I*

Agriculture
Canada

Publication 861

630.4

C212

P861

1980

(1983 print)

c.3

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in 2012 with funding from

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada - Agriculture et Agroalimentaire Canada

http://www.archive.org/details/mushroomcollectiOOgrov

Mushroom
collecting
for beginners

J. Walton Groves1

Former Head
Mycology Section
Plant Research Institute
Ottawa, Ont.

iDied May 1970.

PUBLICATION 861, available from Communications Branch,
Agriculture Canada, Ottawa K1A 0C7.

©Minister of Supply and Services Canada 1980
Cat. No. A43— 861/ 1980E ISBN: 0-662-0109 M
Revised 1980 Reprinted 1983 12M— 9:83

Aussi disponible en francais.

This publication is intended as a guide for the beginner
who would like to use some of our wild mushrooms for food. It
will not enable you to identify wild mushrooms in general, for it
does not describe one in a hundred of the species that may be
found in the woods.

In order to use it profitably, study the notes and illustra-
tions and look specifically for those edible kinds described
here. Everything else should be avoided. The edible species
chosen for inclusion in this bulletin are all common, easily
recognizable with a little care in observing the characters
described, and some of them can usually be found at any time
during the growing season when conditions are sufficiently
moist.

Only one rule is emphasized — eat only species that you
know to be edible and avoid all others.

If an accident should occur and a poisonous species be
eaten by mistake, empty the stomach and intestines im-
mediately and get a doctor as quickly as possible.

Note: Some species, often referred to as magic
mushrooms, hallucinogenic mushrooms, or a wide variety of
other colorful names, contain the restricted drugs psilocin and
psilocybin. Possession of these native or foreign mushrooms
could lead to arrest and conviction under the Food and Drug
Act. Most of these species are too small to be accidentally
gathered for the purpose of eating. However, naturalists
interested in all types of fungi might unwittingly collect these
species and unattended children might eat the common lawn
species.

INTRODUCTION

In this publication the word mushroom is used in its widest
popular sense and includes any conspicuous fleshy fungus. A more
accurate and scientific way of using the term is to restrict it only to
those fungi bearing gills, because in making a classification of
plants, botanists try to bring related forms together in the same
group — genus or family — and, in general, the fungi with gills are
thought to be more closely related to one another than to fungi
without gills. Therefore, to use the term mushroom for gill-bearing
fungi only does give it some scientific meaning, but here, for the
sake of convenience, it will include such forms as the morels and
the puffballs even though they are distinct botanically from the gill-
bearing fungi.

A considerable amount of confusion exists concerning the
terms 'mushroom' and 'toadstool.' Most people using the word
toadstool have in mind some poisonous or undesirable fungus, but
actually this term has no scientific meaning and does not
correspond in any sense to a botanical classification. Poisonous
and edible species may occur in the same genus and be quite
closely related. It is therefore preferable to speak only of mush-
rooms, some of which may be edible, some poisonous; others,
although not poisonous, may have undesirable characters that
make them unfit for food.

Many people seem to think that it is possible to distinguish
edible from poisonous mushrooms by some simple rule or test. In
fact, some even believe that they know the tests. This belief is more
dangerous than complete ignorance, for these so-called tests are
now known to be worthless and if relied on, may result in serious
trouble. One who is aware of the danger and feels his own lack of
knowledge will probably leave all mushrooms alone, but one who
relies on false tests may be misled into eating poisonous species.

For instance, it is simply not true that if a mushroom peels it is
good to eat. The most deadly species known, the Destroying Angel,
which caused over thirty deaths in one season near New York City,
peels very readily. Furthermore, the poisons produced by different
mushrooms, such as the Destroying Angel and the Fly Agaric, are
quite different chemical substances and have very different effects
on the human body. It is not reasonable, therefore, to expect that a
simple chemical test, such as the blackening of silver, would detect
both types of poison. As a matter of fact, we have no evidence that
this test will detect either of these poisons.

There is no simple rule or test to distinguish edible and poison-
ous mushrooms, but even the layman, if properly informed, may
enjoy tasty mushroom dishes in safety. One need not be a trained
botanist in order to recognize a wild strawberry, raspberry, or
blueberry, and the ordinary person finding these plants in the
woods feels no hesitation in eating a few berries on the spot or

bringing some home for future use. Many other berries seen in the
woods and fields are avoided because their identity and edibility are
not known.

Exactly the same attitude should be adopted toward mush-
rooms. It is comparatively easy for anyone with a little study and
careful observation to become acquainted with half a dozen or so
species and be able to recognize them on sight. Eat only those
species that you know to be edible and leave all the others alone.

PARTS OF A MUSHROOM

The structure we call a mushroom is, in reality, only the fruiting
body of the fungus. The vegetative part of the plant consists of a
system of branching threads and cord-like strands that ramifies
through the soil, manure, or other material on which the fungus may
be growing. This vegetative part is used by commercial mushroom
growers to plant their beds and is commonly called mushroom
spawn.

After a period of growth and accumulation of food reserves,
and under favorable conditions of temperature and moisture, the
spawn will produce the fruiting structures that we call mushrooms.
The principal parts of the mushroom are illustrated by Diagram 1,
which represents sections through an Amanita, the genus that
includes the deadly poisonous species such as Destroying Angel
and Fly Agaric.

The fruiting body consists of a stem supporting a cap on the
underside of which are the gills. The gills form a series of plates
that radiate from the stem to the margin of the cap. They may be
free from the stem, or attached to it, or run part way down it in
different species of mushrooms. They may be set close together or
crowded, or may be relatively distant from one another, and may
vary from broad, thin plates to scarcely more than folds on the lower
surface of the cap. On the sides of the gills are produced the repro-
ductive bodies or spores, corresponding to the seeds of higher
plants.

In some mushrooms, the young plant is at first completely
enclosed in a sheath of tissue called the universal veil or volva. As
growth proceeds, the volva tears open and the young mushroom
emerges, leaving remnants of the volva as a sheath surrounding the
base of the stem. This universal veil is not present in all mushrooms
but is a very important character to look for in recognizing the
dangerous genus Amanita.

Some kinds of mushrooms in the young stage have the gills
enclosed by a sheet of tissue that stretches from the stem to the
margin of the cap. This is known as the partial veil, and it usually
tears around the margin of the cap and remains hanging on the stem
so that it forms a ring or annulus on the stem.

CAP

GILLS

PARTIAL VEIL
becoming ANNULUS

STEM-
VOLVA

Diagram 1. Principal parts of the mushroom illustrated by sections through
an Amanita. Young plant on left, mature plant on right.

SPORE PRINTS

In the descriptions and notes that follow, reference will fre-
quently be made to the color of the spores. The spore color is a very
constant character and frequently of greater importance in
identifying a species.

The spores are produced on the sides of the gills in immense
numbers, forcibly discharged into the air, and borne away by the air
currents. Obviously very few of them ever find suitable conditions
for growth or the earth would be covered with mushrooms. In order
to determine the color, it is necessary to make the mushroom
discharge its spores onto a piece of white paper.

Cut the stem off close to the cap and lay the cap on a piece of
white paper with the gills down. Cover the cap with a glass jar or
some sort of pan to protect it from air currents and leave it for a
couple of hours or so. When the cap is removed, it will be found that

Fig. 1. Spore print of a mushroom.

the spores have been deposited in such a way as to form a pattern
of the gills (Fig. 1), and the color of the spores can be told
immediately from this spore deposit or spore print.

Time can be saved by getting spore prints in the field. When a
specimen is found of which you wish to know the spore color, cut
off the stem, lay the cap on white paper with the gills down, wrap it
in waxed paper and lay it on the bottom of the collecting basket,
making sure that the gills are downward. Probably by the time you
reach home the spore print will be ready.

GATHERING MUSHROOMS

The equipment required for gathering mushrooms is very
simple. A sharp knife, some pieces of waxed paper or tissue paper,
and a basket or even a paper bag in which to place the specimens

8

are all that is required. However, depending on whether you are
collecting them for study or only for the table, the method of
handling them may vary a little.

Before any species is eaten, it should be studied in detail.
When you think you have found one of the species described here,
gather it carefully, making certain that you get the whole plant. It
may be necessary to dig into the ground with your knife, for it is very
important to obtain the base of the stem. Then wrap the specimens
separately in the paper and bring them in where you can check each
point in the description.

You will not learn to know a species from a single collection.
Mushrooms are living organisms and show variations between
individuals and in different environmental conditions. The descrip-
tions in this publication are based as closely as possible on normal
and typical forms. Until you feel that you are familiar with a species,
it is wise to discard specimens that do not quite fit the description.
Perhaps they are just variants or perhaps you may have a different
species.

Only when you know an edible species thoroughly should you
attempt to collect it for food. It is advisable to cut off the stem well
above the ground to avoid getting dirt in the specimens. Careful
collecting will save much trouble later. Choose young, sound speci-
mens and discard any that appear overmature. Cut them open to see
that they are not infested with insect larvae and, if you find the flesh
shows tunnel-like pinholes, such specimens should be discarded
also.

Since some species require much longer cooking than others,
it is usually better to keep each kind separate. Before being cooked,
they should be washed and dried, but it is not necessary to peel
them unless the caps are sticky or have large scales, such as in the
Parasol Mushroom. In some species the stems are tough and you
will want to discard them, but in others such as the Meadow
Mushroom they are tender and of good flavor.

Recipes for using mushrooms are available in many cookbooks
and mushroom books. Probably most people like to fry them in a
little butter. If this is done, do not use too much butter. Mushrooms
have sometimes received unjust blame for digestive disturbances
when the excessive butter was the cause.

MEADOW MUSHROOM

{Agaricus campestris Fr.)
EDIBLE. Fig. 2-4 (page 11)

The cap is 2.5-10 cm broad, occasionally larger, convex, finally
becoming nearly flat, at first silky, then becoming torn into delicate,
fibrillose scales, usually white, sometimes pale brown, especially in
age, the margin extending beyond the gills and often fringed with

fragments of the veil adhering to it. The fiesh is firm, white, and
does not change color when bruised. The gills are free from the
stem, crowded, moderately broad, at first pink, changing slowly to
purple brown and finally turning blackish. The stem is white,
smooth, 3.8-7.5 cm long and 0.3-1.3 cm thick, equal or sometimes
narrowed toward the base, solid but with a softer central core. The
annulus or ring is about half way up the stem or higher, white and
membranous, and usually has torn edges. The spores are nearly
chocolate brown in a good print.

It grows in meadows, pastures, and open fields and is usually
found in September or October, but occasionally may appear in the
spring. Sometimes two or three will arise from the same base, but
usually they occur separately in groups, frequently in circles or arcs
of circles.

As may be seen from Fig. 3 and 4, in the button stage the gills
are enclosed by a layer of membranous tissue, the partial veil, that
stretches from the stem to the margin of the cap. As the cap
expands, it tears open, leaving most of the veil adhering to the stem
to form the annulus, and the remainder adhering to the margin of
the cap to give it the fringed appearance. Fig. 3 and 4 illustrate
successive stages in the formation of the annulus.

Compare this carefully with Fig. 17 of the Destroying Angel
where, in addition to the partial veil enclosing the gills, there is a
universal veil enclosing the entire young mushroom. If you collect
mushrooms in the button stage, be very careful to avoid collecting
those with a universal veil, but it would be much safer not to collect
any mushroom in the button stage.

The Meadow Mushroom is probably the best known and most
generally used of all the wild species. The whitish caps, the pink
gills that slowly turn purple brown, and the fairly stout stem with a
ring near the middle are the principal distinguishing characters.

The cultivated mushroom is very similar in appearance to the
Meadow Mushroom. It was long thought that the cultivated mush-
room was a form of this species, but many students of the mush-
rooms are now inclined to the view that it is a distinct species.
However, it is so similar to the Meadow Mushroom that an acquaint-
ance with the cultivated species should enable you to recognize the
Meadow Mushroom in the field.

OYSTER MUSHROOM

{Pleurotus sapidus (Kalchbr.) Sacc.)
EDIBLE. Fig. 5 (page 12)

The cap is 7.5-18 cm broad, somewhat fan-shaped, convex to
nearly flat, smooth, moist, variable in color from whitish to dark
grayish brown, sometimes with the margin becoming upturned in
age and often wavy or lobed. The flesh is firm and white, and does

10

Fig. 2. Meadow mushroom, single specimen.

Fig. 3. Meadow mushroom, series of four young specimens, side view.
Fig. 4. Meadow mushroom, series of four illustrating the tearing of the
partial veil and formation of the annulus.

11

Fig. 5. Oyster mushroom. Cluster on end of a log.
Fig. 6. Masked Tricholoma, three specimens.

12

not change color when bruised. The gills are whitish, close to
somewhat distant, rather broad, extending down the stem in lines
which form a network. The stem is more or less to one side of the
cap, sometimes nearly central, sometimes almost lacking, usually
short, stout, and somewhat curved, white, solid, hairy at the base.
The spores are pale lilac to grayish lilac.

Watch for this species on the trunks of various deciduous
trees, elm, maple, willow, or poplar, where it often grows in large
shelf-like clusters. It may be found at any time from May to October,
and it has been claimed that successive crops may be obtained by
watering a log on which it is known to be growing.

The principal distinguishing characters are the lilac spore print
and the occurrence on wood.

The exact identity of this species is somewhat of a puzzle.
Older mushroom books call the Oyster Mushroom Pleurotus
ostreatus (Fr.) Quel, and say the spore print is white. P. sapidus was
supposed to differ only in having a lilac spore print. However, every
specimen tried by the author has given a lilac spore print and in the
United States others have had the same experience, so that, if there
is any difference, it is obvious that our common species is P.
sapidus. The problem is of academic interest only since both
species are said to be edible.

There is some difference of opinion regarding the edible
qualities of this mushroom. Some have claimed that it is tough and
tasteless, but others prize it very highly. It is recommended that
only young specimens be used since older ones apparently become
tough. The manner of cooking is also of some importance with this
species. The best method is said to be to dust with salt and pepper,
dip in beaten egg, then in bread crumbs and fry in smoking hot fat.

MASKED TRICHOLOMA

(Tricholoma nudum (Fr.) Kummer)
EDIBLE. Fig. 6 (page 12)

The cap is 6.4-18 cm broad, at first convex, becoming flat,
smooth, moist but not sticky, lilac or lavender colored, sometimes
purplish, fading to grayish, whitish, or brownish, tinged with lilac,
the margin incurved for some time and then often wavy. The flesh is
thick, tinged lilac, fading to whitish, sometimes water-soaked in
wet weather. The gills are rounded behind, narrowly attached to the
stem, sometimes nearly free, close to crowded, moderately broad,
at first bluish or lavender, then becoming grayish. The stem is
2.5-8.9 cm long, and 1.3-3.2 cm thick, solid, bulbous at the base,
equal or tapering slightly upward, slightly mealy above or becoming
smooth, at first blue, fading to lilac or lilac gray. The spores are
pinkish, or a dirty flesh color.

13

It occurs singly, in groups, or occasionally in small clusters, on
the ground in either coniferous or deciduous woods during the late
summer and fall.

The most striking characters of this species are the bluish or
lavender color fading to whitish, and the grayish pink spore print. It
is not the only bluish species, hence the spore color should be
checked. Most of the other bluish species will give a rusty brown
spore print, and one that has a white spore print also has a strong
sweetish odor, which will distinguish it. Some small bluish species
with pink spore prints may be found, but they are so much smaller
that they are unlikely to be confused with the Masked Tricholoma.

DELICIOUS LACTARIUS

{Lactarius deliciosus (Fr.) S. F. Gray)
EDIBLE. Fig. 7-10 (page 15)

The cap is 6.4-13 cm broad, depressed in the center, smooth,
somewhat sticky to the touch, bright reddish orange, often with
concentric zones of brighter color, later fading to grayish or gray
green, with the margin inrolled at first, then becoming elevated. The
flesh is firm, whitish but, when broken, soon appearing to turn
orange because of the exuded milk of this color, and then slowly
changing to greenish. The gills are attached to the stem, running
down it slightly, close, narrow, colored like the cap or more
yellowish, and becoming greenish when bruised or in age. The stem
is 3.8-10 cm long and 1.3-1.9 cm thick, stuffed with a pith, soon
becoming hollow, equal or narrowed at the base, colored like the
cap or paler, often with more brightly colored orange spots. When
the gills or the flesh of the cap or stem are broken a bright orange
juice or milk appears. The spores are faintly yellowish.

It grows scattered or in groups on the ground in moist woods or
boggy places during the late summer and fall.

The genus Lactarius includes a large number of species that
exude a milky juice, but this is the only one in which the juice is
bright orange. The greenish stains that develop in this species
make it rather unattractive in appearance, but it is one of the best
edible species and is very easily identified.

SHAGGY MANE

{Coprinus comatus Fr.)
EDIBLE. Fig. 11, 12 (page 16)

The cap is barrel-shaped or cylindric, about 5-15 cm long and
2.5-5 cm thick, gradually expanding and becoming somewhat bell-
shaped as it matures. When very young it is covered with a brownish
cuticle but, except on the very top, this soon becomes torn into

14

Fig. 7. Delicious Lactarius, side view of a single specimen.

Fig. 8. Delicious Lactarius, top view showing zoning on the cap.

Fig. 9. Delicious Lactarius, section showing staining of the flesh by the

milk.
Fig. 10. Delicious Lactarius, section showing gill attachment.

15

Fig. 11. Shaggy Mane, series of three in section showing the beginning of
the darkening of the gills, and a single overmature specimen at the
right in which the gills are partially dissolved.

Fig. 12. Shaggy Mane, series of four specimens, all in edible condition.

16

brownish, shaggy scales, with the white to pinkish flesh showing
through. The flesh is thin, soft, and fragile, and the margin becomes
split and turned back in older specimens. The gills are almost free
from the stem, broad, crowded, at first white, becoming pinkish,
then black and dissolving into an inky fluid starting at the outer
edge. The stem is about 5-15 cm long, 0.6-1.9 cm thick, equal or
tapering upward from the somewhat bulbous base, hollow, smooth,
with a movable annulus usually near the base. The spores are black.

It is fairly common along roadsides, on lawns, fields, or city
dumps. It usually occurs singly in groups, but sometimes two or
three arise from the same base.

The Shaggy Mane is one of the best known mushrooms and is
eaten by a great many people. The shape, shaggy cap, and
dissolving gills are striking characteristics that make it easily
recognized. Care should be taken to pick young specimens before
the gills have started to dissolve, and they must be eaten soon after
picking. A black inky mess will be the result of trying to keep them.

Mild illness has on rare occasions been reported as a result of
eating this species. There is some evidence that this result was
associated with the consumption of alcohol at the same time. Also,
it is possible that some individuals may be allergic to this species.
Hence it is advisable to try it in small amounts if you have not eaten
it before, but it is eaten in perfect safety by so many people that one
should not hesitate to try it.

CHANTARELLE

{Cantharellus cibarius (Fr.)
EDIBLE. Fig. 13, 14 (page 18)

The cap is 2.5-10 cm broad, at first convex, then becoming
flattened and sometimes top-shaped and finally funnel-shaped, at
first covered with fine fibrils, then becoming smooth. It is chrome
yellow to egg yellow, and the margin is usually somewhat wavy or
lobed. The flesh is fairly thick, firm, whitish to yellowish, and does
not change color when bruised. The gills are thick, blunt on the
edge, sometimes fold-like, often forking, narrow, distant from each
other, extending down the stem, and about the same color as the
cap. The stem is 5-8 cm long and 1.3-2.5 cm thick, tapering toward
the base, smooth, solid, and colored like the cap or paler. A light
spore deposit may appear whitish, but it is creamy yellow in a good
print.

It may be looked for during the summer and fall, growing on the
ground in either coniferous or deciduous woods. It occurs singly or
in groups, or sometimes in small clusters.

The Chantarelle is very well known in Europe, where it has a
great many common names. It is highly recommended for the table,

17

Fig. 13. Chantarelle, cluster of four, illustrating the thick, forked gills.
Fig. 14. Chantarelle, group of six.

18

although fully mature specimens may be tough and require longer
cooking. The most distinctive characters are the bright yellow color
and thick, fold-like gills.

Warning

If you find a bright yellow mushroom growing in large clusters
around stumps, leave it alone. It may be the poisonous Jack
O'Lantem (Clitocybe illudens (Schw.) Sacc), sometimes called the
False Chantarelle. It has sometimes been confused with the true
Chantarelle, but they are not difficult to distinguish. The habit of
growing in great clusters, and the thin, close to crowded gills of the
Jack O'Lantem are quite distinctive. Fresh specimens of the Jack
O'Lantern give off a pale, phosphorescent light when placed in a
dark room, and this is a good test for it. However, if the specimens
are old or a little dried out, they may not give off the light, so its
absence should not be taken as proof that your specimen is not the
Jack O'Lantern.

PARASOL

(Lepiota procera (Fr.) S. F. Gray)
EDIBLE. Fig. 15 (page 20)

The cap is about 10-20 cm broad, more or less egg-shaped
when young, expanding and becoming flat with a prominent
elevation in the center. At first, it is covered with a brown cuticle
which soon breaks up into widely spaced scales, exposing the
white flesh beneath. The flesh is soft, thick, white or slightly
reddish. The gills are free, remote from the stem, white, broad, and
crowded. The stem is long, 18-30 cm or occasionally longer and
about 0.6-1.3 cm in diameter, tapering upward slightly from the
bulbous base, hollow, not smooth but with the surface layer
breaking up into brownish scales or rings. The annulus, which can
be moved up and down the stem, is large and thick with brownish
scales on the underside. The spore print is white.

It grows singly or in groups on the ground in open woods,
meadows, or pastures during August and September. In some years
it is abundant, whereas in others it scarcely appears at all.

The most striking characteristic of this species is its great size.
It is of excellent quality for the table, but the scales should be
removed before cooking. The stem also is hard and tough, of quite
different consistency from the cap and readily separates from it.

19

Fig. 15. Parasol, one fully expanded and three immature specimens. The
rough, scurfy stem is best shown in the specimen on the right.

20

Warning

Be sure to get a spore print of this species before eating it. It
might be confused with the poisonous Lepiota molybdites (G.
Meyer ex Fr.) Sacc, which sometimes grows even larger but has a
greenish spore print. Another thing to look at is the stem, which is
smooth in the poisonous species but slightly scaly or coarse mealy
in the true Parasol. L. molybdites (Fr.) Sacc. is now considered to be
the correct name of L. morgani.

SMOOTH LEPIOTA

{Lepiota naucina (Fr.) Kummer)

NOT RECOMMENDED. Fig. 16 (page 22)

The cap is 3.8-10 cm broad, at first somewhat egg-shaped,
becoming broadly convex to finally nearly flat, smooth or finely
silky, sometimes becoming somewhat cracked, white or sometimes
buff or smoky in age. The flesh is white, thick, and soft. The gills are
free from the stem, close, moderately broad, at first white, changing
slowly to pinkish when mature. The stem is 5-10 cm long, and
0.6-1.3 cm thick, tapering slightly upward from the bulbous base,
stuffed in the center with a pith, later becoming hollow, smooth or
slightly silky below the ring. The ring usually stands out stiffly from
the stem and becomes movable in older specimens. The spores are
white.

It occurs abundantly in open fields, meadows, and pastures,
growing on the ground during late summer and fall.

The characters to watch for particularly in this species are the
white color, the gills slowly turning pinkish, the annulus standing
out stiffly from the stem, and the bulbous base of the stem.

Warning

This species is probably sent in for identification more often
than any other. It is usually considered to be edible, but we have had
several reports of it causing illness. Krieger (1936) states that a
similar and poisonous species, Lepiota schulzeri, can easily be
confused with it. Hence, this species should either be avoided or be
eaten cautiously the first few times.

Do not eat this species unless you know both it and the
Destroying Angel (Amanita virosa). The principal points in
distinguishing the Amanita are: (a) the gills remain white and do not
become pinkish as in the Smooth Lepiota; (b) the annulus hangs
down loosely around the stem and does not stand out stiffly; and (c)
a volva or membranous sheath encloses the base of the stem of the
Amanita.

21

The Amanita usually grows in the woods and the Smooth
Lepiota in open fields, but do not rely on this difference in habitat
alone. The volva enclosing the base of the stem of the Amanita is
the best single character for distinguishing the two.

Fig. 16. Smooth Lepiota, four specimens. Note the stiff annulus and some-
what bulbous but not sheathed stem.

22

DESTROYING ANGEL

(Amanita virosa Lam. ex Seer.)
DEADLY POISONOUS. Fig. 17 (page 24)

The cap is 5-15 cm broad, egg-shaped to convex, becoming
nearly flat when mature, pure white, sticky to the touch, and
smooth. The flesh is soft and white, with an unpleasant odor. The
gills are white, free from the stem or attached by a line, crowded,
and moderately broad. The stem is 5-20 cm long, sometimes longer,
0.6-2.5 cm thick, tapering slightly upward from a sheathed, bulbous
base, stuffed in the center, becoming hollow, smooth or with
cottony scales. The ring, which is on the upper part of the stem, is
fairly large, membranous, hangs down loosely around the stem, and
sometimes disappears. The universal veil or volva forms a thick,
membranous cup enclosing the base of the stem, with a free
margin, usually more or less lobed, and frequently buried in the
ground. The spores are white.

It grows singly, usually more or less scattered but sometimes
abundant, on the ground in either deciduous or coniferous woods
during the summer and fall.

This is a beautiful, pure white, stately mushroom, but the most
deadly poisonous species we have. It is probably responsible for
more deaths than any other mushroom, and it is of the utmost
importance that anyone who picks wild mushrooms for food should
know this species at sight and avoid it.

The important characters are the white color of cap, stem, and
gills, the loosely hanging annulus, and the cup enclosing the base
of the stem. The last character is the most important and is the one
most likely to be missed by careless collectors.

This cup is what remains of a universal veil, which enclosed the
entire plant when young. The manner in which an annulus is formed
from a partial veil is illustrated in Fig. 4 for the Meadow Mushroom.
In the Destroying Angel, there is, in addition to a partial veil, a
universal veil (Fig. 17), which splits across the top as the young
plant emerges and then remains as a sheath enclosing the base of
the stem.

Sometimes this cup or volva may be buried in the ground and
the mushroom must be dug up very carefully in order to find it. In
some other species of Amanita, it is very fragile and may break up
and disappear. Only by repeated collection and study of a species
can you learn to recognize these variations.

Practically all our deadly poisonous mushrooms belong in the
genus Amanita, and it is very important that you learn the
characters of this genus and avoid all the species. All species of
Amanita have these three things in common: (a) white spores, (b) a
partial veil resulting in an annulus, and (c) a universal veil or volva. It
is true that some species of this genus are edible, but no beginner
should ever try an Amanita.

23

Fig. 17. Destroying Angel, two mature specimens and one at lower right
just emerging from the universal volva. Note the loosely hanging
annulus and the base of the stem sheathed by the volva.

24

Should you wish to collect one of these mushrooms for further
study, do not allow it to come into contact with other mushrooms
that may later be used as food. Wrap it carefully and keep it
separate. It is advisable to wash the hands after handling this
species. The deadly nature of the poison it produces cannot be too
strongly emphasized.

FLY AGARIC

(Amanita muscaria (Fr.) Hooker)
DEADLY POISONOUS. Fig. 18 (page 27)

The cap is 7.6-20 cm broad or sometimes larger, at first egg-
shaped, then convex, becoming nearly flat at maturity, sticky to the
touch, with margin slightly striate when mature. It is bright or pale
orange or yellow, sometimes nearly scarlet, or faded to whitish
when old, covered with whitish or pale yellowish wart-like patches,
which may be washed off by rains. The flesh is thick and whitish.
The gills are free from the stem or attached by a line, broad,
crowded, and white to pale yellow. The stem is about 10-20 cm long
or longer, 1.3-3.8 cm thick, tapering upward slightly from the
bulbous base, stuffed in the center, becoming hollow, white or
yellowish, and more or less concentrically scaly toward the base.
The ring is on the upper part of the stem. It is large, white or
yellowish, and hangs down loosely around the stem. The universal
veil encloses the whole young plant, then splits around the margin
of the cap, part remaining on the cap as scales or warts, and the
remainder tightly enclosing the base of the stem and forming
concentric ridges or scales, but not forming a free-margined cup.
The spores are white.

It grows singly or in groups on the ground in either coniferous
or deciduous woods. It usually appears in the late summer and fall,
but is occasionally found in the spring.

The Fly Agaric is one of our most beautiful and striking mush-
rooms, but fortunately its bright colors tend to deter many people
from eating it. Although less dangerous than the Destroying Angel,
it is known to be extremely poisonous. It gets its name from the fact
that it was once used to make fly poison.

If one compares this species with the Destroying Angel, it is
seen that both species are enclosed in a universal veil or volva when
young, but that the volva ruptures in a different way in each. In the
Destroying Angel, it tears across the top, whereas in the Fly Agaric,
it tears around the margin of the cap. As a result, the cap of the
Destroying Angel is smooth, whereas that of the Fly Agaric is
covered with scale-like or wart-like patches that are the pieces of
the old volva adhering to the cap. In the Destroying Angel, the old
volva forms a cup-like sheath with the free margin around the base
of the stem but in the Fly Agaric, it adheres tightly to the stem and

25

becomes pulled apart, forming the concentric scaly rings. There is
no free-margined cup at all and it might be difficult to recognize
these ridges and scales as really part of the universal veil unless
you understand how they are formed.

The Fly Agaric is not likely to be confused with any edible
species, but it is so common and conspicuous as well as so deadly
poisonous that it is one all mushroom eaters should know and
avoid.

FAIRY RING

(Marasmius oreades Fr.)
EDIBLE. Fig. 19 (page 27)

The cap is 2.5-5 cm broad, at first convex, becoming nearly flat
with a raised, somewhat rounded part in the center, smooth, pliant
fleshy, with an even or sometimes slightly ridged margin. The color
varies from brownish to tan or buff, or may fade to nearly white. The
flesh is thick on the disk, abruptly thinner toward the margin, pale
buff to whitish. The gills are free from the stem or attached by a line,
rather broad and moderately distant from each other, and whitish to
pale buff. The stem is 2.5-7.5 cm long and 0.3-0.6 cm thick, equal,
solid, covered with a fine down or nearly smooth, colored like the
cap or paler. The spores are white.

It grows singly or in clusters, usually in circles or arcs of circles
on grassy places, such as lawns and pastures, and it may be found
at any time during the summer and fall after wet periods.

The Fairy Ring gets its name from its habit of growing in more
or less complete rings. It is not the only mushroom that does this
but it is, perhaps, the one most commonly observed. Although it is a
small species, it often occurs in abundance and is a favorite of
many people. It is a good species to dry for winter use.

Warning

If you gather the Fairy Ring for food, go over your collection
carefully and, if you find any whitish mushrooms with narrow, close
to crowded gills, discard them. There is a small species, Clitocybe
dealbata (Sow. ex Fr.) Kummer, about the same size as the Fairy
Ring, that grows in the same type of habitat and sometimes even in
the same rings. If you eat this mushroom by mistake, it may make
you quite ill but the result is not likely to be fatal. It is quite easy to
distinguish it from the Fairy Ring by its white color and close
narrow gills.

26

Fig. 18. Fly Agaric, four specimens illustrating different stages of maturity.
Note that the universal veil tears around the margin of the cap
leaving patches on the upper surface and the remainder adhering
closely to the base of the stem forming scaly patches. Also note
tearing of the partial veil to form the loosely hanging annulus.

Fig. 19. Fairy ring, cluster of two at left and group of four at right.

27

FAWN-COLORED PLUTEUS

(Pluteus cervinus (Schaeff ex Fr.) Kummer)
EDIBLE. Fig. 19a (page 29)

The cap is 5-10 cm broad, at first convex to bell-shaped,
becoming nearly flat, often with a broadly rounded, raised part in
the center, varying from dull dark brown to pale dingy tan, some-
times nearly white, soft, smooth or with dark fibrils, moist to very
slightly sticky, margin even. The flesh is white, soft, very thin
toward the margin. The gills are free from the stem, rather broad,
close to crowded, at first white, becoming pink. The stem is 5-15
cm long and about 1-1.5 cm thick, slightly enlarged downward,
whitish or tinged yellowish to brown, smooth or with scattered
fibrils, solid. The spore deposit is pink.

It grows singly or in small clusters on and around old stumps or
sawdust, and may be found fairly commonly during the summer and
fall.

This species somewhat resembles an Amanita in stature and
texture but the pink spore deposit and complete absence of both
volva and annulus will distinguish it. Some pink-spored species in
the genus Entoloma are known to cause illness but in Entoloma the
gills are attached to the stem. It is important, therefore, to make
sure that the gills are free when collecting Pluteus cervinus.

EDIBLE BOLETUS

{Boletus edulis Bull. ex. Fr.)
EDIBLE. Fig. 19b, 19c (page 29)

The cap is 6.4-15 cm broad, sometimes larger, convex to nearly
flat, smooth, dry to very slightly sticky when moistened, rather
variable in color, light buff to grayish red, yellowish brown or tawny
brown, often paler toward the margin. The flesh is white or yellow-
ish to pinkish, may be reddish under the cuticle, not changing color
when broken, sweet and nutty in flavor. The tubes are slightly
attached to the stem and depressed around it, at first whitish and
stuffed, becoming greenish yellow. The stem is 6.4-15 cm long and
1.3-3.8 cm thick, nearly equal or swollen at the base up to 5.5 cm
thick, whitish to yellowish or brownish, solid, marked with a
network of raised lines, sometimes for the entire length, sometimes
only in the upper part. The spores are olivaceous brown.

It grows singly or in groups on the ground in woods and open
places from June to October.

The boletes are a group of fungi that are similar to the true
mushrooms in appearance and in their soft, fleshy consistency, but
they differ in that the spores are produced in tubes or pores rather
than on the sides of gills. Most of the boletes are edible but species

28

in which the tube mouths are red should be avoided, and a few
species are bitter or acrid to the taste. The layer of tubes should be
removed before cooking. Boletes are often infested with insect
larvae and it is usually difficult to obtain specimens free from them.
B. edulis is highly regarded as an edible fungus and its prin-
cipal distinguishing characters are the greenish yellow tubes, thick
stems with a raised network, and the sweet, nutty flavor.

Fig. 19a. Fawn-colored Pluteus.

Fig. 19b. Edible Boletus. Note network of lines on stem.

Fig. 19c. Edible Boletus.

29

GIANT PUFFBALL

(Calvatia gigantea Pers.)
EDIBLE. Fig. 20, 21 (page 31)

The fruiting body is more or less globose, 20-50 cm or more in
diameter, attached to the ground by a short, cord-like root. The
surface is smooth, soft leathery, sometimes like kid, white to
yellowish or brownish. The interior is white, soft, fleshy, slowly
becoming yellowish to olivaceous, and finally becoming powdery.

During the fall, it may be found growing in open woods,
pastures, and fields.

A number of species of fungi are included under the term
puffball. They vary greatly in size, but are generally more or less
globose to pear-shaped, with a leathery outer skin enclosing a white
fleshy interior, which at maturity becomes a powdery mass of
spores.

The species illustrated (Fig. 20, 21) is the giant of the family
and, owing to its size, is not likely to be confused with any other
fungus. It is one of the safest for the beginner and can be highly
recommended for flavor. Do not use too much butter when frying it.

Any puffball is edible if it is white and homogenous inside
(Fig. 21). One of the smaller puffballs, the Gem-studded Puffball
(Lycoperdon perlatum Pers.), is also illustrated (Fig. 22) to demon-
strate this character.

Warning

Be sure to cut all puffballs across before using them. One
might confuse a young Destroying Angel that was still enclosed in
its universal veil with a puffball. Also, the eggs of the Stinkhorn
resemble puffballs. However, when cut open, the young Amanita
will reveal the outlines of the underdeveloped mushroom and the
Stinkhorn egg will have a ring of jelly-like material at the outside
(Fig. 24).

STINKHORN

(Phallus ravenelii Berk. & Curt.)
NOT EDIBLE. Fig. 23, 24 (page 32)

The fruiting bodies first appear as pinkish, egg-shaped struc-
tures about 2.5-5 cm in diameter. They are rather tough, wrinkled at
the base, and attached to the ground and to each other by pinkish
lilac strands. These 'eggs' split open and a stalk with a bluntly
conical head or cap emerges. The stalk is usually 10-15 cm in
length and 1.3-3 cm in diameter, equal or tapering upward slightly,

30

Fig. 20. Giant puffball, single specimen.

Fig. 21. Giant puffball, section showing white, homogeneous flesh.

Fig. 22. Gem-studded puffball, single specimen above and section below.

31

Fig. 23. Stinkhorn, three mature specimens.

Fig. 24. Stinkhorn, series of three showing breaking of the "egg", and

section of an "egg" showing the spongy texture and the jellylike

ring at the outside.

32

yellowish to whitish, spongy or honeycombed, and encircled by a
white membranous band from the veil. The cap is conical, attached
to a raised whitish disk with a hole in the center, shiny, greenish or
olive gray, and extremely ill smelling.

It grows in groups in sawdust or around rotten wood during the
late summer and fall.

These unattractive fungi are not likely to be tried as food, but
they are included here because of the possibility of mistaking one
of the 'eggs' for a puffball, and also because their appearance
usually arouses considerable curiosity and disgust. Other species
may be found, such as one which is much smaller and is pink with a
reddish cap, and another which has a beautiful lacy veil hanging
from the top of the stem and extending below the cap.

The spores are produced in the slime, and the evil smell is said
to attract carrion beetles and other insects, which aid in dispersing
the spores. The Stinkhoms are more closely related to the Puffballs
than to the true mushrooms.

MOREL

{Morchella esculenta Fr.)
EDIBLE. Fig. 25 (page 34)

The cap is grayish brown to yellowish brown, more or less
elongated, usually rounded at the top, sometimes slightly conical,
sometimes nearly globose; 5-12 cm long and 1.9-3.8 cm broad at
the widest point, sometimes much larger. The surface is covered
with rounded to irregular or somewhat elongated pits, sometimes
arranged more or less in rows, more often irregularly arranged. The
stem is 5-7.5 cm long and 1.3-2.5 cm thick, whitish, hollow, smooth
or slightly scurfy, the surface even or wavy.

It grows on the ground, usually singly or in groups in open
woods, orchards, and pastures during May and early June.

Many mushroom eaters consider that the morels have the
finest flavor of all mushrooms. The conical or rounded caps covered
with deep pits are so characteristic that they cannot be confused
with anything else once you have seen them.

They are rather variable in size, shape, and color and more than
one species may be found, but all are edible and it is only necessary
to be sure that you can recognize a morel.

Warning

Until you can identify a morel with certainty, be sure to
compare your specimens with descriptions and figures of the False
Morel (Fig. 26). This is the only fungus that might be confused with
a morel, but it is easily distinguished by the convoluted rather than
pitted cap.

33

'.. _ ■ . ' ■', . .. . , ,.;.

Fig. 25. Morel, three mature specimens, a longitudinal section at upper
right, and a cross section in the center.

FALSE MOREL

{Gyromitra esculents Fr.)
POISONOUS. Fig. 26 (page 35)

The cap is 2.5-7.5 cm broad, very variable and irregular in
shape, from nearly globose to more or less lobed, and the surface is
irregularly wrinkled, folded, convoluted but not pitted, and reddish

34

26

Fig. 26. False morel, five mature specimens showing variations in shape, a
longitudinal section in the center, and a cross section of the stem
in right center.

brown to dark brown. The stem is about 2-5 cm in length and 1.3-2.5
cm thick, whitish, hollow, fragile, and usually somewhat com-
pressed and grooved.

It grows singly or in groups, sometimes in clusters of two or
three, on the ground, usually around conifers, during May and June.

Although this fungus is not really very much like a morel, it is
the only one with which a morel is likely to be confused. It is a
dangerous fungus. Many people eat it and suffer no ill effects, but

35

many authentic cases of severe poisoning have been reported and
even deaths have been attributed to it.

The toxic properties of this species are due to the presence of
monomethylhydrazide (MMH). This poison passes off in vapor at
relatively low temperatures and is usually removed by boiling. The
water used for boiling the mushrooms and the steam given off may,
however, contain enough of the toxin to cause poisoning. Also, the
amount of poison needed to have an effect on a person varies from
individual to individual. For these reasons it is recommended that
this fungus not be eaten.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The photographs in this publication are from the files of the
Mycology Section, Biosystematics Research Institute, Research
Branch, Agriculture Canada, Ottawa, Ontario.

36

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bandoni, R. J., and Szczawinski, A. F. 1976. Guide to common mush-
rooms of British Columbia. 5th rev. ed. B.C. Prov. Mus., Hand-
book 24.

Graham, V. O. 1944. Mushrooms of the Great Lakes Region. Dover
Publ., 180 Varick Street, New York. (Reprinted in 1970).
Useful throughout Canada.

Groves, J. W. 1962. Edible and poisonous mushrooms of Canada.
Agric. Can. Publ. 1112. Supply and Services Canada, Ottawa.

Heim, R. 1969. Champignons d'Europe. Editions N. Boubee & Cie,
3, Place Saint-Andre-des-Arts, Paris VI.
Useful throughout Canada and highly recommended.

Kauffman, C. H. 1918. The gilled mushrooms of Michigan and the
Great Lakes Region. Dover Publ., 180 Varick Street, New York.
(Reprinted in 1971).
Useful throughout Canada.

Krieger, L. C. 1936. The mushroom handbook. Dover Publ., 180
Varick Street, New York. (Reprinted in 1967).
Highly recommended as an interesting and informative intro-
duction to the study of mushrooms.

Lange, M., and Hora, F. B. 1963. Mushrooms and toadstools. E.P.
Dutton, 201 Park Ave., S., New York.
Probably the easiest book to use for the beginner.

Malloch, D. W. 1976. Morels— A gourmet's delight. Agric. Can.
Publ. 1581. Information Services, Agriculture Canada, Ottawa.

Mcllvaine, C, and Macadam, R. K. 1902. One thousand American
fungi. Dover Publ., 180 Varick Street, New York. (Reprinted in
1973).

A good book for the gourmet: if anything could be called a
mushroom, Mcllvaine tasted it.

Miller, O. K. 1972. Mushrooms of North America. E.P. Dutton, 201
Park Ave., S., New York.
Excellent colored photographs.

Pomerleau, R. 1951. Mushrooms of Eastern Canada and the United
States. Editions Chantecler, 744 Rockland Ave., Montreal.

Romagnesi, R. 1962. Petit atlas des champignons de France. Les
Editions Bordas, 37 Rue Boulard, Paris 14.
Excellent illustrations and useful throughout Canada.

Smith, A. H. 1963. The mushroom hunter's field guide. Univ. Michi-
gan Press, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Excellent large photographs of 188 species, many in color.

37

-

CONVERSION FACTORS

Approximate

conversion

Metric units

factors

Results in:

LINEAR

millimetre (mm)

x0.04

inch

centimetre (cm)

xO.39

inch

metre (m)

x3.28

feet

kilometre (km)

x0.62

mile

AREA

square centimetre (cm2)

x 0.15

square inch

square metre (m2)

x 1.2

square yard

square kilometre (km2)

xO.39

square mile

hectare (ha)

x 2.5

acres

VOLUME

cubic centimetre (

cm3)

x 0.06

cubic inch

cubic metre (m3)

x 35.31

cubic feet

x 1.31

cubic yard

CAPACITY

litre (L)

x 0.035

cubic feet

hectolitre (hL)

x 22

gallons

x 2,5

bushels

WEIGHT

gram (g)

x0.04

oz avdp

kilogram (kg)

x 2.2

lb avdp

tonne (t)

x 1.1

short ton

AGRICULTURAL

litres per hectare (L/ha)

x 0.089

gallons per acre

x 0.357

quarts per acre

x 0.71

pints per acre

mil 1 il itres per hectare (mL/ha) x 0.014

fl. oz per acre

tonnes per hectare

(t/ha)

x0.45

tons per acre

kilograms per hectare (kg/ha)

x 0.89

lb per acre

grams per hectare

(g/ha)

x 0.014

ozavdp per acre

plants per hectare

(plants/ha)

x 0.405

plants per acre

CAL/BCA OTTAWA K1A 0C5

9073 00188401 6