperceptible. Muller sums up his view of the ganoid

ders have pneumatic tubes ; the skeleton is bony, or

character in the following terms : — Fishes provided

partly cartilaginous ; and the ventral fins are situated on

with tabular and angular or roundish enamelled scales.

the abdomen. According to the researches of Kblliker,

or with bony plates, or with a perfectly naked skin ;

tlie skeletons of the Plectognaths and Lophobranchs

liaving fins frequently, but not always, sustained in

are destitute of bone corpuscles, but those of the other

front by a single or double row of spiny plates, techni-

orders enumerated as Ganoids by Agassiz contain these

cally named fulcra ; and a caudal fin involving in its

organisms. All the above characters do not exist in

upper fold the extremity of the vertebral column, which

every Ganoid ; and the essential parts of structure are.

may continue to the end of the fold. The free gills are

according to Muller, several rows of valves in the arterial

placed in an operculated cavity, like those of the true

bulb, free operculated gills, and abdominal ventral Jim.

Order IX.— S T U R I ON I D A N S.

intestine. In the genus Scaphirhynchus the tail is

Family L— AOIPENSEEOIDS.

depressed at the root of the caudal, which is not the

(Plate 14, fig. 72 ; Plate 15, figs. 73, 74.)

case in the members of the more populous genus.

Acipenser (Sturgeon) nor in that of Planirostra or Poly-

Tins order containing but one family may be charac-

odon. Of these forms the family and order consist*

terized as a single group of Ganoids, whether these be

The species are numerous in the temperate parts of the

termed with Agassiz a class of Vertebrals, or with

northern hemisphere, both in the Old and New Worlds,

Muller an order of Fishes. The distinctive characters

but they do not enter the arctic regions, and are

of the Acipenseroids {Sturiones, Cuvier) are, according

unknown in the South Seas.

to Heckel and Kner, an elongated body, protected and

Among the ancients, says Plinjq the Acipenser was

made more or less pentagonal by five rows of bony

considered to be the noblest of fishes ; but it had ceased

shields; a protractile, toothless mouth on the ventral

to be esteemed in his time, at which he expresses his

asjiect ; a blowing-hole and a single operculated gill-

surprise, since it was rare. The Attilus of the Po,

opening on each side, but no branchiostegals in the

which is considered b}^ modern ichthyologists to be of

membrane ; a cartilaginous internal skeleton ; a hetero-

the same genus, is stated by Pliny to be sluggish and

cereal caudal, densely bordered with short bony rays in

* Dinectes and Proceros are two genera of this family, named

the upper lobe ; and a long spiral valve in the great

but not sufficiently characterized by Rafluesque-Smaltz.

bAORoiDS. FISHES, Lepidostids. 161

fat, and to attain the weight of one thousand pounds,

branchia, which receives arterial blood that has already

so as to require a yoke of oxen to draw it out of the

undergone the process of respiration, and transmits it

river. Neither the descriptions of Greek nor of Roman

to the eye. The five passages between the branchial

authors enable us to ascertain the species to which they

arches unite in the common external gill-opening of

gave the names of Acipenser, Atiilus. or Helops. The

each side, which is covered by the operculum. All the

second of these appellations is preserved in the Italian

Sturionidans have not the same arrangement of the

Adila applied to the Acipenser sturio of the Adriatic,

accessory gills and pseudobranchiae, since in the Scaphi-

called by the Germans Star, a word having reference

ryhnchus the former of these organs is present, but

(Heckel says) to the turning and grovelling habits of

the latter is absent ; while in the Planirostra it is the

the fish (walloping). Our English word Sturgeon and

accessory gill which is wanting, the pseudobranchia

the French Eturgeon have evidently come from the

being present.

Northmen or Eastmen. There is reason to believe

In the Sturgeons the spinal cartilaginous column is

that the common English Sturgeon is different from

prolonged into the long upper caudal lobe, and the skull

the Sturio of the Mediterranean, and of the rivers of

is one cartilaginous piece, which varies in the length

eastern Germany, though they have generally been

and forms of its processes according to the species.

considered to be the same species.

A number of sculptured bony shields encase the dorsal

The Sturgeon is denominated “a royal fish” in Eng-

and lateral aspects of the skull more or less completely.

lish acts of parliament. In the time of Edward I.

These are generally considered to be parts of the

it was declared that the whole Sturgeon belonged to

dermal skeleton, though they have a certain relation in

the king in virtue of his ro}^! privilege ; but of the

number and position with the cranial bones of an

Whale, the head only belonged to the king, and the tail

osseous fish. Their texture is the same with that of

to the queen, the captors retaining the carcass.* In

the shields that are imposed on the five angles of the

the reign of Edward II. the statute about Sturgeons

body. The floor of the cartilaginous skull is formed

was amended so as to exclude all purchased Sturgeons

of a dense thin bony plate, which from its position

and others not taken in the sea.

has been named the occipito-sphenoid bone, and is

As the Sturgeon family are acknowledged represen-

prolonged into the snout by a narrow continuation.

tatives of the Ganoids, it may be advantageous to the

considered to represent the vomer, or as it is called by

student if we advert to a few peculiarities of structure,

some the ethmoid bone ; posteriorly the occipito-sphe-

in explanation of the technical characters of the order

noid forks, and extends backwards under the forepart

mentioned above.

of the spinal column. The mastoid or paroccipital

In the brains of fishes there is a pair of nearly globu-

cranial shield sends a bony plate of similar texture with

lar protuberances, generally very conspicuous and easily

the occipito-sphenoid one, downwards into the cephalic

recognized as being the second division of the organ, in

cartilage. Kblliker has examined the shields and bones

proceeding from before backwards. They furnish the

of Acipenser maccarii and of Scaphirhynclius, and

nerves of sight, and are named optic lobes. In osseous

found them to contain bony corpuscles in accordance

fishes the fibres of these lobes intermix and decussate

with the general structure of ganoid bones.

on the mesial line ; but in the Sturgeons this decussa-

The fins, seven in number, are supported by crowded,

fion does not take place. In them also the arterial

jointed, flexible rays, which are finely denticxdated on

stem, or fourth chamber of the heart, is provided with

both sides ; the first ray only of the powerful pectorals

two rows of valves at its origin in the ventricle, and

being stout, rigid, and bony. Near the vent are the

one row at its distal end. There are five movable bran-

ventrals, which in this family are of small size. The

chial arches, with interior denticulated rakers. The

dorsal is situated far back above the anal. A large

gills are pectinated and free at the tips. In the Stur-

swim-bladder sends a pneumatic tube to the bottom of

geons, moreover, there is an accessory gill attached to

the stomach ; and the ovisac opens freely into the cavity

the inner face of the operculum ; and near it a pseudo-

of the belly by a funnel-shaped mouth.

Order X. — SAUROIDS or

LIZARD FISHES (Agassiz)

This order is rather more comprehensive than the

or double air-bladder opening by a glottoid fissure into

Salamandroidci of Owen, as it includes some fossil

the oesophagus. Both are said to have bony corpuscles

ganoid families ; but here we shall notice only its
existing members, the Lepidostids and Polypterids.

in their bones, as the Malacopteres have generally.

These two families differ from each other in their
skeletons, especially in the jaws, also in the nostrils, the

Family I. — LEPIDOSTIDS {LepidosteideP).

gills, in the stomach and caeca, in the first vertebral

These are elongated fishes, encased in strong ganoid

joint, and in the caudal fins, as well as in other parts

scales, with sometimes a slender prolonged snout resem-

of their structure. Their agreement is in their ganoid

bling the bill of a gar-fish. In other species the snout

scales, their valvular arterial stems, and in the cellular

is shorter and broader ; it is constructed of the jaws,
palatines, nasal, and vomer. The Lepidostids are con-

* Fleta I., c. 45, 46.

fined to the waters of the United States and the adjoin-

Von. II. 77

1 62 Sauroids. FISHES. Polypterids.

ing parts of Canada, wlierein about ten species have

to be a less characteristic representative of the Ganoids

been detected by Agassiz, and they are considered to

than the Lepidostids. Polypterus, the only genus.

be the nearest representatives now living of the extinct

consists of three species closely resembling each other.

ganoid fishes.

They are elongated fishes, with blunt depressed snouts.

In this family the upper jaw, which is elongated in

having their heads protected by bony plates — somewhat

the axis of the fish, is composed of several pieces ; and

similar to the cephalic plates of the Sturgeons — and

the mandible is also composed of many pieces, as in

their backs furnished with an even row of detached

the reptiles. The vomer is of two pieces, separated

finlets, each having a strong spine in front, followed by

by a median cleft. Instead of the first vertebra

four or five soft branching rays. The caudal, bluntly

being united to the occipital bone by opposing cups

rounded, embraces the acutely cotilcal end of the tail,

filled with an elastic gelatinous fluid as in ordinary

and comes farther forward on the dorsal aspect than it

fishes, that joint is formed by a hall and socket, so that

does below. The anal is situated immediately before

the head has a nodding movement. The olfactory

the lower lobe of the caudal, and the ventrals are behind

organ, situated at the tip of the upper jaw, contains

the middle of the fish. These are supported in front

the ordinary nasal folds arranged simply. The gills.

by scaly bases, and the pectorals have still more con-

on four arches, have a perfect bifoliate structure, and

spicuous scaly bases resembling short arms. The

behind the last arch there is the ordinary fissure; a

scales which closely envelope the body are very strongly

respiratory gill lines the operculum, and a pseudo-

adherent, stout, and very hard.

branchia is also present. The branchiostegous mem-

In this family the upper jaw is not divided by a

brane passes without division evenly across the throat,

longitudinal cleft as in the Lepidostids ; and the man-

and is sustained on each side by three branchios-

dible and skull generally, are constructed as in the

tegals. The swim-bladder is divided into cells, the

osseous fishes. A labial cartilage situated at the corner

partitions being provided with muscles; and the pneu-

of the mouth supports the upper and lower lips. The

matic opening is a long slit in the upper wall of the

nostrils are more complicated than in other fishes.

throat. The stomach has no ceecal expansion ; there

as they consist of a large labyrinth of five passages.

are several pancreatic caeca ; and there is no spiral

each having a gill-like folding of the lining membrane.

valve in the large Intestine. All the fins are protected

The anterior nostril is prolonged into a membranous

on their proximal edges by two rows of spinous scales.

tube ; the posterior opening is a small cleft before the

and are supported by jointed rays only. The hetero-

eye. The fourth gill is unifoliate only ; there is no

cereal caudal is abruptly truncate, its rays being inserted

opercular gill; no pseudobran chia; and no inferior pha-

partly at the extremity of the vertebral column, partly

ryngeal bones. The stomach is cajcal ; there is a pan-

beneath it. The upper jaw and mandible are closely

creatic caecum ; and the large intestine is furnished with

set with raduliform teeth, bordered by a row of larger

a spiral valve. The air-bladder consists of two sacs of

pointed ones. The Lepidostids have no blowing-holes

dili'erent lengths, opening into a short common cham-

like those of the Sturgeons and Polypteres.

ber, which communicates by a long glottoid fissure

with the ventral floor of the gullet. A single gill-

Famii.y II.— polypterids {Polypteridai).

opening on each side, has the common branchiostegous

Plate 14, fig. 71.

membrane covered with a bon^' plate ; and there is also

a blowing hole on each side, furnished with an osseous

This is an African family hitherto detected only in the

valve.

Nile, Senegal, and Tchadda or Niger. It is equivalent

The Gymnarchus or del-el-far of the Nile has a

to Muller’s group of Pulyptcviai, and is not considered

lung-like air-bladder supplied with venous blood.

Order XI. — HOLOCEPH ALIDS.

(Plate 15, figs. 75, 76.)

P.\s.siNG by the Coelocantb order as being wholly

long, muscular, arterial stem is provided with three

fossil, we come to the Holoce[)hali, containing the

rows of valves. Placoid granules exist in the integu-

single family group of Ciiimaskids. These form a

ment, but the internal skeleton is cartilaginous, with

jiassage to the ChondropteiTgians by the arrangement

partial and scanty bony deposits. Most of the fins are

of their gill-openings. Like the Sturionidans, they

supported in front by a strong spine, and the ventrals

have only one exteriial operculated opening on each

are situated on the belly.

side ; but under the integument there is a common

The upper jaw is represented by the vomer, pala-

canal proceeding from it, and receiving the four

tines, and tympanals, in a rudimentary state, on the

branchial slits. The complete biserial gills are attached

sides of the snout ; and the function of teeth is per-

by their margins, and are only three in number ; but

formed by four hard, bony plates above and three

the inferior pharyngeal or fourth arch supports an

below. The males are provided with trifid appendages

uniserial gill, and there is an accessory one on the

named “ claspers ;” and the eggs of the females are

inner side of the operculum. There is a spiral valve

large and leathery or horny, with flat velvety borders.

in the intestine, and there is no swim-bladder. The

The genera arc — ChvtrKzra (British) and Callorhynchvs.

Holockphauds.-

-FISHKS. tiELACHlANS.

SELACHIANS.

(Plate 16, the six figures ; Plate 17, figs. F and G.)

This term, as employed by Cuvier [Selaciens),
includes the Sharks and Rays, and was equivalent with
him to his second order of Chondropterygians, com-
prising those which have fixed gills, by which they are
distinguished from his first order of cartilaginous fishes,
which have movable gills. These have been noticed
above under the denominations of Acipenseroids and
Holocephalids. The group is equivalent to the Plagi-
ostomi of Muller and Owen. By Agassiz the Holo-
cephahds are associated with the Galeodes (or Sharks)
and the Batides (or Rays), the three groups being con-
sidered to be orders of a c’ass of vertebrals called by
him Selachians. This arrangement is, as has been
already intimated, merely provisional, and dependent
for final adoption on the issue of researches not yet
completed by the illustrious naturalist who suggested it.
The Selachians so constituted are nearly identical with
the same author’s Placoids defined in his treatises
on Fossil Ichthyolog}^ and the student ought therefore
to be told that placoid scales are hard osseous produc-
tions of the skin, sometimes in form of plates of large
size, sometimes in shape of small points (forming when
the skin is prepai ed for use in the arts the substance
known by the name of “ shagreen ”), and at other
times in form of thorns or prickles. All these differ
from ganoid scales in the absence of enamel, as well
as in their less regular shapes ; and Kdlliker states
that the spines of the Selachians are formed of dentine.
The author just named says that the internal skeleton
of the Selachians differs in type from that of the Ganoids,
and from that of all other fishes except the Dermo-
pteres, in being merelj' common cartilage, or cartilage
indurated by the deposition of earthy matter, but hav-
ing no real bone-cells. In structure, therefore, the
dermal skeleton of the Selachians is in advance of the
internal one.

The heart of the Selachians consists, as in other
fishes, of a single series of chambers, the first of which
named the “ venous sinus” is a mere receptacle of the
venous blood coming from all parts ; the auricle and
ventricle which succeed it are considered to be the
more essential parts of the central propelling organ,
and beyond the last named is the stem of the arterial
system, named generally the arterial bulb, but which
in the Selachians is cylindrical. In these fishes the
bag or pericardium in which the heart moves commu-
nicates with the cavity of the abdomen by a canal,
which is single in the Holocephalid.s, but which in the
Sharks and Rays bifurcates after leaving the pericar-
dium. The venous sinus lies within the pericardium,
and is bivalvular at its entrance into the auricle ; and
there are from two to six rows of tfansverse valves
within the long muscular arterial stem.

The gills of the Sharks and Rays are fixed or adherent
to the walls of the branchial chambers, each chamber
having an interior pharyngo-branchial slit to admit the

water of respiration from the mouth, and a peripheral
orifice to allow it to escape. In the Sharks these
external orifices are situated laterally, and are generally
five, but in a few cases six or seven ; in the Rays they
are on the ventral aspect, and are always five in num-
ber. The gills of the Selachians are, together with the
scapulo-coracoid arch, farther back than in the osseous
fishes, being behind the skull ; and the heart, which
occupies the triangular space between the gills and the
chevron of the coracoids, has consequently a similar
more backward position. The ventrals are abdominal,
and there is no swim-bladder. All have the inner mem-
brane of the intestine expanded near its termination at
the vent into a valve, which exhibits one of two types
of form. In one type the intestinal valve is screw-
formed or scalariform, making a spiral slope ; in the
other the valve is rolled longitudinally on itself, and
attached lengthwise to the wall of the intestine ; both
forms serving to augment the surface of the com-
paratively short intestine.

The Sharks and Rays received from Dumeril the
name of Plagiostomes, and this appellation being
equivalent to the Selaciens of Cuvier, was adopted by
Muller and Henle in their comprehensive Beschreibung
der Plagiostomen, which is our chief guide to a know-
ledge of these fishes. The arrangement of these ich-
thyologists is as follows : —

The Squali or Sharks (frafeocfes of Agass-iz) are Plagio-
stomes with lateral gill-openings (fitigmata) ; free supplemen-
tary eyelids ; an incomplete scapulo-coracoid girdle suspended
to the soft parts behind the gills, but having no articulations
either with the skull or spine. These fishes do not possess a
cephalopterous cartilage.

A. First division. — Sharks having one anal fin and two dor-

sals placed far back, the first dorsal being over or
behind the ventrals. This division is comprised in the
family of Scylliida;.

B. Second (fiCTsfon.— Sharks having two dorsals and an anal ;

the first dorsal being situated over the space interven-
ing between the pectorals and ventrals.

1. First subdivision. — Sharks of B group having a blinker

(or nictitating membrane), but no spout-holes; and
the last or last two stigmata situated over the base
of the pectoral. It includes the families Car-
CharIjEU.®; Spyhna;dje; and Priasnodontid.®.

2. Second Subdivision — Sharks of B group which have

spout-holes and blinkers ; also the last or last two
stigmata situated over the base of the pectoral. To
it belong the families Galeida: ; ScYLLiODONTiDiB ;
and Mustelihas.

3. Third subdivision. — Sharks of B group with spout-

holes but no blinkers. It embraces the families
Lamnadda; : Odontaspid®: ; Ai.opeci.®da: ; Cestra-
ciONTiD^ ; and Khinodoktidas.

C. Third division. — Sharks having but one dorsal and one

anal fin, forming one family, the Notiuanida:.

D. Fourth division. — Sharks furnished with spout-holes and

two dorsals, but having neither blinkers nor an anal
fin. ■ The five stigmata are all situated before the pec-
torals ; and the intestinal valve is spiral. It embraces
the families of bPiNAClD.®; Scymnid®:; and IsQUA'n-
NAii)®;.

164 Galeods. FISHES. Scyllids.

Order XII. — GALEODS or SHARKS.
Squali. — [Characterized above.)

Family I.— SCYLLIDS (Scylliidm).

In this family there is one dorsal fin standing over
or behind the ventrals, another farther back, and one
anal. The eye is not provided with a nictitating
membrane, but spout-holes exist behind the eyes. Of
the five stigmata the last one is over the base of the
broad pectorals ; at the corner of the mouth there is a
furrow in the integuments, and also a labial cartilage
above and below. The teeth have a pointed mesial
cusp, and from one to four denticles on each side of it.
The caudal fin is extended longitudinally, with a trun-
cated or rounded tip, and without an under lobe or
merely with the traces of one, but with a notch near
the end, beneath.

The family includes the following genera — Scyllium ; Pris-
llurus ; Hemiscyllium ; Chiloscyllium ; Crossorhinus ; Ging-
lymostoma ; and Stegostoma.

In the British seas there have been detected the
Small-spotted Dog-fish {Scyllium canicula) ; the Large-
spotted Dog-fish {Scyllium cahdus) ; and the Black-
mouthed Dog-fish {Pristiurus melanosiomus).

Family II. — CARCHARIiEDANS {Carcharicedce).

In these Sharks the first dorsal is situated over the
space between the pectorals and ventrals, and they
have also a second dorsal and an anal ; the eyes are
fui nished with nictitating membranes, but spout-holes
do not exist in a pervious state in the adults ; each
nostril is generally provided with a small three-sided flap
on its upper border ; the mouth has a boldly convex
outline, with small folds of skin at its corners ; the anal
fin is placed directly under or close behind the second
dorsal; and the caudal fin has always a short under lobe,
with a notch on the inferior edge of the elongated upper
lobe, close to its obliquely truncated end ; the intestinal
valve is rolled longitudinally, and is not scalariform ;
the scales are small, and the skin smoothish. The
family consists of the genera Carc/iarias and Prionodon,
and includes some of the Sharks that are most numerous
in the tropical seas, and most dangerous to mariners.
The Blue Shark {Carcharia sglaucus) frequents the
Cornish coasts, and does much injury to the fishermen
by cutting their lines and nets, for which its serrated
teeth are well adapted.

Family III. — SPHYRNiEDANS {Sphyrncedoi).

Sharks resembling the Carcharidans in the number
and position of the fins, in having nictitating mem-
branes, and wanting spout-holes, but having the eyes
stilted out by a great lateral prolongation of the orbits,

giving a form to the skull from whence comes the
popular name of Hammer-headed Sharks. The only
genus is Sphyrna, also called Zygcena.

The great lateral breadth of the skull, arising from
the projection of the orbits, gives a very strange aspect
to these Sharks, one of whom, Sphyrna zygccna, or
the Hammer-headed Shark, is an occasional visitant of
the British seas.

Family IV. — TRI.®NODONTS {Trimnodontes).

In this family the head is flat, and the snout is
sometimes pointed, sometimes blunt ; the nostril-valve
is broad, or less commonly lengthened out into a bar-
bel ; the orifice of the eye longitudinal, and the fold at
the corner of the mouth is very small; the teeth
resemble those of the Scyllids, but with a longer middle
cusp, and not more than one or two lateral denticles ;
the second dorsal fin and the anal are opposed to one
another, or nearly so, and the scales have three, five,
or seven keels.

The only genus is Tricenodon, an inhabitant of the
Indian Ocean and Red Sea.

Family V.— GALEIDANS {Galeidm).

In this family there are also two dorsal fins and an
anal, as in the four preceding ones, but the first dorsal
is farther forward than the ventrals. Nictitating
membranes and spout-holes are both present, and the
last stigma is over the base of the pectoral. Nostrils,
orbits, and corner folds of the mouth as in the Carcha-
ridans, and the small labial cartilages are always
present. Teeth of both jaws alike, flat, oblique, and
with entire or serrated cutting edges. The scales are
small and three-keeled, with a mesial cusp. In the
upper lobe of the caudal there are one or two notches.

The genera are — Galeus; Galeocerdo; Loxodon; Thdlas-
sorhinus.

The only British species is the Common Tope {Galeus
canis). Galeocerdo arcticus is not uncommon in the
North sea, but has not been taken among the British
isles, unless it should be the White Shark of the Ork-
neys, which has not been examined by a competent
ichthyologist.

Family VI.— SCYLLIODONTS {Sctjlliodontidce).

The members of this family are characterized by a
flat head, blunt snout, and a moderately broad and long
nasal flap. The depressions at the corners of the mouth
and the labial cartilages are large, and the spout-holes
are of medium size. The dentition and form of the fins
are those of the proper Scyllids, the under lobe of the

-Notidamidans.

Galeods. FISHES.

165

caudal being likewise undeveloped. The scales have
three keels, and as many points. The only genus,
Ti’iaJds, has been detected in the seas of Japan only.

Family VII.— MUSTELIDANS (Mustelidce).

In the position of the fins and stigmata, and the
presence of nictitating membranes and spout-holes,
this family corresponds with the Galeidans and the
Scylliodonts. The spout-holes are large, the orbits
longish, and the nictitating membrane swells out like
a doubling of the under eyelid. A three-sided lappet
with a rounded tip embraces three-fourtbs of the nostril
above, and there is a shorter blunt lappet on the outside
of the orifice. The first dorsal stands nearly midway
between the pectorals and ventrals, and the caudal fin
is short. The teeth are like those of a skate, being
flat without cusp or sharp edge, and arranged like a
mosaic pavement. There is but one genus, which is
represented in our seas by the Smooth Hound {Mustelus
vulgaris).

Family VIII. — LAMNAEDANS {Lamncedm).

These are Sharks which have, like the three imme-
diately preceding families, two dorsals and one anal,
and the first dorsal placed over the space between the
pectorals and ventrals, but they have spout-holes, and
want the nictitating membrane; the stigmata are
long, and are all before the pectorals ; the orbits are
roundish ; the caudal fin is crescentic, the upper lobe
being but slightly longer than the under one, and the
anal and second dorsal, which are opposed to one
another, are both small ; the tail is keeled on each side,
and the spout-holes are very small.

The dentition varies in the different genera, which are —
Lamna; Oxyrhina; Carcharodon; imA.Selache; in some of whom
the teeth are the most formidable that occur among the existing
Sharks.

In the British seas the Lamna cornuhica is not
uncommon. It is known, according to age, as the
Porbeagle or Beaumaris Shark. A white Shark of
formidable size is also recognized by fishermen as being
occasionally met with, but its proper genus has not yet
been ascertained. In the posthumous edition of Yar-
rell’s “British Fishes” it is conjectured to be the Carcha-
rodon requiem. The Basking Shark {Selache maxima)
sometimes strays from its native haunts in the north
sea to the coasts of Scotland and Ireland. It is a
sluggish, and not a dangerous Shark, though one of
the largest of its order, and attaining a length of thirty-
six feet and upwards.

Family IX. — ODONTASPIDANS (Odontaspida).

lateral caudal keel, like that of the Lamnadans. The
front teeth are very large, and resemble curved three-
sided spike nails. The single genus Odontaspis con-
tains only one or two species.

Family X. — ALOPECIANS {Alopecicedai).

As in the two immediately preceding families, the
spout-holes of this group are so small as to be often
overlooked ; nictitating membranes are wanting, and
the first dorsal is before the ventrals, but the very great
length of the upper lobe of the caudal furnishes a dis-
tinctive character. The snout is short and conical ;
the small nostril is protected above by a short marginal
lappet ; there are no labial cartilages ; and the stig-
mata are short as in the Carcharidans, the last one
being over the base of the pectorals. The teeth, which
are alike in both jaws, are lancet-shaped and trilateral.
A single species of the oidy genus is known in our seas
by the names of Fox-shark or Thresher {Alopecias
vulpes), in allusion to the size of the tail, which the fish
employs in its combats with the Cetaceans as a thresher
would use a flail.

Family XI. — CESTEACIONTS {Cesiraciontidce) .

This family consists of a single genus of only two
species, one of them Australian, where it is commonly
known by the name of the Nurse {Cesiracion phillipi) ;
another inhabiting the seas of China receives the local
name of Kitten Shark {Cestracion zebra). This genus
connects existing Selachians with palteozoic fishes. The
Cestracionts have the cleft of the nostril prolonged to the
margin of the mouth, which is at the front of the snout,
and wants the superior corner-fold. The spout-holes
are distinctly visible behind the eye, and the stigmata
are small, with the last one over the base of the pec-
torals. A strong spine stands in front of each dorsal,
and the short caudal fin has a notch on the under edge
of its superior lobe. The flat pavement-like teeth form
oblique rolls, like the spires of some univalves.

Family XII.— EHINODONTS {Rhinodontidai).

This family is represented by a single known species
{Rhinodon typicus)., which frequents the seas round the
Cape of Good Hope. It is characterized by a flat
head with the mouth and nostrils at its end, a triangu-
lar nasal flap, very small spout-holes and stigmata,
diminishing in size as they recede from the head, the
last one being situated over the base of the pectoral.
The caudal is crescentic, without a notch in its upper
lobe ; and the very small and numerous teeth are coni-
cal and card-like.

Agreeing with the Carcharidans and the six families
immediately following that group in the relative posi-
tion of the fins, and with the Lamnaedans in having
spout-holes but wanting nictitating membranes, the
Odcataspidans are further characterized by their large
stigmata situated wholly before the pectorals, large
second dorsal and anal, and the upper lobe of the
caudal elongated as in the Carcharidans ; they have no

Family XIII.— NOTIDANIDANS {Notidanidce).

This family differs from all the preceding Selachians
in having only one dorsal, and from all the order in
having more stigmata than five on each side. The
Notidanidans have an anal fin and have been called
“ Galeidans which want the first dorsal.” The spout-
holes are small and vertical, and there are no nictitating

166 GaliEods. FISHES. Spin acids.

membranes. The single dorsal stands behind the ven-
trals, and partly before the front of the anal. The long
caudal is notched near the obliquely docked end, and
lias a small under lobe. The teeth are strongly ser-
rated. One genus, Hexanclius. has six stigmata ; the
other, He2)tanGhus, has seven. One species, the Gray
Notidanus [Hexanclius griseus), has been taken off the
Isle of Wight and also on the Cornish coast.

and malt, at aught, nine, or ten pounds the boll, and
all other meats also very dear.”

Family XV.— SCYMNIDS [Scymnidee).

With the same number of fins and spout-holes as
the Spinacids, this family is recognized by the absence
of spines in the dorsals. The upper teeth are pointed ;
the lower ones trenchant and not denticulated.

The genera are — Scymnus; Lmmargus ; Echinorhinus ; and
Pristiophorus.

Family XIV.— SPINACIDS [Spinacida;).

This family and the two which immediately succeed

it form a division of the Sharks which is characterized

Valentine’s Sea-hound [Scymnus lichid) is reported

by Muller and Henle as having spout-holes and two

to have been taken on the British coasts, but details

dorsals, but neither anal nor nictitating membrane.

are wanting. The Greenland Shark [Lcemargus bore-

All the five stigmata are before the pectorals, and the

alls) has been several times captured in the Scottish

intestinal valve is scalariform. The Spinacids are dis-

seas ; and the Spinous Shark [Echinorhinus spinosus)

tinguished from the other two families by having a

has been caught off Yorkshire and on the Cornish

stout spine in front of each dorsal.

coasts.

Pristiophorus is a genus differing remarkably from

The genera are — Acanihias ; Spinax ; Centrina ; Centro-

the rest of the group in having the snout elongated

phorus; and Centroscyllium.

like a flat sword-blade, set on each side with sharp

The Picked Dog-fish [Acanthias vulgaris) is very
common on our coasts, so abundant, that Mr. Couch

slender teeth of different lengths.

says he has known twenty thousand to have been
taken at one cast of the sean. At one time these Dog-

Family XVI.— SQUATINIDS [Sguatinidm).

fishes committed such ravages on the fisheries of Fin-

Head and body depressed ; the broad pectorals and

mark that eight vessels were fitted out expressly for

ventrals laterally spread out so as to resemble the

their capture, and though many thousands were taken

Rays ; the stigmata ensconced in the deep slit that

there was no sensible diminution of their numbers.

separates the pectorals from the head, but not opening

This species would appear to be extremely prolific

on the ventral aspect as in the Rays. The large spout-

periodically, and to have been no less annoying to
the fishermen formerly than in later times. In the

holes are behind the eyes, which are on the dorsal
aspect, and the mouth transversely cleft is at the

“Domestic Annals of Scotland” by Robert Chalmers, we

extremity of the snout. There is no anal fin. The

find the following quotation from the Journal of Spal-

family is represented by a single genus and species

ding, the Town-clerk of Aberdeen: — “ 1642. From

called the Angel-fish (^Squatina angelus), which occurs

the beginning of this year up to June there was a

in considerable numbers on our coasts and is very

scarcity of white-fish along the east coast, to the hurt

voracious, devouring ground-fishes greedily.

and hunger of the poor, and beggaring of the fishermen.

A shark caught at Bermuda measured eighteen feet

It was reported that when the fishers had laid their

in length, and its jaws, when extended to the utmost,

lines and taken fishes abundantly, there came ane beast

admitted three grown-up persons fo stand upright

called the Sea-dog to the lines, and ate and destroyed

between them : and the Rangoon Chronicle of the ,Srd

the haill bodies, and left nothing on the lines but the

March, 1854, mentions the capture of a shark of those

heads. A judgment surely from God Almighty, for

seas which had a length of thirty-five feet — (Simmons,

the like scarcity of fishes to continue so long has scarcely

Cur. of Food). Dr. Barclay describes some fragments

been seen in Scotland ; whilk bred great dearth of meal

of an enormous shark.

Order XTI. — BATIDES (Kays or Skates).

This order, named Rochen or Raive by Muller and

altogether absent. Muller and Henle gi'oup them in

Itenle, is composed of flatly-depressed Plagiostomes,
having spout-holes, five stigmata of a side opening on
the ventral aspect under the pectorals ; a complete

the following way : —

A. Plrst division. — Squatinoraije. — Batides having the
head elongated into a flat snout ; and a robust, fleshy
tail with lateral keels ; two dorsals and a terminal fin

scapulo-coracoid girdle soldered above to the vertebrae

adjoining the skull ; a cephalopterous cartilage, and
the upper eyelids either closely adherent to the eye or

supported by rays. The teeth are flat, resembling a
mosaic pavement ; and the upper eyelids are adnate.

Tlie families are — Pristida: and Rhinobatida:.

Batides. BlSHES. Pristidans. 167

B. Second (fmsiora.— Torpedines.— Disc rounded; very-
blunt in front. An electrical apparatus encompassed
by the pectoral fins. One family, the ToRPEnmiD.®:.

0. Third division.— — Pectorals cohering to the snout,
the attacliment reaching backwards to the ventrals,
forming an oval or rhomboidal disc, terminated by a
more slender tail than the preceding groups. In the
group are the following families ; — Raledje ; Trygo
NlDiE; MyLIOBATIDAS; and CEPUALOPTElUDAi.

Family L— PRISTIDANS {Pristidce).

The members of this family have nearly the form of
those sharks whose pectoral fins are distinctly separated
from the head and do not reach to the ventrals. The
snout is elongated and uniform, with stout lateral teeth
which convert it into a double saw. The true jaw
teeth resemble those of the Mustelidans, and form a
mosaic pavement. The first dorsal stands close behind
or partly over the ventrals. The lateral cuticular keels
are not continued on the sides of the caudal. Very
small, flat, roundish, or hexagonal scales clothe the
smooth sleek skin. The fixmily consists of a single
genus {Pristis) of about six species called saw-fishes,
whose beaks are often seen in museums, but complete
specimens are rare.

Family II.— RHIN.fflDANS {Wiincedm).

In these a disc is formed anteriorly by the con-
junction of the pectorals with the snout. The four-
cornered pectorals do not reach the ventrals, and are
separated by a notch from the cephalic part of the disc.
The lateral caudal keels are continued on the sides of
the bilobate caudal, whose upper lobe is rather the
largest. The margins of the jaws are undulated, three
eminences of the lower one corresponding to as many
hollows in the upper one. The nostrils are longitu-
dinal slits near the mouth, with a flap abo\'e and
below.

The genera are — Rhi.ui and Rhinchobatus.

Family III. — RHINOBATIDS (^Rhinobatidce).

The ventrals in this group are close behind the pec-
torals, which pass imperceptibly into the snout, without
the notch of the Rhinaedans. The two dorsals situated
on the hinder part of the tail are equal in size, and the
caudal has no under lobe. The keels commencing
behind the ventrals converge towards the upper edge
fo the caudal. The transverse mouth is straight or
gently arched. The flat quincuncial teeth are traversed
by a cross ridge. The spout-holes are close beneath
the eyes, and there is a row of pores beneath the
scapulo-coracoid girdle.

The genera are — Rhinobutus ; Syrrhina; Trugonorhina; and
Platyrhina ; all of them foreign to om- seas.

A “ Snow-fish” of great rarity, whose skin is prized
greatly in Assam as a valued medicine, was recognized
by Mr. Blyth as a Rldnohatus. The Gungball or
Snow-fish of Kunawar is thought by some naturalists
to be a burrowing lizard. It is described by the natives
as having four legs and a human face.

Family IV.— TORPEDINIDS (Torpedinidce).

In the members of this family a galvanic battery
occupies the spaces between the skull and the pectoral
fins on each side, and as usual in electrical fishes the
skin is quite smooth, developing neither ordinary scales
nor acute spines. The disc is rounded, very obtuse
anteriorly, and terminates posteriorly in a tail, which is
less fleshy than that of the two preceding species, and
is provided with a sub-triangidar caudal. The dorsals
are either absent, or there is one or two situated in the
tail, and the ventrals are close behind the pectorals.
A longer or shorter keel exists on the side of the tail.

The following genera enter the family- — Torpedo; Narcinei
Astrape ; Temera ; Discoj>yge ; and Hemigaleus. Two species
of Torpedo are natives of the British seas.

Family V. — RAIANS {Raimdae).

In this numerous family the disc is rhomboidal, the
lateral angles being formed by the meeting of the proxi-
mal and distal margins of the pectoral fin of each side ;
the snout being a third angle of the rhomb, and the
origin of the tail the fourth. The attachments of the
pectorals extend from the roots of the ventrals to the
snout. The orbits are separated from the spout-holes
by slender cutaneous bridges ; and each of the nostrils,
which are on the ventral aspect, is protected by a free
rounded lobe of the nasal flap, as it projects laterally
from the even surface of the upper lip. The flat teeth
acquire a central cusp in the adult fish in the season of
reproduction. Two small dorsals are situated towards
the end of the tail ; and the caudal is either absent or
exists merely in form of a cuticular seam. The skin
is smooth or prickly. „

The genera are — Raice ; Sympterygia ; and Urapiera.

Eight diflerent species of Skates {Raice) inhabit the
British seas, and furnish much wholesome nourishment
to the population.

Family VI. — TRYGONIDS {Trygonidce).

i

In this family the nasal flaps are not lost in the upper
lip so as to form one even surface between the nostrils,
but have a common free ledge with short fringes, which
is attached to the upper jaw by a mesial bridle only,
while the rounded lateral ends project over the nostrils.
Under the flap the nostrils approach each other, and
there is no valvular lobe on their exterior sides. The
large spout-holes are close behind the eyes, which have
adnate eyelids. The teeth are transversely elliptical,
and have a rounded cross ridge, with either an acute
root or one divided into points. The ventrals are
simple. The tail is thin and often taper-pointed, with-
out lateral cutaneous keels. It has no caudal or other
kind of fin either before or behind a barbed spine, or
spines, which it sometimes bears, sometimes wants.

The genera which enter the family are — Anacanthus ; Uro-
gymnus ; Trygort ; Pteroplatea ; Ilypolophus ; Tamiura ; Uro-
lophus; Trygonoptera ; jJitoplatea.

The Sting-ray or Fire-flaire {Trygon pastinaca) is
a British species.

Family VII.— MYLIOBATIDS {Mylidbatidw).

In this family the pectorals are interrupted on the

Family VIII.— CEPHALOPTERIDS
( Cephaloptes'idce) .

sides of the liead, which is more prominent than other

In this family the proximal end of the head is straight

members of the Raian order ; but at the proximal

transversely, but with an ear-like appendix on each

extremity of the disc the pectoral rays are developed

side, curving towards the ventral aspect, and formed

anew, constituting a kind of cephalic fin. The nasal

by a precephalic detachment of the pectoral fin.

lappets of each side coalesce mesiad into a quadrilateral

Mouth in front or beneath, reaching nearly from one

fringed flap, which reaches to the mouth. Nostrils

of these ear-like fins to the other. Nostrils widely

approximating to the mesial plane, where they are

apart. Eyes lateral, situated immediately before the

separated by a thin bridle, which has a lateral con-

beginning of the proper pectorals, which have a

nection with each corner of the transverse mouth.

great lateral expansion. Spout-holes on the dorsal

Teeth broad and flat in geometrical polygonal figures,

aspect and rather distant from the eyes. Tail as

forming plates which extend far back into the mouth,

long as the body or longer, with a spine behind the

and are bounded posteriorly in both jaws by mem-
branous folds. Eyes separated from the spout-holes
bj" broad bridges of integument, and situated on the

dorsal fin.

The genera are — Cephaloptera and Ceratoptera.

sides of the sktdl. Tail long and whip-like, with a

The Horned-Ray {Cephaloptera Giorna) has been

dorsal fin at its root and a spine behind it.

captured on the coast of Ireland. Ceralopterm of great

The genera are — -Myliobatis; ^iohalis; Rhinoptera.

size, exceeding twenty feet in length, have been taken
in the West Indies; and traditions of some that were

The Eagle-ray {Myliobatis aquila) frequents the

seen having a still vaster spread of the pectorals are

British seas.

current in Barbadoes.

Order XIII. — PROTOPTEKES [Protopteri),

This order was named by Professor Owen from the

to this country imbedded in the clay, and wdien placed

embryonic condition of the vertical fins, which, like

in a stove and well watered, have come forth in a vigor-

those of the tadpole of a frog, are developed on the

ous condition. The air-bladder is supposed to perform

upper and under edges of the animal from a continuous

the function of a lung during the time that the Protoptere

fold of the integument, and, as in the order of Dermop-

is secluded from the water ; and the communication of

teres, are persistent in the Protopteres and Lepidosirens.

the air-tube with the oesophagus is fortified by a tracheal

Muller in allusion to the resemblance of these fishes to

cartilage. The disposition of the gills is peculiar. In

another tribe of Batracbians, named the order Sire-

front there is a uniserial or half gill, but the first bran-

noids. The characters that have been assigned to this

chial arch is united to the second, and is not furnished

group, are the internal skeleton in part ossified, in part

with gills ; the gills of the second arch are biserial.

cartilaginous ; vertebral column retaining the embry-

long,^and thread-like ; the third arch is merely fringed

onic form of a “ notochord,” and the dermal skeleton

or denticulated on the edge ; the fourth arch is united

existing in form of cycloid scales ; the pectorals and

by membrane to the third, and has no gills ; but the

ventrals, which are situated on the abdomen, each in

fifth, or pharyngeal arch, supports a uniserial gill.

form of a single tapering, flexible filament or barbel,

There are only three passages between the gills, and

supported internally by a soft cartilaginous ray. The

only a portion of the blood is oxygenated, the blood in

gills are filamentary and free ; there is no pancreas ;

the arteries that supply the gill-less arches joining the

the swim-bladder appears as a cellular lung with an air-

circulation without undergoing that process.

duct ; and tbeie is a spiral valve in the intestines. The

Naturalists are divided in opinion as to these animals

Protopterus annectens of the Gambia, and the Lepido-

being fishes or reptiles. Professor Owen’s reasons for

sirens paradoxa of the Amazon, are the representa-

■ranking them in the first of these classes are — the gela-

tives of the order.

tinous condition of its notochord, the form of the trans-

The Gambia Protoptere inhabits districts which are

verse processes of that column, the attachment of the

flooded by tropical rains, and leads an active piscine life

scapulo-coracoid arch to the skull, the branchiostegous

as long as the waters prevail ; but when the flood is

membrane and the operculum covering the permanent

passing off, this curious animal burrows into the mud.

gills, the absence of a pancreas, the presence of a spiral

which a vertical sun soon bakes into a hard crust. An

intestinal valve, the position of the vent, the muciferous

aperture, however, is left in this clayey cell by which

pores on the head and lateral line, and the nasal sacs

some air is admitted, and therein the fish, besmeared- by

shut off from the interior of the mouth.

a thick layer of mucus passes, the dry season, rolled up

The Protoptere is much like an Ophidium with an

in a torpid condition. Protopteres have been brought

acute tadpole-like tail.

END OF

FISHES.

INDEX

TO FISHES.

Page

Page

Page

P.ige

Abiloininales .

142

Anacanths, Anacanthi .

112

Ateleopus . .

113

Bismore, Gasternsteus

122

Abeona

119

Anampses .

118

Atherina, Sand-smelt .

130

Black fish, Tautoga

119

Abramis, Bream .

154

Anarichthvs

133

Atherinidans

130

Black - mouthed Dog,

Acanthias . . 157

166

Anarrhiclias Wolf-fish .

133

Atherinopsis

130

Pristiurus

164

Acantboclinus

133

Anchoa, Enqraulis

147

Atipa, Callichthys (cut') .

150

Bleak, Alburnus .

1 54

Acanthocottus, Sea-

Anchovy, Engraulis

147

Attilus

160

Blennechis .

133

scorpion .

122

Ancylodon .

125

Auclieniptcrus

155

Blennioids, Blenniidai .

133

Acantholabrus

118

Anema

121

Aulocephalus

126

Blennius

133

Acantbolabi'us, Wrasse

118

Angel-fisb, Squatina

166

Aulopus

149

Blennophis .

133

Acanthopsides

154

Angler, Lophius .

134

Aulopyge .

154

Blepharis, Shoemaker

137

Acanthopsis

154

Anguillids, Anguillidie .

138

Aulostoina .

132

Blicca, Bleak

154

Acanthopteres, Cycloid

135

Anguisurus .

139

Aulostoinidans

132

Bliccopsis

154

Acantbopteres, Ctenoid

120

Anodus

148

Aurata, Chrysophrys

128

Blind fishes

143

Acantburus

132

Anoplogaster

127

Ausonia

137

Bloch’s Gurnard, Trigla

121

Acara

118

Anoplus

126

Australian trout. Gal-

Blue sliark, Carcharias

164

Acclimatation of fish .

127

Ansjovis, Engraulis

147

axias

126

Boar-fish, Capros

137

Acentronura

158

Antbias

126

Australian sea - trouts.

Bogue, Box

128

Acei'iiia, Ruffe

126

Anyperodon

125

Arripis .

126

Boleophthalmus .

132

Acestra

157

Aphanopus .

136

Australian spine - back.

Boleosoina .

126

Acharnes

129

Aphareus .

129

Notacanthus (cut)

135

Bolti, Chromis

118

Achirus

115

Aphrites

121

Auxis

136

Bonito, Thynnus .

136

Acipenser, Sturgeon

160

Apbtlialmiclithys .

140

Axinurus

132

Boridia . . 125

131

Acipeiiseroids

160

Apistus

121

Azurine

154

Botargo . . 127

130

Acrocheilus .

154

Aploactes .

121

Botia ....

154

Aci'opoma . . 123,

126

Aplochiton .

148

Badis

126

Bouches-en-flute .

132

Aetoplatea .

167

Aplodactylus

124

Bagarius

155

Bovichtbys .

121

Ageneiosus .

155

Apocryptes, Pakkop

132

Bagrus

155

Box, Bogue

128

Agnus

121

Apodal Anacanths

112

Balistapus .

158

Boxaodon .

128

Agoniates .

148

Apodals, Serpenti/orm .

138

Balistes, Trigger-Jlsh

158

Brachionichthys .

134

Agonus

121

Apodicbthys

133

Balistids, Balistidce

158

Brachysomophis .

138

Agrammus .

121

Apogon

126

Balistini

158

Braize, Pagrus

128

Agriopus

121

Apogonids, Apoi/onina .

126

Balitora

154

Braina, Ray's Bream

131

Ailia ....

155

Apogonoides, Apogonich-

Ballahan

117

Bream, Abramis .

154

Airbladder .

107

thys

126

Banana-fish, Bulirinus

152

Bream-flat, Blicca

154

Alabes, Clarias .

157

Aponichthys

126

Band-fishes, Cepola

132

Bregmaceros

133

Alausa, Shad

143

Aprion

126

Banks’ oar-fish, Regalecus

138

Briarbot

134

Alburnus, Bleah .

154

Apsilus

126

Barbel, Barbus

154

Brilliant lamp-fish, Sco-

Alec or Ganrm

147

Apterichthys

140

Barbus, Barbel .

154

pelus (cut)

150

Alec or Halec, Clvpea

143

Apua ....

154

Basking-shark, Selache

165

Brontes

155

Alepisaurus .

149

Aracana

159

Batides or Bays, Raice .

166

Brosmius, Torsk . 113,

115

Alestes

148

Arapaiina or Sudis

152

Batrachocephalus .

155

Brotnla

113

Alopajcians .

165

Argentina .

148

Batrachus .

134

Brycinus

148

Aluterius

158

Arges ....

155

Batul, Clupeonin .

146

Bryconops .

148

Alvordius .

126

Argeyreiosus

136

Bdellostonia

110

Bryttus

126

Ambassis

126

Argyropelecus

149

Bearded ophidium. Gym-

Bubalichthys

154

Amblogaster

143

Ariodes

155

nelis

112

Buccas loricat® .

121

Amblyceps .

155

Aldus ....

155

Beardie, Cobitis .

154

Bull-head, Scorpama .

121

Auiblyopsis

143

Arlina

126

Beaumaris Shark, Lamna

165

Bunocephalus

155

Ainblyopus .

132

Arothron

160

Becker, Par/ms .

128

Burbot, Lota

115

Aniia, Mud-fish .

151

Arrangement, Table of .

108

Bedrieger, Epibulus

119

Butirinus, Banana-fish

152

Ainidans, Am uedce

151

Arripis

126

Belone, Garfish .

117

Butte, Flounder .

116

Auimoccete .

111

Artedius

121

Belonesus .

153

Butter-fish, Blennius .

133

Aminodytes, Sand-launce

112

Aspidoparia

154

Belted Conito, Thynnus

136

Butterfly- fish, Blennius

133

Aminodytids

112

Aspidophoroides .

121

Bembras

121

Bykiing, Engraulis

147

Auiphacanthus

132

Aspidophorus, Poggie .

121

Bengala

154

Bythites . . .

113

Ampluo.xus, the Lancelet

109

Aspius

154

Bergylt, Sebnstes

122

Amphipnous

141

Aspredo

155

Beryx

127

Ca;cilophis .

138

Ampbiprion

118

Aspro

126

Betla

129

Cmsio

129

Ampliiprionichthys

121

Asterophysus

155

Bezugo, Pagellus

128

Calegnairis, Cepola

132

Ampbisile .

132

Asterropteryx

133

Bib, Morrhua

114

Callanthias .

126

Ainpliistichus

119

Astroderinus or Diana .

137

Bibronia

132

Oallechelys .

139

Amphyoxids

109

Astronesthes

148

Big Porgee, Pagrus

128

Callichthys .

155

Anabas, Tree-climber .

129

Astrape

167

Biinaculated sucker, Le-

Callionymus

133

Anableps

153

Asfroblepus .

155

pidogaster

133

Gallo ....

138

Voi . II, yg

170

INDEX TO FISHES.

Page

Page

Page

Page

Callophysus

155

Chanisa, Engraulis

147

Comephorus

133

Dermopteres

108

Callorlivnchus

162

Channomurjeiia .

140

Connemara sucker, I.cpi-

Devario

154

Callyodon .

118

Characinoids, CharrcinidielAH

dogaster .

133

Devil-fish, Serrasalmo .

149

Callyoiiemids

133

Charax

128

Conger or Congrus

141

Diacope

126

Campylostoma

154

Chasmodes .

133

Congermuraena

141

Diagramma

125

Camuri, Ceniropomus .

127

Chatoessus .

143

Congeroids, Covgridce .

141

Dicotylichthys

169

Cantliai'us, Choupa

128

Cliauliodus . .

148

Conodon

125

Dicrotus

136

Cantliiderrais

158

Cbaunax

134

Cook, Labrus

118

Dictysoma .

133

Capoeta

154

Chfilichtbys

160

Coral shoemaker, Teuthys

131

Dinectes ' .

160

Caprodon .

118

Cbeilimis

118

Coregonus, Gwyniad

148

Diodon

159

Caprophonns

137

Cbeilio

118

Coricus

118

Diodon, Toad-fish

159

Capros, Boar-fish

137

Clieilobranchus

141

Corkling, Crenilabnis .

118

Diodonts, Liodontidx .

159

Caracantlius

121

Cbcilodactylus

124

Corkwing, Crenilahrus .

118

Diploprion .

126

Caragola

111

Clieilodipterus

126

Cornish sucker

133

Dipterodon . . 128,

131

Cai'angiclithys

136

Cbeilomycterns .

159

Corvina

125

Dipterygonotus .

129

Carangioides (note)

136

Glieilotrema

125

Corvo, Corvina .

125

Diseognathus

154

Caranx, Chicaro .

136

Cheironectes (cut)

134

Corynopoma

148

Disoopodes, Discoboles .

133

Caiapus

141

Chela

164

Coryphajna, D(>li>tiin

137

Discopyge .

167

Carassius, Gold carp .

154

Chelmon

131

CorypliEenids

137

Distichodus

148

Carcliarias .

164

Chelona

130

Corythoichthvs

158

Ditrema

129

Carcliaritedans

164

Clielonodon

160

Cossvphus .

118

Dobule, Squalius .

164

Carcliarodon

165

Chicaro, Caranx .

137

Cottus, Millers thumb .

121

Dolphin, Coryphama

137

Caieloplius .

133

Chilodus

148

Cotvlis

133

Dog-fish, Scyllhim

164

Caribito, Serrasalmo

149

Cliiloscylliuin

164

Coulizon, Caranx

157

Dorado, Salminus

149

Carolina trout, Grystes

126

Chima;ra, Rahhit-fish

162

Courpata, 'Petragonurus

130

Doras ....

155

Carp, Cijprinus .

154

China white bait, Salanx

149

Crenicychla

118

Dory, Zeus .

137

Carpio

1 54

Chirocentrus

152

Crenidens .

128

Doryophrys .

159

Carpioidcs .

154

Chironeinus

124

Crenilahrus

118

Doryrhamphus

158

Cascadura, Ilojiloster-

Chirus

121

Crenilahrus, Corkwing .

118

Dotted Mackerel, Scombei

136

num

157

Chloroplithalmus .

149

Cristiceps .

133

Doydixodon

128

Castagnolo, Brama

131

Choeioichthys

158

Crius ...

131

Dracmna, Tractdnus

121

Catapliractoridae .

121

Choiros, Pig-fish .

156

Crooner, Trigla .

121

Drepane

131

Catastomi,7b-one-wo!i</i'e?'

s 1 54

Chologaster

143

Crossocheilos

154

Drummond’s fierasfer .

112

Catastomus

154

Chondrostoma

154

Crossorhinus

164

Drum, Corvina .

125

Catla ....

154

Chondrostoini, Cutting-

Croton basse, I.abrax .

127

Dules ....

126

Catciprion .

148

Uppers

154

Crucian carp, Carassius

154

Dussumiera

161

Cavagero, Cepola

132

Choridactylus

121

Cryptomycteres .

138

Cebidichtliys

133

Cliorinenius

136

Ctenoid Acanthopteres .

120

Eagle-ray, Alyliobatis .

168

Cdlan, Alausa

146

Choupa, Cantharus

128

Ctenoid scales

105

Echeneidans or Ship-

Cdlerin, Alausa .

146

Christopsaron

137

Ctenolabroids

118

stayers .

116

Ceiitauriis .

159

Chromidans, Chromidai

118

Ctenolabrus

118

Echeneis, Remora 116,

117

Oentrarchus

126

Chromides .

118

Ctenopoma .

129

Echinorhinus

166

Centrideriniclithys

121

Chroinis

118

Cubiceps

136

Echiopsis .

139

Centrina or Acantliidium

166

Chrysopbrys. Gilt-head

128

Cuchi.a, Amphipnous

141

Eel-fare

138

Centriscus, Trumpet -fish

132

Chub ....

154

Cudden, Merlangus

115

Eel-pout, Btennius 133,

134

Centrolophus, Black-fish

137

Cibotion

159

Curimatus .

148

Elapsopsis .

139

Centromochlus

155

Cichlops

120

Cutlass-fish , Sternarchus

141

Elecate

136

Centropliorus

166

Cirrhibarbis

133

Cutting-lip Cyprinoids .

154

Electric-eel, Gymnotus .

142

Ccntropogon

121

Cirrhilabrus

118

Cyanichthys

159

Elcginus . . 121,

125

Centropomus, Camuri .

126

Cirrhiinura;na .

139

Cybium

136

Eleotris

133

Centropiistis

126

Cirrhiuus .

154

Cycla ....

118

Elopians, Eloqiidx

151

Ccntropus .

121

Cirrhites

124

Cycleptus .

154

Elops ....

151

Centroscvllium

166

Cirrhiticbtliys

124

Cyclichthys

159

Embiotoca .

119

Centruropliis

139

Cirrhitids, Cirrhitidx .

124

Cycloid Acanthopteres .

135

Embiotocids

119

Ceplialacanthus .

121

Cirrliostomes

109

Cycloid scales

104

Eminelichthvs

129

Cephalocassis

155

Citharacdus

131

Cvclolabroids

118

Emperor of Japan, Eala-

Ceplialoptera

168

Citharinus .

148

Cyclopterus

133

canthus .

131

Cejdialopterids

168

Clarias, Alahes . 155

lo7

Cyclostomes

109

Encheleophis

112

Cejiola, Bund-fish

132

Clarotes

155

Cynodon

148

Enchelycore

140

Cepolids, CepriltedcE

132

Clinus

133

Cynopotamus

148

Enchelynassa

140

Ceratias

134

Clupea, Herring .

143

Cyprinodon

163

Endo-skeleton

106

Ceratoptera

168

Clupoasdas, Halecoids .

143

Cyprinodonts

153

Enneapterygius .

121

Cestra;us

130

Clupeichthvs

143

Cyprinoids, Cyprinidce .

153

Ennichthys .

119

Cestracionts

165

Clupeonia .

143

Cyrene

154

Enoplosus .

126

Cetopsis

155

Clepticus

118

Epalzeorhynchus .

164

Cliaca ....

155

Cnidon

126

Dace, Squalius

154

Ephippus, Horseman .

131

Cha;niclithys

133

Coal-fish, Merlangus .

114

Dactylopterus

121

Epibulus, Bedrieger 118,

119

Chsonogobius

132

Cobites, Loach

154

Dajaus

130

Epicopus

121

Cbasrops

118

Cock-paidle, Cyclopterus

133

Damalichthys

119

Epicyrtus

148

Cliaitobranclius

118

Cockup, Lates

127

Dangila

154

Epinnula

136

Cba;todon .

131

Cod-fish, Morrhua

113

Dascyllus .

118

Eques

125

CliKtodonts, Clicetodontidw 131

Cod-fishery

113

Datnia

126

Equula

137

Cbastopteru.s

129

Coffer-fish, Ostrncion .

169

Datnioides .

129

Eremophilus

155

Cbasturichtliys

132

Coilia

143

Decapterus (note)

136

Erethistes .

155

Chalceus

148

Colisa

129

Del el-far, Gyinnarchus

162

Erythrinoids, Erythrinida

151

Cbalcinus .

148

Collichth)-s .

125

Dentex or Spams

128

Erythrinus (iiote 148) .

151

Cballones .

130

Comber Wrasse, Lahrus

118

Derbio, Lichia

136

Erythrbides

151

INDEX TO FISHES.

171

Page

Page

Page

Page

Esoddse, Luciolds

153

Gill-covei', Operculum .

107

Harpagifer .

133

Icelus

121

Esox, Pike or Luce

153

Gills, Branchiw .

106

Harvest-fish, Pep>riltis .

137

Ichthyapus

139

Estrella

126

Gilt-head, Chrysophrys

128

Hassar, Callichihys

156

Ichthyobus .

154

Esunculus .

112

Ginglymostoma .

164

Hearing

107

Ichthyococcus

149

Etelis

126

Girardinus .

153

Heart

107

Ichthyology important .

104

Etroplus

118

Girella

128

Helgarfiskar, Ilippoqlossus 1 16

Ide, Idus

154

Etrumeus .

151

Girnat, Trigla

121

Heliases

118

Idus, Ide

154

Eturgeon, Adpenser

161

Glanidians, Silw idm

155

Helniichthyans

112

Ikankurrow, Polynemus

124

Euanemus .

155

Glanis

155

Helops

160

Ikanswangi, Synanceia

122

Eucinostonius

129

Glaucosoma

126

Helostoma .

129

Ikantamban, Dussumiera

146

Euctenogobius

132

Glutinous hag, Afyxine .

110

Helotes

126

Iluocoetes .

133

Eurymictera

140

Glyphisodon

118

Hemigaleus

167

Ischnosoma

151

Eutropius .

155

Glyptauchen, Saddle-fish

121

Hemilepidotus

121

Ischenza, Malapterurus

157

Exoglossum

154

Glyptothora.x

155

Hemiodon .

157

Exostoma .

155

Glyptosternon

155

Hemiodus .

148

Jew-fish, Glaucosoma (cmO 126

Gnathanacanthus

121

Hemipimelodus .

155

John Dory, Zeus .

137

Falkland Island Neropliis 158

Gnatliouodon

136

Hemiseyllium

164

Johnius

125

Fario, Trent

148

Gobiesocidaj

133

Hemithylacus

158

Joues cuirassees .

121

Farionella .

149

Gobiesox

133

Hemitripterus

121

Julis, Rainbow Wrasse

118

F'ather-lasher

122

Gobio

154 ,

Heniochus .

131

Fierasfer

112

Gobioides .

132

Heptanchus

166

Kakamby, Butirinus

152

Fi-fi, Synancbia .

122

Gobioids, Gobiidee

132

Heros ....

118

Karmoot, Clarias

157

Fins ....

105

Gobius, Goby

132

Herpetoichthys

139

Kathetostoma

121

Fire-flaire, Trygon

167

Gold-eye, Hyodou

151

Herring, Clujiea .

143

Keling, Morrhua

116

Fish-maws or Sounds .

124

Goldcarp, Carassias

154

Herring-pikes, Clvpeso-

Kell-el bahr, Ihjdrocyoii

149

Fish-nets

122

Goldfinny, Ctenolah'us .

118

cidee

152

Keo-keo, Butirinus

152

Fishes, Definitirn of

103

Golpin, Alepisaurus

150

Heterobranchus .

155

Kesebr, Bates

127

Fishes proper

104

Gomphosus

118

Heterocercal fins .

105

Ketengus

155

Fistularia .

132

Goniodonts, Gordodontidas 157

Heterognathonodon

126

King-fish, Lampris

137

Flat-iishes, Pleuronectidm 115

Gonostoma .

148

Heterophthalmus .

127

Kitten-shark, Ceslracion

165

Flower-fish, Boleophlhal-

Goukney, Trigla .

121

Heteropygians

142

Koplarchus .

118

mus

133

Graining, Squalius

1 54

Heterosomata

115

Kowala, Clupea .

143

Flounder, Platessa

115

Grammistes

126

Heterostichus

121

Kowtoo, Saurus .

149

Fluke, Platessa .

115

Grayling, Thymallus

148

Heterotis

152

Krohnius

132

Flying-fish, Exoccetus .

117

Grey Gurnard, Trigla ■

121

Hexanchus .

166

Kuare . . .

152

Four-spined Stickle-back

122

Grey Mullet, Muyil

130

Heysterocajpus

119

Kuth, Merlangus

115

Fox shark, Alopcecias .

165

Grundulus .

153

Hippocampus

158

Freggia

132

Grystes, Australian salmon 126

Hippoglossus

115

Labio

154

Fundulus .

153

Grystina

126

Histiopterus

131

Labrax

126

Gymnarclius

162

Histophorus

137

Labrus, Wrasse .

118

Gadioulus .

113

Gymnelis

112

Holacanthus

131

Lachnolaimus

118

Gadoids, Gadidce .

112

Gymnetrus .

138

Holconoti .

119

Lactarius

136

Gadopsis

121

Gymnocrotaphus .

128

Holconotus .

119

Lsemargus .

166

Gadus, Cod fish .

113

Gymnodonts

159

Holibut, Hippoglossus .

116

Damn a

165

Gag-toothed Galaxias \cuf) 150

Gymnomurajna

140

Holoceutrids, Holocen-

Lamna?dans, Lamncedce

165

Galaxidans, Galaxidm .

150

Gymnotids, Gymnotidee

141

tridcR

127

Lainnostoma

139

Galeichthys

155

Gymnotus, Electric-eel .

141

Holocentrum

127

Lamp-fish, Scopelus (cut)

149

Galeidans, Galeidie

164

Guavina, Macrodon

151

Holocephalids

162

Lampern, Fringed, Lam-

Galeocerdo, Tope .

164

Gudgeon, Gobio .

154

Homalopomus

113

petra

111

Galeods, Sharks . 163,

164

Guinea-man, Dactylo-

Homocercal fius .

105

Lampetra, Lainpern

111

Galeoides

124

pterus

122

Homodon .

126

Lamprey, Petromyzon 110

111

Galeus, Tope

164

Gungball

167

Homoloptera

154

Lampris or Apolectus .

137

Gambusia .

153

Gunnellus, Butter-fish .

133

Hoplegnathus

131

Lainpugus .

137

Gamor- el-lellah, CVMot’jtow 149

Gurnard, Trigla .

121

Hoplichthys . 121,

133

Lancelet, Amphioxus .

109

Ganoid scales

105

Hoplosoina .

155

Langya, Opicephalus

129

Ganoids, Ganoidei

160

Haddock, Morrhua

114

Hoplosternum

155

Larimus

125

Gar-fish, Belo7ie .

117

Hffimeroccetes

133

Horned Bullhead .

122

Lateral line

106

Gargota

155

Hmmulon .

125

Horned Ray. Cephuloptera

168

Lates

126

Garum, Alex or Halex .

147

Hag, Myxine

no

Horseman, Ephippus

131

Latilus . . 121,

126

Gasterochisma

136

Haimara, Macrodon

151

Hund-fisch, Umbra

151

Latris

124

Gasterostei, Sticklebacks

122

Hake, Merluccius

113

Huro ....

126

Latus, Clarias

157

Gasterosteida;

123

Halec or Alec, Garum .

143

Hwaya, Boleophthahmis

133

Lauria

132

Gasterosteus, Stickleback

121

Hales, tleterobratichus .

156

Hydrargyra

153

Lax, Salmo

116

Gasterotokeus

158

Haliaeutea .

134

Hydrargyri .

153

Leather-headed Nototbeu

120

Gastropelecus

148

Halicampus .

158

Hydrocyon .

148

Lebiasina .

151

Gattorugene, Blennius .

133

Half-mailed Stickleback

122

Hydi’opardus

148

Leioglossus (note')

136

Gaverick, Trigla .

121

Haligenes .

118

Hyloborynchus

154

Leiostomus .

125

Gedd, Esox

153

Hammer-head, Sphyrna

164

Hylomyzon -

154

Leiui'anus .

139

Gempylids, Gempylidee .

135

Hapalogenys

125

Hyodon, Gold-eye

151

Lembus

126

Gempylus, Scabbard-fish

136

Haplodactylus

124

Hyodonts, Hyodontulai .

150

Lepidogastor

133

Genyorge

126

Hara ....

155

Hyperoslyphe

125

Lepidogobius

132

Geophagus .

118

Harbin, Merlangus

115

Hypolophus

167

Lepidoleprus

115

Geotria

111

Hard-head, Alausa

145

Hypophthalinus .

155

Lepidopus .

136

Germon, Thynnus

136

Harengs de Bergues,

Hypostomus

157

Lepidosiren

168

Gerres

129

Alausa .

146

Hyprorus .

112

Lepidosteus

161

Gilded Trigger-fish,

Harengula, Sprat .

143

Hypsinotus

131

Lepidostids, Lepidosteidee

161

ichthys .

159

Harmouth, Clarins

157

Hypsiptera .

136

Lepisoma

126

172

INDEX TO FISHES.

Page

Page

Page

Page

Lepidotrigla

121

Melanura .

151

Navcine . .

132

Paehyurus .

126

Lepidotus . . 149,

152

Meletta

143

Naseus

132

Pacu, Prochilodus

149

Lepipterus .

125

Melicbthys

158

Nauclerus .

136

Psecilia

153

Leporiiius .

148

Mendosoina . 124,

129

Naucrates, Pilot-Jish 136,

137

Page!, Pagellus .

128

Leptaspis (note) .

13G

Mene

137

Nautichthys

121

Pagellus, Pagel .

128

Leptocephalids

112

Menbaden, Alausa

146

Nebris

125

Pagrus, Braize

128

Leptoceplialus, MIorris .

112

Merlangus, Whiting, Coal-

Nefash, JJistichodus

149

Pakkop, Apocr),ptes

133

Leptoichthys

158

fsh . . 113,

114

Nehar, Saurus

149

Palinurus .

136

Lcptonotus .

158

Merluccius, Hake

113

Neinadactvlus

124

Palometa. Brima

131

LeptorliinopLis

139

Merula

119

Neinatopoma

148

Pammelus .

136

Lcptoscopus

121

Mesopriou .

126

Nemicbtbys

137

Panchax

117

Letlirinus .

128

Microdonopbis

139

Neinobrama

131

Pangasius .

155

Leucaspius .

154

Microdus

148

Neoclinus .

133

Pangio

154

Leuciscus (cut) .

154

Microiclitbys

126

Neptoinenus

136

Papagelli

119

Leucos

154

Micropliis .

158

Neropbis

158

Paradise tishes., Polynemini 124

Ley ....

115

Micropogon .

125

Nests made by fishes .

122

Paralicbtbys

115

Lichia

136

Micropteryx

136

Nestis

130

Paralabrax .

126

Liiiiaraurajna

140

Micropus

121

Nettastoma

141

Paralepis

149

Limia

153

Microstoma

152

Nine-shaft eels

138

Pareiodon .

165

Ling, Lota . . 113

115

Microzeus .

137

Nipbon

126

Parodon

148

Lingua de paes

152

Miller’s tbnmb. Coitus .

122

Nomeus

136

Parophrys . .

115

Liparis

133

Minnow, Phoxinus

154

Nonnat, Nouveaux

Paropsis

136

Little Gurnard, Trigla .

121

Minous

121

nees . . 131,

133

Pata>cus

133

Lizard-fish, Saurok/s .

161

Modernise, Engraulis .

147

Notacanths, Notncanthidce 135

Pearl-side, Scnpelus

150

Load), Cobitis

154

Mohee, Butirinus

162

Notacanthus (cut)

135

Pegasides, Pegasidce

157

Lnbocheilos

154

Mola, Sun Jish

154

Notidanidans, Notidanidce

165

Pegasus

157

Lobotes

126

M ol e bu t s, Orthogoriscin i

169

Notidanus .

166

Pelamys

136

Lonchurus .

125

Molinesia .

153

Nototopterus

152

Pelates

126

Long- finned captain, Trigla 121

Monacantbini

168

Nototbenia, Notothen (cut) 120

Pelecus

154

Loopa, Sounds

124

Monocantbus

158

Novacula

118

Pellona

143

Lopliioids, Lophiida;.

134

Monocbir

115

Nuria

154

Pelor .

121

Lopliius, Angler .

134

Monopterus

141

Nui’se, Cestracion

165

Pelori

132

Lopliobranchs

157

Jlontagu’s blenny, Blen-

Pemplieris .

131

Lopliotes

132

nivs

133

Oblata

128

Penhwyad, Esox .

153

Loricarini .

157

Mordacia

111

Odax ....

118

Pennocbitaj .

154

Lota, Ling or Burbot 1 1 3

115

Moringua .

140

Odontaspidans, Odontas-

Pennog, Herring .

143

Lo.xodon

164

Morinyrians, Mormyridm

152

pidce

164

Pentaceros .

126

Lucioids, EsocidtB

153

Morinvrops

152

Odontaspis .

165

Pentanemus

124

Lucioperca .

126

Monnyrus .

152

Odontognatbus

143

Pentaprion .

129

Lump fish, Cyclopterus

133

Morrbua, Cod-fish, &c.

114

Odontoguathus or Gna-

Pentapus

128

Lupus, Labrax

126

Morris, Leptocephalus .

112

tbobolus .

143

Pentaroge .

121

Lycodes

133

Moss-bonker, Alausa .

147

Odontonectes

126

Peprilus

137

Lyrie, Aspidophorus

122

Motella

113

Odontostomus

149

Perea, Perch

126

Lythe, AJerlangus

115

Mo.xostoma

154

Old wives, [r?'«sses

119

Perca-labrax

126

Mud-fish, Amia .

151

Oligorus

126

Percarina

126

Machasrium, Alud-lurher

112

Mudlurker .

111

Olistes

136

Perch, Perea

126

M aekerel. Scomber

136

Mugil, Mullet

130

Opbicephalus, Longya

129

Perciclitliys .

126

Maekerel-garrick, Scorn-

Mugiloids, Mugilidm

130

Opbidioids, Ophididai .

112

Percilia;

126

beresox .

117

Mullet, Mugil

130

Ophidion . . .

121

Percinina

126

Macquaria .

126

Mulloides, Mullidw

123

Opbidium

112

Percis

121

Macrodon (note 148)

151

Mullus, Surmullets

123

Opbisternon

141

Percoids, PerccedcB

126

Macropodus, PlaJcat

129

Murama, Murry .

140

Opbisurapbis

139

Percopbis .

121

M acrourids, Afacrouridee

115

Muraenaeda:, AJurcenoids

140

Opbisuroids, Ophisuridm

138

Perilampus .

154

Majna

129

Muramesox

141

Ophisurus .

139

Periopbtbahnus .

132

Maids, kFrasses .

119

Muraeniohthys

139

Opistognatbus

133

Peristedion .

121

Maigre, Scicena .

125

Murainoblenna

140

Opsarius

154

Peristetlius .

121

klailed-cheeks

121

Mur®noids, Alurcencedw

140

Oreinus

154

Pesce spada, Xiphias

137

Mailed-gurnard, Peris-

Mursenopsis

139

Oreosoma .

126

Petromyzon, lAimprey

111

tedion

122

Murry. Murcena .

140

Orestias

163

Petromyzontids .

110

Makaira, Sword fish

137

klustelidans, Mustelidm

165

Orphus, Pugrus .

128

Petroscirtes

133

Malacopteres or Physos-

Mustelus

165

Osmerus, Smelt .

148

Pbagrus . . 149, 162

tomes

138

Muxinos

130

Ospbronemus

129

Phanerodon

119

Malacopterous abdominalt

142

Mvlesinus .

148

Osteobrama .

154

Phaneromycteres .

138

Malapterus

118

Myletes

148

Osteogeneiosus

155

Pharoptery.x

133

Malapterurus, Baud

155

Myleus

148

Osteoglossum

151

Pbaryngobranchs

109

Malacanthus

118

Myliobatids, Myliobatidie

168

Ostracion, Cojferfish .

159

Pharyngognatbs . 107, 117

Mallotus, Capelin

148

Mvliobatis .

168

Ostracionids, Ostracionidm 159

Philypnus .

133

Mami

131

Mylocbeilus

154

Otolitbus

125

Phobetor

121

Malta, Callichthys

156

Myriodon

126

Oxycirrhites

124

Pbolis

133

Marshbankers, Alausa .

145

Myi'ipristis .

127

Oxyrliina

165

Phoxinellus

154

Marsipobranclis .

109

Jlyropbis

139

Oxvrbinchus

152

Phoxinus, Minnow

154

Mastacembelus

135

Myrus . ,

139

Oxvrbinclms, NternncfAt/s

Phv’cis . . 113, 132

Matejuelo .

127

Mystriopbis

139

(cut)

141

Phyllopteryx

158

Maurolicus .

149

Myxine, Ilag

110

Oxystomus .

112

Physogaster

160

Megalaspes (note)

136

Myxinoids, Myxinidoi .

109

Physostomes or Malacop-

Megalops

151

Myxodes

133

Pachychili. Thick Uppers

153

teres

138

Megaprotodon

131

Myzontes

104

Pachymetopon

128

Phuca or Phukis .

132

INDEX TO

FISHES.

173

Page

Page

Page

Page

Piabuca

148

Porobranchus

112

Rhinchobatus

167

Schisothorax . .

154

Piabucinu .

148

Porthmeus .

136

Rhinsedans, Rhincedoe .

167

Schistura .

154

Picked-dog, Acanthias .

1G6

Potia ....

154

Rhinelepis .

157

Schizodon .

148

Pickerel, Esox

153

Premnas

118

Rhinichthys

154

Sclmlle, Sole, Solea

116

Pig-fish, Erionotvs

122

Prenadillas, Brontes et

Rl.inobatids, Rhinobatida:

167

Sciades . . .

155

Pig-fish, Choiros .

156

Arges

156

Rhinobatus .

107

Sciaena, Maigre .

125

Pike, Esox .

153

Priacanthus . 126, 158

Rhinodon

165

Scisenoids, Scicencedw .

125

Pilchard, Alausa . 143,

146

Prid or Pride, Aminocxies 1 1 1

Rhinodonts, Rhinodontidas 1 65

Sclerodermes

159

Pileoma

126

Primnothonus

140

Rhinoptera .

108

Sclerogenids, Sclerogenidce 121

Pillager, Myxine .

110

Priodon

132

Rhodeus

164

Scleropareii, Sclerogenids

121

Pilot-fish, Nauci'alcs .

136

Prionodon .

164

Rhynchichtliys

127

Scolopsis

126

Piltock

115

Prionodus .

126

Rhynchobdella

135

Scomber, Mackerel

117

Pimelonotus

155

Prionotus .

121

Rhypticus .

126

Scomberesocidai .

117

Pimelepterina

131

Prionotus, Pig-jish 121,

122

Rhytiodus .

148

Scomberlucids

117

Piinelepterus

131

Prionurus .

132

Rita ....

155

Scombrides, Scombridw

136

Pimelodus, Cat-Jish

155

Pristidans, Pristidai

167

Rita arius (cut) .

155

Scombrops .

126

Pimephalus

154

Pristigaster

143

Roach, Leuciscus .

154

Scopelidans, Scopelidae

149

Pinguipes .

121

Pristiophorus, Saw-Jisk .

166

Rochen, Ram

166

Scopelus, Pearl-side

149

PisodonophLs

139

Pi’istipoma .

125

Rock cook, Acantholabrus

118

Scorpmua, Bull-head

121

Pipe-fishes (cut) .

158

Pristipomids, Pristipomidie 125

Rock gurnard, Trigla .

121

Scorpenichtliys

121

Piper, Trigla

121

Pristis

167

Rogenia, While-bait

143

Scorpis

131

Pipiro, Fcecilophis (cut)

140

Pristiurus .

164

Kohita

154

Scouler’s salmon (cut) .

148

Piranha, Serrasalmo

149

Pristotis

118

Roncador, El

125

Scull of fish, (pr. school)

103

Pirayu, Salminus

149

Proceros

160

Roqueron, Engraulis

147

Scyllids, ScyUiiacB

164

Placoid scales

105

Procliilodus

148

Rotchet, Trigla .

121

Scylliodonts

164

Plagiostomi, Selacians .

163

Prone-mouth Cyprinoids

154

Rougeole

132

Scyllium

164

Plagusia

115

Prosopodasys

121

Rough-tailed Stickleback,

122

Scymnids, Scymnidoe .

166

Plain honito, Auxis

136

Prostheacanthus .

154

Rufl'e, Acerina

126

Scyinnus

166

Plaice, Platessa .

115

Proterocanthus

128

Rudd, Scardinius

154

Scyris ....

130

Plakat, Macroptodus

129

Protopteres, Protopteri

168

Ruvettus

130

Sea-bream, Pagellus

128

Platax

131

Protopterus

168

Sea-owl, Cyclopleriis

133

Platessa, Flounder

115

Prussian carp, Carassius

154

Sable-fish, Alausa

147

Sea-scorpion, AcaHthocollusl22

Platichthys .

115

Psammoperca

126

Saccobranchus

155

Sea-snipe .

132

Platycara .

154

Psenes

136

Saddle-head, Glyptauchen

Sea-wife, Acantholabtuis

118

Platycephalus

121

Psetta, Turbot

115

(cut)

121

Sebastes

121

Platypterus

133

Psettichthys

115

Salanghi, Polynemus

124

Selache, Basking shark

165

Platyrliina .

167

Psettus

131

Salanx

148

Selachians, Plagios-

Platystethus

126

Pseudecheneis

156

Salar ....

148

tomi . . 104

163

Platystoma .

155

Pseudoblennius .

133

Salarias

133

Selar (note)

136

Plecoglossus

148

Pseudochromiiis .

120

Sallia, Polynemus

124

Selaroides (note) .

136

Plectognaths, Plectognath

;i58

Pseudochromis

120

Salminus

148

Sele, Polynemus, .

124

Plcctropoma

126

Pseudoplesiops

120

Sahno, Salmon

148

Selintan, Ambassis

126

Pleuronectids

115

Psilorhynchus

154

Salmon, Sahno

148

Sense sixth, or nervous

Pleuronichthys

115

Pteraclis

137

Sahnonoids, SalmonidiB

148

function .

107

Plotosus

155

Pterodiclithys

121

Sand-launce, Ammodytes

112

Serbia

136

Podabras

121

Pterois

121

Sand lurker, Machmrium

111

Seriolella

136

Poecilophis .

140

Pteroplatea

107

Sandpride .

111

Seriolichthys

136

Poecilurichthys

148

Pterygoplichthus .

157

Sand-smelt, Atherina .

130

Serpentiform Apodals,

Poeclocephaliis

139

Ptychocheilus

154

Sapphirine gurnard, Trigla 121

Apodes .

138

Poggie, Aspidophorus .

122

Ptychostomius

154

Sar, Sargus

128

Serranina .

126

Pogonias

125

Ptyonotus .

121

Sarda, Alausa

146

Serraiius

126

Pogonoperca

126

Pygocentris

148

Sardella, Alau-a .

146

Serrasalmo

148

Polar flounder, Pleuro-

Pygopristis .

148

Sardine, Alausa .

146

Seth, Merlangus .

115

nectes (cut)

115

Pyrodon

158

Sardinella .

143

Shad, Alausa

143

Pollack

115

Pyrrhulina .

151

Sargus, Sheep's-head .

128

Shadines

145

Polyacanthus

129

Sarofine, Pagellus

128

Shanny, Blennius

133

Polycaulis .

121

Qual and Hvvel, Grampus

Sarotherodon

118

Shark liver-oil

104

Polycentrus

126

and Whale

116

Saurida

149

Sharks, Squall

163

Polognathus

154

Sauroids, Salamandroidei

161

Sharp-nosed Thong-fish,

Polymixia .

127

Raad, Malapterurus

157

Saurus

149

Sternarchus

142

Polynemids, Polynemidoe

124

Rabbit-fish, ChinuBra .

162

Sayris

117

Sheep’s-head, Sargus .

128

Polynenius .

124

Racoma

164

Scabbard fishes, Gempy-

Shoemaker, Blepharus .

137

Polyprion .

126

Rachochilus

118

Udce

135

Short mullet, Mvqil

130

Polypterichthys .

132

Raise, Rays, Skates

167

Scad, Trachurus .

136

Short-spined Stickleback

122

Polypterids, Polypteridce

162

Raians, Raicedce .

167

Scale -rayed Wrasse

118

Sicyases

133

I’olypterus .

162

Rainbow Wrasse, Julis .

118

Scales, ctenoid

105

Sicydium

132

Polyuranodon

140

Ramado, Mugil .

130

Scales, cycloid

104

Sicyogaster .

133

Poinacanthus

131

Raniceps

113

Scales, ganoid

105

Sidera

140

Poniacentris

118

Ray’s Sea-bream, Brama

131

Scales, placoid

105

Slid or Sill, Herring

143

Pomanotis .

126

Red Band-fish, Cepola .

132

Scaphyrhinchus .

161

Sillock, Merlangus

115

Pomatomus

126

Red Gurnard, Trigla

121

Scardinius .

154

Silundi.i

155

Pomeranian bream, Blic-

Red Man, Eolocentrum

127

Scarodon

131

Siluridje, Glanidians

156

copsis

154

Red Wrasse, Labrtis

118

Scarus . . 118

119

Siluroids

154

Pomfret, Stromateus

137

Regalecus, Deal-fish

138

Scatophagus

131

Silurus

155

Pomotis

126

Remora, Echeneis 116

117

Schedophilus

131

Siphonostoma

132

Porbeagle, Lamna

165

Rhamphichthys .

141

Schilbes

165

Siphonostomus

158

Porgee, Sargus

128

Rhina

167

Schisopygns

154

Sisor . . .155

157

174 INDEX TO FISHES.

Page

Skates, Raim .167

Skeleton . . . ..106

Skip-jack, Temnoden . 137

Skipper, Scomberesox . 117

Small-spotted dog-tisli,
Scyllium . . .164

Smaris . . . 129

Smelt, Osmerus . . 148

Smooth-hound, Mustelus 165
Smooth-tailed Stickle-
back, Gasterosteiis . 122

Snow-fish, Rhinohates . 167

Solea, Sole . . .115

Solenognathus . .158

Solenostomes, Solenos-
tomidoe . . .157

Solenostomus . .157

Sorcerer, the, Symnceia 122
Sounds emitted by
fishes, . 122, 125, 156

Spanish Mackerel, Scomber 136
Sparoids, Sparidte . 128

Sparulus . . .128

Spams, Dentex . . 128

Sphmrodon . . .128

Spliagebranchus . . 139

Spliyriiffidans, Sphyrncedoi 164
Spinacids, Spinacidce . 166

Spinax . . .166

Spirobranchus . . 129

Sprat, Ilarengula 143, 145
Spratella . . .143

Spring-herrings, Aliuisa 145
S(juali, Sharks . . 163

Squalius . . . 154

Squatina, Angel-Jish . 166

Squatinids, /Sjaotiaic?® . 166

Squatinoraim . .166

Squirrel-fish, Ilolocenti'um 127
Stegophilus. . .155

Stegostoma . . .164

Stenodus . . . 148

Sternarchus (cuf) . 141

Sternopteryx . .149

Sternopygus . .141

Stevardia . . . 148

Stlienopus . . .121

Sticbmus . . 121, 133

Stickleback, Gasterosleus 122
Stigmatophnra . .158

Sting-ray, Tryyoti . 167

Stomias . . . 152

Stone-grig . . .Ill

Stone-toters, Exoylossum 123
Stor, Acipcnser . . 161

Striped basse, Lahrnx . 127

Stromateoides . 137

Stubbe-eels, Anguilln . 138

Sturgeon or Sturgiun,
Acipeiiser . 160, 161

Page

Sturionidans, Sttirinnes 160
Stylephoras . .138

Sudis or Arapaima . 152

Sun-fishes, Orthagorisclni 159
Sunhong, Gobius . 133

Surmullet, Mullus . 123

Surmullidans, Mullidce 123
Sutor, Acaiiihocottus . 122

Swim or Air-bladder . 107

Sword-fish, Xiphias . 137

Syakoup, Laies . .127

Symbranchs . .141

Symbranchus . . 141

Sympterygia . .167

Synagris . . . 128

Synanceia, Fi-fi . 121, 122

Synancidium . . 121

Syncrossus . . .164

Synechoglanis . .155

Syngnathids, Syngnalkidce 157
Syngnathus . .158

Synodontis . . .155

Syrrhina . . .167

Systomus . . . 154

Table of arrangement . 108

TseniEeda', Tteniods, Tw-
nicedoe . . .138

Tmniiinotus . .121

Tajniura . . .167

Tamban, Clupeonia 146

Tamoata, Rons et Cal-
lichthys . . .156

Tangsa, Clarias (cut) . 165

Taractes . . .131

Tareira, Macrodon . 161

Taurichthys . . 131

Tautoga, Tautog . . 118

Telestes . . . 154

Temera . . .167

Temnodon . . . 136

Tench, Tinea . . 164

Ten-pounders, Bulirinus 152
Tepbrajops . . .128

Tetragonopterus . .148

Tetragonurids . . 130

Tetraodon, Tetrodon . 160

Tetrapturus . .137

Tetraroge . . .121

Teutbyoids, Teulhydidie 131
Thalassorhinus . .161

Therapon . . .126

Theraponids, Theraponidm 126
Tlieraponina . . 126

Thick-lipped Cyprinoids,
Pachychili . .154

Thick-lipped Mullet, MugilXZQ
Thoracic Anacanths . 112

Three-spotted Cheironect
(cut) . , . 134

Page

Thresher, Alopcecias . 165

Thymallus, Grayling . 1 18

Thynnus, Tunny . . 136

Thyrsites . . . 136

Thyrsoidea . . .140

Tinea, Tench . . 154

Tinker, Gasterosleus . 122

Toad-fish, Batrachus 134, 135
Tobacco-pipe fishes . 132

Tometes . . .148

Tope, Galeus . . 164

Torpedines . . . 167

Torpedinids, Torpedinidm 167
Torpedo . . .167

Torsk, Brosmius . , 116

Toxotes . . . 131

Trachelochismus . .133

Trachichthys . . 127

Trachidermus . . 121

Trachinid®, Uranoscopians 1 20
Trachinotus . . 136

Trachinus, Weever . 121

Trachurus . . 136

Trachylopterus . .155

Trachypoma . . 126

Trachypterus . . 138

Trachyrhamplms . . 158

Tree-climber, Anabas . 129

Triakis . . .165

Triajnodon . . .164

Trimnodonts, 'Trimno-

dontes . . . 164

Trimnophorus . .132

Trichiurus . . .136

Trichiurini . . . 136

Trichodon . . .121

Trichonotus . . 133

Trichopleura . . 121

Trichopus . . . 129

Tndentiger . . .132

Trigger-fish, Balistes (cut) 158
Trigla, Gurnard . . 121

Triglops . . .121

Triodon . . .160

Triodonts, Triodontes . 160

Tripterygion . . 133

Trout, Fario . .148

Trub.a, Alansa . .147

Trumpet-fish, Centriscus 132
Truscina, Weever . 121

Trychomycteres . . 155

Trygon, Fire jlaire . 167

Trygonids, Trygonidm . 167

Trygonoptera . . 167

Trygonorhina . .167

Trypauchen . . 132

Tumberel or Tumlare,

Grampus . . 116

Tunny, Thynnus . . 136

Turbot, Pselta . 116

Page

Turdus , . .119

Turkey fish, Tetrodon

(cut) . . .159

Tvvaite-shad, Alausa . 146

Umbra .151

Umbrina . . 125

Upeneichthys . 123

Upeneoides . . . 123

Upeneus . .123

Ura:on . . . 138

Uranoscopidans . . 120

Uranoscopus . . 121

Uraptera . . .167

Uraspis (note) . . 136

Uroconger . . .141

Urolophus . . .167

Uropterygius . . 140

Vaagmer, Trachypterus 138
Variable Murry (cut) . 141

Vastres, Sudis . .152

Velifer . . .129

Wakkum . . .129

Water tubes . .106

Wauben, Erythrinus . 151

Weever, Trachinus . 121

Welshman, Ilolocentrum 127
White-bait, Rogenia 143, 146
W hWmg, Merlangus . 114

Wide-gab . . . 134

Wives, IKj-asses . . 119

Wolf-fish, Anarrhichas 133
Wrasse, Labrus . . 118

Xanthichthys . . 158

Xiphiadsor Sword-fishes,
Xiphicedee . . 137

Xiphias, Sword-Jish . 137

Xiphiodon . . .133

Xiphistoma . .148

Xipliophorus . .153

Xiphorhamplius . . 148

Xy rich thy s . . 118

Xystophorus . . 121

Yarrel’s blenny, Blenuius 133
Yarrow, Doras et Callich-
thys . . .155

Yarrow, Macrodon . 161

Ysgaden, Clupeu. . . 143

Zanclus . . . 131

Zaniolepus . . .121

Zeids, Zeidcc . .137

Zeugopterus . . 115

Zeus, John Dory . . 137

Zoarces . . . 133

Zygmna, Sphyrna . 164

THE MUSEUM

OF

NATURAL HISTORY.

ZOOLOGY.

Class V. — INSECTS (Insecta).

In the following pages I intend to give, as far as space
and other circumstances admit, a general view of the
various orders of true Insects. B}' true is meant
Insects, as distinguished from Crustacea (such as
Lobsters, Shrimps, Crabs), Spiders (including Mites),
Centipedes (or Myriapoda), and such like, which are
all insects in the strict sense of the term ; that is, all

Fig. 47.

Fig. 48.

One of the Entomostracous Crustacea,
showing very clearly annulose structure.

Larva of a Beetle,
showing the an>
nulose structure.

these classes have the body composed of many seg-
ments or rings (annuli)— hence their general name of
Annulosa : while their various parts, such as the
antennse, organs of the mouth and head, thorax and its
appendages, are all formed of various parts or joints,
as may be seen by looking at a Lobster, a Centipede,
or at any Beetle — even the “black beetle” of the
kitchen, the Cockroach, which, however, we find be-
longs to a different order to that containing the “ great
army” of Beetles — see figs. 47, 48, and 49.

Jointed feet are strikingly indicative of annulose
structure, and, hence, many naturalists call them Con dy-
uopa, or creatures with jointed feet. In dividing the
invertebi'ated classes (those, namely, which have no

real skeleton), we must hardly compare them with the
vertebrated animals. Insects are organized on a totally
different plan. Most vertebrated animals have tlieir

nervous system deranged, or destroyed by any injury
to the spine ; but insects, or rather annulose animals
like insects — Spiders, Crabs, and Centipedes — are very
little, if at all, seriously injured in this way. The
nervous matter in Annulosa is collected in ganglia all
along the body, and I might enter on this ganglionic

Fig. 50.

structure were animal anatomy my object. Most of
the Annulosa undergo great changes in iheir course of

176 Mandibulata. ^INSECTS. Hymesoptera.

life — changes nearly as strange, as any read of in the
Metamorphoses of Ovid.

These changes are, indeed, well called “ metamor-
phoses,” from a Greek word. An insect deposits
an egg, as indeed birds, reptiles, and fish do; but the
egg, when hatched, generally turns out a creature
little, if at all, resembling the parents. This creature is
named a grub, or caterpillar, or better still, a larva,
from the Latin name for “ a mask.” The silk-worm
is a complete “ mask of the moth,” and is totally
unlike the soft, scaly, winged creature, which deposits
the egg. The larvm eat unceasingly, but change
their skins a certain number of times, and at those
periods cease to feed. At last they attain their full
size, and they change, are metamorphosed — at least
most of them, such as Moths and Butterflies, and
Beetles, and Bees, and Flies are changed — into what
is called the p%ipa, as unlike the larvvL as the larva
is uidike the mother. These pupae .are often in- |

closed in cocoons. In this state they are quiet, at
least generally so, and do not eat ; and it is from this
pupa that the perfect insect escapes, — a splendid But-
terfly, an active Beetle, a busy Bee, a bustling, hum-
ming Fly, called the Imago — see fig. 50.

Insects are divided into various classes and orders.
The classes and orders are important, and stand for,
or represent, many great points of structure.

From the space at his disposal, the author cannot
go into this part of the work so minutely as he could
wish. His object will be to present such views of the
subject as may at once interest the general- reader, and
serve to guide the course of those who desire to study
it more in detail.

There are two great and important divisions of
insects, and yet at times they imperceptibly run info
each other — Mandibulated and Haustellated Insects —
according as they have distinct and transverse jaws, or a
I short or long, straight or bent, proboscis or haustellum.^

Division I, — MANDIBULATA [Mandibulated Insects.)

I PREFER to begin with the Hymexoptera, the order
which contains the Ant, the Bee, and the Wasp. They
are certainly at the head of the insect world. In a
strict scientific classification I would begin with the

Ants ; would go on from them to the Wasps, the Fos-
sores, and the Bees; and so by Scolia to Chrysis, and
then Chalcididse, Ichneumonidae, Siricidae, and Ten-
thredin’dae.

Order L— HYMENOPTEKA.

The first great order of insects is that of Hymenop-
TERA, so called from their four transparent wings,
gw'/jr (hymen) being the Greek word for a membrane,
and •jTspa (ptera) for wings. They have jaws, though
the tongue usually exceeds the jaws in dimension. The
most highly developed instincts are observable in some
of the insects of this order.

Wasps make a kind of whitey-brown paper; but,
some of the foreign species construct nests of paste-
board-like material.

How regularly, how methodically, does the bee visit
each flower ! Among the Pentland and Braid Hills, on
the slopes of lovely Arthur’s Seat, on Hampstead and
Weybridge or Walton Heaths, how pleasant to wander
while

“ The wilderness bee gangs floatin’ awa.”

Its hum, its motion, seem as much part of the scene, as
the spring or summer day.

Tribe— TEREBRANTIA :

So named from the singular, boring ovipositor of the
female in this tribe. By some naturalists this tribe
has been made an order. Their caterpillars are very
like those of Lepidoptera, and somewhat resemble those
of some Lamellicorn coleoptera.

Family— TENTHREDINID^ {The Saw-flies).

Tlie Saw-flies are a family of insects, some of which
are dreaded by the agriculturist. They are a numerous
famil}', and some of them, as the Athalia centifloUoe,
occasion at times to the farmer such losses, by its
ravages on his turnips, as to ruin him. This insect
is sometimes seen flying in countless thousands. They
are soft, heavy-looking insects, with wings covering the
body in repose. There are forty-five British genera.
Tenthredo, Selandria, Allanfus, Emphytus, and Lyda,
have the greatest number of species. Our figure is
that of the Creesus septentrionalis and two of its
larvae, copied from Ratzehurg’s fine work, “Die Forst.
Insekten ” — see fig. 51.

Treatises have been written by many authors on the
Turnip-fly, the insect to which we have alluded, whose
caterpillars eat the leaves of the turnips, and keep the
roots from growing.

Hartig has monogi’aphed the European species, and
Klug has described many exotic species of this family.
The character of one of the species, as observed by

* Of course, the comparative anatomist, and he who dissects
minutely the mouth of an insect, will find that haustellated
insects have small or abortive mandibles; and that mandibulated
insects, like some Haustellata, have in their perfect state
abortive mouths. The horny-jawed caterpillar of the Moth or
Butterfly is changed into a haustellated insect, in its imago-state.

Tenthbedinid^ INSECTS. SikiciDjE. 177

Mr. Lewis in Tasmania, is interesting, more especially as
maternal solicitude is rare of necessity in insects, which
perish, generally, before their young can be hatched.

Fig. 61.

In a letter to the secretary of the Entomological Society,
he showed that the female Perga* deposited her
eggs “ in a longitudinal incision between the two sur-
faces of the leaves of one of the gum trees {Eucalyptus)
adjoining the mid rib.” There are about eighty of these
eggs; “on these the mother sits till the exclusion of the

Fig. 52.

larvse, which appear not to remain in the egg-state
many days. They appear to keep very quiet during the
day. The mother insect follows them, sitting with
outstretched legs over her brood, preserving them from
the heat of the sun, and protecting them from the
attacks of parasites and other animals with admirable
perseverance.” The leaves of the gooseberry are often
much destroyed by the larvse of the small saw-fly, called
Nematus Grossularice.

* Perga Lewisii Westw. Trans. Ent. Soc. vol. i., p. 234; and
Arc. Ent., pj. 7, fig. 1.

VOL. II. 79

The antennae in the genus Cimhex are club-shaped
at the end, and the hind legs in the males are very
much thickened in some of the species. The name
was given by the ancients to certain insects which
resembled bees and wasps, but did not produce honey.
Several species are indigenous to this country. Dr.
Harris describes the Cimhex of the elm, a common
American species, the larva of which feeds on that tree.
When full-grown, these larvae are from an inch to two
inches in length ; they are thick and cylindrical, and
have twenty-two legs, or a pair to every ring but the
fourth. The caterpillars, when handled or disturbed,
show their displeasure by spirting out a watery fluid
from pores on their sides. When they have done
feeding, the larva conceals itself under fallen leaves or
other rubbish, and there makes an oval brown cocoon,
which is as tough as parchment. In this cocoon, which
is about an inch long, the cateiqiillar remains throughout
the winter, and is not changed to a chrysalis till spring.
The insect escapes by gnawing a circular piece off the
end of the cocoon.

The figure of a Cimbex here given (fig. 52) is copied
from Eatzeburg — see fig. 52.

Our figure — Plate 7, fig. 2 — is that of the female of
an Australian Saw-fly, with beautiful antennse in the
male {Pterygophorus cinctus).

Family — SIRICIDjE {Tailed Wood-wasps).

A family of insects, not very numerous in species,
and often of considerable size. The males and females
are, generally, very unlike each other. There are ten
British species in the genera Xiphydria, Sirex, and
Oryssus.

TEEMEX COLUMBA {Canadian Wood-wasp), an
abundant insect in Canada. Mr. D’Urban, in his very
interesting papers* in the Zoologist ior July, 1860, thus
remarks on it: — “Every one who has visited the neigh-
bourhood of the beautiful city of Montreal, in the
summer season, must have noticed the numerous dead
trees, stretching their leafless branches to the sky ; and
indeed, in many spots a very large proportion of the
trees, especially the beautiful hickories {Carya iomen-
tosa ?), have fallen victims to the ravages of the Tremex,
aided by the larvse of a small beetle (a species of
Scolytus) undermining the bark of those trees, which
have been rendered sickly by the borings of that hand-
some but destructive insect.

SIEEX GIGAS. — The larvse are very destructive to
wood; whole plantations of firs have been destroyed in
this country by the borings of these insects. Kirby and
Spence give instances of the fir wood having been cut
down, and the wood employed as joists or planks for
floors when it contained the young larvse of these
insects. They live several years in this state, and
emerge, sometimes, much to the surprise of the occupants.
Ingpen met with an instance.

Sirex cedrorum is a species from the Lebanon, a
borer into the far-famed cedars, so much used in the
building of the Temple at Jerusalem.

The figure — Plate 7, fig. 1 — represents the Sirex
gigas above alluded to.

* Insects of New England, p. 410.

178 ICHNEUMONID^. INSECTS. Chalcidid^.

Tribe— PUPIVORA.

So named from their being parasitic on the larvie
and pupse of insects, at the expense of which the grubs of
the Pupivora live. They were named Muscce trisetes
by old authors, from the three often long, bristle-like
parts of which their ovipositor chiefly is composed.

Family — ICHNEUMONIDAH {Ichneumons).

The perseverance of these insects in depositing their
eggs is very noticeable. In the summer months we
often see some of them in our gardens, examining
every leaf on the upper and under sides to find the
caterpillars in which to place their eggs, vibrating their
antennae and wings, and evidently very restless and
impatient.

One of the finest of the Ichneumonidae is the North
American Rhyssa lunator. It is common on Montreal
mountain, in August and the beginning of September.
The female may be then easily taken, when depositing
her eggs in some stump or dead tree, as they insert
their ovipositors so deeply into the wood that they can-
not withdraw them quickly ; and as the Insect endeavours
to escape, these organs are frequently broken.

In Canada many people fancy that it. is the Rhyssa
which kills trees by “ stinging” them, as they term it,
and so as often as they see it, they heedlessly destroy
the very creature which helps to lessen the real enemy
of the tree, whose works are more secret and deep.

In this country the fine Rhyssa persuasoria, the
largest of the tribe, is frequently found in districts that
are well wooded with firs; these trees are at times
much injured by the large saw-fly, Sirex juvencus,
which bores into the trunks and deposits its eggs. The
larvae, when hatched, do immense mischief by tunnel-
ing in all directions. These ravages are, however,
frequently arrested by the Rhyssa persuasoria, the
parasite of the Sirex. The Ichneumon larva, feeding
upon that of Rhyssa, checks in some degree the injuries
of that species.

PELECINUS POLYCERATOR— The Needle Ichneu-
mon. Mr. Gosse, in his “ Canadian Naturalist,” p. 289,
aptly applied the name of the Needle Ichneumon to
this very singular insect. The female is of a polished
black, and has a very long abdomen, the first five seg-
ments being each a third of an inch in length ; the
abdomen in the male, a sex which seems to be rare, is
comparatively short. This insect seems to be abundant
in Nova Scotia, but in Canada it is not so common. It
is widely distributed over North America.

The long abdomen may be used by this insect in
oviposition, it not being furnished w'ith the usual ovipo-
sitor. Other species of the genus are found in
Columbia and Brazil.

The fimiily of Ichneumons is by far the most extensive
one for numbers of species tliat exists. There are at
least one hundred and twenty British genera, and one
of these genera has upwards of two hundred species,
while others have twenty, and others sixty species each.
When it is considered that almost every Lepidopter-
ous insect has its peculiar parasite of this firmily, and

some of them more than one, some idea of their endless
numbers may be formed.

The two Ichneumonidae, figured on Plate 7, repre-
sent characteristic examples — fig. 3, the Banchus pic-
tus, with a very short ovipositor, and fig. 7, Ephialtes
manifestator, with a long one.

Family— PROCTOTRUPIDAE.

A very extensive family of insects, allied to the
Ichneumonidae. Many of them are exquisite little
creatures, such as the charming Mymar pulchellus,
figured by Mr. Curtis. There are nearly fifty British
genera ; one of these genera (Plafygaster) has upwards
of one hundred species. Mr. Haliday (note to “ West-
wood’s Synopsis,” vol. ii., p. 79) records, that the
Alaptus minimus, one of the species, is the smallest
Hymenopterous insect known.

All the species are very small, and are parasitic on
eggs of insects or on insects themselves.

Family — CHALCIDIDAH { The Brasslets).

The Chalcididae are a very minute family of parasitic
insects, often of the most transcendant metallic polish,
with filmy wings of few nervures, and sometimes with
strangely-formed antennae and heads, while the ovipo-
sitors of the females, are very curious — at times short
and dagger-like, at others long and thread-like (fig. 53).
Their numbers are legion — see fig. 53.

Fig, 53.

Agaon paradoxum.

I can only refer to one of the members of this family.
In the cells of that interesting bee, the Anthophora acer-
vorum, there is found a parasite of this family, named
by Mr. Westwood Alelittohia ; by Mr. Newport, who
very particularly described it, Anthophorahia. The
female of this parasite is a shining dark-green insect,
not more than half a line long. The male is equally
small, but is of a testaceous yellow colour. In the male
the wings are only rudimentary, and the eyes are not
compound as usual ; but in their place are simple

C YNipiD^. INSECTS. FoRMiciDiE. 179

minute eyes, or ocelli, in addition to the three true
ocelli on the crown of the head. This parasite was
found feeding upon the larva of Monodontomerus
nitidus, another parasite of the bee, which has been
found in its cells, feeding on the pupa. The late
Professor Audouin, who first observed the Melittobia,
discovered it in the nests of Osmia, Anthophora, and
Odynerus, so that there are probably several allied
species.

Family — CYNIPID^ (The Gall Insects).

What has ink not done ? to say nothing of a good
goose-quill. And how little writing would there have
been, had cuttle-fish ink bags been the only providers
of the atramentous fluid! The galls of commerce,
with their strong tannin so useful in making ink and
in many other processes, such as dyeing black, are
caused by the punctures of a small, dry-bodied insect
with four clear transparent wings, on a species of oak
(Querms infectoria). This fly is the Cynips Gallce
tincloricB, and is abundant in the East — that is, in
Western Asia.

The “ blue galls” are most prized by the merchant.
They are the galls of the first gathering, collected
before the Cynips has issued from the gall, and conse-
quently they have no hole in them. The “ white
galls” are inferior, containing a third less astringent
matter than the others. The insect has escaped from
them. The two sorts are generally mixed.

But there are plenty of other galls, some made by
small flies, some by beetles, but more by members of
this family. The long, hairy excrescences on the dog
rose are the galls of a Cynips.

The Foma sodomitica — “ Apples of Sodom ” — -are
galls made by an insect of this family. These “ mala
insana” were mentioned by ancient writers as “ beau-
tiful exceedingly” to look at, but tasting like bitter
ashes. Walter Elliott, Esq., of Wolfelee, long in India,
on his route home found that these galls whose exist-
ence had begun to be doubted w’ere bond fide galls,
two inches long and about an inch and a half in
diameter, on the outside of a rich, glossy, purplish red
colour ; while the inside was filled with a very bitter,
porous, easily pulverized substance, surrounding the fly
which produced them, and which was called Cynips
insana by Westwood, and figured in the Trans. Ent.
Soc., London, vol. ii.

The family Evaniid.® contains insects generally
with very small abdomens. They are parasitic on the
Cockroach and other insects. Plate 7, fig. 4, shows
the Evania appendig aster.

Family — CHRYSIDIDJi] (The Golden Wasps).

These species are small, but beautiful ; while some
of the exotic species, such as Stilbum, are of consider-
able size. They belong to the section called Tubulifera.

The Golden wasps lay their eggs in the nests of the
sting-possessing Hymenoptera. They have the power
of rolling themselves up into a little ball when alarmed,
and, in this way they escape the stings and jaws of the
insects into whose nests they enter.

Tribe — ACULEATA.

So called from the females possessing a sting.

Group— HETEROGYNA

In these the females and males are very different
and there are also wmrkers, abortive females.

Family — FORMICID^ (The Ants).

This family of insects is characterized by the habits
of the species, which reside in more or less numerous
societies underground, or on trees. They have a great
number of individuals with the sexual organs and
instincts abortive, so that they are admirably adapted
to perform the labours of the community; these are
named workers or neuters, and are without wings.
The males and females are much less numerous, and
possess wings. They do not labour. In the males the
body is small, and the legs and antennae are long and
slender. The females are much larger than the males,
and have the antennae and legs shorter and thicker.
Both males and females have ocelli and a continuous
thorax, while in the neuters this part is contracted in
the middle, and they are frequently without ocelli.

Mr. Frederick Smith, who has paid so much atten-
tion to the habits and economy of the ants of this
country,* as well as to the history and structure of the
Formicidae of the world, remarks that their economy,
even in the imperfect records that we have, has furnished
some of the most interesting and wonderful histories in
the wide domains of zoology. “ When their habitations
are by any means injured or destroyed, no time is lost
in useless despair ; one spirit animates each individual ;
simultaneously they set to work to repair their mis-
fortune ; unceasingly they labour ; nothing damps their
ardour or abates their industry : until, as if by a magic
wand, their habitation again rises to its former height
and beauty, and all trace of ruin has disappeared.”

In the work from which we quote, detailed descrip-
tions are “given of twenty-five species of British ants,
with notes on their habits. With the exception of
Formica rufa and F. congerens, all the British species
belong to the mining ants, One, F. fuliginosa, usually
selects decaying trunks of trees, posts, and such like
situations, though it occasionally mines in banks or mud
walls. Formica flav a differs in one part of its economy
from the other British ants ; it carries down the last
brood of larvae into the deepest recesses of their subter-
ranean dwelling, where they pass the winter in a state
of torpidity. These larvae are at tliis time more hairy
than the larvae produced during the summer months.

FORMICA RUFA is commonly called the Wood Ant,
the Horse Ant, or the Hill Ant. They construct
a nest composed of hits of straws, sticks, and such
things, which they heap up into a conical mass ; hence
one of their names. This nest, though rough enough
outside, is admirably arranged within. The nests of
this species are resorted to by several beetles, particu-

* Catalogue of British Fossorial H.ymenoptera, Formicidae,
and Vespid®, in the collection of the British Museum, 1858.

180 FoKmciD^. INSECTS. Formica sanguinea.

lady b}'' some of the Staphylinidse, which seem to be
in some way useful to the community ; they probably
yield some secretion which serves as food to the young
brood. — See part Coleoptera, subject Braclielytra
further on.

FORMICA SANGTHNEA, to which we refer more
particularly further on, plunders the nests of other
species of ants of their pupae, which it rears ; when
perfect, they are the slaves of this ant. It constructs
its galleries in banks ; its large workers are a bold and
courageous race, attacking with great fury. It is not
a very common species.

FORMICA FUSCA is a common species, found in
banks, particularly those with a warm southern aspect.
By removing the particles of earth, this species con-
structs in these banks large and intricate galleries and
passages. These nests often contain some of the rarest
little beetles, which are much prized by entomologists.

FORMICA FULIGINOSA is of a jet-black colour. It
forms its chambers in decajdng trees or old posts, which
they gnaw into numberless stories. The movements of
this species are extremely slow as compared with those
of any other species. Numbers of these ants frequently
congregate in masses near the nest, apparently sunning
themselves, and not, like other species, incessantly at
work.

FORMICA NIGRA, commonly called the Garden Ant,
is a most abundant species in this country, being found
everywhere. It is abundant even in the gardens and
squares of London. It usually builds in banks, but
is also found in walls of gardens and outhouses.

FORMICA FLAVA, so called from its yellow workers, is
a most abundant species everywhere. It raises its little
mounds in meadows and on heaths. These mounds
serve to carry off the rain from its dwelling. In hilly
districts it avails itself of the protection of a stone or
other substance, beneath the shelter of which it con-
structs its roads and nurseries.

PONERA CONTRACTA is a rare ant in this country ;
only occasional specimens have been taken.

The Myrmicidce are small ants, the pupae of which
are not inclosed in cocoons ; the petiole of the abdomen
bas two nodes. One of the species, the Myrmica
scabrinodis, is frequently to be met with, occupying one
side of a little hillock, thrown up by Formica flam.
In some parts of the country it abounds to such an
extent, that clouds consisting of myriads of the winged
males and females are seen flying in the air, frequently
taking the course of rivers, when thousands of specimens
may be seen floating in the stream.

MYRMICA C.S1SPITUM is a local species in this
country, but in many places on the coast it is found
abundantly.

MYRMICA MOLESTA is a small ant, most abundant
in houses ; hence Mr. Shuckard named it M. domestica.
It sometimes becomes so numerous in houses as to
be a perfect nuisance, swarming over eatables of every
kind. This domestic ant seems to have been intro-
duced with merchandise. It is abundant in Norlh
America, and we were told by the Rev. Hamlet Clark,
that at Rio Janeiro it is everywhere — indoors, out of
doors, and upon everything.

The walls of the burrows of some of the European

and American Sinis{Formicafuliginosa — F. Carya) are
always of a black colour. This discoloration is not con-
fined to the surface of the burrow, but penetrates
through the wood surrounding it on all sides to the
depth of an inch or more ; probably the ant, by
saturating the wood with acid, hastens its decay, so
that it may be more easily mined. These burrows
are long narrow passages.

Some ants are furnished with a remarkable instinct ;
this instinct, that of slave-making, was first discovered
by one of tbe Hubers.* This indefatigable observer
first noticed the habit in the Formica rufescens,
and has shown that the species is absolutely depen-
dent on its slaves. The males do not work, and
fertile females only keep up the race, and the only
work the sterile females engage in is that of capturing
slaves. They neither make their own nests, nor feed
their own larvse. Should the old nest prove incon-
venient, the slaves determine the migration to more
suitable quarters, and actually carry tbeir masters in
their jaws ; these are so helpless, that when Huber
shut up thirty of them without a slave, although
they had plenty of their favourite food and had their
larvae and pupae to stimulate them to work, they did
nothing — they could not feed themselves. Our
observer introduced a single slave of the species,
named Formica fusca by naturalists. This ant in-
stantly set to work, fed and saved the survivors, made
some cells, and attended to the larvae.

The Formica sanguinea, which is found in the south
of England, is also a slave-maker. Mr. Darwin says,
“ Although fully trusting to the statements of Huber
and Mr. Smith, I tried to approach the subject in a
sceptical frame of mind, as any one may well be
excused for doubting the truth of so extraordinary
and odious an instinct as that of making slaves.
Henee, I will give the observations which I have
myself made, in some little detail. I opened fourteen
nests of F. sangiiinea, and found a few slaves in all.
Males and fertile females of the slave -species {F. fusca)
are found only in their own proper communities, and
have never been observed in the nests of the F. san-
guinea." He observes that the slaves are black, and
not above half the size of their red masters. If the
nest be slightly disturbed the slaves come out, and
like their masters, are much agitated, and defend the
nest. Should the larvte and pupae be exposed, the
slaves work energetically with their masters in remov-
ing them to a place of safety. The slaves feel quite
at home. During the months of June and July, in
three successive years, Mr. Darwin watched several
nests in Surrey and Sussex for many hours, and never
saw a slave either leave or enter a nest. The masters
bring in material for the nest and food of all kinds,
although, occasionally, slaves are observed assisting in
the latter operations. Huber says that in Switzerland
the slaves habitually work with the masters in making
the nests, and they alone open and close the doors in
the morning and evening. Huber also noticed that their
principal office was to search for aphides or plant-lice.

* The account here given is from chap. vii. of Mr. Dar-
win’s work on the Origin of Species, as that author has
paid very considerable attention to the subject.

Formicid^, INSECTS. (Ecodoma. 181

“One day,” observes Mr. Darwin, “I fortunately
witnessed a migration of F. sanguinea from one nest
to another, and it was a most interesting spectacle
to behold the masters carefully carrying their slaves
in their jaws. Another day, my attention was struck
by about a score of the slave-makers haunting the
same spot, and evidently not in search of food ; they
approached and were vigorously repulsed by an inde-
pendent community of the slave species {F. fusca);
sometimes, as many as three of these ants clinging to
the legs of the slave-making F. sanguinea. The latter
ruthlessly killed their small opponents, and carried
their dead bodies as food to their nest, twenty-nine
yards distant ; but they were prevented from getting
any pupae to rear as slaves. I then dug up a small
parcel of the pupae of F. fusca from another nest, and
put them down on a bare spot near the place of com-
bat ; they were eagerly seized and carried off by the
tyrants, who perhaps fancied that, after all, they had
been victorious in their late combat.” These ants
sometimes, though rarely, capture a little yellow ant
called Formica flava by naturalists. This yellow ant
is very courageous, and attacks the F. sanguinea.

Some naturalists have doubted the existence of an
ant that “ lays up a store for winter ;” but I feel sure
that many ants will be found to have this habit in
countries where rain, and not cold, marks the winter.
Colonel Sykes, for instance, found the Atta providens
collecting millet seed at Poonah.

Mr. Alfred Wallace who, with Mr. Bates, explored
the shores of the Amazon, could not fail to be struck
with the numerous species of ants, and with their habits
and universality. In his “ Travels on the Amazon ”
(p. 13), he thus writes. — The ants “startle you with
the apparition of scraps of paper, dead leaves, and
feathers, endued with locomotive powers ; proces-
sions, engaged in some abstruse engineering operations,
stretch across the public paths; the flowers you gather,
or the fruit you pluck, is covered with them, and they
spread over your hand in such swarms as to make
you hastily drop your prize. At meals they make
themselves quite at home upon the table-cloth, in your
plate, and in the sugar-basin, though not in such
numbers as to offer any serious obstruction to your
meal.” Mr. Wallace records that “in these and similar
situations ants are to be found, and distinct species in
each situation. As you travel in the forests, you may
see the nests of ants on the branches of the trees,
some of them forming large black masses several feet
in diameter. A gigantic black species, nearly an inch
and a half in length, wanders along paths in the woods
and gardens, while there are species so small that they
are kept with great difficulty out of boxes and pans,
unless the lids fit very closely; any dead animal
matter, such as small birds or insects, is sure to attract
them.” Messrs. Bates and Wallace, when drying the
insects they had caught, found it necessary to hang
up the boxes containing them to the roof of the veran-
dah ; but even then thej”^ found that these inquisitorial
pests visited the boxes, by using the string as a ladder.
By soaking the string well in Andiroba oil, which is
very bitter, these naturalists ever after suspended
their insects, and preserved them from the ants.

“ Among the curious things we meet with in the
woods, are large heaps of earth and sand, sometimes
by the road-side, and sometimes extending quite across
the path, making the pedestrian ascend and descend
(a pleasing variety in this flat country), and looking
just as if some ‘ Para and Peru direct Railway Com-
pany’ had commenced operations. These mounds
are often thirty or forty feet long, by ten or fifteen
wide, and about three or four feet high ; but instead
of being the work of a lot of railway labourers, we
find it is all due to the industry of a native insect, the
much- dreaded Sauba ant. This insect is of a light-
red colour, about the size of our largest English species,
the wood-ant, but with much more powerful jaws.
It does great injury to young trees, and will sometimes
strip them of their leaves in a single night. We often
see, hurrying across the pathways, rows of small green
leaves; these are the Saubas, each with a piece of
leaf cut as smoothly as with scissors, and completely
hiding the body from sight. The orange tree is very
subject to their attacks.”

Mr. Wallace adds, that some places are so infested
with them, that it is useless planting anything. Their
numbers are so immense, that it is impossible to
destroy them, as may readily be seen by the great
quantities of earth they remove.

The Rev. Hamlet Clark, who visited Brazil in 1857,
thus writes of the ants — “ The ants are very numer-
ous and most interesting ; some species construct
covered galleries among the branches of trees ; others
burrow (this is the genus (Ecodoma), f for miles, six
or ten feet below the surface of the ground ! some are
carnivorous, and seem to live principally on insects ;
others are vegetarians ; one species in this neighbour-
hood is welcomed as a friend to the housekeeper, for
when it marches through a house not a single cock
roach or spider is left behind it alive ; at Constancia
and other localities there is a species which, in a
single night, will strip a large tree of every leaf.” The
next ant he refers to may be a species of (Ecodoma. |
“ In the forests on the Corcovado range, we heard of —
but could not see — an ant which constructs its nest above
ground five or eight feet high ; the sides of these nests
are constructed of clay, worked up by mastication, so
that, after a few years, they obtain the consistency of
porous stone. In this state they have a commercial
value ; they are cut up into slabs or blocks, and used
for the purpose of lining ovens.”

Tschudi describes the swarms of a Peruvian ant
which the natives call naui-lmacan-sisi, which means,
“ the ant which brings tears to the eyes by its numer-
ous stings.” § These creatures appear suddenly in
trains of countless myriads, and proceed forward in
a strait direction, without stopping. The small and
the weak are placed in the centre, while the large
and the strong flank the army, and look out for prey.
These swarms are called by the Peruvians C/iacus.
Like the Driver ants of Western Africa, they sometimes
enter a hut and clear it of all insects, reptiles, and

* Zoologist, May 1857, p. 5564.

f See Smith in Journal of Entomology, vol. i., p. 66; 1860.

+ Ibid.

§ Tschudi’s Travels in Peru, p. 438.

1 82 Cr YPTOCERus. INSECTS. Eciton.

other disagreeable guests. Having accomplished their

least the base of these organs, concealed under the pro-

work, which it seems they disperse to do, they again

jections of the head. Hence the name Cryptocerus —

form themselves into a long train, and move onwards.

see fig. 55.

Tschudi, who had ample means of observation, speaks

of the united forces of these creatures as being vast.

Fig. 55.

and he says there is no approach to the fabulous when

he mentions, that not only snakes, but rather large

1 r

mammalia, such as Agoutis, &c., on being surprised by

them, are soon killed.

Ants of various species and of various genera

f

abound in the forests of Borneo. Mr. Adams* calls one

1 1 ^

the Bombardier, from its habit. When irritated, this

fellow turns up the end of his body like a Staphylinus,

iv ^

and “ forthwith emits a continuous stream of dense

^ J . 1

white acid vapour.” This ant is about half an inch long.

and has a large head and enormous mandibles ; it is of

VA

a shining black. The naturalist of H.M.S. Samarang

Outlines of two species of Ciyptocerus (from Smith).

mentions another ingenious species indigenous to Borneo,

which constructs its nest out of a large leaf, “ bending

The species are generally wood-borers, usually per-

the two halves by the weight of united millions, till the

forating the dead trunks of trees. The species have

opposite margins meet at the under surface of the mid-

been observed chiefly on low trees and bushes in dry

rib, where they are secured by a gummy matter.”

open places, or running on branches of newly-felled

Into this aerial habitation the stores and grubs are

trees. They also visit flowers abundantly. Both

conveyed by regular beaten tracks along the trunk and

males and females have wings ; the latter only retain

branches of the tree. Mr. Adams noticed on the

them for a time. The common species, Cryptocerus

banks of the Linga, that the trees were covered with

atratus, constructs its nests in the dead suspended

black-coloured nests, built by a large red ant. These

branches of woody climbers. Outside, the observer

nests were formed of prepared vegetable matter, mixed

notices a number of neatly-drilled holes; but inside he

with a tenacious secretion. The ants stung most tor-

finds that the solid wood is perforated with galleries,

mentingly. In Borneo, too, Mr. Adams noticed a

communicating with each other. The insects are omni-

small shining black ant, which kept to its subterranean

vorous, and seem to be attracted by the exerement of

galleries during the day ; but on the approach of night

birds. In the pupa state they are not inclosed in

it covered the ground, especially in moist places, with

cocoons. Each community seems to consist of a single

its myriad hordes.

female, and two kinds of workers. In some species

these latter are totally unlike each other, differing in

Fig. 51.

the form of the head and in the armature of the thorax

a h e

and nodes of the peduncle.

r\ A W

Of the genus Eciton, only the workers are known.

and in these the eyes are extremely minute. The

Uv V ''

insects of this genus are very numerous in Brazil, but

neither male nor female are known. Their societies

are so numerous, and their sting so severe, that an

attack upon one of their colonies is not to be rashly

1 d ii ] I

undertaken. About twenty species of the genus are

□ i I

known. “ The processions of these insects are of

common occurrence, and the different colours of the

/ ] A

species are very observable when the lines are seen

V y \ ) ^

upon the march, some appearing like a liquid stream

of metal. These ants are regular clearers of all animal

a, Cryptocerus striatiis. h. Meranoplus singularis.

matter, living or dead. When on a foraging expedition

c. Formica solitaria.

they spread out their columns, climbing over every

leaf, plant, shrub, and tree, putting the whole animal.

These three figures are copied from figures by Mr.

as w'ell as insect world into commotion and alarm ’

Smith, and show (fig. 54, a) Cryptocerus striatus (fig.

should any decaying mass of vegetable matter fall in

54, b) Meranoplus singularis, with its strange collar,

their wa}', it is instantly covered with a living crowd ;

remarkable triangular head, and curious basal joint of

every chink and cranny are carefully searched, after

the antennae. Fig. 54, c, shows the Formica solitaria.

which the army resumes its march. All apterous

with its immense eyes and ocelli, so that this fine species

insects, particular!}’- Blattai and spiders (the former

must be endowed with very considerable powers of

being exceedingly numerous under fallen leaves, espe-

sight. What a subject of research are exotic ants alone !

cially in their larva state), are preyed upon ; the larvae

Cryptocerus. — This is a remarkable genus of ants

of Lepidoptera and Diptera fall an easy prey, as well

of very varied form, but all having the antennae, at

as the species of Formicidae. At other times a com-

* Voyage of H.M.S. Samarang, vol. i. p. 409.

munity of Ecitons engage in a regular attack upon

(Ecoboma INSECTS. Anomma. 183

a nest of some peaceful and industrious species of
Foi'mica. The Ecitons crowd into the nests of the ants,
each seizing upon a helpless victim, and carry or drag
it out of the nest ; if the ant prove too heavy for a
single Eciton to carry, it is ruthlessly torn into pieces,
two or more assisting in the operation. The march is
then commenced back to the nest of the Eciton, the
living ants and the mangled remains of others being
probably conveyed there, for the purpose of feeding the
young brood of the marauders.”

In every nest there are two distinct forms of workers.
In the Eciton hamatum the larger worker or soldier
is furnished with long, curved, sickle-shaped mandibles.
There are about five of these soldiers to every hundred
of the smaller individuals.

A curious genus of ants has been described, called
Pseudomyrma, distinguished by its elongated form,
petiolated abdomen, and by the large eyes in both sexes ;
these organs in many species occupying the whole side
of the head. Most of the species excavate the pith from
dried twigs ; the eggs are laid in the burrows thus
formed, and the young brood developed.* The com-
munities are not very populous, as they frequently
consist of not more than twenty, exclusive of larvae
and pupae. I'he Pseudomyrma termitaria takes up its
abode in the nests of different species of white ants
{Termes), while others form small elliptical chambers
in the outer walls of the tumuli of the white ants, a
single colony only apparently occupying each chamber ;
these are generally wide apart. The pupae of Pseudo-
myrma do not spin cocoons. The insects, when out
of the nest, are to be seen coursing rapidly over trees
and herbage. The sting is very slight.

THE GREAT-HEADED RED ANT {(Ecodoma cephalo-
fes) is mentioned by Mr. Alfred Wallace as one of the
insects used by the Indians of the Amazon for food.
It inhabits the whole district of the Amazon, and is
found generally over Brazil in sandy districts and
places where red earth is found. The nests of this
species are formed in woods and in gardens, where it
turns up the soil to such an extent, that one seeing the
heaps it can raise would almost doubt whether so
small an insect could have been the workman. Mr.
Wallace has seen elevations of this kind twenty feet
square and three feet high, which contained many tons
of earth. “These hillocks are riddled with holes in
every direction, and into them the ants may be seen
dragging little circular pieces of leaf, which they cut
off from particular trees which they prefer. Orange
trees and leguminous shrubs suffer most from their
ravages, and these they will sometimes entirely strip
of their leaves in a night or two. Young plants, too,
of every kind suffer very much, and cannot be grown
in many places on account of them. They remain in
one locality for a long time ; for, on my observing to
a gentleman at a cattle estate near Para how remark-
ably the track of these ants was worn down across a
pathway and through grass, he informed me that he
had observed them marching along that very track for
fitteen or twenty years.” Mr. Wallace continues, that
the insects which do this are the neuters, who employ

* See Mr. Smith’s paper in the Journal of Entomology,

p. 66; 1860.

in this way their tremendous jaws. They come into the
houses at night, and often swarm there, crawling over
the supper table, and carrying off any fragments that
may have been left. Should any cloth or handkerchief
be left on the ground, with anything eatable wrapped
up in it, the housekeeper will be sure to find it cut with
semicircular holes in every direction, as regularly as if it
had been done with scissors. Mr. Wallace found, that
it w'as the female of this ant which furnishes the Indian
with a luxurious repast. At one time of year the
female ants come out of their holes in such numbers
that they are caught by basketsful. There is great
stir and excitement in the neighbourhood of the Indian
village, when this takes place. Mr. Wallace describes
the young men, women, and children, as going out to
catch saiihas — for so they call them — with baskets
and calabashes, which they soon fill. The female ants,
although furnished with wings, are very sluggish, and
seldom, if ever, fly. “ The part eaten is the abdomen,
which is very rich and fatty from the mass of unde-
veloped eggs. They are eaten alive ; the insect being
held by the head as we hold a strawberry by its stalk,
and the abdomen being bitten off, the body (of course,
Mr. Wallace refers to the thorax), wings, and legs, are
thrown down on the floor, where they continue to
crawl along apparently unaware of the loss of their
posterior extremities. They are kept in calabashes or
bottle-shaped baskets, the mouths of which are stopped
up with a few leaves; and it is rather a singular sight
to see for the first time an Indian taking his breakfast
in the saiiba season. He opens the basket, and as the
great winged ants crawl slowly out, he picks them up
carefully, and transfers them, with alternate handfuls
of farina, to his mouth.” Mr. Wallace adds, that when
the Indians catch great quantities, they roast them
slightly or smoke them, and then sprinkle a little salt
on them. In this state they are generally much liked
by Europeans.*

ANOMMA ARCENS— the Driver Ant of Western
Africa — fig. 56. We are indebted to the pen and eye of
the Rev. Thomas Savage, an American missionary on
the coast of West Africa, for an account of this very
interesting ant. This species is well called Driver;

Fig. 56.

for it not only travels and visits in common with other
species of ants, but it also drives everything before it
capable of muscular motion, so formidable is it from
f Trans. Ent. Soc., second series, vol. ii., p. 243.

184 Duiver Ant. INSECTS. Driver Ant.

its numbers and bite. Its permanent abode, if it may

a good way advanced when first observed. Ant after

be called so, Mr. Savage finds to be a shallow exca-

ant coming down from above, extending their long

vation under the roots of trees, shelving rocks, and

limbs and opening wide their jaws, gradually lengthened

almost any other substance that will afford a shelter.

out the living chain till it touched the broad leaf of a

From these recesses the Driver ants make their sallies

Canna coccinea below. It now swung to and fro

in cloudy days, and in the night, chiefly in the latter.

in the wind ; the terminal ant in the meanwhile endea-

An exposure to the direct rays of the sun is almost

vouring to attach it by his jaws and legs to the leaf.

immediately fatal to them. Should they be detained

Not succeeding, another ant of the same class (the very

abroad till late in the morning of a sunny day by the

largest) was seen to ascend the plant, and fixing his

quantity of their prey, they construct arches over their

hind legs, with the apex of his abdomen, firmly to the

path, of dirt agglutinated by a fluid excreted from their

leaf under the vibrating column, then reaching foi'th

mouth. If they can obtain shelter in long grass, they

his fore legs, and opening wide his jaws, closed in with

dispense with the arch. When Mr. Savage was residing

his companion from above, and thus completed the

near Cape Palmas, he was greatly annoyed by the fre-

most curious ladder in the world.”*

quent visits and ravages of these ants. At one time

Mr. Savage assures us, that whenever a stream of

they literally drove out every member of the female

water intercepts their course in their migrations, if it

department of the school ; at another, the male depart-

be not very extensive they compass it ; but if not, they

ment ; then the inmates of his own dwelling. His

make a line or chain of one another, gradually extend-

horse, pigs, fowl, and everything that had animal life,

ing themselves by numbers across, till the opposite

were attacked by these formidable armies. He says,

side is reached. Over this living bridge the main body

“ They always pounced upon us at night, and generally

passes in safety. During the wet seasons, the Driver

when our senses were reposing in sleep. Occasionally

ants are liable to be driven by the continued rains from

we were apprised of their designs at nightfall by a few

their haunts. Mr. Savage observes, that “ in such an

suspicious individuals lurking in the vicinity in advance

emergency they throw themselves into a rounded

of the main body, but mostly they took us by surprise.

mass ; deposit their feebler folk, pupse, and eggs in the

At last their annoyance seemed to have reached the

centre ; and thus float upon the water till a place of

highest point of our forbearance, and a resolution was

safety is reached, or the flood subsides. Even in situa-

forthwith taken to discover their habitation, and, if

tions beyond this overflow, they must be deluged in

possible, expel them from the vicinity. Accordingly I

their holes for days, so copious and incessant are the

commenced cutting over the premises, and had pro-

rains at times ; and one would suppose that under

ceeded as far as two-thirds the way down the mount

such circumstances vast numbers must perish. Some

on which my dwellings stand, when, beneath a shelving

undoubtedly do ; but the Lord in this, as in other

rock of decomposing granite, their haunt was dis-

orders of the animal kingdom, has pursued a system of

covered. They had been roused by the efforts of the

compensation beautifully illustrative of his goodness,

workmen, and had come forth in incalculable numbers

and the minuteness of his providential care over even

for defence, literally blackening the surrounding grass

the meanest of his creatures. As he has endowed this

and shrubbery. Lines of ants, going and coming

insect with a high degree of life, so he has given to it a

agreeably to the rules of their order, were running in

corresponding degree of tenacity, thus enabling it to exist

opposite directions. Their paths were very distinct

under the many unfavourable circumstances incident

and well trodden, of about an inch in width. . . ,

to its habits. Feeling assured that such was the fact,

Their numbers could not be computed; millions on

I commenced a series of experiments in proof of the

millions seemed to be there, besides thousands that

point. An individual of the largest class was sub-

were going and coming with astonishing speed and

merged to the bottom of a glass of water, where it

alacrity. In attempting their destruction, I adopted

struggled for about three-fourths of an hour, then

the mode of the natives, which is to ignite on the spot

apparently expired. It revived in about ten minutes

a collection of the dried leaves of a species of Corypha

after it was taken out, exhibiting about as much vita-

(fan palm of this coast) about six feet in diameter, and

lity and ferocity as before.” Mr. Savage submerged

dried grass, with other combustible matter. A fire of

it three times, keeping it under water at one time for

great intensity was thus kindled, which continued to

six hours, and yet it revived. He gives other instances

burn for a considerable time. This, I supposed, would

of their tenacity of life.

be the last of our troublesome neighbours. Two days

Mr. Savage mentions an instance of the ants killing

after, however, on going to the spot for the purpose of

a snake four feet long. They seem to have first blinded

examining into their domicile, I was surprised to see a

it — at least so the American missionary judged by its

tree at a short distance, about eighteen inches in dia-

motions. He tells that the entrance of the driven

meter, to the height of four feet from the ground, with

into a house is soon known by the simultaneous and

the adjacent plants and earth, perfectly black with them.

universal movement of rats, mice, lizards, Blapsidm,

From the lower limbs (four feet high) were festoons or

Blattidce, and the numerous vermin that infest their

lines of the size of a man’s thumb reaching to the

dwellings. He says that “ when they are fairly in, we

plants and ground below, consisting entirely of these

give up the house, and try to await with patience their

insects; others were ascending and descending upon

pleasure; thankful, indeed, if permitted to remain within

them, thus holding free and ready communication with

the narrow limits of our beds and chairs.” To prevent

the lower and upper portions of this dense mass. One

their ascending the beds, the feet are placed into a

of these festoons I saw in the act of formation. It was

* Trans. Ent. Soc., vol. v., p. 7.

Fossores. ^INSECTS. Mutillid^. 185

basin of vinegar. As far as Mr. Savage observed,
fresh meat of all kinds, and fresh oils, are their favourite
food. In the cupboards they touch not milk or sugar
and pastry.

Group — FOSSOBES.

The tribe Fossores is so called from the digging
or burrowing habits of most of the insects composing
it. The insects of this tribe are of two sexes, which
are both furnished with wings. The legs of the females
are usually adapted for burrowing, and are never fitted,
as in the bees, for collecting pollen. The hind tarsi
have the first joint as narrow as the following ones.
The collar is sometimes prolonged on each side, as far
as the insertion of the first pair of wings.

Family — SCOLIAD^®.

In this family the females have the legs generally
very strong and thickly spinose, or densely ciliated ; the
femora are arcuated at the extremity, and compressed ;
the antenn® are stout, and shorter than the thorax.
In the typical genus {ScoUa) the eyes are notched.
Scolia quadrimaculata is figured on Plate 7 , fig. 9.

the group ; there is a large splash of reddish-yellow on
the upper wing.

The cocoa palms of Madagascar are destroyed by the
grub of a large blackish-brown beetle, thicker than
your thumb, and about half its length. The grub is
yellowish-white, with a darker hind part and brown
head. Groves of cocoa-nut trees that were planted at
Saint Marie, and for a hundred years brought in great
revenue to France, have been destroyed by the larva of
this beetle — Oryctes Simiar is its name. Two other
species are found in Madagascar and elsewhere, which,
when they abound, do great mischief to date palms
{Pkmnix dactyliferd) and other palms, such as the
Oreodoxa oleracea^ all figured in the great hook of
Martius.

The trunks are attacked by the insect, which eats
large holes, and these holes let in air and water, and
other things destructive to vegetable growths. The
larva of the Scolia here figured (fig. 58) attacks and eats
these larva. It is very sluggish, hut does its work
admirably. It has twelve segments ; each ring is
furnished with stigmata, except the last. Its cocoon is
very thick. These insects appear to have the same
habits in all parts of the world, for instance Passeriui’s
Scolia flavifrons preys on Oryctes nasicornis in Europe,
as has been observed at Florence.

Fig. 57.

Scolia oryctophaga.

The Scolia here figured, with its larva (see figs. 57
and 58), W'as described by Mons. Ch. Coquerel,* who
named it Oryctophaga (Eater of the beetle Oryctes).

Fig. 58.

Larva of Scolia oryctophaga.

It is a native of Madagascar, a fine black fellow, with
purplish iridescence on its wings, like many others of

* Annales de la Society Entom. de France, third series,
vol. iii., Plate 10, fig. 2; 1855.

Von. 11. 8o

Family— SAPYGID.as.

) In this family the legs are without spines; the
'' antennae are elongated, and usually more or less
clubbed ; the eyes are notched. Two species are
described as British ; one species {Sapyga punctata) is
met with about the end of May running on palings and
rails, apparently looking out for the burrows of wood-
boring bees. They store up the larvae of Lepidoptera
for their young brood. The larva spins a tough brown
cocoon, in which it passes its pupa state. It has been
known to use snail shells instead of making a burrow.

Family — MUTILLID.^ {Velvet Ants),

These insects may be described as solitary ants.
There are two sexes, male and female. The males are
winged, the females are apterous. The legs of the
females are stout, and fitted for burrowing; the tibise
are spinose; the tarsi are ciliated; the antenna are
filiform or setaceous. In the males the last segment
of the abdomen is usually furnished with teeth or spines.
The Mutillida are met with in all countries. One
was brought by Sir John Richardson from the Great
Bear Lake in North America {M.frigida). We figure
the Mutilla coccinea — (Plate 7, fig. 5). In the warmer
regions of the world they abound, and some of the
South American species are of considerable size, and
have terrible stings.

MUTILLA ETJE0P.fflA. — Mr. Drewsen, in the Stettin
Journal for 1847, has given an account of the habits of
this species, which is met with in this country. This
Danish naturalist took a nest of that humble bee known
as the Bomhus Scrimshiranus ; in it he found only two
worker bees, hut as many as seventy-six specimens of
Mutilla Europcea, of which forty-four were males and

186 Ckabronid^. INSECTS. Piiilanthid^.

thirty-two females. He found the larvse of the Mutilla
in the cells, closed in, as usual, by the full-fed grub of
the bee, which seems to have unwittingly closed in
with it the egg of the parasite which, when reared,
fed on it; for there is little doubt that Mutilla is carni-
vorous, and devours the larva and pupa of the humble
bee. The Australian and African Mutillse must he
parasitic on other Hymenoptera, for humble bees are
not found in those countries.

MUTILLA EPHIPPIUM. — This is a much smaller
species than the M. Europcea, and more common in
this country than that insect. The Brazilian species
are well marked, and some large. Black and white,
red and black, are their prevailing hues. Mr. West-
wood first figured some of the Australian species. Dr.
Dalton specifies one as being very common in British
Guiana, the Mutilla diadema. It is about three-
quarters of an inch long, of a deep black, and striped,
with yellow on the thorax and body. It is solitary,
and is often seen in sandy places. “They are very
cautious and shy in their habits, and sting severely.
They build in the ground ; for when chased they dis-
appear rapidly in subterranean passages.”* The males
arc not so common as the females.

Family— THYNNIDiE.

This family consists of insects closely allied to the
Mutillidse in many respects. The family is chiefly
Australian, but a number of species have been found
in Brazil. Mr. Robert Bakewell, who has done so
much for Australian entomology, informs ns that the
Thynnidae are parasitic on Lepidoptera. That gentle-
man obtained specimens from the cocoons of moths
which had been dug up from the ground.

Family— CRABRONID.®.

In this family the insects have frequently the head
very large ; the abdomen is oval or elliptical, some-
times clavate, sometimes petiolated. The eyes are
ovate, but sometimes kidney-shaped. The antennae
are often thickened at the end.

In the genus Trypoxylon the eyes are large, and
deeply notched on their inner orbit. Three British
species are known; one of these (T. is very
abundant everywhere, and may be frequently noticed
conveying its prey to its nest, consisting of spiders. In
June, 1845, a colony of Trypoxjdon was found burrow-
ing in a bank of light earth, above which was a cut
hawthorn hedge. On this hedge spiders were numer-
ous, and the female insects were flying in numbers
from the burrows up into tbe hedge, provisioning their
nest with great facility. The cocoons of this species
are met with in banks and decayed wood; the cells
are separated from each other by a cap of agglutinated
sand.

The genus Crdbro is very extensive ; the ejms are
rounded, the face being usually covered with silvery
or golden pubescence. Thirty-six British species are
described. Many burrow in decaying wood, some

* History of British Guiana, by Henry G. Dalton, M.D.,
vol. ii., p. 297 i 1855.

perforate bramble sticks and rose branches, so that by
gathering such perforated sticks in the spring, many
species of the genus and occasionally the parasites are
bred. C. luteipalpis provisions its nest with the rose
aphis. One species, C. varius, carries gnats to its
burrows. C. podagricus and C. leucostoma, and other
species, provision their nests with dipterous insects.

The genus Oxyhelus, of which there are seven British
species, belongs to this family. The insects of this
genus prey upon Diptera, and their mode of capturing
them is singular. Several females were observed run-
ning amongst blades of grass which shot up from the
surface of a little hillock upon which the sun shone,
and tempted various Diptera to occasionally alight. The
Oxyheli continued to run about apparently unheedful
of the flies, until at length the latter became somewhat
accustomed to their presence ; but when the Oxybelus
came within five or six inches, it darted upon the
luckless fly in the same manner as a cat springs upon
its prey. The most common British species is the
Oxybelus uuiglumis, which occurs in most sandy situa-
tions.

The species of the genus Diodontus, so called from
the mandibles being bidentate, are small, and may be
taken in plenty by collecting perforated rose branches
or bramble sticks. In these they burrow for the most
part, and provision their nests with Aphides, so that
they are among the numerous bands of insects useful
to mankind.

One species of the genus Pemphredon occurs in this
country : this is the Pemphredon lugubris. It burrows
in posts, rails, &c., in a decaying state. This insect
provisions its nest with Aphides.

Family— PHILANTHIDHi:.

In these insects, so named from Philanthus the
typical genus, the head is wider than the thorax. The
intermediate tibim are armed with a single spur at the
tip ; the legs and anterior tarsi are strongly ciliated.

The genus Philanthus has the clypeus with three
lobes, and the antennae are suddenly thickened. It
has a large head, eyes, and mandibles. See Plate 7,
fig. 10, for a figure of the front of the head of the
Philanthus triangulum. Mr. Smith took it abun-
dantly during a visit to the Isle of Wight, in which
be discovered what may be regarded as the British
metropolis of the unique British species {Philan-
thus triangulum).* This fine insect is abundant in
Sandown Bay. The female takes various bees for her
prey, such as the Andrena fulvicrus, Halictus zonatus,
or more frequently the Honey bee {Apis mellifica).

This genus Cerceris contains some of the most
beautiful species of insects of the whole tribe of fos-
sorial Hymenoptera. It is found in all parts of
the globe. In this genus the antennae are gradually
thickened, and the segments of the abdomen have their
margins constricted. Some of the Indian species are
the giants of the family, being upwards of an inch in
length. In some of the South American species, the
first segment of the abdomen is prolonged into a long

* The Philanthus apivorus of Latreille, who named it api-
vorus from its bee-destroying propensities.

LaBEIDjE.

INSECTS. Sphegid^. 187

petiole. There are five species of the genus indigenous-
to the British islands.

CEKCEEIS AEENARIA, as its name implies, burrows
in sandy spots, where it may be met with abundantly
in the month of July. It stores up different species
of Curculionidae, taking any that may be abundant
near its nest.

CERCEKIS QUINQTJE-FASCIATA, is a local species,
which seems to delight in frequenting the flowers of
the wild parsnip. It selects hard-trodden pathways
for its burrows, and provisions its cells with the Apion
rufirostre.

CERCERIS ORNATA, a variable and beautiful species,
is found to be gregarious. It forms large colonies, and
provisions its nest with different species of wild bees,
such as the Halictus ruhicundus, Zonulus, &c.

CERCERIS LABIATA conveys to its burrows speci-
mens of the vaulting beetle, named Haltica tabida.

Family — LAEEID.®.

In this family the mandibles are notched outwardly
towards their base ; the tibiae of the fore and middle
legs have a single spine at their apex, while the tibiae
of the hind pair have two spines. This structure
indicates a peculiar habit in this family, of which there
are two or three British genera.

MISCOPHUS BICOLOR, one of these taken at Wey-
bridge, provisions its nest with a small white-bodied
spider, which is found commonly on heath.

TACHYTES UNICOLOR is another rare and very local
species of this family. It is met with in that warm
spot, Sandown Bay in the Isle of Wight, in the month
of July; it is an extremely active insect, flying with
great rapidity.

ASTATA BOOPS, so called from its large eyes, is
another local insect, found on Hampstead Heath amongst
the sand pits. Its usual prey appears to be the larva
of a hemipterous insect of the genus Pentatoma, occa-
sionally also capturing a small hymenopterous insect
of the genus Oxybelus.

Family — BEMBECIDHU.

Of this family there is no British representative. The
insects inhabit warm climates, and some of them are
said to emit a rose-like scent. In the genus Bembex,
the maxillse and labium are produced into a long beak,
hence the speeies of Southern Europe is named Bemhex
rostrata. This species constructs its nests in the soft
light sea-sand, and catches its prey on the wing. This
prey consists chiefly of flies.

Family— NYSSONID.®.

In this family the mandibles are not notched beneath,
and the legs are subspinose. It is so called from its
typical genus Nysson, of which five British species are
described. Two of these {N. trimaculatus and N,
dimidiatus) are observed to feign death when alarmed,
and to drop to the ground, like the Golden wasps.

Of Gorytes there are five British species, some of
which have been caught carrying the larva of the

ApJirophora spumaria — that larva which disfigures
plants with its spittle-like secretion. It carries these
and other larvae to its nest.

Of the genus Mellinus there are two British species.
One of these, a black insect with four yellow abdominal
bands {M. arvensis), is perhaps the most abundant
fossorial insect in the country. When the parent Mel-
linus has formed a burrow of the required length, and
enlarged the extremity into a chamber of the proper
dimensions, she issues forth in search of the proper
nutriment for her young. This consists of various
dipterous insects — flies of various genera are equally
adapted to her purpose, Muscidae, Syrphidae, &c. —
which she captures.*

Family— SPHEGID AS.

The insects of this family are marked by the pro-
thorax not having the posterior angles prolonged to the
base of the wings, and by' being narrowed in front, so as
to be elongated into a sort of neck. The basal segment
of the abdomen is narrowed into a long petiole. The
mandibles are toothed on the inside. The Insects of this
family, of which the species figured (Plate 7, fig. 11)
is one of the most gigantic, are specially interesting
on account of their habits ; the parent storing up for
the young an ample provision of insects, but more
particularly of spiders, which from their insect food
and the softness of their parts may be looked on as
a concentrated mass of the best juices of insects.
We are informed that the large Brazilian species
readily master spiders of the largest kind, such as
Mygale,'\ rendering them powerless by their formidable
sting. The spiders thus attacked die a lingering death,
in some cases surviving five or six days. An egg is
deposited on the first insect stored up, so that the
larva is hatched by the time the cells in some instances
are provisioned; but in this country our common
Sand-wasp (Ammophila sabulosa) deposits the food at
intervals, so that it is fresh and suited to the young
larva, which lives principally on the juices and softer
parts, leaving the head, legs, and wings untouched.
Although Arachnida are the usual prey of the majority
of these insects, still there is a species which at one
time preys upon spiders, and at another chooses
caterpillars, when each kind of food was equally at
its command. Endless, indeed, are the variations of
habit in the Hymenoptera ; the more they are inves-
tigated, the greater will be our admiration of their
wonderful instinct and tact in adapting their operations
according to circumstances; and when unimpeded in
them, of the beauty and fitness of their architectural
elevations.

Ammophila sabulosa (A. vulgaris, Kirby) forms its
burrow in sandy situations, with a chamber at its
extremity. Into this she conveys the caterpillar, and
deposits an egg on it. She subsequently stores up three
or four additional ones, and her task is completed. J
Each time that she deposits a caterpillar, she carefully

* Annals and Magazine of Natural Historj’, vol. x.x., p. 395.

t A genus of hairy-bodied spiders, often called Bird-catching
spiders.

J Catalogue of British Fossorial Hymenoptera, p. 80.

188 . Stethorectus. INSECTS. Pomfilid^e,

stops up the entrance with a few pebbles, which she
brings with her long spinose feet, the anterior tarsi of
which are strongly ciliated. She does not wait till each
caterpillar is devoured before supplying another. If
uninterrupted in her economy by weather or other
circumstances, the whole are stored up in a few hours,
and she then begins to form a fresh burrow. This
species seems to be peculiarly attached to caterpillars
as the food of its progeny. Its ally, the Ammophila
viatica, seems usually to prey upon spiders. There are
three other British genera — Miscus, Sphex, and Doli-
churus. It is doubtful if the Sphex be indigenous ;
and the Dolichurus is a rare Devonshire insect. We
have not the curious “Dirt-daubers,” so nicely de-
scribed by Gosse in the Zoologist, and also by the
venerable Abbot of Georgia in an extract quoted by
me from his manuscripts. — (See a paper on Darwin’s
Spiders in the Annals and Magazine of Natural His-
tory about the jmar 1842.) Our figure (Plate 7, fig. 8)
represents the Pelopceus spirifex, a common species in
southern Europe, the habits of which are described
by many writers.

STETHOEECTUS INGENS, or Great Brazilian Spider
Wasp, figured in Plate 7, fig. 11, is, perhaps, the largest
of all the species of the family Spkegidce. It was de-
scribed by Mr. F. Smith, in the twentieth volume of the
Annals and Magazine of Natural History . The male
is two inches and some lines in length, while the female
is only two lines short of her mate. Both sexes are
black, and very smooth and shining, the wings being of
a dark metallic blue. The head is large and subqua-
drate ; the eyes are large and oval. The clypeus has
four teeth in front, the two outer the largest. The man-
dibles are large, stout, and arcuated. The maxillary
palpi are six-jointed, the terminal joint being very
minute; the labial palpi are four-jcinted, the terminal
joints being conical. The thorax is very long and
strong. The upper wings have one marginal and three
submarginal cells, the second submarginal cell receiv-
ing two recurrent nervures. The hind legs are elon-
gated. The abdomen is ovate-conical, and abruptly
petiolated.

The negro children in some parts of Jamaica have
given the name of Grave-digger to a species of Sphex
which Mr. Gosse noticed there, and has described in
his usual very interesting way. He noticed this Sphex
at work on a deserted earthen floor of a boiling-house
at Bluefields. He observed, when examining this floor
closely, that there were numerous holes entering dia-
gonally into the dry and dusty ground. From some
of these flies are emerging, while others are entering.
You may hear a buzzing in some of them : this pro-
ceeds from a Sphex actively at work. “ At first,” says
Mr. Gosse, “ we cannot see what she is doing, for she
crawls in head-foremost, and in a second or two comes
out tail-foremost, recedes a few inches and then
advances again, again emerges in the same manner
and again enters, and continues thus to crawl back-
ward and forward with bustling activity, and with
much flirting of the purpling wings. She is almost
white with dust.”*

On a close examination Mr. Gosse found, that each
* Gosse: Naturalist’s Sojourn in Jamaica, p. 146.

time the Sphex came out she brought a load of the
earth larger than her head, and held tightly between
the tibiae of her two fore legs, her breast, and her chin,
and dropped this burden an inch or two from the
cave’s mouth. He noticed that she sometimes dragged
out a still larger stone, and grasped it with the jaws,
pulling it to a distance of four or five inches, for fear
it should roll in again. “ I have seen her bring two
stones together, one grasped beneath the chin, the
other in the jaws. Each time she has dropped the
load, she never fails, as she advances, to keep the
road clear by scraping with the fore shanks, throwing
the dust behind her. But for this, the earth brought
out would soon accumulate in a heap and roll back.”
He noticed that when a dry leaf or small stick happened
to drop against the mouth of the hole, the Sphex seized
it with her curved jaws, and carried it to a safe distance.

When the hole is finished, and the egg deposited,
with a store of disabled spiders and caterpillars to feed
the larva when hatched, the Sphex fills up the hole by
scraping back a little heap of dust, pushing it in with
her head. This is repeated several times till the hole
is full, and the dust has been well rammed down with
the insect’s head. As the ground is soft, and the
insects are very indefatigable in their labours, these
cells are soon made.

Fa mily — POMPILID iE.

In the family of Pompilid.®, a most extensive group
of the order Hymenoptera, the insects store up cater-
pillars and spiders for their young. The prothorax is
usually transverse, and broader than long; the hind
margin is arcuate or subangular. The legs are long ;
the abdomen is more or less oval, and is attached to
the thorax by a short peduncle.

Many of the British species store up spiders as food
for their young, such as Pompilus fuscus, P. gibbus,
&c. ; while others take caterpillars, such as Pompilus
niger.

POMPILUS PUNCTUM, a British species, wants the
cilia on the fore tarsi — a sure indication of a difference
of habit. Mr. Smith obtained from the Rev. W.
Delmar the cells of the Pompilus, found near Canter-
bury ; they were formed of mud, and were placed
irregularly side by side, and much resembled those
made by the genus Pelopceus.

There are two other British genera of this family .
One of these, Ceropales, is considered by some writers
as parasitic on Pompilus. From tbeir legs being almost
destitute of spines, and from the tarsi having no cilia,
it is probable that they have some peculiar economy.
Species of this genus are found in all quarters of the
globe, some of which are distinguished by a remarkable
beauty of colouring, an I others by the hind legs being
disproportionately long. In the females the antennae
are always straight, and not convolute, as these organs
are in Pompilus.

Dr. Kitto* observed a species of this group at Bag
dad. In his journal of August 29, 1831, he remarks
“ The wasps here are of a species and size I have not

* Journal, quoted in Hyland’s Memoirs of John Kitto, D.D.,
p. 428; 1856.

DirLOPTEUA. INSECTS. Myrapetka,

seen in other places ; and this 3'ear their numbers, as
well as that of all other insects, have been more than
the last, arising probably from the stagnant waters left
by the inundation. They are large and powerful
insects, scarcely less than an inch long, and of bulk in
proportion. The colour, a red-brown, and in parts
yellow, and to me it seems a very disgusting insect.
They are very thirsty creatures. They hang by hun-
dreds round the filtering jugs, imbibing the moisture
with infinite gusto. Their boldness, though less than
that of the fly and the gnat, is more remarked and
more unpleasing from their bulk. They have little
scruple- to alight on your plate at dinner, and seizing
what they can, make off with it. Sometimes I have
seen them flying away with bits of meat nearly of their
own size. They are also cannibals. 1 have found
them falling to on the body of a companion recently
killed, with little ceremony, which considerably dimin-
ished the respect I had before entertained for their
character as a set of brave and generous marauders.
They are well armed. Their sting is fatal, I believe,
to most insects, and is painful even to man. Our maid,
a few days since, was stung by one, and her hand
swelled enormously. I have not found, however, that
they use this formidable weapon but when provoked.
They live mostly in holes ; when they find one in a
place to their liking, they excavate it farther to adapt
it to their habitation, and they throw out a greater
quantity of rubbish than would be easily credited.
They once found a hole in my door, which they set
about excavating ; but their continual passing out
being very annoying, I closed up the hole ; though it
was not perhaps right to block up thus from the light
of the day those who then happened to be at home.
After repeated trials, those who came home from ex-
cursions at last relinquished the place.”

This observing deaf traveller then proceeds to de-
scribe in his own graphic way, how these wasps fall
into the snares of certain spiders, which venture on
them when caught in their webs, notwithstanding their
sting. Kitto watched how their strength of wing often
enabled the wasps to get out of the snare. But after
flying to some standing place and cleaning himself from
the relics of the webs, he has again got entangled,
“ like many other fools with fewer legs and no wings,
who will still sport with the dangers of which they have
been fully warned, till they are destroyed at last.” He
noticed that the spider inflicted two wounds, one in the
neck and the other in the head, which killed the wasp
in ibout a minute, when the dead body is sucked of its
“ marrow and juices,” and its skin hangs in the web as
a trophy.

Group— DIPLOPTERA.

This group of insects is so called from the front wing
being folded longitudinally in repose. The prothorax
is prolonged backwards to the base of the wings ; the
eyes are kidney-shaped, and extend nearly to the base
of the mandibles ; the tibiee of the fore legs and of the
middle pair are furnished with a single spine at their
tip ; the tibiae of the hind pair are armed with two
spines. There are two subgroups of the Diploptera.
In the solitary group there are males and females. In

189

the Social Wasps there are also workers or neuters.
The females and workers are furnished with a sting.

This group of insects is widely distributed, although
there are countries, such as Africa, Australia, and
South America, which do not seem to contain examples
of the typical genus of the social group Vespa.

These insects are celebrated for their interesting
habits, and for the wonderful mud, clay, paper, or
pasteboard-like structures which many of them raise,
as well as for the wonderful beauty of the hexagonal
cells which they construct. These structures will be
referred to further on.

Some of the Wasps construct nests of clay. Of this
there is a fine example from Berbice, or some adjoining
part of South America, exhibited in one of the cases at
the British Museum, containing many stages of comb,
all formed of the same material ; and the common
entrance is by a long slit in their common envelope.
Mr. Ker described a curious clay nest of an Australian
wasp. It is thimble-shaped ; the lower surface is flat,
and about its centre there is a most beautiful funnel-
shaped entrance, the pipe of which is continued a short
way within the case of the nest. At the top there is
a single layer of cells, constructed without regularity.

Fig. 59 represents a section of the very curious

Fig. 59.

Section of nest of the honey-making wasp (Myrapetra scutellaris).

nest of the Myrapetra scutellaris, a small wasp of dingy
colour, with a marked yellow scutellum. It is a native
of La Plata, and constructs a very hard pasteboard
nest, curiously knobbed on the outside ; and the en-
trances of the nest are very beautifully arranged in a
pent-like form, so that no rain, nor large moths or
beetles, could enter to injure it. The Wasp certainly
collects honey. I first described this nest about twenty
years ago. In October, 1861, a second magnificent
specimen was presented to the museum by Professor
Maskelyne. This nest contained more than a hundred
specimens of a live Mantispa, probably a parasite on
the nest. This nest contained honey. The honey is
said to be sought after by the jaguar, whose nose must

190

E UMENIDvB. IN SECTS. V ESPID^.

get many a poke when trying to get at the sweet gather-
ing of the Myrapetra. The name is a fanciful one,
compounded of the names of two ancient cities — one
Myra in Asia Minor, with its curious rock tombs ; the
other Petra in Idumea, the ancient Selah, with its
liouses and temples in the rock. The nest I have
described was, at once, the home and the tomb of the
wasps I found in it. — See fig. 60.

Fig 60.

Nest of Myrapetra scntellaiis.

In the Brazilian forests many different kinds of ■wasps’
nests are met with. Mr. Wallace describes them as
being generally attached to the under sides of leaves,
especially of the young Tucuma palm, as the leaves of
that plant are broad and afford a good shelter. Some
of these nests are little flat domes, with a single small
opening. Others have all the cells exposed. In some
there are only two or three cells, this being an early
stage of the nest ; when completed they have a great
number ; they are of a delicate papery substance.
Others build large cylindrical nests, of a material
resembling thick cardboard. Some form their nests
in hollow trees, while others construct them among
the roots in the ground. Many of the wasps sting
very painfully, while some are so fierce, that, when
the traveller disturbs their nest, they fly out and
attack him.

F AMiLY — EUMENID JE {Solitary Wasps).

Mr. Henry Saussure has described and figured most
of the species of this group, as well as those belonging
to other groups of the Diploptera. There are many
genera and species, but reference here can only be
afforded to some of the British species.

Of the genus Eumenes, the abdomen of
which is pear-shaped, the basal segment being
narrowed into a petiole at its base, we have one
species in the British islands. This {Eumenes
coarctatus) is a very local insect, apparently
restricted to the southern counties of England.
It constructs small globular cells of mud, which
it attaches to twigs of shrubs, particularly to
those of the common heath. The insect provi-
sions each nest with the larvae of small Lepi-
doptera, for the support of its solitary grub. The
Eumenes grub is occasionally the subject of a
parasite of the genus Cryptm.

Of the genus Odynerus there are many species,
which are spread over all parts of the world.
In the British islands there are twelve species,
some of which are very difficult to discriminate,
as their colouring is very inconstant. Some of
the species burrow in wood. Odynerus trifas-
ciatus, a common species, selects for its burrows
decayed rails, posts, or fencing. Odynerus
quadratus forms its cells in old posts, and
generally, if not always, prefers some read}'-
made tunnel or hole, fitted for its peculiar
economy. Mr. Ingpen once knew of this species
constructing its cells in the folding of a piece of
paper which had fallen behind some books. It
also makes use of the tubes of reeds used in
thatching outhouses in a farm-yard. But the
most curious adaptation I have heard of, is its
having lined the bores of a double-barrelled pistol
which hung on a post in an arbour of a garden.

Odynerus antilope has its burrows in sand-
banks. These burrows are provisioned with
small green caterpillars of lepidopterous insects.
The Golden wasp, Hedychruni auratum, is para-
sitic on this species.

The Odynerus spinipes is abundant in sandy
lanes during the months of June and July, when it may
often be met with in large colonies. The females store
up small green caterpillars as food for their larvae.
Their larvae are often subject to the parasitic attacks of
Ckrysis bidentata, and ether species of Golden wasps
are sometimes seen hovering about or entering their
burrows. These wasps construct beautiful granular
tubes, as entrances to these burrows, which are fre-
quently met with on sandbanks in early summer. Ody-
nerus Imvipes and 0. melanocephalus have been found
burrowing in dead bramble sticks, or in those of the
rose. The former species excavates and lines the tube
with a coating of fine sand, and constructs the divi-
sions bertween the cells also of fine sand. It stores up
small caterpillars, and is subject to the attacks of two
species of Ichneumon, the Cryptus wnatus and C,
bellosus.

Vespid^. INSECTS. Common Wasp. 191

The Odynerus crassicornis is one of the most local
of the British species. It has been taken near Darenth
wood in Kent. Mr. Westwood has observed it near
Paris, carrying the larvae of the beetle named Chryso-
mela populi, to its nest.

In the family Masarid.® the antennae are widely
separated, and they appear to be composed of only
eight joints. On Plate 7, fig. 6, is represented a species
of this family, Celonites apiformis.

Family — VESPID.® {Wasps and Hornets).

The Social Wasps or Vespid^ — so called from
the typical genus Vespa, are thus characterized. The
fore wings are folded longitudinally, and have three
complete submarginal cells, the second receiving both
the recurrent nervures. The eyes are kidney-shaped,
and on the side of the head they extend to or nearly
reach the base of the mandibles. The claws of the
tarsi are simp.le. The societies consist of males, females,
and workers.

The insects of this family are pre-eminent as archi-
tects. The endless variety of form, the ditferent mate-
rials used by these industrious insects in the construc-
tion of their nests, and the various textures consequently
produced, cannot fail to strike the careful observer.
In this country, we have but one genus of the family
{Vespa), and of this genus there are eight indigenous
species. Their nests are works of great beauty ; and
when we examine the differences in the construction —
the adaptation of the nest to the circumstances likely
to ensue in the various situations in which we find
them — we are astonished at the amount of intelligence
displayed.

The originator of a wasp’s nest is a single individual,
a female, which has passed the winter in a torpid state,
and has been aroused from lethargy by the genial
warmth of spring. She first seeks for a site in which
to lay the foundation of her vesparium : possession
being the title-deed by which she and her progeny
hold it, and a formidable array of stings being the
defence of the nest from foreign aggression. The
female, then, having found a hole in a place adapted
to her purpose, proceeds to enlarge it, and to form a
subterranean chamber of suitable space. She then
collects materials for the foundation. This foundation
is formed of raspings and scrapings of wood ; having
got together some of this material, she first forms a
footstalk strong enough to support the first two or
three layers of cells ; at the end of this footstalk she
forms three cup-shaped receptacles ; these are reversed,
hanging like a bell, and are each about one-tenth of
an inch in depth. Over the foundation cells the wasp
now places a covering like an umbrella ; she deposits
an egg in each cup, and then proceeds to form addi-
tional cells, depositing an egg in each as soon as it is
constructed. The first eggs are by this time hatched,
and the young larvae require some of her attention.
These larvae grow rapidly, and as they grow, the
mother wasp from time to time adds to the walls of
their cells ; the cells of the foundation comb are never
carried up higher than the length of the larvae. As it
grows day by day, the female wasp adds a fresh course

of wall until the grub is full grown, when it covers
itself in by spinning a convex cap to its cell, of a
light-coloured, tough, silky texture. “ The angles of
the planes of the hexagons are determined by the points
of contact of the circular bases ; from these the wasp
gradually commences the flattened sides of the hexa-
gons, at first a little curved ; but at a slight elevation,
the sides become perfectly flattened planes, and as such,
are carried up to the required height. Thus the gradual
raising of the walls is as regular and progressive as
that of a bricklayer constructing hexagonal chimneys.
Each additional layer is laid upon the previous one,
which has had time to become hard and suitable for
supporting the additional weight of wall required.”
Wasps, however, do not at all times form cup-shaped
foundations. Some Brazilian wasps of the genus Poly-
bia, lay cup-shaped foundations for their first cells ;
but they construct a flat roof as the comb increases
in dimensions. As soon as they have formed the first
comb, the species of Polybia begin to build upon the
flattened roof, “laying the hexagonal foundations at
once, sharp and angular, from the flattened roof. One,
two, three, or more planes are in different instances to
be seen, merely as it were chalked out by the slightest
amount of elevation possible.”

Three of the British wasps ,( Vespa arhorea, V. syl-
vestris, and V. norvegicd) build their nests in trees or
bushes, such as gooseberry bushes. The section con-
taining these, has the scape of the antennse yellow in
front, in all sexes. Their style of building corresponds
with that of the ground wasps, such as the V. vulgaris,
described above, but their texture is firmer. The nests
are consequently capable of resisting the effects of
the wind and rain, and the changes of temperature to
which they are liable to be exposed.

The Social wasps are most courageous. They
seldom attack when unmolested ; so it would be well
for any one, should a wasp fly near them, not to wave
it away, but to take no notice of its presence, or to sit
quiet. Should any one attack their nest, the inmates
boldly defend their citadel, and resent all attempts
of the invader. From the much abused, and too
often cruelly treated wasp, we maj' learn an admirable
lesson of parental care, of courage in the defence of her
young brood, and of careful and cleanly housewifery ;
no particle of rubbish of any kind being suffered to
strew her dwelling. The number of individuals which
compose the different communities of wasps varies much.
Reaumur calculated thirty thousand as the number
likely to be found in a populous community. The
celebrated French observer had estimated the entire
number of the cells at ten thousand, and supposed each
might have been the cradle of three larvae.

THE COMMON WASP {Vespa vulgaris) generally
appears in this country in April. Mr. Smith once
saw a female flying at Hampstead on the 13th Feb-
ruary, 1859, when the weather was unusually mild. I
have a record of its early appearance in February near
Edinburgh, about twenty-nine years ago, when first I
began to attend minutely to natural history.

VESPA G-ERMANICA is widely distributed in Bri-
tain, though not so abundant as the preceding.

VESPA EUFA, like the two preceding, is a ground

192 Mellifeka. INSECTS. Andrenid.®.

wasp. It is widely distributed. From a nest of this
species numerous specimens of the Chrysis ignita, and
five of the Anomalon vesparum — an ichneumonidous
insect — which are parasites, have been bred.

VESPA ABBOREA, one of the Tree wasps, was first
taken by Mr. Smith in 1836, near Wakefield in York-
shire. It builds its nest in fir-trees.

VESPA SYLVESTRIS, though a Tree wasp, has occa-
sionally been found inhabiting an underground nest.

THE HORNET (Vespa crahro) is the largest of the
British wasps, the female being from thirteen to four-
teen lines long, while the workers and males are from
nine to eleven. In Hampshire it is very abundant,
usually building in decaying trees, sometimes under
the eaves of houses, and occasionally even in a bank.
It has been observed carrying on its building opera-
tions on a fine moonlight night, as briskly as during
the daytime. The rare Velleius dilatatus, one of the
staphylinidous beetles, is found in its nest.

Worthy Edward Topsell, whose “native soyl” was
Duckworth in Huntingdonshire,* reckoned wasps and
hornets, and even bees, by no means interlopers among
serpents. He introduces them in his foolscap folio
history between the asp and the boa — the caterpillars
connecting the hornets with these great tropical Ophi-
dia — one of which, distended to a frightful extent, is
engaged in swallowing an infant of considerable size.
He evidently observed hornets at his native home, and
remarks that “ their combes are wrought with greater
cunning, more exquisite art, and curious conceit, than
those either of wasps or bees, and these excellent de-
visers do make them one while in the trunks of trees,
and sometimes again in the earth, increasing them at
their pleasure with more floors and buildings, according
to the increase of their issue, making them smooth and
bright, decking and trimming them with a certain
tough or binding slime or gelly gathered from the
gummy leaves of plants.” This, Master Topsell, is
a mistake; careful observers now know, that wasps
form this binding material themselves.

Group— ANTHOPHILA or MELLIFEKA.—
The Bees.

Well may the bees be called Anthophila, or Flower-
lovers, the name invented for the tribe by Latreille.
Without flowers they would not be Mellifera, that
is, Honey-gatherers. This tribe, in all the solitary
species, consists of two sexes, males and females. In
the social species, to these two sexes is added what is
called a neuter or worker, which is in reality an abor-
tive female. The females and workers are generally
furnished with apparatus for conveying pollen ; they
are armed with a sting.

The antennai of the females and workers have twelve
joints ; in the males there are thirteen of these articu-
lations. The abdomen of the females consists of six
segments or rings, while in the males there is one more.
In addition to the two lateral compound eyes, they
have three simple eyes, called ocelli or stemmata, on
the crown of the head. The tongue, so important an

♦ He tells us so at p. 659 of the work, of which his History
of Serpents forms the second book, published iu 1658.

organ in this tribe, is lanceolate, or filiform. In the
larva state these insects are fed on pollen or honej',
stored up by the parent. Several of the tribes are
parasitical; that is, they collect no honey or pollen,
hut consume food stored up for the legitimate inhabi-
tant of the nest. In these insects the basal joint of.the
hind tarsi is dilated into an oblong or subtriangular
plate, most frequently rough on the inside, and
provided, except in the parasites, with instruments for
collecting and caiTying pollen. The maxillae and
labium are elongated, and often form a proboscis which
can be folded several times beneath the head, and is
useful in reaching into the long tubes of flowers.

Famiey I.— ANDRENIDtE-.

This family derives its name from its typical genus
Andrena, of the habits of which more will be said
hereafter. The following are the eharacters of this
family: — The mentum is elongated, the labium at its
extremity is small, and either spear-shaped or cordate,
with a small ear-shaped lobe on each side. It is either
straight or very slightly deflexed iu some, and reflexed
in others, and considerably shorter than the tubular
mentum, the labium and terminal maxillary lobes not
forming an elongated proboscis; the labial palpi are
four -jointed and resemble the maxillary palpi, which
are always six-jointed. The mandibles are simple, or
end in one or two notches. The antennse are elbowed,
the hind legs are generally completely clothed with
hairs, the trochanters and femora in the females are
pollenigerous, the basal joint of hind tarsi is never
externally dilated into an angle, and the second joint
of the tarsi arises from the centre of the lower edge of
the preceding joint.

The insects of this family are all solitary, and con-
sist of males and females ; the latter collect pollen
from flowers, which, with the addition of a little honey,
they form into a kind of paste, which is the food of
their grubs. They burrow in the ground, and deposit
an egg on a supply of this paste sufficient for the rear-
ing of the grub.

Genus Colletes. — In the genus Colletes, of which
there are four British species, the ocelli are placed
in a line on the vertex. The wings have one mar-
ginal and three complete submarginal cells. The
economy of this genus of insects was graphically de-
scribed by Reaumur, who found them constructing their
burrows in the interstices of stone walls. Our account
of the bees is chiefly compiled from Mr. Smith’s mono-
graph of the bees of Great Britain, published in 1855.

The Apis Daviesana is very abundant in many
sandy districts, particularly in the county of Kent.
These insects form burrows, which are from eight to
ten inches in length. At the further end they are
lined with a very thin, transparent, membranaceous
covering, resembling gold-beaters’ skin. “ The insect
having stored up a sufficient supply of pollen and honey
in a semifluid state, closes up the cell with a cap of
the same substance as the lining of the tube. This
cap is stretched flat across, like the parchment on a
drum-head ; a little within she next constructs a con-
cave cap, serving as the end of the cell ; her former

j

Prosopis INSECTS. Andreka. 193

labour is then repeated until she has furnished six or
eight cells, when the whole is completed.” There is
little doubt that the same bee constructs more than
one of these tubes, as there is never any trace of a
second tunnel running into the first, as in many other
solitary bees.

These bees are liable to the attacks of two parasites,
one of which feeds on the larvae, while the other eats
the pollen. The first is a fly {Millogramma punctata) ;
this fly may frequently be seen entering the cells of
the bees, and indeed it has been often bred from the
cocoons of the Colletes. The second enemy is a little bee
{Epeolus variegatus). The greatest enemy of these
bees, however, is the earwig, which commits wholesale
slaughter on them, devouring pupae, larva, and pollen,
and in some localities they abound to such an extent
that three-fourths of the bees perish from their attacks.
The type of the genus Colletes is the C. succincta, a
species which seems to be very partial to the flowers
of the heath.

Genus Prosopis. — At one time the bees of the
genus Prosopis were thought to be parasites, because
they wanted the usual apparatus for collecting pollen.
Mr, Thwaites, in 1841 found two of the species breed-
ing in bramble- sticks, and since that time others have
repeatedly bred the species from a similar nidus. Mr.
Sidney Saunders has observed in Albania a species
which constructs its cells in bramble-sticks, and lines
them after the manner of Colletes with a thin trans-
parent membrane, able to hold a semi-liquid honey,
which they store up for their young. This species was
much subject to be infested by a species of Stylops.
The species of this genus found in the British islands
are nine in number, and are very partial to the flowers
of the wild mignonette {Reseda luteola). In this genus
the body is smooth and naked, and there are only two
complete submarginal cells : the ocelli are arranged in
a triangle. The last two genera belong to Westwood’s
sub-family, called from the bluntness of the tongue
Obtusilingues. To his sub-family with a pointed tongue,
and called in consequenceMcMfoYfrepwes, belong the other
British genera of the family Andrenidm^ of these we
may specify some of the genera.

Genus Sphecodes. — The bees of the genus »Sy>^eco(fes
have no pollenigerous organs; they have four submar-
giil^l cells to the fore wings, and the antennse are nodose
in the males. It is doubtful if this genus is parasitic,
notwithstanding the structure of the feet of the female.

Genus Halictus. — Twenty-six species of the genus
Halictus have been described as indigenous to these
islands ; one of these is the smallest bee found in this
country, the male being only two lines in length. This
species is aptly called Halictus minutissimus. The
species are widely distributed, being found in every
quarter of the globe. The females of Halictus, and of
the last recorded genus, make their appearance in April,
and are to be found from that time until late in the
autumn, and no males of these genera appear until
long after the females. The following observations
have been made on a colony of Halictus Morio, one
of the most common species, frequently found in path-
ways in the suburbs of London. The females appear
early in April, and continue in numbers up to the end
Von. II. 8 1

of June. During the month of July scarcely an indivi-
dual is to be found. About the middle of August the
males begin to come forth ; the females succeed the
males in their appearance about ten or twelve days.
The following appears to be the history of Halictus : the
males and females appear in autumn ; the impregnated
females pass the winter in the perfect state, appearing
during the following season to perform their economy,
the males not appearing before the autumn, so that in
their economy they resemble humble bees and wasps
rather than solitary bees.

In the genus Halictus the fore-wings have three sub-
marginal cells ; the abdomen of the females has a ter-
minal slit. The central division of the labium is longer
than the external, and in the males the antennse are
sometimes as long as the bod}'.

Genus Andrena. — The genus Andrena contains the
largest number of species of all the British genera. The
venerable Kirby first greatly enlarged the genus Apis,
and divided it into sections, each of which was named
with a generic title by Fuhricius or Latreille. They
took generally Kirby’s characters, and merely gave
names.* Sixty-eight species of Andrena have been
described. The bees of this genus may be truly said to
be the harbingers of spring, as males may be found on
catkins and early spring flowers on the first fine April
days — two species (H. bicolor and A. Gwynana) as
early as March. The Andrena. are all burrowers in
the ground, some species preferring banks of light earth,
while others prefer hard-trodden pathways. The bur-
rows vary in length ; they are seldom less than six
inches, whilst others excavate tunnels in the ground
from nine to ten inches in length. At the bottom
of each burrow they form a small oval chamber, in
which the female lays up a small pellet of pollen mixed
with honey. These pellets are generally about the
size of a pea, varying in size in the different species.
The bee sometimes constructs branch tunnels, with a
similar chamber at the end. When the egg is depo -
sited, the female bee closes the mouth of the tunnel.

The species of Andrena are subject to the attacks
of various parasites. The bees of the genus Nomada
are parasites, and appear to be on a perfectly friendly
footing with the industrious bees, being permitted, with-
out let or hindrance, to enter their burrows. It has
been advanced as a proof of the ingenuity and artifice
necessary to be employed in effecting the deposit of
their eggs in the working bees’ nests, that the parasites
should bear a close resemblance to the bees on which
they are parasitic. Some instances may undoubtedly
be advanced, as Apathiis and Bombus, and also in the
different species of Volucella which infest the nests of
humble bees; but amongst the solitary bees there are
no such resemblances to aid in any necessary decep-
tion. It may be remarked that the two cases are not
analogous, and I am not prepared to say that in the
case of the Bombi and their enemies it may not be
necessary ; but as regards solitary bees it certainly is
not — colonies of Andrenidse and their parasites mingle

* I might have quoted from Kirby, but prefer going to Mr.
Smith’s volumes, with the great additional information on the
bees that has been collected since the publication of Kirby’s
volume.

194 Andbena. INSECTS. Apid^.

together in perfect harmony, issuing from and entering
into the burrows indiscriminately. It may be observed
that between Eucera and Nomada no resemblance
exists in general appearance, one being several times
larger than the other, and covered with pubescence of
a sombre colour; whereas tlie parasite is a gaily-
coloured insect, destitute of pubescence, and readily
observed from the brightness of its colouring. To some
extent a constant connection between certain species
exists; and some species of these parasites are always
found in connection with certain species of Andrena."
It is the opinion of some authors that when the parasitic
bee has deposited her egg upon the store of pollen col-
lected by the industrious bee, the latter at once deserts
it, and proceeds to construct a fresh burrow ; and that
the parasites, which may be seen constantly entering
different burrows, enter them that they may find the
requisite quantity of food, which will usually be found
to be much less than that required for the industrious
bee. As soon as they have found this, they deposit
their egg, and the nest is then possibly deserted by its
legitimate owner.

ANDRENA HATTORPIANA is the largest species of the
genus found in these islands. The female is eight lines
long, while the male is a line shorter. Andrma jlorea
is truly a summer insect, is associated with the brightest
of all the sunny days of June, when the wild bryony is
creeping over the hedge, the flowers of which are its
chief delight. Andrena cineraria is an early species,
appearing in April. It is fond of burrowing in trodden
pathways, and may be met with abundantly in the
walks of Hyde Park. It is deep blue-black, the head
and thorax clothed with white pubescence.

ANDRENA PILIPES is seldom found but in the county
of Kent ; is very partial to thistle heads, from which it
obtains a white pollen ; when loaded with this it has a
very strange appearance.

ANDRENA NITIDA may be found in the flowers of
the common dandelion, in which they cover themselves
with pollen. It is an early spring bee, and so is the
Andrena albicans, a species found too by arctic travel-
lers on the shore of Lake Winnepeg.

ANDRENA FULVA is a bee fond of the apple blos-
som, and appears when that bloom is out.

ANDRENA CLARKELLA is usually the first bee which
appears in spring. It is found all over Europe, in
Algeria, and occurs also in Nova Scotia.

ANDREA TRIMMERANA is very abundant on Hamp-
stead Heath, and is frequentl}' infested by Stijlo])s.

Among the Andrence one species is peculiarly liable
to the attacks of St y lops ; this is the A. convexiuscula,
some having frequently one, two, and a few even three
specimens, projecting from the segments of the abdomen.

Of the genus il/acTO/)is there is one species {Macropis
labiata) occasionally found in these islands; butit would
appear to be very rare, as it has only been met with
thrice.

There are two species of the genus Cilissa found
in Britain. In habit they resemble the species of
Andrena. Cilissa hcemorrhoidalis is found in the
month of August “ where the blue-bells grow,” for it
does not appear to frequent any other flower (Smith,
Monograph, p. 110).

The genus Dasypoda contains but one British species,
which is perhaps the most beautiful bee fourrd in this
country (^Dasypoda hirtipes). This bee derives both
its generic and its specific names from the long dense
brush of fulvous hairs on the hind legs. The appear-
ance of the female, when loaded with pollen, is suffi-
ciently singular to attract the attention of the most
apathetic observer. Kirby records that she forms
burrows, like Andrena, and sits at the mouth of them
enjoying the warmth of the sun, while the male flies in
circles round her.

Family — APIDHil.

This family is characterized by Professor Westwood
as follows : — The mcntum is long, with the labium
at its extremity forming an elongated slender seta,
reflexed when at rest, and as long as, or longer than the
mentum, with two small lateral filaments, and form-
ing with the elbowed maxillae an elongated proboscis,
capable of being stretched out in front of the head
when in action, or folded up beneath it and the breast
when at rest, in the shape of a flattened 2.

Without alluding to sub-families, we proceed to
give, from Mr. Smith’s Monograph, an account of the
economy of the British genera of the family.

Genus Panuugus.— There are two species of the
genus Panurgus in Britain. In structure they are
very similar to the Andrenidae; the females possess
the brush on the tibiae and the apical fringe on the
abdomen, and their tarsi are similar. The chief differ-
ence lies in the tongue being folded at the tip when
in repose. They excavate burrows, and lay up a store
of pollen and honey, like the Andrenae. They are
summer bees, and black in colour. The most abun-
dant species is the Panurgus Banksianus, which forms
large colonies in retired sandy spots on heaths, making
its appearance in July. For years such a community
has existed on the north side of the Vale of Health,
Hampstead Heath, where in spring the larvae may
be found in small cells about six inches beneath the
surface. They do not change to nymphs many days
before arri ving at their perfect condition. This species
and the Panurgus calcaratus seem to prefer the flowers
of the mouse-ear hawkweed {HieraciuTri) to those of
any other plant.

Genus Nomada. — The bees of the genus Nomada
are popularly called Wasp bees, from a close resem-
blance they have in their gay colouring to some of the
smaller wasps. The body is elongated and smooth ;
the legs are simple in both sexes. The maxillary
palpi are six -jointed. The bees of this genus are
known to deposit their eggs in the nests of other bees.
They deposit their eggs on the provision laid up by the
working bee, which, finding an egg deposited, com-
mences a fresh cell for her own progeny. Mr. Smith
thinks it probable that the parasite closes its cell, having
frequently captured Nomadce and Melectce with masses
of clay attached to their posterior tibiae; and in the well-
known genus of exotic parasitic bees {Crocisa) speci-
mens are of frequent occurrence, which have masses
of clay or mixed earth on their tibise. Twent)^-four
British species are described ; one of these (W. Soli-
daginis) is often very abundant on the ragwort and

OSMIA. INSECTS. 0. LnUCOMELANA. 195

wild thyme. The Nomada sexfasciata is parasitic on
the bee called Eucera longicornis, and may be seen in
the month of June flying about where these bees have
a colony, and occasionally entering into and issuing
from their burrows.

' Genus Epeolus. — There is but one British species
of this genus ; it is short and glabrous, and distinguished
by the maxillary palpi being short and one-jointed.
Epeolus variegatus is a parasite on another bee, Colletes
Daviesana, and is found in its burrows. The males
like the males of most bees, seem to be a lazy set,
passing most of their time reposing in flowers. The
females are also very sluggish, and may be easily taken
with the hand. Their sting is very sharp.

Genus Ccelioxys. — This is another genus of para-
sitic bees, and may be known by the abdomen being
conical in the female, and toothed at the tip in the
male. The mandibles are broad and toothed. There
are six British species described ; they are parasites on
Saropoda, and Megachile.

Genus Stelis. — This is another parasitic genus of
bees, which is short and ovate. There are three species
found in these islands. The female of Stelis phceoptera
has been observed entering the burrows of Osmia
fulviventris in an old post. On one occasion it flew
out to a short distance and settled on another post,
apparently waiting for the Osmia to complete her
labour, for immediately on the latter leaving, the Stelis
re-entered. One of the species is parasitic on an
Osmia, which makes its nest in bramble sticks.

Genus Melecta. — Two species of this genus are
found in this country. One of these {Melecta luc-
tuosa) is a beautiful jet-black bee, spotted with snow-
white. It is parasitic on Anthopliora. Mr. Smith has
frequently bred it from the cells of that bee. In the
autumn of 1852 he procured a great number of larvae
from the nests of the Anthophora. He could detect
no diflerence in their form, but some were orange-
yellow and others white. All the yellow larvae turned
into Ardliopliora, and some of the pale larvae proved
to be Melecta. He adds that these bees are frequently
infested with the larva of the genus of beetles called
Meloe, a dozen of them sometimes adhering to the
sides of the metathorax.

Genus Os.\iia. — Of the genus Osmia ten species are
British.

OSMIA RUPA is the most abundant species in this
country ; the female is armed on each side of the
clypeus with a stout horn (hence the name also given
to it of Osmia bicornis). This pretty bee varies its
economy according to circumstances. “ In hilly coun-
try or at the sea-side, it chooses the sunny side of
cliffs or sandy banks, in which it forms its burrows ;
but in cultivated districts, particularly if the soil be
clayey, it selects a decaying tree, preferring the stump
of an old willow. It laj^s up a store of pollen and honey
for the larvse, which, when full grown, spin a tough
dark-brown cocoon, in which they remain in the larva
state until the autumn, when the majority change to
pupae, and soon arrive at their perfect conditicn.
Many, however, pass the winter in the larva state.”
This Osmia frequently makes its burrows in the mortar
of old walls.

OSMIA LEUCOMELANA selects for her nest the dead
branches of the common bramble, and removes from
them the pith, usually to the depth of from five to six
inches. At the end she deposits a supply of food,
which she closes in with a substance like masticated
leaves. In one bramble stick she usually forms five
or six cells. She does not extract the whole of the
pith, but alternately widens and contracts the diameter
of the tube, each contraction indicating the end of a
cell. Immediately before closing up each cell, she
deposits an egg. The egg is white, and about the size
and shape of a caraway seed. The larva is hatched in
about eight days, and feeds about ten or twelve, when
it is full grown, and spins for itself a thin silken cover-
ing. In this cocoon it remains till the following spring,
when it goes through its other transformations, appear-
ing in June as a winged bee.

“The two most interesting species found in these
islands are the Osmia aurulenta and 0. bicolor. These
bees generally burrow in banks, particularly the latter,
which forms colonies. It appears to be the natural
habit of these species to construct tunnels in hard banks
with great labour and untiring perseverance ; still we
find them at times exhibiting an amount of sagacity
and a degree of knowledge that at once dispels the
idea of their actions being the result of mere blind
instinct, impelling them in one undeviating course. A
moment’s consideration will suffice to call to mind
many tunnels and tubes, ready formed, which would
appear to be admii ably adapted for the purposes of the
bee; for instance, the straws of a thatch and many
reeds ; and what coifld be more admirably adapted to
their requirements than the tubes of many shells? So
thinks the bee. 0. aurulenta and 0. bicolor both select
the shells of Helix hortensis and Helix nemoralis. The
shells of these snails are, of course, very abundant, and
lie half hidden beneath grass, mosses, and plants. The
bees, finding them in such situations, dispense with their
accustomed labour, and take possession of the deserted
shells. The number of cells varies according to the
length of the whorl of the shells selected, the usual
number being four; but in some instances they con-
struct five or six, commencing at the end of the whorl.
A suitable supply of pollen and honey is collected, an
egg deposited, and a partition formed of abraded vege-
table matter. The process is repeated until the requi-
site number is formed, when the whole is most carefully
protected by closing up the entrance with small pellets
of clay, sticks, and pebbles ; these are firmly cemented
together with some glutinous matter, and the bee has
finished her task. When she has selected the shell of
a much larger snail, say that of Helix aspersa, in which
the whorl is much larger in diameter than that of the
other two, in fact, too wide for a single cell, our little
architect, never at a loss, readily adapts it to her
purpose, by forming tw'o cells side by side ; and as
she advances towards the entrance of the whorl, it
becomes too wide even for this contrivance. Here let
us admire the ingenuity of the little creature : she
constructs a couple of cells transversely ! — and this is
the little animal which has been so blindly slandered
as being a mere machine. On the beautiful chalk
slopes, not far from Mr. Atkin’s seat of Halstead Place,

196 Poppy Bee. INSECTS. Leaf-cutter Bee.

in Kent, I found snail shells so tenanted in 1843, and

separated from the wrinkled petal of a half-expanded

snail shells also tenanted by a beautiful spider of the

dower, she knows how to straighten their folds, and, if

genus Attus, or Salticus, as it was named by Latreille.

too large, to fit them for her purpose by cutting off the

A wood-boring bee constructs her tunnel, not by exca-

superduous parts. Beginning at the bottom, she over-

vating downwards, as she would be incommoded with

lays the walls of her mansion with this brilliant tapestry.

the dust and rubbish which she removes ; no, she works

extending it also on the surface of the ground, round

upwards, and so avoids such an inconvenience. When

the margin of the orifice. The bottom is rendered

she has advanced to the length required, she proceeds

warm by three or four coats, and the sides have never

in a horizontal direction to the outside of the post, and

less than two. The little upholsterer, having completed

now her operations are continued downwards. She

the hangings of her apartment, next fills it with pollen

constructs a cell near the bottom of the tube, a second

and honey to the height of about half an inch ; then.

and a third, and so on to the required number. The

after committing an egg to it, she wraps over the poppy

larvae, when full fed, have their heads turned upwards.

lining, so that even the roof may be of this material.

The bees which arrive at their perfect condition, or

and lastly closes its mouth with a small hillock of earth.

rather those which are first anxious to escape into day.

The great depth of the cell, compared with the space

are two or three in the upper cells. These are males.

which the single egg and the accompanying food depo-

The females are usually ten or twelve days later.

sited in it occupy, deserves particular notice. This is

OSMIA PARIETINA is a species of Osmia only found

not more than half an inch at the bottom, the remaining

in the northern parts of this country. It selects the

two inches and a half being subsequently filled with

under side of a slate or stone on the ground, with a

earth. When you next favour me,” he adds, “ with a

hollow space beneath it. The bee attaches the little

visit, I can show you the cells of this interesting insect,

balls of pollen to the stone. Mr. Robertson sent a

as yet unknown to British entomologists, for which I

stone of this kind from Glenalmond in Perthshire,

am indebted to the kindness of M. Latreille, who first

which contained beneath it a mass of cocoons. This

scientifically described the species.”

stone was ten inches by six, and there were two hundred

Genus Megachile {Leaf-cutter Bee). — In this genus

and thirty cocoons attached to it. In November, when

the head is generally large, and the mandibles very stout.

found, about one-third of them were empty. In March

These bees are commonly called Leaf-cutters, from

a few males made their appearance, and shortly after a

their habit of cutting off pieces of the leaves of various

few females ; others came out at the end of June. At

trees, with which they form cells in which they store

this time there were thirty-five undeveloped cocoons

up food for their larvae ; they prefer the leaves of the

containing larva. The following April they were still

rose and laburnum. Some of the species, such as

in the larva state. By the end of May they had changed

Megachile Willughblella and M. ligniscca, select de-

to pupae, and about the end of June began to come

caying trees, posts, and rails, in which they form their

forth perfect insects ; so that a portion of eggs depo-

tunnels. Megachile maritima burrows in the ground.

sited in 1849 had been three years in arriving atmatu-

Some species, such as Af. circumcincta, form large

rity. May this not be a provision for the preservation

colonies. The various species of Ccelioxys are para-

of a species living in a most uncertain climate ? A

sites on Megachile. The Megachile argentata is a very

species of Chryds, or Golden wasp, is parasitic in the

active little insect ; it makes a piping sound, which is

nests of this bee.

extremely shrill and acute. It frequents the flowers of

POPPY BEE. — -The Rev. William Kirby (for doubt-

the Echium vulgare, or Viper’s bugloss, which when

less the rector of Barham wrote that chapter in Kirby

seen is such a handsome ornament, growing among the

& Spence’s “Introduction”) has thus alluded to the

trap debris of Salisbury Crags, near Edinburgh. In

habits of another bee, now placed in a genus by itself.

one of the divisions of this genus the fore tarsi of the

named A ?;t/iocq2?a, or the “dower-cutter.” It has not

males is dilated. To this section belongs the bee men-

yet been discovered in this country.

tioued by John Ray in his Letters as “the Willow

Kirby classes these bees among “ the hangers of

Bee,” and named by Kirby Willughhielld, after Ray’s

tapestry, or upholsterers — those which line the holes

friend, the naturalist Williighb}'. This name is a very

excavated in the earth for the reception of their young

appropriate one for this bee, as it burrows in the old

with an elegant coating of dowers or of leaves. Amongst

stumps of willow trees.

the most interesting of these is Megachile papaveris^

THE lEAF-CUTTER BEE {Megachile centuncularis)

a species whose manners have been admirably described

is a well known British species, which is peculiarly fond

by Reaumur. This little bee, as though fascinated

of the leaves of rose bushes. These may often be

with the colour most attractive to our eyes, invariably

seen with circular pieces cut out of them, and one who

chooses for the hangings of her apartments the most

has watched the insect at work, thus describes its mode

brilliant scarlet, selecting for its material the petals of

of operation. The bee places itself on the edge of the

the wild poppy, which she dexterously cuts into the

leaf, so that it passes between its legs, and with its

proper form. Her first process is to excavate in some

great and sharp mandibles it cuts out a piece quickly.

pathway a burrow, cylindrical at the entrance, but

poising itself on its wings when it has nearly finished

swelled out below to the depth of about three inches.

its work, so that it may not tear the piece, and to keep

Having polished the walls of this little apartment, she

it and the cutter from falling to the ground. When it

next dies to a neighbouring field, cuts out oval por-

has quite detached the piece, it holds it firmly between

tions of the dowers of poppies, seizes them between her

its legs, and carries it to its nest, where it uses it with

legs, and returns with them to her cell ; and though

similarly formed pieces to build its cell. It takes many

Xylocopa. INSECTS. Anthidium.

pieces of leaf to form one cell. As soon as one of these
is completed, the bee collects hone}' and pollen, which
she places at the bottom, and on this provender, pro-
vided for its young, she deposits an egg. She covers
the shell with pieces of leaf, so cut as to fit it exactly,
and then commences to form another similar cell above
it. This bee usually makes its nest in holes in decayed
wood, though it also constructs them in holes in walls
and in pathwa)'s.

Genus Xylocopa {Wood-cutter Bee).— In India
and Ceylon, as I have been told, window and door
frames are often perfectly riddled by a species of this
genus. Dr. Cleghorn once asked me how their ravages
could be stopped. “By employing iron frames,” I
might have replied. The Xylocopa violacea, a large
species, and with wings of a deep violet colour, I first
saw flying about the flowers in the window of the
modest home of Serville, the French entomologist,
when I visited Paris in 1841. This bee is found com-
monly in gardens ; it burrows in the upright putrescent
espaliers or vine-props, occasionally in the garden
seats, doors, and window shutters. In the beginning
of spring, after repeated and careful surveys, she fixes
upon a piece of wood suitable for her purpose, and
with her strong mandibles begins the process of boring.
First proceeding obliquely downwards, she soon points
her course in a direction parallel with the sides of the
wood, and at length, with unwearied exertion, forms a
cylindrical hole or tunnel not less than twelve or
fifteen inches long and half an inch broad. Where
the diameter will admit of it, three or four of these
pipes, nearly parallel with each other, are bored in the
same piece. As yet she has completed but the shell
of the destined habitation of her offspring; each of
which, to the number of ten or twelve, will require a
separate and distinct apartment. How, you will ask,
is she to form these ? With what materials can she
construct the floors and ceilings? Why, truly God
“ doth instruct her to discretion and doth teach her.”
In excavating her tunnel she has detached a large
quantity of fibres, which lie on the ground like a heap
of saw-dust. This material supplies all her wants.
Having deposited an egg at the bottom of the cylinder
along with the requisite store of pollen and honey, she
next, at the height of about three quarters of an inch,
which is the depth of each cell, constructs of particles
of the saw-dust glued together, and also to the sides
of the tunnel, what may be called an annular stage
or scaffolding. When this is sufficiently hardened, its
interior edge affords support for a second ring of the
same materials, and thus the ceiling is gradually formed
of these concentric circles, till there remains only a
small orifice in its centre, which is also closed with a
circular mass of agglutinated particles of saw-dust.
When this partition, which serves as the ceiling of the
first cell and the flooring of the second, is finished, it is
about the thickness of a crown-piece, and exhibits the
appearance of as many concentric circles as the animal
has made pauses in her labour. One cell being finished,
she proceeds to another, which she furnishes and com-
pletes in the same manner ; and so on until she has
divided her whole tunnel into ten or twelve apartments.

Here, if you have followed me in this detail with

197

the interest which I wish it to inspire, a query will
suggest itself. Every cell requires a store of honey
and pollen, not to be collected but with long toil, and
that a considerable interval must be spent in aggluti-
nating the floors of each, it will be very obvious to you
that the last egg in the last cell must be laid many
days after the first. We are certain, therefore, tiiat
the first egg will become a grub, and consequently a
perfect bee, many days before the last What then
becomes of it? you will ask. It is impossible that it
should make its escape through eleven superincumbent
cells without destroying the immature tenants ; and it
seems equally impossible that it should remain patiently
in confinement below them until they are all disclosed.
This dilemma our heaven-taught architect has provided
against. With forethought never enough to be admired,
she has not constructed her tunnel with one opening
only, but at the further end has pierced another orifice,
a kind of back door, through which the insects produced
by the fir.st laid eggs successively emerge into day. In
fact, all the young bees, even the uppermost, go out by
this road ; for, by an exquisite instinct each grub, when
about to become a pupa, places itself in its cell with
its head downwards, and thus is necessitated, when
arri red at its last stage, to pierce its cell in this direc-
tion. Much of this is compiled from the great work
of Reaumur.

Genus Anthidium.— White, in his Natural History
of Selborne, says, “ There is a sort of wild bee fre-
quenting the garden campion for the sake of its
tomentum, which probably it turns to some purpose
in the business of nidification. It is very pleasant to
see with what address it strips off the pubes, running
from the top to the bottom of a branch, and shaving it
bare with the dexterity of a hoop-shaver. When it has
got a vast bundle, almost as large as itself, it flies
away, holding it secure between its chin and its fore-
legs.” The bee so graphically alluded to is the Anthi-
dium manicatum, the abdomen of which is spotted on
the side with yellow, and the male of which has the
abdomen inflexed at the end, and armed with five
spines. It is truly a summer bee — which does not
appear before the end of June or the beginning of July.
The burrow in which its nest is placed is not constructed
by itself, but it uses any hole which it finds adapted for
its purpose; its nests are frequently found in holes
bored in old willow-stumps by the Goat Moth. The
chamber being formed, the bee collects a quantity of
down from woolly-stemmed plants, with which she
forms an outer coating. She then constructs a number
of cells for the reception of the pollen or food of the
larva. They consist of a woolly material, mixed with
some glutinous matter, which resists the moisture of
the food it contains, and in which the larva, on being
full fed, spins a brown silken cocoon ; the sexes differ
from most other bees in the males being much larger
than the females.

Linn®us described a species of the genus Chelos-
toma under the name of Apis florisomnis, the male
of that species frequently being found in the petals
of flowers, where it passes the night, while the second
British species {Chelostoma campanularum) frequents
the pretty hare bell. The species of this genus make

198 Eucera. INSECTS. Humble Bee.

tlieir burrows in decaying posts and rails; but when
they meet with ready-formed tubes adapted to their
purpose, they avail themselves of the convenience.
Mr. Marsham describes the Pirnpla manifestator as
introducing its eggs into the nests of this bee ; but the
hee is so small, and the parasite so large, that it can
hardly be on the Chelostoma that the Ichneumon preys,
hut more probably on some beetles (such as the Clytus
arietis) which deposit their eggs in the same posts.
Fcenus assectator enters the burrows and searches till
it finds the nest. Two species of Chrysis are also
found to be parasitic on this bee.

Ceratina. — The labial palpi in the genus Ceraiina
have four joints. Spinola first ascertained the habits
of the species. These bees hollow out the pith of
brambles and briars, and furnish their larvae with a
deposit of semifluid honey. Mr. Smith, who has con-
firmed the observations of Spinola, says — “ Some years
ago I observed a small bee most industriously employed
in excavating a dead bramble stick. My attention was
directed to the circumstances from observing some of
the falling pieces of pith on the ground immediately
beneath. Occasionally fresh quantities of dust were
pushed out. At length the little creature came out
of the stick as if to rest, and after sunning itself a
few minutes, it re-entered, and again commenced its
labours.” Later in the day he stopped up the hole,
cut off the branch, and found a male and female Cera-
tina. The Count St. Fargeau regarded these bees as
parasitic, from their wanting pollenigerous appendages ;
but there are, as has been shown before, other genera
similarly destitute, and yet not parasites. The Cera-
tina cai-ulea, is very local. It frequents the flowers of
the Ecliium vulgare.

Eucera. — The genus Eucera is so named from the
antennae in the males being as long as the body. There
is but one species found in this country— the Eucera
longicornis, or Long-horned bee. Eucera prefers a
clayey soil for its burrows. At the end of the burrow
the female forms an oval chamber or cell. The sides
of this are made perfectly smooth, and capable of resist-
ing the moisture of the mixture of pollen and honey
stored up for its young brood. Each cell has one larva.
This larva does not spin a cocoon, but passes the winter
as a larva ; about the end of April it changes to the
pupa state, shortly after attaining which, it becomes a
perfect bee. “The male, on emerging from its cell, passes
its long antennae through the notch at the base of the
first joint of the anterior tarsus, drawing the antennae
through, and thus readily divests those organs of the
thin pellicle in which they are enveloped. Here we
see another beautiful exemplification of the truth, that
nothing is made in vain. Tlie long antennae of the
males of this genus are doubtless adapted to some
peculiar phase in their economy, and the remarkable
hexagonal reticulation of the joints also answers some
purpose connected with a peculiar sense, the exact
function of which we are unable to appreciate.”

Sarapoda. — The genus Sarapoda is distinguished
from all the other genera of British bees by the setiform
labial palpi, the joints of which are continued in a
straight line. The only British species, the Sara-
poda himaculata, is abundant in Hampshire and San-

down Bay in the Isle of Wight, It is evidently a
prime favourite of the able monographer of the British
bees, who thus writes of it : — “ Of all the busy
bees that revel in the beauty of a summer’s day, Sara-
poda himaculata must ever be an especial favourite.
It is only to be found when it is sunniest, brightest, and
hottest — when summer days are summer days indeed.
Who has not heard its merry hum? Who has not
seen it when for a moment it settles on a flower, or
rests on some sunny bank, panting with delight?
Their eyes splendid as opals : could their brilliancy be
preserved, this bee would rival and challenge admira -
tion with the most brilliant of its tribe. It is a local
species, but abounds in many localities; it flies with
incredible swiftness, darting from flower to flower.”

Anthophora. — There are four British species of
the very fine genus Anthophora^ which is one of great
extent, and distributed over the whole world. One
of the British species {Anthophora furcata) is a wood-
burrower, according to Kirby. It occurs abundantly
near London in July and August, frequenting the flowers
of the red dead-nettle. The other indigenous species
burrow in the ground or in walls, and such like places.
The Anthophora acervorum is found in all parts of the
United Kingdom. It literally swarms in some places.
“ There is a colony of this bee, in the chalk-pits at
Northfleet, of such amazing extent that, in the middle
of April, a dark flickering shadow is cast on the ground
from the countless numbers assembled.” There is
little doubt that this is the very bee alluded to by the
Rev. Gilbert White — in his Observations on Insects
usually printed with the “Natural History of Sel-
borne” — in the following passage: — “There is a
remarkable hill on the Downs, near Lewes in Sussex,
known by the name of Mount Carburn, which over-
looks that town, and affords a most engaging prospect
of all the country round, besides several views of the
sea. On the very summit of this exalted promontory,
and amidst the trenches of its Danish camp, there
haunts a species of wild bee, making its nest in the
chalky soil. When people approach the place these
insects begin to be alarmed, and, with a sharp and
hostile sound, dash and strike round the heads and faces
of intruders. I have often been interrupted myself
while contemplating the grandeur of the scenery around
me, and have thought myself in danger of being stung.”
In the south of the Isle of Wight, the cliffs arc often
completely riddled with their burrows. Among the
parasites attacking this bee, we may specially men-
tion the chalcididous genus Melittobia, of which an
account is given elsewhere. The common earwig is
also very destructive, as it penetrates their burrows,
and eats greedily the food laid up for the progeny of
the bee.

Genus Bombus {Humble Bee). — Bees of this genus
may be at once known by their very large and hairy
bodies. In Hampshire they are called Dumbledors,
while in other districts they are named Bumble bees and
Hummel bees. The name Humble may be a corruption
of Humming bee, from the loud hum so characteristic
of the species. In Scotland they are called “Bumbees,”
while the brown species are called “Foggies.” No
one who loves to watch nature, in all her varied guise.

Humble Bee. INSECTS. Moss-builders. 199

can have failed in early spring, when the catkins are
first found on the willow, to notice the loud hum of the
females of different species of Bomhi; and in May,
when the horse-chesnut blooms, from the break to the
close of day the hum of these industrious bees is
unceasing. Various authors have written on the econ-
omy of these bees. In the winter, torpid females are
found in decayed trunks of trees, under turf-stacks, or
in other sheltered and dry situations. These females,
having passed the winter in a torpid condition, revive
under the influence of the warmth of spring, and
become each the foundress of a separate colony. The
first nests which they construct are of small dimensions,
only sufficient to contain a few cells, in which they
rear the workers who assist them in the formation of
the works necessary to the wants of a large colony.
When the larvffi are full grown, they spin a tough, oval,
silk cocoon, in which they assume the nymph state;
and, when sufficiently advanced towards maturity to
require food, they begin to gnaw off the crown of their
imprisoning chamber, in doing which they are assisted
materially by the workers. On first emerging from
their confinement they are by no means matured.
Their pubescence is of a uniform pale colour, and some
days elapse before thej^ acquire the gay livery which they
have assumed ere they fly. The males and females are
not reared before the season is well advanced. The
males of the Bombus praiorum are the first that appear,
beginning to come forth about the third week in May.
The nests are infested by several insects which devour
the wax and honey, and with others which destroy the
young brood.

The Humble bees have likewise a parasitic genus of
bees, which live in their nests. They form a separate
genus called Apathm. I do not know what office
these bees perform in the economy of the nest. They
live on the most friendly terms with the industrious
part of the community ; and it is probable that upon
them devolves some important office, the nature of
which it would be very interesting to discover. It
has been supposed, from the very close resemblance
of the Apathi to the Bombi, that the former are an
idle race, reared at- the expense of the industrious
bees, and wearing a livery in imitation of them for
the purpose of deception; but there can be little
doubt of these aristocrats of the community perform-
ing important and necessary duties highly conducive
to the general prosperity of the whole. That the
close resemblance of these bees is not for the pur-
pose of deception, is at once proved by the fact of
Apaihus barhutellus, a yellow-banded bee, being found
in the nest of Bombus Derhamellus, a black species,
having the tip of the body red.

The numbers of which the societies of Humble-bees
consist, vary greatly in different species. Generally
speaking, those, whose nest is above ground, have the
smallest number. In a nest of Bombus senilis were
found twenty-two females, forty-four workers, and six-
teen males, many of the males having left the nest. Of
undeveloped workers the combs contained twenty-seven
pupse, and nine of males. Of empty cells believed to
have held males, there were ten, making a total of one
hundred and twenty-eight. In a nest of Bombus fra-

grans, a species met with in the north, five females and
about twenty workers were taken, so that it is a species
with a small community. The nest of Bombus terresiris,
taken in August, contained thirty-five females, twenty
males, and one hundred and sixty workers ; but by this
time the majority of the males and females had left the
nest. There were found in this nest, besides, two
females of Apaihus vesialis, and nine of the males of
that parasite. The Moss-builders among the Humble
bees appear to have very little pugnacity, as they show
no courage in the defence of their citadel, while the
underground nest builders are bold insects, and defend
their homes, when attacked, with gTeat courage.

The species called Moss-builders often compose their
nests of nothing but grass and leaves, although in
situations, where moss is abundant, they use it in the
construction of their habitations. To show that these
diligent hairy creatures make use of such materials as
come most readily to them, an interesting instance
has been recorded : — “ One of the brown species of
Humble bees was observed frequently flying into a
stable through the latticed window. The bee was
busily engaged in collecting bundles of short horse-
hair accumulated from the currying of horses. This
she fled off with to a short distance, and settled down
with it among some grass. On examining the spot,
a nest composed entirely of horse-hair was discovered.”
Unfortunately this interesting nest was destroyed,
before it was quite finished. The same author men-
tions another curious deviation from its usual site,
as selected by an eccentric black Humble bee with
yellow bands (Bombus pratorum^i). This was the nest
of a robin, which built in the porch of Dr. William Bell’s
cottage at Putney in the summer of 1854. The
Humble bee took possession of this nest, and adapted
it to her own purposes.

No fewer than eighteen species of true Bombus have
been described as occurring in Great Britain, but we
have not space for them.

We have alluded under the preceding genus to
Apaihus, which closely resembles it in most particulars,
though the posterior tibiffi have no corbiculse, and are
convex on the outside. There are only males and
females of the Apathi. Four species are described as
natives of this country.

Read this distinguishing description of a Humble
bee by Professor Wilson, the far-famed Christopher
North.* How often he had watched them on the moors
of Renfrewshire, and on the hills of Scotland and
Westmoreland !

“ True to thy time, even to a balmy minute, art
thou, with thy velvet tunic of black, striped with yellow,
as thou windest thy small but not sullen horn, by ns
called in our pride humble bee; but not, metbinks,
so very humble, while booming high in air in oft-
repeated circles. As if the smell of some far off darling
heather had touched thy finest instinct, away thou
fleest straight southward to that rich flower-store,
unerringly as the carrier pigeon wafting to distant lands
some love message on its wings. Yet humble after
all thou art; for all day making thy industry thy
delight, thou returiiest at shut of day cheerful even Ih
* Recreations of C. N., vol. ii., p. 48.

200 Honey Bee. INSECTS. Queen Bee.

tliy weariness, to thy ground cell within the knoll,
where, as fancy dreams, the fairies dwell, a silent people
in the land of peace.”

Hugh Miller,* when a hoy at Cromarty, observed
the various species of Humble bees. “The wild
honey bees, in their several species, he observes, had
peculiar charms for us. There were the buff-coloured
Carders, that erected over their honey-jars domes of
moss; the lapidary red-tipped bees, that built amid
the recesses of ancient cairns, and in old dry stone
walls, and were so invincibly brave in defending their
homesteads that they never gave up the quarrel till
they died; and above all, the yellow-zoned Humble
bees, that lodged deep in the ground along the dry
sides of grassy banks, and were usually wealthier in
honey than any of their congeners, and existed in large
communities. But the herd-boy of the parish, and
the foxes of its woods and brakes, shared in my interest
in the wild Honey bees; and, in the pursuit of some-
thing else than knowledge, were ruthless robbers of
their nests.”

Mr. Darwin believes, from observations made over
a series of years, that Humble bees are Indispensable
to the fertilization of the hearts-ease (Viola tricolor),
as it is the only set of bees which visit that flower.
He has tried experiments which convince him that the
visits of bees are, if not indispensable, at least highly
beneficial to the fertilization of our clovers. He has
observed that Humble bees alone visit the common
red clover (^Trifolium pratense), as other bees cannot
reach the nectar. He adds — “ Hence I have very
little doubt, that if the whole genus of Humble bees
became extinct or very rare in England, the hearts-ease
and red clover would become very rare, or wholly
disappear. ”f “ Credat Judcexis Apelles, non ego !"

THE HONEY BEE (Apis mellifica). The most impor-
tant part of the produce of bees is their wax, which
was proved by the illustrious and pious Bonnet to be
secreted by the bees from between the scales or plates
which cover the body. At one time it was universally
believed that wax was only the pollen of flowers a little
altered. But experiments of John Hunter and of Huber,
continued by the late George Newport, demonstrated
the accuracy of Bonnet’s statement. Huber showed
that with honey and water, when the bees were kept
confined, and could not by any possibility get at flowers,
these industrious creatures formed their waxy cells, as
if they had been allowed to wander over the marjoram
and thyme of the Swiss gardens, or to rob the innocent
sweet Alpine flowers of their pollen.

Propolis is collected by the bees from the resinous
secretions often found exuding from the buds of trees.
On the “physiological effects” of honey we may
dwell a little, and with the pharmacologist say, that
it is “emollient, demulcent, nutritive, and laxative,”
generally much liked by children — not so much so by
grown-up people. In ancient times, before the new
world and the sugar cane were discovered, it was a
much more important article than it is now. It was
the chief thing with which the Egyptian, Assyrian,
Jew, Greek, Roman, and old European sweetened any-

* My Schools and Schoolmasters, ;i. 65.
t On the Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection, p. 73.

thing he ate. Dr. Pereira* recommends patients who
are troubled with severe coughs, to take warm barley
water mixed with honey, and sharpened with slices of
lemon, as a very agreeable and useful demulcent.

Bees sometimes collect the honey from poisonous
plants, and instances are recorded of persons having
died from partaking of this honey. Kirby and Spence
quote some proofs of this, such as that given by Dr.
Barton, an American physician, who records, that in
1790 many persons died in Philadelphia from eating
honey. Inquiries were instituted, and it was found
that the honey was derived by the bees chiefly from
the flowers of the Kalmia latifolia. Xenophon, in
his “Anabasis,” mentions that some of his soldiers
were singularly affected by honey which they took
in Asia Minor. Some of them seemed as if intoxi-
cated, others were much excited, and others lay on
the ground as if about to die. The honey of Tre-
bizond, near which the Greek army encamped on their
retreat, still retains its deleterious properties. Mr.
Abbott sent some of it to the Zoological Society in
1834, and confirmed the account of Xenophon.

The Honey bee of the mountain districts of Honduras
is said by Squier to resemble closely the bee of the
United States. Its honey is largely used by the
natives, who derive the chief part also of the wax used
in the pompous ceremonial of the Roman Catholic
church, from the natural bee-hives of the forest.

On the curious subject of Parthenogenesis, which has
excited the attention of scientific men for some time,
much has been written. An able naturalist J remarks
that no form of it is “ more remarkable or instructive
than that which is present in connection with the
economy of the common Honey bee. Many strange
mistakes have prevailed from early times as to the
history of the perfect societies of these insects, ruled
by laws of instinct which have stimulated the curiosity
of man, as much as their productive industry has
served his uses and attracted his observation. But it
has been only at a comparatively recent period that
the true characters of the sexes have been anatomically
fixed ; and these discoveries have not yet succeeded
in dispelling, among the practical bee-keepers in
general, either inveterate errors or wild conjectures.
Yet it is to one of this class, Dzierzon, pastor of
Carlsmarkt in Silesia, that science ultimately owes
the discovery of the true physiological relations which
rule the generation of the race. The main facts are
these : — The Queen bee, or perfect female, before im-
pregnation lays eggs which produce males only. After
impregnation, which takes place but once only in the
course of her lifetime, the eggs produce male or female
larvae according to the sort of cells in which they are
laid. By a delicate and difficult microscopical exam-
ination, Siebold has proved that the eggs laid in the
queen’s and workers’ cells have been penetrated by
one or more zoosperms, which, on the other hand,
are never found in the eggs deposited in drone cells.
He concludes, with reason, that the access of the

* Materia Medica, vol. i., p. 765.
t States of Central America, p. 219 ; 1858.

1 A. H. Haliday Esq., in the Natural History Review for
April, 1857, p. 66.

Strepsiptera. INSECTS. Styeops Wasp. 201

impregnating fluid contained in the receptacle is cut off

ception or error in speaking of eggs of males, workers.

at pleasure by an instinctive act of the female in ovi-

and females. No difference is to be observed in the

position. The worker-bees, or females with undevel-

food of the solitary species of Hymenoptera ; the larvae

oped organs being incapable of impregnation, in the

of the sexes of the genus Pompilus feed upon spiders.

rare cases in which their ovaries are sufficiently devel-

Diptera, or caterpillars ; one undeviating course is to be

oped to mature a few eggs, these produce only male

observed ; the larvaj of both sexes of Melittohia alike

brood.”

feed on that of Anthophora; the eggs deposited nearest

Mr. Smith remarks that “in the entire range of

the entrance of a burrow invariably produce males.

the history of bees, nothing is to be met with, wliich

which are the first that come forth ; this does not appear

excites our astonishment so greatly as the manner in

to be dependent either upon the quality or quantity of

which the Hive-bee is said to possess the power of

food.”

replacing the loss of their queen. Indeed, so contrary

Mr. Tegetmeier, in the year 1859, reared drones

is this to all our experience, that without a personal

from eggs deposited by worker-bees. To the writings

confirmation of so remarkable a phenomenon, some

of that excellent apiarian and amiable, intelligent writer.

feeling of incredulity will force itself upon the mind.

and to Bagster’s book, and Be vans’, and Kirby and

and suggest the possibility of mistaken observation.

Spence, and Huber, and many another writer, I refer

If the only thing necessary to produce difference of sex

the reader who wishes to know about the Bee. Books

is difference of aliment, there must be some miscon-

will never exhaust the history of that wonderful insect.

SuB-OEDEB — STREPSIPTEEA.

These insects form an order, either distinct from all

account of the anatomy, functions, and development of

other orders, or they are Hymen optera, with a coleop-

Stylops.

terous aspect, while others might call them Coleoptera,

The late Mr. Newport paid great attention to the

with a great resemblance to Hymenoptera.

history and development of the Strepsiptera ; the fol-

Many authors now place them with the Heteromera,

lowing is from his anniversary address at a meeting of

among the Coleoptera, near Sitaris, or the curious genus

the Entomological Society —

Rhipidius, parasitic on the cockroach. Meanwhile we

“The diminutive, parasitic Strepsiptera, the giant

may regard them, with Kirby, as a separate order. All

of which scarcely exceeds one-fourth of an inch in

the Strepsiptera are of very small size, the largest, with

length, are of especial interest to this Society. Dis-

its wings expanded, not being a quarter of an inch in

covered and first described by our venerable friend.

width. The male only is winged; the females are

Mr. Kirby, we have adopted the Stylops as our emblem ;

grub-like insects, which never leave the bodies of the

any elucidation of its heretofore obscure natural history

bees. If the abdomens of a number of Andrenidce be

must therefore be of particular interest to us. This

examined, it is most probable that the female of Stylops

has been supplied by Dr. Siebold, who now shows that

will be found ; her presence is known by the protrusion

the Strepsiptera undergo a singular metamorphosis ;

of her head and a portion of the thorax between the

that the males and females differ from each other — the

abdominal segments on their superior surface, resem-

metamorphosis of the males being complete, they alone

bling the point of a small bud of a brown colour, or

being furnished with wings; the females, on the con-

rather a flattened scale.” The larvae of Stylops may

trary, have neither legs, wings, nor eyes, and greatly

be bred by placing a bee infested by it in a small box

resemble larvae. These females are viviparous, and

covered with gauze, and by supplying the bee with

never quit the bodies of the Hymenoptera, in which

fresh flowers, such as it frequents when at liberty. If

they live as parasites. The young Strepsiptera, at the

the bee he frequently examined it will probably be

moment that they burst the eggs in which they are

found that in eight or ten days her abdomen will seem

developed within the body of the parent, have six legs.

as if covered with dust. This dust will be found to

and are furnished with organs of manducation. These

consist of a number of exceedingly minute animals.

are the diminutive objects described in Mr. Westwood’s

which are the larvae of the Stylops. By applying a

paper in a former volume of our Transactions as the

magnifying glass to the transverse aperture on the

parasites of Stylops, and as such they were regarded

thorax, these minims will be seen to be issuing from ic.

at first by King, and also by Dr. Siebold. These little

When the bee settles on flowers, many of these dust-

hexapodous larvae infest the surface of the abdomen of

like animals are left on the flowers, and bees visiting

bees, within which their parent mothers live and die.

them are likely to have one or more of them attach

In this way the young Stylops is carried into the nests

themselves to their bodies, and thus be carried into

of the Hymenoptera, and, escaping on the bodies of the

their nests. Each female Stjdops produces many hun-

larvae, penetrate their soft skins, and become parasites

dreds of these little larvae, and it is hence probable that

on them, as their parents have been in the bodies of the

the majority of them perish in this larval condition, as

female bees. These larvae shed their skins, become

the perfect insect is comparatively rare. The reader is

apodal, and move very slowly. They have then a

referred to Mr. Newport’s paper in the Transactions of

distinct mouth and jaws, and a simple coecal intestine.

the Linnaean Society, vol. xx. for a full and illustrated

but no anal aperture. The body is formed of nine

VoL. II. 82

»

202 CoLEOFTERA. INSECTS. Tiger Beetles.

segments, of which the first is the largest, and may he

J. C. Dale, Esq., of Glanville’s Wootton, Dorset, who

considered as a cephalothorax. In this state the males

dicovered it and other species of Strepsiptera.

are easily distinguished from the females. The cephalo-

Fig. 13 is the curiously-pectinatcd horned Halicto-

thorax of the male larva is conical and arched, and the

phagus Curtisii, named by Mr. Dale after John Curtis,

last segment of the body is straight and pointed. In

Esq., whose superb work on “British Entomology,”

the females the cephalothorax is truncated or rounded

with its truly admirable figures of insects and beautiful

in front, and flattened or scale-like in the rest of its

British plants, has not been surpassed in any work on

extent, and the terminal segment of the body is large

natural history.

and rounded.”

Fig. 15 is the Elenchvs Walheri, named by Mr.

Professor Westwood exhibited at the Entomological

Curtis after Francis Walker, Esq., a most amiable,

Society, in 1858, a mutilated strepsipterous insect

intelligent, and diligent British entomologist.

(^Myrmecolax), taken by Mr. Nietner of Ceylon, as it

was issuing out of the body of a Ceylonese ant. In

Note. — It is my opinion, that in reality every order

this genus the antennse are remarkably large. On Plate

has, like Scotland and England, its debateable ground''

4 are figured six species of the males of these very

and that Strepsiptera are neither Coleoptera nor a dis-

curious insects. — Fig. 16 is the Xenos vesparum of

tinct order, but connect Coleoptera with Hymenoptera ;

Rossi, found in Italy on a species of Polistes common

and so the Forficulse connect the Coleoptera with the

around Florence. It was the first discovered species.

Orthoptera; the Perlse connect the Orthoptera with the

Figs. 12, 14, and 17 belong to the genus Stylops of

Neuroptera; the Phryganese, or Trichoptera, and the

Kirby. Fig. 12 is the Stylops Kirhii\ fig. 14, the

Neuroptera with the Lepidoptera; and so on. I fancy I

Stylops meliltoB'i fig. 17, Stylops Dalii, named after

could show it in Myriapoda, Arachnida, and Crustacea.

Order — COLEOPTERA (Beetles).

These insects belong to an order called Coleoptera,

industry and ability. He has made it comparatively

from two Greek words for “a sheath” and “wings,” the

easy now to class Coleoptera, and to ascertain at one

latter appendages being generally covered by, or con-

view what has been done, by his references to species.

cealed beneath, two hard cases which protect them.

In the Stag beetles they are very apparent, and meet

Section — PENTAMERA.

close on the back, having generally a straight suture or

edge. Coleoptera vary in their antenna: compare the

We are indebted to the French naturalist for an

thread-like antenna of the Tiger beetle with the leaf-

easy, though not always strictly correct way, of divid-

plated organ possessed by the Cockchafer. Some have

ing Coleoptera into sections. This is by counting the

the antenna immensely long, as in the Longicorns.

joints of their feet or tarsi. In the first section called

The antenna are organs of a sense probably hut little

Pentamera,* all the tarsi have five joints, while in the

understood, hearing, feeling, and some third sense as yet

other sections a different numeration obtains.

unknown to man — a sense, which enables a shrimp to

I

see, to smell, to catch its food. In the antenna lies

the “ free-masonry” of the ants; they salute each other

Sub-section — ADEPHAGA.

with these, like soldiers on guard giving the pass-

word. The antenna are as wonderful as they are

The Adephagous beetles are all predaceous in their

different; you may see this in two Water beetles, easily

character, some getting their prey on the ground, and

obtained, Dytiscus and Hydrous. There is much atten-

others in the water. The outer lobe of the maxillae

tion requisite to observe these differences, if you are one

is distinct and articulated, “ so that these insects have

who wishes to attend to them with discrimination, or in

been ordinarily stated to possess six palpi ; one pair

other words, “ scientifically.”

being attached to the lower lip, and a pair to each of

In the feet, you will find that most beetles have five

the maxillae, as though the gluttony of these insects

joints, but others have only four on the foot of the hind

required an additional organ. ’’f The antennae and legs

legs, as in Blaps and Tenebrio. Longicorns have only

are long and slender, and the tarsi of the front legs are

four apparent, while Lady-birds have only three joints

generally dilated in the males. The Tiger beetles.

to the tarsus.

the Ground beetles, and the Water beetles, belong to

I felt inclined to begin with the Brachelytra, and

this group, which is widely scattered over the world;

then to have taken the Adephaga, and tried to form a

and although the colours of the greater part of the

new arrangement ; hut a popular work is not the

species are dull, black, and deep brown, yet maiy^ of

place for that purpose. I will, however, alter the

them are brilliant green, and other brighter colours.

situation of some of the groups, such as Brentidce,

and they are frequently beautifully varied with lines

which I consider to be Longicorns. I adopt, in great

and spots of yellow and white.

measure, the Latreiliian system.

* TUvn, five, and /^lecs, a part or division.

M. Lacordaire’s work on Genera is a monument of

f Westwood ; Modern Classification, vol. i. p. 45.

Geodephaga INSECTS. Dyschirios. 203

Group- — GEODEPHAGA {Ground Carnivorous
Beetles).

I

I Of the group or family named Cicindeletce by Lacor-
daire, only nine species were known in the days of
Linnseus. At present at least five hundred species are
known. These are arranged by Lacordaire into five
tribes, which may be shortly divided in the following
manner : —

I. Maxill® ending in a jointed claw.

A. Third joint of the maxillary palpi longer than the

fourth.

a First joint of labial palpi scarcely extending to beyond
the base of the notch of the mentum, M anticorides.

They are great, African, large-jawed, black beetles.
h First joint of labial palpi extending far beyond the
notch, ..... Megaceplialides.

Chiefly natives of the New World, though one is
found in Europe, and one also in N. Australia.

B. Third joint of the maxillary palpi shorter than the

fourth.

a Fourth joint of the tarsi entire, . Cicindelides.

Tiger beetles, everywhere found, except in arctic and
antarctic regions; essentially “children of the Sun.”

There are five British species.

5 Fourth joint of the tarsi heart-shaped, at least in the
fore legs, ..... Collyrides.

Long, thin, long-thoraxed, Asiatic insects, generally
dark-blue with red legs.

II. Maxilte without jointed claw, . . Ctenostomides.

Curious South American insects, with strange palpi.

The great group or family Carahici contains from
five to six thousand known species. Lacordaire divides
it into the following legions and tribes : —

Legion I. (corresponding with the Grandipalpes of Latreille,
and the Simplicipedes of Dejean), is known by the tibiae of
the fore legs being entire; their two spurs are generally both
apical. It is divided into five tribes : —

I. Mesosternum indistinct, covered by the prosternum,

Omophronides.

Eoundish aquatic-like beetles — S. Europe, North
America, and Asia; one {Omophron linibatum)
is figured, Plate 4, fig. 5.

A. Spurs on fore tibiae, one at the tip, the other before

the tip, ...... Elaphrides.*

Found in boggy places. Coleoptera (Plate 4, fig. 1),
Elaphrus uliginosus,

B. Both of the spurs apical.

a Prosternum more or less prolonged behind, antennae
as it were broken, with the first joints very long,

Hiletides.

Antennae of the normal form, . . . Carahides.*

Among the largest of the race — Europe, Asia, N. Africa,
N. America, and S. America.
oa Prosternum not prolonged behind, . Cychrides.*

With prominent mouth, body bulging behind, convex.

Legion II. is known by the tibiae of the fore legs being
more or less deeply notched on the inner side. Spurs of these
tibiae, one at the tip, the other before the tip.

The first section of this legion contains but one
tribe {Pamhorides), in which the fore tibia are scarcely
notched, and the last joint of the palpi is very large.

In the second section, which nearly corresponds
with that named by Latreille, Truncatipennes, the

* Mr. Waterhouse includes these three families in one, Cara-
bidse, with thirty-six British species in the genera Notiopliilus,
Elaphrus, Blethisa, Leistus (with their formidably armed
mouths), Nebria, Pelophila, Calosoma, the last-mentioned
winged ; Oarabus, apterous insects : and Cychrus.

elytra are truncated or notched at the end, nearly in
all. The tibise of the fore legs are deeply notched,
and the body is more or less depressed. Lacordaire
divides the section into nine tribes : —

I. Mesosternum of normal breadth.

A. Claw of the maxillpe jointed, . Trigonodactylides.

Flat insects — Africa, &c.

B. Claw of the maxillae fixed.
a Labrum moderate or short.

b Tongue moderate, more or less detached from its
appendages iFaraglossce).
c First joint of the antennie of normal length.

Elytra truncated at the tip, . . Odacanthides.*

Elytra entire at the tip, . . Ctenodactylides.''

cc First joint of the antenn® elongated, Galeritides.*
See further on for a figure and description of one.
hb Tongue very large, without side ajipendages,

lielltLonides.

Australian and Indian insects.

hbb Tongue and appendages united at the sides.

Body more or less thick and robust, Brachinides.*
Bombardier beetles, crepitating.

Body in general much depressed, . Lebiides.*
Generally distributed.

aa Labrum very long, rounded in front, Fericalides.
Java and other Asiatic islands, and Indian continent.

II. Mesosternum very narrow, . . Fseudomorphides.

Flat, depressed, aquatic -like insects, also resembling
Nitidula — a few fine species in Australia, one in N.
America. Westwood and Guerin have figured them.

In the third section the elytra are entire at the end
in nearly all. The anterior tibise, except in Siagon-
ides, deeply notched, never palmated. Thorax united
generally to the abdomen by a distinct peduncle.

I. Intermediate cox® contiguous, • . . Ozoenides.

Brazilian generally. Near these perhaps Faussidce should
be placed. See end of Coleoptera.

II. Intermediate cox® distant.

a Mentum united witii submentum, . Siagonides.
Flat, longish-beetles.
aa Mentum not united with sub-mentum.

6 Anterior tibi® not widened within at the end.

Tongue moderate, more or less free in front, JDitomides.

Tongue moderate, united closely to its appendages,

Graplvipterides.

Pretty, flat, desert-loving beetles — Africa and Arabia —
black spotted with white or lined with white.

Tongue very large, without appendages, AntMades.
Coleoptera (Plate 4, fig. 2, Anthia guttata),
hb Anterior tibi® more or less widened at the end,

Morionides.

The fourth section contains one tribe, Scaritides,
which may be known by the anterior tibise being
widened at the end, palmated and digitate at the tip,
and deeply notched inside. The prothorax is separated
from the abdomen by a peduncle. It is a family of
generally large, ferocious, sand-loving beetles; our little
Glivina and Dyschirius belong to this section.

In the fifth section the elytra are entire at the tip.
The fore tarsi of the males are sometimes simple, but
most frequently the three or two first joints are dilated
into a square more or less rounded at the angles,. except
the first, which is generally triangular. They are
clothed below with brushes of hairs

* Mr. Waterhouse unites these in one family Lebiadm, with
thirty four species belonging to the genera Odacantha, Drypta
Zuphium, Folystichus, Demetnas, Bromius, Lehia,Tarus, Alasa-
reus, Brachinus, &c.

204 Geodephaga. INSECTS. Manticokid^.

I. Tongue and appendages united throughout their whole
extent, ...... Panageides.*

Beautiful insects, especially two fine metallic South
American species with fiery elytra.

II. Tongue partly free.

Head not widened in front; body very often pubescent.

Clilceniides.*

Another set of insects with fine colours, and a soft
downy aspect. Head widened in front ; body always
smooth, ...... Licinides*

In the sixth section the elytra are entire or simply
sinuated at the tip. The fore tarsi are sometimes
simple in both sexes, sometimes dilated. The number
of the dilated joints, their form and clothing on the
under side, are variable.

I. Mandibles short, or moderate, . . CnieTnacaathides.

II. Mandibles elongated, ..... Stomides.

Placed by Waterhouse in the FeroniidcB close to Broscus.

In the seventh section the first four joints of the
fore tarsi, and often the intermediate, are more or less
dilated in the males. They are triangular or heart-
shaped. Their garniture on the under side is variable.

I. Anterior tarsi of the males simply ciliated or spiny
beneath, ..... Cratocerides.

II. The same, furnished with brushes of hairs, Anisodactylides.

III. Anterior tarsi of males furnished with scales, Ilarpalides.

There are sixty-four species in Britain placed in the
genera Anisodactylus, Diaehromus, Harpalus, Steno-
lophus, Bradycellus, Trechus, and Aepus. Before me is
ThdLassopldlus Whitei, a rare Madeiran insect, figured
and described by T. Vernon Wollaston, Esq. I insert
its figure elsewhere.

In the eighth section the three first joints (rareiy the
two first) of the fore tarsi are dilated in the males, and
almost always furnished with scales below. The inter-
mediate tarsi are constantly simple.

I. The three first joints of the fore tarsi in the males dilated.
a Tongue and appendages united, . Pseudo-feronides.
aa Tongue free at the tip.

b Mentum very feebly, scarcely notched, Trigonotomides.
hb Mentum, notched in the usual way.
c Fore tibia more or less robust, and dilated at the end,

Feronides.

There are fifty-one British species in genera Amara,
Pterostichus, Broscus, Lahrus, &c.
cc Fore tibia more or less slender ; anterior tarsi of males
furnished with brushes of hairs beneath, Antare-
tildes.

Anterior tarsi of males furnished with scales, Ancho-
menides. (See Panagceides.)

II. The two first joints of fore tarsi dilated in the males,
Pogonides. (See Chlceniidx.)

In the ninth and last section the last joint of the
palpi is in nearly all very small and slender, and appears
as if planted in the end of the preceding joint, which is
of considerable size. The elytra are entire, and the
tarsi of the males are of variable form, often with the
first joint much dilated. Lacordaire divides the section
into two tribes,

I. Last joint of palpi not acicular, . . Anclimoderides.

II. Last joint of palpi acicular, . . Bemhidiides.

There are fifty three British species in the genera Blenius,
Cillenum, Bembidium, and Tachypus.

This is an enormously large group of insects, much

* With Anchomenus placed in one family by Mr. Water-
house. Chlceniidm containing fifty-six species in the genera
Panagasus, Loritxra, Licinus, Badister, CalUstus, Clilcenius,
Obdes, Pngonus, Patrohus, Pristonychus, Sphodrus, Calathus,
and Taphria.

Studied by the Count Dejean, and more recently by Mr.
Tatum and the Baron Chaudoir.

I now proceed to notice a few members of this great
section of beetles.

The Eev. Mr. Dawson has published a valuable
work on the British Geodephaga. How desirable that
a similar work on the remaining groups should be
published, now that we have a list by Mr. Waterhouse,
published in 1861, it is indispensable as a guide.

Family— MANTICOEIDHil.

Platychile. — This genus is African ; it is a flat, pale
insect, usually placed at the beginning of the Geode-
phaga. It is very rare in collections, and must be
nocturnal, judging from its colour, or may come from
the coast of some seldom visited part of South Africa.

Manticora. — This genus — fig. 61 — is peculiarly
African. The larger species must be formidable
opponents to caterpillars and the grubs of insects.

Fig. 61.

Three or more good species are figured. Mr. Thomson,
in his fine work on Cicindelidce, has figured several
species.

Omus, — The genus is indigenous to the west coast of
America, California, and Vancouver’s Island. I have
seen many specimens of a species of this genus from the
latter locality.

Megacephala. — This is an extensive genus, or
rather group, allied to the Tiger beetles, and resembling
them closely in habit. The body is much more robust,
the head and thorax are broader and stronger, the
upper lip is short and transverse, and the mandibles
are stronger, which shows that they prey upon larger
insects, and require greater force to tear their food in
pieces; the antennae are longer, more tapering, and
the legs more robust than in the other Tiger beetles.
Mr. Bates, who collected so assiduously on the banks
of the Amazon from the sea to Ega, and beyond it,
and who spent eleven years making researches on the
entomology of that fine tropical region, took eleven
species. He describes them as being all natives of
sandy soils in exposed situations, as he never met with
a specimen in the shades of the moist forests, which
cover nearly the whole surface of the country. They
appear to be all nocturnal in their habits. During the
day they are concealed several inches deep in burrows
in the sand. Although possessed of wings, he never
observed any one make use of them ; but he adds,
“ their powers of running exceed anything I have ever
observed in locomotion ; they run in a serpentine course
over the smooth sand, and when closely pursued in
endeavouring to seize them, they are apt to turn sud-
denly back, and thus baffle the most practised hand

BRACHINIDiE. INSECTS. Galekita. 205

and eye.” The pale-coloured species are confined to
the most extensive of the sandy beaches, where the
sand is finest and whitest.

Mr. Bates found the larvse of the Megacephalm in
the same sandy districts frequented by the perfect
insects. They live in cylindrical burrows, where tliey
lie in wait for their prey. As in the Tiger beetles, the
head in the larva is broad, semicircular, and hollowed
above, with the mandibles curved upwards, so as to be
able to seize anything which may fall on the concave
upper surface of the head. He describes the larvse as
being so rapacious and irritable that they seize at any-
thing that disturbs them. In this way they are easily
taken by inserting a straw in their burrows, which they
instantly seize with their mandibles and pertinaciously
retain. This is the case with our common Tiger beetle,
Cicindela campestris.

The average length of the species is from six to
eight lines long, but one of the pale-coloured species
— the Megacephala testudinea of King — is nearly an
inch in length. To the pale-coloured species Mr.
Westwood has applied the name Ammosia^ from the
Greek word for sand. Our finest species is the Cicindela
sylvatica, which is common on the heaths of Surrey
and Hampshire.

Many of the Indian species are very finely coloured.
A beautiful one from India the writer named C.
Hamiltoniana, has a yellow stripe down each elytron.
To another delicate green one, from the Neilgherry
hills, or rather from Coimbatoor, I have given the
name of Cicindela Walhousei.

The white Cicindelse are very curious, and, indeed,
the diversity of marking and sculpture in the various
species of Tiger beetles is quite a study. Mr. Thomson
of Paris has monographed them in a fine quarto work.

Therates. — The species of Therates are large-
eyed, and have a very big upper lip. They are found
in the Eastern islands, and have great powers of flight.
Like our Tiger beetles, they take flight on the slightest
alarm. One specimen, Mr. Adams observes, “had just
regaled himself with a fly, which I allowed him to eat
up before I attempted to make him a prisoner.” He
held the insect “ firmly with the dilated tarsi of the fore
feet, had cut off the head with his powerful mandibles,
and was busily intent in consuming the flesh of the
inside of the thorax, shaking his prey occasionally like
a tiger, which these Cicindelidae most assuredly repre-
sent in the insect world.”

Mr. Wallace has lately sent from Aru, and other
Eastern islands, some curiously two-coloured species of
this genus.

Brachinid^ {Bombardier Beetles). — In most of
these the elytra are truncated at the end, and the head
and thorax are much narrower than the abdomen,
which gives them altogether a peculiar appearance.
The species of the typical genus, Brachinus, of which
two or three are met with in this country, are able to
defend themselves in a singular manner. When they
are attacked, or suddenly stopped, these insects emit
from the anus a volatile fluid, which has a pungent
scent. This is accompanied with a considerable explo-
sion. Mr. John Bowring found a large Brachinus in
small societies under stones, on the highest peaks of

the island of Hong Kong; he informs me they were
plentiful under piles erected during the ordnance survey
of Hong Kong. This species crepitates with consider-
able power, firing off several discharges with great
rapidity. The volatile liquid burns the hands and
stains them, so that the marks are visible for many
days. Another observer, who immersed a Brachinus
in boiling water, records its bombardier powers, and
says that the water, for about an inch around it, effer-
vesced. Mr. Lewis states that a Tasmanian Lebia,
when provoked, emitted a very pungent odour resem-
bling muriatic acid, which, when applied to the nostrils,
caused great irritation. Some authors have tried to
throw doubts on the statement that the explosion of
these insects is accompanied with noise. The following
circumstance, however, communicated to me by the
celebrated traveller Burchell, will be sufficient (were
other evidence wanting, which is not the case) to con-
firm the correctness of the recorded statement. While
resting for the night on the banks of one of the large
South American rivers, he went out with a lantern to
make an astronomical observation, accompanied by one
of his black servant boys ; and as they were proceed-
ing, their attention was directed to numerous beetles
running about upon the shore, which, when captured,
proved to be specimens of a large species of Brachinus.
On being seized, they immediately began to play off their
artillery, burning and staining the flesh to such a degree
that only a few specimens could be captured with the
naked hand, leaving a mark which remained for a con-
siderable time. On observing the whitish vapour by which
the explosions were accompanied, the negro exclaimed
with surprise, “ Ah ! massa, they make smoke.”*

Fig. 62. Fig. 63.

Here is figured the queer larva of Galerita Lecnntei
— figs. 62, 63 — a long-legged bluish-black beetle, with
somewhat truncated elytra, black head, brownish-red
* Introduction to Modern Classification, vol. i., p. 76.

206 Carabid^ INSECTS. Hydradephaga.

narrow thorax, and reddish legs. The grub is consider-
ably magnified, and must be a very ferocious fellow to
any poor insect getting into its arms or jaws. It has
five eyes grouped behind the antennae. Its maxillary
palpi are spined. The fore legs have four spines on
each shoulder. Its pupa has a pale, bright, testaceous,
depressed body, with two sets of fleshy tufts on each
side of the segment behind the head. The perfect
insects were found by M. Auguste Salld, under bushes
deeply sunk in sandy ground, on the banks of the Mis-
sissippi near New Orleans. Our friend, who described
and figured them,* found the insect in all its stages
from July to October. The larva constructs a feeble
cocoon with thread and earth, in which to undergo its
transformations.

The Carabidse are generally very abundant in gardens
and fields, running among grass or concealed under
clods of earth or small stones. Some, such as the
brilliant Pcecilus and Amara, run actively about in the
sunshine, and are called “ Sunshiners” from this habit.
Generally, however, it is at night that they are on the
alert. They are a very useful group of beetles, helping
to keep down many noxious larvae of other insects,
which, but for the Carabidae, might extend to an alarm-
ing degree. In this country, at least in its southern
parts, a tree-frequenting species is found, called Calo-
somn inquisitor. On the continent of Europe a large,
brilliant, metallic-tinted species of the same genus, called
Galosoma sycophanta, is not uncommon. This fine
beetle passes its life on trees, feeding chiefly on cater
pillars. The ravages committed by some of the cater-
pillars of the family Bombycidae are in many places
much restrained by the Galosoma, which deposits its
eggs in the nests of the moths, so that the voracious
Carabidae from their infancy begin to reduce the num-
bers of the noxious moths.

It has been noticed in France that in those parts
where the Carabus auratus is abundant, the Cockchafer
is almost unknown. The Cockchafer is a very destruc-
tive insect, especially where it abounds, as tlie grub
feeds on the roots of grass, continuing in that state for
some years. This fine Carabus seizes the dialer before
it has deposited its eggs, and it is said to be fonder of
the eggs than of any other part of the insect.

The finest Carabi are found in China and Siberia.
In North China is the noble green, warted, or nippled
Carabus ccelestis, and the great blue- black C. Lafossei;
in South China, the great Carabus pirodigus, with its
elytra cut out at the end. How fine, too, are the
Siberian Carabi — also the exquisite Carabus Vietmg-
hovii, black, exquisitely roughened, and the elytra and
thorax encircled by the most lovely narrow girdle of
green, passing into bronze and fiery red. Near it is the
beautiful Carabus Bowringianus from Japan or Chow-
san, named after my friend J. C. Bowring, Esq.

The Carabi from Chili and the extreme south of
Terra del Fuego are very fine also.

Our little Dyschirius, one of the Scaritidse, shakes its
prey like a dog worrying a rat ; and the larger species
allied to it seem to have the same babit, for Mr. Adams
records the manners of one which he observed abun-

* Aimales de la Soc. Ent. France, second series, vol. vii.,
p. 299 (1849) ; Plate 8, fig. 2.

dant on the shores of the Corean archipelago. “ When
approached it burrows rapidly in the sand, bites very
severely, and makes vigorous efforts to escape. It is
a most predaceous creature, feeding greedily on the
Talitri, Gammari, and other small Crustacea which
abound in these places.”

“ One very dark and warm night, in the early part
of the present month I observed a considerable quantity
of some brightly luminous matter on a gravel path
in my garden. On a closer inspection I found that
this consisted of many small detached patches, among
which some animal was moving at a rapid pace, carry-
ing with him alarge quantity of the same luminous matter,
and every now and then depositing a fresh patch. My
curiosity was much excitedbysucha remarkable proceed-
ing ; I procured a light as quickly as possible, and dis-
covered, to my surprise, that all this illumination had
been the work of a Nebria brevicollis, who was literally
detected flagrante delicto. I have often before this
seen a strong phosphorescent light produced by vari-
ous species, such as worms, centipedes, and the small
white animals allied, I believe, to the Oniscid8e, so
common in decaying vegetable substances ; but this is
the first instance I have met with of a coleopterous
insect depositing any luminous matter on the ground.
I can form no conjecture as to the cause of its proceed-
ings, unless the light was intended for a sexual signal.”

The Aepus rnarinus and A. Robinii are found in
places where at times tliey are covered by the sea.
So is the curious Madeiran genus Thalassophilus,
described and figured in the “ Coleoptera Maderensia ”
of Mr. Wollaston.

Group— HYDRADEPHAGA {The Water Beetles).

In this group the beetles are all aquatic, and have
legs peculiarly formed for swimming. The two hind
pairs are flattened like an oar, and are ciliated or
fringed with hairs; the hind pairs being placed at a
considerable distance from the others, whereby a much
greater impulse is given to the animal in its motions
through the dense element of which it is an inhabitant.

Their bodies are more or less or’al, the best shape
for water, and they are convex beneath, somewhat like
a boat, and generally smooth above. They swim
rapidly, occasionally coming to the surface, when
they keep the feet motionless, “the body ascending,
being specifically lighter than water. In this situation
they rest obliquely, the extremity of the body being
protruded out of the water, whereby the air is enabled
to enter the large space beneath the elytra, and reach
the spiracles along the sides of the back.”

The Water-beetles, of which at least five hundred
and fifty species are known, are scattered over the
whole world, and are divided by Lacordaire into the
following six sections : —

I. Posterior coxse not widened in front.

a Prosternum received into a hollow of the inesosternuin.

This tribe is formed by a North American insect
(Amphizoa insolens], found in the valley of the
Sacramento. It seems to be a link connecting this
group with the Geodephaga.

Eypophaga. INSECTS. Bkachelytba,

aa Prosteniiim Joined beliind with the metasternum.

Posterior coxa furnished with plates partly covering
the abdomen, .... Haliplides.

Posterior cox® without plates, . . Peldbidea.

11. Posterior coxa very large, widened in front.

h Four anterior tarsi, furnished with only four joints,

Hydroporides.

hb All the tarsi furnished with five joints.

The dilated joints in the males simple, with small
cupules of equal size, . . Colymbetides.

The dilated joints of males in the form of a great
suborbicular palette, with small cupules of unequal
size.

They are all included by Mr. Waterhouse in the
family Dytisddcs. He gives one hundred and eleven
species as natives of the British islands. They are in
the genera Dyiiscus, Acilius, Hydaiicus, Colymhetes,
Tlyhius, Agabus, Noterus, Laccophilus, Hyphidrus,
Hydroporus, Haliplus, Gnemidotus, and Pelohius.

The Dyiiscus marginalis is a common species in
this country, and is so named from the conspicuous
yellow margin of the thorax. Water-beetles fly about
at night, and frequently in moonlight nights dash them-
selves against glass-windows, which they seem to mis-
take for pools or streams.

These water-insects are very carnivorous; their larvae
are often very beautiful objects for the microscope.

Family — G-YRINIDHS {Wfdrlwhigs).

Who has not seen the Whirlwhigs gyrating on a
pool or river — as if they did not touch the water?
Some of the exotic species are of considerable size,

Fig. 64.

b

a Hind leg of a species of Gyrinus. b Antenna.

and are curiously formed. Others have pointed bodies
and elytra. Their antennae and legs are very curious.
Of the figures a is that of the hind leg; b that of the
antenna.

Sob-section — EYPOPHAGA ( Cleansers).

The next sub-section of the Pentamera has been
named Eypophaga, from the insects contained in it
eatiiig putrid animal and vegetable matter, and in
this way cleansing and clearing the ground. They
have only four palpi, and the antennae in most of
them are either gradually or suddenly clavate. In
those which inhabit the water, the maxillary palpi are
generally of considerable length ; and these organs, but
for their having fewer joints, might be taken by the
beginner for their antennae. In one large section of
the group, the elytra are extremely short. This section
is named Brachelytra.

207

Group— BRACHELYTRA.

Generally longish beetles, with very short elytra,
though a few of them are very short insects, and have
elytra nearly covering the abdomen.

There are at least two thousand species known of
this extensive group of beetles. In fact, the greater
portion of the above are European ; six hundred are
recorded as British in Mr. Waterhouse’s Catalogue of
British Coleoptera. It has been said that they are com-
paratively rare in the intertropical regions; this seems,
however, to arise from their not having been so much
searched for as other groups.

The following is the arrangement of the group in
the monograph of Erichson, an arrangement which is
generally adopted by all naturalists ; —

I. Prothoracic stigmata visible, seldom covered by a horny
free plate.

Antenn® inserted at the inner margin of the eyes,

Aleoclioridce.

Two hundred and sixteen of these are British.

Antenn® inserted below the side margins of the front,

I'acliyporidx.

Fifty-five are British.

Antenn® inserted on the fore margin of the epistome,

StaphylinidcB.

Mr. Waterhouse divides this, as Kraatz does, into
Quediid® and Staphylinid® — with one hundred
and six British species.

II. Prothoracic stigmata concealed by the epimera of the
prothorax.

A. Posterior cox® conical.

a A membranous space between the fore-cox®, Pcederidce.

Xantholinid® and P®derid® have fifty-seven recorded
British species.

aa Prothorax quite horny below.

Antenn® inserted below the side margins of the
front, PinophilidcB.

Antenn® inserted on the front, . . . Stenidce.

There are fifty British species.

B. Posterior cox® transverse

6 The anterior cox® globular, not prominent, Piestidce.
Only one British species. Some of the exotic species

are fine and large.

hb The anterior cox® conical, prominent,
c No ocelli.

Abdomen seven-jointed, . . . Oxytelidce.

There are forty-nine British species.

Abdomen six-jointed, . . . Phlceockaridce.

cc Front with two ocelli, .... Omalidce.
There are forty-three British Omalid®.

bhb Anterior cox® suh-cylindrical, transverse, Proteinida,
There are nine British species.

Of the little pretty Micropeplid®, with their curiously-

pitted elytra, there are four British species.

We here figure from Erichson’s work the Scy-
talinus serpentinus, Tanygnathus terminalis, and the
very curious Megalops cephalotes (figs. 65, 66 and 67),
which, with the other figures, show the great variety
of form amongst the Brachelytra.

In their perfect state Staphylinidae chiefly feed on
decaying animal and vegetable substance. Many of
the species which are found on flowers or in fungi
seem to be carnivorous ; the former frequent the flowers
on account of the small insects which they find there,
while the latter feast on the grubs which abound in fungi.
These insects are accordingly found in many different

208

Bkaohelytra.-

-INSECTS.

-P^DERINI.

Bituations — in carcasses, dung, among fallen leaves,
mosses, barks, and such localities. Many are only
found on the coast, and several, as noticed afterwards,
live in ants’ nescs.

Fig. 65.

Fig. 66.

Soytalinns serpentinns.

Tanygnathus terminalis.

In their movements these insects are very active,
and they fly frequently, though not for any length of
time. When the larger species are disturbed, they
emit a most noisome stench, which proceeds from two
ovoid whitish vesicles they exsert from their cloaca

Fig. 6T.

Megalops cephalotes

They often turn up their abdomen over the back
when excited. The great mass of the Staphylinidse
are of dull colours; but some of the exotic species,
particularly those of South America, have most brilliant
colours.

The Stajyliylinus villosus is a common North Ameri-
can species. It is described by Mr. Gosse as being so
abundant in Newfoundland as to be quite a pest, for it
crawls about and devours the drying cod-fish. From
this habit it has acquired the name of “ the fish-fly.”
This species seems to enjoy an extensive range, for it
is met with as far south as Jamaica.

The Emus liirtus, covered with yellow and black
hairs like a Bombus, is a rare British insect; Velleius
dilatatus is a parasite in the hornets’ nests, from which
it has been often taken.

Some of the Staphylinidse are almost peculiar to
the sea-shore. In such localities the different species
of Cafius are met with under sea-weed, cast up on
the coast. They are well fitted for rapine by their
broad heads, and long jaws armed with strong teeth.
Their voracity does not spare their own species, and
they sometimes fight for the exclusive possession of
a common prey. They burrow with great agility
under the loose sand when alarmed; their flattened
body and expanded pilose anterior tarsi being admirably
adapted for making their way through this loose
material.

The group Pcederini are much elongated, and have
a rounded thorax, attenuate in front. The British
species have often a pretty red
thorax. A very singular genus Fig. 68.

of the group is figured here from
Dr. Erichson’s work. The long
tapering thorax and strange head
attenuated behind, much as in
Casrionia, one of the Carabidse —
or Raphidia, the Crane-fly, one
of the Neuroptera — mark this out
from other genera, as well as its
broken antennm; the first joint is
very long, while the others are
very short.

Species, small in size, are
often found in the valleys
of Columbia. The individual
figured is of a pitchy-black colour,
the tip of the short elytra and the
legs are whitish ; it is named
Ophites versatilis.

The genus Stilicus is near this.

One species, the S. fragilis, is opiiites versatilis.
beautifully figured in one of Mr.

Curtis’ exquisite plates ; they are found under tufts of
grass and fallen leaves.

The following figure shows the form of the genus
Oxytelus and its larva (fig. 69), belonging to a group

Fig. 69.

Fig. 70.

Oxytelus carinatus, with larva.

Male of a cornuted Bledioid
beetle.

containing species, the males of which are often armed
with horns or spines on the head. The genus Bledius
is particularly marked in this way. There are forty

Aleociiarin I.-

-INSECTS.-

-PSELAPHIDAC.

209

nine British species of the family Oxijtelidce. Our figure
(fig. 70) shows one of the Bledii group.

We now come to a strange-looking set of Staphy-
linidte, remarkable for their very singularly developed

Fig. 71.

Spirachtha Eurymedusa — Beetle of White ants* nest.

abdomen. Professor Scbibdte of Copenhagen, who
visited London in 1856, being much interested in the
habits of those insects, asked Professor Keinhardt to
collect for him any insects he might find in the nes^s
of the white ants, during his travels in Brazil. Accord-
inglj^ when collecting near Santa Lagoa in the province
of Minas-Geraes, he came on the nests of a Termes.
In the nests Professor Reinhardt met with three
minute species of insects, which he sent to our
Copenhagen naturalist, who saw that they consisted
of three species of insects of the grotip Aleocliarini,
two forming his genus Corotoca,* Corotoca Melantho,
and Coj'otoca Pliylo ; to the other he gave the name
Sinrachtlia Eurymedusa^ (see our figures copied from
Schiodte’s work). In the former the maxillary palpi
are four -jointed ; in Spiracththa these palpi have
only three joints ; in the latter the four-jointed tarsi
have the three first joints equal in length, while the
first joint of tarsi in Corotoca is very much elon-
gated. In Spirachtha, at least in the females, the
abdomen is membranaceous and very much broken, the
anterior part is globose, fixed to the hind part, and
having on each side three membranaceous appendages,
which are thread-shaped and two-jointed. The wings

Fig. 72.

Formica rufa, may be found, in the month of May, a
little reddish notched beetle, with short elytra called
Dinarda Mcerhelii.

Another species, much smaller than D. Mcerlcelii
and called D. dentata, was found by Mr. Reading, near
Plymouth, in nest of Formica fusca, but it seems to
be very rare. (Figure on Plate 3, fig. 18, Lomechusa
dentuta.) Mr. Janson believes that the Dinardis and
most of the other ants’ nest beetles feed on the excre-
ment of the ants, or on some of the numerous parasites
which invariably infest the nests.

That ants, though in general hostile to their fellow
insects, are very friendly to others, has long been
known, although it is only within the last few
years that observers on the Continent have ascer-
tained that there are nearly fifty species of Coleoptera,
which pass at least a portion of their lives exclusively
in the nests of various ants.

Mr. Janson gives the following list of Myrmecophi-
lous Coleoptera* with the name of the species of ant
with which they are usually associated.

Trichonyx Majrkelii, Formica flava.

Claviger testaceus,

Myrmedonia canaliciilafa, . .

“ iimbata,

“ hnmeralis,

“ cognata,

“ funesta,

“ laticollis,

“ lugens

“ Haworthi,

“ collaris, Myrmica rubra.

Homalota flavipes, Formica rufa,

flava, and F. fusca.
flava, and Myrmica rubra,
flava, and F. fuliginosa.
rufa.

fuliginosa.

fuliginosa.

fuliginosa.

fuliginosa.

rufa.

confusa,

“ anceps,

Oxypoda vittata,

“ hacmorrhoea,

“ formiceticola, . . .

Aleocbara ruficornis,

Thiasophila angulata,

Ilomceusa acuminata,

Dinarda Mjerkelii,

Lomechusa strumosa,.. ...

Atemeles paradoxus,

“ emarginatus, . . .

Leptacinus formicetorum, .

Staphylinus latebricola, .... Myrmica rubra.
Qtiedius brevis, Formica rufa.

fuliginosa.

rufa.

fuliginosa.

rufa.

rufa.

fusca.

rufa.

fusca.

rufa.

rufa.

fusca.

fusca, and Myrmica rubra,
rufa.

Heta;rius sesquicornis,
Dendropbilus punotatus, . . .
“ pygmajus,.. . .

Saprinus piceus,

Ampbotis marginata,

Larvre of Cetonia aurata,
and Clytbra quadripunc-

tata,

Monotoma conicicollis,

“ angusticollis,...

fusca, and F flava.

rufa.

rufa.

rufa.

fuliginosa.

rufa.

rufa.

rufa.

Corotoca Melantho. — Hectle found in nest of W’liite ant

are ample, and ciliated slightly on the borders. The Spi-
rachtha is rarer apparently than the others.

In the nests of that common British wood-ant,

* 1\0PV, TiKTO, t ^TitpotvdyjS.

VoL. 11. 83

Family— PSELAPHIDiE.

A family of beetles of very small size, may
be briefly alluded to. They are small and have
remarkable antennse and palpi. Their thorax
is small, and the elytra do not cover the
abdomen. There are thirty species recorded in the
latest British list. These species belong to the genera
Batrisus, Pselaphus, Bryaxis, Bythinus, Tychus, Tri-
chonyx, Euplectus, Trimmium, and Claviger. Here, too,

* A few species have been subsequently added to Ibis list by
the indefatigable exertions of Dr. Power, and every year adds
to the number.

210 Necuophaga. INSE

may be brought in an allusion to those miscroscopic
wonders, the Trichopterygid(S, or those which have
wings ciliated most beautifully with hairs. Some of

Fig 73.

a The underside. b The antenna.

them are the smallest of insects. There are forty-two
British species as yet recorded. Our figure shows one
of these greatly magnified — a the underside; h the
antenna.

Group— NECROPHAGA.

These are necrophagous beetles, which are so called
from their feeding on dead animal substances. The
antennae are generally more or less suddenly thickened
at the tips. The mandibles are strong, the maxillae end
in two lobes, the outer one of which is not palpiform.
In this group the elytra frequently do not entirely cover
the abdomen. The legs are strong, and formed for
running. Although the chief food of this group con-
sists of decaying animal matter, yet some of them live
on fungi and other vegetable remains. The Silpha
quadripunctata, lives exclusively upon trees, feeding
greedily on caterpillars.

In this group is placed the curious genus Leptode-
KUS, characterized by its oval elytra, closely united at
the suture, and by the very long, slender, cylindrical
thorax, from which its name is derived. There are
three species known, which live exclusively in the
innermost recesses of some of the Carinthian caverns.
They are quite blind, and are of an uniform brown or
ferruginous hue.

Family — SILPHID^E {Carrion Beetles).

The most characteristic family of the group is that
named by authors Silphid^. In these islands are
found many species (forty-nine) of this family, some
such as the Necropiliori, of considerable size. The body
is depressed; the thorax is more or less circular, its
sides being expanded, while the head can be drawn down
under it. The larvae of these insects have a great general
resemblance to those of the Staphylinida;. They have
four jointed antennae, and two styliform appendages
on the last segment of the abdomen, and an anal pro-
longation which assists them in progression. They

iCTS. SiLPHIDAi.

possess a labrum, which is wanting in the Staphy-
linidae. They have the power of emitting a most
disgusting smell.

The Necrophori have been named Sexton beetles
from the wonderful instinct they have been endowed
with, and which is thus described by Mr. Westwood : —
“ No sooner,” says he, “ is any small dead animal, bird,
or bit of flesh exposed in the open air, than the
Sexton beetles make their appearance ; and after
rigorously inspecting the object, as it were for the
purpose of taking its dimensions, several of them com-
mence operations by creeping beneath the carcase,
where, by digging away the earth with their fore-legs
beneath and around the animal, it by degrees descends
into the ground, although many times larger than the
insects engaged in burying it.”

On Plate 4, fig. 11, is figured the Necrodes littoralis,
another common dark species, with the femora of hind
legs often enormously thickened in the males. The
Silpha lapponica is often a great nuisance in the huts
of the Laplanders, consuming much food when it
abounds.

The Silpha thoracica is black, but distinguished by
its orange-coloured thorax.

The Cholevce and Colons are an interesting group,
once studied by Mr. Spence.

The strange genus Adelops, found originally in
the caves of Carniolia, has been found in this country
by that talented entomologist, Mr. Janson. He also
found and described a new species, naming it .4. Wol-
lastoni. A delops is supposed to be blind, as is the
curious pale Leptinus testaceus, also a very rare British
insect. Spheerites glahratus is a rare Scottish beetle
belonging to this group.

Family— SCYDM.®NID^.

Of the beautiful family Scydmjenida5, little well-
defined insects, there are sixteen British species. The

Fig. 74. Fig. 75.

Pylailes Caquereli. Leptomastax liypogeum.

figure, 74, represents a most remarkable form in this
family {Pylades Caquereli)^ found by M. Caquerel.

MlTIDULlDiE.-

-INSECTS.-

-DeKSIESTIDjB.

211

on the shore in the Bay of Beikos, opposite to Con-
stantinople.

Its strange immense transverse head, formidable
mouth, the apparent want of eyes, and the curious
situation of the antennse, all distinguish it. In place
of eyes, it has only two small dots. Of course the
figure of the antenna is greatly magnified. Fig. 75 is
an allied species.

Family— ANISTOMIDiE.

There are thirty species of Anistomidje, beetles,
generally of small size, found in fungi. One of them
is found in the Truffle. A figure of the Truffle and of
this beetle, Leiodes cinnamomea, with its bent tibiae,
is subjoined. The species of Agathidiun and Clambus,

Fig. 76.

Truffle beetle (Leiodes cinnamomea).

on being alarmed, roll themselves into a ball, and look
like little beads or “mites” of earth. But I must
dwell but cursorily on these and other curious little
insects.

The family Scaphidiad.® contains pretty insects,
with the abdomen extending beyond the elytra. They
are found generally in fungi. On Plate 4, fig. 8, is
shown the ScapMdium quadrimaculatum.

Family — NITIDULID.®.

This family is of considerable extent, and contains
insects generally of small size, and for the most part of
an oval or oblong form. The greater part of them are
more or less depressed, though others are very convex,
and some even subglobular. Although some of them
are metallic ou the surface, yet, for the most part, they
are covered with a fine short pubescence. The man-
dibles are short, but strong, and frequently notched at
the tips. The palpi are short. The antennae consist
of eleven, and, in a few cases, of ten joints ; the two or
three last joints formed into a short club. The elytra
are truncated at the end, and in one or two of the
genera (Ci'tows Conotelm) the abdomen extends beyond
them much as in the Staphylinidae. The normal number
of abdominal segments is five ; the sixth, when it exists,
is small, and nearly always only present in the males.
In the perfect state some of the NitiduUdcs are found
under bark, and others on flowers, while some are found
among bones and dead or decaying animal substances.
The larvEE are depressed, and are furnished on the end
of the body •with four small, horny, conical appendages,

curved upwards, and with small fleshy protuberances
on the margin. The pup® are found amongst the
moist earth beneath the surface of the ground, from
which they proceed in due time, the perfect insect
being generally found in the crevices of bark. The
larva of some species live also, according to Erichson, in
the galls of the oak. The distinguishing characteristics
of the Nitidulae are stated below.

Lacordaire divides the group into six tribes, which
he briefly characterizes in the following table : —

I. Antennae of eleven joints.

A. Two or three last dorsal segments of the abdomen

exposed.

Maxilte with two lobes, . . Brachypteridm.

Maxillae with one lobe, . . Carpophilidce.

B. Pygidium only exposed.

h. Epistome not projecting between the mandibles.
Prothorax not covering the base of the elytra,

Bitvlulidoi.

Prothorax slightly covering the base of the
elytra, . . . Cychromidcs.

hh. Epistome projecting between the mandibles,

IpddK.

11. Antennse of ten joints, . . . Rldzopliagidm

Species of these tribes occur in this country.

Family — DERMESTIDAE.

The insects of this family are peculiarly destructive.
The name Dermestes was given to a genus in it from
the Greek word dspp,a, “ a skin,” the insects making

Fig. 77.

Dermestes murinus and larva.

great ravages in skins and furs. Most of them have a
certain faculty of drawing their legs under the body.
The Dermestes murinus may be found in the bodies of
moles stuck up in fields to dry.

The larva of Anthrenus muscorum, whose ravages
in insect cabinets are at times most considerable, is
covered with bunches of diverging hairs, which singu-
larly protect it. Fig. 77 shows an Anthrenus, and the
larva of one.

There are fifteen British species contained in the
genera Dermestes, Attagenus, Megatoma, Tiresias,
Anthrenus and Trinodes.

On the family ByrkhiD/E, which are more or less
globose insects covered with silky pile, I cannot enter,
nor into the aquatic families, Heterocerida;, with

212 BykuhidvK. INSECTS. Hydkophiliu^.

Tribe— PALPICORNES.

seven species; Parnid^, with nine; and Georys-
SIDA5, with one, like a small Byrrhus.

The various species of Byrrhus when in danger, or

Fig 78.

when alarmed, pretend to be dead. Their legs are
short and flat; they pack these legs so close to the

Fig. 79.

Tiresias serra and larva.

body, and lie so completely motionless, that when on
the ground they look like a small pebble or seed, or
the dung of a small animal. It requires the eye of an

Fig. 80.

acute collector to recognize an insect in the apparently
inanimate substance before him. The mottled appear-
ance serves also much to conceal them.

These insects were so called by Latreille, from the
maxillary palpi being generally very greatly elongated.
The woodcuts show the antenna and the maxilla, with

Fig. 81.

Ilydrochus elongatus— a tlie antenna ; h the maxillary palpus.

its palpus, of two different genera, in which this char-
acter is well marked. Figure 81 is that oiHydrochus
elongatus; a the antenna; h the maxillary palpus.

Family— HYDROPHILID^.

The family Hydropiiilid^, divided into two fami-
lies, Helophoridcs and Hydrophilidce, have ovate or
ovate-oblong bodies. In one section the thorax is
rough, in the other smooth. Fig. 82 is the Hydrmna
testacea; a the antennae; b maxillary palpi. There
are fifty-four British species, varying in size from the
large Hydrous piceus to the small Laccobius minutus.
The following genera are British ; — Spercheus, Hydro-
elms, with its large hull-eyes ; Helopliorus, a genus of
elongated form ; Ochthebius, with its short slender last
joint to the maxillary palpi ; HydrcBtia (see fig. 82), in

Fig. 82.

Hydrsena testacea — a the antenna ^ h the maxillary palpus.

which that same joint is much elongated ; Limnebius,
Berosus, Laccobius, Hydrous, on which there are some
particulars further on; Hydrophilus, Hydrobius, Phil-
hydrus, and ChcBtarthria, with its very small species
like a seed ((7. seminulum).

Many of the insects of this family may be seen
crawling on ditch banks; the species of the Helo-

Sph^ridiad^.-

•INSECTS.'

phoroid group are often covered, and all but incon-
spicuous with mud. The larvae are carnivorous, while
the perfect insects eat plants.

The Elophorus aquaticus covers itself with mud, so
that when feeding at the bottom of a pool it can
scarcely he distinguished by the ferocious aquatic
insects, Dytiscida and Water Bugs, which would prey
on it more often than they do, were it not so curiously
at times hid from their search.

The Limnius ceneus has been observed by Kirby.
It is found in rivulets under stones, at times covers its
elytra with a coating of sand, which becomes as hard
nearly as stone.

Fig. 83.

Hydrous piceus (male) — a the mandible , b antenna.

The largest species of the family belong to the first
tribe. One of these. Hydrous piceMs (fig. 83), is the
largest water-beetle found in this country. These
insects are very bad swimmers, notwithstanding the
oar-like structure of their four hind legs. Their food
is principally vegetable substances, although in cap-
tivity they eat greedily the larvae of other aquatic insects
and aquatic molluscs. They breathe by bringing their
heads to the surface. The insects often leave the
water, especially at night. The females construct

Fig. 84.

a cocoon, which they attach to water plants on the
surface of the water. The cocoon is of a short pear-
shape, and of a paper-like substance. The eggs are
regularly arranged within, and are wrapped up in a
cottony substance. They are hatched in six weeks.

Lamellicornia. 213

The larvse are very voracious. Unlike the perfect
insects, they only feed on vegetable life.

The female of Spercheus also makes a cocoon, which
she carries attached to her abdomen. Every nine or
ten days it is destroyed by the exit of the young
larvae. M. Cussac found that a female in six broods
could rear at least four hundred larvae. Fig. 84
represents Spercheus emarginatus.

Family— SPH.aiRlDIAD^.

The family SphaERIDIAD.(E are so called from the
typical genus Sphceridiuin. They are a group of
roundish insects, found in the dung of animals, such as
horses and cows. Their strongly-spined tibiae enable
them to enter the delicious mess, which to them is a
true feast. There are twenty-two British species
arranged in five genera, namely, Cyclonotum, Spliceri-
dium, Cercyon, Megasternum, and Cryptopleurum.
The species of the latter genera are ver}'’ obscure
indeed.

Lacordaire divides the Palpicorns into five tribes —

I. Tlie second joint of the four posterior tarsi long, the first
very short.

These same tarsi oar-like ; a sternal spine, HydropMlides.

II. The tarsi not oar-like , no sternal spine, Hydrdbiides.

III. The first four joints of these tarsi short, equal, Spercheides.

IV. The four first joints short, the first indistinct, Helophorides.

V. The first joint elongated, . . . Spliaridiides.

Group— LAMELLICORNIA.

The group of Lamellicorn Beetles is a very large
and well-marked one, which derives its name from
the terminal joints of the antennae forming a lamel-
lated mass. If any one examines a specimen of the
Common Cockchafer alive, particularly if the speci-
men be a male, the characteristic mark of this family
will be seen in the terminal plates of the antennae.
In the Stag Beetles, which, however, belong to this
great group, the terminal plates of the antennae are
only serrated (Plate 1, figs. 9, 10). The legs are
strong, the fore tibiae, particnlaily in the female, being
toothed. The males in many of the species are armed
on the head and thorax with horns, or have the jaws
much developed. Excepting among the Longicorn
beetles, larger and more bulky species are nowhere else
to be found among the Coleoptera. Their larvae are
thick and fleshy, and have the end of the body curved
towards the breast, so that the grub has to lie on its
side. These beetles live on vegetable substances exclu-
sively, as will be mentioned more particularly under
each family. In tropical climates we have the gigantic
Goliath beetles, and the even larger Elephant and
Hercules beetles. The Sacred beetles and dung-rolling
tribes belong to this group, the Chafers so destructive
to leaves and roots.

Family — GEOTRUPIDAE {Dung Beetles).

We now come to the family Geotrupid^e. From
the observations of Mr. Arthur Adams, that naturalist,

/

GEOTRUPlDiE.-

214

GEOTRUPlDiE.-

INSECTS.-

SCAKAB^ID^.

concluded that in tropical countries the chief use of
the Geotrupidw and other dung beetles was not so
much to remove excrementitious matter from the
surface of the earth, as to spread it over the ground,
which was in this way manured. “ This they effect
by first collecting it in convenient round balls or masses,
in which they deposit their eggs, and then, rolling them
along with their hind legs, they bury them in different
places in the ground.” He adds that, when in Borneo,
he found a species of Gymnopleurus engaged in this
useful occupation, “ under the shade of a grove of
Casuarina trees, where the ground was covered in many
places with large quantities of the dung of wild boars
and of deer, which dozens of these indefatigable black-
coated gentry were carefully spreading over the soil.”
Dr. Keith, in the desert between Egypt and the Holy
Land, frequently observed one of the Sacred beetles
similarly engaged, and has actually noticed that where
the balls were buried, there were already indications
of verdure.

Although the Dung beetles live in the midst of filth,
and one might suppose that they would contract
defilement from their home, it is not so. How clean
and polished is a Dung beetle, scrupulously neat even
in the minutest portion of its frame, looking, in its full
dress of black, more like a drawing-room guest than
the scavenger that he is, spending his life in dirt, except
such portion of it as is occupied in flying about in quest
of employment. It is in this stage of its existence
that he is known as often making the acquaintance
of the twilight wanderers in the fields by flying in
their faces, to their consternation and the risk of his
own life.

Some of the Geotrupidce have armature on the
thorax in the male, such as the genus Typhceus, that
beetle so common in Greenwich park. In the genus
Athyreus, especially the New World species, the thorax
is armed ; and in the group Bolbocerus, one Australian
species, B. prohoscideus, ranks as a subgenus, Elephas-
toraus, from the mouth being elongated into a kind of
proboscis.

In the genus Lethrus, the jaws are often much elon-
gated and bent downwards, as in a Walrus or Deino-
therium among recent and fossil mammalia. These
jaws, no doubt, enable them to hang by projections in
deep holes, and assist them in progression when they
climb.

The Leihrus cephalotes is common in Hungary, and
often proves a very great pest to the vine-grower, as
the beetle gnaws off the young shoots of the vine, and
drags them backward into its burrow, where it feeds
on them. The country people destroy great numbers
of this beetle, as they are painfully conscious of the
great mischief it occasions in the vineyard, and the loss
which they consequently sustain.

The curious genus Silphodes, and its allies, described
by Mr. Westwood, Eeiche, Burmeister, and other ento-
mologists, are very interesting, from their resemblances
(analogically) to other groups.

The family Scarab^id^ is a large one, and con-
tains, especially in the genus Copris, some very bulky
species. They are widely distributed in tropical and
temperate regions.

Family— SCARABHSIDiE.

The genera Onthophagus and Aphodius, the one
roundish, the other longish and parallel, have very
many species. Of som.e the Onthophagi of the Indian
species have most remarkable armature, especially the
beautiful 0. Elliotti. There are fine African species,
especially one — a green one with long horns — found
near Lake N-Gami. Our little Aphodii are the chief
dispersers of the dung of cattle. There are fifty- five
British species of Scarabaeidse.

SCAEABAIUS SACER (the Sacked Beetle). This
beetle is frequently sculptured on the ancient Egyp-
tian monuments It was a type of the sun, and was
used as a symbol of the spring of the world, and
of the warrior. Its symbolical affinity to the sun it
derived from the angular projections on its head, some-
what resembling the rays of the sun. The world it
symbolized from the roundness of its balls, and from
the beetles which they produced. The Egyptians
believed that the beetles were all males, and hence
it was to them symbolical of a courageous warrior.
In the British Museum galleries, the Scarabseus is a
frequent symbol on the monuments. Amulets in its
form are frequently met with, associated with the
mummies.

There are many species of Scarabseidse of the genera
Ateuchus, Gymnopleurus, Sisyphus, and Copris, in
S. Africa.

Among the insects allied to the “ Sacred Beetle,”
is one genus, named Sisyphus by Latreille. It may

Fig. 85.

Sisyphus BowringU.

be known by its very long hind legs, the triangular
abdomen, and the antennae having only eight joints.
There are species of this genus found in Europe, Asia,
and Africa.

Coprohius volvms, a common, dung-rolling beetle,
abounding in the United States.

Our Copris lunaris, and the various species of
Geotrupes form large cylindrical holes, which are often
of considerable depth, beneath a heap of dung. In
these holes they deposit their eggs, having first envel-
oped them in a mass of dung.

Colonel Sykes has published some interesting obser-
vations on the habits of the Copris Midas, a common
East Indian species, from which we may make an
extract : —

Trogid^. INSECT&. Rutemd^.

*• At Poona, in the moritli of June, 1826, some of my
palankeen-bearers turned up with their pickaxes, from
some depth below the surface, four hard perfect balls ;
the pickaxe had injured one of the balls. The injured
ball contained an amorphous animal mass, which I
immediately pronounced to be the pupa of an unknown
species of insect, at least unknown to me. To ascer-
tain the insect proprietor of these curious domiciles, I
placed two of the balls in a tin box, and continued for
some months to watch them with attention ; but my
patience being wearied out, I abandoned further care
of them and put the box away. Thirteen months had
passed away, and I had forgotten the balls, when on
the night of the 19th of July, 1827, being in my study,
I heard a low scratching sound. The scratching con-
tinued the whole of the 20lh, and until I went to bed.
Previously to retiring for the night, to facilitate the
exit of the creature, I dropped water upon the ball to
soften the very hard and compact crust. At sunrise on
the morning of the 21st, I found a fine specimen of
Copris at liberty, one-aiid-a-half inch long, and three-
tenths of an inch wide.”

The species of Phanceus are all from the New World.
The Phanwus carnifex, or Bullchafer, is a common
insect in the more southern parts of the United States.
It is a square-built beetle, with abdomen and elytra
metallic green. The thorax is rough and of a burnished
copper hue, and the head in the male has a tall horn,
bent back over the thorax.

Fig. 86.

Phanaeiis pegasus. ' a atitenna. b maxillary palpus, c anterior leg.

Fig. 86 is that of the male of a Mexican Phanceus,
with an outline of its head and thorax, viewed in front.
It is copied from Sturm’s Catalogue.

Family— TROGID^.

A small family of generally dull, darkling, rough-
coated beetles, found often on dried animal substances.
1 only once took a Trox, under the loosened bark of a
post. The cuts in the margin show the form of a
British Trox and the larva of the Trox carotinus.
There are three species of Trox, and four if with
Westwood and others you regard the sand-frequenting
genus PEgialia as a member of the family. In the
woodcut (fig. 87) is given the profile of a species of

21.')

Ceratocanthus, as I long ago named the genus Acantho-
cerus, from that name having been preoccupied in
natural history. Species are found in the Old World,
though America is the metropolis. Phoherus has stiff.

Fig. 87.

Trox sabulosus — a larva of T. carotinus.

h Sphaeromorphus basilicus. c Ceratocanthus nitens.

bristle-like hairs all round it. It is an African genus
without wings. Mr. Macleay, who founded this genus,
remarks that he fancies it must not feed on dried
animal substances, because his great experience has
shown him that all “ insects intended to live on animal
matter, partially dispersed and collected in masses, are
furnished with wings in order to convey them the more
rapidly to the objects pointed out by their instmcts.”

Family— BUTE LID^.

A very extensive family of Beetles, chiefly natives
of the New World. Many of them are very sump-
tuous insects, especially the species of Chrysophora.
One of these, the Chrysophora macropus, has been
named the “Kangaroo Beetle” from its immensely
developed hind legs, large in the female, but much
larger in the male. The.se legs are used for clinging,
not for leaping, like the Halticidce, or the species of
Orchestes and other beetles. Its delicate rich green,
laid on, as it were, thickly and smoothly, and actually
as if translucent ; the red washes on the legs and. under
side contrast well, and the lovely blue tarsi are quite
exquisite with the green. There is a very fine species
called Victoria, after our gracious queen.

One of the Rutelae, dark green, with three yellow lines
on the thorax, was found plentifully by my friend Sir
Robert Schomburgh in the flowers of that noble Guiana
water lily, the Victoria regia.

Areoda and Pelidnota are American genera, also
found on plants. Macraspis, with its large scutellum,
is also a New World species. Piperonota Harring-
toni, is an Indian species, the male of which has a
curious hooked spine on the back part of the thorax.
Parastasia is another Asiatic genus, with many spe-
cies from the Philippine and other islands of the East
Indian archipelago.

Hexodon, a curious flattened Madagascar genus,
lives on the sand, but its true history is unknown
to me.

The genus Cyclocephala is an extensive one ; the
species are found in flowers.

Heterosternus is a rare Mexican genus — one of
those forms often called “ connecting links.”

210

Melolonthid^.-

-INSECTS. Bipiiyelocera.

t’ig. sa

Family— ANOPLOGNATHID^.

These are Australian and Brazilian insects, in which
the clypeus conceals the mouth, and the maxillae have
an obtuse lobe. The antennae are similar, or nearly so,
in both sexes. Anoplognathus is the typical genus;
some of them have a curious j'ellow and green tinsel-
like lustre. Calloodes Grayianus is a very fine insect
described by the writer, and
named out of gratitude to Dr.
John Edward Gray, the able
keeper of the zoological depart-
ment in the British Museum.
It is figured on Plate 1, fig. 4,
Eindidysus Lamprimoides is
from King George’s Sound.
Geniates and Leucothyreus are
two genera with many Brazilian
species. Fig. 88 represents the
Epididysus Lamprimoides, Or Epididysus

Lamprimoides, a fine insect of a yellowish metallic
green, with the thorax and body beneath downy.

Family — MELOLONTHID.®.

In this truly leaf-eating family the antennm in the
different sexes vary much ; the plates of these organs
in the males being at times very large, as in Polyphylla
Fullo, a common European, but very rare and only
occuasional British species. The species, as in Encya
and Pholidotus, are often covered with scales, while
others of a South African genus are very hairy. In this
family the maxillie are toothed.

Our common Cockchafer [Melolontlia vidyaris) is
a well-known example. It is thoroughly crepuscular,
resting on trees during the da}'. At times they abound
and are very destructive to foliage." The larvse feed
on the roots of grass, and continue in the grub state
several years. At times these chafers become quite a
plague. The cuts, copied from Ratzeburg, show the
male of this beetle, with its curved larva and the pupa
— fig. 89. Below the larva is a figure of the antenna

Fig. 89.

a Meloloiitha vulgaris, b harva. c Pupa, d Antenna of male,
e Profile of the abdomen.

of a male, with the plates extended. Below the pupa
you see a profile view of the pointed abdomen. There
are four families — Putelidce, Melolonthidce, Scricidce,
and Hoplida’. The cuts are of the genera Serica and
Anisoplia — figs. 90 and 91.

The Hoplia group is very extensive. Many of them
are African. Ceraspis is a pretty Brazilian genus, with
a heart-shaped scutellum.

Fig. 90.

Fig. 91.

Anisoplia agricola.

DiplmcepTiala is Australian and a metallic-coloured
genus ; Pyronota. a brilliant New Zealand genus, also
highly metallic on the surface.

The cuts show the forms of the curious genus
Biphyllocera, as I named it in Captain Grey’s Nar-
rative. Fig. 92, a, represents the male, and h the
female, of Biphyllocera Kirhyana, named by the writer
after the venerable author of the “ Introduction."

Fig. 92.

Biphyllocera Kirhyana— a, male; 6, female.

Biphyllocera is the only genus of laracllicorn beetles
that I know, which has compound lamellated anten-
antennae. It is indigenous to King George’s Sound,
Western Australia.

The Melolonthidce and other destructive insects are
much kept in check by birds, which, especially when
young, are chiefly fed on insect food. A cautious ob-
server found a nest of young jays; he noticed that each
of the five jays, while yet very young, consumed at
least fifteen of these full-sized grubs in one day, and of
course would require many more of a smaller size. Say
that on an average of sizes they consumed twenty a
piece, these for the five make one hundred. Each of the
parents consume, say fifty; so that the pair and family
devour two hundred every day. This in three months
amounts to twenty thousand in one season. But as the
grub continues in that state four seasons, this single
pair, with their family alone, without reckoning their
descendants after the first year, would destroy eighty
thousand grubs.* An American species of Beetle, of
the same family, and called there the May-beetle
• Anderson’s Recreations.

Cetonud^. INSECTS. Goliath us.

217

{Phylluphaga quercina), is very destructive, according
to Dr. Harris, to fruit-trees; aud he mentions that they
have been exterminated by simply shaking them from
the trees every evening.*

The “ Kose-bug” of the United States [Macrodac-
tylus subspinosus) is another destructive species of this
himily, so named from its appearing at the time of
the flowering of the rose, on which it commits great
ravages. It destroys, too, the grape vine and other
useful fruit trees, and even grass does not escape the
ravages of this ruthless depredator. The larvae live on
roots, and it is only in the perfect state that the farmer
or gardener can destroy it.

Of all the Melolonthidce, the largest aud most remark-
able belong to a section which by some authors has
been formed into a family named Euchiridce. The
type of this group is the great Euchirus longimanus,
from Amboyna, a brown beetle with very long fore
legs, of which Madame Pfeiffer obtained many speci-
mens. Another fine species lives in the Philippine
Islands ; it is the Euchirus Dupontianus, marked with
four longitudinal lines. The females in Euchirus have
shorter fore legs. On Plate 2, fig. 5, is figured a very
fine beetle, closely allied to the Euchirus, and perhaps
in the same genus. The Kev. F. W. Hope, named it
Cheirotonus. The species, with its fine green thorax
and dark elytra spotted with yellow, is named C.
Macleayii.

One of the commonest insects in the United States
is a species of Phyllophaga. It is allied to our Cock-
chafer, and is named in Pennsylvania the May Bug.
Like our Chafer, its larva is at certain seasons most
destructive, damaging grass, corn, and other crops to
an amazing extent.

On the interesting family GLAPHYKiD.iE space
forbids me entering.

Family— CETONIIDiE. ^

Our Rose beetles, Cetonia aurata, is a well-known
example of this very extensive family, of which there
are but six British species, and even of those recorded
two are very doubtful. The great Goliath Beetles
are natives chiefly of Western Africa, whence one or
two specimens were sent in the days of the Hunters
and of Dr. Drury, the goldsmith in the Strand. Dr.
William Hunter bought or had presented to him one
of these Goliath beetles, still a rare variety. It was
said that fifty pounds sterling were given for a single
specimen. These Goliath beetles were found by Dr.
Savage on a tree, thirty or forty feet high, and with
a trunk from six to eight feet in diameter. They
may be taken at Cape Palmas in great numbers in the
months of December, January, and February, when the
tree flowers and renews its leaves. The natives eat the
insects, which are reported to be very fat and sweet.
Dr. Harrisf remarks that “the food of these beetles
is fluid, like that of the Trichii and Cetoniae, insects
belonging to the same natural family ; but the latter
live chiefly on the nectar of flowers, and the former on
the sap of plants. The long brushes on their maxillae,
and the diverging rows of hairs that line their lower

* Dr. Harris’ Insects Injurious to Vegetation, p. 2G.

t Journal of Boston Soc. Nat. His., vol. iv.

VOL. ir 84

lips, are admirably fitted for absorbing liquid food,
while their horny teeth afford these beetles additional
means of obtaining it from the leaves and juicy stems
of plants when the blossoms have disappeared. Thus
every new discovery in natural history, even when
least expected, serves to increase the evidence of skilful
contrivance, and perfect adaptation of structure in all
organized beings.”

Among the Goliath beetles some of the species are
metallic green, dashed with yellow in various lights, as
the E. Morgani. The E. Grallii, described by M.
Buquet, is even a more showy species from Congo,
whence the late Mr. Curror of the royal navy sent
it to the Museum. The E. Smithii is a pretty modest
brownish-yellow species, with four black spots, found
in Natal, and first sent home by Dr. (now Sir) Andrew
Smith. Another fine sub-genus is Mecynorlima con-
taining the dark-green and yellow-spotted M. Poly-
phesnus of Western Africa, and the even finer Mecy-
norhina Savagii found in tropical Africa ; its thorax is
striped, the feet and the hind legs are fulvous.

Fig. 93.

Cocoon of Goliathus Drurii,with part of the end of the elytra and
abdomen of beetle.

In the British Museum is a specimen of the Cocoon
of the Goliathus Drurii, with a strong raised ledge
which nearly surrounds it, and not only helps to
strengthen it, but also keeps it from rolling too far,
should it fall. — (See fig. 93.)

Fine Goliath beetles are found in South Africa,

218

Cetosiid^.-

-mSECTS.-

-Dynastid.b.

Eudicella E. Smithii, Amaurodes Passerinus, and A.
Derhyanus. The finest Goliathi of South Africa are
from Mozambique — Ranzania. Professor Westwood,
in his “ Arcana Entomologica,” has figured most of
the Goliath beetles.

Fie. 94.

Compsocephalus Horsfieldianus.

In Abyssinia is found the genus Compsocephalus^ one
of the species of which fig. 94 is named Horsfieldianus.

Another species, C. Ga.linieri, I saw lately in a col-
lection bought by Mr. John Bowring.

Among the Asiatic Goliathi I may mention Cyphon-
oceiihalus, described by Professor Westwood, and Phoe-

dimus Cumingii from the Philippine Islands, and the
genus Trigonophorus, in which both males and females
have armed heads. On Plate 1, fig. 3, is figured the
T. Hookeri, named by the writer after Dr. Joseph
Hooker, F.K.S., who brought it from the mountains
of India.

Rhomiorhina is a fine genus with squared heads.
The Indian and African Clinterim, with the thorax
extended over the scutellum, are small species. One
named after Dr, Hoffmeister is figured on Plate 1, fig.
2. He was killed at the battle of Ferozeshah. The
writer knew him well, and named this pretty Indian
beetle after him.

There are noble Cetoniidm in Madagascar, perfect
gems in colour and in polychromatic effect. In New
Guinea and other eastern isles are some fine species
of a Pachnoda, and many fine species of the genus
are also found in Africa. The genus Schizorhina is
especially Australian and other islands to the north, but
also occurs elsewhere. I figure the Schizorhina Emilia
— (Plate 1, fig. 1). On Plate 1, fig, 8, is figured the
Australian S. Bassii ; and on the same plate the Abys-
sinian Oxythyrea Helena.

The Gymnetis nitida, one of a large genus confined
to the New World, is called in Pennsylvania the
“ Goldsmith,” from its fine colour — (see Melsheimer’s
Catalogue, p. 5; 1806). The Epicometis hirta, a little
species of this group all bristled over with hairs, from
which it derives its specific name, is noticed in Malta
to destroy the apricot blossoms ; while another species
of this family, called Ceionia cardui, pays visits to the
beehives and destroys the wax and honey. Those
who suffered from the ravages of the last-mentioned
put plates of lead over the entrances of the hives, with
small perforations for the bees. These perforations

Asserador Hewitsoni.

were enlarged by the beetles. It has been found,
however, that when zinc was substituted for lead the
ingress of the Cetonia was prevented.

The Cetonia inda^ a common species of the family
in the United States, is described by Dr. Harris as one
of the earliest spring visitors.

Family— DYNASTIDiE.

A group of insects peculiarly tropical, and many of
them gigantic in size. Hence their name, from the
Greek word for “ power.” The males have often long

Lucanid^s

INSECTS. Lucan us. 219

projections on the head and thorax, as in the great
Hercules heetle and the even more extraordinary
Asserador Hewitsoni (see fig. 95). The females are
small and without any projections.

In Europe Oryctes nasicm-nis is a common insect,
found in the larva state in tan-pits and dung-heaps It
continues four or five years in that state. In this
country we have no member of this family.

In Brazil and the East Indies the Dynastidse attain
enormous size ; for instance, that gigantic Elepliant
beetle called Megasoma elephas, is some inches long,
and wide in proportion. It is found in Venezuela and
Columbia. The Megasoma Actceon, or Actseon beetle,*
is another large species common in Brazil and Guiana.

In some of the West Indian Islands the long-horned
Hercules beetle {Dynastes Hercules) is not uncom-
mon. It has been also named the Ehinoceros
beetle in some popular books. In the males the
thorax projects in front into a long curved horn,
which extends far beyond the head, and has a
strong tooth-like projection on the under side,
fringed with a brush of brownish-yellow hairs.

The head has a long horn also, shorter by far
than that on the thorax, but bending up towards
it and toothed on the upper side. The uses of
these processes to the insect are unknown.

Oryctes Maimon is a species indigenous to the
United States. It is of a deep blackish chestnut
hue, and is highly polished. The thorax in the
male is armed with three horns, one in front and
one on each side. Mr. Gosse in one of his letters
from Alabama, gives an instance of its great
strength of body. He says, “ When the insect
was brought to me, having no box immediately
at hand, I was at a loss where to put it until
I could kill it ; but a quart bottle full of milk
being on the table, I clapped the beetle for the
present under that, the hollow at the bottom
allowing him room to stand upright. Presently,
to my surprise, the bottle began slowly to move
and glide along the smooth table, propelled by
the muscular power of the imprisoned insect, and
continued for some time to perambulate the sur-
face, to the astonishment of all who witnessed it.

The weight of the bottle and its contents could
not have been less than three pounds and a half ;
while that of the beetle was about half an ounce,
so that it readily moved a weight one hundred
and twelve times exceeding its own.”’}' To give
a better notion than figures can convey, Mr.

Gosse supposes a lad of fifteen imprisoned under
the great bell of Saint Paul’s, which weighs twelve
thousand pounds, and moving it on a smooth
pavement bj' pushing within.

Family — LUCANID.® {Stag-deetles).

Many of the Beetles of this family are of large size.
The males have often very large jaws furnished witli
snags, like a stag ; hence their English name.

* Act®on was turned into a stag for looking at Diana ; the
horns began to bud from the head.

t Letters from Alabama, p. 1G7.

On Plate 1 there are three species represented, the
male sex being selected on account of the charactei'istic
mandibles Fig. 7 shows the Chiasognathus Grantii
— a fine South American beetle. The late amiable
James Francis Stephens first described this curious
beetle. It is a native of the island of Chiloe, where it
appears to be not common. Its eyes are each divided
by a ridge of the head, so that there seem to be four ;
hence a French naturalist named it Tetraophthalmus.
Fig. 9 represents our Stag-beetle [Lucanus Cervus)
common in the counties of Surrey and Kent, &c. The
females seem scarcer than the males. Fig. 10 repre-
sents Cladognathus Parryi, a species very common in
Silhet. In the Lucanidse the antenna? are geniculate
or elbowed, the first joint being long and the other ten

shorter, the club having the four, five, or six last joints
produced inside, so as to have a pectinated appearance.
The tibia? are generally toothed or spined, these teeth
helping them greatly in climbing.

It is in the evening that the Stag-beetles fly, although
the Lamprimce, metallic green and purple Australian

Fig. 96.

Lucanus dux

220 BurEESTiDiE. INSECTS. Eucnemid.h:.

members of the family, may he day insects. The insects
feed on tlie sap exuding from trees. The larvae are
not unlike those of the other Lamellicorns.

We have four species in Britain belonging to as
many genera — Lncanus, Dorcus, Platycerus, and
Sinodendron.

Family— PASSALID.®.

The PASSALIDA5 are a strangely parallel and paral-
lelopipedal set of beetles, grooved generally on the
elytra and depressed. — (See figure of Passalus inter-
ruptus, Plate 1, fig. 5.) The largest known species is
from Guatemala. There are many species.

The larvae of this group have the third pair of legs
much reduced, so as to be scarcely visible. The
antennae have ten joints, and the segments of the body
are smooth beneath.

The Passalus cornutus is a common species in the
United States. It is of a very deep-brown or black

Fig. 97.

Larva of the Passalus distinctns.

colour, highly polished, and with the elytra furrowed
by parallel longitudinal lines. The head has a short
blunt horn, curved forwards.

Group— SERRICO RNI A.

The Serricorn beetles are so named from the antennae
being serrated or pectinated, particular!}' in the males.
They have two maxillary and two labial palpi, and the
body is generally long and narrow. Mr. Westwood
has changed the name into Priocerata, which means
in Greek what Serricorn is in Latin. This great
group is divided into two — one called Sternoxi,* in
which the sternum or breast is sharpish-pointed behind
and received into a fissure in front of the mesosternum.
The legs are generally short and more or less retractile.
The second division is named Malacoderms,'\ from
the softness of the elytra ; in this the sternum is simple.

Section— STERNOXI.

Of the Sternoxi section, characterized above, we
come to the

Family— BUPRESTID AH.

A very large family, most of which are exotic. The
species of this family abound in the warmer parts of the
world. Their eggs are oval and whitish, and laid under
the bark of trees or in holes in the wood. The larvae,
when hatched, make great havmc with their redoubt-
able jaws and insatiable perseverance in gnawing. Our
* (TTE^vov and sharp. ^ soft, skin.

Agrilus lives in oak bark, and I took live specimens of
the brilliant creature out of a large wart-like excres-
cence on the bark.

The genus Julodis (fig. 98) contains many large
African species, often singularly covered with tufts of
yellow or grey hairs.

Stervocera is an Indian and African genus. The
S. feldspathica is a beautifully coloured species from

Fig. 98. Fig. 99.

Jiilodis Kothii Polybothrys zygasni.

Congo, with a lustre on its elytra something like that
on Labrador feldspar — hence the name I gave it. Fig.

99 is that of a Madagascar Polybothrys. Madagascar
Buprestidee are particularly curious and fine in form
and colour. The elytra of some of the showy Indian
species of Chrysochroa are worked up and formed into
artificial flowers, or into richly-coloured decorative
ornament to ladies’ articles of dress. On Plate 2, fig.
8, is figured the very showy Chrysochroa Edwardii,
an Indian species.

In Guiana, one beetle called the Sun Mama beetle,
is used, like the Indian Chrysochrose, to ornament dress.

The species of the genus Catoxanthce, especially one
of them, the C. hicolor, green above, yellow on the
under side,* is one of the largest of the family. The
Australian genera Stigmodera and Castiarina are very
numerous, and many of them charmingly pleasing, and
even brilliantly coloured.

The Brazilian Pcesiloptera, Pcecilonota,
and other genera ; the curious and endless
species of Agrili and Anthaxicp.; the strange,
short Trachys — (Plate 2, fig. 2, Trachys
minutus) — I can only allude to ; and the
genera Ancylochira, Chrysoholhrys^ &c.,
quite eclipse our feebly represented Bupres-
tidcB.

Among the Buprestidse there is one found
in the United States, the grub of whicih
bores under the bark and into the solid wood
of the apple tree, and thus often does great
mischief to the orchards.

Of the family Eucnemidas there are
many fine exotic species and genera very
curious and interesting to entomologists. There are
only five British species, which belong to the genera
Throscus, Cerophytum, Melasis, dud Microi'hagus. Fig.

100 shows the larva of Lampra rutilans, an European
Buprestis.

* KOC.TOI, ftlld

Fig. 100.

Larva of
Lampra
rutilans.

ELATKitiu^. INSECTS. AIalacodeumata.

221

Family — ELATERID^E (Sldp-JacJcs).

Another prodigiously numerous family of insects, so
called from the power they have of righting themselves
if placed on their back, by a spring of their thorax and
abdomen, a projecting process from the one fitting easily
into a notch of the other. Fig. 101 represents the
British Agriotes lineatus. Oxynopterus Cumingii is
figured on Plate 2, fig. 11.

Fig. 102 is that of the larva of Campylus linearis,
which is of a very deep brown colour. Messrs. Chapuis
and Candeze describe it as being found in the same
place as that of the Athous hirtus, which the}’’ meet
with in galleries of trees, or under the bark of old trees.
Though most Elaters are plant-eaters, yet there is no
doubt that some are carnivorous.

Wireworms are too well known to require descrip-
tion. Our farmers find that ground where their ravages
have been carried on might as well have been burned.

Fig. 103 is that of the grub of a very large species
abundant in the United States, and conspicuous from
the two large ocellated spots on its thorax, and hence
named Alaus oculatus. This grub is two inches and a
half long; the head is almost black; the three follow-
ing segments are blackish-brown, and the remaining
segro,ents are brownish-yellow. The body is depressed,
and the segments have distinct contractions where the
segments are connected.

lustre. This light is of a yellow-green. The larvre
are said to feed on the roots of the sugar cane, and
they sometimes prove destructive to that plant.

The Brazilian traveller is often charmed with the
light of the fire-fly, which has a singular and mysterious
effect at times. Drs. Kidder and Fletcher* when on
the Oregon mountains, and overtaken by sunset, came to
the edge of a crater-like hollow, whose centre was a
thousand feet below them, and whose sides were covered
with trees. One of them says, “ Before retracing my
steps I stood for a few moments looking down into the
Cimmerian blackness of thegulf beneath me; and while
thus gazing, a luminous mass seemed to start from the
very centre. I watched it as it floated up, revealing in
its slow flight the long leaves of the Euterpe edulis,'\
and the minuter foliage of other trees. It came directly
towards me, lighting up the gloom around with its
three luminosities, which I could now distinctly see.”
It was the Pyrophorus noctilucus — a longish click
beetle of a dull blackish brown colour, and covered over
with a short light brown pubescence. When walking
or at rest, the chief light that it emits proceeds from the
two yellow tubercles on the thorax, so conspicuous
even in dead specimens ; but when flying, another lumi-
nous spot is discernible on the hinder part of the thorax,
and this is continued to the under side of the insect.
In some parts of South America the ladies use them
for adorning their hair or their robes by fast inclosing
them within a thin gauze work. Prescott, the historian
of the conquest of Mexico, records the terror with
which they inspired the Spanish in 1520: — “The air
was filled with ‘ cocuyos,’ a species of large beetle,
which emits an intense phosphoric light from its body,
strong enough to enable one to read by it. These
wandering fires, seen in the darkness of the night, were
converted by the besieged into an army with match-
locks.”

Section— MALACODERM AT A .

Malacodermata, or Malacodermi, as some write the
word : I may mention a few of the beetles of this
group, such as the Cebrionid.®, with their curious
females, so unlike the males, who find them in wet
weather projecting from the ground. Some of them
have curious flat cases in which the pupa is contained
— such is the insect, allied to Atopa, described by the
writer in vol. iii. of the third series of the “Annals of
Natural History,” and figured on Plate 7. I figure
the cylindrical larva of the Cehrio gigas.

The different species of Pyrophorus seem to vary in
their light-producing powers. Lacordaire has described
the species he observed in Guiana, while Gosse has
recorded his observations on the Jamaica species. The
latter describes the Glow-fly, for so he calls this beetle,
as having the light from the two thoracic tubercles
visible even in broad daylight, when the insect is dis-
turbed. When the beetle is handled these spots,
previously of a dull white hue, gradually brighten up ;
the centre of each tubercle first showing a point of
light which in a moment spreads to the circumference,
and increases in brilliancy till it blazes with a dazzling

Fig. t04.

Cylindrical larva of the Cebrio gigas.

The family Rhipicerid^, with their beautiful fan-
like antennte, whence their name is derived, are inter-
esting— as some of them are natives of South America,
such as the Rhipicera marginata figured on Plate 2,

* Brazil and the Brazilians, p. 292. t A species of palm.

222 Lampyuid^. INSECTS Lycidas.

fig. 9, while others are natives of Australia — one being
the pleasing black, R. mystacina, prettily dotted with
white.

Of the family Cyphonid.® there are twelve British
species. Some of them can jump, such as Scirtes.

Family— LAMPYRIDiE ( Glow- Worms).

The phosphorescent organs of the Glow-worms and
Fireflies are made up of a mass of spherical cells, filled
with a finely-grauular substance, and surrounded by
manj' trachean branches. This substance, if sub-
stance it can be called, by daylight has a pale-yellow
appearance. In the Lampyridse it fills a portion of
the abdominal cavity, and shines on the lower surface
of the last abdominal segments through the very thin
skin which covers them. Spallanzani regarded the
luminous matter as a compound of hydrogen and car-
huretted hydrogen gas. Some philosophers, from Dar-
win to Morren, refer the light to the slow combustion of
some combination of phosphorus, secreted by an appro-
priate organization in organs remarkably rich in trachem,
and entering into combination with the oxygen supplied
in respiration. Matteucci made many experiments on
the luminosity of the Italian glow-worm. From his
researches it would appear that the phosphorescent sub-
stance burns by means of the oxygen in the tracheae,
without any indication of the presence of phosphorus.*
The luminous substance continues to shine when de-
tached from the insect, but loses its luminous properties
after a few minutes. In tbe Glow-worm the light is
not brilliant in the female, and its chief purpose seems
to be to conduct the sexes to each other.

There are two British Lampyridae, both feeding in
the larva stale on snails and other mollusca — Lampyris
noctiluca and Drilus flavescens, described further on.
The Pygolampsi xanthophotis is found about Bluefields
in May, and is conspicuous for the intensity of its light.
Sometimes it is only the last segment but two that
shows luminosity; but, when it is excited, the whole end
of the abdomen seems to be lighted up with a dazzling
glare. Mr. Gosse gave the species the name of
Xanthophotis or yellow light, from the rich orange
colour of its light when seen abroad ; when viewed in
the light of a candle it appears yellow. The light is
intermittent. Mr. Gosse has seen a specimen of this
attracted by the glow of a stationary Photuris versi-
color., fly up and play around it, “ when the inter-
mingling of the green and orange rays had a charming
appearance.” He describes the versicolor as being
noticeable by its frequent resting on a leaf or a twig in
the woods, “ when it will gradually increase the inten-
sity of its light till it glows like a torch ; then it gradu-
ally fades to a spark and becomes quite extinct ; it
thus remains unseen for some time, but in about a
minute, or it may be two, it will begin to appear, and
gradually increase to its former blaze, then fade again,
strongly reminding the beholder of a revolving light at
sea.”f

* See Siebold’s Anatomy of the Invertebrata, by Burnett,
p. 44G.

t Naturalist’s Sojourn in Jamaica, p. 104.

Southey, in his “ Madoc,” thus poetically alludes to
the fireflies of South America : —

“ Sorrowing we beheld

The night come on ; but soon did night display
More wonders than it veiled ; innumerous tribes
From the wood-cover swarmed, and darkness made
Their beauties visible ; one while they streamed
A bright blue radiance upon flowers which closed
Their gorgeous colours from the eye of day;

Now, motionless and dark, eluded search.

Self-shrouded ; and anon, starring the sky.

Rose like a shower of fire.”

The Lamprocera Latreillei is a fine large Brazilian
species described by Kirby (Plate 2, fig. 10). The
South American species of Lampyridae are very fine.
The antennae in other allied genera are very remark-
able, as in Megalopthalmus Bennetii of G. R. Gray,

Family— LYCIDHU.

Of the family LyciDjE one is figured — the Lycos
appendiculatus — an African species. Many of the
African Lycidai have strangely expanded elytra, espe-
cially in the males. Some of the South American
Lyci are most exquisitely coloured— reddish yellow.

Fig. 105 Fig. 106.

and barred with dark steel-blue. On Plate 2, fig. 4, is
figured the Hornalisus suturalis. Of British Lycidm
there are but two species, belonging to the genus Dic-
tyopierus; one of these is the rare D. Aurora.

Long ago a foreign naturalist found a queer, liairy,
flat grub feeding on the soft body of a snail ; he named
the creature Cochleoctonus voi-ax, the “Voracious
Snail-killer,” as the name may be translated into plain
English. Another naturalist was able to find this queer
deformed creature mated with a little, pretty, softish
beetle, with elytra and very pretty antenme, which
naturalists had long known as the Drilus flavescens.
The female appears to be rarely met with in this
country.

There is figured here the larva of a species of Drilus
found in Algeria, and described by M. Lucas in his
great work on that possession of the French (fig. 106).
It lives in the shell of a speeies of Cyclostoma, a circular-
mouthed genus of shells, and eats the animal of the
said shell.

The male of Drilus flavescens (Coleopt.— Plate 2,
fig. 3) may be procured by brushing herbage in aban-
doned chalk pits in Kent, about Dartford or Gravesend.
It would be well if some one were to collect a great
number of snails and keep them during the winter.
In early spring it is more than probable that careful

Clerid^e. INSECTS. Ptinid^.

22a

observation would see both male and female Drilus
flavescens emerge from the shells.

may be observed covering the ground under any small
piece of animal matter which has been overlooked by

Family — TELEPHORID.;® {Soldiers and Sailors).

In this country every boy knows the insects found
so commonly on flowers in summer-time, and called
“ Soldiers and Sailors.” Some of them have pale,
soft elytra, with reddish thorax and legs, while others
are black, but equally soft and equally agile. They
have long antennae, and are called by naturalists Tele-
phoridce. There are tifty-six British species.

In Venezuela Mr. David Dyson discovered a curious

insect of the family,
which was lately
described by a
German entomolo-
gist.* The male
(fig. 107) has very
short elytra, and the
last joints of the
antennae are curi-
ously elongated and
twisted. In the
female the elytra
are longer, and the
antennae are simple.
These antennae are
used by the male for
holding his partner.
The wings are very
ample, and the legs
are long andtermin-
ate in simple claws ;
the third joint of all
the palpi is hatchet-
shaped. In a pretty
group of green and
red beetles {Malthini) the third joint of the palpi is ovate,
and the claws are one-toothed.

Lobetiis torticollis.

Family— CLERID.®.

A large and very showy family (Plate 2, fig. 1) repre-
sents one of them — the Tillus mutillarius. The
larvae seem to be carnivorous. Fig. 108 shows the
larva of Opilus domesticus. The Bi'azilian and Australian
species are often large, and almost always showy. So
are many from the Eastern islands, whence come Tenerus,
Omadius, Stigmatium, and other curious genera.

Fig. 109 is Latreille’s beetle {Necrohia ruficollis).

The Necrohia violacea is most extensively dis-
tributed. Mr. Le Conte observes that it “ appears
to increase in numbers the farther it is removed from
the haunts of men ; in the barren regions adjoining the
Rocky Mountains, where insects reign in almost undis-
puted mastery uncheeked by scarce a single foe, it

* Lobetus torhcoZfes— Kiesenwetter, Monographie der Malthi-
nen; Linnsea Entomologica, vii., 244, t. 1, fig. 1. The beetle
is testaceous; the head, excepting the mouth, the joints of the
antennse from the second to the eighth, the wings, and the legs
are black • the coxae and the bases of the femora are testaceous.
Its length is three lines and a half.

f Annals of the Lyceum of Nat. Hist., vol. iv., p. 162.

the wolves and ravens, or which has defied the power
of their teeth and beaks.

Family— LYMEXYLONID^.

There are but two British species of this family, which
has very curiously developed palpi. The species of
Atractocerus, a long African genus, are allied to them.

Kirby and Spence quote the Lymexyloii navale, a
British insect, as a striking exemplification of the
utility of entomological know-
ledge. In the royal dock-yards
of Sweden great quantities of
oak-timber were destroyed by
the ravages of an insect. The
king desired Linnseus to inves-
tigate the matter, which the
great naturalist did; and finding
it was this beetle whieh caused
the destruction, he suggested
that the oak-timber should be
immersed in water during the
time of the metamorphosis of the
beetle and its time for depositing
its eggs. This suggestion was
adopted, and it proved a remedy
which effectualy secured the timber from its future
attacks. Yig. 110 Lymexylon navale.

Family — PTlNIDiE.

A family of little, generally hairy beetles, with long
antennae and bodies, whose larvae drill holes in furni-
ture, old cabinets, and all sorts of vegetable substances
if dry.

The Ptinus fur (Coleoptera, Plate 3, fig. 21), and
other species are very common, and often do a great
deal of mischief in a small way.

My friend, Mr. W. Horn, drug-grinder, of Belitha
Villas, Barnsbury, brought me lately many specimens
of ginger root from the East Indies, perforated by the
larvae of the small ptinidous genus Lasioderma. The
ginger is so destroyed by this small bettle {L. testa-
ceum) that the importers calculate their loss annually
at upwards of £3000 on ginger from Cochin and Calicut
alone.

There are thirty-three species of Ptinidae recorded

224

Hetekomera.-

-INSECTS.-

-BoSTRICmUAi.

as British. They belong to the genera PliUnus, Xyle-
tinus, Lasioderma, Dorcatoma, Anobium, Dryophilus,
Ochina, Hedobia, Ptinus, Niptus — one species {Niptus

hololeucns), covered with close, golden-yellow pile, has
extended over this country in my time — Gihbium, and
Scotius.

With a notice of one species T may pass on to another
family {Anobium pertinax). This little timber-boring
beetle can, when alarmed, withdraw a considerable
part of its head within the thorax, when it somewhat
resembles a monk with its hood. It has been long
famed for its pertinacious simulation of death, and
indeed has derived its specific name {pertinax) from
this very pertinacity. Fig. Ill shows the male of
Ptinus fur.

Family— BOSTRICHID^.

The Bostrichidoi is a family of wood-boring insects,
some of them large, cylindrical, and rough, especially
Cape species. In this country we have but four spe-
cies. Under Scolytidm the habits of this family are
described. On Plate 3, fig. 19, the Apate capucina, a
doubtful British insect, is figured.

With a notice merely of the Lyctidce and small
Cissidoe, often with very pretty antennse, I must pass
on to another group ; and yet, in the economy of nature,
in destroying fungi and feeding other insects or birds,
like wrens or creepers, the larvae of these little beetles
are no doubt extremely uselul.

H E T E R 0 ]\I E R A.

In the Heteromera, the first two pairs of legs have
each five joints to each tarsus, but only four to each of
the other legs.

It is a very heterogeneous mass— there being in it, no
doubt, many insects belonging to other groups, just as
there are heteromerous genera and species in penta-
merous and tetramerous sections.

In most of the Heteromera the antennae are monili-
form. In this place I do not attempt to describe the
families in their order, and space is wanting to treat
even of their names. On Plate 3 a few of the Hetero-
mera are figured, mentioned further
on, excepting the curious Heloeus
perforatus (Plate 3, fig. 11), one
of a singular group of insects, all
indigenous to Australia. The
Heloeus echidna (fig. 112), brought
from King George’s Sound by
Captain (now Governor Sir) George
Gray, has the elytra armed with
short spines ; others, as the species
figured, have hairs projecting from the wing cases.

We may begin with the great group Vesicantia, of
which our Meloe or Oil Beetle is a characteristic
example. See its curious history and strange meta-
morphoses recorded by Newport in the Linnman Trans-
actions. But space forbids our making extracts from
his pages.

There is no member of the order more famed than
the “Blister-beetle” or “Spanish-fly” {Cantharis or
Lytta Vesicatoria), and there is probably none that has
been more useful to mankind. In the druggists’ shops
you may see a large drawer or glass jar filled with

Helseus echidna.

Cantharides. It is a bright green beetle, glossed over
with reddish bronze or blue ; its elytra are long and
softish, and conceal two large wings; the antennie
are longish and thread-shaped. The beetle is some-
times though rarelj' taken in this country ; and some
twenty years ago I saw many specimens captured on
ash trees near Chelmsford or Colchester in Essex. On
the continent of Europe it is a common insect, being
abundant in the southern parts of France, Spain, Italy,
Germany, and Russia. In France the collectors of
Blister-beetles go out during the mornings and even-
ings of the month of May, when they are less active
than they are in the hot sunshine, and get them by
spreading a cloth under a tree frequented by them, and
shaking the tree or beating it with long poles. When
so employed they usually cover their faces, and protect
their hands by wearing gloves. The Cantharides are
most frequently deprived of life bj^ immersing the cloths
in which they are gathered in hot vinegar and water, and
then drying them on hurdles covered over to keep them
clean. They are imported into this country from Sicily
and Russia, the greatest part being sent in barrels or
cases from Astracan and St. Petersburg ; the Russian
cases contain from sixty to seventy pounds. The insects
are collected in large numbers in Hungary, and imported
into this country by way of Hamburg. Dr. Pereira
states that, in 1839, 16,376 lbs. of Blister-beetles were
imported into this country, on which a duty of one
shilling a pound was paid

The principle in the beetles which causes its vesica-
tory powers, exists more or less in all the numerous
species of the family,

I must here leave the Heteromera, containing the

SlTARIS.-

-INSECTS.-

-Moruellid^.

225

Blapsidce, AtVican Pimelice, curious South American
Nyctelidos, the Tmebrionidce, the HelopidcB,^i\A.Cistelida,
one of which, described and figured by Mr. Curtis, is
represented in the subjoined cut, 114.

Fig. 113 Fig- 111-

A figure is given of the African Adesmia candidi-
pennis, or of an allied species, one of the Melasorruda,
so called from their black colours (fig. 115). This
species has beautiful white elytra.

The Gnathium Francilloni, with its long thread-like
maxillae, is figured on Plate 3, fig. 16.

The other families, Melandryadoe, Diaperidce, and
Trachyscelidce, would require a volume to contain their
description. Fig. 116 shows the larva and pupa
respectively of Lagria hirta, discovered by M, Pends.

Fig. 115. Fig. 116.

b pupa.

In this country there is a small beetle about half an
inch long, called Sitaris humeralis. It is a blackish
brown rather ungainly beetle, with large wings, which
are only partially covered by the short elytra, and
have a yellowish patch at the shoulder or base, whence
the beetle derives its name of humeralis. This beetle is
a parasite in the nest of Anthophora acervorum^ a bee
which constructs its cells in old walls. Professor Fabre

VoL. 11. 85

of Avignon has lately cleared up* its history, which
seems to resemble that of Meloe. He thus sums up his
observations — Sitaris, Meloe, and apparently the other
Meloidae are all parasites on Hymenoptera in their early
stages. The larva, before reaching the nymph state,
passes through four forms, which Professor Fabre calls
primitive larva, second larva, pseudo-chrysalis, and
third larva. The passage from one of these forms to
the other is effected by a simple moult or change of
skin, without any change in the viscera. The primi-
tive larva is coriaceous and fixes itself on the body of
Hymenoptera, as its object is to reach a cell full of
hone}'. When it has been carried by the bee to the
cell, the little larva devours the egg of the bee, for
which this cell was made and the honey deposited.
Its object has been effected. The second larva is soft
and nearly apodal, and differs entirely from the primi-
tive larva, which is slim and long-legged. In this
stage it feeds on the honey contained in the cell. The
pseudo-chrysalis is a body deprived of all motion, and
covered with hard teguments compared with those of
the pupae or chrysalids. On these teguments there is
a cephalic mask, without movable and distinct parts ;
six tubercles, representing legs, and nine pairs of stig-
matic orifices; the pseudo-chrysalis is contained in
another covering formed by the skin of the second larva.
The third larva is very similar to the second. After
this third larva, the metamorphoses follow their habi-
tual course; that is to say, this larva becomes a nymph,
and this nymph a perfect insect.

The female Sitaris lays very small white oval eggs.
Fabre calculates the number deposited by one insect to
be upwards of two thousand.

Family— ANTHICID^.

Of the family Axthicida*:, so common in flowers,
whence their name, there is figured (Plate 3, fig. 20)
the strange Notoxus monoceros — the male of which has
the thorax curiously produced in front over the head.
There is also figured on the same plate (fig. 10) another
member of this fiimily — the Anthicus pedestris, with its
attenuated thorax. The other British genera are Me-
cinotarsus, Xylophilus, and the large-eyed Eriglenes.
Mr. Waterhouse records thirteen species as British.

Family — MORDELLIDHl.

The family M0RDELLID./E is an important one, many
of them being parasites.

Here too comes Rhipiphonis paradoxus, that known
parasite, and perhaps the Strepsiptera, briefly
alluded to in these pages between Hymenoptera and
Coleoptera.

* Annales des Sciences Nalurelles, Ser. 4e, vol. vii. pp. 239-
365; 1857.

Rhynchophora. INSECTS. Bkuchus.

226

PSEUDO-TETRAMEEA.

In these the tarsi are apparently four-jointed, although
on examination a fifth will be discovered.

RHYNCHOPHORA {Snouted Beetles),

A vast set of insects, upwards of ten thousand of
which have been described.

Mr. Wollaston bas published an interesting paper*
on the sounds made by some of the Curculionidse. He
noticed this habit first when in Teneriffe in a species
of Acalles, and thus narrates it ; — “ I had been accus-
tomed to find such a number of insects in the dead
branches of the various Euphorbias, that my attendant
also had discovered, from time to time, the locus quo
of many a rarity by imitating my method of research ;
and, to use his own expressions, he was about in this
instance to throw away these rotten stems as worth-
less, when he was arrested by a loud grating or almost
chirping noise, as of many creatures in concert; and
on looking closer for the mysterious cause, he detected
a specimen of Acalles, from which it was quite evident
that a portion of the noise proceeded. On shaking
the hollow stem so as to arouse its inmates, and put-
ting his ear alongside it, the whole plant appeared
musical, as though enchanted ; and it was evident to
him, therefore, that there were more of the perfornjers
within — a conjectm-e which proved to be correct ; for
on breaking open the branches he captured nearly a
dozen of them.”

Mr. Wollaston kept three of these alive for several
weeks, and as long as they lived it was a constant source
of amusement to him to make these creatures stridulate
or “sing.” It was long before he ascertained how the
noise was produced, as they would often stridulate
when lying on their sides, with their limbs closely
retracted and their head applied to their chest. At
length he perceived a minute and rapid vibration of
the apical segment of the abdomen, so rapid that to
the unassisted vision it was scarcely appreciable. He
dissected specimens of the Acalles argillosus and the
Acalles neptunus, and found in this part the structure
by which the insects produce the sound.

Section I.— ORTHOCERATA.

With all the joints of the antennae more or less
similar.

Family— BRUCHIDAl.

The family Bkuciud^ contains many small insects,
which live in the seeds of leguminous plants ; and
when they abound, as they sometimes do, very great
is the extent of their depredations. The body of the
perfect insect is oval and convex ; the head is bent

* Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist., 3rd ser., vol. vi. p. 14;
July, 1860.

downwards, so that the wide beak rests on the breast
when the insect is not engaged in eating ; the antennai
are not very long, and are serrated on the inside ; the
elytra do not cover the abdomen ; the femora of the
hind legs are very thick, and are often toothed on the
under side. One species attacks the coffee, and, like
most of the tribe, is named after the plant on which it is
found. The Bruclms pisi, the insect figured (117), is

Fig. 117. Fig. 118.

Bnichus pisi.

more common in the United States than it is here. It
is called there, according to Melsheimer, the Pea-fly
(Cat., p. 12). The figures above (118) show two
peas and a bean attacked by Bnichus ; the larva
represented much magnified. We borrow Dr. Harris’
account of its ravages on the pea: — “Few persons while
indulging in the luxury of early green pease are aware
how many insects they unconsciously swallow. When
the pods are carefully examined, small discoloured spots
may be seen upon them, each one corresponding to a
similar spot on the opposite pea. If this spot on the
pea be opened, a minute whitish grub destitute of feet
will be found therein. It is the weevil in its larva form,
which lives upon the marrow of the pea, and arrives at
its full size by the time that the pea becomes dry. This
larva or grub then bores a round hole from the hollow
of the pea quite to the hull, but leaves the latter, and
generally the germ of the future sprout, untouched.
Hence these peas will frequently sprout and grow
when planted. The grub is changed to a pupa within
its hole in the pea in the autumn, and before the spring
casts its skin again, becomes a beetle, and gnaws a hole
through the thin bull in order to make its escape into
the air, which frequently does not happen before the
peas are planted for an early crop. After the peas
have flowered, and while the pods are young and ten-
der, and the peas within them are just beginning to
swell, the beetles gather upon them and deposit their
tiny eggs singly in the punctures or wounds which they
make upon the surface of the pods. This is done
mostly during the night or in cloudy weather. The
grubs, as soon as they are hatched, penetrate the pod
and bury themselves in the opposite peas; and the
boles through which they pass into the seeds are so

Axtelabid^.-

-INSECTS.-

-Rh\'NCHITES.

227

fine as hardly to be perceived, and are soon closed.
Sometimes every pea in a pod will be found to contain
a weevil-grub ; and so great has been the injury to the
crop in some parts of the country, that the inhabitants
have been obliged to give up the cultivation of this
vegetable.” *

Peas are destroyed by the gi’ub of a species of this
group {Bruckus granarius), the female of which will
sometimes deposit an egg in every pea of a pod. But
a species indigenous to North America, and also found
here, is in the former country at times so alarmingly
destructive as to prevent the inhabitants from cul-
tivating pease. Kalm, the pupil of Linnaeus, and who
travelled in North America, was alarmed on opening
a parcel of peas to see that they were infected by the
Bruchus, for he feared lest he should be the means of
introducing a most destructive insect into Sweden. In
France in 1780, the Bruchi seem to have been very
abundant ; for in that year a rumour arose that many
had been poisoned by eating pease attacked by worms,
and in consequence the authorities would not allow
them to be offered for sale in the public market. A
Bruchus attacks a leguminous seed called gram in India,
where it is used when boiled as food for horses. The
valuable cacao or chocolate plant {Theobroma cacao)
has its peculiar Bruchus, as have many other plants.

There are nine British species. The South American
Bruchidse — of the genus Caryoharus — are very large.
I have seen the larva of one in the hard nut of a palm,
which looked no softer than ivory.

Family— ANTHRIBID^.

The family Anthribida:, a very large and fine
group, but feebly represented in our islands by eight
British species, contains insects with broad, flat noses,
and often with antennae of the most wonderful length.
Many of the South American genera are very curious,
but none are more strange than some of the odd forms
sent lately by Wallace from the East. M. Henri Jekel,
in the Insecta Saundersiana, figured many fine species
in the vast collections of W. W. Saunders, Esq. The
British genera are — Brachytarsus, Tropideres, Platy-
rkinus, Anthribus, and the curious little jumping
Choragtts described by Kirb3L

Family — ATTEL A BID JH.

A large family of the group, of which there are at
least ninety-four recorded British species, the great
mass of which belong to the genus Apion — a race of
small beetles so named from their pear-shape ; they
are attenuated in front, and gradually thickened
behind. Look at the figure of the strangely-dilated
Brazilian genus Camarotus ( Camxirotus marginalise
fig. 119). Many of the family are very destructive to
plants, and the Apions are especially destructive to
the crops of the farmers.

Some of the exotic genera are most strange, such as
the enormously long-necked Indian and Madagascar
Apoderi, and a curious genus from that great African
island, called by the writer Lagenoderus, from its curious
* Insects Injurious to Vegetation, ji. 55.

flask-shaped neck. Many of the Apoderi are spined.
Antliarhinus is placed by authors in a separate family,

Fig. 119.

Fig. 120.

Camarotus marginalis.

but we may introduce it here. Fig. 120 shows the form
of the Antliarhinus Zamice.

The species of Rhynchites are often beautifully
coloured — some brilliant green, others bright purple,
and others blue, while all tints decorate others.

I extract from the “ Introduction to Entomology ” a
passage which will explain the habits of some of the
genera of this family : —

“ The habitations constructed for their future larvae
by the beautiful weevils or long-snouted beetles of
the genera Rhynchites, Attelabus, and Apoderus,
consist of the whole, or more commonly a part, of
a leaf on which they are to feed, rolled up with
great art by the mother into a sort of cylinder,
sometimes resembling a little horn and at others a
wallet more or less elongated ; thus giving a singular
appearance to the leaves so treated, which, while their
basal portion retains its usual form, have their extrem-
ities metamorphosed into these odd-looking appen-
dages. A very interesting description of the mode in
which these nests are constructed has been lately given
by M. Huber of Geneva, who has detailed the pro-
cedures of Rhynchites Bacchus with the leaves of the
vine, of .R. Populi with those of the poplar, of R. Betulce
with those of the beech and birch, of Apoderus Coryli
with those of the hazle, and of Attelabus Curculionoides
with those of the oak, of which last, as more fully
described by M. Goureau, I will give you a short
account. The female having deposited a single egg,
which adheres by its natural gluten, near the mid-rib
of the end of the upper side of the leaf she has selected,
passes to the under surface, and slightly, but repeatedly',
gnaws with her small jaws, both the mid-rib andepidermis
in every part until both are rendered perfectly pliable.
Her next business is to roll up this terminal portion of
the leaf, in effecting which she thus proceeds : — First,
she folds it together longitudinally so as to cover her
egg, the mid-rib forming one edge of the folded part,
and its marginal serratures the other. Next, she places
herself at a right angle with the mid-rib, towards which
her tail is directed, while her head points to the ser-
ratures, and fixing the claws of her two hind left
legs into the leaf, she employs those of the two fore
legs to pull the point of it towards her; and by a
repetition of these manoeuvres, not easily described,
she at last succeeds in rolling the whole into a little

228

Pachykhynchus. INSECTS.-

•Elytrurus.

cylinder having at one end the mid-rib, whose spirals
then resemble those of the mainspring of a watch, and
at the other, which is of a less regular shape, the serra-
tures of the leaf, so pushed in by means of her trunk
and fore legs as to retain the whole in its cylindrical
form. The larva proceeding from the egg thus
deposited towards the end of May is hatched early in
June, and never quits the habitation which its provi-
dent and truly laborious mother (for each egg requires
its separate leaf and the long process above described)
has prepared for it, eating in succession the different
rolls of its cylinder, till it has attained its full growth.”
So far for Messrs. Kirby and Spence,

Section II.— GONATOCEKATA {Weevils).

The great division CurculioniDjE or Gonatoce-
KATA, have the first joint of the antennse generally
longer than the others, and geniculated or elbowed. It
is divided into many groups. There are the Bracliy-
deridce, with thirty- five British species — some very
pretty, as in the genus Polydrosus ; they have all a
short thorax and a short beak.

There are a noble set of Curculionidge in South
America, of which one is figured on Plate 4, fig. 9—
the Cyplius Hancoclci; its fine, soft, green scales and
bronzy gold patches are very beautiful. But most

Fig. 121.

of the species of Cyplius are fine objects for the
microscope. Near it is the genus Entimus, contain-
ing the well-known Diamond Beetles. The Pachy-
rhyncld are from the Philippine islands, and are perfect
gems ; one species in particular, with a rich ruby
back-ground and round patches on that ground, com-
posed of lovely green, gold, and prismatically coloured
scales. Fig 121 shows Pacliyrhynchus orbifet'.

The species of NaujMctus and Diaprepes are often
covered with beautiful scales.

Of the group Cleonidoi there are thirty-five recorded
British species placed in thirteen genera. The typical
genus Cleonus abounds in species.

Molytes is a small genus of black, fat-looking beetles,
while Phytonomus is a large genus of smallish-sized
weevils, many of them very destructive to plants.

The various species of Hylohivs are, where they
abound, very injurious in forests of the pine tribe, as
they often quite destroy the young trees. The larch,
now so extensively planted for its useful timber, is at
times much destroyed by the Hyldbius abietis. Mr.
Elliott of AVolfelee lately communicated to the Ento-
mological Society some interesting remarks on the
ravages of this beetle in Scotland. Mr. Janson has
also published in the Proceedings of the same society
(October, 1860) a nice account of this insect, chiefly
derived from the valuable work of Eatzeburg, This
beetle seems to prefer in Germany the Pinus sylvatica
and P. abies, although it attacks all the firs indiscrimi-
nately. It is the perfect beetle which is directly inju-
rious. It gnaws the young shoots, thus causing them
to wither. “ The extremities of a tree thus attacked
(the most vigorous and healthy trees are invariably
selected by the beetle) several years in succession,
sickness and death inevitably ensue, in dry sea.sons
especially ; the mischief this beetle occasions in woods
where it abounds is almost incredible.”

The beetles come out from May to October. The
females deposit their eggs, and the larvae live, either in
the stems of sickly, dead standing, or felled trees.
They deposit their eggs also in stumps and roots.
The forester should therefore grub up all stumps, and
clear out all sickly and dead trees, in order to restrain
the multiplication of this beetle. The timber should he
barked as soon as practicable after it is felled, as the
females only deposit their eggs in the bark.

Among the plans mentioned by Eatzeburg for de-
stroying these beetles the most successful seem to be
the following ; the digging of pits and trenches with
perpendicular sides at short intervals round the plan-
tations and along the sides of the paths. Into these
the beetles fall or fly, and, being unable to escape, they
are taken and destroyed. In Germany they also lay
hunches of young fir boughs about the plantations or
in the pits. By shaking these daily over cloths, the
beetles are collected and destroyed. Eatzeburg says,
that as many as two thousand five hundred beetles
have been taken daily from one hundred of these
hunches. It is necessary to replace these boughs when
dry with fresh ones, as they no longer attract beetles
in this state. Another method is to strew strips of
fresh fir bark about the plantations, with the inner
surface downwards. On lifting these, great numbers
of beetles are found to have congregated upon and
beneath them.

The Byrsopsidce form a curious group, very feebly
represented in Britain, where but one species is met
with — the Gronops lunatus. In South Africa there
are many striking species.

In the group Otiorhynchidce, there are thirty- nine
British species belonging to the genera Phyllobius,
Trachyphlceus, Omias, Otiorhynclius, &c.

The genus Elytnirus is found in the islands to the
north of New Zealand. It has singularly elongated
elytra. Fig. 122 represents the Elytrurus atratus.

We may briefly refer to the habits of some of the
species of Otiorhynchus, a very extensive genus. Some
of the most destructive of the weevil tribe belong to
the genua Otiorhynclius. Among these the 0. suica-

La KIN US.-

INSECTS. 0KYF’rOKHYUCHID.iK.

229

I

ivs often occasions much damage to the gardener by
destroying plants in pots. Mr. Westwood and the
late Mr. Haworth found this insect in the month of

Fig. 122.

ElytruruB atratus.

December, at the roots of plants in pots at a short
distance below the surface, where they gnawed round
the upper part of the root, leaving the lower parts and
the leaves and stems untouched. They enter into the
pupa state in the beginning of summer, and soon emerge
as beetles. The larva is clothed with numerous short,
rigid hairs.

Another destructive species is the Otiorhynchus
picipes, an insect, like most of its congeners, so like
the soil in colour, that when it does not move, or lies
with its limbs contracted, it requires a very sharp eye
to distinguish it from the ground. This Weevil is at
times a dreadful pest in gardens, from the ravages it
commits on vines in hothouses and on wall-fruit during
the night. These ravages are caused by their feeding
on the jmung shoots. Tn spring they injure raspberry
plants by eating through the flowering stems and leaves,
and as early as February or March they attack the bark
and buds of apple and pear trees.

Of the group Erirhinidce there are ninety-two re-
corded British species in the following genera : —

Lixixs, with its host of narrow species, mostly exotic.
The beautiful L. bicolor is found at Deal ; Larinus,
with one British species; Rhinocyllus, Pissodes, con-
fined to northern parts, where the species P. Notatus
is often very destructive to the pine forests; Mag-
dalinus and Erirhinus. One is named E. vorax, pro-
bably because it does much damage. Grypidius,
Hydronorous, Ellescbus, and Brachonyx ; Anlho-
nomus Balaninus {Balaninus nucum is the common Nut-
weevil); Amalus, Tychius, Miccotrogus, Smicronyx,
Sibynes, and Orchcstes.

Daniel Hanbury, Esq., in the Proceedings of the Lin-
naean Society for May, 1859, has figured a curious insect
product, the cocoon of the Larinus maculatus. These
cocoons are called Trehala or Tricala by the Turks.
They are constructed by the weevil on a species of
Echinops ; they form “ the basis of a mucilaginous
drink administered to the sick,” and enjoy in con-
sequence some celebrity in the East. They are of an
oval or round form, and about three-quarters of an inch
in length ; outside is a rough, tuberculated coating
of a greyish-white colour, looking like earth or ashes
held together with gum. These cocoons, according to
M. Guibourt, are composed “ of a large proportion of

starch, gum of a peculiar saccharine matter, a bitter
principle, besides earthy and alkaline salts.” — {Han-
bury, 1. c., p. 181.)

M. Bourlier says that, in Constantinople, the Jew
drug-dealers keep great quantities of the Trehala, and
that “ it is frequently used by the Arab and Turkish
physicians in the form of a decoction, which is regarded
b}' them as of peculiar efficacy in diseases of the respira-
tory organs.

Fig, 123 shows the Larinus mellificus of Jekel, a
species, like the former, said to secrete a saccharine
substance resembling dark honey.

The group Baridiidce is an immense group of
weevils, often very beautifully metallic. In Britain
only five species are found. There must be at least
between four and five hundred species in the Bow-
ringian collection.

The group Cryptorhynchidce, so called from the
beak being capable of withdrawal into a groove on the
breast, contains eighty-three British species in fourteen
genera, the most numerous of which in species are
Cceliodes, Bagcnis, and Ceutorhynclius. On Plate 4,
-fig. 1 0, is figured a fine Brazilian species of the group
named Ameris Dufresnii — Kirby giving it the specific
name in compliment to a French naturalist, who sold
his collections to the Edinburgh College Museum. We
figure here the strange and rare Phybomorplms atratus,
described by M. Henri Jekel, and which looks liker
one of the Heteromera than a weevil (fig. 124). It is
from Lord Howe’s Island.

Fig. 124.

Hybcmorphns atratus.

The other cut (fig. 125) represents the curious TacJiy-
opus Lecontei, a small beetle about a line and a third
long. It lives on oaks in South Carolina, on the under
s'de of leaves, where it was found by Dr. Zimmerman,
who says they feign death. The}' fix themselves to the

230

Calanura. INSECTS. Scolytidas.

lower part of the leaf by means of the spines on the
liind legs. The cut is copied by Mr. Holmes from
Sturm’s catalogue.

Fig. 125.

The group Calandridce contains some of the largest,
Rhyncophorus colossus, R. longimanus, and some of
the smallest of the weevils (Sitophibis granarius), &c.

Rhyncophorus palmarum.* — This beetle is of a dark
black ; the elytra have five long and a few shorter
lateral striae. The podex is triangular, and fringed
with hairs ; the beak of the male is furnished with a
longitudinal brush. The larva is short, fat, and rusty
yellow ; the head is brown, as are spots on the thorax
and flattened tail. Such is the description of Guilding.
This large insect is found in various parts of the
tropics of the New World. Its larva perforates dead or
injured palms, and hence the specific name of the per-
fect insect is derived. It is chiefly the Gru-gru {Cocos
fusiformis), a palm of the same genus as the Coco,
which it drills. The larva also occasionally attacks
the sugar-cane.

Although a small insect, yet none of its tribe is more
destructive than the Corn Weevil {Sitophilus granarius)
a little snouted beetle of a brownish-red colour, with
furrowed elytra shorter than the body. At times vast
cpiantities of corn and other grain are destroyed by this
weevil, which attack these seeds when stored in grana-
ries and often occasion very serious damage, as they
devour grain both in the grub state and as beetles. It
is one of the most prolific of coleopterous insects, if the
report is true that a pair of these weevils may produce
six thousand in one year. If grain be kept cool and
frequently moved, it is not liable to being attacked, for
it is when the corn is housed that the female deposits
her eggs in it ; the young maggots as soon as hatched
burrow into the grain, each maggot selecting a different
seed, the inside of which it devours ; and having under-
gone their various transformations no time is lost in
depositing eggs for another brood.

Rice is attacked by another species allied to the corn
weevil, but ratber smaller, and having two red spots
on each elytron.

The Borer- weevil {Calandra sacchari) an insect
which commits great ravages on the crops of sugar-
cane in Jamaica, is said to have been introduced into
that island from Tahiti in 1797. Mr. King of Port-
land has described this insect and its transformations.
The egg is the size of a small bead, and is partially
transparent ; the female deposits this within the suc-
culent vessels of the cane, where the adliering footstalk

* Curculio palmarum — Lin. ; Calandra palmarum — Fabr.

of the leaf keeps the decayed foliage hanging to the
germinating joint. The egg is hatched when the eye
or growing bud begins to show the active Influences of
both heat and moisture. The maggot, as soon as
hatched, worms its way from the verge of the foot-
stalk into the very body of the succulent and vegetat-
ing shoot, where it increases in dimensions. It then
occupies the centre of the plant, making its way
upwards through the growing cane, but remaining
within the sweet and perfected joints, and never
ascending to the greener tops to devour the germ and
destroy vegetation. It entirely exhausts the saccharine
fluid in which it has lodged, filling the excavation it
makes with an excrementitious deposit extremely
injurious to the cane liquor from the mill ; deteriorating
it rapidly if it remain untempered while running into
the pans. When the canes are cut the maggot has
passed into the pupa state. The pupa is inclosed in a
cocoon, which is a shroud of decayed trash curiously
formed by the maggot. The shreds of which this
cocoon is formed are plaited and wound together, and
so closely fastened at the ends that the air is excluded.
It continues in this state only for a short time. From
this comes out the snouted beetle, striped yellow and
brown.

Of the group Cossonidoi there are eight British
species — Mesites Tardii (an Irish and South of Eng-
land insect named after Mr. Tardy), Phlceophagus,
Rhyncolus, and Pentarthrum.

This ends the vast army of Weevils with its sixteen
thousand known species.

Family — SCOLYTIDHS (Tree-banes).

Connecting the Rhynchophora, through Cossonus and
Khyncholus, we come to the ScolytiDjE, also called
Hylesinid.®, small beetles of a brown or rust colour,
somewhat cylindrical in form, and rounded both in
front and behind. I would propose for them the name
of Tree-bane, from the damage many of them do to
trees. The grubs devour the soft inner parts of the

Fig. 126.

Scolytus destructor.

bark, which they loosen in this way from the wood ;
and trees attacked by them soon languish and decay.
The elms in the neighbourhood of London and Paris
have been much destroyed by the Scolytus destructor,
an insect of this family (fig. 126). In one of the mining

ScoLYTiD^. INSECTS. Loj<gicokma. 231

districts of Germany, not supplied with coal like similar
districts in our own country, but dependent for fuel on
the forests of fir-trees, a species of Hylurgus began to
increase, about the year 1780, to such an extent as to
destroy in a few years whole forests. The working of
the mines was in this way materially affected, as the
proprietors had no fuel to carry on their operations.
Those who wish to see the importance attached to the
study of insects, destructive or otherwise to forests on
the continent, should consult the handsome quarto
volumes of Dr. Ratzeburg,* amply illustrated with
figures.

The larvae of this family of beetles, immediately after
being hatched, excavate in the inner hark — as shown
in the cut (fig. 127) copied from Ratzeburg — and
partly also in the sapwood, “ lateral parallel channels
more or less sinuous, proceeding on each side from
a central one— that in which the eggs were placed —
and thus giving to the under side of the detached bark
and exposed sapwood that pinnated labyrinthine appear-

Fig. 127.

Excavated bark.

ance and fancied resemblance to letters, which made
Linnaeus affix to one of these insects the name of Typo-
graphus." The effect of their ravages is to interrupt
the course of the descending sap, and admit wet be-
tween the bark and the wood, so that decay of the
tree quickly ensues. The Hylesinus fraxini attacks
the ash, and the Scolytus pygmmus the oak. The
latter small beetle killed forty thousand trees in the
Bois de Vincennes, near Paris.

Entomologists have differed much in opinion whether
the Scolytidae and Bostrichidae really injure and
destroy trees in their growing state, or whether they
only attack such as are already diseased. Captain
Cox of Canterbury has published papers on the ravages
of the Scolytidae, and suggested the means of arresting
their progress. Mr. Alfred Wallace, who took very
many species of them in New Guinea and other islands
• Die Forst-insekten.

of the Eastern seas, came to the conclusion that they
only attacked dead wood, generally in the first stage of
drying or decay.* In the course of five years almost
daily spent in the forests, he never saw a single indi-
vidual of either of these families attacking healthy living
trees, nor did he find any traces of their having bored
into such trees. Whenever a tree falls or is cut down
these bettles are the first to attack it. In a few days
dozens of small holes may be seen on the trunks and
branches, from each of which a little fine wood-dust
falls down; and on careful examination some of the
insects may be seen pushing out the dust with the
truncated end of the elytra. He mentions that he had
cut dowm a large tree in the Aru islands of a kind
which contained much milky sap, hardening into a
kind of gutta percha on exposure to the air. Upon
this tree he found many specimens of Scolytidae with
their abdomens protruding from the holes they had
bored, but all dead. They were glued fast by the
hardening of the milky sap. The tree could not have
been the proper food of this species, or the right place
to deposit its eggs. In a hut in Macassar, formed of
bamboos and palm, the Scolyti abounded. Mr. Wal-
lace heard their never-ceasing jaws in the stillness
of the night as they were at work. Mr. Waterhouse
gives the names of thirty-nine species as British.
They are in ten genera, the names of which are —
Hylastes, Hijlurgus, Hylesinus, Phlwoph thorns, Scoly-
tus, Xyloterus, Hypothenemus, Cryphalus, Tomicus,
and Platypus. Most of the names are indicative of
their gnawing into wood or bark.

Group — LONGICORNIA {Longicorn Beetles).

A very extensive and important section of Beetles,
most of which are at once marked by the great length
of the antennoe. How curious it is to see, as I have
seen, a live specimen of the great Harlequin beetle of
South America {Acrocinus lomjirnanus), with its coat
of many pleasing colours, and its immensely long fore
legs and long, long, antennae, crawl up a branch !
It places an antenna on the spot where it is about to
plant its foot, doing this regularly one after the other.
Many are the uses served by these antennae, and in
this tribe they are remarkably varied. Look at the
curious serrated edge of the joints in Westwood’s genus
Scolecobrotus, certainly used by that Australian insect
in some particular way; then look at the beautifully
pectinated antennae of Polyarthron, Phcenicocerus,
Petalodes, and other genera. See the short hetero-
merous-like antennae of Spondylis and of some of the
Brenthidm. The eyes are, in most, notched or kidney-
shaped. But space forbids me entering into particu-
lars about this really magnificent tribe, which varies
in size from the minute Decarthria to the gigantic
Titanus, or that immense AVest African Prionus de-
scribed by Hope, or the beautiful large Batocera
discovered by Mr. Wallace in one of the Eastern
islands. For delicate colour, what can be sweeter than
the curiously horned-headed Pheebe concinna (Plate 3,
fig. 7), with its purplish lavender hues, and the pleas-
ing variety of pale tints which set otf these purplish
* Trans. Ent. Soc. London, new series, vol. v. p. 218 ; 1860

•Brenthid^.

232 Longicoknia. INSECTS.

hues so elegantly ! Then, again, the charming yellow
and red Anisocerus duldssimus,’* found by Bates, is a
truly exquisite insect — Plate 3, fig. 8. The Australian
Tcloccra Wollastoni — Plate 3, fig, 4 — is curious from
the antennae being dilated at the end. It was named
b}”^ the writer after Thomas Vernon Wollaston, Esq.
Pascdeci Idee — Plate 3, fig. 5 — with its strange spined
cheeks, was named generically after F. Pascoe, Esq. ;
the specific name is after Madame Ida Pfeiffer. It
belongs to the group Tmesisternus and Coptomma, a
New Guinea, New Zealand, and East Indian Archipelago
set of Longicorns. Plate 3, fig. 6 is a curious Longi-
corn from Lord Howe’s Island, which at first I named
Deucalion Wollastoni. I subsequently constituted a
genus Pyrrha for it.

Many of the larvae of Longicorn beetles are eaten by
the less civilized races of man. Even the Homans are
believed to have used the large
juic}'' grubs of Prionus cori-
arius, Hamaticlierus heros, and
perhaps other species of Longi-
corn beetles, and included them
under the name of Cossus.f
The larvae of Stmodontes
damicornis^ a large blackish
brown prionidous beetle, com-
mon in the West Indies and in
some parts of South America,
are eaten both by white and
black people. The Montac, the grub of a Longicorn,
is found in the Mauritius, and, according to St. Pierre,

Fig. 128. Fig. 129.

is dressed and eaten b^’ the white colonists, as well as
the negroes. The larva of the Mucrodontia cerwfeorMis,

* Hope, Tran. Ent. >Soc., vol iii. p. 133.
t See White’s Catalogue of Longicorns in British Mtisenm
collection.

a South American insect living on the sap of the Bom-
bax, is used as food In Cayenne the Titanus gigan-
tens., one of the largest of beetles, has become rare
from the eagerness, so I have heard, with which the
negroes and natives search for its fine large sapid grub

The Parandrid.® are South American depressed,
pentamerous, short-horned Longicorns.

The TrictenotomidjE are Eastern Longicorns, with
heteromerous tarsi and curious antennae, somewhat like
those of Lucanus. Mr. George Robert Gray named
the genus, and very briefly described its first species
{T. Childreni).

Family— BHENTHIDHS.

I believe the BrenthiDjE, generally placed with the
Rhynchophora, to come here. Two curious forms are

figured here. Fig. 128 represents furcillatus,

and fig. 129 Taphroderes Mellii. The Brentus Tein-
minckii of Java is the most gigantic of the tribe.

Fig. 131.

The very curious Hypocephalus, of which I have seen
but one specimen, that in the collection of J. Aspinal

Prionid^ INSECTS. Cerambycid.®. 233

Turner, Esq., M.P. for Manchester, connects, as I fancy,
so I have shown elsewhere, the Brenthidce with the
Prioniclce through the genus Dorysthenes.

I have caused the excellent figure of the Hypoce-
phalus to be copied — figs. 130, 131.

A glance will show that the insect is closely related
to Dorysthenes rostratus and D. montanus, and the
allied genera of Prionidce; while I have shown else-
where its affinities to, if they be not stronger than
analogies with, some of the Brenthidce.

Family — PRIONIDiE.

The family of Prionid./E contains some of the largest
of coleopterous insects. In this group of Beetles comes

the very gigantic South American Longicoru, named
Titanus giganteus. The insect with the name derived
from the “ family of the giants,” and bearing the
generic name of their very type and crown, is now
becoming scarce. No wonder! Titanus giganteus is
sought eagerly bj' three parties : first, they say that
monkej's eat them ; secondly, I know that the negroes
hunt eagerly for their large soft grubs. The third assail-
lant of Titanus is the insect collector, who can get
easily a couple of sovereigns or napoleons, or several
dollars, for even an injured specimen. Many of the
You II. 86

Prionidce have large jaws ; as in Macrodontia cervi-
cornis and Psalidognathus Friendii. The late Mr.
Empson took perhaps the first specimen of this insect
which ever attracted the attention of a European. Mr.
George Robert Gray described a specimen brought
from Columbia by Lieutenant Friend, which was in
the collection of John George Children, F.R.S. The
specimen is now in the British Museum. Mr. Empson
saw one for the first time in Columbia, at a feast given
by the Cabildo at Mariquita. On that occasion he
observed one of the Columbian dons with a Psalidog-
nathus, which he used as a button to loop up the broad
brim of his Panama hat, after the fashion of Spanish
costume. To this Don Domingo Condd had attached
a loop of living fire-flies as a brilliant ornament. This
Psalidognathus has enormous jaws cross-
ing each other somewhat like scissors;
the male has wings ; the female has only
elytra. It and an allied species are now
common.

The insect here figured by Mr. Holmes,
of the natural size, was found by Mr.
John Macgillivray at Tana among the
New Hebrides, when he was naturalist
on board her Majesty’s surveying-ship
Herald. In the Proceedings of the
Zoological Society, it was described under
the name of Psalidocoptus scaber — fig.
132. The specimen figured is a female,
and exhibits this rough blackish-brown,
Longicorn beetle, the elytra of which are
united along the suture. The name
alludes to the elytra being cut with a
delicate outline and incisures, as you may
see papers cut with scissors. The male
is smaller.

Family- CERAMBYCID^ and
LAMIADZE.

I can only refer briefly to a few of the
Cerambycid^. with their horizontal
heads, and to one or two of the Lami-
ADAE, with their precipitous foreheads.
Some of the latter must bite very fiercely,
such as the Petrognatha gigas of West
Africa, with its strong jaws and spined
thorax. Dr. Baird sent us from Kings-
land, when be lived there, a fine polished
metallic beetle of this family, with curi-
ously club-shaped shanks, and named
by naturalists Cordylomera nitidipennis.
This fine beetle had pastured as a grub on the Swietenia
mahogany, a tree of the West Indies. Fine as the
beetle is to the entomologist, the cabinetmaker would
much prefer his log, or the veneer from it, to be with-
out the holes made by the boring of the grub of Cor-
dylomera. Its red legs and thorax are covered with
fine shining green elytra, from which entomologists
give it the name of nitidipennis.

On Plate 3, fig. 3, is represented the beautiful grey
and black alpine Rosalia alpina. A similarly elegant
species was received lately from Vancouver’s Island, or

Fis?. 132.

234

Callidium.-

-INSEGTS.-

-Sai'Kkua.

rather from British Columbia, for I believe the speci-
men came from the continent.

Plate 3, fig. 9, .shows a South African species of
the fine genus Tragocephala ; it is the T. comitessa,
The Tragocephalce are fine African insects. Phos-
phorus Lucia and Phosphorus Jansoni, especially the
latter, are most striking insects when fresh. The
beautifully delicate yellow plush, and the black sur-
roundings, form a fine contrast.

Sir James Emerson Tennent* records the ravages
made on the cocoa-nut trees of Ceylon by a large
species of Longicornus beetle [Batocera ruhus), called
by the Singhalese Cooroominya. The larva of this
“ makes its way into the stems of the younger trees,
and after perforating them in all directions, it forms a
cocoon of the gnawed wood and sawdust, in which it
reposes during its sleep as a pupa, till the arrival of the
period when it emerges as a perfect beetle.” Notwith-
standing the repulsive aspect of the large pulpy larvre
of these beetles, they are esteemed a luxury by the
Malabar Coolies. Sir James quotes a paper by Mr.
Capper in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Ceylon
for May, 1845, on the ravages perpetrated by these
beetles. Mr. Capper had recently passed through several
cocoa-nut plantations, varying in extent from twenty
to one hundred and fifty acres, and about two to three
years old ; in these he did not discover a single young
tree untouched by this destructive Longicorn beetle.

Of the boring powers of some of the Longicorns I
have had most satisfactory proof. I have seen part
of a cistern lined with lead, through which a speci-
men of Callidium bajtdum had bored. The grub or
pupa happened to be in the wood when the cistern
was constructed, and the creature with its upward

Fig. 133.

tendencies ate through the wood, and actually per-
forated the lead lining of the cistern. It was only
found out by the leaking of the water. The natives
of King George’s Sound were found, amongst other
grubs, to be fond of those of a beetle described by Mr.

* Ceylon ; an Account of the Island, Physical, Historical,
and Topographical, &c., vol. i., p. 249.

Newman, and which he named Bardistus cibarius. It
is represented in fig. 133. According to Captain (now
Governor Sir) George Grey, the grub is named Barde.
Bardistus is a native of King George’s Sound, where it
seems to be very abundant, forming a favourite article
of food with the natives. It is eaten in its imago as
well as its larva and pupa states. It is found in the
Xanthorhea.

The larva of a Longicorn beetle of the genus Aga-
panthia {A. suturalis — Fald) has been observed and
described by M. E. Perris.* The accompanying
figures (figs. 134 and 135) are carefully copied from
his plate.

Fig. 134. Fig. 135.

Larva.

This larva lives in the stems of the Melilotus macro-
rhiza, one of those yellow trefoils which grow in the
clayey and rather moistish parts of Belgium. It is of a
yellowish-white colour, and is distinguished by the
dorsal protuberances and pectoral swellings from others
of the genus which have been observed. The perfect
insect comes out in June. The female deposits a single
egg on the tender stem of the trefoil. The young larva,
when hatched, pierces its way with its jaws into the
medullary canal, and hollows out a gallery, eating its
way. This gallery it traverses with great ease; the
protuberances of its back act as legs or props, where-
with to push against the wall. In April or May it
turns into the nymph or pupa state, and escapes by a
round hole which it pierces in the plant. The perfect
insect is a narrowish, greenish bronze beetle, the suture
and side margins of the elytra being clothed with grey-
ish-yellow downy hairs.

The apple-tree in the United States suffers much
from the attack of the yellowish or white cylindrical
grub of the Saperda bivittata, so called from the white
stripes on its elytra.

Dr. Asa Fitchj" tells us that the Winged beetle
appears early in June. Among the means provided by
the Author of nature for destroying this borer, and
keeping it from becoming unduly multiplied, the
Woodpeckers, especially the Downy woodpecker, Pfews
pubescens L., stands conspicuous. And yet another
American writer^ insists on the necessity of the orchard-
keeper carrying on a war of extermination against this
bird, which, from the account of Dr. Fitch, appears to
be in reality one of his most useful friends.

* Mgmoires de la Societd royale des Sciences de Lidge, vol.
X. p. 244, PI. 5, figs. 37, 46 ; 1855.

t Report on the noxious, beneficial, and other insects in the
State of New York, p. 13. Albany, U.S., 1855.
t Kirkland; Zoology (Ohio), p. 179.

Criocerid^. INSECTS. Aspidimorpha. 235

FAMiLY~LEPTUPaDJ3.

The family Lepturidae have generally round eyes,
and are often attenuated in the elytra, and also in the
beak or front of the head. It is a very large family.
Many of the Lepturoe (true), Strangalice, and Gram-
mopterce are essentially insects of the temperate or
colder parts of the world. Mr. Waterhouse places
Molorchus (Coleoptera, Plate 3, fig. 2), with its abbre-
viated antennae, among them. Here also comes the
genus Bhagium, of which we have three species,
marked like the bark of some trees, and mottled and
barred irregularly (see Rhagium mordax — Coleoptera,
Plate 3, fig. 1). I may specify the curious genus
Nemotragus, long and parallel, and those interesting
Australian genera, Stenoderus and its allies. The curious
Mastododera, from Madagascar, is a note-worthy genus,
allied to our Toxotus.

There are fifty-five recorded British Longicorns ; but
many more are occasionally met with, imported by
ships.

Group — PHYTOPHAGA {Plant-eating Beetles).

These Beetles, as the name implies, are all livers on
plants, and eaters of their leaves and other parts.
Some of them, especially in the family Galerucidce are
at times very destructive to our crops. Few of them
are very large. The Sagridce, thick-legged clumsy
beetles, coming out of a hardish cocoon, are among the
largest.

In the phytophagous beetles the head is generally
immersed in the thorax up to the eyes ; the parts of
the mouth, except in a few, are not prominent. The
Donacice, frequenting water plants ; the strange, often
strong -jawed, large-headed Clythridm ; those lovely
ruby and emerald gems, the brilliant species of Lam-
prosoma — South American insects. Here come the
strange species of Chlamys, some like pieces of clay
knobbed ; others like a glowing ember ; the species
are chiefly South American, but a few are met with in
the Old World.

If the reader wishes to study the Hispidce — a well-
marked and very numerous fine family-^he must pro-
cure Mr. Baly’s work on it.

The great work of Boheman of Stockholm on the
CASSiDiDiE is indispensable, as well as his very useful
catalogue with new species, published by the trustees
of the British Museum.

The HalticcB, are a very extensive family of insects
with thickened saltatorial hind legs ; our readers may
study the descriptive catalogue of the Rev. Hamlet
Clark. The numerous papers of Stahl and of Baly on
Dorypliora and other chrysomelidous groups must be
consulted.

Family— CRIOCERIDH3.

Here come Sagra, Donacia, Megalopus, and its
allies, a fine group, chiefly from the New World.
The strange and rare Carpophagus and Megamerus,
Australian genera very like Bruchidce, are placed here;

and here indeed the Bruchidse, perhaps, should be
naturally registered.

The Crioceris merdigera is a species found on the
water-lily.

In Asparagus beds is frequently found that pretty
striped member of the family, Lema asparagi.

Professor Babington of Cambridge found many spe-
cimens of the Macroplea Zosterce amidst a dense mass
of leaves and stalks of the pectinated leaved pond-weed,
Potamogeton pectinatus. They were always under the
water.

Family— CASSIDIDAE {The Tortoise Beetles).

A very extensive family of Beetles, with highly-
developed elytra — (see figure of the curiously per-
forated Selenis spinifex, Coleoptera, Plate 3, fig. 14)
It is a native of South America. See also figs. 1 2 and
13 of the same plate, where is figured a Tortoi.se beetle,
named kindly after the writer by Professor Boheman of
Stockholm Prioptera Whit'd. Fig. 12 represents the
perfect insect and its antennae, while fig. 13 is, as I
believe, that of its larva just changing into the pupa,
drawn from a specimen sent home by Mr. Fortune.
In this country we occasionally find, on thistles, green
species of Cassida very common.

Many of the exotic species — such as the species of
the genera Aspidimorpha and Coptocycla, which in
cabinets are dull yellow, with cruciform brown marks,
or dotted and circled or half-circled with black — when
alive have the most glorious vivid golden hues pervad-
ing them.

Fig. 136.

Mr. Smith kept a specimen of the Aspidimorpha
sanctce crueis alive for several weeks, the common
Indian species from Bombay, and most gloriously deco-

236 Hispid^. INSECTS. Chbysomelid.41.

rated it was with golden hues, which before death became
bronzy. Some of tbe Hong Kong species are most
beautifully marked, and so are the Ceylonese, as the
rare Coptocycla Balyi.

Coptocycla is a very extensive and beautiful genus,
generally small and mostly from the New World. They
retain their hues in alcohol.

The larvae of the Tortoise beetles shelter themselves
under an umbrella of their own excrement, and this
covering they can elevate or depress in such a way as
to shade or shelter them more or less effectually.
They effect this by means of a forked instrument, which
Kirby has called a fcecifurk. On this they place the
excrementitious matter. It is sometimes turned up
and lies flat on the back ; sometimes it forms an acute,
sometimes a blunt angle, wkh the body; at others, is un-
bent and in the same direction with it. Figs. 136, 137,
show the larva and pupa of a Cassida, copied from the

Fig. 137.

Stettin Entomological Society’s journal. The excre-
mentitious matter is sometimes formed into very long
branching filaments, as in the Calopepla Leayana, a
species of the family found in India, in which this ster-
eoraceous parasol, as observed by the late General
Hardwicke, much resembles a dried sea- weed or lichen.

Family— HISPIDHD.

Tlie larvae of these are, in some respects, related to
the wood-feeding larvae of the Longicorn beetles, whilst
in habits they resemble those of the leaf-mining cater-
pillars of certain moths. The late Professor T. W.
Harris of the United States first recorded this. Want
of space forbids me entering any further on the group.

The cut (fig. 138) represents the larva of Hispa
testacea, discovered by Mr. Perris abundantly on the
Cistus salvifolius, a plant growing on tbe sandy heaps

Fig. 138.

of the Landes of France. He found that the larva
lives on the parenchyma of the leaves, without attacking
the epidermis.

Family— GALEEUCID^.

This is a most extensive family of insects; many
of them are beautifully coloured, and have remarkable
antennae.

Fred. Val. Melsheimer, minister of Hanover, York
county, who published a catalogue of the insects of
Pennsylvania in 1806, states that the Cucumber fly is
“ the pest of gardens,” and is destroyed or driven off
by tar and sulpbur.

Our turnips are subject to the attacks of several
insects; few are so destructive to these crops as the
little jumping beetles {Haltica Nemorum), called by
farmers “ the fly” and “ black jack.” Kirby and
Spence record that in one year in Devonshire these
insects did damage to the turnip crops, which was
estimated at £100,000.

Family— CHRYSOMELIDiE.

A very extensive family of generally brilliant green,
blue, or bronzed beetles. I remember a fine species,
very common on plants at the foot of Salisbury Craigs,
striking the attention of a youthful collector of insects
in 1833.

The larvae are six-legged, with also an anal leg.
On heaths and commons you may often meet with a
small convex black beetle “ crawling solemnly about,”
This beetle ( Timarcha cm'iaria) is about the third of
an inch in length, and in its larva state is exclusively
a vegetable feeder. There is another species found in
this country which is of larger size, and being smoother
than the other, is named Timarcha Icevigata. Both
species, if you take them up, in self-defence exude a
red-coloured liquid from their mouth, whence they
have obtained the vulgar, but very characteristic name,
of “ bloody-nosed beetles.”

On Plate 4, fig. 6, is figured the Australica Curtisd,

Endomychid^. INSECTS. Coocinei.lid^. 237

one of a pretty numerous genus of Australian Chryso-
melidse. The Eumolpi are often very gloriously
coloured ; the name Eumolpus is well applied to these
brightly-burnished insects. Here come the various
Colaspidas and many other groups.

In Australia we have the extensive genus or group
called Paro^sis— yellow, dirty brownish-yellow, black,
and rarely green, being ordinary colours.

Section— PSEUDO-T RIMERA.

Professor Westwood has wisely substituted this term
for Latreille’s name Trimeka. In most of the insects
of this great primary section of the Beetles, the
tarsi are apparently composed of only three joints,
the second of which, however, is bilobed, and receives
between its lobes the minute third joint, and the base
of the fourth or terminal joint. It has been seen that
some insects really Pentamerous in their affinities are
Heteromerous, and some Pseudo-tetramerous longi-
corns, &c., are Pentamerous, So that five is actually
the normal number of joints.

Family— EROTYLID^.

A very well marked family of Beetles, chiefly exotic.
The tarsi are pseudo-tetramerous. The South Ameri-
can species are particularly showy and handsome.
They form the subject of a fine monograph by Lacor-
daire ; but since his time many new species have been
met with by my friend, H. W. Bates. Yellow spots
and bands, or red spots and bands on a black ground,
are the prevailing colours. The antennae have a three-
jointed club. The various species of Languria be-
longing to this group are fungivorous ; that is to say,
the larvae live on fungi, on trees or on the ground,
but especially those with small pores of the Boletus
kind. Engidae and Erotylidae seem to pass into each
other, or surely it may be said that they are one and
the same. I cannot help pointing out a very curious
Langurioid genus with large flat tarsi from India, which
I described some years ago, naming it after my friend
and coadjutor, the late accomplished Edward Double-
day. It is the Douhledayia viator. I intended to
allude, in the specific name, long legs, and curious feet,
to the love of travel of my late friend.

Family— ENDOMYCHID^,

Tlie largest of these, forming the genus Eumarplius
and allies, are found in Java, Malacca, Borneo, and
other parts of tropical Asia and its islands. In South
America are found several genera, such as Coryno-
malus and Stenotarsus. The larvae of a species of the
latter genus, are sometimes found feeding in company
with the perfect insects on the minute fungous, or
perhaps lichenous substance, on the surface of old,
damp, dead wood — broken branches of forest trees,
old barked stumps, or pailings around plantations.
Many of the smaller species, specially of the genera
Epopterus, Anidrytus, Phalantha, &c., are found only

on slender dead tvpigs, which are generally spotted
with minute fungi.

The genus Lycoperdina found in the puff-ball (see
fig. 139), and the pretty scarlet and black-spotted
Endomychus coccineus, are British species of this
family.

Fig. 139.

Eumorphus and its allies are all Eastern. The
species are noble-like insects, monographed by Gers-
taker, an able German entomologist. Their elytra
have a broad dilated margin, and some species are
armed with large spines and hooks.

Family— COCCINELLID.^ {The Ladybirds).

This family is a very extensive one, though the
insects composing it are seldom larger, while most of
them are smaller, than our own little common Lady-
bird Coccinella hipunctata. The eggs of Lady-birds
are smooth, oval, and of a yellow colour. They are
usually gummed by one end to the under side of leaves,
and are placed in clusters. When hatched the larva
is generally black and slender-bodied, tapering behind,
and with six legs in front. As soon as this little
crocodile-like larva comes to an aphis, he seizes it,
and leisurely devours it, leaving only the empty skin.
From this habit the family has been named Aphidi-
PHAGi, that is to say. Aphis- eaters. As he grows, he
becomes spotted with red or yellow tubercles. After
having attained his full dimensions, which is not before
he has eaten hundreds of aphides, he fixes himself by
the tail to a leaf or a post ; and, hanging with his head
downwards, the skin cracks down the middle of the
back, and the smooth pupa may be seen partly pro-
truding out of the prickly skin of the larva, which still
continues in some species to cover the pupa on each
side and beneath. Exposed as the pupa is, upon the
surface of a leaf or of the bark, it is probably the
design of Nature in providing it with this prickly skin,
to save it from being discovered and destroyed by
birds.

In about a fortnight the hard outer skin cracks, and
out crawls the Lady-bird, so familiar to every child.
The French children call the Lady-birds “ betes a bon
Dieu” — a pretty idea, and pleasingly inviting protection
to the little useful insect so named.

We know from Freeman’s “ Life of the Rev, William
Kirby,” that Mr. Kirby was first particularly attracted
to the study of insects by a Lady-bird. In the “ Intro-

238 CocciNELUDiE. INSECTS. PaussidjE.

duction” the occurrence is thus mentioned: “One
morning I observed on my study window a little Lady-
bird, yellow, with black dots {Coccinella ’punctata).
‘ You are very pretty,’ said I to myself, ‘ and I should
like to have a collection of such creatures.’ Immediately
I seized my prey, and not knowing how to destroy it, I
immersed it in geneva. After leaving it in this situation
a day and a night, and seeing it without motion, I con-
cluded it was dead, and laid it in the sun to dry. It
no sooner, however, felt the warmth than it began to
move, and afterwards flew away. From this time I
began to attend to insects.”*

CONSPECTUS OF EUROPEAN GENERA OF LADY-
BIRDS (from Thomson’s Coleoplera of Sweden).

F.amily Coccinei.eidas. Maxillary palpi with the last joint
securiform ; all the cox® subtransverse, not much exserted ;
thorax closely applied to the elytra ; elytra not striated.

Sect. I. Forehead, before the eyes, dilated, covering the base
of the antennm ; mandibles concealed.

Genus Chilocorus, Leach (type C. renipustulalns, Scriba^. —
Clypeus notched at the tip; labrum distinct; tibiae before
the middle armed with a little tooth.

I come now to a family of doubtful position, but
with pentamerous tarsi. I place them here provision-
ally

Family— PAUSSID^.

The Paussid.® are a family of beetles of rare beauty
in the eyes of an entomologist. The Paussidae have
strange, swollen antennre, and truncated elytra, while
their thorax is often curiously grooved and knotted.
Professor Adam Afzelius of Sierra Leone, shortly after
it was founded, was sitting one evening in January,
1796, when, having just lighted his candle and taken
up his pen, he remarks, “ I observed something dropping
down from the ceiling before me upon the table. It
remained for a little while quite immovable, as if
stunned or frightened, but soon began to crawl veiy
slowly and steadily.” The insect he afterM'ards de-
scribed as Paussus sphcerocerus, and a curious creature
it is, with a light reddish-brown body and legs, and a
strange white ball or berry at the end of each antennae.

Fig. 140. Fig. 141.

Genus Exochomus, Redt (type E. 4-pustulatus, Linn.) — Tibi®
unarmed.

Genus Platynaspis, Redt (type P. villosa, Muls.) — Labram con-
cealed ; body above pubescent.

Sect. 2. Forehead not flattened out before the eyes; aniennce
free at the base.

Div. 1. Mandibles free at the tip, extending beyond the trans-
versely linear labrum ; body semi-globose, above pubescent ;
tibice with obsolete spurs; antennas not contiguous to the
eyes ; forehead in front of the eyes notched.

Genus Epilachna, Redt (type E. globosa, Schneider). — Claws of
the tarsi bifid; body winged.

Genus Cynegetis, Redt (type C. impunctata, Linn.) — Claws with
a basal tooth ; epipleura of the elytra behind the posterior
cox®, with a fovea receiving the tip of the femora.

Div. 2. Mandibles concealed,

Phal. 1. Eyes entire, rounded; body very often pubescent
above ; pygidium often exposed; tibim with obsolete spurs.

Genus Rhizobius, Steph. (type R. litura, Fabr.) — Prosternum
keeled in front; antenn® ne.arly of the length of the thorax;
thorax narrowed towards the tip.

Genus Coccidula, Kug. (type C. rufa, Herbst.). — Thorax at the
base narrower than the elytra, with the posterior angles
right-angled.

Genus Scymnus, Kug. (type S. aler, Kug.) — Antenn® shorter
than the thorax; elytra with humeral tubercles; pygidium
exposed.

Genus Hyperaspis, Redt (type H. reppensis, Herbst). — Body
above rather smooth ; elytra without any humeral tu-
bercle.

Phal. 2. Eyes in front somewhat notched ; body above smooth.

Genus Hippodamin, Muls. (type //. \i-punctata, Linn.) — Pos-
terior cox® little distant; metasternum triangularly cut
out behind ; femora extending beyond the margin of the
elytra.

Genus Coccinella, L. (type C. 7 -punctata, Linn.) — Posterior cox®
widely distant ; metasternum behind slightly notched.

Genus Halyzia, Muls. (type Id. ocellata, Linn.) — Prosternum in
front tubereulated ; mesosternum in front slightly notched:
tibi® v/lth obsolete spurs.

Genus Micraspis, Redt (type M.\2-punctata, Linn.) — Scutellum
scarcely conspicuous ; labi-um transversely linear.

* Introduction — ii., p. 187.

He took none after February, and before that several
flew into tbe candle, so tbat be concluded it was noc-
turnal. Our two figures (figs. 140 and 141) represent
Paussus Latreillei from Sierra Leone, and PlaUgrlio-
pahts aplusirifer from Bengal.

From Mr. Westwood’s well illustrated monograph in
the “ Arcana Entomologica,” our figures of the Paus-
sidtE are derived.

As my friend Major-
general Sir John Hearsey,
when colonel in the East
India Company’s service,
was inspecting some invalid
troops in India, he noticed a
Paussus on the jacket of
one of the Sepoys and went
up and secured it. West-
wood named the species
after him, Paussus Hearse-
ianus ; it is reddish-brown,
with a broad black stripe
down each elytron, and is
not rare, apparently, at Sultanpore, near Benares. Fig,
142 shows this species.*

' Westwood, Arcana Entomologica, p. 189.

Fig. 142.

Paussus Hearsei.anus.

Euplexoptera.-

-mSECTS.-

-Orthoptera.

239

Dr. Burmeister first showed that the Paussid.® were
allied to the Carabidce in the structure of their mouth
and wings, such as the arrangement of the nervures
and their way of folding them ; and one group contain-

ing Ozcena, interesting beetles from the New World,
with curious elytra with a boss at one end, closely
resemble some of them. Professor Lacordaire* brings
them in between the Palpicorus and Brachelytra.

Sub-order— EUPLEXOPTERA.

There is a large number of species of this sub-order as
yet included in onefamil^^.
Fig. 143. ^ that of the Earwigs or

FoRFicuLiDiE. These
insects have a considerable
resemblance to the Rove
Beetles or staphylinidous
Coleoptera. Fig. 143 is
the representation of an
Eastern island species
named Forficula brachy-
nola. Their first or ely-
troid wings are leathery
and very short, and have
a strait suture. They
are large enough nearly
to cover up the very deli-
cate hind wings, which
are ample, and have
many radiating nerves which act as the ribs of a
fan, and besides their longitudinal, have transverse,

Forficnla brachynota.

crumpled folds. It is seldom that you see the
earwig fly, except the little species, which I have
seen not uncommonly using its wings. The mouth has
transverse jaws ; they are short but strong, while “ the
maxillaj are elongated, the inner lobe being armed with
small spines at the inner margin ; the outer lobe forms
a small galea or sheath.” The abdomen ends in a pair
of caudal pincers — -(Plate 5, fig. 1, Forficula auricu-
laria). These insects, called earwigs by us, perces-
oreille by the French, and ohrenwurm by the Germans,
are disliked everywhere. Their specific name, as well
as their vulgar names in the European languages are
derived from the fallacious opinion that they are spe-
cially addicted to creeping into the ears of people.
They live chiefly on the petals of flowers, and eat fruit
and other vegetable substances.

The Rev. Hamlet Clark found many fine species in
Brazil. Mr. Cuming brought some remarkable species
from the Philippine Islands. There are seven British
species of Earwig arranged in four genera — Lahidura,
Labia, Forficula, and Apterygida,

Order— ORTHOPTERA.

A VERY striking order of insects, most of which are
large, and none of which, unless the Perlse be orthop-
terous, are known to be aquatic. The fore wings or teg-
mina are of a leathery consistence, large, and often
veined thickly like leaves, and overlap at the tip.

Their name Orthoptera, or Straightwings, is
derived from the large hinder wings, which are beauti-
fully netted with longitudinal and transverse reticula-
tions, and fold straight like a fan. The antennae are
generally long and of many joints. The mandibles are
strong and much toothed, the teeth on one side fitting
into holes on the other.

The maxillae have a dilated outer lohe or galea.

The anus is often furnished with short appendages.
The larvae very much resemble the perfect insects,
except that they are smaller and have no wings.

Many of the Orthoptera are eaten by man. In Aus-
tralia, for example, the aborigines sometimes feast on
the large species which form so remarkable a feature
of the fauna of that countiy. Over the whole of Africa,
and in some parts of the East, the inhabitants find occa-
sionally fattening supplies in the countless flocks of,
locusts.

Section— CURSORIA.

The.se insects are so called from their well-developed
running legs.

Family — BL ATTID A1 ( Coclcroacles').

Some of the Blattid.® are of great size, espeeially
the South American and West Indian species. Some
of the Eastern kinds are large and repulsive-looking.
Several of the Australian species are apterous, such as
the prettily marked Blatta pulchripes described by the
writer in the appendix to Captain (now Governor)
Grey’s narrative. The species of Phoraspis are ofteii
elegantly coloured or striped with red or yellow ; they
are found on plants in blossom.

One genus of Blattidce can roll itself into a ball,
another is long and narrow and apterous.

Their eggs are very curious, being in a large horny
case, open at one side.

On Plate 5, fig. 2 is figured Blatta Lapponica, a
species which sometimes abounds in the huts of the
Laplanders to such an extent, as to destroy great quan-
tities of their provisions.

The Common Cockroach of the kitchen {Blatta
orientalis), commonly called “ the Black Beetle,” is
much relished by the hedgehog, and this spine-covered
animal is sometimes kept in kitchens to reduce their
numbers. Mr. Newman announces that the cockroach
seeks with diligence the bed bug and devours it. For
this purpose it is known to climb up the curtains of
* Coleopteresii, p. 1 ; 1 8.74.

240

Raptokia.-

-INSECTS.-

-MANTID.!®.

beds and to run along the testers in pursuit of that
disagreeable creature.

In the British islands we have eight or nine recorded
species of Blattidce. Several of these, however, have
been introduced, and two or three of them have not
become indigenous. For instance, the Blaherus gigan-
teus and Fanchlora madercR are only occasion-
ally seen about our dockyards.

Tschudi describes two Cockroaches he met
with in Peru* as being exceedingly numerous
and troublesome. They are well known there,
and are named Cucaracha and Chilicahra.

The former is found more particularly in the
deep regions of the forest. It is an inch and
a half long, is reddish-brown, and has a yellow
thorax. The Chilicahra, though smaller, is
much more numerous and mischievous. They
get into the huts of the natives, where they
destroy provisions, &c. It is impossible to resist
their tormenting attacks. A small reddish-
yellow ant called Pucchusisi by the Indians,
pursues and destroys them. A very elegant
little bird, like our wren, and described by
Tschudi under the name of Troglodytes audax,
wages war against these cockroaches. The
Indians find the sound to resemble closely
the words “Acahe la tarea," which in their
language means “ My task is finished indeed,
the)’’ have given this name to the Troglodytes
as a mark of their observation of its usefulness
in destroying the cockroaches.

Section — RAPTORIA.

Of this section there is but one family. The rapto-
rial legs of the insect sufficiently distinguish the section.

Fig. 144.

F AMiLY — M ANTID.® {Soothsayers).

The Mantidae are most frequently of a green colour
which, as they hang on the trees watching for their
prej', so closely resemble foliage that it is difficult
at times to distinguish them from the leaves. In the

Mantis and young.

Fig. 144, copied from Rdsel, shows the Mantis eating its
prey, and a case of the eggs with the young coming out.
* Travels in Peru, translated by T. Ross, p. 439.

East, the Mantis is frequently kept in little bamboo
cages, and two are placed together by the natives, as
they are very pugnacious, and cut at each other with
their formidable fore feet. Fig. 4, Plate 5, represents
the Mardis religiosa in profile.

Roland Trimen, Esq., in an interesting letter from
Cape Town, dated July 18th, 1860, thus records the
history of the oviposition of a Mantis which he took
in May. During the two months it constructed four
nests of eggs, at intervals of about a fortnight. He
says — “ I bad the pleasure of seeing her construct one
of these, and was rather surprised at her method of pro-
ceeding. I used to fancy that the eggs w’ere arranged
first, and the structure coated over with cement after-
wards, but I found this to be a great mistake.” The
species he describes is grass-green ; has scarlet jaws,
and the fore tibiae and tarsi are yellow ; a band along
the abdomen, crimson and white. Ho adds — “ The
nest is constructed all in a mass, that is to say, the
eggs as thej^ emerge are completely embedded in a
frothy cement so as to be invisible. The emission of

L

Phasjiid^:. INSECTS Phyllium.

241

the mingled eggs and cement is incessant, and the

structure is shaped as it proceeds by the extremity of
the abdomen, and a sharp trowel-like organ which pro-
trudes from within the abdomen, while the two exter-
nal filamentous anal appendages are constantly moving
over the surface, as if to smooth it. The peculiar
projection at one end of the nest is the finishing point ;
and the insect (as if a%vare that it would drop olf if left
immediately after formation) sustains the little horn-
like process between its anal plates for some minutes,
until sufficiently solidified to sustain itself in position.
I cannot imagine the use of this curious projection,
unless it is to frighten marauding insects or other ene-
mies from devouring the eggs. The eggs, when the
cement is dried, give the nest a ribbed appearance.
The structure is remarkably firm and hard when dry.”

The Mantida are numerous in species; some of
them with greatly dilated margins to their thorax,
Some are like pieces of blackened leaves put together
one being on the head ; others, such as the Empusa
gongylodes, have twig-like legs and thorax, with appa-
rent small leaves attached to them.

Eeemiaphila, which means Desert-lover^ is a genus
with small wings, separated by Lefebvre from Mantis.
It is found in the African desert, near Egypt, where two
or three species were met with by Sir J. G. Wilkinson.
Lefebvre first found them in the desert, about four
da3’s’ journey from the Nile. He remarks that the
colour of these insects closely resembles that of the
ground on which they are found. He did not ascertain
whether, like the Chameleon, the Eremiaphila has the
power of changing its colour according to that of the
soil on which it happens to be.

Section— -AMBULATORIA.

The species figured is Lopaphus galacptems; it is
of a dull green, the wings are of a milky white, the
prothorax is bispinose, the mesothorax has twelve

fig. 146.

This section contains but one family. Mr. George
Robert Gray was one of the first to monograph this
singular family.

Professor Westwood has incorporated the plates of
Mr. Gray’s work in his catalogue of the Phasmid*.

Family — PHASMID.® {Walking-stich Bisects^.

Those who begin to study foreign insects for the
first time, are perhaps more surprised with the family of
Orthoptera we have now reached, than with any other
group of the class. To see a long stem, rounded and
spined like a piece of withered bramble, and as grey
and rotten-like as are some of the stems of that hedge
and waste runner in the winter months, is what they
did not look for in an insect ; but there are the six
long legs, with the jointed feet, each joint of each leg
like a smaller bramble stick. There is the head, with
its mouth and eyes, and many-jointed thread-like
antennm. Such is the Cladomorphus phyllinm of
Brazil — exactly eight inches from head to end of ovi-
positor. There are Indian species nine inches long.
Bacteria sarmentosa of Northern India is just one foot
three inches long, from the end of the fore foot to the
end of the ovipositor. The females are always larger
than the males, and the latter are small and active,
often flying about with their pretty wings.

VoL. II. 8 7

spines; the spines are arranged in six vows. The
legs are marbled with darker hues ; the fore ones are
sinuated — fig. 146.

Among the largest of the Phasmidse group is the spiny
Eurycantha liorrida, which is figured and described by
Dr. Boisduval in the “ Voyage of the Coqnille.” Like
all the members of its family, this spiny-covered insect
lives on vegetable substances. The natives of Wood-
lark Island eat these insects and compare their taste
and flavour to those of crabs. The male insect is four
and a half inches long, independently of the many-
jointed antennae, which are two and a half inches in
length. The femora of the hind legs are enormously
thick, a feature which makes the insect remarkable in
its family. The female is more than an inch longer
than the male. Her oviduct is composed of two pieces,
one being concave, the other convex ; she lays a very
great number of eggs, from eighty to a hundred. These
eggs are strong, and with a calcareous shell, sometimes
black and sometimes grey, spotted with brown.

Among the insects of this family there is a strange
group or genus called Phyllium or Leaf-insect, the
English and the Latinized form of the Greek name,
equally derived from the great resemblance these crea-
tures have to some leaf or leaves from a shrub or tree,
with light-green foliage. The woodcut accompanying
this will give a tolerably good idea of the appearance ol
these Leaf-insects. It shows the female ol the Phyllium

242

PHYLLIUM.-

-INSECTS.-

-Achetid^.

jnilcTirifolium (fig. 147) from the islands of Borneo and
Sumatra, which are nearly as large as little continents.
The antennae of the Leaf-insect, in the sex figured, are
short ; in the male they are very long. The female is

Phyllium pulclirifolium*

•wingless — at least has only the upper wing-cover, while
the male has short wing-covers and large light wings,
like gauze, adapting him the better for a roving wan-
derer.

These Leaf-insects are said to have formed articles
of traffic at one time. The poor inhabitants of the
Sj'chelles islands reared them, and sold them as curi-
osities to sailors. Some twenty-three years ago they
were very rare, but the arrival of boxes of insects from
Silhet and other mountainous parts of our Indian pos-
sessions made us familiar with them. We are indebted
to a lady, Mrs. Major Blaekwood, for having enabled
scientific men to rear a specimen of the Leaf-insect in
this country.

Mrs. Major Blackwood was struck with the economy
of the Leaf-insect {Phyllium Scythe — G. R. Gray) in
Assam, and twice tried to introduce the singular insect
into her native country, but without success. A third
attempt, however, succeeded ; the eggs were forwarded
to Edinburgh in the spring of 1854, and, by keeping a
very careful watch over them, this enterprising lady-
naturalist was delighted to find that two of her nurse-
lings emerged from their ribbed seed-like eggs — one on
the 9th, and a seeond on the 10th of May. A few
came out every week till the end of May, when the
cold weather, so common and so suddenly intervening
in this country at that fine time of year, retarded the
egress of the unhatched eggs. In the beginning of the

“ leafy month of June,” the Leaf-insect bantlings came
out in great numbers. Mrs. M‘Nab, when the little
creatures were hatched, tried them with a Fuschia ; but
Asiatic insects were not likely to care for an Ameri-
can plant, belonging, too, to a very different order of
the vegetable kingdom to that on which they lived.
Our excellent friend tried the common Myrtle, and on
this it stayed ; for the insect never sought to leave the
glossy-leaved sweet shrub till it was full-grown and
winged. On this shrub many a one saw it and ad-
mired it. When the wings were developed, a muslin
bell-shaped cover was placed over the plant to prevent
the little insect from flying away.

Mr. Arthur Adams observed a Phyllium in Java,
and mentions that it feeds on the foliage of the Guava.

Section— SALTATOEIA.

Insects with elongated hind legs, which enable them
to leap. Our Cricket and Grasshopper are familiar
examples.

Family— ACLIETIDtE.

In this family the antennae are very long and slender,
although in Tridactylus paradoxus (Plate 5, fig. 3)
these organs are not long. There are only six British
species, contained in four genera, Gryllotalpa, (Ecan-
thus.

The genus Cylindrodes, figured by Mr. G. R. Gray,
is a singular long parallel insect of Australia, with the
two hind pairs of legs situated above the usual plane.
This enables the insect to keep hold in the reeds or
stems in w'hich, though a Mole-cricket, it lives. The
Cylindrodes CamphellicB is a native of Australia.

There is an insect not uncommon in England, and
particularly abundant about Aldershott in Hampshire;
and yet so w’ell does it keep to its place, which is the
earth, into which it burrows like a mole, that the
Mole-cricket (^Gryllotalpa vidgaris — Plate 5, fig. 7),
when found above ground, excites surprise.

FIELD-CRICKET {Acheta campestris).- — The reader
who is not familiar with the delightful and instructive
account of this insect given by Gilbert White, in one of
his letters to the Hon. Haines Barrington, will be glad
to have it in the very words of the author of the
charming “ Natural History of Selborne.” In that part
of Hampshire they abound in a steep, abrupt pasture-
field interspersed with furze, consisting of a rocky, dry
soil, and inclining to the afternoon sun. White,
attracted by their cheerful summer cry, often went
dowm to the Short Lithe, as they call this field at the
back of his village, to study their mode of life ; but
they are,” he adds, “ so shy and cautious that it is no
easy matter to get a sight of them ; for, feeling a per-
son’s footsteps as he advances, they stop short in the
midst of their song, and retire backward nimbly into
their burrows, where they lurk till all suspicion of dan-
ger is over. At fiist we attempted to dig them out
with a spade, but without any great success ; for either
we could not get to the bottom of the hole, ■\vhieh often
terminated under a great stone, or else in breaking up
the ground we inadvertently squeezed the poor insect

House Cricket. -

-INSECTS. ■

-GRYLLIDiB.

243

to death. Out of one so bruised we took a multitude
of eggs, which were long and narrow, of a yellow colour,
and covered with a very tough skin. Where violent
methods will not avail, more gentle means will often
succeed, and so it proved in the present case ; for though
a spade be too boisterous and rough an implement, a
pliant stalk of grass, gently insinuated into the caverns,
will probe their windings to the bottom, and quickly
bring out the itdiabitant ; and thus the humane inquirer
may gratify his curiosity without injuring the object
of it. It is remarkable that, though these insects are
furnished with long legs behind, and brawny thighs for
leaping, like grasshoppers, yet when driven from their
holes they show no activity, but crawl along in a shift-
less manner, so as easily to be taken ; and again,
though provided with a curious apparatus of wings,
yet they never exert them when there seems to be the
greatest occasion. The males only make that shrilling
noise, perhaps out of rivalry and emulation, as is the
case with many animals which exert some sprightly
note during their breeding time ; it is raised by a brisk
friction of one wing against the other. They are soli-
tary beings, living singly, male or female, each as it may
happen ; but there must be a time when the sexes have
some intercourse, and then the wings may be useful,
perhaps during the hours of night. When
the males meet they will fight fiercely, as I
found by some which I put into the crevices
of a dry stone wall, where I should have
been glad to have made them settle ; for
though they seemed distressed by being taken
out of their knowledge, yet the first that got
possession of the chinks would seize on any
that were obtruded upon them, with a vast
row of serrated fangs. With their strong
jaws, toothed like the shears of a lobster’s
claws, they perforate and round their curious
regular cells, having no fore claws to dig, like the
Mole-cricket.”

They never offer to defend themselves when taken
up in the hand, although they have such formidable
jaws. They eat indiscriminately of such plants as
grow near their holes, and White observed that they
dropped their dung on a little platform close at hand.
In the day-time they seem to keep close to their homes,
never stirring more than two or three inches from them.
They chirp all night and day at the entrance of these
burrows from the middle of May to the middle of July,
and are particularly vigorous in hot weather, making
the hills echo with their noise.

THE HOUSE CRICKET (^Acheta domesticd). Many
who are not troubled with this insect, fancy that it is
lucky to have them in a house ; and where there are
only two or three, there is certainly something cheer-
ful in the sound of “the cricket on the hearth.” They
are of a pale colour, and are particular!}'' fond of
warmth, preferring kitchens and bakers’ ovens. As
would be inferred, they are a thirsty race, like the black
beetles ; and where they abound, many may be taken
by leaving on the floor shallow pans of water, or other
fluid. At times they increase to such a degree as to
become a perfect nuisance; flying to the lights, and
dashing into people’s faces.

Acheta Smeathmanni. Mr. Smeathman, who made
large collections of insects, and observations on their
habits, when he resided at Sierra Leone shortly after
its formation as a British colony, informed Drury, his
correspondent in London, that a species of Acheta
was used as food. The children there in his time
were engaged at the proper season in digging the
females of this Acheta out of the ground when they
were full of eggs. On these they make an agreeable
repast. They roast the whole insect, but only eat the
eggs, which they deem to be very delicate food.

Family— GBYLIJD^.

The insects of this family have very long antennse,
and in the female the ovipositor is very long. Fig.

Fig. 14S

Decticus verrucivorns.

148 represents the female of the Decticus verruci-
vorus depositing her eggs in a hole in the grounfi.
This insect is met with in the south of England, and
w'as so called by the great Swedish naturalist, from a
habit of his countrymen in employing it to bite at the
warts on their hands. These peasants suppose, and
very likely they are right, that the fluid ejected by the
Decticus corrodes the warts. I have seen very com-
monly in the Isle of Wight, and in the borders of
Berks and Oxfordshire, the fine large Phasgomira
viridisshna, a big insect, whose bite assuredly is not
to be despised.

I have described a very large New Zealand Tree
cricket, the Deinacrida heteracanlha. It is a large,
strong-jawed, strong spiny-legged creature, whose bite
is much dreaded by the Maouries.

There are ten British species, arranged in the genera
Odontura, Meconema, Xiphidium, Phasgonura, Thara-
notrizon, Platycleis, and Decticus. It is, however, in
the warmer countries of the world, that these creatures
abound. Some of them are very gigantic, especially
some from New Guinea and the adjoining islands.

The Anostostoma, a genus established by Mr. G.
R. Gray, is a most formidable-looking insect. Its

244

Pterophylla. INSECTS. Locdstid.e.

liideons mouth must be capacious enough to hold, and
strong enough to destroy, an insect of considerable size.

Some, like the Pterochroza,
where the first pair of wings
are sometimes green, some-
times brown, and blotched
with red, likeleavesin spring,
in summer, and in autumn.
The delicate greens, purples,
violets, and reds of some of
them, are most fascinat-
ingly beautiful. The Acan-
thodis imperialts (Plate 5,
Tympanophora peiiucida. fio- 5), is also a most hand-
some creature, varied so
finely with black and green ; the streaks on its black
wings are very curious. It is a native of the mountains
of Silhet.

Tympanophora pelludda (fig. 149) is a curious
green insect from King George’s Sound, described by
the writer in Captain (now Governor Sir George)
Grey’s “ Narrative,” vol. ii., p. 468.

Fig. 150 is that of the Markia hystrix, or Pka-
neroptera hystrix of Westwood — “ Arcana Entomolo-
gica,” vol. ii., pi. 70, fig 2.

I have separated this from Phaneroptera, owing to
its general form differing, especially in the erect spine on
the head, and the back of prothorax having two spines.

Fig. 150.

phylla concava) abundant. They lodge in the trees,
and no sooner has the night come than they commence
their incessant ringing note, which they do not leave
off till the morning light comes in. In the “ Letters
from Alabama,” Mr. Gosse says, “This sound has been
heard but a few weeks, beginning, not gradually, but
as it were in all places at once, or nearly so, and
bursting forth into full and vigorous chorus.” He
shows that this is caused by these insects attaining
their perfect state almost simultaneously. He pro-
ceeds— •“ I think it will give you a pretty correct notion
of the tone and character of the particular concert in
question, to fancy a score or two of people with shrill
voices divided into pairs, each pair squabbling with each
other. The organ producing this sound consists of a
hard, glassy ridge in front, which, on being crossed by its
fellow, creaks sharply, making the crink that is heard in
the trees. There must, however, be three distinct but
rapid crossings to make the whole sound represented
by the word ‘ Katedid,’ which it can produce as quickly
as one can pronounce the word. Occasionally it gives
but a single impulse, which we may call uttering only
one syllable of the word, but usually the three are
heard, then an interval of a second, and again the
word, and so on. Behind this ridge there is a trans-
parent membrane, which appears tightly stretched over
a semicircular rim, like the parchment of a drum, and
which no doubt increases the sound bj’’ its vibrations.” *
To this group of insects belongs the Katydid
{Thlihoscelis camelifolia) of North America,
so often mentioned in the poetry of the West
The gregarious Orthoptera are everywhere
dreaded. I have seen a note from Gueinzius,
a German naturalist, who collected insects
largely in South Africa, complaining sadly of
the ravages of a wingless cricket allied to
Bradyporus, and which gnawed the insects off
his setting-boards — a habit not natural to them
surely, and not likely to be acquired from either
Bushmen or Hottentots having been in the habit
of making insect collections. It indicates that
the}" can eat, like cockroaches, animal as
well as vegetable substances.

The posterior legs are armed within and without with
long sharp spines. The fore wings or tegmina are sharp
angled on the inner tip. It is a very pretty insect, and
says plainly, “ Dinna meddle wi’ me.” I have named it
in compliment to Edward W. Mark, Esq.

On the same plate of the “ Arcana ” Mr. Westwood
figures another orthopterous insect with the back of the
prothorax saddle-shaped, and with wing-like append-
ages to the legs which are not spined. He places it in
the genus Phaneroptera. The ovipositor is short and
bent. I propose for this insect and a- second species,
the generic name of Dysonia, the type being Dysonia
alhipes (Westw. spec). The name is out of respect
to the memory of my friend, the late Mr. David Dyson,
who collected in Venezuela and Honduras, whence he
sent and brought back wdth him magnificent zoological
colle>,tions. He was attached at the time of his death to
the Salford Museum. I hope elsewhere to give detailed
descriptions of these and other genera of Orthoptera.

Mr. Gosse in Alabama found the Katydid (Plero-

Family — LOCUSTIDj® [Gi'asshoppers and Locusts).

These insects have not an exserted ovipositor ; the
first pair of wings or tegmina, and the second, are
deflexed, and the antennae are generally short. Here
come our common Grasshoppers.

The Rev. Mr. Methuen during his travels in South
Africa, f thus alludes to a swarm of locusts which passed
overhead; he describes them as being “thick as the
flakes in a snow-storm. Of the myriads contained
in the flight, it would be impossible to form any cor-
rect estimate ; its breadth exceeded my scope of vision,
and its passage through the air occupied nearly half an
hour, though the insect is a smart-flying one. Strag-
glers, or deserters from the main army, which with a
rushing noise passed swiftly above us, alighted in such
abundance as to cover the ground ; yet the vast host

» Letters from Alabama, pp. 182-185.

t Life in the Wilderness by Eev. H. H. Methuen, p. 263.

■INSECTS. Aorydium.

Loccstid.e.

245

from which they came seemed undiminished. On the
pinions of the blast they hastened on, millions on mil-
lions, mysterious alike in their origin and in the object
of their creation, whether formed, as one author (Paley)
supposes, to subsist on the common bounties of nature,
or as a part of the primeval curse. . . . Their

approach is visible for a long distance, and by the
unpractised eye cannot well be distinguished from a
filmy cloud or thin column of smoke, varying its wreaths
into every shape and convolution ; but the warning of
their advance very little precedes their arrival. Smoky
fires are lighted, and every mode of alarm, by noise
and gesture, is speedily resorted to by the persons
threatened with their visit, 3'et often with no effect.
On my first journey in South Africa, in the months
of December and January, I saw many more locust
flights than on the present (October). In one or two
instances the soil was so entirely covered by these
insects, that the waggons and oxen crushed hundreds
in their progress, and for several successive days we
noticed their cloudy masses, either on the horizon or
passing over our heads.” Mr. M. noticed a bird which
is the unintermitting persecutor of the locust, and
which followed the swarms in great numbers, seeming
to have been created as a check on their ravages.

“ The largest African locust is about four inches in
length, and one inch in diameter ; he has the most
voracious appetite of any insect in the world, and
devours grass, grain, the leaves of trees, and every
green thing with indiscriminate and merciless avidity.
They go forth by bands or flights, and each flight is
said to have a king, which directs its movements with
great regularity. Locusts can fly only when their
wings are perfectly dry ; and when they rise they
always fly off before the wind, and fill the air like an
immense cloud of thick smoke. When the leader
alights upon the ground, all the flight follows his
example as fast as possible. They are at times so
numerous, that they may be said to cover the whole
face of the country ; then they devour every spear of
grass and grain, even eating it into the ground, cutting
off all the leaves from the shrubs and trees, and some-
times all the bark from tender trees in a whole pro-
vince, and that too in a very short space of time.

“ The present African locusts are of the same race
of insects that are mentioned in the Bible as one of the
plagues sent upon the land of Egypt by the Almighty ;
they have always been considered in the countries
where they usually commit ravages as a scourge from
heaven, and as a punishment for the sins of the people.
The locust has been described as being produced by
some unknown physical cause, different from the ordi-
nary mode of animal production. This is a mistake ;
the female, a little before the flights disappear for the
season, thrusts her hinder part into the surface of the
ground up to her wings, first having found a suitable
spot of earth for that purpose ; here she forms a cell
in shape like that made by the bee, but from one to
three inches in depth, and one to two inches in dia-
meter. Having made the sides of the cell strong by
means of a glutinous matter which she has the power
of producing, she deposits her eggs, which are blackish,
and so small as to be scarcely distinguishable with the

naked eye ; each cell is filled full, and contains an
immense number of eggs ; she then seals it over care-
fully with the same kind of glutinous matter of which
the inside pf the cell is formed, and covering it over
with earth, she leaves it to be hatched out by the heat
of the sun in due time, which generally happens in the
month of January. The eggs in one cell alone pro-
duce a host of locusts, amounting to near a hundred.
When the locust is hatched, he crawls out of the earth
a little worm, of a light-brown colour, and whole cells
of them are said to hatch about the same time. This
host of worms creep forth from the ground and com-
mence their march, all going one course, generally
towards the north or west, devouring everything green
that comes in their way, and leaving behind them a
dismal scene of desolation. These reptiles grow so
rapidl}', that within the space of one week they are
prepared for their transformation, when they climb up
a stout spear of grass or a twig, attach their skin fast
to it, and by a sudden effort burst the skin asunder at
its head, and come forth a four-winged insect with six
legs. They remain a short time in the sun to dry
themselves and their wings before they attempt flying,
which they commence by trying separately to fly a short
distance at a time, and continue fluttering and skipping
like grasshoppers for twm or three days ; next they set
off in a body on the wing, and fly from five miles to one
hundred without stopping, just as the country seems to
please their taste, and then they go on as I have before
described.”

Luigi Mayer mentions that the Arabs in Egypt are
very fond of locusts, which they broil. He adds, that
occasionally considerable flights of them are brought
even to Cairo by the winds blowing from the desert.

M. Jjucas, in the Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr., second ser., vol.
ix., p. 379, refers to the CEdipoda cruciata as abundant
in Algeria. When going from Medeah to Boghar he
found this species in hanks of great extent, layer
upon layer. In that neighbourhood it did great
damage, and would have done more, he adds, had not
General de TAdmirault ordered the French troops to
be engaged exclusively in destroying this voracious
insect. When it has eaten up all the grass, it attacks
the leaves of the trees.

The Acrydium femiir-rubrum of Harris is a destruc-
tive locust in some parts of the United States.

The figure, Plate 5, fig. 6, shows CEdipoda coorules-
cens {Acrydium on Plate) with its wings expanded,
those blue wings which charm so many children in the
south of Europe on the sunny slopes of hills.

Mr. Squier, who was formerly charge d'affaires of
the United States to the republics of Central America,
tells us that the insect most dreaded in Honduras, and
indeed over all Central America, is the Langosta or
Chapulin^ a species of grasshopper which at intervals
ravages the country. This pest passes from one end
of the country to the other “ in vast columns of many
millions, literally darkening the air, and destroying every
green thing in their course. These destructive insects
“ make their first appearance as Saltones of diminutive
size,” when their bodies are red and wingless. They
then swarm over the ground like ants. The natives of
Honduras at this time kill great numbers of them by

QiCy

Tiiysanopteka.-

-INSECTS.-

-Limothrips.

digging long trenches, two or three feet deep, into which
the Salfones are driven, nolentes volentes. When the
trenches are half filled with the young insects, the earth
is shovelled hack on them and they are buried. Myriads
are driven into rivers and drowned.

Every fifty years the Chapulin is said to appear in
myriads, and their devastation lasts from five to seven
years, when it entirely disappears. There is no doubt
that, like other insects, these periodical visits are use-
ful in a moral, and may be in a physical way as well,
to the inhabitants. The insect is from two and a half
to four inches long, and specimens have been met with
five inches in length.

The Petadda epldppigera is a grasshopper from
North Australia, of a bright brick colour dotted with
blue. The thorax is much dilated behind, being pro-
jected over the base of the wings somewhat like a saddle;
from this circumstanee its specific name is derived —
ephippiata, saddled. The species was first obtained on
the voyage of the Beagle, when engaged on the survey

of the north coast of Australia. At first sight this
insect has a strong external resemblance to some of
the African grasshoppers, but it belongs to quite a
distinct genus, which may be known by the above
mentioned character. The insect is nearly two inches
long, and is “the grasshopper” referred to at p. 481
of Dr. Leichardt’s “Journey.”

There is figured, in the great work on the Dutch
East India Possessions,* a curious insect, the Charoe-
typus gallinaceus, a native of Sakoembang. It has the
thorax, or at least the pronotum part of the thorax,
produced as far as the last dorsal joint ; its posterior
angle is very sharp. In this subgenus the anterior
margin of the prosternum does not surround the mouth.
A genus where that part does not surround the mouth
is named Hymenoies.

Fig. 8 of Plate 5 shows the Acrydium hipunctatum
or Tettix hipunctata, in which the prothorax is greatly
developed posteriorly. It is a British species. There
are twenty-six species recorded as British.

SuB-OEDEE — THYSANOPTERA.

This order of insects contains a host of minute crea-
tures, which, both in their perfect and larva state,
frequent flowers, or live under the bark of trees. They
are nearly all of very minute size, very few of them
exceeding a line in length. The figure in the mar-
gin shows one of these higlily magnified. The largest
are some Australian species of Idolothrips, one of

Fig. 151.

Thrips, greatly magnified.

which is four lines or more in length. The body is
elongated and depressed. The following characters
ai'e those of the order: — The wings are generally four,
alike, long, narrow, membranous, without reticulations,
the edges with long cilim; when at rest these wings
are laid horizontally along the back. The mouth is
situated on the underside, and has two setiform man-
dibles, two broad adpressed palpigerous maxillae. The

tarsi are two-jointed, and vesiculose at the tip,! and
without claws. The antennae have few joints. De
Geer noticed that when the Thrips presses the vesicle
of its feet against the surface on which it walks, it
expands and appears concave, which led him to imagine
that it acted like a cupping glass.

The pupa and propupa, as Mr. Haliday calls the
two states the insect passes through after leaving its
larva conditions, are slower in their motions than the
perfect insects.

The Thysanoptera are found on various plants,
some of them being exceedingly injurious, particularly
in hot-houses. The leaves of vines and other plants
on which they muster are marked with small decayed
patches.

One species {Limothrips cerealium) infests our
wheat crops, and destroys them at times. The Kev.
Mr. Kirby described this insect under the name of
Thrips physapus. It takes up its place between the
inner valve of the corolla and the grain, and seems to
fix its beak in tlie bottom of the seed. By extracting
the moisture it causes the seed to shrivel up, and be-
come what the farmers call “ pungled.” This species,
it would appear, also gnaws the stems above the knots,
and causes the abortion of the ear. In 1805, about a
third of the wheat crop in Piedmont is said to have
been destroyed by this insect; and in the same year,
the same crops sutfered much in this country from a
similar cause.

In Tuscany, another species of Thrips proves very
injurious to the olive-tree. It fixes itself on the under-

* Verhandelingen over de Naturlijke Geschiedens, &c. —
Orlhoptera, by W. De Haan and Hagcnbach ; p. 165, PI. 22,
fig. 5.

t Diimeril, from this structure, gave these insects the name
of Physapoda (Zool. Anal. p. 268). Mr. Haliday, who first
characterized the order, gave it the name Thysanopoda, but
substituted Dumeril’s name for it in a synopsis of the order
given in Walker’s Homopterous Insects, in the collection of the
British Museum, p. 1094.

Tekebkantia. INSECTS. Neuropteka. 247

side of the leaves. Passerini describes the Thrips as
depositing in the month of April four or five eggs on
each bud, and as the insects breed to the end of
autumn, their numbers become excessive.

Dr. Harris speaks of the peach-trees in the United
States suffering at times severely from the attacks of
a species of Thrips. They are found beneath the
leaves in little hollows, caused by their irritating
punctures.

The following arrangement of the order is derived
from Haliday’s latest views of the group, published
at the end of the Catalogue of Homopterous Insects
in the British Museum (part iv. ; 1852). Four well
filled plates accompany this, which contain figures and
dissections, and metamorphoses of the various genera.

Mr. Haliday thus divides them : —

Family I.— TUBULIFERA.

Abdomen furnished with a tubular segment in both
sexes, the female without a borer. Antennse eight-
jointed. The insects walk slowly, and do not leap.

Genus Idolothrips contains three species, natives
of Australia. They are furnished with three ocelli,
the anterior of which is distant from the others. One
of these (I. spectrurri) is the largest of the group, being
four lines and more long. It is figured on PL 5, fig. 10.

Genus Phlceothrips ; nine species are described,
some of which live in flowers, and others in clusters
under bark. The ocelli are equidistant.

Family II. — TEREBRANTIA.

The females are furnished with a borer, which is
compressed, sharp, and four-valved ; it is concealed in
a ventral cut of the last segment of the abdomen.

The antennse are generally nine-jointed. The insects
of this family leap.

In the first tribe {Stenoptera), so called from the
slenderness of the wings, the borer of the female is
curved inwards.

The genus Heliothrips contains one species (FT.
hcemorrlwidalis), which is brown, and has the tip of
body reddish. This is the insect often called by
nurserymen the “Thrip.” It is most destructive in
hot-houses, attacking the leaves of plants.

The genus Sericothrips, so called from its downy
body, contains a very active species (<8. Staphylinus),
often met with in the flowers of the Whin.

In the genus Thrips the body is smoothish, Mr.
Flaliday subdivides this into five sub-genera. One of
these i^Aptinothrips') has not the slightest trace of
wings. It was long before he found the male of this
insect, and was almost induced to think that, like
Cynips, the insect might be unisexual. At length,
at the season of hay-harvest, he discovered the male,
though it is so excessively rare that there is perhaps
but one to several hundreds of the female.

The Limothrips cerealius and its ravages have been
alluded to above.

Of Thrips proper, twenty-three species are described
by Mr. Haliday; one of these {T. urticai) he describes
as being very partial to yellow flowers, such as the
Buttercups, Eschscholtzia, &c.

In the second tribe (^Coleoptrata) the hemelytra are
of the length of the abdomen, and are blunt and cori-
aceous; hence the name. The borer of the female is
recurved.

The genus Melantlirips, so called from the deep
black colour of the species, has the antennai with nine
distinct joints. In the genus ALulothrips there are
five joints.

Order I.— NEUROPTEEA.

This is a rather large and important order of four-
winged insects, containing the voracious Dragon-flies,
with their aquatic larvae ; the curious Aut-lions, the
pitfalls of whose larvae are so interesting ; the Lace-
winged flies, whose larvae are so useful in reducing the
numbers of plant lice; the strange Scorpion flies, and
other families. The following are the leading charac-
ters of the order : — The mouth is furnished with trans-
versely movable jaws. The wings, which are four in
number, are generally large and beautifully netted with
numerous areolets (hence the name Neuroptera) ; the
hind pair are very seldom folded, and generally similar
to the first pair. The larva has six jointed legs, and
the pupa is various in the different families. In some
it is quiescent, and has the limbs folded over the breast ;
in others it is active, and resembles more or less nearly
the perfect insect. These insects have no sting, and
the body is generally long and slender, and of a soft
consistence. Mr. Westwood, taking the transforma-
tions as the ground of the distributions of these insects,
forms them into two primary divisions : — ■

Div. 1. — Biomorphotic Neuroptera. — This

division contains the Neuroptera with an active pupa,
which undergo what Mr. Macleay has called a subsemi-
complete metamorphosis. To this belong the Psocidcc
and Termitidce, the larvte of which are terrestrial, and
the Libellulidce, Epliemeridce, and Perlidce, which are
aquatic in their preparatory states.

Div. 2. — Subnecromorphotic Neuroptera. —
This second division contains those Neuroptera which
have quiescent and incomplete pupae, acquiring, how-
ever, the power of locomotion shortly before they assume
the perfect state. This division contains the families
of the Ant-lions {Myrmeleonidce), Lace-winged flies
(^Hemeroiiidce),tiX\dL the Sialidw, Panorpidee or Scorpion
flies, Raphidiidee^ and Mantispidee.

Family--TERMITIDA1 {White Ants).

The White ants have been formed by some authors
into a separate sub-order called Isojjtera, from the
wings being of equal size. They form a strange
family which has been latel}'- monographed by Dr.
Hagen of Kbnigsberg. Each species of these insects is

I

248 Tesrmites. INSECTS. White Ants.

of three kinds — males, females, and neuters ; the males
and females are winged, the neuters are apterous. They
are oblong, depressed insects in their winged state. The
wings easily fall off.

The nests of the Termites are very various in structure.
Some build nests in trees as large as a sugar-hogshead,
and formed of gnawed fibres of wood cemented with
gums ; others raise columns over their subterranean
galleries, these columns being surmounted by a dome
or projecting roof. Such columns and their roofs are
formed of clay collected by the larvae and pupoe ; they
are full of cells, and many are often found together,
looking like a group of gigantic toadstools. The nest
of the Termes bellicosus consists of two or more conical
towers, which soon multiply, and at last they touch each
other and become cemented together into a hillock five
or six yards high, and nearly as much in diameter. The
pyramid of Cheops, one of the loftiest works of man, is
four hundred and eightj' feet high — that is, about one
hundred times the height of a man ; while the pyramid
of the termes is at least a thousand times higher than
the insect.

In the “ Travels in Central America during 1843 to
1847,” and Plate 2 of it. Count Francis de Castelnau,
known to entomologists by his name Laporte, has given
a scene on the Serra da Mantiquerra in Brazil, where
the nests of the Termites tower over the mules and
passing traveller, like columns or boulders; giving as
distinctive a character to the landscape, as the immense
jointed cactus or the palm trees in the same plate.
This species seems to be the Termes cumulans.

The Tei'mes flavicollis is a large white ant, common
in the districts watered by the upper Amazon. Mr,
Wallace describes it as inhabiting holes in the earth
about the roots of rotten trees. It is much in request
with the great ant-eater, Myrmecophaga jiibala — a
great gourmand of ants, as his name implies. The
Indians also highly esteem this species as food. Mr.
Wallace adds, that the insects are also eaten alive or
roasted ; but it is not the abdomen in this case which is
used, but the enormous head and thorax, which contain
a considerable mass of muscular and other matter. To
the European these insects are not agreeable, on account
of a bitter taste wdiich thej' generally have ; but this
taste seems to constitute part of the relish to the Indian
when eating them.

Some of the Brazilian White ants form conical hillocks,
but not with the broad base and tapering point of the
African species. The nests of the Termites are occa-
sionally overturned by the slaves, who scoop out the
hollow wider, and use the structure as an oven in which
to parch Indian corn.

In cities the}' are sometimes very destructive — hence
every Brazilian lady keeps her fine robes in tin boxes ;
and each gentleman who pretends to a library must
often look at it to see if the Cupim, or White ant, has
not become a most penetrating reader of his volumes.

Captain Burton, who lately travelled among the lake
regions of Central Equatorial Africa, refers to the ant
hills of Somaliland forming an important feature in the
landscape. He alludes to one species, called by the
natives chhwngu mchwa, as abounding in the sweet
red clay soils and in cool wet places, where it acts as

scavenger; he adds, “ Indeed, without it the country
would be rendered impassable.”* He found that it
avoids heat, sand, and stone. In some districts this
species is most destructive. A mud bench will be
pierced and drilled by an army of these insects in a
single night ; and heaps of reeds, placed under bedding,
are in a few hours converted into a mass of mud.
Captain Burton says that the natives take the largest
and fattest kinds of White ants, and after boiling them
in water with a little salt, the mess is eaten as a relish
with their insipid ugali or porridge. He observes that
in these districts the White ants seem to have within
themselves a cistern of living water : in the driest places
they find no difficulty in making a clay paste for their
galleries. Writers have explained this by a conjecture,
that their Creator has given them vital force to com-
bine the atmospheric oxygen with the hydrogen of their
food. Our traveller noticed these insects rising on
their wings from the ground in masses, which resembled
thin curls of smoke. It was generally at eventide.
After flying a few yards the wings drop off.

In the West Indies Mr. Gosse has seen one of the
parrots, the yellow-bellied Parroquet, build its nest in
the deserted nest of a White ant. Snakes and lizards
take refuge in them, and deposit their eggs there. The
substance of the nest forms an excellent fuel, as it burns
readily, with a flame and glowing brightness little
inferior to coal. Mr. Gosse adds, “As no ammoniacal
smell proceeds from it, and as it consumes into a clear
white ash, I conjecture that the substance is of vege-
table origin. It is sought after in those districts and
seasons in which the mosquitoes make a more than
endurable pest, in order to be burned in a chafing-dish ;
as it gives out a good deal of smoke, which is the only
weapon that those formidable, though minute warriors
fear. The smoke clears the house of the insect-hosts
in a few seconds, and is much preferable to that of wood,
because far less painful to the eyes.”"}"

Swarms of the winged males and females enter the
houses in Jamaica in the spring, much to the annoyance
of the inmates. They flock to the lights, and cast their
wings voluntarily.

Mr. Arthur Adams J noticed in Borneo a species of
White ant which builds a large hemispherical nest on the
trunk of trees, formed of finely-comminuted leaves and
mud. The interior consists of great numbers of cancelli,
separated by walls and passages, which are thronged with
the small soft-bodied inhabitants. “ On being disturbed the
big-headed soldiers make absurd and impotent attempts
to defend their queen and helpless workers, who imme-
diately retire within the recesses of the city.” When
viewed from a little distance, this nest looks like a great
vegetable excrescence, or wen, growing from the bole
of the tree.

Lieutenant-colonel James Campbe]l,§ formerly of
the 48th and 50th regiments, and who for several years
held a high command in Ceylon, published an interest-
ing work on Ceylon. He refers to the fearful ravages

' See Proceedings of the Geographical Society, p. 117; 1860.

t Naturalist’s Sojourn in Jamaica.

J Voyage of Samarang, vol. ii., p. 410.

g Excursions, Adventures, and Field Sports in Ceylon, vol.
ii., p. 365.

PsOCID^. INSECTS. PXEKONAKCYS. 249

Family — PERLID.®.

caused by White ants in Ceylon. Here follows a pas-
sage— *

“ I was one forenoon sitting in a large drawing-room
with two ladies and two other gentlemen, conversing
upon the usual topics of the day ; when suddenly we
heard a very extraordinary and loud noise over head,
which greatly startled us; for, immediately after, the
whole of the roof of the large old Dutch house, strange
to say, fell all around us ! — and there to our amazement,
w’e sat uninjured; the bright sky above us, and an
immense mass of rubbish piled up about us, over w'hich,
it maybe well supposed, we lost no time in scrambling.
All the furniture in the several rooms w'as completely
buried under large broken tiles, woodwork, &c. ; from
which arose a dense and suffocating cloud of dust. The
reader may easily imagine what a wonderful escape we
all must have had; for, if the immense quantity of
materials had fallen upon, in place of around us, we
must inevitably have been crushed to atoms under
them. The servants, also, from being at the moment in
the go-downs or offices were uninjured ; but the sister-
in-law of the chief justice had a narrow escape ; for she,
her palanquin bearers, and the Lascareens, who were in
attendance upon her, had just got clear of the large
verandah in front of the house, when the roof fell,
chiefly in it ; and with such a tremendous crash that it
was heard distinctly all over Colombo. So loud was it,
indeed, that crowds of people ran from all quarters, in
order to ascertain what could have been the cause of
such a commotion ; many imagining that the sea — as it
is said to have done many years before — had again
broken into the Fortress. On examining the old mate-
rials of the building, it appeared that almost the whole
of the large beams and other woodwork though they
looked perfectly sound outside, had been hollowed out
by those unseen, but most persevering under-cover
labourers, the White ants !”

In Europe there is but one Termes whose ravages
ever attract notice. The archives of the Prefectures
and Arsenal of La Rochelle have been nearly quite
destroyed by them, whilst the woodwork of the rooms
was reduced to powder. Ants were introduced, but
their meeting was worse than “Greek meeting Greek;”
the ants were soon exterminated by the powerful jaws
of the Termites, who literally cut them in two. Pow-
dered arsenic and chlorine have been used with success
in reducing their numbers.

Family— PSOCID^.

A family of small insects, with the labial palj)i almost
wanting. The antennae are long and composed of thir-
teen joints or so. These insects are found on the trunks
of trees, stones covered with lichens, old books, &c.,
and not only they, but both the larvae and pupae, are
very active.

The Atropos puhatorius is often very destructive to
books kept in damp places and to collections of natural
history. It is an apterous and a minute pale insect.

* I have not by me Sir J. Emerson Tennent’s admirable work
on Ceylon, otherwise I would have preferred quoting from the
pages of that graphic author.

Von. II. 88

By some authors these aquatic insects are placed
with the Orthoptera. They have an oblong, depressed
body. The males are generally smaller than the females,
and have short wings ; whilst in the females the wings
are large and looselj' veined. It is in their larva and
pupa states that these insects live in the water. Mr.
Newman has made a study of the British species, and
has described many of the North American and other
exotic species.

Mr. Barnston made several valuable observations on
the transformations of Perlidae at St. Martin’s Falls,
Albany river. Newport has published some of these
observations, which show that they undergo their trans-
formations, and even pair, at very low temperatures.
One species, the Capnia vernalis, comes forth at the
end of winter when the thick ice begins to crack, and
changes from the nymph to the perfect state in the
crevices, leaving its slough there even when the tem-
perature of the air has sunk to freezing. Another
species, Bradiyptera gladalis, makes its appearance
at that time, undergoing its changes, and even pairing,
in the crevices of decaying ice. These insects are
short-lived in their perfect state, so that, although pair-
ing takes place at but little above the temperature of
freezing, the ova are deposited at a time when the
diurnal warmth is increasing, because accessions of
force from without are necessary to evolve vital force
within them, and induce the formation of structure.*

Pteronarcys.— This
is a genus of Perlidse
peculiar to North Amer-
ica. It was established
by Mr. Newman, who
described several species
— one of the largest is
the Pteronarcys regalis^
a Canadian water fly,
nearly four inches across
when its wings are spread
out. Its pupa is here
figured.

This insect, as de-
scribed b}' Mr. Barnston,
comes abroad only at
dew-fall or in the night,
and when on the wing it
is constantly dipping on
the surface of the water, t

Mr. Doubleday, who
took it at Trenton Falls,
found it chiefly on wet
evenings and during the
day. He says that it hides itself in crevices of the rock
which are constantly wetted by the spray of falling water,
under stones, and in other damp places. Mr. New-
port found that the Pteronarcys possessed branchiae, or
traces of branchiae, in the perfect siate. He says that

* Newport Ann. and Mag., November, 1850.

f Newport on the Analogy and Affinities of Pteronarcys
regalis. Linn. Trans., vol. xx. p. 432.

Pupa of Pteronarcys regalis.

250 Ephemekiu^. INSECTS. Libellulid.e.

the Pteronarcys resembles an amphibious animal in its
habit of life, and may be designated “an Insect Proteus
among the winged Articulata — the representation in
structure, as it appears to be in habit, of the Proteus
of Vertebrata. Its organs of respiration fully justify
us in instituting this comparison. The true Proteus
lias both lungs and branchiae ; and a similar conforma-
tion of structure exists in Pteronarcys, in so far as the
ramified tracheae being the direct recipients of atmos-
pheric air, are to be regarded as the representatives of
lungs.” — Linn. Trans., vol. xx., p. 433.

Most of the Canadian Perlidae in the daytime retreat
to the cracked fissures of deca3md trees. Mr. Barnston
noticed that the species called Capnia vernalis comes
out of the water in the nymph state in the cracks of the
ice, and casts its skin there ; this it does when the
thermometer indicates that it is freezing.

FAMir.Y— EPHEMERID^ {May Flies).

This is a family of important insects, seeing that they
furnish much food to fresh-water fishes. The antennse
are very small (Plate 6, fig. 9, Ephemera vulgata). The
mouth is nearly obsolete in the perfect insect ; indeed,
in that state they only live a few hours ; hence their
name Ephemera. The metamorphoses of these insects
are very interesting ; but space prevents me from enter-
ing on the detail. They abound in New Zealand. One
species, E. albipennis, with white wings, is common in
Europe. Swarms of this species are often met with :
they resemble in this state a fall of snow. The dead
bodies are at times collected in some parts of Europe
as manure.

Family — LIBELLULTDJ3 {Dragon-flies).

Dr. Hagen records forty-six British species.* He
places them in the following sections : —

Tribe I. — -Wings not similar; the hind ones dilated at the
base.

Div. 1. — Lower lip smaller than the palpi.

1. Sub family LiiiELEUniNA. Eyes simple, not prolonged pos-
teriorly. Larva of Libellida depressa, figured Plate 6,
fig. 3. ■

Genus Libellida, with thirteen species.

Fig. 153.

2. Sub-family Coruulina. The eyes with a slight prolonga-

tion backwards.

Genus Cordulia, with four species.

Div. 2. — Lower lip larger than the palpi.

3. Sub-family Gomphina. — Eyes not contiguous, or scarcely so.

• See his Synopsis in Stainton’s Entomologist’s Annual for
1857, p. 39.

Genus GompJius. — Eyes remote ; lower lip rounded at the tip.
Three British species.

Genus Cordulegaster. — Eyes slightly contiguous, lower lip cleft
at the end. One British species.

4. Sub-family .Sschnina. — Eyes completely contiguous.
Genus jEsdma. — Anal angle of hind wings sharp in the male

and rounded in the female. Seven species. Of these,
one species {jE. borealis), previously to its being taken in
Scotland by M. De Selys during a short visit, was not
known as British ; so that the entomologist who examines
carefully the mountainous parts of this country, may
expect to meet with species of Dragon-flies not yet re-
corded as British.

Genus Anax. — In this genus the anal angle of the hind wings
is rounded in both sexes. One British species.

Tribe II. — The fore and hind wings in this tribe are similar.
Div. 1. — Antecubital nervures numerous.

5. Sub-family Oalopterigina contains the larger species of

the tribe.

Genus Calopteryx contains two species found in Britain.

Div. 2. — With two antecubital nervures.

6. Sub-family Agrionina contains the smaller species of the

tribe.

Genus Platycnemis, with one British species, may be known
by the tibim being dilated.

Genus Lestes, with five British species. — The tibiie are cylin-
drical, and the stigma of the wing is large and oblong.
Plate 6, fig. 1, represents the Lestes sponso..

Genus Agrion, with nine British species. — This genus has the
tibi® cylindrical, and the stigma of the wing is small and
rhomboidal.

The wings of the Dragon-flies are nearly equal in size
and form — a complete and beautiful piece of network,
which resembles the finestlace, with the meshes between
filled with a pure, transparent, glossy membrane. Some
of the genera have wings always expanded, even when
the creatures are resting, so that they can on being
disturbed take flight in an instant, there being no
necessity for them to unfold their wings. These
insects can fly in all directions without turning — back-
wards and forwards, and to the right or left, so that
to those inexperienced in their habits they are very
difficult of capture. The smaller Dragon-flies are
equally alert. Specimens are sometimes taken at sea
at great distances from land ; thus Mr. Davis mentions*
one which flew on board the vessel in which he sailed
when she was five hundred miles from land.

The figure (Plate 6, fig. 2) represents a fine New
Zealand species of Dragon-fly named Petalura Car-
rovei.

The species Calepteryx and the allied Agrions are
often very beautiful. Here come

“ The beautiful blue damsel flies
That fluttered round the jasmine stems,

Like winged flowers or flying gems.”

to which the poet Thomas Moore refers.

Mr. Gosse, when in Alabama, noticed a large dragon-
fly actually try to get some fish out of a shallow pool. The
dragon-fly had been hawking to and fro over the brook
some time ; at length he dashed down into the water
where a few of the fry were swimming, and made
quite a little splash, but did not go under. He rose
again immediately, but without success evidentljq as
he continued his hawking as before. The fry darted
away in all directions from the intruder’s attack, of
course, but soon reassembled and came to the surface
as before. The dragon-fly, not discouraged by failure,
presently made another pounce, and now succeeded
' Entomological Magazine, vol. v., p. 251.

Mykmkleonid^, INSECTS. Hemekobiid^.

251

better, for he instantly settled for a few minutes on a
twig on the bank, as their manner invariably is when
they take prey, to eat it.

Family— MYRMELEONIDiB {Ant-lions),

A large and important family of insects, the larvae
of which are called Ant-lions, from their digging
pits and laying in wait for ants or other insects,
which, passing near the edge of their pitfalls, often
tumble down, and when they try to escape are often
brought into the very jaws of the former by the shovel-
ling up of sand directed against them when beating
a retreat. Plate 6, fig. 5, represents the common
European species Myrmelson formicarius and its larva,
pupa, and its globular cocoon.

The African Ant-lions, and some of the Indian
species, are very large, and have spotted wings.

The genus Ascalaphus, has long clubbed antennse.
Plate 6, fig. 8, represents the Ascalaphus barbarus,
a species of this very distinct genus.

Family — HEMEROBIIDjE {Lace-wing Flies).

Thei e is a family of insects, the grubs of which are
famed for their wholesale destruction of those noisome
insects, the plant-lice. This family, the HemerobiidcB,
are generally of a pale-green colour, with four large
wings delicately netted with veins, from which they
have obtained the name of Lace-wing flies. Their
eggs are large and projecting, and have a brilliant
golden hue, whence the insects are often called Golden-
eyed flies. Pretty as they are, when taken in the hand,
they emit a most disagreeable smell not easily got rid
of. The eggs are raised on a longish thread. Dr.
Fitch has thus described the process of their oviposi-
tion. “Nature has furnished these insects with a fluid
analogous to that which spiders are provided with for
spinning their webs, which possesses the remarkable
property of hardening immediately on being exposed
to the air. When ready to drop an egg, the female
touches the surface of the leaf with the end of her
body, and then elevating the latter, draws out a slender
thread like a cobweb, half an inch long, or less, and
places a little oval egg at its summit. Thus, a small
round spot resembling mildew is formed upon the
surface of the leaf, from the middle of which arises a
very slender, glossy, white thread, which is sometimes
split at its base, thus giving it a more secure attach-
ment than it would have if single.” * The gruh leaves
the egg in less than a week after it is deposited ; seve-
ral of these eggs may often be seen together, after the
larvJB are hatched. Dr. Fitch has shown, that when
first hatched, these grubs feed chiefly on the eggs of
insects, and in this way must destroy great numbers of
noxious creatures. This, too, accounts for the reason
why the female places her eggs on these hair-like,
pedicels ; it is to keep them from the attacks of their
own kind. As they increase in size, the larvae become
truly “ aphis-lions,” laying hold of the plant-lice, and
sucking out their juices. The jaws of these grubs are
long, and sickle-shaped, and well fitted to probe the

* Dr. Fitch’s Report on Noxious and Beneficial Insects, p. 71.

often narrow crevices and fissures in which their prey
lurks. Some of the species cover themselves with the
skins of their victims, which are supported on their
backs by the radiating bristles which clothe them.
When the larva has attained its full growth, it becomes
inactive, and spins a cocoon ; the tail exuding a glutin-
ous secretion, which hardens on exposure to the air.
The larvae contract and compress themselves into
cocoons scarcely one-fourth their size, and from these
cocoons come flies double the size of the larvae , as Dr.
Fitch remarks, it is like a full-grown hen hatching
from an ordinary sized egg.

Fig. 154.

HemerobiidsB

a Leaf with eggs. c Female Lace-wing.

b An egg magnified. d Male of do.

M. Guerin-Meneville named a most lovely species
of Hemerobius Chrysopa MarioneUa, after Marion
Frances, the youngest of the writer’s daughters.

Dr. Hagen gives the names of thirty-two species of
Hemerobiidae as British. These are placed in seven
genera as follows : —

Osmylus, 0. Chrysops, a pretty, brown insect, with
the wings spotted with black ; it is met with in the
month of June, and appears to prefer stony rapid
streams which are fringed with alders. The larva lives
partly in water ; the cocoon is of irregular form, and
composed of spun-silk. In this genus there are ocelli
visible.

Chrysopa, fifteen species. In this genus the ocelli
are wanting ; the larva feeds on Aphidae ; the cocoon is
in the form of a barrel, and is composed of thick spun
silk. For the names and characters of the species
the reader is referred to Dr. Hagen’s Synopsis, as we
cannot give them here.

Sisyra, two species. The larva lives in water, and
has been described by Westwood under the name of
Branchiostoma spongillce.

Micromus, three species.

Hemerobius, seven species. The larva of the
species of this genus preys on Aphidae, and clothes
itself with the empty skins of its prey ; the cocoon is
oval, and of a gauzy silken texture.

Drepanopteryx, Coniopteryx ; the species of the
latter are small, and covered with a white mealy
powder. The larviB live on fir-trees, the Aphidm
frequenting which trees are their food ; the cocoon is

252 SiALiDiE. INSECTS. Tbichoptera.

oval, and of close-spun silk. The species are from

Panorpa, four species. Our figure shows the Pan-

three to four lines in expanse.

orpa communis or common Scorpion-fly (Plate 6,

In the family Sialidm, which includes Raphidia, Dr.

fig. 7).

Hagen quotes five species as indigenous to our island,

The Scorpion-fly can lord it over the Dragon-fly.

and characterizes the family as having the wings

Lyonet mentions that he saw a scorpion-fly attack a

deflexed; the subcosta unites with the costa before the

dragon-fly ten times larger than itself. The Panorpa

apex of the wing; the labial palpi are three-jointed;

brought him to the ground, pierced him repeatedly with

the anal area is present, though in Raphidia it is very

his proboscis; and but for the eagerness of the naturalist

small. The larva has the mouth formed for biting,

who parted them, there was no doubt but that the

and is always carnivorous.

Scorpion-% would have destroyed the Libellula. In

this family comes the strange genus Nemoptera, one

Family — SIALID^®.

of the species of which is figured on Plate 6, fig. 6,

Nemoptera filipennis ; the figure, as in several other

The Sialis lutarim is a dingy, blackish insect, very

instances, is copied from one of Mr. AVestwood’s. In

common on the banks of ponds and streams. They

this family, too, comes the genus Bittacus, with its long

deposit their eggs in patches on the rushes. The flies

legs and very great raptorial tarsi. These insects seize

must afford great store of food to many of the smaller

and hold other insects with their great claws.

fresh- water fish. Anglers who use artificial flies in

pursuing their sport, frequently imitate the general

Family— MANTISPIDAl.

appearance and form of the Sialis. Its brownish wings

have a multiplicity of veins ; the fore-wings are yellow-

A family with raptorial fore legs, looking like a

ish at the base.

miniature Mantis.

Raphidia, four species. In this family comes the

On lately opening a nest of the curious Wasp, My-

great long-jawed Corydalis cornuta. Our figure is

rapetra scutellaris, from Monte Video, I was much

that of Raphidia ophiopsis var notata (Plate 6, fig. 4).

delighted to get a considerable number of a curious

In the family Panorpidce, Dr. Hagen quotes five species

Mantispa alive. In the former nest which I had

as British. The family is thus characterized : — The

described, wings of this species, which I alluded to as

wings are horizontal, narrow ; the subcosta unites with

Hemerohius, occurred. These Mantispae jerked and

the costa before the tip of the wings, the mouth is pro-

jumped about in the strangest manner ; when they fell

longed like a beak, the labial palpi are two-jointed;

on their backs they righted themselves most curiously.

the anal area is wanting. The larva lives underground,

They eagerly ate any small insects offered to them.

and feeds on plants ; the pupa is quiescent, and is with-

They were evidently parasitic in the nest, as they

out a proper cocoon. In the genus Boreus the wings

occurred in great numbers. I described this insect at

are wanting; in Panorpa the}'' are present.

a meeting of the Entomological Society of London,

Boreus hyemalis, is sometimes found on snow.

December 2, 1861.

Sub-order — TRICHOPTERA {Gaddis-ioorm flies).

This group of insects was regarded by Kirby as

end, and is formed of a silk spun from the anus of the

forming a distinct order from the Neuroptera, to

larva. Degeer has described one of these grates. It

which he gave the name of Trichoptera, or hairy wings,

is formed by a small, thickisb, circular lamina of a

from the hairs with which they are usually covered.

dark-coloured silk, which becomes hard, and exactly

Westwood and other authors regard them also as

fits the end of the case, being fixed a little within its

distinct from the Neuroptera ; we follow Dr. Hagen

margin. It is pierced all over with holes, arranged in

in considering them merely as a subdivision of that

concentric circles, and separated by ridges which run

order.

from the centre to the circumference, somewhat like

Trichoptera in their early stages are aquatic, and

the spokes of a wheel. Although for a considerable

inhabit cases which are constructed of various mate-

time quiescent in their pupa state, about the close of

rials, according to the species or genus of the order.

it they can move ; they are furnished with an appa-

Some employ grains of variously coloured sand to

ratus to pierce through the grating which imprisons

cover these cases ; others use small fresh-water shells,

them, otherwise they must perish in the water. The

and thus carry about with them a little museum of the

head of the pupa is furnished in front with two hooks ;

coverings of aquatic mollusca of different kinds ; others

with these, before their last change, they make an

form the outside lining of their case with small frag-

opening in the grate. Having escaped from this, the

ments of branches or reeds. These cases are usually

pupa mounts in the water to the surface, and emerges

open at the ends. In their pupa state they become

from it. She then creeps up some plant, her antennae

torpid ; but before becoming pupae, the larvae, to keep

and legs each inclosed in a separate envelope ; the

out their enemies, and at the same time to allow free

perfect insect then gradually bursts from her case.

ingress to water, so necessary for their very existence,

Plate 6, fig. 10, shows one of the Trichoptera with

form a grate across the mouth of the case. This port-

the Caddis- worm.

cullis, as it has been well called, is spun across each

In North America, Brazil, Australia, New Zealand,

.

Haustellata. I^iSECTS. Lepidoptera. 253

and elsewhere, there are some Trichoptera, the larvae
of which foiia a covering twisted like a shell. Indeed
Lea, an American conchologist, describes one of these
as a new shell, under the name of Valvata arenifera,
while Mr. Swainson described a Brazilian species as a
new genus of mollusca, under the name of Thelidomus.
Dr. Gray pointed out in the fifth volume of the “Annals
of Natural History” that these so-called shells were the
cases of Caddis-worms. Dr. Bigsby found some of
them in Canada, and thus alludes to them in his jour-
nal :* — “ Near our sleeping-place, a few miles north of
Otter’s Head, I found some very curious animals resem-
bling molluscs, from one-third to half an inch long, and
broadish. They are peculiar in ha%’ing no shell, but
are studded very closely all over with a single layer of
very small pebbles, each the third of a line perhaps in
diameter, always of a hard rock, such as quartz, fel-
spar, jasper, bits of granite, &c. The twisted form of
the animals is closely followed by the mosaic of the
pebbles, and the effect is pretty and singular, especially
when shining in water.”

These insects are characterized by having four wings
arranged like a roof, the longitudinal veins united
by only a few transverse veins ; the prothorax is very
short ; the antennae have numerous joints, and are long
and thin ; the mouth is unfitted for mastication, as the
mandibles are rudimentary and the palpi only are
developed ; the maxillar}' palpi are five-jointed or less,
the labial palpi are three-jointed ; the legs are long and
thin ; the tibiae are furnished at the tip with long,
movable spurs, these spurs existing often in the four-
hind legs, beyond the middle of the limb ; the tarsi are
five-jointed.

In the first division {Heteropalpi) the females have
five joints to the maxillary palpi, while the males have
fewer joints to these organs.

In the first sub-family, the maxillary palpi of the
males are four-jointed ; they have ocelli ; there are two
spurs on the fore legs, and four on each of the others ;
while the antennae are as long as the wings (Phry-
ganides).

The following is a list of the genera, and the number
of species of each, that have been discovered in Great
Britain : —

Phryganea^ 4 species ; Neuronia, 1 ; Agrypnia, 1 ; Limno-
philus, 21; Anabolia, 3; Stenophylax, 6; Hallesus, 2; Ches-
topteryx, 2 ; Ecclisopteryx, 1 ; Apatania, 1 ; Notidobia, 1 ;
Goera, 2 ; Silo, 1 ; Mormonia, 2 ; Brachycentrus, 1 ; Agraylea,
1 ; Hydroptila, 4 ; Odontocerus, 1 ; Molanna, 1 ; Leptocerus,
14; Mystacides, 3; Seiodes, 4; Tthyacophila, 1; Agapetus, 2;
Glossosoma, 2 ; Beraea, 3 ; Chimarra, 1.

The characters of these genera will be found in Dr.
Hagen’s papers published in the Entomologist's Annual
for 1859 and 1860.

The fresh-water fishes live much on the larva of the
Phrj'ganeida. The Dipper {Cinclus aquaticus), that
curious aquatic thrush, in his subaquatic walks picks up
many a caddis-worm.

Kirby and Spence * remark that the Leptocerus
atratus, a kind of May-fly, frequents the black flower-
spikes of the common sedge {Carex riparia) — that
coarse, hard grass-like plant so common on the banks
of our rivers. This insect so closely resembles in colour
the flower- spikes of the sedge as to deceive the collector,
and it is very probable that many specimens in this way
escape the notice of birds.

Division II.— HAUSTELLATED INSECTS.

Haustellated, means having a proboscis, more or
less distinct, with which insects suck up their food.-j- A
house-fly pushes out its mouth, a butterfly or moth the
long tongue, which they often insert in a flower. Some
bees, and even beetles, have tongues like a haustellum.

and indeed the two groups seem to pass into each other;
but notwithstanding the appearance, the jaws are alw'ays
very decidedly marked in the Mandihulata, while, on
the contrary, they are very abortive or nearly wanting
in the Haustellata.

Order — LEPIDOPTERA {Butterflies and Moths),

This name means scaly-winged. J If you have a
magnifying glass, or a microscope, you will find a num-
ber of curiously-formed scales, which, when on the wing
of the insect, lap over each other like the tiles or slates
on the roof of a house.

Had time and space permitted, I should have liked
to say much more about the Lepidoptera. He who
would wish handsome, illustrated works on the British
Butterflies, may get Mr. Humphrey’s, or Mr. West-
wood’s fine drawing7room works ; or Coleman’s very

* The Shoe and Canoe, or Pictures of Travel in the Canadas.
By John J. Bigsby, M.D., vol. ii., p. 211.
t Haustellum, from the Latin word liaurio, to draw,
f Ae^a Aet/Sos, scale ; and wings.

excellent “ British Butterflies,” with sixteen plates, giv-
ing a figure of every species. Mr. Newman has also a
work on British Butterflies at a shilling, with very good
wood-cuts.

Mr. Stainton’s work on British Lepidoptera, or the
showily-illustrated book of the talented Mr. Humphreys,
take in all the British Lepidoptera store. The “Genera
of Diurnal Lepidoptera,” begun by the late Edward
Doubleday, and illustrated by Mr. Hewitson, and con-
tinued by Hewitson and Westwood after Doubleday’s
death, is a truly noble book. So is Mr. Hewitson’s
“Exotic Butterflies,” now reaching the second volume.
Mr. G. Gray’s finely-illustrated “ Catalogue of the
* Introduction to Entomology, ii., p. 179.

254 Lepidoptera. INSECTS. Vanessa.

butterflies of the British Museum ” is also au excellent
work.

Tlie late George Newport, F.R.S., showed clearly
by many experiments, that if insects were injured
accidentally or intentionally in their larval or chrysalidal
states, these insects showed traces of the injury in their
perfect state. For instance, -if a foot was injured in a
grub, or the place where the wing or antenna would be
developed in the pupa, the foot, the wing, or other
organ, was defective in the perfect insect. Several
series of experiments were made on Vanessa urticm
and Vanessa Id, with complete success; as the result
of these experiments, the perfect insects, with their
diminutive and newly-formed limbs, were produced.
Some of these specimens are now deposited in the
cabinets of the British Museum, and others in the
Hunterian Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons.
The details of the experiments have been published ;
so that this physiological question may now be regarded
as completely settled.

Many of the Lepidoptera, when emerging from the
chrysalis, discharge a red fluid from their anus. This
fluid, when the numbers of the insects have been con-
siderable, has looked like, and been taken for, a shower
of blood. In 1553, it is recorded that a vast number of
butterflies swarmed over a considerable part of Ger-
many; and where they abounded, plants, buildings, and
even men were sprinkled with red drops, as if there had
been a shower of blood. The cause was apparent, and
men’s minds were at ease. Not so, however, at Aix in
1G08, when the suburbs of that town and the country
adjacent seemed to be covered with a shower of blood.
The inhabitants of all classes were alarmed, and most of
them began to regard the appearance as the precursor
of some impending calamity. Reaumur records that M.
Peiresc, a philosopher of the place, allayed the fears that
began to prevail. He had a chrysalis, which he watched.
On hearing a fluttering he looked into the hox, and found
that the insect had emerged from its pupa state and had
left behind it a red spot. This he compared with the
spots of the so called bloody shower, and found them to
be exactly alike ; he observed, also, that at the time a
great number of butterflies were flying about, and that
the drops were not found on the tiles nor on the upper
surface of stones, but chiefly in places where rain could
not easily come. The naturalist was able to dispel the
fears and terror which his fellow-townsmen’s ignorance
had occasioned.*

The Ettrick Shepherd, as personified by Christopher
North in one of his fine imaginary conversations, full
of poetry and criticism, and often mantling with fun
as well as occasional pawkiness and prejudices, intro-
duces insects into his picture of a calm summer
day :t—

“ Perhaps a bit bonny butterfly is resting, wi’ faulded
wings, on a gowan no a yard frae your cheek ; and
noo, waukening out o’ a simmer dream, floats awa in
its wavering beauty, but, as if unwilling to leave its
place of mid-day sleep, cornin’ back and back, and
roun’ and roun’, on this side and that side, and ettlin’
(intending, attempting) in its capricious happiness to

* Kirby and Spence, i., p. 28.

1 Nodes AnibVosiaua;, vol. i., p. 158 ; 1855.

fasten again on some brighter floweret, till the same
breath o’ wund that lifts up your hair sae refreshingly
catches the airy voyager, and wafts her away into
some other nook of her ephemeral paradise.”

The Shepherd goes on to speak of other inhabitants
of the mountains. “ Mony million moths ; some o’ as
lovely green as the leaf of the moss rose, and others
bright as the blush with which she salutes the dewy
dawn ; some yellow as the long steady streaks that
lie beneath the sun at set, and others blue as the skj'
before his orb has westered. Spotted, too, are all the
glorious creatures’ wings — say rather starred with con-
stellations! Yet, 0 sirs, they are but creatures o’ a
day ! ...

“ Gin a pile o’ grass straughtens itself in silence you
hear it distinctly. I’m thinking that was the noise o’
a beetle gaun to pay a visit to a freen’ on the ither side
o’ that mossy stane. The melting dew quakes ! Ay,
sing awa, my bonny bee, maist industrious o’ God’s
creatures ! Dear me, the heat is ower muckle for
him ; and he burrows himsel’ in amang a tuft o’ grass,
like a beetle, panting 1 and noo invisible a’ but the
yellow doup o’ him.”

Among artists we find not a few who have derived
excellent hints from the colouring and variegated
shading of the wings of Butterflies. Vandyck kept a
collection of the finer exotic Butterflies, and Stothard,
the Royal academician, kept a collection for the same
purpose.

Mrs. Bray mentions two Butterflies of which Stoth-
ard was very fond— the species named Vanessa Id and
Vanessa urticce by naturalists ; they are alluded to in
the following extract from her “ Life of Stothard
About 1794, the year in which he was elected a Royal
academician, Stothard “ painted a picture which gave
rise to a new and delightful combination in his studies
of colour for his works. The circumstance which led to
it deserves not to be forgotten. He was beginning to
paint the figure of a reclining sylph, when a difficulty
arose in his own mind how best to represent such a
being of fancy. A friend who was present said, ‘ Give
the sylph a butterfly’s wing, and there you have it.’
‘ That I will,’ exclaimed Stothard ; ‘ and to be correct,
I will paint the wing from the butterfly itself.’ He
immediately sallied forth, extended his walk to the
fields some miles distant, and caught one of those
beautiful insects ; it was of the class (species) called
the Peacock, Our artist brought it carefully home,
and commenced sketching it, but not in the painting-
room ; and leaving it on the table, the servant swept
the pretty little creature away before its portrait was
finished. On learning his loss, away went Stothard
once more to the fields to seek another butterfly. But
at this time one of the tortoise-shell tribe crossed his
path, and was secured. He was astonished at the
combination of colour that presented itself to him in
this small but exquisite work of the Creator, and from
that moment determined to enter on a new and delight-
ful field — the study of the insect department of natural
history. He became a hunter of butterflies ; the more
he caught, the greater beauty did he trace in their
infinite variety, and he would often say that no one
knew what he owed to these insects ; they had taught

Rhopalocera.

Lepidoptera -

-INSECTS.-

255

Ijim the finest combinations in that difficult branch of
art colouring.’’*

From the same book another anecdote may be given,
which shows Stothard’s love of butterflies in an ento-
mologist’s aspect. When painting the great staircase
at Burleigh for the Marquis of Exeter, among the visi-
tors “ was a certain dignitary of the church, who often
joined Stothard on his summer evening rambles. On
one occasion he happened to go out with his nippers
and his net to catch butterflies and insects, when his
clerical friend thought it became him to read him, very
gravely, a lecture on the cruel and unchristian-like
practice to which he was addicted. This reproof was
received with meekness ; when going on a little further
they came to a piece of water. The fish were making
bubbles and rings in it by darting up to the surface to

catch the flies. “Bless me !” exclaimed the divine,
“ how plenty the fish are here ; I wish I had my rod
with me.” Are you an angler, Mr. Stothard?” “ No,’’
replied Stothard, “ I have some doubts about angling,
whether it may not be a cruel and unchristian-like
practice, when we think of the worm, the hook, and
the fish.”*

The profusion of species of Butterflies on the Ama-
zon about Ega and Santarem, where Mr. H. W. Bates
has collected for many years, is surprising. Some of
these Butterflies, such as the green Celoenis Dido and
the tailed Theda Marsyas, are in profusion, while
others are seldom met with to excite the attention or
reward the diligence of the collector, who watches
newly-opening flowers to catch such rarities as maj'
settle on them.

LEPIDOPTERA DIURNA— RHOPALOCERA

(Butterjiies or Day-flying Lepidoptera).

The first great section of the Lepidoptera contains
the Butterflies, which are known to everybody by
head-mark. Naturalists know them by many charac-
ters, the chief of which is that the a-ntennse gradually
thicken into a club at the end, whence they have derived
one of their names — Rhopaloccra.-\

The following lines, written by Wordsworth in 1801,
and placed in the edition of 1841 among the poems
referring to the period of childhood, express much that
every child has felt, though it took a great poet, but a
simple-minded man, to write them : — ■

“ Stay near me — do not take thy flight — '

A little longer stay in sight.

Much converse do I find in thee.

Historian of my infancy.

Float near me, do not yet depart,

Dead times revive in thee ;

Thou bring’st, gay creature as thou art,

A solemn image to my heart —

My father’s family. . . .

Oh 1 pleasant, pleasant were the days—

The time when in our childish plays
My sister Emmeline and I
Together chased the butterfly :

A very hunter did I rush

Upon the prey. With leaps and springs

I followed on from brake to bush ;

But she, God love her, feared to brush
The dust from off its wings.”

Family— PAPILIONID^.

In the family Papilionida;,\ of which the Swallow-
tail butterfly {Papilio Machaon) is a characteristic
indigenous species, the wings are ample, and the dis-
coidal cells are always closed ; the median nervule has
apparently four branches, and the anterior tibiae have a
stout spur about the middle, two characters which are

* Life of Thomas Stothard, R.A., with personal reminiscences
by Mrs. Bray, pp. 31, 32.

^ a club ; and a horn.

t The characters and much information about the various
families of Diurnal Lepidoptera are derived from Doubleday,
Hewitson, and Westwood’s Genera of Diurnal Lepidoptera.

found in no other family. The larva is furnished with
two retractile tentacula on the prothoracic segment,
which the creature has the power of extending when
irritated, evidently for the purpose of defence, as at
that time they emit an aromatic but generally dis-
agreeable odour. The chrysalis is braced, with the
head bifid, square, or rounded, but never pointed.

The finest and largest of the group have been placed
in a genus named Ornithoptera, the species of which
are found chiefly in the eastern Asiatic islands. The
larva and pupa of the genus were first made known by
the venerable Dr. Horsfield, who resided so long in
Java, and did so much to investigate the natural his-
tory of that fine island. The pupa has the peculiarity
of not being surrounded by a transverse band, but is
supported by a silken thread on each side, which is
attached to a small lateral tubercle.

In this genus comes the noble Priamus butterfly,
the male of which has the front wings of a rich velvet
black, with splendid satin green markings, the green
varying in different lights ; the hind wings are green,
with orange and black markings. The females of this,
and indeed of most of the species, are brown, with
dull white or yellowish markings. It is a native of
Amboyna.

P. Poseidon is a closely allied species, which was
found on the voyage of H.M.S. Fly\)y Messrs. Jukes
and John Macgillivray. It flew very high amongst
the groups of cocoa-nut trees on Darnley Island be-
tween New Guinea and Australia. The specimens
they obtained are now in the British Museum. They
were procured from the natives, who catch them and
secure them by one end of a long thread, while they
fasten the other end of the thread to their hair, allow-
ing the butterflies to flutter round their heads. Mr. Gray
has very lately described, under the name of Crcesus, a
very fine Butterfly, in which, among other characters,
the green of the Priamus is replaced by a fine yellow,
which in certain lights is shot with tinges of green.

’’’ Life of Thomas Stothard, <fec., p. 38.

25(5 PiERiD*^?. INSECTS. Anthocharis,

This species was found by Mr. Wallace on the island
of Batchian among the Molucca islands. Some of the
species have the wings black, marked with pale streaks;
the hind wings being of a rich yellow, bordered, spotted,
or lined with black. The Ornithoptera Brookeana is
figured — Plate 9, fig. 2. Speaking of the species of
Papilio proper, good authorities refer to them as being
insects of rapid and powerful flight ; it is certainly the
case with our British species. They take long circuits,
and return after the lapse of a few minutes in the same
direction, and often precisely in the same track on which
they set out.

A very interesting genus of the family is Parnassius,
a genus of white Butterflies with rings of pinkish red
on the wings. Tliey are found on the mountains of
Europe, Asia, and America. The abdomen in the
female terminates in a horny pouch or plate. The
larvje feed on sedums, saxifrages, and such like alpine
plants; as befits residents in a cold region, they are
pubescent. The flight of the perfect insects is de-
scribed as being slow and graceful until disturbed.
When pursued, P Apollo and P. Phmbus are capable
of great speed.

When full grown, the caterpillar of our Swallow-
tail butterfly no longer eats, but rests quietly on the
stem of the plant, sedate and motionless. They
sometimes are for two days in this position, when,
with a small white web spun from the creature’s
mouth, the tail is fixed. With this foundation made,
the larva makes a fine white silken thread, the ends
of which are fixed, one on each side, near the head.
Harris has well described the after process ; — “ I
could not help admiring with what care and pains he
worked to make it strong : rubbing with his mouth
backward and forward with such a motion as the shoe-
makers use in waxing their ends. When finished, he
put his head under or through it, and the thread then
fell across his back ; but the thread now appeared too
big for him. After this he remained two days more,
during which time he shortened and grew thicker, and
at length changed into the chrysalis.” In May and
June the butterfly appears.

The family Pieridce is readily known from the pre-
ceding by the want of the spur on the anterior tibiae,
and by the abdominal margin of the posterior wings
forming a distinct channel for the reception of the
abdomen. The larva is more or less pubescent, has no
tentacula, and tapers slightly towards each extremity,
riie head of the pupa is always pointed, never bifid
or truncated. The Pieridae form an extensive group
of insects scattered over the whole world. The pre-
vailing colours in the insects of this family are white
and yellow. Our common Cabbage-butterfly {Pieris
Brassicoe), and Brimstone-butterfly {Gonepteryx Rham-
ni), are characteristic examples of the family.

The species of the genus Euterpe, with their broad
hairy head, are found in the New World, as are the
species of the singular genus Leptalis, in which the
hind wings are generally much broader than the fore
wings, and nearly or quite as long. Some of the species
have a striking resemblance to the family Heliconidse,
and not less resemble them in their habits. Of the
small genus Lexiconhasia, with its delicate wings rounded

at the end, we have one species, L. Sinapis, which
generally frequents open places in woods, and flies
rather slowly with an undulating unsteady motion.
The larva feeds on the tufted vetch and bird’s-foot
trefoil {Lotus comiculatus). The larvae of the numer-
ous species of the genus Pieris are particularly attached
to the various species of Cruciferse, and some of the
British species, in their larva state, are very destructive
in our gardens, making inroads on our cabbages, turnips,
Indian cress, and mignonette : while in the United
States, one described by Dr. Harris under the name of
P. oleracea, is equally injurious to cabbages, turnips,
and other garden Cruciferse.

Some of the Indian and Australian species are varied
on the under sides with bright colours, such as red and
j'ellow. The male of a very common Australian species
{Pieris nigrina) is white above, while below it is
black, and has yellow marking on the fore wings and
red streaking on the lower.

The grub of the Pieris Cratcegi is often so very
numerous in France as to occasion great injury to the
almond trees, which are cultivated extensively in the
south. Linnseus calls it' “ the pest of gardens.” In
the neighbourhood of Paris the gardeners, and those
who would preserve their fruit trees, make a regular
practice of stripping the branches of as many of these
caterpillars as they can see. In this country it is not
a very common insect ; but in the south of France,
if the almond plantations should happen to be attacked
two or three years in succession by it, the loss of their
leaves occasions the destruction of these valuable trees,
and every year the amount of produce is materially
affected by the caterpillar of this butterfly.*

The species of the genus Pieris are very numerous.
Nearly two hundred are known, whose range extends
from the Arctic l egions to the Tropics, and from the
Tropics to the most southern lands where butterflies
are met with.

The genus Zegris, one species of which, Z. Euplieme,
is found in Spain and in the Crimea, is singular
among butterflies, inasmuch as the larva spins a deli-
cate silken net-like web on the stems of the Sinapis.
It suspends itself by a very fine transverse thread, and
by the tail. The larva grows very slowl}’- ; the insect
itself flies with great rapidity.

The species of Anthocharis have the wings in the
males tipped with orange, or with pinkish red ; they
are commonly called Orange-tips.

The species of the genus Callidryas are found both
in the New World and in the Old; their colours are
most frequently yellow or orange, while a few are of a
chalky white above ; the females differ very much from
their partners. Mr. Doubleday tells us, that the perfect
insects appear in a few days after the change from the
larva to the pupa state. They are powerful and rapid
in flight, and fond of settling on flowers and the muddy
banks of rivers and pools. I have heard Mr. Bates
narrate, how he has seen clouds of the males of one
species fly over the Amazon, near Ega. This habit of
congregating in countless myriads has been observed
by several writers. Sir Robert Scbomburgh, when

* Guerin Meneville: Esaai smiles Insectes Nuisibles, Enc.
Mod., vol. xviii., p. 278.

Ageuonir^. INSECTS. Danaid.e. 257

ascending the river Essequibo on the 10th of November;
1838, saw one of these clouds, which continued cross-
ing the course of the river for nine hours and a half.
During this time the boat had ascended nine miles ;
so that these butterflies formed a cloud nine miles in
width, and of such length that it was nine hours and a
half in crossing the river, notwithstanding the rapidity
of the insects composing it; who could compute the
millions of which it consisted ?

Tlie Gonepteryx Rhamni^ or Brimstone butterfly,
feeds in the larva state on the two species of Buckthorn
found in this country, and also on other plants.

The perfect insects, with their curiously-angled wings
(from which they derive their generic name), appear
in about a fortnight from the time that the larva has
passed into the pupa state; they come out in summer,
and continue on wing during the autumn months. They
pass the winter in a state of lethargy, and reappear on
the first mild sunny day of spring. Their flight is
rapid and unsteady.

The species of Colias are called Sulphur-yellow
butterflies, from their prevailing colours. Two species
are found in this country ; they are insects very irie-
gular in their appearance. They are named Colias
Edusa and Colias Hyale. In the arctic regions is
found the Colias Boothii. Mr. Doubleday found that
the species of butterfly mentioned by Mr. Darwin in
his journal, is the Colias pyrrothea ; that naturalist,
when H.M.S. Beagle was at sea and ten miles from the
Bay of San Bias, saw vast numbers of butterflies of this
species flying over the sea. Even with the aid of a
telescope it was not possible to see a space free from
them. The sailors of the Beagle cried out that it was
snowing butterflies.

Family— AGERONID^.

Mr. Doubleday has formed with the genus Ageronia,
consisting of butterflies from the New World, the family
Ageronidcp. It is placed after the family Pieridte, but has
little in common with it but its braced pupa. The fore
legs are imperfect ; the palpi are three-jointed and con-
vergent. There can be no doubt that this family should
be placed in the Nymphalidce. Nothing is known of
the larva. The. perfect insects have a short, rapid
flight, and constantlj’’ alight on the trunks of trees.
Most of the species are of a peculiar grey and white,
very much resembling the colour of some barks and
of lichens. All the species whose history is known,
when they fly, produce a sound which, as Mr. Double-
day was told by a good observer, resembled closely
the rustling of a piece of parchment.

Darwin, in the “Voyage of the Beagle,” thus refers to
the habits of the Ageronia Feronia; — “ I was much sur-
prised at the habits of the Papilio Feronia. This butterfly
is not uncommon, and generally frequents the orange
groves ; although a high flyer, yet it very frequently alights
on the trunks of trees. On these occasions its head is
invariably placed downwards, and its wings are expanded
in a horizontal plane, instead of being folded vertically,
as is commonly the case. This is the onlj’’ butterfly I
have ever seen that uses it legs for running. Not being
aware of this fact, the insect more than once, as I cau-
VoT,. TI. 89

tiously approached with my forceps, shuffled on one
side just as the instrument was on the point of closing,
and thus escaped. But a far more singular fact, is the
power which the insect possesses of making a noise.
Several times when a pair, probably male and female,
were chasing each other in an irregular course, they
passed within a few yards of me; and I distinctly heard
a clicking noise similar to that produced by a toothed
wheel passing under a spring catch. The noise was
continued at short intervals, and could be distinguished
at about twenty yards’ distance. I cannot form a con-
jecture of how it was produced ; but I am certain there
is no error in the observation.”

Mr. Doubleday tried carefully to ascertain if there
was any structure in the wing which seemed intended
to produce it. He observed that they all presented one
peculiarity ; it was this, that immediately above the
nervure, quite at its origin, on the under side of the
wing, there is a small round cavity, which is smooth
inside and is covered with a very delicate membrane
stretched across it, somewhat like the parchment of a
kettle-drum, which, indeed, the cavity resembles in
shape. In one species, Ageronia Aretlmsa, the swollen
part of the costal nervule is divided by numerous trans-
verse membranaceous diaphragms, which are placed
obliquely, so as, when the nervure is rendered transpa-
rent, to present the appearance of a screw with a very
loose worm, which is inclosed in the nervure.*

Family — DANAIDHU.

The family Danaidm is distinguished from the next
family, Heliconidae, by the species having shorter
antennae, by the wings being for the most part shorter
and more angular, and by the palpi, which scarcely rise
above the forehead.

The larvae are stout and cylindrical, smaller towards
the head, and are furnished on one or more of the
anterior segments with a pair of long, slender, flexible,
fleshy tentacula, which are not retractile, and with a
similar but often shorter pair on the segment before
the last. The pupa is suspended, is short, smooth,
somewhat ovate and contracted near the middle.

The greater part of the species belong to the Old
World; and they are found especially in the islands
of the Indian archipelago. The species of the genus
Euplcea are generally insects of considerable size, of a
dark brown or black, spotted or streaked with white
and light blue.

The species of Danais are found both in the New
and in the Old World. Danais Arcliippus is a species
abundant even in the largest towns of the middle and
northern states of America. Danais Berenice is fond
of alighting on flowers, especially those of the Ascle-
piadece. The Danais Eresimus is found often in
hundreds together in the open plantations of Cayenne.
The Australian variety of the Danais Limniaces was
found by Captain King in countless myriads, when he
was surveying the northern coast of Australia. It is
said that the natives eat them. It is probable this is the
very species of butterfly which Captain Cook saw in the

* E. Doubleday — Genera of Diurnal Lepidoptera, p. 83.

258 Heliconid^. INSECTS. Acr^id.e.

neighbourhood of Thirsty Sound on the 29th of May,
1770, when he mentions that his party found a space
of three or four acres covered by millions of them
on the wing, and they noticed that every twig and
branch were loaded with almost equal numbers at rest.
A species of this genus, with its characteristic brownish
red hue and black markings, is represented on some
Egyptian wall paintings in the British Museum. The
same species is still abundant in Egypt and in the
Mediterranean district.

The species of Hestia are butterflies of a large size,
with semitransparent whitish wings of rather delicate
texture, with the nervules and numerous spots on or
between the nervures and nervules and on the outer
margin, and sometimes the margin, black. Mr. Arthur
Adams observed a species of this genus, Hestia Leuconoe,
on the Madjico Sima islands; and says that it flies
slowly over the tops of the bushes and is easily taken.

Family— HELICONID^.

The family {Heliconidce) is a very extensive one,
which maybe said to be peculiarly American. They have
elongated front wings generally much rounded exter-
nally, their hind wings are narrow, and they have the
costal margin almost double the length of the abdominal,
while the latter margin has no fold to form a channel
for the reception of the abdomen. The abdomen is
elongated, is always as long as the wings, and sometimes
longer. The antennae are long and gradually clavate,
and the palpi are widely .separated at the base and not
convergent. Little seems to be known of their larvae;
the pupa is smooth and is suspended by the tail.

Lacordaire says that those species with white spots
on a black or bluish ground (as Hecate, Sappho, and
Aniiocha), only live in the forests of Surinam. They
fly in a free and easy manner, and do not rise high.
The most common species are those with red or yellow
spots on the upper wings and with no radiating marks
on the lower, as Melpomene, Sara, Thamar, and others.
They live in the neighbourhood of habitations and have
a hold undulating flight, rarely proceed in a straight
course, and yet are easily captured. Some which have
yellow or red spots on the fore wings and red or ful-
vous raj s on the second (as Doris, Erato, Cynisca, and
others), are found only in the woods. They do not rise
high above the ground, and they fly quickly with a
sailing and sometimes with a bounding flight. The
species in which yellow predominates, mixed with black,
such as Eva, Egina, Polymnia, &c., for the most part
frequent woods. Those with very narrow wings and
elongated abdomen have an unequal jumping flight and
often alight in great numbers on flowers, when they are
easily captured. Others in which the wings are not so
long, and the abdomen extends but little beyond the hind
wings, have a rapid unequal flight. Lacordaire has
often seen them rise suddenly into the air and then im-
mediately descend, without ever sailing with expanded
wings. He found them in consequence difficult to
capture. The species with more or less transparent
wings {Ithomia, &c.), such as Niscea, Flora, QSgle,
Diaphana, Gazoria, &c., remain constantly in the

deepest forests among the bushes, where they fly slowly
within two or three feet of the ground, alighting every
minute on the ground. They are social in their habits,
being generally found united in little societies more or
less numerous.

On Plate 9 are figured two Heliconice from Mr.
Hewitson’s works, where so many of the group have
been so carefully and beautifully illustrated. Plate 9
fig. 4 shows the Heliconia Hermathena, and fig. 5
Heliconia HecaJtesia. That observer refers to the
peculiar gland or appendage wdiich these insects have
at the end of the abdomen. It is concealed between
the valves of the anus, but is capable of being pro-
truded. In the Lycorea Halia this gland takes the
form of a radiating tuft of hairs, which form, when
exserted, two feathered globes at the end of the abdo-
men. In another species allied to Heliconia Erytlircea,
this gland is much developed. It is in the shape of
small fleshy balls of an orange colour. Mr. Wallace
adds that, when the insect is captured, these balls are
always exserted, and they give out a peculiar penetrating
aromatic odour which somewhat resembles the smell
of chamomile.

One of the first butterflies to attract the notice of
the naturalist in Jamaica is the Heliconia Charitonia.
Its beauty and singularity of form, the great length
and little breadth of the wings, the length and slen-
derness of the body, and the brilliant contrasts of
colour, lemon-yellow and velvety black, together with
the very peculiar flapping of the wings in flight, as if
their length rendered them somewhat unwieldy, excite
a sensation of delighted surprise.

Family— ACRHMDiE.

The family Acraudaj,* so named from the genus
Acrcea, is regarded as closely allied to the Heliconida,
but may be at once distinguished from that family by
the insects in it having short, abruptly clavate antennae ;
and from the next family it may he known by its poste-
rior wings, the inner margins of which do not form a
channel to receive the abdomen. The wings in many
of the species are semitransparent ; the larvae have
much resemblance to those of Argynnis, being cylin-
drical and spiny; the spines are long and set with
little whorls of hairs or more delicate spines. The
pupae in some of them are furnished with a.few spines.
The perfect insects are not by any means showy,
though there is a liveliness about one or two of the
African species which is very pleasing. These insects
resemble the Heliconidae in many particulars, and like
them frequent the open parts of woods, and also the
shady parts, where a ray of sunshine that has pierced
through openings in the dense foliage of the trees shines
on the scanty undergrowth of low shrubs or herbage.
The flight of the species is described as being rather
slow and feeble. The metropolis of this family or
sub-family is Africa, particularly in the western parts,
such as Sierra Leone. In Asia there are two species
only as yet known.

' Doubleday : Gen. Diurn. Lep., p. 138.

Nymi‘halid^. INSECTS. MoKPHiUiE.

259

Family— NYMPH A LID^.

The butterflies of this family have almost without
exception the fore legs short and not fitted for walking;
the tibiae and tarsi of the male are often clothed at the
sides with a fringe of fine hairs, forming a flattened
brush ; the tarsus consists of a single elongated joint,
blunt at the tip, and without claws (fig. 155) ; the eyes

Fig. 155.

and labial palpi are large, the latter extend considerably
in front of the head ; the thorax is large, and the wings
are large and often greatly variegated in colour, and
marked with ocellated spots; the larva is long and
more or less spined, it is generally not attenuated
behind, and is blunt at the end; the chrysalis is elongated,
and is simply suspended by the tail, hanging by the
extremity of the body, and not girt across the middle
by a skein of silken thread.

Mr. Bates found out when in Brazil how to distinguish
the sexes of the Nymphalidse by the fore legs — the
fore tarsi in the males have a few pairs of minute
spines at the apical joints, which are not found in
the other sex. This difference prevails in the Heli-
conidse, Satyridse, Erycinidse, and probably in the
Polyommati,

The Painted-lady butterfly ( Cynthia Cardui )
is universally distributed; it is found throughout
Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, in Greenland, and
a specimen has been taken as far north as lat. 59°, and
west long. 319°; it has also been taken in Terra del
Fuego.

Vanessa Urtiem, Vanessa Polychloros, Vanessa Ata-
lanta, Vanessa Id, Vanessa Antiopa, Grapta C. album,
and the Argynnis and Melitoea genera, are all nym-
phalidous butterflies.

As illustrations of the curious larvie of the Nympli-
alida>,, and no less curious angled chrysalids, there are
figured two specimens from the work of Dr. Horsfield.
Fig. 156 is the larva of Acantliea primaria ; Fig. 157
the pupa of the same.

To the Nymphalidce belong the genera Limenitis,
and Apatura. The former genus with its allies, Neptis
and Athyma, abounds in exotic species. One of our
rarer British butterflies belongs to this genus. It is
the Limenitis Sibilla or the White Admiral. The
larva feeds on the honeysuckle.

On Plate 9, fig. 1, and 1 a, is figured Mr. Hewitson’s
exquisite Amazon Butterfly {Catagramma excelsior),
one of a set of truly gorgeous South American Butter-
flies, the under sides of which are so curiously marked.
Columbia is particularly rich in species. On Plate
9, fig. 6, is figured Epicalia Penthia, one of a genus
the sexes of which differ greatly — so much so, that the

males and females of one species have been described
as two species of two genera.

To this family belong many gorgeously decorated
Butterflies, the males of which are shot over with vivid
purple, or with metallic green and blue.

Fig. 156. Fig. 157.

In this country we have one of these, though it is
confined to the southern parts. The Butterfly is named
the “ Purple Emperor” {Apatura Iris).

The Caterpillar of the Purple Emperor feeds on
sallows and on the poplar ; it is a pretty object, espe-
cially to a collector, who much admires tliat singularly
armed head, which has two horns on it, somewhat like
a snail or slug. Its colour is pale green, with slant-
ing yellow lines and a yellow stripe on each side.
The chrysalis is suspended by the tail on the under side
of a leaf. The male is a truly beautiful insect, having
for its basis colour blackish-brown, which, as the insect
turns to the light, seems to change into the most bril-
liant purple, the colour varying most surprisingly at
every turn, while the white band and the broken white
spots relieve the hues in a manner that is singularly
charming.

An insect from South America, figured in our plate
(^Apatura laura — Plate 9, fig. 3), is one of a set
washed with silver on the under side, and having the
finest “ shot” of green and blue running over the
greater part of the upper wings.

The Celaenis Dido is a handsome, though not very
showy butterfly, named by its first describer after the
Queen of Carthage, celebrated in the classic page of
Virgil. Mr. H. W. Bates found it and other species
of the genus very abundantly in June, 1852, on the
river Amazon. The species figured (Plate 10, fig. 1)
is the Agrias Claudia.

Family — MORPHIDHU.

In this family of Butterflies are many of the largest
and most brilliant of the Diurnal Lepidoptera. Although
some of the group are found in Asia and the Asiatic

lIoKi’Hiu^. INSECTS. Eurytelid^.

260

islands, by far the larger number are peculiar to South
America. M. Lacordaire describes some of the species
of Morpho as flying majestically round the tops of trees.
Although he spent twenty months in Cayenne, and
frequently saw some of these, he was unable to capture
them, while others differing from them in mode of
flight he occasionally captured, as they jerked forward
to the distance of eight or ten steps at a bound, and
thus progressed rapidly through the forests Many of
the species have on the upper surface large masses of
shining blue on a dark ground, and the under side of
the wings is ornamented with manj' ocellated spots.
The body is small and slender, the head of moderate
size, and the eyes generally large and prominent ; the
labial palpi are generally erect, small and wide apart,
generally clothed in front with depressed scaly hairs.
The antennaj are slender, and end in a very slender
club ; the fore wings have the discoidal cell much elon-
gated and always closed ; the hind wings of the males
are generally furnished with one or two tufts of hair
near the base ; the discoidal cell is in some open, in
others closed, wdiile the anal margin forms a deep gutter
for the reception of the abdomen. The anterior legs
are imperfect.

Some of the genera, such as Clerome. Drusilla, and
Thaumantis^ are peculiar to the Old World, being re-
stricted to India and the Eastern islands. Some of
them seem as it were to link this family to Satyridee.
One of these is figured Drusilla Mylcech a — Plate 10,
fig. 2 — a native of the Louisiade archipelago.

Fig. 15a Fig. 159.

Amatlm.sia Phidippus.

Fig. 158 shows the pupa of Amatlmsia Phidippus;
1 59 represents the larva ; one of the butterflies of the
East Indian archipelago.

The Morphos are forest insects, rarely coming into
the open grounds, and often flying for miles along roads

and open pathways. Their flight is slow and undulat-
ing, but they are very difiicult to take on the wing.

Family — BRASSOLIDJE.

The family Brassolid.® is characterized by the very
strong body, the small bead, with very small palpi so
closely applied to the face that they appear, when seen
from above, sirriply to be two points between the eyes.
The fore legs of the males are small and brush-like, and
have, as in the Nymphalidse, the tarsal joints obsolete.
The species are all inhabitants of the warmest regions
of the New World. The caterpillar is of a social dispo-
sition ; it lives in companies of considerable numbers in
a close web which it spins, and from this web it comes
out only during the night to feed. This caterpillar
changes into the chrysalis at the beginning of April,
and the butterfly appears in about two weeks after.
The chrysalis is pale, spotted wdth dark red, and
marked with four silvery spots ; the butterfly is of a
sombre brownish-black colour, barred with yellowish
brown, and is said to fly very swiftly, and it appears
only early and late in the day.

Family— SAT YRIDiE.

The insects of this family differ from the butterflies
of the families MorpMdcB and Brassol.idcp, in having
very long palpi, which are more or less erect and clothed
in front with long porrected hairs ; the hind wings have
no praediscoidal cell, and the insects are generally weak
compared with the stout large species so common in
the preceding groups. They have a vast range, being
generally scattered over the world ; some of them, such
as the species of Chionohas are found in the arctic
regions — dusky, dull, brownish butterflies, which with
their life help, along with the flowers and grasses on
which they feed, to enliven these dreaiy parts. There
are more species of this family of butterflies in Europe
than a third of the whole number of European diurnal
Lepidoptera ; they are generally of small or moderate
size, and their prevailing colour is brown — hence the
name of *• Meadow Browns,” given to them by collec-
tors. The under surface of the wings is generally orna-
mented with eye-like spots. The larvae are attenuated
behind, the body ending in a fork or two small spines ;
they are covered with downy hairs. The head is more
or less rounded, and is armed with two spines. These
caterpillars almost exclusively feed on grasses, which
accounts for their wide geographical distribution. They
are not often seen, as they have the peculiar habit of
feeding only at night. Many of the species, such as
our Janira and others, in the chrysalis state suspend
themselves by the tail, while others, such as Circe,
Semele, and others, are found to retire into the ground
to undergo their change into the pupa state. The eggs
are more or less globular. We have eleven British
species.

Family— EURYTELID.®.

The species are chiefly natives of the hottest regions
of the globe; such as Asia, tropical Africa, Brazil, and

ERYciNiDiE. INSECTS. Lyc^nid.®. 2G1

other parts of South America. In this group the labial
palpi are generally elongated and clothed with short
hairy scales. The wings are generally large and den-
tated or angulated, and not ocellated beneath. The
fore wings have the costal vein always greatly swollen
at the base — a character which unites them in some
respects with some of the genera of the family Satyridse.
The fore legs are small; those of the male are more or
less hairj^ and without tarsal articulations ; those of the
females are rather longer, and with the tarsal part
jointed; they have no claws. The larva is cylindrical
or spiny, or attenuated at the end, spiny on the head,
and sometimes ending in two anal points. The chry-
salis has several projections on the back ; the head is
pointed and bifid; it is suspended by the tail.

Family — LIBYTHEIDiE.

This consists of but one genus, which, however, has
a most extensive geographical range. There are species
in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. They are distin-
guished by the possession of extraordinary elongated
palpi, which are densely clothed with short hairs, por-
rected horizontally. The antennae are short and gra-
dually clubbed. The fore wings are strongly angulated
below the tip; and the discoldal cell is closed in all the
wings by a very slender vein. The fore legs are short;
in the male they are brush-like and have tarsi desti-
tute of joints; in the females they are of the ordinary
shape.

The caterpillar points out a degree of affinity which
this so-called family possesses with the Pieridce. It is
cylindrical, not spined, and slightly pubescent. It is
very delicately shagreened, and has pale longitudinal
stripes on the sides, very closely resembling those of
the Piendm. The chrysalis, however, differs much,
being short, not angulated, and suspended by the tail.

Family— ERYCmiDiE.

This is a very extensive family of small butterflies,
of which there is but one British, indeed European
representative — the little Fritillary-like “ Duke of Bur-
gundy,” as Nemeobius Lucina has been called.

In this family the perfect insect has only four legs
adapted for walking. The larva is short, and shaped
like a wood louse. Plate 9, fig. 7, represents the
Calydna Calamysa. The figure is copied from Mr.
Hewitson’s “Exotic Butterflies.” South America is
the metropolis of this group; some of these — parti-
cularly the long-tailed groups — have a brilliancy of
colouring not exceeded by the species of any other
family of butterflies.

Family— LYC^NID^.

This is an extensive family of butterflies, the represen-
tatives of which in this country are commonly called
“Blues,” “Coppers,” and “Hair-streaks,” from the pre-

valent coloration or markings. The following are the
characters of the family. The head is moderate-
sized, and has often a small tuft of hairs at the base
of the antenme ; the eyes are often hairy; the antennae
are generally shorter than half the length of the costa
of the fore wings, are often ringed with white, and
terminated by an elongated distinct club ; the labial
palpi are rather elongated, the terminal joint is slender,
horizontal, and nearly naked : the wings are often
marked beneath with ocellated spots, as in onr “Blues,”
which derive their generic name Polyommatus, or
Many-eyed, from this style of marking. The fore
wings have two or three branches only to the post-
costal vein. The discoidal cell is generally narrow,
owing to the distance between the costal and post-
costal veins ; the wings close over the back when at rest.
The hind wings have the outer margin often produced
into one or more slender tails near the anal angle.
The anal margin scarcely forms a groove for the recep-
tion of the abdomen. The discoidal cell is closed
by very slender disco-cellular veins. There are twelve
British species of Chrysophanus and Polyommatus.

The most distinguishing character of the family lies
in the fore legs, which are evidently smaller in propor-
tion than the rest, and nearly alike in size and shape in
the two sexes; they are not brush-like in the males,
but are furnished with a long jointless tarsus, having
several curved booklets at the tip distinct from the
ungues. The fore legs of the females have the tarsus
jointed like the hind legs. The hind legs are slender
and scaly. The hind tibia has only one pair of spurs,
which are sometimes very small.

The caterpillar is short, broad, flattened, usually
naked, and more or less closely resembling a wood-louse;
hence their name Onisciform. The head is very small.
The body is occasionally covered with fine hairs, or has
the surface wrinkled.

The chrysallis is short, thick, and blunt at each end,
attached by the tail, and is girt by a silken thread across
the middle of the body.

In the British islands we have five species of the
genus Theda. Collectors call them Hair-streaks. The
female is sometimes more brightly coloured than the
male. Thus in the Theda Quercus or Purple Hair-
streak, the female has a rich purplish blotch on the
wings. This species is common in the south of Eng-
land on oaks in July.

The Theda W. album, so called from the white W-
like streak on the anal angle on the under side of the
lower wings, is occasionally found in great numbers in
this country.

The Theda Rubi or Green Hair-streak, is met with
in Ma}', flying about birch bushes. The larva feeds
on the bramble, from whose generic name (Rubus) the
insect derives its name; it feeds also on papilionaceous
plants.

Family — HESPERID^E (Skippers).

This is a very extensive family of butterflies. Most
of them are small, or of moderate size, of obscure
colours, and often with transparent spots on the wings.

Hespekid^. INSECTS.

262

111 their flight they are very rapid, the eye being
scarcely able to follow their movements. They are
fond of the hottest sunshine, and in rapidity of wing
they rival the Hawk-moths. Oar English collectors
have given them the name of “ Skippers,” from their
peculiar flitting movements. The caterpillars are of
moderate length, cylindrical, fleshy, and not spined.
They have a large head and a narrow neck, and gene-
rally live in rolled-up leaves ; hence Dr. Boisduval has
given the name of Involuti to the division which con-
tains them. The chiysalis is entire, and is generally
without angular prominences. It is attached by the tail,
and is girt round the middle, being, however, sometimes
inclosed in a slight silken cocoon among the rolled
leaves.

The chief character of the family consists in the
middle legs having a pair of spurs in the middle of
the hind tibiae, a character not met with in other
butterflies.

Mr. Westwood gives the following as the characters
of the family . — The head is often very broad, and has

Sphingid.®.

generally a tuft of hairs at the base of the antennae,
which are wide apart and often terminated by a thick
club or a strong-curved hook. The eyes are large and
very prominent. The labial palpi are short and broad,
and closely compressed against the face; they are
densely covered with scales, and the terminal joint is
often very minute, scaleless, and conical. The spiral
tongue is very long. The forewings have always four
branches to the postcostal vein ; all rising before the
extremity of the discoidal cell. The hind wings have
the anal portion of the outer margin often produced
into a lobe or tail. The fore legs are perfect ; the tibiae
are short, and have generally a horny flattened spur
on the inside beyond the middle, which is generally
concealed by long hairs. The peculiar spurs on the
intermediate legs have been previously noticed. The
hind legs have generally a pair of spurs below the
middle and another pair at the tip. The tarsi are long,
and have rows of short spines beneath ; the claws are
much bent, are broad at the base, and have a deep
notch in the middle.

HETEEOCERA.

In this great section of the Lepidoptera are placed all
those species in which the antennae is never terminated
in a club, as in the preceding group, the Butterflies. In
the species composing this group, the antenna are fili-
form, fusiform, or setaceous ; the males in many species
having them beautifully pectinated. There are not less
than nineteen hundred British species known, and the
number of exotic species is probably equal to that of
any group in the entire order of insects. Interesting
as it would undoubtedly be to dwell upon these insects
in the same detailed manner in which those composing
the preceding orders have been treated, we are com-
pelled, by want of space and other circumstances, to
give a very brief account of the Moths, which comprise
the group Heterocera.

Family— SPHINGIDAl.

These insects are the most robust and powerful of the
whole group. They are known in this country as the
Hawk-moths. The tongue in many species is very long,
being adapted for reaching the hottom of the longest-
tubed flowers. They are called Sphingidae from the cir-
cumstance of their larva assuming a position, when
alarmed, resembling the figure of the emblematic Egyp-
tian sphinx. Many of the species only take wing in
the evening, about twilight ; others fly by day, as does
the Humming-bird Hawk-moth — so called from its
flight and its mode of hovering on the wing, after the
manner of the Humming-bird, whilst it quaffs the nectar
of flowers.

The Sphinx convolvuli takes wing in the evening,
not flying, but darting like a flash of lightning from
flower to flower ; its tongue, which is longer than its
body, reaching to the bottom of the longest-tubed flower.

One of the best known and most universally distri-
buted species of Sphingidae is Aclierontia atropos (the

Death’s-head moth), so called from the pale skull-
shaped spot on its thorax, which has caused its ap-
pearance to be regarded with dread by the superstitious.
This moth sometimes commits depredations on the
stores of the Hive bee, a fact well known to apiarians.

All the species of this family are beautiful insects,
being, as it were, painted in the richest and most
harmonious colours. Some of the British species
are of great rarity, as S. Pinastri and Deilepldla
Euphorbia.

Family — H11GEEIDH5.

The family HUgerid^ contains the moths known as
Clear-wings.

Fig. IGO.

Cnetliocampa processionca.
a male ; i female.

Fig 16t.

Larva of Zeuzora
.(Esciili.

Family— BOMBYCIDAl.

The family BoMBYCiDiE contains the silk-producing
species ; the best known, and that which produces the

BOMBYCIDiE.-

-IN SECTS.-

-NoCTUIDiE.

2G3

most valuable kind, being the Bomhyx mori, the com-
mon silk-worm being the larva of that species. Many
other moths belonging to this family are silk-producers,
particularly those belonging to the genus Attacus. To
this genus belong some of the largest moths, popularly
known as Atlas moths, and one of these is now being
domesticated in Algeria and Brazil in the same way as
the common silk-worm. This species is the Attacus
Cynthia. It feeds on the castor- oil plant.

The “ Procession moth” is worthy of notice, cramped
as we are for space. It is a common species in Ger-
many [Cnethocampa procession ea). On its larva the
fine beetle, Colosoma sycophanta, feeds. Fig. 160
shows the male and female. To this family also belongs
the great Goat-moth, so destructive to willow and elm
trees. Zeuzera zEsculi is also a destructive insect in
the larva state to elm, horse-chestnut, pear, and apple
’trees. Fig. 161 shows the larva.

I'ig. 161 a.

Social lai-vse of (Eriogaster lanestris) the Processionary moth feeding
on the lime tree.

Fig. 161 a, represents the gregarious larvae of
Eriogaster lanestris (the small Eggar) inhabiting a
general nest, which they occasionally enlarge, and from
which they issue at night in search of food.

Family— PSYCHIDiE.

These are case-making moths. The females are
wingless, the legs, antennae, and organs of the mouth,
being almost entirely obliterated. A few small species
are found in this country. One, Oilceticus nigricans.!
occurs in the New Forest. We give a figure of the
cases constructed by this insect in its larva state —
Fig. 162, p. 264. They are found attached to the
heath and gorse in May, when the moth appears.

Some of the Australian case-makers are of a large
size. In fig. 163 is represented the case formed by
the larva of Oilceticus Saundersii, The case is grey, of a
Fig. 163.

silky texture, and strengthened
or protected by the addition of
pieces of stick. At the lower
end is a flexible aperture,
through which the excrement
is discharged. Through a tube
at the upper end the larva
comes out to feed. These
cases are attached to various
shrubs. Similar cases are found
in South Africa.

The generations of the female
Psychidae have been observed
to succeed each other, without
the production of or access to
the winged male, through seven
successive years. — (See Siebold
on Parthenogene.ns.) Want of
space will not allow of further
reference to the genera of this
family.

Family— NOCTUID.®.

This is the most extensive of
all the families of Lepidoptera,
and to it belongs the bulk of
the night-flying moths, and
they are consequently aptly
named Noctiddce. In this
country alone upwards of three
hundred species are found.
The prevailing colours of our
indigenous species are sombre,
brown, black, grey, or these
intermixed occasionally with
dull reds. Some of the exotic
species are much more highly
coloured. In this family the
body is robust ; the antennse
are usually simple; the fore
wings are narrow, under which
the hind pair are folded in re-
pose; the larviE are usually
Larva otOiketicus Saundersii naked, have sixteen legs, and
undergo their transformation
under ground. To this fa-
mily belongs the common YellowUnderwing(Trfp/iCBna
pronubd)! so frequent in gardens, in strawberry beds,

''3

264 PYRALiDm. INSECTS. Geometrid^.

&c. Some species are, however, very local, as Agrotis

North Wales, and others we have no space to enu-
merate.

Family- PYRALIDtE.

An extensive family, if we include the exotic species,
hut of very moderate extent
in this country. Fig. 164
shows a remarkable species
{Sarrothripus crihralis). It
has been named “ Four-foot
moth” from its curiously
hairy fore legs, a magnified
figure of which is given
beneath the moth.

A species of this family
indigenous to Jamaica (Dfa-
trcea sacchari) is very in-
jurious to the sugar cane.
It is a pale -yellow dotted
moth. Its larva destroys
whole acres of cane in dry
seasons, by boring into the
stems of the canes.

Family— TORTRICID^.

So called from the habit the caterpillars have of
twisting up leaves so as to conceal themselves. On
Plate 10, fig. 10, a species is figured {Earis chlorana).
There are nearly three hundred species in this country.
They are usually small dull-coloured moths, and when
at rest somewhat resemble a bell in shape. A species
of this family {Carpocapsa pomonella), the Apple moth,

is one of the most destructive enemies to the apple
crop. The eggs are laid in the newly-formed fruit,
within which the larva feeds, and all that are thus
attacked fall prematurely to the ground. Fig. 165

Fig. 165.

Carpocapsa pomonella.

represents, a, the larva of Carpocapsa pomonella ; 6,
the pupa; c, the perfect insect; (f, the section of an
apple, showing the track by which the larva escapes
when full fed, previous to burying itself in the ground
to undergo its subsequent changes. The plum, apricot,
and other fruit trees, sufler from the attacks of species
belonging to this family.

Family— GEOMETRID^.

This familj’- is equally extensive with the Noctuidce,
but in this country probably not quite so numerous.
The caterpillars are called loopers, or geometricians,
whence the family name. They are rather slender-
bodied, but their wings are ample. Their larvse have
only ten legs. Their mode of progression is very
peculiar; having no legs in the middle of the body,
they attach themselves firmly with their fore legs, and
then bring up their hind legs close to them, thus
curving or looping the body in the form of the Greek
letter ft. The caterpillars feed on the leaves of various
plants, and, when disturbed, drop down swinging by
a thread, up which, when their alarm is past, they
remount. In some fe%v species the females are quite,
or nearly destitute of wings, and would never be taken
for moths by non-entomological persons. Some species
do great damage to fruit trees ; others to forest timber,
as Bupalus piniarius to pine trees.

Sarrothripus crihralis.

M ICRO-LEPIUOPTEKA.-

-INSECTS.-

-Hemipter.^.

265

MICRO-LE PIDOPTER A.

Tins division contains an immense host of minute
Fig. 165 o.

Social larvffi of Hyponomeuta padella feeding on the apple tree,
moths, upwards of six hundred species being British,

They frequently swarm to an extent that renders their
appearance quite a pest, from the great mischief they
cause, particularly to woollen goods — cloth, carpets, furs,
&c. Tinea pellionella feeds on old clothes, in the larva
state. Tinea biselliella is very destructive to furs of all
sorts. It also attacks skins, and is a great pest in
zoological collections. Tinea tapetzella, the Tapestry
moth, is a most terrible pest in houses, attacking any
kind of woollen fabric, as does also Tinea sarcitella.
The larva of Tinea granella is veiy destructive in
granaries, committing great havoc on grain, upon which
they feed, and fasten it together with their silken web,
covering it sometimes as it were with a sheet. Many of
the species of this family are perfect gems, such as
Gelechia Ultorella, and several other species of that
beautiful genus. The larvae of some of these insects
frequently prove very injurious to trees. The Chry-
soclista Linneella, in the larva state, feeds under the
bark of lime tree.s, and commits great damage. The
genus Lilhocolletes contains a perfect assemblage of
insect gems. They mine the leaves of trees, shrubs,
and plants, in their larva state, a single leaf furnishing
all the food they require ; but their numbers often
render their depredations serious.

Fig. 165 a, represents the larvae of Hyponomeuta
padella feeding on the apple tree, under a common
web. These fruit trees are frequently entirely defoliated
by them.

The following are the families contained in this
division of the Lepidoptera : —

1. Exapatidce; 2. 2'ineidm; 3. Hyponomentidm ; 4. Plutellidm ;
5. Gelechidm ; 6. Glyphipierygidoe ; 7. Argyresthidce ; 8. Grad-
lariidce; 9. Coleophoridce ; 10. Elachistidx; 11. Lithocolletidiai;
12. Lyonetidoi; 13. Nepticulidce.

Order II. — RHYNCHOTA.

The insects of this order, generally named Hemiptera,
are called Rhynchota by Fabricius, from the straight
beak which they have on the under side of the head.

There are two sections, named Hemiptera and Homop-
tera, though writers have named the ioxm&v Hemipitera
Heteroptera, and the latter Hemiptera Homoptera.

Sub-order — HEMIPTERA.

The sub-order Hemiptera contains a very large
number of insects, nearly all of which emit a pecu-
liarly disagreeable odour. Hahn, Hope, Burmeister,
Amyot and Serville, Dohrn, Stahl, Dallas, and others,
have specially signalized themselves by their attention
in modern times to this order.

I give Mr. Westwood’s arrangement of the families
of Hemiptera : —

Sect. I. Hydrocorisa.

Family 1. NotonectidcB ; 2. Nepidce.

Sect II. Aurocorisa.

Family 1. Gulgulidm; 2. Acanthiidm; 3. Hydrnmetridce; 4.
Reduviidm; 5. Cintiddm; 6. Tingidm; 7. Capsidce; 8.
Lygceicke; 9. Coreidce; 10. Scutelleridce.
voE. II. 90

Families— SCUTELLERID^ and PENTA-
TOMIDAE.

The first family is named Shield-bug, from the enor-
mously developed scutellum — a part of the insect gene-
rally of large size, also, in the Pentatomiclae.

Many of the exotic species of Scutellera are most
brilliant when alive ; and by immersing the dried,
faded specimens a sufficient time in alcohol, much of
their pristine beauty may be regained. Well is the
genus Callidea called beautiful. On Plate 8, fig. .3,
is figured the red and black striped European Tetyra
nigrolineata.

Fig. 166, a, is that of Chairocydnus foveolatus, with
a remarkably broad head and abbreviated body. The

CiMiciD^. INSECTS. Reduviid^.

266

leg magnified is the fore leg. The other figure, h, shows
the head, one of the antenua, and a part of the thorax.
The first volume of Mr. Dallas’s admirable catalogue

Fig. 166.

Chaerocydnus foveolatus.

of the Hemiptera in the British Museum contains
descriptions of these two families, with many outline
figures of the genera.

Families— COREID.® and LYGiEIDiE.

Fig. 167 represents the Derepteryx Grayii, from the
mountains of India.

One of the handsomest species of the family is the
Diacfor foUacea, a large beautiful fellow, with green
elytra and thorax, the thorax lineated with yellow.
Its hind legs have the tibiae curiously dilated, and they
are coloured with red and yellow. Should it fall into
water its flat legs enable it to float. It is a common
species in Brazil.

Plate 8, fig. 2, shows the pretty red and black
Lygceiis punclum, with the white dot on the end of its
hemelytron. Fig. 5 of that plate shows tlie pretty
slender Berytus tipularius.

The learned Swedish naturalist Sparrman, a pupil of
Linnaeus, visited South Africa and discovered many new
and curious subjects both in the animal and vegetable
kingdoms. Among the former was a curious member
of this family.* He relates that on one of his excur-
sions at the Cape, as he was seeking shelter from the
sultry sun under the branches of a large shrub, he

* Oimex paradoxus of Sparrman — Phyllomorplia paradoxa of
modern authors.

observed this insect. It attracted his notice by falling
from the branch; at first he took it for a little pale
crumpled leaflet. Great was his surprise to find a
curious live insect creeping on the ground, like a
small piece of withered leaf with its edges turned up
and gnawed b}' caterpillars, while it was closely stuck
over with prickles. The insect has been frequently
found since Sparrman’s time, and is now, with others of
its congeners, well known to them under the name of
Phyllomorplia (Leaf-shape). It is of a tawny yellow hue,
varied with different shades of brown and red, and
is not quite half an inch in length. Two species of the
genus have been met with in Southern Europe. On
Plate 8, fig. 4, is figured the Phyllomorplia paradoxa,
or Syromastes paradoxus, as it is named on the plate.

Families— CIMICIDiE and TINGID^.

The Bed-bug {Cimex lectularius) was formerly a rare
insect in this country. Old Mouffet mentions, that in
1503 two ladies were thrown into a state of great alarm
by the appearance of bug-bites upon them ; till their
physician, who was a naturalist, explained to them the
insect cause of their being spotted, they were afraid
that they had the symptoms of the plague! Their fears
were turned into laughter when they saw the little flat-
tened insects, whose nocturnal attacks had marked
them. Kirby and Spence tell us that their original
name in English was Chinche or Wall-louse. The
name Bug was not applied to them till after John
Ray wrote. It is a Celtic word signifying a ghost or
goblin, and was given to them most probably because
they were considered as “ terrors by night.”* They
are difficult of eradication when they get into houses.
On Plate 8, fig. 1 , is figured the Dictyonota or Tingis
vinarum. Some of the Tingidm, if on a larger scale,
would arrest the attention of any one by their exquisite
beauty.

The Capsi and Phytocoris group are very numerous.

Family — REDUVIIDHU.

A large and important family.

The Reduvius personatus derives its name of pei'-
sonalus, i.e., “ the masked,” from the insect in its larva
and pupa states being covered with dirt, even on the
legs and antennae, so as to alter its appearance. This
dirt consists of the dust, fragments of wool or cotton,
and such matters as fly about rooms. It is preda-
ceous, and is glad to make a meal of that much hated
relation the bed-bug. It is not an uncommon British
species.

The forms of Reduviidae are most various. But to
Eulyes Petalocheirus, &c., we can only refer. Bishop
Heber was evidently much annoyed by Hemiptera in
the East. Pie says : —

“One of the greatest plagues we have as jmt met with
in this journey is tliat of the winged bugs. In shape,
size, and scent, with the additional faculty of flying,
they resemble the odoriferous genus too well-known in
England. They came out in hundreds and thousands

* In some of the old versions of the Bihle Ps. xci. 5 is trans-
lated, “ Thou shalt not need to fear any hngs by night.”

•Hojiopteiia.

NEl'lDAi.-

-INSECTS.-

from every bush and every heap of ruins, and so filled
our cabins as to be scarcely endurable . . The mighty
army settled on the wet paint of the ceiling', and remained
there black and stinking until the ants devoured them.
These last swarm in my presence ; they have eaten up no
inconsiderable portion of my provisions, and have taken,
I trust to their benefit, a whole box of blue pills; but
as they do their best to clear it of all other vermin, I
cannot but look on them with some degree of favour.”*

Family — NEPIDJS.

The insects of this family are pre-eminently carni-
vorous, if that title can be given to tlie larvae of water
insects, and to small fish and reptiles. The largest
species of the group belongs to the genus Belos-
toma, from Brazil. The antennas are very short, and
have four joints ; the terminal three being more or less
branched, while the tarsi are two-jointed. It is re-
stricted to the warmer parts of the world, is aquatic,
and eminently rapacious. Dr. Leidy describes another
genus, under the name of Pertliostoma. The beak is
short, strong, and pointed, and the bite is exceedingly
venomous to the smaller animals.

The insects are found in lakes, ponds, ditches, or
tranquil waters, where they reign undisputed monarchs
over insects and small fry. Mollusca, the smaller Crus-
tacea, and even small frogs and fish, become an easy
prey to them.

The Insects of these genera quit the water when it
is nearly dried up, or is depopulated through their
voracious appetite.

The female of Perthostoma, according to Leidy, car-
ries about one hundred and thirty eggs on her back
until the larvae are nearly in a condition to make their
escape. When the ova have arrived at maturity, the
insect casts the mass from her back, when they lie at
the bottom of the water until the young burst from
their confinement.

Plate 8, fig. 9, represents the Naucoris cimkoides,
a British species. There are three British species.
The genus Ranatra is long and filiform; Nepa, or the
Water-scorpion, is broad and flat, and has two long
anal setae.

Family — NOTONECTID.^ (Water-boatmen).

These insects are true swimmers ; their hind legs
are greatly elongated, and edged with strong hairs.

2G7

close together, and forming a blade, as it were, to the
oar-like propelling leg.

Plate 8, fig. 6, exhibits the curious Notonecta
glauca, or Water-boatman. The name Notonecta, or
swimmer on the back, alludes to the habit of the in-
sects which swim in this way. Their beak is sharp;
they prick very severely with it. There are thirteen
or fourteen species of this family, in four genera ;
Corixa (separated with Sigara by some authors and
placed in a family apart under the name Corixidm)
Plea, and Notonecta.

A strange use is made in Mexico of the eggs of
some of the aquatic Plemiptei'a. The natives of
Mexico cultivate a species of sedge called “ toule,”
on which the aquatic insects deposit their eggs, the
place being one of those great marshy lakes called the
Lagune of Chaleo. These sedges are collected into
bundles and floated on the water, where the insects
are attracted to them as places on which to deposit
their eggs. The bundles lie for about a month in the
lake, when they are removed from the water and dried.
The myriads of eggs are beaten from them into a large
cloth. These eggs are cleared, and sifted, and put
into sacks, and sold to the people, who make of them
a kind of cake or biscuit, which they call “hautle.”
It is described by M. Graven as being tolerably good,
but somewhat fishy in flavour, and with an acid taint.
The bundles of sedge are again put into the lake, and
a fresh supply of eggs obtained. The insects which
deposit these eggs are chiefly two species of Corixa ;
one of them being new, he names it Corixa femorata ;
the other was described by Say, the American entomo-
logist, in 1831, under the name of Corixa mtreenaria.

Fa MiLY— GALGULID.® .

A very curious gi’oup of insects; rough on the upper
side; and with a broad transverse head, and pedun-
culated eyes. There is no British representative of the
family.

Family— HYDROMETEID^.

Who has not watched them speeding by fits and starts,
like skaters on ice, across the surface of our quiet waters
— “ fearless walkers,” as Hugh Miller observes, “ that
with true faith in the integrity of the implanted instinct
never made shipwreck in the eddy or sank in the pool.”
On Plate 8, figs. 7 and 8, the Gerris lacustris and
Hydrometra stagnorum are figured.

Sub-order — HOMOPTERA.

This is a very extensive set of insects, in which the
upper and lower wings are generally homogeneous. The
antennse are in most of them very short and bristly.
List of families and genera of British Homoptera

Sect. 1. — Tkimera. Three-jointed tarsi.

Family 1. — Cicadidai. Cicada 1.

Family 2. — Fulgoridoe. Pseudophana 1; Issus\\ Cixius‘2,1-,
Asiraca 4 ; Delphax 19.

* Bishop Heber’s Indian Journal, vol. i. p. 72. Murray, 1849.

Family 3. — Cercopidee. Smilia 1 ; Centrntus 1 ; Ledra 1 ;
Eupelix 1 ; Paropia 2 ; Ulopa 3 ; Cercopis 1 ; Aphro-
phora 2; Ptijela 5; Acucephalus 11; Aphroaes 2,2 ■,
Phrynomorplms 1 ; Evacanthus 7 ; Typhlocyba 30 ;
Batracomorphvs 1 ; Penthimia 1 ; Agaliia 4 ; Idioce-
rus 5 ; Maaropsis 1 ; Oncopsis 1 ; J'assus 1.

Sect. 2. — Dimera. Two-jointed tarsi.

Family 1. — PsyllidcB. Psylla 27 ; LiviUa 1 ; Livio, 1.

Family 2. — Aphides. Aphis 21; Lachnus 35; Atheroides 2 •,
Eriosoma 11 ; Adelges 22 ; Brysocrypta 1 ; Phylloxera
1 ; Thelaxes 3 — in all, ninety-six species. In Mr.

268

CiCADiD^. INSECTS. FulgokiDvE.

list.

two hundred and fifty-eight species are

Walker’s
recorded.

Family 3- Aleyrodida. Aleyrodes 2 — Walker gives 6.

Skct. 3.— Monomera. Oue-jointed tarsi.

Family Coccidce. Dorthesia 6 ; Aspidiutus 3 ; Coccus— Walker
gives 22 species.

Family— CICADID.®.

A very extensive fitmily of insects, generally
with broad head and clear wings, the males of
which have a drum with which the remarkable
noise is produced. A species of Cicada found
in the United States, has acquired celebrity, and
its name. Cicada septemdecim, from each brood
requiring the interval of seventeen years for com-
ing into its winged state. Dr. Fitch remarks, “The
unusual length of time which it requires for completing
its growth, and the perfect regularity with which every
generation, numbering many millions of individuals,
attains maturity so as to come forth at the end of
seventeen years — the entire brood hatching within a
few days’ time — has caused this more than any other
American insect to be noted throughout the world.
The insect dwells entirely in timber land. They were
noticed as long ago as 1715. The perfect insect
deposits its eggs in many different kinds of trees,
yet appearing to prefer those which have the twigs
thick and robust. The eggs are white ; the young
when hatched have six legs, of which the front pair is
by far the largest, and armed on the under side with
strong spines. It drops from the tree and buries itself
in the ground b}' means of its fore legs, which are well
adapted for digging. The pupa comes out of the
ground in the night; “the warmth and dryness of the
air by' day would doubtless cause its outer shell-like
case to become stiff and crack open prematurely.” It
fixes itself securely by its feet, its thin covering cracks
open in front on the back, and out crawls the large
black, four-winged fly, with orange -coloured nerves
and red eyes.

Cystisonia Saundersii, with its puffed-up body like
a Pneutnora among the Orthoptera, is a strange Aus-
tralian form.

Tetligareta tomentosa, described by the writer, has
a small head and a strange rounded thorax ; it is
Australian.

The Cicadas and their noise, or “ music,” are often
referred to by Virgil and Anacreon, and other Greek
and Latin poets.

Family — FULGOIlIDjiE (Lantei'n- flies).

iladame Merian was the first who stated that the
great South American Lantern-fly {Fulgora laternaricH)
was luminous. Modern travellers have not been able
to detect this luminosity ; but it may' nevertheless exist
at times and in certain states of the atmosphere. I
have asked Mr. Bowring of Hong Kong about the
Chinese s[)ecies, and he told me he had never seen any'
luminosity in the Hotinus candelarim (Plate 8, fig. 14,
Fulgora Candelaria). Fig. 168 is that of Fulgora
luternaria.

The Fulgorae are a curious group Some are really'

most lovely, such as the Cey'lonese Hotinus maculatua,
dark, grizzled with flowery' spots, dusted on its prettily

Fig. 1C8.

Fulgora laternaria.

veined upper wings; the lower wings are black, the base
of a beautiful bluish green.

Of the African species there is Pyrops nohilis, grey
and ochraceous, with white wings ; upper wings and
head thickly dotted with black,

Phrictus serratus fvoxn South America, with his saw-
like beak, is a strangely-coloured Lantern-fly.

Among the Fulgoridae, but without the projecting
forehead, may be mentioned the very beautiful genus
Aplicena. They are chiefly from the East,

The Lystrce have broader heads (Plate 8, fig 12,
Lystra pulverulenta) . They are chiefly from South
America.

The Phenax auricoina has the head and end of the
abdomen covered with great patches of a yellowish-
coloured waxy matter.

The species of Pseciloptera {Plata and Pocliazia) are
most curious. The wax of some of the Flatse is col-
lected, particularly in China and the East Indies,
where it is manufactured into candles.

The Delpliax saccharivora of Westwood is most
destructive to the sugar cane in the West Indies.

Euryraela is a pretty, broad-headed, Australian
genus ; some of the species are deep brown, with white
spots.

Ancyra is a curious genus described by the w'riter;
the species Ancyra appendicidata (Plate 8, fig. 10),
is so named from the curious little appendages to the
wings. It is a native of the coast of the Gulf of Martaban.

Achilus is a genus of Australian Homoptera described
by Kirby. Tlie species (figured Plate 8, fig. 11) is of a
reddish vermillion hue.

Tiiere are about thirty species of the great group in
the British islands ; they' are included in the families
Pseudophanidce and Delpliacidcp..

Cercopid^. INSECTS. Aphiu.e. 269

Family — CERCOPIDJi).

In this very extensive family the antennae are three-
jointed ; the head has two ocelli. If strange variety
of form, in fact if the most outre and bizarre shapes, be
the object of admiration, this family will supply ample
material. Plate 8, fig. 15, shows the Meinbracis

Fig. 169, Fig. 170.

Bocydlum globulare. CEda inflata.

foliacea, one of the group, with its curious flattened
knife-like expansion of form. There are many fine
and prettily-marked species. The genera Hetermotus
Centrotus and others are full of the most strange
forms. Fig. 169 shows a Brazilian insect named
Bocydium globulare, with a series of pretty round
balls, attached by a common pedicel to the thorax.
Mr. Miers told me he found it once abundant. Some
have curiously inflated appendages over them, quite
concealing the rest of the insect. These, too, are Bra-
zilian. Fig. 170 shows a marked and beautiful species
of CEda, a very singular genus. It is named CEda
inflata.

We now come to Cercopidce proper. These and
the Tettigonice, a very extensive, beautifully coloured
set of long, rather parallel insects, abound in South
America and in Asia. The Cercopis and the allied
genera are largish insects, strongly and broadly marked.
We have but one small species in this country. Our
little species of Typhlocyha, Evacanthus, and Jassus
are extremely beautiful little creatures.

Of the common 'Frog-ho'g'(i&v{AphroplioraSpumaria),
in our little town gardens, how often are we annoyed
to see our plants infested by the larva, which carries on
its depredations on their juices, concealed by an enve-
lope of white froth closely resembling saliva ! The
insect has derived its name of Frog-spittle from this
frothy exudation, which is secreted by peculiar organs
in the tail of the larva. This exudation protects from
the heat of the sun the soft body of the larva, which
but for this would soon shrivel up ; and also conceals
it from birds and many insects which would otherwise
prey upon it. Notwithstanding the concealment, wasps
often get at these larv® and carry them off. Few know
that the little broad-headed brownish-grey jumping-
insect, so common on plants, is the frog-spittle insect
in its perfect state. By many these insects are regarded,
along with the Aphides, as species of the very compre-
hensive though most unscientific genus, vulgarly called
“ Blight.”

Family— -PSYLLID^.

Unlike other Homoptera, these insects and the Aph-
ides have long antennae. They are very destructive to
plants, diverting the sap. The box of our gardens is
often much injured by the Psylla Buxi, while the
Psylla Pyri, and a Chernies found on the apple, de-
stroy the young shoots and leaves of the pear and
apple. Many of these insects in their larva state, are
covered with a cottony secretion.

Leuckhart,* in his work on the ‘‘ Alternation of
Generations,” has proved that a spontaneous evolution
of eggs takes place in the Coccidse. He ascertained
that all the individuals of the wingless generation of
the genus Chernies, or Bark-lice, were of the female
sex, and that they laid eggs capable of evolution with-
out the intercourse of males.

The common Fir-louse (Chermes hietis) passes the
winter in the wingless state, in the form of a plump in-
sect not larger than a grain of sand, under the covering
of a woolly coat, at the base of the scaly young buds
of the fir. Leuckhart has convinced himself that the
reproduction of the Fir-lice takes place in both genera-
tions by a parthenogenetic process, by the spontaneous
development of the eggs. Leuckhart, who examined
fully two hundred of the Chernies, never met with a
male among them ; he has no doubt that the Fir- lice
generally propagate without males. He leaves it unde-
cided whether males are entirely wanting, or whether
they merely make their appearance from time to time
under certain favourable circumstances, and then fecun-
date the females ; yet, he adds, “ It almost appears to
me as if certain anatomical conditions rendered the
first supposition to a certain extent credible.”

Family — APHID.® {Plant-lice).

The Aphides are perhaps the greatest enemies of
the vegetable world, and, like the locusts, they have
been known to swarm at times in such myriads as to
darken the air. We might here quote from the writ-
ings of Kaltenbach and Professor Huxley, who have
recently paid considerable attention to their history,
ancT" who bear out Reaumur’s assertions of the infinite
and almost incredible powers of multiplication pos-
sessed by these feeble-looking Plant-lice. That author
calculates that a single Aphis may in five generations
be the progenitor of 5,904,900,000 descendants; and
he believes that in a single year there may be twenty
generations. Kirby and Spence show that the Aphides
which attack wheat, oats, and barley, seldom multiply
so fast as to prove very injurious to these cereal plants.
The species of Aphis which attack pulse spread so
rapidly, and cover the plants so completely, that the
crops of pease and beans are often greatly injured, and
sometimes even destroyed by them. These writers
state that this was particularly the case with the crop of
pease in 1810. In that year the produce did little more
than equal the seed sown, and many farmers turned
their pigs into the fields. This failure was universal

* See Dallas’ Translation of Paper by Leuckhart, in Annals
of Natural History, p. 321 ; 1859.

‘270 Plant-lice. INSECTS. Coccidas.

over the kingdom ; so that a supply could not be
obtained for the navju

Plate 8, figs. 16 and 17, shows the Aphis rosm; the
former figure represents the male, the latter the female
of that species ; the figures, of course, are very highly
magnified.

Eriosoma. — This genus, so called by Leach from its
seemingly woolly bod}-, has no tubercles at the end of
the body for the secretion of honey-dew. The antennae
are short and the fore wings have simple oblique dis-
coidal nerves.

To this genns belongs the Aphis lanata or A. lani-
gera of authors, which is so destructive to the stems of
apple trees. Mr. Knapp has given a most e.\cellent
account of this insect* as observed in one of the western
English counties. He says — “ Our apple trees here
are greatly injured, and some annually destroyed, by
the agency of what seems to be a very feeble insect.
AVe call it, from habit or from unassigned cause, the
‘American blight,’ this noxious creature being known
in some orchards by the more significant name of ‘ white
blight.’ In the spring of the year a slight hoariness is
observed upon the branches of certain species of our
orchard fruit. As the season advances this hoariness
increases ; it becomes cottony, and towards the middle
or the end of summer the under sides of some of the
branches are invested with a thick, down}' substance,
so long as at times to be sensibly agitated by the air.
This substance on close examination is found to conceal
a great number of small wingless creatures, busily
engaged in sucking the juice of the tree. This they
effect by means of a beak ending in a fine bristle. This
is insinuated into the hark and the sappy part of the
wood, and through it the ci'eature extracts, as through
a syringe, the sweet liquor that forms as it were the
life-blood of the branch. This long bristle is not to
be seen in every specimen. In those possessing it, it
is of different lengths, and is usually kept closely con-
cealed under the breast. In the younger specimens it
may be seen protruding like a fine termination to the
anus ; but as the bodies lengthen, the bristle is soon
concealed from view.”

Mr. Knapp continues as follows: — “ The alburnum, or
sapwood, being thus wounded, rises up in excrescences
and nodes all over the branch and deforms it; the limb,
deprived of its nutriment, grows sickly ; the leaves turn
yellow, and the part perishes. Branch after branch
is thus assailed, until they all become leafless, and the
tree dies.”

The Eriosoma, not having wings, is dispersed by
means of this downy covering, ivhich is wafted by the
winds in small tufts, so that the creature is conveyed
with it from tree to tree throughout the whole orchard.
In the autumn this substance is generally long, and the
insects being dispersed by the winds and rains which
are then prevalent, try to secrete themselves in any
crannies they can find. There are no data to tell
us when first this noxious insect visited us. America,
Normandy, and the Netherlands have all been sup-
posed to be the sources whence it was derived. Our
climate, at all events, seems to be very favourable to
its increase.

* Journal of a Naturalist, p. 337.

In 1745 Bonnet published his wonderful observa-
tions on the reproduction of the Plant-lice,* and proved
that the mother produced her young when no male
insect was present. “ He isolated the young Aphis as
soon as it was hatched. On the eleventh day the Aphis
produced a young one alive; another succeeded, and
another. Every four-and-twenty hours the brood was
increased by three, four, and even ten arrivals. At the
end of twenty-one days ninety-five young ones were
produced from this single Aphis. Carrying further his
observations. Bonnet found that the virgin offspring of
this virgin parent also became parents ! We know
that this reproduction often goes on till the eleventh
generation ; then this process ceases, the last genera-
tion is of perfect insects, with separate sexes, and these
produce ova which next year become the productive
virgins we have just been reading of.” The rate of
increase may be conceived by the following calculation.
The Aphis produces each year ten larviparous broods,
and one which is oviparous ; and each generation
averages one hundred individuals.

Generation.

Produce.

1st,

. 1, aphis.

2nd,

. 100, a hundred.

3rd, .

. 10.000, ten thousand.

4Lh. .

. 1,000,000, one million.

5lh,

. 100,000,000, one hundred millions.

6th,

. 10,000,000,000, ten billions.

7th, .

. 1 ,000,000,000,000, one trillion.

8th, .

. 100,000,000,000,000, hundred trillions.

9th,

. 10,000,000,000,000,000, ten quatrillions.

10th, .

. 1 ,000,000,000,000,000,060, one quintillion.

Professor Huxley has made some very curious re-
searches on the reproduction of the Aphides,f in which
he ascertains that the virgin viviparous aphis produces
its broods of young from unfertilized ova, while the
female oviparous aphis produces her young from ova
fertilized by spermatozoa, and that both broods in their
early stages are similar.

On the family Aleyrodidas, which is so prolific,
I have neither room nor time to enter.

Family- COCCID AH.

This family of insects, which contains the well-known
Cochineal, is a most anomalous one. The females are
always wingless, and in their last state deposit their
eggs and very speedily perish ; their dried up bodies
serving as a cover and protection to the eggs. The
mates of these insects are small fellows, not at all
resembling their females in any particular either of
form or habit. They are active, and have only two
wings developed, which they use by flying about in
the bright sunshine ; the place of the second pair
of wings is supplied by two small projections some-
what like the poisers of flies. But to return to the
females, Mr. AVestwood,J speaking of the whole family,
says, that without referring to their singular habits, “we
find some of them on arriving at their last state so far
departing from the typical characters of the winged
insects, as to prove that Ptilota may exist, which in the
imago state are not only wingless, but also footless and

* Iiisectotheologie, vol. i.
t Proceedings of the Linna3an Society, Nov., 1857.
t Arcana Entoraologica, vol. i. p. 21.

Coccus. INSECTS. Lecanium coffeas. 271

antennseless, and in which even all appearance of annu-

brighter in leaf and foliage than the stiff shrub known so

lose structure is lost, the creature, in fact, becoming an

well in every garden and hedgerow by that name. Mr.

inert mass of animal matter; a slender seta arising from

Fortune, however — a good authority — says that it feeds

the breast, and thrust into the stem or leaf on which

on a species of ash. It is chiefly found in the province

the animal is fixed, being the only external appendage

of Sze-tchuen, where the crude material is deposited

to the body.” The most famed member of the family

by the insects around the branches of the tree on which

is, however, the Cochineal {Coccus cacti, the male is

they feed, and resembles a white, soft, fibrous, velvety

shown in Plate 8, fig. 13), which received its specific

coating of from one to two- tenths of an inch in thickness.

name from the Mexican Cactus cochinilifer, or Opuntia

The late George Newport says — “ So complete have

cocMnilifera of moderns, being its food plant.

been the ravages of the Coccus of the orange trees, that

The Cochineal, when first imported, was believed

one of the Azores, the Island of Fayal, lost its entire pro-

to be the seed of a plant. The insects are brushed off

duce from this cause alone. The usual exportation of fruit

the plant with a squirrel’s tail and killed by immer-

from Fayal has been twelve thousand chests annually.

sion in hot water, and afterwards dried in the sun or by

but in 1843 not a single chest was exported. This injury

the heat of a stove, as alluded to above. There are

has already extended to St. Michael’s, and is still con-

three harvests a year ; the first is the best, as the

tinning; and the inhabitants of the whole of that group

impregnated females alone are taken ; the young

of volcanic islands, depending almost entirely on the

females are also collected in the second harvest ; and

produce of their orange groves, and despairing of re-

the third harvest is inferior to the other two, as old and

trieving their prospects, are fast turning their attention

young females, and skins, are collected indiscriminately.

to the cultivation of other objects of commerce. This

Before the rainy season commences the Mexicans cut

amount of injury to a whole population by a diminutive

off branches of the Nopal, loaded with infant insects.

and apparently contemptible insect, has been the result

which they preserve in their houses; otherwise the

of but three years. The effects of this insect on a single

insects would perish in the inclement weather. The

article of luxury may fairly be adduced to show that

island of Teneriffe annually produces several thousand

entomological inquiries are deserving of full attention.

bags of cochineal. The editor of the last edition of

The orange trade between this country and the Azores

Pereira* informs us that in January, 1857, there

gives employment to upwards of two hundred sail of

were four thousand eight hundred and ninety-one bags

vessels ; and, as I am credibly informed, the orange

of Honduras cochineal in our warehouses, five hundred

trade alone returns to the revenue of this country an

and sixty-seven Mexican, and one thousand four

import-duty of more than £50,000 per year.

hundred and one of Teneriffe. To give some idea of

Coccus Sinensis.— Mr. Westwood has applied this

the importance of cochineal as an article of commerce.

name to the insect which produces the white insect- wax

the reader may be pleased to know that in the year

of China, an important article very much used by the

1852 the imports and exports of it were respectively

Chinese in the manufacture of candles ; as much as

twenty-two thousand and forty-two, and eight thousand

400,000 lbs. are believed to be annually used.

nine hundred and sixty-four hundredweight. There

The Bark-louse of the apple tree {Aspidiotus con-

were also imported in that year fifteen hundredweight

diiformis) frequently does much damage to the orchard.

of granilla, a finer kind, and two hundred and seventy-

It has the form of a minute scale, resembling a mussel

one hundredweight of the dust.

or oyster shell in shape, and hence its specific name

Great quantities of cochineal are annually imported

Conchiformis. This insect adheres close to the bark.

into France from Algeria. There are great nurseries

and is found often in prodigious numbers.

there of the peculiar cactus on which the insects feed ;

Porpliyrophora. — Before the discovery of America,

and in one year, 1839, M. Guerin-Meneville tells us

cochineal was obtained in considerable quantities from

that three hundred and four thousand nine hundred and

Poland. This cochineal was the dried bodies of tbe

ninety-one kilogrammes were imported into France.

female of another species of the family Coccidse, which

The Algerine production is not, however, so valuable

derives its specific name from the country whence it

as the Mexican, though the colouring matter is nearly

was exported {Porphyrophora polonica). The female

as pure and strong. The Spaniards have introduced

is roundish, about the size of a cherry .stone, and fur-

the cochineal into the Canaries, and the Dutch into

nished with short legs ; she is quite soft, and of a dark

Java, with excellent results to their exchequers.

amaranth colour throughout. When dried, the insects

In Teneriffe it is on the Opuntia tuna that the

shrivel up into a small size, and are covered with a

Coccus feeds. The plant is abundant in Madeira,

bluish mould. The true scarlet colour is produced by

where, according to Mr. Johnson, it gives a peculiar

infusion, with the addition of acids ; while the purple

feature to the rocky parts of the landscape. This

is produced by a solution of potash.

writer informs us that the merchants of Funchal are

Lecanium Coffeai. — This creature does not seem

beginning to turn their attention to the cultivation of

to have attracted attention till about 1845, when it

the cochineal insect, in the hope of its ultimately

began to spread with such rapidity that, in 1847, the

becoming a remunerative substitute for the vine.

planters became alarmed. It is curious that it was

The Pe-la, or insect which produces the insect-wax

about the same period that the potato, vine, and olive

of China, is a species of Coccus {Coccus Sinensis), which

began to be affected by disease in Europe. This scaly

was believed to feed on a kind of privet, somewhat

bug seeks out the softest and most sheltered parts of

*‘The Elements of Materia Medica and Therapeutics, by

the coffee tree, such as the young shoots, the under-

Jonathan Pereira, M.D., vol. ii., part 2, p.760: fourth ed., 1857.

sides of the leaves, and the clusters of berries.

TiPULiDa:. INSECTS. CECiDO.'M'ifiA.

272

Okdek — D

An order of two-wingcd insects, constituting one of
the most extensive groups amongst the Anmdosa.
Althougl), strictly speaking, they are only two winged,
yet they have, as it were, two abortive wings behind
the true pair ; these are commonly called halteres
or balancers; they are frequently kept in rapid motion,
whilst the true wings are apparently quiescent, and
by this rapidity of motion cause a loud piping noise;
this is particularly observable in the genus Sericomyia.
Diptera are usually of moderate size, the largest known
being a species of Acanthomera from Mexico — about
one inch and three-quarters in length; the majority are,
how’ever, small insects.

Individual species are sometimes extremely abundant,
so much so as in some instances to become a plague
and a nuisance. Some of the species may be called
domestic, the house-fly being an example. Flies have
in all ages attracted observation from the numbers in
which they sometimes appear, and in othei'S from the
terror they excite by their w'ell-known power of causing
the most intense annoyance both to man and animals.
One of the plagues of Egypt was a “ swarm of flies,”
probably mosquitoes, which came from the banks of
the muddy Nile. Flies have no mandibles (jaws), but
are provided with a proboscis and also several lancet-
like organs. The common gnat [Culex pipiens) has the
parts of the mouth produced into a slender rostrum,
half as long as the insect; the males have beautiful
plumose antennse. The approach of the gnat is known
by its shrill hum ; but its alighting on the face or other
uncovered part of the skin is so light as not to be easily
perceptible ; it instantly pierces the skin with its fine
lancets; these, it pushes by degrees quite in to their base,
and while the creature imbibes its fill, it apparently
envenoms the wound, which subsequently causes the
most painful irritation. Records of their appearance
in immense hosts in particular localities, even in this
country, are not wanting; thus we are told, that in 17.36
they appeared at Salisbury in such hosts as to resemble
columns of smoke; and in 1766, in the mcnth of
August, they accumulated in incredible numbers at
Oxford, resembling a black cloud, almost totally inter-
cepting the beams of the sun. Such appearances are
not uncommon in Suffolk and Norfolk, as T have been
informed by residents in those counties ; on such occa-
sions their torment is beyond description terrible.

Neither heat nor cold seems to affect these tormentors
of the human race. In Lapland they swarm in in-
credible hosts during certain periods of the year; there
is neither rest nor sleep for the inhabitants, indoors or
out, unless the body is smeared with some unguent, such
as grease, tar, or oil. In the eastern part ol the world
we well know that mosquitoes are a plague by day, and
a “ terror by night.” Other species, belonging to the
family Tipulidce, are well known for the loss occasioned
by their attacks on grain crops. The Cecidoimjia tritici
(fig. 171) deposits its eggs in the corolla of the young
wheat plant, in which the larvae are hatched, and by
their ravages frequently cause a considerable loss, if not

IPTERA.

an entire destruction of the crop. In North America
the ravages of the grain crops at times spread to an
alarming extent. In Fitch’s “ Report of the noxious
insects of the state of New York” are detailed accounts
of their ravages; the larvae of several genera are equally
destructive. Species of the genus Chlorops have long
been known seriously to injure crops. Linnaeus men-
tions one, Chlorops Frit, which infests the heads of
barley, causing an annual loss of not less than half a
million of dollars annually in Sweden. The species of
the genus Chlorops have, as the name indicates, green

(tCocidoniyia tritici. ZiTlte same, natural size. cTlte cncoon of Uie fiy.

d Antenna of tiie male. e An ear of wheat attacked by it.
f A grain of wheat attacked by it. g The American Cliincli Bug.

eyes, and may be seen frequently on the young heads
of grain crops in the spring ; but we must lefei the
reader to the work above alluded to, for a detailed account
of the enormous loss occasioned to the farmer through
the destructive agency of these minute depredators.

No destructive insect belonging to the familj' Diptera
is better known than the species popularly called Daddy-
long-legs {Tipvla oleracea). This species, and some of
its congeners, occasionally prove by their numbeis ex-
ceedinglj' destructive in the larva state by feeding upon
the roots of grass, and thereby doing great mischief;

(Estrid^. INSECTS. Glossina.

tliey more particularly affect damp meadows, and appear
in the perfect state in the autumn. This is the fly
whose larva is commonl}’’ called the grub by farmers.
Species belonging to the family Bornbylidae are amongst
the most interesting of this tribe of insects. Their
appearance is somewhat that of a small Humble-bee ;
they fly with great velocity, and, like hawk-moths or
humming-birds, suspend themselves by a rapid vibra-
tion of their wings, hovering over flowers, and by means
of their long proboscis extracting the nectar upon whicli
they subsist in their perfect condition. The loud hum
which they make whilst thus feeding, gives them a closer
apparent resemblance to the Bombi. The family is for
the most part exotic, some species being extremely
beautiful.

We must briefly refer to these insects in their
annoying or destructive connection with quadrupeds.
Those belonging to the genus Tabanus (see Plate 11,
fig. 9, T, niger), are well known in this country under'
the name of Breeze-flies from the loud buzzing noise
which they make when on the wing; their approach
strikes with terror whole herds of cattle, which instantly
rush off with headlong speed on hearing the hum of
these relentless tormentors. Different animals are
attacked by different species of flies ; a few may be
briefly enumerated. Fig. 172 gives a representation
of Tabanus bovinus, and also a front and lateral view
of the parts of the mouth.

Fig. 172.

Tabanus bovinus.

The Tabanus bovinus attacks cattle, piercing their
skins and sucking their blood in such a manner as to
cause great pain ; the larva of this insect lives in the
ground.

THE (ESTRIDai, commonly called Bot-flies, attack
various quadrupeds, each species of fly being parasitic
upon a particular animal. Thus the Gad-fly {(Estrus
bovis) attacks oxen ; this fly is about the size of a drone-
bee, and not unlike it in colour; the female fastens
herself on the back of the animal, piercing the skin,
and then depositing an egg in the puncture. The
larvae by their suction cause small abscesses, which
increase in size as larvae grow, and may be frequently
obsei'ved in great numbers on the backs of oxen and
cows. AVhen the larvae are full grown, they emerge
from these swellings and fall to the ground, creeping
into any suitable hole for shelter, when they shortly
undergo their change to their perfect condition.

It would appear that some members of this family
have been known even to attack man. Humboldt
observed this in South America, the Indians being
covered with small tumours caused by the (Estrus
Von. 11. 91

273

Hominis. The (Estrus Equi deposits its eggs on the
hairs of the horse, in such parts of the body that the
horse, by licking, wdll be sure to convey them into its
stomach; the larva is the cause of the disease known
as the bots. (Estrus Ovis attacks sheep, the larva
living in the frontal sinus of the head. The reindeer
is attacked by the Estrus tarandi; the appearance of
two or three of these flies is said to alai-m a whole herd
of deer, so dreadfully are they tormented by them.
The (Estrus follows the herd wheresoever it may retreat,
and however rapid its flight ; it is not deterred, even
should the deer flee to the snow-covered mountains.
There is no escaping from these fearful tormentors ;
the fly bores a hole in the skin of the deer, in which it
deposits an egg. The larvae continue to feed until full
grown, when their presence is known by a swelling
observable on the hide of tlie animal as large as the
egg of a pigeon. The attack of six or eight of these
flies is sufficient so to emaciate the deer that great
numbers perish. The Estrus Cervi attacks the fallow
deer. Fig. 173 is that of Estrus trompe, with its
larva and pupa. This species attacks the deer, depo-
siting its egg in the nostrils of the animal; the larva
feeds in the frontal sinus of the head.

Fig. 173

1, oestrus trompe ; 2, the larva ; 3, the pupa.

The Zimb, described by Bruce the African traveller,
is one of the most formidable and destructive species
known ; this fly attacks its victim on all parts of the
body, producing large bosses and ulcers, which in the
end putrefy, and thereby inevitably cause the death
of all animals which it attacks.

Another equally destructive species of fly was dis-

Fig. 174.

covered by the celebrated African explorer. Dr. Living-
ston; this is the Tse-tse described scientifically by Mr.
Westwood ns Glossina morsitans. (Fig. 174.) This pest

274

Tse-tse-

-INSECTS.-

-Pjiytalmia.

appe.ai-s fortunately to be confined to particular districts,
and is usually found on hills, plains being free from it;
it is not much larger than the common house-fly, but
longer and of a blacker colour, with bars on its body.
The attack of ten or a dozen is said to cause the death
of a horse; to oxen its attack is equally fatal. The
Tse-tse also at times attacks man ; but no danger fol-
lows— in fact, no more than from the bite of a flea,
Man and all wild animals appear to escape with impu-
nity ; but tlie losses' experienced through its attack on
domestic animals are quite appalling.

Dr. Livingston describes the Tse-tse as remarkably
alert ; it avoids dexterously all attempts to capture it
with the hand at mid-day. In the cool of the morning
and evening it is not so agile. He says that its peculiar
buzz, when once heard, can never be forgotten by any
ti’aveller whose means of locomotion are domestic ani-
mals; ‘'for it is well known that the bite of this poisonous
insect is certain death to the ox, horse, and dog. In
this journej', though we were not aware of any great
number having at any time lighted on our cattle, we
lost forty-three fine oxen by its bite. We watched the
animals carefully, and believe that not a score of flies
were ever upon them.

“ The mule, ass, and goat enjoy the same immunity
from the Tse-tse as man and the game. Many large
tribes on the Zambesi can keep no domestic animals,
except the goat, in consequence of the scourge existing
in their country. Our children were frequently bitten,
yet suffered no harm ; and we saw around us numbers
of zebras, buffaloes, pigs, pallahs, and other antelopes,
feeding quietly in the very habitat of the fly. There
is not so much difference in the natures of the horse
and zebra, the buffalo and ox, the sheep and antelope,
as to afford any satisfactory explanation of the pheno-
menon. Is not man as much a domestic animal as a
dog ? The disgust which the Tse-tse shows to animal
excreta, is turned to account by some of the doctors.
They mix droppings of animals, human milk, and some
medicines together, and smear the animals that are
about to pass through an infested district. This, though
a preventive at the time, is not a permanent
protection. Inoculation does not insure im-
munity, as animals which have been slightly
bitten in one year may perish by a greater
number of bites in the next. It is probable ^
thatrwith the increase of guns, the game, as
happened in the south, and the Tse-tse deprived
of food, may become extinct simultaneously with
the larger animals. The ravages it commits
are sometimes enormous. Sebituane once lost
nearly the entire cattle of his tribe, amounting
to many thousands, by unwittingly intruding
upon the haunts of this murderous insect.”

We must refer briefly to the great benefits derived
by man through the agency of these insects. Diptera
are the great removers or scavengers of all
putrid animal and vegetable substances. No
sooner does an animal or plant die and begin
to decay, than it is resorted to by hosts of Diptera
which deposit their eggs immediately upon it ; and so
quickly are these hatched and the larvae full grown, that
a successive generation of flies continue to subsist upon

the same food, until it is entirely consumed, and thus
the earth is cleared of all offensive, and what would
probably prove infectious and injurious matter. Ex-
crement of all kinds, is in a great degree, removed
through their agency.

We have only space left briefly to allude td some of
the more remarkable forms which occur in different
genera of Diptera. In the genus Asilus some species
from Brazil so closely resemble species of bees peculiar
to the same country, that it requires an amount of
entomological knowledge to distinguish the difference;
other species of Diptera exactly resemble wasps, into
whose nests they probably enter, being parasitic on the
larva of the wasp. Species of the genus VoUucella,
parasitic upon Humble bees, very' closely resemble the
bees themselves.

One genus, Diopsis (see Plate 11, fig. 7), may be
mentioned as possessing a very remarkable peculiarity
of structure; the eyes in the species of this genus are
situated on pedicels half the length of the body of the
fly. These pedicels arise from the sides of the head, at
the usual situation of the eyes in ordinary species ; tlie
antennse are situated near the eyes, one being on each
foot-stalk or pedicel near to the eye which forms its

Fig. 175.

Achias maculipennis.

extremity'. These species are found in Africa, India,
and in the islands of the Eastern archipelago. Fig.
175 shows a species of an allied genus Addas maculi-

Phytalmiii cervicornis, greatly magnified — a, male; h, female.

peunis^ and fig. 176, a, two outlines of a remarkable
species of the genus PhytaJmia described by AV. W.

VOLUCELLA. INSECTS. EuLEX lUUlTAXS. 275

Saunders, Esq., in the Transactions of the Entomolo-

the first time in places which the fly frequents, and

gical Society. The species figured is named Phytalmia

which are attacked by it, sometimes become un-

cervicornis, in allusion to the remarkable horn-like

manageable. The only way of removing the pest is

processes with which the head is furnished ; the male

by picking it off, so firmly do they fix themselves.

only has these ornaments, as will be seen on reference

clinging with their hook-like claws with unflinching

to the cuts.

tenacity; their bite, or rather the operation of piercing

Several of the genera of this group are parasites,

the skin and sucking the blood, evidently being attended

whose province in the economy of nature appears to be

with a considerable amount of pain. When these

to check the superabundance of species of other orders ;

flies are placed on the ground after being caught, they

the species of the genus Tachinus are parasitic upon

run with considerable speed sideways like a crab, to

various species of beetles. Carabi, Longicornes, &c.,

which in reality they bear a considerable degree of

are attacked by them in the larva state ; Lepidoptera,

resemblance ; the crab only wants wings to make the

particularly the larger moths, such as the Death’s head.

similarity almost complete. The Forest-fly is abundant

are attacked by them; even the Hemiptera, the bugs,

in Hampshire. The same species also attacks the ass.

do not escape.' The various species of the genus Vol-

and not uncommonly even oxen. The writer once

lucella live in the nests of bees and wasps, feeding upon

saw a horse attacked by at least one hundred flies, all

the larvae of those insects. Vollucella bombylans is

having settled and fastened on his flanks; the poo.

figured in Plate 11, fig. 5; this species infests the nests

creature was no doubt “ to the manner born,” as it

of Humble bees. A few are known to live in the

stood as if quite accustomed to them, and only acknow-

bodies of insects in their perfect condition; the species

ledged their presence by a constant shivering attempt

of the genus Conops, at least some of them, undergo

to drive them off.

their changes in the bodies of Humble bees, emerging

Species of other genera attack different animals;

from the plates of the abdomen. For further informa-

Lepoptera cervi attacks the stag ; Melophayus ovinus

tion upon these interesting insects we must refer the

the sheep. Several species are found upon species ot

reader to the works of Fallen, Wiedemann, Meigen,

bats. The species belonging to the genera Ornithomyia,

Macquart, and Walker, who has described the British

Stepepteryx, and Oxypterum, are parasitic upon various

species in the “Insecta Britannica” in three volumes.

birds. The Stenopteryx Hirunclinis is common in the

We must not pass over without notice another sec-

nests of the sand-marten.

tion of the order Diptera, a small group of parasitic

Another minute insect of this division must be noticed.

insects forming the genus Hijypobosca ; one of the

it having been taken in this country ; it is a species

best known is the H. equina, commonly known in

long well known on the continent, a parasite on the

some parts of the country as the Forest-fly. These

Hive bee {Braula cceca). It is a minute insect closely

insects have the head distinct, but partially immersed

resembling the fly of the sand marten, but it has neither

in the anterior portion of the thorax; the legs are short.

eyes or ocelli ; it is figured in Ahrens’ “Fauna,” and pre-

stout, and bristly ; the claws are dentate and curved;

viously by Kdaumur in his fifth volume, Plate 38. This

the rostrum is a complex structure furnished with

curious parasite was discovered a few months back in a

sharp lancet-shaped organs adapted to piercing the skin

hive of the Ligurian bee by Mr. Woodbury of Exeter.

of the animal upon which they are parasitic. These

The specimen might have been imported along with the

insects belong to a section called Pupiparn ; they have

stock, but the species will probably be permanently in-

been regarded as forming a distinct order by some

troduced into this country.

authors ; they are the Homaloptera of Leach. The

Genus Nycteribia. — Only two British species arc

body of these insects is flat, short, and coriaceous ; the

known, and the number of exotic ones are few. These

wings are large, but in some species they are wanting.

insects have no wings; the legs are long and terminated

The eggs of the Hippoboscidce are hatched in the

with strong hooked claws fitted for clinging. They

body of the parent, the larva nourished and changed

are found on the bodies of various species of bats.

into a pupa in the same situation; in this state they are

Examples of several genera of Diptera are figured on

deposited by the parent fly; the change to the pupa

Plate 11, in order to convey a better idea of the variety

state takes place within the skin of the larva. The

of form to be met with in this order. Fig. 1. Ceria

H. equina attacks the horse, and in those parts of the

conopsoides ; 2. Echinomyia fera ; 3. Bibio pomonce ;

country where they abound are exceedingly annoying.

4 PEenops marginatus ; 6. Ceroplatuo tipuloides ; 8.

even in many cases dangerous; horses travelling for

Anthrax morio ; 10. Phada hemiptera.

Sun-OKDER — APHANIPTEEA.

This order contains the different species of fleas, form-

with they pierce the skin of their victim. The mandi-

ng the family Pulicidce.. These insects are too well

hies are represented by two elongate setae, the edges of

known, yet few, except entomologists, would suppose

which are sernated ; the tongue or sucker is of the same

that they have a close relationship to, if they do not

length, but more slender. These setae when united, and

in fact constitute, an apterous section of the Diptera.

inclosing the sucker between them, form the piercing

The organs of the mouth in a magnified representation

lancet-like instrument with which the insect punctures

of the parts, shows us the formidable apparatus where-

the skin, which being effected and causing a momentary

276 PuLEx. INSECTS. Arachxida.

pain, is succeeded by a tickling and not disagreeable sen-
sation, occasioned by the insect sucking its sanguineous
draught. The female lays a number of oval eggs of
pure white colour, selecting frequently a hearth-rug,
carpet, or chair cushion ; at other times she deposits
them in dusty cracks in the floor. The larvae are long
slender thread-like worms which, when full grown, spin
and inclose themselves in silken cocoons.

The species that attacks man is the Pulex irritans,
a figure of which is given on Plate 11, figs. 15, 16,
Although sufficiently numerous in this country, parti-
cularly in dirty houses and amongst people of dirty
habits, little idea of the multitudinous hosts in which
they swarm in hotter parts of the globe can be formed,
until the traveller makes their acquaintance in favoured
localities. We have been told that they skip about in
the streets of Naples by thousands ; on the shores of
its lovely bay they assemble in myriads; and in all con-
tinental churches they abound, particularly under the
dome of the magnificent church of St. Peter at Rome.

A particular and distinct species attacks the dog, but
the same species is found on the cat, and it freely
attacks man himself. This is the Pulex canis.

A distinct species is found on the cat, and ho doubt
were the subject pursued, many distinct species exist
attached to different animals. A much more formi-
dable insect than the flea is found in the West Indies,
popularly known in those latitudes as the Chigoe
(Sarcopsylla penetrans), Plate 11, figs. 11, 12. Mr.
Waterton in his “ Wanderings” says, “ It looks exactly
like a small flea, and a stranger would take it for one ;
it attacks different parts of the body, but chiefly the
feet, betwixt the toe nails and the flesh. There it
buries itself, and at first causes an itching not unplea-
sant. In a day or two you perceive a place about the
size of a pea, somewhat discoloured ; this is the nest
of the Chigoe, containing a hundred eggs, and if
allowed to hatch there the young ones will soon begin
to form other nests, and in time cause a spreading
ulcer. As soon as you perceive that you have got a
chigoe in your flesh, with a sharp-pointed needle or knife
you must take it out.” Neglect of the latter precaution
is followed by moat serious results. It would appear
that the attack of this insect on persons of inflammatory
habit, has frequently been followed by fever and great
suffering and pain.

Class— AKACHNIDA.

This class of articulated animals contains the spiders,
scorpions, and mites ; the spiders forming the order
Araneidea. A concise summary of their organization
and economy is all that our limited space will allow.

In spiders no distinct head, as in insects, will be
observed ; it is, as it were, merged into and apparently
forms a part of the thorax, hence called the cephalo-
thorax, the head and thorax being continuous ; there
are few exceptions to this rule. Spiders have no
antennse, and nearly all have eight legs ; a few have
six, and others ten. On the anterior, or cephalic portion
of the thorax, are situated the eyes; these are eight, six,
or two in number. Those organs which are used for
seizing, and which in insects would be called mandibles,
are in spiders called falces; these are situated in front,
and are usually terminated by a sharp hook or fang.
Tiie legs are eight-jointed, having two or more claws
at their apex. Their abdomen is soft, usually globular,
but in some species oblong ; it is in one piece, never
having segments as in insects ; at its apex beneath are
six or eight fleshy mammulse or spiracles ; it is from
these that the silk issues, when the animal is spintiing.
All spiders have eyes; they are smooth, and as observed
above, differ in number ; they also differ much in size
and position, and from this circumstance important char-
acters for their systematic arrangement are derived.

The falces, although modified in form in different
species, are usually subconical, having at the extremity
within, a longitudinal groove, the sides of which are
dentate ; this groove receives the fang when in repose.
The claw or fang is hard, and acute at the point, near
to which is a small opening which emits a colourless
fluid ; this, in some species, appears to be of a poisonous
nature.

The falces are the organs in spiders which are used

to seize and hold their prey. Spiders are extremely
voracious, but are capable of enduring the want of food
for a very long period ; some species have been known
to live from six to eight months without nutriment.
In no animal apparently is tlie sense of touch so fine as
in the spider ; and on this sense much more than on sight,
do many species depend for ascertaining the presence
of insects, upon which they prey. The poet has finely
described the sense of touch in spiders, which he says,
“ lies in each thread, and lives along the line.” The
accuracy of this description may be proved by any one
who will notice a species of spider that spreads its
geometric net on plants, from which many lines will be
seen to converge to the mouth of its den ; this will be
in some hole in an old wall, &c. No sooner does an
insect touch any part of the net, or of the silken cords
that retain it in its position, than the spider through the
delicacy of his sense of touch becomes instantly aware
of its presence ; the garden spider, Epeiva diadema,
may always be tempted out of its hiding-place by
touching its web lightly with a twig or straw, — Fig. 177.

Spiders have been ascertained to undergo several
moultings, subsequently to the time when thej' first escape
from the egg, and before they arrive at maturity; some
have been known to moult five, others as many as nine
times. They also possess the power of reproducing limbs
that have become mutilated, or which they have alto-
gether lost; but this capability does not appear to have
been observed in such as have arrived at maturity.

Any account of the economy of spiders, approaching
even a satisfactory sketch of their history, would occupy
a bulky volume; a few general observations is all that
can here be attempted. Some species burrow, or
excavate dens or holes in the ground ; these are of a
cylindrical shape, and are lined with a thick tissue of

Arachjjida.-

-INSECTS.-

-Tarantula.

277

eilk ; the entrance to tlie nest is closed by a trap-door,
or valve, which is provided with a hinge ; the door can

\ Fig. 177. /

a

be opened or shut at pleasure. The species that con-
struct these ingenious and beautifully adapted nests,
belong to the genera Cteniza and Actimpus ; these
nests are undoubtedly the most remarkable of any that
are constructed by annulose animals; the hinge to tlie
door indicates an amount of ingenuity altogether u i-
paralleled. The Cteniza nidulans constructs a most
beautiful trap-door nest, usually in loose soils.

The Cteniza lonica was observed at Zante, where
its nests were found at the roots of olive-trees in an
elevated situation ; two or three were usually found
under one tree. The upper portion of the nest was a
little above ground; the form and structure of the trap-
door was very remarkable; all of them had an elevated
ridge just above the hinge; this construction gave addi-
tional weight and acted as a lever, so that the slightest
pressure sufficed to raise the lid, giving ingress to the
creature in a moment ; the length of the tube or cell
is usually about five inches. Another species Actinopus
CBdificatorius is from North Africa ; it has the cephalo-
thorax of a polished pitchy black colour, the abdomen
being brown black, with a fine silky texture ; the legs
are very hairy, interspersed with fine bristles ; the
articulation of the joints of the legs are pale or whitish ;
the legs are of about equal length, differing in thick-
ness. This spider makes a nest about four inches deep;
the opening, and consequently the trap-door also, is

oval ; but the side on which the hinge is attached is
much more curved than the opposite one, that being
nearly straight ; the inner lining of the nest of this
species is pure white.

THE TARANTULA {Lycosa tarantula) is a species
found in the warmer parts of Europe ; in Italy it is of
frequent occurrence, especially near Tarentum, whence
its name is derived. It is the largest of all the European
spiders; its bite is very severe, and is followed by a con-
siderable amount of pain. The bite of this species was
formerly believed to be fatal, or at least to be attended
with most painful and serious results, occasional delirium,
periodical attacks, attended with deep melancholy,
which in a few years ended in the death of the indi-
vidual. At length a sure remedy was discovered ; a
musician discovered an air that compelled the sufferer
to fits of dancing, the violence of which was such that a
profuse perspiration resulted, and consequently a certain
and perfect cure. Records of remarkable cases and
their almost miraculous cure are extant, one of which
we are tempted to give as a proof of the credulity of
bygone times.

A Spaniard, believing in the certain efficacy of music,
submitted to be bitten by two of these spiders of dif-
ferent colours. The venom soon began to spread and
diffuse itself throughout his body, the usual symptoms
beginning to appear; upon which various musicians
were procured — drummers, pipers, trumpeters, &c. All
commenced playing, but unhappily without producing
the usual results ; all their efforts were in vain; it was
discovered at length, that having been bitten by spiders
of different kinds, the effects produced were contrary ;
by one he was incited to dance, by the other he was
restrained therefrom. In the conflict of the opposing
passions, nature gave way ; the Spaniard died !

The largest spiders known belong to the genus
My gale; some of the species from South America are
at least two inches long ; their bodies being densely

covered with hair, their general appearance is at once
formidable, and no doubt to most persons very repulsive.

Mygale.-

CuAB-SPIDEIiS.

278

-INSECTS.-

Species of the genus Mygale were formerly believed
to spin webs of sufficient strength to entangle small
birds, upon which they were said to prey ; such is
certainly not the case, as the species of Mygale do not
spin webs. We were told, however, by a traveller in
Brazil, that on one occasion he detected a large Mygale
sucking the blood of a small unfledged bird that piro-
bably had fallen out of its nest; or, the creature might
have carried it off. These insects reside in holes in the
ground, and belong to the division of hunting spiders;
they seize upon large species of locusts, cockroaches,
and other Insects, which they carry off to their dens.
The species of Mygale in fig. 178 is from Brazil ; the
figure is about half the natural size. The only species
of the family of the Mygalidw I'ound in Great Britain,
is the Atypus Sulzeri, a large and formidable insect,
which, when full-grown, is two inches in length ; it
is a stout reddish-brown creature, having rather short,
thick legs; its falces are strong, prominent, curved
organs, furnished with teeth on the under side. Alto-
gether it is the most powerful of our hunting spiders;
it is a local species, but not uncommon in many of the
lanes in Kent, particularly in the neighbourhood of
Dartford and Dover. This insect excavates a tunnel
in the ground, inside of which it spins a tube of white
silk; this material also covers a space round the entrance
to its burrow. This species appears to prey by night,
for it has not been noticed out of its nest by daylight.

Spiders are rapacious creatures, and live almost en-
tirely upon insects; their mode of securing their prey
differs in manner, as well as in the degree of ingenuity
displayed in effecting their object. Some species depend
upon the rapidity with which they run ; others approach
their victims with caution and circumspection, when cat-
like, at a sudden spring they seize their prey ; but the
most ingenious of all modes, and that which has always
attracted the notice and excited the admiration of man-
kind, is the spinning of beautiful silken webs, such
as are spread by the well-known Epeira diadema, the
garden-s[)ider, and its allies. The surprising manner in
which these silken nets are suspended in the required
position, cannot but have been observed by every one;
then again with what knowledge and foresight does the
creature strengthen the cables, by which they are kept
in position on the approach of windy weather; how
neatly and completely are all necessary repairs effected,
and what a beautiful provision in nature that such crea-
tures should spin these webs, catch their prey by these
means, and thus contribute to a necessary reduction of
the numbers of many species of insects, performing an
important part in the economy of nature!

We have alluded to such species only as pass their
lives in the earth, in holes in walls, &c., or which prin-
cipally live on shrubs and trees ; but others run with
facility on water, occasionally dive into it, and even
pass much of their time immersed in it. Argyronela
aquatica, in fact, may be said to be aquatic. It catches
its prey, constructs its dwelling, and lives entirely
under water. Other species pass much of their time in
water, but it appears to be necessary that they should
occasionally quit that element.

We must now point out another diversity in the
habits of spiders, by noticing such as are aeronautic.

Spiders have no wings, but by throwing out a number
of gossamer-like filaments, numerous species are enabled
through their buoyancy to ascend into, and sail through
the air, to considerable distances. These aerial flights
are supposed to be taken for the purposes of migration,
and may be frequently witnessed in autumn, when the
\veather is remarkably serene. On such occasions these
minute spiders ascend blades of grass, the tips of twigs,
&c. ; and, taking thgir position on the tops, they emit
from their spinnarets a quantity of viscid fluid, which,
drying instantly, floats about in fine fibres; and, catch-
ing the rarefied current of air w'hich ascends on such
occasions, the little animals are borne aloft floating
about in the air ; and doubtless, on these excursions,
numerous small insects are entangled in the webs, and
are preyed upon by the aerial voyagers.

The species of the genus Phalangium are the well-
known Harvestmen that abound in the autumn, and qt
that time may be observed running on the ground,
plants, <S:c., in great numbers. They are rapacious,
their long legs enabling them to run with great rapidity.

The little Scorpion spiders, so numerous in hedges
and thick bushes, belong to the genus Chelifer. These
little creatures are by the unscientific called scorpions,
to which they bear a close resemblance. They belong,
however, to the true spiders. Their bodies are oval
and depressed ; their palpi longer than the body, form-
ing, as it were, two arms, each terminated by a double
claw ; their legs are short, and furnished at their extre-
mities with two claws. These creatures can either run
in a straight direction, or, crab-like, sideways, at plea-

a, Acrosomaarcuata; 6,Gasteracantha; c, Salticusforraicariustmale)

sure. There are four or five known British species,
and numerous exotic ones from other countries.

The species composing the genus Gasteracantha are

SOOKPION.-

-INSECTS.

-Mvhiapoda.

279

insects of quite a different texture from those we have
previously glanced at. These, at least many of the
species, have very much the appearance of minute
crabs. Their bodies are transverse, have a hardened
integument or shell, and are armed with numerous
sharp spines. Others belonging to an allied genus have
the body armed with two long spines, frequently curved,
from an inch to an inch and a half in length. These
are all exotic species. Many are most beautifully
adorned, the cephalo-thorax being of a bright golden
yellow, and the long spines of a bright steel-blue. Very
brilliant species are found in Borneo, and in the islands
of the Eastern Archipelago. This brilliancy of colour-
ing, however, fades or disappears after death, but speci-
mens occasionally retain much of their brilliancy for a
considerable length of time.

SCORPION (Scorpio) a genus belonging to the class
Arachnida. The Scorpion is one of the most renowned
of all obnoxious creatures, and the most dreaded of the
insect tribes ; they have furnished the poet with similes
the most expressive that language can convey, and in
Holy Writ the Scorpion is used as symbolical of all
that is hateful and malignant. That the Scorpion has
engaged the attention of people in the most remote
ages is certain, and, in the ancient mythology of Egypt,
we find it represented as the genius of evil. Fabu-
lous accounts of these creatures exist in abundance ;
the most potent medicinal virtues have been ascribed
to them, and also the most poisonous and malignant
qualities ; so much so, that even to be touched b}' one
was deemed a fatal occurrence. Scorpions of mon-
strous size were fabled, others with wings, and of habits
so ferocious that the winged monsters attacked every
one who came in their way.

Exaggerated as the records of antiquity certainly
are, yet Scorpions are venomous, stinging witli much
virulence The sting is usually followed by painful
tumours, but in this case, as in the stinging of wasps,
the effect is much more painful with persons of inflam-
matory constitutions. Some species are as much as
eight inches in length. Not one is found in this
country, but the Scorpion is met with in the south of
France and in Italy. Some of the species from Africa,
particularly those from the Gold Coast, are the largest
known. The female brings forth her young alive,
usually from twenty to forty ; these only differ from the
parent in being smaller : as the creatures grow, they

from time to time cast their skins, until they arrive at
maturity. The species are numerous, and in many
localities are exceedingly obnoxious. Scorpions having
the abdomen articulated, enables them to sting in all
directions. There are twelve of these articulations;
the palpi are veiy large, resembling the claws of a crab,
with these they seize their victims ; the abdomen is
terminated by a curved spine or sting, at the extremity
of which beneath, are two small orifices, out of which a
venomons fluid is discharged in the act of stinging.

Scorpions are found in holes, under stones, logs, &c.,
in fact, in almost any cool place, particularly in houses;

they run quickly, curling their tail over their backs ;
they prey upon all kinds of insects, rendering them
defenceless by stinging them before they feed upon
them. The sight of these animals is acute; they have
usually six or, in some species, eight eyes.

Class— MYKI APOD A.

This class is composed of two orders, and in it are
assembled all those animals commonly known under
the names of Centipedes, Millipedes, and Scolopendrce;
they cannot be called true insects, since they have the
body divided into a great number of segments, each of
which is furnished with a pair of legs ; they are also
destitute of wings.

The order Chilopoda is characterized by having
two short antennae, thick at the base, and tapering to a
point at the apex ; the mandibles are furnished with a
palpiform process, and have numerous denticulations

at the apex ; their feet are numerous, and each is ter-
minated by a single claw ; the representatives of the
palpi are two jointed appendages, resembling legs,
being terminated each by a claw ; the body is elon-
gate and flattened, of a corneous consistency, and
divided into numerous segments. Tlie Myriapoda are
usually much neglected, more so than any other divi-
sion of the Articulata. They are to people in general
repulsive creatures, and to casual observation offer few
apparent differences in the species ; notwithstanding
this, they have well-defined characters, and to the

Chilognaxua.-

-INSECTS.-

280

-Jui.us.

student afford materials of the highest interest. The
Chilopoda are predaceous in their habits, and seize their
prey with the foot-jaws, which, in fact, represent the
mandibles in the majoiity of the Articiilata.

In the family Scolopendra are found the giants of the
order, S. gigas measuring from ten to thirteen inches in
length ; it is of a reddish chestnut colour, and is truly a

Fig. 181.

ficolopendra gigas.

most repulsive and formidable-looking creature. There
are about forty species known of this genus alone; they
inhabit India and the adjacent islands, Africa, and Ame-

rica. It is in the hottest parts of the world they attain
their largest size. S. gigas is found in South America.

Cormocephalus lohidens has twenty-one segments,
consequently forty-two legs. The Gonibregmatus Cu-
mingi of Newport is 4| inches long, and has 161 pair
of legs. In the genus Geophilus, one species, G. xan-
ihiniis, is six inches long, of a narrow tape-like form,

and of a reddish-
yellow colour ; it
is furnished with
162 pair of legs.
In G. Savignianus
we have a species
possessing the as-
tonishing number
of 210 pair of legs;

this species is about three inches long. The species, at
least some of them belonging to the genera Geophilus
and Scolopendra, are at times brilliantly phosphoric.

Oeder— CHILOGNATHA.

The order Chilognatha forms the second division of
the Myriapoda ; in these the body is crustaceous,
and in many short and cylindrical; the antennae are
more or less thickened at the tips; the legs are short
and terminated by a claw; the mandibles are short,
having the form of true mandibles, and adapted for eat-
ing or comminuting vegetable matter, on which they
subsist. Some of the species very closely approach the
Annelida. In some species the first, and somtimes the
second segment also, are the largest, and represent as
it were a corselet or shield. Some of the anterior and
also the apical segments are not furnished with feet.
Many of the species have the power of rolling themselves
up into a ball. They have from thirty-two to thirty-
four legs in the Onisciform genus Glomeris, the species
of which resemble the common wood-louse.

In the genus Zephronia the antennm are six-jointed,
clavate, and truncated at the apex ; the species are
exotic, and are exactly like gigantic Ow/sci( Wood-lice);
their prevailing colours are brown, chestnut, and clay
colour; one species, Zephronia versicolor, is black, with
beautiful irregular-shaped yellow mottlings. The largest
known species measures
nearly 2^ inches in length.

The genus Polydcsmus
contains a series of insects
of an elongated form, the
body being composed of a
series of eighteen distinct
segments, exclusive of the
head. The segments are transverse, with the anterior
lateral angles usually rounded ; the posterior being
generally acute, sometimes hooked backwards. The
largest known species is from Borneo, is inches long,
and has the lateral margins of the segments denticulate.

The genus Spirostreptus contains some of the giants
of the order; it consists of numerous species. Fifteen

are described in Newport’s monograph of the order.
The species are principally from India, the Indian
Archipelago, and Africa — one has been found in New
Zealand, Spirostreptus antipodarum.

The genus Julus is allied to the Centipedes, but has
the body cylindrical ; the number of legs is very great,
they have consequently been well named Millipedes.
They can scarcely be said to run, but glide along much
in the manner of a worm ; occasionally, on being dis-
turbed, twisting themselves up into a spiral form. Their
bodies are hard and not easily crushed, except by violent
pressure or by a blow. They have denticulated jaws,
and their eyes are divided by hexagonal convexities.
One species of Julus is very common under vegetable
refuse, and in banks of light earth, &c. ; it is of a shin-
ing black colour, about 1^ inches long — this is the J.
sahulosus. It is oviparous ; the young when first born
have only three pair of legs, but as they increase in size
they acquire additional numbers, not less than 100 pairs.
The largest known species is the Spirostreptus fasciatus,
which is eight inches in length ; Sgnrostreptus ohtusus

(fig. 182) measures about 5§ inches. In the genus
Polydesmus the eyes are obsolete.

Monographs of the species comprising the orders
Chilopoda and Chilognatha have been published in
Leach’s “Zoological Miscellany,” and more recently by
Mr. G. Newport, in the Annals and Magazine of
Natural History, 1844.

Fig. 182.

^nT77T(TTT(T( P

Spirostreptus obtusus.

END OF INSECTS.

INDEX TO INSECTS.

Aclierontia ati'opos, the Death's-head MToth
Aclieta campestris
Acheta domestica
Acheta Smeathmanni .

Achias maculipennis
Actinopus a?dificatorius
Adesmia candidipennis
Agapantliia suturalis
Alaus ocuiatus
Aminophila sabulosa
Ammophila vulgaris
Ancyra appendiculata
Andrena cineraila
Andrena Clarkella
Andrena fiorea
Andrena fulva
Andrena Hattorfiana
Andrena nitida
Andrena pilipes
Andrena Trimmerana
Anobium pertinax
Anoinina areens, the Driver Ant
Ant, the Driver, Anomma areens
Ant, the Great-headed Red, (Ecodoma cephaloles
Ant, the Hill, Formica nifa
Ant, the Horse, Fcrmica rufa
Anthidium manieatum
Anthophora acervorum
Anthophora f'urcata
Anthrenus muscorum .

Antliarhinus Zainiaj
Apathus barbutellus
Apathus vestalis
Aphiophora spumaria, the Common Frog-hopper
Aphis lanata .

Aphis rosae
Apis Daviesana
Apis florisomnis
Apis mellifica, the Tierney Bee
Aptura Iris
Argyroneta aquatica
Aspidiotus conchiformis
Asserador Hewitsoni
Astata Boops .

Athous hirtus .

Atta providens
Attelabus Curculionoides
Atypus Sulzeri

Banchus pietns . .

Batocera rubus

Bee, the Honey, Apis melUJica .

Bee, the Leaf-cutter, Megachile ceviuncularis
Bee, the Long-horned, Eucera longicornis
Bee, the Poppy
Bee, the Willow

Bee, the Wood-cutter, Genus Xylocnpa
Beetle, the Act®on, Alegasoma Actceon .

Beetle, the Common Tiger, Cicindela campestris
Beetle, the Elephant, Megasoma elephas
Beetle, the Kangaroo, Chrgsophnra macropus
Beetle, the Rhinoceros, Dynasles Hercules
Beetle, the Rose, Cetonia ourato.

Beetle, the Sacred, Scarabmus sacer
Bembex rcstrata
VoL. 11. 92

Page

262

242

243
243
274

277
225
234
221
187
187
268
194
194
194
194
194
194
194
194
224
183
183
183
179
179

197

198

198
211
227

199

199

269

270

270
192

197

200
259

278

271
219
187
221
181
227
278

178

234

200

196

198
196

196

197
219
205
219
215
219
217
214
187

Biphyllocera Kirbyana
Blatta orientalis
Bocydium globulare
Bolbocerus proboscideus
Bombus Derhamellus
Bombus fragrans
Bombus pratorum
Bombus Sohrimshiranus
Bombus senilis
Bombus terrestris
Braul.a caeca

Breeze-fly, the, Tabanus niger
Bruchus granarius
Brachus pisi, the Pea-Jly
Bullchafer, the, Phaneeus carnifex

Calandra sacchari, the Borer Weevil
Calloodes Grayianus
Calosoma sycophanta
Camarotus marginalia
Campylus linearis
Cantliaris, the Blister-beetle
Carabus auratus
Carabus Bowringianus
Carabus coelestis
Carabus Lafossei
Carabus prodigus
Carabus Vietinghovii
Carpocapsa pomonella, the Apple Moth
Catoxanthse bicolor
Cebrio gigas
Cebrionid®

Cecidomyia tritici
Celonites apiformis
Ceratina
Ceratina c®rulea
Cerceris arenaria
Cerceris ornata
Cerceris labiata
Cerceris quinque-fasciata
Cetonia aurata, the Rose Beetle ,

Cetonia cardui
Cheirotonus Macleayii
Chelostoma campanularnm
Chermes abietis, the Common Fir-louse
Chiasognathus Grantii .

Chig®, the, Sarcopsylla penetrans
Chlorops Frit .

Chrysis bidentata
Chry.sochroa Edwardii

Chrysophora macropus, the Kangaroo Beetle
Cicada septemdecim
Cicindela campestris, the Common Tiget
Cicindela Hamiltoniana
Cicindela sylvatica
Cicindela Walhousei
Cilissa h®morrhoidaIis .

Cillxus Conotelus
Cimex lectularius, the Bed-bug
Cladognathus Parryi
Class — Aracbnida
Class — Myriapoda
Clytus arietis
Cnethocampa processionea, the Procession Moth
Coccinella bipunctata

Beetle

Page

216

239

269

214
199
199
199
185
199
199

275
273
227
226

215

230

216
206
227
221
224
206
206
206
206
206
206
264
220
221
221
272
191
198
198
187
187
187
187

217

218
217

197
269

219

276
272
190

220
215
268
205
205
205
205
194
211
266
219
276
279

198
263
237

282

INDEX TO INSECTS.

Page

Page

Coccus cacti, the Cochineal . .

. 271

Family Cicadidas . . .

. 268

Coccus Sinensis . .

. 271

Cimicida: and Tingida: .

. 266

Coclileoctonus vorax

. 222

((

Clerida!

. 223

Cock, the common, Melolonllia vulgaris

, 216

U

Coccidas

. 270

Cock-roach, the common .

. 239

((

Coccinellid®, the Lady Birds .

. 237

Colletes succincta . ,

. 193

t;

Coreidae and Lygajidae

. 266

Cojiris lunaris . .

. 214

((

Ci'abronida;

. 186

Copris Midas . .

. 214

a

Crioceridae

. 235

Coprobius volvens

, 214

n

Cynipidae, the Gall Insects

. 179

Cormoceplialus lobidens

. 280

“

Cyplionidaj

. 222

Corotoca melantho . .

. 209

Danaidaj

. 218

Crabro varius

. 186

u

Dermestid®

. 211

Cryptocerus atratus

. 182

“

Dynastidae

. 218

Cryptooerus striatus

. 182

Dytiscidaj

. 207

Cteniza lonica . . .

. 277

((

PBateridae, Skip-Jaclcs

. 221

Cteniza niduhins

. 277

a

Endomychidai .

. 237

Cynips Gallse tinctoria;

. 179

Ephemerida;, May-Jlies

. 250

Cynips insana

. 179

Erotylidae .

. 237

Cyphus Hancocki

. 228

Erycinida)

. 261

Eucera longicomis, or Long-IJovned Bee

. 198

Daddy-long-legs, the, Tipula oleracea

. 272

n

Eucnemidaj

. 220

Dasypoda hirtipes

. 194

((

Eumenidae, Solitary Wasps

. 190

Decticus verrucivorus .

. 243

((

Eurytelidae

. 260

Dermestes murinus

. 211

Formicidas, the Ants .

. 177

Diactor foliacea

. 266

“

Fulgoridae, Lantern-Jlies

. 268

Diatraia sacchari ,

. 264

Galerucidas

. 236

Dictyopterus aurora

. 222

(C

Galgulidaj

. 267

Diuarda dentata

. 209

(1

Geometridae

. 264

Diopsis ....

. 274

u

Geotrupida;, Dung-beetles

■ 213

Drilus flavescens

. 222

((

Gryllidai

. 243

Dynastes Hercules, the Long-horned Jler

cules Beetle

. 219

Gyrinidae, Whirhvhigs

207

Dytiscus marginalis

. 207

Heliconidaj

. 258

Hemerobiidae, Lace-ioing Flies .

. 251

Earis chlorana

. 264

Hesperidae, Skqgters

. 261

Elenclius Walkeri

. 202

Hispidae

. 236

Elophorus aquaticus . .

. 213

Hydrometidae

. 267

Elytrurus atratus

. 228

Hydrophilidae .

. 212

I'hnus hirtus ....

. 208

“

Iclineumonidai, Ichneumons

. 178

Epeira diadema

. 276

Lampyridae, Glow-worms

. 222

Epeolus variegatus

. 195

Larridae

. 187

Ephialtes mauifestator

. 178

Lepturida;

. 235

Epicometis hirta

. 218

Libellulidae, Dragon-flies

. 250

Epididysus Lamprimoidcs

. 216

Libytheida;

. 261

Euchirus Dupontianus . .

. 217

I.ocustidae, Grasshoppers and Locusts

. 244

Eucliirus longimanus .

. 217

Lucanidae, Stag-beetles

. 219

Eumenes coarctatus

. 190

Lyca:nidaj

. 261

Eiirycantha horrida

. 241

li

Lycidae

. 222

I'ivania appendigaster .

. 179

Lymexylonida;

. 223

u

Manticoridae

. 204

Fcenus assectator

, 198

((

Mantidae, Soothsayers .

. 240

Family Achetidm

. 242

i(

Mantispidae

. 252

“ Acrrcidco

. 258

u

Melolonthidae .

. 216

“ Aigeridae . .

. 262

Mordellidae

. 225

“ jEgeronida;

. 257

Morpliida:

. 259

“ Andrenidae

. 192

“

Mutillid®, Velvet Ants

. 185

“ Anistomida!

. 211

“

Myrmeleonidae, Ant-lioris

. 251

“ Anoplognathidai

. 216

((

Nepida;

. 267

“ Anthicida;

. 225

u

Nitidulida?

. 211

“ Anthribidic . .

. 227

u

Noctuida;

. 263

“ Apliidae, Plant-lice .

. 269

i{

Notonectldac, Water-boatmen

. 267

“ Apida;

. 194

“

Nymphalidau . . .

. 259

“ Attelabida;

. 227

Nyssonidae

. 187

“ Bembecida;

. 187

u

I’apilionidas

. 255

“ Blattidas, Cockroaches .

. 239

It

I’assalidae

. 220

“ Bombycidae

. 262

it

Paussidae

. 239

“ Bostricliida:

. 224

It

Perlidas

. 249

“ Brentliida;

. 232

u

Phasmidac, Walking-stick Insects

. 241

“ Bressolidae

. 260

it

Philanthidaj

. 186

“ Bruchida;

. 226

It

Pompilidaj

. 188

“ Buprestida;

. 220

tt

Prionidaj . ,

. 233

“ Cassidida;, the Tortoise. Beetles .

. 233

Proctotrupidae

. 178

“ Cerambycidje and Lamiada;

. 235

tt

Pselaphidae

. 209

“ Cercopida;

. 269

Psocida;

. 249

“ Cetoniidae

. 217

tt

Psychidae .

. 263

“ Chalcidida;, iheBrasslets

. 178

Psyllidae

. 269

“ Chrysidida;, the Golden Wasps

. 179

Ptinidae

. 223

“ Chrysomelida; .

. 236

u

Pyralida!

. 264

INDEX TO

INSECTS.

28a

Page

Page

Family Reduviidse

*

. 266

Glossiua morsitans, the Tse-tse

273

“ RhipiceridjB .

. , 221

Group Aleocharini

c

209

“ Rutelida)

*

. . 215

“ Anthophila or Mellifera, the Bees

192

‘‘ SapygidiB

e

. 185

“ Brachelytra

207

“ Satyridae

. 260

“ Diploptera

189

‘‘ Scaphidiadaj

. 211

“ Fossores

185

“ Scarabseidaj

. 214

“ Geodephaga, Ground Carnivorous Beetles

203

“ Seoliadaa

. 185

“ Heterogyna

179

“ Scolvtidae, Treebanes

. 230

“ Hydradephaga, the Water Beetles

*

206

“ Scutelleridae and PentatomidsB

. 265

“ Lamellicomia

213

“ Scydmajnidse .

. 210

“ Longicornia, Longicorn Beetles

231

“ Sialid®

. . 252

“ Necrophaga

210

“ Silpbidae, Camon-beetles

. 210

“ Pa;derini

208

“ Siricidas, Tailed Wood-wasps
“ Sphaii'idiadae .

. 177

“ Phytophaga Plant, Eating Beetles

235

, . 213

“ Serricornia

220

“ Sphegidse

. 187

“ Sphirgidse

. 262

Halictus morio

193

“ Telephoridse, Soldiers and Sailors

. 223

Haustellated insects

253

“ Tenthredinid®, the Saw-Jlies

. 176

Hedychrum auratum, the Golden Wasp

190

“ Terebrantia

. 247

Heterocera ....

262

“ Termitidse, White Ants

. 247

Heteromera

224

“ Thynnidaj

. 186

Hippobosca equina, the Corest-fy

275

“ Tortricidse

. 264

Hornet, the, Vespa a'abro

House Cricket, the

192

“ TrogidsB

. 215

241

“ Tubulifera

. 247

Hydrous piceus

212

-233

“ Vespid® (Wasps and Hornets)

. 191

Hylobius abietis

228

Fish-fly, the, Staphylinvs villosus

. 208

Formica flava

, 179

Julus sabulosus

280

Formica fuliginosa

*

, 180

Formica fusca

. 180

Lagria hirta

225

Formica nigra, or Garden Ant

Formica rut'a, the Wood Ant

. 180

Lampyris noctiluca

222

. 179

Lecanium CofFe®

271

Formica rafescens

. 180

Leiodes cinnamomea

211

Formica sanguinea

. 180

Lepidoptera Diurna-Rhopalocera, Dayfiying Lcpidoptera,

255

h ormica solitaria

. 182

Lethrus cephalotes

214

Limnius mneus

213

Gad-fly, the, (Estrus bovis

Galerita Lecontei

. 273

Limothrips cerealium .

246

. 205

Lobetus torticollis

223

Genus Adelops

. 210

Lucanus Cervus, the Stag-beetle

219

“ Anthidiam

. 197

Lyeosa tarantula, the Tarantula

277

“ Anthophora

. 198

Lycus appendiculatus

222

“ Athyreus

. 214

Lymexylon navale

223

“ Bledius

. 208

Lytta Vesicatoria, the Spanish Fly

224

“ Bombus, Humble Bee
“ Brachinidm, Bombardier Beetles

. 198

. 205

Macrodactylus subspinosus, the Rose-bug

217

“ Brachinus

. 205

Mantis religiosa

240

“ Carabidaj

. 206

May-beetle, the, Phyllophaga quercina .

217

“ Coelioxys

. 195

May-bug, the

217

“ Colletes

. 192

Megachile argentata

196

“ Diopsis

. 274

Megachile centuncularis, the Leaf-cutter Bee

196

“ Epeolus

. 195

Megachile papaverls

196

“ Eremiaphila

. 241

Megachile Willughbiella

196

“ Eucera

. 198

Megasoma Actmon, the Actceon Beetle .

219

“ Julodis

. 220

Megasoma elephas, the Elephant Beetle

219

“ Leptoderus

. 210

Meleeta luctuosa

195

“ Lethrus

. 214

Melittobia ....

178

“ Manticora

. 204

Mellinus arvensis

187

“ Megacepbala

. 204

Melolontha vulgaris, the Common Cockchafer

216

“ Megachile, Leaf-cutter Bee

. 196

Membracis foliacea

269

“ Meleeta

. 195

Meranoplus singularis .

182

“ Nomada

. 194

Micro-lepidoptera

265

“ Omus

, 204

Miltogramma punctata . ,

193

“ Osmia . =

. 195

Miscophus bicolor

187

“ Oxytelus

. 208

Monodontomerus nitidus

179

“ Panurgus

. 194

Muse® trisetes

178

“ Platycbile . .

. 204

Mutilla coccinea

185

“ Prosopis

. 193

Mutilla diadema

186

• Sarapoda

“ Sisyphus

. 198

. 214

Mutilla ephippium

Mutilla Europma

186

185

“ Sphecodes

. 193

Mygale avicularia

277

“ Staphylinidae

. 209

Mvrapetra scutellaris .

189

‘‘ Stelis

. 195

Myrmecolax ....

202

“ Stilicus

. 208

Myrmica CKspitum

180

“ Thalassophilus .

. 206

Myrmica molesta

Myrmica scabrinodis

180

“ Therates

. 205

180

“ Typhsus

. 214

“ Xylocopa, Woody-cutt.er Bee

. 197

Naui-huacan-sisi

181

284 INDEX TO INSECTS

Page

Page

Naucoris cimicoides

. 267

Rose-bug, the, Macrodactylus subspmosus

. 217

Necrobia violacea

. 223

Sapyga punctata

. 185

Necrodes littoialis

. 210

Sarcopsylla penetrans, the Chigoe

. 276

Necrophori

. 210

Scarabreus sacer, the Sacred Beetle

214

Nematus grossulari® .

. 177

Scolopendra gigas

. 280

Niptus hololeucus

. 224

Scorpio Caesar, the Scoipion

. 279

Noniada sexfasciata

. 195

Scorpion, the, Scorpio Caesar .

. 279

Nomada Solidaginis

. 194

Section Ambulatoria

. 241

Notonecta glauca, the Water-hoatman

. 267

“ Cursoria

. 239

Notoxus monoceros

. 225

“ I., Gonatocerata, Weevils

. 228

Nysson dimidiatus

. 187

“ II., Orthocerata

. 226

Nysson trimaculatus .

. 187

“ Jlalacodermata

. 221

“ Pentamera

. 202

fficodoma cephalotes

. 183

“ Pseudo-trimera

. 237

ffida inflata

. 269

“ Salatoria

. 242

ffidipoda cairulescens .

. 245

“ Sternoxi

. 220

CEstrus bovis, the Gad-Jly .

. 273

Sirex gigas ....

. 177

(Estrus tarandi

. 273

Sirex juvencus . . .

. 178

Odynerus quadratus

. 190

Sitaris humeralis

. 225

Odynerus spinipes

. 190

Sitophilus granarius, the Corn Weevil

, 230

Order Chilognatha

. 280

Sphinx convolvuli

. 262

“ Coleoptera, Beetles

. 202

Spirachtha Eurymedusa

. 209

“ Diptera

. 272

Stethorectus ingens, the Great Brazilian Spider Wasp

. 188

“ L, Hymenoptera

. 176

Sub-order Apbaniptera

. 275

Lepidoptera, Buiterjiies and Motlni

. 253

“ Euplexoptera

. 239

Neuroptera .

. 247

“ Hemiptera

. 265

Ortboptera .

. 239

“ Homoptera

. 267

“ II,, Rbyncliota =

. 265

'* Strepsiptera

. 201

Oryctes, the . . .

. 219

“ Thysanoptera

. 246

Orvctes Maimon

. 219

“ Trichoptera, Caddis-worm Flies

. 252

Oryctes Simiar .

. 185

Sub-section Adephaga

. 202

Oryctophaga . .

. 185

“ Rypophaga, Cleansers

. 207

Osmia bicornis

. 195

Osmia leucomelana

. 195

Tabanus bovinus

. 273

Osmia parietina

. 196

Tabanus niger, the Breeze-fly

. 273

Osmia rufa

. 195

Tacbyopus Lecontei.

. 229

Otiorhynclius picipes .

. 229

Tachytes unicolor

. 187

Otiorbynchus sulcat

. 228

Tarantula, the, Lycosa tarantula

. 277

Termes flavicollis

. 248

Panurgns Banksianus

. 194

Timarcha Isevigata

. 236

Passalus cornutus

. 220

Tipula oleracea, the Daddy-long-legs

. 272

Passalus interruptus

. 220

Tremex Columba, the Canadian Wood-Wafj)

. 177

Pelecinus polycerator, the Needle Ichneumon

. 178

Tribe — Aculeata

. 179

Petasida ephippigera

. 246

“ Palpicornes

. 212

Pbanseus carnifex, the Bxdlchafer

. 215

“ Pupivora

. 178

Phyllium pulchrifolium

. 212

“ Terebrantia

. 176

P byllomorpba, the Leaf-shape

. 266

Trypoxylon figulus

. 186

Pompilus punctum

. 188

Tse-tse, the, Glossina morsitaus

. 273

Ponera contracta

, 180

Porphyropbora polonica

. 271

Vespa arborea

. 192

Pseudo-tetrainera

. 226

Vespa crabro, the Hornet

. 192

Pteronarcys regalis

. 249

Vespa Germanica

. 191

Pteropbylla conoava

. 244

Vespa rufa

. 191

Ptinus fur

. 223

Vespa sylvestris

. 192

Pulex irritans

. 276

Vespa vulgaris, the Common Wasp

. 191

Pygolampsi xantliopbotis

. 222

Pylades Caquereli

. 210

Wasp, the Common, Vespa vulgaris

. 191

Pyrophorus noctilucus

. 221

Wasp, the Great Brazilian Spider, Stethorectus inyens

. 188

Wood- wasp, the Canadian, Tremex Columba

. 177

Rhyncliopliora, Snouted Beetles

. 226

Kbyncophorus palmarum

. 230

Xylocopa violacea

. 197

Ubyssa lunator

. 178

Kliyssa pcrsuasoria

. 178

Zimb, tbe

. 273

THE MUSEUM

NATURAL HISTORY.

ZOOLOGY.

Class CRUSTACEA.

Forming part of the great division of the animal king-

or shedding their carapace at certain periods. During

dom, the Annulosa, and immediately following the

the time the animal is growing in size, their external

Insects, comes the important class of animals called

covering does not increase in equal proportion. In

Crustacea.

order, therefore, to permit the growth of the body to go

The length to which the article “Insects” has neces-

on, this solid envelop is thrown off, and a new one ex-

sarily extended, must be our apology for the summary

actly fitted to the increased size of the animal is formed.

manner in which this most interesting class must be

When young these periodic moultings, as they are called,

treated.

are of frequent occurrence, and it is wonderful to see

Crustaceous animals are true members of the Arti-

the perfect manner in which the covering of the body.

culata. having, like insects, no internal skeleton, but

feet, antennse, &c., is thrown off, without any portion

generally, on the contrary, an external tegumentary

of it being destroyed or broken.

skeleton, composed of flexible rings or joints, and the

Crustacea respire by means of organs analogous to

body provided with articulated or jointed organs of

the gills of fishes, and called, as in them, branchice.

locomotion.

These organs are either exclusively formed as gills, or

They differ, however, from insects in having their

they are members modified and adapted for that pur-

respiration carried on by means of gills or branchiae.

pose. By their means the animals separate the oxygen

and in having a double or complete circulation of blood.

contained in solution in the water in which they live.

Their body is in general covered with a hard external ,

They vary much in number and in shape in the differ-

shell or crust (crusta), from which circumstance they

ent species, but are generally placed near the base of

derive their name. This shell has for its base a pecu-

the legs, and are protected by the border of the cara-

liar substance, which is found also in the covering of

pace, though a few have them placed externally.

insects, called chitine. It is commonly called the

The blood in the Crustacea is colourless, and when

carapax or carapace ; and in man}' of the species, as

observed by the microscope is seen to contain a great

the common crab and lobster, is extremely hard, almost

quantity of albuminous globules suspended in it. There

stony, being composed of a large portion of carbonate

are no absorbent vessels, and it appears that the chyle

of lime with a small quantity of chitine ; whilst in

is carried into the blood by imbibition. Crustacea

others, as in the Entomostracous species, it is of a

possess a heart, which by its muscular action propels

horny consistence, the composition partaking largely of

the blood over every part of the body, through a well-

chitine and albumen, and slightly of carbonate of lime.

developed system of arterial vessels. After it has

This carapace being divided into rings or joints, the

served for the nourishment of the diffeient organs, it is

animals, even in those which have it hardest, possess

carried into the veins, which are rather reservoirs or

a considerable, degree of freedom of motion. The nor-

lacunce than vessels properly so called, and from them

mal number of these rings or joints is twenty-one, but

through the branchiae or gills. After traversing these

two or three are often blended together or soldered into

organs it returns directly to the heart, to run anew the

one. To each of these joints except the last, there is

circle just mentioned. The nervous system of the Crus-

attached a pair of members, the forms and uses of which

tacea consists of a chain of ganglions, more or less

vary much in the different species, according to their

numerous, united by nervous cords. The normal num-

age, &c. These members are always divided into joints

her of these ganglions is equal to that of the joints of

or articulations, the number of which is very various.

the body; but sometimes they are double, and at others

and are covered with the same envelop or crust as the

they appear to be much fewer in number, owing to

body itself. Crustacea possess the power of casting off"

several being united together into one mass. From

Malacostraca.-

286

Malacostraca.-

CRU STAGE A. Decapoda.

these ganglions the nerves are distributed to the differ-
ent organs and members of the body, and to the muscles
which move them.

The sexes are distinct. The males have not as yet
been seen in all ; but there is good reason to believe
that, with the exeeptidn of the cirripedes or barnacles,
the two sexes exist separately in all cases, though in
some the males differ very much in appearance from
the females. They always produce their young by
means of eggs, which, in most or all instances, are
fecundated within the body of the female before she
lays. In some genera the young are fully formed in
the internal ovary of the mother, and are extruded
alive. In many, the young at birth are like the parent.

but in others they are very unlike, and undergo several
changes, amounting almost to a kind of real transforma-
tion, before they assume the perfect form. The Crus-
tacea differ from each other very much in form and
appearance ; they differ also very much in their habits.
Most of them live constantly in the water, but there are
some which during the greater part of their life inhabit
the land, and are called Land-crabs. The larger num-
ber are carnivorous, and many even devour their own
species.

For convenience sake, we divide the class Crustacea
into two great sub-classes, the Malacostraca and the
Et^TOMOSTRACA.

Sub-class I. — MALACOSTRACA.

Tins name was originally applied by Aristotle to the
whole class in general, but by Latreille and others it
is used to designate only a particular division of it. It
contains the greater part of the large Crustaceans, and
more especially those which are useful to man.

It has been divided into two great sections, the Stalk-
eyed Crustaceans or Podophthalma (those which have
their eyes placed at the tip of a footstalk), and the
Sessile-eyed or Edkiophthalma (those in which the
eyes are not placed on footstalks).

Section I. — STALK-EYED CRUSTACEA (Podophthalma.)

The Stalk-eyed Crustacea are chiefly distinguished by
the possession of organs exclusively, formed for the
purpose of respiration (branchiae, or gills), and the
existence of eyes placed at the extremity of a movable
peduncle or footstalk — hence their name. A large
portion of the front of the body is covered by a buckler-
shaped shell or carapace, which extends more or less
beyond the thorax, and this kind of covering generally
tends to distinguish the animals of this division of Crus-
tacea at first sight.

They are divided into two orders, Decapoda, or
Ten-footed Crustacea; and Stomapoda, or Sea-
Mantes.

Order I. — DECAPODA {Ten-fooled
Crustaceans).

This order contains the greatest number of species
of all the orders of the Crustacea. The animals whicli
belong to it are those which have the most complicated
organization, and the most perfectly developed facul-
ties. The branchiae, or gills by which they respire,
are fixed on the internal surface of the thorax, and are
lodged in a cavity formed by the prolongation of the
carapace beyond the sides. The head and thorax are
compactly united or soldered together, and are covered
by a large shield-shaped carapace, which stretches be-
yond the front of the body, descends on each side to
the base of the feet, and extends backwards as far as
to the origin of the abdomen. The feet, properly so
called, are five pairs ; the first of which are transformed
into arms, and are terminated by a pair of large claws

or pincers, forming organs of prehension; the four other
pairs being the true organs of motion. These animals
are slow of growth, live long, and some of them become
very large.

They are divided into three large groups, which are
distinguished from each other by the comparative length
of the abdomen, or, as it is generally called, the tail —
the Short-tailed, ovBrachyura; theLong-tailed, or Mac-
roura; and the anomalous-tailed, or Anomoura.

Brachyura. — The Short-tailed Crustaceans, orCrabs,
have their short abdomen generally bent under the

Fig. 183.

The Common Crab.

body and lodged in a cavity there, so that it is of little
or no use to them in swimming. The opecies are very

Macro u ba. CK U STAGE A. Anomo u r a .

numerous, and some of them are exceedingly common
on our own shores.

THE COMMOH OR EDIBLE CRAB [Cancer pagurns)
represented in fig. 183, is perhaps the best known of
these. The carapace is large, rounded in front, nar-
rowed posteriorly, and the dorsal surface is granulated.
Its colour is reddish-brown, but the hands or claws are
smooth and black. Of all the Short-tailed Crustacea,
the crab is the most esteemed as an article of food, and
its fishery constitutes an important trade on many parts
of our coast. It inhabits the whole of the shores of
Great Britain, especially those parts which are rocky,
and the numbers annually taken are immense. They
are caught in wicker traps called “ crab-pots,” made of
tlie twigs of the golden willow, and formed on the prin-
ciple of a common wire mouse-trap, baited with pieces
of fish.

Macroura. — The Long-tailedCrustaceans are easily
recognized by the length of their abdomen, and by its
being terminated by two large plates shaped like a fan
and forming a fin, by means of which they swim with
considerable velocity. The carapace is almost alwa3's
longer than broad ; the antennae are very long ; the
thoracic feet are generally long and slender, and the
first pair in most cases transformed into hands or pre-
hensile organs. The species are rather numerous, and
several of them are of great value as forming important
articles of food.

THE COMMON LOBSTER [Homarus vulgaris) repre-
sented in fig. 184, is almost too well known to need

Fig. 184.

Tlie Common Lobslar.

description. The general colour, when alive, is a dull,
pale, reddish-yellow, spotted with bluish-black. When
boiled it becomes red. In a commercial point of view,
this species, from the esteem in which it is held as an
article of food, is perhaps the most important of all the
Crustacea. They are taken on various parts of our
coast, and chiefly on rocky shores. From the coast of
Scotland and the Orknej' and Lewis islands, it is stated,
one hundred and fifty thousand are annually sent to
Billingsgate market. From Norway, six hundred thou-
sand annually arrive in the same market; and it is no
uncommon thing to see, in one day in that market, not
less than from twenty to twenty-five thousand lobsters.
The consumption, therefore, in Great Britain must be

287

immense. According to all accounts they are very
stationary in their habits, and differ very much in colour
and appearance in the different places where they occur.
A curious circumstance in their history is, the readiness
with which they part with their large claws. When
seized by one of them, the animal parts with it at once ;
and when suddenly alarmed by a loud noise, such as a
peal of thunder or the report of a cannon, they shoot
their claws immediately. The restoration of the lost
member takes place slowly, and it is a considerable
time before the new member attains the size of the old
one.

The Spiny lobster (Palinurus vulgaris), the Cray-fish
(Astacus fluviatilis), i\\Q Shrimp (Crangon vulgaris), and
the Prawn (Palsemon serratus), &c., are all well known
and valuable members of this section.

Anomoura. — The irregular-tailed Crustaceans have
the abdomen in general slender, in some folded up
under the body, in others extended ; sometimes entirely
membranous, at others more or less covered with the
shell. It is not formed to assist in swimming. The
penultimate segment has in some a pair of appendages
more or less developed, in others these organs are want-
ing. The carapace of the upper part of the body is
better developed than that of the abdomen, and in
many cases resembles that of the Brachyura, though
in others it is elongated. The antennae are generally
large, and are not capable of being bent back, nor are
they lodged in cavities as they are in the Short-tails.
The species belonging to this section are varied in form,
and constitute several families.

THE HERMIT CRAB (Pagurus Bernhardus — fig.

The Hermit Crab.

185)— may be taken as an example of the Ano-
moura. This little crustacean is well known to every
one who has paid a visit to our sea-shores. It is to be
found in almost every whirled shell existing there. It
is believed that they attack the true inhabitant of the
shell, kill it, devour it, and then usurp the place of the

288

Stomapoda. CRUSTACEA. Ajiphipoda.

victim, clothing themselves with its spoils. They run
about with great rapidity, and when seized draw them-
selves into the shell with a sudden snap, close the aper-
ture with their stout claws, and resist strongly all at-
tempts to pull them out. When young they may be
found inhabiting small shells, such as the periwinkle,
&c., but as the}' increase in size they take possession
of the large whelk or buccinum.

Order II.— STOMAPODA {Sea-Mantea).

The Stomapoda are distinguished from the Decapoda
by their not possessing internal branchiae or gills. These
organs when present are external, and generally spring
from the basal joint of the abdominal false feet. Some-
times they are fixed at the base of the thoracic feet, and
are suspended under the thorax. The carapace varies
in form and size, sometimes covering the whole thorax,
or at others only part. The abdomen varies much in
appearance also. In general it resembles that part of
the body in tlie Macroura, and terminates in a caudal
fin, which fits them for swimming. The feet are seven
or eight pairs, and in most of the species are placed
near the mouth, or are folded upon it, hence the name.
In some genera of this order the thoracic feet are slen-
der, resemble each other in form, and are all adapted
for swimming. In others, the first pair are large and
prehensile, and the three succeeding pairs are also claw-
shaped and formed for prehension.

Mysis. — Amongst those of the first group we may
mention the genus Mysis, the species of which are
known by the name of the Opossum shrimps. They
derive this name from their carrying their eggs and
young in a pouch beneath the thorax and between the

thoracic legs. The species are small and have the
body narrow and elongated, like the shrimps. They
are found in vast numbers, especially in the northern
seas, where they constitute a large portion of the food
of the whale, and are luminous at night.

In this group we have also the curious crustaceans
belonging to the genus Phyllosoma, the body of which
is transparent and so completely flattened, that it is
difficult to understand how the viscera have room to
play.

In the second group we may mention the genua
Squilla.

THE MANTIS CRAB (Squilla
Desmarestii — fig. 186) is about
seven inches in length. Its
carapace only covers the an-
terior half of the thorax, the
hinder being formed of I’ings
like those of the abdomen. It
is provided with enormous
claws, terminating in a sharp
hook; the last joint furnished
with six sharp projecting
spines, and the preceding joint
with three, and so hollowed as
to render this claw a most effi-
cient instrument of prehension.

They bear a considerable re-
semblance to the fore legs of
tlie Orthopterous genus of in-
sects, Mantis; hence the popu-
lar name applied to the species
of this gemis. This species is
a native of the seas of Europe, but the greater numbei
are inhabitants of tropical seas.

Fig. 180.

Sea Mantis,
or Mantis Crab.

Section II. — SESSILE-EYED CRUSTACEA (Edriophthalma).

The Sessile-eyed Crustaceans are distinguished from
the Stalk-eyed, or Podophihalma, by their branchiae,
or gills, not being organs specially formed for the pur-
pose of respiration, but constituting a part of the organs
of motion, their structure being peculiarly adapted to
serve that end ; and by their eyes not being placed on
foot-stalks, but being sessile and immovable. They
have no thoracic carapace; but the thorax and abdo-
men are composed of a series of rings or joints, sepa-
rate from each other and movable. The head is
distinct from the thorax.

They are divided into three orders — Ampiiipoda,
Lasmodipoda, and Isopoda.

Order I.— THE AMPHIPODS {Amphipoda).

The Amphipods have their branebim or gills in the
form of large membranous vesicles placed at the base
of the feet, on their inner side. The thorax is gene-
rally divided into seven movable rings, and the
thoracic, or true feet, are seven pairs. The abdomen
is large and well developed, and the members, or false

swimming feet attached to it, are elongated, narrow,
and fringed with hairs. The three hinder pairs are
bent backwards, and, along with the terminal portion
of the abdomen, form a sort of fin, which serves the
animal for swimming or leaping. The females carry
their eggs under tlie tliorax, between certain scales or
vesicles, which form a kind of pouch. In this position
they are hatched, and the young remain attached to
the legs, or other parts of the body of the parents, until
they gain sufficient strength to swim and take care of
themselves. The order contains a considerable num-
ber of species, all of small size — some are paiasitical,
living attached to fishes, and in Medusae or Acalephae.
Such are the species of the genus Phronima, one or
two of which are European, and are found inhabiting
the interior of a gelatinous, transparent, bell-like bag,
open at both ends, and formed probably of the body of
a Beroe. Others are free and very active, some living
in the sand of the sea-shore, others in the sea or fresh-
water.

Talitrus. — The species of this genus are well
known by the name of Sandhoppers, or Sea-fleas.

1

L.kmodipods. CRUSTACEA. Isorous. 289

They are found in great numbers under stones, or
under the decaying sea-weeds thrown up on the beach
by the tide, and when dis-
turbed leap with great
agility. At times they occur
in such countless swarms
as to give the appearance of

at tbe extremities of six pairs of members attached to
the abdominal segments, and called false feet. The
number of true feet are seven pairs, which are almost
always terminated by a somewhat sharp and often
more or less prehensile claw. The females carry their
eggs under the thorax, in a pouch attached to the base
of the feet. They are retained there till the young

^ W a thick mist at the water’s

are hatched, and the mother then opens the pouch

^ ' ^ as they bound into the

and allows them to make their escape. This order

air to a considerable height.

contains many species, which are distributed over a

1 1 The species we give as a

wide range. They may be divided into three large

Common sandhopper, representative of the genus

groups: —

and of the order, is the

The first group are termed the Walking Isopods.

Talitrua locuata or saltator. — See fig. 187.

They have their feet fitted chiefly for walking, and
not adapted for swimming. Representatives of this
group are the Sea Centipedes {Idotea) ; the Screws,

Order II. — THE LHUMODIPODS {Laemodipoda),

as they are generally called (Asellus), the various
species of which live in fresh water; and the Wood
lice (Oniscus) which are formed exclusively for living

In this order the branchiae or gills are vesicular, as

on dry land.

in the Amphipods, but are only attached to the second

The Limnori^ belong also to this group. There

and third, more rarely the first, thoracic rings. The

is only one species (^Limnoria terebrans — see fig. 189),

segments of the thorax are six in number, and the feet

but it is well known for its destructive habit of

vary from five to seven pairs. The first is attached to
the head, and, as well as the second pair, are ter-

Fig. 189. Fig. 190.

minated by prehensile claws, while the others are

provided with a hook, flexible and more or less pre-

hensile. The abdomen is reduced to such a rudi-

mentary state that it is scarcely visible, being little else

than a tubercle. The females carry their ova as the

Amphipods do. The species belonging to this order

are few in number, and none of them are large.

Some of them have the body cylindrical in shape, the

legs long and very slender, and they live free and un-
attached, as the Skeleton Shrimps {Caprella), which are

found amongst marine plants, creeping along in the
same way as the “looping caterpillars,” often bending

Boring Limnoria (Limnoria Sea Pill-ball (Spliaaroma

terebrans). serratum).

themselves back with great rapidity, and applying their

boring into submersed timber. It is very small, sel-

antennae to various parts of their body, while in swim-

dom exceeding two-tenths of an inch in length ; but

miug they bend the two ends of the body downwards.

it is gregarious, and very abundant in some situations.

Others have the body

It is marine, and is generally found living in holes in

Fig. isa. much developed, fiat.

wood, which it forms for itself. The ravages this little

and broad, the feet

creature commits in the timber forming piers, dock-

thick and hooked at

gates, &c., are very great. It was first particularly

JlJj ^ their extremity, and

noticed by the late Mr. Stephenson, the eminent

they live parasitical

engineer, while engaged in the erection of the Bell

upon other animals.

Rock Lighthouse. Since then it has been observed

Such are the Whale-

in several other parts of our coasts, and has been the

lice (^Cyamus), which

cause of most serious injury to piles of wood support-

Caprelia linearis — Male and Female. ^1'6 g6nerally found

ing various useful erections on the shores of the sea.

attached to the bodies

The galleries which it forms in the wood are tortuous.

of whales, and are occasionally seen in such numbers

and run in all directions, though generally the animal

upon them, that the individuals so infested are recog-

bores upwards at an angle of about 45°. By being

nized at a considerable distance by the white colour

thus bored throughout its substance, the wood becomes

thus imparted to them by the parasites.

so disintegrated that the sea washes away its surface,

As an illustration of this order we subjoin a figure of

layer after layer, and the whole piece of timber is soon

Cuprdla linearis, the Skeleton Screw. — See fig. 188.

destroyed.

The second group are termed the Swimming Iso-

Order III.— THE ISOPODS (Isopoda).

pods. The species belonging to it have their feet more
or less adapted for swimming, and the last segment of
the abdomen forms with the horizontal plates with

The Isopods have their branchiae or gills in the form

which the sixth pair of false feet are terminated a large

of large, oval, more or less membranous plates, placed

caudal fin.

1

VoL. II. 93

290 Kntomostkaca. CRUSTACEA. Phyllopods.

The Spha:ro.\iians {Sphceromd) live on rocks on
the sea-coast, and have the faculty of rolling them-
.selves up in the form of a ball, when touched or
alarmed. They are all of small size, and several
species are found in Great Britain. See fig. 190 —
Sphoerom.n serratum.

The third group are termed the Sedentary Isopods.
In this group the sixth pair of false abdominal feet
are altogether wanting, and their mouth is formed
more for suction than for mastication ; as the jaws,
which all the other Malacostraca possess, in these are
not in e.xistence. They are completely parasitical.

The Bopyri, or Tail-less Crab-lice, live fixed under
the vault of the branchial cavity of prawns, shrimps,
&c., where they may be detected forming a small
tumour. The males are five or six times smaller than
the females, and are found attached to their abdomen.

The figure (fig. 191) is that of another parasitical
Fig. 191,

a

Mud Shrimp louse — lone thoracicus — a Male ; h Female^
species, lone thoracicus, which infests the shrimp.

Sub-class IL— ENTOMOSTRACA.

The Entomoslraca are for the most part extremely
small crustaceans, but are very numerous. Their
external envelope or carapace, which is of a horny or
coriaceous texture, is formed of one or two pieces which
either completel}' or in great part cover the body of the
animal. In some it approaches in appearance so nearly
to the form of a bivalve shell, that a person who did
not examine with a microscope the animal contained
within, would not hesitate at first to call it so. These
creatui’es are carnivorous, and are very useful in clear-
ing .stagnant waters of putrid anifnal matter. Their gills
are attached either to the feet or organs of mastication.

They are preyed upon by larger animals, and form
the food of some of our most esteemed fishes. Some
of them are parasitic, living fixed upon the bodies
of fishes and other animals that live in the water.
Many undergo a series of changes, amounting to a
species of metamorphos.is, in their progress from youth
to maturity. They are numerous in fresh water, and
many are marine, those inhabiting the ocean assisting
materially in producing the luminousness of “ the world
of waters.” By naturalists they have generally been
divided into three sections — Branchiopoua, Lophy-
ROPODA, and PCECILOPODA.

Section I. — BRANCHIOPODA (Branchiopods).

The animals belonging to this section of Entomoslraca
have the mouth furnished with jaws fitted for masticat-

Fig. 192.

ing their food. Their branchiae or gills are many and
attached to the feet, which vary in number, sometimes
being many and at others few They are in general
not adapted for locomotion. The antennae are two, or
four-jointed and ciliated, in some serving as organs of

motion. They swim freely, and may be observed to
have their branchial feet in constant motion in the

water, their action
being seldom inter-
rupted, thus venti-
lating the stagnant
water in which they
for the most part
live, and preventing
it becoming soon
putrid.

They are all ar-
ranged in two orders,
Phyllopoda and
Cladocera.

Order I.— PHYLLOPODS {Phyllopoda).

In the animals belonging to this order the feet are
foliaceous in structure, branchiferous or gill-bearing.

G r.ADOCEBA. CRU STAGE A. Ruici loi'oi>a.

291

and thus adapted more for respiration than locomotion.
The body is usually divided into numerous segments.
This order contains the largest individuals of all the
Entomostraca, and many of them the most remark-
able for beauty. As an illustration of the order, we
have annexed a figure of Chiroceplialus diaphanm. —
See fig. 192.

motion through the water is peculiar, being a tumbling,
Fig. 193.

Order II.— CLADOCERA.

The species of this order are generally very
small and have the body, with the exception of
the head, contained within a delicate trans-
parent carapace, formed in the shape of two
valves joined together on the back. They
possess from four to six foliaceous branchial
feet, have only one eye, and two pairs of
antennae, the lower of which are the organs of
motion.

The species here represented (fig. 193) is
Daphnia Schcefferi.

There are seven known British species; that figured
is by far the largest of the family, being about the
lifth of an inch in length, and two lines broad. Their

Daphnia SchfeATcH.

heavy sort of movement, and when seen in their native
ponds they seem to keep near the bottom.

Section II. — LOPHYROPODA

The Lopltyropods are characterized by their feet being
essentially organs of locomotion, and not branchials.

Fig. 194. Fig. 195.

Cypridina M'Andrei. Cyclops quadricornis.

These are few in number, and are composed of several

articulations of a more or less cylindrical form, which
are furnished with a series of stiff hairs or setce. Their
branchiae or gills are attached to the organs of the mouth
and are few in number. The body is either completely
inclosed within a carapace exactly resembling a bivalve
shell, or partially covered by an envelope shaped like a
shield or buckler. The two forms constitute two orders,
OsTRACODA and Copepoda.

The first order, or Ontracods, we illustrate by a figure
of Cypridina M"- Andrei (fig. 194) ; tlie second (the
Cope.pods) by Cyclops quadricornis (fig. 195).

Very little is known of the habits and manners of
these interesting and curious little creatures ; the two
species which have been found in Great Britain belong-
ing to this genus were dredged by Mr. M'Andrew
from a considerable depth. Cypridina M‘ Andrei was
dredged in seventy fathoms, between the islands of
Lewis and Skye. Other species, C. Bronda, was
found in from eighty to ninety fathoms sand, twenty
miles east of the Noss, in the Shetland Islands.

Section III. — PCECILOPODA (Parasitic Crustacea).

The animals belonging to this section have the organs
of the mouth adapted for suction, and not mastication.
They live a parasitic life upon aquatic animals, such as
fishes, &c. ; and their mouth therefore is constructed so
as to accommodate them to their habitations and man-
ner of life. Their body is for the greater part inclosed
within a buckler-shaped shell or carapace of a horny
substance ; and tbeir feet, which are in the greater num-

ber, four pairs, are partly adapted for enabling them to
walk with, and partly serve for the purpose of respira-
tion, having branchiae or gills attached to them. When
young they are free and unattached, and do not resem-
ble in the least their parents. As they advance in life
they undergo a series of changes, and become attached
to various other animals. Man}”^ of them at last become
so transformed that they lose their eyes and feet, and

292

XlPHOSUKA.-

-GRUSTAOKA.-

-XlPHOSUKA.

can no longer move from the position they have chosen.
Others retain to a considerable extent their powers of
locomotion, and some are able to change their position
from one animal to another at will. The species be-

Fig. 196.

Fig. 197.

Ari?nlus foliaceus.

Lernsea branchialis.

longing to this section are divided into two orders,
SiPHONOSTOMATA and Leknjeida^.

The first order, the Siphonostomes are represented
by Argulus foliaceus (fig. 196) ; the second, the
Lernmans. by Lcrncea branchialis (fig. 197).

In the arrangement of the Crustacea, by
M. Milne Edwards, who has done much for
this class of animals, there, follows immediately
after the Lernceidce the curious-looking creatures
called the Sea Spiders.

SEA SPIDERS {Pgcnogonidce),

The Sea Spiders were originally classed by
authors amongst the spiders, and it is only
lately that they have been finally pronounced
to be Crustaceans. Though they have no
branchiae or gills, they do not possess the
trachecR or pulmonary sacs for aerial respiration,
which the spiders are furnished with. They
appear, indeed, to breathe through the skin, the aera-
tion of the blood being effected by the mere contact

of the water, in which they live, with the external
surface of the body. They have a crustaceous slender
body of five joints, not much thicker than the lin)bs,
which are four pairs in number, and generally very
long. The females have a supplementary pair, mucli
smaller than the others, bent under them and destined
to support the eggs.

The Sea Spiders, as their name imports, are all
marine, and they are of small size. They conceal them-
selves amongst the sea-weeds and corallines between
tide-marks, and under stones within the lowest tide-
line, and occasionally they are dredged from deep water.
Their motions are remarkably slow, and they probably
live on dead animal matter or small marine inseets.
The females are apparently fewer in number than the
males, or at least are much more seldom met with, and
may be readily distinguished by the supplemental pair
of legs mentioned above as destined to hold and carry
the eggs. These are collected into globular masses
enveloped with a thin skin or membrane, each mass
firmly adherent to the oviferous leg, and consisting of a
congeries of numerous round ova. The young are
softer and longer-bodied proportionally than the adult,
and appear to undergo considerable changes in their
progress to maturity. Our illustration of this order of
Crustaceans is the Nymphon gracile (fig. 198), which

Fig. 198.

is distinguished by its very long slender legs, these
members being about four times the length of the bodj^

Sub-class III. — XIPHOSURA (Sword-tails).

The Sword-fails, or King-crabs, are distinguished from
all the other Crustacea by the peculiar formation of the
mouth Instead of having mandibles and jaws, as the
others have, the masticatory organs are the six pairs
of thoracic feet, which are so situated as to surroiind
the mouth. The basal portion of these members is
armed with strong spines, which serve the purpose of
teeth, and thus replace the ordinary organs for masti-
cating the food. The branchim are in the form of
numerous plates, or membranous folds placed trans-
versely, lying one upon the other like the leaves of a

book, and attached to the basal portion of (he abdominal
legs. The body is composed of three parts ; the head
and thorax united in one {cephalo-thorax), the abdomen,
and tail. The cephalo-thorax is covered by a large
horny buckler of a semicircular form, and on it we see
four eyes; tw’o very small and simple, atid two larger,
compound, and of an oval shape. The abdomen is
covered also with a considerable-sized buckler, of a
somewhat triangular shape, toothed at the side.s, and
sending off from its lower edge a long, shaj'p spine,
nearly as long in general as the whole body, and con-

CirutiPEDiA. CRUSTACEA. UEPAuiuAi.

293

Etituting the tail. The tlioracic legs are six pairs in
numhe7-, in the female all terminated b}'- a double claw,
serving both as organs of motion, prehension, and mas-
tication. The abdominal legs are also six pairs, folia-
ceous in structure, and serving the purpose of swim -
ming and respiration. The nervous system consists
of a principal medullary mass, which surrounds the
oesophagus like a ring, giving otf nerves to the parts
belonging to the head and thorax ; and a large cord
which extends from this downwards along the median
line of the abdomen, sending off nerves to the abdominal
regions and the tail.

Limulus, King-crab. — This is the
only genus belonging to the Xiphosura,
and the species are not numerous. Some,
however, are of laige size, occasionally
attaining the length of two feet. They
are all marine, inhabiting the seas of
India, China, Japan, and the coasts of
North America. Thej’ seem to prefer
living on sandy shores ; and in order to
avoid the great heat of the sun, which
proves fatal to them, they bury them-
selves in the mud. The young undergo
considerable changes in their progress
to maturit}'; for at first they have no
tail, their abdominal buckler is rounded posteriorly,
and the sixth pair of abdominal legs are undeveloped.

The male is distinguished from the female by the
first and second pairs of thoracic feet being swollen,
and moreover destitute of the didactyle claw. The
long tail of one of the species from the Moluccas is
used by the natives as a point for their arrows, and the
wounds caused by them are said to be dangerous. In
America, where they are common, the large shehs are
used by the inhabitants to lade water with, and the
animals themselves are used to fatten pigs. In China
the eggs are used as food by the natives, and in Japan
a species is figured in their primitive zodiac as the

Fig. 199.

Limnliis moluccanus

representative of the constellation Cancer. The species
here represented (fig. 199) is Limulus moluccanus.

Class — CIRRIPEDIA (Barnacles, or Sea-acorns).

The Cirripeds are now universally admitted to be
Crustaceans, though till lately they used to be classed
with the Mollusca, on account of their shells.

They are articulated animals, contained within a
hard covering composed of several pieces, and consist-
ing of laminae of calcified chitine. The body of the
animal is inclosed in a sac lined with a most delicate
membrane of chitine, which in one group is prolonged
into a peduncle and contains the ova. It is distinctly
articulated, and is placed with the back downwards.
The part which is called the abdomen has two rows of
fleshy lobes, each furnished with long horny appendages,
provided with many-jointed curled hairs or cirrhi to
the number of twelve pairs, which are constantly being
protruded and withdrawn again through an aperture in
the shell. Thej' are the feet of the animal transformed
into these organs, and by means of them a current is
produced in the water, which attracts to the mouth the
objects which serve as food,. The Cirripeds have man-
dibles and jaws very similar to other Crustacea, and
recent observations prove them to be possessed of eyes.
Their nervous system is ganglionic; they have a double
circulation of blood; and they respire by means of
branchiae or gills, the form of which varies. The greater
part of them are hermaphrodite. Like the majority of
the Entomostruca, to which they are closely allied, the
young undergo gieat changes in their progress to
maturity. When first hatched from the egg they are
exceedingly small ; but when they have increased in

size, they resemble the larvae of the Cyclops. They
float freely in the sea, swimming rapidly with their
back downwards. They soon become invested with a
coriaceous shell, and they now begin to look out for a
fit place to which they may attach themselves. Hav-
ing found this, they adhere to it by the part of the body
near the head, and in a few da3's afterwards they throw
off their external covering. The shelly valves then
form, consisting at first exclusively of chitine ; the
antennae disappear, being cemented to the surface of
attachment ; the eyes remain, but in a more or less
rudimentary form ; three more pairs of legs are developed,
and then the animal assumes its perfect state. During
this time the Cirriped, like the other Crustacea, espe-
cially the Entomostraca, throws off its covering or
moults at frequent intervals, and is very rapid in its
growth.

The greater part of the Cirripeclia are arranged in
two large families — the Pedunculated Cirripeds, or
Lepadid.® ; and the Sessile Cirripeds, or Balanida:.

I. LEPADIDH5 {Pedunculated Cirripeds, oi
Barnacles).

The LepadidcB are characterized by having a length-
ened peduncle, which is coriaceous, hollow, flexible,
and provided with muscles, by means of which they
attach themselves to submarine bodies. The species
are tolerably numerous, and are found extending over

Balanid^. ANNELIDA. Annklida.

the whole world, the greater number however inhabit-
ing the warmer, temperate, and tropical seas. The
name of harnacle shell was originally given to the
genus Lepas, which may be known by the head or
capitulum being compressed and composed of five
approximate valves. They derive this name from its
being at one time believed that they gave origin to tlie
barnacle goose !

Family II. — BALANID.® (Sessile Cirripcds, or
Sea-acorns).

The Balanidce are characterized by tbeir being
fixed to submarine bodies without the intervention of
a peduncle. The body of the animal is inclosed in a
cylindrical or bell-shaped tube open at the top, formed
of several valves united together, side by side, by a
dentated suture, and covered by what is called an
operculum, which consists generally of four valves
nearly equal-sized and sunk into a flexible skin,
allowing them a considerable degree of motion. The
base bj' which they are fixed is a shelly plate. The
species are numerous and most widely diffused, taking
possession of rocks, ships, timber floating or at
rest, shells of Crustacea and Mollusca, &c. Some of
them are of considerable size, and one species of
the genus Balanus (B. psittaceus) found on the coast
of Chili, growing to the size of five or six inches,
forms a very common and highly esteemed food for
the natives, who call \tpico. The flesh is said to equal

in richness and delicacy that of the crab. Another
species, B. tintinndbulum (fig. 200), is equally prized by

Balauus Tiutinnabulum.

the Chinese, the flesh of which is said to resemble the
lobster. Some of the species, as in Acasta, are found
attached to sponges, while others, as in Pyrgoma, are
embedded in corals. The species of the genus Corormla
and Tubicinella, attach themselves to the bodies of
whales; and as they increase in size their shells are
proportionally enlarged by the addition of new matter
to the base of the valves, and they gradually raise
themselves out of the substauce of the skin in which
they are immersed.

Class — ANNELIDA (Annelides, or Red Worms).

The class Annelida, as now constituted, is composed
of a series of animals which form only a small part of
the great heterogeneous class Vermes, or Worms, of
Linuseus. They are distinguished, however, from all
other worms by the fact that they possess red or
coloured blood, and hence are ofteri called by the name
of Red Worms. This peculiarity was considered of
such importance by Cuvier that he placed them in his
last edition of the “ Regne Animal” at the head of the
sub-kingdom Articuluta. Their general appearance
nevertheless seems to point them out as the represen-
tatives of the larval rather than the perfect state of
insects, and thus to indicate their proper position to be
below both Insects and Crustacea.

Annelides. then, are worms with red or coloured
blood, circulating in a double S3'stem of complex vessels,
with a nervous system consisting of a double central
cord, and I’espiring by organs which are either developed
externally or are spread over the sirface of the skin, or
concealed internalljL The body, (vhich is more or less
elongated, is always divided into numerous rings
(annuli), from which circumstance the whole class
derives its name. The first of these rings contains the
mouth and the principal organs of sense. It is called
the head, but in outward appearance scarcely differs

from the rest, which all agree in having the same form
and nearly the same size throughout. None of the
Annelides are possessed of true feet or articulated limbs,
but the greater number of them are provided with
hairs or hooks, or bundles, of bristles which supply their
place, while others have a suctorial disc which serves
them for progression. Their antennai (when they
possess them) are seldom jointed, and the organs of
their mouth consist of jaws, more or less powerful, or
of a simple tube. The epidermis or external skin is
very thin, and is not ciliated except where it covers the
external branchiie. The sense of touch is chiefly deve-
loped at the two first rings of the body, and exists either
in form of a tentacular proboscis, contractile antennae,
or processes of variable number and shape called cirrhi.
In a great many of the Annelides the eyes are wanting ;
in some they are represented by black dots merely, or
eye-specks, which in the leeches and some others are
numerous, and are considered to be light-perceiving
organs. The digestive canal is usually straight, rarely
having convolutions.

The skin in many of the species secretes a quantity
of mucus which covers the bod}’, and by means of which
some of them glue together pieces of shell, grains of
sand, &c., so as to form a tube to lodge themselves in.

Eurantia. ANNELIDA. Eurantia. 295

The calcareous tubes in which others dwell, are secreted
by a collar surrounding the first segment of the body.

■ — {Siebold.)

Reproduction takes place partly by a transverse
fissuration, and partly by a sexual apparatus. Those
species which undergo the process of division never
possess genital organs at the time it is taking place ;
but after this process ceases genital organs are deve-
loped, and reproduction takes place by eggs. “ The
extreme vulnerability and reproductive power of many
Cheetopodes give rise to their frequent multiplication by
artificial and accidental division. The fragments thus
produced are finally developed, and the mutilated animal
ultimately regains its lost parts. Some have tlie power
of voluntary division from the least handling of their
body, and these separated parts are probably developed
to new individuals.” — {Siebold.)

Most of the species have separate sexes, but in the
Leeches and Earth-worms the two are always united
in the same individual. In by far the greater number
of the Annelides (those which have the body provided
with bristles as organs of locomotion), the young undergo
a complete metamorphosis. The embryo, immediately
it escapes from the egg, swims freely about like an
infusorial animalcule, by means of the ciliated mem-
brane which covers its whole body. This disappears,
the embryo lengthens, eyes appear upon the anterior
extremity, the body becomes divided into segments,
and bristles, &c., make their appearance.

The Annelides vary considerably in their manner of
life, and this, along with the structure of their breath-
ing apparatus, has induced MM. Audouin and Milne
Edwards to divide them into four orders : —

I. Errantia, those in which the respiratory organs
are attached to the dorsal surface of the body along the
whole or greater part of its length, hence called Dorsi-
brancliiata by Cuvier and others. These species are
found living a free and wandering life, crawling actively
in mud or swimming in the water.

II. Tuhicola or Sedentaria, those in which the
respiratory organs are formed like plumes, attached to
the head or anterior portion of the body, hence called
by many authors Capitohranchiata. These species
live a sedentary life, and are found, with few exceptions,
having their abode in tubes.

III. Terricola or Earth-worms, those in which the
respiratory organs are internal, being in the form of
small vesicles opening externally by very minute pores.
These are found making their dwelling-place in soft
earth, piercing the ground in all directions.

IV. Suctoria or Suckers, those in which the respira-
torj' organs are internal, like the preceding order, and
disposed in the form of small membranous sacs, each
of which communicates externally by a minute orifice
on the ventral aspect of the body. They possess no
bristles, but are provided with suctorial discs by which
they progress. These are all natives of the water, and
many are found living partially as parasites upon fishes.

Order I. — EURANTIA {=.Dorsibranchiata).

All the species belonging to this order are aquatic,
crawling with activity in the mud or swimming with

facility in the water. The body in some of them is
very long and slender — some species in the equatorial
seas attaining the length of five feet — in others broad
and rather short. Their head is distinct from the
trunk, and is furnished with two pairs of rudimentary
eyes, a certain number of conical or filiform appendages
which are distinguished into antennae, palpi, and ten-
tacles, and a mouth furnished with a proboscis whicli
can be protruded at will, and often armed with strong
horny jaws. The body is composed of numerous
narrow segments or rings, varying in number from
twenty to five hundred. In the majority of the species
each segment or ring has on each side an organ which
many naturalists call a foot. It is in the form of a
fleshy tubercle ; is composed of two divisions placed one
above the other called rami, or branches ; and provided
with one or two brushes of bristles. These bristles are
of two kinds, subulate and hooked, and the animal can
protrude them considerably by means of muscles appro-
priated to that use. In addition to these bundles of
bristles, there are attached to these feet a number of
soft and blunt appendages, called cirrhi. They are
usually two to each foot, but their number and position
vary considerably. They are either in the form of long,
subulate, fleshy tentacles, or merely compressed leaflets
or papillary tubercles. In general they are partially
contractile. The gills or branchiae vary much in form,
number, and position. In some the organ assumes the
form of arbuscles or tufts, or fan-shaped crests ; in a
second series it is a simple or pectinated filament; and
in a third it is a nipple-like lobe, or merely a mem-
branous tubercle. In general they are placed along
the back, but sometimes they are arranged along the
sides or at the tail.

“ Organized for locomotion,” says Dr. Johnston,
“ this tribe of Annelides — the tyrants or the aristocracy
of their race — wander abroad, and are in constant war-
fare with all around them. They crawl on the surface
at a pace that varies in the species from extreme slow-
ness to energetic activity. Many of them swim with
ease, and others burrow in the wet sand of the shore.
They are eminently carnivorous, with the exception
perhaps of the Ariciidce, which may be geodephagous
or feeders on putrescent matter.” Some of them appear
to be truly pelagian, and are only met with in the high
seas; but the great majority dwell between tide-marks
on the shore, where they find refuge and concealment
under stones, or among corallines and sea-weeds. A
small number burrow in the sand, in which they form
a sort of sheath by a glairy secretion from the skin,
and a few are truly tubiculous ; but these sheaths arc
not indispensable, and can be occasionally abandoned
without inconvenience. The mouth, as has been
stated, is well adapted for their rapacious manner of
life ; but in addition to these organs of offence, these
animals are likewise provided with organs of defence
against their enemies. The principal ones are the
bristles with which the segments of their body are pro-
vided. Some Annelidans when alarmed, such as the
Aphrodites, instinctively contract the body into a sort
of ball, bringing the head and tail into near contact,
and in this manner seem anxious to elude the danger.
Others, that have a long vermiform body, wriggle and

29G Ai’iiiiODiTiD^. ANNELIDA. Aphkoditid^.

twist themselves with violence as if they would frighten

and green play upon their surface in a thousand differ-

awav their foe their contortions ; but these are weak

etit ways, and these colours, often iridescent, harmonize

resources in comparison with the protection tliey derive

perfectly with the ever-changing reflections of the rings

from their panoply of spines and bristles, and it is

of their body. The wing of a butterfly has not received

curious to remark that as these diminish in size and

a more brilliant decoration than these worms concealed

piquancy, and become belter adapted to locomotion

at the bottom of the sea, and often hidden in black and

than offence, the worms, as if conscious of their defence-

fetid mud.” — {M. Edwards.) Cuvier was so struck

less state, forsake the nomade life, and seek additional

with tins beautiful play of brilliant colours that he

security by digging themselves furrows for retreat in

says it does not yield in beauty either to the plumag*

the sand and mud.” — {Johnston.) These bristles, which,

of the humming birds or the most brilliant preciour

as stated above, can be retracted within the body and

stones.

nrotruded again at the will of the animal, are distin-

MM, Audouin and Milne Edwards, who have

giiished into spines {acicuU), and bristles properly so

studied the Annelides very carefully, divide this order

called {festucm). The spines, or aciculi, are stiff and

into eight families — I. Aphroditidoc ; II. Amphino-

very resisting, and are distinguished from the bristles

midm) III. Ennicidm; \Y . Nereididce ■, Y.Arinulm;

by being larger and being placed in the centre. The

VI. Peripatidai; VII. ChwtopteridcB ; VIII. Areni-

colidm.

Fig. 201.

Family I.— APHRODITIDiE

( The Sea-mice).

The Sea-mice are of an oval, oblong, or linear-

elongate and depressed form, the body composed of a

deflnite number of segments, and the back covered

with a series of scales, or elytra, disposed in two rows.

^ —

The species belonging to this family are amongst the

most highly organized of all the Annelides. The head

is distinct from the other rings of the bodjq and pos-

sesses eyes placed on its vertex, generally four in

number and arranged in two pairs; true antennse, in

/

general to the number of five, sometimes three,

— , the, odd one being placed in the centre ; a

—

cylindrical proboscis fringed with papillae round

— T^. the orifice and armed with four iaw-s united in

their cutting edges placed opposite each other.

Spines of Aphrodita.

The feet are usually very distinct, well devel-

oped, and composed of two branches, each

bristles, or festucce, are various and very remarkable in

furnished with a spine, with bristles, and with cirrhi.

structure, and their uses are well worthy of attention.

These feet, however, are not uniform in structure, for

Did our space permit we could dilate ar great length

some are furnished with a superior cirrhus and usually

upon this subject, but limited as we necessarily are,

with branchiae, but have no elytra, whilst others have

we can only refer to the writings of Audouin and

scales or elytra but want the cirrhi and branchiae;

Milne Edwards, Oersted, Dr. Johnston, &c., for further

and these difl'erent kinds of feet alternate for a definite

information, and to the accompanying illustrations

space along the sides. The branchiae, when present.

(fig. 201) of a few of their most interesting forms.

are only rudimentary and generally concealed. But

These figures are highly magnified, the weapons

one of the most remarkable parts of the external

themselves being extremely small though exquisitely

structure of the Sea-mice is the existence of these

formed. Their number in some of this tribe of Anne-

elytra mentioned above. These are large mem-

lides is immense. Some species have been found to

branous scales which form two rows placed lorigitudi-

possess five hundred feet on each .side. Each foot has

nally along the back of the animal, and are fixed

two branches, and each branch has at least one spine

to the base of the superior branch of the feet by

and one bunch of bristles, some of them simple and

means of a short pedicle. They are formed of two

some of them compound. These individuals then have

cutaneous or epidermoid layers, applied the one again.^t

two thousand spines at least ; and if we reckon ten

the other, but capable of being separated so as to become

bristles to each brush, it has also twenty thousand of

vesicular, and, like the oviferous feet of the Apvs

them ! Not only are these spines and bristles of great

amongst the Entomostraca, appearing at certain seasons

importance to the animal, they are also beautiful objects

of the year to be filled with eggs. A certain number

to look at; for some even of these “ laidly worms” shine

of the feet are destitute of these scales, and, as stated

with a splendour truly remarkable. The Aphrodites

above, these feet alternate with those that are provuded

for example, or “ Sea- mice” as they are often termed,

with them — a peculiar structure which does not exist in

have their bodies covered with bristles or hairs which

any other family of Annelides, and forming the leading

possess a brilliant metallic lustre. “ Gold, azure, purple,

peculiarity of the present group, as w'ell as one of its

Amphinomid^.

-ANNELIDA. -

-Nekeidid^e.

297

most important characters. We give, as an illustration
of this family, a figure of Aphrodita liystrix, the
Porcupine Sea-rnouse, a native of our own shores. —
See fig. 202,

Fig. 202.

Aphrodita hystrix.

Family II. — AMPB[INOMID.i3<i (The AmpMnomes).

The Amphiiiomes are distinguished from the Aphro-
dilidce hy their generally elongated body being always
destitute of elytra or scales. The segments of the
body and feet are similar or uniform in structure, and
not alternately furnished or destitute of cirrhi and scales,
as in these latter. The branchim are well developed,
and assume the form of arbuscles, tufts, or crests, which
are attached in an uninterrupted series to the back, or
to the base of the feet. The head is distinct, the pro-
boscis is not furnished with jaws, and the feet are armed
with only a single bundle of simple bristles on each
branch, and are destitute of spines.

Family III.— EUNICID^.

The Eanicidce, agreeing witli the Amplihiomidce in
wanting elytra, and in having the segments of the

body uniform in structure, nevertheless differ from
them in several important characters. The organs
of mastication, for instance, attain in these ani-
mals the highest degree of development. The
proboscis, instead of being, as
in the Amphinomes, jawless, is
armed with several pairs of horny
jaws, articulated with each other,
and approximated beneath so as
to rest on a sort of under lip of
a similar horny texture. The
body is vermiform, and the seg-
ments are numerous and narrow,
but the first and second are with-
out feet. The others have feet
composed of only one branch,
and furnished with two cirrhi,
and with spines as well as
bristles. These latter are both
simple and compound. The
branchiae in some of the species
are wanting, whilst in others they
are well developed and in the
form of pectinated filaments, either straight or spiral,
and inserted above the dorsal cirrhus along a more
or less extensive portion of the body. The linear-
elongated general form of the body, which indeed
is almost cylindrical, but tapered posteriorly, render
the Eunices a connecting link between the Amphi-
nomes already described and the succeeding family of
Nereides. The eyes are sometimes very distinct and
two in number; at others they are scarcely dis-
cernible. The antennse vary in number and size, in
some species being long, and five, seven, or even nine
in number ; whilst iii others they are short, and onlj
two or three. Other species again have none at all.

Family IV. — NEREIDID.3!] (The Nereides or Sea
Centipedes).

The family of Nereides is a numerous one. The
body is always slender, linear, more or less cylindrical,
and divided into a very great number of segments, each

F!g. 203

Nereis margaiitacea.

side; hence, from their general resemblance to these
animals, they are known by the name of Sea Cen-
tipedes.

The head is distinct, but variable in form, and is
furnished with generally well developed antennse,
usually four in number; and besides these in many
species a certain number of tentacles, more or less well
Von. 11. 94

provided with a very nistinct projecting foot on each
developed, are to be seen on each side. The proboscis
is a powerful organ, always very thick and very long,
sometimes cylindrical in shape and sometimes club-
shaped. It is generally armed with two, or sometimes
four horn}^ scimitar-shaped, cutting jaws, denticulated
along the inner margin, though in a few species these

298

Auicud^. ANNELIDA. T ubicola.

organs are wanting. The feet form a projecting series
of lobules along each side, and are all of essentially the
same structure ; in general they consist of two branches
armed with bristles. These are mostly compound, and
in each bundle there is a spine of the usual form. In
the greater number of instances the feet are provided
with two filiform, awl-shaped cirrhi, which in some are
transformed into compressed laminae or leaflets. The
branchiae ai'e simple in structure, but their existence is
sometimes doubtful. They are usually in the form
of lobules or tonguelets placed on the feet, and dis-
tinguished from the true lobes of the feet by being
destitute of bristles or any antennae. The Nereis
(fig. 203) will illustrate this family.*

Family V.— ARICIIDiE.

This family contains several genera, and a consider-
able number of species. Their body is in general
elongated and linear, like the Nereides; but it is not
truncate anteriorly as in these worms, and is smaller
nearest the anterior extremit}^ It is usually cylindrical
in form, and consists of numerous short segments. The
head is very small, conical or rounded, in most of the
species possessing no antennse nor eyes. The proboscis
is small, somewhat membranous, and is destitute of
jaws. The feet are divided into two branches which
are not very projecting, but armed with simple seta-
ceous bristles. The branchiae are either wanting alto-

Fig.

gether or are very simple in their structure, exhibiting
the form of a setaceous or lanceolate filament reflected
on the back, or elongated and spreading, and frequently
clothed with large vibratile cilia. The species of this
family are miners in wet sand or mud, and are found
inhabiting slightly' cemented sand-formed tubes.

Families VI. and VII.— PERIPATIDiE and
CH^TOPTERID.®.

The families Peripatidce and Chcelopteridce consist
each of only one genus, and only one species has as
yet been described belonging to each of these genera.
In both these families the feet are prominent and fur-
nished only with bristles properly so called, and there
is a total absence of distinct cirrhi.

Family IX.— ARENICOLIDJE.

This, the last family of the order Errantia, appears
to establish the passage of the animals belonging to it
into those of the order Tubicola; M. Savignj', indeed,
places them along with the Serpulce. The Arenicoloe
are of a cylindrical form, and the body consists of only
a small number of rings, but these are divided by a
multitude of transverse pleats. The head is merely
rudimentary, and the mouth is terminal and furnished

204.

Arenicola piscatorum, or Lug-worm.

with a small retractile proboscis, but is destitute of jaws.
There are neither cirrhi, antennm, nor eyes. The feet
are uniform in structure and composed of two branches,
the dorsal branch being armed with simple bristles,
and the ventral with a series of imbedded, hooked bris-
tles. On a certain number of segments in the middle
portion of the body we find the branchiae in form of

* There are several genera belonging to this family, as
Nereis, Si/llis, riiyUodoce Nephtliys, Glycera, &o., &c., but there
is one which has a remarkable form, and which has been de-
scribed as a new genus by the late Dr. Johnston of Berwick,
and hitherto undescribed, wliich we should like here particu-
larly to mention. He has named it Gattiola, in compliment to
his friend Mrs. Gatty, authoress of the well-known “ Parables
from Nature.” It has a body consisting of about fifteen seg-
ments, deeply indented at the sutures and narrowed in front.
The small, flattened head has three long, filiform, nnjointed
antennas, four eyes, and two pairs of tentacular cirrhi, similar
to the antennas. The feet are composed of only one branch,
and the bristles are compound and falcate. On.y one species
has as yet been described ; it is a native of England, and has
been called by Dr. Johnston Gattiola spectabilis.

well developed arbuscles. The figure we here give
(^Arenicola piscatorinri) will give a good idea of the
family'. — See fig. 204.

Order II.— TUBICOLA or SEDENTARIA
{=.CapitihranehiatcL),

The Annelides of this order are so called from the
great majority of tliem living in tubes, which, from the
organization of their bodies, they' are incapable of leav-
ing. They are hence also named sedentary animals,
as the tubes they inhabit are frequently permanently
fixed. The body of the animals is worm-shaped, cylin-
drical, generally swollen or thickened on the anterior
portion, while the posterior is smaller, of less diameter,
and sometimes distinctly defined as a bristleless appen-
dage. It is composed of numerous short segments;
the head is ill defined, not distinguishable from the
anterior segment which contains the mouth ; and there

SiiiiPULiD^. ANNELIDA. Sabellakiiu^. 299

are neither antennae, ej'es, proboscis, nor jaws visible
on the crown, or on a lobe above the mouth, or on
each side near the mouth. On the anterior segment
of the body we see in most of the species a series of
filiform extensile tentacles, and on the first two or three
segments the branchiae are placed. These organs are
few in number, are large, much branched, plumose, or
pectinated; and are arranged along the sides, rarely on
the middle of the back of these anterior segments :
sometimes the}' are wanting altogether. The feet are
distinct, but not projecting or fitted for enabling the
animal to walk, as in the preceding order. They are
not uniform in structure, but present a different appear-
ance in different parts of the body. They are biramous,
enlarged transversely, and armed with the ordinary
setaceous bristles, as well as with hooked bristles or
uncini, which serve the animal for moving up and
down in its tube. The mouth is terminal and placed
transversely. Some of these Annelides form a homo-
geneous calcareous tube, which is generally attached to
a stone, rock, or shell, &c. Others construct tubes by
agglutinating grains of sand, fragments of shells, and
particles of mud, which they join by means of mem-
brane. A third set, again, inhabit tubes which are
entirely membranous or horny.

Family I.-SERPULID^.

The animals belonging to this family have an elon-
gated, worm-shaped body, divided into short segments
and distinguishable into thoracic and abdominal por-
tions. The head is amalgamated with the following
segments, and not noticeable in the adult. The first
segment is encircled with a collar, which is said to be
the part of the body that secretes the shelly tube. It
is also furnished with a tuft of bristles on each side.
The feet are composed of two branches. In the thoracic
portion of the body the dorsal branch is armed with
setaceous bristles, while the ventral is furnished with
hooked ones. In the abdominal portion of the body
(which is the longer) it is the ventral branch that is
armed with the setaceous, and the dorsal with the hooked
bristles. The branchiae are attached to the vertex or
first segment, consist of two divisions, and resemble
a fine plume in shape of a fan, and are, in general,
adorned with the jnost lively colours. Each of these
divisions consists of a pedicle, the upper edge of which
is furnished with a great number of filaments placed in
a line, like the teeth of a comb, and each in their turn
provided with a double row of movable barbules.
Though these branchiae serve the purpose of respiratory
organs, it would appear, says Audouin, that it is not
the only use to which they are applied; for Bose has
observed that these animals live on small worms, which
they attract to their mouths by the whirlpool caused by
the rapid motion of these organs in the water. — Ser-
pula cortortuplicata (fig. 205) will illustrate the family.

Family II. — TEREBELLID.®.

In general form the animals of this family resemble
very much the preceding, being vermiform and cylin-

drical, without distinct head, and divided into thoracic
and abdominal portions. The feet on the thoracic
portion are similar to those of SerpuUdee^ but on the
abdominal portion the dorsal bristles, or both dorsal
and ventral, are frequently wanting. The branchias
are pectinated or much branched, rarely filiform, and
placed laterally. These animals inhabit membranous

Fig. 205.

tubes, which are coated with particles of sand, gravel,
or broken shells agglutinated together, and open at
both extremities.

Family III.— SABELLARIID^.

In this family the body of the animal is composed
of few segments, and is divided into two distinct por-
tions. The anterior portion has the segments provided
with setigerous and uncinated feet ; the posterior is
narrow, without segments, and without feet, more like
a caudal appendage. The first segment is large and
truncate, disc-shaped, and having an operculum com-
posed of several rows of flattish bristles. The mouth
is placed in the centre of this disc, and encircled with
a somewhat extensile lip. The feet are in two series ;
the upper prominent, armed on some of the anterior
segments with flat, or sometimes hooked bristles, and
on the following segments with small fascicles of capil-
lary bristles. The branchiae are in pairs on all the
segments.

■ANNELIDA. Suctoria.

•"00 Maldanid.e.

Family IV.— MALDANID^.

Tliis family contains only one genus, Clymene, and
this genus possesses as yet only one species. This is
a very curious worm, destitute of branchise and tentacles,
and living in a fixed tube of a membranous substance,
but incrusted with shells, and open at both the ex-
tremities. The tube is hard, compact, irregular,
constructed of sandy particles, united by an exudation
apparently from the whole body, and fashioned chieflv
during the night.

Order III. — TERRICOLA (^Abranchia seligera)
Earthworms.

The animals belonging to this order have all a very
simple organization. The body is truly vermiform,
cylindrical, composed of numerous uniform but narrow
segments, which possess no soft appendages or cinhi,
but are furnished with spines, or spinets, or setaceous
bristles partially retractile. These bristles are almost
never grouped in bundles, but are arranged in pairs
near each other, and upon the sides of the segments.
There is no distinct head, and neither eyes nor antennae
are visible. The mouth is destitute of jaws, and there
are no feet ; the bristles or spines on the sides of the
rings taking their place. No external organs of respira-
tion exist ; the vent opens underneath the last segment.
As their name indicates, the worms of this order live
in moist earth, or in mud saturated with water, which
they swallow, and from which they extract their food.
They unite both sexes in the same individual, and are
oviparous or multiplied by spontaneous division. The
3’oung undergo no metamorphosis. The animals pos-
sess the power of reproducing portions of their body
which have been amputated, and the}'^ may even be
divided into several portions without destruction to life.
Several species have been observed to excrete a phos-
phorescent fluid, and the skin of others is iridescent.

Family I. — LUMBRICID.iE {Earthworms').

The animals of this family are distinguished by the
head being indistinct, and all the segments of the body
excepting the first being armed with setae. The mouth
is never furnished with tentacles, but is edged b}' two
lips. The hrislles which supply the place of feet are
distributed over all the segments, and only rarely' form
fascicles. They are non-retractile, and never have
the form of hooked bristles. The Common Earth-
worm {LumhricAis terrestris) is tlie type of the family,
and is too well known to require description.

Family II.— NAID.® {The Naides).

In this family the head is distinct from the body,
and the first three or four segments are without bristles.
The mouth is exactly terminal, whilst in the preceding

family it is situate underneath a superior terminal
lip. The Naides are small, pellucid, vivacious worms,
differing from the Earthworms by the flatness of their
segments, which are furnished with comparatively long
setaceous bristles. They are all strictly lacustrine,
living amidst subaquatic plants, or, half parasitical,
within the shell of fresh-water Mollusca. They creep
about actively, and can even swim. The segments of
which the body is composed are less distinct than those
of the Liimbrici, though the body is more elongate.
The number of bristles which each segment is armed
with, varies from two to ten, or twelve. They are of
two kinds — spinets forked at the apex, and setaceous
collected in small fascicles. The animals are zoopha-
gous, and though most probablj^ oviparous, they mul-
tiply easily by spontaneous division. This fact has
been particularly noticed by British naturalists in the
case of Nais (Stylaria) proboscidea, a small, linear,
round worm, about half an inch long, that is common
about the roots of aquatic plants in our i)onds and
ditches. When this process commences, says Mr. Lewis,
who has watched the operation, the little worm begins
to form a second head near the extremity of its body.
After this head, other segments are in turn developed,
the tail or final segment being the identical tail of the
mother, but pushed forward by the young segments
and now belonging to the child, and only vicariously to
the mother. In this state, he adds, we have two worms
and one tail.

Order IV. — SUCTORIA {= Abranchia Non-
setigera) Leeches

This is a natural order of worms and more clearly
defined and circumscribed than any of the preceding.
The body is elongated, depressed in general, and divided
into a great number of narrow segments — the anterior
conformed into a more or less djstinct sucker with the
mouth in its centre or on its ventral side; the posterior
forming a terminal, circular, cupped disc. The mouth
possesses organs performing the functions of jaws, but
usually has neither proboscis nor tentacles. On the
dorsal face of the anterior rings there are in general
several (from two to ten) small black points which are
considered to be eyes, and are arranged in pairs. In
most cases there are no special respiratory organs
visible externally ; and though there are no organs of
taste, smell, or hearing, the sense of touch is exquisite
and diffused. The animals belonging to this order, as
the name indicates, are all more or less parasitical and
aquatic. A few are zoophagous, devouring small mol-
lusks, larvae of insects, &c.; but by far the greater num-
ber suck the juices of other animals, as fishes, frogs, or
animals which happen to go into the water in which
they reside, lodging themselves occasionally in their
palate, under the tongue, nasal fossae, or even the
oesophagus. Savigny informs us that during the French
expedition to Egypt, they at times caused serious acci-
dents to soldiers who drank at the fountains in which
these creatures lived. When cold weather commences
they buiy themselves in the mud of ponds, and there
pass the winter in a state of lethargy, from which they

Bkancheli>id^.-

ANNELIDA. Ph ylli^id.e. 301

issue at the approach of spring. The suctorial Anne-
lides do not possess the power of reproducing amputated
portions of their body like the Lumbricidce. They are
oviparous, aud protect their ova in heavy capsules
or in fibro-gelatinous cocoons. The young do not un-
dergo any metamorphosis, and attain maturity slowly.
Progression is effected by alternate fixations and loosen-
ings of the suckers, and by corresponding contractions
and extensions of the intermediate segments or rings.
Many species can also swim in the water by undulatory
eel-like movements of the extended body.

This order contains several families.

Family L— BRANCHELLID^.

The species of this small family have the oral sucker
entire, and the body is furnished with branchiaeform
lobes or membranous appendages on each side of the
segments, which appear to serve the purpose of respira-
tion— aerating, according to Quatrefages, the lymph and
chyle previous to their admixture with the blood.

Family II. — PISCICOLIDjE (^Fish-leeches).

The species of this family do not possess the mem •
branous branchiaeform lobes on the segment, wliich the
preceding family has. Their jaws are wanting or are
reduced to three projecting points. They live parasiti-
cally upon the bodies of fishes, on whose juices they feed.
Some species are peculiar for the strong tincture or
colour which they impart to the spirits in which they
are preserved; Pontohdella Icevis, for instance, impart-
ing a beautiful scarlet colour, while P. muricata tinc-
tures the fluid with an intense green.

Family III.— NEPHELID^.

This family of worms contains a number of species
.which have the oral sucker incomplete, continuous with
the body, and formed by a moulding of the anterior
rings. The mouth is destitute of jaws, or they are,
when present, rudimentary ; the anus is large, and the
gullet is long. This rudimentary condition of the jaws
disables the species belonging to this family from pierc-
ing the skin of animals. They are the carnivorous
members of the order Sactoria ; preying on worms,
mollusks, larvae of insects, &c., which they generally
swallow entire. The species are all lacustrine, are not
found parasitic, but swim with ease through the water,

or crawl like other Annelides, along the ground. M.
Audouin says,. that they appear to possess something
in their structure which makes them afraid of the con-
tact of air, that they never voluntarily quit the water,
and even perish soon after leaving it. Dr. Johnston,
however, asserts that they often leave the water, and
take up their abode on stones on the wet shore.

Family IV.— HIRUDINID.® {The True Leeches).

This family contains, amongst others, the two well-
known species called the Medicinal and Horse Leech.
The family is eminently suctorial in their habits; their
mouth is armed with three jaws, by means of which
they cut into the skin and suck the blood of vertebrate
animals, onlj' falling.oflf when gorged. The alimentary
canal in the leeches is deeply incised and lobed, with
the hinder pair of lobes elongated like intestines. In
these the blood which they have sucked remains for
days and weeks, or even months without digesting or
passing into the intestine, and what is curious, without
coagulating, retaining in fact its fluidity during the
whole of that time. They are enabled to endure absti-
nence for a length of time, without experiencing any
loss of bulk. Leeches are inhabitants of fresh water
ponds and ditches, but they often leave the water of
their own accord for a length of time. In winter they
disappear, and remain hidden during the continuance
of the cold weather. The ova are deposited in a curious
cocoon, which closel}' resembles a sponge.

Family V.— GLOSSOPORID^E.

“ These are small and neat leeches, usually so trans-
parent as to permit the disposition of the viscera to be
seen without any dissection.” — {Johnston.) They are
of little general interest.

Family VI.— PHYLLINID^.

The animals belonging to this family have frequently
been arranged along with the Entozoa or Intestinal
Worms. They are external parasites, being found on
the outer surface of marine fishes and Mollusca. The
body is oblong, flattened, but not divided into segments;
there is no distinct head, and no eyes. The mouth is
without teeth or proboscis, but has usually a small suc-
torial disc on each side of it, and the posterior extremity
is furnished with a large circular suctorial disc.

302 Turbelt.aria. TURBELLARIA. Teretulakia.

Class — TURBELLARIA (The Planarias, Nemertines, &c.)

This class of worms was established by Ebrenberg,
and has been revised by Oersted. It contains, accord-
ing to the arrangement of Dr. Johnston, all these non-
parasitical worms the body of which is not divided
into segments, and which is destitute of bristles on the
sides, described in the previous class of Annelides as
taking the place of feet. The extremities of the body
are simple, and continuous with it, there being no dis-
tinct head visible. In form this body is either flat or
subcylindrical ; in substance soft, parenchymatous, or
cavernous, and in general it is naked and lubricous.
The whole body is covered more or less with vibratile
cilia or with papillae ; it is often very contractile,
assuming a variety of shapes at diflei’ent times, and
there are some species which break up voluntarily into
pieces. The front portion of the body, the head being
imperfectly defined or completely continuous with the
body, has in most cases no tentacula, but in some
genera there are two, prolonged from the surface.
The mouth in some is terminal, in others ventral ; and
in the latter case it is situated in the anterior third,
or near the centre, or towards the tail, and is often
furnished with a protrusile proboscis. The intestine in
one group runs undivided through the length of the
bod}', and in another is dendritically branched ; and in
these latter this canal is without a vent. The Turbel-
laria are either of separate sexes, or they are herma-
phrodite; most of them propagate by ova, but some
by transverse fissuration. These worms are animal-
feeders for the most part, though there are some which
appear to make their diet, in part at least, consist of
decaying vegetable n)atters. In general they are
natives of salt or fresh water, though a few are found
on land in moist places. Their mode of progression
is by gliding smoothly along the surface of any body
upon which they attach themselves, as under stones, on
the leaves of algae and submerged plants, &c., or b}'
swimming, an act which they execute rather slowly.
A few of the species are found taking up their abode
in the deserted tubes of other worms, or even, though
rarely, forming for themselves a sheatU of dried gluten
of considerable tenacity.

The class Turbellaria may he divided into two
orders — I. Planaria, containing the true Planarias ;
and 11. Teretularia, containing those long linear or
riband-shaped worms, called Linens, Borlasia, or Ne-
mertes, &c.

Order I. — PLANARIA {The Planarias).

The body of these worms, as their name would
indicate, is flattened, and usually not much longer than
broad. It is covered with a ciliated epithelium, and is
of a loose, cellular, parenchymatous structure. A few
are destitute of eyes, but the greater number have them
pretty well developed, and sometimes even numerous
and arranged in clusters. The mouth is a simple pore,
and often furnished with a protrusile proboscis. The

intestine has no vent or posterior opening, and is either
in form of an undivided tube, or branched like a
shrub.

This latter character has been taken as a means of
dividing the order into two sub-orders or large groups
— Rhuhdoccela, and Dendrocmla.

Sub-order I. — EHABDOCH5LA.

Alimentary canal simple and cylindrical ; no pro-
trusile proboscis ; locomotion mostly natatory.

The animals of this group are small, aquatic crea-
tures, living both in fresh water and salt. The body
is of a parenchymatous consistency, and it is -often
difflcult to trace any distinctly-defined viscera or their
openings. It is contractile to a certain extent, and has
an entire margin. There is no distinct head, and in
some the eyes are altogether wanting, whilst in others
they occur only two in number. The mouth is either
terminal or nearly so. The fresh-water species pro-
pagate by ova, and these are laid inclosed in a cocoon
or capsule. The marine species are less known. A
good many species are found in this country ; and one
genus has been named Dalyellia, in compliment to
Sir John Dalyell, the author of a very interesting account
of British Planaria.

Sub-order II. — DENDROCHilLA.

Intestinal canal dendritically ramified; a protractile
proboscis ; locomotion reptatory.

Fig. 206

Planaria maculata.

This sub -order contains many more species than the
preceding, and to it belong the true Planarias. The
accompanying figure will represent the order Pla-
naria.— See fig. 206.

Order II. — TERETULARIA {The Nemertines).

The worms of this order have a body linear in shape,
and very much (in some cases nearly a thousand times)
longer than broad. It is soft and glutinous, very often
covered with vibrating cilia, and so contractile, that
when extended in the act of moving through the water
or mud. they exceed their length when at rest by three

■ENTOZOA. Entozoa.

Entozoa.-

303

or four times, or even more. The anterior extremity
is, in general, marked by several black specks arranged
on each side of it, but variable in number. These are
considered to be the eyes. The mouth is anterior, and
almost always terminal, in the form of a slit, and for
the most part provided with a protrusile, long proboscis.
The intestine is simple, descending down the centre of
the body in a straight or undulating line to the oppo-
site extremity, where it opens outwardly by a pore
similar to the mouth. The sexes are separate, and
they multiply by ova, or perhaps, also, by transverse
sections. The species are all marine, and are found
living under stones and in mud between tide-marks.
They appear to dislike the light, and prefer to live in
obscurity. The species are very tenacious of life ;
if cut into several pieces, each lives and moves, and
perhaps each in time will grow up to a complete and

perfect worm. Fresh water is a powerful poison to
these worms ; if placed in a vessel of this fluid, the}'
instantly show by their violent contortions how pain-
ful and deleterious it is to them ; they soon breal? into
pieces, disgorge portions of tbeir viscera, and speedily
die and dissolve into a soft jelly. Some species pro-
gress like the leeches, moving in great undulations from
side to side, from right to left. All of them can creep
up solid plane surfaces by means of contractions which
sometimes change their general form in a very sin-
gular manner. The number of males appears to be
much inferior in proportion to that of females. As
Quatrefages remarks, this is the case also with many
of the intestinal worms ; in proportion, he says, as the
organization of the lower animals becomes degraded,
it appears that the female sex predominates more
and more.

Class — ENTOZOA (Intestinal Worms).

As Siebold remarks, it is very difficult to characterize
this class of worms, for it contains animals having
widely dissimilar organization. Indeed this is so much
the case, that some naturalists wish to suppress the
class altogether, and it has been attempted to divide
and isolate the orders amongst the various other classes
of the inferior invertebrated animals. But such various
difficulties have arisen from this, that in a work like
the present it is much better to keep the class as a
distinct one; for if we fail to perceive any common
character in their organization, we can easily find one
in their manner of living. The Entozoa are parasitical
worms, which either during their whole life, or at least
a part of it, inhabit the bodies of other animals, and
derive their nourishment from them.

The nervous system is feebly developed, and has
only lately been distinctly recognized. In the majority
it consists of two ganglia or two pairs, which unite
together by a median band or narrow commissure, and
give origin to two long cords which run through the
whole length of the body. In some no vascular
system has been recognized, but in others it is well
developed. The circulating liquid, however, or blood,
is in general wholly colourless. The digestive organs
vary very much in the different orders. In some, as
the Cestoid viorms and the Acanthocepliali, neither
mouth nor alimentary canal have been observed —
(Siebold); but in other orders it is pretty well developed.
No respiratory system has as yet been satisfactorily
observed. The intestinal worms, as their name im-
ports, are almost all inhabitants of the internal parts of
other animals ; there alone can they continue their
species, and there alone can they obtain their nourish-
ment. There is scarcely one animal that is exempt
from these parasites ; and in general each genus seems
to possess one or more species peculiar to itself, though
often several species infest the different cavities of the
same animal at the same time. For instance, there are
about twenty distinct species that are found either in
some of the cavities or in the muscular substance of

man. They are most frequently met with in the
alimentary canal, but they occur also in the cellular
tissue, and in the parenchyma of the most closely-
invested viscera, such as the liver and the brain.
Though they are very frequent in diseased states of
the viscera, and, when numerous, are the cause of
disease themselves, they yet occur abundantly in per-
fectly healthy subjects. Most of the Entozoa propa-
gate by means of genital organs, which in some are
situated upon a single animal, and in others upon two
separate individuals. A few, however, multiply by
fissuration, as is the case in the Tape-worms (Tcenid).
The old opinion, therefore, that intestinal worms were
products of spontaneous generation, is now completely
exploded. It is exceedingly difficult, however, to
conceive how these creatures can get into some of the
obscure and well protected organs and parts of the
body in which they are found. Not only the liver and
brain, as mentioned above, but the lungs and blood-
vessels are infested with them ; and it is affirmed they
even occur in the unborn foetus. Some of the species,
too, attain a large size ; and we must conclude that
the germs from which they spring must be exceedingly
minute, as they must be capable of being transmitted
through capillary vessels and apertures too small to be
discerned by the naked eye.

The Entozoa differ very much from one another in
form and organization, and, according to Cuvier and
Professor Owen, have been divided into two large
orders — I. Nematoid or Cavitary Entozoa (=Coelel-
mintha — Owen) ; those which have an intestine float-
ing in a distinct abdominal cavity, commencing with a
mouth, and terminating v.’ith a vent; II. Parenchy-
matous Entozoa (=Sterelmintha — Owen) ; those which
have the viscera obscure, generally in the form of vas-
cular ramifications, or even not discernible at all By
this arrangement, however, worms the most dissimilar
in their general appearance are grouped together, and
a more natural method has been generally adopted.
Rudolphi divides them into five orders, basing bis

304

Nematoidea.-

-ENTOZOA.-

-Tkejiatoba.

airangement upon tliat of Zeder. In the following-
pages we shall adopt a somewhat similar method, and
divide them also into five orders : —

I* Nematoid, Round Worms — those which have
a slender, elongated, cylindrical body, more or less
filiform, and rigid or elastic The individuals have a
true intestinal canal, and are of both sexes.

II. Acanthotheca, Sheathed - hooked Worms —
those which have a more or less club-shaped form,
with a large head and the mouth in a depression of it,
and surrounded with four strong, brown, simple hooks.
The sexes are separate.

III. Trematoda, Suctorial or Fluke Worms — those,
the species of which have the bodygenerally flat, soft, and
furnished with suctorial discs. They have no intestinal
canal, and the sexes coexist in the same individual.

TV. Acanthocepiiala, Hooked
I Vorms — those in which the body
is slender, round, subelastic, and
provided at the anterior extremity
or head with a retractile proboscis.

They have no intestinal canal,
but distinct genital organs, and
distinct sexes.

V. Cestoidea, Ribband or
Band Worms — including the
Cystic Worms or Hydatids
( Cystica of Rudolphi) ; those
that have an elongated, flattened,
soft, continuous or jointed body,
and a head either round and
provided with a crown of small hooks, or flattened and
furnished with two or four suctorial pits, called bothna.
In these the two sexes are united in the same indi-
vidual, and no trace of intestinal canal is to be seen.
They multiply also by fissuration.

Order I. — NEMATOIDEA [The Round Worms).

This is the most highly organized order of all the
Entozoa, and. contains a great many species. It com-
prises also more species found inhabiting man, than an}^
of the other orders. They may be defined as worms
with a filiform, or very long C3dindrical or fusiform body,
covered with a resisting integument. The mouth is
terminal or nearly so, and the vent is nearly terminal or
preceding bj' a short distance a very slender tail. The
intestine is straight. The sexes are separate. In size
they vary much, some being scarcely a line long, others
measuring an inch, and others again reaching the length
of a foot. The greater proportion of them are found
in the interior of the body of other animals, but a few
are detected in the muscular system.

The most typical genus of Nematoid or Round Worms
is the genus Ascaris. The Ascarides are almost always
found in the intestines of vertebrated animals ; and one
species infests the alimentary canal of man.

Order II.— ACANTHOTHECA.

Thisorderhas been constituted to receive afewworms
which Cuvier arranged amongst the Nematoidea, and

Rudolphi amongst the Trematoda, but which differ from
both these orders in several respects. The order maj'
be defined as composed of worms having a straight
intestine, with the mouth subterminal, and the vent
terminal. The mouth is situated on the inferior sur-
face, and is armed with two pairs of hooks, which are
reti'actile into sheaths. They have a distinct nervous
sj'stem, and the sexes appear to be separate.

Genus Pentastoma. — This genus is almost the
only one belonging to it. The species are never
found in the intestines ; they are only to be found in
the frontal sinuses, in the larynx or the lungs of Mam-
malia and Reptiles, or in cysts or serous cavities. They
are worms of an oblong or cylindrical shape, pleated
transversely, or nearly ringed. The head is generally
large, and the mouth is situated on the under surface,

Fig. 207.

with a longitudinal slit on each side, from which issue
two pairs of simple or double hooks, retiactile into as
many distinct cavities. The genus is represented by
a figure of Pentastoma tcenioides. — See fig. 207.

Order III.— TREMATODA.

This is a very natural order of intestinal worms. They
are more or less elongated, and of a depressed form,
and provided with one or more organs of adhesion or
suckers, by means of which they attach themselves to
the various animals upon which they live as parasites.
They are provided with a mouth and an intestine, but
have no vent. The two sexes are united in the same
individual. In those species which have been particu-
larly watched the ova are elliptical, and the embryos
when first hatched are generally covered with vibratile
cilia, and undergo distinct metamorphoses in their pro-
gress to maturity. ' The Trematodes are found in the
various cavities of the body, in the tissue of certain
organs, or even on the surface of the body ; and exist
in both vertebrate and invertebrate animals.

The various species which are found adhering to the
external surface of the animals upon which they live,
forming the families Onchobothriidce and Capsalidce,
have, in consequence of their being outside parasites,
been placed by several naturalists in the class Annelida

Genus Distoma or Fluke-worms, the species of
which are all found internallj’’, may be taken as the
type of the family. The body of these worms is gene-
rally depressed, sometimes of a cylindrical form, and is
provided with two distinct and isolated suckers, one

Pentastoma tsenioides.

Acasthocephala. ENTOZOA. Cestoidha. 305

anterior, containing the mouth, the other imperforated,
and situated on the ventral surface between the middle
and the first sixth of the length of the body. The
intestine is divided into two branches.

Order IV.— ACANTHOCEPHALA {Rooked
Worms ).

The worms be’onging to this order, the Hooked
Worms, as they are called, are slender, more or less
elongated, of an ovoid-oblong or cylindrical form, and
provided with a retractile proboscis, armed with hooks
or spines arranged in rows. They appear to have
neither mouth nor digestive tube, but take their nourish-
ment by absorption. The sexes are separate, and the
females are oviparous.

This order contains only one genus, Echinorhynchus,
the species of which are generally of a round or cylin-
drical form, and in some instances attain a considerable
length, though in others the body is shortened to a kind
of sac. The hooked proboscis is extensile, club-shaped,
or nearly globular, and the spines are sometimes very
numerous, being arranged in some species in as many
as sixty transverse rows. They are chiefly found in the
alimentary canal of vertebrated animals, and attach
themselves to the coats of the intestines by means of
the hooked spines on the proboscis. It is principally
in Amphibia and Fishes that they are found, but occa-
sionally they occur in Mammalia.

Order V. — CESTOIDEA {Cestoid Worms).

This order includes a variety of worms, which accord-
ing to Eudolphi and his followers, made a separate
order by themselves, under the name of Cystic worms
{Cystica), but which are now better understood, and
proved to be the immature or undeveloped forms of the
Cestoid worms.

The order Cestoidea may be briefly characterized
thus : — Worms with a soft body, generally flattened or
band-shaped, and formed of numerous joints. They
possess neither intestine, mouth, nor vent. They have
ordinarily a head furnished with two or four suckers
or small pits which are muscular, very contractile,
and frequently armed besides with booklets disposed
in a terminal crown, or in pairs in front of each pit, or
very numerous upon four or two retractile proboscides.
The genital organs of both sexes are united, either on
a single joint or on distinct joints {=Cestoidea). Some-
times from an arrest of development, there are no
genital organs, and then frequently the body of the
worms is terminated by an isolated vesicle, either single
or common to several {=zCystica).

Genus T.enia, or Tape-worm. — The worms belong-
ing to this genus are white, very long, and flat. The
body is composed of a great number of joints or
segments very variable in shape and size, and very
contractile. The head is round or tetragonal, and is
surrounded by four round, muscular, very contractile
suckers. In the centre of this head there generally
issues a proboscis of a greater or less length, and com-
pletely retractile into a muscular receptacle. This
proboscis is, in some of the species, naked or unarmed,
VoL. 11. 95

but in a great proportion it is surrounded with booklets
forming one or two rows. The first joints of the body
are generally very short and numerous ; the middle ones
are generally broader than long, but of variable shape,
and provided with more or less distinct genital organs ;
and the last are filled with ripe ova and then often
become longer than broad. The genital organs, com-
plete in each joint, have the orifices situated at the two
opposite sides of each in some, or at one side only in
others ; and in this case they ai e either always or gene-
rally on the same side (unilateral) or they are alternately
on one side or the other. The last joints are capable
of being detached and living separately, and each joint
being a perfect animal as far as the generative appara-
tus is concerned, the propagation of the species is capable
of being carried on to a very great extent. The Tape-
worms are found living in the intestinal canal of verte-
brated animals, more especially Mammalia and Birds.
Of late years some exceedingly interesting and very
curious facts with regard to the development of Tape-
worms have come to light, and the extraordinary trans-
formations of Cystic worms into Tainice have been the
means of enabling naturalists to do away with the
former as a distinct order altogether. Siebold appears
to have been the first who advanced the statement, that
certain Cystic worms were nothing but stray Tape-
worms which had become vesicular. The Cystic worms
are generall}' small creatures contained in a cyst, having
the head furnished with a crown of booklets, and the
body terminated by a bottle-shaped vesicle filled with
liquid. They are always destitute of genital organs.
By a series of experiments made, Siebold ascertained
that if the Cystic worms which inhabited the body of
a mouse or rabbit, for instance, were swallowed by a
dog, these Cystic entozoa of the rodent become in a
short time, in the intestines of the carnivorous animal,
a perfect and fully-developed 'Tania. A species of
Cystic worm (the Cysticercus fascicularis) infests the
liver of rats and mice. Having previously ascertained
that certain specimens of these worms were contained
in the liver of a mouse, the animal was given to a cat.
Several animals were thus fed, and by killing them at
certain intervals one after the other, the transformation
was seen to take place. The liver of the mouse was
digested in the stomach of the cat, but the Cysticercus
was left unharmed. It soon loses its terminal or
caudal vesicle ; and finding in the chyme of the
stomach and small intestines of the cat a suitable
place for further development, it speedily assumes
the articulated form of a Tape-worm. When fully
developed, the species was ascertained to be the
common Tape-worm of the cat, the Tania crassicollis.
Encouraged by the success of this experiment, Siebold
next tried it with a species which is found living in
cysts in the coats of the intestines of the rabbit, the
Cysticercus pisiformis. Several dogs were fed with
animals infected with these cystic worms, and upon
killing these dogs at intervals of from two hours to
eight weeks after being fed, he found these little para-
sites of the rabbit gradually assuming the form of the
common Tape-worm of the dog, Tania serrata. First
he found the cysts disappear, then the terminal vesicle
becomes absorbed, the worm then quickly begins to

Cestoidea.-

-ENTOZOA.-

-Entozoa.

increase in size, and at the end of eight weeks it was
found to have grown from the size of a pea to the length
of from thirty-six to
thirty-nine inches.

The most generally
known and perhaps the
largest of all the Tape-
worms, is the species
which inhabits the in-
testinal canal of man.

Fig. 208 is that of the
Tatnia crasfiicollis men-
tioned above.

The Cystic worms,
formerly constituting a
separate order, Cestoi-
dea, and now provi-
sionally a family, Cysti-
cidce, are only, as
mentioned above, stray
Toenice, which have
assumed a vesicular
form and have not
developed genital or-
gans. They are the
produce of the micro-
scopic ova of the Ces-
toid worms belonging
to certain carnivorous
animals accidentally
introduced into the
bodies of rodent or
ruminant quadrupeds.

In such situations these

ova are not
worms, hut

Fig. 208.— Tsenia crassicollis.

developed into elongated, articulated Tape-
into Cystoid worms, the body being termi-
nated by a vesicle of a
bottle-shape and filled
with fluid. They do
not assume their per-
fect form till they
have passed through
the stomach of the
Carnivora to which they
originallybelonged; but
nevertheless while in
their undeveloped form
as Cj'stoid worms, they
produce intense suffer-
ing, serious illness, and
ultimately death, in the
poor creatures in whose
bodies they have taken
up their abode. Such
are the species of Cysti-
cei'cus, Cosnuriis, &c.

The history of the
worms called Entozoa
is full of interest, but
in a work of this sort
we must content our-
selves with merely a
brief sketch of the clas-
sification and leading
families and genera.
Enough, we trust, has
been said to stimulate
inquiry, and to aid the
reader in pursuing it.

END OF CRUSTACEA, ETC.

INDEX.

CKUSTACEA— CTRRIPEDIA—

ANNELIDA— TURBELLARIA—ENTOZOA.

Page

Page

Class— CRUSTACEA,

285

Class — ANNELID.\, Annelides or Red-worms,

294

Order I., Errantia, Dorsibranchiata,

295

Sub-class

I., Malacostraca,

286

Family 1, Aphroditidae, the Sea-mice,

“ 2, Amphinomidai, the Amphinomes,

296

Section

I., Stalk-eyed Crustacea, Podoplithahna,

286

297

Older

L, Decapoda. Ten-footed Crustaceans,

289

“ 3, Eunicidai, ....

297

U

Brachyura, Short-tailed Crabs, .

286

“ 4, Nereididm, the Nereides or Sea Centi-

((

Crab, the Common or Edible, Cancer pagur

IS, 286

pedes, ....

297

Macroura, Long-tailed Crabs,

287

“ 5, Ariciida;, ....

298

u

Lobster, the Common, Homarus vulgaris

287

“ 6, Peripatidie, ....

298

u

Anomoura, fTn-eqular-tailed Crabs,

287

“ 7, CliEetopterida;,

298

((

Crab, the Hermit, Pogurus Bernhardus,

287

“ 8, Arenicolidae, ....

298

a

II., Stomapoda, Sea-Mantes,

288

Order II., Tubicola or Sedentaria, Capitibranchiata,

298

(f

Mysis, . . . . .

288

Family 1, Serpulidae, ....

299

((

Crab, the Mantis, Squilla L),smarestii, .

288

“ 2, Terebellida;, ....

299

Section

II., Sessile-eved Crustacea, Edrioplilhalma,

288

“ 3, Sabellariidai, ....

299

Older

I., The Amphipods, Amphipoda, .

288

“ 4. Maldanidae, ....

300

U

Talitrus, Sandhoppers or Sea-Jleas,

288

Order III., Terricola, Abranchia sctigera. Earth-

u

II., Lmmodipods, Lcemodipoda,

289

•worms, ....

Family 1, Lumbricidae, Earthworms^

300

III., The Isopods, Iso])oda, .

289

300

(i

Limnoria terebrans,

289

“ 2, Naidae, the Naides, .

300

(t

Sphaeromians,

290

“ Nais, Stylaria, proboscidea.

300

((

Bopvri, Tail-less Crab-lice,

200

Order IV., Suctoria, Abranchia nonsetigera, 4.0601168,

300

Sub-class

II., Entomostraca,

290

Family 1, Branchellidae,

301

Section

I., Branchipoda, Branchipods,

I., Phyllopods, Phyllopoda,

290

“ 2, Piscicolidffi, Fish-leeches,

301

Order

290

“ 3, Nephelidaj, ....

301

((

II., Cladocera, . . . .

291

“ 4, Hirudinidae, the True Leeches,

301

Section

II., Lophyropoda,

291

“ 5, Glossoporidm,

301

U

III., Poecilopnda, Parasitic Crustacea,

291

“ 6, Phyllinidae, ....

301

Order

I., SiphonOstomata,

292

(«

II., Leimaeidre, ....
Sea Spiders, Pycnogonidce,

292

((

292

((

Nymphon, gracile.

292

Class — TURBELLARI.-\, the Planarias and

Sub-class

III., Xiphosura, or Sword-tails,

292

Nemertines, &c..

302

Limulus, King-crab, . .

293

Order I., Planariea, the Planarias, . .

302

Sub-order L, Rhabdocaela,

302

“ II., Dendrocaila,

302

Order II., Teretularia, the Nemertines,

302

Class — CIREIPEDIA, Barnacles or Sea-acorns,

293

Class — ENTOZOA, Intestinal Worms,

303

Order I., Nematoidea, the Round Wor7ns,

304

Family I., Lepadidas, Pedunculated Cirripeds, or

“ II., Acanthotheca, Sheathed-hool-ed Woi-ms,

304

Barnacles,

293

“ III., Trematoda, Suctorial or Fluke Worms,

304

II., Balanidae, Sessile Cirripeds, or Sea-

“ IV.. Acanthocephala, Hooked Worms,

305

acoms^ ....

294

“ V., Cestoidea, Ribband or Band Worms,

305

THE MUSEUM

OF

NATURAL HISTORY.

ZOOLOGY.

Sub-kingdom — MOLLUSC A* — Molluscous Animals.

If we follow the arrangement of the animal kingdom,
as exhibited by the immortal Cuvier, we find that
animals are constructed upon four different types, which
have been called Suh -kingdoms. The first of these is
the sub -kingdom Vertebrata, or vertebrated animals,
and has occupied the former part of this work. The
second sub-kingdom is that of the Mollusca, composed
of those animals that are generally known by the name
of Shells or Shell-fish. Formerly the animals which
formed and inhabited shells were little known, and by
those who studied this interesting branch of natural
history, were very little attended to. The shells or
coverings of the animals alone attracted the attention
of the student, and hence the study of this branch of
natural science received the name of Conchologyf — an
appellation still in general use. At the present day,
however, the animals receive an equal share of atten-
tion from the naturalist ; and the arrangement of the
hard persistent coverings, or shells, of these animals,
depends almost entirely upon the structure of the soft
animals which form them. We find, too, that a large
number of animals which are true shell-fish, so to
speak, have no shells, and hence the name of Mollusca
now adopted to contain all, both shell-bearing and
shell-less species. The Greeks, as Aristotle and his
followers, called them by a similar name, Malakia
(fioiXaTiia.), and the study was hence by several natur-
alists called Malacology.

Molluscs may be defined as animals possessing a
body which is soft and fleshy, devoid of bones or any
internal skeleton, and not divided, as in insects and
worms, into rings or articulations. This body is
covered with a soft, initable, and muscular skin, which
is moistened by a viscid liquor that exudes from it,
and which is in very many instances of sufficient extent
to form fleshy folds that envelope, more or less com-
pletely, the whole body as in a mantle or cloak. In

• From the Latin word mollis, soft.

t From the Greek words xi>yx''ii ^ shell, and Xoyo;. a dis-
course.

some cases this skin is naked, and then the mantle is
thick and mucous ; in the greater number of the species,
however, it is protected by a hard, persistent, calcare-
ous covering called a shell, and then this mantle is
thin and transparent. The animal, in the groat majority
of species, is of an elongate form, walks upon a central
disc or foot, and is provided with one or more pairs of
organs on- the head and sides. The principal organs
of the body are in pairs and are symmetrical, thus dis-
tinguishing them from the Radiated sub-kingdom here-
after to be mentioned. But the most essential character
lies in the arrangement of their nervous system. This
system consists of a certain number of enlargements
or centres, called ganglia, from which the nerves are
given off to the different parts of the body. These
ganglia are principally concentrated around the entrance

Fig. 209.

to the alimentary canal, and form a collar or ring
w’hich surrounds the (esophagus or throat, and is con-
nected with other ganglia disposed without symmetry
among the viscera, or in the neighbourhood of the
organs of locomotion — fig. 209. The ganglia “ on the
sides and upper part of the ring represent the brain,
and supply nerves to the eyes, tentacles, and mouth;

i^lO Intkoductiok. MOLLUSCA. Arrangement.

other centres, connected with the lower side of the
esophageal ring, send nerves to the foot, viscera, and
respiratory organ.” — ( Woodward^

AERANGEMENT OF MOLLUSCA.

Previous to the time of Cuvier, the animals which
we now know under the name of Mollusca, were con-
fusedly arranged, and very imperfectly known. They
“ were intermingled with worms and with zoophytes,
while a great number of them stood detached from
their allies under the ordinal designation Testacea,
merely because they were inclosed in hard calcareous
shells ; the knowledge of the inferior tribes being then
too little advanced to admit of the application of any
characters but those that were derived from exterior
form and consistence. By his numerous careful dissec-
tions, Cuvier was early enabled to detect and appre-
ciate the unnaturalness of the prevalent systems; and
when his labours had convinced him that their over-
throw was necessary to the progress of science, they
had at the same time furnished him with the materials
out of which he sought to erect a new system, which
has been of incalculable advantage to scientific concho-
logy, and which remains untouched in all its grand
lineaments, though his successors have certainly im-
proved and worked out many of the minor details.” —
(Johnston.) It is to Cuviei', then, that we owe the
grouping together the animals to which the name of
Mollusca is now properly restricted.

This great naturalist took as the first division the
possession or the want of a head, and arranged the
various classes into two principal groups : — 1st, Those
which had a head more or less distinctly formed, the
Encephala; and 2nd, Those which were destitute of
that important appendage, the Accphala. In the first
group he placed the Cep/halopoda, or Cuttle-fishes ; the
Fteropoda, Winged or Floating mollusca ; and the
Gasteropoda., or Snails. In the second group he placed
the Conchifera, or Bivalve shells; the Brachiopoda,
Brachiopods, or Lamp shells ; and the Cirrhopoda, or
Barnacle shells. This last class is now ascertained to
belong to the Crustacea, but may be replaced by the
Tunicata, or Tunicaries — which he made merely an
order of the AcephalaT Various arrangements have
been suggested by naturalists since Cuvier put forth
his system, but we will only mention one, that of Dr.
Gray ; merely premising that however varied the
methods propounded have been, they all hinge in
reality upon that of the celebrated author of the “Eegne
Animal.”

Cuvier divided the Mollusca into two great groups,
according as they possessed or as they wanted a head.

Dr. Gray, in adopting the classes of Cuvier, divides
them into two great groups also, but takes as the basis
of his arrangement the possession or want of a foot. As
this arrangement is the one adopted in our great national
collection in the British Museum, and has the merit ot
being patent to all who wish to study Conchology ; and
as we shall have frequent occasion to refer to it in the
following pages, we subjoin it as follows : —

^ SUB-KINGD(W MOLLUSCA.

Group I. — Pedipera, crawling on a toot placed under the
body.

Classl. — Gasteropoda— Gasteropoda, Univalves,o\-Snails.

Head distinct, with eyes and tentacles ; body usually
protected by a conical, more or less spiral shell, often
furnished with an operculum.

Class 2. — CoNCHiFERA— (7o?ic7t?yers or Bivalves.

Head indistinct ; mouth placed between the gills ; they
and the body inclosed between the two leaves of the
mantle, which are covered by two shelly valves united
above by a ligament.

Group II. — Apoda. Foot none, or very rudimentary.

Class 3. — Brachiopoda — Brachiopods or Lamp Shells.

Mouth placed at the base of two spirally-twisted
ciliated arms between the two leaves of the mantle,
which are covered with two separate shelly valves ; they
live attached to other marine bodies.

Class 4. — Pteropoda — Pteropods or Floating Mollusca.

Head prominent, with one or rarely two pairs of fins
on the side of the neck, by means of which they swim
on the ocean; body often covered with a thin conoidal
shell.

Class 5.— Cephalopoda — Cephalopods or Cuttle-fishes.

Head distinct, large, with eight or ten or more arms
by which they walk head downwards.

To these we must add —

Class 6. — Tunicata — Tunicated Mollusca or Tunicaries.

No distinct head ; mouth at the bottom of the bran-
chial sac ; body protected bj' an elastic gelatinous tunic,
with two orifices, one for the admission of water and
food into the interior, and the other for the e.\pulsion
of excrementitious matters ; no shell.

As in the preceding parts of this work, the plan
followed has been, in general, to commence with the
most highly-organized forms, descending to those lower
in the scale, we will deviate here from the sketch just
given of the arrangement in the British Museum, and
begin with the Cephalopods. “ The type of structure
which characterizes the Dibranchiate order of Cepha-
lopods,” says Professor Owen, “ places these mollusca
not only at the head of that division of the animal
kingdom, but in respect to its closer proximity to the
vertebrate type, unquestionably at the head of the
whole invertebrate series ” Premising this, we will
therefore commence w'ith —

Class I.— CEPHALOPODA — Head-walking Molluscs.

The Cephalopods are the most highly organized of all
the molluscs. They are symmetrical animals, having
their right and left sides equally developed. They
have a large distinct head, a mouth armed with power-

ful horny jaws, acting vertically like the mandibles of
birds ; a large and fleshy tongue, and large well-devel-
oped eyes, approaching in structure those of verte-
brated animals. The body, which is soft and fleshy, is

Cephalopoda. MOLLUSCA. -Octopoda. 311

enveloped in the mantle, which forms a muscular sac,

raised so as to fill the cavity, is retracted, and a vacuum

open only in front. The head protrudes from this

produced ; but when the animal is disposed to let go

openinf?, is distinct from the body, and has placed

its hold, the piston is at once pushed forward, and

round the mouth a number of fle.\ible, fleshy append-

the vacuum produced by its retraction is in an. instant

ages, called arms or feet, which serve both as organs of

destroyed.

prehension and locomotion. These arms or feet are

The class Cephalopoda is divided into two orders —

usually provided with cups or suckers, called acetabula,

those which have the body naked, and have no shell.

that act like cupping glasses, and are for the most part

or onlj^ an internal one ; and those in which the body

unarmed, though in some instances they are furnished

is inclosed within an external chambered shell. The

with a long sharp claw. They form a single or double

first group, the Naked Cephalopods, have all of them

senes on the inner surface of the arms, and are various

only two branchiae, or gills ; whilst the second grouj),

in number. In those which are unarmed, the median-

the Shell-bearing Cephalopods, possess four. This

ism for producing adhesion is extremely interesting.

essential character has been considered as the best for

From the margin of each cup, a series of muscular

dividing them, as one of the families of the first group

fibres converge toward the centre, at a short distance

{Argonautidce) is now generally allowed to possess a

from which they leave a circular aperture, which is

shell, though not a chambered one ; and another

occupied by a cone of soft substance rising from the

{Spirulidce) has a chambered shell, which though cer-

bottom like the piston of a syringe, and capable of

tainlj' an internal one, nevertheless in one of the species

retraction. So perfect is this mechanism, says Dr.

appears to contain a portion at least of the animal

Roget, that while the muscular fibres continue con-

within its last chamber. Rafinesque, in dividing them

tracted, it is easier to tear away the substance of the

into two groups or orders, proposed the names of

limb than to release it from its attachment — it being

Antepedia and Polarnaxia for them ; but we here adopt

apparently under the complete control of the animal.

the nomenclature first established by Professor Owen,

When the sucker is applied to a surface for the pur-

who from the number of their gills calls them Dibran-

pose of adhesion, this piston, having previously been

chiata and Tetrahranchiata.

Order I. — DIBRANCHIATA — Two-gilled Cephalopods.

Animal swimming, having the body naked, the shell

round, or elongated, and provided with fins ; and

being either altogether wanting or contained within the

when the shell is present (except in Argonauta), it is

body (except in Argonautidce). The head is distinct,

either horny or shelly, with or without air chambers.

separate from the rest of the body, and surrounded by

“ The mantle is usually connected with the back of

1

eight or ten fleshy arms, provided with sessile cups or

the head by a broad muscular band ; but its margin

suckers. The eyes are sessile, prominent ; the mandi-

is sometimes free all round, and is supported only

bles horny, like the beak of a parrot ; and the walls of

by cartilaginous ridges, fitting into corresponding

the siphuncle are entire. Gills two in number. Ink

grooves, and allowing considerable freedom of motion.”

gland always present. The body of the animal is

— ( Woodward.)

Sub-order I.— OCTOPODA (Octopods).

This sub-order contains three families. The body is
rounded, and seldom possesses fins ; it is united to the
head by a broad cervical band, and in the Argonauts

Family. I. — OCTOPODIDAH — {The Sea Spiders.)

is covered with a thin, single chambered shell. The

In this family the arms are all similar, subulate in

head is large, and the eyes are fixed and incapable of

form, or conical and tapering, elongated, and united

rotation. The fleshy arms are only eight in number.

at the base by a web. The cups are short and sessile.

and have no swimming membranes. The cups or

The shell is altogether wanting, or is represented by

suckers are sessile, flat, and without any horny ring.

two short styles encysted in the substance of the mouth.

The branchial chamber is divided longitudinally by a

— {Owen.)

muscular partition. “ They are the most eccentric or

Genus Octopus. — The genus Octopus may be

‘aberrant’ molluscs, superior in organization to all the

taken as the type of the family. It has two rows of

rest, but manifesting some remarkable and unexpected

cups on the arms, and the body of the animal is round,

analogies with the lowest classes of animals.” — {Wood-

and destitute of lateral fins. It is warty, or covered

icard.)

with cirrhi, which disappear when in repose, or when

We have merely space to mention a few of the

preserved in spirits. The eyes are small, lateral.

families and genera into which this order is sub-

covered by the continuation of the surrounding skin,

divided : —

and often by one or two transparent eyelids. The

312 Cephalopoda. MOLLUSCA. Akgonauts.

arms are unequal, and the sipliuncle is elongate, conical,
and slender. The Octopi live on rocks on the coast,
swim well, and are very agile. They change their
colour rapidly, and in the dark are slightly phos-
phorescent. The females deposit transparent eggs in
bunches on sea-weeds, or in the cavities of empty
shells. They are solitary animals, and are the “ polypi ”
of Homer, Aristotle, Gesner, &c. “Professor E. Forbes
has observed that the Octopus when resting, coils its
dorsal arms over its back, and seems to shadow forth
the Argonaut’s shell.” — {Woodward.)

THE COMMON OCTOPUS (0. vuUjaris) is abundant
on our coasts, and is found in the Mediterranean,
Atlantic, and Indian oceans, and in the Red Sea. In
swimming, it propels itself rapidly backwards, by
repeatedly striking in a forward direction the whole of
its arms, webbed at the base, at the same instant. It
walks also with equal ease, dragging its body along the
ground at the rate of about seven feet in a minute ;
and should it require or wish to accelerate its pace, it
inflates its body until it resembles a distended bladder,
then letting go all hold and casting itself forward, it
rolls over and over with great velocity, and often effects
an escape which would otherwise have been impossible.

Family II.— PHILONEXIDiE.

In this family the arms are elongate, tapering, and
unequal ; and the cups are fleshy, pedunculated, very
extensible, and placed in two rows, which are some-
times far apart. The eyes are large and prominent.
The shell is altogether wanting. The animals belong-
ing to this family are all natives of the high seas, and
are crepuscular or nocturnal in their habits of life.
They are gregarious and sociable, and in some parts
of the world are seen during the night covering the
surface of the ocean in great numbers. They avoid
the light, possess the faculty of changing their colour,
and are voracious creatures, feeding upon floating
mollusca and medusae.

Genus Philonexis. — The genus PJnlonexis is the
type. It has the arms free, not webbed, taj)ering ; in
some species the upper pair are very long, and the
others short.

Family III.— ARG0NAUTID^=0CYTH0ID^
(Arffoiiauts.)

The family of the Argonauts is one which has given
rise to a great deal of discussion ; some authors main-
taining that the animals, and the shell in which they
are found, have no further connection with each other
than the Hermit Crab has with the shell in which it
takes up its abode — -that the Cuttle-fish in fact which
inhabits the Argonaut shell is a mere parasite ; others
maintaining, on the contrary, that the shell of the
Argonaut is really secreted by the female, and that it
serves as a nest for containing the ova. This latter
opinion is now almost universally received by natural-
ists ; and the experiments of Madame Jeannette Power,
supported in most things by those of M. Sander Rang,
are sufficient to convince most people. Professor Owen
has given a veiy able report upon these experiments.

the summing up of which is clearly in favour of the
view of their intimate connection as one and the same.
Dr. Gray, however, still considers the question unsettled ;
and in the catalogue of the Cephalopoda Antepedia^
in the collection of the British Museum, he gives his
reasons for remaining unconvinced. The animal, he
says, is not attached to the shell by any muscle
(unlike all other mollusca which form the shell
they inhabit). The animal, when alive, does not fit
the shell, so that the shell cannot be moulded on its
body, as in other mollusca. The skin of the animal
which inhabits the shell is of the same texture and
appearance as in the other naked Cephalopods;
and the presence of sand between the shell and the
bodjf appears to cause no uneasiness to the animal, as
it does in all other shell-bearing mollusca, where the
animal immediately rids itself of the irritation so caused
by covering the sand, &c., with a calcareous coat. The
animals, he continues, found in these shells are all
females, and the apex of the shell is filled with very
small eggs ; while from the large size of the young
shell, which is seen on the apex of the true Argonaut,
we should expect the animal which formed that shell
to have a large egg. Believing, however, that the
shell of the Argonaut is formed by the animal which
alone is found to inhabit it, we proceed to give the
chaiacters of the family. The animals were named
Ocythoe by Rafinesque, who considered them distinct
from the shells. Their body is of an ovoid shape,-
enlarged in front, and smooth. The head is oblique,
and the eyes are lateral, very large, prominent, and
covered on the upper edge with a very thin eyelid.
The arms are tapering, very unequal, the dorsal pair
being bent back on themselves, and furnished with a
membrane or w-eb at the extremity. The cups are in
two rows, prominent, as if slightly pediceled. The
siphuncle is very large and conical. The shell is
exterior, symmetrical, and involuted. It is one-celled,
thin, brittle, transparent, horny, and flexible when wet.
The nucleus is very large and hemispherical. This
shell is inhabited only by the female, and it is con-
sidered to be secreted by her webbed dorsal arms.
The male is smaller than the female, has no shell, and
the superior arms are not webbed or expanded as in
the female, but are pointed at the extremities. Occu-
pying the place of the third arm on the left side, there
is in the male an organ developed within a coloured
sac, which is in fact an irregularly metamorphosed
arm, containing abundance of spermatozoa, and which
is detached as soon as the seminal fluid has been
deposited in it. It after this enjoj's an independent
life, and is the Hectocotyle of the Argonaut. These
animals live on the high seas in the warmer regions,
and have been taken from the stomach of 'a dolphin
six hundred leagues from any land. Their food con-
sists of floating mollusca. There is only one genus,
called A rgonauta, by those who believe in the identity
of shell and animal, and Ocythoe by those who do not
— the name of Argonauta being restricted by them for
the shell alone.

THE PAPER NAUTILUS {Argonauta- Argo) — the
animal being the Ocythoe tuberculata of the British
Museum catalogue — (Plate 3, fig. 8) — is, from its being

Cephalopoda. MOLLUSCA. Argonauts. 31 3

abundant in tlie Mediterranean, as well as the Atlantic
and Indian oceans, the best known species. The shell
of this species is a very beautiful object, and the favourite
of poets and artists of all ages. As Dr. Johnston
observes, it is the original whence artists have derived
many a pretty design for the car in which the sea-born
Venus is made to ride the ocean, and which “sportive
dolphins drew.” It is the “little Nautilus” of Pope,
who as a poet improved upon the pretty picture of
the animal given by Aristotle, who described it as
floating on the surface of the sea in fine weather, and
holding out its sail-shaped arms to the breeze. Pliny
endorses Aristotle’s notion of its raising its webbed
arms and spreading them, out as a sail ; and the poet
Montgomery, in his Pelican Island, has since his time
“ married it again to immortal verse” : —

“ Light as a flake of foam upon the wind,

Keel upward, from the deep emerged a shell,

Sha])ed like the moon ere half her horn is fllled ;
Fraught with young life, it righted as it rose.

And moved at will along the yielding water.

The native pilot of this little bark
Put out a tier of oars on either side.

Spread to the wafting breeze a twofold sail.

And mounted up and glided down the billow
In hapi)y freedom, pleased to feel the air
And wander in the luxury of light.”

The movements of this beautiful mollusc, however,
are now better known, and have been stripped of the
fable and poetry which enveloped them. The little
sailor sits in its boat with its siphon turned towards the
keel, and its sail-shaped dorsal arms closely applied to
the sides of the shell — fig. 210. It swims by ejecting

water from its funnel or siphuncle, and like the re.st of
the Cuttle-fishes, the motion is backwards, the shell
being driven in that direction by the recoil caused
by the sudden and forcible expulsion of the water for-
wards. Its motions, however, are not confined to
swimming, as it crawls at the bottom of the water in a
reversed position, carrying its shell over its back like
a snail.

These creatures are very shy and timid. “ During
calm weather,” says Madame Jeannette Power, “and
in quiet water, if not feeling themselves observed, they
make a parade of their many beauties, rowing with full
sails tinged with beautiful colours, and resting the
extremities of their sail-arms on the two sides of the
shell, or embracing the shell with them. It is then
that their different movements and habits may be
observed ; but I was obliged to act with the greatest
caution in order to enjoy this spectacle, for the creatures
are extremely suspicious, and no sooner find them
selves observed than they let themselves fall to the
bottom, and do not rise again for many hours.” Mr.
Arthur Adams, during the voyage of the Samarang.
had frequent opportunities of observing two species of
Argonaut with their living inhabitants, and corrobo-
rated two facts with regard to their history. He
observed “ that the female Argonaut can readily dis-
engage herself from the shell, when the velamentous
arms become collapsed, and float apparently useless
on each side of the animal ; ” and ascertained from
experiment “ that she has not the ability, or perhaps
the sagacity, to enter her nest again, and resume the
guardianship of her eggs.” He was satisfied also

Jb’ig. 210.

Swimming Argonaut.

“that the thin shell of the Argonaut is employed by the
female as a safe receptacle in which to deposit her
eggs;” for he dissected a specimen of A. tuberculosa
(A. nodosa) that was taken firmly embracing the shell,
which contained a large mass of eggs occupying the

discoidal portion of the chamber and the poslerior por-
tion of the roof. The eggs he describes as being very
numerous, and united together by a delicate, glutinous,
transparent, filamentous web, and suspended to the
body whirl of the spire.

Sub-order II. — DEC APOD A (Decapods).

In this sub-order the body of the animal is elongated,
oblong, or cylindrical, and always provided with a pair
of fins. The mantle is supported by a fleshy band, or
VoL. TT. 96

by cartilaginous buttons and loops ; and the body is
strengthened in the middle of the hack by an internal
shell, which is longitudinal and either horny or cal-

Cephalopoda. MOLLL’SCA. Decapoda

314

careoiis. Tlie head is smaller than the body, and the
eyes are free in the orbit, turning in every direction in
the very large orbital cavity. The arms are usually
said to be ten in number — hence their name of Deca-
pods. Two of these, however, differ considerably in
their form from the others, and by many conchologists
are termed tentacles. The real arms are eight in
number, as in the Octopods, but are always shorter;
they are fleshy, sessile, and often edged with mem-
branes. The two tentacular arms are long, cylindrical
and are expanded at the ends. The cups or suckers
are oblique, peduncled, and armed with a hornj'' ring.
The siphuncle is almost always provided with an
internal valve. The animals belonging to this sub-
order are chiefly found in the open sea, but, it is said,
make their appearance periodically in large shoals, like
certain Ashes, on the coasts and banks. The structure
of the internal shell is well adapted for dividing the
species of Decapods into three distinct groups or sec-
tions — those which have a solid horny shell, like a
pen {gladius), Chondkophoka ; those which have a
cellular calcareous shell {sepion), Sefiophora; and
lastly, those which have a chambered, siphoned shell,
(in recent species) calcareous or shelly, Belemxo-
PHORA.

Section I.— CHONDROPHORA.

This section contains flve families, but we have
only space to mention two : —

Family I.— CPIIROTEUTHID^.

The animals of this family are semipellucid, and
have an elongate body, and the Ans are placed on the
Hinder part of the back. The ventral arms are long,
and the tentacular arms are external to the web, very
long and slender, and not retractile into the cavities
under the orbits. On the peduncular portion they
have distant sessile cups, but on their expanded ends
they possess four rows of cups placed on long cylin-
drical peduncles. The siphuncle has no valve. The
shell is elongated and slender.

Genus Chiroteutiiis. — The genus Chiroteutlds
will represent the family. It has the arms free ; the
rings of the cups are contracted in the middle. The
tentacular arms are extremely elongated, and the cups
on their ex|)anded ends are placed on long cjdindrical
peduncles swollen at the end, and bear a second pedicle
which carries a hood like horny ring, edged at the
base, with a lateral aperture armed with teeth. The
shell is very slender, and slightly dilated into a narrow
lanceolate expansion at each end.

CHIROTEUTHIS VERANYI, one of the species, is a
native of the Mediterranean. The body is scarcely
four inches in length, while the tentacular arms are two
feet and a half, and as slender as a thread. The habits
of this animal appear in a great measure unknown; but,
as has been well observed, a similar disproportion of
parts is not to be found exampled among organized
creatures. “ How these slender organs are moved,’'
says Dr. .Johnston — “how their motions are propagated
along the lengthened line — how the club at the end of

such a flexible line is supported— and how the organs
are preserved from amputation or injury — are all
questions which start upon us as we contemplate the
creature, and to which it is not easy to give a satis-
factory answer.” They are no doubt intended, and
certainly appear admirably adapted for securing their
prey, especially such as may be floating careless at a
distance, and unconscious of danger from such a foe.

Family II.— ONYCHOTEUTHIDHH {Uncinated
Calamaries).

This family consists of animals with an elongate fleshy
body, furnished with Ans on^ie hinder part of the back.
The head is cylindrical in shape, and the eyes are naked,
with a deep lachrymal sinus at the upper edge. The
siphuncle has a distinct internal valve, and the ten-
tacular arms have a rounded group of small sessile cups
at their dilated extremities. The shell is lanceolate.
One of the most striking characters of this family is the
structure of the long tentacular arms and their suckers.
These organs are provided with a double series of
hooks; but besides these uncinated cups there is,
as mentioned above, at the base of their expanded
extremities a cluster of small, simple, unarmed cu[)s.
These they are supposed to unite, so that the tentacles
are used in conjunction. “ When these suckers are
applied to one another,” says Professor Owen, “the
tentacles are flrmly locked together at that part, and
the united strength of both the elongated peduncles can
be applied to drag towards the mouth any resisting
object which has been grappled by the terminal hooks.
There is no mechanical contrivance which surpasses
this structure : art has remotely imitated it in the
fabrication of the obstetrical forceps, in which either
blade can be used separately, or by the interlocking
of a temporary joint be made to act in combination.”
This family contains several genera, but we have only
space to mention two ; —

Genus Enoploteutiiis. — This genus has both the
sessile and tentacular cups armed with claw-like hooks.
It contains several species with an elongate body fur-
nished with Ans on the hinder part of the back ; sessile
arms with a series of closed, horny, claw-like hooks,
enlarged at their base and covered with a closely-Atting
retractile membrane ; tentacular arms slender, feeble,
scarcely dilated at the ends, and armed with hooks only.
Some of the species attain a large size, and the natives
of the Polynesian islands, who dive for shell-Ash, are
said to have a well-founded dread and abhorrence of
tnese formidable creatures. A specimen of E. ungui-
culata was observed by Banks and Solander, in Captain
Cook’s flrst voyage, floating on the surface in the PaciAc
Ocean, a single arm of which is preserved in the collec-
tion of the Museum of the College of Surgeons, from
which it is evident that the animal must have been at
least six feet long.

Genus Ommastrephes. — This genus is character-
ized by having the body very long, acuminated behind,
truncated and square in front, with very broad tormina’
Ans; sessile arms,with two rows of suckers having oblique,
toothed rings ; tentacular arms short, thick, and strong,
not retractile, webbed at the slightly enlarged extremity

Loligid^. MOLLUSCA. Cuttle-fish. 315

and having four rows of cups. The shell is as long as
the bod}', narrow, with three diverging ribs and a
hollow, conical apex. The Sagittated Calamaries, as
they are called, live in the open ocean, where they
occur in large troops, and are found in all climates.
They are nocturnal animals, appearing on the surface
of the sea only after evening has closed in. They are
greedily devoured by cetaceans and pelagic birds.

THE COMMON SAGITTATED CALAMAEY (0. sagit-
tatus) is extensively used as bait in the cod-fishery of
Newfoundland. Indeed, it is so attractive to this fish,
that it is said one-half of all the cod taken at Newfound-
land is caught with it. It is exceedingly abundant at
times off that coast, occurring in vast shoals, which
present a curious appearance by their strongly-twisted
compact form. Their appearance is hailed by hundreds
of vessels ready for their capture ; and as a writer in
the Edinburgh New Philosophic Journal says, “At this
season of the year, the sea on the coast of St. Pierre is
covered with from four hundred to five hundred sail of
English and French ships, engaged in the Cuttle-fish
fishery,” “During violent gales of wind, hundreds of
tons of these molluscs are often thrown up together in
beds on the flat beaches, the decay of which spreads an
intolerable effluvium around. It is made no use of ex-
cept for bait ; and as it maintains itself in deeper water
than the Capelan, instead of nets being used to take it,
it is jigged — a jigger being a number of hooks radiat-
ing from a fixed centre made for the purpose. The
cod is in best condition after having fed on it.” The
Sagittated Calamary, as this species is more particularly
called, is very quick and rapid in its movements. Dr.
Gould, speaking of it, says : — “ So swift and straight
is their progress, that they look like arrows shooting
through the water and Colonel Sykes informs us
that several specimens of this active creature leaped on
board the vessel in which he was returning from India,
while the wind was light and the sea calm. Indeed,
the common name for it amongst sailors is the “ Sea
Arrow,” or “ Flying Squid.”

Family — LOLIGTD.^ {Calamaries, or Sleeve-fish).

This family of Cuttle-fishes consists of animals which
have an oblong, subcylindrical body, tapering behind,
and much elongated in the males. The fins are situ-
ated on the sides of the hinder part of the back. The
head is subcylindrical, and the eyes are covered by the
skin. The sessile arms in general have the cups or
suckers in two rows, and the rings are provided with
a narrow prominent edge on the centre of the external
surface. The tentacular arms have the expanded
extremities generally with four rows of cups, and they
are only partly retractile into the subocular cavity.
The shell is lanceolate, pennate, or spathulate, and
solid ; and, as Professor Owen informs us, is multi-
plied by age, several being found packed closely, one
behind another, in old specimens.

Genus Loligo. — The genus Loligo is the type, and
in it the horny rings of the suckers are dentated, and
the tentacular club has four rows of cups. The head
is separate from the body, and the mouth is free all
round. The shell is as long as the back, is pennate

and has thin edges. The Calamaries are gregarious,
many individuals uniting in companies, and sallying
forth in the evening after sunset to scour the surface
of the ocean for their prey. They swim with great
rapidity, and also crawl head downwards on their oval
disc. Fish, pelagic Crustacea, and the oceanic molluscs,
form their food.

LOLIGO MAGNA, or VULGARIS {the Common Sleeve-
fish, or Squid), occurs abundantly on the coasts of Great
Britain, and is eaten both by man and fishes. Mr.
Couch tells us that they are used as food by the natives
on the Cornish coast ; and he avers that they are
“ excellent food, bearing a considerable resemblance to
tripe.” He informs us further that on the same coast
it forms a favourite bait among fishermen, “ few fish
being able to resist it.” These animals deposit their
eggs in subcylindrical masses crowded together on sea
weeds, and one such cluster has been estimated to
contain nearly forty thousand eggs !

Section II.— SEPIOPHOEA.

This section contains only one family: —

Family — SEPIIDiE {Sepias, or True Cuttle-fishes).

These have a short, oval or rounded, and depressed
body, furnished with fins bordering the whole side of
the body, and separated from one another behind by a
free space or kind of neck. They have a broad head
and large eyes, furnished with a lower eyelid. The
sessile arms are short and strong, and provided with
four rows of suckers — the cups being spherical, fleshy,
oblique, and peduncled. The tentacular arms are
entirely retractile into the cell at their base, are long
and slender, and are broadly expanded at their
extremities. The shell is internal, as long and as wide
as the body, and consists of a broad calcareous cellular
plate, terminating behind in a hollow imperfectly-
chambered tip or mucro.

Genus Sepia.- — This is the only genus in the family.
The species are inhabitants of all seas, and some of
them grow to a large size. One of these is common
on our own coasts, and is well known on those of
various parts of Europe and Africa : — •

THE COMMON SEPIA, or CUTTLE-FISH {Sepia offici-
nalis), is of considerable size, and is of a purple colour
on the back, w'ith darker cross bands, and with small
white spots on the side. The shell is ovate, com-
pressed, wrinkled above, semi-cartilaginous on the
edge and behind, where it is rounded. When young,
the apical beak is conical, prominent, and the upper
part of the last internal plate occupied ; in the adult,
half the beak becomes immersed in the cartilages,
and the plate is diminished to one-third the length
of the cavity. The thickened part of this shell is
composed of numerous very thin parallel calcareous
plates, separated by thousands of small hollow columns
placed upright in the spaces between every two laminae,
which render it very light and porous. Dr. Good
says that the animals aid and regulate their motions
by the power they have of introducing air at option

31 6 Cephalox’Oda. MOLLUSCA. Mautiliu.e.

into the numerous cells of this siiell, thus at will vary-
ing their proportionable weight to the sea in which they
live; and M. d’Orbignj' is of opinion that the use of
the proi linent mucro, or point, is to protect the animals
in the frequent collisiotis they are exposed to in swim-
ming backwards. The black liquid secreted by this
species of Cuttle-lish is said to form at least the greater
jiortion of the colour called sepia. Though now it is
pretty well ascertained that the China ink of commerce
is prepared from lamp-black or finely triturated char-
coal, it was long believed to he fui-nished by this
secretion ; and Cuvier tells us that an ink is still pre-
pared from this secretion in Ital^q which only dift'ers,
he sa3's, from genuine China ink in being a little
less black ; and that it was with this preparation he
drew the designs which illustrate his memoir on the
Mollusca. The hone, as it is called, or shell of the
Sepia, is much used in the preparation of tooth-powder
and pounce. It was formerly employed by medical
men as an antacid, but is now little esteemed for
that purpose. It is of more value, when powdered,
for making moulds for silversmiths for casting articles
of small work, such as spoons, forks, and rings.

Section III.-BELEMNOPIIORA.

This section contains onl}' one recent family ; —

Family— SPIRULIDxE (Spirulas).

'Phese animals have an oblong body, with minute
terminal fins. The sessile arms have six rows of veiy
minute cups, and the tentacular arms are elongated.
The shell is entirely nacreous, discoidal, with the whirls
separate, and chambered, the chambers furnished with
a siphon. The last chamber is onl}' large enough to
contain a very small part of the animal ; the rest of the

shell being placed vertically in the posterior part of the
body, with the involute spire towards the ventral side.
Plowever dissimilar, says Cuvier, this shell is in figure
to the bone of the sepia, it does not differ much from
it in the manner of its formation. “If we imagine
that the successive layers, instead of remaining parallel
and in nigh approximation, were to become concave
towards the body, more distant, each growing a little
in breadth, and making an angle between them, we
should then have a very elongated cone, rolled up
spirally on one plane, and divided transversely into
chambers. Such is the shell of Spirula, which has
these additional characters, that the turns of the spire
do not touch, and that a single hollow column, occu-
pying the interior side of each chamber, continues
its tube with those of the other columns even to the
extremity of the shell. This is what is named the
Siphon."

Genus Spiuula {=Lituus). — The family contains
only this one recent genus. Though tlie shell of
Spirula has long been well known, specimens of one
of the species being often found brought by the gulf
stream, and thrown up on the shores of our own
country, and thousands of them scattered along those
of New Zealand, yet the animal has been very seldom
seen. An imperfect specimen was brought home some
years ago by Captain (now Admiral) Sir E. Belcher,
and served Professor Owen as the rpecimen from which
his memoir on the anatomy of the creature was drawn
up ; and more recently a nearly perfect specimen of
another species has been found by Mr. Earl off the
coast of New Zealand, which is now in the possession
of Mr. Cuming, and was figured b}' Mrs. Gray in the
Annals of Natural History, vol. xv. From the little
we know of its habits, it is most probable that the
Spirula is pelagic, and swims near the surface in calm
weather towards evening, preying on acalephie, and
sinking below the surface during the day. Three
species have been described.

Okder II.— TETKABRANCHIATA.

The animal in this order of Cephalopods creeps instead
of swims, and has its body protected hj'- a shell. The
body is destitute of fins, and is attached to the shell
(unlike that of Argonauta) by adductor muscles, and |
by a continuous horny girdle. The head is retractile
within the mantle, is not separate from the body, and
is siUTOunded bj' a great number of C3'lindrical, annii-
lated, retractile tentacles, destitute of suckers. The
eyes are slightly pedicelled, the mandibles are calcare-
ous, the siphnncle, or funnel, is slit ; and, as the name
of the order indicates, they have four gills or branchiae.
The shell is external, chambered, and is provided with
a siphnncle. “The inner layers and septa are nacre-
ous, and the outer layers porcellaneous.” — Woodward.

This order contains three families, only one of which,
however, possesses an3' recent si)ecies. i

Family— NAUTILIDZE [The Nautili).

I This family contains hut few living representatives,
but in former periods of the earth’s history they
appear to have been extremel3' numerous.

Genus Nautilus. — This is the only genus belonging
to the family. The tentacles which surround the head
of the animal are very numerous. On each side of the
head there is a double series of arms or brachial tentacles,
as they are called, thirty-six in number, lamellated on
their inner surface, and retractile within sheaths or digi-
tations which correspond to the eight ordinary arms of
the Dibranchiate species. There are also four groups of
labial tentacles, twelve or thirteen in each group, which
I apiiear to answerto the buccal membrane of the ordinai y

Nautilus.-

-MOLr^USCA.-

-Nauxilus.

317

Cultle-fishes. In addition to tLese there are four ocular
tentacles, which Professor Owen imagines to he instru-
ments of sensation, like the tentacles of the Dorides.
The dorsal pair of the brachial tentacles are expanded,
and unite to form a hood which closes the aperture of
the shell, corresponding to the shell-secreting of the

argonaut. This hood appears also to serve the animal
as an organ of locomotion or kind of foot, analogous
in action to the foot of the Gasteropods. The shell of
the Nautilus is involute or discoidal, and consists of
few whirls. Internally, it is divided into cells or
chambers, by a series of partitions or septa^ and they
are connected together by a tube or siphuncle. This
siphuncle is membraneous, with a very thin nacreous
investment, and is usually central. The last chamber
is capacious, the cavity being twice as large as all the
others put together. It is occupied by the animal, but
the rest are empty, and are known as air chambers, and
are lined by a very thin membrane. The use of th'ese
air chambers appears to be to render the shell, with its
inhabitant, of nearly the same specific gravity with the
water. “ A Nautilus pompilius (in the cabinet of Mr.
Morris),” sa3's Mr. Woodward, “ weighs one pound, and
when the siphuncle is secured, it floats with a half
pound weight in its aperture. The animal would have
displaced two pints (two and a half pounds) of water, and
therefore if it weighed three pounds, the specific gravity
of the animal and shell would scarcely exceed that of
salt water.” The object of the numerous partitions is
probably more for the purpose of guarding against the
collisions to which the shell is exposed, than for sus-
taining the pressure of the water as has been surmised
bj' some authors ; and the purpose of the siphuncle
has been suggested bv Mr. Searles Wood to be that of
maintaining the vitality of the shell during the long
life these animals most likely enjoy. The sexes in the
animals of this order are no doubt distinct, but all the
specimens that have as yet been examined of the living
Nautilus have been females. We are left to conjecture,
therefore, how far the ditferences observable in the
shells, and which have been made by conchologists of
specific value, are dependent upon sex. Dr. Melville
has been led to the conclusion from a study of these
shells, that those individuals which are umbilicated are
the males, and those without the umbilicus arc females.

THE NAUTILUS POMPILIUS— fig. 211— is the only
species the living inhabitant of which has been seen,
and as these have all been females, and the shells are
all imperforate, it has been suggested that the umbili-
cated species, N. macromphalus, is the male. A
wider range of observation, however, than can be easily
obtained, would be requisite to enable us to pronounce
with certainty on the subject. In a case so out of the
reach of common observation, and in which so many
circumstances concur to limit or baffle inquiry, it
would be little in keeping with the spirit of science to
give other than a probable opinion.

Our knowledge of the habits of the Nautilus is very
limited. Most probably, like the other cuttle-fishes,
it feeds upon Crustacea and shell-fish. As we have
mentioned before, the animals are not in the habit of
swimming ; they creep upon the ground at the bottom
of the sea. They are said, by means of their air

chambers, to rise at will to the surface and sink aerain

O

on the approach of storms to the quiet recesses of the
deep. They are also said to reside habitually at great
depths in the ocean ; but as the partitions or septa
appear to be formed periodically, and as the Nautilus
must, consequently, have frequently an air cavity
between it and the shell, it is evident that these
chambered cephalopoda could not exist in very deep
water. Empty bottles, we find, if securely corked, and
sunk with weights beyond one hundred fathoms, are
always crushed ; and therefore these shells with their

Fig. 211.

Nautilus Pompilius. Shell with animal.

air chamoers, are probably limited to a depth of twenty
or thirty fathoms at the utmost. The specimens which
have been taken alive, have been captured at the
surface ; and though they can undoubtedly swim by
means of their respiratory jets, like other cuttle-fish,
yet the form of their shell must be ill calculated for
that method of progression. Their sphere of action is
on the bed of the sea, where they creep like a snail,
only mounting to the surface when driven up by storms.
Rumphius was the first who described the animal of
the Nautilus. “ When he floats on the water,” he says,
“he puts out his head and all his barbs (tentacles),
and spreads them upon the water, with the poop (of
the shell) above water ; but at the bottom he creeps
in the reverse position, with his boat above him, and
with his head and barbs upon the ground, making a
tolerably quick progress. He keeps himself chiefly
upon the ground, creeping sometimes also into the nets
of the fishermen; but after a storm, as the weather
becomes calm, they are seen in troops floating on the
water, being driven up by the agitation of the waves,
whence one may infer, that they congregate in troops
at the bottom. This sailing, however, is not of long
continuance ; for having taken in all their tentacles
they upset their boat, and so return to the bottom.”
B3’ what mechanism this ascent and descent of the
Nautilus is effected is still a matter of conjecture.
Professor Owen, whose “ Memoir upon the Pearly
Nautilus,” is described by Dr. Johnston “as one of
the best and most beautiful monographs in compara-
tive anatomy,” thinks that nothing more is necessary

318 Gasteropoda. -MOLLUSCA. Gasteropoda.

to enable it to rise than the full unfolrling of its organs,

horny cincture and muscles of adhesion from the rest

and their protrusion from the shell. “ I incline rather

of that cavity.”

to the conclusion,” he says, “ that the sole functions of

The shell of Nuutilm pompilius appears to have been

the air chambers is that of the balloon ; and that the

known to Aristotle, and is mentioned in sufficiently

power which the animal enjoys of altering at will its

precise terms by several of the ancient authors. It

specific gravity must he analogous to that possessed by

has long been used as an ornamental substance, and

the fresh water testaceous Gasteropods, and that it

the Dutch have been for a great length of time fond of

depenas chiefly upon changes in the extent of the

carving it with marine sketches — ships and dolphins,

surface which the soft parts expose to the water.

&c. In India, too, they ornament it in a similar manner.

according as they may be expanded to the utmost.

by carving and painting grotesque devices on its outer

and spread abroad beyond the aperture of the shell, or

surface, and converting them into elegant drinking cups.

he contracted into a dense mass within its cavity. The

Four species have been described, two of which.

Nautilus may likewise possess the additional advantage

however, have been considered by some naturalists as

of producing a slight vacuum in the posterior parts of

only the males of the other two. They are natives of

the chamber of occupation, which is shut out by the

the Indian Ocean, China Seas, and Persian Gulf.

Class II.- GASTEROPODA (Univalves).

The class of Gasteropods, the Univalves or Snails, are

being inclosed in a cavity on the back, in some being

what may be called the of the Mollusca. Of all

lodged in a furrow between the mouth and the foot.

the classes into which this sub-kingdom is divided, the

and in others, being situated upon the back of the

Gasteropods present in the most prominent and most

animal, and floating freely in the water. In general

marked degree the leading and essential features of

the respiratory organs are atrophied on the left side.

molluscous organization. The land snail and the

though in some, as the Chitons, &c., they are repeated

periwinkle will give a very good general idea of the

on both sides. Usually, also, the Gasteropods are

animals of this class. The animals have all a distinct

unsymmetrical in conformation; the body instead of

head furnished with eyes and tentacles, and when full

being developed lengthwise, in a straight line, taking

grown have a more or less distinct foot, placed under

somewhat of a spiral direction, so that the mouth and

the body, by which they are enabled to creep on the

the excretory opening are brought in a slight degree

ground or on the surface of the water. This foot in

near to each other, instead of being placed at the tw'O

some is a broad fleshy disc (see Murex), in others it is

extremities of the body.

narrow and formed like a furrow (see Strombus), or it is

Their food is either vegetable or animal ; and the

thin and presents the appearance of a slim plate placed

mouth is provided with a denticulated tongue. “ This

in a vertical position. This organ is for the most part

tongue is muscular, and armed with recurved spines

of a uniform structure throughout, its muscular fibres

(or lingual teeth), arranged in a great variety of patterns.

being interwoven with each other, and not collected

which are eminentlj’’ characteristic of the genera. Their

into distinct and separate hands. Some have it very

teeth are amber-coloured, glossjq and translucent; and

large, and it would appear that the larger and broader

being silicious (they are insoluble in acid), they can be

the foot, the slower is the motion of the animal, the

used like a file, for the abrasion of very hard substances.

narrower and more elongated it is, the quicker is its

With them the limpet rasps the stony nullipore, the

progress. They are, however, proverbiallj' slow of

whilk bores holes in other shells, and the cuttle-fish

pace, as every one must know who has watched the

doubtless uses its tongue in the same manner as the

march of the common snail ; and even it is one of the

cat. The tongue, or lingual ribbon, usually forms a

quickest walkers of the class. The heart is almost

triple band, of wdiich the central part is called the

alwaj's composed of a ventricle and an auricle, and its

racMs, and the lateral parts pleurce ; the rachidian teeth

position is near the back of the animal, but on the side

sometimes form a single series, overlapping each other.

opposite to that in which the reproductive organs are

or there are lateral teeth on each side of a median

situated. The arterial system is generally well developed.

series. The teeth on the pleura: are termed undni;

but the veins are imperfectly so ; the venous blood in

they are extremely numerous in the plant- eating

many of the species flowing through open spaces among

Gasteropods. Sometimes the tongue forms a short

the different organs. Some of the Gasteropods are

semicircular ridge, contained between the jaw’s; at

aquatic, while others are denizens of the dry land. The

others it is extremely elongated, and when wdthdrawn ;

organs of respiration, therefore, are constructed in such

its folds extend backwards to the stomach. The

a manner as to enable the animals either to breathe

lingual ribbon of the limpet is longer than the whole

atmospheric air or respire water. Those of the former

animal ; the tongue of the whilk has one hundred rows

group are provided with lungs, which have an external

of teeth ; and the great slug has one hundred and sixty

communication to admit air, opening under the outer

rows, with one hundred and eighty teeth in each row.

edge of the mouth. In the latter, respiration is carried

The front of the tongue is frequently curved or bent

on by means of branchiae or gills, the exact position of

quite over ; it is the part of the instrument in use, and its

which varies very much in different species ; in manv

teeth are often broken or blunted. The posterior part

Gasteropoda. MOLLUSCA. Gasteropoda. 31 9

of the lingual ribbon usually has its. margins rolled
together and united, forming a tube, which is presumed
to open gradually. Tire new teeth are developed from
behind forwards, and are brought successively into use,
as in the sharks and rays among fishes.” — ( Woodwm-d.)
— See figures of Buccinum and Littorina — figs, 52 and
57. When first hatched, the youthful Gasteropods are
always provided with a shell ; but in many it is con-
cealed when they reach the adult state, by a fold of
the mantle, and in a number of species it is thrown
off altogether at an early stage of their existence and
never reappears.*

The species which respire atmospheric air, the
pulmoniferous mollusca, undergo no change as they
approach maturity. When born they resemble their
parents in all things but size. But those which respire
water, the branchiferous mollusca, undergo a consider-
able metamorphosis. They commence life in a small
nautiloid looking shell, large enough to contain their
whole body, and having the aperture closed by an
operculum. The head is provided with a pair of
ciliated arms- or fins of considerable size, which enables
them to swim freely in the water, instead of crawling
at the bottom. At this early period of their existence,
all these water-breathers resemble each other, so that
“ there is scarcely any difference between the young of
eoUs and aplysia, or huccwum and Vermetus." — (Af.
Edwards.) Development, however, soon commences;
the mantle begins to secrete calcareous matter, and this,
mixed with the epithelium or layer of animal matter,
is moulded upon the body of the animal into the form
which each genus is destined to assume. In form and
general appearance the shells of the Gasteropods vary
very much. They are usually, however, nearly spiral,
though sometimes tubular or conical, and except in
the family of Chitons, are composed of only one valve.
The terminology used by conchologists, will be best
understood by a reference to Plate 1, where the terms
used are explained by the figures.

The class Gasteropoda is a very extensive one, and
its division into orders and families has engaged the
attention of many naturalists. A variety of methods
have been proposed, but it would be uninteresting to
the general reader to enter into details here. We shall
simply state the arrangement of Dr. Gray as adopted
in our great national natural history repository, the
British Museum. In his classical “ Introduction to
Conchology,” Dr. Johnston thus expresses himself with
regard to this system, “ There can, I think, be only one
opinion as to the great merits of this method. Its
superiority as a whole to any previous one can scarcely
be questioned ; and the new views taken as to the
position of several of the families in their respective
orders, as well as in regard of the genera which are
made to enter into the composition of the families.

Tills is the case with the order Nudibranchiata (Gymno-
hrancldata) ; the larvre being provided with a shell and fins on
the head, both of which are lost soon after development begins
to progress, the shell most probably disappearing at the time
the animals acquire a locomotive foot.

nothing less than the most extensive and critical know-
ledge of the entire class could have suggested.”

The class G-asteropoda, Belly-walkers, or Snails,
is divided into two large groups or sub-elasses, dependent
upon the structure of their respiratory organs. In the
first sub-class, the Ctenibranchiata, equivalent to
the Prosobraechiata of M. Edwards, these organs
are in the form of branchice or gills ; and they are
comb-like, being formed of one or two series of lamellae
or plates under or on the inner surface of the mantle
on the back of the neck (rarely round its edges). In
the species composing this group, the gill cavity is
open, and both adults and larvte possess shells, the
latter being provided, in addition to these, with deciduous
ciliated fins on the head. They are either unisexual,
or hermaphrodite and self-impregnating. In the second
sub-class, the Hetekobranchiata, equivalent to the
Opisthobranchiata of M. Edwards, the respiratory
organs are variously formed; some having branchise
or gills, which are exposed or only slightly covered by
a fold of the mantle ; others having a simple lung, or
a closed cavity lined with a network of respiratory
vessels, like the lungs of beasts and birds. The species
are all hermaphrodite, with reciprocal impregnation.

The first sub-class, CTENOBRANCHiATA,is divided into
two orders. Thefirst, Pectinibranchiata, is characterized
by the comb-like branchiae or gills consisting of only
one (rarely of two) longitudinal series of lamellae on
the left side of the mouth, over the back of the neck.
The gill cavity is open, the mantle edge being free from
the back of the neck. The animals are unisexual, and
the shells are spiral, andgenerally provided with a distinct
operculum. The second order, Scutibrancliiata, have
the gills consisting of two series of lamellae, forming
one or two series over the back of the neck or under
the edge of the mantle round the foot. The animals
are hermaphrodite, self-impregnating, and the shells are
conical, spiral, or symmetrical.

The second large group or sub-class, the Hetero-
BRANCHiATA, is divided into three orders. The first,
Pleurobrancliiata, are characterized by the branchiae
or gills forming a tuft on the side of the back, under a
fold of the mantle. The animals are hermaphrodite,
with reciprocal impregnation, and the shells are spiral.
The adult and young are both shell bearing, and the
latter are provided with deciduous cephalic fins. The
animal and foot are elongate, formed for walking. The
second order, Gymnobrancliiata (or Nudibranchiata),
have the gills exposed or contractile into cavities on
the surface of the mantle. The animals are heima-
phrodite, with reciprocal impregnation, and the adults
are destitute of shells, the larv^ only possessing that
appendage. The third order, PneumobrancMata (or
Pulmonata), differs from all the others in the animals
respiring free air in a closed chamber lined with pul-
monic vessels. The animals are hermaphrodite, with
reciprocal impregnation, and both adults and larvae are
shell bearing, the latter being formed like the parent
and having no cephalic fins.

320 Gasteropoda. MOLLUSCA. Toxifeua.

Sub-Class I. — C T E N 0 B R A N C H I A T A, Gray—

Prosobranchiata, M. Edwards.

The cavity in wliicli the gills, in this large group, are

hinder angle of the gill cavity, and mouth of the shell.

placed, forms an open hag in the last whirl of the

The sub-class Ctenobranchiata comprehends within

shell, over the back of the neck; and there is a con-

itself the greater part of the Gasteropodous mollusca,

stant current of water passing over the gills, entering

whieh are furnished with large and well-developed

at the front and making its way out near the inner

shells.

Order L— PECTINIBKANCHrATA.

This order contains a larger number of species than any

greater extent, the teeth are placed in one or several

other order of Gasteropods, and is divided into three

rows on the surface of a linear, elongate, cartilaginous

sub-orders, the characters of which are taken in a great

tongue-membrane. In the third sub-order, Rostrifera,

measure from the structure and form of the teeth. In

the head is produced into a beak or rostrum, and the

the first sub-order, Toxifera, the head is small, and the

teeth are disposed in seven longitudinal rows on an

fleshy proboscis with which it is furnished is retractile

elongated linear tongue-membrane, partly received

within the body. The teeth are elongate, awl-shaped.

into the visceral cavity. This disposition of the teeth

and implanted in this proboscis. The eyes are sessile.

seems to be nearly connected with the habits of the

that is, are not placed on a footstalk, but are situated

animals belonging to these sub-orders. The Probosci-

on the outer side, near or on the end of the feelers

difera. for instance are carnivorous, or animal feeders ;

or tentacles. In the second sub-order, Prohosci-

and the Rostrifera are phytophagous or vegetable

difera, which has the head small and the eyes sessile.

feeders ; whilst the Toxifera, which are said to feed on

as in the previous section, but the retractile proboscis

both animal and vegetable matters, inflict rather severe

more lengthened and capable of being extruded to a

wounds upon those who incautiously handle them.

Sub-order I.-

-TOXIFEKA.

The structure of the teeth brings into this group several

implanted in the substance of this proboseis, are in two

genera of shells, some of which have hitherto been

rows, arranged in pairs, and are sharp pointed, more or

placed wide apart from each other.

less swollen at the base, but hollow and barbed at the

tip. The mantle of the animal is entire, covers the

Family I.— CONIDAl {The Cones).

interior of the shell, and is prolonged anteriorly into a

fleshy siphon or canal, cylindrical in form and passing

We commence with the Cones, a family rich in

beyond the mouth of the shell, fig. 50 c. This siphon is

species, and the pride of collectors. The animal of

open at its free extremity, and its use is to carry the

the Cones crawls on a long and very narrow foot.

water to bathe the gills. As the name imports, the

which is truncated anteriorly, and bears upon its

shell is of a conical form, with generally a very short

posterior extremity a small horny annular operculum,

spire ; in many cases the upper whirls being so com-

with an apical nucleus. This operculum is very small

pressed, and the spire so short and flat that the shell

compared with the size of the shell, is much shorter

can stand erect when placed upon a flat or even surface.

than the aperture, and so narrow that it allows the

The last whirl, indeed, constitutes of itself the greatest

animal to retract it deeply into the interior — fig. 50 h.

portion of its whole surface, and terminates at the

The head is moderately small, and at the extremity of

base rather by a depression than by a notch The

the proboscis, which is a prolongation of the head, is

aperture is narrow, linear — occupying the whole length

situated the mouth, which is surrounded by a funnel-

of the last whirl — and having the lips generally straight

shaped, rostrum-like veil, slit above.* The teeth.

and parallel. The outer lip is simple and sharp-edged.

• In the Cones the foot is small and of weak muscular

cavity, and this cavity it applies to aid its weakness ; for it

power, says Dr. Johnston, and we might hence conclude that

performs, like the oral aperture of the leech, the office of a

the animal possesses little facility in locomotion, “ yet so rich

sucker, by which the head is readily affi.ved to foreign bodies,

is all creation,” he adds, “with proofs of contrivances adapted

Adanson; Senegal, 89. Thus the animal facilitates its progress,

to annul a defect, that we might anticipate to find some remedy

and is enabled to drag along the shell, of a weight and size

here — and it is so. The mouth of the snail is situated in a

otherwise quite burdensome to it.” — P. 127

Cones. MOLLUSCA. Auger-shells. ‘62 1

sometimes a little curved, and always notched at its
upper extremity, and the inner lip is marked with a
few elevated stria on its anterior termination. In
general the shell of the Cones is thick and solid, and
is covered with a thick tenacious epidermis ; a covering,
however, seldom seen on Cones in cabinets, as the
dealers generally take great pains to remove it in
order to show the fine polish and the beautiful colours
underneath.

There are few genera of shells more rich in the
number of species than that of the Cones, and no one
rivals it in rare and expensive objects for the cabinet.
There is none in which the colours are more diversified,
or in which the form appears to have so much constancy
and uniformity ; two peculiarities which have always
rendered the distinction of species very difficult. The
species are found in southern and tropical seas for the
most part, ranging northwards, however, as far as the
Mediterranean, and southwards to the Cape of Good
Hope. They become more numerous and more varied
in their colours, as we approach the equatorial seas,
and they form bright and beautiful ornaments to the
shores of tropical islands. They seem to prefer obscure
holes in the rocks, where they lead a predatory life,
boring into the substance of shells of other molluscs
for the purpose of sucking the juice from their bodies.
They crawl but slowly, and usually with their tenta-
cles extended in a straight line before them. They are
very timid, and shrink within the shells quickly on the
approach of danger. — (Adams.) As we have already
mentioned, on the other page, some of the species have
been found to bite severely when incautiously handled.
Mr. A. Adams, in the voyage of the Samarang, had an
opportunity of witnessing the fact. Speaking of the
animal of Conus aulicus, “ its bite,” he says, “ pro-
duces a venomed wound, accompanied bj’’ acute pain,
and making a small, deep, triangular mark, which is
succeeded by a watery vesicle. At the little island of
Mayo, one of the Moluccas, near Ternate, Sir E. Belcher
was bitten by one of these Cones, which suddenly exserted
its proboscis as he took it out of the v/ater with his
hand, and he compares the sensation he experienced
to that produced by the burning of phosphorus under
the skin.”

Extravagant prices have been given, at various
times, for individual specimens of Cones. The Peer-
less Cone, C. cedo-mdli—fig. 212 a — is one of these, and
though not so rare as it was some time ago, is still
much prized by collectors and amateurs. Some of the
varieties of this shell are exceeding beautiful. Another
species which formerly commanded a high price, is the
Admiral Cone, C. ammiralis. In Holland a single
specimen of this handsome Cone has fetched the large
sum of five hundred florins. But perhaps the largest
sum given for a single individual shell, is that paid for
the Conus gloria-maris, or the Glory of the sea, now
in the fine collection of Cones in the British Museum.
This beautiful Cone was at one time the gem of the
collection of the late Earl of Tankerville. At the sale
of this nobleman’s museum in 1825, this shell was sold
for the large sum of one hundred guineas ! The late
lamented Mr. Broderip informed the writer of this,
that having vowed he would never give such a large
VoL. II. 97

sum as £100 for anj' shell, and yet being exceedingly
desirous to possess this treasure, laid down before the
late Mr. G. B. Sowerby, who had the sale of the col-
lection, £99 19s. 6d. ! but was refused. It realized

Fig. 212.

Conus cedo-nulli— a, shell ; J, operculum ; c, animal.

one hundred guineas ; but the person who became the
happy possessor of the coveted prize, a few years
afterwards became bankrupt; his collection was brought
to the hammer, and the same shell was then purchased
by Mr. Broderip for _£50. Mr. Broderip’s entire col-
lection, some years after that, became the property of
the nation, and this beautifid Cone, of which it formed
a chief gem, is now in the British Museum. We are
not aware that the animals of any of the Cones have
been anywhere used as food, except in China. Osbeck
informs us, in his “ Voyage to China,” that the animal
of the Chinese Cone, Conus Chinensis, is put into water,
and sold in every street in Canton by the name of
Ha-in-yo.

Family II. — ACUSIDHH (Auger-shells).

The family of Auger-shells (forming the genus
Terebra of Lamarck, the family AcusidjE of Gray),
though differing considerably in the form of the shell
from that of the Cones, resemble in many respects the
animal of that genus. The mantle is entire, the siphon
elongate and recurved, the foot is small and compressed,
and the teeth which are implanted in the fleshy pro-
boscis are elongate, swollen at the base, and denticulated
as in those of Conus. The operculum is annulai'.
The shell, however, is turreted, elongate, pointed, and
has a very long spire. The animals of many species
are nearly blind, or if they have eyes, these organs are
exceedingly minute and placed near or on the top of
the very small, short tentacles. The mouth is exposed
and not surrounded by a rostrum-like veil. The
aperture of the shell is ovate, short, and notched in
front ; the inner lip is rather concave, and the outer is
thin. The canal is short and recurved. The species
are numerous. They live only below high water mark,
and are mostly inhabitants of tropical seas. Only one
species has been found as far north as the Mediterranean,
the rest being found in India, China, and West America.

THE SPOTTED AUGER (Terebra maculatu) is the
best example of the family Amsidae. It is the largest

322 Gasteropoda. MOLLUSCA. Pkoboscidifeka.

of the family, is of a cream-white colour, very hand-

operculum, which varies considerably, and forms a good

somely marked with rows of brown spots. The Spotted

character for separating the species into groups or sub-

Auger is from six to eight inches long, and of an

genera. The shell is fusiform, with a turriculated spire,

elegant shape. It is a native of the southern seas and

more or leas elongate, with roundish whirls, and the

the Indian ocean.

aperture, which is ovate, terminates in a more or less

elongate, straight canal. The Pleiirotomse are carni-

Family III.— PLEUEOTOMID^ (Slit-mouths).

vorous in their habits, and the family contains many

species, which are world-wide, extending from Green-

The family of Slit-mouths or Pleueotomas

land to Australia, and from low water to one hundred

(Pleurotomidce), have somewhat nearer relations with

fathoms. None of the species are of great size, the

the Cones than tlie Auger-shells. The teeth are simple.

largest scarcely exceeding four or five inches in length.

elongate and rather enlarged at the base, and the outer

THE TOWER OP BABEL (Pleurotoma Bahylonica),

lip of the shell has a notch or slit at or near its upper

a native of the Indian seas and the Moluccas, is the

extremity. The siphon is produced, and the mantle

typical species of the genus. It is from three to four

has a slit in the hinder part of the outer side, corre-

inches in length, turriculated, with convex whirls ; is

spending with the notch or slit in the lip of the shell.

of a white colour, with circular keels or ridges which

The foot is oval, short, thin on its edges, and carries on

are sjjotted transversely with black square dots. The

its posterior extremity a pretty thick, horny, annular

canal is rather long.

Sub-order IL— PEOBOSCIDIFEEA.

This sub order contains a much larger number of

the eyes are sessile, generally on the outer side near

species than the preceding, and many exceedingly

the base of these tentacles, though sometimes they are

interesting and valuable shells are found amongst them.

placed at the tip or behind them. The animals are

The animals are carnivorous, feeding upon living mol-

unisexual, and the females are generally much larger.

lusca and other animals, and they are often found boring

and have much more ventricose whirls to their shells.

round holes in shells to arrive at their inhabitants.

than the males. The eggs are contained in a kind

“ Many wage war on their own relatives, and take

of horny or leathery (coriaceous) cases, each holding

them by assault ; the bivalve may close, and the oper-

many eggs, but only a few of which ever come to

ciliated nerite retire into his home, but the enemy with ,

perfection. “ The cases of Buccinum undatum (our

rasp-like tongue, armed with silicioiis teeth, files a hole

common wliilk) and Fusus despectus have been mis-

through the shell — vain shield where instinct guides

taken for the eggs of the oyster, and called Oystersput.

the attack ! Of the myriads of small shells which the

This error is the more remarkable as oysters are ovovi-

sea heaps up in every sheltered ‘ ness,’ a large pro-

viparous, the young being found in the branchiae of the

portion will be found thus bored by the whilks or

parent in the month of July ; the eggs of Purpura and

purples ; and in fossil shell-beds, such as that in the

other genera have, by a similar error, been described

Touraine, nearly half the bivalves and sea-snails are

as a species of Tuhularia." — (Gray.) The lingual

perforated, the relics of Antediluvian banquets.” —

ribbon of these animals is placed near the apex of

( Woodward.) At page 1 84, we have described the teeth

the exserted proboscis, and the teeth are arranged in

of the gasteropodous mollusca, and have mentioned

one, three, or seven rows ; the gills are placed in two

there, that they are silicious in their composition ; and

series along with some mucous filaments. The oper-

being placed in the Proboscidifera or carnivorous species

culum, when present, is horny and annular. The

in several rows on a lingual ribbon, which is muscular

shells of the different species are subject to great

in its structure, we can easily conceive what powerful

variation, according to the roughness or smoothness

weapons they prove in penetrating the hardest shells

of the sea they live in, and the quantity or quality of

or coverings of their pre^L As animals which live on

their food. Some of the common whilks (Buccinum

animal food require the blood to be more perfectly

undatum), for instance, are thick and rugose, others are

aerated than those which feed upon vegetables, so in

very thin, even, and finely coloured. These have been

the Proboscidifera we find that they are provided with

described as distinct species. Examples may be seen

a siphon attached to the inner side of the front part of the

in the fine collection of shells in the British Museum.

mantle, which enables the water more freely to arrive

We will now, taking that magnificent collection as

at their breathing organs; and the shells are always

our guide, proceed to mention some of the more

formed with a canal placed in front of the pillar in

important families of this sub-order.

order to protect this siphon from injury. The proboscis

is long, and being furnished with a number of muscles.

Family I. — CASSIDULIDAl (Fig-shells).

can be exserted a great way from the head, and with-

drawn again like the horns of a snail, so as to be hidden

The family of Fig-shells (genus Pyrula of Lamarck ;

within the body — see fig. 52, proboscis of Buccinum.

family Cassidulidee of Gray) are the first in order. As

The tentacles are placed close together at the base of

constituted by the celebrated Lamarck, the genus

the proboscis, or are united by a veil at that part ; and

Pyrula contains several types dissimilar amongst them-

Fig-shells. MOLLUSCA. Rock-shei,ls. 323

selves; and of late, conchological systematists have
made various alterations in it.

This family", as now constituted, contains those
species, the animals of which have the siphon of the
mantle and the canal of the shell long and straight,
and the foot simple in front. The shell is spiral in
form or pear-shaped, the pillar or columella smooth,
the spire short, and the outer lip generally thin. The
'operculum is not always present, but when it does
occur, it is of an ovate figure, small in size, and
acute or claw-shaped. The species are not numerous,
but many of them are of considerable size, as the
Fyrula (Cassiclulus) patula, from Panama, on the
western coast of America, a rather ponderous shell
with a large, ovate, expanded mouth, a broad, straight,
open canal, and a very short spire ; the Pusus {Cassi-
dulus) colosseus of Lamarck with a very long canal, a
rounded form, generally covered with a rough, strong,
epidermis, and as its name imports, of considerable
magnitude, being indeed one of the largest species
of the sub-order to which it belongs. They are
natives of tropical seas, and the animals oi patula and
melongerta, the one found on the mud banks of Panama,
and the other in Jamaica, are used by the natives as
food. Some of the species, especially those belonging
to the sub-genus Fulgur, are reversed shells, that is,
the whirls turn from right to left, and the mouth is on
the left side of the axis when the shell is in its natural
position.

Family TI. — MURICIDiE {Rod-shells).

The family of Rock-shells is the next in order.
This is a very numerous family, and contains many
of the largest and most beautiful shells that adorn
our cabinets ; shells remarkable alike for the delicacy
of their sculpture and variety of colours with which
they are endowed. The animals have the mantle
inclosed, and the margin produces ridges or varices
at intervals across the shell, becoming extended in
front, and forming a straight, more or less elongate,
siphon. The shell is spiral, often tuireted, more or less
extended at the fore part into a straight siphonal canal ;
and the columella or pillar is smooth. The operculum
is horny, annular, and has the nucleus apical or sub-
apical.

The ROCK-SHELLS, genus Murex of Linnseus, origi-
nally contained a great many species which are now
referred to several distinct genera. De Blainville and
Lamarck separated many of these, and since their time
others have been removed altogether, while several have
been formed into sub-genera or groups. The recent or
living species are numerous and are world-wide in their
distribution, being most abundant on the west coast of
tropical America, and occur also in numbers in China,
Africa, and the West Indies. They are in general
handsome shells, and are remarkable for having the
whirls ornamented with three or more continuous, longi-
tudinal ridges or varices, secreted by the margin of the
mantle, as already stated, and generally formed on the
completion of about a third of a whirl annually.* These

* The animal, at certain periods of its growth, expands the
edge of its mantle, and during this time deposits appendages

varices are sometimes rounded or spinous, at others they
are branched or foliaceous, and in some species again
they are lamellar. The aperture is generally ovate,
and in some species is contracted in front into a long,
narrow, tubular canal, in others into a moderate or
short canal, recurved or bent up to the right, often
partly closed, and occasionally tubular. The oper-
culum is ovate, with the nucleus sub-apical, within the
apex. Among the species which have the rounded
or spinous varices, and the long tubular canal forming
the restricted genus Murex, we may mention the
Murex cornutus of the Indian seas, commonly known
by the name of Hercules’ Club, a prettily marked shell
about seven inches in length ; the M. brandaris, a
native of the shores of the Mediterranean, and which is
often used by the Neapolitans as an article of food;
and the M. crassispina and tenuispina, well known
to collectors bj'- their names of the Thorny Woodcock
and Snipe ; names derived from their long and slender
canals or beaks; the latter also, from its numerous
regularly arranged spines, being known to collectors
by the name of Venus’ Comb. Among those species
which have the varices garnished with plaited leaves
torn or divided into branches (foliaceous), and the
canal moderate or short and recurved (forming the

Fig. 213.

genus CMcoreus or Endive-leaf rock-shells), we find
the varices vary in number, being generally either three
or six, though sometimes more. In those which have
only three branched varices, there is on each of the
alternate divisions of the shell a more or less well-

on the edge of its mantle for their protection ; these expansions
of the mantle are then gradually withdrawn, and the portion ot
the shell which the animal forms between this time and the
next development of the appendages, is of the common shape ;
but the expansions produced for their protection are left on the
surface of the shell, forming variously shaped hands across the
whirls, which have been called varices, from some of them
looking like dilated veins ; these varices and the spines upon
them, being formed on the expanded appendages of the mantle,
exactly correspond to them in form, and afford good charac-
ters for the determination of the groups and species. — Gray
Synopsis of British Museum, 1S42.

324: Gastkropoda. MOLLUSCA. MuKiciDAi.

fleveloped tubercle — see the accompanying figure of
Mur ex {Chicoreus) in flatus, fig. 213. These tubercles,
however, in many instances are themselves produced
into varices, and then the species have six. Most of
the species of Chicoreus yield a purple dye, and though
the little common purple sliell, Purpura lapillus, was for
a long time considered the shell which yielded the
celebrated Tyrian djm, later observations and researches
would seem to prove, that perhaps the most common
shell used by the ancients was a species of this genus,
Murex {Chicoreus') trunculus. Fabius Columna, a
Neapolitan nobleman, and the best authority on this
question, maintained that the purpura of Pliny, who
gives a good account of the manner in which this dye
was procured, is the Murex trunculus, and his state-
ment has been apparently confirmed by a late traveller
who had visited the site of the ancient Tyre. In a
communication made to the Eoyal Irish Academy, Dr.
Wilde stated, that having been engaged in investigating
the ruins of that ancient city, he discovered several
circular apertures or reservoirs cut in the solid sand-
stone rock close to the water’s edge, along tire southern
shore of the peninsula. These in shape resembled
large pots, and vailed in size from two to eight feet
in diameter, and from four to five in depth. Some
were in clusters, others isolated, and several were
collected in pairs near a conduit about a foot deep.
Many of these pots or reservoirs were filled with
breccia, solely composed of broken up shells, bound
together by carbonate of lime, &c. This mass, a portion
of which was exhibited to the Academy, was exceedingly
heavy, of adamantine hardness, and the shells of which
it was composed, appeared to be all of one species, and
from the sharpness of their fracture were evidently
broken by art, and not worn or water washed. The
shells, he says, were examined by eminent naturalists,
and were pronounced to be the Murex trunculus.
Pliny informs us that when the shells were small they
were bruised in mortars or certain mills; and Dr.
Wilde expressed it as his opinion that the reservoirs
he discovered at Tyre were the vats or mortars in
which the shells were broken up to obtain the dye.
The liquor which composed the dye is contained in a
vein placed behind the neck, and according to the old
writers was at first of the colour and consistence of
cream. This Tyrian purple was the most costly and
brilliant dye of which we read in history. Wool which
had been well dyed, in the reign of Augustus sold for
about £3G per pound weight. None but those invested
with the very highest dignities of the state were allowed
to use it, and laws were enacted inflicting severe
penalties, and even death, upon all who should presume
to wear it under the dignity of an emperor. It w’as
discovered by the Phoenicians, and is described by
Pliny as “ that glorious colour, so full of state and
majestie, that the Roman lictors with their rods,
halberds, and axes, make way for; this is it that
graceth and setteth out the children of princes and
noblemen ; this maketh the distinction between a
knight and counsellor of state ; this is called for and
put on when they ofl’er sacrifice to pacify the gods ;
this giveth a lustre to all sorts of garments; to conclude,
our great generals of the field, and victorious captains,

in their triumphs weave this purple in their mantles,
interlaced and embroidered with gold among. No
marvel, therefore, if purples be so much sought for ;
and men are to be held excused if they run a madding
after purples.” — {Holland's Pliny.) About the middle
of the tw'elfth century, the dyers at Tyre were inter-
rupted in their pursuits, and from that time the
knowledge of their practice seems to have died com-
pletely away. But though the art of dying purple was
lost to the places which gave it birth, we find that a
similar dye was used in our island at a very early
period, and its employment continued down to the end
of the seventeenth century. The mollusc, as we shall
see when we come to the genus Purpura, used in this
country was the Purpura lap)illus,

THE SPINDLE SHELLS (genus Fusus of Lamarck)
are characterized by the shells possessing only rudi-
mentary or no varices, the inner lip being smooth, and
the operculum ovate, acute, with the* nucleus apical.

The recentspeciesarenumerous,upwards of onehundred
having been described, and varying a good deal from
each other in several characters, have been distributed
through four sub-genera or groups. They are world-
wide in their distribution, being found in Asia, America,
the Pacific ocean, Australia, New Zealand, and Africa.

Some of them have the mouth of the shell produced
into a long and nearly straight canal, the shell itself
being spindle-shaped, and the spire elongate, many
whirled, and conic. These constitute the genus Colus.

In the species of this genus, the animal is red. The
type is the shell which was described by Linnaeus as
Murex colus, the Fusus colus of Lamarck, and othei's.

Other species have the canal very short and straight,
the shell itself of an ovate fusiform shape, with a conic
spire and a papillary apex. These constitute the genus
Chrysodomus, and in the species belonging to it, the
animal is olive.

THE MUREX ANTIQUUS of Linnaeus, the Fusus
antiquus of Lamarck and succeeding authors, is the
type of this group. The shell of Chrysodomus antiquus
is oval, sub-fusiform, and densely and strongly striated,
and large, specimens measure seven inches in length,
and five in breadth. It is a native of many parts of

Great Britain, ranging from five to thirtj' fathoms, and
preferring as its habitat, shell banks. It is a gracefully
formed shell, and is used by the natives of Zetland as a
lamp. It is suspended horizontally by a cord, and the
cavity of the .«hell being filled with oil, the canal serves to
hold the wick. A sketch of this primitive lamp may be
seen in Dr. Johnston’s Introduction to Conchology, and
he exclaims, “ examine the sketch, and then tell me if it
is not probable that some of the most elegant patterns
left us by the Greeks have been suggested by a similar
primitive piactice?” The animal is used by the fisher-
men on our coast as a bait. The egg capsules of this
species and the young have been described by Edward
Forbes and Dr. Johnston. The capsules are half an
inch in diameter, convex outwardly, and concave on
the inner side. They are coarse and corrugated, and
are piled one above another in a conical heap, three
inches or so high, two in diameter, and attached firmly
by a broad basis to rocks in deep water. Previous to
their being excluded, the young are perfectly formed,

Gasteuopoda. MOLLUSCA. Mukicidaj. 325

the eyes, tentacula, and operculum of the animal are
very distinct, and the little shell which is of a uniform
flesh colour has three or four whirls, and is fully four
lines in length.

The shells of the two large genera just described,
Murex and Fusus, have their canal and the siphon of
the animal produced, and the species are often very
large and bear amongst themselves a general resem-
blance; there are others, however, which are for the
most part of small size, have the siphon of the animal
recurved, and the canal of the shell very short and
recurved, or reduced to a notch. A great many of the
species belonging to this group have been described by
authors as a species of Buccinum. The structure of the
animals, however, their dentition, and the form of the
operculum, are sufficient to remove them from the
Buccinidoe, and connect them intimately with the large
family Murlcidoe.

Genus Pisania. — In this genus the shells are ovate
and furnished with rudimentary varices, and have an
ovate mouth, the inner lip with a few slight plaits in
front, and the outer lip crenulated. The spire is conic,
generally waved by the indistinct varices, and the
ovate, acute operculum has the edge entire. The
species of Pisania are numerous, upwards of one
hundred recent shells having been referred to it, natives
of the warm seas of the West Indies, Africa, India, the
Philippine islands, and those in the south seas, Western
America, &c.

Genus Columbella. — The shells of this genus are
small, obovate or fusiform, have a long, narrow aperture,
and the outer lip always thickened, especially towards
the middle of its length. The inner lip is crenulated,
the canal very short and curved, and the whole shell is
generally covered with a thick epidermis. In the true
Columhellce the operculum is ovate, acute, with the
nucleus apical and sub-acute, and the edge entire ; but
in many species which have generally been described
as belonging to this genus, this appendage is like that
of the Purpuroe, or ovate, with the nucleus on the
middle of the outer edge. These form the genus
Nitidella and are now placed amongst the Buccinidoe.
I'he Columbella are all marine shells, prettily marked,
and are found upon rocks or congregating about stones
in shallow water. They are generally found abundantly
upon the fuci which cover the rocks, attracted there
no doubt by the numerous animals that take shelter
amongst the leaves of these marine plants. The recent
species of Columbella and Nitidella which have been
described, amount to nearly two hundred ; they inhabit
the Mediterranean, the seas of the West Indies, India,
California, and the Gallapagos islands. The genera
Latrunculus and Cominella are two others of the shoi t
canal group.

Genus Latkunculus. — The species of this genus
were formerly described as Eburnce. This latter genus
is now, however, restricted to those highly polished
shells, which like Ancillaria, have their surface covered
with an enamel coat, and will be found like that genus
among the Olividee. In Latrunculus the shell is ovate,
and the whirls smooth and flattened behind, and
generally covered with a thin brown epidermis. The
animals, as observed by Mr. A. Adams during the

voyage of the Samarang, are deliberate in their move-
ments, thrusting out their tentacula and crawling along
with a slow and measured pace. They are l apld, how-
ever, and quick, when alarmed, in perceiving their
enemy, and immediately retract their soft parts within
the shell. Living Latrunculi are very common in the
China Sea. “ They generally live in a muddy bottom
and in about fourteen fathoms of water. The Chinese
ffshermen along the coast frequently bring them up in
their nets together with several crustaceans; and I
have seen them carefully set them apart in the stern of
their craft, as if for the purpose of being eaten.” —
{Adams!)

Genus Cominella. — In this genus the shell is
smooth, withoiit rudimentary varices ; like that ot the
genus Buccinum (bucciniform) in shape. The spire is
short and acute, the last whirl large and ventricose,
sometimes irregular, and covered with an epidermis.
The species have usually been confounded with
Buccinum and Purpura. The operculum, however,
which is ovate, acute, with the nucleus sub-apical, will
distinguish them from both of these genera.

The two genera, Bullia and Nassa, have the short
canal and siphon of these three last mentioned genera,
but the ovate, acute, operculum with its apical nucleus,
is remarkable from its being serrated on the outer edge.
The foot of the animal in both of them is nicked or
bifid behind.

Genus Bullia. — In Bullia the foot of the animal
is large, square shaped and expanded ; the tentacles
are long and slender, but the creature is totally desti-
tute of eyes. The shell is ovate or turreted, the whirls
smooth, and the aperture oval. It is particularly
characterized by having a raised band of enamel round
the sutures of the whirls, which is formed by the hinder
part of the inner lip of the shell extending beyond the
mouth. According to the observations of M. Quoy,
the animal of the Bullias has the faculty of absorbing
through the pores of its foot, a great quantity of water,
which it ejects when disturbed in various directions ;
it is caught by baiting lines with bits of flesh. The
species are few in number, and are for the most part
natives of Africa.

Genus Nassa. — In Nassa the foot is moderate,
truncated and tentaculated in front, and bifurcated at
its posterior extremity. The eyes are distinct and are
placed on the middle of the tentacles. The shell is
ovate, with a short spire, and convex, waved, rarely
variced whirls. The species are numerous, world-wide
in their distribution, and are found from low water to
fifty fathoms. They are extremely active and vivacious
in their movements, and are very destructive to small
bivalves, through whose shell they drill small holes to
enable them to reach the inhabitants. The egg cases or
vesicles are small, ovate, acute, and are found attached
in rows to sea-weeds, corallines, &c.

Genus Phos. — This genus contains a considerable
number of species, which in their shell resemble Nassce.
The shell is cancellated, of an ovate form or turreted,
and the outer lip is striated internally with a slight sinus
near the canal. The animals differ in having the hind
part of the foot ending in a tapering filament instead of
being bifurcated, and the operculum is ovate, with a

326 Gasteropoda. MOLLUSCA. Proboscidifera.

notch on the outer side of the acute apex. The species
are natives of warm seas, being found in the Red Sea,
those of Ceylon, and the Philippine islands, Australia,
and the west coast of America.

Family— BUCCmiD^.

The family of WHILES {Buccinidce), is the third
family of the sub-order Proboscidifera. In this family
the lingual ribbon is extremely long, and the teeth
are implanted on it, in one hundred rows, being placed
in three series. The shells never reach the size that
many of the Murices and Fusi do, nor show the same
diversit}'- and brilliancy of colours ; and in the great
majority, the canal is short, abruptly reflected or reduced
to a notch, and with very few exceptions, we see none
of the varices so well marked in the genus Murex and
Chicoreus. One of the chief differences, however, is
found in the form of the operculum. This appendage
is either oblong or ovate, and the nucleus instead of
being apical is placed on or near the outer edge.

The family Buccinidce is not so numerous in species
as the preceding, but contains some very interesting
shells.

Genus Purpura. — The shell is ovate, and the spire
short ; the aperture is large, with its outer lip simple
but lined or toothed within, and the inner lip concave
or flattened ; canal of shell very short. The operculum
is ovate, with the nucleus external. The species of
Purpura are very numerous, upwards of one hundred
having been described ; they are distributed over most
of the globe, and range from low water to twenty-five
fathoms. Many of them produce a fluid which gives
a dull crimson or purple dye ; hence they are known
generally by the name of Purples. This fluid may be
obtained by pressing on the operculum. Our common
little Purple, or Dog periwinkle, as it is sometimes called
{Purpura lapillus), so common and abundant on most
of our shores, contains this purple liquid along with
others, and in all probabilitj'^ was used along w'lth Murex
trunculus (see p. 190) by the ancients to furnish the
celebrated Tyrian dye. The receptacle of the creamy
secretion which furnishes the purple dye, lies behind
the animal’s head, and Montagu observes that it appears
whiter than the rest of the animal. The purple line is
not developed until after exposure to air and light. As
already mentioned (p. 190), the dye obtained from the
common purple was used at a very early period by the
natives of this country. “ The venerable Bede, who
wrote in the eighth century, mentions the art as a thing
known in his days, and he was familiar with the beauty
and permanency of the colour. The same fact is men-
tioned by Richard of Cirencester, and also in a transla-
tion of Higden’s Polichronicon made in the year 1387.”
— {Johnston.) It would appear from what these authors
state, that the art was familiarly known and followed,
but from its limited utility, and perhaps still more from
its expense, it seems gradually to have gone into disuse,
until at length only a few families preserved the know-
ledge of its use, and handed it down to their posterity
as a family secret. In 1684 it was employed in Ireland
for dyeing fine linen, and Mr. William Cole of Bristol,
having been informed of this, instituted some experi-

ments, which proved that the dye was easily procurable
from the animal of the Purpura lapillus.

Genus Concholepas. — Concholepas is a purpura
with a very large wide aperture and a very short spire.
The shell altogether is ear-shaped, and the outer lip
has two or three small teeth in front.

Genus Monoceros {Acanthiza). — Monoceros is a
purpura with a spiral groove on the whirls, which ends
in a prominent spine or strong tooth on the outer lip.

Genus Ricinula {Sistrum). — Ricinula differs from
purpura in having a tuberculated or spiny shell with a
narrow mouth, which is contracted by callous projec-
tions or large teeth on both inner and outer lips. Some
of the species are adorned with lively colours ; they are
about twenty-five in number and are natives of India,
China, the Philippine islands, Australia, and the Pacific.

Some of th^Purpurina are remarkable for the peculiar
habit they have of living in or on coral. One of these,
which by some authors is considered a distinct genus,
and named Rliizochilus, lives on a species of Antipathes
or Gorgonia. When young, the shell is free, but when
it has assumed its adult form it frequently acquires
more or less irregular solid shelly extensions of the
outer and inner lips which clasp the axis of the coral,
and at length close the mouth, with the exception of
the anterior siphonal canal, which is converted into a
shelly tube. In process of time the animal becomes
permanently fixed to the coral, and dies there eventually.

Genus Magilus. — Magilus is another peculiar genus.
When young it has a thin spiral shell, but when adult
it becomes solid, of a white colour, spiral for three or
four whirls, and then produced into a straight or flex-
uous tube, solid posteriorly, but with a small cavity at
the end for the reception of the body of the animal,
and a siphonal keel on the left side. This curious
genus lives in holes in the substance of masses of coral ;
and this inordinate extension of the shell is to enable
the animal to keep on a level with the surface of the
coral as it continues to increase in size, and thus enable
it to procure its food. As the shell extends, the tube
behind becomes filled up with solid calcarious matter,
and is left fixed in the substance of the coral. This
curious shell has been mistaken for a stalactite or
mineral concretion by some authors, and as the shelly
tube of an annelide or worm-shell by others.

Genus Buccinum. — The shells of this genus are
of an ovate form, with a moderately extended spire.
The whirls are few and ventricose, the mouth large,
and the canal very short and reflected. The outer lip
is rather sinuous, and the pillar rounded. The oper-
culum is ovate, with a small nucleus placed near the
front end of the outer edge. The species are not very
numerous, only about twenty true typical ones remain-
ing. They inhabit the northern and antarctic seas, and
are found from low water to one hundred fathoms.

THE COMMON WHELK {Buccinum undatum) is one
of our most common shells, being universally dis-
tributed around the British shores; indeed, it is one
of the most widely distributed of Atlantic shells, as
well as one of the most variable in characters according
to its locality. Its general outline is ovato-conical,
passing through various degrees of elongation ; from a
short, squat, ventricose shell, to one remarkable for

Gasteropoda.-

-MOLLUSCA.-

-OLIVIEiE.

327

slenderness and graceful curvature. Tlie surface of
the shell is usually invested with an epidermis, often
soft and hairy, sometimes shiny and membranous, less
frequently altogether wanting. It varies also consider-
ably in colour, and grows to the length of six inches
by three wide. The animal of the Whelk is very slow
in its movements. Though it generally resides on the
surface, it has the power of burrowing in the sand
when in search of its prey. This action is produced
by means of its foot, which it is able to distend to a
size nearly equal to that of the shell. It is eminently
carnivorous, and its proboscis — fig. 214— enables it to

Pig. 214.

Proboscis and teeth of Buccinum undatum.

drill holes through the hardest shell of any bivalve. It
is said to be very destructive to the common scallop
or clam {Pecten opercularis), by slily insinuating its
foot, and seizing upon the unwary inmate as it lies
with its valves unguardedly open. This is at least
mentioned by Montagu as the opinion of the fishermen
of the coast, who, he says, acting upon this supposition,
dredge for this Whelk, and either destroy the animal
or use it for bait. At Portpatrick it is called the Hen
Buckie, and is much used by the fishermen oil that
coast as bait. It is caught for this purpose in baskets
containing pieces of fish, which are let down in about
ten fathoms of water, and are drawn up daily to be
emptied of the shells which have crept into them to
feed upon the dead fish. “ Each shell serves to bait
two hooks ; so that reckoning the number of hooks
used by all the boats at four thousand five hundred,
about two thousand two hundred and fifty of these large
shell-fish must be destroyed every time the lines are
shot, and probably not fewer than seventy thousand every
year. Yet the supply, chiefly obtained from a space of
no great extent, seems to be even more abundant than
ever.” — ( Wilson.) The AVhelk is also used as food by
man. Thousands are exposed in the fish-shops and
stalls in the metropolis; they are simply boiled and
eaten with a little vinegar and pepper — “ a poor man’s
delicacy, but by no means a wholesome morsel,” says
Professor Forbes. “ A repast, sufficiently wholesome,
and certainly not destitute of relish,” says Dr. Johnston

Family— CANCELLARIIDH?.

The shells of this famity are generally rough, with
striae or ribs, or have a cancellated surface. The spii e

is short ; the month ovate, channeled in front ; and the
columella, or pillar lip, is marked with several strong
oblique folds. No operculum has been observed; and
though the animal has been seen in some of the species,
the proboscis and teeth have not been examined. The
character of the shells would lead us to believe that
they belong to the carnivorous group, but M. Deshayes
asserts that the Mediterranean species, Cancellaria ccm-
cellata, is a vegetable feeder. The Cancellariae are
marine shells, many of them of rather an elegant form,
and much sought after by collectors. The number of
recent species are about seventy, and their native
countries are the Mediterranean, West Indies, Western
Africa, India, China, and California. They have been
dredged in from seven to forty fathoms.

Family — OLIVID.dE.

The family of OLIVES {Olividce) are distinguished
by the animals having a large elongate foot, with a
cross groove on each side, often inclosing a part of the
shell. The mantle is inclosed, the siphon recurved,
and the canal of the shell reduced to a notch. This
is rather a large family, and contains the True Olives,
the Ancillarice, and the Harp Shells.

Genus Oliva. — The True Olives have a subcylindri-
cal, smooth, polished shell, with a deep channeled suture
round the whirls, and the columella plaited in front.
The large foot is raised up on each side, in order to
envelope the shell, and secretes the enameled, shining,
and brightly-coloured layer, which covers the outer
surface of the shell. The mantle has an elongated
appendage, situated behind, and lodged in the deep
channel of the sutures of the spire. This is a remark-
able character of the Olives. The species are numer-
ous, nearly one hundred and twenty recent forms
having been described. They are carnivorous and
voracious animals ; are active ; and can turn over when
laid on their back. Near low water they may be seen
gliding about, or burying themselves in the mud as the
tide retires. They are subtropical shells, and have been
found in America, Western Africa, India, China, and
the Pacific, from low water to twenty-five fathoms. As
these shells are much sought after by collectors, they
are often obtained by fishing for them by a line baited
with a piece of raw flesh.

THE PANAMA OLIVE (0. porphyrea), the largest
and one of the finest species, is a native of the coasts of
South America. It is marked with numerous fine,
brown, angular, or zig-zag lines, upon a flesh-coloured
ground, and frequently attains to five or six inches in
length.

Genus Ancillaria. — The Ancillarim, with a sub-
cylindrical polished shell, have the suture of the spire
covered with a smooth, shining, thinnish callosity, instead
of a groove or channel. The mantle is destitute of the
posterior, elongated appendage of the Olives. The shell
is more or less covered with a fine coat of enamel ; in
some species leaving a naked space on the whirls, but in
others covering the whole shell. This arises from the
fact, that the foot of the animal is much expanded on
both sides, and curling upwards and inwards during the
ordinary progression of the animal, folds itself on the

328 *• Gasteropoda. MOLLUSCA. Proboscidifeka.

shell, and almost entirely conceals it from view. Being
smooth and provided with a slimy mucous secretion,
it thus covers the surface of the shell with a fine layer
of briglit enamel. Some species possess an operculum,
but others have none.

Genus Harpa. — The Harp shells are well known
to collectors, and are favourite objects of their research;
the richness of their colours, and the elegance of their
forms causing them to be much sought after. They
are swollen ventricose shells, with an ample mouth
and a short spire. They are all distinguishable at first
sight by a number of elegant longitudinal ribs, and a
liigbly-polished callosity on the front part of the colu-
mella. At present nine species have been described,
but at the time of Linnaeus only one was known, which
he described as a species of Buccinum {B. harpa). The
animal which inhabits the shell was not known even
to Lamarck, when he founded the genus Harpa. M.
Baynaud, however, a surgeon in the French navy, was
enabled to give some details of a species found by him
alive in India, and his observations were afterwards
confirmed by MM. Quoy and Gaimard. It resembles
that of the Olive shells, having a very large foot, which
is divided into two portions. The anterior half is
broad, but the posterior portion is elongate, terminates
in a sharp point, and is nearly as long as the whole
shell. It is so disproportionately large indeed, that it
cannot be quickly withdrawn within the shell. The
animal, therefore, has the power, when suddenly at-
tacked by an enemy, of spontaneously detaching this
hinder portion, by pressing it firmly against the lip of
the shell, or by means of a sudden contraction, and
thus enabling it to withdraw the rest of its body within
the shell. It possesses the faculty also of reproducing
the lost portion after a time. There is^no opercu-
lum, as such an appendage would be of no use to the
animal, since it would be separated by the rupture of
the foot.

THE SWOLLEN HARP {Harpa vcntricosa) “ glories
in a rich vermilion red skin.” At the Mauritius it is
caught, like the Olives, with lines baited with small
pieces of flesh. “ It is the amusement of the place,”

Fig. 215.

The Many-ribbed Harp (Harpa imperialis).

says Mr. Broderip, “ to watch over the trim apparatus
of lines hung over some sandbank to tempt the various
brilliant species of Oliva which there abound, or to
wait for the more rare approach of the Harp shell, till

the rich hues of its inhabitant are seen glowing through
the elear blue water, in tbe rays of a tropical rising
sun.”

THE MANY-RIBBED HARP {Harpa imperialis) is
one of the rarest and most beautiful, and perhaps the
most precious of all the species. Though now much
depressed in value, it was at one time a shell of high
price — fig. 215.

Placed here by Dr. Gray, comes a small family of
molluscs, very unlike any of the preceding, as far as
the shell is concerned, but brought amongst the Probos-
cidifera, by the structure of the teeth and the form of
the animal.

Family — LAMELLARHD.®.

This family have a thin, pellucid, spiral, ear-shaped
shell, with a large patulous aperture, and a receding
inner lip. The mantle is large, and completely ccTv'ers
the shell ; the proboscis is elongate, strong, and retrac-
tile ; and the tongue is linear, and spirally twisted
behind, as in Purpura. The familj' is represented in
Plate 1, figs. 1-4, by the species Ermea perspicua,
which is a native of Great Britain, and fig. 5, Cm'iocella
nigra.

Family— FASCIOLARHD^.

This family contains the Tulip shells and the Mitres.

Genus Fasciolaria. — The Tulip shells are fusi-
form, elongated, and swollen, with a conical spire. The
whirls are round and smooth, or angular and waved ;
the mouth is ovate, outer lip crenated, grooved within ;
columella tortuous with several oblique folds in front.
The canal of the shell is elongate, and the operculum
claw-shaped, with the nucleus apical, sometimes radiately
grooved. The species are not numerous, only about
sixteen having been described ; but they have a wide
range in their distribution, being found in the Medi-
terranean, Cape Verd islands, West Indies, Ceylon,
Philippine islands, Australia, Western Africa, and South
America. One of the species, the Gigantic Tulip shell
{Fasciolaria gigantea), from the South Seas, is very
large, sometimes attaining a length of nearly two feet.

Genus Mitra. — The Mitres have a fusiform shell
with a conical, elevated spire, compressed whirls, a
small mouth, and a short canal. The columella is
obliquely plaited with about five folds, and the oper-
culum, when present (it is wanting in the larger species),
is very small. The mantle of tbe animal is inclosed,
and the foot is small, folded longitudinally when con-
tracted. The proboscis is generally very long and
large, that of Mitra episcopalis being more than one
and a half times the length of the whole shell, and being
capable of being projected to the distance of five inches.
The species are numerous, exceeding three hundred
and fifty, and varj^ very much in form and sculpture.
They are found chiefly harbouring in the Philippine
Archipelago and other groups of islands, few occurring
on the shores of continents, and in deepwater from fifteen
to eighty fathoms. When irritated, some of them emit
a purple fluid having a nauseous odour. The larger
species are said to be sluggish animals. This seems

Gasteropoda. M OLLU SC A. V olutid Ai. 329

especially to be the case with the Bishop’s Mitre {M.
episcopalis) which has a small foot and a heavy shell,
and is decidedly a sluggish creature. This, however,
is not the case with the smaller, longitudinally ribbed
species. According to Mr. A. Adams, who during the
voyage of H.M. ship the Samarang, had good oppor-
tunities of watching these animals among the Philippines
and in the China sea, they crawl about pretty briskly
over the smooth sand on the low coral islands. Some
of them, he says, have the art to cover themselves all
over with the sandy mud in which they dwell, and in
that disguised condition travel about in comparative
security. “On one occasion,” he remarks, “in the
small island of Ambolan, at the south end of Mindoro,
I was walking up to my ankles in water, over a firm,
sandy, mud flat, taking little notice of the Cones,
Strombi, Meleagrinae, and Volutes, which people the
water in great numbers, but looking anxiously about
for the rare Miti-es, when I first perceived these small
species, under their ingenious disguise, marching in
towards the shore, as the tide flowed rapidly over the
level surface.”

Family— TURBINELLID^.

The family of CHANK or Turnip Shells, as they
are sometimes called [Turbinellida), are ovate, fusiform,
or top-shaped, thick, with a large body, a conical spire,
and an elongated, straight canal, with several transverse
folds on the columella near its middle. The operculum
is ovate, claw-shaped. The species are rather numer-
ous, nearly sixty having been described, as inhabiting
chiefly the warmer seas of the West Indies, South and
West America, Africa, Ceylon, the Philippines, and the
Pacific.

Genus Turbinellus. — The species of this genus
have a thick, obconic, smooth, or somewhat waved
shell, with an obtuse, mamillated spire, and its mouth
ovate and narrowed in front. In none of the species
have the animals as yet been scientifically examined,
but the operculum has the inner edge straight.

THE CHANK-SHELL {Turbinellus pyrum) is an object
of sacred regard in Ceylon and the opposite coast of
India, and the reversed varieties of it are used by the
priests for administering medicine with. They are
carefully and elaborately carved by the Cingalese, who
find it an article of considerable commerce. The
fishery of these shells has been frequently mentioned
by authors and travellers, Bertolacci, in his “ account
of Ceylon,” gives some very interesting particulars.
The Chank fishery is an object of material consequence,
he says, to the British Ceylon government, in point of
revenue. This, till the year 1813, was derived in two
ways; first, by the sale, or farming of the exclusive
privilege of fishing this shell, and secondly, by the
export duties upon Chanks when taken from Ceylon,
which average 5000 rix-dollars a year ; the duty being
an ad valorem one of five per cent. When Ceylon was
taken by the British in 1795, the Chank farm of 1795-96
had alreadj' been disposed of by the Dutch for 19,850
rix-dollars. The English government let the farm for
1796—97 for 22,250 rix-dollars, and from that date to
1811—12, it varied from this sum to 64,468 rix-dollars.

Von. II. 9!i

In the Asiatic Journal for 1827, it was mentioned as
having then produced only 41,100 rix-dollars. The
Chank is used by tbe natives as an ornament. “ It is
sawed into rings,” says Bertolacci, “ of diiferent sizes,
and worn by all Indian women as an ornament, on
their arms, legs, toes, and fingers. But the great
market for the sale of these shells is Bengal, where a
religious prejudice is entertained in their favour; in
consequence of which, thousands of them are buried
with the bodies of opulent and distinguished pei'sons in
that part of India; this is the cause for the great and
constant demand for them.” “ But this fishery,” adds
the same writer, “ is of even greater importance ;
because it is a great nursery for divers, whose services
are wanted in the pearl fishery.”

Family— VOLUTID.®,

The family of VOLUTES ( Volutidcc) comprises the
True Volutes and the Date shells. The mantle is
provided with a siphon which is very short and
recurved, and the shells are channeled in front for its
reception. The columella in all is plaited with from
two to five or more distinct folds ; the operculum, is
only present in some of the sub-genera ; it is horny and
annular. In the True Volutes the animals have a
large foot extending beyond the shell in all directions,
and deeply nicked on each side in front. In general
the shell is covered with a distinct epidermis, but in
one or two species one of the sides of the mantle is
produced and reflected over the back of the shell,
covering that portion of it, as well as the spire, with its
shelly secretion, and producing a polished surface like
that of the Olives and Cowries. Amongst the Volutes
we find a number of large shells, remarkable for their
gi'eat beauty and the elegance of their forms. The
family is, therefore, of course very much sought after
by collectors, and large prices are often given for single
specin;ens. The species are numerous, and are equa-
torial in their geographical distribution. About ninety
recent species have been described, a large proportion
of which (sixty-four) are from the Australian seas, the
rest being distributed through the seas of the West
Indies, and the west coast of America, the great
Eastern Ocean from Java to Japan, and the coasts of
Africa. In consequence of the number of species, and
the remarkable variety in form amongst them, several
genera have been constituted to facilitate their distri-
bution. The animals of some of them have been
discovered to be viviparous. These form a group which
belong to the curious genus Yekis so well observed by
the celebrated Adanson in Senegal.

Genus Yetus. — The shell of Yetus is ventricose,
spire short, and mouth expanded. The surface is
covered with a horny sort of epidermis, but the mantle
is so large and so expanded that it extends over a great
portion of the shell and covers this epidermis with a
glassy coat of enamel. We frequently see the surface
studded over with little roughnesses or points. This
arises from particles of sand getting between the shell
and the upper surface of the foot, when these extraneous
bodies become covered with this polished layer of glassy
secretion in order to prevent them irritating the animal.

331) Gasteropoda.- MOLLUSCA. Puoboscidifeka.

The young are large wlien born, not leaving their
mother till they are an inch in length. Four or five
are found in each animal. Adanson in his voyage to
Senegal, informs us that one species of these shells, the
“ Yets ” as they are called ( Yctus Neptuni), are thrown
up by the high winds of April, in such quantities as
sometimes to cover the shore, and that the animals,
which often weigh five or six pounds, are smoked and
preserved by the natives of Senegal against times of
famine, to which they are frequently exposed. The
nucleus or apex of the Yets is veiy large, callous, and
irregular ; it is often thrown off entire. The species
of Yetus are chiefly natives of Africa. The remainder
of the Volutes are oviparous, the young being arranged
in the oviduct of the female in a long string without
egg shells.

Genus Cymbtum. — The genus Cymbium has a ven-
tricose shell with a short, depressed spire, which is
frequently crowned with a diadem of strong spines.
The aperture is very large and expanded, and the
nucleus or apex of the shell is regularly spiral and
persistent. The foot is not so large as in the Yets,
and the mantle is inclosed. The surface of the shell
is covered with a smooth, greenish-brown epidermis,
and the shell itself usually ornamented with a variety
of colours. Some of the species are very large, and
thej’ are almost all natives of New Holland, and the
great islands of the Eastern Archipelago. One or two
of the larger, such as Cymbium a-tkiopicum and dia-
dema, are used by the natives of these seas as vessels
for baling the water out of their canoes.

Genus Sc.\piia. — A number of species of Volutes,
Instead of being ventricose, are fusiform or ovate in
shape, and covered with a thin, smooth epidei'mis. The
last whirl is often spinose or tubercled, and the nucleus
is smooth or crenulated. As the shells increase in size
the animals fill the nuclei of the spire with solid
calcareous matter. These belong to the genus Scapha.
They are tolerably numerous, and are principally found
natives of the East Indian islands, though some are
found also in Australia. Some of the shells are very
beautiful, very elegant in form, and the rarer amongst
them, as Scapha Junonia, for example, fetch very high
prices. The same may bo said of ScajYia mamilla.

Fig. 216.

from Van Diemen’s Land, remarkable for the large
nucleus of the spire, and the size of the shell. Specimens
searcely exist in any other collection than that of the
British Museum, which is peculiarly rich in this family.
Fig. 21G represents the S. vespertilio and animal.

Genus Voluta. — The name Voluta, as a generic
appellation, is now restricted to a small number of
species. The shells are of a dense structure, of an
ovate shape, and the pillar or columella has four or five
strongly-developed oblique plaits or folds in front, and
several smaller transverse ones behind. The surface
of the shell is generally ornamented with transverse
interrupted bands and strise, so disposed as to resemble
a bar of music.

THE VOLUTA MUSICA or Music Shell, from the
West Indies, has obtained its name from this circum-
stance ; and the peculiar appearance of notes of music
is equally v/ell exhibited in the Volnla hehraa. This
is the onlj' genus of the family in which we find an
operculum. It is horny, annular, and distinct.

Genus VouyTELLA. — In the several genera we have
briefly noticed the mantle of the animal is inclosed
within the shell. But a considerable number of species
are remarkable for having the lobes of the mantle
produced, and partially covering the shell. These
constitute the genus Volutella. In one of the most
remarkable of the species, the Volutella angidata,
these lobes are largely expanded, and overspread the
spire entirely, which is generally much produced, and
covered with a smooth, glassy deposit. In others,
these lobes are more moderately expanded, and only
cover the lower side of the spire, leaving a callous band
on the suture of the upper side. Such are the fine
large, and rather ponderous V. imperialis, with its spire
crowned with a circle of strong spines ; the beautiful
and elegant little V. Cymhiola, &c.

THE DATE SHELLS, Porcellanina (genus Margi-
ndla of Lamarck), are remarkable for the brilliancy
and variety of their markings. The mantle lobes
are expanded and spread over the shell, which is
covered with a highly-polished coat laid over the epi-
dermis. The animals are said by some to reiemble
those of the Cowries {Cypraea), but they have the
retractile proboscis, the lingual membrane, and dis-
position of the teeth of the VolutidcB. The form of
the shell also, with its conic .spire, its plaited columella,
and its thickened outer lip, marks its relation with this
family. The species are numerous, upwards of ninety
having been described. They prevail more espcciallv
along the shores of Africa, but are found also in the
West Indies, Brazil, India, China, and Australia. They
are quicker and more lively in their movements than
the Cowries, crawling pretty briskly', and moving their
tentacles in different directions. The foot of the animal
appears to be double-edged in front, and this part is
said by Mr. A. Adams, who has had opportunities of
seeing some of the species in their native localities, to
be endowed with acute sensation, the animal making
use of these two portions of the body as feelers. Their
favourite locality is shallow water on clear sands; and
when seen in full activity, they are said to be objects
of singular interest and beauty.

Family— CASS! DIDfE.

The family of HELMET SHELLS {Cassididn’)
the foot largely dilated ; and the operculum, which it
bears near its posterior extremitj', is annular, ovate, or

UASTiiUoroDA. MOLLlJtjCA. Tuitonida,. 331

oblong, and has its nucleus in the middle of the inner
edge. The shell is ventricose, somewhat globular, and
the w’hirls often marked with varices. The aperture
is either elongate and narrow, or ovate, and the canal,
in which is lodged the siphon of the mantle, is, like it,
recurved. *The Helmet Shells are often veiy large,
and, indeed, comprise amongst them some of the
largest known Gasteropods. They form a very natural
group, and principally inhabit the warmer regions of
the globe. The species are rather numerous, thirty-
four having been described, and they are distj'ibuted
through several genera.

Genus Cassis. — The genus Cassis (which gives the
name to the family) has an oblong or subtrigonal shell,
with a short, nearly flat spire, a long aperture or mouth,
the outer lip of which is thick, reflected, and toothed
within, the inner spread over the body whirl, callous and
plaited ; the canal sharply recurved ; the operculum is
oblong, narrow, and small. The animals are active
and voracious. They live in shallow water, in sandy
localities, often concealing themselves in the sand, and
attacking the bivalve shells that abound in such places.
The shells of some of the larger species are extensively
used in the manufacture of cameos. Like most other
shells, they are composed of three layers or plates, and
these differ from each other in relative thickness as well
as in colour. The central plate is generally the thickest,
and is differently coloured from the outer. The canieo
cutters appear to be well aware of this structure in the
Helmet Shells and some others, and avail themselves of
it in cutting their cameos, so as to produce white or
rose-coloured, &c., flgures on a dark ground. In the
economic collection of shells in the British Museum,
for instance, we may see cameos carved ou the shell of
the Horned Helmet from Madagascar, Cassis cornuta,
showing white flgures on an orange ground ; on the
Black Helmet Shell, as it is called. Cassis Madagas-
cariensis, from the West Indies, and ou C. tuberosa,
showing white on dark claret colour ; and on the Bed

Fig. 217.

Red Helmet Shell or Bull’s Mouth (Cassis rufa).

Helmet Shell or Bull’s Mouth, C. rvfa, from the Indian
seas- fig. 217 (which is the one most extensively used),
showing pale salmon colour on orange ground. In
1847 Dr. Gray, at a meeting of the Society of Arts,

gave some very interesting details upon the subject of
cameos. For many years the art of cutting cameos
from shells was confined to Italy, but a little more
than twenty years ago an Italian commenced making
them in Paris, and in 1847 about three hundred per-
sons were employed in that branch of trade in that
city alone. The number of shells used in this manu-
facture is immense ; and Dr. Gray stated that at the
period mentioned above there were used in France
nearly one hundred thousand Helmet Shells alone, of the
value of upwards of £8000. Of the diiferent kinds, the
greatest number were the Bull’s Mouth {Cassis rufa),
which amounted to eighty thousand, the average price
being Is. 8d each, equal to £6400. Next to these
were the Black Helmet {C. Madaguscariensis), which
amounted to eight thousand, averaging 5s. each, equal
to £1800. The average value of the large cameos
made in Paris is about six francs each, giving a sterling
value of £32,000; and the value of the small cameos
is about £8000, giving a total value of the cameos
produced in Paris for 1846 of £40,000 !

Family — DOLIID..T].

The family of the TUN SHELLS {Doliidai) are known
by their large, light, ventricose shells, marked with
transverse ribs or furrows. The animal has the
mantle inclosed, a very large foot, truncated in front,
without an operculum. The species are not numerous,
only fourteen or fifteen having been described, but
many of them attain a large size. They are found in
the Mediterranean, in Ceylon, China, Australia, and
the Pacific.

Genus Doliuji. — The genus Dolium (from the
species of which the English name Tuii given to the
family has been derived) has a rather delicate, light,
nearly globular, and ventricose shell, with a short spire
and a large ovate mouth. The surface is marked
with spiral grooves or ribs, and the last whirl forms
nearly the whole of the shell. The outer lip is more
or less thickened, waved internally, the [tillar lip rather
twisted, and the canal short and suddenly curved
backwards. One of the largest species, Dolium galea,
inhabits the Mediterranean. Some of the species are
found on reel's.

Family— TRITON IDHU.

The family of TRUMPET SHELLS {Tritonidee) con-
tains a large number of species, about one hundred
and fifty having been described as living at the present
day. They range from low water to ten or thirty
fathoms, and are distributed through the Mediterra-
nean, the West Indies, Africa, India, China, the
Pacific, and Western America. The animals have a
small foot, and an annular, ovate, or triangular oper-
culum, with the nucleus subapical. The shells are
ovate, with a conical spire, and are generally strongly
marked with varices on their whirls. The aperture
is ovate, the columella veined or grooved, and the
canal in front is straight. This family contains two
large genera, the shells of which differ from each
other in the disposition of their varices.

Gastekopoda. ilOLLUSCA. Pkobosciuifeka.

332

Genus Triton. — The True Trumpet shells have the
varices disconnected, and so arranged as to form three
interrupted longitudinal ribs. The canal is prominent,
and the lips denticulate. The species are principally
equatorial in their geographical distribution, belonging
more especially to Asia. Those which have a much
produced canal are obtained from deep water; tliose
which have a cancellated surface are from sand in
deep water ; and those covered with an epidermis are
chiefly from sandy mud, in from six to thirty fathoms.

TRITON VARIEGATUS is the shell well known by
the name of “the JIarine Trumpet or Triton’s Shell,”
and is one of the finest, as it is certainly the largest

Fig. 218.

Triton variegatns.

species (fig. 218). It is elongate, conical, trumpet-
shaped, ventricose in the last whirl, and girt with very
obtuse smooth ribs of a white colour, elegantly varie-
gated with red and bay. The aperture is red, and the
columellar lip is wrinkled with white. This large shelj
is a native of the West Indian and the Pacific oceans,
and is the conch used by the Australian and Polynesian
islanders as a war trumpet. Captain Cook remarks,
that during his visits to the Australasian islands, he
never knew the blowing of the conch amongst the
natives to portend good ; it always seemed to be the
signal for a hostile attack. i\Ir. Ellis, in his “ Polynesian

Researches,” however, informs us that these conches
were blown in processions to their temples, at the inau-
guration of a king, duiing their worship at their temples,
or when a tabu or restriction was imposed in the name
of the gods, as well as when their warriors marched to
battle. “ We have sometimes heard them blown,” be
says. “ The sound is extremely loud, but the most
monotonous and dismal that it is possible to imagine.”
This trumpet is also used in the West Indian islands
to summon the negro labourers to their work. A
species somewhat similar is found in the Mediterra-
nean (Triton nodiferus), and it is no doubt of this
shell that Dr. Johnston speaks when he says, it is
“ clearly the original of the war trumpet.”

Genus Ranella. — THE FROG-SHELLS oi-Ranella;
{Apollon) have their varices arranged two on each whirl,
and so disposed as to form a border to the shell on
each side. The shell is compressed, and has a short,
straight canal. The species are mostly tropical, the
majority being from the Eastern seas. Upwards of fifty
species have been described, ranging from low water to
twenty fathoms. The variegated species, which have
the whirls nodosely armed, are found in rocky [>laces
and on coral reefs ; the winged species, with a smooth
surface, are from deep water. They move about with
considerable animation, and crawl rapidly. As observed
by Mr. A. Adams, in the Philippine islands the Ranellse
seemed to move about much more briskly than might
have been anticipated from animals furnished with such
a heavy .shell ; thrusting out their head, protruding
their tentacles and proboscis, and ascending even per-
pendicular substances wiih considerable facility. “One
species,” says Mr. Adams, “dredged from twenty
fathoms water, was furnished with a very extensive
proboscis, which it was able to exsert to the distance
of two inches from the head, using it as a perceptive
oigan, in the same manner as the elephant does its
trunk.”

Passing by the families Sycotypidse and Velutinida’,
we come to the —

Family— NATICID.®.

The family of NATICAS (Naticidee) are remarkable
among the proboscidiferous mollusks for their very
large foot. It is much produced in front, and is
there provided with a well-developed fold, which
becomes a great lobe, reflexed upon and concealing
the head, with the exception of the tentacles, which
are rather small, and united by a transverse membrane.
The operculigerous lobe is very largely developed,
reflected upon and partially covering the sides and
back of the shell, which indeed has the appearance of
being as it were sunk into its substance. The oper-
culum is sjiiral, horny, or covered with a shelly external
coat, and though of good size is not very apparent on
the animal, being placed transversely and hidden by
the extremity of the shell. The mantle is inclosed
and has no siphon, the mouth of the shell being also
entire in front and destitute of a canal. The species
present marked characters — the shells being in general
spiral, more or less globular, and usually smooth and
polished on their surface. The epidermis is generally

Gasteropoda, MOLLUSCA. Iahtiiinid,^. S'A'd

thin and caducous, though in some of the northern
species it is thick, hard, and persistent. The animals
of this family are chiefly inhabitants of sandy and
gravelly situations, ranging from low wafer to ninety
fathoms; either burrowing in the sand near the lowest
ebb of the tide, where their place of concealment is
indicated by a small heap of sand, or in sand-banks far
from shore. They are very voracious, not only boring
into other shells by means of their elongate and
retractile proboscis, but, as Dr. Gould informs us, de-
vouring to a great extent the dead fish and other
animals thrown up by the tide. The use of their large
foot is here obvious, for by expanding it they can
envelope completely the objects on which they pre}-.
They in their turn serve as food for fishes, being
devoured in great numbers by the cod and haddock, in
the stomach of which animals they are often found.
The recent species are numerous, upwards of one
hundred having been described. They are widely
distributed, from the Arctic seas, through Britain and
the Mediterranean, to the Caspian ; and are found in
numbers in India, China, Australia, South Africa, and
the west coast of America, and the West Indies.
Some of the species, as Natica herculea, from Sitka
and the Oregon, attain a large size. The egg-cases of
the Naticidce are very curious; the spawn being
deposited in the form of a subspiral or concentric
ribband or strap, rendered firm by agglutinated sand.
Mr. Harvey describes the nidus of a British species,
Natica {Neverita) monilifei'a, as firmly gelatinous, or of
the consistence of gristle ; transparent or nearly so,
slightly coated with fine sand, and in shape resembling
the hoof of an animal. When dry, he says, they look
not unlike pieces of thin Scotch oat-cakes. The sur-
face is marked with little hexagonal spaces which
define the eggs. Dr. Gould in his “ Invertebrata of
Massachusetts,” describes a North American species as
a mass of sand glued.together into the shape of a broad
bowl, open at the bottom and broken on one side.
The thickness, he says, is about that of an orange
peel, easily bent without breaking when damp, and
when held up to the light is seen to be filled with little
cells, arranged in quincunx order, each of these cells
containing a gelatinous egg with a yellow nucleus,
which is the embryo shell. In the collection of egg-
cases in the British Museum may be seen fine examples
of these nidi of British, North American, and South
African species. For a long time these curious pi'o-
ductions were considered by naturalists as zoophytes,
and described under the iiames of Flustra arenosa,
Escliara lutosa, &c. Ellis looked upon them as recep-
tacles for some sea insects.

The opercula of the animals of the Naticidce, as we
have already stated, are either horny or covered
externally with a coat of shelly matter. This difference
forms a good character for separating them into two
large groups, the Naticina and Neveritina. The family
is represented in Plate 1, figs. 1-3, by Stomatia halio-
toideum, and fig. 4, Natica millepunctata.

Passing the family Neritopsidce, the animals of which
are unknown, and the species very few in number, we
come to two larger and more interesting families;
these are the Violet Snails and the Wentle-traps.

Family — lANTHINIDHH {The Violet Snails).

This family contains only one genus, lanthina. The
animals belonging to it have a small flat foot which is
furnished with a vesicular appendage on its hinder part,
on the underside, which serves an important purpose.
The shell is thin, translucent, and spiral, with a very
small, sinistral nucleus. It resembles in shape that of a
Helix, but is of a close vitreous texture. The aperture
is large, somewhat quadrangidar, with a strongly-
tw'isted columella, and a thin, sharp outer lip, notched
at the outer angle. The species all partake, more or
less deeply, of a violet hue — hence the name of the
genus. The animals appear to be quite blind, having
eye pedicels at the base of the tentacles, but no trace
of eyes. As they seem, however, to select the night
for their predatory operations on the high seas, •this
deprivation can be of little moment to them. They
are pelagic, that is, they are found floating about on
the surface of the ocean, often in myriads, and appar-
ently always gregarious. The apparatus by which
they keep themselves constantly at the surface consists
of the vesicular appendage to the foot mentioned above.
This float, as it is called, is composed of numerous
cartilaginous air-vesicles, and was ajitly called by
Fabius Golumna, the first describer of the lanthina,
Spurtia Cartilaginea ; the vesicles, says Dr. Johnston,
being as trans[)arent as the air-bubbles in foam, while
the skin is cartilaginous. “ Buoyed up on these air-
bladders, the lanthina floats at ease, not left, however,
to be driven at random by every current or breeze
which may sweep across its path, for its course is
guided by means of a small fin which runs along each
side of the foot, a little above its edge. It is only when
the ‘ tempest’s breath ’blows hard that the snail yields
to its violence, and suffers wieck on the unfriendly
shore.” — {Johnston.) This curious float is entirely
secreted b}'^ the foot, and it has been found that when
a portion is removed the injury is rapidly repaired.
In addition to the use of this appendage as a float, it
has been ascertained that the animal attaches its egg
capsules to its under surface, suspending them there by
little pedicels. It occupies a considerable time in the
deposition of these eggs, and the capsules nearest to
the extremity of the float are constantly found empty.
The central ones contain young shells fully formed,
and those nearest the animal are filled with eggs, “and
it appears probable,” says Dr. Coates of Philadelphia,
who has had opportunities of observing these creatures,
“ that the young animals, when liberated from their
chambers, ascend the float of the mother, and in this
way gain access to the surface.” By some naturalists
this float is considered to be an extreme modification
of the operculum. It is much too large to be with-
drawn into the shell, though some writers have sup-
posed that the animal has the power of compressing it
in such a manner as to make the shell sufficiently
heavy to sink. All recent observers, however, assure
us that these creatures have no power of sinking in the
water. Dr. Bennett found on purposely irritating the
animal, or even touching it in ever so slight a degree,
that it withdrew itself within the shell, but had no

Gasteropoda. MOLLUSCA. Proroscidieeka.

i534

power of retracting the float. In rough weather-,
however, they are driven about by the agitated sea,
and their floats are then broken or detached ; but even
then the shells are found floating on the surface. In
this state they are frequently drifted to our own shores,
especially on the soutlrern and wester-n sides of the
island ; and in Swansea bay, we are told, the animals
have been found quite fresh. The favourite food of
the lanthinge appears to be the gelatinous Velellw,
and M. Deshayes informs us that he has often witnessed
them feeding upon these animals, and apparently
making use of them at the same time as a raft to float
them on the surfaee. It has been said that in con-
sequence of feeding upon these blue-coloured Acalephae
the lanthinse obtain their violet hue. It is certain that
they have the power of secreting a quantity of violet
fluid, and that when molested they exude it in consider-
able abundance.

THE COMMON VIOLET SNAIL {lantMna communis),
according to the late Professor Forbes, secretes this
fluid rapidly, and the purple dye, he says, was so
strong, that some paper which he painted with it in
1837, retained its colour strongly in 1853. M.
Lesson tried to prove that this was the very shell
which Pliny described as the one from which the
Tyrian dye was obtained. It occurs frequently in the
Mediterranean ; but the colour of the fluid of this
mollusk is purple on its emission, and is remarkably
defective in permanency. The species of lanthina are
not numerous, but some of them are diffused over a
great part of the world, the shells being thrown up on
the sea-coasts by gales of wind. At certain seasons
the beaches of St. Helena and the island of Ascen-
sion are entirely covered with them. Mr. A. Adams
found them cast up by thousands on the shores of the
Meiaco-shimah islands, but he says he never observed
them make the slightest attempt to crawl, though he
frequently noticed them adhering together in masses,
attached by the anterior part of the foot, which acted
as a sucker.

Family — SCALARIIDHH {The Wentle-traps).

The Wentle-traps are very different-looking shells
from the Violet Snails, but the arrangement of the
teeth in the animals is nearly the same. The shell
is spiral, turreted, with varices, or elevated longi-
tudinal ribs, on the whirls. The aperture is rounded,
entire, and exhibits scarcely any trace of a canal.
The operculum is horny, spiral, few-whirled. The
species are numerous, about one hundred species
being found recent, and an equal number having been
described as inhabitants of our globe at an earlier
period of its existence.

The genus Scalakia, the “ Wentle-trap ” is the

SUB-OKDER III.-

The Rostriferous mollusca are equally numerous as
the Proboscidiferous ; but instead of being carnivorous
in their habits, they are essentially vegetable feeders.

only one of the family, and the species are chiefly from
the eastern tropical seas. China and the Philippine
islands harbour the greater number, but five species are
natives of the British isles.

THE ROYAL STAIR-CASE or W'extle-TEAP, “la
vraie Scalata” {Scalaria pretiosa), is the most remark-
able and the most valuable of all. This shell, always
distinguished for its beauly, and once famous for the
enormous value set upon it bj' collectors, is a native of
the Chinese seas. It grows to more than two inches
in length, is conical, umbilicated, and twisted into a
loose spire, so that the whirls only touch each other by
their projecting ribs. It is of a pale yellowish coloui',
with white ribs or varices. “ The specific name given
to it by Lamarck” {pretiosa), says Mr. Broderip, “was
at one time well deserved on account of its rarity, and
the great price which a fine specimen would bring in
the market, especially when it exceeded two inches in
height ; such a specimen has been sold in former days
for twenty-four hundred livres, or one hundred louis.
But these times are gone by; the shell is no longer
rare, and good specimens only fetch shillings where
they once brought pounds. A very fine example still,
however, commands a considerable sum. That in Mr.
Bullock’s museum, supposed to be the largest known,
brought £27 at his sale, and was in 1815 estimated at
double that value.” Da Costa, in his “ Elements of
Conchology,” informs us that in 1753, “at the sale of
Commodore Lisle’s shells at Longford’s, four Wentle-
traps were sold for £75 12s. ; viz., first day, February
21, lot 96, one not quite perfect, £16 16s. ; third day,
lot 98, a very fine and perfect one, £l8 18s. ; fourth
day, lot 101, one for £16 16s. ; sixth day, lot 83, one
for £23 2s. At the present day the value is very
much reduced.

The animals of some of the species exude a purple
fluid when molested, and Montagu in his “ British
Shells” has described the liquor discharged by the
common species of the Mediteiranean, S. claihrus.
As much can be procured, he says, from five indi-
viduals as is sufficient, when mixed with a few drops
of spring water, to cover half a sheet of paper. The
colour at first was very bright, and appeared for some
months unchanged by the action of the air or sun ; but
being exposed for a whole summer to the solar rays,
in a south window, they almost vanished. Like the
lanthina, just mentioned, this Scalaria has been sup-
posed by some naturalists to have been one of the
shells employed by the ancients to furnish the celebrated
Tyrian dye, b)it the same objections apply to it as to
the purple fluid of the lanthina. ^ — See above.

The remaining families of the Proboscidifera,
Acteonidce, Cerithiopsidce, Pyramidellidce, and Archi-
tectomidw (Solarium), are of no particular interest, and
so Y/Q hasten on to the next sub-order.

ROSTRIFEKA.

The animals have a moderate-sized head, with a more
or less elongated, produced, transversely-annulated
rostrum, which is furnished with contractile muscles

(iASTJiltOPOUA. MOLLUSCA. -Amphipekasidaj. 335

only, and is not retractile, as is the case in the pre-
\’ions siib-order. It varies in length and shape — in
some being very long, but in a great many being
short. The tentacles are' awl-shaped, far apart, and
placed on the sides of the base of the rostrum. The
eyes are situated on the outer side, or behind the base
of these organs. The lingual membrane is often very
long, extending a good way into the visceral cavitj^ of
the animal, and the teeth are arranged upon it in seven
series, 3, 1, 3. The foot of the animal varies in shape
a good deal. In some genera we find it expanded,
depressed, and formed for crawling, Plalypoda; in
others it is roundish, truncate, or club-shaped, Pro-
topoda; in a third set, it is compressed and adapted
for leaping, Leptopoda; wliile in another series, it is
fin-like, and furnished with a small sucker, Heteropodn.

Family — AMPULLARIID^ {The Apple Snails).

The animals of this family have the rostrum pro-
duced, and the tentacles long and filiform. They have
onl}'^ one well-developed gill, the left being nearly
rudimentary, but the mantle has a large pulmonary
sac on each side ; the foot is simple, and the oper-
culum annular and regular; the shell is sub-globose, and
covered with a hard, polished, olive-coloured epider-
mis; the mouth is entire.

The Apple Snails are fluviatile in their habits, and
represent, in the ponds and rivers of the tropics, the
Pond Snails of more temperate climates. They live
chiefly in marshes, which are subject to periodical
inundations, and are never found in rapid running
streams. Where they do occur, it is generally in large
numbers, for they are abundant, and cover a large
space of country. They have the power of living a
long time out of ■water when the marshes dry up.
This faculty appears to have been first made known
to us by M. Caillaud, who is well known as connected
with the natural history of Egypt. After his return
to France from a residence in Egypt, he had a number
of sj)ecimens of Ampullaria ovata sent to him from
the Nile. They were packed up with a number of
other animals in a box filled with saw-dust. At the
end of upwards of four months, upon opening the box,
he found many of the objects in a state of putridity.
The contents of the box he threw into a tub of water,
and next morning he was surprised to find all the
Ampullarise alive, and walking about apparently in a
perfectly health}' state ! M. Deshayes, struck by this
fact, and by the information he received from several
other travellers that these animals buried themselves
in the mud, and could support their existence for a
length of time when the water was dried up and the
mud hardened, examined several specimens with great
care, and found in the branchial cavity a large open
sac quite in the hinder part, and immediately above
the base of the gills. He perceived also that this
cavity was alwa3's full of water; and that after the
Snail had ^withdrawn itself, and tightly closed the
aperture by means of its close-fitting operculum, the
water is retained in this sac, and the gill thereby kept
in a moist and unshrivelled condition ; while, perhaps,
as Dr. Johnston remarks, its contact with a living

surface prevents the retained fluid running into putre-
faction. The Apple Snails are oviparous ; the eggs
are large, globular, and contained in capsules. These
are disposed in masses, and attached to plants, &c.
Specimens may be seen in the collection of mollusk
eggs in the British Museum. The species are upwards
of fifty in number, and are separated into several
genera. The operculum, as well as the shape of the
shell itself, affords good generic characters. In some
this operculum is horny, with a shelly external coat, and
the inner edge of the mouth of the shell is thickened,
so as to afford some support to the thick shelly oper-
culum. Such is the genus Pachystoma — Plate 1.
fig. 1 — {Pachystoma solidum). Others have the oper
culum simple and horny, and the edge of the shell thin.
Such, for example, is the restricted genus Ampul-
laria. The species of this group inhabit chiefly the
rivers and lakes of South America and the West
Indies. The South American Indians term them
“Idol Shells,” and are. said to hold them in great
veneration.

Family — AMPHIPERASID.^ {Poached Eggs).

The family of Poached eggs (the genus Ovulum
of Lamarck ; family Amphiperasidee of Gray) is the
second family of the Rostrifera. In this -family, and
in the succeeding family of Cowries, CyprceidcR, the
mantle of the animal, when adult, is expanded, and
often reflexed over the shell, giving the surface a fine
polished appearance. There is no operculum. The
shells are involute, have a linear aperture, and a smooth
inner, and toothed or crenated outer lip. When young,
they are spirally striated, but when full grown, are
covered with a smooth enamelled coat. The aperture
in man}' of tlTe species is prolonged into a canal both
in upper and lower extremities. The species are about
thirty-six in number, and for the most part are dis-
tributed through the warm seas of the AVest Indies,
Mediterranean, China, and AVest America — one or
two also occurring on our own coasts. They vary
much in shape, and have thus given origin to several
genera. Those which are ovate and ventricose, with
a narrow aperture, the extremities not prolonged into
a broad, inflexed, rounded, and crenulate outer lip, and
long canals, form the genus Ovulum {Amphiperas).
These are the true Poached eggs, and their shells are
never ornamented with rich or varied colours, but are
usually while, pink, pale violet, or yellow, without
exhibiting any particular markings or pattern. Those
in which the shell is fusiform, with an inflexed,
toothed, outer lip, and the extremities of the aperture
produced only into short canals, form the genus Cal-
PURNUS. Cne of the species of ‘this genus is a native
of the seas of the Philippine Islands, and the appear-
ance of the animal and its habits have been well
described by Mr. Adams. It is a very slow-moving
and sluggish creature, he says, but exhibits a singu-
larly beautiful and striking appearance under the calm
shallow water, as it glides tranquilly along the bright
sandy bottom. The head is pure, opaque white, with
the exception of one large black spot placed in the
centre of the forepart, which, with its large black eyes

336

GASTKKOI'ODA. -

-AIOLLUSOA.-

-Kostkifera.

and black tipped tentacles, gives it a very peculiar
appearance.

Family— CypR^lD^ {Cowries).

The family of Cowries which come next in order,
like tlie preceding, have the mantle of the adult animal
expanded, and generally reflexed over
the shell, giving it a fine polished appear-
ance. The foot is simple, and there is
no operculum. The lobes of the mantle
are often ornamented externally with
forked or pointed beards or filaments, and
the end of the siphon with which it is
furnished is frequently fimbriated. The
shell is involute, ventricose, with a linear
mouth, toothed lips, and the canal
recurved like a notch. The surface is
of a porcellanous structure, and there is
no appearance of an epidermis. The
family, indeed, is remarkable for the
e.xquisite beauty of the shells, as well as
their inhabitants. The great majority
are natives of tropical regions, delighting in warm
climates; and, as they glide along among the coral
reefs, and in the shelter of rocks, with the lateral
lobes of their mantles adorned with showy colours, they
present to the eye of the pleased spectator objects of
singular interest and beautjn They are shy creatures,
and crawl slowly. “The difference of aspect,” says
Professor Forbes, “between these mollusks when
crawling, with all the beautifully-coloured soft parts
exposed, often completely concealing their enamelled
shells, and their appearance when, after being seized,
they suddenly and instantaneously withdraw their
bodies and mantle lobes, and. expose the’shell only, is
very curious and surprising.” Individuals of the same
species vary greatly in size — a difference so great that
it has been attempted to be explained b}'^ the theory
that the animals shed their shells as lobsters do their
skins. This, however, is not the case, for we often
find young shells much larger than adult specimens in
the same species. In the young state, they are also
very dissimilar in form from the adults, and thus mis-
takes have been often made with regard to species.

Genus Cypraia.— This genua, as now restricted,
contains some of the handsomest, largest, and most
valuable of all the Cowries. The Orange Cowry, for
instanee, at one time fetched an enormous sum for a
single specimen. It is a native of the South Pacific
ocean, and is worn as an ornament by the natives of
the Polynesian islands. “ The highest order of dignity
among the Friendly Islanders is the permission to
wear the Orange Cowry.” — {Johnston.) There are
one or two species in the collection of the British
Museum, the specimens of which are unique — such,
for example, is the Cyprcea leucodon.

THE C. PRINCEPS is perhaps the most beautiful of
all the Cowries. It is also exceedingly rare, only two
other specimens being known besides the splendid one
in the National collection.

THE TIGER COWRY {Cyprcea tigris) is one of the
most common, but at the same time a very beautiful

species — fig. 219. It is a thick, oval, and swollen shell, of
a bluish-white, dotted with a great number of rounded
scattered, black spots, and a dorsal line of ferrugin
ous colour above, and very white beneath. It is t
native of the Indian seas from Madagascar to the
Moluccas.

Other fine species are the Map Cowry {C. mnppd).

Fig. 219.

Cyprsea tigris (Tiger Cowry).

and the Blotched or Spotted Cowry {C. guttata),
specimens of which have lately sold for £40.

Genus Aricia. — This genus contains several elegant
and beautiful species; but perhaps the one of greatest
notoriety is the Money Cowry {Cyprcea moneta). It
is a small, oval, depressed, and somewhat noduled
shell, flat and white beneath, with thick edges, and of
a yellowish -white or pale citron colour on the upper
surface. It inhabits the Pacific ocean and the Indian
seas fromhhe Moluccas to the Atlantic ocean. “Many
tons weight of this little shell are annually imported
into this country, and again exported for barter with
the native tribes of Western Africa. In the year 1848
sixt}' tons of the Money Cowry were imported into
Liverpool ; and in 1849 nearly three hundred tons
were brought to the same place, according to the
statement of Mr. Archer in the Industrial Exhibition.”
( Woodward). This little shell, as well as the C. asellus,
a small white-coloured shell, with three dark bands
running across the upper surface, is extensively used
as current coin in India. We have often seen the
two species used indiscriminately in the villages m
Bengal .

Genus Cypr.eovula. — This genus contains few
species the most remarkable being the Cyprcea. umhi-
licata. A specimen of this shell, in the collection of
the British Museum, was long considered unique. A
few years ago two additional specimens were sent to
this country by Mr. Ronald Gunn from Van Diemen’s
Land, which were valued at about £35 a-piece. A
few more specimens having since then been imported
from the same locality, their value has been in conse-
quence very much reduced.

Genus Trivia. — The genus Trivia, or Pig-shell,
contains a number of small shells of a sub-globose
figure, and generally ribbed across the back. The
species are about thirty in number, and are widely
distributed, inhabiting Greenland, Great Britain, the
We.st Indies, South Africa, Australia, the Pacific,
and Western America. “Our native Cowry {Trivia

Gasteropoda.-

MOLLUSCA. Littokinid.®,

337

curopaa) is a plain white shell, but its snail is a ver}'
elegant creature The proboscis is dark vermilion;
the tentacula yellowish-red, spotted with yellow ; the
upper part of the foot streaked longitudinally with
yellow and brown ; and the mantle greenish-brown,
edged with brownish-red ; but, notwithstanding, the
shell is a uniform dull white.” — {Johnston.)

Family — APOERHAIDJE.

The family of Spout-shells {Aporrliaidm) have the
shells spiral when adult, and the canal is bent to the
right. The outer lip is expanded or revolute, some-
times lobed or digitated. The operculum is annular,
ovate, or pointed, with a small apical nucleus.

Genus Aporuhais. — This genus, which gives its
name to the family, has the shell fusiform, the spire
elongated, with many tuberculated whirls, a narrow
aperture, a distinct canal, and the outer lip dilated
and lobed, or digitated. The operculum is ovate
pointed, and lamellar. There are only three species
known, two of which are natives of Great Britain and
the Mediterranean, and one of Labrador.

THE APOKRHAIS PES-PELICAHI, or Pelican’s
Foot, is very common in Great Britain. The animal
creeps slowly, and is shy in its disposition. The shells
are subject to great variety with respect to the outer
lip. In the young shell there is not the least expansion
of the lip, but it increases by age. It is generally of
a dull white colour; but the animal has its rostrum
pink, dotted over with milk-white spots ; the tentacles
are also of a pink colour, and the eyes black.

Genus Struthiolaria. — The genus Struthiolaria,
or Ostrich’s-foot shell, is more numerous in species
than Aporrhais, but they are exclusively confined to
New Zealand and Australia. The shell is ovate, with
a conic, acuminated spire. The aperture is ovate, with
a short indistinct canal in front, and the lips and
columella are thickened and polished. The operculum
is ovate, acute at the apex, with a broad notch on the
inner side near the tip.

Genus Trichotropis. — This genus is composed of
top-shaped spiral shells, with keeled whirls, which are
edged with a horny fringe, and covered all over with
an epidermis of the same substance. The species,
which, are few in number, are chiefly from the northern
seas, where they inhabit deep water.

In the preceding families of the Rostrifera, the
mantle of the animal, when full-grown, is expanded,
and more or less reflexed over the shell. In those
which follow, the mantle is inclosed withiri the shell.
Some of them are inhabitants of the dry land, and
their breathing organs are adapted for respiring free
air. They are vascular, branched, and are placed on
the inner surface of the mantle, which is free from the
nape, and leaves the pulmonary cavity open. The
animals have distinct sexes, are oviparous, and possess
a well-formed spiral or annulated operculum.

Family— CYCLOSTOMlDiE ( Cyclophoridce).

The animals belonging to this family have an elon-
gated foot and a spiral operculum. This operculum pre-
Von. IT. 99

sents several modifications of structure, which are found
to be characteristic of several groups, into which this
numerous family may he divided. In some it is thickish,
and more or less shelly ; in others it is thin and horny.
The animals of this extensive family, numbering be-
tween four hundred and five hundred species, are either
found in the humid parts of tropical forests, some
concealed amongst the debris at the roots of trees,
others creeping on the branches and foliage, or they
are met with in dry and arid situations, among loose
stones and leaves, in chalky regions. The shells are
usually turbinate, and are generally covered with an
epidermis, which is often mottled or variegated with a
reddish-brown colour. The form of the shell presents
many modifications, as well as the operculum, and the
two together afford valuable aids in grouping the various
species.

Family — HELICINID.1E {Oligyradce).

This family consists of terrestrial, air-breathing,
operculated shells, like the preceding family, Cyclos-
tomidce. The animals scarcely differ at all in structure
from, and in their habits they are very similar to, those
of that family. The shells differ chiefly in their aper-
ture being semilunate, and in the operculum not being
spiral. In some this operculum is thick and shelly, in
others thin and horny. In common with several other
mollusks, the Helicinidae possess the power of absorbing
the columella and the internal divisions between the
upper whirls.

The genus Helicina has a membranaceous or shelly
operculum, and a turbinate, globose, or depressed shell,
with a triangular or semi-ovate, entire aperture, and a
callous base. The species, which are numerous, are
chiefly natives of the West Indian islands and tropical
America, a few also being found in the Philippine and
Pacific islands.

The two preceding families, as we have said above,
are terrestrial in their habits. The three following are
what may be called amphibious in their manner of
life. The respiratory organs, or gills, are disposed in
very numerous cross folds on the inner surface of the
mantle.

Family — LITTORINIDiE {Periwinldes).

The family of Periwinkles have a spiral, turbinated,
or depressed shell, with a rounded, entire aperture,
never pearly within. The operculum is horny, spiral,
of few whirls. The animals possess two gills, one of
them very large, occupying nearly the whole surface
of the bronchial cavity, and formed of numerous flat,
free plates.

Genus Littorina. — This genus has a thick shell,
pointed, and composed of only a few whirls. The axis
is imperforate, and the apertures subcircular and entire.
The columella is rather flattened, and the outer lip
acute. The animals have a very long tongue, that of the
Common Periwinkle {L. littorea) being two inches in
length. The species are numerous, upwards of forty
having been described, and they are found on the sea-
shore in all parts of the world. They are amphibious

338 Gasteropoda. MOLLUSCA. Rostrifera.

in their habits; many of them seem to prefer spots
where they can be covered only at high water, and
myriads of our common species may be seen, when
young, clustered in hollows of rocks that are many feet
above the highest tides. Some of the species found
on the shores of South America are stated by M.
D’Orbigny to prefer dry land to sea-water. L. Peru-
viana, he Informs us, is abundant in the hollows of
rocks, so high above the highest water-mark that they
can only be wetted by the spray during tempests. If
placed in sea-water they develope themselves, and
quickly search for means of escaping from it, and reach
some dry place. Though marine, they are found in
the Baltic, within the influence of fresh water, in which
situations they often become distorted. The Common

Fig. 220.

Littorina littorea— shell, operculum, and teeth of animal.

Periwinkle {L. littorea) — fig. 220, and Plate 1, fig. 1
(animal) — is oviparous, and is well known as aflbrding
an article of food. In times of scarcit}'’, limpets and
periwinkles are the daily fare of the poor inhabitants
of several of the western isles of Scotland. An allied
species, L. rudis, “is viviparous, and the young have
a hard shell before their birth, in consequence of which
the species is not eaten.” — {Woodward.)

Family— LACUNIDiE.

This family, composed of only one genus. Lacuna,
have a turbinated shell, with a short spire, a half-ovate
mouth, and the pillar lip flattened, with a deep umbili-
cal groove. In one of the species, L. pallidula, the
animal is said to be furnished with a long cylindrical
proboscis. None of the animals as yet examined
possess jaws, but all the known species are found to
feed on sea-weed. They eat “ the surface of the frond
or stem, often forming holes through the former, and
deep holes in the latter, into which many specimens
often crowd themselves. They are also often found
crowded together in the crevices among the roots of
the plant.” — {Gray.) Loven observed that when the
sea-weed upon which they feed is of a brown colour,
the animals become green ; but if red, they assume a
rosy tint. They are chiefly northern species, and are
natives both of Great Britain and North America.

Family — TRUNCATELLIDj®! {Looping snails.)

The family of Looping snails have little interest
as regards their shells. The animals, however, are
interesting little creatures, from the manner in which
they walk. They progress by means of their foot and
the fore part of their muzzle, fixing one as a point of
support, and then drawing the other after it, as the
caterpillars of some lepidopterous insects (the geometric
caterpillars) do ; hence the name of Looping snails.

In the eight succeeding families, unlike the three
preceding, the respiratory organs or gills are composed
of a few laminae (see page 299), twelve to fifteen in
number, disposed in regular descending spiral series on
the left side of the mantle cavity.

Family— PLANAXIDJE.

This family consists of shells bearing a resemblance
to those of Littorina, but the animals differ from them
in their gills, and in their mantle furnished with a pro-
duced siphon in front.

Genus Litiopa. — This is the most interesting genus
in the family. The species are quite pelagic, and found
floating in the open ocean. The animals have the sides
of the foot and the operculigerous lobes furnished with
tentacular filaments, and they have a horny operculum.
The shell is thin, horny, semipellucid, and conoidal,
with an acute spire and an oval aperture, emargi-
nate anteriorly. They are all very small, and are
found living on the gulf-weed. The animals are
remarkable for having the power of spinning a byssus
of glutinous threads, by which thej' attach themselves
to the stems of the fuci on which thej"^ reside. Dr.
Johnston gives a very interesting description of the
habits of this little creature — “ This is a small snail,”
he says, “born amid the gulf-weed, where it is des-
tined to pass the whole of its life. The foot, though
rather narrow and short, is of the usual character, and
having no extra hold, the snail is apt to be swept off
its weed ; but the accident is provided against, for the
creature, like a spider, spins a thread of the viscous
fluid that exudes from the foot, to check its downward
fall and enable it to regain its pristine site. But sup-
pose the shock has severed their connection, or that
the Litiopa finds it necessary to remove, from a
deficiency of food, to a richer pasture, the thread is
still made available to recovery or removal. In its fall,
accidental or purposed, an air-bubble is emitted, pro-
bably from the branchial cavity, which rises slowly
through the water, and as the snail has enveloped it with
its slime, this is drawn out into threads as the bubble
ascends ; and now, having a buoy and ladder whereon
to climb to the surface, it waits suspended until that
bubble comes into contact with the weeds that every-
where float around.”

Family— EISSOID^.

This family consists of numerous species of small,
generally white, spiral, more or less turreted shells,
with a simple ovate aperture, furnished with a very

Gasteropoda. MOLLUSCA. PALUDiNiDAi. 339

slight canal in front. The operculum is horny, spiral.
The species are numerous, about seventy having been
enumerated, and are found distributed throughout all
parts of the world. They are most abundant, however,
in the north temperate zone, and live among sea-weed
in shallow water.

Family — MELANIIDJD.

This is a numerous family, containing within it
upwards of one hundred and sixty species. The shell
is spiral, turreted, and covered with a dark olive
epidermis. The aperture is ovate or circular, some-
times entire in front and at others channeled ; and the
operculum is ovate, horny, and spiral. The animals
of this family are fluviatile, being inhabitants of fresh-
water lakes and rivers throughout the warmer regions
of the globe ; and the apex of the spire of the shell is
often eroded by the action of the water in which they
live. In the southern states of North America they
are numerous and form peculiar groups. Some of
the species are viviparous. The animal of one species,
Melania amarula, is very bitter, and in the Isle of
Bourbon and some of the adjacent islands it passes
for an excellent remedy for the dropsy. The variety
of form which characterizes many of the shells has
necessitated their being grouped in different genera,
and a good many have accordingly been formed. The
principal character depended upon for dividing them
is the form of the aperture. The family is represented
in Plate 1, figs. 1 and 2, by Melania (bibex'; Byronensis.

Family- CEKITHIID AH.

The Cerithia have the shell ovate, spiral, many-
whirled, and covered with a thin epidermis. The
aperture is ovate or subquadrate, and more or less
channeled in front. The ‘outer lip is often expanded,
especially in adult specimens. The operculum is
horny and spiral. The species are numerous, upwards
of one hundred having been described, and they pre-
sent various modifications of form and habits of life.
Two forms are represented in Plate 1, figs. 1 and 2,
by Cerithium Iceve and Tympanotomus muricatus ; and
the operculum is represented by that of Telescopium
fuscum in fig. 3. The operculum here offers a good
character for assisting in separating them into groups.
Some of the species are marine in their mode of life,
while others dwell in the mouths of rivers or in salt
marshes. Some of the marine species emit a green
fluid when molested, which becomes purple in drying.
“ Two specimens of Cerithium armatum were brought
alive to London from the Mauritius,” says Dr. Johnston,
“ kept, during their long voyage, in a dry state,
affording a remarkable illustration of tenacity of life.
The animal was apparently healthy, and beautifully
coloured. It emitted a considerable quantity of bright
green fluid, which stained paper of a grass-green
colour. It also coloured two or three ounces of pure
water. This green solution, after standing for twelve
hours in a stoppered bottle, became purplish at the
upper part ; but the paper retained its green colour
though exposed to the atmosphere. A tincture made

by immersing the animal of Cerithium telescopium in
spirits, became of a dark verdigris colour, which it
retained for some weeks.” These shells are found in
all parts of the world, the typical species, however,
being tropical.

The fluviatile or salt-marsh species, forming the
genus Telescopium, are few, and are found inhabiting
the salt marshes and swampy tracks near the mouths
of rivers in the East Indies and their islands. There
they may be seen, with their pointed spires sticking
out of the mud, in incredible numbers. We have
seen them in great abundance on the muddy shores of
Saugor island at the mouth of the river Hooghly in
the Bay of Bengal ; and we are told that their numbers
are so great that they are collected for the purpose of
being burnt into lime. Great heaps are formed and
exposed to the sun to kill the animals. In the island
of Borneo the animals are eaten by the natives.

Family— TURRITELLID^.

The family of TURRET or SCREW SHELLS {Turri-
tellidce) have the operculum horny, circular, and many-
whirled, the whirls fringed on the edge. The shells
are spiral, many-whirled, imperforate, and the aper-
ture is rounded and simple in front. This is strictly
a marine family; the species, which are tolerably
numerous — upwards of fifty having been described —
ranging from low-water mark to the depth of one hun-
dred fathoms. Their geographical distribution is world-
wide, one species living in our own seas. The term
“ Screw-shells,” by which they are familiarly known,
is derived from their peculiar spiral form. They live
buried and fixed in tenacious mud, mixed with shelly
debris, and can only protrude the head and tentacles
from the mass. They walk very slowly, owing to the
shortness of the foot.

Genus Turritella. — This genus gives its name to
the family, and contains a considerable number of
species, the shells of which are turreted, and have a
subquadrate-shaped aperture, simple in front. They
are chiefly natives of tropical countries.

Passing over the family BARLJEIDiE, the species of
which are few, small, and obscure, we come next to the
River Snails : —

Family PALUDINID.® {Viviparidce).

In this family the shell is spiral, turbinate, covered
with an olive-coloured epidermis. The aperture is
ovate and simple in front. The species of River
Snails, amounting to upwards of sixty, are fluviatile,
inhabiting lakes and streams over the greater part of
the world. They have a good deal the external
appearance of the Apple Snails {Ampullariidai). — See
page 201.

Genus Paludina {Viviparus). — This genus has
a thin, horny, annular operculum, with the nucleus
near the middle of the inner side — Plate 2, fig. 3.
The shell is ovate, thin, and covered with a thin
epidermis beset with hairy bands. The species inhabit
the rivers and lakes throughout the Northern hemi-
sphere. The animals are sluggish, feeding upon living

Gasteropoda. MOLLUSCA. Rostrifeka.

340

and decayed vegetable matter, preferring nearly stag-
nant waters, or very sluggish rivers, with a bottom of
soft mud. The females of the American and European
species are viviparous, and the young fry are not
forsaken by their parent until the end of the second
month of their existence. At first they are covered
with spiral bands of hairs, but these soon disappear.
The genus is represented in Plate 2, figs. 1 and 2,
by P. hengalensis and P. costata.

The animals of the three following families have the
gills laminar, disposed in such a way as to form an
oblique line across the mantle cavity, the plates or
laminae being elongate and linear. The shells of these
families are free and sub-spiral, with a large expanded
mouth; and the animals are generally sedentary in
their habits, rarely, indeed, changing their place of
abode.

Family— CALYPTR^lDiE.

Tin’s fiimlly is an extremel}'^ natural one both as
regards the shells and the animals. The animals are
the shell is, in external shape, like the limpet {patella) ;
destitute of an operculum (see Plate 2, figs. 1 and 2), and
the apex being more or less spiral, and in the young shell
regularly so. The aperture is wide, and the interior
is furnished with a shelly process, variously shaped,
and which, as Dr. Johnston observes, is a very remark-
able structure. The animals of these shells carry and
hatch the spawn under the neck in front of the foot.
The eggs are inclosed in a thin membranous bag in
small groups, and the mother “ appears literally to sit
upon and hatch the eggs.” She disposes them under
her belly, and preserves them, as it were imprisoned,
between the foot and the foreign body, to which she
adheres, “ her patelloid shell thus serving not only
to cover and protect herself, but as a shield to her
offspring. The young are developed under this kind
of maternal roof, and do not quit it until they have
strength to attach themselves to the rock, and until
their own shell is hard enough to afford protection
when so attached.” — {Johnston.) The species are
numerous, about one hundred and ten having been
described, and they are world-wide in their distribution.
They are found adhering to stones and shells. The
animals of most of them appear never to quit the spot
on which they first settle, as the margins of their shells
become adapted to the surface beneath, whilst some
wear away the space beneath their foot, and others
secrete a shelly base. Both the form and colour of
the shells depend on the situation in which they grow.
Those found in the cavities of dead shells are nearlj-
flat, or even concave above, and colourless. They are
presumed to feed on the sea-weed growing around
them, or on animalcules. — {Woodward.) The internal
testaceous appendage described above varies consider-
ably in shape, and forms a good character for separating
them into groups. In one this appendage is horizontal,
covering the posterior half of the elongated aperture.
— See Plate 2, figs. 3, 4 and 6, Crepidula dilatata and
C. unguiformis. The shell is depressed horizontally, the
apex being sublateral and placed somewhat posteriorly.
These form the group of Slipper-shells, Crepidulina

of which the genus Crepidula is the type and chief
representative. Upwards of forty species have been
described, the greater number of which are natives
of South America, though several are inhabitants of
Australia, the West Indies, the Mediterranean, China,
and Senegal. They are sedentary on stones and shells
in shallow water, and, according to M. Adanson, seem
to prefer those places where the sea beats with the
greatest violence. The)" are often found adhering to
one another in groups of many successive generations.
Another group have the internal testaceous appendage
cup-shaped, ascending obliquely, and the shell conic, sub-
spiral, with its apex superior, subcentral. These form
the group Galerina, the “Cup and Saucer Limpets. ” —
See Plate 2, fig. 5, Crucibulum auriculatum. In some
oT the species of this group, as in the genus Galerus, this
shelly plate is subspiral, lateral, and adherent. One
of the species of this genus is British {Galerus Chi-
nensis), and is exceedingly diversified in colour, varying
from white, hyaline, and yellow, to reddish or dull
violet. It varies in form also, sometimes very conical
and smooth, at others slightly depressed, and the
surface covered with small, arched, elevated scales.
Sometimes it is smooth on one side and rough on the
other. Several other modifications may be observed,
but these must suffice. — See Plate 2, figs. 7 and 8.

Family— CAPULID^.

The family of Bonnet Limpets {Capulidce) are
also destitute of an operculum, but the foot is folded
on itself, and often seci'etes a shelly plate or forms a
cavity in the body to which it is attached. — See Plate
2, figs. 1 and 2, Capulus ungaricus. The shell is conical
and cup-shaped, with a sub-spiral apex (in the young
regularly spiral); and the interior is simple, without
any shelly appendage. The muscular impression is
horseshoe-shaped. The egg cases in this family
are membranaceous, and attached in a tuft on the
front of the foot. The animals are said to feed on
the sea-weed that grows around them. They are
inhabitants of nearly all the countries of the world, and
appear to be possessed of but limited locomotion, being
generally observed adhering to stones and other shells ;
the margins of the aperture becoming modified accord-
ing to the surface on which they live.

The genus Capulus has a conical, striated shell,
usually covered with a horny epidermis. The apex is
posterior and spirally recurved, and the aperture is
round and expanded. — See Plate 2, figs. 3 and 4, Capulus
ungaricus. The animal is rather sluggish and seden-
tary, and sometimes secretes an imperfect shelly plate
from its foot. In the genus Hippoxyx the foot of
the animal secretes a truly testaceous plate, which is
adherent by its outer surface to living shells and other
marine bodies, and leaves an impression of a horseshoe-
shape. The shell is thick, obliquely conical, with a
posterior apex. — See Plate 2, figs. 9 and 11 , Hipponyx
Cornucopia. The genus Amaltiiea is represented
in Plate 2, figs. 7 and 8.

Passing by the three succeeding families, Valvatidce,
Aciculidoe and Rissoellidce, we come to those species
which have the foot round, truncated, or club-shaped.

V ERMETID/E. M 0 LLU SCA. Steombid^.

«

341

Family — VERMETID^ {The Worm-shells).

The animals of this famil}' have a very small rudi-
mentary foot, not serving for locomotion. It is folded
on itself, and is truncated or club-shaped in front.
The body of the animal is irregularly twisted, as is also
the shell, which is tubular, and attached by its side.
The operculum is spiral, horny, and circular, when
present, but it is sometimes wanting. The eggs are
contained in an oblong membranaceous sac, and the
young shells are subspiral, rather irregular.

Genus Siphoniu.m. — This genus, which contains the
largest species of the familj'’, has the operculum very
large, smooth, circular,- and concave, with the scar
central. The shell, which is tubular, is usually fixed,
and the whirls are always irregularlj'^ twisted when
adult, and often carinated. The aperture is round.
In consequence of the shells of this family being alwaj^s
fixed or attached to other bodies, the animals are
unable to crawl or glide along ; hence the reason of the
smallness of the foot.

Genus Vermetus. — This genus differs chiefly from
the preceding by the whirls of the large, rather con-
cave operculum, having a thin, produced, external edge.
In Vermetxis radicula, a North American species, it is
horny, black, and hard on the inner, and lamellated on
the outer surface. It is surrounded by a thin, mem-
branous, flexible portion, about one-fourth its diameter;
thus it is enabled to close its shell perfectly at the
aperture, and yet to retreat far into the narrowed
whirls. — {Gray.) The shell of the young animal, before
it escapes from the egg, appears to be helicoid and
reversed ; but, wdien adult, is irregularly twisted, the
whirls more or less disunited, and the last generally
prolonged.

Genus Siliquaria. — In this genus the operculum
is manj'-whirled, spiral, and fringed. The shell is
tubular, internally glos.sy, and irregularly twisted.
The apex is attenuated, sometimes spiral, and a longi-
tudinal fissure runs throughout its whole length. The
species are often found in sponges.

In the next two families, Strombidce and Phoridcc,
the animals are distinguished by their having the foot
compressed, and adapted for leaping instead of crawling.
The gills are comb-like, and placed on the left side of
the mantle cavity.

Family — STROMBID.dS( TheStromh or Wivg-shells).

The species of this family have a solid spiral shell,
with compressed whirls and a linear aperture. The
outer lip changes its form with age, becoming, when
adult, more or less expanded, and either simple and
entire at the fore part, or deeply notched. The oper-
culum is annular, horny, claw-shaped, and serrated on
the outer side. The Strombs are active, muscular, and
predaceous animals, using their operculum as a weapon
of defence. Their eyes are well developed, having
both pupil and iris, the latter often beautifully coloured.
The crystalline lens is large, perfectly globular, and
horn-coloured. “ The perfect development of the large,
fine, pedunculated eyes of Strombus,” says Mr. A

Adams in his “Voyage of the Samarang,” “together
with its veiy elongated, powerful, muscular body and
foot, and claw-shaped, stout, jagged, horny operculum,
constitute it one of the most active and intelligent of
Molluscs. It is, in fact, a most sprightly and energetic
animal, and often served to amuse me by its extraor-
dinary leaps and endeavours to escape, planting firmly
its powerful narrow operculum against any resisting
surface, insinuating it under the edge of its shell, and
by a vigorous effort throwing itself forwards, carrying
its great heavy shell with it, and rolling along in a
series of jumps in a most singular and grotesque man-
ner.” The Rev. Lansdowne Guilding affirms that they
possess the sense of hearing also, or something allied
to it.

Genus Strombus. — In this genus the aperture of
the shell is lengthened, narrow, notched, or having a
short canal in front, and channeled posteriorly, and the
expanded outer lip is often lobed and deeply notched
in front near the canal. In the young state, however,
the shells present a very different appearance, resembling
somewhat an ill-formed cone. The species are numer-
ous, upwards of sixty having been described. They
are pretty generally distributed, but are by far more
numerous in tropical seas than in those of temperate

Fig. 221.

Strombus Isabella, with animal and eye.

countries. They are found on reefs at low water, and
ranging to ten fathoms. The genus is represented by
the Strombus Isabella (fig. 221).

THE GIANT STEOMB, or Fountain Shell of the
West Indies {Strombus gigas), is one of the largest
living shells, weighing sometimes four or five pounds.
The animal is occasionally used as an article of diet,
and the shell is extensivel}' used in the manufacture of
cameos. Immense quantities are annually imported
from the Bahama islands for this purpose, and for
porcelain works. In 1850 three hundred thousand
shells were imported to Liverpool alone.

Genus Pterocera. — The Scorpion Shells, as they
are called, are characterized by the shell having an

342 PhokidjE. MOLLUSCA. Atlantid^e.

elongated aperture, with a long recurved canal in front,

“ The adventitious pieces of shell are so disposed as

and ending posterioilj' in a canal ascending the spire.

not to curve downwards beyond the edge of the shell,

The outer lip is thickened, expanded, and produced

so as to impede the progress of the animal, but are

into tubular spines or claws, in the young shells

usually placed with their concave sides uppermost.” —

appearing in tlie form of open canals, but in the adult

Adams.

becoming closed and solid. The species are only about

In the two preceding families the foot of the animal

ten in number, and all come from the Indian and

was compressed, narrow., and adapted for leaping. In

Chinese seas.

the two succeeding ones this organ is compressed,
erect, and fin-like. It is generally furnished with a
small flat disk, or sucker, on the hinder edge. The

I'amily — PHOKlUil!! {The (Jarrier Shells).

body of the animal is more or less spiral in form, and
the creatures appear adapted for floating on the surface

The species of this family have a trochiform shell.

of the water. The head is distinct, with an elongate

with the aperture simple in front. The operculum is

proboscis. The gills are not regularly comb-like, but

large, horny, somewhat annular, triangular in shape.

are tufted.*

with the nucleus external. We are indebted to Mr.
A. Adams for a very interesting account of the animals

Family— PTEROTEACHEID^..

of these curious shells, whose history at present is so
little known. “ The Phori," he says, “ are very

Genus Carinaria. — This is the only genus in the

numerous in the China and Java seas, living in from

family that is provided with a true shell. The species

fifteen to thirty fathoms water, and generally preferring

are well known by the name of Glassy Sailors. The

a bottom composed of the detritus of dead shells and

shells are hyaline, symmetrical, conical, compressed.

sand mixed with mud. As a curious adaptation of

with a recurved apex, and a fimbriated dorsal keel, like

means to answer a certain purpose, the mode of pro-

the keel of a boat. It is exceedingly small for the size

gression of these singular Molluscs is peculiar, and

of the animal, which is large and translucent, and

deserving of notice. The}' crawl like a tortoise, by

indeed only covers and protects the nucleus, which is

lifting and throwing forward the shell, with the tentacles

peduncled, and in which are contained the more deli-

stretched out, the proboscis bent down, and the oper-

cate organs essential to life. They are found in the

culum trailing behind. As they invariably inhabit

Mediterranean, and in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.

places where the surface is rough and would not admit

They are swift in their movements, and dart with great

of a gliding motion, Nature has ordained that they

rapidity through the water in a reversed position and

should progress by a succession of small jumps or

by a continuous effort, their body straightened, and

tumbling evolutions. They are small for the size of

their caudal fin undulating from side to side, and acting

the shell, and have much the general appearance of the

as a powerful natatory organ. They appear to prefer

animal of Stromhm, like which they appear to walk ;

the twilight, when they may be taken by the trawl in

hut their eyes are sessile. In order to enable them to

considerable numbers. They are supposed to feed

escape from their enemies. Nature has instructed them
to cover their shells with the same materials as those

upon Acalephce and small Pteropods.

of the banks which they inhabit. Sometimes for this
purpose they select sand, often small stones, and more

Family— ATLANTIDAl.

frequently the debris of dead shells belonging to other

Genus Atlanta. — This is the only genus that has

genera.” They are called, in consequence, Mineralo-

a calcareous shell ; it is spiral, compressed, glassy.

gists and Conchologists by collectors.

transpaient, and underneath conspicuously keeled.

Genus Phorus. — Phorus has the trochiform shell

The Atlants are beautiful and sprightly little creatures.

concave beneath, with thewhirls flat, the spire depressed.

twisting their bodies about, and swimming in every

the aperture wide, and the umbilicus small. The

direction, at the same time probing every object

species appear each to have its own peculiar method

within their reach by means of their long muzzle-

of collecting the fragments of shells and stones which

shaped heads.

cover the ground where it lives, and each cements to

The genus Oxygyrus is distinguished by having a

the outside of the shell its particular kind of materials.

cartilaginous shell.

Order II.— SCUTIBEANCHIATA.

This order of Molluscs is much less numerous in species
than the preceding. They are, with few exceptions.

Family I.— PROSERPINIDAl.

as Proserpina and Neritina, marine, and chiefly littoral

In this family the shells have the aperture lunate.

in their habits, living upon the sea-weed covering the

the lips simple and sharp, and the throat furnished

rocks along the shore. The animals are hermaphrodite

and self-impregnating, the sexes not being separate as

* The species belonging to this group have by many authors
been arranged in a distinct sub-class by themselves, under the

in the Pectinibranchs.

name of Heteropoda or Cyclobrancliiata.

Neritinid^.' MOLLUSCA. TuRBiNiDiK. 343

with spiral laminae. The axis is covered with a callous
deposit. The species are from the West Indies, and
are prett}', smooth, and shining shells of a yellow
colour. They are terrestrial shells, and, like the
Cyclostomidffi to he afterwards mentioned, they breathe
free air. They have no operculum, and their dentition
agrees with the other scutibranchiate genera.

Family — NERITID.® = NeritinidjE,

{The Nerkes.)

This family contains a, number of species that are
either marine or fluviatile in their habits. The ani-
mals are destitute of the membranous fringes and ten-
tacular filaments which garnish the sides of the foot of
several of the other genera of this oixler. They are
littoral in their mode of life, being generally found
on stones and rocks along the shore, and feeding on
the sea-weeds that abound in such situations. They
appear to be more active during the night than in the
day. The shells are hemispherical in shape and flat
beneath. The spire is lateral and very short ; the
inner lip is flattened, transverse, and the cavity is
simple, owing to the absorption of the internal portions
of the whirls. The aperture is semiovate, and not
pearly within. The operculum is peculiar in its for-
mation, being furnished with a process on the inner
side under the nucleus, which forms a kind of hinge
with the inner lip of the shell. — See Plate 3, fig. 2.

Genus Nerita. — The species of this genus are
numerous, are all marine, and are chiefly found in
warm or tropical seas. — See Plate 3, fig. 1 {Nerita
undulata).

Genus Neritina (= Neritella). — The species
of this genus are fresh-water Nerites, and are found
in almost all parts of the world. Though inhabitants
of fresh water for the most part, some of the species
are found in brackish, and even salt water. Some of
them are to be met with crawling on the stones in
shallow water, while others are found at greater depths,
half buried in the mud. Some, according to Mr.
Adams, are amphibious, clinging to the roots of the
Nipah palms and other trees on the margins of rivers,
while a few inhabit the foliage of tall trees that over-
hang ponds and rivulets. Many of the species have
the apex of their shells eroded ; and Dr. Shuttleworth
is of opinion that this is catised by the animal’s filing
off the tips by its teeth, the marks of the teeth, he
says, being left on the surface of the erosion. — See
Plate 3, figs. 3, 4 {Neritina Oweniana and N. cariosu).

Genus Navicella (= Catillus). — This genus has
an oblong, depressed, smooth, limpet-like shell, covered
with a thin epidermis. The apex is small, reflexed
posteriorly ; the aperture is as large as the shell, and
has a small columellar shelf and elongated lateral mus-
cular scars. The operculum is very small, almost
rudimentary, shelly, and is applied to the dorsal surface
of the foot. — See Plate 4, fig. 1 {Terms used in Con-
chology). The species, of which nearly twenty have
been described, are usually found on the banks of rivers
in warm countries, as India, the Mauritius, the Philip-
pines, Moluccas, &c. In general they are met with
adhering to floating sticks, and to the petioles and

roots of the Nipah palms and other plants that live
near rivers. In the island of Bourbon, the Navicella
elliptica is commonly used to make a soup for the sick.

Family— TURBINIDiE {Top-shells').

The Top-Shells have a spiral top-shaped shell,
the last whirl rounded and ventricose, the aperture
subcircular, the inner lip smooth and simple, and the
interior brilliantly pearly or nacreous. The operculum
is subcircular, horny, with a solid, external, convex,
shelly coat. The species are numerous, and diversified
in external appearance, and the animals are all marine,
feeding upon sea-weeds. The Top-shells may be
divided into three large groups, characterized by the
form of the body of the animal — affecting of course the
shape of the shell — and by the form of the operculum.

Group T. — Turbinina {True Top-shells).

In this group the body of the animal is cylindrical,
and the shell is top-shaped, with a subcircular aper-
ture and operculum.

The genus Turbo may be taken as the type. The
shell of Turbo is solid, and covered with a thick epi-
dermis. The convex whirls are often grooved or
tuberculated, and the aperture slightly produced in
front. The operculum is very solid, externally con
vex, and covered with granules, and internally horny
and few- whirled. — (See fig. annexed, and Plate 3,
fig. 3.) The described species are about sixty in num-

Fig. 222.

Turbo olearius and operculum.

ber, and are chiefly found in the islands of the Eastern
archipelago, Australia, New Zealand, &c. The shells
of nearly all are brilliantly pearly when the epidermis
has been taken off and the outer layer of shell removed.

THE TITRBO OLEARIUS (see fig. annexed) is used by
the trade in the manufacture of papier-machd articles
and other ornamental goods where mother-of-pearl is
employed. The inner layer of this large species is
beautifully iridescent, and is imported in considerable

344 IjiPiiRATOKiNA. MOLLUSCA. Haliotid^.

quantities under the name of “ Snail mother-of-pearl.”
De Montfort tells us that he has seen a necklace formed
of the nacred part of the Turbo smaragclus, much more
brilliant and beautiful than any of the finest orient
pearls. — (Johnston.)

Gkoup II. — Imperatorina {Sun-troclmses).

In this group the body of the animal is subquadrate ;
the aperture of the shell is angulated outside, brilliantly
pearly within ; and the operculum is oblong or ovate.

The genus Imperator is the type. The shell of
Imperator is trochiform, thick, with a flat or concave
base, and keeled or stellated whirls. The species of
Imperatorina number between twenty and thirty, and
are all from tropical climates. — See Plate 3, fig. 1
(Imperator gibber ulus).

Group III. — Phasianellina {Pheasant shells).

This group is characterized by the body of the ani-
mal being ovate, and the aperture of the shell and the
operculum partaking of the same form.

Genus Phasianella (= Eutropia). — This genus,
so called because of the beautiful pheasant-like disposi-
tion of the colours on the shell, is the typical one. —
See Plate 3, figs. 4, 5 (Phasianella Australis and oper-
culum).

Family — TROCHIDj3]1 (Hoop-shells).

The Hoop-shells, with the animal nearly the same
as that of the Turbinidae, have a horny operculum,
thin, not covered with a calcareous coat, orbicular, and
composed of many gradually enlarging whirls. — (See
Plate 3, fig. 2.) The shell is generally pyramidal in
shape, with a nearly fiat base, and the last whirl more
or less angulated at the circumference. The aperture
is contracted and of a quadrangular shape, pearly inside,
and with a thin outer lip. The columella is twisted,
slightly truncated.- — (See Plate 3, fig. 1, 3, 4.)

Fig. 223.

Trochus niloticus and operculum.

The genus Trochus is the typical one of the
family ; and the Nilotic Trochus, Trochus niloticus,

perhaps the largest, and one of the handsomest species
of the whole family, will illustrate the genus (see fig.
annexed).

Genus Trociiiscus. — This germs is remarkable,
and only distinguished as belonging to this family by
its operculum. It has a widely umbilicated shell,
with an obtuse spire, a simple columella, and smooth
whirls, covered with an epidermis.

T. KOREIsn, the only species, is extremely like a
species of Turbo, and might be considered as belong-
ing to that genus, were it not for its operculum. This
is horny, of many gradually enlarging whirls, and is
I'emarkable for having the outer edge of each spiral
volution free and membranous, with the margin curled.

Genus Delphinula (= Angarus). — This genus
has a depressed shell, orbicular in form, and umbili-
cated. The whirls are few in number, angulated,
rugose, or spiny ; the aperture is round, pearly within,
and the peristome is continuous. The species are of
tolerable size, about twenty in number, and are distri-
buted through the warm seas of India, the Philippines,
China, Australia, and the Red Sea.

Genus Elenchus. — This genus has a turreted,
smooth, and polished shell, with rounded whirls and
no umbilicus. The aperture is ovate, and brightly
pearly within, and the pillar lip has a single more or
less produced tooth in front. The whole shell, when
the outer layer has been removed, is of a fine pearly
iridescent hue ; and several of the species, which are
all Australian in their geographical distribution, are
used by the natives about Bass’ Straits and Flinder’s
Island, when strung together, as bracelets and neck-
laces.

Family — SCISSURELLID.^ (Little Slit-shells).

The Little Slit-shells, though containing only one
genus, ScissURELLA, and eleven species of very small
and insignificant-looking shells, has many representa-
tives— in a fossil state — of a former period, but much
larger in size. The shell is spiral, of very small size,
depressed, transparent, and widely umbilicated; the
whirls are keeled, the aperture rounded, and the outer
lip has a slit or narrow fissure in the margin ; the oper-
culum is thin, horny, and circular. The species are
natives of the northern seas, being found in Norway,
off the Orkneys in seven fathoms, and in deep water to
the east of the Shetland isles. They are also found in
the Mediterranean.

Family — HALIOTIDEE (Ear-shells).

The Ear-shells are much larger, and are a great deal
more numerous, than the preceding family. The shell
is ear-shaped, with a very large and finely nacred
aperture; and the outer lip is perforated with a series of
holes over the mantle fissure. There is no operculum.

Genus Haliotis, or Ear-shell. — This genus has
has a depressly ovate shell with a small fiat spire, a
very wide and in many cases a highly-beautiful and
iridescent aperture. The left side is characterized by
a spiral ridge with a series of round holes in front, which
become gradually filled up behind as new ones are

Haliotis. MOLLUSCA. -FissuKELUDAi. 345

fonneil. The outer surface is in general very rough,
wrinkled, or tubercular and dull. The species are
numerous, upwards of seventy-five having been de-
scribed, and are widely distributed, some being found
in the Channel Islands, the Mediterranean, and the
Canaries, while many others are found in India, China,
the Cape of Good Hope, Australia, and New Zealand,
the Pacific Ocean, on the coast of California, and as far
north as Kamtschatka. They are remarkable for the
beauty and diversified colours of the shells ; and from
the splendidly iridescent nacre they possess, are much
used for inlaying papier-machd and other ornamental
works in which mother- of-peail is employed. Large
quantities are brought to Birmingham for that purpose.
Some of the species supply a by no means indifferent
article of food. The common Ear-shell of the Channel
Islands— the “ Ormer,” as it is there called {H. tuber-
culata) — is largely used at the seasons when it leaves
deep water and comes to the rocks, laid bare at low
tides. Great quantities are then taken ; and when well
beaten to make them tender, and after that properly
dressed, they afford an excellent dish, tasting like veal
cutlets. As an old ladj^, however, a resident in Guern-
sey, informed the writer — a good cook of Ormers is
becoming scarce on the island ! The shell of the H.
tuherculata, says Dr. Johnston, “ if we except the
splendid iridescence of its interior, is sufficiently plain
and vulgar ; but behold it borne along by the living
tenant, its variegated garniture all displayed and ver-
micular in the smooth and cr3'stal water, and it moves
wonder and admiration!” — (See fig. annexed). At
Monterey in California two large species of Ear-shell

are very abundant, and are much sought after by the
Indians as food ; they are found, we are told by Capt.
Beechey, on the granite rocks forming the south-east
part of the bay. The natives make use of the shells
also for ornaments, and decorate their baskets with
pieces of them. In Japan a species is in great request
as an article of food. It is called the Awahi and
Koempfer informs us “ that they lie deep under water,
sticking fast to rocks or to the bottom of the sea, from
whence they are taken up b^^ fishermen’s wives, thej'
being the best divers in the country. They go down
armed with darts or long knives, to defend themselves
again.st kayes and porpesses ; and when they see an
awabi they pull it off suddenly before the animal is
aware, becairse otherwise it would fasten itself to the
rocks or the bottom of the sea so strongly, that no force
would be strong enough to tear it off. This shell is
filled with a large piece of flesh of a yellowish or whitish
Von. II. loo

colour, and a very tough substance, though without
fibres. They say it was the common food of their
necessitous ancestors, in memory whereof, when they
entertain compan}', they always provide a dish of it.
It is also become a crrstom with them, as well among
the vrrlgar as people of qualitj^, that when they send
one another presents of monej', cloth, stuffs, fruits, or
anything else, a string, or at least a small bit of the
dried flesh of this shell, is sent along with them as a
good omen, and in order to put them in mind of the
indigence of their forefathers. The flesh is cut into thin
slices or strings, which are extended on a board and
dried.” The shell is also put to some use by these
ingenious people. Thunberg tells us that in a jorrrney
made through part of Japan, between Jeddo and Miako,
he “ saw men or childi-en furnished with a kind of
spoon, made with a shell known under the name of
“ Oreille de Mer,” attached to a stick, with which thej’
collected the excrements of horses and other aitimals.
These excrements,” he adds, “ moistened with a suffi-
cient quantity of water, are then spread with great care
upon the vegetables which are cultivated in the fields
along the road.” This species has lately been brought
to this country in great abundance.

HALIOTIS IRIS. — A species found in New Zealand,
of a very brilliant green iridescent hue when polished,
affords the natives of that island a by no means con-
temptible source of food. The shell is of considerable
size, and the animal, when cooked, is said to taste like
mutton ; hence it is commonly known by the name of
Mutton-fish.

Family — FISSURELLlDHil [Key-hole Limpets).

The Key-hole Limpets have the margin of their
mantle slit or fissured in front, the free
edges forming a siphon which occupies
the anterior notch or perforated apex
of the shell. The shell is conical, limpet-
shaped, with a recurved apex. It is either
grooved or fissured at its anterior margin,
or perforated at the apex. The aper-
ture is wide, and not pearly within ; there is no operculum.
The species are very numerous, and are generally littoral
in their habits, and phjflophagous or vegetable feeders.

Genus Parmophorus (— Scutus). — This genus
has the shell grooved internall}' at its anterior margin.

Fig, 225.

Fissurella crassa.

Genus Emarginui.a. — This genus has the .shell
fissured in its anterior margin.

Genus Fissurella.- — This genus has the apex per-

346 Dentaliid^. MOLLUSCA. Patellid^.

forated by a hole great]}' resembling that of an ordinary
key-hole — hence the name of “Key-hole Limpets.” —
See fig. 2‘25.

Family — DENTALIID^ {Tooth-shells).

The Tooth-shells are very different in external ap-
pearance from the Fiss^irelUdce ; they are elongately
conical, tubular, curved, open at each end, and at-
tenuated posteriorly. Notwithstanding this apparent
difference of structure, the most usual way of regarding
the Tooth-shells “has been to considerthem as elongated
Fissurellre, with the eyes and tentacles wanting, and
the foot rudimentary and tubular ; the perforated small
end of the shell corresponding with tlie orifice of the
vertex of Fissurella and subserving the same purpose.”

—{Aclam>.^. The body of the animal is formed like the
shell, tapering gradually to the posterior extremity, and
is attached to the shell near its posterior orifice. The
stomach is furnished with a strong gizzard, and they are
decidedly carnivorous animals. They feed upon Fora-
minifera and small bivalve shells, and are usually found
buried in the sand, or sandy mud, in from ten to one
hundred fathoms. About thirty species are described,
and they are found in India and the West Indies, in the
Mediterranean, on the coasts of Norway, and the shores
of Great Britain.

Genus Dentai.ium. — This genus has a tubular,
tapering, and curved shell, with a smooth or longitudi-
nally striated surface, and a circular and entire aperture.

Genus Entalis. — This genus is distinguished by
merely having the circular aperture longitudinally fis-
sured on the dorsal or hinder margin.

Family— TECTURIDtE {False Limpets).

In external appearance, the shells of this family bear
so close a resemblance to the rock limpets {PatelUdm)
that it is exceedingly difficult to distinguish them. Of
almost all the genera of Mollusca that present a simi-
larity of appearance, these two are probably, says Dr.
Gray, the most remarkable examples, “ on account of
the extreme dissimilarity of their animals, which are
referable to two very ditlerent orders ; while the shells
are so perfectly alike, that, after along-continued study
of numerous species of each genus, I cannot find any
character by which they can be distinguished with any
degree of certainty. The agreement in the internal
structure of their shells is equally complete ; yet the
animal of Patella has the branchise in the form of a
series of small plates disposed in a circle round the inner
edge of the mantle, while that of Lottia {Techira) has
a triangular pectinated gill, seated in a proper cavity
formed over the back of the neck, within the mantle.
This difference in the respiratory organs of animals
iidiabiting shells so strikingly similar,” continues Dr.
Gray, “ is the more anomalous, inasmuch as those
organs commonly exercise great influence on the general
form of shells — a circumstance readily accounted for
when we reflect that a principal object of the shell is to
afford protection to those delicate and highly-irnportant
parts.” The Tecturidee have a large foot, but no
operculum. The shells are depressed, conical, or cao-

shaped ; the aperture is large, and generally of a
beautifully porcellanous appearance internally. The
species are probably numerous ; they are littoral in their
habits, and are usually found between tide marks feed-
ing on the sea-weed. “ Their locomotion is very
limited, and in their geographical distribution they are
found both in temperate and tropical countries.”
— {Adams.)

Family — PATELLIDiE {Rock Limpets).

We have already briefly described the difference in
the structure of the respiratory organs between the
Rock limpets and the False limpets, and mentioned the
striking resemblance in the shells of the two families.
The Rock limpets have a short muzzle, subulate ten-
tacles, and fringes on the margin of the mantle. The
shell is simple, conical, with a sub-central apex and a
wide aperture, smooth within, but not of so rich a por-
cellanous appearance as in the False limpets. The
species of Patellidcs are very numerous, upwards of one
hundred having been described. They are strictly
littoral in their habits, and are world-wide in their
distribution.

Genus Patella. — By far the greater number of
species belonging to the family are contained in this
genus. These shells are usually found fixed upon rocks
on the shore; hence their name of Rock limpets. Some
of the species on the coasts of South America and
California attain a large size. Mr. Cuming informs
the writer, that the species known as the Patella rnexi-
cana is often used by the natives as a wash-hand basin !

The Patellce possess the power, in a certain degree,
of excavating holes in the rocks and other bodies upon
which they live.

I THE SPOON LIMPET OF THE CAPE {Patella cochlear)
lives almost exclusively attached to a large species of
the same genus, and on the surface of this it forms a
flat disk, exactly the size of its mouth. To form this
disk and increase its size, it has been observed to absorb
any coralline or other similar substance with which the
larger shells are abundantly covered. Some of the
species of the preceding family of False limpets possess
the same power ; as for instance the Tectura parasitica,
which obtains its specific name from its habit of living
upon other shells, and upon the surface of which it
forms a hollow answering to the size and shape of the
rim of its shell. But in no species has this been so well
observed as in the Common limpet of our own coasts.

THE PATELLA VULGATA is in the habit of hollowing
out a space in the site upon which it has settled, and
which varies in depth according to the softness or hard-
ness of the rock upon which it has taken up its abode.
In the soft calcareous rocks of the Isle of Thanet, the
pits so made are half an inch deep ; but upon hard
limestones the depressions are much shallower, and it
is in the case of adults only that we find the rock worn
down, the margin of the shell often accommodating
itself to the inequalities of the surrounding surface.
The limpets adhere very firmly to the rocks upon which
they are located, and it is often very difficult to remove
them. Reaumur ascertained that a weight of twenty-
eight or thirty pounds was required to overcome their

PATELLIDiE. MOLLUSCA. Ghitomid^e.

adhesion, “ They adhere very lirmly by atmospheric
pressure (fifteen pounds per square inch), and the diffi-
culty of detaching them is increased by the form of tlie
shell.” — {Woodward.') Dr. Johnston, on the strength
of Reaumur’s experiments upon this subject, affirms
that this cohesion entirely depends on a glue, or kind
of paste, which, though invisible, produces a very con-
siderable effect. Reaumur cut the animal from top to
bottom in two halves, as it stood fixed perpendicularly
upon the rock ; and he made other deep incisions in a
horizontal direction, destroying in this manner all the
muscular power of its base, and all supposable vacuity
between it and the stone : but the adhesion continued
as firm as before the experiment. Even the death of
the animal does not destroy its cohesion. There seems
to be some doubt as to how far these animals are sta-
tionary on the rocks, or whether they have the power
of moving to some distance and returning to their roost.
Mr. Clark, in his “ Mollusca,” says, “ How some Patellae
live is a mystery they are often fixed for months,
perhaps years, on rocks, at altitudes where they can,
rarely, if at all, be aspersed by the sea, and are debarred
access to marine vegetables ; their recorded descents
from high levels, and periodical exits from and returns
to the identical hollows they have made, after feeding
on algae, have almost a fabulous complexion ; zones of
sand fifty yards wide often intervene between them and
such food, and their exceeding slow locomotion is op-
posed to such manoeuvres. Mr. Lukis of Guernse}',
however, in a paper published in Loudon's Magazine,
has apparently shown that these sluggish creatures
have the power, and exercise it too, of moving to some
distance from their resting-place and returning to the
same favourite spot. The times for these excursions
being during night, and when the rocks are covered by
the tide, has led superficial observers to suppose that,
because the same individuals are oftcm found in the
same spots for a great length of time, months or even
years, they therefore never leave these sites at all. Mr.
Lukis appears from his paper to have marked indi-
viduals, to avoid mistake, and has watched their roam-
ings and followed the tracks left by them for several
yards. These tracks are very peculiar, and when once
seen are not to be mistaken.

This Common limpet, of which we have spoken so
much (see fig. annexed), is much used as an article of

Fig. 226.

Patella vulgata and animal.

food. In the north of Ireland, Mr. Patterson gives a
very interesting account of the use made by the poor
of this, to them, valuable article of subsistence. Many
tons weight are annually collected near the town of

347

Larne alone. In Guernsey, Mr. Lukis tells us, great
quantities are daily consumed ; “ scarcely a cottage on
the coast is seen, where a heap of empty shells does
not form a prominent feature near the door.” Patella
vulgata, he adds in a note, “ seems to have been used
by the inhabitants of these islands from the earliest
times, as appears from masses of its shells now found
in ground which has lain waste and unturned for cen-
turies.”

This shell is much used by fishermen as bait. In
the Berwickshire Club Transactions, Dr. Johnston in-
forms us that, on the coast near Berwick, there were for
many years nearly twelve million collected j^early for
that purpose ; but they have decreased in number so
much of late that they no longer repay the trouble of
gathering them.

Family — CLIITONIDH5 [Sea Wood-lice).

In this family the shell consists of a series of eight
transverse valves situated on the middle of the animal’s
back, each valve being inserted into the mantle, and
having a deep lateral notch on each side. The border
of the mantle into which those valves are inserted, is
of a coriaceous texture, and is either smooth and bare,
or covered with minute scales, spines, or hairs. There
are several anatomical peculiarities possessed by the
animals of this family, of such a nature as to induce
some naturalists to remove them from the Mollusca
altogether. “A Chiton,” says Dr. Williams, “has a
carapace like an isopod crustacean ; a dorsal vessel like
an annelid; bilateral, symmetrical, reproductive viscera
like an acephalous mollusc; a head and foot like a patel-
loid gasteropod ; a posterior anus like the Fissure Hid ce,
and branchim like those of the brachyurous Crustacea !
Such manifold affinities at once unite and sever this
odd group from several most dissimilar classes.” As
Cuvier, however, has shown, their gills are like those
of the Patellidce, their foot is that of a true gasteropod,
and in their lingual dentition they resemble the Cteno-
hrancliiata. The hinder valve of the shell was at one
time considered by Dr. Gray as homologous with the
shell of the Patellidce, the other valves being only so
many portions successively detached from it. The
species of Ckitonidce are very numerous, more than two
hundred having been described. They are world-wide
in their distribution, occurring in all climates. Though
by far tbe greater number are found on rocks at low
water, they are occasionally taken by the dredge in
from ten to twenty-five fathoms water ; and some of
our small British species range as low as one hundred
fathoms. “ In the tropics,” says Mr. A. Adams, “ the
Chitons appear to be more vivacious than those found
farther north. If turned over on their backs, they will
gradually bend their calcareous jointed bodies in every
direction, contracting and dilating their ventral disk
until they assume their natural position. Their pro-
gressive motion is scarcely perceptible, however ; the
principal object, apparently being again to fix them-
selves to the surface of the rocks which Nature has
given them to inhabit. Their food consists of fuci and
other algae with which the rocks and stones are covered.”
In the West Indies there are several species which grow

348 CHITo^’ID^. MOLLUSCA. Ciutonid^.

to a considerable size, as the Chiton squamosus, &c. (see
fig. annexed); these are eagerly devoured by the negroes,
who call them beef. The thick fleshy foot is cut away
from the living animal, and swallowed raw, while the
viscera are rejected. The Chitons deposit their eggs,
closely united in clusters, on stones, each egg being
inclosed in a thick, vesicular, folded envelope. The
young, when first hatched, have no shell ; that covering
not being developed until some time after. The back
of the newly hatched creature, however, is marked with
seven cross furrows, and between them, the first rudi-
ments of the shell make their appearance in the form
of close granulations. As the animal increases in size,
the furrows become more distinctly separated, and the
first shell is then seen in the form of seven narrow bands
with irregular margins. In a family containing upwards
of two hundred species, it may easily be imagined the
varieties in form, &c., must be considerable. The
Chitons accordingly have been divided into no fewer
than twenty-three different genera, and in the most
recent arrangement of these, Dr. Gray has selected, as
characters, the forms of the plates of insertion of the
various valves. We must refer to his “Systematic
Arrangement” for the details of the various genera.
We will content ourselves in this place with merely
stating, that they may all be ari'anged in two groups or
sub-families depending upon the structure of the mantle.

The true Chitons, the Chitornnce of Adams, have the
mantle simple, and without pores on it furnished with
tufts of bristles or spines. The Cryptoplacince of
Adams, the second group, have the mantle furnished
with pores which are beset with subulate, flexible
bristles, or with tufts of bristle- like calcareous spines.

Ghoup I.— Chitonin^.

This group is by far the most numerous, and the
edge of the mantle is variously covered by scales or
calcareous thick bristles, like spines ; or it is smooth
and naked. In the genus Chiton, the mantle margin
is covered with regularly disposed, imbricate, smooth,
polished scj^les. — (See fig. annexed of Chiton squa-
mosus).

In the genus Acanthopleuka, the mantle margin is
covered with uniform shelly spines or elongated scales ;
and in the genus Tonicia, the mantle margin is naked.

smooth, and covered with a hard shining skin beneath.
In all these the exposed part of the valves, or the part
not covered by the mantle of the animal, is broad and
band-like ; but in the curious genus Cryptocliiton, the

Fig. 227.

valves are entirely covered by the mantle, and this is
set all over with numerous close, uniform tufts of cal-
careous spicula, which in a dry state resemble at first
sight particles of saw-dust.

Gkoup II. — Cryptoplacika:.

This group contains fewer species, and some of these
present a good deal of similarity to annulose animals,
from the smallness of the exposed portion of the shell,
and the tufts of spines along the edge of the mantle.
In Plaxiphora the pores of the mantle are furnished
with subulate, flexible bristles. In Acanthochetes the
pores are furnished with tufts of bristle-like calcareous
spines, which are generally large and often iridescent.
The exposed part of the valves is moderately broad.
In Chitonellus., the mantle is covered with short,
crowded, calcareous spines, and the pores on the sides
are small, with similar spines; but the exposed portion
of the valves is rather small, and the body of the animal
is elongate, subcylindrical, and the back is convex. It
is this peculiar form of the animal that causes them to
resemble so much some of the Annelids,

Sub-class II.— -HETEEOBRAN CHIATA.

In this sub-class of Molluscs, the gills are not, as in
the former sub -class (see p. 186), inclosed in a special
cavity, but are more or less exposed on the back, or
at the sides towards the hind part of the body. Their
respiration, however, is aquatic as in the ctenobran-
chiate orders; and the animals are hermaphrodite, the
male and female organs being found in the same in-
dividual.

The number of species contained in this sub-class is

very considerable, though certainly inferior to those of
the preceding; and many of the genera have no external
covering or shell in the adult state. The young or larvae,
however, are in all of them provided with a spiral shell,
the aperture of which is closed by an operculum. TJieir
head is furnished with two lobes or fins, fringed at the
margin with vibratile cilia, which serve as organs of
locomotion, but which disappear as they reach the
mattire state.

PLIiUROBUANClIIATA. JIOLLUSCA. ApLl'SIADAi. 349

Order L— PLEUEOBRANCHIATA.

This order contains eleven families, but, with the
exception of the Bubble-shells, none very numerous
in species. The shell is spiral ; and both larvae and
adult are shell-bearing. The larvae are furnished with
deciduous cephalic fins. The animals have the foot
elongate, adapted for walking.

The old genus Bulla of Lamarck is now split into
many, and even forms several families. The animals
are all characterized, however, by having the tentacles
broad, forming a more or less expanded frontal disk.
As Mr. Hancock observes, this frontal disk is in fact
nothing else than the dorsal and labial tentacles fused
into one continuous mass. They are all carnivorous
in their habits, swallowing their prey entire ; and their
stomach is furnished with a muscular gizzard armed
with calcareous plates. A fuller description of this
organ will be found under the genus Scaxihander. They
have no operculum.

Family— PHILINIDHi:,

Some of the species of this family have no shells ;
others have a thin, fragile, ovate shell, which is con-
volute and covered by the mantle.

Genus Scaphandek. — See Plate 4, fig. 1 {Sca-
phander Ugnarius, shell and animal). This genus has a
distinct shell, not covered by the mantle. It is ovate,
convolute, and spirally striated ; the spire is concealed,
and the aperture is large, much expanded in front, and
narrow behind. The animals are blind, and the giz-
zard is formed of two large trigonal calcareous plates,
and a small, narrow, transverse plate. This gizzard
was described by Gioeni as a genus of shells ! The
Rev. Mr. Landsborough has described it very well in
the Scaphander Ugnarius, at the same time giving an
account of the habits of this species, which is found on
many parts of our sea-coasts. “ This gizzard,” he
says, “ is a wonderful piece of mechanism, which one
would not expect to find in the interior of a very soft
mollusc. I thought it was composed of two plates,
but I found there were three. Two of the plates are
triangular, and placed one above the other, like the
upper and nether millstones. They are quite flat,
but a little concave externally, and rather convex
internally ; they are bound together by strong carti-
lage, and on one of the sides of the triangle there is a
third valve or plate, giving strength to the cartilage,
and keeping the two grinders at some distance, except
at the centre, where the convex points meet, and thus
leaving, except at these points, room for the reception
of food in the triangular space between the two mill-
stones. The food of the Bulla (Scaphander) seems to
be the fry of other shell-flsh. Though they seem to
indulge very freely as to quantity, they appear to be
wiser than our biped gourmands, for they keep to one
dish. In every one of the specimens I procured, the
capacious gullet was filled with the fry of Mactra
subtruncata. The gullet was in the form of a corn-

sack, quite distended ; for each contained some scores
of these little bivalves in an unbroken state. The
sack, however, gradually emptied itself into the giz-
zard ; and in this shelly mill the shells and their con-
tents were reduced to powder, or rather fine paste,
well fitted, we doubt not, to be wholesome nutriment
for the industrious little marine miller.”

Family — BULLIDAl (True Bubble-shells.)

This family as now restricted consists of shells which
are involute, exposed or external, or only partially
covered by the reflexed lateral lobes of the foot.

Genus Bulla. — In this genus the shell is ovate or
subglobose, convoluted, solid, smooth, and variously
coloured or mottled ; the spire is small, sunk, or hid-
den, causing the apex to be perforated, and the aper-
ture is longer than the shell, and rounded at each end.
The animal has a large lobe or disk, truncated in front,
bilobed behind, the eye immersed, subcentral, and the
foot short and subquadrate. — See Plate 4, fig. 1
(Alcera carnosa). The gizzard is furnished with three
plates. The species are rather numerous, about fifty
having been described. In their habits they are
recorded as being found on sandy mud flats, slimy
banks in estuaries, and in brackish water near the
sea. At low water they may occasionally be seen
concealing themselves in the mud or under sea-weed,
where they have been observed exuding large quanti-
ties of mucus to maintain the moisture of their skin. —
(Adams.) Their food consists of small bivalve shells,
which they are able to crush and triturate by means of
their powerful gizzards.

Family— AMPLUSTRIDH5.

The species of this family have an oval, ventricose
shell, ornamented with highly-coloured bands or mark-
ings. The spire is generally conical and blunt, the
aperture oblong or ovate, and more or less channeled
in front.

Family — APLYSIIDHH (Sea-hares),

The Sea-hares have the shell internal, covered by
the mantle, or it is wanting altogether. The animals
are slug- like in form; have the head produced, and
their ear-like tentacles separate, and slit externally.
The foot is long, drawn out into a tail behind, and has
large side lobes reflected over the back. The' gizzard
is armed with horny spines.

Genus Dolabella. — In the animals of this genus
the side lobes of the foot are not expanded so as to
enable the creature to swim, and the shell is hard, cal-
careous, of a triangular shape, and with a curved and
callous apex. See Plate 4, figs. 3, 4 (Dolabella Rum-
phii).

Genus Aplysia. — In the animais of this genus the

350 Aplysiiu^. MOLLUSCA, Umbkelliu,*;.

side lobes of the foot are dilated, and free for swimming
(see Plate 4, fig. 1 — Aplysia punctata) ; and the shell
is subcartilaginous and covered b^' the mantle. It
is oblong, convex, fle.xiblo, and translucent, with the
apex acute and slightly incurved. The species of
Sea-hares, or Aplysise, are rather numerous, upwards
of forty having been described; they are found iidiabit-
ing the seas of the West Indies, the Mauritius, China,
the Mediterranean, Norway, and Great Britain. They
are chiefly vegetable feeders, living principally on sea-
weed. They are said to devour animal substances also ;
but Cuvier, Pessonel, and others have sufficiently proved
that marine plants are their ordinary food. Dr. John-
ston tells us that he kept a specimen of the Aplysia
mustelina for nearly three months in a state of confine-
ment, during wliich it was fed on sea-weed alone, and
that it ate these greedily, showing a certain degree of
preference for the dulse {Fitcus palmatus). The
Aplysia is of quick growth, the Mediterranean species
being said to attain its full size of about four inches in
one or two months. When irritated these animals pom-
out an abundance of a fine purple-coloured fluid, so
much so tliat a single individual can colour the water
for some yards around it. “ This fluid is secreted in a
gland of a triangular figure, situated under the base of the
fleshy coverlid of the branchiae, and oozes out from all
the free surface of this coverlid.” — {Johnston.) Cuvier
says that, in drying, the secretion assumes the beautiful
deep hue of the sweet Scabious (Scabiosa atro-purpu-
reu), and remains unaltered by long exposure to the
air. The smell is faint; there is nothing peculiar to the
taste, nor has it any irritating quality, for it may be
applied a long time to the skin with perfect impunity.
Besides this innocuous purple fluid, the Aplysiae occa-
sionally discharge, though only in small quantities, a
whitish liquid of an acrid nature, which is secreted by
a gland composed of little round hyaline grains, and
emitted through a eircular aperture opening externally
a little behind the aperture of the oviduct. On this
account, and from their grotesque forms, in olden times
they were viewed with fear and superstitious dread ;
they were considered, by the Romans especially, as
possessing a deadly poison. “ It was held, or was sup-
posed to hold,” says Dr. Johnston, “such a noxious
sympathy with man, that the ‘only aspect thereof’ was
poisonous to some ; to women great with child the sight
produced untimely labour, and hence it was employed
to discover concealed pregnancy ; the touch of it was
fatal, some say, to the man who handled, others to the
mollusc, which latter doubtless would be the more pro-
bable result ; while others affirmed only that the hair
fell from the parts with which it came in contact; and
all agreed that the odious foetor which issued from the
body occasioned sickness and overturnings of the sto-
mach. ■ That such a creature should, afford a potent
poison was a reasonable inference ; and it certainly

formed one ingredient of some of the poisonous draughts
so much resorted to in the corrupt days of Rome.
Locusta used it to destroy such as were inimical to Nero;
it entered into the fatal potion which she prepared for
the tyrant himself, and which he had not resolution to
swallow ; and Domitian was accused of having given it
to his brother Titus. The operation of the poison was
not immediate ; but tbe victim lived as many days as
the hare had lived subsequent to its removal from the
sea. What proportion of truth there is in this account
it is not easy to decide. I am not prepared to reject the
whole, as some modern authors have done, who believe
that the singular conformation of the Aplysia, and the
power it possesses of discharging at pleasure large
quantities of a fluid of the richest purple colour, have
given rise to the whole tale.” Our British species ap-
pear to be perfectly inoffensive and quite harmless; but
there may be other species in warmer climates, which,
at particular times, may possess a fluid of deleterious
quality. Bohadtch, an author of some repute, mentions
that one speeies which abounds in the Bay of Naples,
(the Aplysia leporina), when removed from the sea
and placed in a vessel, exuded a large quantity of fluid
which exhaled a sweetish, sickening, peculiar smell.
When placed on a plate for the purpose of more nar-
rowly examining its structure, the room, he says, was
filled with a most fetid, nauseous odour, which he could
scarce endure without going out repeatedly to breathe
a purer air. His hands and cheeks swelled after hand-
ling the creature for any length of time, and when he
applied some of the liquid to the chin, the hairs fell from
the part touched. In a large species which occurs at
St. lago, in the Cape de Verd Islands, Mr. Darwin
informs us that, besides emitting a purple fluid whieh
stained the water for the space of a foot around, it dis-
charged an acrid secretion from all over its body, which
caused a sharp, stinging sensation similar to that pro-
duced by the Physalia or Portuguese man-of-war.
Aplysia depilans is the mo.st common of the species in
our seas, and obtains its specific name from its supposed
depilatory powers.

Family— UMBRELLIDAE {Umbrella Shells.)

The Umbrellas have a regularly calcareous, exter-
nal shell, but very disproportionate to the size of the
animal. The foot is very large, thick, tubercular on
its sides ; it is flat beneath and deeply notched in front.
In this fissure is placed the mouth, which is furnished
with a retractile proboscis. The shell is limpet-like,
orbicular, flattened, with a slightly raised, conical, sub-
central apex. Externally it is marked by concentric
lines of growth, and internally it has a central coloured
and striated disk.— See Plate 5, tigs. I, 2 {Umbrella
umbellata and animal).

Order II.— NUDIBEANCHIATA (= Gymnobranchiata.)

The Nudibranch or Naked-gilled Molluscs, or “ Sea carry their gills, which are of various forms, on some
Slugs,” as they are frequently called, are all natives of part of the back, exposed to the direct influence of the
the sea. They have no shell in their adult state, and water in which they live. They possess an elongate

N UUIBUANCHIATA.-

MOLLUSCA. Tkito.nia. 351

foot which is adapted for walking, and accordingly they
are generally found crawling slowly along, either on the
rocks near low water mark, on the firm rocky bottom at
no great depth, or clinging to sea-weeds out at sea. They
do not appear to have the power of swimming through
the water ; but they are frequently to be seen floating
on the surface in an inverted position. The species are
numerous, and are found in all parts of the world. The
British species have been studied with greater care than
the exotic, and no fewer than one hundred have been
described by Messrs. Alder and Hancock as inhabiting
our own coasts. They exhibit a very great variety of
form, a high state of organization, and an astonishing
variety of lively and beautiful colours. The gills being
contractile into cavities on the surface of the body, they
present in the living state extremely interesting objects
of observation, as they keep extruding them and with-
drawing them at frequent intervals. In some they
present the appearance of flowers ; in others they are
arborescent or tree -like, or feathered like an ostrich
plume; and in others they are disposed in rows of
papillary tubercles on the sides of the body. The greater
number of these Sea-slugs are carnivorous, and appear
to be very voracious. They feed chiefly upon zoophytes
and sponges; some adding to their bill of fare the
gelatinous Porpitse and Velellai that are found float-
ing on the surface of the ocean ; while others again
have been seen devouring other Nudibranchs, and
even making a repast upon their own spawn. Messrs.
Alder and Hancock tell us that large individuals of
the Eolis coronata feed on their own species ; and
should a small or weak specimen be within their reach,
they seize hold of it by any part which may be nearest
to them. “ The tail, however, is generally first seized,
and fierce and determined is the onset. The devourer
raises and shakes his papillae in the manner that the
porcupine shakes its quills when irritated, and then,
laying back the dorsal tentacles and curling up the
oval ones, fixes the protruded mouth and jaws upon
his prey, when, with a convulsive shrinking up of the
body, morsel after morsel is appropriated. In this man-
ner it is not uncommon to see an individual entirely
devour another, half its own size.” These animals
deposit their ova in coils, long ribands, or spiral cliains.
The eggs are very numerous. Mr. Darwin notices
particularly a species found on the shore of the Falk-
land Islands. The ova were contained, from two to
five in number, in a spherical little case ; and these
were arranged two deep in transverse rows, forming a
riband about twenty inches in length. P.y computa-
tion of the number of rows, and the number of little
cases in each row, he reckoned that in that riband there
could not be fewer than six hundred thousand eggs !
Upon escaping from the ovum the larva, or young,
is extremely minute, and is described as resembling
a rotiferous animalcule more than a mollusc. It is
inclosed in a transparent, calcareous, nautiloid shell,
with an o[)erculum. In lieu of the tentacles which are
possessed by the adult, this young creature has two
veils, shaped somewhat like ears, and which give it the
power of moving rapidly through the water. At a later
period these veils disappear ; the foot becomes enlarged
and the shell falls off ; the creature begins to crawl like

a Gasteropod, and the gills make their appearance.
When the veils fall off, and the tentacles and gills are
fully evolved, the metamorphosis is complete, and the
animal assumes its mature state of existence. Tlie
various genera which compose this order may be all
arranged in two large groups, according to the situation
of the gills or branchiae.

Group L— PYGOBRANCHIA {Gray) = K^-viio-
Branchiata {Adams).

In this group the gills are plumose or branched, and
are placed in a circle or semicircle round the vent, on
the middle of the hinder part of the back. The skin
is tough and coriaceous, of a spongy or cellular struc-
ture, and stiffened with numerous imbedded spicula
more or less definitely arranged. In some of the
families in this group, as in OnclndoridcB and Doridw,
the body of the animal is of a convex form, the mantle
large, reaching to the edge of the foot, and destitute
of any appendages. The dorsal tentacles are two in
number, retractile ; and the mouth tentacles are also
two, when present, but are sometimes wanting. These
two families are represented on Plate 5 by several
species. In all the other families of this group the
body of the animal is more or less compiessed, the
mantle small, exposing the head and foot, or some-
times even obsolete, and often furnished on the margin
with beard-like filaments. Such are the families Gonio-
doridcB, Polyceratidce, and Ce7'aiosomidce, as represented
in Plates 5 and 6 by several species.

Group II.— AlOLOBRANCHIATA.

The second large group of Nudibranchs are all distin-
guished from the preceding group, by not having the
gills arranged round the vent, but on the contrary placed
usually in rows along the sides of the body. The exact
position and form of these organs vary, however, a good
deal. In some (the /«/eTOi?’a72c/ifa of Gray) they are
placed on the under side of the expanded mouth, and
are lamellar. Such are the families Phyllidiida: ar.d
Dipliyllidiidce. In another series of this group (the
Polyhranchia of Gray) the gills are placed on the
upper surface of the mantle, and are either lamellar or
plumose. Such are the families Tritoniidce, ScyllceidcB,
and TethyidcR.

Genus Tritonia. — The Tritonias are rather nume-
rous in species, and many of them are found upon
corallines or sea-weed, and under stones, in shallow
water, in which places they feed upon the Zoophytes
that live in their neighbourhood. — See Plate 6, fig. 1
{Tritonia Plomhergii).

THE TRITONIA ARBOEESCENS is remarkable for
the sound it produces. When observed in a glass vessel
in a room, the sounds are audible at the distance of
twelve feet, and resemble very much the clink of a steel
wire on the side of the jar ; only one stroke is given at
a time, and this is repeated at intervals of a minute or
two. “ The sounds obviously proceed from the mouth
of the animal ; and at the instant of the stroke we ob-
served the lips suddenly separate, as if to allow the water
to rush into a small vacuum formed within.” — {Grant.)

352 SCYLLiEA. MOLLUSCA. Pneumobkanchiata.

Gexus ScylLyEA. — The Scyllceas are oceanic, and

and which are in consequence supposed to impart a

are found on floating sea-weed, the slender fronds of

similar colour to their captors. Dr. Johnston gives

which thej'^ seize by their furrowed or channeled foot.

a good description of the Glaucus hexapterygius,

being by this enabled to obtain a firmer grasp and

a species from the Mediterranean. “ The body,” he

greater security. — See Plate 6, fig. 1 {Scyllcea pelagica).

says, “ glows with a fine cerulean blue colour, which

Genus Tethys. — The Telhyses are oceanic, attach-

deepens in hue towards the ends of the fringes of its

ing themselves, like the Scyllseas, to floating sea -weed.

ptero-branchiae ; the centre of the back is of a pearly

Their broadly expanded head-veil, fringed with cirrlii.

whiteness, bordered with a line of deep blue ; and the

gives them a peculiar look. One of them is mentioned

sides are adorned with an interrupted series of fan-like

by Dr. Johnston, on the authority of Rapp, to be remark-

laciniated gills, by aid of which it swims reversed at the

able, not more for its singular beauty than by its odour.

surface of the Mediterranean Sea in numerous swarms.”

which is compared to that of roses. — See Plate 6, fig. 1

[Tethys leporina).

In a third series of this groTip (the CerabrancJna of

Family^ — EOLIDIDAl.

Gray) the gills, which are placed, like the last, on the

upper surface of the mantle, are fusiform, papillary.

The EoUds are generally elegant and beautifully

simple, or branched. Such are the families Dendro-

coloured creatures, and are active, constantly moving

notldce, Procfonotidce, Hervidce, Dotonidm, Glaiicidm,

tbeir tentacles and extending and contracting their

Eolididce, Fionidce, and Hermmidce, examples of some

papillte.— (See Plate 6, figs. 1-4.) They are often to

of which will be seen in Plate 6.

be met with swimming on the surface in an inverted

Genus Glaucus. — The Glauctises have slender.

position ; but, generally speaking, they frequent rocks

cylindrical gills placed in tufts, proceeding symmetri-

at low water. Their chief food consists of Zoophytes,

cally from the sides of the body, and supported on broad

but Alder and Hancock inform us that they have seen

flattened footstalks. The animals are oceanic in their

the Flahellina punctata devour other Nudibranchs, and

habits, are predaceous, and are generally of a blue

even make a repast upon its own spawn. The spawn

colour. — See Plate 6, fig. 1 {Glaucus Atlanticus).

of Eolis papulosa “forms an elegant spiral chain of a

Dr. George Bennett informs us, in his “Wanderings,”

milk colour, and several inches long, twisted upon itself

that they feed greedil}' on the gelatinous Acalephs,

and constricted at regular intervals, so as to resemble

Velellae, and Porpitae, animals always of a blue colour.

a necklace made of bugles.” — [Johnston.)

Order III. — PNEUMOBRANCHIATA Pulmonata or Pulmonipera).

The air-breathing Gasteropods, containing the “ Slugs”

giving the appearance of a tesselated pavement. The

and “Snails,” are for the most part natives either of the

greater proportion of these animals are herbivorous.

land or fresh water, a few only being found in salt

living upon land plants and vegetables; and in these

marshes or places near the sea. They are, with very

the teetli are all similar in form, with broad bases and

few exceptions, provided with a shell, both in their

dentate crowns. Some, bowever, are carnivorous, and

young or larval state, and when fully grown. They

in these the teeth are slender, and more or less pointed

have no gills, but breathe the atmosphere or external

or barbed at the extremity. “ The mode in which the

air by means of a lung which is in the form of an air

tongue is used may be seen by placing a Lymnea or

sac or cavity placed on the front of the back, and litied

Planorbis in a glass of water, inside which the green

by a network of vessels. The air is admitted into this

conferva has begun to grow ; they will be observed

cavity by an orifice in the side of the animal, which is

incessantly cleaning off this film. The upper lip, with

small and valve-like, and can be opened and shut at

its mandible, is raised ; the lower lip, which is horse-

pleasure. The young of the air-breathing Molluscs

shoe shaped, expands, the tongue is protruded and

undergo no metamorphosis, but when first hatched are

applied to the surface for an instant, and then with-

shaped like the parent, and are not furnished with

drawn ; its teeth glitter like glass paper, and in Lj'mnea

cephalic fins. They are hermaphrodite animals, the

it is so flexible that frequently it will catch against

sexes being united in each individual. They are

projecting points and be drawn out of shape slightly as

usually active and well organized, having a distinct head

it vibrates over the surface.”^ — [Woodward.) The shell

furnished with teeth, jaws, well-developed eyes, and

of the Pulmonata is not secreted on the exterior of

tentacles. They have a broad foot upon which they

the mantle, as in other Gasteropods (see p. 185).

creep, and the great majority of them possess a large.

“Gegenbaur draws attention to the fact that the first

spiral shell. In this latter respect, however, they differ

rudiment of the shell in Limax, Clausilia^ and proba-

considerably — some genera of slugs having only small,

bly Helix, is not secreted on the exterior of the mantle,

concealed shells, flat, and partially membranous; other

as in other Gasteropoda, but is deposited, in the form

slugs having the shells rudimentary and granular, while

of calcareous granules, within its substance.” — [Huxley.)

a few have none at all. The tongue, or lingual mem-

The “ Slugs ” and “ Snails ” are universally distributed

brane, is short and very broad, often nearly as wide as

over the globe, but are of a large size, and more numer-

long ; and the teeth are very numerous, similar, with

ous individually in warm, moist, intei tropical countries,

broad bases, and invariabl}' arranged in transverse rows.

and are especially abundant in large, well wooded

•

Testacbllid^.-

MOLLUSCA. Helicidas. 353

islands. During the dry season in hot climates they
retire into hiding-places, where they remain torpid till
moisture again brings them forth. While in this state
of torpidity or “ estivation,” as it is called, the mouths
of the shells are covered with a temporary lid called the
epiphragm, which is formed by the hardened juices of
the body moulded on the surface of the contracted
animal. This is the only operculum possessed by this
order of Molluscs. The Pulmonata vary much in
their habits, and upon this account they have generally
been divided into three groups : —

The first group live upon dry land. Their eyes are
placed on the top of a lengthened cylindrical foot-stalk.
The tentacles are cylindrical, shorter, and lower down
than these eye-peduncles, and are sometimes very small,
occasionally wanting. These form the Geophila — the
Terrestrial group.

The second group are inhabitants of fresh water,
coming to the surface, however, to breathe. They have
their eyes sessile at the base of the tentacles, which
are subcylindrical or flattened, and simply contractile.
These form the Limnophila — the Fresh-water group.

The third group are inhabitants of salt marshes and
places near the sea. Their eyes are sessile also, and
are situate on the fore part of the frontal disk, formed
by the flattened and •••xpanded tentacles. These form
the Thalassophila— the Marine group.

Geophila — Terrestrial Snails. — By far the
larger number of the species of this order belong to
this group. They vary much in form as well as in
general habits, and being very numerous, have been
divided into a great many genera, and form indeed
several distinct families. Our limits will not allow us
to do more than take up the leading and most typical
of these.

Family— TESTACELLIDiE.

This family is rather interesting.

The genus Testacellus or Shell-slug as it is
called, is remarkable for the shape and position of the
shell. The animal is of considerable size, lengthened,
produced in front, with a groove on each side of the
back. The shell is small, ear-shaped, siibspiral, with
a wide aperture, and is placed on the hinder end of
the animal’s back. — See Plate 6, fig. 1 {Testacella
Maugeri). Only two species are known — one a native
of the south of France, and the other of the island
of Teneriffe, but both are now naturalized in England.
The animal is carnivorous in its habits, burrows in the
soil, and feeds upon worms. The common earth-
worm is its especial prey, and this it is said to swallow
whole.

The genus Oleaci.va (= Glandina) differs from
Testacellus in the form of its shell. It is of an oblong,
fusiform shape, with a narrow, elliptical aperture, a
sinuated outer lip, and an arcuately truncated colu-
mella. The surface is generally smooth and shining.
The animal is twice the length of the shell, and, like
the Testacellus, is carnivorous and predaceous in its
habits, attacking other Molluscs as large as itself with
avidity, and devouring them. The mouth is probos-
cidiform and furnished with elongate tentacles.

VoL. II. lOI

The species of Oleacina are numerous, and by far
the greater number are American, either inhabiting the
continent itself or the large islands in its vicinity, as
Cuba, Jamaica, &c. They are generally found living
on the bushes in the vicinity of the sea.

The genus Nanina has a large, external, exposed
shell, which in general is light, thin, and polished.
The shell is difficult sometimes to distinguish from that
of the true Helix. It is depressed, smooth below, and
has the mouth lunate, with its peristome (or edge of the
aperture) of the same thickness as the shell, sharp, and
not reflexed. The Nwiince are numerous in species. Dr.
Pfeiffer enumerating no fewer than one hundred and
eighty-nine. They are all natives of tropical countries,
coming almost entirely from the continent of India, the
large islands belonging to it, the Philippine islands, and
the Moluccas. They inhabit thick, shady woods, and
crawl with great vivacity among the leaves.

Family— HELICID^.

The animals of this family are destitute of the gland
at the extremity of their foot. The tentacles are long
and retractile under the skin, and the eyes are placed
on their tips. Like the last family, some of the species
have an internal, rudimentary shell, as the Limaces ;
while others have an external well developed, spiral
shell, as the Helices.

Genus Limax. — See Plate 6, fig. 1 {Limax flavus).
The true Slugs are of an elongated, sub-cylindrical
form, and the shell is flat, oblong, not spiral, covered
with a thin epidermis, and completely inclosed within
the mantle. Upwards of thirty species of Slugs have
been described, and they are found in greatest abun-
dance in the temperate countries of Europe. They
choose for their residence damp situations, hiding during
the day under stones, and sallying forth in the evening
to seek their food. This consists almost entirely of
vegetable matters ; and as these creatures are gre-
garious in their habits, they often inflict great damage
on gardens and orchards, and even open fields.

The most destructive species in this country are the
Grey Slug {Limax agrestis), and the Black Slug {Limax
ater). “You cannot look over the agricultural reports
in our newspapers,” says Dr. Johnston, “ without seeing
frequent notices of the ravages of these apparently
insignificant creatures ; and the damage they annually
do to corn, clover, and turnips, is really very great.
Topical remedies are here of little use ; the numbers
of the host and the extent of their field, their tenacity
of life and mode of concealment, render such means
nugatory, or at least of very partial benefit.” The best
remedy in gardens and small plots of ground is the use
of lime, either by placing lines of quicklime round the
beds and borders, or by watering the ground with lime
water.

Genus Helix. — The True Snails have the mantle
edge inclosed within the edge of the shell. The shell
itself is globular or convex, with a short spire, and the
last whirl larger than the others, composing, in fact, the
greater portion of the whole shell. There is generally
an umbilicus; but, in many instances, it is covered over.
The aperture is regular, transverse, and is either oblique

•

354 Helix. MOLLUSCA. Bulimus.

semilunar, or roundish. The margins are distinct, and

7th March, 1850, attempting to escape from “ durance

the peristome is thickened or* reflected.

vile.” The shell being removed from the tablet and

The species of True Snails are very numerous ; and

placed for a few minutes in tepid water, the animal

as they present a great many variations of form and

comifietely revived and lived for more than twelve

general appearance, they have been divided into many

months afterwards. In cool or cold climates snails

genera. — See Plates 6 and 7 (several genera and

become torpid in winter. They retreat, before the cold

species). Including these, the number of described

has benumbed their powers, into some snug quarters

species exceeds twelve hundred, while some hundreds

under stones, clods of earth or moss, or in crevices of

more have not yet been characterized. They are

old walls, &c. Some dig into the ground, forming an

world-wide in their distribution, being found in all parts

excavation or nest in which they bury the shell, and

of the globe, in Europe, Asia, Africa, both Americas,

then close the aperture with a sort of temporary oper-

and Australia. To the north they are found ranging

culum of a thick calcareous nature, called an epiphragm.

as far as the limit of trees, and to the south they extend

Here they remain till the return of spring calls them

to Terra-dcl-Fuego. They are most abundant, how-

forth again from their state of hybernation. In hot

ever, in warm countries and moist situations. “ M.

climates a similar degree of torpidity takes place ; and

d’Orbigny observed six species at elevations exceeding

during this state of estivation, as it is called, they remain

eleven thousand feet in South America ; and Layard

perfectly quiescent, and form the same kind of oper-

found H. gavdeneri at the height of eight thousand feet

culum, or epiphragm, to protect them from the drying

in Ceylon.” — (^Woodward.) They are most active by

etfects of the external atmosphere. Snails afford food

night, and that is their chief season for seeking their

to some kinds of birds, as the missel-thrush, &c., and

food. This consists of vegetable substances, and, like

in their turn are often eaten by omnivorous man. At

the Slugs already mentioned, they frequently commit

the present day they are comparatively little used as

great devastations in our fields and gardens. The most

au article of food ; but amongst the ancient Romans,

destructive species, perhaps, in this country is the

the H. pomatia (hence called the Roman snail) was

common garden snail. Helix aspersa; while in the

in great request, “ not from any peculiar relish for such

wine countries of France, the Roman snail, H. pomatia,

tasteless food, but from a belief m their aphrodisiacal

is very destructive to the vine, especially when it is

virtue.” — (Johnston.) The snails were kept in depots

just putting forth its tender buds and first leaves.

called Cochlearia, and fattened carefully with a “cer-

Snails are truly hermaphrodite, each individual uniting

tain paste made of cuit and wheat meale.” — (Holland's

both sexes in itself ; they are not self-impregnating,

Pliny.) The same author states, on the witness of M.

however, the union of two individuals being necessary

Varro, th.at these snails grew to an enormous size. In

for the propagation of the species. On the right side

Sicily several species of Helix are eaten, and the Bra-

of the neck, contained within a small cavity, we find

zilians are said also to eat snails. In this country and

several small bodies of a horny crystalline substance

in France they are used for their supposed virtues in

called darts. They are shaped somewhat like a bay-

diseases of the chest and lungs.

onet; and during the love season, according to popular

The Genus Succinea. — The Amber Snails have a

accounts of the snail and its doings, the animals are

thin, ovate, or oblong shell, with a short spire and a

said to shoot these darts at each other from their quiver.

laige aperture. It is not umbilicated, and the peris

when the two individuals are about two inches apart.

tome is simple and sharp. It is generally of a delicate.

“The existence of the darts,” says Dr. Johnston, “in

horny, or amber colour. The animals are of a vesicular

some few species of Helix is certain ; while the power

structure, are large compared with the size of the shell.

of the snail to throw them from its reservoir is ima-

and are not quite retractile within it. The species are

ginary!” Their eggs are pretty numerous, and in geneial

rather numerous, about seventy having been described.

are spherical or oval. The outer coat is opaque and

and are found in all the four quarters of the globe.

hard, consisting of carbonate of lime, the particles of

though more especially abounding in temperate climates.

which are gradually and successively deposited over

They are amphibious in their habits, living amongst

the whole of its inner surface. The Roman snail, H.

plants in damp situations, but rarely entering the water.

pomatia, deposits only about fifteen eggs, while our

Genus Bulimus. — See Plate 7, fig. 3 (Bulimus

common species lay from thirty to fifty. Generally

ovatus). The Bulimi are animals of a moderate size.

they are deposited one by one, but placed in little heaps.

inclosed within the shell, which is oblong or turreted.

and their colour is usually bluish-white or pure milk-

and composed of many whirls. The aperture is longer

white. Snails are long-lived, and have a wonderful

than wide ; the peristome is thin or reflected, rounded

degree of tenacity of life. Many interesting instances

in front, and in many species the shell is umbilicated.

are recorded of the resuscitation of snails, after having

The species are very numerous, upwards of six hundred

undergone a long suspension of their vital powers. One

and fifty having been described. They are found in all

of the most wonderful examples of this recovery from a

parts of the world, and vary much in shape and appear-

“long slumber” has been related by the writer of this

ance. Like the Helice.s, these animals abound most in

article in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History

warm climates, and, like them, pass the dry season in a

for 1850. The individual alluded to was a species of

sort of torpor or deep slumber, buried at the roots of

the snail of the desert, H. desertorum, brought from

ti'ees, in moss, or in the thick brushwood, and having

Egypt, and attached to a tablet in the British Museum

the mouths of their shells covered with a pretty solid

on the 25th of March, 1846. In this imprisonment it

epiphragm. They have the same power also, as the

remained for four years, having been discovered on the

Helices, of undergoing long fasts ; and instances have

Achatixa MOLLUSCA. Lymn^a. 355

occurred, where they have remained in a state of deep
slumber for the space of twenty months. Their eggs are
sometimes very large, and are covered externally with a
hard calcareous shell. Those of Bulimus hcemastomus
are almost as large as a pigeon’s, and nearly as hard.
It appears that the tropical, and more especially the
arboreal species, cement leaves of trees together, curl-
ing one upon another, so as to form an artificial nest
for the reception of these large eggs.

Genus Achatina. — The Agate shells have a shell
a good deal resembling the Bulimi ; but they are thinner,
and the columella is twisted, and more or less abruptly
truncated in front. The shell is not umbilicated ; the
aperture is oval, elongate, and the peristome is thin,
acute, and not reflected, the margins united by a dif-
fused callus. The Achatinae are numerous in species,
upwards of one hundred and twenty having been de-
scribed, and some of the African ones are the largest
terrestrial shells known. They attain the length of
eight inches, and their eggs, which are calcai'eous like
those of the Bulimi, are sometimes more than an inch
in length. They are chiefly found about trees near
water, and the great majority are natives of Africa. The
genus is represented on Plate 7, fig. 8 (A. Virginia).

Genus Pupa. — The Pup® have a solid, cylindrical,
or oblong-ovate shell, with many whirls, a conical apex,
and a rounded, often toothed aperture. The base is
rimate or, rarely, umbilicated, and tbe surface of the
shell is generally verj^ closely ribbed with straight ridges.
The species are numerous, amounting to upwards of
one hundred and sixty, and are found in all the four
quarters of the globe. The genus is represented on
Plate 7, fig. 9 {Pupa mumia).

Genus Clausiha. — The Clausilias have a fusiform
shell, almost alwa3's sinistral, or turned to the left.
The aperture is elliptical or pyriform, provided with
two plaits or lamell® which contract the margin, and
is closed at the bottom, or in the neck, by a movable
shelly plate, called a clattsium. This peculiar organ is
attached to the pillar of the shell by a slender pedicel,
and is placed in such a position as to shut the throat
of the shell, when the animal is inclosed, while at the
same time the animal can push it on one side, when it
wishes to come forth in search of food. The species
are very numerous, upwards of two hundred having
been described, and are distributed over the four quar-
ters of the globe, though most numerous in the tem-
perate countries of Europe. This genus is represented
on Plate 7, by fig. 7 {Clausilia cmrulea).

Genus Cylindrella. — The Cylinder shells differ
from the Clausilias, chiefly in wanting the plaits or
lamell® in the aperture. The shells are generally long
and cjdindrical, many-whirled, the apex in the adult
generally broken off ; or truncated while the mouth is
round, and the peristome expanded and continuous.

Limnophila, Fresh-water Snails. — The animals
belonging to the second group have subcylindrical or
flattened tentacles, which are simply contractile, and
have the eyes placed sessile on their base.

Family— AURICULID^.

The Auriculas have a ringed conical muzzle, and a
thin mantle with a thickened edge. The shell is spiral.

covered with a horny epidermis, and has the mouth,
which is elongate, furnished with strong plaits on the
columella. The outer lip is also in many cases toothed,
or transversely ribbed. The animals are peculiar in
having the power of absorbing progressively the septa,
or divisions, which separate the cavities of the whirls
from one another. With few exceptions the species,
which are numerous (upwards of twm hundred having
been described by Pfeiffer in the Catalogue of Auri-
culidce in the collection of the British Museum), are
natives of tropical countries, and live in brackish-water
marshes, estuaries, and mouths of rivers, clinging to the
stems and roots of mangroves; among loose stones above
high water mark, but within the influence of the tide ;
or in damp woods near the sea.

Family — LYMNiEID.®.

The Pond Snails have a short dilated muzzle, flat-
tened tentacles, and a flattened, lanceolate, or oval foot.
The shell is thin, horn-coloured, rather varied in form,
but usually with an oblique fold on the columella, and
a simple, acute outer lip. The species are numerous,
and are all fresh-water animals, living in the water, but
coming to the surface to breathe. They are found in
all parts of the world, and inhabit ponds and running
streams. They are chiefly found in temperate coun-
tries, and are for the most part phytophagous or veget-
able feeders. They deposit their ova on the stems and
leaves of the weeds, which grow around them, enveloped
in an oblong gelatinous nidus. The form of the shell,
as we have said, is very varied.

Genus Lymnaja. — The Lymnmae have a spiral, dex-
tral shell, more or less elongated, thin, horn-coloured,
and translucent. The last whirl is large, ventricuse, the
aperture large, rounded in front, the columella obliquely
twisted, and the outer lip simple and acute. The species
are upwards of fifty in number, and are found in most
temperate countries of the globe. Their food consists of
both vegetable and animal matter, one species feeding
on the green fresh-water alg®, while others prefer animal
food. This peculiarity in their diet has caused them
to be denominated “ the scavengers of the waters;” and
Mr. Jeffreys informs us, that in the absence of other
nourishment, “ they will even devour each other, piercing
the shell near its apex, and eating away the upper folds
of its inhabitant.” Although generally to be seen
creeping on the muddy bottoms of ponds and streams,
and on the stones, or on the leaves and stems of sub-
merged plants, they always come to the surface to
respire free air, and can, when there, to use Dr. John-
ston’s words, “ make the water a liquid pavement,” along
which they creep by an undulatory motion of the foot,
but with the body and shell in a reversed position.
“ When thus suspended, they will sometimes relax their
hold and drop at once to the bottom, from which in
general they emerge by crawling up some solid body ;
but occasionally I have seen them rise up direct through
the water.” — {Johnston.^ When the ponds are dried
up, the Pond Snails bury themselves in the mud,
strengthen the outer lip by an internal rib, and cover
the mouth by means of a membranaceous epiphragm,
like the land snails.

PHYSA.-

•MOLLU SCA. Pteropoda.

356

Genus Physa. — The Bubble Snails have a sinistra]
shell, of an ovate form, spiral, thin, and polished. The
aperture is oval, rounded in front, the inner lip spread
over the last whirl, and the outer lip acute. The species
may easily be recognized by their bright polished sur-
face, and their sinistral or left-handed whirls. The
[di3’S8e are chiefly found in clear running streams and
in fountains, seldom in stagnant water. They appear
to be very quick in their movements, and when touched
or alarmed, thej' onl}' arrest their progress for a moment,
and then go on again without further hesitation. When
floating on the surface of the water, they possess the
power of letting themselves down gradually by means
of a glutinous thread affixed to the surface (as in the case
of Litiopa — see p. 204) and when kept in a glass vessel,
they have been observed frequently to poise themselves
on their foot, and rapidly vibrate their shells. The
Physas are not so numerous in species as the Lymncece,
but are widely diflused, being found in Europe, North
America, South Africa, India, and the Philippine
Islands. This family and genus are represented on
Plate 7, fig. 1 {Physa rivalis).

The Genus Planokbis differs very much in ap-
pearance from the two preceding genera. The shell
is discoidal, instead of spiral, with a depressed spire
and numerous whirls, which are visible on both sides.
The mouth is crescentic, and the peristome is thin,
sharp, incomplete, the upper margin projecting. The
species are numerous, upwards of sixty having been
described, and are in a great majority of instances
natives of temperate climates, as Europe and North
America, &c., though a nrimber are found also in India
and China. Locomotion in these animals is slow; and
it has been observed in the case of a common British
species {P. conmis) that when irritated, it discharges
a purple fluid from under the margins of the mantles,
similar to that of the Scalaria (see p. 200), but which is
of so fugitive a nature that no means tried yet have
been able to preserve it.

Thalassophila — Marine Snails. — In this group
the animals have no distinct tentacles, or they are

expanded so as to form a frontal disc, upon the front
part of which are placed the eyes. Tliey are either
marine in their habits, or they live in the vicinity of
the sea.

Family— SIPHONARIID^.

The Siphonarias have their frontal disc bilobed an-
teriorly, and the respiratory orifice covered by a large
fleshy lobe of the mantle. The shell is conical, and
exactly resembles a patella, except that the horse-shoe-
shaped muscular impression is divided on the right side
b}”^ a deep siphonal groove, which extends in the form
of a projection somewhat bejmnd the margin. In form
it is depressly conical, with the apex subcentral, and
recurved posteiiorly. There is onlj' one genus, Sipho-
naria. The species, upwards of thirty in number, are
found adhering to rocks, like limpets, between tide
marks, and are widely extended in their geographical
distribution. They are most numerous within 'the
tropics, being found in considerable abundance in India,
the Philippine Islands, South America, the Cape of
Good Hope, Australia, .New Zealand, and the islands of
the Pacific. The family is represented on Plate 7,
figs. 1, 2, 3 {Sip)honaria racUata and granclis).

Family— AMPHIBOLID^.

The Amphibolas have a subglobose, spiral, umbili-
cated shell, with an oval mouth and a rather expanded
outer lip, which is sinuated behind. The surface of the
shell is singularly uneven, and battered as it were.
The animals possess an operculum, which is horny and
subspiral.

Only one genus, Amphibola, exists.

The Amphibolas are found living in salt marshes near
the sea. They exist in great abundance in New Zea-
land and Australia, living in pools of brackish water,
and at particular seasons burying themselves in the
sandy mud. The natives of New Zealand use them as
articles of food.

Class III. — PTEKOPODA (the Pteropods).

The true position of the Pteropoda in the natural
arrangement of molluscous animals, is still somewhat
undefined. Some conchologists place them between
the Brachiopods and Cephalopods, others between the
Gasteropods and Brachiopods. Lamarck conceived
they should be placed between the Gasteropods and
Bivalves, and M. Blainville is of opinion that they are
in reality only a tribe of Gasteropods, allied to the
Bullidw. M. Souleyet supports this view of their posi-
tion, though the structure of the animal evidently
entitles them to rank as a distinct group or class. The
animals resemble very much the larval or young state
of the Sea-snails; and the shell, when present, is dis-
tinctly univalve and analogous to the shell of the Gas-
teropods. They are, however, much inferior to this
class of mollusks, and we place them therefore after
the Univalves in our arrangement.

The animal in most of the species is inclosed in a
thin shell, which is either conical, cylindrical, or sub-
globular. It is symmetrical, and consists of a dorsal
and a ventral plate united, with an anterior, transverse,
contracted opening for the head, and lateral slits for the
passage of certain long filiform processes of the mantle.
The sexes are united in the same individual.

The Pteropods are amongst the most beautiful of all
the Mollusca, but are seldom seen alive except by those
“ whose business is in the great deep.” In consequence
of the great fragility of their shells, they avoid the
shore, and are generally met with only in the open
ocean. They are the most entirely natatory of all the
animals of this kingdom. “ Created,” says Dr. John-
ston, “ to occupy the high seas, they are organized in
evident aptitude to the place assigned them, with a
light shell, which afiects not their buoyancjq and with

Pteropoda. MOLLU SCA.-

■ -Pteropoda.

fins for progressive motion. They are found far at sea,
in large herds, swimming about in a lively manner by
undulatory or flapping movements of their membranous
fins, which open and close like those of the butterfly
while basking in the sun. They shun the lightsome
day, and sink, as the sun rises, into the bottom of the
deep, to attain that shaded gloom which suits them;
but on the evening’s approach they gradually again
ascend to the surface, and regain all their vivacity;
so that if some will fancifully seek amongst them the
molluscan analogues of insect-butterflies in their manner
of natation, they will not fail to mark the correspond-
ency between them and the moths in their crepuscular
and nocturnal habits. The little Hyales {Cavolinidm)
first appear about five in the afternoon. When the
garish eye of day begins to grow dim, two or three
species venture upwards to the field of their occupancy ;
as evening advances several small species of Cleodores
{Cleodora) rise in great number with other Hyales and
Atlantes, but the larger kinds do not leave the abyss
and mingle in the crowd until night lends them her
friendly veil ; and some species, as the Hyalaea balan-
tium {Balantium recurvwn) are even so fearful of the
light’s malign influence, that they do not come to the

357

surface excepting when the night is very dark. After
a few hours’ disport the lesser species begin to descend
and disappear ; the larger follow at a little later hour,
so that towards midnight only a few wandering indi-
viduals can be taken. These may possibly remain even
to the dawn, but the sun’s rise is the signal which recals
them to their home. After this not a single Pteropod
is to be seen, either at the surface or at any depth to
which the eye can penetrate. Each species has its
own time at which it rises up and goeth down, deter-
mined not by the clock, as you will readily believe, but
by the degree of obscuritj’ in the heavens, so that in an
overshadowed day they rise earlier than in a cloudless
one, and sink earlier also to repose.”

The Pteropods are carnivorous animals, feeding on
minute crustaceans, as the Entomostraca, &c., and
small Medusee. They form great part of the food of
the whale, in high latitudes, and are also devoured in
great numbers by many sea-birds.

The Pteropoda are divided into two groups or orders
according as they are furnished or not with a shell.
Those in which the body is inclosed within a thin
shell, are called Thecosomata\ and those which are
destitute of any such appendage, Gymnosomata.

Order I. — THECOSOMATA (Shell-bearing Pteropods).

The species of Pteropods belonging to this order are
distinguished by having their body inclosed within a
shell.

In most of the species the body and shell are straight
or globular, and there is no operculum ; hut in one
family {Limacinida:), the animal and shell are spiral,
and there is a spiral operculum present.

(in the young) an acute apex, which, however, falls off
in the adult, and is separated from the anterior cavity
by a partition. The animal has an elongate, cylindrical
body, and has two large lateral wings or fins in front,
united below bj^ two small lobes. The genus Cuvieria
{=Triptera) is the only one in the family, and contains
three recent species and one fossil.

Family— CAVOLINIDAl (= Hyalceidm).

The Hyalaeas have a calcareous, symmetrical shell,
which is sometimes straight, at others curved ; some-
times globular, and at others needle-shaped. The
animals have two united fins, without any posterior foot-
like appendage between them. It is by means of these
fins that the animals swim through the water ; and it
has been observed that when they are touched, they
retract them and fall to the bottom of the vessel in
which they were detained as captives.

The family consists of five distinct genera : —

1. HyaLjEA (= Cavolina), with a globular trans-
lucent shell. Eepresented on Plate 11, fig. 28 {Hyalma
tridentala).

2. Diacria, with an elongated triangular shell.

3. Cleodora (— Clio), with an elongate, pyra-
midal, hyaline, three-sided shell.

4. Balantium, with a triangular, depressed, trans-
versely-waved shell ; and

5. Styliola (= Creseis), with a slender, elongate,
conical shell of a subcylindrical form.

F AMiLY — TRIPTERID Al ( Cuvieriidce).

The Cuvieras have a glassy, transparent, cylindrical
shell, with a transversely ovate, simple aperture, and

Family— CYMBULIIDiE.

The Slipper Shells have a cartilaginous sort of shell,
shaped very like a slipper, pointed in form, and trun-
cated posteriorly. The animal is globular or ovate,
and has large, rounded fins connected ventrally by a
small intermediate lobe. This family contains four
peculiar-looking, pelagic genera, of which the genus
Cymbidia is the type. Tlie shell which incloses the
animal is of agelatino-cartilaginous nature, of an oblong
figure, and shaped very like a slipper. It contains four
species. “ During the day,” says Mr. Adams, “ these
animals must occasionally descend a considerable depth,
one having been brought up attached to a thermometer
of a sounding line, during the voj'age of H.M. ship
Samarang, from one hundred and fifty fathoms in the
South Atlantic.”

Family— LIMACINID^.

The Limacinas have a small transparent, sinistral,
spiral shell, with the mouth angularly produced on the
columella side, and closed by a distinct, spiral, vitreous
operculum. The animal has a .spiral, sinistral bodj',
with fins attached to the sides of the mouth and united
ventrally by a lobe which bears the operculum.

358 Pteropoda. M OLLU SC A. Conchifera.

Genus Limacina. — This is the only genus in the

often mentioned bv them. Peyrfre, in his “ Histoire

family; the shell is subglobose, with a slightly raised

du Greenland,” calls it, “ a little black spider.” Martens,

spire, the last whirl obscurely keeled, and the axis

in his “Voyage into Spitzbergen and Greenland,” calls

umbilicated.

it the “ snail slime fish,” and tells us that they “ swim

L. ARCTICA is the best known species, and is

in great numbers in the sea, as numerous as the dust in

extremely abundant in the North Sea, where it forms

the sun,” whilst Otho Fabricius, in his “Fauna of

an important article of food for the whale. It was well

Greenland,” gives us a full and very interesting descrip-

known to some of our early arctic voyagers, and is

tion of it.

Order II. — G-YMNOSOMATA (Shell-less Pteropods).

These naked-bodied or Shell-less Pteropods are distin-

because the lumhs, pigeon-divers, and j^oiret-divers are

guished from the preceding order by their body being

plentifully seen in those places where these fish or sea-

destitute of a shell. It is composed of three families.

insects are seen.”

none of them containing more than a few species, and

very few of these being much known. No douht many

Family— PNEUMODERMIDiE.

more species will he discovei'ed floating on the seas of

warm latitudes ; but at present the most interesting are

The Pneumodermons have a fusiform body, and the

one or two found in our Northern Ocean.

head is provided with arms furnished with pedicelled

suckers. The wings or fins are rounded, entire, with a

Family— CLIONID^.

central foot-like appendage placed at the base of the

head. The gills are placed on the hinder part of the

The Olios have a fusiform body, furnished with two

body. There are four genera in this family, each distin-

fins, and a central foot-like appendage. Their head is

guished from the other chiefly by the gills.

furnished with a series of conical prominences on each

The Genus Pneumodermon has them in the form

side, which prohahly represent rudimentary tentacles;

of a four-lobed leaf at the extremity of the body.

they are retractile, and furnished with numerous micro-

Spongiobranchia has them in the form of a pro-

scopic suckers.

minent spongy ring near the end of the body.

The Genus Clio {=Clione) is the hest known of the

Trichocyclus has them in the form of a ciliated

family, as one of the species belonging to it is a native

ring round the middle of the body, one round the

of our arctic seas, and has been frequently observed in

base of tbe head, and another on the hinder end of the

its native haunts by our arctic voyagers.

body.

THE CLIO BOREALIS is a small, gelatinous, pellucid

creature of a pale blue colour, with a scarlet mouth and

Family— CYMODOCEID^.

extremity. Dr. Scoresby says that it occurs in vast

numbers in some situations near Spitzbergen. Phipps

The Cymodoceas have the body divided into two

remarks — “ Our flshermen call them by the name of

parts, and are furnished with four wings or fins, the

‘ Whale-food,’ and are of the same opinion with Mar-

two upper broad and rounded, the lower nearly linear.

tens, who says tliey are the chief food of the whalebone-

The family contains one genus, Cymodocea, and this

whale.” Martens, in his “ Voyage into Spitzbergen,”

genus only one species, C. diaphana — a diaphanous.

tells us that they are called the “ Sea May-flie.” “ I am

translucent, little creature, with the scarlet viscera

of opinion,” he says, “ that the birds feed upon them.

shining through it. It is found in the Alantic Ocean.

Class IV.— CONCHIFERA (Bivalves).

The Bivalves come next to the Univalves in variety

seize upon such particles as the water floats within

and importance ; and though in the number of species

their reach, or which are brought near the mouth by

they are inferior, they exceed them in the number of

tbe currents that are continually circulating within the

individuals. They are all aquatic, the greater proper-

cavity of tbe mantle. These currents not only serve.

tion being marine, and are widely diffused over the

but supply water to the gills for aerating the blood ;

globe, ranging from low water mark to a depth of more

they are produced by the action of a number of cilia

than two hundred fathoms. The animals have no dis-

that clothe the gills. The foot of tbe Bivalves bas

tinct head — hence called by many naturalists Acepliala,

some analogy with that organ in the Gasteropods, being

or beadless — no tentacles, and (in by far the greater num-

formed by the under part of the body, but is not so

ber at least) no eyes. The mouth is concealed between

well adapted for locomotion as in these latter mollusks.

the folds of their mantle ; it is situated near the front of

Instead of forming a flattened disc as in them, it is

the base of the foot, and is provided laterally with two

generally laterally compressed and keeled — (see fig.

pairs of elongate fleshy lips, forming lamellar It

228, Verms verrucosa) — though indeed there are many

possesses no teeth, and the creatures thus can only

exceptions to this rule. In the Oyster and Scallop

CoNCHIFKKA. MOLLUSCA. CoSCHIFEKA.

(Pecten), the foot is either very small or is nearly
wanting; in Nucula and some others it is deeply cleft,
and is capable of being expanded into a disc, like that
of the snails ; and in the burrowing species the foot is
strong and stout, and adapted for boring vertically into
the sand or mud.

The body of the Conchifers is entirely covered by a
two lobed mantle, which envelopes it as a book is in-
closed within its boards, and is protected on each side
by a shelly valve. It generally incloses a pair of gills
which are placed on the sides of the body, and are each
composed of two large membranous laminse which, when
examined by the microscope, appear to be a complete
network of bloodvessels fringed with vibratile cilia.
The water in which they live is filtered through these
gills, and thus whatever particles the cuiTent brings,
are collected on their surface and conveyed to the
mouth. The mantle which covers the body of the
animal is usually more or less united at its margins ;
sometimes being produced into long siphons or tubes
(fig. 228, Venus verrucosa), at others merely having two
holes (fig. 229, Anodon anatinus) for the passage of
the current of water. The various modifications which
the end of the mantle assumes, afford some of the best
characteristics for dividing the species into orders. The
mantle secretes the shell (which, as we have stated,
consists of two valves), and lines the interior, to which
it is attached by a pair of adductor muscles. The
valves are always placed one on each side of the animal,
and are united together on their dorsal edges by a liga-
ment of greater or less strength. Within this ligament,
in a cavity, there is placed an elastic cartilage ; and the

359

two valves are articulated together by a hinge furnished
with interlocking teeth. The use of the ligament is to
keep the two valves together, whilst that of the carti-
lage is to keep them open without any exertion to the
animal while waiting for its prey, or moving from one
place to another by means of its foot. The valves are
shut, or brought together, by means oftwo muscleswhich
are attached to their internal surface, and are hence
called adductor muscles. In the greater number of
species these two muscles are quite distinct, one placed
near the anterior, the other near the posterior apertures,
whilst in others there is apparently only one ; the two
being so approximated, as to make it appear as if there
were only one. Lamarck and other conchologists
adopted this disposition of these muscles as characters
for the systematic ariangement of the bivalve shells;
but Cuvier and other later authors have preferred to
base their systems upon different characters altogether.

The majority of the bivalve mollusca are believed
to be monoecious or unisexual; but as Dr. Johnston
observes, the exceptions are yearly increasing under
the dissections of the comparative anatomist, who has
proved several of them to be bisexual, “although the
distinction between the male and female does not appear
in any external character either of the animal or shell.”
A few of the genera in this class are viviparous, the
ova being carried from the ovary to be deposited in
the interstices of the external plates of the gills, where
they are retained till the young are hatched and
arrive nearly to maturity, the ova remaining there in
some of the genera for several months after leaving
the ovaria.

SYSTEMATIC AERANGEMENT OF CONCHIFEEA.

The principal character adopted in the present arrange-
ment, that of Dr. Gray, is the structure of the mantle.
We have stated above that the margins of the mantle
are either produced into siphons, or that there are only
two holes in it, for the passage of the water to the gills
for aerating the blood. Tlie species of this class have

Fig. 228.

in consequence been divided into two large groups or
sub-classes — I. Siphonophora, in which the mantle

leaves or lobes are connected, and produced into
two elongated siphons or tubes, through which the
water is admitted (fig. 228, Venus verrucosa). II.
Asiphonophora, in which the mantle lobes are mostly
free, or when united, are pierced with one or two holes,

Fig. 229.

instead of being produced into siphons, for the admission
of water (fig. 229, Anodon anatinus).

360 SiPHONOFHOKA. MOLLUSCA. Venerid.e.

Sub-class I. — SIPHONOPHORA.

This great group is divided into two orders — I.

or less separate — II. Piioladacea, in which the siphons

Venekacea, in which the siphons are in general more

are united.

Order I. — VENERACEA.

In this order the hinder margin of the mantle is fur-

The sinus of the pallial impression is deep, oblique.

nished with two more or less elongated siphons under

triangular, and sharp-pointed. The surface of the

the posterior adductor muscle, which are to a greater

valves is usually concentrically grooved, and of a pale.

or less degree separated from each other, and provided

or even white colour.

with a large fan-shaped muscle on each side, for the

Genus Cytheuea {Meretrix). — This genus has a

purpose of retracting them into the shell when the

very solid, smooth, ventricose shell, of a more or less

animal fears external danger. The gills are short, and

transversely oblong, or ovate form, with three cardinal

not produced into the canal of the siphon, and the foot

teeth in the hinge in each valve, and a small conical

is generally lamellar or elongate.

anterior tooth beneath the nearly obsolete lunule. • The
hinder lateral tooth is always lightly crenulated or

Family — VENEKIDAD.

striated, and the sinus of the pallial impression is
moderate, and angular posteriorly. The surface of the
valves is generally smooth and shining, and covered

This family, with which we begin, is a numerous

one, and is remarkable for the elegant forms and

with a fulvous epidermis.

varied colours of the shells of many of the species

Genus Cuneus {Meroe). — This genus is remarkable

which belong to it. The animals have a large, com-

for the compressed, ovate-trigonal shell, having the area

pressed, tongue-shaped foot, by means of which they

of the lunule deeply excavated, and the margins of the

crawl ; and short unequal siphons, united sometimes

shell regularly toothed.

for a considerable portion of their length. The shell

Genus Trigona. — This genus has a triangular.

is regular, closed, or sometimes slightly gaping ; gene-

wedge-shaped shell, with very prominent beaks, and

rally free, seldom burrowing ; suborbicular in shape

an indistinct lunule. The hinge is provided with three

or oblong. The hinge has usually three diverging

and sometimes four cardinal teeth, and a small anterior

cardinal teeth in each valve, and the hinder lateral

one. The hinder lateral tooth is torn and divided ; the

tooth, when present, is compressed, and forms a part

internal margin of the valves is entire, and the pallial

of the margin of the shell; the ligament is external.

sinus rounded, short, and horizontal. The shells are

marginal. The muscular impressions are smooth and

usually thin and gibbous, and are frequently covered

polished, and the pallial line is sinuated. The animals

with a glassy-looking epidermis.

of this family are all marine, free, and possess con-

Genus Dione. — This genus, as represented in Plate

siderable locomotive powers ; a few only burrowing in.

10, fig. 1, by Dione Chione, has an ovate, transverse.

or perforating rocks. They are found in all parts of

ineipnlateral shell, with the interior margins of the

the world, though there is not much known of their

valves often thickened. The hinge has three cardinal

habits. Some of them, liowever, are eaten by man in

teeth in each valve, and a small anterior tooth under

different parts of the world, and are even esteemed a

the lunule. The hinder lateral tooth is simple, neither

delicacy. Their taste, we are told, is stronger than that

torn nor striated ; and the pallia! sinus is wide, deep.

of oysters, and one must be habituated to it, to relish it.

and somewhat ovate. The shells are often inflated.

The Venus shell appears to have been held in honour

and their surface is either smooth, sulcated, striated, or

by the ancients, and dedicated to the Goddess of Love.

lamellar.

The shells of the Venericlce show little organic structure.

Genus Circe. — This genus has an ovate, somewhat

and their texture is very hard, approaching the por-

triangular, solid shell, depressed at the beaks. The

cellanous univalves in density, and in the absence of

hinge has three cardinal teeth in each valve, and there

almost any trace of animal matter. The species are

is scarcely any trace of a pallial sinus. The external

very numerous, upwards of five hundred and fifty being

surface of the valves is smooth, or concentrically striated

indicated or described in M. Deshayes’ Catalogue of

or grooved.

the Venaridm in the British Museum. They differ

Genus Venus. — This genus, as now restricted, has

amongst themselves considerably in form, number, and

a thick, turgid, ovate shell, with a prominent ligament,

structure of the teeth, the shape of the pallial irapres-

a distinct lunule, and a small, often oblique pallial

sion, &c., so that for convenience sake they have been

sinus. The hinge is thick, and possesses three teeth

formed into no fewer than sixteen genera. We will

in each valve, which are divaricate, and sometimes

only mention a few.

bifid. The surface of the shell in this genus is either

Genus Artemis. — This genus has an orbicular.

warty, or ornamented with concentric ribs or striae or

compressed shell, deeply lunulate under the beaks, and

lamellae, or they are decussated by longitudinal furrows.

the hinge is provided with three teeth in each valve.

Genus Mercenaria. — This genus has a triangu-

VENERIDiE. MOLLUSOA. Cycladid^,

larly heart-shaped ventricose shell, with three com-
pressed, erect teeth in the hinge in each valve. The
margins of the shell, internally, are finely crenulate,
and the pallial sinus is short, narrow, triangular. There
are only four species described, all from the American
seas. The hinder margin of the inner surface of each
valve of one species {M. violacea) is of a fine deep violet
colour ; and, as already mentioned, it is this shell which
the Red Men in America regard with so much interest
and use as wampum.

Genus Chione. — This genus has an ovately triangu-
lar, somewhat thickened shell, with the margins finely
crenulated. The hinge is solid and provided with three
teeth in the right, and two in the left valve. The
external ligament is narrow, and the pallial sinus is
nearly obsolete or very short and triangular. The sur-
face of the shell in this genus, which varies a good deal
in form, is lamellated, cancellated, smooth, or trans-
versely striated.

Genus Tapes. — This genus consists of oblong shells,
with the hinder end the longest, the margins smooth,
and the hinge provided with three compressed, slightly
diverging cardinal teeth in each valve, two of which
are usually bifid. The pallial sinus is deep and rounded.
The foot of the animal in this genus occasionally spins
a byssus, by which it secures itself when it is in danger
of being carried away. “ The Tapes pullastra, which
is usually free — for I have often found it so, and never
moored, if placed in a situation where it would be liable
to be carried away by the current — averts the fatal wreck
by attaching itself by some filaments to the shingle or
stones around it.” — Johnston.

Genus Venerupis, or the Venus of the Rock. —
This genus has an oblong shell, gaping a little pos-
teriorly, and a hinge with three small teeth in each
valve, one of them being bifid. The pallial sinus is
moderately deep and angular, and the surface of the
shell is radiatel}" -striated and ornamented with con-
centric lamelloe. The species are generally found in
crevices of rocks, and are said to possess the power of
perforating the limestone or chalk, &c., in which they
are lodged. Mr. Rang admits this power, and says that
when they have reached their adult state they cannot
get out of the cavities they have made, “ the aperture of
the excavation being too small to admit of their egress.”
Mr. Sowerby, however, thinks that the cavities in
which these shells live “ are rather the natural conse-
quence of the action of the sea-water in conjunction
with some of the excretions of the animal upon the
chalk or limestone, than of any power of the animals
themselves to pierce independently of such action.”
Sowerby, however, here confuses the two genera Tapes
and Venerupis, while Rang strictly confines the genus
Venerupis to those species which really do bore.
Several other genera belong to this family ; but as the
species in each are few, we must pass them over and
proceed to the next.

Family— CYPRINID^.

This family consists of substantial, thick shells,
invested with a strongly developed epidermis. They
are ovate-cordate, with prominent incurved beaks, no
VoL. II 102

361

lunule, and smooth maigins. The hinge is furnished
with three cardinal teeth, and one lateral tooth in each
valve. The ligament is external, thick, elongated;
and the pallial line is simple.

Genus Cyprina. — This genus is the only one known,
and there is only one species in the genus. The C.
islandica is one of the largest of our British shells, and,
besides, is common to European and North American
seas. It ranges, indeed, from Greenland and the United
States to the Icy sea. It is said to be carnivorous in its
habits, and Dr. Johnston tells us that it often swallows
the bait of the fishermen. He found in the stomach of
an individual the indigested remains of a large green
Nereis.

Family— GLAUCONOMIDiE.

This family is by many authors placed amongst the
Veneridee.

Genus Glauconome. — This is the only one. In it
the shell is oblong-oval, thin, and covered with a hard,
olive-green epidermis extending beyond the edge of the
valve. The binge is narrow, and furnished with three
cardinal teeth in each valve, one of which is bifid. The
ligament is external, marginal, and the pallial sinus is
very deep and angular’. The species of this genus are
all natives of the mouths of rivers, even where the
water is partially fresh. They appear to be exclusively
confined to the Philippine Islands and Indian seas. They
live buried in the sandy mud of the estuaries, and
appear to be very similar in their habits of life to the
Solens or Razor- fish.

Family— PETRICOLIDAE.

The Petricolas have an ovate-elongated, thin, tumid,
gaping, often irregular shell, which is usually white, or
covered with a thin, hard epidermis. The hinge is
narrow, and has two cardinal teeth in each valve,
which are bent up as if coming from the inner surface
of the shell under the umbo. The pallial sinus is deep
and rounded. The species of this family are generallj
found burrowing in limestone and coral rocks, and
srones, or in mud; and appear to be most numerous ic
Western America.

Family — CYRENID2B (= Corhiculidoe. — Gray).

The Cyrenas have a rather tumid, suborbicular shell
coverel with a hard, brittle, often polished epidermis,
and a hinge composed of two or three, sometime?
diverging, cardinal teeth in each valve, and two com-
pressed lateral teeth, which in some cases are trans-
versely striated. The shell is solid, the beaks ofter
eroded, and the surface of the valves is concentrically
furrowed or striated. The pallial line is only slightly
sinuated. This family consists of fresh-water shells
and is numerous in species. The genera are Corhicula
Batissa, and Cyrena.

Family— CYCLADID2E.

The Cy'clases have been separated from the Cyrenida
because the animals slightly differ. The shell is thin-

362

Tellinid^.-

-MOLLUSOA.-

-Telliniu^.

ventricose, smooth, or concetitrically striated. Tlie
liinge is narrow, and has in most cases two short mode-
rately diverging cardinal teeth in each valve, and two
elongate, smooth, compressed, lateral teeth in one
valve, and one in the other. The species are all small,
and are for the most part natives of cool climates.
Tliey inhabit fresh-water lakes, ponds, streams, and
ditches, and are generally found buried in the mud.
The British species which have been observed are ovovi-
viparous, the fry being hatched in the internal branchiae.
They breed readily in confinement, and often exhibit
when young considerable activitj^ climbing about sub-
merged plants, and often suspending themselves by
byssal threads.

Family— TELLINID.^®.

The Tellens are numerous, often remarkable for
elegance of form, delicacy of sculpture, and beauty of
colour. Many of them are thin, fragile, and com-
pressed; and though a strong general resemblance may
be observed to exist throughout the family, yet many
modifications of form, and considerable differences in
the structure of the hinge occur, so as to compel
their separation into a number of distinct genera. The
animals, however, are strikingly similar, and are parti-
cularly noticeable for having the siphons very long
and slender, and the foot bent so as to form a sort of
elbow. The shell is always free, compressed, and
regular; the hinge is never furnished with more than
two cardinal teeth; and the lateral teeth are either one
in each valve or are obsolete. The ligament in some
is external, in others internal, and the pallial sinus is
usually very large. Though the shells are often painted
with glowing hues, yet the animals are said to be almost
always white and colourless. One or two, as Tellina
Gari, are used as food; and in India this latter species
forms a favourite dish called bacassan, which old
Kumphius extols as “ the most grateful of all kinds of
food.”

Genus Tellina.— This genus, as now restricted,
has an ovate shell, oblong, or rounded posteriori}', and
peculiarly marked with a fold or sinuosity on the
hinder side. The species vary much, however, in
form and appearance ; some are elongate transversely
(see Plate 10, fig. 2, TeMma radiald) ; others are
oval and rough externally ; others, again, are nearly
orbicular; one or two have one valve flat; while both
valves in others are remarkably deep. In sculpture
they are equally various ; some have one valve striated,
the other plain ; others have the external surface very
rough ; others, again, quite smooth. The hinge teeth
are compressed; the ligament external, prominent; and
the pallial sinus very wide and deep. The Tellens live
in sand or sandy mud, buried beneath the surface; the
majority at low w'ater-mark, though some occur at
considerable depths. “ The animals have the power of
leaping from the surface by means of their muscular
foot” {Adams) ; and no doubt this power is increased
by the elbow-shaped bend in that organ.

Genus PsAMMOBiA. — This genus (some of the species
of which are known by the name of the “ Setting Suns”)
have an oblong, compressed shell, slightly gaping at

both extremities, and more or less angular at the hinder
side. The ligament is external, prominent ; the hinge
provided with two teeth or a single bifid tooth in one
valve, and only one in the other ; and the pallial sinus
is deep. Externally, they are either smooth or radiately
striated, and the internal margin is finely crenulate.

Genus Sanguinolauia. — This genus has an equi-
valve, oval, compressed shell, attenuated at the hinder
end, and gaping a little at both extremities. The
ligament, which is external, is very conspicuous on a
prominent thickening of the hinge margin, and the
pallial sinus is very deep.

Genus Semele {=Aviphidesmci). — This genus has
a rounded, subequilateral shell, with the beaks turned
forwards. The hinge is provided with a short external
ligament, a long, oblique internal cartilage, and the
teeth are two cardinal in each valve, and distinct, elon-
gated lateral teeth in the right valve.

Genus Donax or Wedge-tihell. — This genus has a
strong, more or less wedge-shaped shell, the hinder side
being much shorter than the anterior, or as it were,
truncated. The ligament is short, external, the hinge
furnished with two cardinal teeth in each valve, and
one or two lateral teeth, and the pallial sinus is wide
and deep. The external surface is smooth, radiately
striated or decussated, and covered with an epidermis.
The inner margin is generally crenulated. When the
animal moves, it does so by a succession of short leaps,
and this peculiar mode of progression has been well
described by Dr. Johnston as observed in the common
Donax truncidus of our own shores. “ When it is about
tomake a spring,” says the Doctor, “it firstly, by appro-
priate motions of fhe foot, puts the shell on the point or
summit, as if aware that this is the position the most
favourable of any to avoid the resistance which the
sand opposes to the motion. It then stretches out the
leg as far as possible, makes it embrace a portion of the
shell, and, by a sudden movement similar to that of a
spring let loose, it strikes the earth with its foot and
effects the leap.”

Genus Ipiiigenia {=Capsa). — This genus has a
nearly equilateral, transverse, smootli shell, covered
with a thin, olivaceous epidermis. The hinge is pro-
vided with two cardinal teeth in the right valve, and
one cardinal and two nearly obsolete lateral teeth in
the left valve. There are only a few species known,
and these are found in estuaries in Brazil, Central
America, and Senegal. They bury themselves at a
small depth in the sand, where they are said to lie with
the posterior part upwards, to facilitate the influx of the
water for respiration.

Genus Galathea. — This genus has a remarkably
thick, trigonal, wedge-shaped, smooth shell, covered
with a smooth, olive epidermis. The umbo is generally
eroded ; the short, external ligament is prominent and
turned, and the hinge is thick and furnished with two
large thick cardinal teeth in one valve and one in the
other, and two indistinct lateral teeth. When young,
the teeth are like those of the preceding genus, Iphi-
genia, but as the shell enlarges in size and increases in
thickness, the teeth increase in size and become sub- •
divided into separate lobes. Two species are known,
both inhabitants of the sand}' flats of the Nile and the

ScROBicui,ARiA. MOLLUSCA. Glossus. 363

rivers of Western Africa, as high as twenty miles from
the sea.

Genus Scrobiculaiua. — This genus, forming the
type of a small family Scrobiculariidai, has an oval,
thin, compressed shell, and the cartilage is internal, and
situated in a shallow, triangular pit. The species of
shell upon which the genus is founded, is a native of
our own shores, and is found living buried vertically
five or six inches deep. The most remarkable circum-
stance in the history of this shell, perhaps, is the num-
ber of names by which it has been described.

Family — MACTRID.®.

The Mactras have an equivalve, trigonal shell, which
in some is close and in others slightly gaping, and in all,
covered with a thick epidermis. Tlie hinge is furnished
with two diverging cardinal teeth in each valve, the
central one being laminar and folded, and usually with
an anterior and posterior lateral tooth, those of left
valve being single, and those of right double. The
cartilage is internal, and is placed in a deep triangular
pit behind the cardinal teeth. The pallial sinus is
short and rounded.

The true Mactras {Mactrince) have a more or
less trigonal shell, nearly closed behind. The anterior
hinge tooth is bifid or triangular, and the lateral teeth
are distinct, well developed, and laminar. They inhabit
sandy coasts at various depths, though the majority, and
especially the larger kinds, are littoral. The animals
are active and powerful for their size, and live buried
in the sand at a small depth beneath its surface. “ The
foot can be stretched out considerably, and moved about
like a finger; it is also used for leaping.”- — ■( Woodivard.)
The British species afford food to the star-fishes and
whelks, and Mr. Alder informs us that one species,
Mactra suhtruncata, a common one in the island of
Arran, is collected by the natives to feed their pigs
with. There are several genera in the Mactrinm,
characterized chiefly by the position of the ligament.
These genera are Mactra, ScMzodesma, Spisula, Midi-
nia, and Onathodon. The family is represented in
Plate 10, fig. 3, by a British species, Mactra stultorum.

Genus Gnathodon. — This genus has an oval, ven-
tricose, thick and smooth shell, with eroded beaks and
an olive epidermis. The hinge is furnished with two
cardinal teeth in one valve, and one in the other, and
the lateral teeth are doubled in the right valve, elon-
gated and striated transversely. The ligament is
internal and placed in the upper edge of the deep, cen-
tral cartilage pit.

GNATHODON CUNEATUS— perhaps the only species
of the genus — is a native of New Orleans, and was
formerly eaten by the Indiana. It lives in vast num-
bers in the extensive flats below Mobile, burrowing
three or four inches beneath the surface of the sand, in
which numerous depressions indicate where they are
to be found. The water there is only brackish, though
|there is a tide of three feet. Banks of dead shells, three
or four feet thick, are found twenty miles inland, and
Mobile is built on one of these banks. “ A deposit
composed entirely of two existing shells in a subfossil
state, the Cyrena Carolinensis, and more especially the

Rangia cyrenoides of Bes Moulins { = Gnathodon
cuneatus), extends along the whole shore of the Gulf
of Mexico from Pensacola to Franklin in Louisiana,
bends round Mobile bay, Lake Poutchartrain, and
ranges across the delta of the Mississippi immediately
above its marshes, a total distance of nearly three hun-
dred miles, and probably much further ! It is remark-
able that the shells occur in beds with scarcely any
admixture of sand or earth, and they are consequently
found extremely useful in repairing roads and paving
the streets of the city. They are dug from the surface
of the soil, both on the main shore and the islands ol
the bay. These deposits border the bays of the Gulf
of Mexico, between Mobile and New Orleans, and they
occur in the vicinity of Franklin, Louisiana. The
Ohandeleur Isles, between Mobile bay and the delta of
the Mississippi, consist of depositsof these shells covered
by a fertile soil.” {Johnston — Report of British Associa-
tion.) The road from New Orleans to Lake Pontchar-
train (six miles) is made of Gnathodon shells procured
from the east end of the lake, where there is a mound
of them a mile long, fifteen feet high, and twenty to
sixty yards wide. In some places it is twenty feet above
the level of the lake. — {Lyell, in Woodioard.)

The Lutrarias or “Otter shells” {Liitrariinai)
have oblong or elongate shells, gaping at both ends
and covei'ed with an epidermis. The plate on which
the cartilage is fixed is prominent, and has one or two
small teeth in front of it in each valve. The lateral
teeth are very small, rudimentary, often obsolete. The
pallial sinus is deep, horizontal. The Otter shells are
found in various parts of the world. They live habi-
tually buried in the mud, fixed in a vertical position,
and are principally met with in estuaries, at depths
varying from low water to twenty fathoms. Several
genera have been found in this group.

Family— PAPHIIDJU.

This family, composed of the genera, Pcqdiia, Meso-
desma,Donacilla, and Anapa, have an equivalve, closed
shell, with the cartilage in an internal pit, and with a
simple compressed cardinal tooth and a rudimentary
process in the place of the second tooth. The form oi
the shell is various. The Paphias are ovate, somewhat
trigonal, truncated behind, and slightly keeled. The
Mesodesmas are transversely ovate shells, with the hinge
in the middle. The DonacillcB are wedge-shaped shells,
with the hinge at one end. These shells live in sands
in New Zealand and other parts of the world, and some-
times are found in estuaries.

Genus Glossus (= Isocardia), the “Heart Cockle.”
— This genus, forming the type of a small family,
Glossidai, has a peculiar heart-shaped shell, whence its
English name. It is ventricose, equivalve, smooth or
furrowed externally, with prominent contorted beaks,
and a hinge consisting of two very oblique cardinal and
two lateral teeth in each valve, the anterior being some-
times obsolete. The ligament is external, and there is
no pallial sinus. Mr. Bulwer, who had an opportunity
of watching our British species, Glossus cor, alive,
tells us that on being placed in a vessel of sea-water, the
valves of the shell gradually opened; the feelers or

CHAMIDiE.-

MOLLUSCA. Cardiid^.

364

ciliated fringe of the upper orifice of the mantle moved
slowly, as if in search of animalcula. Having remained
in this position about ten minutes, water was ejected
with considerable force from the lower orifice, which
till now had remained motionless. The expulsion of
the water appeared to be effected by a sudden contrac-
tion of the muscles, because this was never done without
the valves nearly closing at the same time. After a few
seconds the valves gradually returned to their open
position, and remained quiescent as before, till the water
was again ejected with a jerk. The Heart Cockle
burrows in sand, forcing its way by means of its sharp
pointed, triangular foot, leaving only the siphonal
openings exposed. Only five species are known, one of
which is an inhabitant of the British seas and the
Mediterranean, and the others are natives of China
and the Philippine islands.

Family— CHAMIDH3,

The Charaas have an inequivalve, irregular shell,
adhering to other substances, as rocks, shells, and corals,
by the outer surface of one of the valves, usually the
left one. The beaks are recurved, unequal, and the
hinge is composed of two teeth in one valve, and a
single large tooth in the other. The valves externally
are generally foliaceous, and vary very much in form
and colour. Their shape is usually determined by the
body to whicb they are fixed. The species are almost
all from tropical seas, and they especially affect coral
reefs. The genus is represented in Plate 10, fig. 4, by
Chama lazarus.

Family — AN ATINIDH5.

The Lantern-shells have usually a thin,brittle, oblong,
often inequivalve shell, gaping at the hinder extremity,
with a nacreous interior, and generally a granular or
spinulose exterior. The hinge is obscurely toothed, the
cardinal teeth being rudimentary ; the ligament is ex-
ternal, thin, and the cartilage is internal, placed in a
pit in each valve, and furnished with a peculiar shelly
hinge-piece or ossicle, which is placed before it, or
sometimes so as to cover the whole of its surface.
The family contains several genera.

Genus Anatina or Laternula. — This genus, the
Lantern-shell, has a ventricose, thin and translucent
shell, of an oblong form, gaping and attenuated at
the hinder extremity. The beaks, which are directed
backwards, are fissured or slit externally, and are sup-
ported internally by an oblique plate. The cartilage
pit in this genus is placed on a projecting spoon-shaped
process, which is furnished in front with a transverse,
linear ossicle. The external surface of the valves is
hispid, or roughened with calcareous points.

Genus Thracia. — This genus has the cartilage
placed on a thick, not prominent, callous process on
the hinge margin, and has a crescentic ossicle. Some
of the species are found in crevices of rocks, and in the
burrows of Saxicava, and have in consequence been
sometimes mistaken for boring shells.

Genus Chamostrea. — This genus has a shell
varying considerably in form and appearance from

the typical species of Anatinidce, but has the internal
cartilage and ossicle peculiar to the family. The shell
is inequivalve, like that of the Chama, solid, and attached
by the anterior side of the deep and strongly-keeled
right valve. The left valve is flat, and has a conical
tooth in front of the cartilage, which is furnished with
an oblong, curved ossicle, not unlike the human clavicle.
As yet only one species is known ; it is a native of the
seas of Australia.

Famii.y— MUTELIDjE (= Iridinidce).

Notwithstanding the fluviatile habitat, and f/wio-like
general appearance of the shells of this family, they
come into this sub-order, as we find the animal having
the mantle lobes united and produced into two separate
siphons. The shells are solid, oblong, equivalve, pearly
w'ithin, and externally covered with a hard polished
epidermis. The hinge is large, linear, and either
toothed or toothless. The species of this family are all
natives of fresh water, and are found either in Africa or
South America.

Genus Mutela {=Iridinn). — This genus has an in-
equilateral, transverse shell, with the hinge margin
smooth, without teeth, and attenuated towards the
beaks, which are small, recurved, and nearly straight.
The species of Mutela are natives of the livers of
Africa. One is found in the Nile {M. exotica), and
the valves are used by the natives of Egypt as spoons
in measuring oil, butter, and different kinds of pro-
visions.

Genus Pleiodon. — This genus (represented in
Plate 10, fig. 5, by Pleiodon ovaturn), has an ovate,
strong, and convex shell, with the hinge margin slightly
arched, which, becoming broader at its extremities, is
furnished with a series of large, irregular teeth, or
tubercular crenations. The outer surface of the valves
is covered with a dark, olive epidermis, and the interior
is brilliantly lighted up with an iridescent silvery nacre
generally tinged with pink. The two or three known
species are all from Africa.

The other genera are Leila, Castalia, and Hyuia,
the species of which are all natives of the fresh waters
of South America.

Fa m ily — C AEDI IDHH .

The Cockles have a regular, equivalve, usually in-
flated, and more or less heart-shaped shell, generally
ornamented with radiating ribs and furrows. The
margins interiorly are crenulated ; the ligament is ex-
ternal, short, and prominent, and the hinge is composed
of two oblique cardinal teeth, and two elongate, lamellar
laterals in each valve. The pallial line is simple, or
slightly sinuated behind. The animals have the foot
angularly bent behind, enabling them to make leaps,
prodigious in proportion to their size — the Cardium
norvegicum being said to be able to effect such jumps
as to spring out of the vessel in which it is held in
captivity. The species of this family are very numer-
ous, upwards of two hundred having been described;
and are distributed over the whole world, from north
to south, from east to west, and range from the sea-

CardiidjE. MOLLUSCA. Dreissena. 305

shore to one hundred and forty fathoms. They are

often brilliantly coloured. The family is represented

gregarious in their habits, living on sands and sandy

in Plate 10, fig. 6, by Cardium hians.

mud, in which they lie buried, often in prodigious num-

bers. Several are used as food, but none to the same

Family — LED1DH3.

extent as the common cockle, Cardium edule, of our

own shores. This mollusk is in season from autumn

Though the shells of this family have been hitherto

to spring, and great numbers are consumed in all our

placed along with Nucula in the family Arcidoe, yet as

coastward towns and villages. It is one of the most

they have the mantle lobes freely open, but produced

savoury of its class, and is said to be by many preferred

posteriorly into two siphonal tubes, they are now made

even to the oyster. “ It is equally good, raw and

to take their place in the Siphonophora. The

cooked, dressed either by roasting or boiling, and gives

shells of this family are cquivalve, oblong in shape, and

a delicious flavour to fish sauce. Cockles also are often

of a pearly lustre within. The hinge consists of a series

pickled.” — {Forbes and Hanley.) “ The Cockle-beds

of small comb-like teeth on each side of the cartilage

at the mouth of the Tees have long afforded employ-

pit; or as some describe them, the teeth are two in

ment to the poor of the neighbouring district. Besides

number, elongate, nearly parallel with the hinge margin.

the home consumption, it is computed that £300 is

each divided into numerous transverse hook-like plates.

annually gained in Greatham by this occupation.” —

The genera into which the family is divided are Yoldia,

{Surtees in Johnston.) In the Western islands and

Leda, and Ctenoconcha. The family is represented in

Highlands of Scotland this shell-fish frequently furnishes

Plate 10, fig. 7, by Yoldia lanceolata.

a valuable article of food. Dr. Macculloch, in his

“ History of the Highlands and Western Islands,” says,

Family — MODIOLARCIDH5.

“ Where the river meets the sea at Tongue, there is a

considerable ebb, and the long sand banks are produc-

This family, consisting of the single genus Modio-

tive of cockles in an abundance which is almost unex-

larca, have an equivalve, thin, fragile, ventricose shell.

ampled.” In 1824, a year of great scarcity, these banks

of an ovate or trapezoidal form, with prominent, con-

presented every day at low water a singular spectacle,

tiguous beaks, placed anteriorly. The hinge -has two

“ being crowded with men, women, and children, who

small, oblique teeth in the right valve which receive

were busily employed in digging for these shell-fish

two corresponding ones of the left. There are only

as long as the tide permitted. It was not unusual

two or three species lino wn, and these are chiefly found

also to see thirty or forty horses fi'om the surrounding

attached by a byssus to floating sea- weed in several

country, which had been brought down for the purpose

parts of the southern ocean, as at the Falkland and off

of carrying away loads of them to distances of man}’

Kerguelen Islands.

miles. This was a well-known year of scarcity ; and.

without this resource, I believe it is not too much to

Family— DREISSENID.®.

say that many individuals must have died of want.”

1

Lieutenant Thomas gives a similar account in the year

This family consisting, like the last, of only one genus.

1852. In Sanda, among the Orkney Isles, during the

Dreissena, resembles closely in external appearance

i

late faibu’e of the potato crop, he says, many of the

the shell of the Mussels, M ijtili, and has hitherto been

poorer people subsisted almost entirely on cockles. —

generally arranged along with them. The presence.

{Forbes and Hanley.) Immense quantities of the com-

however, of two distinct siphons, one of which is very

mon cockle are daily brought to London, and sold.

small, and the other prolonged into a tube, necessitates

along with periwinkles and whelks, in the shops and

the separation of this genus from the Mytilidoe. The

streets. In Torbay the natives use as food the two

animals possess an elongate, slender, strap-shaped foot.

larger species of cockles, the Cardium aculeatum and

which secretes a byssus, and thus adapts them for

rusticum. These two species abound on the Paignton

anchoring themselves, instead of leaping or crawling.

sands in the neighbourhood of that sea-port ; and at

The shell is equivalve, very inequilateral, of a triangular

low spring tides they may be observed, showing their

shape, and obtusely keeled. The beaks are terminal.

fringed siphons just above the surface. The cottagers

like those of the Mussels, and are furnished internally

know them hy the name of red noses, and gather them

with a transverse shelf or septum. The hinge is tooth-

in large quantities. After cleansing them a few hours

less, and the cartilage external, marginal. Dr. Carpenter

in cold spring-water, they fry the fish in a batter made

has shown that the structure of the shell, as shown by

of crumbs of bread, and this affords a savoury and suf-

the microscope, is very ditt'erent from that of the Mytili,

ficiently wholesome dish. — {Turton.) Where cockles

the internal layer being composed of large jirismatic

are very abundant, the shells are used to burn into

cells. The species are inhabitants of fresh water, are

lime. John Ray, as far back as 1662, has recorded

gregarious in their habits, and attach themselves to other

the fact of his seeing the people on the Welsh coast

shells, stones, and floating timber, by means of their

burning cockle-shells to make lime, which he moreover

byssus.

asserted to be excellent. The genera are Cardium,

DREISSENA POL YMORPHA.— The species upon which

Bucardium, Cerastes, Aphrodita, and Cardissa. The

the genus was founded has lately become naturalized

species of this latter genus are known by the name

in this country, and the history of its introduction, as

of the Heart-cockle, and characterized by being of a

given by Professor Forbes, is curious. Originally a

depressed heart shape with the valves prominently

native of the rivers round the Black Sea, it has gradually

keeled, the posterior slope flat, and the external surface

extended its range' all over Europe. Capable of enduring

3fi6 Tkidacnid^. MOLLUSCA. Pholadina.

salt water for a time, it has probably been carried across

tooth in each valve, two posterior lateral teeth in one,

seas attached to the bottoms of ships, and in this manner

and a single one in the other.

it appears to have reached England, and has become

THE GIANT CLAM SHELL {Tridacna gigas) is very

so common in our canals as to be much more abundant

large, with great imbricated squamous ribs. Its size and

than many of our indigenous mollusks. James de

weight, combined with the beautiful marble-like appear-

Carle Sowerby first described it as British. This was

ance of its interior, have always caused it to be sought

in 1824, and he stated that it was found in abundance

after as an ornament for grotto work or for garden

attached to shells and timber in the Commercial Docks,

fountains; and, indeed, as Mr. Broderip remarks, the

and that the animal was used as bait for perch. Mr.

valve of a large individual forms a very picturesque

Stark found it in the Union Canal, near Edinburgh, in

basin for catching the clear falling water, and transmit-

1834; and the Rev. J. Berkely observed it in the river

ting it through the deep interstices of its indented edge

Nen in 1836, though he believed it had been introduced

to the reservoir below. In Roman Catholic countries.

from Wisbeach, on timber, in 1828. Thus it would

the valves of the huge shell are sometimes used as

appear to have found its way into Britain at several

“ benitiers,” or vessels for containing holy water. A

points, and is now common in many parts of the country ;

pair, so used, may be seen in the church of Saint Sulpice,

in London it has been found in large quantities in iron

in Paris; they weigh five hundred pounds, are ihore than

water pipes, encrusted with a ferruginous deposit. On

two feet across, and were presented to Francis I. by the

the Continent it is found in the Wolga, Danube, Elbe,

Republic of Venice. Specimens attaineven largerdimen-

and many of the rivers of Germany and Belgium.

sionsthan these, and indeed are, without exception, the

Passing over the genus Galeomma, we come to the

largest shells known. The byssus is so large, and its

Clam Shells.

attachment to the rock so strong, that it is frequently

necessary to cut it with a hatchet, in order to remove

the shell. The animal is good eating, and some of our

Fa M ILY— TRID ACNID^.

earlier voyagers have mentioned it as furnishing their

sailors a wholesome meal. Captain Cook states that

The Clam Shells are solid, opaque, white shells.

they sometimes weigh upwards of twenty pounds; and.

regularly equivalve, truncate anteriorly. The v^alves

as Mr. Broderip observes, “a fine well fed Indian giant

are strongly ribbed externally, and the margins dentate

Tridacna would furnish forth a dish for a dozen.” The

internally. The ligament is external, and the hinge is

genus is figured in Plate 10, fig. 8, by Tridacna crocea.

furnished with very oblique, interlocking teeth. The

Genus Hippopus, Horse-hoof shell, or Bear’s-paw

Clam Shells are the giants among the Bivalves, and

Clam. — This genus has a transversely ovate shell of

live attached by their byssus to rocks, shells, and corals.

moderate size, ribbed, and squamous externally. It is

“They also have the faculty of foimiing holes in the

readily distinguished from the .preceding by its valves

surface of the shell or coral to which they may happen

being closed and flattened in front, and, in consequence.

to be fixed.” — {Gray.)

baving no aperture for a byssus, and by having only

Genus Teidacna. — This genus has a massive

two compressed cardinal teeth in each valve. The

trigonal shell, ornamented with radiating ribs and

only known species, H. macidatiis, is a handsome shell.

imbricating foliations. The valves have a wide gape

white, spotted with red or purple, and is found on the

close to the beak in front, occupying nearly the whole

coral reefs of the Indian Ocean. The shells are now

anterior side, for the passage of the large byssus. The

much used in the ornamental arts, for making into ink-

hinge is composed of a single cardinal, compressed.

stands and other useful purposes.

Order II. PHOLADACEA.

In this order’ the animals have in general a closed

is very deep. The animal is symmetrical, club-shaped.

mantle, with two more or less elongate siphonal tubes.

or worm-like; the mantle is closed in front, except the

which are almost always united. The gills are pro-

orifice for the passage of the foot, which is club-shaped

duced behind into the inhalent or lower siphon; and

and truncated ; and the siphons are large, elongated.

the foot is frequently more or less elongated and club-

and united nearly to the ends. The Pholades are found

shaped.

in most parts of the globe, and all the members of the

Family— PHOLADIDAl.

tribe are borers into stone, clay, wood, or other sub-

stances. The species are numerous, are widely dis-

The Pholades have a thin, white, brittle, and exceed-

tributed, and they may even be said to be cosmopolitan.

ingly hard shell, with the valves united only by a very

The question how the boring mollusca excavate tbeir

thin ligament, gaping at both ends, and armed with

dwelling-places has been the subject of much discussion.

rasp-like imbrications in front. The shells are either

and is still in a great measure undecided amongst

free or within a shelly tube. The hinge is without any

Naturalists.

cartilage, and has no teeth, but is often strengthened

Pholadina. — The true Pholades have an elongated

externally by accessory valves. The hinge plate is

cylindrical shell, with the anterior gape either open

reflexed over the beaks, and is furnished with a long,

or, in the adult, closed by a callous plate, and the

curved muscular process beneath each. The pallial sinus

dorsal margin covered by accessory valves. The

Pholadina. MOLLUSCA. Teuedinina.

substance of the shell in the Pholacles is hard, and,
according to the observations of M. Necker, has a small
quantity of a very hard mineral in its composition, called
arragonite. Tlie front surface is rough, with rasp-like
imbrications. It is more than probable then, that
with this combination of favourable circumstances, the
method of boring of these animals is chiefly, at least,
mechanical. The Pholades do not appear to perforate
substances harder than themselves. Professor Owen
attributes part of the process, to the action of the
foot, which is sucker-like, and enables the animal to
fix itself to the substance which it wishes to perforate.
The softness of this body offers no obstacle, for “it
is certain,” says the Professor, “that the perpetual
renewal of a softer substance will render it capable
of wearing away a harder one, subject to the friction of
a softer surface, and not like it susceptible of being
repaired.” There lies the whole mystery, exclaims
Mr. Lewis; “the soft muscular disc is perpetually
renewed, and the hard limestone has no self-renovating
power; and thus, just as falling water wears away
granite by the incessant repetition of gentle blows, so
do these mollusks excavate rock or wood by the
incessant repetition of muscular friction.” By many
naturalists, however, the rotatory action of the rasping
shell, which has been demonstrated, is considered suffi-
cient to produce the excavations; and an experiment,
as a sort of test, was made by M. Caillaud, who imitated
as nearly as possible the conditions of the molhisk, and
produced a perforation in limestone, by carefully rotating
the valves of a Pholas under water. The cavities made
by the Pholades, if carefully examined, show transverse
groovings, or circular striae, such as could only have
been produced by the rotatory action of the valves. The
family is represented in Plate 10, fig. 9, by Pholas
dactylus.

A remarkable property of the animals of the Pholades,
and which has long attracted notice, is their phospho-
rescence or luminousness in the dark. The light is
bluish-white, and is stronger as the animal is lively,
fresh, and supplied with its fluids ; and more powerful
in summer, and at the period of propagation, than at
other times. Eeaumur aseertained that the Pholades
secrete a fluid in considerable abundance, a kind of
mucus, which is thrown off into the surrounding water,
and produces this luminous appearance. Some of the
species, especially a West Indian one {Pholas costata),
are used as an article of food, and regularly sold in the
markets of Havannah. In this country none are used
by man; but the common piddock, Pholas dactylus
(Plate 10, fig. 9), is used at Salcomb in Devonshire as
a successful bait for fish.

This group consists of several genera, such as Pholas
(= Barnia), Dactylina, Xylophaga, Jouannetia, Pho-
ladidea, and Zirphcea.

Genus Xylophaga. — Most of the species of these
genera perforate rocks ; but those belonging to this
genus are found living in floating timber. They bore
about an inch deep, and invariably across the grain of
the wood, which is always submerged ; the burrows are
oval, and lined with shell.

Teredinina. — The Ship-worms differ from the
Pholades in their shells being lodged at the inner extre-

367

mity of a burrow partly or entirely lined with shelly
matter. The shell is globular, open in front and
behind, and the valves are trilobate, concentrically
striated, and divided by a transverse furrow. The
hinge margin is reflexed in front, and the cavity under
the beaks, internally, is furnished with a long curved
muscular process. The animal is worm-like, and the
foot is formed like a sucker, and possesses a foliaceous
border. As there are no plates or accessory valves to
protect the dorsal margin, the animal, which always
lives in wood, continues to bore deeper and deeper, and
lines the holes as it proceeds with a shelly tube for its
protection. The siphons are very long, united nearly
to the end, with fringed orifices ; and about the place
where the two separate, they are provided with small
calcareous bodies, called palettes or styles, which close
the mouth of the tube. The species are not numerous.
They are found in the seas of almost every clime, living
in wood, which they perforate, and which, when broken
up, may be carried floating about to immense distances.
The burrows which the}' thus form are usually tortuous,
and always in the direction of the grain of the wood,
unless the animal meets another Teredo, or a knot in
the timber. The way in which these worms accom-
plish their perforations is still the subject of dispute.
M. Deshayes maintains that the Teredo bores by means
of a solvent — a special solvent secreted by the foot.
The animal adheres to the wood, he says, hy the foot,
and by it macerates the surface and renders it friable.
Mr. Hancock, on the other hand, says that the exca-
vating instrument of Teredo is formed of the anterior
portion of the animal, in the surface of which are
imbedded siliceous particles which, penetrating the skin,
“ give to it much the character of rasping paper.” The
whole forms a rubbing surface, which being applied
closely to the bottom of the cavity by the adhesion of
the foot, enables the animal to rub down and penetrate
the wood. According to Mr. Osier, however, and some
other naturalists, the Teredo, like the Pholas, works its
way into and through the wood by mechanical means;
the shell in it, as in the other, being the efficient instru-
ment. However this may be, the devastation and
destruction produced by this worm is immense. The
damage formerly done to ships by its boring powers
was so notorious in the days of Linnmus that that
celebrated man termed it the “ Calamitas navium ;” and
its English name of “Ship-worm” testifies to the
estimation in which it was held by mir forefathers. It
is equally destructive to piers and bulwarks, and in the
years 1731 and 1732 it had made such inroads upon
the piles in Holland as to cause the greatest alarm.
The piles which support the banks of Zealand and
Friesland were threatened with total destruction, so
that it was feared this w'orm would “ reclaim from man
what he had with unexampled labour wrested from the
ocean.” — {Johnston.) A great many remedies have
been tried to prevent the attacks of the Ship-worm, but
the most effectual plan hitherto devised is that now
adopted of covering the timbers exposed to their assaults,
with short, broad-headed nails, “ which in salt water
soon invests the whole with a strong coating of rust
impenetrable by their augers.” Notwithstanding the
bad character they possess, these little worms are often

Gastroch^nid^. MOLLUSCA. Saxicava,

368

of use. Thej' break down and destroy fragments of
wrecks and floating timber which might otherwise act
as dangerous impediments to navigation ; for wood when
entirely submerged, i.s almost indestructible under the
mere influence of water. The celebrated engineer,
Mr. Brunei, told Sir David Brewster that his plan 'of
tunnelling the Thames was suggested to him by wit-
nessing the boring of a Teredo. The Ship-worms are
ovoviviparous animals, and are said to be of separate
sexes. At certain seasons it has been observed that the
female carries her eggs in the folds of her respiratory
organs, and that they are ejected from the siphonal
tube, after the milt of the male, floating in the water,
has fecundated them.* The young swim freely about,
and are even able to float on the surface of the water.

Family— GASTROCH.ai:NIDJS.

This family is composed of species which are bor-
rowers in mud or stone. The shells are thin, gaping
in front, equivalve. The hinge is destitute of teeth,
and the valves are united by a narrow ligament ; they
have no accessory plates on the dorsal margin. The
animals live inclosed in calcareous tubes, or imbedded
in mud or stone. The valves of the shell are either
free or cemented to the shelly tube. The tube Itself
appears to be foi-med by the animal to protect its elon-
gated and partly naked body from the roughness of the
sand, or the rock, in the holes of which they reside.

Genus Aspergillum (= Penicillus). — This genus,
the “ Watering-pot,” as it has been called, has the two
valves of its shell, which are oval and equivalve, im-
bedded in the lower part of the tube, the beaks alone
being visible externally. They are so small, and so
completely imbedded in the substance of the tube, that
they are generally overlooked, and the tube itself is the
part looked upon as the real shell. This shelly tube
is elongated, cylindrical, gradually becoming narrower
posteriorly, or at the siphonal end, at which extremity
it is open and sometimes ornamented with shelly expan-
sions, like ruffles. At the anterior end it is club-
shaped, and closed by a convex disc pierced with
numerous tubular holes (like the rose of a watering-
pot — hence the English name), with a fissure in the
centre, and a circular frill of tubes round the periphery.
The species, which are not numerous, seven or eight
only having been described, are found imbedded in
sand and mud at low water, on the shores of tropical
countries; the closed disc with the tubular holes being
below the surface, and the simple or ruffled siphonal
extremity projecting about an inch above it. The
genus is represented in Plate 10, fig. 10, by A. Deles-
sertianum.

Genus Clavagella (= Bnjopa). — This genus has
only one of the valves (the left one) of the shell im-
bedded in the shelly tube, the other being free. They
are oblong, flat, often irregular, and inequivalve. The
tube is cylindrical, varying in length, but generally
much shorter than that of Aspergillum. It is open

* Note. — M. Quatrefages finds that a weak solution of
mercury thrown into the water destroys this milt, and con-
sequently prevents the fecundation of the eggs, nipping the
young mollusks in the hud. — Lewes.

posteriorly, the margin of the opening being sometimes
furnished with a succession of fringes, and is closed
below or at the anterior end by a disc with a minute
central fissure, and bordered with branching tubuli.

Genus Fistulana {—Chcena). — This genus has
both the valves of the shell free. They are elongated,
irregular, inequivalve, and Widely gaping. They are
contained within a shelly tube, which is round, taper-
ing, and open at the anterior extremity, straight, trans-
versely striated, closed at the lower end when complete,
and thickened or club-shaped. It is furnished with a
perforated diaphragm behind the valves.

Genus Gastrocha;na. — This genus has both the
valves of the shell free also. The valves are wedge-
shaped, regular, widely gaping in front, and close behind.
The species perforate shells and limestone, and line the
crypts which they make with a layer of shelly matter.
The holes made by one of the common species, Gas-
trochcena modiolina, are about two inches deep and half
an inch in diameter. The external orifice is flask-
shaped, and lined with a thin layer of shell, which
projects slightly.

Family— SAXICAVID.^.

The Saxicavas, as their name imports, form another
family of Borers. They have great affinities with the
preceding family, Gastrochcenidce ; but, though often
perforating stones, they never form shelly tubes or pro-
tecting cases. They are borers, says Professor Forbes,
“ although the habit of boring does not seem necessary
to their existence, since we find them very commonly
free. If there be a crevice, however, in a rock, shell,
coral, or sea-weed, into which they can thrust them-
selves, the}' do so ; and if near a limestone rock, per-
forate it, and form crypts in which they live.”

Genus Saxicava.— This genus has the shell equi-
valve, solid, wedge-shaped, and gaping at each end —
when young, with two minute teeth in each valve ; but
when adult, becoming toothless. The cartilage is ex-
ternal, thick, and prominent, and the pallial line sinuated,
not continuous. The animals secrete a byssus. The
species of Saxicavoe are few in number, but are very
widely diffused, the same species even being found in
many and distant parts of the globe. They are usually
found burrowing in limestone rocks, though they have
also been observed in sandstone, the animal being fixed
by the byssus to the side of the hole it excavates. The
question how these animals bore, has been as much
discussed, as the Pholades already mentioned. The
acid theory has had many supporters ; but perhaps, on
the whole, the views of Mr. Hancock may be con-
sidered as mostlikely to prove correct. The thickened
portion of the mantle of the Saxicavais armed, he says,
with a rough layer of numerous crystalline particles of
various shapes and sizes, which are imbedded in the
surface, and consist probably of silex or flint, either
pure or in combination with some animal matter.
This forms in fact a kind of file, superior, however,
to any of our workmen’s files in this, that the surface
keeps itself always in a proper state of roughness for
trituration, the siliceous crystals being constantly shed
and as constantly renewed. This thickened portion of the

Saxicava. MOI.LUSCA. Myad^.

mantle is also amply provided with muscular fibres,
running in all directions. The animal thus armed
attaches itself by the byssus to the rock it wishes to
perforate, then brings into contact with it this portion
of its mantle, and setting the muscular fibres into
motion, soon rasps away the surface. Wherever we
have a sea -coast of mountain limestone, the substance
of the rocks is almost invariably found riddled by
Saxicavce. Sometimes they do considerable damage
to sea-walls. Some years ago, it was discovered that
the whole front of the Plymouth breakwater had been
attacked by them, and great alarm was excited in con-
sequence for its safety. Luckily these little creatures
do not bore deeper than six inches, so that unless there
be a new surface exposed by the destruetion of the
perforated part, there is not much danger to be appre-
hended from them. That this action does take place,
however, is unfortunately too well ascertained ; and no
doubt exists that the excavations made in limestone
rocks and indurated clay by the Saxicavse and other
lithophagous mollusca, contribute materially to alter
the configuration of the shores. “ Their disintegrating
influence,” says Dr. Johnston, “ must have been at all
times, and must continue to be, considerable ; for it is
not merely by their own excavations that the opposing
rocks are reduced, but tlirough them water is admitted
into their interior; and aided by its macerations, its
varying expansions under various temperatures, the
ceaseless wearing away of this additional agent while
it flows or percolates through new channels opened to
its access, the rock is speedily rubbed down into an
impalpable dust, or broken up into loose fragments.
Consider the result: the outline of the shore is altered,
a barrier to the tide removed, and perhaps some inroad
is made on the soil.”

Passing by the PholadomyidcR, we come to the
Razor- fish.

Fami LY— SOLEN I D^.

The Solens or Razor-fish have an elongated shell,
equivalve, and gaping at both extremities. The liga-
ment is external, and the teeth are compressed, and
usually two or three in each valve. The animal has
a very large and powerful foot, which is club-shaped
or truncated in front, and not secreting a byssus. The
species are rather numerous, and are world-wide in
their distribution, and are usually found living buried
perpendicularly in the sand, into which they penetrate
their powerful foot, with its broad finger-like extremity,
enabling them to sink with great rapidity. They vary
considerably in shape, and in the structure of the hinge,
&c., so that it has become necessary to divide them
into several distinct genera. These are Solen, Ensis,
Pharus, Cultellus, Siliqua, and Madia. The family
is represented in Plate 10, fig. 11, by Solen ensis.

Aristotle was well acquainted with the Razor-fish,
and has described one species very accurately under
the name of most probably our common species,

S. vagina (= marginatus). In more modern times it
attracted the notice of Reaumur; but ))erhaps what
gave these animals their greatest celebrity, was their
excellent qualities as articles of food. They are said
VoL. II. 103

369

to be about the best of shell-fish when properly cooked
(broiling being the best method), and are eaten in many
parts of Great Britain, as well as abroad. As has beer,
said, they generally bury in sand near low wftter mark,
and the valves of the shell, being connected by epider-
mis, serve at once as a protection and as a lining to
their holes. The existing species are distributed all
over the world without regard to climate. Several are
common on our own shores, and Professor Forbes has
given such a graphic account of one of them, the Solen
vagina, that we extract it entire. It burrows in sand
near low-water mark at spring tides, to the depth of
from a foot and a half to two feet. “ They lie in their
holes nearl}’’ vertical,” he says, “and their places are
marked by perforations shaped like key-holes, corres-
ponding to the form of the extremities of their united
siphons. They are nearly vertical, and do not remain
quiet, but rise up and down now and then, shifting
themselves partly above the sand, as if to know what
is going on in the world above. When the tide goes
out, they sink deeper. The fishermen then endeavour
to tempt them out, as little boys would catch birds if
they could, by putting salt on their tails. The salt
penetrating the perforation, reaches and irritates the
extremities of the siphons, and the Solen, annoyed and
pained, rises suddenly' to clear itself of the nuisance.
This vigilant human enemy watches the moment, and
seizes the opportunity, and the Solen — if he can catch
it ; but unless very quick in his motions, those of the
Solen may be quicker, and once aware of the danger
impending, the sensible shell-fish will not rise again,
but submits patiently to the indignity of being salted
alive, rather than run the risk of being caught and
roasted, or else cut up for bait. But if it be not
touched, a second dose of salt will cause it again to
rise, which, shows that knowledge and recollection of
the danger is the impediment to its reappearance in the
former case. Fishermen in England have a queer but
absurd fanc}", that when the Razor-fish feels the salt,
it tliinks the tide is coming in, and therefore rises in its
hole. If the Solen be taken out of its hole and placed
upon the sand, it immediately prepares to re-bury itself.
It stretches out its foot to full length, and then bends it
so as to use the extremity as a kind cf auger. When
the end has sunk into the sand, it draws up its shell,
which, first oblique, and afterwards perpendicular, soon
becomes immersed and rapidly disappears.”

Genus Glycimf.kis \=PanoiKea). — This genus
has a thick, equivalve, oblong shell,' gaping at each
end, the beaks nearly central, and with one prominent
tooth in each valve. Some of the species are very large,
and are found buried deep in the sand at low water.
They are found principally in the Northern seas and the
Mediterranean; but extend also to the Cape of Good
Hope, Australia, New Zealand, and Patagonia.

Family— MYAD^.

The Gapers have a thick, strong, opaque shell, gaping
posteriorly. Tlie valves arc usually unequal and
covered with a wrinkled epidermis. The hinge is
without teeth, and the cartilage, which is internal, is
placed in a spoon-shaped cavity in one of the valves.

-Asiphonophor a .

5Y0 Asiphonophoka. MOLLUSCA.

which tits into a pit in the surface of the other. The
family, as now restricted, is not numerous in speciesj
about a dozen only having been described. The genera
are Mya*Sph(Bnia, and Tugonia.

Genus Mya. — This genus contains several species of
some utility.

MYA AKENARIA (Plate 10, fig. 12), is used, both
in this country and in North America, as food for man
and as bait for fishes. On the banks of Newfoundland
the fishers bait their lines very successfully with it, and
it is said to be peculiarly acceptable to the cod. Dr.
Gould, in his account of the Invertebrata of Massachu-
setts, says, “ The Clam {Mtja arenaria) is still more
important in an economical point of view than the
oyster. It is extremely prolific; and its exhaustless
banks are every day accessible during twelve of the
twenty-four hours.” It is used for food, as well as for

bait. About five thousand bushels of clams are annually
brought to market. Immense numbers are salted for
the bank fisheries — not less than five thousand barrels
every year. “ Seven bushels of clams make about one
barrel of bait ; so that thirty or forty thousand bushels
are used in this prepared state, and perhaps as many
more are used from the shell. The value of the clam-
bait is six or seven dollars per barrel.” — Gould, and
Johnston.

MYA TRTJNCATA is boiled and eaten by the in-
habitants of Zetland, where it is known by the name
of “ Smurslin.” In Greenland, according to 0. Fabri-
cius, these shells are much sought after by the walrus,
the arctic fox, and various Northern birds.

Passing by the families of Corbulas {Corhulidc^ and
Pandoras {Pandoridee), we come to the second sub-
class

Sub- CLASS IL— A SIPHON OPHOEA.

This sub-class is divided into three orders : —

1. Lasiacea, in which the mantle lobes are united,
with an anal sipbonal aperture under the hinder
adductor muscle, and a large opening for the passage
of the foot.

2. Unionacea, in which the mantle lobes are free,
slightly united behind, forming a separate and sipbonal
opening placed under the hinder adductor muscle.

3. Pectinacea, in which the mantles are free all
round, without any separate opening for the vent and
out-going current.

Order I.— LASIACEA.

Family— SOLFNOMYID^.

In this family the shell is elongated, cylindrical,
obtuse at the extremities, and gaping. The valves are
clothed with a dark, horny, shining epidermis, which
extends beyond the margins. The hinge has a cardinal
tooth in each valve, and a callosity running between
them. The family consists of only one genus.

Genus Solenomya. — This genus contains only four
known species. They are usually found burrowing
in mud, in about two fathoms water, but at the same
time are capable of leaping and swimming about with

great freedom. Mr. Stimpson, an American concholo-
gist, has observed them making surprising leaps and
swimming about in the water for a considerable space
of time without touching the bottom. The leap appears
to be performed by the animal suddenly drawing in its
large umbrella-shaped foot, at the same time that water
is expelled from the hinder opening by the closing
of the valves. The genus is represented in Plate 11,
fig. 13, by Solenomya mediterranea.

The families Laseidoe and Montacutidee possess
no great interest; we will therefore pass on to the
second order : —

Order II.— UNIONACEA.

Family— LUCINID^-.

The shells of this family are of a more or less orbi-
cular shape, free, and closed. The hinge varies very
much ; in most cases, however, there are one or two
cardinal teeth, and two lateral teeth in each valve,
though these are sometimes obsolete. Externally they
are variously sculptured, and internally they are always
dull and obliquely furrowed. The ligament is external
or subinternal. The species are rather numerous ; they
are chiefly natives of temperate and tropical seas, living
upon sandy and muddy bottoms, and ranging from the
sea shore to great depths. A good many genera have
been formed, their characters being derived from the
structure of the hinge, the ligament, &c. These are

Lucina, Loripes, Corhis, and Ungulina. The family
is very well represented in Plate 11, fig. 14, by Corhis
fimhriata.

Family— ASTARTIDAl.

In this family the shells are free, of a solid substance,
oblong or cordate in shape, smooth or concentrically
ribbed on the external surface and covered with a thick
brown epidermis. The hinge is furnished with strong
teeth — two diverging cardinal teeth in one valve, and
one in the other. The ligament is external. Upwards
of fourteen species have been described ; they are found
living in sandj' mud, and are almost all found in the
Northern seas — ranging geographically from Welling-

Cakditid^ MOLLUSCA. Ajsodokta.

ton Channel and Behring’s Straits to the Egean Sea,
and in depth from thirty to one hundred and twelve
fathoms.

Family— OARDITID^.

Tlie species of this family have an ovate or cordate
shell, with the surface marked externally with strong
radiating ribs. The hinge Ls furnished with two oblique
diverging cardinal teeth directed towards the same side,
and no laterals ; the ligament is external. The species,
which muster upwards of fifty in number, are usually
obtained from deep water, on rocky bottoms in tropical
seas, though some are found also in shallow water and
on the shores of North America.

In the genus Cardita the shell is oblong; while in
Venericardia it is cordate and ventricose.

Family — CRASSATELLIDiE.

In this family the shell is solid, ventricose, attenuated
posteriorly, smooth or concentrically furrowed, and of
a porcellaneous texture. The hinge is furnished with
two subdiverging, striated, cardinal teeth placed in
front of a cartilage pit, and one lateral tooth in each
valve. The ligament is internal, inserted in a pit in
each valve. The species, which are about thirty in
number, are usually dredged from deep water, and are
chiefly found in the Australian seas, though some have
also been obtained from India, Africa, and South
America. None have as yet been discovered inhabit-
ing Europe.

Family— UN lONIDiE.

The River Mussels secrete a byssus in the very young
state. The shell is usually regular, equivalve, and
closed. Externally it is covered with a hard, smooth,
olivaceous epidermis, beneath which it is beautifully
pearly. The ligament is external, large and promi-
nent, and the hinge is variable. The River or Pond
Mussels are found in fresh- water lakes, rivers, and
ponds throughout the whole world. About three
hundred species have been described — the greater num-
ber being natives of North America. In Asia and
South America a considerable number occur; and
though only a few species inhabit Europe, the number
of individuals belonging to them is very great. In the
UmonidcB the sexes are distinct, and the eggs in the
females are contained in the outer gills, which in
winter and early spring are found to be full of them.

The fry spins a delicate, ravelled byssus, and flaps
its triangular valves with the i>osterior shell-muscle,
which is largely developed, whilst the other is yet in-
conspicuous.”— {Woodward.) At this season. Lister
says that the Unio pictorum has the fetid smell of the
goat.

Genus Unio. — This genus contains about two hun-
dred and fifty species, which, as may be supposed,
differ considerably amongst themselves in shape and
general appearance. The inside of the valves is gene-
rally brilliantly nacreous, and the hinge is furnished
with (often strong) cardinal teeth, and very elongated

371

laminar laterals. The U. piclorum or Painter’s Mus-
sel is extensively used for containing gold and silver
paint.

Genus Damaris {=Margaritana'). — This genus
only differs in the posterior or lateral teeth being nearly
obsolete. The only species of this genus is the Pearl-
mussel, Damaris inargaritifera. It is found in the
rivers and mountain streams of Britain, Lapland, and
North America. At the present day the animal is
used by the fishermen in Scotland as a bait. Many
boat-loads “ are taken from the mouth of the Ythen, a
river not far from Aberdeen, and employed in the
fisheries of cod and ling, established near Peterhead.” —
{Johnston.) In former times, in the same country, these
shell-fish were used as an article of food by the na-
tives ; “ and such is their estimation among the deintiest
kinds of food,” says Boetius, in his account of Scotland,

“ that they were not unworthilie called, of old time,
widowes’ lustes.” The pearls found in this shell are
bright and of excellent lustre. At Perth there was an
extensive fishery in the river Tay, which continued
up to the end of last century, and which Pennant tells
us had from 1761 to 1764 produced pearls worth
£10,000. The fishery, however, we are also told,
was exhausted by the avarice of the undertakers, and
soon after ceased to be productive. In the river
Conway, in North Wales, excellent pearls have been
found ; and it is said that Sir Richard Wynn of Gwydir,
chamberlain to Catherine, queen of Charles 11. , pre-
sented her majesty with one taken from that river,
which is to this day honoured with a place in the royal
crown. In Ireland also a considerable fishery existed •
as long ago as 1690. Sir Robert Reading informs us
that he had seen a pearl, taken in the county Tyrone,
that weighed thirty-six carats, and was valued at £40.
He also says “ that a miller found a pearl which he
sold for £4 10s. to a man that sold it for £10, who
disposed of it to the Lady Glenawly for £30, with whom
he saw it in a necklace, for which she refused £80
from the old Duchess of Ormond.”

Genus Barbala. — This genus has a single linear
tooth under the dorsal margin, extending the whole
length ; and the valves are produced at the back into a
thin elastic dorsal wing. Barhala pHcata, perhaps the
only species, is the famous Chinese Pearl Mussel. The
people of the Celestial Empire produce artificial pearls
in this shell, by introducing wire and other foreign
bodies under the mantle of the animal. In the British
Museum, specimens may be seen where pearls of a
fine lustre have been thus produced, as well as a
series of little “josses,” made of metal, and which,
having been introduced under the mantle while the
animal was alive, have gradually become quite coated
with pearly matter.

Genus Anodonta. — This genus has the hinge per-
fectly toothless. The shell is generally thin, some-
times of large size, oval, smooth, compressed when
young, but becoming ventricose by age. The species
number about fifty, the greater number of which are
natives of the fresh waters of North and South Ame-
rica. They are very prolific ; and Mr. I. Lea, who
has paid great attention to the study of this family, has
computed that the outer gills of a female has contained

372 Etheriid^.- MOLI

six hundred thousand young shells. This genus is
represented in Plate 11, fig. 13, by Anodonta cygnea.

Family — ETHERIIDiE.

The Ethcrias have the shell irregular in shape, in-
equivalve, covered externally with a thick olive epider-
mis, and pearly within. The outer surface of the valves
is vei-y uneven, and frcquentlj' beset with tubular pro-
cesses, while the internal surface is blistered, as if with
air-bubbles, leaving cavities in the form of small vesi-
cles, or very thin bladders between the plates. The
hinge is w'ithout teeth, and the ligament subinternal.
The adult shells are always attached to each other, or
to foreign bodies, by the outer surface of one of the
valves ; but when young is free, like Anodon. In this
young state the animal, as Dr. Gray observes, may
possess a foot, but being adherent when adult, this
organ becomes unnecessary. The little cavities in the
inner substance of the shell, are believed to be filled
with water when the animals are alive.

Genus Etheria. — This genus adheres by the beak.
The species are all natives of fresh water, being chiefly
found in the river Nile, above the Cataracts, and in
the river Senegal. Bruce, in his “Travels,” mentions
these shells under the name of “ fresh-water oysters.”
They are collected, he informs us, by the natives as
articles of food, and the shells are employed by them
for ornamenting their tombs. For a representation of
the family, see Plate 11, fig. 16 — Etheria caillaudii.

Family— MYTILID^.

The Mussels secrete a byssus. The shell is equi-
valve, elongated, closed, with the beaks anterior. The
valves are covered externally with a dark thick epi-
dermis, and they are more or less pearly within. The
hinge is without teeth, and the ligament is internal,
submarginal, and very long.

Genus Mytilus, the Sea Mussel. — This genus has a
wedge-shaped shell, rounded behind, and the beaks ter-
minal and pointed. The species of Mytili are numerous,
and are world-wide in their distribution. The byssus
which the animal spins is strong and coarse, and these
shells are usually found attached to rocks, stones, float-
ing bodies, &c. It appears, however, from the observa-
tions of Dr. Gould of Boston, that mussels are not quite
stationai’y animals, but that they can move from place
to place with great facility. The manner in which the
common edible mussel, Mytilus ed^dis., forms its con-
nection with the rocks and stones, &c., is explained by
Reaumur. By placing some individuals in a vase of
sea- water, he was able to watch the process. “ Opening
their valves, the foot was first protruded, and with
various strains and stretches, gradually tbrnst out,
until at length the elongation was carried to the de-
sired extent, sometimes to fully two inches. It was
now employed in feeling or testing all the objects
within reach, directed to the right or left, or backwards
or forwards. After all this prelude, to ascertain ap-
parently the security of the intended holdings, the
point of the foot is settled and retained for a short time
on the chosen spot, when again, it is suddenly removed.

^jUSCA. Lithodomus.

and immediately withdrawn entirely within the shell,
leaving behind a thread that reaches from the spot to
the base of the foot. By many repetitions of this
operation, carried on patiently day after day (for not
above four or five threads are spun in the twenty-four
hours), and by attaching the disc-like extremities of
the threads to different places, the mussel at last com-
pletes its cable, and secures a safe anchorage.”

Mussels are also used as bait for fishes, and as food
for man.

THE EDIBLE MUSSEL {M. edulis, Plate 1 1, fig. 17)
frequents mud banks, which are uncovered at low water,
are very prolific, and attain their full growth in a single
year. The}" abound in a great many parts of our coasts,
and immense quantities are yearly consumed. Their
fishery occupies a considerable number of persons, espe-
cially where the mussels have obtained a reputation for
superior excellence. “ This is the case with the mus-
sels of Buddie Bay, on the coast of Northumberland ;
and those of Isigny, near Bayeux, and of other places
on the western coast of France, are held in high esti-
mation. Mussels, however, of inferior delicacy are
found in very great abundance on tbe rocks which
border the coast between St. Malo and Cancale, in the
department De la Manche, where they are torn from
their attachments by means of an iron hook at low
water ; and the annual profit of this fishery is estimated
at from 2000 to 2500 francs.” — {Johnston.) The con-
sumption of mussels in Edinburgh and Leith is estimated
at four hundred bushels (= four hundred thousand
mussels) annually; enormous quantities, Mr. Woodward
informs us on the authority of Dr. Knapp, are also used
for bait, especially in the deep-sea fishery, for which
purpose thirty or forty millions are collected yearly in
the Firth of Forth alone. It is a curious fact that of
all edible mollusks, the common mussel is that which
proves most frequently poisonous to those who eat
them. Dr. Johnston says that he has known them to
produce an itchy eruption and swelling over the whole
body, attended with great anxiety and considerable
fever. Many instances of their having proved dele-
terious are mentioned in this author’s excellent “ Intro-
duction to Conchology,” and amongst others one that
occurred in 1827 in Leith, which I well remember as
having produced a great sensation in that town and
in Edinburgh. Two or three deaths took place, and
upwards of thirty people were severely affected. The
cause of this unwholesomeness of mussels, at certain
seasons, is still a matter of conjecture.

Genus Modiola or Horse-Mussel. — This genus
has an oblong shell, inflated in front, and the beaks
obtuse and placed a little behind the extremity The
species of Modiola are numerous — about seventy hav-.
ing been enumerated. They are chiefly tropical in
their distribution, though a few are found in the Medi-
terranean, Great Britain, and even in the Arctic seas.
They differ chiefly from the Mytili in the position of
the beaks, and in their habit of burrowing cr spinning
a kind of nest in which they occasionally conceal them-'
selves. They range from low water to an hundred
fathoms.

Genus Lithodomus. — The Date shells have a^
cylindrically oblong shell, rounded and inflated in front,

Lithodomus. MOLLUSCA. Pinnad^. 373

wedge-shaped behind, and with slightly prominent

of quartz and felspar, which sometimes occur in the

beaks. The valves are covered externally with a

hard limestone of the pillars, are untouched. Cuvier

dark, thick, horny epidermis, and are pearly within.

informs us that in their young state, the Lithodomi

The species are boring shells, and are not numerous.

suspend themselves to rocks by a byssus ; and that it

They are found principally in the West Indies and

is not till they are adult that they begin to perforate.

New Zealand; but one well-known species is a native

The cavities which they form in limestone rocks, corals.

of the Mediterranean, and has often been quoted by

shells, &c., are shaped like the shell, and do not admit

geologists as proving the fact of a change of the level

of free rotatory motion.

in sea-coasts in modern times. In the Bay of Naples,

LITHODOMUS DACTYLUS, the Mediterranean species.

near to Pozzuolo, is situate the ruined temple of Jupiter

is eaten by the natives residing on the coasts. It is

Serapis. Onlj'' three pillars remain standing, and at the

collected in quantities by the fishermen, and sold as a

height of ten feet above the base each pillar exhi-

luxury in the markets. It possesses a remarkable phos-

bits a zone of six feet in height, where the marble has

phorescent quality. “ The fishermen place the animal

been perforated by these shells. The holes are four

in the sun, and with it besmear their hands and faces at

inches in depth ; and it is observed that the nodules

night, so as to illuminate them as with phosphorus.”

OEDER III.—

PECTIN-ACEA.

Family— TEIGONIIDZE.

the particular arrangement of the hinge teeth vary con-
siderably in the different species, and various genera

The Trigonias have the shells thick, closed, and

have accordingly been formed to receive them.

trigonal or somewhat heart-shaped, with the beaks

Genus Pectunculus. — This genus has an orbicu-

directed posteriorly. The hinge is composed of two

lar, nearly equilateral shell; the valves closed, smooth.

diverging cardinal teeth in the right valve, transversely

or radiateiy striated, and invested with a fimbriated

deeply striated on both sides ; and four in the left, stri-

epidermis. The beaks are separated by a grooved,

ated on one side only. Externally the valves are

lanceolate, ligamental area. The hinge is semicircular.

ornamented with radiating tuberculated ribs, wdiile in-

and the teeth are small and transverse. The species

ternally the surface is beautifully iridescent and pearly.

number about fifty, one half of which are natives oi

The species are few in number, and are all from the

America ; the others being found in Europe, India, and

Australian seas. The genus is represented in Plate

New Zealand. They inhabit muddy and sandy coasts,

11, fig. 18, by Trigonia pectinata.

ranging from eight to sixty, and, in some instanees, to
a hundred and twenty fathoms.

Family — ARC ADZE.

Genus Nucula. — This genus has a trigonal or
obliquely ovate shell, with the beaks turned towards

The Arks have a large foot, which often secretes a

the short posterior side. The valves are smooth or

laminated byssus — thus adapting the animal to anchor

sculptured, and covered externally wdth a smooth olive

itself. The shell is angular, elongated, or roundish,

epidermis, while the interior is pearly, and has the

sometimes closed, and sometimes gaping inferiorly.

margins crenulated. The hinge has a prominent in-

The hinge consists of a number of transverse, inter-

ternal cartilage pit, and the teeth form a range of

locking teeth, placed in a straight line, which appear

comb-like denticles on each side. The species are

to be formed b}' the subdivision of two elongate lateral

rather numerous. They do not spin a bj'ssus, but use

teeth. In general the cartilage is external, arising

their foot for burrowing, and are able to erawl upon it

from diverging angular lines marked upon the facet.

like a Gasteropod ; indeed Professor Forbes tells us

formed by the gradual thickening of the dorsal edges,

that he has seen one of our native species creep up the

which causes the umbones to be separated from each
other as the shell enlarges. The byssus in this familjq

side of a glass of sea-water.

instead of being composed of silky threads is in form

Family — PINNADZE.

of a horny cone, composed of numerous thin plates,
occasionally becoming solid and calcareous, and which

The species of this farnily have a large foot which

the animal can cast off and form again with great

secretes a powerful and very fine silky byssus. The

rapidity.

shell is large, triangular, and of a prismatic texture.

THE TYPICAL ARKS (represented in Plate 11, fig.

The valves are thin in general, more or less fragile,

19, by ArcaNoce) have the shell equivalve or nearly so.

and gaping posteriorly; externally they are smooth.

the valves covered with an epidermis, and strongly

or scaljq or obliquely furrowed, and internally shining

ribbed or cancellated externally ; the margins are

and nacred. The beaks are terminal, the hinge straight.

smooth or dentated, gaping or closed, and sinuated

long, and toothless, and the ligament linear and internal.

ventrally ; the hinge margin is straight, and the carti-

About tliirt}^ species of Pinnae have been described, and

lage is placed in small marginal pits. The species are

they are found in nearly all seas, ranging from low

numerous, and attach themselves to rocks, stones, &c..

water to sixty fathoms. They usually live buried in

by means of their peculiar byssus, or conceal them-

the sand, or between cracks in rocks, with their sharp-

selves in holes and crevices. The general form and

edged, gaping, truncated ends just above the surface.

374 ScAT.Y Pinna. MOLLUSOA. ^Aviculidas.

The j'oung shells are very thin and brittle, but some
of the species, wlien they reach their full size, are thick
and solid, and attain a length of upwards of two feet.
The nacreous lining of the interior is thin and scarcely
extends half-way from the beak. The colour of this
internal pearly coat is usually of a reddish hue, and
frequently pearls of a considerable size are found in the
shells, partaking of the same tint, or that of amber.
Specimens may be seen in the collection of the British
Museum. Some of the Pinnas are used as articles of
food ; while others are valued for the powerful, silky
byssus which, it has been mentioned, they possess.

THE SCALY PINNA {Pinna squamosa) — Plate 11, fig.
20 — has long been known for the silky material which it
affords, and which has been woven into various articles
of dres.s. “ This silk,” says Dr. Johnston, “ is the byssus,
or rather the cable of the animal, by means of which it
is moored to the rocks, in the same manner that our
common mussel is. In a crude state the silk is called
lanapenna; the threads are extremely fine, of a perfect
equalness in diameter through their whole length, and
of great strength. It is clearised from its impurities
by washing in soap and water, drying, and rubbing
with the hands. It is then passed through combs of
bone, and afterwards, for finer purposes, through iron
combs or cords, so that a pound of the coarse filaments
is usually reduced to about three ounces of fine thread.
When mixed with about one-third of real silk, it is
spun on the distaff, and knit into gloves, caps, stock-
ings, vests, &c., forming a stuff of a beautiful brownish-
j'ellow colour (resembling the burnished golden hue on
the back of certain flies and beetles), blit very liable to
be moth-eaten, and requiring to be wrapped in fine
linen. A pair of gloves costs on the spot about six
shillings, and a pair of stockings eleven ; but its sale is
not very extensive, and the manufacture is peculiar to
Toronto.” Specimens of the byssus, and gloves made
from it, may be seen in the collection of the British
Museum. It has long been known that a little crab
infests the mantle or gills of this same Pinna, and in-
deed the common mussel of our own shores also. The
fact was known to the ancient naturalists, who, as Dr.
Johnston observes, “ never left an observation to stand,
like truth, all naked, but ever clothed it with some
pretty vestment.” They believed that this little crab
(belonging to the genus Pinnotheres) formed a close alli-
ance with the shell-fish, and acted the part of a guar-
dian to its blind host. The story is told by Pliny, and
is thus translated by Dr. Holland: — “ The Nacre, also
called Pinna, is of the kind of shell-fishes. It is alwaies
found and caught in muddie places, but never without
a companion, which they call Pinnoter, or Pinnophylax.
And it is no other but a little shrimpe, or, in some
places, the smallest crab, which beareth the Nacre
companie, and waites upon him for to get some vic-
tuals. The nature of the Nacre is to gape wide, and
showeth unto the little fishes her seelie body, without
any eie at all. Tliey come leaping by and by close
unto her ; and seeing they have good leave, grow so
hardy and bold as to skip into her shel and fill it ful.
The shrimp lying iii spiall, seeing this good time and
opportunitie, giveth token thereof to the Nacre, secretly
with a little pinch. She hath no sooner this signall

but she shuts her mouth, and whatsoever was within
crushes and kills it presently ; and then she divides
the bootie with the little crab or shrimp, her sentinel
and companion.” The family Pinnadce isa very natural
one, and contains only two genera — Pinna, distinguished
by having the shell elongated and marked with a longi-
tudinal crack filled with cartilage in the middle of
each valve ; and Atrina, which has a shorter shell and
no such crack.

Family — AVICULIDHH {The Wing-shells).

The shells are inequivalve, very oblique in most in-
stances, resting on the right valve, which is the smaller,
and which has a notch in the front margin for the pas-
sage of the byssus. The ligament is marginal, and the
cartilage is contained in one or several grooves, the
hinge being without teeth, or obscurely dentated. The
beaks are anterior and eared, the posterior ear wing-
like. The outer surface of the valves is foliated, with
an indistinct epidermis, and the interior is highly
nacredor pearly. There are several genera, as Malleus,
the Hammer-oyster; the Wing-shell ; Mar-

garitiphora, the Pearl-oyster ; Perna, and Crenatula —
but we have only space for a notice of the Pearl-oyster.

Genus Margaritiphora {the Pearl-oyster). — This
genus has a less oblique shell than most of the family,
and the valves are flatter and nearly equal. They are
somewhat orbicular in shape, and the hinge margin is
not produced posterlorl}'^ into ears. The hinge is with-
out teeth, and the ligament is external and dilated in
the middle. The external surface of the shell is squa-
mose, and the interior is of a pearly lustre. The Pearl-
oysters are famed for their production of the beautiful
Oriental pearl, and the substance, so much used in the
arts and manufactures, called “ mother of pearl.” The
shells are found at Ceylon, the Persian Gulf, Mada-
gascar, the Swan River, Panama, and other parts of
the coast of America, and are usually procured from
about twelve fathoms water. Pearls, being amongst
the most beautiful ornaments for female attire, have for
a very long time been highly prized, and the love for
their use has often called down stern denunciations,
from satirists and moralists, of female vanity. “ Pearls
of great price” have been eagerly sought after by man-
kind from the earliest ages. The Romans had an inor-
dinate love for ornamenting themselves with pearls.
Pliny tells us that Lollia Paulina (“late wife, and after
widow, to Gains Caligula, the emperor,”) used to wear
such a quantity of pearls and emeralds about her person,
that the value was rated, according to her own estima-
tion, at 400,000 sestertii. “ I have seen her,” he says,
“ so beset and bedeckt all over with hemeraulds and
pearls, disposed in rows, ranks, and courses one by
another ; round about the attire of her head, her cowle,
her borders, her peruk of hair, her bond grace and
chaplet ; at her eares pendant, about her neck in a car-
canet, upon her wrist in bracelets, and on her fingers
in rings ; that she glittered and shone again like the sun
as she went.” In those days the most extravagant
prices were given for pearls. Julius Caesar, we are
told, presented Servilia, the mother of M. Brutus, with
a pearl worth £48,417 ; and the celebrated Cleopatra,

•Pkctenid^.

Pearl-oyster.-

-MOLLUSCA.-

-PECTENID.E.

375

Family— SPONDYLIDiE.

at a supper with Antony, took from her ear one of
two pearls valued at £80,729 3s. 4d., dissolved it in
vinegar, and drank it olf. The traveller Tavernier, in
more modern times, informs us that he saw in Persia a
pearl, which had been brought from the fishery at
Catifa in Arabia, and then in the possession of the
Shah of Persia, which was nearly one and a half inches
long, ^ths of an inch in diameter, and was valued at
£110,000. The two great fisheries of pearls are those at
Bahrein Island, in the Persian Gulf, and in the bay of
Condatchy in the Gulf of Manaar, off the island of
Ceylon. The fishery of this latter place varies very
much in value. In 1798 the revenue derived from it
to Government reached the large sum of £192,000, but
in 1828 it only brought £30,612. The Bahrein fishery,
which includes the whole trade of the Persian Gulf,
is estimated as worth from £300,000 to £310,000 !
The worst and most valueless kinds of pearls taken at
Ceylon are “ carried to China, to be burned into lime,
which the rich Chinese use, instead of lime, with the
betel leaf and areca nut.” — [Bertolucci.) The small
pearls called seed pearls, from the Persian Gulf fishery,
find their way in large quantities into various parts
of India, where they are used in the composition of
the majoons or electuaries, so much valued by the
natives for their supposed stimulating and restorative
qualities.

THE PEAEI-OYSTER (Margaritiphora fimhriata),
represented in Plate 11, fig. 21, Margarita margariti-
fera, when adult, is of a solid thick substance, and of
a highly polished nature internally. This forms the
article called in commerce “ mother of pearl,” a sub-
stance now used in so many ways in ornamental work
— as inlaying cabinet work, forming knife handles,
paper cutters, buttons, and constructing toys and
fancy articles. Immense quantities of these shells are
annuall}^ imported into Great Britain. “ There are
three principal kinds, which are worth from £2 to £4
per cwt. — 1st, The Silver-lipped, from the Society
Islands, of which about twenty tons are annually im-
ported to Liverpool; 2nd, The Black-lipped, from
Manilla, of which thirty tons were imported in 1851 ;
3rd, A smaller sort from Panama, two hundred tons
of which are annually imported — in 1851 a single
vessel brought three hundred and forty tons.” —
{Woodward.) The animals of these shells are some-
times used as food. Morier says that those in the
Persian Gulf are considered excellent, and that there
is no difference to be perceived in respect of taste
between them and the common oyster. Most authors,
however, describe them as unfit for the table. Dam-
pier, in one of his voyages, found them in abun-
dance at Gorgonia, coast of Peru. “ The fish," he says,
“ is not sweet nor very wholesome ; it is as slimy as a
shell-snail ; they taste very copperish if eaten raw, and
are best boyl’d. The Indians, who gather them for
the Spaniards, hang the meat of them on strings like
Jews-ears, and dry them before they eat them.” In
another part of the coast of South America, he says
that they were “ so large, that one stewed is a meal
for five men.” “ The erew,” he adds, “ate them for
want of better food.” When stewed with pepper and
vinegar, they were “very tolerable food.”

The Thorny oysters have the margins of the mantle
thickened and furnished with bright eye-spots or ocelli.
The shell is irregular, attached by the right valve,
radiately ribbed, spiny or foliaceous. The hinge has
two large interloeking teeth in each valve.

Genus Spondylus, or Thorny Oyster. — This
genus (the only one) has in general a strong thick shell,
variously ornamented with spines or plates. The
beaks are apart from each other, and eared. The lower
valve has a peculiar triangular hinge area, divided by
a groove and enlarging as it grows older; and the ear-
tilage is placed in a pit which communicates at its base
with the external groove. These shells adhere to
foreign bodies, such as stones, coral, <S:c., by the right
valve, being cemented to these bodies without the
medium of any connecting membrane or ligament, and
becoming modelled to the foreign substance on which it
lies. In the inner la3'er of shell there are left in some
of the species, as in Spondylus varians — hence called
the “ Water-clam” — spaces or cavities which are filled
with water. Similar cavities are found in the Etherice;
but these are generally like blisters or air bub-
bles, whilst in Spondylus the quantity of water con-
tained is often considerable and remains for a length of
time, perhaps years, after the shell is dry. These
cavities are produced by the border of the mantle
depositing shell more rapidly than the umbonal portion.
There are a good many species, and some of them are
beautiful shells and adorned with bright and lively
colours. The genus is represented in Plate 11, fig 22,
bj' Spondylus regias.

Family— PECTENID AH {The Scallops).

The Scallops have a long foot, which secretes a
byssus. The margins of the mantle are double, the
inner hanging down somewhat like a curtain and finely
fringed ; and having at its base a row of conspicuous
round black spots, like eyes, called ocelli., surrounded
by tentacular filaments. The shell of the Scallops is
free, not cemented, and is closed. The beaks are
placed near each other, and the dorsal edges are pro-
duced into ears. The ligament is internal, in a central
pit. The species are numerous ; they generally attach
themselves by a bj'ssus to rocks and other marine
bodies, and sometimes cover extensive banks with their
shells. Their long and angulated foot is not at all
adapted for crawling, but it is used “ chiefly as an
exploring organ and to anchor them when required.”
— {Adams.) The animals are said to possess the power
of vision ; and the bright spots on the edge of tlie
mouth are believed by many conchologists to be the
ej'es. Poli so considers them, and he named the animal,
“after Juno’s watchman, the Argus, to whose mantle
you may suppose the hundred eyes of the fabled son of
Ariston had been transferred.” — {Johnston.) AVhen
young the Scallops are free and extremely active.
The fry of the common “ Quin,” as it is called, Pecten
opercularis, has been particularly noticed by Dr. Lands-
borough. At the time he observed them they were
about the size of a fourpenny piece, and were seen in

37 6 Pectekid^. MOLLUSCA.— — -Limad,®.

a pool of sea-water left by the ebbing tide. He thought
from their motions that they were small fishes. “ On
close investigation, however,” he says, “ we found tliat
it was the fry of P. opercularis skipping quite nimbly
tlirough the pool. Their motion was rapid and zig-
zag, very like that of ducks in a sunny blink, rejoicing
in the prospect of rain. They seemed, by the sudden
opening and closing of their valves, to have the power
of darting like an arrow through the water. One jerk
carried them some yards, and then, by another sudden
jerk, they were off in a moment in a different tack. We
doubt not that when full grown they engage in similar
amusements, though as Pectens of greater gravity they
choose to romp unseen, and play their gambols in the
deep.” The ancients believed that by flapping their
valves, by a very quick motion, thej^ could “ rise up
from their beds in the deep and navigate the surface,
having one valve raised and exposed with its con-
cavity to the breeze, while the other remained under
the water, and answered the purpose of a keel, by
steadying the animal and preventing its being over-
set.”— {Johnston.) The sailing part of this account, as
Dr. Johnston observes, is no doubt an embellishment
thrown in by way of effect ; but there is no doubt these
animals do possess the power of leaping to a consider-
able distance, and M. Lesson tells us that he has seen
them leap out of the water by striking their valves
rapidly together. When deserted, too, by the tide on
any occasion, they will tumble forward by the same
kind of movement, until they have regained tlie water.
Fabricius, in the Fauna of Greenland, tells us that the
northern species, Pecten isla7idicus, which is used as
food by the natives, is often cooked with difficulty, for
if the shell is put into the pot alive it leaps out of it
again. Several species are used as food. The Pecten
{Janira) maximus is often, in England, pickled and
barreled for sale, and P. opercularis is a common
article of food in Scotland. The shells, too, of some of
the species are employed as useful articles. They are
used as spoons ; and “ in the days when Ossian sang,
the fiat valves of the Scallop (P. maximus) were the
plates, and the hollow ones the drinking cups, of Fingal
and his heroes ; hence the term shell became expres-
sive of the greatest hospitality.” — {Johnston.) The shell
of Pecten {Janira) Jacobceus, St. Jarhes’ shell (Plate
11, fig. 23), was worn as the emblem of the pilgrim
journeying to the Holy Land. It was worn fixed to the
hat in front, and became the badge of several orders of
knighthood ; for, as Moule in his “ Heraldry of Fish”
remarks, “ when the monks of the ninth century con-
verted the fisherman of Gennesaret into a Spanish war-
rior, they assigned him the scallop shell for his ‘ cog-
nizance.’ ” The family contains several genera — Pecten,
Janira, Amusium, and Pedum.

Family — LIMADHH ( The File-shells).

The File-shells have their shells always white and
gaping at the sides. The valves are equal, obliquely
oval, and the beaks are apart and eared. The hinge
is without teeth, the area triangular, and the cartilage
pit central. The surface externally is usually grooved
in a radiating manner, and some of the species are

covered with a thin brown epidermis. The species
are not very numerous. They are active creatures,
and possessed of such locomotive power that Messrs.
Quoy and Gaimai’d tell us they were obliged to run
after tliem in order to catch them. Mr. A. Adams, in
describing the habits of some foreign species which
he had watched amongst the Philippine Islands, says
— “The Limse usually live quietly at the bottom with
the valves widely extended and thrown flat back, like
the wings of certain butterflies when basking in the
sun ; but when disturbed they start up, flap their light
valves, and move rapidly through the water by a con-
tinued succession of sudden jerks. The cause of alarm
over, they bring themselves to an anchor by means of
theii provisional byssus, which they seem to fix with
much care and attention, previously exploring every
part of the surface with their singular leech-like foot.
When many hundreds of these curious bivalves are seen
at the bottom of clear pools, .surrounded by living
branches of party-coloured coral, their crimson-spotted
mantles and delicate spiral appendages that fringe the
edges cause them to exhibit a very rich and beautiful
appearance.” Our British species are described as
equally beautifid. Dr. Landsborough, in his delightful
little book, “ Excursions to Arran,” tells us that he had
an opportunity of watching the movements of the
common Lima Mans (or tenera) in Lamlash Bay.
When put into a jar of sea-water, he says, this Lima
“ is one of the most beautiful marine animals you can
look upon. The shell is beautiful ; the body of the
animal within the shell is beautiful; and the orange
fringe-work outside of the shell is highly ornamental.
Instead of being sluggish, it swims about with great
vigour. Its mode of swimming is the same as that of
the Scallop. It opens its valves, and suddenly shutting
them expels the water, so that it is impelled onwards
or upwards ; and when the impulse thus given is spent
it repeats the operation, and thus moves on by a suc-
cession of jumps. When moving through the water in
this way, the reddish fringe is like the tail of a fiery
comet. The filaments of the fringe are probably use-
ful in catching its prey. They are easily broken off,
and it is remarkable they seem to live many hours after
they are detached from the body, twisting themselves
like so many worms.” These very interesting little
mollusks also spin for themselves a nest or artificial
burrow in which they live gregariously. This kind of
nest is composed of sand and fragments of coral and
shells united together by means of their temporary
byssus. “ The coral nest,” saj's Dr. Landsborough, “ is
curiously constructed, and remarkably well fitted to be
a safe residence for this beautiful animal {Lima Mans).
The fragile shell does not nearly cover the mollusk —
the most delicate part of it, a beautiful orange fringe-
work, being altogether outside of the shell. Had it no
extra protection the half-exposed animal would be a
tempting mouthful, quite a bonne bouche to some prowl-
ing haddock or whiting ; but He who tempers the wind
to the shorn lamb teaches this little creature, which
he has so elegantly formed, curious arts of self-pre-
servation. It is not contented with hiding itself among
the loose coral, for the first rude wave might lay it
naked and bare. It becomes a marine mason and

Lima. MOLLUSCA. Oyster.

builds a house or nest. It chooses to dwell in a coral
grotto ; but in constructing this grotto it shows that it
is not only a mason but a rope-spinner, atid a tapestry-
weaver, and a plasterer. Were it merely a mason it
would be no easy matter to cause the polj'morphous
coral to cohere. Cordage, then, is necessary to bind
together the angular fragments of the coral, and this
cordage it spins ; but it spins it as one of the secrets of
the deep. Somehow or another, though it has no hand,
it contrives to intertwine this yarn which it has formed
among the numerous bits of coral so as firmly to bind
a handful of it together. Externally this habitation is
rough, and therefore better fitted to elude or to ward
off enemies ; but though rough externally, within all is
smooth and lubricous, for the fine yarn is woven into
a lining of tapestry, and the interstices are filled up
with fine slime, so that it is smooth as plaster work.
“ Tapestry,” adds the doctor, “ as a covering for walls
was once the proud and costly ornament of royal apart-
ments ; but ancient though the art was, I shall answer
for it that our little marine artisan took no hint from
the Gobelins, nor from the workmen of Arras, nor from
those of Athens, nor even from the earliest tapissiers
of the East. I doubt not that from the time Noah’s
ark rested on the mountain of Ararat, the forefathers
of these beautiful little Limas have been constructing
their coral cottages, and lining them with well-wrought
tapestry in the peaceful Bay of Lamlash.” The family
is represented on Plate 11, fig. 24, by Lima aperta.

Family— OSTREID^.

The Oysters have no foot, and the mantle is entii’ely
open ; the shell is irregular, thick and foliated, and is
generally attached by the outer surface of one valve ;
the hinge is toothless, and the ligament is internal.
The species are numerous and diversified in appearance ;
upwards of sixty have been described.

Genus Ostrea. — This genus has an inequivalve,
irregular shell, attached by the left valve. The up-
per valve is flat or concave, and the lower convex,
with a prominent beak. The external surface is of a
sub-nacreous, laminated structure, and the internal is
usually of a dull white colour, and slightly nacreous.
Oysters are natives of most countries, being found in
both tropical and temperate seas. Some of them
attain a large size, especially those that are found in
North America and on the coast of Africa. Of all
edible mollusks, the oyster is the one most in request,
and is eagerly devoured by prince and peasant. The
Oysters of Great Britain are the most esteemed of any,
and the flshery for this shell-fish is one of national
importance.

THE OSTREA EDULIS (Plate 11, fig. 25), or as it is
often called the Native Oyster ^ is our common species.
The}'^ are found in various parts of our coasts, though the
southern and south-eastern shores afford the principal
supply for the market. The fisheries of Essex are per-
haps the most important, and have been long celebrated.
Fuller in his “Worthies of England,” tells us even in his
time that “ the best oysters in England — fat, salt, green-
VoL. II. 104

377

finned — are bred near Colchester, where they have an
excellent art to feed them in pits made for the purpose.”
The natural oyster banks are generally in water several
fathoms deep. The oysters spawn in May and June,
and the “ spats,” as the young fry are called, are col-
lected and removed to artificial beds or tanks, where
the water is very shallow. They then receive the name
of “ natives.” In these beds they do not attain their
full growth in less than from five to seven years, while
those that remain in their natural beds reach maturit}'
in four years. In Scotland the oysters are not bred in
artificial beds, but are eaten just as they are brought
from their native rocks. Large quantities, however,
are sent up to England annually to be deposited in the
beds near the mouths of the Thames and Medway.
The principal Scottish fishery is at Prestonpans, near
Edinburgh, from which have been sent in some seasons
as many as thirty cargos, each cargo consisting of 320
barrels, and each barrel containing 1200 saleable
oysters. The season for eating oysters is from the 4lh
of August to the 12th of May, and during this time it
is calculated that from 20,000 to 30,000 bushels of
natives, and 100,000 bushels of sea oysters are annually
sent to the London market alone. The Homans were
great epicures in oysters, and sometimes imported our
British natives to Rome. Lentilius says that the oyster
is an animal so disagreeable and nauseous to appear-
ance, whether seen in the shell or out of it, that he
must be considered a bold man who first moved it to
his lips ; and King James I. used to say, according to
old Fuller, “ he was a very valiant man who first ad-
ventured on eating of oysters.” Most probably, adds
the historian, “ meie hunger put men first on that trial.”
Oysters, however, he says, “ are the only meat which
men eat alive, and yet account it no cruelty.”

The best French oysters are those found on the
coasts of Brittan}^ and Normandy. The fishery at
Granville, a small towm on the coast of Normandy,
produces yearly from 200,000 to 300,000 francs, and
gives employment to from 70 to 120 boats, and on an
average 500 men. At Cancale, another town on the
same coast, 70 boats are often employed, manned with
nearly 570 men.

Those oysters are considered the best which are of
a greenish colour. This colour is communicated to
the animal by its feeding upon confervse and ulva; in
the tanks where they are preserved. Oysters occa-
sionally prove unwholesome when out of season, and
there is even a popular tradition in this country that it
is not safe to eat them in any of those months in which
the letter R does not occur. In China I have known
them produce deleterious effects upon our sailors, and
in the West Indies those oysters which are attached to
the mangrove trees are generally looked upon with
suspicion. Oysters are edible in almost all parts of the
world, though the species vary. In India, China,
Japan, on the shores of the large islands in the Indian
Ocean, in Australia, and in Africa, they are in all
declared by those who have eaten of them to be excel-
lent. •

With this account of the genus Ostrea we must con-
clude our long list of Bivalve shells.

378 Brachiopoda. MOLLUSCA. Bkachiopoba.

Class V. — BRACHIOPODA (Brachiopods.)

Tiik Bracliiopods are so closely allied to the con-
chiferous molliisks, that they have been considered by
many naturalists as forming only a simple division of
that extensive class. “ In all essential points,” says
Professor Owen, “ the Brachiopoda closely corres-
pond with the acephalous MoUusca, and we consider
them as being intermediate to the Lamellibranchiate
and Tunicate orders ; not, however, possessing, as far
as they are at present known, a distinctive character of
sufficient importance to justify their being regarded as
a distinct class of mollusks, but forming a separate
group of equal value with the Lamellibranchiata." In
accordance, however, with the more modern systems
of classification, as propounded by Dr. Gray, Mr. Wood-
ward, and the Messrs. Adams, we treat them as a
separate class, the peculiar structure of the animal en-
titling them to such distinction. Though this struc-
ture shows them to be comparatively low in the scale,
yet they are exceedingly interesting both to the physi-
ologist and the geologist. The number of recent or
living species is small, but in former periods of the
earth’s surface it was very great, and the Brachiopods
at those times occupied the position now taken by the
Conchifera. The shell of the Brachiopodous mollusca
is essentially bivalve. It is symmetrical but inequi-
valve, and is generally attached to submarine bodies
by a muscular peduncle which passes through a hole
iti the beak. This in all probability is a byssus when
the animal is young, but becomes consolidated as it
increases in age, and forms at length a permanent
organ of attachment. The valves, instead of being-
right and left as in the Conchifera, are superior and
inferior. As the animal lies upon its back, the lower
valve covers the back of the animal, and therefore is,
with refei ence to the body, correctly called the dorsal
valve ; the upper, covering the ventral surface, receives
the name of ventral valve. The dorsal valve is the
smaller of the two in general, and is always free ; the
ventral valve, on the contrary, is usually the larger,
and has its umbo produced and perforated for the pas-
sage of its attaching peduncle. These valves are united
by a hinge without a ligament, and are articulated by
two curved teeth, which are developed from the margin
of the ventral valve and fit corresponding sockets in the
other. Internally the dorsal valve is furnished with
a peculiar shelly apparatus, called hy some authors the
“ apophysary system,” and by others the “ internal
skeleton, and by collectors the “ carriage-spring.”
“ The principal part of the internal skeleton,” says
Professor Owen, “consists of a slender, flattened, cal-
careous loop, the extremities of which are attached to
the lateral elevated ridges of the hinge. The crura of
the loop diverge, but again approximate to each other, as
they advance for a greater or less distance towards the
opposite margin of the valve. The loop then suddenly
turns towards the perforate valve, and is bent back
upon itself for a greater or less extent in different species.
.... The arches of the loop are so slender that.

notwithstanding their calcareous nature they possess a
slight degree of elasticity and yield a little to pressure,
but for the same reason they readily break off if the
experiment be not made with due caution.” (See cut
annexed — fig. 230 — upjier figure.) This extraordinary
apparatus is intended for the support of the “ fringed

Fig 230.

structure of Brachiopods.

arms” of the animal, a structure which is peculiar to
this class of mollusks, and which has obtained for them
their name.* (See lower figure.) The mouth of the
Brachiopods is placed on the under part of the cavity
between the lobes of the mantle. Developed from the
sides of this mouth we see two long appendages, whicli
appear to be lateral prolongations of the lips, and cor-
respond with the lips and labial tentacles of the ordi-
nary bivalves. These have usually been called arms
— they are free or united by membrane, and are so
long that they require to be folded up. In most of the
species they are twisted in a spiral form, and their
outer margins are fringed with long cirrhi or filaments,
by means of which the animal creates a current in the
water that brings objects of food within reach of the
mouth. Some conchologists imagine that the animal
has the power of protruding these oral arms beyond
tbe shell in search of food ; but this does not appear to
be the case, as from the fact of their being united by a
membrane, and supported by the internal skeleton
described above, they must evidently be confined to
one position. In some of the genera, however, we
are told that the ends of their arms are “ endowed with
a degree of voluntary motion, the movement being
effected by tbe injection of a fluid into the hollow spiral
tube, by means of which the coils are separated.”

* From arm, and ■rovs, foot, these arms having been

supposed to take the place of the feet in the preceding classes.

BltAUlIIOi'ODA. MOLLUSCA. Tekeueatuliu^e. 37y

Another peculiarity in the structure of the Brachio-

range both of climate and depth, as well as time, than

podous Mollusca is their respiratory system. True

any other Mollusca known. They are found in tropical,

gills are altogether wanting, and accordingly, by some

temperate, and arctic seas ; in shallow pools left by

of the earlier conchologists, these oral or fringed arms

the retiring tide, and at the greatest depths explored

were considered as subsidiary to respiration and the

by the dredges ; whilst, in time, they are found fossil

aeration of the blood ; but Professor Owen, in his

in the miocene tertiary, and in the oldest Devonian

masterly paper in the Zoological Journal, from which

strata. Indeed the oldest form of organic life at pre-

we have already given an extract or two, shows that

sent known, both in the Old and New world, is a

these processes are carried on by the mantle. The

Lingula. At present there are only between seventy

true branchial vessels, he says, are ramified in rich

and eighty recent species known, whilst of extinct

profusion upon the inner surface of the lobes of this

forms upwards of one thousand have been described.

part of the body, and consequently it forms the chief,

The class Brachiopoda is divided into two sub-

if not the sole respiratory organ. “ In this profuse

classes — I. An(;ylopoda, and II. Helictopoda. In

distribution of vessels over a plain membraneous ex-

the Ancylopoda, the oral arms are recurved ; not

nansion,” says the Professor, “ we perceive the simplest

extensile, or only at the tip ; and are affixed to shelly

construction of the water-breathing organ, oxbranchia."

appendages on the disc of the dorsal valve. The

In some of the Brachiopods the ova are developed in

mantle is adherent to the shell, the substance of which

these large branchial veins, and in others they are

is pierced by numerous minute perforations. In the

developed in vascular sinuses on each side of the body.

Helictopoda the oral arms are elongate and regularly

Nothing accurate is known respecting the development

spirally twisted when in repose. The mantle lobes

of the young, but they are believed to be, in their first

are merely applied to the inner surface of the shell, the

stage, free and able to swim about until they meet with

surface of which is not punctured.

a suitable position. Some of them appear to attain

The sub-class Ancylopoda is divided again into two

their full growth in a single season, and all, probably,

orders — I. Ancylobkachia, and II. Cryptobraciiia.

live many years after they have become adult. The

The Aneylohrachia have the oral arms affixed to

species are all marine, and are found attached to

calcareous lamellae, forming a loop attached to the

branches of coral, hanging from the under side of

hinge margin of the dorsal valve, and more or less pro-

shelving rocks, or abiding in the cavities of other shells.

miuent in its cavity. The animal is generally attached

They are seldom found on clay beds ; but where the

to marine bodies by a tendinous peduncle. The Cryp-

bottom consists of calcareous mud they appear to be

tohrachia have the oral arms sunk into grooves in the

very abundant, mooring themselves to every hard sub-

convex centre of the inner surface of the ventral valve.

stance on the sea bed, and clustering one upon the

The shells are generally attached by the outer surface

other.— ( Woodward.) The Brachiopods enjoy agreater

of the larger valve.

Sub-class I. — ANCYLOPODA.

Order I. — ANCYLOBEACHIA.

This order contains only two families : —

teeth of the ventral valve, and a prominent cardinal
process between them. It is also furnished with a
hinge plate provided with four cavities, and a central
ridge or septum. The internal skeleton (see fig. 204) is

Family — TEREBRATULID^ {The Lamp-shells).

The shells in this family (see Plate 11, fig. 26,

attached to this valve, and consists of a slender shelly

Terebralula australis) are inequivalve, and usually

loop attached in some genera at its origin to the hinge

oral or subcircular. They are somewhat like a

plate, and furnished with oral processes ; in others to

Grecian lamp in form, and have therefore received

the septum in the middle of the dorsal valve. The

the general appellation of Lamp-shells. The valves

animal is always attached by a peduncle, which passes

are minutely punctate, sometimes smooth, some-

through the hole or deep sinus in the apex of the beak;

times striated. The ventral valve is the larger,

and the strongly cirrhated, looped, or contorted oral

and its beak is produced and truncated at the apex.

arms (described above) are united throughout by mem-

which is perforated. The foramen or hole is some-

brane, are folded upon themselves, and are only spiral

times perfect, at other times it is a deep sinus, uncon-

at their extremities. The valves are opened and closed

nected at its lower margin. It is usually separated

by adductor and retractor muscles, and the peduncle

from the hinge line by a triangular plate, called the

is provided with two additional ones. The species.

deltidium, which is composed of two pieces. The two

though not numerous, have been distributed through-

teeth are placed in this valve, situated one on each side

out a number of genera, whose characters have been

of the deltidium. The dorsal, and smaller valve, has

taken chiefly from the structure of the internal skele-

a depressed beak, two sockets for the reception of the

ton. They may all be arranged in two tribes.

380 Terebratulanina. MOLLUSCA.- Discinid^.

Tribe II. — MAGASINA.

Tribe I.— TEREBRATULANINA. ■

In this tribe the species have the shelly loop at-

The species belonging to this tribe have the shelly

tached to the septum, in the middle of the dorsal

loop attached to the hinge plate, and is composed of

valve, and is composed of six recent genera — Tere-

three genera, Terehratula, Terebraiulina, and Wald-

hratella, Magas, Bouchnrdia, Megerlia, MorHsia, and

lieimia.

Kraussia.

Order II.— CEYPTOBRACHIA.

Family— THECIDEID^.

Gen'US Argiope.— This genus has the loop folded
into two or four lobes, and adhering to the prominent

This is the only family of recent shells contained in

septa with which the dorsal valve is furnished in-

the order. The animals have the oral arms folded

teriorly.

upon themselves, united by membrane, fringed with

Genus Thecidea. — This genus has an unsymme-

long cirrhi on their outer margins, and supported by a

trical loop divided into two or more lobes which are

shelly loop. The mantle extends to the margin of the

united more or less intimately with grooves formed in '

valves, and adheres closely.

the disc for t-heir reception.

Sub-class IL— HELICTOPODA.

This sub-class consists, like the preceding, of two

band arising from the hinder or cardinal edge of the

orders — the Sclerobrachia and the Sarcobrachia,

ventral valve ; the second, having the oral arms fleshy

the first having the oral arms, supported by a shelly

to the base, and without any shelly support.

Order I.— SCLEROBRACHIA.

In this order there is only one family of recent shells.

Genus Rhynchonella. — This genus has a trigonal

and this consists of a single genus.

shell, usually plaited, and acutely beaked. Externally it
is not punctate, and internally it has no testaceous skele-

Family— RHYNCHONELLID AH.

ton or apophysar}" system. The dorsal valve is elevated
in front, and depressed at the sides, whilst the ventral

The Rhynchonellas have elongate, fleshy, spiral, oral

valve is hollowed along the centre. The foramen is

arms, supported at the base by two short, hard, diverg-

triangular and open, situate under the beak. Only

ing shell-laminse arising from the hinge margin of the

two recent species are known ; one from the northern

ventral valve.

seas, and the other from New Zealand.

Order II.— SARCOBRACHIA.

This order is composed of three families of recent

Great Britain, the Mediterranean, India, and New

shells, all distinguished by there being no processes on

South Wales.

the hinge-margin or disc in the lower valve, though in
some of them there is a slight medial longitudinal

Family^DISCINIDAI:.

elongation.

The Discinas, like the preceding family, have the
oral arms fixed to a process of the ventral valve : but

Family — CRANIIDAH.

the shell is horny, and when fresh and moist, is quite
flexible, and is attached to marine bodies by a short ten-

The Cranias have the oral arms fixed to a process

dinous peduncle, which passes through a small slit in

of the ventral valve. The shell of Crania is. orbicular.

the disc of the lower valve. The upper valve of Dis-

calcareous ; the dorsal or upper valve of a conical

cina is conical, and resembles the shell of a limpet or

form, and the lower or ventral valve entire, flat, and

patella, the lower is orbicular and flat ; they are not

attached by its outer surface to marine bodies. Five

united together by a hinge, and the external surface is

recent and twenty-eight fossil species are known. The

minutely punctate. Seven recent species are known,

recent ones are natives of the north seas, the coasts of

chiefly from South America.

LlNGULID^li.-

-MOLLUSCA. Tunicata.

381

Family— LINGULIDiB.

The Lingulas (represented on Plate 11, fig. 27, by
Lingula anatina) have elongated, fleshy oral arms,
fringed externally with numerous cirrhi, and situated
on each side of the mouth. The valves of the shell
of Lingula are thin, depressed, nearly equal, without a

hinge, but held together by muscles, and supported by
a thick peduncle, which comes out between the beaks.
The shell is almost flexible, and is covered with a hard
olive periostraca. There are seven species known, all
natives of the seas of warm climates, where they are
found perforating the mud of shallow bays, or dwelling
in mud or sandy mud in some of the harbours.

Class VI. — TUNICATA (The Tunicaries).

“ The lowest order of Acephalous Mollusca,” says
Mr. Woodward, “ are called Tanicaries, being protected
by an elastic tunic in place of a shell. They are ex-
tremely unlike shell-fish in appearance, and are denied
a place in most works of conchology ; having no hard
skeleton, they neither furnish objects for the cabinet of
the collector, nor materials for the speculation of the
geologist.” A history of molluscous animals, however,
would be imperfect without an account of these “ shell-
less mollusks,” as Cuvier calls them. The Tunicata
or Tunicaries then, may be characterized as molluscous
animals which have no true shell, but are enveloped
in a soft, organized, coriaceous, or gelatinous tunic or
mantle. This tunic is constructed in the form of a
sac with two openings, or shaped like a tube, of greater
or less dimensions, open at both ends ; and is adherent
by its base, or by a long flexible peduncle, to some
foreign body, as stones, sea-weeds, &c., or else floats
freely on the surface of the water. Inside this sac we
find a second tunic, which is extremely muscular and
always smooth, while the outer surface is sometimes
rough and warty. Within this tunic are lodged the
viscera, consisting of well-defined organs of respiration,
circulation, and digestion, and a nervous system. The

respiratory or branchial organ is in form of a sac of an
oblong, oval, or rectangular shape, and in the Ascidians
is a large bag of vascular network furnished with vibratile
cilia, and being porous, allowing the water to pass
readily through it into the mantle cavity, and thence |

out by tbe exhalant orifice — (fig. 231). “ The heart is a
simple, elongated, vasiform muscle, inclosed in a peri-
cardium, attached to the branchial sac, continued at
either end into a vessel — the ramifications of one being
expended chiefly upon the respiratory organ, those of the
other upon the viscera and tunics of thebody. According
to the direction of the circulatory currents the one will
be an arterjq tbe other a vein, and the circulation itself
will be pulmonic and systematic.” — {Owen.) Some of
the Compound ascidians have the tunic so transparent,
that the circulation can be seen going on within. “ A
very singular condition of the circulatory system has
thus been detected. The blood actually moves back-
wards and forwards to and from the heart in the same
vessels, as it was supposed to ebb and flow in the
human veins before Harvey’s great discovery.” —
(Owen.) The digestive organ consists of a stomach ;
an oblong, dilated sac; an intestine, disposed in a
sigmoid flexure ; and a simple follicular liver. The
nervous sj'stem consists of a ganglion, from which can
be traced certain filaments diverging to each aperture
of the sac, and others to supply the respiratory sac.
The two orifices or openings mentioned above as ex-
isting in the sac or tunic, are branchial and anal.
Through the upper or in-current, as it is called (the
branchial orifice), the water enters, carrying with it the
nutrient particles floating in the water ; these molecules
are introduced by the action of numerous microscopic
cilia through this orifice into the esophagus, and from
that to the stomach. The alimentary excretions and
the generative products are expelled through the lower,
ex-current, or anal aperture, by the contraction of the
muscular tunic. This is so powerful as to enable the
animals to squirt the water out in a sudden jet. “ The
only vital actions,” says Professor Owen, “ obvious to
ordinary vision, are an occasional ejection of water
from the orifices of the tunic by a sudden contraction
succeeded by a slow and gradual expansion. Such
contractions and expansions, aided by the ciliary cur-
rents which the microscope has detected, and the peri-
staltic movements of the alimentary, circulating, and
secerning tubes, are all the actions which the organic
machinery has to perform in the living Ascidian.” A
curious discovery was made some years ago in the
composition of the tunic of these animals. Dr. Schmidt
ascertained that it contained a large proportion of cel-
lulose, a ternary organic substance previously believed
to be peculiar to vegetables. The sexes are united in
almost all the Tunicata; and the young produced from
eggs undergo a regular series of changes or meta-

382 TuNiCAi'A. MOLLUSCA. Ascidians.

morphoses. The larvjB are like tadpoles in shape, are

they ai’e sombre in their colours, but in the sunny

solitary and free, swimming rapidly by the aid of the

regions of the south their hues assume the brightest

undulatory movements of a long tail. Tliey attach

dyes, and vie with those of the corallines and actiniie

themselves occasional!}'; they then change their form.

that people the bed of the ocean. It was in the

lose their tail, and after a few days’ free and locomotive

Ascidian Tunicaries that MM. Audouin and Milne

life, finally fix themselves. In addition to reproduction

Edwards first discovered the metamorphoses of the

by ova the compound Timicaries have been ascertained

Mollusca, and their discoveries have since been ex-

to possess a second mode, viz. — by gemmation. This

tended by the laborious researches of Sars and Loven.

process is superinduced upon the young Ascidian after

It was among these singular beings that Van Hasselt

its development from the ovum. “ The individuals

discovered “ a heart of such extraordinary character.

formed by the gemmation of the primary bud of the

changing incessantly its auricle to ventricle, and its

young Ascidian are, instead of being detached, retained;

ventricle to auricle — its arteries to veins, and its veins

the process of gemmation being regulated so as to pro-

to arteries.” Among the Salpian Tunicaries it was.

duce the characteristic pattern in which the different

moreover, that Chamisso made the no less extraordinary

individuals are grouped in the mature compound ani-

discovery that a ‘ Salpa mother is not like its daughter

mal.” — {Owen.) The greater number of the Tunicaries

or its own mother, but resembles its sister, its grand-

are fixed in their adult state; but there are others that

daughter, and its grandmother.’ The Pyrpsomes afford

are always free, and only found in the open ocean.

a spectacle to the naturalist of unexampled beauty

They thus form two natural groups. Of the first or

when, seen by myriads from the vessel in the night.

fixed group, some of the individuals become entirely

they gleam with phosphorescent radiance, forming vast

distinct, in others they remain connected by a vascular

shoals of mimic pillars of fire, illuminating all around

canal, and in a third set all the individuals become

with a green unearthly glare. The most curious fea-

blended into a common mass. These groups form the

ture in the history of these soft-shelled mollusks

Solitary, the Social, and the Compound ascidians of

is the fact that many among them form communities

authors. The animals belonging to the class Tunicata

of beings, like the corals, a commonwealth of beings

are all marine, and are numerous in all seas, being

bound together by common and vital ties Each star is

found from low water to a considerable depth. “ Ad-
hering to rocks and sea-weeds,” says Mr. Adams,

“ these strange, bag-shaped, leathery bodies may be

a family, each group of stars a community — individuals
are linked together in systems, systems combined into
masses.”

seen along the strand at low water, ejecting when

The Class Tunicata has been divided into two orders

touched the sea-water to some distance ; and on the

or divisions by Dr. Fleming, according as the inner or

ocean their lengthened sinuous chains, or pellucid

muscular tunic or sac is more or less detached, or is

phosphorescent tubes, cannot fail to arrest the eye of the

adherent to the external tunic. Those individuals

voyager. The compound forms exhibit, in the varied

which have this inner sac more or less detached from

arrangement of the individuals composing the general

the external sac are termed Dicliitonida ; and those

mass, a number of elegant stems and flowers of curious

which have it adhering throughout to the external tunic

and complicated design. Towards the northern shores

are termed Monochitonida.

Order— DICHITONIDA.

Inner sac more or less detached from the external

containing few or many irregularly- shaped leathery

tunic ; united to it at the two orifices. Branchiae large,

bodies, fixed to sea-weed, rock, or shell by one extremity

equal, spread on the inner surface of this sac. Bran-

or by one side, free at the other, and presenting two

dual orifice with an inner membranaceous ring and

more or less prominent orifices, from which on the

circle of tentacles.

slightest pressure the sea-water is ejected with great

This order contains four families, three of which

force. On the sea-shore, when the tide is out, we find

are fixed, and the fourth floating.

Family I. — ASCIDIID.® {Simple Ascidians).

similar bodies attached to the under surface of rougli
stones. They are variously, often splendidly coloured,
but otherwise they are unattractive or even repulsive
in aspect. These creatures are Ascidiat, properly so

This family has been thus characterized: — Animal

called. Numbers of them are found clustering among

simple, fixed, solitary or gregarious; not united into

tangles, like branches of some strange semitransparent

groups by a common integument ; oviparous ; not

fruit. They are very apathetic and inactive, living

gemmiparous ; sexes united ; branchial sac simple

upon microscopic creatures drawn in with currents of

or disposed in (eight to eighteen) deep and regular

water by means of their ciliated respiratory oigans.

folds.

The leathery case is often incrusted with stones and

The species of Ascidians are very abundant in the

shells, decorated with parasitical though ornamental

northern seas, on the British coasts, the northern shores

plumes of corallines, and not seldom perforated by

of Europe, and in the Mediterranean. “ Barely is the

bivalves which lodge themselves snugly in the tough

dredge drawn up from any sea-bed at all prolific in

but smooth skin.” Some of the Ascidians appear to

submarine creatures,” says Professor Forbes, “without

have been well known to Aristotle ; and his description

Ascidia. MOLLUSCA. Boteyllid^. 383

is extremely accurate. On the coasts of the Mediter-
ranean and in China (where species of Ascidite occur),
several of them are esteemed as articles of food. Van
Beneden informs us that at Cette Ascidise are taken
regularly to market, and that a particular species
{Cynthia microcosmus), “ although so repulsive exter-
nally, furnishes a very delicate morsel, much sought
after hy some.”

Genus Ascidia or Sea Squirt. — This genus is
known hy its sessile body beingcovered with a coriaceous
or gelatinous tunic; the branchial- orifice being eight-
lobed, and furnished inside with a circle of simple ten-
tacular filaments ; the anal orifice is six-lobed, and the
branchial sac is not plaited. The species vary in
length from one to five or six inches, and range from
low water to twenty fatlioms. In some of the Ascidice
the external tunic is pale and semitransparent, and the
inner coat is orange or crimson, or sometimes marbled
with orange and white. Most of them, however, as
Sir John Dalyell says, “ are coarse, unsightly, deformed-
looking animals, utterly void of that external symmetry
and beauty rendering many of the tenants of the waters
so interesting. Nor is it in this only that they should
fail to attract the spectator’s notice. They testify
neither instinct, action, nor motion, nor even the symp-
toms of life, farther than slight enlargement and reduc-
tion of size, together with contraction and expansion
of the two tubular orifices of the body. No sensible
attraction follows abstinence or repletion ; the external
form undergoes scarcely any modification from health
or disease ; even the lapse of time, that universal con-
sumer, seems hardly to make any impression on the
shapeless mass, which is rooted immovably from the
first moment on the same spot to vegetate, live, or
die.”

Genus Cynthia. — This genus is sessile as well as
Ascidia, and its test or tunic is coriaceous ; both bran-
chial and anal orifices are four-lobed, and the branchial
sac is plaited longitudinally ai.d surmounted by a circle
of tentacular filaments. About fourteen species are
described as inhabiting the coasts of Great Britain, and
theyare found ranging from lowwater to thirty fathoms.
Individuals are often seen unattached as well as fixed,
though, as Mr. Rupert Jones observes, these animals
“ cannot be said to have an entirely free existence, their
tests being usually more or less imbedded in sand or
mud, and frequently held to their anchorage by the
agglutination of the surrounding sand-grains to their
outer surface. But from such a position they are easily
disturbed.” The species of Cynthia are also frequently
found associated in groups of numerous individuals,
forming large bunches in consequence of the interlacing
of their root-fibres. The genus is represented by two
species, C. momus and G. Canopus (Plate 9, figs.
7 and 9).

Genus Boltenia. — This genus instead of being ses-
sile, as in the two preceding genera, has its coriaceous
body fixed by a peduncle to stones, often in deep water.
Sometimes young Bolteniae fix themselves on to the
stem of their jiarent. In this genus the orifices are
lateral, and both of them are cleft into four lobes or
rays; the branchial sac is longitudinally plaited and
surmounted by a circle of compound tentacles.

Two other genera belong to this family, Molgula.
and Chelysoma — the one (Molgula) having a mem-
braneous tunic or test, but usually invested with sand
or other extraneous matters; the other having its
coriaceous test resembling the carapace of a tortoise.

Family II. — CLAVELLINIDiE {Social Ascidians).

The “ Social Ascidians” are very small animals found
on stones, shells, and sea-weed, adhering by numerous
root-like projections of their outer tunic. As their
name indicates, these animals occur in groups of several
individuals, each having its own heart, respiration, and
system of nutrition, but fixed on peduncles or stalks
that branch from a common stem, through which the
blood circulates in opposite directions. They are such
transparent and colourless animals, that their internal
structure can be seen without dissecting them. Repro-
duction takes place in these Social Ascidians by gem-
mation or by the process of budding, as well as by
eggs. The new individuals so formed may contitiue
united to the parent, or may become completely free
by the rupture of the connecting tube.

Genus Clavellina. — In this genus the individuals
composing the compound body are connected by creep-
ing tubular prolongations of their common tunic. They
are elongate, erect, more or less pedunculated; the
outer tunic is smooth and Ransparent, and the thoracic
portion of the body is usually marked with coloured
lines. The branchial and anal orifices are both simple,
without lobes or rays. The species which have been
observed are found in the northern seas and in the-
Mediterranean. This genus is represented by C. borealis
in Plate 9, figs. 5 and 6.

Genus Perophora. — This genus differs from the
preceding in the individuals being suborbicular and
compressed, and the thoracic portion of the body being-
destitute of coloured lines. There is only one species
known. It is beautifully transparent, according to
Professor Forbes, who has dredged it adhering to sea-
weed on the coast of Anglesea, and appears like little
specks of jelly dotted with orange and brown. When
dried, these bodies appear like the minute ova of some
mollusk.

Family III. — BOTRYLLIDiE {Compound
Ascidians).

The Botryllidcp- are compound animals, and fixed.
The animals are associated with each other, their tests
being fused together so as to form a common mass in
which they are imbedded in one or more groups. Each
individual, however, has a distinct branchial and anal
orifice, and they are not connected with one another by
any internal union, “If, when walking on the sea-
shore about low water mark, we turn over large stones,
or look under projecting eaves of rock, we are almost
sure to see translucent jelly-like masses of various hues
of orange, purple, yellow, blue, grey, and green, some-
times nearly uniform in tint, sometimes beautifully
variegated, and very frequently pencilled as if with
stars of gorgeous device ; now encrusting the surface
of the rock, now depending from it in icicle-like pro-

Botkyllid^. MOLLUSCA. Distomus.

384

jections. These are Compound Ascidians. A tangle
or broad-leaved fucus, torn from its rocky bed, or
gathered on the sands where the waves have cast it
after storms, will show us similar bodies, mostly those
star-figured, investing its stalks, winding among the
intricaeies of its roots, or clothing with a glairy coat the
expanse of its foliated extremities. If we keep some of
these bodies in a vessel of sea-water we find they lie
as apathetic as sponges, giving few symptoms of vitality
beyond the slight pouting out of tube-like membranes
around apertures which become visible on their sur-
faces, though a closer and microscopic examination will
show us currents in active motion in the water around
these apertures, streams rejected and whirlpools rush-
ing in; indicating that however torpid the creature may
externally appear, all the machinery of life, the respira-
tory wheels and circulatory pumps, are hard at work in
its inmost recesses. In the course of our examination,
especially if we cut up the mass, we find that it is not
a single animal which lies before us, but a common-
wealth of beings bound together by common and social
ties. . . . Each member of the commonwealth has
its own peculiar duties, but shares also in operations
which relate to the interest and well-being of the mass.
Anatomical investigation shows us the details of these
curious structures and arrangements beautiful as wise.
Indeed few bodies among the lower forms of animal
life exhibit such exquisite and kaleidoscopic figures as
those which we see displayed in the combinations of the
Compound Ascidians.” — (Forbes.) The Compound
Ascidians form rather a large family, comprising within
it at least thirteen distinct genera. These may be
arranged, however, in three groups or sub-families.

Sub-family I. — BOTKYLLINA.

In the animals of this group the individuals are
united in systems around common excretory cavities
or cloacce; and their bodies are not divided into a dis-
tinct thorax and abdomen.

Genus Botryllus. — This genus may be taken as
the type of this group. The external tunic is gelatinous
or cartilaginous, sessile, and incrusting. The animals
are grouped in simple prominent stars, and the indi-
viduals— from six to twenty in each system — lie hori-
zontally, with the vent far from the branchial orifice,
which is simple. The branchial orifices are arranged
round a common cloaca. “The tests of the animals
are fixed together, forming a common mass, in which
the animals are imbedded in one or more groups or
systems, but the individuals are not connected by any
internal union.” — (Adavis.) There have been as
many as ten distinct species described, six of which are
found on the shores of Great Britain. They vary con-
siderably in form and colour, some of them being
purple, and others yellow, blue, grey, or green. They
are fixed on stones or sea-weed, near low-water mark.
I’he genus is represented by B. jjolycyclm (Plate 9,
figs. 7 and 8).

Sub-family IB— POLYCLININA.

This group is distinguished from the preceding by

the body being divided into three distinct portions, viz.
— a thorax, with the branchial apparatus; a superior
abdomen, with the digestive organs; and a post-
abdomen, with the heart and reproductive organs.

Genus Polyclynum. — This genus has a gelatinous
or cartilaginous test, sessile or slightly pedunculated,
and varying very much in form. The systems are
numerous, convex, somewhat star-shaped, each with a
central cloacal cavity. The individuals, varying from
ten to an hundred and fifty, are placed at unequal
distances from their common centre. The abdomen is
much smaller than the thorax, and the post-abdomen is
pedunculate. The branchial orifices are six-angled and
six-rayed, and the anal aperture is prolonged hori-
zontally and irregularly cut. Six species are known,
one of which, P. constellatum, is %ured in Plate 9,
figs. 12-14.

Genus Synoicum. — This genus has the test semi-
cartilaginous, cylindrical, and pedunculate, and the
animals are either isolated or attached gregariously to
similar cylindrical bodies. The systems are single,
circular, terminal, and comprise six to nine animals.
The branchial orifices are six rayed, and the anal
aperture has the same number ; but they are unequal,
the three largest forming the exterior margin of the
central star. Only one species is known, S. turgens,
figured in Plate 9, figs. 15—17.

Genus Sigillina. — This genus has a solid, gelatin-
ous test, in form of an elongated, erect cone. It is
pedunculated, and occurs either isolated or gregar ious.
Each cone consists of a single system of many indivi-
duals disposed one above another in irregular circles.
The branchial and anal orifices have each six rays;
the abdomen is larger than the thorax ; and the post-
abdomen is long and slender. The genus derives its
name from a fancied resemblance of the common mass
to a seal (sigilluml), and corrtains as yet only one species,
S. australis, from the tropical seas, which is repre-
sented in Plate 9, figs. 10 and 11 (magnified).

Sub-family III. — DIDEMNINA5.

This group embraces all the compound Ascidians
whose body is distinctly divided into two parts, the
thorax and abdomen.

Genus Didemnium. — This genus has a coriaeeous
test which is sessile and encrusting, and diversified in
form and appearance. The systems are numerous,
compressed, without central cavities, and the individuals
are scattered over the common body without any appre-
ciable order of arrangement. The abdomen is pedun-
culate. The branchial orifice only is rayed.

Genus Distomus. — This genus differs from the
preceding in having both the branchial and anal orifices
rayed. The test is semicartilaginous, sessile, and
assumes various forms. The systems are numerous,
usually circular, and the individuals are placed in one
or two rows at unequal distances from a common cen-
tre. The rays at the margin of both apertures are
six in number. There are several species of this
genus, one of which, D. ruber, is represented in Plate
9, figs. 1-3.

Pyrosomatid^. ^MOLLUSCA. Pyrososia gioanteum.

Family IV.— PYROSOMATIDyE.

The Pyrosomas are compound animals; but instead
of being fixed, they are free and floating on the surface
of the ocean.

Genus Pyrosoma. — This genus is the only one at
present belonging to the famil}'. The common body
of this peculiar genus ofTunicaries is semicartilaginous
and noncontractile — the individuals of which the aggre-
gate mass is composed forming a hollow cylinder from
two to fourteen inches long, a half-inch to three inches in
circumference, and open at one extremity only. These
individuals are grouped in whirls each having two ori-
fices, one at each end. They are united at the circum-
ference of the middle portion by the fusion of the tests
to one another into rings more or less regular, and
varying in number according to the species, so that the
whole forms the cylinder above described. — {Rupert
Jones.') Their orifices are so arranged that the inhalant
openings are external, the inhalant inside the tube ; and
the result of so many little currents discharged into the
cavity is to produce one general outflow, which impels
the floating cylinder with its closed end foremost. —
( Woodward.) The individuals composing this curious
floating C3’]iader amount, in the adult Pyrosoma, to
several thousands, forming, in fact, a numerous colony,
each little molluskin its own cell, distinct, yet insepar-
abl}^ connected with its fellows. The Pyrosomas are
gregarious animals, and often occur in great numbers.
They are found in the warmer parts of the great ocean,
and at times they are so abundant in the Mediterranean
that they have been found to clog the nets of the fisher
men. Their delicate and transparent forms, and their
elegant tints of colour, render them beautiful objects as
seen floating during the day on the tranquil bosom of
the sea; but their splendid phosphorescent property,
the brilliant light which the}' give out at night as they
glide past the vessel, have made them still more the
objects of admiration to voyagers and naturalists. The
descriptions given by many such are exceedingly inter-
esting. The celebrated Humboldt, describing his
having seen the P atlaniicum on his voyage to South
America, says that it gave a light of a foot and a half
in diameter while swimming beneath the surface.
“ Only imagine,” he says, “ the superb spectacle which
we enjoyed when in the evening, from six to eleven
o’clock, a continuous band of those living globes of fire
passed near our vessel. With the light which they
diffused we could distinguish at a depth of fifteen feet
the individuals of Thynnus, Pelamys, and Sardon, which
have followed us these several weeks, notwithstanding
the great celerity with which we have sailed.” Dr. G.
Bennett, in his interesting “ Wanderings,” tells us that
the vessel in which he was, continued, while proceeding
at a rapid rate, during the whole night to pass through
distinct but extensive fields of Pyrosomas, floating, and
glowing as they floated, on all sides. Enveloped in a
flame of bright phosphorescent light, he adds, and
gleaming with a greenish lustre, these creatures seen
at night, in vast shoals upwards of a mile in breadth,
and stretching out till lost in the distance, present a
spectacle the glory of which may be easily imagined.
The vessel, as it cleaves the gleaming mass, throws up
VoL. II. 105

385

strong flashes of light as if ploughing through liquid fire,
which illuminates the hull, the sails, and the ropes with
a strange unearthly radiance. M. Peron, the French
naturalist, was, peihaps, the first who recorded this
phosphorescent quality of the Pyrosomas. It was in a
squall out at sea that his attention was called to the
phenomenon. “ Suddenly,” he says, “ we discovered at
some distance a great phosphorescent band stretched
across the waves, and occupying an immense tract in
advance of the ship. Heightened by the surrounding

Fig. 232

Pyrosoma giganteura.

circumstances, the effect of this spectacle was romantic,
imposing, sublime, rivetting the attention of all on
board Soon we reached the illuminated tract, and
perceived the prodigious brightness was certainly and
only attributable to the presence of an innumerable
multitude of largish animals floating with the waves.
From their swimming at different depths they took,
apparently, difl'erent forms; those at the greatest depth

386 Salpid^. MOLLUSOA. Salpid^.

were very indefinite, presenting much of the appearance the surface perfectly resembled incandescent cylinders
of great masses of fire, or rather of enormous red-hot of iron.” The genus is represented by fig. 232
cannon balls ; whilst those more distinctly seen near j {Pyrosoma giganteum)

Order— MONOCHITONIDA.

Inner sac adhering throughout to the external tunic.
Orifices without tentacular fringes.

This order contains two families — one of which is
always free and floating; the other free also, but living
buried in mud.

Family I. — SALPIDA3.

The Salpce are distinguished by their outer tunic
being thin, elastic, elongated, compressed, and open at
both extremities, the two orifices being opposite each
other.^ They are free, and habitually swim on the
waters of the ocean, and are alternately solitary and
aggregated. The solitary individuals resemble short
but rather wide tubes, which are often of considerable
size, and so transparent that, as Professor Forbes says,
they look as if carved in crystal.

The history of these Tunicaries is replete with interest,
especially on account of their singular mode of repro-
duction. These occur under two conditions; at one
time appearing, as described above, in solitary indivi-
duals, floating freelj" on the surface; at others, asso-
ciated into lengthened groups, or chains, composed of
numerous individuals of similar form, and swimming
with regular serpentine movements through the tran-
quil waters. The individuals which compose these
chains contract and expand simultaneously, “ keeping
time, as it were, like a regiment of soldiers on parade,”
each chain thus appearing to be a single being, acting
through the influence of a unique will. After floating
for a certain time under this form the societjf is broken
up, and each individual, so separated from the chain,
propagates a young one like itself. This individual
grows to the size of its grand parent, and then brings
forth, in its turn, a social chain of young Salpce, which,
again, give origin to the solitary individuals ; thus, as
Chamisso discovered, for it is to him we owe the know-
ledge of this curious fact, chained Salpce do not produce
chained Salpce, but solitary Salpce, and these do not
reproduce solitary, but chained Salpce; or, as this
naturalist e.xpresses it, “ a Salpa mother is not like its
daughter or its own mother, but resembles its sister,
its granddaughter, and its grandmother !” the alternate
generations only resembling each other. As the mem-
bers of one generation are very dissimilar from those of
the other, the species described previously to this dis-
covery of Chamisso’s, were accordingly very much mul-
tiplied. The only conspicuous vital action in these
Salpce, says Professor Owen, are the rhythmical contrac-
tion and expansion of the mantle, in which the elasti-
city of the outer tunic antagonizes the contraction of
the inner one. During expansion the sea-water enters
by the posterior aperture, and is expelled, in contraction,
by the anterior one ; its exit by the opposite end being
prevented by a valve. The reaction of the jet, which

is commonly forced out of a contracted tube, occasions
a retrograde movement of the animal. The currents
which successively traverse the interior of the animal,
renew the oxygenated medium upon the surface of
the respiratory organ, bring the nutrient molecules
within reach of the prehensile, subspiral, labial mem-
brane of the mouth, and expel the excrements and
generative products. Thus a single act of muscular
contraction is made subservient, by the admirable co-
adjustment of the different organs, to the performance
of the functions of locomotion, nutrition, respiration,
excretion, and generation.- The Salp/ce are found in
some of our northern seas, but they are more abundant
in the Mediterranean, and in the warmer parts of the
ocean. In these localities they are remarkable for the
brilliant phosphorescent light they give out at night,
especially wdien the water is agitated. The long chains
of these animals swimming near the surfirce, have been
described as occasionally producing the effect of long
ribands of fire drawn along by the currents.

Three genera have been enumerated.

Genus Salpa. — This genus is the typical and most
important one, and may be defined in the solitary
form, as oblong, subcylindrical, truncated in front by
the oral orifice, pointed posterior-
ly, anal orifice subterminal, each
orifice furnished with a valve; test
thin, transparent; muscular man-
tle incomplete, forming a set of
transverse or oblique bands; man-
tle cavity lined by a system of
vascular sinuses ; gill rudimen-
taiy, consisting of two narrow, ob-
lique, unequal laminae, forming an
oblique band across the interior;
visceral mass or nuclens situate
near the posterior extremity, and
veiy conspicuous,, owing to the
brilliant orange, brown, or reddish
hues of the liver. The sexes are
combined, and all the species yet
observed are viviparous ; the
young being produced by gem-
mation in chains consisting of
individuals unlike the parent,
and becoming oviparous. The individual Salpce vary
in length from half an inch to tei inches, and the chains
are found extending from a few inches to many feet.
A good many species have been described. The genus
is represented by fig. 233 {Salp z octofora).

Genus Doliolum. — This genus was e.stablished for
some little animals nearly allied to the Salpa, which
are described as round, or in the form of a little cask,
transparent, open at the ends, and from two to ten
lines in length. The method of progression in these

Fig. 233.

SALPiDiE. MOLLUSCA. Bkyozoa. 387

small creatures is by contracting the whole body, and

forcing the water out at one or the other extremity.

Family II.— PELONAIADiE.

Some other little Tunicaries have been found floating

on the surface of the ocean, in various parts of the

This family is composed of only one genus, Pelonaia,

world, consisting of an ovoid-shaped body, terminated

which contains two species, both of them very rare.

by a long curved tail or swimming organ. They are

The animals are simple and unattached. The test is

minute in size, from one -sixth to one-fourth of an inch.

more or less cartilaginous, smooth, or wrinkled, elon-

and are rapidly propelled through the water by power-

gated and cylindrical. The two orifices are not oppo-

ful vibrations of the long, curved, lanceolate, caudal

site each otlier, but are both placed on the same plant

appendage. These form the genus Appendicularia.

on two eminences on the anterior extremity. The

Professor Forbes describes them as very numerous at

creatures live buried in mud, quite unattached to anj

times, and appearing at a little distance, “ as cloudy

other body, and are extremely apathetic, presenting

patches of red colouring matter in the water.”

scarcely any appearance of motion.

BKYOZOA.

Before drawing our history of the sub-kingdom

contracted, we should see the great resemblance which

Mollusca to a conclusion, we ought to mention the fact

a Bryozoon, such as Flmtra, has to a mollusk of the As-

that the large group of animals formerly arranged

cidian type. The nervous system of these little crea-

amongst the Zoophytes, and known as the Bryozoa,

tures is not formed on the radiated type, but consists

are now included within it; and that their proper place

of a single ganglion placed between the two orifices, as

in the zoological system ought to be immediately fol-

in the Tunicata. They have also a separate intestine.

lowing the class Tunicata. The structure of the animals

which possesses an anal orifice: and there exist a

belonging to the Bryozoa is decidedly more molluscan

gizzard-like organ and a rudimental liver. Still, as in

than zoophytic ; and indeed were we only to imagine

almost all systems these animals continue to form

the minute tentacula which fringe the oral orifice of

part of the class Zoophyta, we will postpone their

many of the Ascidian tunicaries to be greatly prolonged

further consideration till wc come to treat of that

and clothed with cilia, and the respiratory cavity to be

class.

END OF MOLLUSCA

»

INDEX TO

MOLLUSCA.

Page

Page

Class 1. — CIj^FHALOPODA (Head-walking

Genus,

Ancillaria,

327

Molluscs),

310

H

Harpa, ....

328

Okdeh

Family,

Lamellariid®,

328

L, Dibranchiata {’I’wo-gilled Cephalopoda'),

311

Fasciolariid®, ....

328

Sub-order

I., Octopoda (Octojwds), .

311

Genus,

Fasciolaria,

328

Family

I., Octopodidaj (the Sea-spiders), .

311

U

Mitra, ....

328

Genus,

Family

Octopus, ....

311

Family,

Turbinellid® (Turnip-shells),

329

II., Philonexidie, ....

312

Genus,

Turbinellus, ....

329

Genus,

Pbilonexis, ....

III., Argonautidae = Ocytboidse (Argonauts),

312

Family,

Volutid®,

329

Family

312

Genus,

Yetus, ....

329

Genus,

Argonauta-Argo (the Paper Nautilus), .

312

Cymbium, ....

330

Sub-order

II., Decapoda (Decapods), .

313

((

Scapha, ....

330

Section

I., Chondrophora,

314

((

Voluta,

330

Family

I., CfairoteuthidEe,

314

Volutella, ....

330

Genus,

Cbu’oteutbis ....

314

Porcellanina (the Date-shells), .

330

Family

II., Onycboteuthidse (UncmotecI Calamaries),

314

Family,

Cassidid® (Helmet-shells),

330

Genus,

Enoploteuthis, ...

314

Genus,

Cassis, ....

Doliid® (Tun-shells), .

331

Ommastrephes,

Loligidre (Calamaries or Sleeve-fsli),

314

Family,

331

Family,

316

Genus,

Dolium, ....

331

Genus,

Loligo, ....

Family,

Tritonid® (Trumpet- shells).

331

Section

II., Sepiophora, ....

Genus,

Triton, ....

332

Family,

Sepiida) (Sepias or True Cuttle-Jishes), .

315

it

Ranella (the Frog-shells),

332

Genus,

Sepia, ....

I'amily,

Naticid®, ....

332

Section

III., Belemnophora,

316

((

lanthinid® (the 'Violet Snails),

333

Family,

Spirulidte (Spirulas), .

316

Genus,

lanthina communis (the Common Violet

Genus,

Spinila (= Lituus),

316

Snail), ....

334

Order

II., Tetrabranchiata,

316

Family,

Scalariid® (the Wentle-traps), .

334

Family,

Nautilidaj (the Nautili),

316

Genus,

Scalaria Pretiosa (the Royal Stair-case

Genus,

Nautilus, ....

316

or Wentle-irap),

334

Sub-order III.

Rostrifera, ....

334

—

Family,

Ampullariid® (the Apple Snails),

335

U

Amphiperasid® (Poached Eggs),

336

Class II. — GASTEROPODA (Univalves),

318

Family,

Aporrhaid®, ....

837

Genua,

Aporrhais, ....

337

Sub-class

I., Ctenobranchiata,

320

Struthiolaria, ....

337

Order

I., Pectinibranchiata,

320

Trichotropis, ....

337

Sub-order

I., Toxifera, ....

320

Family,

Cyclostomid® (Cyclophoridce), .

337

Family

I., Conid® (the Cones),

320

Helicinid® (Oligyradoe),

337

U

II., Acusid® (Auger-shells),

321

Genus,

Helicina, ....

337

Genus,

Family

Terebra, . . . .

III., Pleurotomid® (Slit-mouths),

321

Family,

Littorinid® (Periwinkles),

337

322

Genus,

Family,

Littorina, ....

337

Pleurotoma Babylonica (the Tower of

Lacunid®, ....

Babel), ....

322

Truucatellid® (Loop'mg Snails),

338

Sub-order

II., Proboscidifera,

322

it

Planaxid®,

338

Family

I., Cassidulid® (Fig-shells),

322

Genus,

Litiopa, ....

338

II., Muricid® (Roc/c-sliells), .

323

Family,

Rissoid®,

338

Genus,

Murex, ....

324

(£

Melaniid®,

339

Pisania, . . . ^

325

((

Cerithiid®, ....

Telescopium, ....

339

U

Columbella, ....

325

Genus,

Family,

339

a

Latrunculus, ....

325

Turritellid® (Turret or Screw-shells'', .

339

Cominella, . . .

o^O

Genus,

Turritella, ....

339

((

Bullia, ....

325

Family,

Paludinid® ( Viviparidce, River-snails), .

339

((

Nassa, ....

325

Genus,

Family,

Paludina ( Viviparus),

339

((

Phos, ....

325

Calyptr®id®, ....

340

Family,

Buccinid® (IFAcIfc), .

326

U

Capulid®, ....

340

Genus,

Purpura, ....

326

Genus,

Capulus, . . . ..

Hipponyx, ....

340

n

Concholepas, ....

326

340

it

Monoceros (Acanthiza),

326

((

Amaltbea, ....

340

u

Rioinula (Sistrum),

326

Family,

Vermetid® (the Worm-shells), .

341

u

Magilus, ....

326

Genus,

Siphonium, ....

341

u

Buccinum, ....

326

Vermetus, ....

Siliquaria, ....

341

Family,

Cancellariid®, ....

327

341

Olivid® (Olives)

327

Family,

Strombid® (the Stromb or Wing-shells),

341

Genus,

Oliva, ....

327

Genus,

Strombus, ....

341

INDEX TO MOLLUSCA. 389

Page

Page

Genus,

Family,

Pterocera (the Scorpion-shells),

341

Genus,

Helix, . . . .

353

Phoridse (the Comer- shells), ,

342

Succinea, ....

354

Genus,

Family,

Phorus, , . . ,

342

((

Bulimus, ....

354

Pterotracheidm, .

342

Achatina, ....

355

Genus,

Family,

Carinaria, , . .

342

U

Pupa, ....

355

Atlantidaj, ....

342

((

Clausilia, ....

Cylindrella, ....

355

Genus,

Atlanta, ....

Oxygyrus, ....

342

C(

355

“

342

((

Limnophila (Fresh-water Snails)

355

Order

II. Scutibranchiata,

342

Family,

Auriculid®, ....

355

Family,

Proserpinidse, ....

342

Lymn®id®, ....

355

Neritidse (the Nerites), .

343

Genus,

Lymn®a, ....

355

Genus,

Nerita, ....

343

Physa, ....

356

Neritina, ....

343

((

Planorbis, ....

356

il

Navicella, ....

343

“

Thalassophila (Marine-snails), .

356

li'amily.

Turbinid® (Top-shells),

I., Turbinina (True Top-shells),

343

Family,

Siphonariid®, ....

356

Group

343

Genus,

Siphonaria,

356

Genus,

Group

Tui'bo, ....

11., Imperatorina (jNajj-iroc/iMses), .

343

Family,

Amphibolid®, ....

356

344

Genus,

Amphibola, ....

356

Genus,

Imperator, ....

344

Group

III., Phasianellina (Pheasant-shells), .

344

Genus,

Family,

Pbasianella (Eutropia),

344

Trochid® (Hoop-shells),

344

Class III. — PTEROPODA (the Pteropods),

356

Genus,

Troclius, ....

344

a

Troohiscus, ....
Delphinula (Angarus), .

344

Order

L, Thecosomata (Shell-bearing Pteropods),

357

((

344

Family,

Cavolinid® (Uyalceidce),

357

((

Elenchus, ....

344

Genus,

Hyal®a, ....

357

Family,

Scissurellid® (Little Slit-shells),

344

V a

Diacria, ....

357

Genus,

Scissurella, ....

Haliotid® (Ear-shells),

344

((

Cleodora (Clio),

357

Family,

344

u

Balantium, ....

357

Genus,

Haliotis (Ear-shell),

344

u

Styliola (Creseis),

357

Family,

Fissurellid® (Key-hole Limpets),

345

Family,

Tripterid® (Cuvieriidce),

357

Genus,

Parmophorus,

345

Cymbuliid®, ....

357

U

Emarginula, ....

345

u

Limacinid®, ....

357

i4

Fissurella, ....

345

Genus,

Limacina, ....

358

Family,

Dentaliid® (Tooth- shells).

346

Order

IL, Gymnosomata (Shell-less Pteropods), .

358

Genus,

Dentalium, ....

346

F'ainily,

Clionid®, ....

358

Entalis, ....

346

Genus,

Family,

Clio, • . . . .

358

Family,

Tecturidffi (False Limpets),

346

Pneumoderinid®,

358

U

Patellid® (Rock Limpets),

346

Genus,

Pneumodermon, .

358

Genus,

Patella, . ' .

346

Spongiobranchia, . .

358

Family,

Chitonid® (Sea Wood-lice),

347

Trichocyclus,

358

Group

I., Chitonin®, ....

348

F'amily,

Cymodoceid®,

358

Genus,

Chiton, ....

Acanthopleura,

348

348

Tonicia, ....

348

Group

IL, Cryptoplacin®,

348

Class IV.— CONCHIFERA (Bivalves),

358

Sub-class

11., Heterobrancliiata, . . .

348

Order

L, Pleurobranchiata,

349

Sub-class

L, Siphonophora,

360

Family,

Philinid®, ....

349

Order

I., Veneraoea, ....

360

Genus,

Scaphander, ....

349

Family,

Venerid®, ....

360

Family,

Bullid® (True Bubble-shells), .

349

Genus,

Artemis. . . .

360

Genus,

Bulla, . .

349

((

Cytherea (Meretrix),

360

Family,

Amplustrid®, ....

349

it

Cuneus (Marbe), . .

360

U

Aplysiid® (Sea-hares),

349

tt

Trigona, ....

360

Genus,

Doiabella, ....

349

it

Dione,

360

Aplysia, ....

349

it

Circe, ....

360

Family,

Umbrellid® (Umbrella- shells), .

350

it

Venus, ....

360

Genus,

Umbrellas, ....

350

it

Mercenaria, ....

360

Order

IL, Nudibranchiata (Gymnobranchiata),

L, Pygobranchia, ....

350

tt

Chione, ....

361

Group

351

it

Tapes, ....

361

U

IL, Aiolobranchiata,

351

Venerupis (the Venus of the Rock),

361

Genus,

((

Tritonia, ....

Scyllma,

Tethys,

351

Cyprina, ....

361

352

Family,

Glauconomid®,

361

((

352

Genus

Giauconome, ....
Petricolida?, ....

361

a

Glaucus, ....

352

Family

361

Family,

Eolidid®, ....

352

tt

Cyrenid® (Corbiculidm),

361

Order

III., Pneumobranchiata (Pulmonata or Pul-

Genus,

Corbicula, ....

361

monijera), ....

352

Batissa, ....

361

Group,

Geophila, ....

353

t(

Cyrena,

361

U

Limnophila,

353

Family,

Cycladid®, ....

361

((

Geophila (Terrestrial Snails), .

353

it

Sellinid®, ....

362

Family,

Testacellid®, ....
Testacellus (Shell-slug),

353

Genus,

Sellina, ....

362

Genus,

353

it

Psammobia, ....
Sanguinolaria, . .

362

(4

Oleacina, ....

353

tt

362

44

Nanina, ....

353

it

Semele, ....

362

Family,

Helicid®, ....

353

tt

Donax (Wedge-shell), .

362

Genus,

Limax, ....

353

it

Iphigenia, ....

362

ii90 INDEX TO MOLLUSCA.

Page

Page

Genus,

Galathea, .

. 362

Genus,

Pectunculus, . . . .

373

Scrobicularia,

. 363

Nuculsj, . . . .

373

P’amily,

Mactridse,

. 363

Family,

Pinnad®, . . . .

373

Genus,

Gnathodon,

. 363

Pinna squamosa (the Scaly Pinna),

374

Family,

Paphiidm,

. 363

Family,

Aviculid® (the Wing-shells),

373

Genus,

Glossus (the Ilearl-cncHe),

. 363

Genus,

Margaritiphora (the Pearl-oyster),

374

P'amily,

ChamidEe, . ,

. 364

Family,

Spondylid®, . . . .

375

Oh am a lazarus.

. 364

Genus,

Spondylus (Thorny Oyster), .

375

Family,

Anatinidae,

. 364

Family,

Pectenid® (the Scallops), . .

375

Genus,

Anatina (the Lantern- shell),

. 364

Limad® (the File-shells),

376

Tliracia,

. 364

Ostreid®, . . . .

377

Chamostrea,

. 364

Genus,

Ostrea, . . . .

377

Family,

Mutelidm, . .

. 364

Genus,

Mutela,

. 364

H

Fleiodon,

. 364

a

((

Leila,

Castalia,

. 364

. 364

Class V. — BRACHIOPODA (Brachiopods),

378

u

Family,

Styria,

Cardiid®,

364
. 364

.Rfi.o

Sob- CLASS
Order

I., Ancylopoda,

I., Ancylobrachia,

379

379

Modinlareida},

Dreissenidse,

.^6.6

Family,

Terebratulid® (the Lamp-shells),

379

. 365

Tribe

I., Terebratulanina,

380

Family,

Genus,

Order

Dreissena {Pohjmorpha),

Tridacnidse,

Ti’idacna,

Hippopus,

II., Pholadacea,

. 365

. 366

. 366
. 366

. 369

Order

P' amily.
Genus,

11., Magasina, . . . .

11., Cryptobrachia,

Thecideid®,

Argiope,

Thecidea, . . . .

380

380

380

380

380

Family,

Genus,

Pholadidm,

Pholadina,

Xylopliaga,

. 366
. 366

. 367

JifiV

Sub-class

Order

Family,

Genus,

II., Helictopoda, . . . .

I., Sclerobrachia,

Rhynchonellid® . . ,

Rhynohonella,

380

380

380

380

Family,

Genus,

ii

((

Gastrochmnida;,

Aspergillum,

Clavagella,

Fistulana,

. 368

. 368
. 368

. 368

Order

Family,

ii

II., Sarcobraebia, .

Craniid®, . . . .

Discinid®, . ' .

Lingulid®,

380

380

380

381

<(

Gastrochsena, .

. 368

Family,

Saxicavidae,

. 368

Genus,

Family,

Saxicava,

. 368

Solenidse,

. 369

Class VI. — TUNICATA (the Tunicaries),

381

Genus,

Glycimeris,

. 369

Family,

Myad®,

. 369

Order, •

Dichitonida, . . . .

382

Genus,

‘ Mya,

.

Family,

A scidiid® (S'iniple A sefrf/ares), .

382

Sub-class II., Asiphonophora,

. 370

Genus,

Aseidia (Sea Squirt), .

383

Order

I., Lasiacea, . . .

. 370

“

Cynthia, . . . .

383

F' amily.

Solenomyid®, .

. 370

U

Boltenia, . . . .

383

Genus,

Solenomya,

. 370

Family,

Clavellinid® (Social Ascidians),

383

Order

II., Unionacea,

. 370

Genus,

Clavellina, . . . ,

383

Family,

Lucinid®,

. 370

Perophora, . . . ,

383

Astartid®,

. 370

Family,

Botryllid® (Compound Ascidians),

583

u

Carditid®,

. 371

Sub- family

I., Boti'yllina,

384

ii

Crassatellid®,

. 371

Genus,

Botryllus, . . . .

384

ii

Unionid®,

. 371

Sub-family II., Polyclinina, . . . .

384

Genus,

Unio,

. 371

Genus,

Polyolynum, . . . .

384

((

Damaris,

. 371

Synoicum, . . . .

384

ii

Baibala,

Anodonta,

. 371

“

Sigillina, . . . .

384

ti

. 371

Sub-family

[II., Didemnin®, . . , .

384

Family,

Etheriid®,

.. 372

Genus,

Didemnium, . , . .

384

Genus,

Family,

Etheria,

. 372

Distomus, . . . .

Pyrosomatid®, .

384

Mytilid®,

. 372

Family,

385

Genus,

Mytilus (the Sea Mussel),

. 372

Genus,

Pyrosoma, . . . .

385

“

Modiola (Horse-mussel),

. 372

Order,

P’amily,

Monochitonida, .

386

u

Lithodomus,

. 372

Salpid®, . . . .

386

u

Lithodomus Dactylus, .

. 373

Genus,

Salpa, . . . .

386

Order

III., Pectinacea,

. 373

Doliolum, . . . .

386

Family,

Trigoniid®,

. 373

Family,

Pelonaiad®, . . . .

387

Arcad®,

. 373

Genus,

Pelonaia, . . . .

387

Genus,

Area No® (the Typical Arks), .

. 373

i<

Bryozoa, . . . .

387

THE MUSEUM

OK

NATUEAL HISTOEY.

ZOOLOGY.

Sub-kingdom IV. — RADIATA (Rayed or Radiated Animals).

This sub-kingdom of animals contains a great variety

they breathe by branchite or gills, and the greater

of creatures, differing from each other in form and

portion of them are free. Their organs of motion,

outward appearance. Some are highly organized,

when thej’’ are present, are movable spines attached

while others have a very simple structure, and appear

to the skin, or flexible papillae capable of inflation.

to form the connecting link between the animal and

The rayed arrangement of the organs and different

vegetable kingdoms. Generally speaking, however.

parts of their body in the greater number, is what has

they may be distinguished from the three sub-king-

obtained for the class to which these animals belong

doms already treated of in this work, by the animals

the name of Radiata ; and in many of them this is so

having all the parts of their body and members dis-

distinct as to give them the shape of the flowers of

posed in a rayed or radiated form round the digestive

plants.

cavity. The organs of digestion consist of a single

This sub-kingdom is divined into five classes —

sac, or short alimentary canal. The nervous sj^stem

1. The Echinoderms or Spiny Skins {Echinodermata).

is obscure, and in some cannot even be traced. In those

II. The Acalephs or Sea-nettles (Acalephce).

in which it exists it is without ganglia, and is composed

III. The Zoophytes or Polyps {Zoophytu or Polypi).

of single filaments which are disposed in a circular

IV. The Infusory and Foraininiferous Animals {Pro-

form around the orifice of the mouth. They have no

tozoa.)

true circulating system, and as they are all aquatic.

V. The Sponges {Spongia oi Porifera.)

Class L— ECHINODERMS, or SPINY SKINS (Echinodermata).*

The Spiny Skins are radiated animals which have

animals belonging to this class are all marine, and live

the body covered with a hard coriaceous skin, under

on animal food. The greater number are free, living

which or attached to it are frequently found plates of

unattached, and moving about in the water with their

solid or calcareous matter, forming a sort of skeleton,

mouths beneath ; but some are attached, being affixed

and which in some species is covered with sharp spines

by their backs, and have their mouths above, so as to

or prickles, like those of a hedgehog. They possess a

enable the limbs to bring the food within their reach.

distinct alimentary canal, distinct organs of circulation.

The sexes are distinct, and the young are produced

and a nervous sj'stem forming a ring, generally sur-

from ova.

rounding the mouth, and giving off radiate branches.

Such is a general description of the class Ecbinoder-

The principal character of the class, however, is, that

mata ; but in it we find animals of extremely dissimilar

the animals have, fixed to the skin, a more or less

appearance associated together.

considerable number of tentacular-shaped cirrhi, at

The class has been divided into five orders —

once serving the purpose of locomotive organs, organs

1. Crinoidea — Feather-stars.

of respiration, and organs of touch. In some, as in

11. Asteroidea — Star-fishes.

the Echinidse, in addition to the tentacular-formed

III. Echinoidea — Sea-urchins or Sea-eggs.

organs of motion and touch, there exist organs, called

IV. Holothurioidea — Holothurias or Sea- cucumbers.

pedicellaricc, which serve as organs of prehension. The

V. Sipunculoidea — Sipunculi.

As those occupying the centre of this group may bo

• Derived from the two Greek words ecMnos (6;!:<voe)i ® spine.

looked upon as the types or models of the radiated

and derma; skin.

class, we will begin with them.

392 Echinoldea. KADIATA. Echlnid^.

Order I. — ECHINOIDEA {Sea-eggs, or Sea-
urchins.)

The animals belonging to this order (see Plates 1-4,
Echinodermata) are covered with a round or oval hard
case, composed of perpendicular bands of square or
six-sided pieces sunk in the substance of the skin.
Externally this case is studded all over with numerous
spines which are affixed on hemispherical tubercles by
particular muscles, and easily fall off when the animal
is dead (see fig. annexed). These spines are various
in shape and size, move in all directions; and — ^judg-
ing on the principle that Nature does nothing in vain,
and that even the apparently insignificant peculiarities
of form which she has given to creatures are designed
to serve some important end connected with their
wellbeing — appear to be useful in protecting the ani-
mals from their enemies, and enabling them also to buiy
themselves in the sand on the shores when they are left
by the retiring tide. Half the number of the perj)en-
dicular bands of which the case is composed, alternating
with the others, are pierced with minute double pores
thi ough which are sent out small filaments with dilated

ends, that enable the animals to anchor themselves to
marine bodies. These pierced bands, from a fancied
resemblance to the walks in a garden, are called
ambulacra; while the alternate ones which have the
tubercles have been compared to the beds of the gar-
den, and have in consequence been sometimes called
ai'em pidvilli (see Plate 1, fig. 4). These animals
have two separate openings to their digestive canal,
and in some of the species the vent is placed in
the centre of the lower surface, whilst in others it is
situated on the side of the body. The mouth is armed
with very complicated jaws, and furnished with five

projecting teeth (see Plate 1, fig. 3 ; Plate 3, figs. 5, 6).
These jaws were well described by the ancient natural-
ists, and are known by the name of the “ lanterns of
Aristotle,” that author having represented them as
resembling a lantern. The animals belonging to this
order are carnivorous, living chiefly upon small mol-
lusks and Crustacea. The recent species are numerous,
and are found in most parts of the world ; while the
fossil remains of their shells or external cases are
abundant in many of the formations, but especially in
the chalk.

The numerous species of which the order is com-
posed, may be divided into six families : — 1, Echinidce;
2, Cidaridce ; 3, Scutellidce ; 4, Galeritidce ; 5, Echi-
nolampasidce ; and 6, Spatangidce.

Family I. — ECHINIDiE {True Sea-eggs),

This family is perhaps the most numerous in species,
contains some of the best known and most commonly
distributed, and may be taken as the most typical of
all. The shell or case is generally rounded and com-
posed of twenty perpendicular bands of square or six-
sided pieces. The tubercles upon which the spines
are placed are simple, rounded, im-
perforate ])rominences. The spines
vary a good deal in shape. Gener-
ally, as in Echinus, they are equal-
sized, conical and striated. In
others, as in Colohocentrus, they are
large and club-shaped ; while in a
third set, as in Helerocentrus, they
are very short and truncated, form-
ing in the mass a smooth surface
— somewhat resembling a tesse-
lated pavement. The ambulacra
are constantly of the number of five
pairs (see Plate 2, fig. 3), and are
complete, extending from the upper
to the lower surface. In addition
to the spines on the tubercles and
the filaments which are sent out
from the ambulacral pores, and
which serve as organs of pro-
gression, the Echini possess other
movable organs scattered over the
suiface of the bod)^ and known by
the name of Pedicellarice. These
oigans though small, are very curi-
ous, and perform a very important
part in the economy of these ani-
mals. They are prehensile, and are used by the animal
to seize hold of objects, which can thus be passed
from one to another, and possibly may even be con-
veyed from the dorsal surface to the mouth. They
are very numerous, crowded irregularly on most parts
of the skin, but especially round the oral aperture.
They are of various forms, but in general they may be
described as having a thick head, cleft into three
divisions, and set on a long, slender, flexible stalk.
The whole body and head are invested with a glutin-
ous flesh, in which are imbedded minute red glands,
that are common to the integument of the whole class.

Fig. 234.

Ecliinus.

CidakidjE. KADIATA. Asteroiuea. 393

Family V.— ECHIN0LAMPASIDJ3.

and this is coveted with a series of vibratile cilia.
Tliese organs, as Mr. Gosse observes, are so unique
in their forms and functions, so apparently inde-
pendent of the animal’s will in their movements,
that it was long a matter of dispute whether they
were truly organic appendages or merely parasitic
intruders. The family is well represented in Plate 2,
figs. 1, 2, 3, 4 — fig. 2, Echinus miliaris ; fig. 3, Echinus
elegaus ; fig. 4, Echinus sardicus ; and fig. 1, Echino-
metra mammillutus.

Family II. — CIDARID^ {The Diadems).

This family is distinguished from the Echinidse by
having the tubercles to which the spines are affixed
pierced with a central pit. Through this perforation
a small muscle passes, which is attached to the spine,
and by means of w’hich it is moved. The shelly case
is globose, the ambulacra continuous from mouth to
anus, and the spines are of several forms. The family
is divided into a considerable number of genera, and
contains many species. It is represented in Plate 1,
fig. 2, by Diadema Jistularis^ exhibiting the spines
with which the case is covered; fig. 1, Aslropyga
radiata, with the spines removed to show the structure
of the shell ; and fig. 4, Ciduris imperialis.

Family III.— SCUTELLIDAE {The Cahe-ur chins).

The Cake-urchins have a thick, pentagonal shell
composed of twenty bands of pieces, like the Echinidae.
It is elliptical or circular, and covered with small, uni-
form bristles. This crustaceous covering is usuall}'
thickened internally by an additional coat, and is
strengthened by internal columns, which enable these
brittle-looking shells to resist the action of the sea for
a length of time. The ambulacra are formed of single
series of double bores, forming petal-like impressions
on the dorsal surface ; while on the under surface there
are peculiar ray-like furrows going out from the centre
and ramifying all over il. The vent is posteiior, and
placed near die margin. The mouth is five-sided, and
the jaws are composed of five horizontal plates. This
family is represented in Plate 3, fig. 1, by Echinan-
thus (Clypeaster) subdepressus ; fig. 2, Arachnoides
placenta ; figs. 3, 4, liutula Augusti.

Family IV.— GALERITID^.

The shelly case in this family is thin, elongate or
sub-circular, or sub-conic, and is covered with very
fine bristle-like spines set on very close, small tuber-
cles. The mouth is central and destitute of jaws.
The vent is inferior and placed on the posterior mar-
gin. The ambulacra are arranged in a single series of
double pores. The body, like the Echinidae, &c.', is
formed of twenty vertical bands, the ambulacral bands
being the narrowest. The family is represented on
Plate 4, figs. 1, 2, by Galerites albo-galerus., a fossil
species ; and figs. 3, 4, by Echinoneus minor.

VoL. IT 106

The shell in this family is elongate or sub-circular
and covered with very small, uniform bristles, which
are set upon small tubercles that are scattered 01
placed in series. The mouth is central, or rather in
front^of the centre, and is destitute of jaws. The vent
is posterior, dorsal, or inferior ; and the ambulacra are
formed of two series of double pores. The family is
represented in Plate 3, figs. 7, 8, by Cassidulus Caribat-
arum ; Plate 4, fig. 5, by the fossil species Echinolam-
pas Konigii; and fig. 6, Echinobrissus Breynii, also
fossil.

Family VI. — SPATANGID.® {The Heart-urchins).

The shelly covering in this family is thin, elongate
or sub-circular, with an anterior dorsal groove, gene-
rally heart-shaped, and like the other Echinoidea,
formed of twenty bands of pieces. It is composed of
large polygonal plates, few in number, and is covered
with crowded, uniform, hair-like spines, with larger,
longer ones placed on perforated tubereles, and band-
like fascicles covered with very short, minute spines.
The vent is terminal, and rather above than below the
terminal border. The ambulacra are short, petal-
shaped, and are only four in. number. This family is
represented in Plate 4, figs. 12, 13, by Brissus ventri-
cosus ; and figs. 9, 10, by Schizaster Atropos.

Order II. — ASTEROIDEA {Star- fishes).

The Star-fishes, or Sea-stars as they are often
called, differ considerably from the previous order in
many respects. Instead of having the soft parts of
the body covered by a hard, calcareous case, the Star-
fishes have them protected by a coriaceous, leathery,
or cartilaginous skin, strengthened by calcareous plates
imbedded in its substance, and in which are implanted
spines or tubercles. The body is expanded into a
series of arms, generally five in number, frequently
more, varying from eight to thirty, and of the same
structure as itself. The under surface of these arms
is marked with gutters or grooves proceeding from
the mouth in the centre of the disc to the very tip,
and which are called the ambulacra or avenues —
answering to the same parts described by that name in
the Echini. These gutters are pierced, as in these ani-
mals, with several rows of small holes, through whieh
issue tentacula with expanded tips capable of contract-
ing and elongating themselves. It is by means of these
tentacles, acting as suckers, that the animals are enabled
to walk. The mouth of the Star-fishes is always placed
in the inferior centre of the rays. This leads to the
stomach, which is in form of a bag, and which pos-
sesses only one aperture, through which the food is
received and the indigestible part rejected. From this
stomach two branched caeca extend to each ray. The
food of these animals consists of young shells, small
Crustacea, and other marine creatures. They have the

394

AsTEBHDjE.-

-RADIATA.-

-Ophiurid^,

power of reproducitig lost parts when accidentally de-
stroyed. If an entire arm be torn off, provided a small
portion of the body remains attached to it, other arms
are reproduced, and a fresh, perfect animal is formed.
In each ray we find two ovaries, and it is supposed that
the animals can reproduce their species without the aid
of a second individual. The spawn is said to he veno-
mous to the touch, and poisonous to the animals which
eat them. The larvae, or young, are very different in
appearance from the adult animal. They are ciliated,
and move with great quickness by means of their vibra-
tile cilia, and swim rapidly, rotating round their axis.
The order Asteroidea is rather an extensive one, com-
prising numerous species and many genera, which may
be arranged in five Families: — I. Anteriidce ; II. Astro-
pectenidce; III. Pentacerotidce ^ IV. Asterinidce; and
V. Ophiuridce.

Family I. — ASTERIID^ {True Sea-stars).

In this family, the typical Star-fishes, the rays are
five in number, and they much exceed in length the
diameter of their disc. The family is represented on
Plate 6, fig. 2., by A. cylindrica.

Family II. — ASTROPECTENID.® {Astropectens).

In this family the back of the rays or arms, which
are various in number, are- thin and netted, and have

Solaster papposus.

numerous tubercles at the junction of each of the little
bones, which are covered at their tips with many small
movable spines. They are very beautiful creatures.
The family is well represented by a species found on

the coast of England, Astropecten irregularis, the
“ Asterias aurantiaca” of Muller, and by the Solaster
papposus, the Rosy Sun-star or Ten-fingers — see fig.
235 — which, as this latter name indicates, possesses
ten rays, that nearly equal in length the diameter of
the disc.

Family III. —PENT ACEROTIDiE.

This family is characterized by the body being
formed of large roundish tubercles, the skin between
which is pierced with small holes. The genera into
which the members of this family have been divided,
are rather numerous. Many of the species have their
backs studded with conical tubercles, which enlarge in
size as the part on which they are placed increases.
These tubercles sometimes fall off as the animal be-
comes larger, and are easily separated, leaving a flat
scar when the animal is dead. — {Gray.)

This family is represented in Plate 6, fig. 3, by
Pentagonaster pulcliellus, a species which is found in
the Indian seas.

Family IV. — ASTERINEDJU {The Birds'-
foot Stars).

This, the last family of the Asteroidea, have the body
formed of compressed pieces, placed one over the other
like the tiles on a house. They are generally thin,
flat, and pentangular, have always a thin
margin, and are covered above and beneath
with fasciculated spines. Some of the
species have the back convex, and a few
are possessed of many rays.

Family V. — OPHIURID^ {Lizard-
tailed Star -fishes).

This family of Echinoderms is char-
acterized by the species having a more
or less orbicular, depressed body, with
five cylindrical, jointed, very flexible arms,
which are sometimes very long, and re-
peatedly divided into branches. Their
arms are furnished with a series of small
pores along each side of the under sur-
face, and they have a lunate hole on each
side of the base of their arms. They
are scaly, like the tails of serpents or
lizards, and are very fragile ; hence their
common English name. They are desti-
tute of grooves or gutters underneath,
and have in consequence no tentacles.
Their motion, therefore, is different from
that of the true Star-fishes. When they
move, the animals employ the two arms
nearest the point to which they wish to
go, and the one farthest from it. The
two first, curving at the extremities, form
two hooks directed outwardly, which applying them-
selves to the sand, draw the body forwards; whilst
the posterior arm is curved vertically, and pushes the
animal along. The species of Lizard-tails live exclu-

Fig. 236.

Cbinoidea.- EADIATA. Holothukoidea. 395

sively in sandy shores, and hide themselves in the
mud at the least appearance of danger. Like the true
Star-fishes, if these animals lose their arms, they are
able quickly to renew them ; and during summer a few
days siifiice to replace their loss.

THE TEUE LIZAED-TAIIS ( Opldura) have the body
covered with spines or scales ; and the arms, which
are always simple, are furnished with cross series of
spines on the sides, which in some of the species are
short and appressed, in others long and expanded.
These arms, or rays, are almost always five in number,
and e.xtremely flexible, though composed of rigid and
fragile plates. The family is represented on Plate 6,
fig. 1, by Opldura mutica; fig. 3, 0. squamosa \ fig.
4, 0. Lamarclcii; and fig. 2, Euryale simplex‘s and on
Plate 6, fig. 1, by OpMothrix lineolata.

THE GOEGON-HEADS, or MEDUSA-HEADS (^Astro-
phyton), have the arms repeatedly branched, so as to
end in very small flexible filaments, by means of which
the animal attaches itself to marine bodies, and strains
its food from the surrounding water. It is from this
extraordinary branched disposition of the arms that
the species have derived their name.

THE COMMON MEDUSA’S HEAD {Astrophyton
arhorescens) is a native of the North Sea, and has
been particularly noticed by some of our early arctic
voyagers.

Order III. — CEINOIDEA {Feather-stars).

The order Crinoidea is characterized by the species
composing it bemg furnished with five arms, which
bifurcate so close to their origin as to appear like ten.
These arms are long, slender, jointed, the joints being
composed of calcareous matter, and furnished with a
series of processes on each side like a feather; hence
their English name. In most of the species these
arms, besides being divided at their base, are repeatedly
subdivided as they approach their termination. The
body of the animal is surrounded with hard shelly
plates. This order of Echinoderms contains several
families and an immense number of species; but with
few exceptions these are fossil. To geologists they
are particularly interesting, as their remains are found
in vast abundance in the limestone formations, forming
whole beds of great extent, and composing immense
strata of what is known as “ entrochal marble,” which
are found extending ever large tracts of country in
Northern Europe and North America. Almost all
these fossil Crinoideans had an elongate peduncle or
stem, and the joints which composed this stem are
called entrocld, or wheel-stones. Being perforated in
the centre, they are well formed for being strung as
beads ; and in Koman Catholic times, and in Roman
Catholic countries, they have been used as rosaries.
In several parts of the north of England these detached
beads are very common on the sea-shore, and are
called “ St. Cuthb6rt’s beads.” One of the Fern
islands, on the coast of Northumberland, was particu-
larly celebrated as the place where the holy Saint
Cuthbert manufactured these beads for the use of the
faithful. The body of the animal is known by the
general name of “ Encrinite,” or the “ Stone-lily,”

and a fine collection of these remains, from the moun-
tain limestone of Yorkshire, exists in the British
Museum.

Of this very numerous order of Echinoderms only
two genera exist, which contain species that are still
found in the recent form at the present day. The
species are few in number, and some of them are
exceedingl}^ rare.

Family— PENTACRINITID^.

The animals of this family are composed of two
kinds — the one having an elongated peduncle furnished
with claspers, and being fixed by a root to the bottom
of the sea ; the other existing (in the adult state) as a
free animal, swimming at will through the water.

Genus Pentacrinus. — This genus contains the first
kind. The peduncle, to the top of which the star or
body is attached, and by the base of which it is fixed
as by a root, is a long column, formed of numerous
pentangular joints, and has five auxiliary side arms
formed of round joints, proceeding from it at intervals.
At the upper extremity of this column is what is called
the pelvis, composed of five plates, from which ten
arms proceed, each subdividing into three fingers.

THE PENTACEINUS CAPUT-MEDUSAJ is the only
recent species knowm, and individuals appear to be
exceedingly rare in collections. It is a native of the
West Indian seas, and three fine specimens may be seen
in the British Museum. In none of the four or five
individuals, which are all that are known to exist in
museums, is the base of the stem perfect. We have
thus no positive knowledge as to whether it adhered
by a fixed base or had a locomotive power. Some
authors indeed assert that this Pentacrinus is an animal
that crawls along the bottom of the sea; but from
the appearance of the peduncles and the analogy the
species hears to some of the fossil ones, it is much
more probable that it adheres by its base to some ex-
traneous matter, and that it stands more or less erect
in the sea, bending down so as to yield to the force of
the waves, and rising again when the storm is over.

Genus Comatula, or Feather-star. — This genus
is the second kind of animal belonging to the family
PentacrinilidcB. The body in this genus is orbicular,
depressed, and very small. It is protected above by
an assemblage of calcareous pieces, and provided with
five great rays, deeply bifid and pinnate, and one or
two rows of short, accessory, articulated, simple rays,
hj^ means of which the animal attaches itself to foreign
bodies. The buccal or labial channel is continued
throughout the whole length of the axis and pinnacles
of the great rays, is fleshy, and is provided with cirrhi,
which serve the animal to seize its prey.

THE ROSY PEATHER-STAR {Comatula rosea) has
been long known as a native of the British seas. Its
history is exceedingly interesting, but we must refer
to the writings of Mr. J. V. Thompson, Professor E.
Forbes, &c., for further information.

Order IV. — HOLOTHUKOIDEA {Sea-cucumhers).

The animals belonging to this order of Echinoderms
have many characters in common with the Echinidm:

396 Acaleph^. RADIATA Acalephs.

but instead of being inclosed in a shelly case, their skin

are a great many species and varieties now known,

is only hardened with irregular scale-like or oblong

though formerly they were all described under one, viz..

calcareous plates. The body is more or less elongated

Holothuria edulis. These animals are all natives of

and cylindrical, sometimes vermiform, soft or flexible

the Indian and Australian seas, and are well known

in all its parts, very extensile and contractile, and fur-

under the general name of Trepang, Tripang, Biche-de-

*

nished with numerous suckers, by means of which their

mer, or Beche-de-mar. They are generallyfound adher-

movements are effected. They have a large orifice at

ing to rocks near the shore. Some of them attain a

each extremity, at the anterior end of which is situated

'considerable size, reaching to nearly the length of two

the mouth, placed at the bottom of a kind of funnel,

feet, and the circumference of seven or eight inches.

which is surrounded, or supported throughout its whole

These animals are much esteemed by the Chinese as a

circumference, by a circle of small calcareous fibres,

nutritious article of food, and are particularly used for

and crowned with a circle of from five to ten branchial

flavouring their soup. They form an important article

appendages more or less plumose. These the animal

of commerce amongst the natives of the islands of the

can at pleasure retract entirely. The reproductive

Indian archipelago. Cochin China, the islands belong-

organs are situated near the mouth, and each animal

ing to Australia, &c. Thousands of Malay proas are

is bisexual. At the extremity opposite to the mouth

annually engaged in this fishery, and the produce taken

there is situated the respiratory organ or gill, which is

to Canton is sold at an average for about forty-five

in the shape of a hollow tree very much branched, and

Spanish dollars per picul (= 133J lbs). Macassar is

the animal can receive or expel water by means of this

tlie head quarters for this fisher}', and about 8,333 cwt.

apparatus, which possibly thus assists it in its locomo-

are annually exported from thence to Canton. There

tion, as well as supplies air from the inhaled water.

are two principal kinds of Trepang sold in Canton.

These animals are, like the leeches amongst the Anne-

“ The black, called coatoo, is sold to the Chinese for

lides, exceedingly sensitive, and when disturbed will

forty dollars the picul ; the white or grey, called koj'o,

sometimes contract so violently that the integuments

is worth no more than twenty.” Though the natives

are ruptured and the intestines protrude. The Hole-

of the Celestial Empire are very partial to the Trepang

thurioids are generally distributed through the seas of

as an article of food, Europeans do not share in their

the globe, but are congregated in the greatest numbers

taste.

in the Eastern seas. “ On our shores,” says Professor
Forbes, “they are rare and unattractive animals, but

Order V.— SIPUNCULOIDEA (Siphon-worms).

abroad they are very abundant.” Those of the Euro-

The order Sipunculoidea is characterized by the

pean seas are never highly coloured, but in more tropical

animals having a coriaceous covering, free from any

ones, where coral reefs rise within a moderate distance

calcareous bodies. The mouth, or commencement of

of the surface, as in the Red Sea and the seas to the

the oesophagus, is not surrounded by calcareous fibres.

north and east of Australia, they are many of them

and the form of the body is eylindrical.

splendidly coloured. The general form of the Hole-

The family Sipunculida: is represented by the genus

thuriae is that of a cucumber, and many of the species

Sipunculus, whicli has the anterior part of the body or

are of a gelatinous nature and esculent.

neck retractile and exsertile. At the extremity of this

The species belonging to this order are numerous.

retractile neck is placed the mouth, which is of an

and are arranged in several groups or families.

orbicular form, and from which is protruded a retractile

The True Holothurians (Sea-cucumbers or Sea-slugs)

proboscis surrounded with linear tentacles. The vent

have a rather soft, somewhat elongated, subcylindrical

is situated at the side near the anterior third of the

body, covered throughout with tentaculiform suckers.

length of the most swollen part of the body.

which in the genus Holothuria form regular lines from

The SipuncuU live in the sand of the sea-shore near

the mouth to the vent.

high water mark, or amongst the debris of broken shells.

THE NIGGER OR COTTON SPINNER {Holothuria

Their food appears to consist of the mud of the shore.

mgra) is the only species of the genus Holothuria that

mixed up with organic particles. A considerable num-

is found in Great Britain. It is taken in the Cornish

ber of species have been described, and not fewer than

seas in deep water, and is held in great detestation by

ten have been found on the British coasts. Some of

the fishermen on that coast.

the species perforate submarine rocks and lodge in the

Genus Trepang. — The genus Trcpang, containing

cavities so made, or take possession of old shells, like

several edible species, belongs to this family. There

the hermit crabs.

Class II.— The SEA NETTLES or ACALEPHS (Acalephj!).

The Sea-nettles, or Acalephs, form a class of interest-

productions of the intestines, hollowed in the substance

ing creatures of beautiful structure and appearance.

of the body. This body is composed of a transpai-ent

which, however, to be fully understood, must be studied

gelatinous substance formed of polyhedral ceils, and

on the spot where they are found. As Cuvier defines

there is only in a few to be seen any calcareous or

them, they are animals which are found swimming in

cartilaginous nucleus that can be compared to a rudi-

the sea, and in whose organization may be perceived

mentary skeleton. The quantity, indeed, of solid mat-

vessels, which in truth are most frequently nothing but

ter in them is so small, that if wo take a Medusa (for

PULMOGRADA.-

KADIATA. CiLioGRADA. 397

instance) out of the water, and lay it on a board or
dry stone, it deliquesces so rapidly, that an individual
weighing fifty ounces when taken out of the sea, has
been found in no great length of time to leave nothing
behind but a little dry cellular tissue weighing no more
than five or six grains ! Their organs are arranged in
ray-like processes radiating from a common centre or
a longitudinal axis, in which are lodged the digestive
organs. Their body is surrounded by a very delicate
epidermis ; and on the arms, tentacles, and other parts
of the body, there exist a number of cilia and peculiar
prehensile organs, which produce when handled a
stinging sensation like that of nettles. These are
generally known by the name of nettling organs ; and
it is from this stinging property that the Acalephshave
acquired the name of Sea-nettles.

These creatures are in general of small size, ordy
rendered obvious, indeed, to the naked eye by another
property they possess — that of their phosphorescent
luminosity. Some, however, are of considerable dimen-
sions, and as seen at night far out at sea, appear like
globes of fire or cannon balls heated to incandescence,
rolling along far below the keel of the ship. Some of
them are hermaphrodite or bisexual, while others are
of one sex alone. They are propagated by eggs, and
according to the plan of what is known as the alter-
nation of generations. The eggs produce a series of
young which at first resemble infusory animalcules.
These little creatures become fixed after a time, and
assume a poh^p-like form, which gives birth bj^ gemma
ation to a new progeny, which ultimately assumes the
original form. They also multiply their kind by gem-
mation alone, little ones springing out almost ready-
made from the substance of their parents, chiefly from
the walls of the peduncle, or the surface of the
ovaries, and closely resembling the parent from which
they sprung.

The species of Acalephse are numerous ;* elegant
pellucid beings, of varied hues, and diverse forms, float-
ing on or near the surface of the water, and moving
with a considerable variety of modes of locomotion.

We arrange them in four orders, and this diversity
in their method of progression forms an excellent basis
for their classification. These four orders are —

I. Pulmograda, or Discopliora, containing the
Medusae, &c.

II. Ciliograda, or Ctenophora, containing the Be-
roes, &c.

III. Cmdiigrada, containing the Velellae and Por-
pitae, &c.

IV. Phjsograda. containing the Physaliae and
Diphyidae.

Order L— PULMOGEADA or DISCOPHORA.

The animals belonging to this order of Acalephae are

♦ Some of the smaller kinds are very abundant in the northern
seas. Scoresby (ells us that they are found chiefly in those por-
tions oi the sea where the water was of an olive-green colour.
The number, he says, was found to be immense. “ They were
•about one-fourth of an inch asunder. In this proportion a cubic
inch of water must contain 64; a cubic foot 110,592 ; a cubic
fathom 23,887,882 ; and a cubic mile about 23,888,000,000,000 !
Provided the depth to which they extend be but 250 fathoms,
the .above immense number of one species may occur in a space
of two mites square.”

generally known by the name of Medusae, “ Sea-blub-
bers, or Jelly-fishes.” Their motion through the water
is etfected by means of a powerful contraction of the
body, b}' which the water contained in its hollow is
expelled ; and by thus alternately dilating and contract-
ing the body, the animals are enabled to propel them-
selves with tolerable rapidity.

The Medusae are entirely gelatinous, consisting of a
large hemispherical disc, more or less convex above,
very much like a mushroom or an umbrella. They
have no solid axis, but have an elongated peduncle
suspended from the inner surface of the umbrella, in
which is situated a simple central stomach ; and the
margin of the disc is furnished with long tentacula,
which hang down from it in the water. The pellucid
nature and hemispherical form of the Meduste have
often caused them to be likened to glass globes and
lamp glasses.

The Pulmograde Acalephs or Medusae are divided
into two groups or sub-orders : 1st. The Hooded-
EYED Meduste or Phanerocarpae ; and 2nd. The
Naked-eyed Medus.^e, or Cryptocarpae.

To the first sub-order (Phanerocarpoi) belong the
true Medusae, and these again have been divided into
several families.

The- family Rlnzostornidm is represented in Plate 2,
fig. 4, by the species Rhizostoma Cuvierii, an inhabi-
tant of the European seas.

The famil}" Medusidce is represented in Plate 2,
fig. 1, by the Medusa {Cyanea) aurita, a native of
European seas ; in Plate 2, fig. 3, by the Pelagia pla-
nospira.

The second sub-order (the Cryptocarpce) or Naked-
eyed Medusae contains numerous species. The British
species have found an able historian in the late Profes-
sor E. Forbes, who in his excellent memoir, published
by the Ray Society, has described upwards of forty
found on our shores.

The family Geryoniidai is represented in Plate 2.
fig. 6, by Geronyahexaphylla.

The family Berenicidm is represented in Plate 2,
fig. 5, b}' Berenice rosea.

The family MUquoreidce is represented in Plate 1, fig.
9, by the jPequorea Forslcaelina — a native of the Medi-
terranean and Atlantic seas.

Order II.— CILIOGRADA or CTENOPHORA.

The animals belonging to this order of Acalephae
are well represented by the curious creatures known
by the name of Beroes. Their motion through the
water is effected by means of numerous small vibratile
cilia, disposed in rows upon the sides of the body.

There are several families belonging to this order.
The family Beroidm or True Beroes is represented in
Plate 1, fig. 1, by the species Beroe macrostoma.

The family Callianiridoe is represented by a species
of Janira {J. hexagona), Plate 1, fig. 2.

Genus Cestum. — This genus is an aberrant form of
this order, but connected to the other members of it by
a succession of intermediate links. It is represented in
Plate 1. fig. 6, by the only species belonging to it,

3i)8

ZOOPHYTA.-

-KADIATA.-

-Anthozoa.

known by the name of the Girdle of Venus {Cestum
Veneris) a native of the Mediterranean,

Order III.— CIRRHIGKADA.

This order of Acalephs contains a number of animals
the body of which is almost membranous, oval, or
circular in shape, and supported by an internal sub-
cartilaginous part. Their organs of locomotion consist
of numerous extensile, tentacular ciirhi, pendent from
the whole of the under surface ; and it is by the action
of these organs that their motion through the water is
effected. The order is well represented by the Velellce
and PorpitcB.

Genus Velella (the Sallee-man). — This genus,
forming the type of the family Velellidcr^ is represented
in Plate 1, fig. 8, by the species V. cyanea.

Genus Porpita. — This genus, forming the type of
another family, is represented by Porpita gigantea in
Plate 1, fig. 7.

Order-IV.— PHYSOGRADA.

The animals belonging to this order are characterized

by their possessing one or more vessels filled with air,
by means of which they keep themselves suspended
in the water; and by their being furnished with more
or less numerous cirrhiform tentacula attached to these
air vessels. The species are numerous, and are dis-
tributed throughout several families.

The family Physoplwridce contain several genera
composed of animals found floating on the surface of
the sea, and is represented in Plate 2, fig. 2, by
Physalia pelagica (or megalista)., the common “Portu-
guese man of war,” as it is called; and in Plate 1, fig.
5, by Physophora disticha*

The family Diphydce consists of gelatinous trans-
parent little creatures, which appear, when closely
examined, to consist of two crystalline-looking pieces
like bits of glass. These two portions are always found
the one included within the cavitj' of the other, but
capable cf being separated without injury to each other.
The family is represented in Plate 1, fig. 4, by the
beautifully delicate Diphyes Boryi or Campamdifera, an
exotic species, but which is sometimes thrown up on
our own coasts, particularly the flat sandy beaches of
No’folk and Suffolk.

Class III. — ZOOPHYTA* or POLYPI (Zoophytes or Polyps).

This class of radiated animals is thus characterized
by Milne Edwards: — Animals organized for a sedentarj'
mode of life, having no locomotive organs, and being
provided with a circle of retractile tentacula round the
mouth, and a central gastric cavity not communicating
with a vent, and containing the reproductive organs
when they exist ; in general fissiparous or multiplying
by buds as well as by ovules. They received the name
Zoophytes (animal plants) because the animals are often
crowded together in societies or families in such a
manner as to assume the form of trees — a form assumed
so as to allow each of the individuals of which the
society is composed to procure a fair and equal share
of nourishment from the water which surrounds them
and on which they live, as the leaves of trees extract

nourishment from the air in which the plant grows.
The union which they form with each other is some-
times so intimate, that one individual cannot be injured
without its becoming felt by the whole society. The
permanent fabric formed by these animals is called
Polypidom (the house of the Polyps). The Zoophytes,
taken as a class by themselves, have been divided into
two sub-classes or divisions, according as the animals
assume the radiated or the molluscan type. These are
termed the Anthozoa, or Radiated zoophytes ; and the
Bryozoa, or Molluscan zoophytes, which are now con-
sidered by many naturalists to form a class of Mollusca,
following and nearly related to the Tunicata. Many
of the more transparent Zoophytes are highly luminous.
See page 381, Mollusca.

Sub-class I. — ANTHOZOA.t

Though we retain here this sub-class of Anthozoa, or
“ animal flowers,” as part of the class Zoophyta, weave
aware that from late observations made as to their
structure, the animals of the Anthozoa appear to be
closely related to the Medusce, and form indeed, accord-
ing to these observations, a sub-order of the Pulrnograda
or Discophorai.

The animals forming the Anthozoa may be thus
characterized : — Body tending to globular, contractile
in every part, symmetrical ; mouth and vent one ;
gemmiparous and oviparous ; mouth surrounded with a
circle of retractile non-ciliated tentacles. They are

* From zoon (Jotv) an animal, and phyton (ijurov) a plant,
t From antlios (clvBoit) a flower, and zoon (iuor) an animal.

divided into three orders, which contain numerous
interesting species — I. Hydroida; II. Asteroida; III.
Helianthoida.

Order I.— ANTHOZOA HYDROIDA {Hydroid
Polyps).

In this order of Zoophytes, the permanent fabric, the
“ House of the Polyps,” the Polypidom, is horny, fistular,
external, and plant-like. The Polyps themselves are
generally compound, and have the body for the most
part of a somewhat globular figure, and of a nearly
homogeneous composition, consisting of an aggregation

* The figure is reversed or turned upside down in the Plate.

Hyduoiua. KADIATA Astkkoiija. 399

of vesicular granules held togetlier by a semi-transparent,
glairy gelatine. They are very contractile, and can
change their form at pleasure. The tentacula sur-
rounding the mouth are generally numerous, and are
always simple and filiform, or tapering a little towards
the extremity, and have their surface roughened more
or less with granules arranged in an imperfectly verti-
cillate fashion. These granules are possessed of a
peculiar apparatus adapted for paralyzing and killing
the animalcules the Polype feeds upon. They are
similar in form and function to what in the Acaleplm
are called the nettling organs. In the centre of these
tentacula is placed the month, which is very dilatable,
and leads by a short passage into the stomach.

The Anthozoa are propagated b}' buds or gemmules,
and by eggs ; the former extending their individual
life, and the latter multiplying and continuing the
species. The bud is a shoot from the body, and is
identical in structure with the part of the parent whence
it pullulates. The eggs are of several kinds. One sort
produces young, which, when first born, are very unlike
their parents, and resemble minute Medusae. They
are free and unattached, swimming at large in the
water, and possess a higher organization than the adult
animal. They have senses to guide, and muscles to
move the body to and fro ; and it is not until they have
undergone a series of changes or metamorphoses, that
they become staid, their muscles and nerves disappear,
and they fall down into an inferior order. Another
sort produces young which undergo no change in their
development amounting to a metamorphosis. As soon
as they are extruded from the ovisac they settle, root,
and glide insensibly into the resemblance of the parent
species. A third set are in the form of ciliated animal-
cules, which have freedom of motion, and swim in the
water as if guided by volition and sense, whirling on
their axis, and stopping occasionally as if in search of
a situation on which to fix themselves. After a short
life of this sort they obtain a proper site for their per-
manent stay and future growth, and begin to shoot up
into those beautiful forms peculiar to the species.
Many, if not all of the marine Hydroid polyps, are lumi-
nous in the dark.

The Hydroid anthozoa are composed of numerous
species, arranged in several families.

The family Tubulariidce, the species of which have
a distinct polypidom, is represented in our plate of
Zoophytes, fig. 5, by the exotic species Tuhularia
chjtoidea.

The family Sertidariidce, in which the polypidom is
plant-like, horny, variously branched, and tubiilar, is
represented in our Plate 2, fig. 2, by the British species
Seriularia (Dynamena) pumila, the Sea-oak coralline
of Ellis, and fig. 14 by the exotic species Flumidaria
secundaria.

In the family Campanulariidce, the polypidom is
also plant-like and horny, as in the preceding family.
It is illustrated in Plate 2, fig. 1, by the “ Sea-thread
coralline” of Ellis, Laomedia dichotoma, a species found
in various parts of Great Britain and Ireland.

The family Hpdroidce, containing the fresh-water
polypes, so well and popularly known under the name
of Hydra, though placed amongst the Anthozoa by |

most naturalists, is considered by some others as equi-
valent to an order by themselves.

In the animals belonging to tin's family, and which
consists of a single genus {Hydra), the Polypes are
locomotive, single, naked, gelatinous, sub-cylindrical,
but very contractile and mutable in form, the mouth
encircled with a single series of granulous filiform ten-
tacula. The Hydrse are all natives of fresh water alone.
Though usually found attached, they can nevertheless
move from place to place, either by gliding with imper-
ceptible slowness on the base, or by stretching out the
body and tentacula to the utmost, fixing the latter and
then contracting the body towards the point of fixture,
loosening at the same time its hold with the base. Their
usual motion is very slow; but when seizing their prey,
they are nimble and active. They are exceedingly
voracious, and their long tentacula are spread out
in all directions to entrap their victims. Worms and
other annelids are killed almost immediately they aie
seized, though Entomostracous crustaceans, which are
provided with a shell, fiequently escape from their
grasp unharmed. This has lately been explained by
the investigations into the nettling organs which are
found in these tentacula, and which have been already
mentioned in treating of the Acalcphce.

Order II.— ANTHOZOA ASTEROIDA {Asteroid
Polypes).

The Asteroid polypes have the polypidom variable in
form, either free or attached, of a fleshy consistence,
strengthened with a horny or calcareous axis, enveloped
in a gelatinous crust in which the Pol^’pes are immersed.
These are compound, living in societies closely united
in a single mass by their outer skin ; and the mouth
is surrounded with only eight fringed tentacula. The
stomach ends in six or eight elongated processes, which
are considered as the oviducts. The polype mass is
ju'opagated by gemmation ; and as each species emits
its buds in a peculiar form, the shape and size of the
mass depends upon the manner or preordained fashion
in which the buds are evolved. The species, again,
are propagated or increased by eggs. These are expelled
from the ovisacs into the stomach, and from thence
ejected into the sea. They are ciliated, and possess
motion, as if apparently actuated by volition. Some of
the species are phosphorescent. By far the greater
number have a thick, spongy outer skin, which is often
strengthened by having variously-shaped calcareous
grains or rugose, and more or less fusiform calcareous
spicula, imbedded in its surface. In general the com-
mon mass has an expanded base, by which it is attached
to some marine body, and when the mass assumes an
erect or branched tree-like form, the animals secrete in
the centre of their body a more or less rigid support,
which has been called tbeir axis, and which has some-
times, though erroneously (from its being commonly
seen in collections without the remains of the investing
animal), been considered the entire coral. This axis
is thickened by depositions of fresh layers of horny
matter on its surface, as the mass increases in size and
requires more support ; the increase of the thickness
and length of the axis being always simultaneous with

400 OoRNULAKIA.— — KADIATA. H iclianthoiua.

the growth of the mass — such are the Gorgonias.
When the common mass is of alow, rounded shape, the
spicula in the substance of the skin are strong enough
to support the mass — such we see to be the case in the
Alcyoniuns, or Sea-fingers {Alcyoiiidw).

Family— CORNULAEIA.

The family Cornulariidce, which has a horny external
skin like that possessed by the genus Tuhularia, is
represented in Plate 1, fig. 1, by the pretty species,
Cornidaria (rugosa) rosea.

Family — GORGONIID.® {Gorgonias).

In the Gorgonias or Bark-bearing Corals, the polype
mass is attached by a root, and is formed like a small
tree or shrub. Some of theGorgoniae are very handsome,
much branched and reticulated. These species are com-
monly called “Venus’ fans.” In others the mass is not
much branched; but the species are peculiar for having
the axis quite black and very hard, and are well known
by the common name of “ Black Coral” {Antipathes).
These were formerly much esteemed for their supposed
magical and medicinal qualities, but are now only used
for making riding whips and whisks, &c. The family
is represented in Plate 1, fig. 9, by the exotic species
Gorgonia palida.

Family — TUBIPORID.3S (or Organ Corals).

The animals belonging to this family have at first a
tough skin similar to those of the last, which, however,
becomes in time so hardened by the continued deposi-
tion of calcareous matter within its substance, as to
assume the consistence of a hard coral. The animals
live in groups side by side, and the shelly tubes formed
b}' them give the appearance of tlie pipes of an organ ;
hence the English name for the family. These tubes
are of a vivid red, and tlie animals being bright green,
the mass forms a beautiful object when alive. The
family is represented in Plate 1, figs. 2-4, by the
species Tubipura musica.

Family — CORALLIIDiE {2'he Calcareous Corals).

In this family a larger quantity of calcareous matter
is deposited along with the horny matter, and this
forms a stone-like axis, instead of a horny one, as in
Gorgonia.

Genl’s Corallium. — This genus is the type of the
family. To it belongs the celebrated red coral of com-
merce, Corallium rnbrum, a native of the Mediterranean,
and represented in Plato 1, fig. 6 — Isis nobilis. This
coral, so much admired for its fine red colour, and the
high polish of which it is susceptible, is the article so
much used for making beads and other trinkets. It
forms a very profitable trade in the Mediterranean, and
is procured by dredging and diving, the fishery thus
giving employment to numbers of peojtle.

Family — HYALONEMID.® (T/ie Glass-rope
Corals).

In this family (consisting of only one genus and a
single species) the axis is composed of a bundle of thin
transparent fibres, looking exactly like a rope of spun
glass. These fibres are formed of nearly pure flint,
and are hard enough to scratch glass. This axis is
covered with a polypiferous crust as in Gorgonia. The
end of the axis is lodged in a species of sponge. Fine
specimens of the Hyalonema {mirabile ?) from Japan
may be seen in the British Museum.

Family — PENNATULIDAE (or Sea-pens).

This family contains species which have the polype
mass free, floating in the sea, or having the naked part
of the stem sunk into the sand or mud on the coast.

Genus Pennatula. — This genus contains those
species which float free, and which are well known
from their resemblance to a pen, by the name of “ Sea-
pens.” They have only a single axis, which pervades
their central stem, and this, which is called the shaft,
is subcylindrical. The animals come out from the
upper part of the side branches which emanate from
this shaft, and which correspond with the plume of
the pen. These branches or plumes are twice pinnate.
This family is represented in Plate 1, fig. 12, by a
species belonging to the genus Renilla {R. arnericana),
the polype mass of which is fleshy, with a kidney-shaped
expanded head, the animals coming out on the broad
flat sides.

Genus Vikgularia. — This genus contains some of
the species which have the base of the stem sunk in
the sand. A beautiful species, the V. mirabilis, occurs
on our own coasts, the stem or polype mass being
linear, elongate, like a rod or a quill deprived of its
feathers, the side branches being very small.

Order III.— ANTHOZOA PIELIANTIIOIDA
{Zoanthoid Polypes).

The Zoanthoid polypes have the Polypes single, free, oi'
permanently fixed. They are fleshy, either naked or
encrusted with a calcareous polypidom, the upper sur-
face being crossed with radiating lamellae. The mouth
of these Polypes is encircled with tubulous tentacula,
which, being disposed in regular circles and tinged with
various colours, represent not unaptly the petals of
some flowers. Their stomach is membnnous and fur-
nished with more or less numerous longitudinal folds.
They have no intestine, and no visible exit from the
stomach, except the mouth, by which the undigested
remains of the food are ejected, always enveloped in a
large quantity of a clear glairy fluid. They are ovipar-
ous, the ovaries being internal.

This order contains an immense number of species,
some of which are well known to our readers by the
familiar name of Actinia’, and others by the not less
well known term of Madrepores and Corals.

Actinud^. BADIATA. Cokalliphoka. 401

Family — ACTINIIDJ3 (Sea Anemones).

The animals belonging to this famil}' are composed
of a fleshy body resembling a truncated cone seated on
A flat plain base, and generally attached by a glutinous
secretion to stones, rocks, or shells, &c., in the sea.
The centre of the upper surface is dimpled with the
opening into the mouth, and this aperture is furnished
with numerous simple, tubular, retractile tentacula,
placed in one or more series round it. The body is
variously coloured, and the tentacula, brilliant with lively
hues and disposed in circles, give a very striking re-
presentation of the petals of a beautiful flower. It is
from this resemblance that they receive the names of
Sea Anemones, and so like are they to a flower that,
as Mr. Gosse tells us, bees have been arrested by the
resemblance while flying over them, and have been
seen to dart through the water to reach them. A
cluster of these elegant creatures, seen a few feet
below the surface, in clear still water, with their
tentacula fully displayed, presents a striking appearance;
and travellers who have watched them in tropical
seas speak enthusiastically of their beauty. These
tentacula are furnished with the peculiar nettling ap-
paratus described in Medusae.

The movements of the Actinice are very slow. Some
indeed are permanently attached, but others are only
temporarily adherent, to foreign bodies. When these
move they glide along with an impercep'ible motion,
or they detach themselves altogether from their resting
place, previously distending the body with water, to
render it more buoyant, and then allowing themselves
to be carried along with the random motion of the
waves. They are very sensitive to external irritations
and to atmospheric changes, closing themselves up in
cloudy and stormy weather, and expanding themselves
again when the sky is serene. The family is repre-
sented, in Plate 2, fig. 13, by a common British and
very pretty species. Actinia (Cribrina) diuntlius, the
white animal flower.

In the family Zoanthidae the animals have a hard,
cartilaginous outer skin, often strengthened by the
deposition of earthy grains within its surface. In the
genus Zoanthus the body is elongated, conic, and
pedunculated. The animals are distinct from each
other, but several individuals arise from a common
base, which is in the form of a creeping stem. The
family is represented in Plate 2, fig. 12, by an exotic
species, Zoanthus Ellisii.

COEALLIPHORA (Stony Corals).

By far the greater number of Zoanthoid polypes, as
they grow, deposit in the cellular substance of the flesh
of their back an immense quantity of calcareous matter,
which enlarges as the animal increases in size, and, in
fact, fills up all those portions of the substance of the
animal, which, by the growth of new parts, are no
longer wanted for its nourishment; and in this manner
they form a strong and hard case, amongst the folds
of which they can contract themselves, so as to be pro-
tected from external injury, and by the same means
VoL. II. 107

form for themselves a permanent attachment, which
prevents their being tossed about by every wave of the
element in which they live. The stony substances are
called corals, and their mode of formation causes them
exactly to represent the animal which secretes them —
thus giving origin to the numerous sub-divisions in their
classification.

The formation of the various coral islands, and the
vast reefs which act as barriers, and which fringe the
shores of many continents, has given rise to a good deal
of conjecture and discussion. As described by various
voyagers and naturalists, they form exceedingly beauti-
ful and interesting sights. Immense spaces of the
ocean are studded with islands and reefs formed by
these little Anthozoid polypes. As Mr. Darwin says,
we feel surprised when travellers tell us of the vast
dimensions of the Pyramids and other great ruins ; but
how utterly insignificant are the greatest of these when
compared to those mountains of stone accumulated by
the agency of various minute and tender animals! The
Lagoon islands, or “ Atolls,” are often many leagues in
diameter; the Radack group alone forming an irregular
square, five hundred and twenty miles in length, ai d
two hundred and forty broad; the barrier reefs on the
coast of Australia extend nearly a thousand miles;
and the fringing or shore reefs to nearly as much.
Such a result from such a cause is marvellous : —

“ Compared with this amazing edifice,

Eaised by the weakest creatures in existence,

What are the works of intellectual man?

Towers, temples, palaces, and sepulchres.

In honour of the living and the dead,

M^hat are they ? — fine wrought miniatures of art.

Dust in the balance, atoms in the gale.

Compar’d with these achievements in the deep.

Were all the monuments of olden time.

In days when there were giants on the earth:

Babel’s stupendous folly, though it aimed
To scale heaven’s battlements, was but a toy.

The plaything of a world in infancy—

The ramparts, towers, and gates of Babylon,

Built for eternity — though where they stood
Ruin itself stands still for lack of work,

And Desolation keeps unbroken Sabbath —

Great Babylon, in its full moon of empire.

Even when its ‘head of gold ’ was smitten off,

And from a monarch chang’d into a brute —

Great Babylon was like a wreath of sand
Left by one tide, and cancell’d by the next.

Egypt’s dread wonders, still defying Time —

Egypt’s gray piles of hieroglyphic grandeur —

Her Pyramids would be mere pinnacles.

Her giant statues, wrought from rock of granite,

But puny ornaments for such a pile
As this stupendous mound of Catacombs,

Fill’d with dry mummies of the builder worms.’’

Various theories have been produced to account for
the formation of these immense structures. One of
these is, that the coral islands or “Atolls” are based on
submarine craters, and that they rise from profound
depths till they reach the surface. But to this and
other theories there are great objections. This is not
the place, nor have we space to devote to the consider-
ation of this question; but from the observations of Mr.
Darwin and others, it would appear that the animals
forming coral reefs or rocks cannot exist or flourish at
greater depths than from twenty to thirty fathoms.
From this fact he concludes “it is absolutely certain

that throughout these vast areas, wherever there is now
an “ Atoll,” a foundation must have originally existed

Family— MADREPORITIDiE.

within a depth of from twenty to thirty fathoms from

In this family the animals live crowded together in

the surface.” Taking this as a certainty, he solves all

societies, forming a branched coral; and the cellular

difficulty as to the origin of these immense structures.

substance of the animal is in general not so perfectly

by saying that wherever these “ Atolls” occur there

filled with calcareous matter as in the preceding family.

must have been a gradual subsidence of land, which

In consequence of this, we find the species to be of a

served as a basis for the polypiferous corals to erect

more spongy or a lighter texture. It is, however, of

their wonderful structures upon. The Polypes never

these that the coral reefs are chiefly formed. Mr. Dar-

build their corals above low-water mark; hence the

win found on the edges or outer margins of the reefs

coral islands and reefs never rise many feet above the

of the Lagoon islands, that a species of the genus

surface. The elevation of the land upon them is prin-

Porites was the most abundant, and that it formed

cipally owing to the action of the sea. Large masses

great irregularly rounded masses from four to eight

are detached by the waves and washed upon the reef ;

feet broad, and about the same in thickness. The

shells, coral, and other debris are likewise washed up

fringing reefs, again, of the Mauritius had their outer

on to it, and accumulate till a surface is formed with a

edges formed of great shapeless masses of branching

layer of soil upon it capable of supporting various forms

Madrepores, belonging chiefly to two species, the Mad-

of vegetable life.

repora corymbosa and M. poeillifera.

There are numerous genera and species of coral, the
variations of form depending upon the manner in which

Family — MILLEPORID.®.

the animal emits from the whole surface, or from a

According to Mr. Nelson, the animals forming the

particular part of the sides of its body, the bud by

corals belonging to this family are very different

which the new individuals of the general mass or society

from those of any other coral, being quadrangular.

are produced. The specimens usually shown in col-

expanded at intervals into four rays, and destitute

lections are small individuals which grow in sheltered

of any true tentacles. — ( Gray.) The greater bulk of the

places among the rocks, where they are not exposed

described species of millepores are fossil. A few, how- •

to ihe action of the waves, and collected before they

ever, are recent ; and one of these {Millepora compla-

have reached their proper magnitude. The illustra-

nata) is said by Mr. Darwin to be next to Porites in

tions in Plate 2 of the various genera of corals, give

abundance, as forming the reefs of the Lagoon islands.

a very poor idea of the beauty of these formations.

This species appears to possess the stinging or nettling

In the family Madrephylliidse the genus CaryophylUa

power possessed by the Actiniae. Lieut. Burnaby,

is represented on Plate 2, figs. 6-7, by the CaryophylUa

R.N., informed the writer of this, that at the Cocos or

solitaria. The genus Astrsea is represented at figs.

Keeling islands he had often experienced this fact.

4-5, hy Astreea ananas; the genus Meandrina, or Brain

Mr. Darwin, at the same locality, says that he found

Coral, at figs. 10-11 by Meandrina lirnosa; and at fig. 3

both this species and Millepora alcicornis to possess

by M. cerebriformis ; and the genus Oculina is repre-

this power. The family is represented in Plate 1,

sen ted at figs. 8—9 by Oculina varicosa.

fig. iO, by the species Millepora spongites.

Sub-class II. — POLYZOA or BRYOZOA (Molluscan Zoophytes).

By many naturalists this sub-class of Zoophytes is

class Polyzoa have been arranged in two orders, accord-

placed in the sub-kingdom Mollusca. In some respects.

ing to the disposition of the tentacles which surround

as we have observed already at the conclusion of our

the mouth — 1st, Those which have the tentacles dis-

article Mollusca, the species are closely allied to

posed in a ring surrounding the unarmed mouth — all

those of the class Tunicata, more especially the family
Botryllida. or Compound Ascidians ; and in others they
approach the Terehratulce amongst the Brachiopoda.
The Polyzoa are compound animals, and the growth
formed by the associated animals or colony, is termed
“ polyzoary,” corresponding with the “ polypidom” of

natives of the sea, the Infundibulata ; and 2nd, Those
in which the tentacles are disposed in a crescent, or
horse-shoe shape — all natives of fresh water, the Hippo-
crepia.

Order L— INFUNDIBULATA.

the Anthozoa. This is formed of a number of little

This order is by far the most extensive in number.

chambers, or cells, organically united, each of which

The animals have the tentacles disposed in an unin-

contains a polypide. They possess organs of digestion.

terrupted series round the annular disc surrounding the

respiration, and circulation, have a muscular and

unarmed mouth. This order is represented in Plate 1,

nervous system, and in an embryonic state are fur-

fig. 8, by Bicellaria fastigiata ; in fig. 7, by Cellepora

nished with organs of motion. Their reproduction is
effected in three different modes ; by gemmation, by

hyalina; and in fig 11, by Serialaria lendigera.

ova, and by what have been called free locomotive
embryos.

Order IL— HIPPOCREPIA.

The numerous species of animals belonging to the

This order contains only, comparatively speaking,

Trotozoa. KADIATA. Infusoria. 403

few species, and .these are all natives of fresh water.

longing to it possessing, when adult, a locomotive

The animals have their tentacles disposed in a crescentic

faculty. This creature is a native of the fresh waters

or horse- shoe series round the disc surrounding the

of Great Britain, and is found floating on the surface.

mouth. The order is well represented by the “ Bell-

Though it does possess motion, its progression is very

flower Animals” of some of the earlier writers on the

slow, seldom exceeding an inch in twelve or twenty-

microscope, the genus Plumatdla. Another genus,

four hours. This beautiful species forms a fine object

Cristatella, is remarkable from the only species be-

for microscopic inspectioa

Class IV. —

PROTOZOA.

The Class Protozoa, contains an immense number of

in high latitudes, where vegetable life ceases to be

creatures, very minute in size, and very low in organi-

represented, but where animal life is still in abundance.

zation. They all belong to two large orders — 1. In-

Infusoria are there found to exist in inconceivable

fusoria; 2. Rhizopoda.

numbers, and form the principal food of the fishes
inhabiting these regions. They frequently occur in

Order I. — INFUSOEIA (Infusory Animalcules).

such immense numbers as to colour large tracts of
water with very remarkable hues. Some species im-

The animals belonging to this order of animals are

part a hlood-red tint to the water, and Ehrenberg has

for the most part extremely minute, and have been

thrown out the conjecture that these little creatures

made known to us by the aid of the microscope. They

were the agents employed in the miracle worked by

inhabit stagnant water, fresh or salt, in which plants

Moses in turning the waters of Egypt into blood !

are growing, or in which an abundance of decayed

Others give a blue colour, while a third set tinge the

vegetable or animal matter is contained. Most of

whole surface with green. At sea, though singly in-

them are invisible to the naked eye, and species have

visible, they produce one kind of the phosphorescent

been described from l-1500th to l-2000th of a line

light so often observed in the ocean. Formerly, before

in length. So exceedingly minute, indeed, are they.

their history was well understood, they were errone-

that it is calculated a moderate-sized drop of water

ously considered to derive their being, directly and

may contain five hundred millions of these minims of

spontaneously, from the decomposition of animal or

creation ! They are of very simple organization, as

vegetable matter in water, and were, from their sudden

they are furnished with neither vessels nor nerves, are

appearance in such situations, and in such immense

not S3'mmetrical, have not distinct sexes, have no

numbers, held to prove the truth of what is called

visible eggs, and are without determined or permanent

“ spontaneous generation.” Infusoria can resist a de-

digestive cavity. The chief organs of which they

gree of cold equal to 8° of Fahrenheit, and a degi'ee of

are composed appear to be internal spherical cavities.

heat equal to 260° Fahrenheit. According to Ehren-

which frequently contain foreign particles supposed to

berg, who has studied these creatures with great care,

serve as food, and which are derived from the sur-

they are divided' into two large groups, which he de-

rounding water, entering into the substance of the body.

nominates Polygastrica and Rotifera.

and moving through it by the general contraction of

This latter group, however, has now been proved to

the mass, and being expelled through the opposite

be of a much higher organization than the former, and

side. Some have no visible locomotive organs, others

has accordingly been removed from the class Infusoria

have; and these are either cilia, or changeable processes.

into a separate class by itself, allied to the Crustacea.

as they are called— expansions of the substance of the

The Polygastrica have also been proved to contain

body. The substance itself which forms the body is

whole families and sections which are not true Infusoria.

called Sarcode, and in perhaps the greater number is

Thus the Diatomacecc and Desmidiacece have been

a glutinous, homogeneous, or slightly granular diapha-

proved to be forms of Algm. The Vibrionina are now

nous mass. In some Infusoria red specks are visible,
which resemble ej'es, and by some zoologists are really

included amongst the Oscillator ecc, a family of com-
pound Algce; whilst the Volvocina and Monadina are

considered as such ; though, from a want of all traces

ascertained to be other forms of that large order of

of a nervous system, and possessing no distinguishable

plants. On the other hand, many others are appa-

cornea or lens, others deny them to be true eyes, and

rently only the larva state of Annelides. The genus

compare them to the red specks often seen in Algae.

Paramecium^ for example, has been ascertained to be

The food of the Infusoria consists partly of vegetables.

the embryo state of Planaria, and the genus Cercaria

and partly of animal decomposing matter, and they

to be the undeveloped young of an intestinal worm ;

not unfrequently prey upon each other. They are the

and lastly, two whole families containing the genera

prey, again, of other aquatic animals; and as they

Amiba, Arcellina, &c., have been removed to form part

occur in immense quantities in the water of the ocean.

of the following order, Rhizopoda.

as well as in that of our fresh-water pools and slow

The greater portion of the fossil Infusoria described

running streams, they contribute much to the nourish-

by naturalists as so abundant in the marine and fresh-

ment of animals of a higher ordet which are useful to

water deposits, are in like manner removed from this

man. This has been particularly observed in the ocean.

class and placed amongst the Diatomacecc. Tliough

4U4 Rhizopoda. RADIATA. Porifbra.

Uiese various removals leave lliis order of animals now,

we calculate larger quantities, as for example a

comparatively speaking, a small one, yet it contains a

cubic yard, the amount surpasses all human concep-

great number of genera, and the individuals of most of

tion, and we have difficulty in expressing the result-

the species are immensely numerous.

ing number in figures. When we regard in this point

We must content ourselves with indicating some of

of view the whole enormous mass of the sea-coasts

the leading forms of this interesting order of Protozoa

of the earth, we must conclude that no other series of

as represented in Plate 1., figs. 1 to 7, including the

beings can, in regard to number, be compared with

genera Koljyoda, Ophryoglena, Oxytricha, Stylonichia,

them. The part they play in creation at the present

Discocephalus, Chlamidodon^ and Euplotes.

day is truly wonderful. Banks of sand which impede

navigation, obstruct gulfs and straits, and fill up bar-

Order II.— EHIZOPODA or FORAMINIFERA.

hours, are their work ; and along with corals they assist

in forming those islands which are every day making

The species belonging to this order of Protozoa were

their appearance in the warm regions of the great ocean.

formerly known to us only by their external coverings

In former eras of the earth’s surface, the part they

or shells, and before the animals were discovered were

played seems still more striking. In the carboniferous

always considered to belong to the sub-kingdom

period enormous masses of limestone in Russia have

Mollusca. They were indeed, from the structure of

been found composed almost entirely of a single species

the shell, generally arranged in the class Cephalopoda,

of Fusolina; and immense quantities occur in the ere-

under the name of Polythalamia. Dujardin, however.

taceous formations in France. They were still more

has lately shown, from his investigations and discovery

abundant in the tertiary period. The stones of which

of the living animal, that they are nearly allied to the

the largest pyramids of Egypt are built are so full of a

Infusoria. The animals are of a very simple organiza-

species of Ntimmulites, that these extraordinary erec-

tion, appearing to be merely a gelatinous mass, or sar-

tions appear to be almost entirely composed of them.

code, with no apparent organs or viscera. They creep

The stone of which the houses and buildings of Paris

slowly by means of a series of filaments or filiform

are constructed is so full of a species of Milioln, that

processes of considerable length, which they protrude

Paris and the villages in the neighbourhood may be

through the small holes observable in the shells (see

said to be built of them. A cubic inch of the stone

Plates 1 and 2.), and which, when watched in motion.

from the quarries of Gentilly contains upwards of fifty-

appear like a drop of gum flowing along the surface of

eight thousand of these fossil shells, and the beds of

the substance they move upon. The coverings of these

which these quarries are composed are of great thick-

animals are small shells, and consist chiefly of carbonate

ness and of vast extent. The actual number of such

of lime. The texture, however, varies considerably ;

shells is thus inconceivable.

in some being opaque, of a close texture like porcelain,

A great many species of Foraminifera or Rhizopoda,

and without any external indication of pores ; in others

both recent and fossil, have been described; but the

being porous, and perforated, especially in the last seg-

researches of the latest authors upon this class tend to

ments, with a great many small apertures ; and in a

throw great doubts upon tbeir value, and give reason

third class being transparent as glass.

to believe that, though individually the Foraminifera

The recent species occur in various parts of the sur-

are amazingly numerous and abundant, the number of

face of the globe in immense numbers. The sand of

distinct genera and species has been very much exag-

the sea-shore in many places is so completely filled

gerated. This order has been divided into several

with them, that it appears half composed of these elegant

families, which are characterized by the arrangement

little shells. In the Adriatic Sea four thousand or six

of the chambers constituting the shell. For illustra-

thousand have been found in an ounce of sand, and in

tions of these curious creatures we must refer to the

the West Indies three million eight hundred and forty

magnified figures of the families and genera in Plates

thousand have been found in the same quantity. If

{Rhizopoda) 1 and 2.

Class V. — PORIFERA (The Sponges).

The class Porifera, the last in the zoological series.

ments, in the majority of sponges, are a number of very

and the lowest as regards their organization, is com-

minute needle-shaped, siliceous, or calcareous sub-

posed of those substances called Sponges, and to which,

stances called spicula. These bodies vary much in

amongst many others, the well-known Sponge of com-

form. In some sponges they are simply of a needle-

merce belongs.

like form, slender and cylindrical, and pointed at both

For a long time it was a disputed point whether

ends. In other instances they have a small knob

sponges belonged to the animal or vegetable kingdom.

at one end, whilst the opposite extremity is pointed,

and it is only of late years that the evidence has pre-

giving them exactly the appearance of small pins. In

ponderated in favour of their animal nature.

others, again, we find one end transformed into a fork

Sponge, in the state in which we usually see it, con-

with two or even three prongs ; or the whole spiculum

sists of a congeries of horny filaments, interlaced in

consists of three or four spines of equal length. These

every direction so as to form a most intricate net-work

spicula appear to be hollow tubes, closed at both ends.

of intercommunicating cells. Imbedded in these fila-

This framework with its inclosed spicula, is, however.

PoKiFERA . RAD I AT A. Calcarba. 405

only a sort of horny skeleton, on which the true living
portion of the sponge is supported. This consists of
a gelatinous matter, which is spread over all the fibres
of the reticulated skeleton ; its consistence is very like
that of the white of an egg, and it runs freely away
from the sponge when the latter is taken out of the
water. This gelatinous substance resembles that of
which the Amceba, one of the Khizopoda, is composed,
and apparently consists of minute masses of aggregated
sarcode cells. Each of these cells appears to possess
an independent existence ; those on the surface beiiig
furnished with long and very slender vibratile cilia.

If we take a piece of common sponge, we see that
its surface is every where perforated with an infinite
number of minute holes, amongst which a considerable
number of large openings are scattered. When this
sponge is examined in a living state, a rapid stream
of water may be observed issuing constantly from these
larger orifices. This excurrent stream of water is ren-
dered observable by the fact, that it bears with it a
number of minute particles from the interior of the
sponge. This water is imbibed through the minute
pores distributed in such profusion over the entire sur-
face of the sponge. After passing through these, and
traversing the cavities formed in every direction by
the reticulated structure of the mass, it is collected into
canals, hy which it is finally conducted to the larger
openings of the surface. The objects of this continual
flow of water are for nutrition, for the expulsion of
digested particles, for respiration, and assisting in the
propagation of the species.

The propagation of the species is effected in various
wa}'s. They are propagated by division ; when cut
in two, the two portions will each grow and become
perfect sponges. They are also, and more usually,
propagated by gemmules, which sprout from the deli-
cate granular film covering their skeleton, and which,
as they gradually become detached from the parent
body, are furnished with cilia, swim freely about, like
infusorial animalcules, and afterwards, finding a favour-
able locality, become fixed and eventually develope into
perfect sponges. In a third case, propagation takes
place by seedlike bodies being produced in the sub-
stance of the sponge. At first these consist of several
cells merely united together into a globular or ovoid
mass, lying freely in cavities of the substance of the
sponge. This mass of cells then becomes enveloped
in a capsule. When these cells are pressed out of the
cavity of the capsule under water, they soon swell up
and burst, and the germs contained in them gradually
become diffused over the bottom of the vessel. In

a few days these collect into separate groups, each
inclosed in a mucilaginous substance. From these
germs active animacules are produced, possessing a
power of locomotion by the extension of different
parts of the body. They exhibit considerable acti-
vity, asume at times fantastic forms, and are very
voracious, absorbing other minute animals into their
substance, in the same manner as has been observed
in the Amsebse amongst the Ehizopoda.

Sponges vary much in form, and are for the most
part fixed by a kind of root at the base, and attach
themselves to almost every body which can afford them
support, whether fixed or floating. Many are found
encrusting submarine objects, as stones, shells, rocks,
&c. They are mostly marine, only comparatively few
being found in fresh water. In the living state, many
of them possess lively colours, and usually grow in
groups. They occur in all seas, from the equator to
the pole. A peculiar group of sponges, belonging to
the genus Cliona, are peculiar for the habit they have
of boring. Shells, other submarine bodies, and even
rocks, are penetrated by these unobtrusive-looking
animals ; and they effect a powerful action upon these
bodies by slowly and silently producing complete dis-
integration. There are three kinds of sponges, each
of which is composed of many species, and form as
many orders or divisions : —

THE HORNY SPONGES [Cornea) are distinguished
by having no spicula, and have the body very porous
and elastic, soft, and composed of a fibro-corneous
skeleton, which anastomoses in all directions.

Genus Spongia. — This genus is the type of this
group ; and in it is contained the common sponge of
commerce. The sponges of commerce are obtained
in considerable abundance from the Mediterranean,
and are usually prepared for use by soaking them in
dilute hydrochloric acid, in order to remove all traces
of lime, and then bleached and well beaten to render
them fit for market. The inhabitants of some of the
Greek islands have been trained from their infancy to
dive for these substances. They adhere firmly to the
bottom, and are not detached without a great deal of
trouble. Smyrna is the great market for sponge.

THE SILICEOUS SPONGES [Silicea) have the body
more or less rigid or friable, and strengthened with
siliceous spicula. The group is represented by the
genus Thethys.

THE CALCAREOUS SPONGES [Calcar ea) have the
body, which is not very soft, and composed of a sub-
cartilaginous substance, supported by calcareous spicula.
The genus Grantia is the type.

END OF RADIATA.

INDEX

TO

RADIATA.

ECHINODERMA-SEA-NETTLES-ZOOPHYTA— PEOTOZOA— PORTPERA.

Page

Page

Class 1 — ECHINODERMA or Spiny Skins

Class III. — ZOOPHYTA or Polypi (Zoophytes

(Ecu inodermata),

391

OR Polyps^,

398

Order

I., Echinoidea (Sea-eggs or Sea-urchins),

392

Sub-class

I., Anthozoa, ....

398

Family

1, Echinidse (I'rue Sea-eggs),

392

Order

I., Anthozoa Hydioida (Hydroid Polyps), .

398

2, Cidaridse (the Diadems),

393

IL, Anthozoa Asteroida (Asteroid Polypses),

399

3, ScutellidEB (The Cake-urchins),

393

Family,

Conmlaria, ....

400

4, Galeritid®, ....

5, Echinolampasidse, . . .

393

U

Gorgoniid® (Gorgonias),

400

ii

393

((

Tubiporid® (Organ Corals),

400

U

6, Spatangid®, (The Heart-urchins),

393

t(

Coralliid® (the Calcareous Corals),

400

Order

II., Asteroidea (Star-fishes), .

393

Genus,

Family,

Corallium, ....

400

F amily

1, Asteriid® (True Sea-stars), , .

2, Astropectenidse, . .

394

Hyalonemid® (the Glass-rope Corals), .

400

394

U

Pennatulid® (Sea-pens),

400

((

3, Pentacerotid®, ....

394

Genus,

Pennatula, ....

400

4, Asterinid® (the Birds-foot Stars),
b, Ophiurid® (Lizard-taihd Star-fishes),

394

Virgularia, ....

400

u

394

Order

[IL, Anthozoa Helianthoida(.Zoant/(OJ(7Po/y/)e6), 40C

The True Lizard-tails (Ophiura),

395

Family,

Actiniid® (Sea-anemones),

401

The Gorgon-heads (Astrophyton),

The Common Medusa’s Head (Astrophy-

395

Coralliphora (Stony Corals),

401

395

Family,

Madreporitid®, ....

401

ton Arhorescens),

395

u

Milleporid®, ....

401

Order

III , Crinoidea (Feather-star^,

395

Sub-class

IL, Polyzoa or Bryozoa (Molluscan Zoophytes), 402

Family,

Pentacrinitid®,

395

Order

I., Infundibulata, . .

402

Genus,

Pentacrinus, . . . .

395

((

IL, Hippocrepia, . . .

402

a

The Pentacrinus caput-medus®,

395

(t

Comatula (the Feather-star),

395

Order

IV., Holothuroidea (Sea-cucumbers),

395

Holothuria nigra (the Nigger or Cotton-

spinning Trepang),

396

Class IV.— PROTOZOA,

403

Order

V., Sipunculoidea (Siphon-worms),

396

Order

I., Infusoria (Infusory Animalcules), .

IL, Rhizopoda or Foraminifera, . .

403

404

Class II. — ^Tiie SEA-NETTLES or Acalephs

(Acalepha?),

396

Class V. — POEIFERA (the Sponges),

404

Order

I., Pulmograda or Discophora,

397

The Homy Sponges (Cornea),

405

“

IL, Ciliograda or Ctenophora, . .

397

Genus,

Spongia, . . . .

The Siliceous Sponges (Silicea), ,

405

((

III. , Cin'higrada, ....

IV. , Physograda, ....

398

405

398

A

The Calcareous Sponges (Calcarea), .

405