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THE AMERICAN BREEDERS
MAGAZINE

Published Quarterly by the American Breeders Association
FOR THE USE OF ITS MEMBERS
PRICE OF SINGLE COPIES, 35 CENTS

Address communications to Ameri ican Breeders Associ: ation, Wa -shington, D. C.

Vol. Il. No. ae First Quarter, 1911. | _ Whole No, 5

CONTENTS

‘ PAGE
PIB PTO TRG OrUnsaiL ester. 12 cael eset sia. cto oto ivid evsast'ssai ale ste Sloat Rc 2
Miller, Dryden, and Warfield(biographical sketches)...................65 3
Join: iDyssclerty (OCR) bee Gisele DOGO MOBS ack nn GEE eee ee 5
WteermMETEIEIE(DOPLEATO)e. cans. «6 oS a cl sets ck aes baw d Suciseomeesmaes eee
Progress in Selection as Shown by Advanced Register Records. M. W.
Rene STAD CUI ay Ne oh og ced os Siac is avis a averse Seogarmeale sleet Soe 10
‘ The Inheritance of Left-Handedness (illustrated). H.E. Jorpan, Univer-
BEEN. Wien 26 on Sits Oe Oe a te ER ae Che te tet ole ea aie aan i 19
A System of Numbering Individuals of the Human Family. Mossom M.
Emo Eabcay cen, OntariOn Canada. . 0.6 see oldies dese le ats 29

Report of the Committee on Heredity of Epilepsy. Wm. N. Buuuarp, 33
The Karakul Breed of Sheep (illustrated). C. C. Youna, Goodnight,

Ee ET ag Tair es ga ities SL phedvelshecsabdl s widlnprae God ae w lah 34
Economic Importance of Live Stock Production (illustrated). H®rrBErRT
abeRUIE AEs CATA US ys cat cs clave athsty cies sige Was bale tele Gee OS 46
A New Method of Handling Pollen (illustrated). SrmEPHEN N. GREEN,
SO yonse ramets ta, als Wlecos iets, liste mej aenad uatecale «2's, tian e eae erase 52
A Method of Corn Pollination (illustrated). F. B. RoBerrs, Manhat-
(heii., TESTS eae bd os Gee BIE eC e SCORE LE ES ENE SCENT RCE Eat 54
resiGcnenics ©Onrerence at, PATIS:.. 0)... cede ees nee dine fe ese eee eee ee CO
EDITORIALS:
Mire secona Volume of the Magazine....... 2.6... cece eee eee 61
Peehotg anti. 2 -W DeaA Eee aR EI ne RP I ree 62
MN Per ali suns IMO CTACTCS., chy. csis da eovsie Sasi oee sete s ee eraat ee aoe 3 63
INCIMO Wed CINeMGIOL COUNUESIES.... .- 0-0 es casdaue rey encte te eee essen eee 64
‘Extending the Organization of the American Breeders Association...... 65
Oreanization of CoGperative Breeding... ....-. 2. 0... eee ee eee es 66
Financing the Magazine for Wider Usefulmess.......................4.. 68
opera nionim Animal Dreedimg. oo. 0. ci sane oc ses tee em ee ee ee eee 69
NEWS AND NOTES:
Maladjustment in Second-Generation Hybrids.......... Ro ee ee 72
Conventional Symbols for Pedigree Tables.......... AS Dsrae nGes
Somer ydological Corrections... ..2 5.0606. eee “i ee, oe
WemarsortheGaltom Bequest: .......-. 225-6. .55- a Se 25d EG
EMC AGOMSMRECEIVEdia sts once. sere osc ne ete ese s RAT
ASSOCIATION MATTER:
EM Ol eOrtralese OnE TANNIN Gs cass seksi ee oes eA,
Back Numbers of the Annual Reports. A ee ee ci = ee Seter iA
Pe AS BRAG Membership: . anes as os os Ses saciaie = ee ie 79
Opimionss..... Boe RT MO Ae Se ar

Comveinnt, 1911, ROT eHem erica: Brecderemesbals tic \
ua! a\
i \ \+\

R

T. L. Mire

THE AMERICAN
BREEDERS MAGAZINE

‘He was of those whose skill assigns the prize
For creatures fed in pens, and stalls and sties;
And who in places, where improvers meet
To fill the land with fatness, had a seat;
Whose plans encourage, and who journals keep,
And talk with lords about a breed of sheep.’’—CRABBE.

Vol. II First Quarter, 1911 airs No. 1

MILLER, DRYDEN, AND WARFIELD

The introduction into America of the various breeds of pedi-
greed live stock would make an interesting chapter both of the
history and the philosophy relating to breeding.

Most of these breeds have come from Great Britain and the Brit-
ish Isles, and almost entirely through private imitiative. What
public aid was extended consisted in permitting the entry of breed-
ing stock freeof duty. In many cases the introduction of a new breed
has been made in the face of opposition. The American breeders
have rather depended upon the Old World to originate different
breeds of live stock, and with a comparatively few exceptions have
not originated breeds in either the United States or Canada.

Many men have gained prominence through the work of improv-
ing pedigreed animals from Europe and in winning for them a place
in the live-stock production of this country. Others have gained
prominence and wealth through making those slower improvements
which come with small gradual changes after a breed has been orig-
inated. Not a few of these breeders were gifted and many sided
and combined authorship and other public work relating to the im-
provement of our live stock with their farming and their breeding
of pedigreed live stock.

As to why the British Isles should have been so active in develop-
ing breeds and the United States and Canada should have so nearly
confined their efforts to widely utilizing these breeds is not wholly a
puzzle. In England, for example, the live-stock growers of a county,
having gotten into the habit of showing the best of their flocks at
the county fair, are in reality in a community group almost as if

3

4 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

they were codperating. If any outstanding animal gained a repu-
tation for remarkable progeny this fact was clearly brought out at
the county fair and all the other breeders would seek some of his get
to try out in their own herds. If great excellence in the second
generation of this progeny again proved the mutating excellence of
a given sire, or dam, the whole countryside would begin to take an
interest in that particular strain of blood. In this way, decade by
decade, new breeds with high power to project their qualities into
purebred or grade progeny were built up.

These breeds made the British Isles the most famous live-stock
center in the world. They brought fine profits to the farmers and
breeders through the sale of purebred animals for export to the United
States, Australia, Argentine, and many other countries. These
breeds provided even a larger profit through the splendid live stock
they furnished for the farmers of the Islands themselves. And the
success which came from gaining recognition for the most skillful
breeding done in the world, as evidenced by the high prices paid by
foreign visitors for British live stock and by the high profits on the
live-stock farms of those Islands, gave an inspiration to country life
which has done much to build up the rural people.

T. L. MILLER
1817-1900

One of the men who have to their credit the chief honor of intro-
ducing, against opposition and every conceivable form of difficulty,
a valuable breed of live stock was T. L. Miller, of Beecher, Ill. Fol-
lowing Mr. Wm. H. Sotham, the pioneer importer and breeder of
Hereford cattle, he became a great champion of this rival breed of
the theretofore nearly dominant Shorthorn. Those interested in
the different families of Shorthorns could see no good in the new breed.
In shows, in the sales ring, and in the agricultural and live-stock
press there arose a heated contest. During the eighties this contest
waged especially strong. In those days these two breeds were striv-
ing for the market for purebred males with which to grade up the
then rapidly extending ranch cattle of the short-grass country east
of the Rocky Mountains. That market placed no premium on dairy
products. The dual-purpose tendencies of the Shorthorn placed it
rather at a disadvantage as compared with the Hereford, and to the
everlasting loss of the Shorthorn breed the contest with the Here-
ford for supremacy on the plains caused Shorthorn breeders to

i
i

2

Joun DryDEN

6 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

give relatively too much prominence to the blood of Cruikshank’s
wonderfully mutant sire, Champion of England, until now it is diffi-
cult to find in the United States enough Shorthorns with real dairy
heredity to serve as a base of a dairy Shorthorn sub-breed.

Mr. Miller had no intention of injuring the Shorthorn breed. His
purpose was to introduce and improve the Hereford breed, and with
an indomitable energy he labored at that task.

He wrote much forthe agricultural papers. For a time he published
a periodical devoted especially to Herefords. For a number of years
he published the American Herd Book of Hereford Cattle, and when
this enterprise grew too large to be carried on privately he turned it
over to the Hereford Society.

He wrote a “History of Hereford Cattle,’ a book of some five
hundred pages, finishing that task just before hisdeath. This took was
published by Mr. T. F. B. Sotham, son of his old-time coworker,
Wm. Sotham.

Mr. Miller was born in New England, but not on a farm; he learned
the trade of a butcher, engaged in commercial operations, and later
was successful in the insurance business in Chicago. He seems to
have wearied of city life, and settled on a farm of a thousand acres
at Beecher, Ill., some thirty miles from Chicago. He is an instance
of those whose business talents assure success in whatever they under-
take, farming not excepted.

JOHN DRYDEN
1840-1909

One of the men who labored to improve our imported breeds of
pedigreed live stock, almost to the point of creating new breeds or
sub-breeds, was John Dryden, a native of the Province of Ontario,
who became a very successful farmer near Toronto. Of his farm it
has been said that it was “the best worked and best operated farm
in America.” His farm specialties were the breeding of Shorthorn
cattle and Shropshire sheep. His breeding work constantly tended
in the direction of a more scientific system of breeding.

Through that period of Shorthorn history during which the senti-
ment for ‘‘fashion” often overshadowed the more fundamental prin-
ciples of sound breeding, his steadying influence made itself greatly
felt.

Mr. Dryden served as president of the American Shropshire Reg-
istry Association, also as president of the Dominion Shorthorn
Breeders Association, although his most important public work was

WILLIAM WARFIELD

8 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

as Minister of Agriculture for Ontario during the years 1890 to 1906.
During that period he was a leader of much of the agricultural devel-
opment of the province, and especially along live-stock lines. It was
he who, during his administration, encouraged the development of
the bacon breeds of hogs in that province, and especially the improved
Yorkshires, with the result that methods of breeding and handling
to produce bacon of high quality were successfully worked out.

Mr. Dryden and his associates, through the Guelph winter live-
stock show, where prizes were given not only for live animals but also
for carcasses showing high bacon type, remarkably improved these
breeds from the standpoint of the breeder who seeks the long, uni-
form side of bacon with its alternating layers of lean and fat.

This work, done in relation to the Canadian effort to lead in foreign
markets for bacon, stands out as one of the remarkable achievements
in American live-stock breeding.

Mr. Dryden’s many friendships in the States attested his lovable
character and formed one of the innumerable ties between the two
countries.

WILLIAM WARFIELD

1827-1907

One of the characters most prominent during the years in which
Kentucky supplied much of the Shorthorn blood to the breeding
herds of this famous breed throughout the United States was William
Warfield of Lexington, Kentucky.

Mr. Warfield came of old Maryland stock, his grandfather, Elisha
Warfield, having migrated from Annapolis, Maryland, and settled
near Bryant Station, famed from the days of Boone. . There he began
the breeding of Shorthorns and fine horses. His son Benjamin,
father of William Warfield, though he studied to practice medicine,
found the love of the farm and of live stock so strong that he forsook
medicine for the breeding of Shorthorns, establishing his herd in 1826.

William Warfield’s education was also thorough, including a par-
tially completed course in medicine. Again the taste for rural pur-
stits and the love of cattle decided the son upon a career upon the
land. His farm, ‘‘Grassmere,’’ in the bluegrass region, the farm on
which he was born, became the seat of his life activity as a breeder
of Shorthorn cattle. His most active period was during the seven-
ties and eighties, when the farmers of Kentucky, Ohio, and westward
began extensively to improve their stock by the use of purebred cat-
tle and many established herds of pedigreed Shorthorns.

MiLuER, DRYDEN, AND WARFIELD 9

Mr. Warfield stands out as one of the best informed men on Short-
horn history and Shorthorn pedigrees. He contributed much to
live stock and especially to Shorthorn literature, and his fund of
information was at all times at the command of those who were in
need of assistance.

His two most notable contributions to live-stock literature were
the books “ History of Improved Shorthorn Cattle” and ‘‘The Theory
and Practice of Cattle Breeding.”

He was a strong believer in the possibility of improving Short-
horns and other live stock in our own country. He placed great
emphasis upon the possibilities of breeding as compared with contin-
uous importation.

Among Kentucky’s many leading live-stock farmers, Mr. War-
field stands prominently as one of a race of noblemen of strong and
lofty character. As his ancestors by the force of their character were
leaders in their communities, so he was respected, honored, and loved
by that wider circle which knew him through the sales ring, the live-
stock show, and the printed page.

PROGRESS IN SELECTION AS SHOWN BY
ADVANCED REGISTER RECORDS

M. W. Harper
New York College of Agriculture, Ithaca, New York

“Breeding for production in dairy cattle in the light of recent
advances in the study of inheritance’’ is the subject of a very inter-
esting paper recently from the pen of a well-known biologist.! The
paper calls to our attention some very important data for the study
of inheritance; data, the economic value of which cannot be easily
overestimated, as they affect the production of a useful product.
From a biologic point of view they may be of no greater importance
than the beard on a head of wheat, the length of a rat’s tail, the color
of a guinea pig’s fur, or the steps of a Japanese dancing mouse, but
from a productive point of view they are of very great importance to
mankind. The data, such as therein presented, when extended and
properly interpreted, seem to offer, in part at least, a solution of the
best method of breeding for increased dairy production as well as to
throw some light upon a much discussed biologic question, at least so
far as the breeding of the farm live stock is concerned. In view of
this it seems worth while to give the paper more than passing notice.

It is not the purpose of this paper to enter into a battle of words, to
coin new terms or to define old ones, to propose theories of evolution
and the like, but to set forth the facts as they exist at the time the
data herein are collected. One thing, kindly remember that this
article is prepared by a practical breeder. While in evolution time
is of no consequence, with the breeder it must be taken by the fore-
lock. The breeder must, therefore, work faster than nature; he
eannot make use of the leisurely operating evolutionary methods of
nature. The action must be accelerated or its cumulative effect
exaggerated.

Source of the data, Jersey Club’s Register of Merit—The paper
referred to takes the records of production of Jersey cows as recorded
in the Register of Merit, the official organ of the American Jersey
Cattle Club, as the data for discussion. In 1903 the Jersey Cattle

! Raymond Pearl. “Breeding for Production in Dairy Cattle in the Light of Recent Advances

in the Study of Inheritance.”
wn

10

HARPER: PROGRESS IN SELECTION 18k

Club began making official tests of Jersey cows and admitting such
animals to the Register as could meet the requirement. In 1908,
or five years after its establishment, the first volume of the Register
of Merit appeared containing the records of 361 cows. The cow is
eligible to the Register of Merit on her own performance alone,
whereas the bulls are required to have a certain number of daughters
in the Register before they can be recorded. The reason for this
is obvious, as bulls do not themselves produce milk.

The paper raised the question, “How have the existing Advanced
Registry cows been bred as a matter of actual fact?” The impor-
tance of a correct answer to this question is admitted, for if we are in
possession of this knowledge we may breed some more like them.
In the paper an attempt was made to obtain information on this
question by tabulating the last 162 cows (Register of Merit Nos.
200-361 inclusive). For convenience of study these cattle were
divided into four classes according to the possible kinds of mating,
with the results shown in the following table:

TaBLE 1.—Breeding of 162 Jersey cows in Register of Merit.

| Number of Register Percentage each form

Description of parentage. | of Merit cows resulting of parentage bears to
| from stated parentage. total.
Sire in Register of Merit; dam in Register of Merit. 11 7
Sire not in Register of Merit; dam notin Register of
MIGKH. . 065 cago ced 6000s seo ods poe CHROOO cBOD Se ADASe Oe 68 42
Sire in Register of Merit; dam not in Register of |
LGR acosBanh dou dU COR GODT TOS OSS SRS OEI Teron 70 43
Sire not in Register of Merit; dam in Register of |
IWIGTa kh, Cen cobadoa OC 000 ORDO RO CS Rete Ear iat aararae 13 8
Oba liee etek tretsiae thiclere eielsis coe edielieaedeeebes 162 100

The following conclusions are drawn from the table: ‘Too much
stress should not, of course, be laid on these figures. As they stand
they have no great scientific value. They suggest a whole series of
questions which need more data for their final solution. But the
only point which it is intended to bring out here is that the practical
breeder will have a great deal of difficulty in finding anything in these
figures to indicate that he will be likely to produce more heifer calves
that will qualify for the Register of Merit if he breeds from only Regis-
ter-of-Merit stock than he will if he breeds from non-Register-of-Merit
stock.” In this connection there are two more statements to which
attention is directed: (1) “The cow in Advanced Registry has
shown nothing except that she is a good milker. She may be and
too often is absolutely worthless as a breeder.” (2) ‘There have

12 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

been many Jersey cows that were greater milk producers than was
Figgis or Marina Pogis, but how many of them can produce a son
that will get nine or fifteen daughters in the Advanced Registry?”

Jersey cow butter tests—Not only are the above data incomplete
but they are built upon an entirely erroneous assumption; namely,
that all Jersey cows outside the Register are poor producers and not
in the Register because they fail to meet the requirements. As a
matter of actual fact there are many good Jersey cows not in the
Register of Merit simply because they have never been tested. They
could make the requirements but are not given the opportunity.
In this connection it should be remembered that cows from without
are continually being tested and brought into the Register of Merit,
which will of necessity mean that there are cattle in the Register
that do not have Advanced Registry parentage. The percentage of
such animals will simply depend on thenumber admitted from without.

The larger the number of cows admitted from without the smaller
will be the percentage with both sire and dam in the Register of
Merit. When the Register was established in 1903, it must of ne-
cessity follow that all the animals admitted the first few years had
neither sire nor dam in the Register. As years go by, the offspring of
the cows first admitted make records and are themselves admitted,
with the result that after the Register has been in existence for a
period of years a good percentage of the cows in the Register of Merit
will have parents in the Register also. An extension of the data in
the above table will show this.

While the Register of Merit was established in 1903 and hence
of recent origin, butter tests among Jersey cows have been made
since the seventies, during which time many Jersey cows have been
tested and records preserved. Two volumes of these records have

TaBLE 2.—Breeding of 162 Jersey cows in Register of Merit.

| Number of | | Including buttertested,
Register of | Percentage | in earlier records.

| Merit cows re- each form of |

| sulting from | parentage bears

Description of parentage.

| stated parent- to total. Number Per cent

age. | of cows. | of cows.
Both sire and dam in Register............ 11 7 57 35
Neither sire nor dam in Register.......... 68 42 | 39 24
Sireiin Register; dam NOt .....000..00006 70 43 | 53 | 33
Damn Registers “sire not: 25... . 26.006 13 8 13 8
Ot E Ec chcrs\ slave elovatotaraiotersreyeiere'aye's ee aiavare 162 100 162 100

HARPER: PROGRESS IN SELECTION 13

been published; the first, August 1, 1898, and the second, July 15,
1902. By following back the data for the same 162 cows and taking
into account the butter tests, we get Table 2 on opposite page.

A study of the table including Jersey cows with butter tests shows
that the per cent of cows with Advanced Registry parents has risen
from 7 to 35 while the per cent of cows with neither sire nor dam in
the Register has fallen from 42 to 24. With these facts before us
it would seem that our chances of getting an Advanced Register
heifer from an Advanced Register cow have been much improved.
At the same time our chances of getting an Advanced Register heifer
from cows without records have diminished.

Holstein-Friesian cows.—During the year 1894 the Holstein-
Friesian Association established the Advanced Register, in which
are registered individuals of that breed that meet its requirement.
Since the establishment of the Advanced Register seventeen years
ago, 11,815 cows and 838 bulls have been admitted. With a view
to obtaining more information upon the inheritance of milk-nro-
ducing qualities a study has been made of the breeding of all Hol-
stein-Friesian cows admitted to the Advanced Register during the
year ending May 15, 1910. This study included 3,070 cows, of which
2,233 were first records and 837 re-entries; that is, cows increasing
a previous record. Classifying the 3,070 cows as before, we have

Table 3.

TABLE 3.—Breeding of 3,070 Holstein-Friesian cows in the Advanced Register.

| Number of A. R. O. | Percentage each form

Description of parentage. | cows resulting from | of parentage bears to
stated parentage. total.
Bothisire‘and dam in’ Register...........0....0..2 | 1,196 39
Neither sire nor dam in Register................... 710 23
Sire neverister GAM) NOG, 2... ce cie\crelere 2 sec. 0 cele oes | 770 25
Wamminvhecister: Sire NOts..... casas cee ccieheesece sl 394 13
TIGYIET | ne ocetreche y RE niGH GEOG EIGER Ee aes 3,070 100

These results are approximately the same as in the extended table
No. 2, 39 per cent having both sire and dam in the Register and 23
per cent with neither sire nor dam in the Advanced Register, 25 per
cent with sire only and 13 per cent with dam only in the Register.

Holstein cows making 50 per cent above requirements.—As previously
stated, there are many cows outside the Advanced Register that if
tested would make the requirements, which are very low when com-

14 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

pared with high efficiency. Furthermore, there is much variation
among cows in the Advanced Register, some barely making the re-
quirements, others attaining much higher efficiency. This suggests
the question as to the percentage of high producing cows with Advan-
ced Register parents. This is the real test of efficiency, as the mini-
mum requirements of the Register are not difficult to make. To
obtain information on this point all of the cows registered during
the year ending May 15, 1910, making 50 per cent more than the
requirement have been selected out and are classified in Table 4
below; that is to say, where the requirement is 12 pounds of fat the
table includes those making 18 pounds or more.

TaBLE 4.—Breeding of 1,121 Holstein-Friesian cows making 50 per cent
above requirements.

Number of A. R. O. | Percentage each form

Description of parentage. cows resulting from | of parentage bears to
stated parentage. total.
Both sire and dam in Register............. By tNarete 584 52
Neither sire nor dam in Register.................... 157 15
SireninyRegister; daminot 1. .ccsscc cea ccs cence 235 20
DamintReristers sire mot saa.<. acstonte secre cee oeee 145 13
ETO GA rapa ates athe ctoetoters aortas ce ee oe 1,121 100

Here is evidence that, with the requirement increased by 50 per cent,
more than half, or, accurately, 52 per cent, of cows making such
requirements have both sire and dam in the Advanced Register
while only a little over one in six, or 15 per cent, have neither sire
nor dam in the Registry; 20 per cent with sire only, and 13 per cent
with dam only. This shows clearly that as we raise the requirements
the chances of getting an Advanced Register heifer from the outside
are quite small while our chances of getting one from one within, if
we get one at all, are about one in two.

TaBLE 5.—Breeding of 168 Holstein cows making 100 per cent abov
requirements.

Number of A. R. O. Percentage each form

Description of parentage. cows resulting from of parentage bears to
stated parentage. total.
Both sire and dam 1n Register.............. 123 73
Neither sire nor dam in Register veh 5 3
mire Int Register idaminotin. a2... 6. -f)- cine eae eee 25 15
Dam in Register; sire not.......... A Sine Rice 15 9

To bale ee eee tee Sh eee 168 100

HARPER: PROGRESS IN SELECTION 15

Holstein cows making 100 per cent above requirements——In order
to clear this matter up a little more if at all possible, the cows making
100 per cent above the requirements were classified, with results as
shown in Table 5 on opposite page:

When the requirements are doubled, 73 per cent of the cows have
both sire and dam in the Register while only 3 per cent have neither
sire nor dam in the Register. Now, our chances of getting an
Advanced Register heifer from the outside are only three in one hun-
dred while our chances of getting one from within, if at all, are almost
three in four. Thus it would seem that the time-worn expression
“blood will tell’ has again proven its right to remain the breeder’s
watchword.

Holstein-Friesian cows with records as breeders.—Since the assertion
was made that the cows in the Advanced Register have shown noth-
ing except that they are good milkers and that they may be and too
often are absolutely useless as breeders, it seems worth while to look
to the records and determine if possible the exact standing of Advanced
Register cows as breeders. While data on this are somewhat diffi-
cult to obtain, some idea of the Advanced Register cow as a breeder
may be obtained from Table 6, which is a classification of cows that
have produced two or more and four or more daughters with records.

TABLE 6.—Breeding of 1,999 and 172 Holstein-Friesian cows with two or more
and four or more A. R. O. daughters respectively.

Classification of cows. Number of cows. | Per cent of cows.

Cows having records and two or more A. R. O.

RIMENSELOLS Ror accent ere ee eecieceeestaaee ce 1,076 54
Cows haying no records and two or more A. R. O.

ST RRIELET Meet ccpaeien ete raisainiei oie fels visas 10 08 8o wae, 923 | 46

BICC PU ete esehere ie aicte) ove, form's @ ele eV ones oiisie-vt w.s:s 2i3,0'008 1,999 100

Cows having records and four or more A. R. O.

GUHA LECT R Ror arstoteteceic cine eievsischecinaltinees cts sae’ 122 71
Cows having no records and four or more A. R. O.
PRPURES ERE ES MEP PREG faye cl cist oo. te) ries owas ayes Sich obesebs 50 29

As shown in Table 6, of the cows with two or more daughters in
the Advanced Register, 54 per cent themselves have records, while 46
per cent have no records themselves. If, however, we wish a cow
that can produce four or more daughters that can make the Regis-
ter, the table shows that the chances are about three to one that we
will find her in the Advanced Register.

16 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

Holstein-Friesian bulls.—As before stated, bulls are admitted to the.
Advanced Register on the performance of their daughters; that is,
when a Holstein bull has four or more daughters in the Register, he
is also eligible. During the year ending May 15, 1910, there were 133
bulls admitted to the Register. To aid in the study of transmission
of the milk-producing character, these bulls were classified similarly
to the cows, resulting in Table 7.

TaBLe 7.—Breeding of 133 Holstein-Friesian bulls in the Advanced Register.

Number of A. R. O. | Percentage each form

Description of parentage. bulls resulting from of parentage bears to
stated parentage. total.
Both sire and dam in Register.................-..+> 85 64
Neither sire nor dam in Register................... 11 8
SirevinvRerister;dam nots-care see eee eee 25 19
Dam in Register sire note. sacceecee ote cece 12 9
PO bs Seep toe cee ee eet eee: 133 100

It will be seen that 64 per cent of the bulls capable of producing
four or more heifers good enough to make the Register have both
sire and dam in the Register, while only 8 per cent have neither sire
nor dam in the Advanced Register, 19 per cent sire only and 9 per
cent dam only in the Advanced Register. This goes to show that if
we wish a bull prepotent enough to get four or more heifers in the
Register, our chances are much in favor of finding him with both sire
and dam in the Register.

Holstein-Friesian bulls in advance of requirements—As with cows, the
requirements admitting bulls to the Advanced Register are not diffi-
cult to make. In all 838 bulls have been admitted. The test of
efficiency is shown where we raise the requirement. Since the paper
referred to raises the question as to the number of cows that can pro-
duce sons that will get nine or fifteen daughters in the Advanced
Register, nine is first taken as a requirement; then fifteen, and the
breeding tabulated with results as in the table below. Again, since
getting fifteen daughters in the Register is not very difficult, the
standard has been raised to twenty-five or more, then to fifty or more,
and lastly to seventy-five or more daughters in the Advanced Regis-
ter. This should show relative efficiency and if there is anything in
selection should demonstrate that fact. The results of such classi-
fication show results as follows:

Harper: PRoGRESS IN SELECTION 17

TaBLeE 8.—Parentage of sires, each with specified numbers of A. R. O. daughters
in Advanced Register.

Number Per cent of

Description of Parentage.
Dp s of sires. total sires.

251 sires with nine or

Both sire and dam in Repgister.................... 145 58

more A. R. O. daugh- ;
Neither sire nor dam in Register................. 31 12

ters each, or 28 per :

evtigh all mn: Tenis Siredneter(stere Gam NObe casters tose or 46 18
ior Damyin Register; sire MObs.. cases. cielo io = 29 12
Seyi a Ren AEI ea som Sete ceo S OO ee 251 100
112 sires with fifteen or Both sire and dam in Register a ecsemror ates ach 15 67
more A.R.O. daugh- } Neither sire nor dam in Register................. 6 5
ters each, 13 percent |Sire in Register; dam not....................-.... 19 17
of all in Register Damiin Reristerssiramnot.....0-.sasescreenece ee. - 12 11
MO talep se cacaeie. kasi haisc 5 ois ias ake de sais ors 112 100

43 sires with twenty-

Both sire and dam in Register..................-- 31 70
five or more A.R.O.
Neither sire nor dam in Register................. Q* 0
daughters each, 5.1
Siren Registers GAM MOG: 222 )csc.cisraisietlclstcle sis ales 2's 7 18
Biepeee ce all, tn Dam in Register; sire not 5 12
Register { ye RSL CP ENO Gert etntesetelatelelotatepel = cNeNarsi-rahal © i: “ s
OLE ret sheet eiticis toe Ste eeIN eee cas sysie 6 43 100
{4sires with fifty ormore | Both sire and dam in Register.................... 12 86
A. R.O. daughters ) Neither sire nor dam in Registensenire coe tec con 0 0
each, 1.8 percent of all | Sire in Register; dam not....................-.... 1 if
in Register [Dam IMehLecister-sireiNObtts se. waeeieeeeeie si. - 1 7
POCA nrr rte rele chs cistens Se ce eer etl esses 14 100
5 sires with seventy- | Both sire and dam in Register.................... 5 160
five or more A.R.O. } Neither sire nor dam in Register................ 0 0
daughters each, 0.6 |Sire in Register; dam not......................... 0 0
per cent of all in | Dam in Register; sire not........................- 0 0
Register =
STOLE Le eet Verne cto ccleic Shot eb Tee) isseitieke ws 5 100

The results shown in Table 8 are significant. In the first place, it
will be noted that 28 per cent of all the bulls in the Advanced Register
have nine or more daughters also in the Advanced Register, and that
13 per cent have fifteen or more A. R. O. daughters. In the second
place, it is interesting to note how the per cent of bulls with both
sire and dam in the Register increases as the requirements are raised.
With the requirement placed at 9 A. R. O. daughters, 58 per cent
have both sire and dam in the Register, while 12 per cent have neither

18 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

sire nor dam, 18 per cent sire only, and 12 per cent dam only in the
Register. With the requirement placed at fifteen A. R. O. daugh-
ters, the per cent with both sire and dam in the Register has risen
to 67, while the per cent with neither sire nor dam has dropped to 5.
With the requirement placed at twenty-five A. R. O. daughters,
the per cent with both sire and dam in the Register has risen to 70
and there is not a single sire with neither sire nor dam in the Regis-
ter. In the third place, we note that when the requirement is raised
to the maximum, we have all the animals making the requirement
with both sire and dam in the Advanced Register.

The number of cattle tested for admission to the Advanced Regis-
ter is not large. For the past few years only 13 per cent of the
Holstein cows and 1.3 per cent of the bulls have been admitted to
the Register. This is significant in a study of the data above. When
the small number of cows tested and in the Register are taken into
account, and the large percentage of high producing animals coming
from the Register are considered, the chance of finding a maximum
producer from without the Register are not very encouraging. The
breeder attempting to produce a Holstein cow with a weekly record
of 29 pounds of butter fat, or a bull that can sire 100 A. R. O. daugh-
ters, is likely to encounter much difficulty unless he selects parents
from the Advanced Register.

In this connection, it may be stated that the Advanced Register
plays no part in increasing the production of dairy cows, it neither
adds to nor detracts from the production, but is simply an instrument
in which records of performance are kept, and from which records of
transmitted efficiency can be obtained, nothing more. It is easily
possible to build up a strain of high-producing cows without the Reg-
ister, but practically the same methods that the Register encourages
must be employed. The entire matter may be summarized thus:

The Advanced Register contains a record of performance which
enables us to know the high-producing from the low-producing cows
as well as the cows and bulls likely to get high producers. The low
producers are discarded and the high producers are propagated, which
procedure, in connection with better care and management, enables
us to get still higher producers. Again the low producers are dis-
carded and the high producers propagated, with the result that the
average production and the previous maximum production of the
race are raised.

Now we are told that this increased production must of course
cease when the limit of the physiological activities of the cells is

JORDAN: INHERITANCE OF LErr-HANDEDNESS 19

reached. But who wants to go on record in any hard and fast set-
ting of the metes and bounds that may or may not limit the working
of evolution? Believe me, creation is not yet finished. With proper
eare and under favorable conditions, the cow is likely to adjust her-
self to the increased demands made upon her system. There are
many ways in which this can be done; not least of all is that of increas-
ing the number of producing cells, which is what she actually has done
and is doing under domestication.

THE INHERITANCE OF LEFT-HANDEDNESS
H. E. Jorpan i ——_—-

University of Virginia, University, Virginia

There is a widespread popular belief that left-handedness is here -
itary. When left-handedness appears among a childship,’ the par-
ents concerned at once trace it to some direct or collateral ancestor.
If the known ancestry contains no individual to whom influence may
be ascribed, there is occasioned the greatest wonderment. On the
other hand, biologists do not seem to believe in a hereditary bias to
left-handedness. Otherwise, it would seem, some attempt had long
been made to state its principle of “transmission.” Gould (1908),
who has given much study to the clinical aspects of left-handedness
as supposedly connected with unilateral eye-defect, states very em-
phatically that left-handedness is not hereditary, and takes gratui-
tous occasion to speak slightingly of “Mendelism.”

To the writerthere remains no doubt that left-handedness is hered-
itary (in the sense that offspring resemble ancestors in this charac-
teristic), and that the condition reappears in successive generations.
Leading to this opinion is the fact that in his own ancestry, both
direct and collateral, as far as he can determine, there is nowhere
left-handedness. Moreover, he has the assurance of a number of
friends, taking an intelligent interest in the matter, that the same is
true of themselves and their ascendants. Furthermore, ina number of
cases known to the writer, the condition of Jeft-handedness has reap-
peared three or even four times (one case) in as many successive gen-
erations.

The fact of its reappearance in certain stocks seems well established.
What is obscure, and bids fair to so remain for some time to come, due

1The word “childship” is used in the sense defined by E. Stainer (‘The Hereditary Trans-

mission of Defects in Man.” Disscitation. Oxford University Press, 1910) to designate ‘‘the
family of children resulting from a marriace,’’ p. 5.

20 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

mainly, I believe, to the small number of individuals in any one affec-
ted family, is the rule or principle governing the reappearance.
Nevertheless, the following facts drawn from a study of 78 lineages
in which left-handedness is noted, representing the result of a can-
vas of nearly 3,000 individuals, may suggest a probable state of affairs
and perhaps serve as a beginning to an investigation that further
study and more data may very appreciably extend and enhance.

CAUSE OF LEFT-HANDEDNESS

This study is only incidentally concerned with the etiology of
left-handedness. ‘The purpose of this research is primarily to note
the occurrence of this particular variation among the members of
certain families and to formulate, if possible, some principle or prin-
ciples apparently governing its reappearance and distribution im
certain lineages. The work aims, moreover, to make a contribution
to the general subject of heredity. The characteristic of left-handed-
ness must have a cause, but whatever this may be in terms of struc-
ture is of only secondary interest in this connection.

However, it may serve to set the problem a little more clearly, to
record that inveterate left-handedness is invariably associated with
general left-sidedness, 2.e., left-leggedness, left-eyedness, etc. (see
Sibley to the contrary); and that the cerebral localization of this
function (7.e., movement of left hand) in the sinistro-manual is in
the right cerebral hemisphere (next Broca’s center in the third fron-
tal convolution), the reverse condition obtaining in the dextro-
manual. The proof of these facts was from the field of pathology
and was summarized, and confirmed by personal experience, by
Wilson in his valuable and interesting pioneer work in 1891. In
this same book are discussed, in a most scholarly way, many theories,
mostly mechanical, e.g., transposition of viscera, center of gravity
theory, ete., formerly held, all of which are satisfactorily disposed of
as very manifestly erroneous or only partially explanatory. Wilson
attributes left-handedness proximately to a greater development
(preponderant size and weight) of the right cerebral hemisphere
and cites authorities (both pro and con) and gives his own evidence
from a peculiarly favorable case.

The more recent theory of Gould (1908) to the effect sha right-
handedness follows the generally more perfect development of the
right eye, advanced to supplant all former theories, has been shown
by Stevens (1908) to be of doubtful verity. It seems more nearly
correct to think of right-eyedness as a condition concomitant with

JORDAN: INHERITANCE OF LEFT-HANDEDNESS Zi

right-handedness and both dependent upon the same or related cause.
At any rate the offered proof is not compelling that they are related
as cause and effect. And until Gould shall have frankly reckoned
with, and satisfactorily met, Stevens’s criticism his “‘theory’’ remains
largely a speculation.

A careful weighing of available evidence regarding the cause of
left-handedness (as furnished more particularly by Hyrtl, Wilson,
Gould, and Lombroso) indicates a better developed right cerebral
hemisphere. This would seem to depend upon a better nutrition
and ultimately upon a better blood supply. The final cause—the
factor determining the anatomical variation in the condition of the
foetal blood supply—remains an outstanding riddle. The matter
which chiefly concerns us here is to determine in what way or ways
this factor (or factors) expresses itself. The fact of the existence of
a large class of so-called ambidexters of various degrees, as also of
degrees of right-handedness and left-handedness, renders more plaus-
ible the assumption that these conditions ultimately depend upon
various degrees of variations in the more usual vascular arrangement
in the cerebral hemispheres.

HISTORICAL

Probably the earliest data regarding left-handedness are those
recorded in Judges 20:16 respecting the tribe of Benjamin. Here
there were 700 left-handed slingers in a military population of 26,700.
This proportion accords very well with the recent statement of Hyrtl
to the effect that among the civilized races of Europe left-handedness
prevails in the ratio of 2 per cent (Gould puts it at 6 per cent for the
United States). Regarding the Benjamites, however, one must
remember that the Bible narrative gives no clue as to whether the
left-handed slingers were by nature or by training (as a strategic mea-
sure) sinistro-manual in war.

In volume 1, book 4, chapter 5 of Sir Thomas Browne’s “ Vulgar
Errors” (H. G. Bohn, Covent Garden, 1836) is given an interesting,
more or less absurd, discussion ‘Of the Right and Left Hand’’ with
a consideration of earlier theories to account for right-handedness,
more particularly those of Aristotle (use), Scaliger (‘‘crassitude,
and plenitude of blood’’) and Caelius Rhodiginus (sinistral loca-
tion of liver). In a footnote is given Signor Zecchinelli’s very plausi-
ble explanation for the general preference of the right hand, quoted
from ‘‘Brande’s Journal,” viz: ‘For it must have been observed,
that when the left arm is long used, or violently exercised, the left

22 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

side also of the chest is put more or less in motion, and a consequent
and corresponding obstacle produced not only to the free emission of
blood from the breast, but also to its progress through the aorta and
its ramifications.’ (I am indebted to Dr. Bennett Wood Green for
this early reference.)

Prof. Hyrtl of Vienna has noted a correspondence between the ratio
of left-handed persons and the occurrence of certain deviations from
the normal arrangement of the blood vessels. “It happens,” he
says, ‘“‘in the proportion of about two in a hundred cases, that the
left subclavian artery has its origin before the right and in these cases
left-handedness exists as it also often actually does in the case of
complete transposition of the internal organs; and it is found that the
proportion of left-handed and right-handed persons is also about 2
to 100’ (quoted from Wilson). Wilson points out, however, that
the evidence that in other cases an anomalous blood supply (trans-
position) has been unaccompanied by left-handedness shows that
“Gt is no necessary source of deviation from normal action.’ Wil-
son calls attention to four cases referred to by Dr. Pye-Smith (Guy’s
Hospital, London) where the subject of abnormal disposition of »
the viscera had been right-handed. Four additional non-conform-
ing cases are cited by Wilson.

Dr. Pye-Smith says: ‘The opinion that some difference between the
two sides of the brain has to do with our preference for the right hand
over the left may, perhaps, be supported by two very interesting cases
of aphasia occurring in left-handed persons, recorded by Dr. Hugh-
lings Jackson and Dr. John Ogle. In both these patients there was
paralysis of the left side; so that it seems likely that in these two left-
handed people the right half of the brain had the function if not the
structure which ordinarily belongs to the left.’ A third case checked
at autopsy is reported by Wilson. Case No. 17 of my own material
has a similar history, as will be described below.

Wilson believes that left-handedness is due to an exceptional devel-
opment of the right hemisphere of the brain; ‘‘that advantage accrues
to all from cultivation of dexterity in both hands; that the right hand
is given preference naturally or instinctively by some. . . Mma
smaller number left-handedness is formed by an equally strong im-
pulse . . . but in the great majority right-handedness is
largely the result of education.”’ Garman, in reviewing this book in
“The Nation,” suggests that the greater development of the left
hemisphere may be due to the greater use of the right arm, i. e.,
cause and consequence are thought of in the reverse order by Wilson.

JORDAN: INHERITANCE OF LErr-HANDEDNESS 23

Furthermore, Garman insists that “it is still an open question whether
an organ less developed is more liable to disease,”’ as Wilson urges in
support of his idea of the value of the traiming for ambidexterity.
The final settlement of the question regarding the greater develop-
ment of the right and left cerebral hemispheres in left- and right-
handed individuals respectively awaits careful study and measure- :
ment of a large series of infants’ brains.

Gould, with much reason it would seem, ridicules the ‘‘ambidex-
terity sillmess” as provocative of much misery. Common sense alone
dictates that where one hemisphere is apparently well capable of
controlling a certain range of physical and mental activities, it were
a waste of time to cultivate a bilateral control (a possibility often
realized when a member of one side of the body is incapacitated).
Moreover, when a child at school gives evidence of stronger prefer-
ment for using the left hand, it were criminal to handicap and abuse
that child by forcing it to use the right hand. His theory, however,
that right-handedness is due to a more efficient right eye disregards
contradictory neurological facts as pointed out by Stevens.

Lombroso (1903) studied left-handedness from the viewpoint of
mental pathology and psychiatry. He calls attention to a widespread
belief in the mental and moral crookedness of a left-handed man. His
studies led him to the opinion that the left-handed are more agile,
and “ordinarily found among women, children, and savages and they
were more numerous in past ages than they are now.’ Among
1,029 operatives and soldiers 4 per cent were left-handed. The ratio
among women operatives ranges from 5 per cent to 8 per cent.
“Among lunatics the proportion is not much different.’”? Among
male criminals 13 per cent are left-handed; and among female crimi-
nals 22 per cent. 33 per cent of swindlers are said to be left-handed.
The ratio of left-handedness among murderers and ravishers is given
as 9 to 10 per cent.

Lombroso studied 44 heads of criminals in the museum at Turm
and found the right lobe better developed in 41 per cent; the ieft
lobe in 20 per cent. Ordinarily, Lombroso states, the left lobe takes
precedence. ‘‘Receiving the blood from the heart more directly
and in greater quantities than the right, it is the first to develop from
the embryo, works more, and is the more voluminous of the two, the
right only serving, one may say, as a help or reinforcement to the
other’’ (p. 442).

Audenino (1907) expresses his opinion that recent researches have
shown that left-handedness is more frequent among criminals,

24. AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

immoral individuals, prostitutes and epileptics, and that children
during the first month (Baldwin) are for the most part ambidexterous.
Further, that left-handedness is a degenerate characteristic, an
atavistic phenomenon (Lombroso; Louis Agassiz also held this opin-
ion). Lombroso says: “But then, what significance has ambidex-
terity? According to Brinton, the anthropoids are ambidextrous;
according to Le Bon ambidexterity is frequent among savages, idiots,
and infants. Ambidexterity is likewise frequent among criminals
and epileptics; also, it seems to me that many of those which appear
left-handed (and left-handed on the dynamometer also) are really
ambidextrous; and that ambidexterity, more than left-handedness,
represents an afavistic character” (p. 26). He admits that it is not
easy to tell in many cases whether one is dealing with a left-handed
or a right-handed person. Tested with the dynamometer on suc-
cessive days subjects (i. e., students, etc.) gave results indicating
ambidexterity, right-handedness or left-handedness. This was
equally true of individuals who said they were left-handed.

Lattes (1907) notes that cerebral asymmetry is greater in delin-
quents, children, idiots, and negroes than in normals.

He draws the following conclusions from his investigations:

1. Right-handedness is connected with morphological and func-
tional asymmetry of the brain.

2. There are two kinds of left-handedness:

(a) Atavistic (constitutional), due to an inversion of normal
cerebral asymmetry.

(b) Pathologie left-handedness (manifested after a left
cerebral lesion), which left-handedness is what pre-
dominates in epileptics and delinquents.

Touching the matter of hereditary left-handedness the literature
is very meager. Wilson states that M. Ribot in his “Heredity”
wrote: ‘There are families in which the special use of the left hand
is hereditary. Girou mentions a family in which the father, the chil-
dren and most of the grandchildren were left-handed. In an in-
stance communicated to Wilson both parents of a gentleman in Shrop-
shire were left-handed. His mother accordingly watched his early
manifestations of the same tendency, and employed every available
means to counteract it. The left hand was bound up and tied behind
him. But all efforts to suppress the impulse were in vain.”
Weber (1904) argues that the anthropoids, primitive man and the
young child (before eight months) are ambidextrous. He suggests
that the almost universal choice of the right hand by the growing

JORDAN: INHERITANCE OF LEFT-HANDEDNESS 25

child is the expression of a hereditary bias acquired by man during
racial development.

Merkel (1904) comes to the conclusion that right-handedness and
left-handedness rest upon an heritable originally better organi-
zation of the left and right cerebral hemispheres respectively.

On the other hand, Kellogg (1898) claims that right-handedness is
due to training and habit. He thinks, moreover, that great benefit
accrues to the ambidextrous individual, and urges that training be
directed to this end. He cites Brown-Sequard as an eminent scien-
tific advocate of this view. He notes also, in support of his conten-
tion, that Leonardo da Vinci and Michael Angelo were ambidextrous.
Galippe (1887) and Broca (1888)—cited by Bardeleben—still
earlier expressed belief in the educational origin of right-handedness.

As a result of a large series of experiments on his own child from
the sixth to her tenth month, Prof. Baldwin (1905) concludes “that
dextrality is due to a difference in development in the two hemispheres
of the brain, that these differences are hereditary italics my own] and
that they show themselves toward the end of the first year” (p. 75).
Continuing he says: “It is a singular circumstance that right hand
and speech are controlled by the same hemisphere of the brain from
contiguous areas. It would explain this—and at the same time it
seems probable from other considerations—if we found that the right
hand was first used for expression before speech; and that speech has
arisen from the setting aside for further development, of the area in
the brain first used for the right hand” (p. 76).

In an extensive article of 72 pages, Prof. Karl von Bardeleben
(1909) reviews the whole subject of bilateral asymmetry in man and
higher animals. More than half of the paper is devoted to a critical
comparison and evaluation of various theories advanced to explain
unilateral dextrality. The appended bibliography of 186 works is
possibly the most complete on the general subject. Bardeleben
expresses belief in the hereditary nature of left-handedness (likewise
right-handedness), but whether this inborn tendency be localized
in skeleton or muscles of arm or in the brain he leaves undecided.
Nor does he find any clue as to its phylogenetic origin. He concludes
that there is as yet no solution of the phenomenon of right-handed-
ness, adding that ‘‘no solution is better than one or several that are
erroneous” (p. 56).

He also thinks that ‘‘man could only gain if, instead of having only
one well-developed hemisphere, he had two, which could be employed
not only in case of need, but in the varied employments of daily life”

26 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

(p. 43). He opposes the position that right-handedness is due to a
better developed left cerebral hemisphere, as supported more especi-
ally by Merkel, on the ground that “neurological evidence forces the
conclusion that right-handedness is and was the primary condition,
the higher organization of the left hemisphere was and is the conse-
quence” (p. 48).

bs cc . .

It must be pointed out, however, that the “neurological evidence”
here referred to (7. é., use of end-organ reacts developmentally on its
brain center) has meaning in this connection only in the event that
it can be proved that a primary better blood supply to one or the other
hemisphere does not produce a correspondingly greater development.
In opposition to the theory as developed by Lueddeckens (1887),
that dextrality is due to asymmetry of the large arteries, he argues
that also the better blood supply of the left hemisphere is consequence
(not cause) of right-handedness (p. 28).

The main support for this opposition seems to be derived from the
fact that cases of situs inversus have been recorded coincident with a
condition of right-handedness. It must be emphasized, however,
that the theory does aot necessarily imply complete situs inversus.
The blood vascular system is subject to a wide range of variations.
A very slight alteration in the more normal arrangement in early
embryonic or foetal life may be sufficient to supply the better nutri-
tion from which a better developed right hemisphere may originate,
determining a future left-handed individual.?

Bardeleben also introduces an element of confusion in the whole
discussion when he speaks of anthropoids as preponderatingly right-

’ This idea is based upon the anatomical relations of the arteries (internal carotids) carrying
the blood to the developing brain. The arrangement, as concerns the arteries involved (internal
and external carotids and subclavian), is relatively permanent after the eailiest embryonic stages
(ca. 5 weeks). Examination of the arrangement of the aortic branches of a 10 mm. human em-
bryo reveals the fact that the most direct course of the blood passing trom the left ventricle is up
the innominate artery. However, before reaching the internal carotid, {he main stream is shunted
off into the right subelavian artery. Moreover, the most direct course for the remainder of a
particular stream is up the exsernal carotid. It follows, then, that the internal carotid receives
a relatively small portion of the blood directed towards the right side. On the contrary, the
most direct course for the blood passing to the left side is up the left common catotid, and into
the left internal carotid, which thus receives the main stream. As compared, then, with the
right, the left internal carotid receives during embryonic and fcetal life a larger amount of blood.
Moreover, as compared with the right, the left subclavian artery receives a considerably smaller
amount of blood. Thus the combination of vascular conditions favoring the better development
of right arm and left cerebre] hemisphere may conspire together to produce right-handedness;
a reversal.or distu. bance of such conditions, left-handedness—or the various derrees of ambidex-
terity. St:onger right arm and better developed left cerebial hemisphere may possibly not be
in the relationship to cach other of cause and effeet (Bardeleben) or the reverse (Wilson), but
may both be due to the normal anatomical arrangement of the main branches of the arch of the
aorta, determining that these two structures on opposite sides of the body, as compared with

their respective comites, shall be better nourished; hence both may really be the combined prox-
imate cause of richt-handedness, /

JoRDAN: INHERITANCE OF LEeFr-HANDEDNESS at

handed on the basis of greater development (size and weight) of the
right fore-imb. Right-handedness (in the restricted sense in which
the term is ordinarily employed) signifies essentially greater dexterity
with that hand, or a predominating tendency to use the right hand
in executions requiring skill and in delicate manipulations. It seems
necessary to make a distinction between functional (deftmess) and
structural (size and weight) bilateral asymmetry (cf. Weber).

Bardeleben thinks finally that there is no satisfactory anatomical
explanation of right-handedness yet forthcoming. ‘‘We know as
little why we are right-handed, and why a certain proportion of man-
kind are left-handed, as we are able to state what ‘right’ and ‘left’
are, or why there are dextro-rotary and levo-rotary solutions of sugar
and other substances, or why some of the planets revolve around the
sun and on their own axes from right to left and others in the oppo-
site direction” (p. 36).

The report that certain animals (e. g., lion, camel, parrot, monkey,
etc.) are predominantly right or left-handed is probably without
- foundation in fact. The apparent left-handedness (left-footedness)
of parrots, so frequently cited, is a simple matter of imitation and
convenience as demonstrated by Dr. David Starr Jordan. Ordi-
narily parrots are approached in feeding, etc., with the right hand.
They most conveniently receive with the left foot. When the left
hand is employed in the test, the parrot invariably responds with
the right foot.

The several points appearing in this brief survey of the literature
upon which my own results may be presumed to bear are (a) left-
handedness is localized in the right cerebral hemisphere (Hyrtl,
Wilson, Cunningham, Merkel, Baldwin); (b) left-handedness is
hereditary (Wilson, Merkel, Weber, Bardeleben; Gould expresses
an unqualified denial; also Kellogg); (c) left-handedness occurs
more frequently in females than in males (Weber); (d) left-handed-
ness is more frequent among delinquents (Lombroso, Audenino,
Lattes) ; (e) left-handedness is more frequent among negroes (Lattes).
The heredity character of left-handedness is the point especially
sought to establish in the material and arguments presented below.

GUIDING HYPOTHESES

As my study of left-handed families progressed, the following hy-
potheses, conforming in general to a Mendelian interpretation,
suggested themselves:

28 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

(a) Left-handedness (L) and right-handedness (R) are depend-
ent upon a varying anatomical condition; secondarily
on the condition of the blood supply (on evidence of
the above-named investigators).

(b) AR=usual condition, therefore tends to be dominant.

(c) L=variant condition, therefore tends to be recessive.

(d) Ambidexterity (A) = condition of imperfect dominant or
“blend.”

(e) RXL=RL=right-handedness or ambidexterity.

(f) RLUXRL=RR+2RL+LL=3R+1L.

(g) 2RLXLL=2RL+4+2LL.

(bh) RLXRR=2RL+2RR.

The final effort was to attempt an interpretation of the 22 family
histories respecting which the data were more complete and reliable,
in terms of the Mendelian formule d to g. It must be admitted at
once that the formule fit only selected cases, and in all cases, of course,
the character of the parental germ cells can only beinferred. Non-
conformity may very likely be due to comparative scarcity of data.
There is significance in the fact, I believe, that none of the collected
data directly contradict these formule.

MATERIAL

The material for this study represents the results of a canvass of
the university students (700) and the pupils of the public school
(white 1,394, colored 668). The following 24 schemes give the facts
regarding the most interesting families. These pedigrees are of
university students, of pupils of the white public school, and of the
pupils of the colored public school.*

DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE FAMILIES

Fig. 1. This pedigree shows transmission by a carrier male, and
gives a four-generation history of left-handedness.

3The following symbels are used in the heredity charts: CT male, right-handed; O remate,
right-handed; Bo male, left-handed; @ female, left-handed; Gal male, ambidextrous;

@ female, ambidextrous; —= sex unknown, right handed; CG — sex unknown, left-handed.

Boyp: A System oF NUMBERING INDIVIDUALS 29

Fig. 2. This childship is interesting mainly for the reason that it
shows direct transmission to half the individuals and both the
affected and unaffected are equally divided as to sex.

Continuation in next number.

A SYSTEM OF NUMBERING INDIVIDUALS OF
THE HUMAN FAMILY

Mossom M. Boyp

Bobcaygeon, Ontario, Canada.

To one who has had to do with pedigreed live stock where each
animal is given in addition to its name a distinctive number for the
purpose of exact identification and ready reference, the question
naturally occurs whether the same idea of adding a number to the
name could not with great advantage be followed in the registering of
human births; and for the purpose of exciting a discussion on the sub-
ject the following crude scheme is outlined and some of its points
considered.

If numbers were added to the name of the individual and the pres-
ent system of state registers made to center in a national register we
would have for the human family of the nation the same accurate
and ready genealogical information as is now provided in the case of
the better classes of our domestic animals.

The present system of registering by names which are common to
numbers of different persons furnishes so little identification as to
be almost useless, whilst the amount of work involved is nearly or
perhaps quite as great as would be required for the immeasurably
more exact and useful system proposed.

At present the registration of births, deaths, and marriages is, in
Canada, a provincial institution, under which the local registrar
sends in his registrations periodically to the capital of his province.
In the United States I presume registration is at present a state insti-
tution.

30 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

According to the scheme we are proposing it would be a national
institution and the local registrars would send in their registrations
periodically (say monthly) to the national capital, where numbers
would be assigned, the registrations compiled, and copies returned
to the local registrars; there would then be two sources of information,
namely, the office of the local registrar in each municipality and the
office at the national capital. The numbers thus assigned monthly
would in a general way be chronologically consecutive with respect
to the dates of the births; and this would be convenient but not at
all essential.

Assigning numbers to all future births would immediately bring
all the coming generation under the system, and all the important
part of the present generation would be brought in also, by assigning
numbers to the parents at the same time as assigning numbers to
the births. Immigrants could be assigned numbers in the same way
as births, so soon as they become settled in their new homes; or
they could be permitted to remain until they presented births for
registration.

A number is itself an index to its own location in every consecutive
list; and the system of numbering once established, it is probable
that statistical lists mtended for reference would then usually or
always be made in the order of consecutive numbers, with or without
the addition of the names, as the case might call for.

Given any individual’s number, the father and mother could be
immediately ascertained by reference to the national records, and
the exact pedigree established as far back as the records extended.

The numbers which go to this pedigree, having been written down
consecutively, could be readily detected in any consecutive list
it was desired to search: for instance in the army list, navy list,
list of legislators, Judges, professional and business men in the
various professions and lines of business which keep registers of
their members; in the registers of asylums, prisons, tuberculosis
and cancer hospitals, etc. Such lists are kept at present but are
compiled with names alone, which, as said before, furnish so little
identification that one has to have outside information in order to
know whether the name when it occurs refers to the individual in
question or not. When compiled according to consecutive numbers,
these lists could be readily searched, and would furnish exact infor-
mation.

It is needless to point out the great advantage to the study of
eugenics. The way would be opened to the compilation of a great

Boyp: A System or NUMBERING INDIVIDUALS a1

variety of useful statistics helpful both to those studying eugenics
and to those desirous of putting into practice the precepts it teaches.

By his identification number the individual’s history could be read-
ily and accurately traced through his school, college, university,
military, naval, professional, or business career; assuming that all
institutions were then to maintain numerical lists as most of them do
now alphabetical lists. One indirect advantage would perhaps be
the stimulus to the individual, seeing that his identity was so tho-
roughly established for all time to come, to make as good a record
for himself and his family as he could accomplish; and to have his
number appear in as many honorable lists and in as few discreditable
lists as possible, knowing that his number wherever it might appear
would definitely point to him. He would probably display more
care on account of the number which was his exclusive property than
on account of the name which he shared in common not only with
relatives but probably with many others in no way “connected.’’

Other points worth considering are: easy identification in the
ease of legal disputes lost heirs, etc., and the question of advantage
to the police. This leads to the consideration of some scheme by
which all would be required to furnish their number upon demand;
with a penalty for giving a fraudulent number; some further scheme
for detecting fraud; and some system providing for the identification
of those too ignorant to be entrusted with the keeping of a number.
Fraud would have to be contended with then, as now, but fraud in
the matter of identity would be more easily detected in the case of
numbers, or rather numbers added to names, than in the case of
names alone; for it is not proposed to do away with names but to
give numbers in addition to names.

Although this scheme for bringing in the whole population would
be more complete, more useful, and probably the more easily worked,
I would suggest to those who think it too extreme, the consideration
of some less comprehensive scheme, say one that might be voluntary;
for the usefulness of such registration as is suggested would not be
destroyed by reason of its circumscribed adoption. On the contrary
its usefulness would be commensurate with the extent of its adoption.

If a bureau were established at the national capital for the purpose
of receiving voluntary registrations and of promulgating the scheme,
it is probable that national registration would shortly become hon-
orable and sought after. The better classes would feel it an advan-
tage to escape from the ranks of the “unrecorded”, to join those who
would have a place in the national records and history of their coun-

32 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

try; and this would be from the beginning a gain of constantly increas-
ing value.

The less comprehensive scheme, however, does not appear to me
as being either so good or so workable as the scheme to bring in the
whole population.

There is perhaps no more important subject than that of improv-
ing the human race in respect to a sound mind in a sound body, and
this subject is being largely discussed at the present time. After
discussion should come action; and intelligent action must be founded
on reliable information. It appears to me that the system of regis-
tration proposed will do more than anything else towards accu-
mulating in the course of time a large fund of the very information
desired.

Whatever use future generations may see fit to make of such infor-
mation, we can at least perform some share of our duty in the great
work by endeavoring to accumulate it.

Whilst numbers are so superior to names for the purpose of iden-
tification and as an index to statistical compilations, names are no
less important, and it might be well to give some consideration to
improving our system of nomenclature.

At present, as it is customary for children to be called by the sur-
name of the father, the mother’s name is completely dropped out of
use, and frequently out of recollection. Our names in consequence
only indicate one-half of our immediate ancestry.

A suggestion I would offer for discussion is that our surname should
be a compound of the last name of our father preceded by the last
maiden name of our mother.

This compound name might be established and the system main-
tained by requiring it to be written in full in every case where a legal
signature is demanded.

The last name of the compound would be adhered to from gener-
ation to generation as at present, but the first name of the compound
would change in each generation to correspond with the last maiden
name of the mother; thus, supposing a Mr. Smith married a Miss
Jones, his children would be known as Jones-Smith and the children
of his son, say Tom Jones-Smith, who married Miss Casy-Brown
would be known as Brown-Smith.

In some of our rural municipalities settled in the early days by a
few families who have multiplied and filled the neighborhood, inter-
marriage between relatives is frequent and is sometimes continued to
an uudesirable extent; and this is often done without the evil beng

BULLARD: REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON HEREDITY OF EPILEPSY 33

recognized by the contracting parties, or their parents, from the fact
that there is nothing in the names to show the connection when it
comes in on the female side of the pedigree. A McKay may marry
a Casy, and on the face of it the union show no fault; but it might be
a Casy-McKay marrying a McKay-Casy and under this system of
naming a relationship would at once be suggested. If MeKay were
to marry his cousin McKay, as is not infrequent, and again McKay
junior the son of these cousins were to marry in turn his cousin Mc-
Kay, this last marriage, although much more objectionable than the
first, would appear to be about the same; but under the system of
naming suggested the first would read, say, Casy-McKay to Jones-
McKay, while in the latter case it would read McKay-McKay to
say Brown-McKay, or possibly McKay-McKay to McKay-McKay,
which would at once draw attention to the likelihood of undesirable
consanguinity.

We frequently see now the maiden name of the mother given as
a middle name to one of the family, but we seldom see it given to all
the children. The question suggested for discussion is, whether it
is worth trying to make this method of naming the rule instead of
the exception; for it will no doubt be granted that some system that
will indicate the mother as well as the father is desirable.

A summary of the suggestions amounts to a number for the pur-
pose of exact identification, etc. a Christian name for familiar use,
and a compound surname indicating both the parents.

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON HEREDITY
OF EPILEPSY.

Wiui1am N. Buuuarp, Chairman. Everett Fioop, Secretary.
K. E. SourHarp. J. Munson.

The Committee on Heredity of Epilepsy was notified of its for-
mation in the summer of 1910 and held a meeting very promptly
afterward. The situation was discussed and circulars were sent
out to those persons who were most competent to give us the infor-
mation desired.

The four questions asked and the replies received were as follows:

1. Are you acquainted with any instance where a non-epileptic
child has come from two epileptic parents? Have these parents also
epileptic offspring? Eleven replied in the negative and three in the
affirmative.

3 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

2. Please give cases you have known where an offspring with one
epileptic parent has been free from epilepsy. Facts about children
in the family, etc. Six replied in the negative and seven in the affirm-
ative.

3. Can you give one or more instances where an epileptic person
can be shown to have had no epileptic inheritance (epileptic, insane,
inebriate or allied condition in blood relation as parents, brothers and
sisters, grandparents, uncles, aunts, first or second cousins, great-
uncles, great-aunts, children? Nine replied in the negative and eleven
in the affirmative.

4. Can you cite the case of any epileptic person whose ancestry
ean be traced with almost absolute accuracy for three generations?
Preferably cite cases with two or more epileptics in one family.
Eleven replied in the negative and five in the affirmative.

Another consultation of the committee was held and it was thought
advisable to try to get more explicit statements from certain ones
who answered the questions. This inquiry is now under way.

The results of the work of our field worker have been very satis-
factory. It appears that we shall in time be able to trace out certain
families in which there is a hereditary tendency to epilepsy.

This work will be carried on and full detailed reports given in
due time.

THE KARAKUL BREED OF SHEEP

C. C. Youne
Goodnight, Texas

The Arabi or Karakul sheep has its origin in the Khanate of Bok-
hara, Central Asia, and belongs to the long-wool family from which
all broadtail varieties descend. For centuries Arabi bucks have been
smuggled into Afghanistan, Persia, Turkestan, China, Palestine,
Syria, Asia Minor and Egypt and because of the ignorance of the
natives, who seem to have no conception of proper breeding have
been crossed with native sheep of the long-wool, short-wool and
hairy classes, which in all of those countries belong to the most
inferior type of domestic sheep imaginable. Were it not for the fact
that the Arabi strain was from time to time injected into the native
sheep of the above-named countries, their sheep industry to-day
would amount to absolutely nothing. As the Arabi is essentially a
desert animal, and able to withstand any amount of hardship, evi-

Youne: THe Karakut BREED OF SHEEP on

dently not minding the intense heat in the summer nor the severe
cold in the winter, often going for days without food and water, it
ean readily be seen why the people living in the arid countries of
Central Asia found it advantageous to cross their native sheep with
the Arabi, which is the heaviest sheep known. The barren semi-
mountainous country of Bokhara in which the Arabi thrives cer-
tainly does not show much evidence of grass, except here and there

Fig. 1. UnBorn Havr-BREED KARAKUL SHROPSHIRE.

Obtained before fur shows figures. Object was to obtain unborn Karakul-
Shropshire velvet with figures.

in the small valleys, and nature has made it possible for this animal
to store in a short time large quantities of fat in its immense tail,
weighing from 25 to 50 pounds, upon which it draws for sustenance
when necessity demands it, and these properties are in a large measure
transmitted to the offspring resulting from crossing the Arabi with
the native sheep.

36 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

One has to eat the mutton of the Arabi but once to realize that it
has absolutely no sheepy taste, but possesses a delicious and very
appetizing flavor, that has made “‘shashlik”’ a famous dish among the
epicures of Europe and Asia. When, therefore, an Asiatic possesses
a flock of inferior common sheep with the musk-like flavor of the
Merino sheep or the goat family, and seeks to get an increase in weight
and a hardiness capable of withstanding the intensely cold winters
of a country like, say, Afghanistan, he naturally turns to the Arabi
family, knowing well that with even a 25 per cent of Karakuld
injection this musklike flavor can be overcome.

The Arabi lamb before birth, or a few days after, is a most intensely
black-pigmented animal. It has a high luster, giving it the appear-
ance of the richest of black figured velvet, with tight curls more or
less evenly distributed. The pigment is practically not affected
by the rays of the sunlight, which is, however, not the case with
the commercial Arabi fur obtained by crossing the Karakul with
common sheep, of which it is absolutely necessary to dye the skins.
It is this fact that made Leipzig and its immense dyeing industry
famous.

There are two classes of Arabis, the small and the large variety.
In my opinion the small Arabi is the original wild, broadtailed sheep,
from which all other broadtail varieties origmate. They are always
born black, and later become gray. The head is narrow and the face
elongated; head-line curved with small ears. The feet are thin, as is
the case with all wild animals of the ovine class. The tail is not
very long, but broad, and triangular in shape, and they are all horned,
with whitish spots on the head, tail, feet, and both sides. This sheep
is said never to have existed anywhere but in the mountainous sec-
tion of Bokhara. The tail not being as large as in the large Arabi
would explain why these animals have been able to mate without
assistance. The animal certainly has the appearance of a wild sheep
and in every way resembles it. They are probably a little heavier
than the American Shropshire. The large Arabi has a massive head,
short face, nose-line bent, ears pendulous and quite large, with thick
strong feet, especially the hind legs, with an immense S-shaped tail
reaching to the ground, and when they are at all fat the tail drags,
and in exceptional cases it has to be supported, which is done by
placing it on a two-wheeled cart. Like the small variety, they have
stiff hair on the front head and lower portion of all four extremities,
but are not horned, nor have they the white spots mentioned of the
other variety. Quite often they have auburn lambs. The Tartar

Youne: THE KARAKUL BREED OF SHEEP ae

authorities think that this class resulted from crossing the small
variety with some big, long-wool short-tailed white or auburn sheep
of Bokhara. If that is the case I cannot understand why there is
such a difference in the size and shape of the tail. These two classes
have been crossed, and in many instances it is almost impossible to
select. typical specimens representing either class.

Fie. 2. HatF-BrEED KAarRAKUL-MERINO.
A practical fur, but lacking in luster; known in Russia as peasant fur.

The fifteen head which I brought to this country belonged to both
classes, and some of them no doubt are crosses between the two,
notwithstanding the fact that we have tried hard to avoid such a
election. I have, however, only one ram which comes anywhere
near having the enormous tail with which many of the large variety

38 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

are encumbered. It is very difficult to drive those with an immense
tail and I was afraid of losing them on account of the iong trip.

The fur of the smaller Arabi is superior to the other kind, which
again strengthens my belief that the small Karakul is the original
wild broadtail above mentioned.

On account of the small number of full-blood Arabis (it is esti-
mated that there are not over 5,000 full-blood Arabis in Bokh«ura)
very few of them are ever killed and what few Arabi skins are per-
mitted to be exported seldom ever come into the possession of any-
one except the richest classes of the nobility of Asia and Europe;
those less fortunate have to content themselves with the commercial
furs, such as Persian lamb, Astrakhan, Krimmer, and Afghan (the
last is known in America as Karakul). The Afghanistans deserve
the credit for producing the first and the best commercial Arabi fur
and I am completely at a loss to understand why Persia is getting the
credit. It is probably due to the fact that the crafty Persians have
for years bought up the best products in Afghanistan and after making
a good profit have disposed of them to the European merchants at
Tashkend, whence they go to Nishni Novgorod, the old capital of
the former Russian republic of Novgorod, whose commerce extended
into Turkey, Greece, Persia, and even India at a time when the Teu-
tons and Anglo-Saxons were still barbarians.

The commercial Arabi fur known as Persian lamb, Astrakhan,
Krimmer, and Afghan is the result of breeding the Karakul to cer-
tain species of common native sheep of Central Asia. The natives
have learned from many years of experience that producing sheep
for fur purposes gives them twice or thrice the profit that they
could derive from wool and mutton only. As the lambs are killed
the first few days after birth, the mother ewes are permitted to lamb
twice yearly and as the skins bring anywhere from $4 to $10 each, it
is easy to calculate the breeding value of an Arabi buck. For about
thirty days after the lamb has been killed the mother ewes are milked
and a delicious cheese is produced, known as “‘brinza,’”’ which brings
from 20 to 30 cents a pound, and this alone pays the expenses inci-
dental to the breeding of the sheep, where labor is as cheap as is the
case in Bokhara. The meat of the lambs is also an item worthy of
consideration. We have yet to learn in this country that chops
from very young lambs are very good indeed to eat, especially when
properly broiled and served en brochette.

An excellent fur is obtained by crossing a half or three-quarter-
bred Karakul ram with the long-wooled sheep known as ‘“‘ Roman-

Youne: THe KARAKUL BREED OF SHEEP 39

ovskaja,”’ resembling the black-faced Highland. In the last few
years Russia has produced a large quantity of this class of fur, which
finds its way to Nishni Novgorod, and there is sold for Persian lamb,
with which it compares very favorably. Russians are beginning to
realize that the English breeds, as the Lincolnshire, Leicester, Cots-
wold, and especially the Shropshire, which possess a luster almost

Fie. 3. A Gray Fur 75 PER cENT MERINO-LONGHAIR AND 25 PER CENT KARAKUL.

equal to the Angora goat, give a fur far superior to anything that Asia
can produce. Experiments conducted by such well-known breed-
ers as Goodnight, Albright, and others prove conclusively that we can
excel in beauty and luster the imported Persian lambskins that are
sold in the United States. The writer’s experience is limited to the
Lincolns, Shropshires, and Merinos, and those interested may exam-

40) AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

ine the skins produced on my ranch in northwest Texas. The Kara-
kul-Merino cross possesses sufficient luster to be considered salable
and could be sold by farmers for $2 or $3 a skin, which is not a bad
price for a three-day-old lamb, especially when one considers that

Fic. 4. 75 per cent KaRAKUL AND 25 PER CENT MERINO-LONGHAIR.

thousands of them are knocked in the head annually on the big
sheep ranches, on account of scant pasture, and the dam producing
twins and not having sufficient milk. A three-quarter-bred Merino
ought to bring a much better price, and I have a three-quarter-bred

Youne: THE KARAKUL BREED OF SHEEP 4]

Karakuld-Shropshire skin which has been priced at $10. The reason
why the Shropshire produces a much prettier skin than the Merino is
in my opinion due to the fact that the Shropshire stands between the
tight-wool and the long-wool sheep. There is, however, no comparison
between a half-bred Karakul-Lincolnshire and a three-quarter-bred
Karakuld-Shropshire, and if we wish to excel in luster the best of
so-called Persian lamb-skins we must confine ourselves entirely to

Fic. 5. 50 PER CENT KARAKUL AND 50 PER CENT SHROPSHIRE.

This is a magnificent fur, but inferior by far to half-breed Karakul-Lincolnshire.

the long-wool sheep. In my opinion the Lincolns produce the best
fur, although the difference in luster between the young Lincoln and
Cotswold lamb is hardly sufficiently perceptible to entitle one to a
positive statement. It is, however, the opinion of some of the men
connected with the U. S. Department of Agriculture, which is now
seriously considering the advisability of conducting its own experi-

42 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

ments, and for which purpose I have agreed to furnish them with
some of my full-blood Arabi rams, that the Leicester and Shropshire
will give more luster than any of the other long-wool sheep; but this
remains to be determined. I do not believe that we can produce
Afghan fur in this country, as it requires a hairy sheep, closely resem-
bling the Mexican goat, which is indigenous to northwestern Turkes-
tan and Afghanistan. It has been suggested to me by the Bureau
of Animal Industry that the Barbadoes sheep may furnish us the
missing link, and after seeing them I have become convinced that this

Iria. 6. A Maanirrcenr Fur Suprrror tro ASTRAKHAN; 50 PER CENT) KARAKUL, 25 PER CENT
Corswoup, AND 25 PER CENT Briack-Facrep HicHLAND.

class of sheep will produce a dark brown fur, which may or may not
be superior to the Afghan. As the Barbadoes sheep is brown instead
of white, which is the color of the Afghan sheep, I doubt very much if
we can produce a black offspring.

When a Karakule ram is crossed with any white sheep the offspring
is black. A half-breed Karakul generally gives us also a black skin,
although this is not always the case, and often the fur is dark gray,
resembling a black silver fox. A quarter-bred Karakul, long-wooled,

Youne: THe KARAKUL BREED OF SHEEP 43

is gray, producing what is known as Krimmer fur, its price depending
entirely upon the amount of luster it possesses; but it is safe to
say that the average skin produced by crossing the half-breed
Karakul-Lincoln bucks with any of our long-wool sheep will bring
$5. This, however, is not the only advantage gained. By injecting
25 per cent of Arabi into any of our native sheep we unquestionably

Fie. 7. ArcHan Fur; 50 PER CENT KARAKUL AND 50 PER CENT COMMON AFGHAN.

produce a heavier sheep with a far superior quality of mutton, and
one that is a great deal hardier. This has been amply demonstrated
by a number of breeders who have crossed the Merino with a Persian
Broadtail, of which there are several hundred in the United States,
and the best of which contain from 25 to 50 per cent of Karakul blood.
In one instance Persian Broadtail bucks, that should properly be

44 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

called half-breed Karakul-Shropshires, were sold to a breeder in
New Mexico who crossed them again with Shropshires and sold some
of the male offspring to W. W. Burch, owner of the American Sheep
Breeders’ Magazine, who has a splendid sheep farm in northern
Michigan. He crossed these bucks, which could not possibly be
considered more than quarter-bred Karakuls, with Delaney Merinos
and with Lincoln Delaneys, and this is what he has to say:

Fic. 8. YEARLING Fut, BLoop Karakut Ewe.

A year ago last fall we bred a Broadtail ram to Delaneys and Lincoln Delan-
eys. The lambs were a marvel both in size and constitution. They grew rap-
idly, and in August some of them were larger than their mothers, and went
through the most severe drought we have experienced in years, and while the
other lambs fell off rapidly in flesh those containing Broadtail blood not only
held their own but gained right through the dry season, which lasted for about
two months. There was absolutely no grass, and the sheep were obliged to

Youne: THE KARAKUL BREED OF SHEEP 45

browse, getting what they could in a burnt-over and cut-over timber country.
They seemed to defy cold weather and snow, always preferring to stay out in
the storms and lie around in thesnow. The mutton proved to be wonderfully
sweet, and the finest I have evereaten. J am satisfied that the fat-tailed sheep
will play a very important réle in our sheep husbandry, and if you ean get
your Karakui crosses introduced it strikes me that the sheepmen will find
not only great profit in wool and mutton, but in fur as well.

The introduction of the Karakul sheep into the United States
presents many difficulties, chiefly due to the fact that the fanatical

Fie. 9. Furu Buoop Karaxut Bucks; LowpEN ON RIGHT BELONGS TO THE LARGE CLASS.
FASSIT ON LEFT BELONGS TO INTERMEDIATE TYPE.

Bokharans resent the exportations of the full-blood Arabi, and few
of them have ever been taken out of their country. Most all broad-
tails that are taken out of Bokhara are sold to foreigners as full-blood
Karakuls, when in fact they do not contain more than 50 or 75 per
cent of Karakul blood, and belong to a type known as Shirazi,
Doozboy, and Zigai, and whilst the Russians have attained wonderful
success by crossing this class with their native sheep they do not

46 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

begin to give the results obtained from the full-blood Arabis. It
would be interesting indeed to ascertain what class of common sheep
were used in the production of these three types of broadtails, but
there is no history, and one can only surmise they belong to the long-
wool family, although in some instances the soft underwool occas-
ionally seen would lead one to believe that the tight-wool family |
may have contributed its share. If Persia, Afghanistan, northwest-
ern and southwestern Russia are having such wonderful success
with the Shirazi, Doozboy, and Zigai, why should we not be able to
produce a far superior American broadtail, especially when one takes
into consideration the fact that no Asiatic long-hair of the non-broad-
tail variety possesses the luster of our Lincolns and Cotswolds?
As Bokhara is considered as an infected country, chiefly on account
of surra, it is very difficult to obtain permission from the Depart-
ment of Agriculturé to import Karakuls into the United States, and
if one does succeed they are kept in quarantine for months, whichis
very expensive. If the writer succeeded in bringing the first flock to
this country it is all due to the kindness of ex-President Roosevelt,
whose personal letter accomplished wonders in Asia. A ruinous sum,
amounting to thousands, was spent to bring the first fifteen head to
the United States.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF LIVE STOCK
PRODUCTION

Herspert W. Mumrorp

University os Illinois, Champaign, Illinois

Sufficient publicity has not been given to the magnitude and impor-
tance of live stock production in the United States. One needs
only to familiarize himself with the facts with reference to the part
this industry plays in the world’s commerce, its rational place in
the economy of the farm, and its importance as an economic fact in
the maintenance of an enticing, permanently profitable agriculture,
to become an enthusiast as to its future possibilities. According
to the Federal Census of 1900, the capital invested in live stock in
the United States is greater than in any other class of property except
farm lands.

Mumrorp: Live Srock PRopucTION 47

Class of Property Value in U. S.* 1900
armen Gcwith 1mprovements.«.......c.eeeaee s+ += st aes. ears $16 ,674,690,247
Lt S SATE Oe eae aR URI pl PR 3,078,050,041
Mmaplements and machinery]:..:. 0.5 seemed oe cscs Boe 761,261,550
andsana: kindreadiproguctst.: oy. Acs eee ae ee eee 1,750,811,817
PReomeniy Are AB.. istocursans 6 3. fe Re eae ahs 1,081,961,248
ironsangysteel and them productsh. ... s2.se.ue. ce ae- ena 983,821,918
bumberand ics mManubachuresy:.,.... 2:14 .0a<teue ase nes ascvaeeu 547,227,860
RI MEEIASCIE CIN GING [551.2 ao occ kd hae Sees eye Sek 419,798,101

*From Statistical Abstract of the U. S., 1908, pp. 124, 178.
tValue of annual product.

WORLD SUPPLY OF LIVE STOCK

Statistics! of the world supply of live stock are incomplete; large
areas of Africa are unrepresented; the number of animals in China,
Persia, Afghanistan, Korea, Bolivia, Ecuador, Salvador, and several
less important countries is unknown; for Brazil the number of cattle
alone is estimated; in general, statistics of cattle, horses, sheep, and
swine are much more complete than those of other animals, as state-
ments for the world. In some countries the latest available data
relate to numbers ten years ago. Keeping in view these deficiencies
in data, estimates of the approximate number of live stock in the world,
so far as information is available, are of interest.

Sheep seem to be the most numerous of the large animals of the
world, with a total of about 580,000,000 head. Australia ranks
first, with about 88,000,000; Argentina second with 67,000,000;
United States third, with about 57,000,000; European Russia and
Asiatic Turkey each have approximately 45,000,000; Great Britain
with 27,000,000 in 1908 has more sheep in proportion to its area
than any other important nation.

The number of cattle enumerated or estimated, about 480,000,000,
although smaller than that of sheep, is much more important, owing
to their larger size. In total number of cattle, British India ranks
first, with about 91,000,000 (including buffaloes and buffalo calves) ;
the United States ranks second, with about 70,000,000; Russia
third, with about 36,000,000; Argentina and Brazil each have about
30,000,000 ; Germany about 20,000,000; Austria-Hungary 18,000,-
000 (in 1900), France 14,000,000, and the United Kingdom 12,-
000,000. The proportion of the total number of cattle which is
beef cattle, work cattle, or milch cows has not been estimated.

The United States is preeminent as a swine-producing nation,
being credited with approximately 50,000,000 head out of a world

1from the Crop Reporter, 1910.

48 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

supply of less than 150,000,000; Germany ranks second, with about
22,000,000; European Russia has about 11,000,000; France, 7,000,000;
Austria had 5,000,000 in 1900, and Hungary 7,000,000 in 1895. No
other country is credited with as many as 5,000,000.

Horses aggregate about 95,000,000; European Russia and the
United States have almost an equal number, between 20,000,000 and
25,000,000 head; Argentina has about 8,000,000; Asiatic Russia is
credited with about 7,000,000; Germany 4,000,000; France 3,000,000;

AGE EE

UNIVERSITY VIOLET 4709 By CHoicE Goops 186802.

the United Kingdom 2,000,000; Austria and Hungary each had
about 2,000,000 in 1900 and 1895, respectively.

Of the 7,500,000 mules that are estimated in the world, more than
half are in the United States; no other country is credited with 1,-
000,000; Spain comes nearest, with about 810,000 in 1907.

These numbers aggregate about 1,260,000,000, in the entire world,
while the number of people in the world is estimated at about 1,600,-
000,000; or about 80 per cent as many domestic animals as people
in the world.

Mumrorp: Live Stock PRODUCTION 49

There are several ways of making comparisons of the live stock

statistics in various countries. It is more or less true that it is quite

impossible to make any comparison that would be conclusive. It is

interesting, however, to make comparisons from different points of
view.

Oxrorp NraGara 4lst, vor. 51, ep. 1027

Live stock per capita.

Country Date Horses | Cattle Sheep Swine

ANG: WD GlS. poe EEC BARC ORE ieee eee 0.06 0.27 0.36 0.09
Germany..... { oe 4 = =
wate. J 1852 .10 16 93 14
4:5 -- Aare BB OS ee | 1908 09 19 44 18
Wevemustrices ese aisle «ays '= 2. { fe i ; Ss = =
2 )

Ge. CEt i ee { re a = i =
i -

Tenlytemyer ete hoo... { ae ae } - i <
United States............ { nH os 2 a -
WOE, Op oee eae 4 ae fe rp =

50 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

These statistics do not indicate that as population becomes more
dense there is a necessary decrease in live stock.

There is a sense in which it is true that the live stock per capita
decreases. It is in the early history of a country when the popula-
tion is small and extensive systems of live stock production largely
constitute the agriculture of the country. In such instances popula-
tion frequently increased more rapidly than live stock. When, how-
ever, the conditions demand the establishment of intensive forms of
agriculture it appears as in Germany, France, Denmark, Holland,
Italy, and the British Isles, that there is a tendency, with but few
exceptions, for live stock per capita to increase rather than decrease.

Live stock and population per square mile.*

Country ante Population pete: Horses Cattle Sheep Swine
Belgium...... 1907 643.4 279.8 21.5 157.4 100.9
dolland...... 1907 454.0

April 1901 z.
Britisb Isles }| Live stock 345.8 404.0 17.7 96.3 256.7 33.3
1908
tally jac 1908 306.7
{ Dec. 1905
Germany... { Live stock 290.4 262.0 20:7 99.4 36.7 105.2
| Dec. 1907
Brances.c..: 1906 189.5 201.6 L5e2 68.1 84.3 34.0
Denmark.... 1906 167.0 298.7 ibaa 118.0 56.2 93.4
1900
Deted Live stock 25.6 67.8 6.7 23.9 18.4 18.8
States.... 1908

*Mules and goats not included because relatively unimportant in most countries.

From this table it appears that there is ample opportunity in the
United States to develop a greater animal husbandry. It is true that
in most of the countries cited it has been possible to maintain an
important live stock industry only because it has been possible to
purchase cheap feeds from the United States and elsewhere.

Live stock production must have been found profitable else it
would have long since been discontinued. Would it not be well
for the farmers of the United States to realize fully that it is not good
economic policy to permit their animal foodstuffs to be exported to
increase the profits of the farmers and fertilize the farms of these
older countries. If favorable conditions for live stock production
in the United States could be maintained, every pound of feed pro-
duced here that is suitable for live stock production should be con-
verted into live stock, and if economic conditions are not such as to

Mumrorp: Live Srocx PropuctTion 51

encourage a more extensive production of live stock on the farms of
the United States, it should be the business of the federal government
to see that conditions are favorable.

The live stock producers of the United States should be given the
most favorable opportunity indefinitely to supply the growing demand
in this country for animal products. This will most certainly mean
that raw materials suitable for live stock, produced more cheaply

SHorTHORN Herp Buti Corne ius 304322.

in other countries than in the United States, should be available
to the live stock farmers of the United States at the lowest possible
cost, and that they should not be obliged to compete in our markets
with finished animal products. Such competition will discourage
live stock production, it will render grain farming less profitable,
because after all is said, live stock production is the principal outlet
of our corn and hay crops. Should live stock production cease to
be profitable, the margin of profit in grain growing would be so greatly

Or
bo

AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

reduced that farmers of the United States could not produce grain
at a profit and at the same time maintain the fertility of their lands.
Sooner or later the fact will be recognized that for many years in
this country it was possible to buy agricultural products at a price
which was but little above the cost of the labor involved in their
production.

When it is known that in the ten years, 1901-1910, the population
of the United States has increased 20.52 per cent, while live stock
has inereased only 10.27 per cent, it is clearly evident that, if
it is good policy to develop in this country an important animal hus-
bandry, it is time the government should turn its attention to fos-
tering the industry. With a rapidly increasing population, certain
forms of animal production will naturally be supplanted by others,
but these new conditions which are being imposed on the live stock
producer as a result of increased population have thus far but increased
his difficulties.

The subject of the economic importance of live stock production
is capable of more expansion than the limits of this article will per-
mit. In closing, however, attention should be called to the fact
that in the future more attention will be directed to the relation of
live stock production to the economic operation of the farm, with
especial reference to the better distribution of labor, the profitable
utilization of the residues or by-products of grains grown and the
fertilizing value of farm manure.

A NEW METHOD OF HANDLING POLLEN

STEPHEN N. GREEN

Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Wooster, Ohio

In the spring of 1908, having large numbers of apple, peach,
plum and other blossoms to cross and _ self-pollinate, I was greatly
hindered and suffered many losses by the failure to have sufficient
pollen on hand at the critical period. The usual method of collect-
ing a fresh supply at each operation was very slow and clumsy.
After trying every possible way of collecting and preserving pollen
[ accidentally found a very simple method, which during three seasons
has proven almost ideal.

Empty quinine capsules seem to meet the requirements under
almost all circumstances for gathering and storing pollen and they are

GREEN: HANDLING POLLEN 53

convenient to use. These capsules can be obtained at all drug stores
at a very slight cost. In most cases the smaller sizes will do.
Anthers of the desired female parent are selected as near the burst-
ing point as possible, and scarped or cut into a capsule. The capsule
can then be lettered or numbered with india ink or a small slip of
paper inserted with note as a record. These capsules can be thrown
loosely into a small box or arranged to suit personal taste. Ina few
hours the anthers in the capsule will burst and a shake willscatter

CAPSULES AND Toous USED IN THE PRocEss.

the pollen around, which will adhere uniformly over the gelatin
walls inside the capsule, where it can be transferred to stigma with
the usual brush or thin-bladed knife. I have found a knife the better
tool, as an abundance of pollen can be gathered on its point for trans-
ference and it is instantly cleaned. Pollen can thus be very quickly
applied to larger pistilled flowers, such as peach, plum, ete.

Pollen in these capsules is available at a moment’s notice regard-
less of outside conditions. A large supply is on hand and in compact
shape. A capsule onee filled will often last the entire season. It is

54 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

surprising the length of time pollen will retain its vitality when so
enclosed. ‘These capsules are small and light and can be mailed
without trouble. Thus the plant breeder can extend his field of oper-
~ ation by using pollen gathered, for instance, in California and mailed
across the continent.

Pollen from almost every flower with which I have worked can be
stored and successfully used from these capsules, with the exception
perhaps of some of the Cucurbitacee. Some pollen from this family
seems to be so very moist and sticky that it does not readily separate
from the anthers when they are cut before bursting and it does not
adhere satisfactorily to the capsule walls.

A NEW METHOD OF CORN POLLINATION
H. F. Roserts

Kansas Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kansas

In the breeding of corn, some difficulties are encountered in the
technique of pollination, in respect to the prevention of contamina-
tion of the silks by foreign pollen, carried on the hands or instruments
of the operator, as he goes from plant to plant engaged in the work of
artificial pollination. To obviate these difficulties the following
method has been devised by the writer, and has been used with suc-
cess this season at the Kansas Experiment Station. The simplicity
of the method and its complete effectiveness seem to justify a de-
scription.

The tassel is covered while still immature, and before the anthers
have protruded, with a ten-pound manila paper sack such as is com-
monly used in grocery stores. The mouth of this sack is securely
gathered around the stalk beneath the tassel and pinned. For this
purpose we find a rather stout long pin sold loose in quarter-pound
boxes under the trade name of ‘‘Celebrate,”’ size MC, to be the most
satisfactory. Ordinary pins are too small and light. The ear is
likewise covered with a similar sack, which is drawn tightly over the
top of the ear, folded around the stalk on the opposite side and the
folds pinned. The sacking of the ear must be done before the silks
have begun in the least to protrude from the husks. Otherwise pollina-
tion of the protruding silks from vagrant pollen is almost certain to
occur.

When the silks have grown to a length of five or six inches within
the sack, the ear is usually in the best condition for pollination, since

RosBerts: Corn POLLINATION 55

by that time most of the silks have grown out. Inasmuch as the tip
of the ear is its youngest portion, the ovaries (grains) are progres-
sively older from tip to base. The first silks to appear, therefore, are

Fra. la. MANNER or Sackina TASSELS AND Ears.

those from the basal kernels, and so on progressively outward, the
tip silks being the last to develop. In natural wind pollination of
corn, the pollen is blowing about the field for a period of a week or

56 AMBRICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

ten days, during which time the drifting pollen falls on the succes-
sive silks as they appear. In artificial pollination, if but a single
application of the pollen is made, naturally only those silks (stigmas)
will be pollinated which happen to be developed and receptive at the

Fie. lb. MANNER OF SACKING TASSELS AND Ears.

time. The consequence is seen in a ‘‘nubbin” ear. For this reason,
the same ear is usually gone over by the pollinator two or three
times, in order to secure the successful pollination of the greatest
possible number of stigmas.

Roperts: Corn POLLINATION BV

In the method devised by the writer, it is believed that a greater
number of silks can be reached in one pollination, and that the danger
of contamination from. foreign pollen is practically eliminated.

The pollen is applied to the silks by means of a common insect
powder “gun” or spring blower. The blower best adapted to the
purpose and which has been used by the writer is the sort known as
“Quick Loader,” manufactured by the American Can Co. This
blower, unlike most others of the sort, which are filled through a hole
in top or bottom, comes apart ia halves, making it possible both to load
quickly and to get at the interior easily for cleaning out,—an abso-
lute necessity in corn-pollination work.

The blower is filled with anthers and pollen from the sack taken
from the tassel, the latter being bent over and rapped sharply to
secure the shaking off of the loose anthers and pollen.

Fra. 2. Powprer GuN USED FoR APPLYING POLLEN.

In the sack the pollen is of course mixed with the mass of empty
anthers from which it has been shed. No especial care, however,
need be taken to get the pollen separated from the anthers. By hav-
ing the nose of the blower cut down to a length of half an inch, any
anthers which may chance to clog the nozzle can easily be pushed
out with a pin. As a matter of fact, for the most part the blast
expels pollen and anthers together without difficulty. In cutting
down the blower nozzle, which any tinsmith can do, the mouth of
the nozzle should be drawn down to the size of the original aperture
of the nozzle. Otherwise the opening will be too large, and the air
pressure insufficient.

58 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

This device has a compression spring attached to its upper half,
and a lacquered or varnished cloth tissue allows for the compression
of the metal disk above. This upper half of the blower is treated by
boiling in paraffin until bubbles cease to come up from the fabric.
By this treatment the paraffin, instead of merely coating the surface
of the cloth, goes thoroughly into the fiber of the threads. The

Fic. 3. Mretrnop or PouLiInatTINnG.

blower can now be left in 95 per cent alcohol for the purpose of kaill-
ing the pollen grains which stick to the sides and the cloth top after
use. The blowers were first used without being treated with paraffin,
but it was found that the aleohol gradually dissolved the varnish
on the outside of the cover, rendering it sticky and disagreeable to
handle. Finally, no doubt, the dissolving of the varnish, which gives

RoBERTS: CORN POLLINATION 59

an air-tight surface to the cloth, would render the blower less effec-
tive, by letting the air through the fabric during compression.

Boiling in paraffin not only seals the cloth more effectively, but
also completely protects the varnish from the alcohol, even after an
immersion of fifteen or twenty minutes. It is absolutely necessary
to adopt some method of killing the pollen grains left after one pol-
lination before proceeding to the next plant. By the use of the hands
in pollination, as is frequently the practice, dipping the hand into the
mass of pollen and sowing it over the silks with the fingers, it is not
only difficult to reach all of the exposed silks, but it is impossible to
sterilize the hands afterward with certainty. Simple washing of the
hands in alcohol is insufficient to insure the killing of all the pollen
grains that may adhere to them.

Pollination by the use of a camel’s-hair brush is slow and tedious,
it is difficult to reach all of the silks rapidly and satisfactorily, and
the surfaces of the silks have to be continually touched. Steriliza-
tion of the brush is of course possible by leaving it loag enough in
alcohol, but the other objections are sufficient to condemn the method.
Pollination by simply shaking or pouring the pollen from the sack
upon the silks is wasteful, the pollen cannot be directed at will, and
it is impossible to reach all of the silks with certainty.

By the use of the insect gun as a means of artificial pollimation,
complete sterizilation is possible after each operation. In our prac-
tice one pair of workers uses three blowers, one being in operation,
another, which has been sterilized, being exposed to dry, and a third,
the one which has last been used, lying submerged in the alcohol
vessel. This gives each blower about fifteen minutes to lie inthe
aleohol—a time which we find to be more than amply sufficient to
completely kill every pollen grain that may lurk in any crevice or in
the nozzle or which may adhere to the cloth of the lid.

Aside from the ease with which sterilization can be effected, the
blower method is decidedly superior to any other method known to
the writer of artificially pollinating corn, in that the pollen is much
more economically and effectively used. The blast, with its stream
of pollen, can be directed at will into all parts of the mass of the silks,
and they can be pollinated thoroughly from base to tip without being
touched by the hands, with the consequent danger of injury to their
delicate cells.

In our experiments two operators engage together in the work of
pollination. One removes the tassel sack, empties the polleninto
the blower, and then holds the sack under the mass to catch the waste

60 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

pollen that falls during the operation of pollinating. The second
operator does the work of pollinating, but is careful not to handle
the sack of pollen or to use his hands in any way that would endanger
their becoming dusted with pollen. Immediately after pollination,
the remaining contents of the blower are emptied back into the tassel
sack, the latter is again fastened over the tassel, and the ear is sacked
and tagged. The blower is then left in the vessel of alcohol, and the
one which was last taken from the alcohol and left to dry is used for
the next operation. Working in this manner two men can pollinate
eighteen plants an hour with practically no risk whatever of carrying
pollen on the hands and of contaminating the successive crosses.
It should be stated that the danger from flying pollen is eliminated
by detasselling all of the stalks not sacked, before the work of arti-
ficial pollination is begun.

THE GENETICS CONFERENCE AT PARIS

What promises to be the most important meeting ever held on
Heredity is to take place at Paris, September 18-23. Many of the
leading plant and animal breeders and students of evolution in Europe
have signified their intention of being present. It is desirable that
Americans make a creditable showing at this Congress. Membership
fee of 25 frances, or $5, entitles to participation in the meetings and
excursions, and to a copy of the proceedings. Those not expecting
to attend can receive the proceedings for 15 franes if sent in advance
of the meeting. Later the price will probably be raised.

Any who desire to take part in the Congress or to receive the pub-
lished proceedings should send at once the 25 frances or 15 frances, as
the case may be, to the Secretary of the QUATRIEME CONFERENCE
INTERNATIONALE DE GENETIQUE, M. PHILLIPE DE VILMORIN, 66
RvE BoissiERE, Paris, FRANCE.

It is probable that many articles in the published proceedings will
be in English. The volume is likely to be much appreciated by stu-
dents of heredity.

EDITORIALS

THE SECOND VOLUME OF THE MAGAZINE

With the beginning of the second volume of the American Breeders
Magazine some of the plans which were formulated during the last
year are being put into effect and the Magazine promises to be much
better in 1911 than it was in 1910. The substance, dignity, and tone
of the Magazine are mainly the product of those who contribute to
the annual meeting or directly to the VW agazine. Theformative period
of the Magazine is not fully past nor is it even desirable that it
should for some tine assume the fixed individuality peculiar to older
periodicals. The endeavor will be to cast the contents of the Maga-
zine more along popular lines than heretofore, leaving the scientific
and technical contributions mostly to go into the Annual Report.

Under the new plan the bound annual report of the Association will
be mailed early in the year. This change will result in the Magazine
being made up of new matter furnished by the membership after the
Annual Report is issued, and necessitated calling upon members for
contributions especially prepared for the Magazine. This call has
been met with a splendid response and the four or more numbers of
the Magazine for the ensuing year promise to be of unusual interest
and value. Through this new arrangement of publishing different
matter in the Magazine and in the Annual Report, the total amount
of original matter placed before the members year by year is largely
increased. The Magazine and the Annual Report will thus supplement
each other and each will possess a peculiar value of its own.

The American Breeders Magazine has demonstrated that a gene-
tics magazine has a place among the periodicals of the day and has
fully justified the purpose of its existence. While its
field is broad and is touched in part by numerous
periodicals, it has a major field which encroaches upon
the main domain of no one of them. The Magazine has been
received very favorably on all sides. It has helped to place before
the public the work of the American Breeders Association and in
this way has been instrumental in a substantial increase in member-
ship during the last year. The reviewers have given it credit for

61

A GENETICS
MAGAZINE

62 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

maintaining a high standard, both of subject matter and of literary
and typographical form. With its growing constituency both of
contributors and of supporting members the standard will be raised
and maintained at a higher level than during the last year.

The shifting of a portion of the editorial responsibility to Messrs.
Webber, Mumford, and Davenport, secretaries, respectively, of the
Plant Section, the Animal Section and the Eugenics
Section, together with the election of Mr. Knorr
to the position of editorial secretary, materially
strengthens the editorial work on the publications of the Association.
All members are especially requested to send notes and news of
vital interest in connection with problems of heredity and breeding.
Persons who have in mind papers for the Magazine or addresses
for the annual meeting should communicate early with the respective
committees, section secretaries, or the secretary of the Association.

THe NEw
EpIvoRIAL STAFF

FRANCIS GALTON

News comes of the death of Francis Galton. He had reached an
advanced age—eighty nine—retaining his intellectual vigor and activ-
ity to the last. ‘Through his work he has not only enriched science,
but has so amplified several of its departments as to leave a lasting
impress.

His creation of the new science of eugenics, for which he not only
supplied the name, but outlined in large part the methods of research,
is alone sufficient to earn for him a place by the side of Darwin and
other masters immortal in science. Later generations will be in much
better position to comprehend the full meaning, the importance and
vastness of the thought of pressing science into service in the bet-
terment of human heredity.

It is gratifymg to know that the American Breeders Association,
the first body of scientists to give recognition officially to the new
science of eugenics and the first to set to work a large number of
scientists for specific research work in eugenics, should four years
ago have done honor to Mr. Galton by electing him as honorary life
member.

By a strange fatality, Mr. Galton leaves no descendants and the
line of descent, which on his maternal side traces to Erasmus Darwin,
the half cousin of Charles Darwin, is extinguished with his death.
A portrait of Dr. Galton and a brief biographic sketch were pub-
lished in no. 2, vol. 1, of the American Breeders Magazine.

EDITORIALS 63

IMPERIALISM IN DEMOCRACIES

The bulk of the power of a republic rests with the people, who
can arise en masse and sweep aside the most powerful organization
managed by the mightiest of leaders. The people conserve and accu-
mulate their own dearly won power, which they guard with jealous
care as against that imperialism which claims the divine right of
kings. The people install leaders, surround them with lieutenants
and support them with votes. They build up parties and install
governmental machinery. They temporarily invest very large power
in their rulers, and they hold them to account. They do not allow
their elected officers to claim the right to remain in office except by
the will of the people.

Republics grow into colossal communities, intricate beyond meas-
ure, yet with the leading forces so organized as to serve each and al]
the people. New ideas, which are ever springing from man’s mind,
are cast into the ever evolving social organism, and are soon assimi-
lated. Evolution in a republic, as in plant and animal organisms, in
part comes by sudden mutations, and each mutation is assimilated
and evolved into symmetrical forms by almost imperceptible steps
day by day and year by year. Some profound changes which have
suddenly come in mechanical lines are printing, steam, telegraphy,
electric power, telephony, aerographs, and flying; each in its turn
having seized the public mind, which has absorbed, digested, and
adapted it to the multifarious uses of which it is capable.

Human heredity, like heredity in plants and in lower animals,
changes by means of occasional wide mutating leaps followed by
slow evolutionary adaptation a small step at a time. Thus most men
are average in ability, and one in ten thousand is above ordinary
ability and one in a million is a genius. When a genius and a new
idea are in combination a general mutating movement occurs.

Situations arise in which men secure wonderful opportunities
and seize almost imperialistic power. Thus Washington dictated
nationalism, Lincoln dictated emancipation, and Roosevelt dictated
a fight on greed. In political life men are followed with a devotion
which is almost frenzy. And temporarily the leader has the power to
direct the affairs of state. Some men use this imperialistic power to
the advantage of all people. Occasionally men who are unduly
avaricious for power or money greatly abuse the public confidence,
just as crowned kings often rule solely for their own benefit and not
to benefit the ruled.

64. AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

In the world of art a genius becomes the center of a new school of
expression, whether it be in oil, in sculpture, in music, or in architec-
ture. His imperialism is idealistic rather than material and political.

The great mind in science, invention, art, oratory or literature
creates a great mutation in the affairs of men and thus an upturn in
civilization arises from the leadership of a single person. True, the
times must be ripe, just as the great oration can only spring from
the able speaker under the fortuitous combination of the man and the
occasion.

Mutation seems to be the evolutionary milestone of all organisms.
In heredity the mutation has two elements. There must be an indi-
vidual of exceptional or peculiar development; and
it must have the power to project into its progeny
its own exceptional values. An imperialistic thought
which brings to man a new conception of large
import has in it the first of the two elements named. And as it goes
forthand affects the minds and the material interests of men its values
are comparable with those organisms which are true mutations. But
human mutations in the heredity sense are exceedingly rare. One
can point to but few geniuses who begot geniuses. Among all kinds
of organisms there is one rare individual in thousands or in tens of
thousands. But of these rare individuals only one in many has the
second element,—that of being able to project its excellence strongly
into its progeny.

The imperialism of the genuis or of the mutating plant or animal
is indeed marvelous. These steps toward perfection are inspirational.
They demonstrate that heredity is as substantial an entity as metal,
mineral, orsoil They prove the power of the inner spirit of things.
They lead toward the conception of the unity of all energy.

MutTations—
INDIVIDUAL
AND GENBETICAL

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS OF COURTESIES

The American Breeders Association is under lasting obligation to
numerous herdbook associations, horticultural societies and other
organizations, also to many private business firms, for the cordial
spirit of codperation with which they have met the American Breed-
ers Association in its efforts to enlarge its membership. Special
appreciation is hereby expressed for the courtesies extended by the
secretaries of the following organizations:

Holstein-Friesian Association, Brattleboro, Vt.

American Hampshire Sheep Associatfon, Cold Water, Mich.

American Cotswold Registry Association, Waukesha, Wis.

EDITORIALS 65

American Hackney Horse Society, New York, N. Y.

American Berkshire Association, Springfield, Ill.

American Shropshire Registry Association, Lafayette, Ind.

American Carnation Society, Indianapolis, Ind.

American Leicester Breeders Association, Cameron, III.

The R. M. Kellogg Co., breeders of strawberries, Three Rivers,
Mich.

West Virginia State Horticultural Society, Morgantown, W. Va.

Indiana Horticultural Society, Lafayette, Ind.

Much good will result from these cordial relations, and it will
immensely facilitate the propaganda of the American Breeders Asso-
ciation for the better understanding of the laws of heredity and their
application to practical breeding to the end that large economic
results may be achieved. The American Breeders Magazine will
assist In every way possible the enlargement and the betterment of
the work of breed associations, and we are pleased to note that the
secretaries of the various associations are beginning to codperate with
the American Breeders Association.

EXTENDING THE ORGANIZATION OF THE AMERICAN
BREEDERS ASSOCIATION

Professor Levi Chubbuck, of Denver, Colorado, transmitting the
membership fees of eleven new members for 1911, writes that some
time in February a number of new and old members of the Associa-
tion met in Denver for the purpose of organizing a Colorado section
of the American Breeders Association. A constitution has been
drafted for this affiliating organization and plans have been made to
start the branch association with an even hundred members.
Much useful and effective work is certain to come from this new organ-
ization. The successful launching of this branch organization points
the way in which the American Breeders Association can be extended
in other states, and has led to plans which will make it possible
for existing breeders’ associations, of which there are many, to
affiliate if they desire, with the national organization.

By extending the genetics propaganda of the American Breeders
Association through organization of genetics associations, and plac-
ing in the hands of this entire membership the publications of the
Association, a tremendous power will be started for progress inscience,
in agriculture, and in social and economic betterment.

The interest of thousands of persons will be aroused in questions
of heredity, in the breeding of plants and animals and in eugenics.

66 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

The mind of the general public is becoming receptive to the vital
facts of heredity in man and is showing evidences of appreciation of
the work of the skilful breeder of plants and animals.

ORGANIZATION OF COOPERATIVE BREEDING

American agriculture is generally on a basis of individual owner-
ship by the family of a small tract of land, such as the members of
the family can manage mainly with their own labor. There are
occasional large estates and these are scattered throughout all parts
of the country, and in some portions of certain states large farms
constitute a considerable proportion of the entire area. A few people,
who have the European idea, predict that the and will gradually
drift into the hands of the wealthy in the form of large estates. But
wherever the Caucasian race has settled in new territory without the
presence of an inferior race the plan of family farms has been generally
adopted and racial progress has there been most rapid. On the other
hand, where there has been an inferior race, the large farm estate
has been the rule and racial progress has been less rapid. New
Zealand, Canada, and the northern United States are examples of
countries where the family farm plan prevails and where the most
rapid racial progress in the world is taking place. South Africa and
the southern United States are examples of countries where the
large estate was more generally developed. Many reasons might
be cited in favor of the family farm plan as against the large estate
in most if not in nearly all parts of the world where the soil is culti-
vated. It maybe a part of the white man’s burden to help develop
country life in the entire world on the family farm basis.

Nearly all people who know the better side of country life condi-
tions where the family farm prevails regard the production of folks
as the principal crop. The trend. of the philosophy of our times is
to urge people to return to the soil. This does not mean that they
should return and be farm laborers on large estates, but that they
become owners and managers of farms and farm homes. There are a
few lines of farm business which at times seem to drift under the form
of organization of the large farm or the large fruit ranch. The inven-
tion of large and complicated machinery sometimes seems to lead to
the organization of farming under large units with a high degree of
division of labor.

But ov the whole the individualistic farmer holds his own and pays
more per acre for the land for a combined home and business than the
owner of money is willing to place in the land as simply a commercial

EDITORIALS 67

investment. Certain it is that twenty independent homes on owned
farms make for a stronger country life civilization than does one
beautiful farm mansion, one manager’s house, and twenty laborers’
cottages. Besides the better aggregate of home life in the twenty
independent homes, they also support better schools, more virile
churches, a more excellent social organization; a more highly conserv-
ing political status exists and the output of folks is a better trained,
more hopeful class of young people, more highly inspired and supplied
with a larger aggregate of money with which to start in life for them-
selves.

For the family farms to compete better in mere commercial produc-
tion with the plan of the large estate the farmers must learn how to
do collectively some of the things which the large estate can best do
because of its centralized organization. In other words, that the far-
mer may retain the vital part of his individualistic status, and own
most of the land as family farms he must give up portions of his
individualism and merge them into codperations which he and his
fellow-farmers manage collectively.

There is need of laws and a new jurisprudence of codperation. At
present codperative enterprises must organize, operate, and be closed
up, under corporation laws which are not adapted to the form of
organizations known as coéperations. These new laws should facil-
itate the organization of codperations. They should better provide
for the conduct of business by codperative organizations, and, quite
as important, they should provide for reorganization in case of tem-
porary embarrassment, in place of the harsh closing-up processes
provided under laws which relate to corporations.

During recent years codperation has entered into the breeding
of domestic animals. This is one of the most significant phases of
codperation. Much of the work of testing individual animals, of secur-
ing superior purebred sires, of creating new strains and breeds, and
of preserving unmixed the choicest breeding blood as sources of breed-
ing animals with which to grade up the best stock everywhere, can
be done far better under codperative organization than by the indi-
vidual farmer alone. As in other lines of codperation, much codp-
eration in animal breeding will aid in preserving to the farmer the
individualistic business of breeding pedigreed animals. But the plans
for this codperative breeding go even further, and have included
cooperation by state experiment stations and by the national Depart-
ment of Agriculture with the farmers. And under thisseveral forms of
codperation in animal breeding have been developed in this country.

68 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

Codperation in breeding up the farm herds of the neighborhood
is best exemplified by the cow-testing associations of Denmark and
later of Michigan, Wisconsin, Connecticut, and other
states. ‘The principal features of this plan are that
a group of a' out twenty-five farmers employ a man
trained in testing the values of cows. By visiting the farms periodi-
cally he determines the amount of milk given for the month and
the amount of butter fat produced, thus securing data from which
are calculated the annual product of milk and butter for each cow.
He also gets a close approximation of the amount of food used by
each cow and determines its value. The difference between the cost
of food and the value of product determines the rating of the cow,
in net dollars of income. As the generations of cows come and go
these performance records furnish also a basis for the valuation of
each cow as a producer of cows, and also of each bull as a producer
of cows—and also of sires. The cowtesting inspectors and intelli-
gent farmers soon learn the significance and value of the recorded
figures fashioned into pedigree performance tables. They are led to
scrutinize the evidences of the breeding efficiency of bulls offered for
sale as sires of other herds. Very rapidly the poor cows are elimi-
nated from the herds; and the blood-of the very best sires and dams
is rapidly multiplied so that the herds are brought up to a high aver-
age of earning efficiency.

Cow-TLTEstiInGa
ASSOCIATION

FINANCING THE MAGAZINE FOR WIDER USEFULNESS

For more than a dozen years the Secretary and many other loyal
members of the American Breeders’ Association have labored dili-
gently and without remuneration, for the upbuilding of the Associa-
tion and as a result of their expenditure of energy and time, the organ-
ization is now well established. It has gained a substantial place
in the scientific organizations of the world.

The American Breeders’ Association, being a coéperative organi-
zation, utilizes for its own purposes all fees paid by members, all
moneys given. by friends, and all services freely given. it by the earnest
workers who are putting forward the science of heredity and breeding.
The life membership fees of $20 each, which must be invested and only
the income from which may be used, now amount to about $3000.

The publications of the Association bave maintained a high stand-
ard of scientific and practical excellence. The six bound Annual
Reports already published, and the seventh, now in press, contain

EDITORIALS 69

the most important body of knowledge extant on genetics and prac -
tical breeding. The American Breeders’ Magazine, now in its second
year, is taking its place as a periodical of the widest importance.
The present issue is an earnest of what can and will be done by this
publication as a Genetics magazine, when a large membership supplies
the means with which to develop it.

The movement under the leadership of the American Breeders’
Association should be rapidly expanded. The important need of
the present is publicity, and through it a larger membership. To
get a large membership, funds must be made available to employ a
Membership Secretary who will devote his entire time to securing
members. For this purpose an investment of $5,000 is now needed.
A subscription list has been opened and in this issue the appeal is
made for subscriptions of $100 each. Fifty men each of whom is
able to give $100 are earnestly requested to codperate with the officers
of the Association in assuming the burden of placing the American
Breeders’ Association in a position from which it will grow into a very
large and powerful organization. All are urged to aid in this effort
to secure a campaign fund. Old members are still more earnestly
urged to secure new members.

COOPERATION IN ANIMAL BREEDING

We have a class of large general associations of the breeders of ped-
izgreed animals called herdbook associations. These are essentially
cooperative organizations and they have done an immense service to
American live stock. They have successfully kept the lineage pedi-
grees of the breed secured from Europe or originated in this country.
Yet, they have had some shortcomings. They, for too long, depenced
exclusively on lineage pedigrees as evidence of breeding efficiency.

Beginning with the work of John Wallace in putting trotting
horse pedigrees on a basis of performance records, followed up by
the advanced registry scheme of dairy herdbook
associations, we are developing a class of herdbook
organizations which are gradually paying more
attention to inherent efficiency and to performance record ad-
ditions to all pedigrees. Too long have the leaders in our great
live-stock papers, in live-stock chairs of our agricultural colleges,
and the orators in the live-stock sales ring adhered to the evi-
dences of excellence which are made up by the prices received in
the sales ring and by the prizes secured at the live-stock show. These

ADVANCED
REGISTRATION

70 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

are excellent evidences, but they too often relate only to the visual
individuality of the given animal rather than to its inherent breeding
efficiency. The animal phenomenal in individuality, rather than the
animal phenomenal in the power to project excellence into his or her
progeny, is given the larger consideration. The broader plan of the
future will not give less consideration to individual excellence, but it
will give far greater prominence to the breeding power as based on the
average record of performance of ancestors, of collateral relatives, and
especially of progeny, There is need of the most searching scientific,
almost cold-blooded, investigation of the present status of pedigree
herdbook associations and the philosophy of their methods, and to
show how they may more effectively improve the respective breeds.
Certainly they will find it advantageous to extend all such codéper-
ative work as may help them build up the average excellence of the
respective breeds; that pedigrees, far more than now, may be the com-
pelling evidence which causes all growers to use purebred or first
generation hybrid stock.

One class of codperative breeders’ associations is the so-called
sire-owning associations. Under this form of organization a num-
ber of farmers or breeders form an organization
under which they collectively own a group of
sires. These sires are kept at places where they
can be most conveniently and most advantageously used by the
respective members. Members of the association, or employed
experts, are chosen to make the wisest possible selection of sires.
Records more or less complete are kept of the values and per-
formance of the progeny of each sire under systems which permit of
the comparison of the breeding value of the respective sires. Sires
which show progeny only medium in value are at once discarded.
Sires which beget young of especially high average value are retained
as long as they are fit for service. They are rotated among the herds
so as to avoid any inbreeding which experience may prove unwise.

Another type of codperative breeding is found in the so-called
circuit breeding scheme. This plan best provides for creating marked
new values. It utilizes all the advantages of the three other plans
and all here supplement each other. And all lead under the scheme
for circuit breeding to the discovery of those rare animals, one in
perhaps many thousand, which serve as mutative bases of new families
and of new values advanced above any values before available. As
outlined in two projects already started, one with milking Shorthorns
in Minnesota, the other with Holstein cattle in North Dakota, the

SIRE-OWNING
ASSOCIATION

EDITORIALS i!

United States Department of Agriculture, the state experiment
station and local breeders are organized into a triangular form of
codperative association. The management of the work is vested in
a council composed of one member appointed by the Secretary of
Agriculture, one appointed by the director of the state experiment
station, and one chosen by the farmers who form the codperative
breeding circuit association. The Department of Agriculture and
the experiment station each make an annual cash contribution toward
paying the salary and expenses of a circuit superintendent, chosen
by the council, and possibly provide some expense money to help
pay the expenses of securing superior male animals from a distance.
The codperative association is made up of about twenty breeders.
Each breeder contracts with the association and with the codperating
institutions that he will enter into the circuit a minimum number of
circuit “approved” animals. In case of cattle, he agrees also to breed,
eare for, feed, and test his animals under the supervision of the
circuit superintendent. He agrees that the superintendent, acting
under the council, shall divide all animals into three classes. Those
which are not considered fit for registration will be classed as “dis-
carded” and are not eligible for use as registered animals. Those
which are not chosen for the circuit breeding will be called “regis-
tered” and will be accredited to the national herdbook of the breed
for registration there, and those which are deemed of greatest value
to be used in the circuit breeding will be called “approved,” and
will, of course, also be registered in the national herdbook. Members
will further promise the department and the station that “approved”
animals shall be offered for sale only for use within the circuit, while
registered animals may be sold to persons ouside the circuit.

Under this plan, with some help from public funds, the circuit
can secure the best blood of the breed to be found in the country or
even to be found in other countries. By rigid tests
and valuations of each animal from birth to maturity
the value of the different lines of blood brought into
the circuit can be determined. In case strains are
found of remarkable value, they can soon be made the basis of
stock of the entire circuit. Under plans for not too narrow breed-
ing, this blood can then be kept intact permanently.

In case that anywhere in herd test associations, in sire-owning
associations, in the advanced registry work of herdbook associations
or in the unattached private herds or in other circuits of the same
breed, a phenomenal blood strain is discovered, the circuit can secure
this blood and test it within the circuit.

A PERPETUAL
Fount OF
New Bioop

NEWS AND NOTES
MALADJUSTMENTS IN SECOND-GENERATION HYBRIDS

In the South one frequently hears the statement that the first
cross between the white and the black races is vigorous and healthy
but that the subsequent generations descended from these mulattoes
are weakly aad highly subject to diesase. While the fact that an
opinion is general does not necessarily prove it to be true, there are
theoretical reasons for suspecting that the opinion referred to in this
case is true. There is also experimental evidence to substantiate it,
at least in species other than man.

In the first-generation hybrid all the characters of both races are
present, and there is opportunity for the development of a normal
organism more or less intermediate between the two parent races.
This is especially true for those characters which blend whether they
segregate later or not; but for characters in which there is marked
dominance we might have a given organ of the body much more like
one of the parent races than the other, while another organ of the body
might be more like the other parent race, thus giving more or less
maladjustment. But in the second and later generations we may get
any combination of the original parent characters. This might, and
doubtless does, frequently result in some of the organs of the body
being strikingly like those of one of the parent races while other
organs would be as strikingly like the other parent race.

Where the two races differ markedly in respect to vital organs or
vital processes, we may thus have serious maladjustments. We of
course do not know the complete Mendelian relations of any entire
organism, hence there is very little definite to be said about what the
maladjustments would be. We might, however, have in an organ-
ism of a second-generation hybrid a heart similar to that of one parent
race and lungs similar to those of the other parent race, and these
two organs—the heart and the lungs—might not be adapted to work
together normally. So we might have differences between any vital
organs or vital processes whereby the various parts of the organism
are not properly correlated.

Some very interesting evidence bearing on this point was obtained
by Mr. Q. I. Simpson in his hybridization work with European wild

72

News anp Notes te

hogs and our domesticated breeds. The first-generation hybrids
were exceedingly vigorous, and evidently their various vital organs
were well correlated with each other. But in the second generation
of these hybrids, as well as in pigs produced by crossing the hybrids
with either of the pure races, new Mendelian combinations of char-
acters caused various organs to be poorly adjusted to each other.
For instance, some of the pigs had the greedy appetites of domesti-
cated hogs with the small digestive apparatus of the wild hog, and
died from over-eating—a thing a domesticated hog seldom does,
because he has a digestive apparatus commensurate with this appe-
tite.”

It seems probable from the evidence at hand that Mendelian recom-
bination in the second and later generations of hybrids between dis-
tinct races may frequently result in maladjustments that may have
serious consequences for the organism.—W. J. Spruuman, Washing-

ton, D. C.
CONVENTIONAL SYMBOLS FOR PEDIGREE TABLES

At a meeting of persons interested in pedigree work among defec-
tives, held at Lincoln, IIll., last spring, supplemented by a meeting
held at Skillman on October 14, the following conventional signs in

pedigree tables were adopted: CO Square, male. | Affected in-

dividual, male. O Circle, female. ee Affected individual, female.
O—-O A union of circle and square by a horizontal or oblique
line, marriage. Miscarriage or still-birth would be indicated by a
small solid dot. All members of a family would be connected by a
short vertical line with the same horizontal line. Order of birth
would be indicated by a figure placed above this horizontal line.

if ea 3 4 5 6

In case sex is unknown, circle or square is to be omitted. Under-
scoring a circle or square indicates institutional care. The following
letters are employed, to be placed inside the circle or square. If
two letters are employed, that representing the more important or
primary condition to be inside the circle or square and the remaining
letter or letters to be placed outside.

74 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

A, alcoholic. N, normal. d, died.

B, blind. S, syphilis. m, married.

C, criminal. SX, grave sexual of-_ d. inf. (inside of circle
D, deaf. fender. or square), died in
Dwf, dwarf. T, tuberculosis. infancy.

E, epileptic. W, wanderer, tramp, illeg., on vertical line
I’, feeble-minded. truant, etc. means illegitimate
I, insane. b, born. child.

M, migraine.

A numeral inside the circle or square indicates a number of persons of that
sex grouped together to save space or because little is known about them.

d. early is to mean (a) in the case of feeble-minded, died before 7 years;
(b) in the case of epileptic, died before 14 years; (c) in the case of insane, died
before 25 years.

Wherever epilepsy is present the E is to be placed inside the circle
or square, and any other condition or future developments to be placed
outside the square.

Institutions working on similar defective families in the same state
are to exchange data.

Unclassifiable conditions which are abnormal are to be indicated
in the charts by the striated circle or square, and, in tabulating, the
condition is to be explained and not to be passed over with the appli-
cation of a descriptive term.—C. B. Davenport, Cold Spring Har-
bor, N.Y.
SOME CYTOLOGICAL CORRECTIONS

As the members of this Association are all interested in cytology,
I desire to call attention to some errors that still pass current as facts
in most text-books on cytology and heredity. The first of these
that I shall mention is that there is a specific number of chromosomes
in the germ cells of organisms.

In his late papers Dr. Wilson states:!

The most conspicuous departure from the relations to which we have become
accustomed lies in the fact that different individuals of the same species often
possess different numbers of chromosomes, though the number in each individ-
ua_is constant. An even more surprising fact is that in all of my own material
every male individual possesses at least 22 spermatogonial chromosomes,
including a pair of unequal idiochromosomes like those of the Pentatomide,
while in Montgomery’s material of MW. terminalis every male has but 21 sper-
matogonial chromosomes, one of which is typical odd or ‘‘accessory”’ chromo-
some (unpaired idiochromosome).

The second error is that the gametes have an equal number of
chromosomes. That is, the spermatozoa have one-half the number of

1 Journal Exp. Zool. VI, p. 147.

News AND NOTES le

the fertilized egg. It is now known that there is dimorphism in
spermatozoa in many species of animals. Examples, Orthoptera,
Homoptera, and Heteroptera, etc.

The third error is that the chromosomes may be used by the tax-
onomist in classification. Dr. Stevens states:

It has become evident in the course of the work that little dependence can
be placed on the present classification of the aphids and that a reclassification
based on the cytology of the germ cells may be necessary.

Dr. McClung states in speaking of the germ cells of a grasshopper:*

There are thus within the germ cells of these animals certain structures that
show specific, generic, and family characters in just as pronounced a manneras
do the completed organisms wherein they are formed.

T. H. Montgomery states:

The conviction almost forces itself upon one that chromosomal relations not
only furnish the basis for any understanding of the process called heredity.
and differentiation, but also bid fair to become the basis of taxonomy.

Dr. Lillie’

The chromosome group of the species contains the sum total of material
transmitted from one generation to another. Each chromosome represents
in each stage some property of the entire organism.

Dr. Wilson states :®

In the genus Banasa a much greater numerical difference exists between two
species that are otherwise so similar as sometimes to have been confused by
systematists, though the examination of a large series has convinced me that
they are always distinguishable by structural characters. These species
are B. calva and B. dimidiata, of which the former has typically 26 chromosomes,
the latter 16. But the most remarkable case, and the one to which I would
direct special attention, is that of the common and widely diffused form Thy-
anta custator, in which two types of chromosome groups exist in a species which
competent systematists have not thus far been able to differentiate even into
two varieties. Individuals taken at Madison, New Jersey, show in the male
27 chromosomes, in the female 28; while all those from Georgia, South Caro-
lina, Tennessee, and Colorado have in both sexes but 16. No intermediate
numbers have thus far been found. This species is a very variable one in
respect to shape, size, and color, and all the western forms and many of the
southern ones differ noticeably from the New Jersey ones. Nevertheless, Van
Duze, the well-known specialist of Pentatomide, who has kindly examined

2Studies on the Germ Cells of Aphids. Carnegie Pub. No. 51.

3Cytolozy and Taxonomy. Kansas Univ. Sci. Bull., Vol. IV, No. VII.

4Science, Jan. 5, 1906

5Journal Exp. Zool., p. 262.

‘Differences in the chromosome-groups of closely related species and varieties, and their pos-
sible bearing on the ‘Physiological Species.”’

76 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

the series, states that he is unable to find in the external characters any line
of demarcation by which the individuals of the 16-chromosome type can be
separated from the others.

For the past three years I have taken great interest in spermato-
genesis in insects, having worked upon and photographed the chro-
mosomal complex in Aphid, Pentatomidz, Coreide, Lygaeide,
Acrididide, Gryllidze and Chrysomellide. I find differences appa-
rently as great in the size, arrangement, and number of chromosomes
as I do in external characters of a species——L. C. Braaa, Ft. Col-
lins, Colo.

TERMS OF THE GALTON BEQUEST

Sir Francis Galton, F.R.S., who died on January 17, aged 89, has
left his residuary estate to the University of London for the purpose
of encouraging the study of national eugenics. This residuary estate
will amount to about £45,000. He left property of the gross value
of £115,932, of which the net personalty has been sworn at £113,871.

In a codicil Sir Francis Galton describes the scope of his new
foundation in the following terms, some technical phrases being
omitted:

I devise and bequeath all the residue of my estate and effects, both real and
personal, unto the University of London for the establishment and endowment
of a professorship at the said university to be known as “The Galton Profes-
sorship of Eugenies,’’ with a laboratory or office and library attached thereto.
And I declare that the duty of the professor shall be to pursue the study and
further the knowledge of national eugenics—that is, of the agencies under
social control that may improve or impair the racial faculties of future genera-
tions physically and mentally. And for this purpose I desire that the univer-
sity shall, out of the income of the above endowment, provide the salaries of
the professor and of such assistants as the senate may think necessary, and
that the professor shall do the following acts and things—namely:

1. Collect materials bearing on eugenics.

2. Discuss such materials and draw conclusions.

3. Form a central office to provide information, under appropriate restric-
tions, to private individuals and to public authorities concerning the laws of
inheritance in man, and to urge the conclusions as to social conduct which
follow from such laws.

4. Extend the knowledge of eugenics by all or any of the following means,
namely, (a) professorial instruction; (b) occasional publications; (c) occasional
public lectures; (d) experimental or observational work which may throw light
on eugenic problems.

He shall also submit from time to time reports of the work done to the
authorities of the said university.

[ also declare that the said university shall be at liberty to apply either the
capital or income of the said moneys for any of the purposes aforesaid, but it is

News AND NortEs (ei

my hope that the university will see fit to preserve the capital thereof wholly

or almost wholly intact, not encroaching materially upon it for cost of build-

ing, fittings, or library. Also that the university will supply the laboratory

or office at such place as its senate shall from time to time determine, but pref-

erably in the first instance in proximity to the biometric laboratory. I state
these hopes on the chance of their having a moral effect upon the future decis-
ions of the senate of the university, but they are not intended to have any
legally binding effect whatever upon the freedom of their action. And I de--
clare that it shall be lawful for the senate of the said university, if they shall think

fit so to do, to postpone the election of the first or any subsequent professor of

eugenics for a period of not exceeding four years from the date of my death,

or from the date of the occurrence of any vacancy in the office as the case

may be.

I declare it to be my wish, but I do not impose it as an obligation, that on
the appointment of the first professor the post shall be offered to Professor
Karl Pearson, and on such conditions as will give him liberty to continue his
biometric laboratory now established at University College.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED

DomesticaTteD ANIMALS AND Piants. A brief treatise upon the origin and
development of domesticated races, with special reference to the method
of improvement.’’ Dr. Eugene Davenport, dean of the College of Agri-
culture, director of the Agricultural Experiment Station, Champaign,
Ill. 321 pages, illustrated. Ginn & Company.

A text-book on the principles of breeding as applied to our domes-
ticated animals and plants, and written for use in high schools, nor-
mal schools and for the general student. This book is an abridged
and simplified form of the larger and more technical work ‘“‘ Princi-
ples of Breeding” by the same author. It fills the place of a much
needed text-book on this subject, especially at this time when many
of these institutions are expanding their courses of study by adding
agriculture. Most excellent use is made of everyday biological
facts and their relation to human affairs is attractively and interest-
ingly presented, and throughout the book there runs a current of
wholesome philosophy.

Five pages are devoted to instruction ‘‘to the teacher.’? A sum-
mary and list of exercises concludes each chapter. Many references
are given for use of the reading student. A glossary of technical
and scientific terms in the appendix is very useful in view of the fact
that the rapid development of the science of heredity is creating and
constantly adding difficult new words expressing new conceptions
of heredity phenomena.

The author has succeeded not only in presenting the subject of
breeding, aad of domesticated plants and animals ia pedagogical

78 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

form, and bringing it down to high-school grade, but he has succeeded
in telling it interestingly, so as to hold the attention of the general
reader. Dean Davenport’s two books mark the new movement in
texts relating to breeding, and ere long texts, laboratory work, dem-
onstration breeding, and the results of research in relation to hered-
ity will have gained for this subject a large place in our schools.
- Since the study of heredity will be both a ‘‘culture” study and a
vocational study it will gain a large place in our educational system.
Dean Davenport’s pioneering work is most valuable, both because of
the excellence of his books and because they blaze the trail in this
subject.

THE IMPORTANCE AND IMPROVEMENT OF GRAIN SorGHuMS. Carleton R. Ball,
agronomist in charge of grain sorghum investigations. Bul. No. 203,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

KuTHENICS AND Eugenics. Dr. C. B. Davenport, Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y.
Reprinted from The Popular Science Monthly, January, 1911, pages 16 to
20.

Litrie ‘Trips To THE Homes or Great Horses. Hambletonian 10. Arthur
Calton Thomas, Equine Publishing Co., Omaha, Nebraska.

“HEREDITY” OR PARENTAL ENDOWMENT—SOME GENERAL Laws. Dr. Pauline
Myers, Marshalltown, Iowa, 39 pages.

Herepiry oF Skin Praement 1x Man. Gertrude C. Davenport and Charles
B. Davenport. Reprinted from The American Naturalist, Vol. XLIV,
November and December, 1910, pages 642 to 731.

DEGENERATION, ALBINISM AND INBREDDING. Charles B. Davenport. Re-
printed from Science, n.s., Vol. XXVIII, No. 718, pages 454 to 455, October
2, 1908.

CALIFORNIA’S New Inpustry, Growinec Humans. Bulletin of California
State Board of Health. Vol. 6, No. 5, illustrated, pages 265 to 369.

CaTTLE BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATIONS IN DENMARK. Frederick Rasmussen, Bull.
129, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 40
pages.

Forty-S1xtH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE QUEENSLAND ACCLIMATISATION SOCIETY,
Brisbane, Australia. Report covers period August 1, 1908, to March 31,
1909. 34 pages. Mr. Nicol Robinson, honorary secretary.

A BIOMETRICAL StuDY OF EaG PRopuUcTION IN THE Domestic Fowi. Raymond
Pearl and Frank M. Surface. Bul. 110, Part II, Bureau of Animal Indus-
try, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Pp. 81 to 170.

SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED DURING THE PERIOD FROM OcTOBER 1 TO DrecEeM-
BER 31, 1909. David Fairchild, Agricultural Explorer in Charge. Bureau
of Plant Industry, U. 8S. Department of Agriculture, Bul. 205. 1911.
54 pages.

ASSOCIATION MATTERS

PRINTS OF PORTRAITS FOR FRAMING

There have recently come to the office of the Association a number
of orders for single copies of the Magazine from persons who desire
to frame the portraits of the noted men whose biographies have been
published. To meet this demand a limited number of these portraits
have been printed on a fine quality of enameled translucent India
sepia paper in sepia tone. The effect is very pleasing. The
size of these portraits is 6 by 9 inches and they may be mounted,
panel-fashion, in sets of four or more, so as to be suitable for hanging
in class-rooms or dens. While the supply lasts, copies may be had
from the Secretary’s office at exact cost price, 10 cents each or $1.20
for the entire set of 12. These prices include postage. The follow-
ing are the names of the subjects of the twelve portraits:

Charles Robert Darwia, Gregor Johann Mendel, Amos Cruik-
shank, Francis Galton, Pierre Louis Francois Leveque de Vilmorin,
John H. Wallace, Joseph Gottlieb Koelreuter, Robert Bakewell,
Wilhelm Rimpau, Ephraim Wales Bull, Peter M. Gideon and Joseph
Lancaster Budd.

BACK NUMBERS OF THE ANNUAL REPORTS

Proceedings of the American Breeders Association, Annual Reports
Nos. IV and VI, may be obtained from the Secretary at $2 per volume.
In the case of Annual Report No. VI, this price also covers the four
numbers of the American Breeders Magazine so long as the supply
of the latter publication lasts.

EXTENDING A. B. A. MEMBERSHIP

A small, neat card containing on one side an invitation to joi the
American Breeders Association and on the reverse side a blank appli-
cation for membership is being sent out by the Secretary in any desired
quantity to members interested in increasing the membership and
who will insert these cards in letters with their correspondence.
These invitations if signed by the nominating member may carry
considerable weight in inducing others to join. In many cases

79

80 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

these slips may serve to call the attention of persons to the work of
the Association who before had no knowledge of its existence. These
slips are letter size, put up in neat pads of about seventy and will be
supplied on request to any member or others interested.

Notices for renewal of memberships are being mailed from the
office of the Secretary and members are requested to assist in simpli-
fying this part of the office work, as well as reducing the expense
connected therewith, by remitting their 1911 membership fees
promptly on receipt of notice. If possible, the fee for at least one
new member should accompany each renewal.

OPINIONS

The Magazine is good and ought to have a large circulation.—JoHn W.
Trrcoms, Commissioner, Department of Fisheries and Game, State of Vermont.

I am very glad indeed to see that the Magazine is giving so much attention
to eugenics. The subject is one in which our people should be a great deal
more interested than they are at present, and the American Breeders Associa-
tion can do a splendid work by keeping the matter prominently before those
whose immediate concerns do not take them into this most important field.
The last number of the Magazine, which I have read very carefully, is a most
satisfactory one. In my talks on eugenics, of which I have given several in
this vicinity, I mention the American Breeders Association, and the Magazine,
as deserving the support of everyone who has any concern for the welfare of
the race.—RoBert DEC. Warp, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.

I wish to express my appreciation of the excelle1t matter contained in the
Reports and in the Magazine.—JouNn Bewuine, Assistant Botanist, Agricultural
Experiment Station, Gainesville, Fla.

I congratulate you on the splendid magazine you are getting out. It isa
gem. ! like the plan of giving the short biographical sketches and pictures of
breeders. This will in time form a valuable reference, otherwise not avail-
able to most of us.—W. A. HarsHBarGER, Washburn College, Topeka, Kansas.

I think the American Breeders Association is doing about the most valuable
work of any of the important organizations of this country. For the work in
principles of breeding which is given to the seniors in this institution, I very
frequently refer to the reports of the American Breeders Association. ~ALFRED
ATKINSON, Department of Agronomy, Montana Agricultural College, Bozeman,
Mont.

THE AMERICAN BREEDERS
MAGAZINE

Published Quarterly by the American Breeders Association
FOR THE USE OF ITS MEMBERS
PRICE OF SINGLE COPIES, 35 CENTS

Address communications to American Breeders Association, Washington, D. C.

Vol. II, No.2 Second Quarter, 1911. Whole No. 6

CONTENTS

PAGE
Benamimntoniiving: Jr. (With POrtrait) .<.... 02s eet eek cde eee cca e oe 83
Horses and Horse Breeding (illustrated). H.K. Busu-Brown, Washing-
OD, as Copco eee Epo see gee da dan oni eee 85
a Factor in Register-of-Merit Jerseys. E. N. Wentwortu, Ames,
QWe.cke 6 p45.c0 Cadena oo a ehn ee tee colblc gs Ceo e eee Sef
Yield Tests as a Basis of Awarding Prizes at Corn Shows. G. N. Co.-
SOLE), VAT 2/S AOR G To 6B GN Gh ak en ee 103
Organization of the Eugenics Record Office. H.H. Lavueutuin, Cold Spring
ILD. LAW Slap ages ccc he Bc Sinn pee aeRO erate 107
/ The Inheritance of Left-Handedness (illustrated). H.E. Jorpan, Uni-
aeemU meme OO OVIEITINECH 2.00. sas Se ee ve sc le tee ewe eaecseeeeecs 113
Distribution of Improved Seed Grain in Kansas. A. M. Tren Eyck,
a oes TAI ok oe) ae UN 2 125
An Experiment in Fur-Seal Conservation. B. W. EvrermMann, Washing-
Te 2 Deseo Se ci Ss ets eS ee 132
EDITORIALS:
pizew@rearmnand Barm Pamilies....... 2.20.00 cece cee cee eee eee 137
ible IN sig. oi) LDU Tiree). IS TE a 139
World’s Food Requirements Met by Breeding Better Types........... 141
EP respieaiiened Minis Heredity. ss. «.. 022.2006. cee eee se ee eee ee 142

NEWS AND NOTES: )
Report on Conference of Research Committees of the Eugenics Section 145

The Heurtin’ Family of Vertow (Giustrated).................2......6. 147
Importance of Raising the Second Generation of Crosses. ............ 149
Progress Report from Genetics Conference to be Held in Paris........ 150
A New Zealand Estimate of the American Breeders Association....... 150
aprenee ME OREABEE CEC ICR ee a i ee i cc os wate e a da eae sees 151
ASSOCIATION MATTERS:
SUNT ETS Sy A STE Se RRO Ee 155
Lorrain or serentists and Breeders....................e.eecceeeecces 155
aSmE IPR TIEEIVI TING ye ese ee Ekle eae caves dev eeeeeees 155
Change of Plans with Regard to Magazine...............+..+-0-eeeeee 155
Ten Thousand New Members Wanted...................0000eceeeeees 156
The American Breeders Association to Its Parent.................... 156
Reception of American Breeders Association Annual Report No. VI... 159

(Copyright, 1911, by the American Breeders Association. |

81

BENJAMIN ToMKINs, JR.

THE AMERICAN
BREEDERS MAGAZINE

“There is no wealth but life, and if the inherent quality of life fa‘ls, neither battleships, nor libraries,
nor symphonies, nor free trade, nor tariff reform, nor anything else will save a nation.’”’—SaLeeBy.

No. 2

Vol. II Second Quarter, 1911

BENJAMIN TOMKINS, JR., 1745-1815.

The difference in quality between the primitive wild cattle of
Europe and the common native cattle as owned by the better
farmers two hundred years ago was probably not so great as the
difference between the latter cattle and the purebred registered
breeds of cattle of today.

Two masters who took as their raw material the native cattle of
the district in which they lived and created out of that blood a
new and distinct breed were Benjamin Tomkins, and his son, Ben-
jamin Tomkins, Jr. The Hereford breed of cattle was their creation.
Early agricultural writers and historians frequently confounded
these two men, referring to them as one person. But Mr. W. H.
Bustin of Hereford, England, discovered records which went to show
that the father, Benjamin Tomkins, Sr., began the systematic
breeding and improvement of the cattle of Herefordshire in 1742,
before the birth of his more widely known son.

The grandfather, Richard Tomkins, had owned and bred Hereford
cattle all his life. But the idea of systematic improvement of the
cattle strains for a specific purpose was original with his son Ben- —
jamin Tomkins and was continued by his grandson, Benjamin
Tomkins, Jr. Hence these two men may be said to be the first to
have conceived the idea of breeding these cattle especially for
beef purposes. The beginning of their operations as originators of
modern plans of breed improvement antedates Bakewell’s with
sheep and cattle.

The periods of activity of the Tomkinses, senior and junior,
overlap. The father began his breeding operations in 1742 and
continued till 1789. The son began active work in 1769 and carried
it on until his death in 1815. During this total of seventy-three
years they wrought together for a period of perhaps thirty years.
It is also interesting to note that for nearly thirty years after the
death of Benjamin Tomkins, Jr., his breeding work was continued

83

84. AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

by his daughters, and they are credited with having used good
judgment and having been successful.

Benjamin Tomkins, Jr., was a quiet, steady, and patient worker;
with consummate skill he built up his breed, refusing nothing good
from outside herds, but clinging steadfastly to the plan of using
bulls only of his own breeding, and this practice was continued by the
daughters during the time they were in possession of the herd.

Tradition has it that three cows formed the original foundation
of the Tomkins breeding operations—Pigeon, Mottle, and Silver.
From Silver came the Silver Bell who is considered to have been
the individual most potent in the early improvement of the breed.
It is quite possible that Tomkins discovered that he had a strain of
blood which when narrowly bred would produce splendid animals and
that this closely bred stock was uniformly better than that produced
by outcrossing. This may have been another case of mutation and
of a breeder who fell into the plan, or philosophically adopted the
plan, of inbreeding until he had made a distinct breed, combining
excellence of individuality and potency both for pure breeding and
upgrading.

At the time when Tomkins, Jr., was busily engaged in his work,
he had no idea that soon a period would come when agricultural
conditions on the North American continent would undergo an
almost magical transformation, and that on hundreds of thousands
of farms a live stock industry would develop in which his favorite
cattle would play an important part. The transportation of this
breed from its English home, and its perfect and instantaneous
adaptation to the entirely new and different conditions and to a
variety of climates on the American continent, is certainly the most
noteworthy incident in the history of the cattle of Herefordshire.

The magnitude of the breeding operations carried on within this
breed at present and the amount of wealth directly produced by
them annually would be difficult to compute. This fact, however,
boldly stands out: The breed developed on the 300-acre farm of
the Tomkinses has spread over and enriched the agriculture of at
least three continents. The stream of potent blood from the small
nucleus herd has widened until it is now carried in the veins of
hundreds of thousands of cattle beasts, vitalizing the agriculture
and commerce of many countries.

HORSES AND HORSE BREEDING

H. K. BusH-Brown
Washington, D. C.

Horse breeding has been followed as a trade ever since animals
were first domesticated, but for only about a century have stud-
book records been kept of the breeding of the different families of
horses. The study of types has only quite recently been taken up
by men of science with a view of ascertaining the origin of the species
and to differentiate their characteristics.

As a result of this study, based upon those anatomical differences
and variations which have resulted from wide geographical dis-
tribution, and which probably originated in early geological times,
it may be accepted that there are four families or species of horses.

The first type in this classification is the Celtic horse, found on
the west coast of Norway, known as the Fjord horse in Iceland,
Faeroe, Barra, and other small islands of the outer Hebrides, in
northern Scotland, on the Shetland Isles, and in Connemara or
northern Ireland. There has also been found a close kinship between
the Celtic horse and the true Tarpan horse of Russia. The principal
characteristics of this type are that, in common with the asses and
zebras, it has no eallosities on its hind legs, and has a black stripe
the entire length of the back and through the tail. It is also
frequently striped on the legs and shoulders like the asses, and is of
a brown or light dun color.!

Nature establishes harmonious groups of plants, trees, and ani-
mals, and, certain conditions of climate being given, certain groups
of animals and plants are found associated. The small red deer of
Norway was an original associate of the Celtic horse, and as this
deer is related to the red deer of some parts of France and of Spain,
also of Sardinia and the Barbary States, the question naturally
arises whether the small ponies of those same regions, though
now known only as domestic animals, may not be proven to be
kindred to the Celtic horse. If the characteristics mentioned above
are present in any measure it would seem to prove the point.
Scientific research in this direction has not been pursued, and an
inviting field is open to any one who cares to follow this subject
further.

The second type of horse is the Prejevalsky, found in a wild state
on the steppes of central Asia. There are a few of these in England
on the estate of the Duke of Bedford, and several specimens are

1 The origin of the So-Called Atlantic Animals and Plants of Western Norway, by Leonhard
Stejneger. Report Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C., page 470.

85

\\
i

Fic. 1.—Exampire or ONE TYPE OF THE CELTIC Pony FAmIty.

r
be

Showing bars or stripes of dark color like the zebr:

BusH-Brown: Horst BREEDING 87

being bred in the New York Zoological Gardens. The Prejevalsky
horse is of a red brown color with a light ‘“‘mealy’’ nose, has a large
head in proportion to his body and is ‘‘cat hammed,”’ and less power-
ful than the Celtic horse. Some writers have assumed that the
Tarpan and the Prejevalsky horses belonged to the same family,
but this is not now accepted, on account of their marked differences,
the most conspicuous of which is that the Prejevalsky has the cal-
losities on his hind legs. In this family it usually takes the form of
a narrow strip and not drop-shaped as is common with other horses.

Prot, Henry
Fairfield Osborn
of the New York
Museum of Na-
tural History has
given an interest-
ing account of this
horse in a pamph-
let and compared
him with the
drawings on bone
of the cave dwel-
lers, the first
known picture of
the horse, and
their characteris-
tics seem identi-
cal.

Fig. 2.—Four-yYEAR-OLpD Norway Fyorp Horse.

Bred at the Nordfjord Stud, Barrytown, N. Y.; 14 hands; 850 lbs.; :
shows zebra-like bars on his legs and black stripe in mane. There has been

a suggestion that
this little horse, only twelve hands high, is the living example of
the original ancestor of the draft horses of Europe, but it seems
highly improbable, inasmuch as fossils of the draft type have been
found showing its great antiquity, and I am more inclined to believe
that these big types are a species by themselves. Therefore, I shall
so class them until there is more evidence to the contrary, and call
this family the third type. This horse is known to science as the
Forest horse because he originally obtained his food by browsing on
shrubs and low trees. This location of his food set his head at right
angles to his neck, which is in strong contrast with the Celtic and
also the Arab horse. The head of the Forest horse is long and nar-
row and the face is particularly long from the eyes to the nose. The

‘QUVUL S[Y UMOP YAVUL YOuT oFys]1opORvIVYO OY} SMOYS OFT
‘Sasodung MOHY YOd AVMUON NI GadOIgAGd ANOg oM1IGO—'¢g ‘DIA

Busu-Brown: Horse BREEDING 89

eyes are set well in the skull instead of projecting like those of the
Arab horse. These characteristics of the head are dominant, that
is, transmitted to the hybrid descendants. This phase of the sub-
ject I shall dwell on later.

The Arab or African horse forms the fourth type in our classifica-
tion. His food is the grasses that grow on the ground and his home

Fic. 4.—PREJEVALSKY Horse IN New YorK ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS.

has always been the open plains and hillsides remote from forest.
Therefore his head is articulated on his cervical vertebra at an obtuse
angle, thus forming ‘‘ Hogarth’s line of beauty.” This set of the head
has long been recognized by breeders as a constituent element of
beauty, but I think it has not before been explained in this way.

In the forearm of the Arab horse we find the ulna differently devel-
oped from that of the European or Forest horse, but this is of minor
consequence to breeders. The principal anatomical difference

Fia. 5.—MazemMoar Haro.p.
Champion Shire stallion, aged 7 years.

Frc. 6.—WyYDELAND’s STARLIGHT.
Champion Shire mare, aged 8 years.

BusH-Brown: Horse BREEDING 91

between these two families of horses is in the fact that the European
draft horse, like all other families of the horse, has six lumbar verte-
bree whereas the Arab horse has but five. This difference in their
structure seems to me one of great importance to horse breeders.
It probably explains why the Arab horse, which is small in size, is
capable nevertheless of carrying great weight and possesses such
marvelous endurance. The back is strong because it is short between
supports, which is an axiom of engineering in bridging. To what extent

uh CS Sea

Fic. 7—Baron’s VAUCHER.
Champion Clydesdale stallion, aged 6 years.

this endurance and the short back are transmitted to the hybrid
offspring of the Arab and the Forest horse has never been determined
by sufficient scientific research. So far as I have been able to
ascertain, all horses other than the Arab have six lumbar vertebre.
The Thoroughbred horse with 75 per cent or more of Arab blood
seems to have developed certain peculiarities in the lumbar vertebra,
judging from the two specimens it has been my privilege to study.
In that of Lexington in the National Museum at Washington there
seems to have been an effort on the part of nature to eliminate the
sixth vertebra to the extent that it is much reduced in size and the
spine inclines towards the tail like the sacral vertebrz instead of
toward the shoulders like the lumbar vertebrie. All sacral vertebrie

92 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

are coalesced together, but this sixth lumbar is not at all coalesced
with the sacral. Were it so, there would have been six instead of five
sacral vertebrae, which is normal. Thus nature, in an effort to elimi-
nate, reduced the size and gave it intermediate characteristics, partly
sacral and partly lumbar.

These same peculiarities of the sixth vertebra may be seen in the
skeleton of the rearing horse in the Museum of Natural History in

Fig. 8.— GEORGE.
Percheron.

New York, but unfortunately his pedigree has not been preserved,
so we can only assume that he was a Thoroughbred of high type.

In the case of Sysonby, another Thoroughbred, whose skeleton
is in the Museum of Natural History in New York, the sixth lumbar
vertebra is fully developed in size, but is thoroughly coalesced with
the fifth, making a double bone and thus greatly strengthening the
back at its weakest point. This is not uncommon in other horses.
It does not occur, however, in the two trotters I have examined.
Are these two animals merely individual freaks of nature or do they

Fic. 9.—SKELETON OF ARAB HORSE.
Articulation of head on cervical Vertebra and Hogarth’s line of beauty superimposed.

Fia. 10.—SKELETON OF ARAB HorRSE NIMB.

Showing five lumbar vertebrae, Museum of Natural History, New York.

94 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

appear in all or most Thoroughbreds? And had the structure of
Lexington’s back anything to do with making him the greatest
60-mile horse of the world? Or Sysonby’s with his noted perform-
ances?

The Thoroughbred horse is a product of breeding the Forest mare
to the Arab horse until only a small portion of the Forest type
remains, and if therefore the sixth lumbar vertebra always asserts
itself, it leads to the statement that under such conditions of breed-
ing, the sixth vertebra is a dominant quality. I have asked what the

Fig. 11.—LExineron.
Showing sixth lumbar vertebra of indeterminate character.

result is when the breeding is reversed, the mare being a pure Arab
with her five lumbar vertebree and the sire being some hybrid ofthe
Forest horse. This question has not yet received an answer. I made
one dissection of a foal of this breeding and found but five lumbar
vertebra; this dissection I have deposited, with its pedigree, in the
Museum of Natural History of New York. There are in the United
States half a dozen mares bred in this way from pure Arab dams and
trotting stallions.

It seems to me important that these mares should be carefully
bred, some to trotting sires and some to Arabs and the produce
compared. Finally when the produce die, their backs should be
dissected and if it be found that most of them have only five lumbar

BusH-Brown: Horst BREEDING 95

vertebre, then we may assume that the five-vertebre structure is
dominant when breeding hybrids from the dam of that type. We
know it to be recessive, that is the six are asserted, when breeding
hybrids by the use of the sire, as shown in Thoroughbreds examined.
I shall illustrate this point in another way from known facts.

Fie. 12.—Rearing Horse or UNKNOWN BREEDING.
Showing position of the sixth abortive vertebra, Museum of Natural History, New York.

When Professor Stejneger was travelling in western Norway he
made a special investigation as to what proportion of the horses in
common use had the callosities on their hind legs, and was not a little
surprised to find that they were so commonly without them and that

96 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

where present they were extremely small, that is, the horses were
relatively pure to the type of their Celtic pony ancestors.

The mixing with other types had of course gone on for centuries in
a moderate degree, and probably during the last half century has
been by use of sires of other types, yet the tendency has been in the
direction of a stronger influence of the dam, and when callosities were
present they were exceedingly small.

Now let us see what happens to the callosities when the ass, which
has none on the hind legs, is bred to the mare which is possessed of
them. The mule follows the female and nearly always has them.
Thus again does the dam have the greater control over the physical
characteristics, and callosities are dominant.

Shall we assume, then, that in breeding the pure Arab mare with
five lumbar vertebrae to the horse that has six that the produce is
more likely to follow the anatomy of the dam? Here is an oppor-
tunity to pursue an original line of research that will be productive
of very beneficial results to horse breeders. Certain it is we want to
breed for the best results and this is a line of investigation that if
pursued seriously on parallel lines for a number of years will demon-
strate a lot of things that we do not know at present.

The Arab breeders aways trace the pedigrees of their horses from
the dam, and being also careful of the quality of the sires, have main-
tained purity of type in their horses.

I believe that it will be acknowledged by all breeders in America
that those who give their greatest attention to the physical quality
of their brood mares have the most uniform and highest quality of
_ offspring. If it can be shown by following the line of anatomical
research indicated above that the dam has a preponderance of influ-
ence over the anatomy of the foal, a more careful selection of dams
will be adopted by breeders. 7

By following a system of registration that gives all prominence to
the sire we have been misled into believing that the sire is the all-
important consideration in breeding, and seriously uncertain have been
the results in following this method.

I am told on good authority that in horse breeding Mendel’s law
is applicable only when breeding is within the family, and that is
crossing species a new and unknown ratio of inheritance of character-
istics is established. This I shall leave to others to work out, but
before leaving the subject I should like to inquire of breeders what
becomes of the callosities when a hinny is produced by breeding the
stallion to the jennet. This has been done only occasionally, but

WENTWORTH: AGE FacToR IN REGISTER-OF-MERIT JERSEYS 97

by analogy I am prepared to find that the callosities are very rarely
transmitted to the offspring. Definite knowledge on the subject
. would certainly elucidate the argument.

Fig. 138.—SaLvator.
Imported Thoroughbred, showing Hogarth’s line of beauty in neck.

[continuation in next number]

THE AGE FACTOR IN REGISTER-OF-MERIT
JERSEYS

EK. N. WENTWORTH

Towa State College, Ames, Iowa

Some time ago, in connection with the various factors that influence
maturity in animals, the age of parents at time of conception came
under discussion. While there is little or no experimental evidence
with respect to animals, yet the common practices of plant breeders
in developing plants in more rigorous climates evoked the belief that
youth in either parent at time of conception might modify the matu-

AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

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AGE /N FEARS

Fic. 1.—AGE oF SIRE IN RELATION TO NUMBER OF DAUGHTERS.

WENTWORTH: AGE FacToR IN REGISTER-OF-MERIT JERSEYS 99

rity factor. With this idea in mind an examination of Jersey cows in
the Register of Merit with reference to their sire’s age was conducted
and the curve in Fig. 1 plotted.

The result, to say the least, was surprising. While many breeders
follow the practice of developing young bulls, yet it was surprising
to discover that such a large percentage of the animals of the breed
were the offspring of young animals. As can be plainly seen, 46.8
per cent of the animals were sired by bulls under three years of age,
or nearly half of the number studied. In explanation of this it

NUMELER OF LAUGHTERS
B

Fic. 2.—AGE OF SIRE IN RELATION TO NUMBER OF DAUGHTERS IN THE REGISTER OF MERIT.

has been said that breeders try a young bull and then sell him to men
that do not put their females in the Register of Merit. While this
may account for part it does not seem that all animals are thus
answered for.

In order to study the distribution more thoroughly a second curve
was plotted using a half year for the age unit rather than one year.
This curve shows that 16 per cent of the total sires of the breed are
from two years one month to two years six months old at time of
service; 10.3 per cent are from two years seven months to three years.
This is shown in curve, Fig. 2.

In order to compare the age of the sire with the age of his daughters
at the time these made their record (the only index for maturity and
that not absolutely satisfactory) a table was compiled which brought

100 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

to light an interesting fact. The average age of sires is four years and
six months and the average age of daughters at time of record is the
same. However, viewing this from the standpoint of the correla-
tion coefficient the relation between variations in age is only casual,
as a coefficient of 0.5269 is not high enough to suggest any marked
relation. One factor which may modify this and which perhaps if
omitted from figuring might produce a closer correspondence, is the
fact that a bull comes to service at a much younger age than a cow
comes to milking power. If these thirty-eight young bulls were left
out, a much larger coefficient could be established. Another peculiar
fact is that the modal age is the same, for both sire and daughter or,
in other words, the typical age, 2 -25 years, is the same both for service
and for record making.

10:0 10: 11:0 16 12:0 12:0

Fic. 3.—RELATION OF AGE OF SIRE TO PRODUCTION OF DAUGHTER.

The relation of age of sire to production of cow was tabulated, and
a higher coefficient of correlation +0.6647 was found. The curve
plotted from the table, however, shows very little of value, as only in
the center of the curve is there found a strong tendency to positive
correlation, a gradual increase in the curve (see fig. 3) in the younger
ages being more than offset by a decrease in highest ages.

Next in order a table was compiled in which the production of the
cows was all put on the same basis. Week records were discarded and
only the year records and the three months records at St. Louis were
considered. These latter were assumed to equal about two-fifths
of the year’s production, while the former were all put on a similar
basis (that of the mature cow) from the standpoint of age. For
example Brown Lassie’s Prize 192584 made a record of 325 pounds
8.8 ounces, beginning at two years and two months old. The
advanced registry requirement for that age is 250 pounds of butter-

WeEnNtTWorTH: AGE Factor IN REGISTER-OF-MERIT JERSEYS 101

fat in a year, while the requirement for a cow five years old or over
(mature) is 400 pounds of butterfat. This difference in requirement
is due to the increased capability of the cow as a producer when she
matures. Then a record of 325 pounds of fat at two years two months
is greater than the same record at five. To put these on a similar
basis, direct proportion by means of the standards fixed by the Ameri-
can Jersey Cattle Club were used. Under this condition 325 pounds
8.8 ounces of fat in the ‘under thirty months” form equals 500
pounds 13 ounces in the mature form. Putting all records on this
basis, the average production of all of the Jersey cows in the Register
of Merit is 526 pounds 8 ounces.

Table 1 shows some interesting figures derived from this work.
The sires have been divided equally into three groups, dividing the
range of age into thirds, rather than grouping into equal numbers of
sires. In only one case does the oldest group of sires lose anything
to the younger, in spite of the larger number of younger animals. In
average production the middle and younger sires have the advantage.
In number of performers above the average in each group, and in
relative early maturity of daughters, the younger and middle aged
sires must yield to the older; as compore 523 pounds7 ounces and 530
pounds 2 ounces with 513 pounds 15 ounces. In the case of maturity
this is directly opposite to our plant breeder’s experience. However,
the relatively small number of old sires introduces a greater probable
error, so great as to leave doubt in the mind as to the value of drawing
conclusions.

In the course of the work one or two interesting facts came to light
which are partial remuneration for the negative results of the pre-
ceding work. In the majority of cases there is a direct correlation
between the high lactation period of the cow and the merit of calf
which preceded this period. Presumably, however, this difference
lies in the superabundance of vital force the cow possessed at this
time and the energy thus transferred to the offspring.

Another fact which came out was the relatively large number of
bulls which seemed to sire most of their Register of Merit daughters
within one season. One can scarcely claim that the point needs
explanation other than the ordinary factors of buying, selling, adver-
tising, and the succession of a new bull as head of a herd of productive
cows; yet the point is worthy of note, as it may be that in our highly
artificially bred domestic cattle the greatest efficiency of reproduction
is a sadly limited period.

102 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

TaBLE 1.—Three age-groups of sires with average production and age of respec-
tive groups of daughters.

| Daughters.
[a = = a oe = aii nee ee Jat = 2©
Age of sire. N r
Number Per cent Average ee
pole above above individual ee Ae
anbeeeN ate average. average. production. c :
yrs.mo. yrs.mo. per cent | lbs. ozs. yrs. mos.
0: 00:6 3 0 0.00 471: 1 5 5
0: 7—1:0 9 4 44.44 | 532): 11 4: 2%
1: 1—1:6 26 10 38.46 546: 8 4 7
1: 7—2:0 27 15 5os0D EB RY RIO) 4 1
2: 1—2:6 54 21 38.88 519: 0 4 2.5
2: 7—3:0 31 9 29.03 | 507 : 1 4 i)
3: 1—3:6 26 8 30.77 509 : 14.4 4 4
3: 7—4:0 23 11 47.83 586: 15.5 | nce io ;
Average........- Raaaboceeanponc West Coe eee oh ey 39.2 523: 7 CO a (a: !
Probable errorss|sa- seen cees|eeeitele ocisien ere +).99 Ro amocder, ~ 2 ll. Sageteddo
ee — = = |= ——
4:1-4:6 | 23 11 47.83 BAD! “v4 |) Bene
CT i= SE! 15 5 33.33 503 : 10 4 2
Sis) T—5y 267 7 || 19 8 42.11 510: 14.5 4 8
5:7-6:0 | 16 9 56.25 560: 8 } 4 10
6. 1-6: 6 8 4 50.00 530: 3 i 4: 7.5
6: 7—7:0 8 5 62.50 549 : 7.5 Ds, LO
7317 3.6 12 3 25.00 505 : 5 re ee)
7: 7—8:0 6 4 66. 66 560 : 0 5 7 rs
IAW OTAg Op eck aclGane eee eal 45.80 530 : 2 4 6.3
Jacocooncadsaeabo |
Probableverrorss| secre: sees eee |e aha per doves ae alle obods j= Sesieteissetese
8: 1—8:6 7 i 28.57 514: 4.8 eg ke
8:7—-9:0 | 7 2 28.57 5022 4 5
9:1—9:6 | 2 1 54.00 499 : 15 3 8.5
9: 7—10:0 5 4 80.00 430: 4 4 4.6
10 : 1—10: 6 10 3 30.00 yl LR aPC 7/ 3 6.5
10: 7—11:0 7 5 71.43 592 : 38 poet |
11: 1—11:6 2 1 50.00 535): 12 3 2060S
11: 7—12:0 6 4 66.66 | 5223.3. 4 4.6
over 12: 1 1 0 00.00 412: 0 | e292 20
IN Sete aR Ome Reet Bi Rey A lie 47 46.8 Big: Isp" | Peewee
Probableverrors «oi |-:crris 01s sore setae iclcietel| stateivisssiaielsietel=' 61 aets +5.70 |
ROG Serereletese's 353 149 42.21 | Ssacoora ull | Goaoaue 50

Another interesting point lay in the relative influence in inheritance
between the bull and the cow in the production of sons capable of
siring Register of Merit daughters. Without transposing the records
to the basis of the above work, a coefficient between the sire and son
of 0.821 existed, while the transposed records gave a relationship of
0.862. Taking the latter relationship with the cow the coefficient
0.727 was derived. This would show a slightly stronger influence
for the bull, but as the number of cases was smaller with the cows the

CoLutIns: YIELD AS BAsiIs OF CoRN PRIZES 103

probable error would be enough larger to nearly neutralize this differ-
ence. This should set at rest the minds of many dairymen who
believe that a dairy bull from a high performing cow is of more value
as a sire than a bull whose daughters have proven worthy of registry.
It furthermore brings a closer harmony with the theory of the equal
potency of parents, something which practical men have hesitated
to accept.

In conelusion it may be said that deductions from this work are
practically impossible. While the introductory curves are somewhat
surprising, a detailed study fails to show a strong correlation between
any age of sire and maturity or production of the offspring. The
premises may not be correctly taken, but it seems to the writer they
are nearly enough so, to assure him of the lack of age as a factor in the
conditions studied.

YIELD TESTS AS A BASIS OF AWARDING
PRIZES AT CORN SHOWS

G. N. Coiiins
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

The corn show has without doubt been an important factor in the
development of interest in our principal crop. Competition isa
powerful incentive, and encourages attention to details and minor
differences that would be overlooked without this stimulus. In
fostering competition, however, care should be taken that the competi-
tion is making in the direction of real improvement.

The avowed object in awarding prizes in corn contests is to give
credit to the best exhibit of corn, that is, the exhibit of corn which it
would be most profitable to grow! a worthy object which it would seem
should eliminate from a score card any character not correlated with
high performance.

At the time that score card methods were applied to corn judging,
almost nothing was known regarding those characters of the ear
which are associated with high yield. In the absence of experimental
data the choice of points would seem to have been based on the idea
that the size of the cob was fixed and the best ear was the one that
approached the nearest to the maximum amount of grain that could

1See Bowman and Crossley, Corn, p. 406, and Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station Circulars
Nos. 43, 61, etc.

104. AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

be placed on the cob. Hence the straight rows, the cylindrical ear,
the wedge-shaped grain, the rounded butt and tip, and the recapitula-
tion of all these in the per cent of grain to cob. In only a few cases
have the values of these characters been put to the test, but what
evidence there is seems to indicate that most of the score card charac-
ters have nothing whatever to do with yield and some of them seem to
be actually correlated with low yields, instead of high yields.

Competitive corn shows simply adopted methods already in use
with live stock, fruit, flower, and vegetable exhibitions. With these
products appearance is closely associated with market value, while in
corn appearance is of little importance, a fact which made the older
methods more or less inapplicable. ,

A further distinction between corn and most of the earlier classes of
exhibits is the fact that corn isan annual. With live stock and peren-
nial plants, though conformity to a score card may not indicate a high
degree of commercial superiority, there is at least the satisfaction of
having a beautiful and relatively perfect animal that continues to be
a pleasure year after year. But with corn the pleasure derived from
the production of prize-winning ears is very short-lived, unless they
are kept as decorations or mementos of victory.

The repeated demonstration that the characters used as the basis
of scoring stand in no definite relation to performance has caused a
widespread reaction against the present method of awarding prizes.
In recent years the attempt has been made to meet the difficulty by
awarding prizes for the largest yield per acre, but this is not proving
satisfactory. Profit and not yield per acre is the object of the farmer.
The premium in such cases might with equal propriety be awarded for
the best fertilizer or the most productive land. In a few cases prizes
have been offered for the greatest net return per acre, but the oppor-
tunities for deception are so tempting and the difficulties of securing
accurate data are so great, that competitions of this kind are not
likely to become popular. Furthermore, profit per acre does not
center the attention on the improvement of the corn, and while
increased profits are desirable, such an exhibit should be called a
competition in farm management and not a corn show, the object
of which is the improvement of corn varieties.

The real difficulty would seem to lie in the attempt to combine the
awarding of prizes to handsome ears and high yielding ears at the
same time. Confusion and dissatisfaction will continue until the two
objects are recognized as distinct and prizes are awarded accordingly.

Couuins: YIELD AS Basis oF Corn PRIZES 105

There would seem to be no reason why there should not be corn
fanciers as well an fanciers of live stock, but let us not confuse the
appearance of the ear with its value asseed. If the judging of corn on
the appearance of the ear can once be separated from the attempt to
recognize its value as seed, the score card can be freed from such vague
and meaningless terms as ‘‘breediness” and ‘‘constitution,”’ and the
judging can be based on definite characters capable of accurate appli-
cation.

To secure the full advantages of competition in the improvement of
corn varieties, it will be necessary to provide a class, in which a pre-
mium is awarded to the exhibit, capable of producing the largest amount
of marketable corn under given conditions.

A suggestion that premiums be awarded for high-yielding strains
of corn has been made by Mr. D. A. Saunders, special agent of the
Department of Agriculture in Texas. It seems to obviate most of
the objections to present systems, and while retaining the advantages
of competition would cause it to bear directly on the improvement of
corn varieties. ‘The method is certainly worthy of careful considera-
tion by corn growers’ associations and other organizations interested
in the improvement of corn.

One way to utilize this suggestion is that the corn growers’ associa-
tion, or whatever organization is managing the competition, arrange
with the state experiment station or nearest branch station to plant
seed from each of the entries in a comparative yield test, the award
to be made to the exhibit producing the highest yield. The exhibits
would need to be submitted in the spring in time for planting and
should consist of ten ears. One-half the number could be taken at
random, the seed shelled and thoroughly mixed before planting.

The test could be made by planting a single row from each lot
and repeating the series three or four times, a method that is proving
more satisfactory than that of planting in plats. In this way the
area required for testing the exhibits of an entire show would not be
large. With rows 100 feet in length and repeating the series four times
at least twenty-five exhibits could be tested on an acre.

The date of harvesting could be announced and the exhibitors and
all others interested could be invited to attend when the corn is har-
vested. The general appearance of the crop as well as the characters
of the plants could then be observed.

The corn should then be stored and the final weighing made at the
time of holding the show. This would take place at the usual time,

106 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

when the corn would all be air-dry and the yields comparable. The
five ears remaining of each of the original entries could then be placed
on exhibition, with a statement of the yield.

The educational value of an exhibit of this kind would be much
greater than that of the conventional form. The grower would have
the opportunity to see exactly how his corn had behaved in comparison
with other varieties. Significant characteristics of the high-yielding
strains would be apparent and readily brought home to the actual
breeders and growers.

Objection might be raised on the ground that a test made at one
place can not do justice to all the exhibits, some of which may have
been bred on soil of a different type, or that the planting distance
chosen for the yield test is not the best for all the varieties contesting.
The same objections apply to all yield tests, yet a yield test is the only
method at present available for determining the relative values of
different varieties and for measuring the results of breeding. As a
criterion for awarding prizes the injustice is certainly less than the
present system of score card ratings. The yield test shows that
the exhibit awarded first place is really superior to its competitors
under at least one set of conditions, while conformity to the arbitrary
standard of a score card bears no relation to the performance of the
strain under any conditions.

Experiment stations would doubtless weleome the opportunity of
making these tests for corn exhibitions, since it affords an excellent
means of bringing the farmer and breeder into close touch with the
work of the station. If the station has an improved or new variety
of corn which it desires to introduce into general use it could be
included in the series tested. Though not entered for a premium,
any variety that possessed real merit would have attention called to
it in a most effective way.

Local associations whose exhibitions are held at places where no sta-
tion or substation is available for growing the exhibits should have
little difficulty in securing the use of sufficient land for the test from
private individuals. In such cases it would be necessary that the
planting, harvesting, and weighing be done by representatives of the
association. The corn, as soon as the yields were determined, could
revert to the farmer in return for the use of the land.

REPORT ON THE ORGANIZATION AND THE
FIRST EIGHT MONTHS’ WORK OF THE
EUGENICS RECORD OFFICE

H. H. LavGHuin
Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y.

The Eugenics Record Office began work at Cold Spring Harbor,
Long Island, on the first of October, 1910. Preparatory to this, how-
ever, Dr. Davenport and the writer had trained a class of twelve
persons for the duties of field workers. Among other things the
work included instruction in the principles of heredity, the distinc-
tion between worthless and telling records, and the practical methods
of gathering significant data at first hand in the field. The work was
novel in the history of training field workers, in that they were trained
for the purpose of observing keenly and reporting accurately the facts
concerning the family distribution of specific biological traits in human
families. This was done because it is now generally recognized that
the rapid advance in discovering the laws governing the inheritance of
mental and physical traits is due to two things: First, the modern
field method of getting at the inheritance distribution of biological
facts, and, second, the modern analytical study of these facts, fitting
them to the presence-and-absence hypothesis and to the Mendelian
principles.

Six of these field workers were retained in the service of the Record
Office, as follows:

Miss Florence H. Danielson was assigned to the collection of pedi-
grees of epileptic families in Massachusetts and Connecticut, under the
immediate supervision of Dr. Everitt Flood at Palmer, Mass. Up to
the present time she has sent the office 95 pages of charted pedigrees
and 286 pages of descriptions. Her work is of special interest in that
the families studied are closely related, thus furnishing many samples
of a single germ plasm. It is from just such extended pedigrees that
the laws of heredity are best ascertained.

Miss Saidee C. Devitt was assigned the duty of working up the
pedigrees of epileptic families in New Jersey under the direction of
Dr. David B. Weeks of the Skillman School for Epileptics. Miss
Devitt has sent in 50 pages of pedigrees and 128 of descriptions.

Mrs. Mary Drange-Graebe was assigned to the study of the trans-
mission of criminal traits, under the immediate care of Dr. Wiliam
Healy of the Chicago Psychopathic Institute. After four months’
work there she began her present assignment—the study of the Ish-

107

108 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

mael Tribe in and about Indianapolis, Ind. This tribe of vagabonds
came up from Kentucky into Indiana just a little in advance of the
more settled conditions. A generation ago, Dr. Oscar McCulloch,
assisted by Mrs. Kate Parker and a Mr. J. F. Wright, began the study
of this tribe in Just such a manner as the field workers of today are
following; the work, however, was too advanced for the times. Dr.
MeCulloch died and Mrs. Parker found it impossible to continue the
work. The original notes were mostly destroyed, a single large
volume of pedigrees remaining. This volume Mrs. Parker has turned
over to the Record Office, and now Mrs. Graebe will take up the work
where it was dropped a generation ago. Up to the present time Mrs.
Graebe has sent in 77 pages of pedigrees and 873 pages of descrip-
tions. The traveling expenses for this work are paid for by Mr. W. E.
D. Stokes.

Miss Amey B. Eaton, working directly from the Record Office,
was assigned to the study of the Amish Sect of Lancaster County,
Penn. In this small sect considerable intermarriage has occurred.
These people kindly coéperated in our efforts to learn whether, and
if so to what extent, these consanguineous marriages had resulted in
defective offspring. In her second assignment Miss Eaton catalogued
genealogies in the New York Public Library with a view to locating
those that record the transmission of specific mental and physical traits.
The thing made apparent by this study as far as it has progressed is,
that, in the hundreds of genealogies published, there is too little
material of use to the eugenist. It may be that at some future time
it will become fashionable for genealogies to give in detail a statement
of inheritable traits in addition to the names and dates of marriages,
births and deaths and the family traditions. Her next assignment
was the making of a bibliography of the literature on Huntington’s
Chorea. Miss Eaton has sent to the office 293 pages of pedigrees and
731 pages of descriptions. At present she is assigned to the duties of
editorial secretary at the Record Office.

Dr. A. H. Estabrook was first assigned to western Massachusetts and
Connecticut to collect pedigrees of albino families. His second assign-
ment was the study of the factors of heredity contributing to criminal
insanity; he was attached to the Matteawan State Asylum at Mattea-
wan, N. Y. He is now working on his third assignment—the study of
degenerates in the isolated valleys around the upper Hudson. He has
reported the discovery there of a large family with much intermarriage
that promises to be as interesting as the ‘“‘Juke ’’or the “Zero” family.
Dr. Estabrook has sent to the office 35 pages of pedigrees and 168
pages of descriptions.

LAUGHLIN. WorK oF EUGENICS RECORD OFFICE 109

Miss Helen T. Reeves was assiged to the study of feeble-mindedness
in New Jersey under the direction of Dr. H. H. Goddard and was later
transferred to the same problem under the direction of Dr. Hallowell
of the New Jersey State Home for Feeble-minded Women. At
present she is working on an extended network that promises to be
very significant: she has sent to the office 76 pages of pedigrees and
84 pages of descriptions.

A tabulation of the field expenses, exclusive of salary and fifteen
days’ maintenance at the institution from which they work, shows that
the average field expense of the work is $54.

In addition to the twelve persons trained during the summer of
1910 for positions as field workers, four others have since received the
same training: Miss Moore, sometimes archivist of the Record Office,
Miss Sturges, Miss Jones, and Miss Orr. Three of these have received
appointments with different institutions. Our own six field workers
were selected from the twelve above mentioned. These field workers
make a daily report as to their present addresses, their addresses
three days hence, their work of the day and their outlook for the next
day, and they also send the office a general monthly prospect. Their
pedigree charts and descriptive notes are sent to the office for criticism
from time to time, and filed at the office upon completion of the record
of a single family or tribe. Specially ruled note books with alter-
nating white and yellow sheets—the white detachable—were prepared
for the field workers’ use, and also note books for written descriptions,
similarly bound, were prepared.

Preparatory to a study that it is planned to make in collaboration
with Dr. S. E. Jelliffe of the immigration sources, the migration r. utes,
and the specific behavior in heredity of Huntington’s Chorea, this
office has collected through the collaboration of the various hospitals
of the country, pedigree records of 80 families suffering from this
disease.

The Record Office has addressed letters to all of the heads of all
institutions in the United States concerned with abnormal individuals,
inquiring to what extent modern field work is being carried on and to
what extent collaboration and exchange of data with the Record Office
is feasible and desirable. The replies have been of a most gratifying
nature, as the heads of the institutions generally recognize that the
time is ripe for a concerted study looking to the discovery of the causes
of defects and the circumscribing of the affected germ plasm. The
need of a clearing house is made apparent by the fact that from time
to time the pedigrees begun by eastern investigators come to an abrupt

110 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

end by simply stating that the family moved to such and such a
western Stete at such and such a time. Those in charge of the west-
ern institutions, while taking more than average interest in the move-
ment, realize that in their country, because newly settled, the tabu-
lation of extended pedigrees is usually impossible; they feel that
pedigrees begun by their investigators will end before progressing very
far by simply recording: “ Further history unobtainable, family came
from such and such an eastern place at such and such a time.”

The work of the Record Office is not confined to the study of abnor-
mal traits, interesting as these may be in throwing light on the princi-
ples of heredity and in discovering the laws that will lead to the pre-
vention of the production of defective persons, but it also includes the
study of men of genius and to this end a schedule has been prepared,
which will be sent to any persons in the United States who have
developed special talents in some direction and who care to codper-
ate in the investigation to the extent of supplying their own biological
history.

The Record Office has begun a cross-reference index of the names,
traits, and localities included in all the data received. It is believed
that this index will be useful in tying together fragmentary pedigrees
and in tracing back to the earliest ancestor significant hereditary
traits. The office is now prepared to index any material, no matter
how fragmentary or how extensive, concerning the transmission of
biological traits in man; and it seeks to become the depository of such
material.

The heads of the State institutions in New Jersey, New York,
Massachusetts, Connecticut, Wisconsin, Michigan and _ Illinois
(in so far as they are not now making investigations in heredity) have
by their replies indicated that conditions in these States are such as to
warrant the employment of field workers in the near future. Other
States, while looking with favor on the movement and desiring to
codperate, feel that the time is not quite ripe for application to the
legislatures for the necessary funds.

Provisions have just been made for the publication of the Eugenics
Record Office Bulletin, which will consist of brief papers by investiga-
tors in eugenics and will for the most part be based on facts gathered
in the modern way by the field workers of and collaborators with the
Record Office. Bulletin No. 1: Heredity of Feeble-mindedness, by
Dr. H. H. Goodard, was issued in March, and Bulletin No. 2, The
Study of Human Heredity, methods of collecting, charting and
analyzing data, by C. B. Davenport, H. H. Laughlin, David F.

LAUGHLIN: WorK oF EuGEeNics RrEcorD OFFICE 111

Weeks, E. R. Johnstone and Henry H. Goodard, was issued in June.
Bulletin No.3, by Gertrude L. Cannon and A. T. Rosanoff is entitled:
Preliminary Report of a Study of the Heredity of Insanity in the
light of Mendelian laws. It is the intention to use these bulletins, to
show the heads of institutions, boards of control, private investigators,
genealogists, and legislative authorities just what can be done and is
being done by the modern methods of investigation. It is hoped to
arouse the conviction that data, adequate to the deduction of the
laws of inheritance, and studies preliminary to wise legislation looking
to the prevention of the production of defectives, can be got only by
sending trained field workers into the home territories of the families
studied, and to bring it about that the board of control of each State
institution shall maintain one or more such workers on its staff.
The movement is progressing very satisfactorily indeed.

The ‘‘Family Records” and ‘‘ Record of Family Traits’ schedules
are being distributed to persons who will undertake to fill them out and
deposit them at this office. Over 7000 of these have been placed with
genealogists, teachers of biology, and other interested persons most
able and likely to fill them out. Forms calling for data on the inher-
itance of factors contributing to mathematical ability have been pre-
pared and are now being distributed; the principal collaborator in
this work is Prof. H. Clay Harvey. Also forms of the same nature
but somewhat more detailed have been prepared for the study of the
inheritance of musical ability. The factors most likely to be contribu-
tory to the contraction of tuberculosis have been charted, and sched-
ules calling for the family history of these particulars have been
printed; about 2000 of them have already been placed. Dr. A. E.
Kepford, the State Tuberculosis Lecturer of Iowa, is actively collabor-
ating in this work, and favorable replies have been received from
State sanitaria and private persons looking to the collection of authen-
tic pedigrees that will enable careful study to be made of the behavior
of hereditary resistance and non-resistance to this disease.

Correspondence, seeking to locate the original notes of the late
R. L. Dugdale—which notes he made while gathering data as a basis
for his book on the ‘‘Jukes’’—has been carried on. After hearing
from all his executors and from all associates in his work that are still
living, we are convinced that his manuscript was destroyed upon the
death of his sister in 1884. However, the original prison records
exist and the Record Office will shortly take up the work where
Dugdale left off. It is known, that many other Juke-like families
exist, and our field workers’ reports assure us that many such pedi-

112 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

grees can be worked out. The work of Dugdale on the ‘“Jukes,”’
like the work of McCulloch on the ‘‘Ishmaels,” was a generation
ahead of its time.

The purpose of the Record Office is the collection of data adequate
to the determination of the laws of inheritance; to be a clearing house
in matters pertaining to human heredity; to aid in the extension of the
knowledge of the laws of inheritance as these laws are discovered from
time to time, to the end that the propagation of defectives may be
stopped and the more talented strains may be measurably increased.
The work of the first months has consisted in organizing and directing
a small field force, trained according to the new ideals; in working
out an indexing system making all data possessed by the office
instantly accessible; in ascertaining the attitude of institutions and
interested persons toward the new investigations and the feasibility
of codperation; and in securing pedigree records of specific mental and
physical traits.

The office is situated about three-quarters of a mile from the Station
for Experimental Evolution (a department of the Carnegie Institu-
tion of Washington) on the State Road leading from Cold Spring
Harbor to Syosset, a station on the Long Island Railroad about two
and one-half miles distant; the office is about equally distant from
Oyster Bay. The main room is 17 feet by 38 feet and a fireproof
concrete and steel record room, 14 feet by 17 feet, adjoining the office,
is just being completed. Files and indexing material are being sup-
plied as rapidly as needed and an adequate office force is maintained,

THE INHERITANCE OF LEFT-HANDEDNESS

[CONTINUED FROM First CUARTER]

Fig. 3. Here the childship shows a majority of affected persons.*
The female is ambidextrous. This family has taken an_ intelli-
gent interest in the appearance of this variation among the children.
The mother assures me that she was never able to learn of any case
of left-handedness either in her ancestry or that of her husband.
The variation here seems to have arisen spontaneously and in more
than half the children.

Fig. 4

Fig. 4. This family history indicates that brother and sister were
carriers of a latent factor of left-handedness, which characteristic
became patent in their children. A Mendelian interpretation here
demands that both parents in the two families concerned should

3 The following symbcls are used in the heredity charts: CT] male, "ight-handed; O female,

right-handed; eB male, left-handed; ae female, left-handed; el male, ambidextrous;

=) female, ambidextrous; — sex unknown, right handed; > sex unknown, left-handed

113

114 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

have been heterozygous with respect to the factors that determine
preference for use of one or the other hand. Possibly many so-called
right-handed individuals are heterozygous in regard to these factors.

Fig. 5

Fig. 5. Here again two individuals (females in this case) appear
to have acted as carriers of a factor transmitted from the father and
through them to their children. If we assume here, as we must on a
Mendelian stand, that the mother was homozygous with respect to
the left-handed character and the father either homo- or heterozy-
gous with respect to the other member of the assumed pair of alle-
lomorphs, the absence of left-handedness in the second generation is
disconcerting but not necessarily subversive of the Mendelian scheme.
Assuming again that both parents of the two third-generation child-
ships are heterozygous, the appearance of a left-handed child in each
meets a reasonable Mendelian expectation.

As an example of the range of data gathered in every case where
possible, the following account of the male of the smaller childship
will suffice: Throws ball with left hand; kicks football with left foot;
uses knife and fork as do right-handed persons, but holds spoon
in the left hand; writes with right hand (though he began to use left,
but was forced to change to right by teachers in lower grades of school) ;
shoots gun from left shoulder; shoots marbles with left hand; bats ball
from right side of plate; holds drinking glass with right hand; holds
pencil on left ear; plays tennis with left hand; starts on running track
with right foot at line.

Many other cases simply parallel this one with unimportant vari-
ations. The point to be emphasized here is a condition of general
left-sidedness (especially left-leggedness, contrary to Sibley’s equi-
librium theory) coincident with left-handedness.

Fig. 6. The affected individual here is a professor who has taken
a deep interest in his own condition and that of his daughter (both
inveterately left-handed) and has made a scientific study of the ances-
try of himself and wife. He assures me that for three generations

JORDAN: INHERITANCE OF LEFr-HANDEDNESS Ls

Fia. 6

back on his side and two generations back in his wife’s ancestry no
left-handedness has anywhere appeared. Here again seems to be a
real case of a mutation (spontaneous variation) which again appeared
in one of the two offspring.

>

Fig. 7

Fig. 7. This case is interesting in that half the childship (the two
halves of opposite sex)’ of apparently unaffected parents are left-
handed. The family explains the case by the fact that the boys had
a left-handed nurse, the girls a different nurse.

Thus far, then, we seem to have discovered the influence of at least
three factors in the production of left-handed individuals (the con-
dition being probably of at least three degrees or grades of intensity):
(1) heredity; (2) spontaneous variation; (3) imitation. More will
be said of these three types below.

Fia, 8

Fig. 8. This pedigree shows direct transmission through three
generations.

4Tn each of four other childships (comprising a total of 11 girls and 8 boys), which have since
come to my notice, the lett-handed individuals are all of the same sex (three females each in three
cases).

116 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

Fie. 9

Fig. 9. This shows the prevalence of left-handedness in a particu-
lar family to the extent of approximately half the childship. Having
recognized a factor of imitation, the argument might be made that
the prevalence of left-handedness in certain families is due to the opera-
tion of this factor exclusive of heredity. I am convinced that this is
not a valid argument. Families (at least of whites) where left-
handedness has appeared make very vigorous efforts to repress a
similar tendency in new members.

Fie. 10

Fig. 10. This case is teresting from the fact that the childship
here is a pair of identical twins. Such twins (the result most prob-
ably of an independent development of each blastomere of the two-
cell stage) may be partially ‘mirror images’ of each other, as appears
here to be the case regarding the use of the hand and possibly its
anatomical basis. However, an attempt to verify this hypothesis
has failed. Four other pairs of ‘identical twins (so adjudged on
grounds of superficial similarity) are now known to me in all of which
both members are right-handed.

Fie. 11

JORDAN: INHERITANCE OF LEFT-HANDEDNESS 117

Fig. 11. This case is most important in that the variation in ques-
tion is very general. Three months ago I knew oaly the history up
to the last generation represented. The child of this generation was
too young to have shown any decided tendency one way or the other.
Judging from the family histories, one would expect the mother to
be homozygous and the father to be heterozygous (imperfect domin-
ant). If this were so at least half of the children of the family
should be left-handed. I have just received a letter from the father
stating that the child is ‘‘decidedly left-handed.’ This case alone,
I believe, justifies this limited collection of data. Families like
this one, if fully recorded at some central office and followed during
future years, may yield important information regarding the heredi-
tary transmission of human characteristics in general.

U U U

Fie. 12

Fig. 12. This case is interesting again in that the childship of
six 1s equally divided between affected and unaffected individuals.

Fie. 13

Fig. 13. The history of this case was kindly supplied to me by Dr.
W. Thalhimer (instructor in pathology). It gives additional proof
for the hypothesis that in left-handed ‘individuals the controlling
center is located in the right hemisphere (instead of the left as in right-
handed persons).

In 1861 M. Broca definitely assigned the posterior part of the
third frontal convolution of the left hemisphere as the seat of
articulate speech. Accordingly ataxic aphasia ordinarily occurs in
association with right-handed hemiplegia. This case shows that in
a left-handed individual the reverse condition obtains. In brief,

118 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

this man (he has two left-handed children) developed a complete
left-sided hemiplegia coincident with a complete motor aphasia. Dr.
Thalhimer’s notes are in part as follows: ‘The correlation of left
hemiplegia —indicating a right-sided cerebral lesion and aphasia—
suggested a contralateral displacement of Broca’s motor speech
area, and this suggested a contralateral displacement of normal right-
sided functions, and it was immediately discovered on questioning
the patient’s family that he was and always had been left-handed.”

ao

Fic. 14 Fie. 15 Fie. 16

Fig. 14, 15, and 16 again show a carrier in the second generation

given.

Fia. 20

Fia. 18

Fie. 19 ; Fre. 21

Figs. 17, 18, 19, 20, and 21 again show direct transmission.

JORDAN: INHERITANCE OF LErr-HANDEDNESS 119

U
Fie. 22

Fig. 22 seems to show the influence of a great-grandmother car-
ried “latent” in the direct line through two intermediate generations.

Fia. 23

Fig. 23 shows transmission of this character through four suc-
cessive generations, the last represented by an only son.

Fic. 24

Fig. 24 (colored) is interesting as a case where a left-handed mother
and a right-handed father have four left-handed children in a family
of six. This is the “John” family discussed in the Davenports’ arti-
cle on “Heredity of the Skin Pigmentation in Man.”

120 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE
STATEMENTS OF RESULTS

Among the left-handed university students, six (all inveterate)
said they were the only persons so affected among all their connec-
tions. This testimony together with cases Nos. 9 and 4 leaves no
doubt, I believe, that left-handedness often arises spontaneously.
Case No. 9 again shows that such mutation or variation is hereditary.

Tabulating the childships of four or more individuals, the propor-
tion of left-handedness to right-handedness is as 1:13.

|

| |
| |
CasE No. | @ ee | O CT) | |
68 8 ees
fig SL he ee Oe ee a —— abe)
2 = 1 1 j! A ie 0
3. = 2 2 shi wale Bore on een ee eee
5 a 1 ne eM) Bee eR chal oaraniads Jar
tite — 2 Ed RRR oe aA GEC Sass) bb GoanGoos ACs
1 1 1 1
2 hess 1 2 It
11 = 2 2 10 AE eos eee
ey — 3 ; 3
13 — 2 3.) bree aot oes |S eee

°

os
fo

—
rs
as
)

=
a
—
we
[o)

19 o7

The ratio of 16 left-handed students to a total body of 700 is about
2% per cent.

Among the white pupils of the public school the proportion of left-
handed to right-handed in affected families is as 39 to 79 or as 1
to 2... There is no evidence to support the opinion of some (e.g.,
Weber) that left-handedness is more prevalent among women.
The proportion of affected males to females is as 1 to 1. This school
is represeated by 604 males and 794 females (1,394). Thirty left-
handed pupils here represent a ratio of about 2§ per cent, agreeing
with the ratio for university students and Hyrtl’s result for Euro-
pean peoples in general.

Summarizing the foregoing 49° white families in terms of heredity,
we find the following modes of ‘‘transmission” represented in the
frequency indicated:

5Including three families besides those of university students (16) and
public school pupils (30).

JORDAN: INHERITANCE OF LEFT-HANDEDNESS 1 by Ai |

Number of Case

1. From grandmother to granddaughter.........:........-. 1
Dae romeTan gm ocnen tO, gTaAndsoneee seer eee ee eee 4
Ss Prom grandfather to granddaughter. ...))...3.<...:....55 3
1 rome srandiather tO GTanGgson..... 52.8 4.0 sarees ira da Lees 1
Deeenrommother todaughter..-o5-e coer ees ere eee 3
GePLEEOM FN OLUAEL-bONSONS acerca eee te ae Oe no aes 4
Meamirornaar Cher FO CaUghter, :c/s.tisi. ade ogneke wee eevee 2
SaEUL OMe h Cr sbORSOM says okt. recede me Raye eae oes 7

The following is a summary of the chief facts gathered from 29
colored childships: (a) In 5 cases either an uncle or an aunt is
left-handed; (b) in 7 cases one parent is left-handed; (c) in 17 cases
neither parent is left-handed; (d) proportion of left-handed individ-
uals to right-handed is as 29 to 25; (e) the 29 school children included
15 males and 14 females; including the whole childship the propor-
tion of affected males to affected females is as 17 to 18; including par-
ents, uncles and aunts the proportion is 21 to 25; (f) the colored
pupils included 287 males and 381 females (668); the 29 left handed
pupils thus represent 43% per cent.

In the three sets of data the proportion of left-handed males to left-
handed females is approximately equal. The proportion of left-
handed colored children to right-handed (29 to 25) as shown in the
above colored childships is probably not absolutely correct. It
agrees well, however, with the high percentage (43) of left-handed
children when the entire school population is taken into account.
I believe there is no escaping the conclusion that left-handedness is
at least twice as frequent among colored as among white families.
The less active repressive efforts counteracting the factor of imita-
tion may probably be responsible for the high percentage among
colored children. As explaining the above high ratio of left-handed-
ness to right-handedness (29 to 25), I wish to emphazise the fact
that among the 29 childships there are 7 cases of an only child, and
this is left-handed (in 10 cases the entire childship was not given).
This fact indicates either great infant mortality or a low birth rate.
In fact, from what I have seen, I should say that both conditions
more generally prevail; the second, contrary to the usual opinion,
more especially.

It remains to explain briefly the method employed in collecting
the facts regarding the pupils of the public school. The following
questionaire was prepared and given to each teacher:

Determine the number of left-handed children in the Charlottesville city

schools, and the degree of left-handedness in each case; i.e., what do left-
handed children do with left hand and what with right hand.

122 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

Obtain answers to the following questions:

Which foot is used in kicking?

On which side is hair parted?

Which eye is stronger?

Comparative degree of intellectual capacity.

Which hand is preferentially used for gestures?

Which-of the parents is left-handed?

Who among grandparents is left-handed?

How many children in family? And how many are left-handed in any
degree? Give sex of each.

Who among the brothers and sisters of the parents of left-handed indi-
viduals are left handed?

10. State additional matters of interest, and give total enrollment in school.

BOSS eC Se

bad

In the great majority of cases the left foot was used for kicking.

The returns regarding strength of eye showed an apparent equality
respecting the number of right-eyed and left-eyed pupils. The sim-
ple nature of the tests employed, however, may render this result of
doubtful value.

_As regards the intellectual capacity of left-handed compared with
right-handed pupils no significant difference could be deduced from
the report.

I wish here to acknowledge my great indebtedness and to express
sincere thanks to the teachers of the city schools and especially to
the superintendent, Prof. J. G. Johnson, Ph.D., for the painstak-
ing, thorough, and conscientious manner in which the investigations
were conducted. Without this kindly coéperation the work would
have been practically impossible.

INTERPRETATION AND CONCLUSION

The above detailed evidence is conclusive I. believe, that left-
handedness is hereditary. In what way or by what principle this
inheritance acts remains obscure. From the 22 more complete pedi-
grees (of the 78 families studied), 6 childships (Nos. 2, 38, 9,11, 12,
and 24) can be selected of four or more individuals where the propor-
tion of left-handed to right-handed individuals is approximately
equal (7.e., one less or one more than half in childships of more than
four individuals). Tabulating these, the result shows an equal num-
ber of right-handed and left-handed individuals. The significance
of this proportion lies in the fact that it need not necessarily have
been even, 7.¢e., the more than half need not necessarily have coun-
terbalanced the less than half of the childships. This ratio (not as
significant as desirable because selected) suggests the Mendelian

JORDAN: INHERITANCE OF LEFT-HANDEDNESS 123

ratio of the formula above, or the condition that obtains by cross-
ing a heterozygote (RZ) with a homozygote recessive (LL). The
writer does not however delude himself—nor does he wish to leave
the impression of attempting to mislead his readers in this matter—
that left-handedness even appears (on the basis of the limited data
presented) to follow Mendalian principles of inheritance. The sole
step of prime importance he insists on at present is that the pheno-
menon of left-handedness is hereditary in some way.

The writer hopes that the inconclusiveness of this contribution on
important points may be pardoned by reason of the preliminary
character of the work; moreover, that the effort was justified because
of the promise revealed, and the problems suggested in this field.

Superficially considered, it seems a far cry from the inheritance of
coat-color to that of such a subtle characteristic as left-handedness.
The gap here is perhaps only as wide as between this characteristic
and such apparently still more subtle characteristics as virtue, jus-
tice, temperance, integrity, thrift, sagacity, ete—characteristics of
prime significance for the future trend of human history—and if
the former gap can be bridged by hereditary formulz, as seems pos-
sible, why not the latter? Once the principles which govern the
transmission of these highly desirable human qualities are known,
their “fixation” in continually increasing numbers of individuals
seems a comparatively easy problem.

Facts regarding the conduct of the variation of left-handedness
in heredity may reveal valuable information for the science of
eugenics.

Again, if a characteristic like left-handedness rests upon an anatom-
ical variation (a hypothesis well supported by various facts) perhaps
many other characteristics have a similar basis and are amenable to
experimental methods of research and simple methods of control.
The study of left-handedness also finally shows (on Mendelian assump-
tions) the phenomenon of the “imperfection of dominance,” as
revealed in numerous cases of congenital and acquired ambidexter-
ity. Moreover, the apparent imperfect dominance would here seem
to be due proximately to a more or less complete structural and func-
tional symmetry of the cerebral hemispheres.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AvupeEnino, E. 1907. L’homme droit, homme gauche et l'homme ambi-
dextre. Arch. di. Psichiat., etc., Torino T, 28 : 23.

Baupwin, J. M. 1890. Origin of Left-handedness. Science, p. 242.

Batpwin, J.M. 1905. TheStory of theMind. D. Appleton & Co., New York.

124 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

BARDELEBEN, Karu. 1909. Ueber bilateral Assymmetry beim Menschen
und bei hoheren Tieren. Anat. Anz., Erginzungsheft zum Bd.
34, p. 2.

CunnincuaM, D. J. 1902. Right-handedness and Left-handedness. Journ,
of the Anthropol. Institute of Great Britain, vol. 32, p. 273. (B)?

DarestE, M. 1885. Hypothese sur l’origine des droitiers et des gauchers
Bull. de la Soc. d’Anthropol. de Paris, Mai 1885, p. 417. (B)

Davenport, G. C. and C. B. 1910. Heredity of Skin Pigmentation in Man
Am. Nat., vol. 44, Nos. 527-528.

GauipPp. 1887. La droiterie et la gaucherie, sont elles fonctions de l’educa-
tion ou de l’heredité? Compt. rend. Soc. de Biol., p. 519.

GaRMAN, 8. 1891. Review of Wilson’s ‘‘The Right Hand,’’ ete. Nation,
53: 243.

Gaurp, E. 1909. Ueber die Rechtshindigkeit des Menschen. Jena, G.
Fischer. (B)

GouLtp, G. M. 1908. Right-handedness and Left-handedness, ete. Lippin-
cott, New York.

Hyrr., J. 1871. Handbuch der topographischen Anatomie, 6 Aufl., Bd. 2,
p. 805. (B)

JorpAN, D.S. 1895. Des animaux, soni ils gauchers ou droitiers? Revue
scientifique, ser. 4, T. 4, No. 28.

Katscuer, L. 1907. Gelinxheit und Ambidextrie. Nord. u. Siid., Bresl.,
120, S. 259.

KeLioac, G. M. 1898. The Physiology of Right- and Left-handedness.
Jour. Am. Med. Assoc., p. 356.

Latres, L. 1907. Dexirismo e inancinismo in relaxione colle assimmetrie
funzionali del cervello. Archi. di. Psichiat, ete. Torino, T. 28, 281.

Lomsroso, C. 1903. Left-sidedness. No. Am., 177: 440.

LuEDDECKENS, F. 1900. Rechts- und Linkshindigkeit. Leipzig, W. Engle-
mann. (B)

Mazeu. 1892. Pourquoi l’on est droitier? Paris. (B)

MeRKEL, Fr. 1904. Die Rechts- und Linkshindigkeit. Wiesbaden. (B)

Pyr-Smity, P. H. 1871. On left-handedness. Guy’s Hospital Report, vol.
16, p. 141.

Rotscuitp. 1897. Zur Frage der Ursachen der Linkshindigkeit. Jahrbuch
f. Psychiatrie, p. 332. (B)

SipLEY, W. K. 1890. Left-leggedness. Nineteenth Cent., 27: 773.

STEVENS, H. C. 1909. Review of Gould’s ‘‘Right-handedness and Left-
handedness,”’ etc. Science, N. S., vol. 30., No. 762, p. 182.

Van Brervuret, J. J. 1899. L’homme droit et ’ homme gauche. Revue
Philos. de la France et de .’Etranger (Ribot), année 24, vol. 47.
Paris. (B)

Dr Varieny, H. 1902. L’homme droit et homme gauche. Le Temps,
12 Aout. (B)

Weser, E. 1904. Eine Erklarung fiir die Art der Vererbung der Rechts-
haindigkeit. Centralbl. f. Physiol., Bd. 18, No. 14.

Weser, E. 1905. Ursachen und Folgen der Rechtshiindigkeit. Halles. (B)

Witson, Sir D. 1891. The Right Hand; Left-handedness. Macmillan & Co.

2(B) =cited from Bardelaben.

DISTRIBUTION OF IMPROVED SEED GRAIN
IN KANSAS

A. M. Tren Eyck
Experiment Station, Fort Hays, Kan.

I do not think the presentation of a paper on this subject before
this body of breeders and scientists needs any excuse or explanation.
I observe, however, that much of the effort of this organization has
been directed towards the propounding and demonstration of theories
and facts related to the breeding and improvement of plants. This
is necessary and valuable work, but the establishing of breeding laws
and the production of improved and pedigreed seed or plants has
little immediate value to agriculture, unless the improved plant or
high-bred seed is propagated in large amount and distributed among
the farmers for planting. The distribution of improved seed is
just as important as the breeding, and this is a subject too often neg-
lected by scientific breeders and by the experiment stations.

The writer’s method of breeding crops aims to make the work count,
not only scientifically and on paper, but toward producing the real
thing, the improved seed, in quantities sufficient to distribute to the
farmers, so that they may at once have the benefit secured from grow-
ing the better variety.

Some practical system must be adopted in every State by which
high-bred or pedigreed seed may be grown and placed in the care of
responsible farmers for further multiplication and distribution. The
testing of varieties and the breeding of crops by the experiment station
has little value unless the farmer secures the improved seed and grows
it in large areas, to replace seed of average or inferior quality.

The method or methods of securing and distributing improved seed
grain in Kansas may be briefly described as follows:

1. Many varieties of different kinds of standard crops are tested
and compared at the State experiment stations, to prove their adapta-
tion and productiveness, and the quality of their product.

2. The best producing varieties are improved and purified by
careful hand selection in the field, and the seed is further improved
by selection and grading.

3. Still further improvement and greater purity is secured by
breeding the grain by the ‘‘ear-row” and ‘“‘head-row’’ methods, by
which pedigreed strains may be established.

4. The improved grain is grown in separate fields in larger areas to
produce seed grain for distribution.

125

126 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

5. The seed grain tested by the experiment station is sold to the
farmers, at their option or order, viz., the farmers voluntarily order
and purchase the seed grain at the price fixed by the experiment
station.

6. The seed grain which is offered for sale by the experiment sta-
tion is advertised in different ways—through announcements in
bulletins, by answering correspondence, by replies to inquiries pub-
lished in farm papers and in local papers, and through the farmers’
institutes, corn shows, and State farmers’ meetings. During the
last three years there has not been much need for advertising, since
the demand for the ‘‘college-bred”’ seed grain has far exceeded the
supply.

7. The improved seed grain has always been sold at a fair seed
price, at least double the market value of the grain. 'The price varies
somewhat, according to the improvement or breeding which the crop
has received. Seed wheat has been sold at prices ranging from $1.40
to $2 per bushel. The selling price for seed corn has ranged from $1.50
to $5 per bushel, according to the breeding, variety, and grade of seed.

There has been very little complaint from purchasers regarding the
price of seed grain. The better farmers are willing to pay a good
price for good seed. In fact, many prefer that the experiment station
should charge a high price for improved seed, because this allows
them to grow the crops and continue the distribution of the seed at
good prices, usually a little less than those charged by the experiment
station.

The establishing of higher prices for well-bred seed grain than for
scrub seed is placing the purebred seed business on the same plane as
the purebred stock business, and there is just as good reason why a
bushel of well-bred wheat which has been carefully and properly
saved for seed should sell for double the market price as for a pure-
bred calf or colt to sell for double or treble the value of a mixed breed
or scrub.

8. Farmers who purchase seed from the experiment station are
encouraged to keep the “college-bred” seed pure, grow it under favor-
able conditions, and save the crop again for seed, and thus become
further distributors of the improved seed grain.

9. A record is kept by the experiment station of each sale of well-
bred seed, including the name and address of the purchaser, the date
of his order, and the value, grade, and amount of seed purchased.

The seed distribution work of the experiment station has continued
now for six years. The larger part of the seed, however, has been

Ten Eyck: ImprRoveD SEED GRAIN Tey

distributed during the last three seasons. More than 25,000 bushels
of well-bred seed of standard farm crops have been sold and distrib-
uted by the experiment station, at Manhattan, and by the Ft.
Hays branch experiment station, at Hays, including 15,000 bushels
of seedwheat, 3,000 bushels of seed corn, 2,000 bushels of seed oats,
barley, and emmer, 2,000 bushels of Kafir corn and broom corn, cane,
and milo seed, and smaller quantities of flax, millet, cowpeas, and soy
beans.

10. The experiment station gives some superintendence to the
growing and saving of the crops for seed by farmers, by inspecting
the fields when possible and by securing reports from each grower
giving information regarding the variety, yield, purity, quality, and
amount and price of seed grain which he will have for sale.

11. Published lists giving such data as named above have been
prepared each fall and spring during the last three years, 1908, 1909,
and 1910, and these lists are sent to those who inquire for seed grain.
In this manner the experiment station has been able to assist in
the continuing of the distribution of many thousands of bushels
of “college-bred”’ seed wheat and seed corn.

The writer estimates that 25,000 bushels of Kharkof seed wheat
were distributed by this means in 1909, and Prof. L. A. Fitz, who
now has special charge of the inspection of wheat fields and the listing
of wheat growers, reports the sale and distribution of 60,000 bushels
in 1910. Seventy-two farmers reporting listed 30,000 bushels of
“college-bred” seed wheat for sale in 1909. Growers were listed from
forty counties in the State.

During the seed wheat campaign last summer 144 wheat fields were
inspected by Professor Fitz and his assistants. Two thousand copies
of list containing 162 names of farmers offering ‘college-bred”’ seed
wheat for sale were distributed in answer to requests from inquirers.
Each farmer on the seed-growers’ list was requested to supply certain
information regarding his crop and keep a record of sales. Fifty-four
of the listed wheat growers reported as requested. Their total sales
amounted to nearly 30,000 bushels. The quantities sold by individual
growers ranged from 10 bushels to 3,200 bushels. The average yield
per acre in 1910, secured by growers reporting, was 22 bushels. This
was an average increase over other wheat of 53 bushels per acre, or
333 per cent.

Two million acres of winter wheat seeded in the fall of 1909, in
Kansas, entirely winterkilled and were plowed up. The remaining
4,686,000 acres made an average yield of 12.8 bushels per acre.

128 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

Much of the wheat harvested had been severely damaged by winter-
killing. The average yield per acre for the State in 1909 was 14.6
bushels. The average yield for the last ten years, 13.9 bushels.

Much well-bred seed corn has also been distributed by this method.
Seventy growers reporting listed over 10,000 bushels for sale in the
spring of 1910, and reports indicate that the supply did not equal the
demand.

For the purpose of securing and giving information on the subject
of crop improvement and seed distribution, the experiment station
has published a number of bulletins, circulars, blank forms, lists of
growers, etc., copies of which may be secured by those interested.

12. Another plan which is being developed proposes to distribute
improved seed grain by means of the county demonstration farms,
which are now being established in many counties in Kansas. The
law passed in 1909 allows for the establishment of demonstration
farms in connection with the county poor farm of each county at the
option of the county commissioners and in codperation with the agri-
cultural college. Seventeen demonstration farms have already been
organized. The plan is to plant only improved or “college-bred”’
seed on these farms, save the crop for seed, and sell the surplus seed
grain to the farmers in the county who may wish to purchase it at a
price somewhat in advance of the ordinary seed price.

Several of these farms have already been established and a few
have raised a crop of purebred seed wheat which was sold for seed
last fall. On the county farm in Barton County, Kansas, last year
there was a field of 11 acres of Kharkof wheat that produced an aver-
age of 45 bushels per acre, and every bushel was sold for seed to the
farmers of the county at $1.50 per bushel. From five or six demon-
stration farms in eastern Kansas last year the sales of well-bred seed
corn aggregated over 1,200 bushels and sold at an average price of
$1.50 per bushel. On these several farms the following crops have
been grown for the production of seed to sell: Kharkof wheat, Kherson
and Red Texas oats, and improved strains of Kafir corn and cane and
several varieties of well-bred seed corn. No variety has been planted
on any demonstration farm which did not have the approval of the
professor of agronomy of the agricultural college.

This method promises to be a very successful means of growing and
distributing improved seed grain which will be especially adapted to
local climatic and soil conditions.

When the writer took charge of the agronomy work at the Kansas
State Agricultural College in the fall of 1902, there was not a bushel

Ten Eyck: IMPROVED SEED GRAIN 129

of well-bred seed grain of any kind on the experiment station farm.
The work of variety testing and crop improvement by seed selection
was begun in 1903. As soon as it was shown that certain varieties
were superior, or as soon as pure seed of some of the bettcr producing
varieties could be produced, these varieties were grown on larger
areas and the surplus seed was sold and distributed among te farmers
of Kansas.

A small amount of seed grain was distributed in 1904 and 1905,
being mainly seed wheat from seed which was tested for several
years in the State, at the United States Government Codperative
Experiment Station, at McPherson. In 1906, a larger amount of
good seed grain was distributed, including some well-bred seed corn.
The breeding of corn by the “‘ear-row”’ method was begun in 1903 and
1904, and the breeding of wheat and other grains by the “head-row”
method was begun in 1906 and 1907. The improved varieties pro-
duced by seed selection and breeding, especially of corn, Kafir corn,
and cane, were propagated as rapidly as possible, and the amount of
well-bred seed grain distributed has steadily increased each year.

During the interval of five or six years since this seed distribution
work began, the agronomy department of the agricultural college!
has distributed over 5,000 bushels of seed wheat, nearly 3,000 bushels
of seed corn, more than 2,000 bushels of seed oats, barley, and emmer,
nearly 2,000 bushels of cane, Kafir corn, milo maize, and broom corn
seed, and smaller quantities of seed of other crops, such as flax, millet,
cowpeas and soy beans. The total quantity of well-bred seed dis-
tributed amounts to more than 12,000 bushels.

Similar work has been carried on at the Ft. Hays branch experiment
station. More than 10,000 bushels of improved seed wheat has been
distributed by that station. Over 6,000 bushels of pure Kharkof seed
wheat was distributed last fall, 1910. The Ft. Hays station has also
sold and distributed several hundred bushels of good seed of corn,
Kafir, and cane, and a thousand bushels or more of pure seed of oats,
barley, and durum spring wheat, or in total an amount nearly equal to
that distributed by the agronomy department.

This seed grain has been sold largely in small quantities as stated
above; hence, the improved seed has been distributed widely to
thousands of farmers in every part of the State and to a considerable
number of farmers in other States. By the method deseribed—

1The writer had charge of this department from December 1, 19)2, to June 1, 1910, when he
was transferred to Ft. Hays branch experiment station, as superintendent.

130 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

encouraging the farmers to save their crops for seed and sell the sur-
plus seed—large quantities of “‘college-bred’”’ seed, amounting to
several thousand bushels of seed corn and many thousand bushels of
seed wheat, having been distributed and planted.

The wheat area of Kansas averages about 7 million acres annually.
The writer estimates that 2 million acres of Kharkof wheat—the
variety most widely distributed by the experiment station—was
planted in the State last fall, 1910. The comparative tests at the
experiment station and the reports of many growers prove that under
equal conditions, where hard red winter wheat is adapted, the Kharkof
will yield from 25 to 30 per cent more grain per acre than ordinary
scrub wheat, which is still planted on a large area. The Kansas wheat
crop in 1910 was so severely injured by winterkilling in parts of the
State that the acre yield or the whole State was reduced below the
average, and the result of planting improved seed was not apparent.
The possible increase in our yield of wheat in 1911, due to the distri-
bution of better seed, may be estimated at not less than 6 million
bushels.

In the distribution of improved seed corn an important agency has
assisted which I have neglected to mention. This is the “boys’
corn contests,’ work which is carried on under the college extension
department. Thousands of boys have secured improved seed corn by
taking part in this contest, and the variety of corn by proving its
superior quality has usually remained on the farm, the farmers often
purchasing more seed of the same variety, in order to plant larger fields.

The instruction at the agricultural college in the regular courses and
through the boys’ and men’s short courses, through the farmers’
institutes, experiment station bulletins, and the agricultural press,
has also given efficient aid in the progress of seed improvement.

The average acre yield of corn in Kansas for the last ten years has
been about 21 bushels. The corn crop of 1910 was severely injured
in parts of the State by very hot weather and drouth in July and
by chinch bugs, and the acre yield was below the average, only 19
bushels. In 1909, the acre yield was 20 bushels, but 200 growers
reported an average yield from “college-bred” seed of 36 bushels per
acre.

The writer estimates that from one-third to one-half the total area
of the State, or about 3 million acres, will be planted with well-bred
seed corn next spring, and it is not extravagant to estimate an average
increase in yield, due to the better seed, of 5 bushels per acre on this
area, or a possible increase in the Kansas corn crop in 1911 of 15

Tren Eyck: ImMprROvED SEED GRAIN 131

million bushels. This is not speculation, but a careful estimate
deduced from facts.

Improved seed distribution and the education on crop improvement
which has accompanied it have produced another very important
result, viz., the farmers have become awakened not only to the neces-
sity of improving the crops, but to the necessity of improving the soil
fertility and practicing better farming methods. The distribution of
improved seed grain in Kansas, therefore, marks the beginning of a
new agricultural area which will be noted for high crop yields and great
agricultural prosperity.

Kansas has already made a national reputation through her im-
proved seed distribution; in fact, this reputation is world-wide. It
actually appears that the work done in Kansas along this line is
noted and talked about and written about more outside of the State
than within the State. Inquiries and orders for seed wheat and seed
corn have come to the experiment station from all over the United
States and from several foreign countries, including Australia, South
Africa, and several of the countries of Europe and South America.
A year ago the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station shipped 50
bushels of improved Turkey, Red wheat to the Transvaal government
of South Africa. A bushel of seed of each of ten varieties of Kansas-
grown corn was shipped to the government experiment station,
at Brisband, Queensland, Australia, in the spring of 1910. Exchanges
of seed wheat and other seed grain have been made with several
experiment stations in Russia. In 1908 the experiment station in-
southern Alberta, Canada, ordered 60 bushels of our Kharkof and
improved Turkey Red wheat, which was sent with charges of $2
per bushel, rather expensive seed wheat, but one of the best invest-
ments that Alberta ever made. This well-bred Kansas wheat yielded
over 50 bushels per acre, or 9 bushels more than the best Alberta
red varieties in 1909, on the experiment station farm at Lethbridge.

I am informed that thousands of bushels of wheat from this seed
have been distributed and planted by Alberta farmers.

The writer has recently been invited to deliver addresses on this
subject before the National Corn Show, and American Breeders
Association, and at the meeting of the Council of American Grain
Exchanges. It is evident that this work in Kansas has created great
interest and is attracting much attention in other States and other
countries.

The improvement of crops by breeding and selection is primarily
the work of the experiment station, and the experiment station should

132 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

be the source and first distributor of well-bred seed. But the amount
of seed supplied by the experiment station is necessarily small, and
the farmers who secure the better seed must grow it carefully, keep
it pure, and continue the distribution, in order that great and rapid
benefit may result from the work of the experiment station. The
permanent improvement of crops rests with the farmers who shall
continue the growing and distribution of improved seed.

AN EXPERIMENT IN FUR-SEAL CONSERVATION

Barton W. EVERMANN
U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

For a quarter of a century the “fur-seal question” has been one of
the most serious problems with which the Department of State at
Washington has had to deal. So long as the killing of seals was con-
fined to the land on which they haul out during the breeding season
there was no difficulty; but when certain people in British Columbia
discovered that fur-seals could be killed in the open sea in sufficient
numbers to make the business very profitable, then trouble began.
This was in the early eighties. Pelagic sealing, as killing seals in the
open sea is called, developed rapidly and it was only a few years until
the very existence of the fur-seal herd as a commercial entity was
seriously threatened.

The killing of seals on the islands can be, and always has been,
carefully regulated by the Government. In the first place, it must be
understood that the fur-seal is a polygamous animal, like sheep,
cattle, or domestic poultry. While the sexes are born in approxi-
mately equal numbers, one male to every thirty to fifty females is
adequate for breeding purposes. The surplus twenty-nine to forty-
nine males are not needed and ean be killed without in the least endan-
gering the existence of the herd. There is no more reason for refrain-
ing from killing each year the surplus male seals than there would be in
a stockman saving all the rams or roosters on the ranch. It has
therefore been the policy of the Government never to kill any female
seal but to kill each year the surplus young male or bachelor seals
after reserving a sufficient number for breeding purposes.

In this way the Government was able to conserve the herd at high
efficiency and at the same time permit the killing of about 100,000
young male seals each year, yielding an annual revenue to the Govern-

EVERMANN: FuR-SEAL EXPERIMENT 133

ment of about $317,500. That number now would yield a revenue of
more than a million dollars annually.

But pelagic sealing is different. The pelagic seal hunter cannot
distinguish between male and female seals or seals of different ages
in the water; he would make no distinction if he could. Every and
any fur-seal he sees is proper spoil for him; none is allowed to escape,
whatever the sex or age. And experience and the records show that
vastly the greater part of the pelagic catch each year consists of
females. Every female seal killed in the open sea means not only her
death and that of her unborn pup but also that of the pup which she
leaves on the rookery when she goes out inthe sea to feed. Every time
afemale seal is killed in the open sea a fur-seal pup is left to starve.
Since pelagic sealing began some thirty years ago hundreds of thou-
sands of pups have starved miserably on St. Paul and St. George.

The possibility of saving these motherless pups from starvation
has often been considered, and several attempts have been made to
induce them to take artificial food. All such attempts failed utterly.
Every pup experimented with refused absolutely to take any kind of
food, although various and ingenious devises were employed to induce
or force them to do so. Similar attempts with older or adult seals also
failed. They chafed under restraint or confinement, refused any and
all kinds of food, and finally died of starvation.

Apocryphal tales may be heard on the Pribilof Islands of fur-seals
having been tamed and living thereafter in the houses of the natives
of the islands. In the early seventies the Alaska Commercial Com-
pany brought down from the islands two immature live fur-seals, their
exact age not definitely known, and placed them in Woodward’s
Gardens at San Francisco, but they died of starvation after several
months’ incarceration, having eaten nothing during the interval.
This experiment at Woodward’s Gardens, and all other similar
attempts, fixed the belief that fur-seals in captivity could not be
induced to take food.

Recently, however, the experiment was again tried and with com-
plete success. The effort had its inception in the desire of Dr. Fox,
surgeon of the revenue cutter Bear, to ascertain whether the fur-
seals are infected with ectoparasites. For this purpose a starving
pup, whose mother had been killed by the pelagic pirates while feeding
at sea, was given to the Bear’s surgeon. After having been examined
by Dr. Fox the half-starved little animal was turned over to Mr.
Judson Thurber, the Bear’s boatswain, who desired to attempt feeding
the pup by artificial means. He was so far successful that he induced

134. AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

it to eat dried fish from his hand, and kept it for three weeks, when it
died in convulsions. Desiring to have the experiment carried further,
two well-conditioned fur-seal pups, a male and a female, were obtained
on Gorbatch rookery, St. Paul Island, and furnished to Boatswain
Thurber on October 9, 1909. Mr. Thurber began his experiments by
forcing condensed milk down the throat. On October 19 the female
began eating solid food. Each of the pups experienced some difficulty
in swallowing solid food, due, the boatswain thought, to the fact that
the tongue was tied down too firmly by the membrane or frenum which
binds it to the floor of the mouth. He was led to this opinion by
observing that the female pup ate more easily after breaking the mem-
brane loose. He then tore loose the frenum of the male’s tongue,
with the result that he, too, began to take food more freely.

In conducting the experiment Mr. Thurber showed no little skill
and infinite patience. At first he would hold their mouths open,
pour into them diluted evaporated cream mixed with small bits of
fish, and then, holding the seal up by the head, shake the food down.
In this way some of the food reached their stomachs and the seals got
the taste of food. Then he would tie a small piece of fresh fish on the
end of a string and tease the seal by dangling it in front of its nose
until the seal snapped at it, when it would be poked down the throat
and the string cut.

By the first week in November both seals were eating greedily.
When the Bear arrived at San Diego late in the fall, and the command-
ing officer, Capt. E. P. Bertholf, reported to Washington that the
Bear had two fur-seal pups on board and in good condition, steps were
at once taken by the Hon. George M. Bowers, Commissioner of Fish-
eries, to have them brought to Washington. All necessary details
were soon arranged and Boatswain Thurber arrived in Washington
January 11, 1910, with his precious pets. They were hurried from the
express car to the Bureau of Fisheries, where they were received with
ereat interest; for no one at Washington except the few fortunate
ones who had visited the Pribilof Islands had ever seen a live fur-seal.
They were at once placed in the large pool at the bureau after being
photographed, measured and weighed. This pool contained fresh
water, and the effect upon the seals was awaited with interest. If
they showed any distress it was arranged to supply them with salt
water. But the fresh water did not appear to worry them in the
least, and they have been kept in it continuously to the present time.
. Although somewhat restless at first they soon quieted down and
appeared perfectly at home. They are fed regularly twice a day on

EVERMANN: FurR-SEAL EXPERIMENT 135

fresh fish, which they take eagerly, each eating from 5 to 8 pounds
daily. When they were first weighed (January 20, 1910), the male
weighed 28 pounds and the female 195. Since then they have been
weighed regularly on the twentieth of each month. On October 20
they weighed 463 and 343 pounds, respectively. This is a gain of 66
per cent for the male and 77 per cent for the female in nine months.
Whether this is a normal growth no one really knows, for never before
were any accurate observations made to determine just how much a
fur-seal six months or fifteen months old ought to weigh. But
those who are familiar with seal life on the Pribilof Islands say that
these two pups appear fully as large and fine in every way as those of
the same age on the rookeries.

Not only have these two pups been kept in fresh water, but the water
in the summer was much warmer than any Alaska fur-seal was ever
before called on toendure. In July the temperature of the water ran
as high as 88° F., and the average for that month was 80°. But this
high temperature apparently produced no evil results; indeed, the
seals during July were not only as playful and active as usual, but they
actually ate more during that month than in any other.

They have proved the most interesting pets that have ever been
kept in the aquarium at the Bureau of Fisheries. They are the most
expert swimmers imaginable. Their favorite pastime is to swim
rapidly around the large pool in which they are kept, sometimes as
rapidly as the most rapidly flying bird, often jumping like porpoises
and splashing water on unsuspecting visitors. They circle about the
pool, always turning to the right with the handsof theclock. Immedi-
ately after feeding they begin scratching and rubbing themselves, a
sort of massage which doubtless aids digestion.

These fur-seal pups have now been kept in captivity more than a
year. They have been kept in fresh water more than nine months.
They are now sixteen months old and appear to be in excellent con-
dition. The experiment has so far proved eminently satisfactory.
It has demonstrated a number of very important facts. In the first
place it has shown that fur-seal pups can be taught to take food when
offered them by man. It also shows that they can be kept in captivity
and carried long distances on vessels or railroad trains without any
special difficulty, that they will live and thrive in fresh water, that a
salt-water environment is not essential, and that they can live without
any apparent discomfort in water of a much higher temperature than
that of their natural habitat.

136 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

The success of this experiment also suggests a number of interesting
possibilities. May it not be possible to save the hundreds or thou-
sands of pups whose mothers are killed by the pelagic sea pirates
every year? ‘To do this it would be necessary to feed the pups only
until the herd leaves the islands late in the fall. After they have once
been taught to take solid food it would seem that they might be per-
mitted to leave the islands with the rest of the pups and that their
chances of survival in the sea would be quite as good as any.

The supplying of fur-seals to public aquariums and zodlogical
parks is another possibility which seems entirely practicable. The
possibility of establishing a colony of fur-seals in some fresh-water
lake is also suggested. The essential features would seem to be a
lake with an adequate supply of fish, which does not freeze over
entirely in winter, and in which the seals would be fully protected.

But most interesting and important of all is the possibility of estab-
lishing colonies of fur-seals on our North Atlantic Coast. If the
Canadian government could establish a fur-seal colony or rookery
somewhere on her east coast, the pelagic sealing question would
speedily be solved; for it would seem that Great Britain would at
once join the United States and the other maritime nations in an
international game law or agreement by which the high seas beyond
the three-mile zone would become a place of refuge for all marine
mammals such as fur-seals, sea-lions, walruses and whales. This
would not only stop pelagic sealing, but it would be the most effective
step ever taken for the preservation of these rapidly disappearing
animals. It is true that the difficulties in the way of establishing
the fur-seal in the Atlantic are very great, but I think they can
be met.

Notre—Since this article was written the experiment has been
sarried still further. The two seals are still alive and apparently
in excellent condition at the present date,—September 9, 1911.
On August 20, 1911, they weighed 63 and 41.5 pounds respectively.

[Presented by Committee on Fur Bearing Animals.]

EDITORIALS

SIZE OF FARMS AND FARM FAMILIES

The New York Agricultural College at Cornell has recently issued
a bulletin based on an agricultural survey of four townships in the
New York county of Tomkins, in which the college is located. This
report, by Prof. G. F. Warren and others, shows that in order to assure
a reasonable family income the family farm should be rather large.
The deductions from the statistics collected seem to indicate that the
best size is somewhere between 160 acres and 200 acres for Tomkins
County, where the average value of the land is low.

Merely from the standpoint of economic production as the result
of a sufficient division of labor, profitable employment of labor,
and the utilization of labor-saving machinery, a farm large enough to
employ two or three workers was found to be the most profitable.

On farms up to about 100 acres in area the cost of production per
acre and per worker is relatively too great. The crop yields on these
smaller farms are not sufficiently greater to overcome a larger cost
per acre of man labor, horse labor, machinery, and incidental expenses.
A farm owner, to make an income beyond his own labor wage, must
have acreage enough to use two, three and four-horse teams, and the
machinery adapted to those teams, rather than only one or two horses.
The larger farm makes it possible for the farmer to use the labor of
his sons, or of one or more hired men, so as to make some profit
beyond the market value of their labor.

The fact that a relatively small part of the farmers can make good
incomes by intensively cultivating a small fruit or vegetable farm has
led many people to believe that our family farms are generally too
large to serve best the interests either of the farmers or of those who
purchase the farmers’ products. It must be remembered that the
bulk of the American farm products is composed of grains and live
stock, and that these are and must be produced in a broad way under
conditions of general farming.

On the other hand, the assumption that the results obtained
in the course of this agricultural survey indicate that our farming
must eventually go the way of the businesses of transportation, of
manufacture, and even of merchandising, and be organized under
large companies, is not justified. In farming, where the home and
the business are a unit, there is another most important interest at

137

138 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

stake, aside from profits per acre and per worker, or the abundance
and cheapness of products supplied to consumers in our cities.

The larger farm product is the farm people. The plan of one farm
and three hired men is good for the farmer and his family, but not
good for the average of the four families; and if we extend this cen-
tralization so as to have one farmer and nineteen hired men, the farm
profits are centered in a still smaller number of farmers. ‘Thus a
larger school district, such as a consolidated rural school district of
20, 30, or 40 square miles, might have ten farm homes and 190 homes
of hired men. Two hundred families thus situated would not make
so strong a community as under the present plan of 100 farmers on
family farms assisted by their fifty sons and fifty hired men, making
two men to the farm. It should be remembered that most of the
hired men under family farm conditions are farmers’ sons working
their way up to become landowners.

This plan gives two men per farm. It avoids on the one hand the
too small farm plan which France brought about by enforced legal
division of farm estates, and on the other hand the too large estate
which in England is made possible by the law permitting primogeni-
ture and the entailment of estates, and keeping the entire large estate
intact for the eldest son.

The larger public policy will be best served when the eugenics
side of country life is fully appreciated. If the two-man farm plan
will produce the greatest number of good citizens, will conduce to the
production of the strongest country people, and will result in the larg-
est measure of happiness to the sum of the people in the open country,
means should be discovered not merely to preserve but to highly
develop country life under that plan.

This bulletin from Cornell, however, adds to the conviction that
farming must follow all other lines of business and be organized.
There must be either radical centralization of the ownership of land
or the less radical but fully as effective individual ownership with
fullest codperation to attend to the general business of the farm. The
interests of the race strongly favor the latter plan, provided there be
really effective codperative organization. Fortunately plans are
being formulated in thousands of communities which promise solu-
tions, and which may lead to a remarkable development of our already
unparalleled country life.

Colleges of agriculture; agricultural technological high schools;
local schools made over in the interests of country life, departmental
and college extension departments, and publishers of literature relat-

EDITORIALS 139

ing to farming and farm home making are developing adequate means
to take to all farm people the rapidly accumulating stores of knowledge
relating to the farm and the farm home and are working out a won-
derfully productive scientific technique of farming and country living.

What promises to be the most important single element in all of
this development is the consolidated rural school, serving a large
community or district. Six or eight one-room rural school districts,
covering a scope of 20 to 36 square miles, are consolidated into one
school large enough to have institutional organization. Fifteen of
these schools in the average county bring vocational as well as general
education within driving distance of all farm youth. This institution
unifies the education for country life and it also recenters nearly all
other country life interests. It promises to lead a technologically
educated people into general economic, social and educational co-
Operation.

In this community attention will come to be paid to the values of
good heredity, and the community will doubtless come to look upon
each farm home as an institution in which the public, the State, and
the race is interested as the source of strong people.

The two-man farm of 160 acres is in danger, and with it America’s
plan of producing the most just and beautiful country life in the
world. The danger is that publicists, educators, and even the farmers
themselves look primarily at the business side of farming.

Our investigators into farm management need to look very
specifically at the economic side of farm organization, but they
need also as clearly to investigate the social, racial and eugenic inter-
ests of life in the open country.

THE FIELD OF EUGENICS

Man will one day know himself better and will use more care to
cultivate assiduously the consciousness that he is a higher being with
most wonderful possibilities. Eugenics will ere long drive home to
the human race the fact that its worst blood should be reproduced but
slowly, if at all, and that it is a sacred duty of the best blood to mul-
tiply itself and people the earth.

In a newly colonized country, its forming race is hybridized in the
most complex manner; but no matter how complicated, it is possible
to establish the racial breeding values of each strain and family; and
the probable value of each individual as a progenitor of generations of
children can be at least roughly determined.

140 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

Society and even the church can then place a social pressure upon,
and deter from reproduction, those likely to produce weak, diseased,
or criminal offspring, and the state can even restrict child bearing
on the part of those most deficient. Thus the major part of the
weak fibers can be eliminated from the network of human descent.

But even more important is the faet that efficient blood can be
encouraged by many agencies at the command of society to produce
such numbers of children as they can well support and train. High
public regard of unusually efficient families, probably more than any-
thing else, will be instrumental in stimulating pride of family among
individuals, and in encouraging them to perpetuate their superior
qualities in larger families of children.

Society is now rather assisting families of weaker heredity to multi-
ply, through various forms of otherwise most beneficent charities.

How to lessen the effects of thus breeding the race downward, and
how to favor the production of progeny whose blood improves the
network of descent of the race, are still difficult problems. That
the human race will highly develop its plants, its domestic animals,
and its household pets, and permanently neglect itself does not seem
plausible.

The methods at the command of eugenics are narrower than those
employed in plant or animal breeding. In case of the apple we can
produce ten thousand seedling trees, test each tree as to quantity and
quality of fruit, and discard all but the one best, and then by grafting,
budding, or other processes we can soon so multiply the one plant
that it will fill all the orchards of the region to which it is adapted.
In breeding cattle, swine, or poultry, individuals which are inferior
or are susceptible to disease can be discarded. In cereals, live stock,
or fruit, two or more strains, each possessing desirable characters,
can be hybridized, thus engrafting upon the new stock the good
qualities of both parents. And even in hybrid plants the selection of
progeny can be so restrictive that only that one in hundreds or in
thousands, or in tens of thousands, which comes nearest the desired
type, need be selected.

In the human family there can be no such sweeping discarding of
the unfit. But the superlative importance to the species of multi-
plying the good blood and thus building up better race stocks makes
even a narrow range of possible improvements a matter of vital con-
cern. Family genealogies are needed which, not as the present com-
paratively worthless ones, merely record names and relationships,
but which make a note of certain characteristics of each individual.

EDITORIALS 141

When racial, family, and individual values shall have become matters
of pedigree record, and eugenics shall have passed the stage of igno-
rance and prudishness, the race will more rapidly slough off its weak
branches, while the more virile and useful stocks will build up the
tree of life. From generation to generation, eugenics, improved phy-
sical environment, education, religion, and the inherent impulse in the
human soul to aspire after better things will relegate to inactivity the
weaker and baser characters.

The improvement through heredity may at first be painfully slow.
The improvement from education and from an ever-growing altru-
ism will for some time be more rapid. But the race will experience
its greatest improvement and attain its greatest ultimate physical
and intellectual development through eugenics, because heredity is
basal, and every point gained in heredity serves as a better basis upon
which to build all other improving processes.

WORLD'S FOOD REQUIREMENTS MET BY BREEDING BETTER
TYPES

No one who studies world economics can doubt that a permanent
world competition for food at high prices has begun. Increase in
the world’s population and increase in the purchasing power per
capita of all thrifty peoples will not only sustain prices for farm prod-
ucts, put will require rapid and large increases in the total product.
In two or three generations we shall need to feed 180,000,000 people
in the United States where we now feed 90,000,000. Since the pres-
ent population consumes $7,500,000,000 worth of farm products
annually, the requirements then will be for products worth $15,000,-
000,000.

Assume that the 10,000,000 farmers in the entire country sixty
vears hence will annually apply fertilizers worth one dollar per acre
to 500,000,000 acres, at a cost of $500,000,000, and that the result
would be $1,000,000,000 worth of added farm products, then the
profit in this case would be $500,000,000, or 100 per cent.

Assume also that the federal and state governments, through their
departments of agriculture and experiment stations, and the farmers
and breeders of the country shall have expended in creative plant
and animal breeding two dollars per farm, or $20,000,000. If this
should increase the product one dollar per acre on one hundred acres
on each of 10,000,000 farms, it would amount to $1,000,000,000,
with a new profit of $980,000,000, or 4,900 per cent.

142 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

Further, we may roughly estimate that we shall during that time so
add to our cultivated area as to increase our annual product by $2,-
000,000,000. It is fair to estimate also that by better crop rotation
schemes, better tillage methods, and better methods of managing our
live stock we can add yet another $2,000,000,000. The total addi-
tion thus provided would be $6,000,000,000—still one and a half
bilions worth of product short of the additional $7,500,000,000
needed.

It is entirely possible that the farmer and breeder under scientific
direction, by spending somewhat more than $20,000,000 for creative
breeding might produce the other one and one half billions worth of
product needed. It is, indeed, probable that 25 per cent, instead
of only 10 per cent, might be added to the yield of farm products by
breeding and applying this to the increased acreage under the im-
proved conditions assumed. Thus, approximately $2,500,000,000
of additional products annually would bepossible through improve-
ments in heredity.

In other words, it does not seem improbable that when our product
is worth $15,000,000,000 fully $2,500,000,000 worth of the added
product may be due to plant and animal forms producing an average
of 25 per cent more than those now in use. Because of the relatively
small outlay it requires, breeding is especially effective not only in
increasing the quantity of agricultural products but also in reducing
the cost of production. Let us give the heredity of the mutating
plant and animal an important place as one of the world’s great forces
beside the fertility of the soil and beside the power which we util-
ize from water, coal, wood, oil and wind.

PRESERVE THE RED MAN’S HEREDITY

A movement has been inaugurated under the auspices of American
Indians of pure and mixed breeding to foster and preserve the rem-
nants of the Indian race. This effort has much in it which is to be
highly commended. It will engender racial pride, will foster indivi-
dual ambition, and will lead to tribal and family emulation. Eugen-
ists will see in this movement a plan for preserving certain charac-
teristics of this race, that they may not be lost from our sources of
good blood. This new organization can help to preserve a race of
purebred Indians, as the Arabian Horse Association in America is
collecting and preserving pure blood of that class of horses. And as
the Arab horses have served most effectively as the whole or partial

EDITORIALS 143

basis of some of our most useful families and breeds of horses, such
as the saddle horse and the Morgan horse, so the blood of the Indian
may perhaps be used as part of the basis of virile families of men.

No one need feel offended at this illustration from the domain of
live stock. In fact, no small part of the plans which will be used in
eugenic records designed either to preserve the heredity of races of
men or to aid in their genetic improvement is being wrought out in
the record systems of plant and animal breeding. And we have
further illustrations in the animal world of the need of preserving the
aboriginal races and species. A most notable example is the American
bison or buffalo. A few men have saved it from extinction, and there
is much promise that breeds of cattalo, made by hybridizing the
buffalo and cattle, may have a large field of usefulness. At present
small herds of these hybrid cattaloes indicate that breeds combining
beef and fur production may be developed for regions requiring great
endurance of cold winters, as in our northern mountain regions and in
Alaska. The demonstration seems complete that robes finer, more
uniform throughout, and more valuable than the buffalo robes of
pioneer times can be produced by the scientific creation of breeds of
hybrid cattaloes.

In some of the tribes of the American Indians are characteristics
which may have uses in the future American type. The pigment
in the skin may enable the crossbred between the pale face and the
red man to thrive better in the hot regions of our own country or in
the tropics. His endurance gained in the chase may help in making
up the future race of men suited to many of the strenuous tasks which
future civilization will, more even than now, impose upon both men
and women. A strain of his stoicism and ability to live far away from
his fellows may peculiarly fit him for the work of the forest guard in
our great public forest reservations.

As a pure race, or perchance in mixture with our mountaineer
whites, he may become our future mountain inhabitant, adapted at
once to the rugged life of the isolated mountain home and to the ser-
vice of forest workers in our great areas of forests under scientific
public or private management. He may be peculiarly adapted to
life on the great semiarid plains, where science has begun to guide the
production of breeds of live stock for the production of meat, wool,
and horses under conditions existing in the great short-grass country.

But why restrict him? Either in his purity of blood or in mixed
races the American Indian may take up very many functions of life.
The Indian needs only to see his racial problem, to study his genetic

144 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

destiny in the light of modern science, to find the niches, large or
small, into which he may fit, and then redirect his energies to meet
the new problems before him.

In numerous regions the amalgamation of the Indian and white
races has so far developed that much of the psychological repugnance
to the mixture of racial blood has been broken down. A study of the
vigor, ability, and general character of these people of mixed blood of
the third and later generation hybrids should be made by trained
eugenists. Those characters which act definitely as Mendelian units
should be known; also, those recombinations of unit characters which
make for weakness, and those which give strength and both individual
and genetic efficiency. Those persons who have begun the organization
to preserve and build up the remnant of our ancient Indian blood may
have in mind only education, political rights, and other environ-
mental conditions. But the eugenic side of the movement is worthy
of equal consideration.

A system of number names for which the Indian office could supply
very much material would place this race in a position of advantage as
compared with other races. By recording the individual value both
in a single numerical statement and in unit character detail there
would soon be records from which the genetic value of individuals
and families may be deduced. Many of the methods of tabulating,
averaging, and otherwise determining the genetic values of the respec-
tive individuals and families have already been practically wrought
out in the science of breeding plants and animals.

Even a larger vision for the Indians to realize is that ere long all
races shall have been brought under the scrutiny of genetic science.
Then the Indian character as a whole and each racial unit character
will be in competition under methods more or less aided by statistical
records of performance with the characters of other races. It is
a good guess that the Indian blood will not be near the foot of racial
values and that families both of purebred Indians and of those mixed
with white and other blood will find permanent places under a system
of genetic records which will discredit all the weakest families if not
the weakest races.

NEWS AND NOTES

REPORT ON CONFERENCE OF RESEARCH COMMITTEES OF THE
EUGENICS SECTION

On May 2 and 8 a conference of the research committees of the
Eugenics Section of the American Breeders Association was held at
the Monson State Hospital, Palmer, Mass., under the presidency of
Dr. W. N. Bullard, chairman of the Committee on Inheritance in
Epilepsy. About twenty persons were in attendance, including the
following members of the committees of the Eugenics Section: H. H.
Goddard, E. E. Southard, F. A. Woods, Everett Flood, W. M. Car-
malt. After introductory remarks by the presiding officer, brief
statements were made by Dr. Carmalt, of New Haven, who stated
that the law in Connecticut relating to sterilization had not yet been
put in practice in a single case in that State. Dr. Ross, who has just
been appointed superintendent of a new institution for epileptics
in Mansfield, Conn., spoke briefly of the plansof thatinstitution. Mr.
H. H. Laughlin, superintendent of the Eugenics Record Office,
moved the appointment of a committee to study the result of the
experiment in sterilization made by various States. The chairman
named as members of this committee Dr. Mitchell, superintendent of
the Danver State Hospital, chairman, Mr. Laughlin, secretary, and
Messrs. W. M. Carmalt, Bleecker Van Wagenen, and Everett Flood.
Dr. Rosanoff, of Kings Park State Hospital, representing Miss Orr
and himself, read a paper on ‘Further Studies on Inheritance in
Insanity,” confirming and extending the results of the paper by Miss
Cannon and Dr. Rosanoff, recently published in the Journal of Ner-
vous and Mental Diseases, showing that idiopathic forms follow \len-
del’s law.

Dr. Flood summarized the recent report of the commission appoint-
ed by the governor of Massachusetts to investigate the question of
the increase of criminals, mental defectives and degenerates. The
report had to be drawn up in a short time and the commission had
small funds for its assistance. They reached a general conclusion
that there is nd evidence of an increase in the number of these defec-
tive classes in Massachusetts. They make a series of recommenda-
tions. Dr.E. E. Southard read thereport of the Committee on Hered-
ity in Insanity, of which Dr. Adolf Meyer is chairman. Dr. C. B.
Davenport presented a paper on the relation between geographical
isolation and consanguineous marriage, calling attention to the fact

145

146 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

that many islands off the New England coast showed much inter-
marriage of relatives and an unusually large proportion of cases of
recessive characteristics in the population. Similarly, the valleys in
mountainous or hilly countries and other communities isolated by
their distance from railways and means of communication from the
outer world are regions of consanguineous marriage. Dr. A. H.
Estabrook, field worker of the Eugenics Record Office, gave an account
of the degeneracy in a valley in eastern New York State. Here over
two-thirds of the population of over 600 persons are mentally defective.
There is a large proportion of consanguineous marriages. Dr. David
F. Weeks, superintendent of New Jersey State Institution for Epilep-
tics, reported on the methods that are being used to standardize
methods of charting human pedigrees. These are set forth in Bulletin
No. 2 of the Eugenics Record Office. This was discussed by Dr. H. H.
Goddard, Mr. E. R. Johnstone, superintendent of the Vineland
Training School, and others. Mr. H. H. Laughlin, superintendent of
the Eugenics Record Office, gave a report on its work that is pub-
lished elsewhere in this Magazine. Dr. C. G. McGaffin, pathologist,
Taunton State Hospital, Taunton, Mass., presented three pedigree
charts:

(a) The C. family: Four generations had been traced with a fair
degree of accuracy and the living members of three generations had
been interviewed. The first generation showed two cases of maniac-
depressive insanity; the second, five cases of maniac-depressive, one
of paranoia, and one of imbecility; the third, no active mental symp-
toms, but there was a prostitute, a vagrant, and one with a criminal
record among its members; the fourth consists of children who up
to the present have shown no mental symptoms, although two are
considered weak-minded.

(b) The W. family: This family shows cases of Huntingdon’s
chorea in five generations, also some insane members.

(c) The H. family: A chart showing over 1,000 individuals with
insanity in six generations. This chart was worked out entirely from
the genealogical record of this family, a volume unique in its careful
tabulation of biologie record.

Miss Florence Danielson, a field worker of the Eugenics Record
Office assigned to the Monson State Hospital, gave an account of one
of the families that she has studied most extensively, showing a high
incidence of feeble-mindedness, alcoholism, and sex immorality in
certain rural communities of southwestern and western Massachusetts.
Dr. F. A. Woods read a paper on separating heredity from environ-

NEWS AND NOTES 147

ment, published in a later Magazine. Mr. L. B. Alford, research
officer and pathologist of the Monson State Hospital, spoke on inher-
itance in epilepsy after the Brown-Sequard method and demonstrated
with guinea pigs.—C. B. Davenrort, Secretary.

THE HEURTIN FAMILY OF VERTOU

As an example of a defective germ plasm perpetuating itself per-
sistently and with disastrous results the Heurtin family of Vertou,

Copyright, 1910, by Volta bureau.

THREE OF THE HEURTIN FAMILY.

Stanislas congenitally deaf and nearly blind. Marie and Martha congenitally blind-deaf

148 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

France, furnishes instructive material for the eugenist. A Breton
tun maker, Stanislas Aristide Heurtin, in 1884 contracted marriage
with his second cousin four years his junior. He is a sufferer from a
spinal (marrow) disease and also from hemeralopia which is described
as an abnormal condition of the eyes in which the sense of vision is
impaired by artificial light (the reverse may also be the case, when it
is day-blindness). Nine children resulted from this marriage, as
follows:

Marie, born April 18, 1885; born blind-deaf.

Lucien, born February 8, 1887; died at the age of 21 days.

Eugenie, born December 11, 1887; born blind; died August 5, 1899.

Elisa, born December 24, 1891; in possession of all senses, normal.

Adelaide, born July 29, 1894; in possession of all senses, normal.

Stanislas, born December 21, 1896; born deaf and ‘‘hemeralope.”’

Germaine, born January 3, 1899; died March 12, 1902.

Marthe, born July 23, 1902; born blind-deaf.

Germaine Andre, born November 22, 1906; born blind-deaf and
paralyzed in the limbs; died January 20, 1908.

Aor WN FH

OON

Thus, summarizing, of nine children only two were normal and
capable of enjoying all faculties, three were born blind-deaf, one deaf
and ‘“‘hemeralope,” one blind, and four died young.

The close blood relationship of the parents may perhaps have been
a partial cause of the infirmity of their progeny, but the greater proba-
bility is that the father’s infirmities were responsible.

The heredity of the family is shown strikingly in the chart below.

S-H
@ |
B.D B D.H B.D BDP
HEREDITY OF THE HEURTIN FAMILY.
U_ Defect if any, not ascertainable. B_ Blind.
S Spinal disease. D Deaf.
H Hemeralopia. P Paralyzed (in limbs).

The amount of physical defectiveness carried in the blood of this
family is appalling. But there is no doubt of the correctness of the
data, which are vouched for by M. A. Constantin, director of the Insti-
tution de la Persagotiére at Nantes, France, who has favored the
Volta Bureau, Washington, with the statement. Mr. F. K. Noyes,
editor of the Volta Review, kindly loaned the copyrighted photograph
shown above.

NeEws AND NOTES 149

IMPORTANCE OF RAISING THE SECOND GENERATION OF
CROSSES

This Magazine is read by some who can not find time to keep
abreast of the theoretical side of the experimental work in breeding
which has developed so rapidly of late. It may therefore be of use
to notice the importance of getting the second generation from a
cross. The breeder should not reject the results of a cross when the
individuals of the first generation do not show anything which he
thinks worth preserving. As Bateson states in his excellent account of
breeding work (Mendel’s Prirciples of Heredity, 1909), some amount
of money has been lost through this procedure. It is difficult for most
people to refrain from judging an animal or plant merely by its exte-
rior. But the breeder at least must judge by performance and not
by looks. He who rejects a crossbred plant or animal because its
outward appearance does not satisfy him is throwing away a purse
beeause it looks shabby, without opening it to see what money it
may contain.

A good example of this has come under my notice. The velvet
bean, which is an important forage crop in Florida, and bears short
velvety pods, was crossed with a new and promising bean from the
Philippines, the Lyon bean, which has long pods covered with down.
All the plants grown from the crossed seed bore long pods clothed
with fine hairs which got loose and penetrated the skin so as to cause
irritation. In the words of the gardener, they “were covered with
hot fuzz that nearly drove one crazy.’ If this cross had been raised
during the last century, it is probable that all the stinging plants
would have been burnt. But the knowledge already gained by exper-
iment led to the saving and hulling of these pods. Their seeds grew
into vines that bore pods, on some plants all stinging, on others all
downy, on others all velvety, and on others nearly smooth. Differ-
ences as to early or late ripening, amounts of healthy pods, propor-
tions of scattered seeds, long or short pods, sizes of seeds, colors of
seeds, sizes of bunches, numbers of seeds in pods, etc., are visible,
and enable selections of forage plants to be made from the progeny
of those seemingly useless stinging plants of the first generation.—
JoHN BELLING, Gainesville, Fla.

150 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

PROGRESS REPORT FROM GENETICS CONFERENCE TO BE HELD
IN PARIS

The organisation committee of the fourth International Conference
of Genetics assembled on June 14 under the presidency of Dr. Viger.
Mons. Philippe de Vilmorin, secretary of the committee, told the
assembled members what had been done to prepare for the conference.
He had received 130 adherents of which three are honorary members.
The sum received in subscriptions up to that date amounted to 2300
francs. The rest was expected to be received in the course of July.
Not counting the names of the principal French biologists who are
members of the committee, the following foreigners have subscribed:
Baur, Giesenhagen, Goldschmidt Pfitzer, Poll, ete. (Germany);
Agar, Bateson, Darbishire, Gregory, Miss Durham, Hartog, Laxton,
Lynch, Nettleship, Paton, Punnett, Miss Saunders, Staples-Browne,
Sutton, Miss Wheldale, etc. (England); Bradley (Australia); Fru-
wirth, Strakosch, Tschermak, ete. (Austria); W. and C. Saunders,
(Canada); Johannsen (Denmark); Balls (Egypt); Davenport, Hays,
Howard, Swingle, Tower, etc. (United States) ; Hagedoorn, Houwink,
Lotsy, Norduijn (Holland); Leake (India); Strampeli (Italy);
Nilssonehle (Sweden); Chodat (Switzerland); Boris de Fedtschenko
(Russia); Arechavaleta (Uruguay), ete.

A NEW ZEALAND ESTIMATE OF THE AMERICAN BREEDERS
ASSOCIATION

The January, 1911, number of the Journal of the Department of
Agriculture of New Zealand contains an article—one of a series on
plant breeding—by Prof. A. H. Cockayne (A.B.A.), in which he makes
mention of the work of the American Breeders Association in the fol-
lowing language:

One of the most powerful organizations devoted to the furtherance of breed-
ing is that of the American Breeders Association, an institution which is doing
an immense amount of good in securing uniformity of work, formulating
methods for special investigation, and, in general, advancing the science of
breeding into one of the most essential and valuable of all the sciences con-
nected with agriculture. It is‘split up into a large number of com mittees, con-
sisting of the ablest investigators in America. The plant-breeding phase of
the work is being given full prominence, as it is recognized that plant improve-
ment is one of the primal factors governing the agriculture of the present day.
Its membership is already over eight hundred strong, and is constantly increas-
ing. During the past, great prominence has been given in all countries to
animal breeding, and the results achieved have led to the establishment of
many organizations dealing with the subject: but the American Breeders Asso-
ciation recognizes that plant breeding should go hand-in-hand with animal

NeEws AND NOTES 158

breeding, and the influence of this association is likely to give a great impetus
to this work in America, where even now plant-breeding is assuming important
proportions. Every experiment station—and there are one or more in every
State—devotes a portion of its funds to plant improvement, and much of the
money of the ‘“‘ Adams Act”’ is to be used in this connection. The crying need
of the present-day farmer is to increase the returns from the area he cultivates,
and to enable him to do this the aid of the plant breeder must be invoked.
The American Breeders Association; in bringing before public notice the urgent
necessity of more breeding work, especially with plants, conducted in a truly
scientific manner, and pursued with a definite aim, will be conducive of much
good.

NOTE FROM NORWAY

Dr. H. H. Gran, professor of the botanical laboratory of the Uni-
versity of Christiania, Norway,and member of the American Breeders
- Association writes that the Norway Horticultural Society, of which,
by the way, he is president, has systematically begun work in plant
breeding.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The editor of the Magazine is indebted for permission to reproduce
the likeness of Benjamin Tomkins, Jr., to Mr. T. F. B. Sotham.
The plate is from Mr. William Sotham’s work on “The History of
Hereford Cattle.”’

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED

SPINELESS Cactus. Luther Burbank, Santa Rosa, Cal. 32 pp. Illustrated.
A history and description of varieties of Opuntia (spineless cactus).

EINFUEHRUNG IN DIE EXPERIMENTELLE VERERBUNGSLEHRE. Prof. Dr. Erwin
Baur. 1911. 293 pp., 80 text figures, 9 colored plates. Publishers,
Gebrueder Borntraeger, Berlin.

Die DerutscHeE LANDWIRTSCHAFTLICHE PFLANZENZUCHT. Dr. P. Hillmann,
manager of the seed-growing division of the German Agricultural Associa-
tion. Prepared under authority of the organization. 1910. 663 pp.; 546
illustrations and 1 colored plate. Publishers, Deutsche Landwirtschafts
Gesellschaft, Berlin.

ConFIpDENcES. Talks with a young girl concerning herself. By Edith B.
Lowry, M.D. Forbes and Company, Chicago. 1911. 94 pp.

Trutus. Talks with a boy concerning himself. Same author and publisher.
1911. 95 pp.
These are two companion books, and what is said below applies to
both. They are designed to be placed, and in the reviewer’s opinion
ought to be placed, in the hands of every boy and girl of from ten to

152 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

fourteen years of age. And as a matter of fact thousands of adults
might profitably read these books.

“‘Confidences” and ‘Truths’ tell in simple conversational style
of the mystery of reproduction and of the care of the body. The lan-
guage is chaste, direct, and personal, and it is all said so charmingly,
delicately, and winningly that the author is sure to gain the confidence
of her young reader. The penalties which nature inflicts upon those
who disobey either knowingly or ignorantly are referred to inciden-
tally and as a warning, and not in a way likely to frighten.

Dr. Lowry has rendered parents and all in charge of young lives a
real service. It is doubtful if wise instruction such as contained in
these books can be imparted as well by any grown person not having
special training. Many parents find themselves tongue-tied in con-
versations on this subject with their children. But that parents
should place upon strangers, playmates, or servants the terrible
responsibility of imparting this knowledge to their children is crim-
inal. We have come to realize that silence and evasion are stupid
and criminal and have been the cause of untold harm. There is
springing up a healthy sentiment in favor of meeting parental respon-
sibility with becoming sense and intelligence, and of giving timely and
sensible instruction to youths concerning sex life and the elemental
biological processes. Dr. Lowry has hit upon a most happy way of
telling her story. ‘‘Confidences,’”’ written for girls, is if anything
written in brighter vein than the other book. These booklets should
be the counsellor of every boy and girl.

Tue Sociat DirecTION oF HuMAN EVOLUTION, AN OUTLINE OF THE SCIENCE
oF Huaenics. William E. Kellicott, Professor of Biology, Goucher
College. 249 pp., 29 illustrations. D. Appleton and Company. 1911.

Incorporating the essence of lectures delivered before the students

of Oberlin College, this book is written in plain, easily understood
English, and is a welcome addition to the number of works treating
on eugenics in popular language. Presentation of the subject in this
manner from authoritative sources will be the urgent need of the eugen-
ics propaganda for many years to come. Decades will probably have
to pass before the racial conscience will be awakened to the realization
of the enormities of the crimes committed under the cloak of custom,
tradition and prudery, against the integrity of the race. Books almost
without number, written in all languages, for all classes of people, will
be needed to perform this tmportant educational function. The book
is optimistic, though not for a moment losing sight of the difficulties
and obstacles in the way of eugenic reforms.

News AND NOTES 153

The outline does not pretend to present the results of research
work or of original investigations on eugenics by the author. On the
contrary, he draws upon the work of those who have done fundamen-
tal research in this new science and shows the bearing of their dis-
coveries on economic and social conditions.

In intention the book is suggestive, giving in large, boldly-drawn
but necessarily fragmentary outlines a view of the entire field of human
heredity. The best written and perhaps the most interesting part
of the book is the second half, in which is proposed and discussed a
eugenics program.

Some criticism may be offered upon the author’s lack of uniformity
in the use of symbols to illustrate heredity charts. The appearance
and readability of the book would have been considerably improved
by using the symbols employed by the Eugenics Section of the Ameri-
can Breeders Association. The uniform and general use by writers
and publicists of these symbols would soon lead to recognition and
knowledge of their meaning among the general public and even on
the part of the casual reader. The sooner this can be accomplished
the better are the prospects of eugenic teachings sinking into the pub-
lic mind.

THE Law oF SEx DETERMINATION AND ITS PRACTICAL APPLICATION. Laura A.
Calhoun. 254 pp., 2 illustrations. The Eugenics Publishing Company,
New York City. 1910.

This sizable work is another contribution to the very numerous
theories of sex determination or production of sex at will. It is
apparent that the author makes a serious attempt to treat the sub-
ject from a scientific point of view. But the major premise of the
dissertation is not based upon conclusions obtained by scientific
methods. It lacks experimental evidence and the support of statis-
tical data. In fact, the author seems to realize this, to judge from the
admissions, direct or implied, that she has not given the theory the
necessary experimental corroboration or tests. To cite an instance;
after explaining her view of the effect under her law of sex determina-
tion, in case of partial castration of domestic animals, she suggests:
“This could be tested by a breeder of animals, and if proved to be the
case would be of great value.”

Part of the book is devoted to a review of the status of the study of
the heredity of sex, origin of sex, relation of the cell to sex, and the-
ories of sex determination which have from time to time been put
forward. The author is aware of the fact that the number of these

154 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

theories runs pretty well mto the hundreds. There are other
hundreds of “theories” and “recipes,” notable chiefly for their gro-
tesqueness, which are practiced by farmers and breeders for con-
trolling sex of offspring of domestic animals.

The book is reflective but hardly conclusive. It seems that the
author would need a very much larger number of cases to prove the
correctness of her theory, and to submit a physiological and cytologi-
cal rationale of the processes involved.

A new and heretofore apparently unobserved phenomenon is
described and termed “‘telegyny.” <A considerably larger basis of
fact than is submitted will be required to command a serious considera-
tion of this theory from genetists in their present skeptical state of
mind. Telegyny, in brief, is a peculiar influence exerted by the ‘“‘ pre-
vious female.”

If this book shall bring us nearer to the solution of the difficult
problem of sex control it will establish for itself a most enviable place.

A StTupyY OF THE IMPROVEMENT OF CiTRUS FRUITS THROUGH BUD SELECTION.
A. D. Shamel. Circular No. 77, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture. 19 pp., 25 illustrations. 1911.

NATIONAL VITALITY, ITS WASTES AND CONSERVATION. Irving Fisher. Senate
Doc. No. 419, 61st Congress, 2d Session. Presented by Mr. Owen.
122 pp. An extract from Report of the National Conservation Com-
mission, 1910.

Tuer Stupy or Human Herepity. Bulletin No. 2, Kugenics Record Office.
Charles B. Davenport, H. H. Laughlin, David F. Weeks, M.D., E. R.
Johnstone, Henry H. Goddard. Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y. 17 pp.,
4 illustrations. A guide for field workers and others interested in col-
lection of heredity data. Being an exposition of the methods in use at
the Eugenics Record Office, the New Jersey State Village for Epileptics,
the Training School for Backward and Feeble-minded Children at Vine-
land, N. J.

Several pages are devoted to symbols, abbreviations, and heredity
charts, illustrating their proper construction and the use of symbols
and abbreviations. This paper will appear in full in the bound Annual
Report of the American Breeders Association.

ASSOCIATION MATTERS

CHANGES OF ADDRESS

Members who may have occasion to change their address during
the year are requested to advise the Secretary, giving their old as
well as new addresses, so that the mailing list of the Association may
be kept correct and up to date.

PORTRAITS OF SCIENTISTS AND BREEDERS

Separate prints of the portraits of scientists and breeders which have
appeared in the Magazine during 1910 may be obtained from the
Secretary’s office at ten cents each postpaid. These portraits are
printed in sepia tone on sepia paper and are especially suitable, when
framed, for adorning the walls of offices, class-rooms, and dens.

TO JOG THE MEMORY

Members of the American Breeders Association who may have
received their due bills of membership for this year are respectfully
requested to make remittances promptly. Each lot of renewal notices
sent out by the Secretary’s office entails upon the Association consid-
erable expense for postage and clerk hire. Kindly coéperate in saving
this outlay.

CHANGE OF PLAN WITH REGARD TO MAGAZINE

The publications of the American Breeders Association, viz., the
M agazine and Annual Report, are the results of the codperation of its
active members. They have given these enterprises admirable
support from their inception, contributing always freely at no small
sacrifice of time and effort.

During 1910 the plan was followed of publishing all papers suitable
for magazine matter in the Wagazine and republishing these, together
with the more strictly scientific papers, in the Annual Report. This
resulted, even with exercise of the greatest discrimination, in making
the 1910 volume of the Magazine rather more technical than was
desirable in a magazine planned along popular lines. To meet this
criticism it was decided hereafter to publish in the JJagazine only
popular articles, reserving the strictly scientific ones for the Annual
Report No. VII and not republishing in the latter any of the articles

155

156 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

appearing in the Magazine. In doing this the editors have assumed
the task of printing fully one-half more matter than had been pub-
lished by the Association in any one year, and have to a certain extent
imposed upon the members the task of contributing more largely
than formerly.

It is to be hoped that members will continue to be animated by the
spirit of codperation, and contributions from members and from non-
members in the way of articles, news, notes, or photographs will be
weleome at all times.

TEN THOUSAND NEW MEMBERS WANTED

Here is one suggestion how to get those 10,000 new members.
You surely have among your friends and acquaintances a number who
are interested in some phase of breeding or in eugenics. If so, will
you write at least ten a letter, or speak to them personally, inviting
them to join the American Breeders Association?

Explain that they should join; that through their membership they
will help in the promotion of a large and vital movement; that every
person interested in things that live and grow, and every person
possessing pride of family and race should read the American Breeders
Magazine and catch the inspiration of its optimistic world philosophy,
and the faith in the possibilities of the human race; that to be identi-
fied with a movement of such vast import and possibilities confers
distinction.

Write the Secretary of the Association advising him of the name and
address of the persons you are corresponding or conferring with, in
order that your efforts may be supported from this end of the line
and that we may send circulars and sample copies of the Magazine
to your nominees. The Association needs earnest, loyal, personal
work on the part of each one of its members. Let us get those ten
thousand members within the next twelve months. This is only about
two hundred from each State and should be easy of accomplishment.

THE AMERICAN BREEDERS ASSOCIATION TO ITS PARENT!
The Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations,
Greetings:
By unanimous vote of the American Breeders Association at its
sixth annual meeting, its Council was directed to extend greetings

1 Read before the meeting of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Expert-
ment Stations by Prof. W. M. Hays, Secretary of the American Breeders Association, on Nov. 17,

1910.

ASSOCIATION MATTERS Wy

to its parent organization, the Association of American Agricul-
tural Colleges and Experiment Stations. I have the honor, there-
fore, in the name of the Council of the American Breeders Associa-
tion, to express to you, our parent organization, our feeling of high
regard and our profound gratitude for your service to all interested
in the objects of the new organization.

In 1899 the idea occurred to those attending the Hybridizers’
Conference in London, under the auspices of the Royal Horticultural
Society, that there should be in America an association of breeders,
which should include both those interested in plants and those inter-
ested in animals. This suggestion was placed before Secretary Wil-
sop, who suggested that a committee of the Association of American
Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations would be the best
auspices under which to organize such an association. Following
this suggestion, a promotion committee was appointed at the annual
meeting of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and
Experiment Stations at New Haven, Conn., in 1900.

Under the call issued by the promotion committee appointed for
that purpose by the Association of American Agricultural Colleges
and Experiment Stations, a meeting was held during the last days of
December, 1903, in St. Louis, Mo., at which the American Breeders
Association was formed. Since that time six annual meetings have
been held, at Champaign, Ill., Columbus, Ohio, Lincoln, Nebr.,
Washington, D. C., Columbia, Mo., and Omaha, Nebr. The sev-
enth annual meeting has been called to meet with the National
Corn Exposition at Columbus, Ohio, February 1, 2 and 3, 1911.

The American Breeders Association has successfully carried out
the purpose of your organization committee in bringing together
both the scientists and the practical breeders interested im both
plant breeding and animal breeding. As originally formed, besides
general officers, there was a Section of Plant Breeding and a Section
of Animal Breedivg. By a nearly unanimous vote by mail of the
membership in 1910 the Constitution of the Association was changed,
adding a third section relating to heredity in man, called the Eugenics
Section.

The reports of the annual meetings already published and now in
preparation have the credit in America and abroad of containing
the best collection extant of authentic knowledge relating to heredity
and breeding. During 1910, the Association established a magazine
under the name American Breeders Magazine. Up to this time the
membership was confined largely to scientists and technical breeders,

158 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

but with the organization of a magazine the effort is bemg made to
build up a large membership of practical plant breeders and animal
breeders and of people who have a general interest in heredity in
man.

The work of the Association is largely done through committees,
nearly fifty i number. These committees carry the main responsi-
bility of securing from the members of the Association and others the
addresses and papers presented at the annual meeting. These
papers, together with special articles, editorials, and news items secured
by the Secretary or prepared in his office, make up the subject mat-
ter of the Magazine. As yet a large part of the material of the
Magazine is reprinted in the Annual Report. Members are requested
to use the dividual numbers of the Magazine in securing new mem-
bers, depending upon the bound Annual Report for their files of the
scientific articles.

The $2 annual membership fee from about one thousand members
has paid the necessary expenses for stationery and for printing the
Annual Report. The increasing membership which comes with the
establishment of the Magazine promises to pay expenses and to grad-
ually build up the Magazine. The Association is at present on a
basis of something over one thousand members and 150 life member-
ships. The $20 fee for life membership has given a permanent fund
of about $5,000. The management of the Association has always
kept the expenses within its income and at present there is a small
surplus in the current expense fund which is now being used in a
campaign for greatly enlarging the membership.

The American Breeders Association is proud to come back to its
parent Association with a substantial report of progress. It is fair
to say that the new Association has greatly increased the interest in
the scientific study of heredity, in the improvement of our several
billion dollars’ worth of plant products, and in the better scientific
breeding of our domestic animals. It has assumed the delicate yet
important task of leadership in the discussion of heredity of the human
family. The officers of the Section of Eugenics, the committees on
the different phases of heredity in man, and the editorial officers of
the Magazine and Annual Report have adopted the policy of institut-
ing scientific investigation rather than entering campaigns for pro-
moting any existing theories regarding the improvement of heredity
inman. Under the direction of this section, private funds have been
supplied so that a number of people are devoting their entire time to
investigations in different phases of eugenics. An article in No. 3

ASSOCIATION MATTERS 159

of Vol. 1 of the Magazine by Dr. Goddard of New Jersey on “‘ Hered-
ity of Feeble-Mindedness” illustrates the fact that we have an open
field for investigation of very great importance in human heredity.

It is believed that the Association is greatly stimulating the work
of breeding in departments of agriculture and state experiment sta-
tions and by private institutions and individuals. Annually larger
aad larger expenditures of money and time are being devoted to work-
ing out the facts and methods needed by breeders of plants and ani-
mals, and larger and larger sums are being placed at the disposal of
those who under public or private auspices create new varieties,
breeds, and strains with new values.

The promotion committee which called the first meeting of the
American Breeders Association was composed of the following-named
gentlemen: Prof. W. M. Hays, University of Minnesota, St.
Anthony Park, Minn., chairman; Director L. H. Bailey, Cornell
University, Ithaca, N. Y.; Prof. Thomas F. Hunt, Cornell Univer-
sity, Ithaca, N. Y.; Dr. Herbert J. Webber, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, Washington, D. C., and Dean Charles F. Curtiss,
Iowa Agricultural College, Ames, Iowa.

The Association and its Council have assumed the work delegated
to the promotion committee. It is now suggested that this statement
be received as the final report of the promotion committee and that
it be discharged. ;

The new Association comes to the old, not only to express its
deep gratitude, but also to express the most hearty good will and the
wish for the broadest coéperation in the future.

Sincerely and with gratitude,
W. M. Hays, Secretary for the Council.
C. F. Curtiss, Chairman Animal Section.
H. J. Wesser, Chairman Plant Section.

RECEPTION OF A. B. A. ANNUAL REPORT NO. VI

Volume VI far surpasses the high quality of previous A. B. A.’s. We are
all pleased with it—ArtTHuR W. GiLBErRT, Cornell University.

The American Breeders Association Report Volume VI is just to hand and
we think it fine.—B. F. Kaurpp, State Agricultural College, Denver, Colo.

You are to be congratulated on the wonderful progress madeby this Asso-
ciation. James E. Rice, New York State College of Agriculture.

I want to congratulate you on the splendid work that has been done during
the past year. I have gone pretty thoroughly into the report and am more

160 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

than pleased.—E. R. Jounston, New Jersey Training School for Feeble-Minded
Children.

Am very much pleased to note the commendable progress made by our
Association, and hope it may continue to flourish and widen its scope of use-
fulness.—C. N. Krenny, LeRoy, N.Y.

We think Volume VI the neatest, nicest printing and binding of the entire
series.—Q. I. Simpson, Palmer, III.

The proceedings came along in due time and are intensely interesting.—
HerBeErT Quick, Ediior Farm and Fireside, Madison, Wis.

Courtesy of H. D. Ayer, Animal Photographer, St. Anthony Park, Minn.

IMPORTED HAMPSHIRE Down Ewes.

THE AMERICAN BREEDERS
MAGAZINE

Published Quarterly by the American Breeders Association
FOR THE USE OF ITS MEMBERS
PRICE OF SINGLE COPIES, 35 CENTS

Address communications to American Breeders Association, ce Weetineton: 1D GE

Vol. ll, No: 3 ‘Third Quarter, 1911 Whole No. 7
CONTENTS
PAGE
Beeeeeom Levey -POrirait.: (vi 6 sic. scons: 1b ns waif wie oes 163
Supposed Inferiority of First and Second Born Members of Families. T.
Pavince Muni: AMioninedl, (amadan oft. a0: ileacsi cee ceo desc see 165
Horses and Horse Breeding (illustrated) (conclusion). H. K. Busx-
TESPG TTD, , Va SxS] a rea, 8 BSA Oe a 175
Breeding Ostriches for Plumes, (illustrated). CHARLES F. HotprEn, South
Tepgrglema, Gall k eo yee 5 Nee ne ne ete SE gg na a 188
Separating Heredity from Environment. F. ApAms Woops, Brookline,
INTE SIS. ac eda. c1e e Behn Gre cicts ea hee eae ree RI CS eee 194
Suggestive Laboratory Exercises for a Course in Plant Breeding (illus-
Med) ee MEER Wee GiGRERT. Tthaca<N. Yogi ones ews ence hee 196
The Corn Breeder’s Problems. C. P. Hartitry, Washington, D.C....... 210
Geometrical Figures in Plant Breeding. B.D. Hatstep, New Brunswick,
eae errr ee eS I ty ek See ea ces 217
Spermatogenesis or Origin of Male Germ Cells (illustrated). L. C. and
tenner @ollins, «Colo. io. 2... 125 2: fea 'ec ck cee ees ees eet. 220
The Practical Breeding of ‘First Early’? Marrowfat Peas (illustrated).
Warren eGhns sdazeldine, Hngland:..........22820: 02.6.0. 5 eas 222
EDITORIALS:
heawomanivovementiand Pugenics..........52.- 5. c0.ccsi esse ec ee cee 220
Breede and Apricultural Organizations................-.-..----eeeee 228
ek SES NGS) BAe 0) 0) FS ea
NEWS AND NOTES:
Mepune@attie nesistant to Texas Fever........:........2...0-5--- 220s 233
Organization of 2 Fruit Registry Association...................:.-..-- 234
The Sugar-Beet Industry is Based on Breeding....................... 234
Peawadeny oe! orn for Wlevated Regions........................ Bees. eas)
_ European Estimate of the American Breeders Association........ es PALE
pees ane Gladiolus society Organized. ....>..000..0.-..0. 0.2... 238
POL) JSG ee (0 ee eats
ASSOCIATION MATTERS:
Yearbook of Proceedings of the A. B. A. for Sale................ Bas FeZS9
2220. D1 URVES ep RIOT 7 ee ne ee 239
Report of the Secretary of the Colorado Ste ate e hapter of the A. B. A.... 240
Notice of Eighth Annual Meeting.................. as ne <i ee

THE AMERICAN
BREEDERS MAGAZINE

“Seed is the beginning of all wealth.’’—W. R. Smiru.

Third Quarter, 1911

- Vol. II

No. 3

CHARLES MASON HOVEY, 1810-1887

The domestication of plants and animals was man’s first decided
interference with nature’s usually automatic regulation of her affairs
—an assertion of man’s personality, and a proclamation of man’s
mastership.

One of the remarkable incidents connected with the fact of the
domestication of plants is that apparently unpromising or almost
negligible characters often caught the breeder’s eye. He developed
them to an unusual degree, first by cultivation, then by selection
_and breeding. ‘The unobtrusive wild strawberry is a case in point,
and the man with the eye of genius who saw possibilities in the edible,
small red berry, and who had in his mind the method and in his
hands the skill to bring about a most wonderful change in shape,
size, and in the shipping and keeping quality of the strawberry was
Charles Mason Hovey.

Long perhaps after minor incidents of his active and useful career
shall be forgotten Mr. Hovey, who was born in Cambridge, Mass.,
in 1810, will be known as the “father of the American strawberry.”
He bred and propagated a large number of varieties of fruits and
flowers, shrubs and vines, some of these of great merit. The Thuja
hoveyt, a form of arbor vite, has a place in the heart of every lover
of evergreens. But his largest offering, his chef d’euwvre, was a straw-
berry which made possible the development of all our present Amer-
ican commercial varieties.

Up to Hovey’s time the common wild strawberry and its cultivated
descendants furnished the tables direct from the garden, but of com-
mercial varieties there were none.

The origin of Hovey’s basic variety cannot be intelligently dis-
cussed without going somewhat into the history of the domestication
of the strawberry. And fortunately Dean Bailey of Cornell has
discovered the clue to this history in his study of the garden varieties
of the strawberry. Previous to the time when Bailey assigned a
definite, specific place to our cultivated strawberry and recognized

163

164 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

it as Fragaria chiloensis, it was treated as a sort of stepchild by bot-
anists and had no place or name in particular which would indicate
either its origin or botanical position.

The fact that scientific study had to disclose its real origin after
it had been in cultivation for almost two hundred and fifty years
adds strength to the often repeated statement that the origin and
domestication of most of our cultivated plants are veiled in doubt
and mystery.

Fragaria chiloensis, a strawberry plant originating in Chili but
known to be common to western North and South America, had been
brought to Europe about 1712. Forty years of cultivation and use
had developed nothing of outstanding value. Then, somewhere,
suddenly a mutation, possibly a hybrid, which was an improvement
on this parent, seems to have arisen and found distribution as the
“Pine Strawberry” from its flavor resembling that of the pineapple.
Hovey crossed the native American strawberry with imported plants
of this “Pine” variety and obtained a large number of crosses from
which he fruited two varieties of especial promise which he named
Hovey and Boston Pine. The Hovey was the first pistillate straw-
berry placed before the American public. It gave strawberry breed-
ing a wonderful impetus and hybridizers began to put out new varie-
ties.

And as early as 1830 he had a list of 30 strawberries of his own orig-
ination, all sprmging from the Hovey, and in fact practically all
commercial varieties sprung from this one original parent variety. —
In 1836 the Hovey was distributed commercially and for thirty years
in succession this variety took first premium over all other varieties
at the exhibitions of the Massachusetts State Horticultural Society.
Among all his varieties the originator held it in high esteem.

Hovey was versatile, resourceful, and possessed of apparently inex-
haustible enthusiasm. He was successful as author, editor, plant
breeder, nurseryman, and merchant. He contributed voluminously
to horticultural literature, and in 1835 established a journal under
the name of American Gardener’s Magazine, which was subsequently
changed to Hovey’s Magazine of Horticulture, which continued during
thirty-four years. He entered upon the publication of a pretentious
and elaborate illustrated work, named “Fruits of America,’’ of which
two volumes were published.

Mr. Hovey was elected president of the Massachusetts Horticul-
tural Society and vigorously promoted the interests of that institu-
tion. During his term of office its membership was increased from

MacCatLey: SUPPOSED INFERIORITY OF FIRST-BORN 165

500 to 1,000. His efforts were largely responsible for the erection of
a beautiful building for the society’s use. He was an inveterate col-
lector of varieties. On his experimental grounds he had at one time
1,000 varieties of pears, 100 of apples. and 50 of plums, and at one
time he showed 200 varieties of camellias.

THE SUPPOSED INFERIORITY OF FIRST AND
SECOND BORN MEMBERS OF FAMILIES:
STATISTICAL FALLACIES

T. B. MacCavLry
Montreal, Canada

There is a general impression that while the study of eugenics may
be interesting it can be of but little practical value owing to numerous
and obvious difficulties in applying to the improvement of the human
race the principles and methods which can be used in animal and
plant breeding. Students of the science, while frankly recognizing
this difficulty, have endeavored, nevertheless, to make their investi-
gations as practical and helpful as possible. It has been thought by
some that a foothold for practical work has been found in the sup-
posed fact of the inferiority of the early born members of families,
which certain authorities have claimed to have discoveredand proved.
If later born children are, on the average, superior to their elder
brothers and sisters, then all influences which tend to increase the
size of families have not merely a numerical effect on the population,
but also an effect in preventing degeneration and improving the qual-
ity of the race. Several other important conclusions have also been
drawn from this supposed fact. It is therefore desirable to investi-
gate carefully the foundations on which the theory is based. Is it
really a fact that early born children are, as groups, usually inferior
to the later born of the same families? Let us examine some of the
statistics which are relied upon as proof.

I have before me Dr. Karl Pearson’s ‘First Study of the Statistics
of Pulmonary Tuberculosis.” It contains an analysis of the records
of 381 families, with 2,164 members, each family having one mem-
ber in the Crossley Sanatorium.

166

AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

Tuberculous families, numbers of each class of sibling.

Order of siblings. Number of cases. Order of siblings.
1 381 12
2 366 13
3 332 14
4 289 15
5 247 16
6 185 17
7 126 18
8 86 19
9 57 20

10 35 21
11 21 22

Number of cases.

— i OOM OO

The tuberculous patients from these families were distributed as

follows:
Tuberculous patients
eee) eink
. = z er cent : er cen
Nemberett| Number of Number of éhtersea Neen tcr Number of | Number of Ce ae
sible cases cases SF | siblines cases cases of
. observed. calculated. “| observed. | calculated.
| calculated. | ealeulated.
1 113 67.1 168.4 | 8 9 15e 59.6
2 79 64.4 122.6 | 9 3 10.0 30.0
3 41 58.5 70.0 10 3 6.2 48.4
4 52 50.9 102-1 | iin 3 3.7
5 39 43.5 89.6 | 12 1 2.6
6 18 | 32.6 55). 2 13 1 1.6 56.6
7 18 | ehRo) 81.1 14 1 igi
| above 14 0 126

Dr. Pearson says:

If we consider the community as a whole, it will be built up of families in all
stages of development. There will be some in which both eldest and youngest
siblings have passed through the tuberculous zone, some in which the eldest
have and the youngest have not, and some in which the eldest are in it and the
youngest have not reached it. Each one in his lifetime passes through the
danger zone, and we might expect, out of the totals that pass through, the same
percentage would be attacked, whether they happen to be elder or younger
siblings. In other words, if we take the Crossley Sanitarium population at a
given date, we might expect that as far as position in family is concerned it
would be drawn indifferently from all parts of the family.

Dr. Pearson accordingly finds the ratio of the 381 patients to the
2,164 members of the families to which they belonged, and, applying
that ratio to the number of children of each order of birth, tells us
that the resulting calculated numbers as given above are the numbers
that should have been in the sanatorium if the liability to tuberculosis

MacCauLrey: Supposep INFERIORITY OF Frrst-BORN 167

were equally great in all members of each family, regardless of their
order of birth. (See above table.) The actual numbers of inmates,
it will be seen, are, among the early births, greatly in excess of the
supposed normal numbers as calculated by Dr. Pearson, and are less
than the numbers calculated for the later births.

Dr. Pearson further presents a diagram which vividly illustrates
the supposed greater liability to tuberculosis of the early born, and
the supposed comparative immunity of the later born, and adds:
“Tt will be obvious on mere inspection of this table, or of the accom-
panying graph, that the excess of elder born, and defect of younger
born, is most marked.”

Dr. Pearson’s conclusion is:

In general, whether we deal with all tuberculous stocks, or only with those
having no parental history, the elder offspring, especially the first and second,
appear subject to tuberculosis at a very much higher rate than the younger
members. If this special incidence on the earlier born be found to be true for
other forms of pathological heritage, we have a very serious factor of national
deterioration introduced by the growing limitation of the family. It is further
conceivable that any class which reproduces itself largely from the elder chil-
dren, e.g., the peerage, as far as the father is concerned, would tend on the aver-
age to degenerate more rapidly. The substantiation in other cases of this
pathological weighting of elder children, which appears true for the cases of
tuberculosis and insanity, would be a eugenic fact of the greatest importance.
The limitations of the family may not only be an evil, if it leads to a smaller
relative output of the mentally and physically better stocks, but, even in the
case of feebler stock, it may lead to a relatively larger proportion of the more
affected individuals being added to the community.

In his pamphlet on “The Problem of Practical Eugenics,” Dr.
Pearson reproduces the diagram above mentioned, and adds other
similar diagrams, showing the supposed greater liability to insanity,
crime, albinism, among the earlier born. He adds:

If our observations are correct, and I believe them to be so, then the mental
and physical condition of the first and second born members of a family is
differentiated from that of later members. They are of a more nervous and
less stable constitution. We find that the neurotic, the insane, the tubercu-
lous, and the albinotie are more frequent among the elder born. Dr. Goring’s
results from criminality show the same law. The diagrams I put before you
bring this out; you see in the tuberculous, the insane, and criminal stocks that
the first few members are weighted. But the result of this law is remarkable.
It means that if you reduce the size of the family, you will tend to decrease the
relative proportion of the mentally and physically sound in the community.
You will not upset this conclusion in the least, if, as I suspect, the extraordi-
narily able man, the genius, is also among the early born. For you will not
lose him if you have a larger family, although you will lose the sounder members
if you curtail it.

168 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

From these supposed facts the professor draws some very far-reach-
ing conclusions, even claiming that they require a modification of the
Mendelian theory. He says:

It is difficult to reconcile this result with any simple Mendelian theory;
it would seem necessary to combine such a theory with what amounts in re-
sult to a selective action on the gametes. J have already pointed out that such
action would not only modify the Mendelian proportions, but also the parental
co-relations. Further, this selective action would vary with the environment,
7.e., the changing constitution of the parents. Such direct action of the en-
vironment on the gametie cells is one which it would from the standpoint of
national eugenics be of the greatest importance to study.

These arguments are certainly plausible, and the conclusions de-
rived thereform are at least interesting. Before, however, we follow
the professor in considering these embellishments or upper stories,
so to speak, of the great structure which he has erected, let us examine
the foundation stones more carefully. Unless the foundation be
solid, the building collapses.

Let us consider first the statistics of tuberculosis. It is perfectly
clear that the sanatorium contained larger proportionate numbers
of early born patients than of later born of the 381 families. Does
this, however, prove that early born children are more liable to the
disease than later born? Not at all. Such a condition as that shown
by Dr. Pearson’s statistics was inevitable, and could have been fore-
told. Suppose, for instance, that of the 381 families included in
the statistics, one consisted of fifteen children, the eldest twenty
years of age, the youngest six months. Theeldest had developed
tuberculosis, and entered the sanatorium. All the fourteen younger
brothers and sisters would be carefully tabulated and included in the
numbers of tuberculous stocks of the later born. Because fewer of
such later born and therefore young siblings, babies, perhaps, had
become inmates of the sanatorium, we are asked to accept that fact
as proof that later born children are superior to their elder brothers
and sisters. It may be claimed that a family of fifteen is an extreme
supposition, but the statistics before us include not only a family
of fifteen children, but one of twenty-two. It is not wonderful,
however, that the statistics also show that at least the youngest
eight of that family (all of the eight being probably very young chil-
dren. some of them possibly infants) were not inmates of the sanatorium,
there being no inmates belonging to any group beyond the fourteenth
born.

MacCau.ey: SupPposED INFERIORITY OF First-BorN 169

Dr. Pearson tells us, however, that “while a certain number of
families exist with young siblings in which the older alone are likely
to suffer, there are othersin which the older are dead, or past the
danger zone, and in which only the younger are likely to suffer,”
and he makes the assumption, therefore, that there will be enough
older members of families whom he considers to be dead or past a
supposed ‘‘danger zone” to offset the younger siblings. Unless
this assumption be substantiated, that there is a special danger zone,
and enough members of the families beyond it to offset the younger
siblings, the foundation of the whole theory and of all its develop-
ments is removed, and the entire structure collapses like a house of
ecards. When the vital importance of this assumption is thus realized,
we would expect that some proof would have been produced in sup-
port of it, but there is nothing, absolutely nothing. The foundation
is simply assumed to be there, and a great edifice is then endeavored
to be built on it. To those who think the assumption is sound, we
commend the following statistics from the report of the Registrar
General of England and Wales, 1891-1900:

Annual mortality from phthisis per million living at various ages.

Age. | Mortality per million Age. Mortality per million.
Oto 4 413 _ 35 to 44 2592
9) .t0»9 206 45 to 54 2362
10 to 14 368 55 to 64 1881
15 to 19 H 1144 65 to 74 1154
20 to 24 1730 75 and over 437
25 to 34 2135 All ages 1391

In the face of such figures it is difficult to see how the claim can be
supported that the older members are “past the danger zone,” and
therefore not likely to become inmates of a sanatorium. Not until
age 75 does the death rate from phthisis descend to the neighborhood
of what it is below age 15. The professor claims that the mean age of
onset of the disease is 29.1 for males and 25.3 for females. That,
however, is merely another way of saying that at those average ages
the patients began to be eligible for admission to the sanatorium.
Patients may be admitted not merely at the onset of the disease,
but probably at any time prior to death. Not merely, therefore,
is the assumption which we are asked to accept entirely unproved,
but in view of such statistics as the above, would appear to be entirely
disproved.

170 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

To sum up: In Dr. Pearson’s tables the inclusion of children and
babies who are not yet old enough to be exposed to the dangers in
question very clearly makes it inevitable that the groups of later
born, to which these children belong, will show a more favorable
percentage than the groups of early born, who are of necessity grown
up. To draw any serious deductions from such statistics would on
its face appear absurd. Dr. Pearson, however, contends that there
are as many people dead, or who have passed the supposed danger
zone, as there are children in the families not yet old enough to be
exposed. This may be so, or may not be so. It is a tremendous
assumption to make, and he does not bring an atom of proof in sup-
port of it. So far from being reasonable and credible, it appears to
be in direct conflict with the statistics of the disease. Until the Doc-
tor can show that there is a better foundation under his theories,
he must not expect them to be taken seriously.

The diagrams produced in regard to insanity and crime are, as
already mentioned, similar to that relating to tuberculosis. I have
not before me the statistics upon which they are based, but there is
little doubt that they have been prepared in precisely the same man-
ner. If so, the inclusion of young children among the later births
renders these results also valueless. The later born groups, which
include a considerable number of children, naturally have not devel-
oped as large a proportion of insane persons and criminals as the
older adult members of their families, but Dr. Pearson’s contention
that this proves that those later born individuals are to that extent
superior to the older born is not even open for serious discussion. It
cannot even be claimed that there is a danger zone in insanity and
crime, such as was claimed for tuberculosis. The older siblings have
in reality had just so much longer time to develop insanity or criminal
propensities than the younger ones.

Apart altogether, however, from the effect of including in the sta-
tistics the undeveloped members of the families, another considera-
tion, not, however, probably productive of as marked an effect on
the statistics, would lead us to expect that the early born groups would
show higher percentages of individuals lacking in robustness, or even
given to crime. If one or other or both parents die, for example, of
consumption at comparatively early ages, their average family will
certainly be much smaller than in the case of couples neither of whom
die prematurely. Parents of criminal or semi-criminal tendencies,
moreover, may not remain together sufficiently long in the marriage
state to have large families, though on the other hand some paupers

MacCauLrEy: Suprposep INFERIORITY OF Frrst-BoRN crt

and others may have families over the average. The children of these
small tuberculous or criminal families would of course all fall into the
earlier born groups, and as a result of heredity we would expect some-
what larger percentages of weak or criminal children in those groups.
That, however, in no way indicates that early born children are infe-
rior to later born of the same family.

We now, however, come to another remarkable supposed fact which
Dr. Pearson claims to have proved. He states that families contain-
ing tuberculous members are, on the average, larger than those of
the total population. He makes a similar claim with regard to several
other types of inferiority. Is this contention well founded, or is it
like the one we have been previously discussing, a mere statistical
fallacy which will not bear investigation?

I quote again from Dr. Pearson’s study of the statistics of tuber¢u-
losis:

The distribution of the 381 tuberculous families, which may be practically
considered as completed, is as follows:

Size of family. Number of families. Size of family. Number of families.
1 15 9 22
2 34 10 14
3 43 11 6
4 42 12 6
5 62 13 3
6 59 14 4
7 40 15 1
8 29 22 1
w —_ =
a Total... .381

Accordingly the mean family contains 5.80, and for the female pedigrees
5.59. Mr. Schuster finds the mean size of families containing at least one deaf
mute to be from American statistics 6.08, and from English statistics for prob-
ably completed families 6.19.

It would thus appear that fewer offspring are not born to stocks tainted with
pulmonary tuberculosis.

There is no reduced fertility in the case of tuberculosis; in fact their fertility
is as great as that of any other class in the community.

The professor compares the result obtained as above with the
average size of families in the community as a whole, and claims that
these statistics show that “the families of the affected are larger,
not smaller, than those of normals.”

Do these figures really prove that the tuberculous families of the
community are onthe average as large as, or larger than those of normal

172 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

stocks? Most decidedly not. The mean family, as given, represents
the mean for those particular 381 families, but it does not, and cannot,
represent the average size of tuberculous families in the community
as a whole. It is in fact impossible to ascertain the average size of
afamily in thismanner. Statistics compiled in this way must always,
and inevitably, overstate the average. Dr. Pearson treats these
381 families as though they were indifferently chosen from the tuber-
culous families of the community, but this is not so. Such a selection
is one of children, not of marriages or of families, and the probability
of any one marriage being represented in the sanatorium is in direct
proportion to the number of living children in the family. Marriages
with a large number of children are very likely to be included; mar-
riages with but few children are correspondingly less likely; while
childless marriages will not be represented at all. A marriage with
ten children has ten times as great a chance of being included in the
statistics as a marriage with but one cbild. A marriage with twenty-
two children, like the one mentioned in Dr. Pearson’s statistics, bas
twenty-two times the chance of being included that a marriage with
but one child has, for there are twenty-two children who may develop
tuberculosis as against one in the other case. The mean family
derived from statistics so compiled clearly does not, and cannot, rep-
resent the average of the tuberculous families of the country, and to
compare a result so found with the average size of a family in the com-
munity as a whole is simply to deceive ourselves.

Perhaps we will better appreciate the nature of these fallacies if we
apply the same rules and reasoning by which they are produced to a
supposititious case. Let us imagine a community which contains
1,000 families of one child each, and 1,000 other families with ten
children each. These 11,000 children in the 2,000 families give an
average family of course of exactly 5.5. To simplify the problem,
let us assume that the 10,000 children of the families of ten are so
evenly distributed that there are precisely the same number of first
born children living at every age, from twenty to forty-four inclusive,
and that the ages of the children of the same families are precisely
two years apart. This is a purely artificial grouping, but its very
simplicity will help us to understand better the principles involved.
It is, of course, quite proper for us to ignore families of which no mem-
ber has reached maturity, just as such families find but little place in
the records of a sanatorium for pulmonary tuberculosis. The 1,000
members of the families of one child are, we will say for convenience,
divided evenly from ages 20 to 49, inclusive, there being forty living
at each age. :

MacCau.ey: Supposep INFERIORITY OF Frirst-BoRN

173

When these materials are arranged according to order of birth, the

following is the result:

Age in years.

Order of siblings.

Over 25 20-25 11-19 2-10 Total.

1 1520 480 2000
2 680 240 80 1000
3 600 240 160 1000
4 520 240 240 1000
5 440 240 320 1000
6 360 240 360 40 1000
74 280 240 360 120 1000
8 200 240 360 200 1000
9 120 240 360 280 1000
10 40 240 360 360 1000
AYi sc) hs 4760 2640 2600 1000 11000

We will now suppose that of the above group 148, or exactly 2
per cent of the total number of siblings beyond age 20, are college
professors, the selection being made from each group in exact pro-
portion to its members living at age 20 or over (I mean no disrespect
to our professorial friends in naming this young age, merely desiring
to make the statistics correspond somewhat to the facts of tubercu-
losis). Arranging these professors according to order of birth, and
comparing them with the calculated number of cases which we should
have if the professors were ‘‘drawn indifferently from all parts of the
family in proportion to the total number of persons of each birth,” we

get the following:

Number of Professors.

Statistics about professors.

Observed. Calculated.
1 40 26.9
2 19 13.5
3 17 fo).
4 15 13.5
5 13 13.5
6 12 13.5
7 11 13.5
8 9 TSE
9 7 13.5
10 5 13.5

expected

148
141
126
111
97
89
82
67
52
37

cases.

Percentage of actual to

It will be obvious on mere inspection of this table, or of the accompanying
graph, that the excess of elder born, and defect of younger born, is most marked.
Testing by the usual process for goodness of fit, we conclude that the prob-
ability of such a distribution of older and younger members of a family occur-
ring by random selection, lies between one and two in the ten million trials.

174 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

This is a truly wonderful discovery. It is very evident that a
much larger proportion of the older born members of families become
college professors, and the first born are evidently peculiarly subject
to this dread complaint. These statistics when combined with the
equally convincing statistics in regard to tuberculosis, insanity, crime,
and albinism furnish conclusive evidence that the older born, and
particularly the first born, are on the average inferior, physically,
mentally, and morally, and that the later born are their decided supe-
riors in these respects.

A further and most interesting and important point is to be noted
as to the fertility of professorial stocks. Grouping the professors
in our statistics according to size of family, we find that twenty
belonged to families of one, and 128 belonged to families of ten. In
the 148 families there were thus 1,300 children, the average size of the
family being 8.8. This is a surprisingly high figure, and of course
enormously greater than that of the general population. It fur-
nishes convincing proof that ‘‘the families of the affected are larger,
not smaller, than those of normals.’”’ The results are, in fact, so
striking that we must really conclude that there is some connection
between fertility and the tendency to professoritis. The exact
nature of that connection, and which is cause, and which is effect,
we are not yet able to say, but the fact of a connection is obvious.
It is not impossible that by increasing the number of professorships
we may be able to bring into operation a force that may effectively
combat the tendency towards degeneration in the community result-
ing from race suicide, for with their large average families the num-
bers of later born and therefore superior individuals would be greatly
increased. These statistics, moreover, confirm the necessity of modi-
fying seriously our conception of the Mendelian theory, as already
pointed out in connection with our study of tuberculosis.

My readers may smile at this; but this is precisely the reasoning
which we are seriously asked by Dr. Pearson to accept as proof of the
theories in connection with eugenics, which we have been discussing.

In conclusion, it will be noted that I do not claim that elder born
children may not possibly be inferior, on the average, to later born of
the same families. What I do say is that we should not be asked to
accept this theory and the far-reaching conclusions based on it
without positive and convincing proof. Statistics such as we have
been considering are relied on as ‘“‘proof,’’ but they in reality prove
nothing whatever. The proof has still to be produced. We require
proofs, not assumptions.

BusH-Brown: Horst BREEDING Via

If Dr. Pearson’s theory be correct, it should be easy to establish
that fact, without relying on fallacies. Exclude from statistics all
families with less than say five children; exclude also all children that
are too young to have been fully exposed to the risk under consider-
ation; compare the later born with the earlier born of their own fam-
ilies only; make allowance for the fact that in cases where the risk is
continuous, or partly continuous, during adult life, a man in middle
or old age has had a longer time to develop the trouble than one just
reaching manhood; carefully exclude all other sources of error; then
give us the results, and we will judge of the truth or otherwise of the
theory. It is quite possible that the offspring of immature parents
may be less robust than others; but the assertion that the first child
born to a couple who marry at age thirty is more likely to be a degen-
erate than the same child would have been had his parents married
ten years earlier and had several children before him will require
a lot of proof. Until such proof be furnished, we may be pardoned if
we do not take the theory seriously.

HORSES AND HORSE BREEDING

H. K. BusH-Brown
Washington, D.C.

[Continued from second quarter.]

If not too presuming, I should like to make another suggestion
about mules. By reason of the Celtic pony having no callosities on
his hind legs and having the stripe down the back, and other charac-
teristics like the ass, it would not be surprising to find that the pro-
geny produced by reciprocal breeding would be fertile to themselves
and perhaps to both parental families. Furthermore, if instead of the
African ass, which is the farthest removed in type from the horse,
the Dzeggetai, also Kaing or Asiatic ass were used, the chances of
getting fertile hybrids would be increased, because the Asiatic ass is
much more closely related to the horse than is the African type. Fur-
thermore, he has only five lumbar vertebre. If fertile mules can be
produced, the way is open for a new hybrid species to be developed.

To return, then, to the original proposition: There are four fam-
ilies or species of horses, and as the type differences are so very marked
it is important for breeders to know in a scientific way Just what they
are doing when they produce hybrids of any of these pure types.

176 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

And, more than that, if they are to make any success of breeding, then
the pure types must be preserved pure, so that the fountain spring
of the family can always be returned to for the pure and unmixed
blood influence.

In order to understand the results of pure breeding, we must
realize that to breed within the family is maintaining the pure type
and to breed from one family to another is to produce the hybrid in

Fic. 14.—MontTGoMERY CHIEF, KENTUCKY SADDLE HORSE.

the same sense that the mule is the hybrid of the ass and the mare.
In using the word “hybrid” in this way, I hope I am not misleading.
Such a hybrid within the species is fertile, just as the white and black
races make a fertile hybrid, but none the less a hybrid. Matings out-
side the species, like the mare and the ass, the coon and the cat,
produce usually a barren hybrid, but all hybrids are not barren.
Thus to breed the Connamara pony to the Iceland and the Fjord horse
of western Norway is breeding within the family and maintaining the
type, and the physical characteristics would thus be accentuated.
The offspring would in consequence, if such breeding were continued

BusH-Brown: Horse BREEDING 77

for generations, approach more closely to a prepotent type, and by
careful selection of best specimens possess ever increasing qualities
of excellence.

On the other hand, to breed the Celtic pony to one of the draft
types would be breeding out of the family and produce a hybrid. In
such a case what number of offspring would resemble one ancestor
and what number the other has not been determined by any sufficient

Tic. 15—Briack Bess, GENERAL MorGAN’s Famous MARE.
Sire Drennon, son of Dave Crocket—bred at Midway, Ky., dam by Imported Yorkshire, out of
Margravine by Margrave. An early type of Kentucky saddle mare. Owned and used for a model
by the late Henry K. Brown, sculptor.

investigation, but certain it is that unevenness of produce would
prevail or a condition of atavism be established. Every breeder will
form his own opinion, drawn by analogy from his past experience, if
he will but realize that much of our breeding for the past few cen-
turies has been of a hybridizing character. Thus from the Forest or
draft type of mares and the Arab horse, or his Thoroughbred cousin,
has been produced the French, German, and English Coach horse,
the Hackney, Cleveland Bay and Hunter, Suffolk Punch, ete.

178 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

To what extent the Thoroughbred, the American Trotter, Kentucky
Saddle, and the Morgan horse may be considered hybrids, I leave for
my readers to decide after finishing this paper. We will all agree that
they form one family group and are the most closely related to the
Arab horse of all breeds in common use here. I do not mean by this
any derogatory criticism, for the business of horse breeding has been

Fig. 16—GENERAL GATES.
Morgan used by U. S. Department of Agriculture to reéstablish Morgan type.

pursued with all the intelligence available and the results have been
good, but we can do much better in the future if the subject can be
taken up in a more thorough and scientific way.

I should like to pause here to say that my serious study of the horse
began when I was a boy and was stimulated by a visit of Alden Gold-
smith to our studio at Newburgh, N. Y. He drove over from Chester
with one of his fine trotters and spent the entire day with my uncle

-yuyed | | | ) ! Bat ay ng Os op UW V ued
| iy NOUUIVLS NVt

E BREEDING

Ss

oo
en

3H-BROWN

S

Bt

180 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

talking about horses and everything pertaining to breeding and
driving them. We had on the studio floor, as means of demonstration,
the famous Kentucky mare Black Bess, a very remarkable animal,
ridden by Gen. John Morgan in the Confederate army. One state-
ment of Mr. Goldsmith’s impressed me very much. It is as follows:
“Horsemen and jockeys talk very glibly about ‘bottom’; one horse
has it’and others do not. It seems to me that it is not impossible

Fie. 18.—HaEes, ImMporteEpD ARAB FROM THE DESERT.
Shown at Rutland in Morgan Classand given first prize as best Morgan type. Hobb’s skeleton is
in the National Museum.

that with sufficient study we will find that ‘bottom’ is merely a ques-
tion of the length of the forearm and the distance from the thurl-
bone to the hock. Extra length in these bones means that the lever-
age is greater and there is proportionately less bone below the knee
and hock to be raised from the ground and carried forward. Thus
the work is done with greater ease, and energy is conserved for endur-
ance. In other words, the arms of your compass are longer and they
measure more ground every time they are extended.” This inspired
me to study proportions in horses and to establish a relation of pro-

BusH-Brown: Horse BREEDING 181

portion and capacities more carefully than I needed in my profes-
sion. I have done some research work but not of sufficient amount
to permit me to formulate a standard of measure. All breeders will
agree that between proportion and capacity there is an intimate
relation, but I do not know any one who has reduced it to mathemat-
ical terms.

Here is another line of anatomical study. Suppose, for instance,
that we select for anatomical study the Thoroughbred that makes the

Fic. 19.—CarRMON.
Morgan and Thoroughbred used by U.S. Department of Agriculture on the Agricultural College
Breeding Farm at Fort Collins, Colo., to establish an American Coach type by breeding to closely
allied families. 24, 25, 26 are similar types, bred for conformation.

best record each year and have all his proportions taken while he is
alive and in his prime, and then after he is dead have his skeleton
prepared and deposited in the Museum for study. Suppose that this
is supplemented in England by a study, in the same way, of the Derby
winners, and similarly in France for the Grand Prix horses. If these
studies were made on a uniform system and the results compared for
a series of years, we should know a great deal more about the Thor-
oughbreds than we do now.

182 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

In a similar way we could study the trotting horse and perhaps
be able to demonstrate in mathematical terms what constitutes a
speedy horse at running and trotting, and then we might determine
how best to breed and to select for traming. Or suppose we select
for study the best producers. Such selection would perhaps serve
the breeders a better purpose.

The Museum of Natural History of New York is the best equipped

{NAIL

& a

Fia. 20.—KHALED, Son oF Nimr.

to do this research work, as it has a department exclusively devoted
to the study of horses. It will do all the laboratory work and issue
reports free, provided the prepared specimens are sent it. To have
the specimens prepared costs about forty dollars apiece and the
breeders of horses should make their own selection and pay this first
cost, as it is a special study in the interests of breeders.

Inasmuch as the blood of the Russian Prejevalsky does not seem
likely to produce results of practical or artistic value, we may leave
him in the Zoo as a curiosity. Thus we have the Celtic ponies, the

BusH-Brown: Horse BREEDING 183

European Draft or Forest horses, and the Arabs as the three great
families of useful horses. I look for very beneficial results from cross-
ing the Celtic horses, the higher types of which are very serviceable
and sturdy little animals, with the larger types of American horses,
such as the Morgan, the Trotter, and the Thoroughbred.

Fic. 21.—Ciay CHILDERS.
Americo-Arab, a grandson of Nimr and a grandson of Linden Tree, one of the Arabs presented to
General Grant by the Sultan of Turkey. The rest of the breeding is inbred Henry Clay, National
Stud Book, Class ‘‘E,’’ No. 4.

I should like to suggest here that the little Canadian pony, such as
I remember in my boyhood, may have been a kindred of the Celtic
pony.

To sum up our argument, then, the breeder should always keep
the three families of horses and their constituent subgroups clearly
in his mind as three distinct types or species, and in his breeding
follow some definite law of continuity, such as to breed twice away
from the pure type and once back to it. By laying out his own
plan of procedure and recording his results he will haye great joy

184 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

and success in his breedings and leave for others the benefit of his
experience.

If there is any advantage in a horse having five lumbar vertebra
instead of six, the American horse breeders want to know it. <A series
of reasonable tests, such as mounting one-half a regiment of cavalry
with purebred Arab horses, would help determine this question.

Fic. 22.—Tue Great Prize WINNING ARAB STALurlon ABpUL Hamip IU.

Sired by Leopard, one of the Arab horses presented to General Grant by the Sultan of Turkey
Abdul Hamid II. Dam an inbred Henry Clay mare. The result of breeding to a closely related
family. Observe the Hogarth’s line of beauty in his neck. First prize New York National Horse
Show, 1894; First prize Baltimore Horse Show, 1894; Championship International Horse Show, Buf-
falo, N. Y.

Furthermore, a study into the tendency of nature to develop in the
hybrid the qualities of its parents would be of infinite value to horse
breeding. Here is a kind of research that is almost untouched and
which appears to give promise of the greatest practical result, and I
am of the opinion that such thoroughgoing scientific research will
give a character to horse breeding that it does not now possess.

BusH-Brown: Horst BREELING 185

To keep within the family group or true-breed is not a new idea,
for breeders of all the types have kept strictly to it in the subdivided
lines, but too much in-breeding almost invariably produces degen-
eration. This is immediately corrected and revitalized by a return
to one of the primitive types that have been kept pure.

We are yearly paying thousands of dollars of tribute money to
Europeans for breeding stock and are content slavishly to follow their
lead to merely perpetuate and continue the studbooks they have
established. The exceptions to this statement are the Morgan horse,
Kentucky Saddle, and the American Trotter; these are types of our

Fig. 23.—Frz, A Son or ABput Hamip IT.

own of which we are proud, and the success here attained should give
us courage to move forward and attain greater things.

Furthermore, we have the best Thoroughbreds in the world and of
such quality that by carefully selecting them for breeding purposes
and by crossing them with the above-mentioned American types
we may produce higher types of the general utility horse than we
have seen heretofore.

We have a goodly quantity of the two living primitive types, the
Arab and the Celtic horses, and every subdivision of the draft type.
We have therefore all the material that any people have for main-
taining and strengthening the established types and for creating
new ones, if we wish to do so.

186 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

Thus with scientific research and the application of knowledge
gained to horse breeding we will become not only independent in
our breeding, but the leaders of the world in the industry. Besides
the live stock, we have the greatest variety of soil and climate, with
well distributed and extensive grazing land.

The establishment of the Arabian Horse Club and their Registry
of Arab horses was an important event in this country. It is the
only studbook in the world, so far as I know, that continues the breed-

Fia. 24,—KasiM, Son or ABpuL Hamip II, Dam an INBRED Henry Cuay, STRONG IN
MeEssINGER BLoop.

ing of the Arab horse in its absolutely pure type just as the Arabs
have bred it ever since the earliest times in history.

This should be followed by the establishment of registry for the
Norway horse, the best representative we have of the Celtic type.

The National Studbook was established for the purpose of discover-
ing the result of breeding the Arab horse to his closely related families
in this country, the Thoroughbreds, Trotters, Kentucky Saddle, and
Morgan horses. At the same time it gives free scope to the breeder
who wishes to follow either narrow or broad lines in breeding and
holds him strictly responsible for what he does. If he wishes to con-

.

BusH-Brown: Horse BREEDING 187

centrate on existing types he can do so, and if he wishes to go afield
and establish new ones he can do that and have the records of his
breeding kept, so that if he succeeds the world will know how he
attained his results, and if he fails it will also know how to avoid
failure.

I believe no studbook has ever attempted to do this before, for the
reason that heretofore race types have not been understood as they
are now.

The effect of following the rules of the established studbooks has
been to restrict breeding to the animals already registered and to

Fia. 25.—Houran, Importep Pure ARAB BRED IN THE DESERT.

discourage the combining of closely related families which the laws
of science required in order to attain the best results. What a horse
is and what he can do is, however, the final test.

By making no restrictions other than keeping the classifications
distinct, the National Studbook’s rules leave it to the breeder to
make his own plan and to prove his plan of breeding to be the best.
The record discloses the breeding, and the photograph shows the
result.

These studbooks require a photograph of the horse to be deposited,
a form of record that is not now expensive and is quite worth while
as a record of what is being produced.

188 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

For registration of existing types in this studbook it requires some-
thing more than speed records; there must be evidence of individual
Arab characteristics to be worthy of breeding to the pure Arab.

By careful selection we will build up a selected Americo-Arab type.
The United States Department of Agriculture has taken the initia-
tive in this matter in selecting for restoring the Morgan type and in
creating an American Coach horse.

By a proper codperation and system of circuit breeding of selected
units from our best native stock, we can establish a higher respect
for the American-bred horse and become a nation of exporters of
high-class horses instead of a nation of importers. We will have
the best that soil, climate, science, and care can produce.

BREEDING OSTRICHES FOR PLUMES

CuHarues F. HotpeN
South Pasadena, Cal. .

Twenty odd years ago Mr. Edwin Cawston conceived the idea of
raising ostriches in southern California on a commercial scale. He
went to Africa, collected some fifty good birds and arranged to have
them shipped to this country. dMany difficulties had to be overcome,
not the least of which was the opposition manifested on the part of the
South African Government. However, a few of the birds were finally
landed safely in southern California.

Since that time immense improvements have been made in ostrich
feather growing by applying American methods. The ostrich feathers
of Africa are produced at times under very poor or adverse conditions,
whereas the American ostrich feathers are the product of careful
breeding, feeding, and care in the congenial climate near Los Angeles.
The result is that the feathers are much finer, glossier, and stronger.

This ostrich farm is one of the most delightful spots in southern
California. Originally it was one of those oak-clad arroyo banks
found at intervals. All these splendid trees were preserved and made
part of the general effect, many rare plants and shrubs being intro-
duced. With judicious terracing, cobblestone ditches, and paths,
fine landscape effects have been secured. In few places can one see
such fine examples of Asparagus Plumosus, many of the fronds
extending up onto the roofs of the buildings and high up into the oak
trees. There are also splendid examples of ivy-draped oak trees.

HeLpEN: BREEDING OSTRICHES FOR PLUMES 189

The ordinary ostrich egg weighs about three and one-quarter
pounds. The eggs are laid one every other day until twelve or thir-
teen have accumulated. Sometimes the mother bird refuses to sit,
in which case the eggs are put into an incubator for the reason that
the male bird, which usually covers them during the night, will not
do so unless the mother covers them during the day.

In about forty days the eggs begin to hatch, and the chicks come
out full fledged and quite strong, standing about twelve inches high.
They are covered with short stubby feathers reminding one of a bunch
of dark colored excelsior. For the first two or three days they eat
nothing but bits of gravel and shell. Then they begin on the tender
shoots of alfalfa and other green food.

The ostrich chicks grow very rapidly, increasing in size about a foot
a month. During this period they require a great deal of attention

Fic. 1—Pappock ON AN OsTRICH-BREEDING FARM IN CALIFORNTA.

as they receive no care whatever from the mother birds. During
the incubation, however, the mothers are very faithful, covering the
eggs during the hardest storms, even if the nest, which is merely a
hole scooped in the ground, becomes filled with water. Young
ostriches do not show any distinction of sex until they are fourteen
months old, when the male takes on the black feathers.

There are two recognized varieties of African ostrich; the Nubian,
which is the larger of the two, sometimes reaches a height of nine and
one-half feet. The tallest ostrich in the Cawston flock stands eight
feet high. When tempted with an orange or other dainty it can
reach to a height of fully ten feet. The average height of these birds
is seven feet. The eggs of the Nubian bird are larger and quite smooth
and weigh between three and four pounds each. The period of incu-
bation is forty days. The feathers of the Nubian are more curly
but narrower than those of the South African ostrich. Crossed with

190 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

the South African they produce a finer grade of feathers than do
either of the parent stocks.

The birds are plucked about every eight or nine months. They are
not really “plucked” at all, but the wing plumes and the tail feathers
are carefully clipped, one at a time, the stump of the quill being
allowed to remain until it drops out of its own accord.

Feathers are graded to an exact scale. First they are sorted as to
color. Then each given quality is assorted as to length, varying from
the short ones up to plumes twenty-four inches long. Then each
length is sorted as to width, there being six widths. This means that
there are more than five hundred distinct grades of feathers. It must

Fic. 2.—CALIFORNIA OSTRICHES.

not be understood that this refers to colors at all. These five hundred
different grades are each of them dyed into almost innumerable colors
and shades, and one can therefore see that the total stock comprises
thousands of varieties. The sizes of the fancy first grade feathers are
about twenty-one inches in length and about fifteen inches in width.
This size is worth on the market about $400 per pound; it takes eighty
feathers of this size to weigh one pound, approximately. On the tip
of each wing of the male bird there is one single feather called the
byeock. It isa natural mottle of white and brown, and very beauti-
ful. The black and the white feathers of the male birds are of equal
commercial value. The feathers of the female bird have a value of

HoLtpEN: BREEDING OSTRICHES FOR PLUMES 191

about 20 per cent less than those of the male. The average value of
a plucking per annum is about $25; exceptionally good birds are worth
as high as $45. Each wing has twenty-six plumes. There are
about sixty tail-feathers. The feathers on the body of the bird have
very small value and are used in making boas and other cheaper
grade feather articles.

When feathers come to be manufactured after being dyed, the
first process is another careful sorting for quality. It is as if a
barrel of apples were graded, first for size and then were examined
one by one to see that each conformed in every minute particular to
the standard. Thus are brought together in each plume or boa or
other article feathers not only of the same size and general quality
but of such a texture that each will curl in just the same way.

Although the ostriches require a great deal of attention when small,
once they are grown they are very hardy. So far the only disease
known among the ostriches is what is called the Douglas worm, a
minute parasite which clings to the walls of the stomach. This is
not of a serious nature.

The neck of an ostrich is a wonderful part of its anatomy. The
average length of the neck is a little less than three feet, but in the
flock at the Cawston home farm, there is one big Nubian female with
a neck measuring three and one-half feet. An adult ostrich when in
full swing covers about twenty-two feet at a stride and can easily
outdistance an ordinary horse. Their gait, both in running and
walking, has a peculiar swinging roll which at first seems awkward,
but there is a rhythm about it that is really very graceful.

The bill of an ostrich opens fully four inches, and an adult one
makes no trouble over swallowing an orange whole—a big navel
orange, with a diameter of three and one-half inches. Moreover,
some ostriches will catch these oranges as fast as they are tossed,
swallowing one after another until ten or twelve huge globes can be
counted rolling down the long neck at the same time. The Cali-
fornia ostriches are almost equally fond of sugar beets and quickly
snap up rectangular chunks measuring from three to four inches,
disposing of them much the same as they do of the oranges. The
old saw about “‘a stomach like an ostrich’s” is not altogether beside
the mark, for the ostrich will eat literally anything, including nails
and glass. They demand large quantities of gravel or other gritty
substance. The omnivorous appetite of the ostrich often gives rise
to amusing incidents at the Cawston farm. Perhaps the queerest
stunt of all was when one old patriarch shot his head over the railing

192 AMERICAN, BREEDERS MAGAZINE

and seized a long green veil fluttering from a lady’s hat. Nor did
he stop until he had drawn the veil off and swallowed it entire! An
ostrich eats nearly one-fourth as much asacow. They are extremely
fond of green alfalfa and eat several pounds a day. They are also
given large quantities of such vegetables as carrots, beets, turnips,
ete. Their diet must be carefully arranged if they are to produce the
silkiest and glossiest feathers. Rational methods of feeding and
handling have increased the feather production of the birds very con-
siderably.

Fic. 3—MaLE AND FEMALE OSTRICH.

Of all animals, the ostrich has the smallest head in proportion to its
body weight. The eye is about in proportion to the size of the bird
and therefore appears out of proportion to the rest of the head. The
ostrich’s eye is about the size of a good-sized marble. However, he
can see the most minute object. They are particularly attracted by
anything that sparkles or glitters, and it is dangerous to be near them
with any article of adornment. The eyelid of the ostrich does not
move over the eye, but instead there is a separate film which flashes
across it from time to time, reminding one of the shutter of a camera.

Attendants declare that these birds have no brains. They say
that the man who has fed them and cared for them for years takes
just as much risk in going into the pens as the utmost stranger. They

HouprEN: BREEDING OSTRICHES FOR PLUMES 193

seem to manifest no feelings of affection or of friendship, such as most
other birds or animals do. They are extremely treacherous—or a
better word is “finicky”; a trivial circumstance will enrage them.
They start a fight against other birds or against the keepers without
any discernible provocation.

When an ostrich issues a formal challenge to fight, he sits down,
spreads out his wings, draws his head back against his body, and then
repeatedly flaps his wings while waving his head from side to side
and bringing it against his body with a resounding thump. This
is evidently more of an attempt to frighten off the enemy than a
preliminary to fighting, for if one of them really wants to do damage
he does not wait for any such preliminaries but issues a screaming
hiss, throws up his wings, and pounces upon his opponent. The
fighting is all done with the feet, for the bill of an ostrich is compara-
tively soft. The foot of the ostrich consists of one long toe, sticking
out directly in front, which ends in a heavy thick claw, and a slightly
shorter toe on the outside, standing at an angle. He fights by kick-
ing—it would be more accurately described by the word “‘striking’’—
for he raises his foot as high as possible and then brings it down with
a blow that would fell a cow. When ostriches are kept in flocks many
individuals may be noticed whose breasts are torn and scarred from
the savage down-cut of that cruel spur. Most commonly their
fights are over family affairs. Ostriches mate for life and once mated
the male will tolerate no interference from the unmated birds. This
recalls that about four years ago one of the finest birds at the home
farm killed his mate in the night by kicking her to death, andthe
attendants aver that it was because he was jealous of an unmated
bird in the adjoining enclosure. He was afterwards turned back with
the unmated birds and selected a new mate with which he has lived
peacefully for four years.

The best producers at the farm are George and Martha Washing-
ton. These birds are twenty-four years old. They seem to have
profited by their experience, for they hatch more chicks at a setting
and do it with less fuss than any other pair. The attendants claim
that they leave their nests longer and spend much less time and trouble
than other pairs; still at each setting last year they brought off eleven
fine chicks, whereas it is not unusual for a pair to secure only three or
four or five chicks. If this pair have actually been as successful in
past years as last, they would now have to their credit four hundred
and forty ostriches. The life of an ostrich is between 25 and 35 years.

SEPARATING HEREDITY FROM ENVIRONMENT:

F. Apams Woops
Brookline, Mass.

The question of the relative influence of heredity and environment
has been a subject for debate since ancient times, but the results of
such debates have not been clarifying. Indeed many have doubted
that it is possible to separate the two interwoven forces; but this con-
fusion and lack of progressive agreement in our ideas on the question
I believe to be due to the failure to disjoint from the general problem
each separate specific question and then to treat each separate inquiry
by the methods of an approximately exact measurement. If thisis
done a certain amount of agreement can be at once established and
the begimning made for a true science of the subject. Because a
resultant is caused by two combined forces it is not necessarily impos-
sible to resolve their relative strength. Viewed from one point of
view, the problem certainly does seem hopeless; that is, it does not
seem possible to gain any light as long as the discussion hangs upon
the development of a single individual organism. Here it may be
said that both conditions are of equal importance, or one may well
contend that each aspect of the question is of supreme or absolute
importance. In fact one may take any position one chooses and
debate forever without arriving anywhere. For each separate crea-
ture, regarded apart from any others, the germ-plasm potentialities
are one necessity and the air, water, food, and other environmental
factors are another, and no one can separate the two. But as soon
as two or more individuals are made the subject of the discussion we
can begin to see possibilities of estimating the relative value of hered-
ity and environment, not on the production of each individual sep-
arately but on the differences that exist between the two.

To make any distinction of this sort it is necessary to define heredity
as the sum total of what is present in the single fertilized germ cell.
It is important for the discussion to accept some such definition as
this, and not the older idea that heredity means a resemblance be-
tween offspring and parent. As an instance to clear up this defini-
tion, and at the same time prove that it is at times possible to separate
heredity and environment, we have but to think of the example of
the gray and white mice or the black and white rabbits. All our
breeding experiments show that in certain cases albino animals may be

1 Read at meeting of research committees of the Eugenics Section at Munson State Hospital, Palmer,
Mass., May 2, 1911.

194

Woops: HerrEepITy AND ENVIRONMENT 195

surely expected from the mating of two colored parents. Here there
is no resemblance whatever to either parent as far as color is concerned
yet everyone will admit that these differences in color are due to
differences in germ-cells and not to differences in environment. In
the same way the anatomical sexual differences among the verte-
brates are now for a great variety of independent and confirmatory
reasons held to be due to germ-cell or predetermined differentiations
and not caused by alterations in the food supply, heat, moisture, or
other external agencies. In contrast to these cases, let us consider
one or two examples of observable differences which are almost entirely
the result of external surroundings. It would be readily admitted
that any normal child of Caucasian parents might be made to speak
English, French, or German, according as he were brought up among
one or all of these three peoples. Whatever may be the inherent
differences among individuals in their ability to learn languages, by
far the greater part of the world’s linguistic differences are obviously
due to nurture and not to natural differences already present in the
germ-cells. I have recently noticed a tabulation of the divorce sta-
tistics of the civilized nations of the world. Japan shows the highest
ratio, United States next, and England and Ireland among the lowest.
It is evident that the distribution of these differences does not accord
with racial descent. If it did we should have-no way of separating
the inherited psychological factors from the social. The result might
be due to either cause operating singly or to any hypothetical propor-
tion of the two causes acting together. As it is, we may be sure that
a large proportion of these differences are due to something other than
physiological heredity, though our present knowledge of racial gen-
ealogy does not enable us to say just how much. Another instance
of a resulting difference due to external circumstances would be shown
if a farmer cultivate two plots of ground side by side of equal rich-
ness, and, after sowing a large amount of seed of equal average qual-
ity, he then applied a chemical fertilizer to one plot and not to the
other. Simce the average heredity factor would remain the same he
could by shifting one external condition and keeping the others ap-
proximately the same, measure also any one of the other external
forces, sunshine, soil, or water. These easy instances show that it
is possible to get a certain amount of agreement as to relative values—
as to what can be done and what can not be done through outwardly
imposed conditions. It is only a question of how far we can go. The
researches of the future alone can decide.

Already it appears that certain generalizations hold as to the rela-

196 AMERICAN BreEDERS MAGAZINE

tive influence of environment, or, better, “modification,” which is
the more technical word. In Popular Science Monthly for April,
1910, I have brought together and analyzed the results of most of the
modification experiments so far reported. These may be summar-
ized in part and briefly as follows: Each organism, whether high or
low in the seale of evolution, has from the time of conception and be-
ginning of cell division, onward through embryonic and post embry-
onic life, an expected environment. In other words, it expects to
develop and live under conditions which are essentially similar to
those which surrounded its immediate ancestors at each stage of
their career. If the expected environment is altered, then the modi-
fication which will accrue will in general diminish (1) in proportion
as the change from the expected diminishes, (2) as the phylogenetic
rank increases, (3) as the evolutionary rank of the tissue increases,
(4) as the age of the tissue increases, (5) as the organism’s power of
choice increases. All this leads us to expect but little modification
of the important mental and moral differences found among adult
mankind. Researches on twins and my own statistical investigation
concerning royalty as well as the more recent reports from the Eu-
genics Laboratory in London show that the rougher human differences
are due almost entirely to heredity. Just where and when environ-
ment can be counted on to act remains to be determined. The point
I wish to particularly emphasize is that each problem must be treated
separately and in the light of specially contrived experiment or by
specially devised analysis of statistics already in existence. In this
way a science of the subject will slowly but surely grow.

SUGGESTIVE LABORATORY EXERCISES FOR
A COURSE IN PLANT BREEDING:

ARTHUR W. GILBERT,
Laboratory of Experimental Plant-Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

In a recent investigation made by the writer into the status of
plant-breeding instruction in this country, it was found that one of
the most irregular and un-uniform features of our present instruction
is the laboratory work. This problem of methods and materials
for laboratory instruction should demand our serious consideration.
The quality of instruction is often measured by the amount and nature

* See article, by same author, on Lectures for a Plant-Breeding Course, in the Annual Report of
the American Breeders Association, Vol. VI.

197

LABORATORY EXERCISES IN PLANT BREEDING

GILBERT

‘AUOLVYOAVT ONIGGaGYN INVIgd AHL NI SYUaMOTY AO ADO1OHdUOW G@HLONIAGOLS ALISUADAIN

) TIANUOD LY SINZGOLg Jo ssvIQ Y—"T ‘DL

as Oh

pe

198 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

of the laboratory work. There is no field of agricultural instruction
which offers a greater and more valuable assortment of laboratory
material than plant breeding.

The exercises here presented are merely suggestive. The length
of time required for students to carry them out will vary with the
exercise. The first one, for example, will require several weeks. No
attempt has been made to group them in any chronological or peda-
gogical order. This must be determined for each class by its instruc-
tor. These exercises are intended to cover one year’s work. The
practicums do not eall for extensive or costly laboratory apparatus.
The accompanying photographs illustrate all of the apparatus neces-
sary to carry on most of the exercises.

EXERCISE 1?

FreLtp Stupy oF VARIATIONS BY MAKING AN HERBARIUM OF VARIATIONS

Have each student collect, press, and mount fifty variations of plants. This
is an excellent exercise, for it calls the student’s attention very effectively to
the vast amount of variation in wild and cultivated plants. This exercise will
consume several laboratory periods.

Material. A botanical collecting case, 20 blotters, 50 mounting sheets,
labels, and glue. a

The accompanying photographs represent specimens treated as shore: The
following directions may be given to each student.

DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING, PRESSING, AND MOUNTING AN HERBARIUM OF
VARIATIONS

1. Search for fluctuations, plateations, mutations, and bud variations of
plant characters which have been discussed in the lectures.

2. Collect as nearly the whole plant as practicable. The size of the mount-
ing sheets is 11 by 16 inches. When you collect your specimens plan upon this
size of sheet, and arrange them accordingly when you are putting them into
the blotters.

3. Do not mount large, woody branches showing different degrees of thorni-
ness, etc., upon the mounting sheets, but preserve them in bundles properly
labeled.

4. If you wish to show variations of berries, such as thorn poneeh etc., dry
the fruits and fasten them to the mounting sheets by threads.

5. Leave specimens in the blotters until they are thoroughly dry. If you
do not have enough blotters, take out the specimens which have been in the
blotters for a week or so, and put them between pieces of newspapers, under
pressure, until they become thoroughly dry. Then dry your blotters near a
radiator and put in the fresh material.

2 Credit is due to Dr. H. J. Webber for the original suggestion of this valuable method of studying
variations in the field.

GILBERT: LABORATORY EXERCISES IN PLANT BREEDING 199

Fic. 2—SpEciIMEN SHEET FROM HERBARIUM OF V ARIATIONS,
Intended to show variation of leaves of the common horseradish.*, The data on the label record
the fact of the name; locality where found, ravine on hillside; habitat, rich protected regions; de-

scription of variation, leaf finely divided; class of variation, fluctuation; collector, ete.

200 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

6. After the specimens have become thoroughly dry, stick them to the mount-
ing sheets, preferably with glue, but photo paste may be used. Put a small
band of adhesive tissue over the larger stems. Arrange the specimens, if pos-
sible, so that you have at least one variation on a sheet.

7. Put the label on the lower right hand corner, leaving a small margin. At-
tach the label to the mounting sheet with glue or paste, putting it only on the
left. edge of the label, that is, do not cover the back of the label with paste or
glue.

Sample of label

HERBARIUM OF VARIATIONS

DEPARTMENT OF PLANT BREEDING New Yor«K STaTE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE |
DEN: ieee en Set eae. Ae ee cere ew ot SABO Lon Soba bedad doacadDOneS
TO CRAG ais sacar HER ER tea « SERRE ol Ae STE TCT Ste ota hee eee Datereee crete
BG E21 0} (2) gat eee eA aa RE TS GS NE el a eka hn cl Sm A ape, dn aah 8

Description of variation snr. epeares:- cet ee ee sttiie © cles are eee mee OBESE ECE REL CEE EEE

8. Before the specimen is handed in fill in as many of the blank spaces on the
label as possible. Fill in your name after the word “‘Collector.’’ Fill in both
the scientific and common names.

9. Absolute neatness is essential.

EXERCISE 2

Stupy or THE MorpuHouoay oF DIFFERENT Kinps oF FLOWERS

Object. 'To acquaint the student with floral parts and their functions. To
determine the proper condition of the buds and flowers for emasculation, cross-
ing, ete.

Material. Buds and flowers of various kinds and in different stages of devel-
opment, microscope or hand lens, set of dissecting instruments.

Have the students make careful drawings of the floral organs.

The following outline by Mr. M. J. Dorsey may be found helpful in this exer-
cise.

Study of Flowers (prerequisite to crossing)

Outline for general study of flowers:
Flower—
Non essential organs—
Calyx—composed of sepals.
Corolla—composed of petals.

GILBERT: LABORATORY EXERCISES IN PLANT BREEDING 201

Fic. 3.—SPEcIMEN SHEET FROM HERBARIUM OF VARIETIES.
Purpose is to show variations of leaves of the white mulberry. The data on the label record the
name; location, campus; habitat, escaped from cultivation; description of variation, margin of leaves
varying from entire to deeply lobed; class of variation, morphologic; name of collector, etc.

202 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

Essential organs—

Pistil—composed of ( carpels.
a, Style; b, stigma; c, ovary 4 placenta.
ovules.

Stamens—composed of {loculus or cell.
a, filament; b, anther | pollen.
Degree of cross-relationship—
1. Self- or close-fertilization. (Occurring in perfect or hermaphro-
dite flowers.)
2. Cross-fertilization. (Between individuals of same species or va-
riety.)
3. Hybridization. (Between species and sometimes between varieties
which are very distinct.)
Causes of sterility—
1. Stamens and pistils maturing at different times. (Dichogamy.)
2. Lack of affinity between pollen and stigma.
3. Scanty or insufficient pollen.
4. Lack of viability of pollen.
Relative position between stigma and anthers—
1. Stigma and anthers the same height.
2. Stigma above anthers.
3. Stigma below anthers.
Relative maturity of pistil and anthers—
1. Both maturing at same time.
2. Stigma matures first.
3. Anthers mature first.
Methods of fertilization—
1. Insects.
2. Wind.
3. Self-fertilization.
Types of plants with respect to sex—
1. Moncecious (both sexes on same plant).
2. Dicecious (each sex on different individuals within the species or
variety).
Types of flowers with respect to sex—
1. Imperfect (1) Staminate—bearing only stamens.
(2) Pistillate—bearing only pistils.
2. Perfect or hermaphroditic—bearing both stamens and pistils.
Determine the following:
(a) Number of parts to flower—
a, sepals; b, petals; c, stamens; d, pistils.
(b) Type of flower—perfect (hermaphrodite) or imperfect.
(c) Relative position of stigma and anthers.
(d) Relative maturity of pollen and stigma.
(e) Is the flower fertilized by insects, wind, or selfed?
(f) Draw the essential organs and label each part.

GILBERT: LABORATORY EXERCISES IN PLANT BREEDING 203

EXERCISE 3

TECHNIQUE OF THE CROSS-POLLINATION OF PLANTS

This exercise may be carried out in the winter in a greenhouse or conducted
in the fall and spring out of doors, where additional expense is not involved in
growing the plants under glass.

The following suggestive directions may be given to each student.*

Pollination or crossing of plants
‘Pollination is the act of conveying pollen from the anthers to the stigma.”’
—Bailey.

Materials: 1. Instruments: Tweezers, scalpel, small sharp-pointed scissors,etc.

2. For covering flowers: Manila bags, waxed paper bags, cheese cloth,

etc. Wire labels, stringed tags, ete., may be used to fasten the bags.
Preliminary study of plant:

Before attempting to cross plants, it is necessary to know the structure
of the flower to be used. To do this (A) locate all parts—sepals,
petals, anthers, filaments, stigma, style, ovary; (B) determine whether
the flowers are perfect or imperfect; (C) learn to recognize the ‘‘ripe’’
or receptive condition of the stigma and pollen.

Technique:

(A) Emasculation. (Unnecessary where stamens and pistils are borne
on different flowers.) For crossing purposes select flowers in which
the anthers have not opened. Remove the anthers with tweezers
or scalpel, taking care not to injure the stigma. It may be necessary
to remove part or all of the petals in some flowers in order to get at
the anthers, but it is best to remove only the anthers, if possible.

(B) Bagging. After the anthers have been removed, the flower should
then be coyered with some material, as a manila or oil paper bag, to
prevent the entrance of foreign pollen. When the stigma is receptive,
remove the covering, pollinate with the desired pollen of known purity,
and immediately cover again, leaving cover on until fertilization has
taken place—as indicated by withered or brownish stigma. It is
desirable to remove the covering when the cross has “‘set.”’

(C) The record. The record should include a description of each parent
form, giving particular attention to the contrasted characters. Col-
ors may be recorded by comparing with a standard color chart. The
female parent should always be mentioned first. The record on the
label should include variety name or number of each parent, date of
emasculation, and pollination. (Name of worker can also be placed
on the label.) As far as possible reciprocal crosses should be made.

EXERCISE 4
Fieip Strupy or Ear-to-Row Trst or Corn

This exercise should be conducted in the fall, and the corn may be either
left standing in the rows where it grew or cut and shocked, each row being kept
separate.

a The writer wishes to give credit to Mr. M. J. Dorsey for some of the suggestions appearing in this
exercise.

204 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

Object. To test the transmitting power of individual ears of corn.

Material. Small plat of corn, standing or in shock, planted by ear-to-row
method; baskets and scales.

Have each student fill in the following form for each row:

Number of stalks. Number of ears. Total
Row Height = 4 Yield State of |

yield in ‘ Remarks
Nur r.| in feet. me yer stalk.'maturity .|
eestor Eared. Barren. Total. Good. | Poor. | pounds. pe :

EXERCISE 5
LABORATORY STUDY OF EAR REMNANTS OF KNOWN PERFORMANCE

In the preparation of Exercise 4, one-half of each of the parent ears should
be saved for this exercise, and the other half planted.

Object. To study the correlation between ear type and ear performance.

Material. Half ears of corn, each numbered, and the data from their cor-
responding rows as obtained in Exercise 4.

Fic. 4.—APPARATUS FOR CROSS-POLLINATION.
Set of instruments, bags, string, notebook, and a copy of the standard color book, ‘‘ Repertoire des
Coleurs,’”’ for accurately describing the color of flowers, etc.

EXERCISE 6
Stupy oF TuBER Units oF PoTaTors

This exercise should be conducted in the field in the fall. The potatoes
should have been planted by the four-hill-unit system, that is, each four hills
having the same progeny number should come from the same mother tuber,
and they should be so planted and staked that the progeny of the seed end or
apex of each mother tuber may be distinguished from the progeny of the base
or stem end.

Object. (a) To test the transmitting power of individual potatoes. (b) To
test the yield of base and apex.

Material. Small field of potatoes planted by the tuber-unit system, pre-
viously dug and each hill replaced where it grew but exposed to sight; sets of
scales.

Have each student fill in the following form for each hill:

GILBERT: LABORATORY EXERCISES IN PLANT BREEDING 205

Progeny number | |

Parent number

Seed from stem end or seed end

Total weight of hill |

Weight of marketable tubers |

Percentage of marketable tubers

Total number of tubers | |

Number of marketable tubers

Average weight of tubers

Shape

Regularity

Color

Depth of eyes

Amount of disease

EXERCISE 7
Fretp Trip To EXPERIMENTAL GROUNDS

Most experiment stations have plant-breeding experiments under way, and
if a fall inspection of the plats would be instructive to students they should
be taken on such a trip early in the fall and required to make careful notes.

EXERCISE 8
LABORATORY STUDY OF VARIATION IN POTATOES

(a) Students should make up a score card for potatoes to fix in mind ideals
towards which to breed. (b) A careful study should be made of the data
obtained from Exercise 6. (c) Hills of potatoes weighing 4, 1, 2, 2+, 24, 3, and
4 pounds should be made up and drawn natural size, in notebooks.

Objects. (a) To gain a better knowledge of potatoes. (b) To study their
variation statistically. (ce) To fix in mind how hills of different weights look.
(d) To calculate the theoretical yields per acre with certain weights per hill.

Materials. Ten potatoes to each student; data from Exercise 6; scales; a
few bushels of potatoes.

The following outline may be used:

1. Make score ecard for potatoes.

2. Total weight of ten tubers.

3. Average weight per tuber.

206 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

4. Make up hills weighing 3, 1, 14, 13, 2,3, and4 pounds. Draw each natural
size.

5. Compute yields per acre from above weights per hill, assuming the hills
were planted in rows 3 feet apart and 18 inches in the row.

EXERCISE 9
Corn JUDGING

Students of plant breeding should be trained to have a critical judgment of
agricultural and horticultural plants. Exercises in comparative judging are
the best way to attain this end. Utility should be kept constantly in mind.

Details of corn judging will not be given here; they are too well known to
need emphasis. For the east, both dent and flint varieties should be used.
The ears which are judged in this exercise may be saved for Exercise 10, which
should always accompany Exercise 9.

Object. To encourage critical judgment of corn and, by the same means, of
other crops. :

Materials. Ten ears of different races and types of corn to each student;
tape, scales, charts, etc.

Each student should score sample of flint corn according to the following
score card: ;

New England Flint

Points

Maturity.and seed condition).a5.42--)2.5.0 se. eons see ae ee 20
Unitormity, (orrerulanity ofsineleears) ss. essere eee 15
RGR S ay. eee eae ces nec te cy Shoes ane a ree Ac 15
A (cattea al ane eye) Geeneian cers ch ebb chr depee vercieis aoe eI eo aR cla. Glad aa Somer a ein. < 10
eneth and) propontiontas--re see eee ee ee ee eee 19
lho eaear ea pk ty caer Ree aa Roman Pt Net ro creer aden rr cho: Grd aahl od. oF 5
BG 0 = pape a et ln Ne ard ee dee SA EE 1s MSS I Sn od A ae 10
Sulcm(Space betweenrows) see te ee oe eee 10
CONVO eer ae ene eo gee RS TRE yA ya 5

Total ¢23234 4585 A ee AG Sr eee AO Bon see 100

EXERCISE 10
STATISTICAL STUDY OF Ears oF CorN

This should accompany and follow Exercise 9.

Object. (a) To study critically and statistically the various parts of ears
of corn. (b) To work up these data by biometrical methods, drawing curves,
and ascertaining mean, standard deviation, coefficient of variability, etc., for
the various parts of the ear. (c) To illustrate testing for germination.

Materials. Fach student should be given the same ears of corn which he had
for Exercise 9; tapes, scales, and germinators of various kinds suitable for
testing corn.

The following form should be filled in by each student:

GILBERT: LABORATORY EXERCISES IN PLANT BREEDING 207

Study of Corn.

Variety: Dent, flint, sweet, pop. (Underline.)
Where grown

(a) Length of ear in cm.

(b) Circumference of ear in em. (} butt to tip)

(ec) Weight of ear

(d) Number of rows

(e) Cireumference of cob (} butt to tip)

(f) Weight of shelled cora

(zg) Weight of cob

(h) Percentage of shelled corn

(i) Total number of kernels

(j) Average weight of kernel

(k) Width of kernels in em. (taken at random)

(i) Compute average width.

(m) Length of 50 kernels in em. (taken at random)

(n) Compute average length

(o) Diss2et kernels—where does the color lie?

|
|
|
|
|
|

(p) Draw typical kernel (side view) natural size

(q) Make germination test

EXERCISE 11

Stupy OF CORRELATIONS OF CHARACTERS IN CORN

Use the same data as employed in Exercises 9 and 10. Make correlation
tables by accepted biometrical methods, of such characters as length and cir-
cumference; length and number of grains; weight and number of grains; length
and weight; etc. Work out correlation coefficients.

Object. To find out if certain characters are associated so that a measure-
ment of one will give an indication of the other.

Materials. Data from Exercises 9 and 10; cross-section paper.

EXERCISE 12

Stupy or VARIATIONS IN PRESSED SPECIMENS OF RAGWEED, OR SOME PLANT
SHOWING Many DIFFERENT TYPES

Object. Careful study of the large and small variations between different
biotypes of ragweed (Ambrosia artemisifolia).

208 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

Materials. Specimens of many different types of the above plant or any kind
of plant which is rich in biotypes. These specimens should be carefully pressed
and mounted. Have each student make detail drawings showing minute
differences.

EXERCISE 13
STATISTICAL STUDY OF APPLES FROM DIFFERENT TREES

Object. To study the individuality of fruit trees.

Materials. Apples representing the total product of different trees; scales;
calipers.

Fill in the following form for each tree. Plot curves representing the entire
population of trees.

Name of variety

Tree No.

Age of tree

Condition of tree

Total number of apples

Number of marketable apples
|

Total weight of apples

Weight of marketable apples | |

Average width of 50 apples

Average length of 50 apples

Color

Any other noticeable differences

EXERCISE 14

STATISTICAL STUDY OF BRANCHES OF DIFFERENT TREES

Object. To continue the study as outlined in Exercise 13 to test the individ-
uality of trees.

Materials. Fruit trees of different kinds, dwarf trees preferable; tapes.

Measure the new growth of various parts of each tree and of different trees.
Plot curves of each tree and of all of the trees as a population, thus showing
graphically the extent of bud variation present.

EXERCISE 15
Strupy or Oat AND WHEAT Hysrips

Object. To study Mendelian dominance, segregation, and recombination of
characters in second-generation oat and wheat hybrids.

CuuBeRtT: LABORATORY EXERCISESIN PLANT BREEDING 209

Materials. First and second-generation oat and wheat hybrids. These
should be chosen so that the parents have conspicuous differentiating pairs of
characters. For example, black and white grains in oats and bearded and
beardless types of wheat.

Give each small group of students several bundles and have them count the
various types. Put all of these counts together and compare them with theo-

retical Mendelian ratios.
EXERCISE 16

Srupy or Corn Hysrips

Object. (a) To determine the unit characters of corn and their behavior in
transmission. (b) To study the immediate effect of pollen, or Xenia, in corn.

Material. Provide first and second-generation hybrid ears of corn with
various known types of parentage.

Fic. 5.—SampLeE APPARATUS FOR CONDUCTING PLANT-BREEDING EXPERIMENTS.
Most of the experiments here described can be carried out with this equipment.

Have each student study the kind and position of the color in a kernel of corn
and trace the behavior of these colors throughout the two generations. Trace
also any other factors which may appear to segregate during transmission.
Count the dominant and recessive characters and determine their number as
compared with theoretical Mendelian ratios.

EXERCISE 17
Srupy oF Cirrus Hysrips

Object. (a) To study the possibility of obtaining valuable kinds of citrus
fruits by means of hybridization. (b) To study the structure of citrus hybrids
as compared with their parents. (c) To study the economic value of these
hybrids.

Materials. Obtain from some of the extreme southern experiment stations,
or from nurserymen or growers, samples of citrus hybrids, such as citranges,

210 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

tangelos, and the like, and samples of Citrus trifoliata. Purchase oranges,
lemons, grapefruits, and tangerines from the fruit stores. Provide also for
each student, or group of students, a glass, spoon, sugar, and water.

Compare the hybrids with their parents, with special reference to the follow-.
ing points:

(a) Fruit—size, shape, color, amount of juice, quality of juice, condition of
segments, etc.

(b) Trees (if branches or photos are available)—size, shape, branching,
kind of leaves, ete.

(ec) General—length of season, resistance to cold, ete.

Squeeze out the juice from several fruits, add sugar and water, and test the
adaptability to beverage and other economic purposes.

EXERCISE 18

ILLUSTRATION OF THE APPLICATION OF THE LAW OF CHANCE

Object. ‘To demonstrate how such ratios as 3:1; 9:3::3:1, are the re-
sult of the laws of probability.

Materials and Methods to illustrate the union of gametes where one pair of ©
characters is concerned: :

(a) Provide a closed vessel containing black ‘and white beans of the same
size and shape; or,

(b) Provide a pack of playing cards.

Draw at random two beans or two cards at atime. Record each combination
observed. Two blacks coming simultaneously illustrate a homozygous black
individual; a black and a white represent a heterozygous form appearing as
black; and two whites illustrate a pure recessive.

Materials and Methods to illustrate the union of gametes where two pairs of
characters are concerned.

(a) Provide a closed vessel containing yellow and white kernels of both flint
and dent corn of as near the same size and shape as possible. Here we have
illustrated gametes representing four combinations of characters as follows:
Yellow flint, yellow dent, white flint, and white dent.

Draw at random two kernels at a time. Record the visible types of individ-
uals which each combination of gametes would produce, assuming yellow dom-
inant over white, and flint dominant over dent. The theoretical ratio would be
9 yellow flint :3 yellow dent : :3 white flint : 1 white dent.

Similarly two packs of cards having different kinds of backs may be used and
assume one kind dominant over the other. ShufHle all together and draw two
cards at a time.

~

EXERCISE 19
Strupy oF Bup VARIATIONS AND REVERSIONS IN FERNS

Object. To determine the nature and amount of reversion from the parental
type, and if possible to find some cause for the same.

Material. Obtain specimens of the sword fern (Nephrolepis exaltata)
and Boston fern (Nephrolepis bostoniensis) and as many of the other ferns
named below as possible.

Gitgerr: Lasoratory‘EXxercises iN Puanr Breepina 211

Study the trueness to type of each variety and any reversions which they
may contain. Draw typical specimens.
The following is the history, according to Dreer, of some of the fern varieties:

Introduced in Sport of—
Nephrlcprs bustenitensis:: )+), |!) son. Jal.eareeess Lakes (?) Nephrolepis
. exaltata
(Sword Fern)
MeEMCEHS DICTION... oo 5. A oe ee eos nines ne wee ee 1903 bostoniensis.
Mommmcpescierantissnna: | 2.292"). PEA. 1904 plersonl.
PEE Te SUSE OURS ec... ala. cae es Jal ee OS. 1904 bostoniensis.
MSIE Ale Sy DALLOW SIL 344,280 oc iesereee BA oer, Heme 1905 plersoni.
Nephrolepis whitmani................. Bae ae, Mt se 1906 barrowsi.
RireeiaMeEHS TOGCAGIGES «2c oe. 5. ee we se wd erent 1907 whitmani.
MEME GLe IST SUPEEDISSIMNG.... 20... eee coos ee eae en 1908 bostoniensis.
pe mISESGHOUZCI sr 8. 4 on, dese oyeae ete dea 1909 scotti.
Nepmrolenisrpruessneri 4)... 70252... be) a 1909 whitmani.

EXERCISE 20
DRAWING Maps oF FarMS SHOWING THE LOCATIONS OF BREEDING PLATS AND
THEIR RELATION TO THE REST OF THE FARM

Object. To demonstrate methods whereby plant-breeding trial plats may be
made to articulate with the layout of fields for ordinary farm operations.

Materials. Outline maps of certain farms showing the layout of fields and
the methods of rotation.

Sketch testing plats in convenient places where the soil is uniform. Deter-
mine the amount of land necessary for a potato-breeding plat, a corn-breeding
plat, etc. Place the corn-breeding plat at a safe distance from the general
field of corn.

EXERCISE 21

PRACTICE IN THE CROSS-POLLINATION OF APPLES, PEARS, PEACHES, PLUMs, Etc.

To be carried on in the spring, when the trees are in blossom.
For general methods of procedure see Exercise 2.

EXERCISE 22

STATISTICAL STUDY OF THE AMOUNT AND QUALITY OF GRAPES FROM DIFFERENT
GRAPE VINES

Use the same general method as in Exercise 12.

EXERCISE 23

SrupY OF THE RESULTS OF THE PLANT-TO-Row TeEstTs oF WHEAT, Oats, CAB-
BAGE, ONIONS, OR ANY CROP WHERE DaTa ARE AVAILABLE

See Exercise 3.

212 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

EXERCISE 24
EMBRYOLOGICAL STUDIES FROM SLIDES SHOWING CELL DIVISION AT DIFFERENT

STaGEs, CHROMOSOMES, POLLEN MoTHER CELLS, OvuLEs, ETc.

Provide each student with a high-power microscope and microscopic slides
mentioned above. Careful drawings of each slide should be made.

EXERCISE 25
STUDIES OF ORIGIN OF VARIETIES—CoRN, WHEAT, APPLES, PLUMS, GRAPES,
Etec.

Literature study of the history of varieties. Methods employed to originate
varieties should be carefully noted.

THE CORN BREEDER’S PROBLEMS

C. P. Hart.ey,
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

It was many years after wonderful results had been accomplished
in breeding fruits and flowers that attention turned to our most val-
uable plant—corn. Of recent years by numerous means the great
value and possibilities of this crop have been brought to the attention
of the public. Good results have been accomplished, but not to the
extent expected, considering the general appreciation of the value and
possibilities of the crop. This is due to the small amount of careful
and persistent field work that has been done.

Now that the possibilities of corn improvement have been so fully
published, some are turning their energies to field work in attempts
to accomplish this improvement. The actual doing of this work has
brought out many problems, making the work more complex than was
at first supposed. These problems call for more determined and per-
sistent effort. The enormous returns that will follow an increased
yield of one bushel of corn for every acre planted have been too fully
expounded to allow complexities to prevent accomplishment. Corn
breeders must make good. The field work must be done, and to do
it properly fundamental principles of corn improvement must be
established, and methods of making field tests so improved that they
will be reliable.

Until recently the accomplishment of results has been expected of
the farmer, and he has accomplished about all that has been done, but
it is now evident that corn breeders have duties that can not be
shifted upon the busy farmer. Ranchmen have adopted and propa-

HartTLeEY: THE CorN BREEDER’S PROBLEMS 213

gated improved breeds, the product of years of careful work of skilled
animal breeders. Farmers will readily adopt and propagate improved
and adapted strains of corn as soon as corn breeders originate them
and demonstrate their superiority.

The fact that the various strains of corn of a neighorhood when
comparatively tested as to productiveness show differences of 5 or
10 bushels per acre is sufficient proof that corn breeders should deter-
mine the causes of these differences and perfect methods whereby
farmers may be supplied with seed of the highest yielding strains.

Division of corn-breeding work.—Great undertakings along any
line require careful planning of the work, and a division of the tasks
involved. The various features of corn breeding have a bearing upon
the profits of almost every farmer of the country. But the necessary
work has not been sufficiently well planned nor its various tasks suffi-
ciently well allotted to various grades of workers. The task naturally
divides into two principal parts—(1) the determination of causes in-
fluencing improvement; this is the nvestigator’s work; and (2) the
practical application of methods producing improvement; this is the
corn breeder’s work. These two lines of corn-improvement work are
distinct. Each needs a specially trained corps of workers. The
results obtained by the one will help the other, and working together
they can provide the farmer with seed of much more productive strains
than his own ability or facilities enable him to produce.

The investigator's problems.—The care of the corn crop is such a
universal line of work that there naturally exists the general impres-
sion that it embodies no difficult problems. This impression is soon
removed from the mind of the investigator attempting to determine,
why some strains are more productive than others. His investiga-
tions reveal numerous factors simultaneously exerting influences the
effects of which he would like to consider singly but is forced to con-
sider collectively.

The corn breeder who is desirous of making his business profitable
as well as of benefit to his neighbors can not be expected to determine,
for instance, the effects that will result from changes of environment,
the best methods of utilizing the effects of adaptation and acclimati-
zation, the relative values of centgener selection and of cross-breeding
and their best combinations, the comparative value of different test-
plat methods, the effects on productiveness of preserving seed corn
under different degrees of temperature and humidity—and yet these
questions have a vital bearing upon the success of his business.

The practical breeder can make separate germination tests of every

214 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

car of seed corn he sells, and guarantee 98 or 99 per cent of the ker-
nels to germinate, but it is a problem for the scientific investigator
to determine whether there is. really any relation between the per-
centage of germination and productivity. To be sure, it is very gen-
erally taken for granted that seed that germinates 99 per cent is
more productive than seed of the same strain that germinates but
50 or 60 per cent, yet very careful tests have shown that the pro-
ductivity of seed corn may be greatly reduced by exposure without
reducing its germinating power. Other tests have shown that seed
corn four or five years old, and of which but 50 or 60 per cent of the
kernels would germinate, produced as well per acre and per plant
when sufficient seed was planted to obtain a perfect stand as one-
year-old seed of the same strain which germinated 98 per cent or
better. Is it a question of the early death of kernels of low pro-
ducing power and the survival of those having vigor and highest
yielding power, or did the kernels outlive attached germs of disease
that grow with and reduce the producing power of the plants?

Seed corn that germinates 99 or 100 per cent at maturity with
proper preservation will hold its vitality four or five years, while that
which germinates but 70 or 80 per cent at maturity will lose most of
its vitality within a year or two.

Practical seed-corn dealers often find artificial heat beneficial in
keeping seed corn dry, but investigations may prove that a low tem-
perature and dryness will better retain its producing power. Do the
warm, humid winters of the South reduce the producing power of
seed corn more than the cold and dry winters of the North? Why is
seed corn grown during a certain season or on a particular soil of
higher yielding power than seed of the same breeding grown during
other seasons or on other soils?

These problems are numerous and complicated and their success-
ful solution calls for a perfecting of methods, carefully drawn plans
for the solution of each problem, and then the execution of the plans
with as much precision, and by as intelligent investigators, as those
who solve problems of chemistry or astronomy. Results of test-
plat work will continue to be unreliable if the field work is delegated
to unreliable workers.

Reliable methods must be originated and standardized.—Without
test-plat methods the results of which can be depended upon, neither
the investigator nor the practical breeder can measure the results
of his efforts or know what he is doing. Neither can he who casts
aside all test-plat work as worthless and resorts to theorizing regard-

HartTuEY: THE Corn BREEDER’S PROBLEMS PAGS

ing generalities render assistance in originating more profitable strains
of corn. Generalities are valuable for some purposes, but living,
growing plants present so many exceptions to general laws that each
case must be tested to determine whether it is a conformation or an
exception. Furthermore, it is often the exceptional variety or indi-
vidual which brings most profit to the breeder.

The need is not for methods of finer discrimination but for reliable
methods. The problem is not one of finding the seed ear that pro-
duces most pounds and ounces, but one of finding methods that prove
the increased productiveness to be inherent and not due to differ-
ences of soil, of moisture, of heat, of space, or of seed preservation, or
to any other factor than the one under investigation.

Another way of rendering results reliable is by making the tests
a large number of times under conditions as nearly identical as pos-
sible, considering the problem unsolved until every test gives the
same result or permits of otherwise satisfactory explanation.

There is no better means of establishing the reliability of methods
of breeding than by submitting them to the experienced members of
the American Breeders Association for criticism, amendment, and
adoption. To avoid generalities just referred to and institute a step
toward the adoption of standard methods, one is here submitted for
testing the relative productiveness of different varieties of corn re-
quiring similar conditions for growth and productiveness, and for
testing the relative productiveness of different ears of a variety.
In either case the method is essentially the same.

Among fourteen first-generation crosses, the productiveness of
which was tested in 1910 in comparison with the parent varieties,
three were found more productive than either parent; to be concise,
one to the extent of 19 per cent. The method illustrated in the dia-
gram below will be used in testing the relative productiveness of 100
ears of this advantageous cross, that remnants of the highest-yield-
ing ears may furnish seed for a breeding plat.

The test plat will be marked off in both directions and planted with
seed of the ¢ross by the ear-to-row method in one direction (shown in
diagram as seed 1, 2, 3) and with alternate rows of the two parent
varieties by the ear-to-row method in the other direction (seed A, B,
A, in diagram). Sufficient seed from each of two ears will thus be
planted in each hill to permit thinning so that each hill will contain,
on the west for instance, a stalk of the cross and six inches to the east
a stalk from an ear of one of the parent varieties.

At harvest two men work together, one gathering the yield from

216 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

the cross in row 1 at the time the other gathers the yield from the
parent varieties, A, B, of the same row, only perfect hills, i.e., hills
containing one normal stalk of the cross and one of a parent, being
considered. By this method a uniform check grows in each row and
the relative productiveness of the 100 ears of the cross is obtained
by comparing each with its check. This method reduces the exag-
gerated superiority of rows which by their unusual thrift gain ascend-
ency, overgrow, and impose upon adjoining rows. A duplication of
the entire test can be had by making the rows planted with the cross

017 Ue ge
a we woe
BIG

DraGrRAM ILLUSTRATING METHOD or PLANTING BREEDING PLor or HicH YIELDING Corn.

Nine hills in northwest corner of the test plot; grains numbered 1, 2 and 3 represent grains
from different ears of the cioss; letter A represents one parent, B the other; small figures, as A’,
B’, A’, represent different ears of A and B.

60, 80, or 100 hills long and dividing the plat into two similar halves
of 30, 40, or 50 hills to the row.

The practical corn breeder's problems.—The practical breeder’s
problems are directly connected with the growing, preserving, and
delivering of seed corn that will meet the varied needs of corn growers.
Local demonstrations of high productiveness will cause ready sales
of seed corn. Many of the corn breeder’s problems will be simplified
py the exercise of good judgment. Corn-breeding work can not be
qone by machinery—the scales will determine which yields heaviest,

HALSTED: GEOMETRICAL FIGURES O17

but the heaviest may be the least desirable because of high water
content or poor keeping qualities. Forty bushels per acre of ninety-
day corn may be more valuable than 60 bushels of a variety maturing
so late as to necessitate additional irrigation and cultivation, or pre-
vent using the land for another crop.

The breeder must become familiar with all tendencies and varia-
tions of the variety with which he works.

Almost every attempt to solve a problem concerning corn breeding
discloses other problems. The purpose of this article will have been
accomplished if it has made clear the fact that possibilities in breeding
corn have not been approached, and that an adequate attempt to
accomplish them calls for—

1. Standardization of methods.

2. A definitely planned system for the solution of each problem.

3. An allotment of the problems according to their complexity to
conform to the ability of different breeders.

4. Persistent field work upon a single problem till all influencing
factors are sufficiently under control to permit the accomplishment

.of uniform results.

GEOMETRICAL FIGURES IN PLANT BREEDING

Byron D. HatstEpD
Agricultural College Experiment Station, New Brunswick, N. J.

In working upon some of the breeding factors in peppers, it has
been found convenient to use geometrical figures to express to the
eye the combinations that have been made.

In the case of (1) the position of the fruit, whether pendent (dom-
inant) or upright (recessive) upon the branch, and (2) the flavor of
the fruit, whether pungent (dominant) or sweet (recessive) (‘‘hot”’
and “mild’’), triangles and their derivatives may be constructed that
are helpful. The accompanying “16-square,’’ familiar to all breeders,
is filled up with these figures.

In order to designate over-lapping, the pollinator is uniformly
drawn in solid lines—that is, uppermost—and the embryo sac deter-
minants with broken lines.

In all instances, when the two parental figures are alike in shape and
position, the offspring is pure of that figure as shown in the four in
the diagonal from square 1 to 16, but, of course, no two of these are
the same; thus, 1 and 6 are both hot (sharp-pointed) but the direc-

218 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

tion of the point indicates that in 1 the fruit is pendent and in 6,
upright. In like manner, in squares 11 and 16 the position is the
same for the lower numbers of each pair but the triangle tip is lacking
in the last—that is, the fruit is mild.

There are four other squares that bear plain triangles, namely, 3,
8, 9, and 14—+that is, two pairs with the common value 5 between

Fie. 1.—A 16-BrREEDING SQuaRE.

Triangles and polygons replace letters to express the combinations when two pairs of una are
represented. The male gametes are figured above and the female at the left.

them and they differ in the direction of the angle—that is, 3 is pen-
dent and 8 upright, while 9 is pendent and 14 upright; but the last
two are reciprocals of the first two respectively. That is, 3 and 9
differ in the relation of the parents to the qualities under considera-
tion and this is shown by the solid and dotted short line indicating
the mild nature of one parent,—that is, the male parent in 3 is mild

HALSTED: GEOMETRICAL FIGURES 219

and 9 in the female. The same reciprocal relationship is shown by
the same lines for 8 and 14 where both are hot and upright.

The polygons are eight in number, alternating throughout with the
triangles, and are grouped as four pairs of reciprocals, thus the ones
at 2 and 5 (three being the number of units between them) show that,
while both are hot and upright, the dotted lines indicate a difference
in the relation of the parents to the una in question. In like manner,
12 and 15 show at once the lack of sharp angles and therefore both are

mild and pendent but reciprocals.

In the diagonal from 4 to 13, ciossing the other diagonal of the
pure offspring, 7 and 10 (with the common difference of three) fill
up the cross-lines from 2 to 12 and from 5 to 15 in the chart; and are

TESS INVA

Fia. 2.

At 1, 2, and 3 are geometrical figures used to show different combinations when four
pairs of una are involved in the breeding.

reciprocals of the ordinary sort,—that is, without the dominants and
recessives both borne by the same parent,—the latter bemg a rare
condition that obtains in the opposite corners,—namely, 4 and 13,
where 4 has both recessives brought by the pollen to the dominants
in the egg-cell, while in 13 the reverse is true, making this apaired
reciprocal.

If one wishes to study certain figures without the confusion that
the presence of the others may induce, all but those desired can be
quickly excluded by using gummed paper flaps to cover any figures
temporarily.

In the case of the peppers, there are the tall and the dwarf sorts
and this pair of allelomorphs can be readily accommodated by making
two sides of the triangle somewhat prolonged for the tall type.

220 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

In 1 the dwarf, upright, sweet, red (color here omitted) pepper
is bred upon a tall, upright, hot, yellow sort. The reciprocal of
this would be shown by dotted lines for the female parent. At 2
is expressed geometrically that a tall, pendent, sweet, red sort is
bred upon a dwarf, upright, hot, yellow variety; and in 3 a dwarf,
pendent, hot, red is the pollinator for a cross upon a tall, upright,
hot yellow.

The use of symbols in plant breeding is no new thing and doubtless
many workers’ notebooks show various symbols that do not find their
way into print. Mendel employed them freely and whole pages of
Bateson’s ‘‘Principles of Heredity” are literally covered with dia-
grammatic symbols, especially when pedigrees are visually expressed.

SPERMATOGENESIS, OR ORIGIN OF THE
MALE GERM CELLS

L. C. Braae and L. B. Brace
Fort Collins, Colo.

It is a well known fact that all of the higher forms of both animal
and vegetable life may be traced back to the union of two cells. In
plants, these two cells are designated as the pollen and ovule, in ani-
mals, egg and spermatozoon.

We hope to make plain the origin and growth of the spermatozoa
of a few common insects by means of the accompanying photographs
taken directly from the microscopic slides. The germ cells are early
set aside in the growing embryo and are known as primitive sex
cells or spermatogonia.

These cells remain dormant till the animal matures. Each cell
consists of a nucleus and cytoplasm, as do most cells. The nucleus
occupies the center in a membrane of its own.

All resting cells take up stains readily, so that the nucleus may be
colored a deep red or black, while the outer layer of cytoplasm may
be colored a beautiful green or rose tint. It is by means of these
stains that we learn what is taking place during the process of trans-
formation from the spermatogonia to the ripe spermatozoa. What is
true of the animal cell is also true of the plant cell. A growing cell
must soon divide and produce two. The spermatogonium grows
into two spermatocytes; these again divide, forming four spermatozoa,
which terminates cell division, so that each primitive cell forms ulti-
mately four spermatozoa.

BraGG: SPERMATOGENESIS OT

The nucleus of the growing cell passes through four phases of growth
known as the prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. In
the prophase, the nuclear material separates into a number of pieces

SuUccESSIVE STAGES IN SPERMATOGENESIS.

First line across top, prophases; second line, metaphases; third line, anaphases; fourth line»
telephases; fifth line, spermatids; + sex chromosome.

called chromosomes. The nuclear wall breaks down and the chromo-
somes arrange themselves in a circle at the equator of the cell. This
stage of growth is termed the metaphase, and when viewed from the
pole of the cell the chromosomes appear as round or rod-shaped bodies
forming a circle.

222 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

Kach chromosome now divides in half and the halves move toward
the poles of the cell, forming the anaphase. The final step is the
telophase, when they have reached the poles of the cell. .A membrane
now forms across the equator and the chromosomes become enclosed
in a membrane, thus forming two daughter cells in the resting stage.

The chromosomes have come together and there is nothing to show
their identity except in the metaphase, where they vary much in
size and shape. One of these has been called the sex or X chromosome
because in many animals the male never has this element but the
female does. This gives all cells of the female one more chromosome
than the male possesses in all of the somatic or body cells.

THE PRACTICAL BREEDING OF “FIRST-
EARLY” MARROWFAT PEAS

Water F. GILES
Hazeldine, Reading, England

To the raising of new types of garden peas there seems no end,
but although the list of commercial varieties is now extremely large, it
is hardly probable that the limit of improvement has yet been reached.

Year by year patient workers are endeavoring to breed something
better than has hitherto been produced, by combining in a new plant
the good points of the older ones, and available records show that in
attempting to add earliness to the delicious marrowfat or wrinkled-
seeded peas, success has been even greater than might reasonably have
been expected.

Until the early part of the nineteenth century, the garden peas in
general use in England appear to have been of the round-seeded
class, but as a result of some experiments in crossing carried out by
Thomas Andrew Knight (a former president of the Royal Horticul-
tural Society) one or two wrinkled types were introduced into com-
merce.

These new wrinkled-seeded peas, although not early nor very large
in the pod, possessed a much richer flavor than the old round-seeded
kinds, and came to be known as ‘“‘marrowfats.”’

Naturally it was not long before other breeders were in the field
endeavoring to improve upon Knight’s introduction, with the result
that many new forms with larger pods and dwarfer habit of growth
were brought into cultivation. One valuable feature however which
was still lacking in these improved types was earliness. None of

GILEs: BREEDING EARLY MARROWFAT PEAS 223

them would mature so quickly as some of the round-seeded kinds, and
consequently the delicious marrowfats could only be enjoyed compara-
tively late in the season.

However, to Sutton’s, of Reading, England—whose achievements
in peas are so well known—there appeared to be no reason why, by
judicious crossing, varieties should not eventually be obtained which
combined the large fine pods and flavor of the marrowfats with the
earliness of the round-seeded kinds. Accordingly experiments to
attain this end were taken in hand, and as a result they were able in
1891 to commence the introduction of a class of large-podded early

Tyeres oF PEA Pops.

At extreme left a pod of one of the early round-seeded peas. Remaining pods are; ypes obtained
by crossing, and which are as early or earlier in maturing as the early round-seeded pea, and in
addition are wrinkled in the seed.

wrinkled peas hitherto unknown in horticulture. The first to be
offered was Empress of India. This resulted from a cross between
Early Champion (an early round-seeded pea) and Telephone (a
main crop wrinkled variety).

A pea which was subsequently made much use of as a parental
form was American Wonder. This very dwarf-growing early wrin-
kled pea was first introduced in America about 1878 or 1879 by
Messrs. Bliss of New York and was said to be the result of a cross
between Champion of England (a rather late wrinkled-seeded variety)
and Little Gem (a dwarf fairly early wrinkled sort).

The American Wonder proved to be earlier than either of its paren-
tal forms. and was thought so much of by Messrs. Sutton that they
bought up the entire stock intended for England and introduced it
into that country in 1881.

224. AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

Soon after the introduction of Empress of India, came A 1, May
Queen, and Harbinger (all being the result of crossing American Won-
der with Paragon), and it is interesting to observe that, although
these experiments were carried out before the results obtained by
Mendel were brought to public notice, it was found necessary, in
order to secure fixed stocks, to grow from single plants only—the
reason, however, not being so apparent as at the present time.

As time went on seedlings from the crosses were themselves used as
parental forms, as also was Gradus (a variety introduced by Laxton
and said to be a cross between Earliest of All and Duke of Albany),
until, by crossing and recrossing, it has been possible to put into com-
merce such varieties as First of All, World’s Record (both results
from Harbinger X Gradus), Ideal (A 1 X Chelsea Gem), Reading
Wonder (Harbinger < Gradus), and others, all of which retain not
only the large size of pod and delicious flavor of the marrowfats, but
have the earliness of the older round-seeded kinds, and in several
instances even the earliness of the latter has been eclipsed.

The following table gives the dates on which pods of the parental
forms and the seedlings could be gathered, all having been sown on
the same day and treated alike:

Parental forms:

Harliestvof Alia(round=seed ed): se -2- 2. 2. see rate oer June 15
Early Champion (round-seeded).............-.-.+.---- June 15
American Wonder Gvrinkled) a>. 4.6 4. ore nee .....dune 18
Gradus :(wrinkled).<SSecewecrss rete sp orem oe June 19
@helseaiGemu(wrinkled)) tes aaeseysetse cies er teres June 20
Dukerof- Albanya (warinkled))e eye eee le tree eee June 26
Telephone® (wrinkled))eejteg- 28 28 oe: 8 cs SAS AARON tore June 27
Champion of England (wrinkled)...................... July 7

Paragon (not now often grown; was a second-early
wrinkled pea).

Seedlings:
Empress of dndia, (wrinkled) as9.e0%.. (ce os. stone ere eee June 16
AT Cwrinkled):2) ccs deeee can cies clon noel on eee ae roe June 17
May Queen i nccsaaccee cer RES ape eee Ee June 12
Harbinger «(wrinkled) <4 ie senescence iain etrae June 15
Rursteore Alle (wrinkl ed) peere. oer riee ae ee ecneeneee June 13
Worlad’s*Record (wrinkled)... eee ae eee ee June 13
Udeaila@wriniksled) i. 32. fhestra So eee a ote eee ee ae June 14
Reading Wonder (wrinkled). %: 22 -ac geet eee ee June 15

The late Dr. Maxwell T. Masters, F.R.S., after an inspection of
some hundreds of rows of these experiments, wrote in the Gardener’s
Chronicle: “They are very interesting as showing what may be done
by crossbreeding and selection when these processes are carried out
not haphazard, but with a definite aim in view.”

EDITORIALS

THE WOMAN MOVEMENT AND EUGENICS

The world-wide impulse on the part of women to desire the right
of suffrage is but a part of the evolution in the adjustment of women
in the vocations. Machinery has taken much of women’s work out
of the home and placed it in the shop and the store. Public educa-
tion has taken another part into the school. Machinery, improved
transportation and other agencies have reduced the number of farmers
from two-thirds of the whole population to one-third, and many
women who directly and indirectly labored in agricultural production
are now in city homes or are employed in non-agricultural voca-
tions. The vastly increased number of vocations and the vastly
increased number of people in vocations other than farming and house-
hold work, due to the evolution of manufacturing methods, trans-
portation and business, have given openings to women in a multitude
of new lines of work. In nearly all cases the work is for wages or
salary. Very few women, comparatively, are managers of businesses
of their own. And relatively few have professional work of an inde-
pendent nature.

With the rapid increase of wealth a large number of women of
well-to-do families go into the leisure class, producing, often, neither
children nor other forms of national wealth. But the great change
has been from work in the home, usually the farm home, to work as
an employee.

On the whole, women are becoming much more independent of
fathers or husbands for support; and in a very large proportion of cases
their labor goes to the support of the family, as was the case when
women did part of the productive work of the farm. On the whole,
the family income is greatly augmented, and the food, the clothing,
the housing, the schooling, enjoyable reading matter, and pleasurable
social intercourse are greatly increased. The hours are shortened:
the physical overstress is greatly relieved; but on the other hand,
indoor occupations greatly lessen muscular vigor and doubtless im-
pair genetic vitality.

The new order of things has thrown women more on their own re-
sources and more together. The shop, the store, the school, and espe-
cially the wider social life have proven a suitable soil in which to grow
up a community of interests. Such discriminations as a lower scale
of wage for the same service as given to men, the prohibition of the

225

226 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

right of the ballot, the ownership of too large a proportion of the
property by men and unequal rights at law, together with a growing
feeling that motherhood is worthy larger rewards, have been the fer-
tilizing elements which are giving growth to the woman movement.
It is a part of organic evolution; a centering, a coalescing, a correlat-
ing, a coordinating of a very material force heretofore not acting
with unity. Its size and importance is comparable with that of the
financial interests, the labor unions, the federations of farmers. It
is withal wholesome and is destined to succeed in gaining very large
results.

Contemporaneous with this stupendous economic, educational,
social, and political movement of women is a very strong tendency
to reduction of the birth rate; though this is in part counteracted by
a lessened infant mortality and by general sanitary conditions and
methods which materially prolong the average of human life. The age
at marriage is increased; the stress of high living seems to make neces-
sary the absence of very many women from the home so as to help
secure adequate family incomes; women work at occupations which
soften their muscles and cause them to shrink from childbirth and
from the manual labor of caring for children. And those with splen-
did eugenic heredity, possibly even more than those whose children
will fall below average efficiency, use their knowledge to lessen the
birthrate.

The ideals of our times—too often promulgated by our schools—
which should serve future generations as well as the present genera-
tions, have led our women to disregard to too great an extent social
values, racial duties, and racial opportunities. Our leaders have been
narrow in not teaching women more of the wholesome, vital, and
racial points of view of motherhood. Very many women of the very
best racial blood have chosen to belong to the girl bachelor class.
The philosophy of our times has rather encouraged bright women to
choose a successful line of employment, or to repose in the “fine art
of idleness” in parental homes, or to lead lives of married sterility.
Those able financially, physically, and morally to produce the best
children so as to bring up the racial average have been rather content
that their sisters with less of material wealth, often not strong physi-
cally, and sometimes with lower moral ideals should produce a larger
percentage of youth. It would seem that the relatively lower birth-
rate in the families of the more effective persons, as compared with
the higher birthrate of those whose average efficiency is lower than
the normal, is on the whole carrying the network of descent, of the
nation as a whole, to lower rather than to higher levels.

EDITORIALS Zon

Possibly it is natural that women should magnify the rights and
the opportunities of the individual in the present state of social or-
ganization. It must be recognized that they are magnifying the home
as never before, especially the physical and mental phases of the
home. |Whether, even in the presence of greatly enlarged education
and with vastly more, better, and cheaper books they are building
up the moral and spiritual aspects of home life is widely questioned. }
They are also taking a far more active part in making the community,
the county, the state, and the nation of service to the home. Their
movement for suffrage is in no small part a step preliminary to the
closer control or perhaps even elimination cf the saloon, and the
brethel, and even looks toward measures to bring about the abolish-
ment of wars, three great enemies of home and happiness.

The woman movement is marked by great epochal campaigns.
Her right to labor in any suitable vocation is nearly won in this coun-
try. Among the many other movements that of the eugenic possi-
bilities, opportunities, and responsibilities of motherhood has arisen.
It is as yet but poorly defined. No one has as yet become its ac-
knowledged leader, nor has any one definedits principalfactors. These
are being defined by the modern science of genetics. The breeders
of plants and animals, the students of heredity, and those who have
made the beginnings of the science of eugenics, the breeding of men,
have wrought out many of the scientific facts and a few of the prac-
tical factors.

In the large, the problem is so to organize the ideals of people and
the economies of the country and the world that the blood with high-
est eugenic efficiency will become dominant; that the blood with
medium value shall be less rapidly multiplied, and that which is
least efficient, shall reproduce less freely or not at all. This means
that records of the efficiency of all individuals must be kept, and
that these records must be compiled into performance pedigrees
showing average eugenic values of the members of families, upen
which may, with reasonable certainty, be predicated the average
probable value of the progeny of each person.

These records will be neither costly nor difficult to make as com-
pared with the value of even small improvements in the heredity of
the world’s paramount species. The breeders of plants and animals
can help formulate practical plans for recording eugenic data and for
tabulating and interpreting them. And ere long our most skilled
genetists will be among those who seek methods of improving this
most complex and immeasurably the most interesting species.

And once our women shall have gotten past the present foibles

228 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

of eugenics and have guided themselves into sane, scientific, and
practical lines, they will formulate the largest of all their campaigns.
The women will add eugenic science as the largest new addition to
their religio-science teaching. And the families of men will come to
estimate values in terms of efficiency of grand-children, multiplied
into the number in the grand-fraternity group. Then on the one
hand eugenic improvements and on the other hand education and
other environmental improvements will proceed together in the de-
velopment of a race of high average sanity, health, and general effi-
ciency.

BREEDING AND AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATIONS

At the end of the twentieth century, speaking broadly, the United
States will have approximately fifty million farm people, who will
have the task of growing food for other one hundred fifty million
people living in towns and cities or two hundred million all told.
About fifty million farmers will be organized into ten million families
for the most part on ten million family owned farms.

On the average, about a thousand people living on an area of per-
haps 20 to 40 square miles, and comprising about 200 farm families,
will be organized into a consolidated school district, each farm send-
ing to school an average of one pupil, these institutions will have each
about two hundred pupils. These’ school districts will eventually
serve also as convenient districts in which to organize every variety
of country life collective activity, mostly on a codperative basis.
Thus, we will have somewhere near forty thousand country life
schools. Each one of these will have a school farm of ten acres to be
used in large part in instruction, and in testing new varieties of plants.
A county of average size will contain about twenty of these country
life school units, organized into a county country life school system.

Ten counties, with two hundred country life school districts, In a
number of States constitute a State technological agricultural high
school and branch experiment station district. Each of the four hun-
dred of these State technological farmer’s schools and stations will,
on the average, have five hundred acres of land, or a total of two hun-
dred thousand acres. On its large school farm each agricultural
high school will have approximately four hundred students, requiring
an annual public expenditure of perhaps thirty or forty thousand
dollars, and a branch experiment station with an annual expenditure
of ten thousand dollars.

Right technological school and branch agricultural station districts,
in a large state on the average, would constitute a state district

EDITORIALS 229

country life school system, articulating with and supplementing the
state agricultural college, the State Experiment Station and the State
normal school. The State Colleges and the State Experiment Sta-
tions will have farms averaging one thousand acres or a total for the
United States, of fifty thousand acres.

The fifty State Colleges and Stations will supplement the U. 8.
Department of Agriculture; whose separate experiment station
farms, demonstration farms, forest nurseries, plant introduction
gardens and temporary experimental tracts will cover another fifty
thousand acres.

Thus 500,000 acres belonging to country life schools, 200,000 to
State technological agricultural schools and branch experiment sta-
tion farms; 50,000 to State Agricultural Colleges and State Station
farms; and 50,000 used by the U.S. Department of Agriculture makes
an aggregate of 800,000 acres devoted to agricultural research and
country life education.

It is not too much to hope that 200,000 acres or one-fourth of this
800,000, will be demanded by public work in breeding plants and
animals. And certainly several times this amount of land will be
required under private efforts at creative work in plant and animal
breeding.

In many species of plants the experts at breeding will codperate
with the superintendents of all three classes of public farms and with
many private breeders and plant growers. Whether they be officers
of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, of a State Experiment Sta-
tion or of a branch station, they will be able to codperate with many
stations in testing new introductions or creations and in adjusting
them to their proper zonal areas of country in which they wil be of
service to the farmers. The branch stations and the consolidated
rural school farms will offer the large aggregate of opportunity to
adjust varieties to the localities where they will be especially useful.
The federal and state experiment stations will be able to highly de-
velop methods of breeding in both plants and animals, and will have
the means with which to assemble and test the necessary foundation
stocks. They will also best be able to develop men highly trained
in hybridizing, in seeking out mutations of value, and in building up
such recombined networks of descent as will form varieties which
prove of highest value to growers of plant and live stock products.

If the Department of Agriculture would expend $2,000,000 annually;
the State Experiment Stations $2,000,000; the branch stations $2,500
each, or a total of $1,000,000; and the consolidated rural schools $50
each, or a total of $3,000,000 annually, a grand total of $8,000,000

€

230 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

in breeding and testing plants and animals, and the result would be
$200,000,000 increase in our farm products, the national and state
governments would thus increase production equal to one-tenth of
our total national, state, municipal, county and township public
expenditures, each dollar producing twenty-five dollars.

As the man whose fields yielded sixty bushels of wheat groaned
because ‘It is mighty exhausting on the soil,’’ so these figures seem
large to the conservative man, who hesitates about making expendi-
tures and groans over public expenditures designed to produce wealth
as well as those designed to make war or to pay pensions.

If our plant varieties and animal breeds do contain mutations of
large value, as scientists have proven, the work of segregating them
and replacing the less valuable forms with new varieties and breeds
which have the power to produce ten or twenty-five per cent additional
farm products, is one of the largest of our conservation problems.
Shall the views of the pessimist and the ultra-conservative prevail,
or shall we gradually, and more rapidly, develop plans for using part
of the available public experiment and demonstration farms for breed-
ing superior types of plants and animals? If this work is to be under-
taken for the whole United States, federal and state plans fitted to the
whole area are neither too small nor too large for the project.

RACE GENETICS PROBLEMS

If the amount of space which is devoted to questions of the day in
books, and in technical and popular magazines be accepted as a
criterion of the importance of any particular subject, eugenics is
slowly but certainly approaching the discussion stage; a circumstance
of immense importance. And indications are not wanting that the
race-social and race-hygienic questions which are being agitated by
various reform elements are excellently preparing the ground for the
further favorable reception of eugenics as-a practical science—a
science which comprehends not only the individual.and the family,
but the entire race.

The fundamental ideas of the application of the same laws of hered-
ity to all living matter, plant, animal or man alike, and of the heredi-
tary transmission of certain traits for good or evil are being received
more readily among the intelligent and thinking part of the popula-
tion, than the pioneer eugenists in their fondest hopes have allowed
themselves to believe possible. It appears not at all improbable,
nor even visionary, that in fifty or seventy-five years negative eugen-
ics will have gotten a sufficient foothold in race-proud families, in the

EDITORIALS ZAK

statutes of states, and in practical Christianity to have brought under
a reasonable degree of control the honey-combing attacks of tuber-
culosis, neurasthenia, syphilis, and alcoholism, and that small portion,
a nucleus, of the white race at any rate, will voluntarily have placed
itself under a positive eugenic regimen.

Part of, and most intimately connected with eugenics is the prob-
lem of (human) race biclogy, which in itself covers a field of research
of vast extent. The mingling of races, brought about by the white
man’s own aggressiveness, inventiveness, and desire of conquest and
dominion, is reacting somewhat against him. At no time in the
world’s history has there been in progress such a general mingling
of the races of the human breed, over so vast an area, as at present.
And it is not a mere over-lapping of nationalities along the border
lines of their respective countries, or a matter of one race possessing
itself of territory occupied by another, driving it before as it were,
each race retaining in the main its pure characteristics. Modern
transportation facilities, capable of transplanting in a comparatively
short time entire sections of population of one country to another
country facilitate race mingling on a stupendous scale.

Speaking especially with reference to the United States, although
applicable also to Canada, we have in most unjustifiable and unscien-
tific fashion been assuming that in this great “melting pot’ the best
qualities of all nations and all races are being run into one great flux
from which there would be cast one superior individual—a superman
—the American. With optimistic forgetfulness we failed to take into
account what was to become of whatever bad qualities there were.
Truth is that up to the present, race mixture in its strictest sense had
not been taking place. It was negligible because infinitesimally
small, and the ‘‘American”’ of today as we have him in mind, is really
the result of the unfoldment of the pronounced, inherent, initiative,
creative, and constructive traits of the long-light, blond, long-skulled
race, under the environments of a new continent with untouched
resources, a new soil, favorable climatic and physical conditions.
The political, commercial and industrial ventures of this race do not
owe their unparalleled successes to a supposed blood mixture, but to
qualities acquired and bred into its protoplasm since the stone age.
That same race had in earlier periods built up marvelous culture cen-
ters in Egypt, India, Greece and Rome. So long as we were com-
pounding English, Celt, Scandinavian, German and Dutch we were
merely mingling and regenerating a practically homozygous stock of
aryo-germans.

As yet we have too small a scientific basis to make pronounciamen-

232 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

tos as to the beneficial effects of indiscriminate race mixture, or, for
that matter, of the superiority of pure racial stocks, or of the value of
the mixtures of specific races. Together with eugenic research within
the species, must proceed research into the origin, inherent peculiar-
ities and genetic and social values of the different racial stocks, and
the results of each of the possible crosses. We are allowing race mix-
ture to proceed on a large scale without definitely knowing, for in-
stance, which characteristics of the white, the yellow, and the black
breeds are dominant; without having a knowledge of whether cer-
tain undesirable physical and psychic characters of other races are
not so strongly dominant as to breed out some of the most desirable
and distinctive characteristics of the aryo-german race; whether we
are breeding to build up or to undermine our own civilization;
whether the aryo-germanic race, which took possession of this con-
tinent, assumed dominion over it and planted in it its civilization,
institutions and ideals, is not in danger of being mixed with the blood
of other races to the degree of obliteration if the present rate of influx
of immigration from the far east, from southern and southeastern
Europe and from Asia Minor is allowed to go on unchecked.

Assimilation has been used as a word to conjure with. But in view
of the fact that heretofore we have really been ‘“assimilating”’
races of kin we do not know the precise assimilative strength of aryo-
germanic blood. The long-skulled, (dolicocephalic), blond, blue-
eyed race is meeting with a tremendous influx of the round-skulled
(brachycephalic), generally black-haired and black-eyed race. The
final test, which is inevitably approaching, will not consist in assim-
ilating this or that other race but in dominating the complicated net-
work of heredity in what threatens to become a blood-chaos.

The Slavs, the eastern branch of the aryo-germanic race, inhabit-
ing what today is Russia, were by origin long-skulled, blue-eyed and
blond-haired. Repeated Mongolian invasions have left their inevit-
able marks and have changed them to predominatingly round-skulls.
This much for assimilation.

The sub-races of the aryo-germans which all through history have
proved to be carriers of culture and civilization can assure themselves of
the continuance of their dominance in world’s affairs, and of the per-
manence and even brilliant expansion of the splendid civilization they
have created, by scientifically directing their evolution. A sound
eugenic sentiment, backed by race pride and family pride, will be the
vital power which will direct that race toward the larger ends. All
other races knowing their genetic values can similarly strive for
eugenic results, encourage fit and discourage unfit crosses.

NEWS AND NOTES

ZEBU CATTLE RESISTANT TO TEXAS FEVER

The Twenty-sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Animal Indus-
try, recently issued, contains the following relative to the immunity
of zebu cattle:

About thirty years ago a number of the so-called Brahman cattle of India
were introduced into southern Texas by A. H. Pierce, a stockman of Pierce,
Texas. These animals were crossed with our domestic cattle, and the result-
ing influence on the herds was markedly apparent. One of the most interest-
ing observations was that their progeny remained relatively free from ticks
while other stock in the same pasture would be literally covered with these
pests. The cattle ticks are present in such enormous quantities in this sec-
tion of Texas as to make cattle raising much less profitable than it should be.
This is due not so much to the fact that these ticks carry the Texas-fever micro-
organism as to their great blood-sucking powers as external parasites. The
Brahman grade cattle appear likewise to be less affected by other parasites and
pestiferous insects such as mosquitoes, hornflies, gadflies, etc., and to with-
stand better the warm, dry climate and other semitropical conditions present
in the Gulf Coast section of the United States than do the native cattle. * * *

The sebum secreted by the sebaceous glands of the skin has a peculiar odor
which seems to be repugnant to insect life. The hide, while it may be as thin
as in our domestic animals, still appears to be much tougher and is more diffi-
cult to penetrate with a hypodermic needle. The hair is quite short and does
not provide favorable shelter for the development of ticks. These three fac-
tors are probably responsible for the slight amount of tick molestation which
these animals experience.

Dr. Farrington, assistant chief of that bureau, in commenting
on that statement, says:

It has recently been reported to this office that the descendants of the 1906
importation have proved, and are proving, fully as resistant to the Texas fever
ticks as the members of the earlier importations, and in consequence acquire
a larger growth, and are always in superior condition and thrift.

There were 33 animals in the importation of 1906, and at the present time
-half-blood and three-quarter-blood descendants in large numbers have been
carefully observed, and all have proved very satisfactory in their resistance
to infection with Texas fever.

Mr. A. P. Borden, of Pierce, Texas, the leading authority on these
importations, says that every year proves more conclusively the
desirability of crosses between the cattle of India and our common
cattle from west Europe as producers of live-stock products in Texas
and the Southwest generally.

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AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE
ORGANIZATION OF A FRUIT REGISTRY ASSOCIATION

An organization known as the American Fruit Registry Associa-
tion has been established with headquarters at Sunnyside, Washing-
ton, Mr. H. M. Lichty, secretary. The purpose of this organization
is to secure scions from mother trees of the different varieties of fruit
which by actual test are known to have been prolific yielders. This
association makes the assumption that there is sufficient bud varia-
tion among the trees of a given variety of apple, for example, to make
profitable a selection of scions from the few very prolific trees. So far
as we know, this is the first time such an assumption has been put into
commercial use by an association.

It may be that bud variation does occasionally occur in a way
sufficiently marked to justify making of it a material commercial
factor. In other words, there may be an occasional mother tree from
a bud which, like the mutating seedling plant, has a combination of
characters of value peculiarly higher than its fellow trees.

In any event, this association will be able thus to secure whole-
some scions and stronger trees. If persisted in, this plan should soon
develop whether there is an occasional mutating mother plant from
which cuttings can be secured which in turn will produce trees higher
in value than the average of the variety.

An effort should be made by the scientists who are studying prac-
tical methods of breeding to collect and collate the data which will
become available from the work of this association. Selection made
in the manner proposed would have been looked upon several years
ago as practically ineffective or it would have been held that the
selection is in so narrow a range that improvements would not be
sufficient to cover the expense.

This company has got out a scheme of blanks and certificates under
which they give a sort of pedigree certificate of stocks from mother
trees. Should the fondest hopes of these people be realized they will
probably be able to give to scions from stock which proves heavy-.
bearing some form of advanced registration status, as is now done in
stock breeding.

THE SUGAR-BEET INDUSTRY IS BASED ON BREEDING

Perhaps the most striking instance of a great industry resulting
from the efforts of the plant breeder is afforded by the sugar-beet
industry.

News Aanp Notes Zao

Vilmorin and other early plant breeders in France took the common
beet and through breeding and selection succeeded in increasing its
percentage of sugar from 6 or 8 per cent to 12, 15, or even 20. But
alongside of its composition in sugar content they also developed the
crop yield so that the yield per acre of sugar was sufficiently large to
make the production of sugar by means of this plant profitable.

According to preliminary census returns, there were produced in
the United States, in the calendar year 1909, 1,003,400,000 pounds
of beet sugar, worth at wholesale $45,938,000. According to com-
mercial estimates there were produced in Europe and other countries,
in the crop year 1909-10, 13,532,000,000 pounds of beet sugar, a total
of 14,535,400,000 pounds. The magnitude of the beet-sugar indus-
try is indicated by a comparison of the beet-sugar output with the
total sugar produced in the world from other sources, as follows:
There were produced in the United States in the calendar year 1909,
of cane sugar, 668,200,000 pounds, according to preliminary census
returns, and in the crop year 1909-10, for the rest of the world.
17,823,000,000 pounds, according to commercial estimates. There
was in addition produced in the United States, of maple sugar, 11,-
928,770 pounds in 1909. Thus, beet sugar constituted 60 per cent
of the crop in the United States in 1909 and about 43 per cent of the
sugar crop of the rest of the world in 1910-11.

From the agricultural standpoint, beet-sugar growing has the
additional value of inducing intensive cultivation and of getting the
land in good tilth for other crops.

A VARIETY OF CORN BRED SPECIALLY FOR ELEVATED
REGIONS

Mr. A. Jay Garrison, member of the American Breeders Associa-
tion, of Edgewater, Colorado, has been for many years an outdoor
student of the science of breeding as applied to both plants and
animals. He is a very successful breeder of poultry with respect to
quality, and as a plant breeder he has originated a number of val-
uable plums.

The corn shown in the photograph is the result of three crosses in
six years, starting with Cory sweet corn and a local semi-dent, low-
growing variety known as Pike’s Peak. The result of each cross was
bred back to the Pike’s Peak to preserve and intensify the low-grow-
ing habit of this stram. And the constant tendency from this breed-
ing has been for the ears to appear lower on the stalks, a necessary

236 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

characteristic of corn to be grown in a dry and elevated region.
Another tendency was the increasing percentage of stalks bearing
two ears to the stalk.

The original ears of Cory and Pike’s Peak averaged 6 inches in
length. The average length of the ears of the first cross was 8 inches,
and that of the two ears shown is 12inches and 11, respectively. The
length of the stalk is 55 inches.

The seed was planted June 10, and the corn was cut September 9.
The season was unusually dry and irrigation water scarce, and this
corn was grown without irrigation or cultivation.

The variety promises to be of grcat value for dry and elevated
regions like that in the vicmity of Denver.—Lrvi CuuBBuck, Den-
ver, Colo.

A EUROPEAN ESTIMATE OF THE AMERICAN BREEDERS
ASSOCIATION

In an address delivered in Vienna, Austria, before the Society for
the Diffusion of Knowledge in the Natural Sciences, Professor Dr.
Erich von Tschermak reviewed the ‘Experimental Work in Modern
Problems of Heredity as Carried on in North America.”

The work of Castle, Morgan, Davenport, Tower, Shull, MacDou-
gal, Webber, Williams, Hansen, Burbank and others is mentioned
in connection with the work each of these men have done. At the
close of this address, Dr. von. Tschermak pays to American breeders
a tribute which is as generous in spirit, as it is surprising in frankness.
Coming from a European scientist of note his remarks are significant
and it should be gratifying to every member of the American Breed-
ers Association to be affiliated with an organization which has been
instrumental in advancing genetics in its every phase. He said:
“The picture which I have here hastily sketched shows a truly aston-
ishing developemnt of this modern science of genetics, in North Amer-
ica. With youthful energy, which perhaps at times had a too narrow
specialism, American researchers have accomplished much that is
highly to be commended in science.

In order to hold even honors in future with the scientific accomplish-
ments of her American sister, our European biological science must
follow her progress with attentive care and strive for the possession
of similar generous equipments for research. Experimental biology
has actually, in part, become an American science. Europe must
put forth most strenuous efforts not to be completely distanced.”

NEws AND Norss PBL

A Corn Brep ror ELEyAtTED REGIONS.

238 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

A DAHLIA AND GLADIOLUS SOCIETY ORGANIZED

An event of interest to plant breeders is the organization, in Chicago
on August 5, of the “Western Dahlia and Gladiolus Society.”
This society starts out energetically by announcing its first meeting
and flower show on September 26 in Indianapolis, Indiana. The
second flower show will be held in Chicago next year.

The society is inviting members from among those interested in
the culture of these two specialties. The officers of the society are:
E. T. Burns, (A. B. A.) Spencer, Indiana, president; W. W. Kauner,
Milwaukee, Wisconsin, vice president; W. K. Fletcher, Des Moines,
Iowa, treasurer; E. C. Thompson, Benton Harbor, Michigan, sec-
retary.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED

Diz PRARIEN IN ZENTRALNORDAMERICA UND IHR WERT FUR Forst KULTUR.
Dissertation prepared for degree of doctor of philosophy at the Ludwig
Maximilian University in Munich. Hugh Potter Baker (A.B.A.). 10
illustrations.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY FOR HORTICULTURAL SCIENCE, 1910. Seventh
Annual Meeting. C. P. Close, secretary. 89 pages.

KREUTZUNGSUNTERSUCHUNGEN AN HAFER UND WeIzEN. H. Nilsson-Ehle.
Lund, 1909. 122 pages.

UrEBER FALLE SPONTANEN WEGFALLENS EINES HEMMUNGSFAKTORS BEIM
Harer. Reprint from Zeitschrift fiir Induktive Abstammungs- und
Vererbungslehre. 1911. Vol. V, Heft I. H. Nilsson-Ehle. 37 pages, 2
plates.

UEBER ENTSTEHUNG SCHARF ABWEICHENDER MERKMALE AUS KREUZUNG
GLEICHARTIGER FORMEN BEIM WEIZEN. Reprint from Bericheder
Deutscher Botanischen Gesellschaft. 1911. Band XXX, Heft 2. H.
Nilsson-Ehle. Pp. 56-69.

Tue Ostrich INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED States. A. R. Lee. Reprint from
Twenty-sixth Annual Report, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. 8. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, 1909. 12 pages, 3 plates.

BREEDING HorsEs FOR THE Unirep States Army. A. D. Melvin, Chief of
Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 13 pages.

UEBER DIE EXPERIMENTELLE BEARBEITING DER MoODERNEN VERERBUNGS-
FRAUGEN IN NorRDAMERIKA. Prof. Dr. Erich v. Tschermak. 26 pages.

UEBER DIE VERERBUNG DER BLUETEZEIT BIE ErRBSEN. Prof. Dr. Erich v.
Tschermak. 24 pages. :

BEWERTUNG DER ZWEIZEILINGEN BRAUGERSTE IN NORDAMERIKA. Prof. Dr.
Erich v. Tschermak. 10 pages.

ASSOCIATION MATTERS

YEARBOOK OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE “‘A. B. A.” FOR SALE

The Secretary’s office has on hand a number of copies of Volumes
IV and VI which as customary, will be sold at $2 per volume. Back
numbers of Volume I of the Magazine will be furnished with Volume
VI of the Proceedings until the supply is exhausted.

The members of the Association are requested to assist the Sec-
retary in selling some 500 copies of Volume VI. The Association
has considerable funds tied up in these yearbooks and it is desirable
to realize on at least part of them. <A liberal allowance has been set
aside to meet possible demands from newly entering members, leav-
ing several hundred for sale to individuals, libraries and institutions.
Members are requested to do some lively and energetic work in plac-
ing these publications in public libraries, and those of colleges and
universities.

If only a very small fraction of the 30,000 public libraries regularly
carried our publications on their shelves the four or five hundred
copies which we can spare would soon be disposed of.

It should certainly be an easy matter to induce your local public
library to purchase these Proceedings regularly. Besides this, we
would gain another object, namely, that the propaganda of the Ameri-
can Breeders Association would be brought more fully before the
public, and our publications-would do the missionary work which in
part they are: designed to do.

NEED OF GREATER PUBLICITY

One of the pressing needs of the Association is publicity. It is
needed to attract new members. The Association must be kept in a
state of expansion and vigorous growth.

Publicity is also needed in order to make the propaganda of the
Association fully effective. We know that what we advocate regard-
ing the improvement of the plant and animal resources of the world
by breeding is sincere and sane, and we should let the world know it.
We know that our advocacy of eugenics research and of a eugenics
program is rational and sound, and we should therefore place ourselves
in a position where we can command the attention of the thinking
part of the population of this and other countries. The American
Breeders Association can be made to be widely known if its members

239

240 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

will frequently, persistently, systematically, and on every possible
occasion mention its objects, its work, and its publications in the circle
of friends, in the lecture room, or in public meetings, and in the press.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF THE COLORADO STA TE CHAPTER

During the early part of the present year several of the Colorado
members had some conversation regarding ways and means of pro-
moting the interests of the plant and animal breeder, and at this con-
ference it was suggested that something might be gained by organiz-
ing a state chapter or section for the purpose of getting the Colorado
members together at two or perhaps more meetings during the year.
At these sessions special problems relating to the improvement of
fruits, farm crops, or live stock could be discussed and it was thought
that in this manner our members would get better acquainted with
the development of different phases of this subject in the West.
This in turn would lead to a more careful study of the plans which
have been evolved in other sections of the country under the direc-
tion of the parent organization.

On February 22, a meeting was therefore held at which twenty-
one men were in attendance. The plan in question met with hearty
approval from every member present, and a committee of three was
appointed to draft a constitution for the guidance of the proposed
new chapter. Several of these men were not members of the Ameri-
can Breeders Association, but when the objects of the society were
explained a number immediately requested that their names be placed
on the membership list of the national organization and promised
that they would lend their assistance in promoting the welfare of the
local chapter. This attempt to get our men together has resulted
in additions to the American Breeders Association, and we have
every reason to believe that many more names will be sent in before
the end of the year.

Our second meeting was held on the evening of July 3. The entire
time was spent in discussing the constitution which was prepared by
the committee. During the busy summer season it was not possible
for us to plan for another session, but we hepe to be able to report
rousing meetings early in the autumn and winter months.—L. A.
Moornovuse, Secretary, Colorado Chapter, A. B. A.

EIGHTH ANNUAL MEETING
1911-12
AMERICAN BREEDERS ASSOCIATION

WASHINGTON, D. C.
December 28-29-80

At the new Masonic Temple, corner 13th Street and New York
Avenue, N.W. General sessions 11:00 to 12:30 daily, and 8:00 to
10:00 p.m. on December 28 and 29.

Plant Section meetings, Assembly Hall, 9:00 to 11:00 a.m. and
2:00 to 4:30 p.m. daily. .

Animal Section meetings, North Hall, 9:00 to 11:00 a.m. and 2:00
to 4:30 p.m. daily.

Eugenics Section meetings part in South Hall, part in St. Eliza-
beth’s Insane Hospital and part at the Volta Bureau, 35th Street
and Volta Place, Georgetown. For further data see final program.

Hotel headquarters; room 214 Raleigh Hotel. Single rooms
$2.00 a day and up; single rooms with bath, $3.00 a day and up.
Double rooms, $3.00 a day and up; double rooms with bath, $4.00 a
day andup. Rooms should be reserved at once.

Please send titles of papers before December 10 either to the sec-
tion secretaries (H. J. Webber, Plant Section, Ithaca, New York;
C. B. Davenport, Eugenics Section, Cold Spring Harbor, New York;
H. W. Mumford, Animal Section, Urbana, IIl.), or for general com-
mittees, to the Secretary of the Association, W. M. Hays, Washing-
tony). C.

Railroad rates: In paying your fare to Washington, request a
certificate. If the station agent has no blank certificate, buy ticket
to nearest town where certificate can be secured and then buy ticket
and secure certificate. On arriving in Washington, present your
certificates to Mr. F. S. Hazzard, assistant secretary of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science, office of permanent
secretary, New Willard Hotel. Write Mr. F. S. Hazzard, Smith-
sonian Institution, Washington, D. C., for more detailed information
concerning transportation and for lists of more than thirty affiliated
societies which meet in Washington during holiday week.

For program and other information concerning the American
Breeders’ Association, write to W. M. Hays, secretary, Washington,
DG:

241

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THE AMERICAN BREEDERS
MAGAZINE

Published Quarterly by the American Breeders Association
FOR THE USE OF ITS MEMBERS
PRICE OF SINGLE COPIES, 35 CENTS

Address communications to American Breeders Association, Washington, D. C.

Vol. II, No. 4 Fourth Quarter, 1911 Whole No, 8
Son LEN T's pice

Pipe, Pease fear (yekhls POrbralt). 0... 6... Se ee ss oe ko ee See ee 245

Heredity as a Factor in the Improvement of Social Conditions. H. E. Jor-

pisgee SDR MNTE NE sae 8 ae ood ac cle ores os 246
Classification of the Horse. Percival Hicks, North, Va................. 254
The Plant Breeding Problem. Robert Gauss, Denver, Colo............. 259
Domestication and Acclimatization of Wild Mammals. D. E. Lantz,

os si secipe D2 Sis See Sy ae is ee 264
Report of Committee on Heredity of Feeble-Mindedness. A. C. Rogers,

Wh. aarloeinli hina = Teen Oreies Cae ee aa 269
A Cotton Variation with a Self-Fertilized Ancestry (illustrated). Samuel

wu LEGTN. . SLB Age ee Seba el Coe oR eee 272
Heredity One of the Large Controllable Forces. Willet M. Hays, Wash-

aiiin. ID. Cees ucelsboce Soe Ree eee Ae eee eee 276

Establishing a Breed of Alfalfa for the Irrigated Lands of Colorado. W.

IE. Jul IBIS @. 1G Soe ech eaea ence a ne 284
Twins, Heredity, Eugenics. John H. Chase, Cambridge, Mass.......... 287
Inheritance of ‘‘Acquired Epilepsy.’’ L. B. Alford, Monson State Hos-

fefig.. [2a ciraie IM Gss5 ic) Se en 293
Methods jor the Improvement of Sorghum. A. H. Leidigh, Manhattan,

DESThi 13-2 cc ele ei eh eS ee ee ee nen eee 294
Illustrations. View of Grounds Andrieux Vilmorin and Co.’s Plant Breed-

ing Farms. Biological (Genetic) Library, Andrieux Vilmorin, etc.

WeEego tt. I Dasi@t.. aes & SSE Bee ee eee eee ee 296
EDITORIALS:

CE EEE TL ag 297
Something More than the Commercial Instinct Needed................ 299
SEER (STS 2 ED TP
Une epeai esis Is riet| syes dee ee ae ee eee 303
bo DSP SINE a ee a 307
NEWS AND NOTES:

On the Nature of Heredity. E.N. Wentworth, Ames, Iowa............. 310
Size of Farms and Farm Families. G.F. Warren, Ithaca, N. Y.......... 311
Breeding for Color Adjustment under Certain Climates. Chas. E.

8 ie. Th Gite bo 313
The Fourth International Conference of Genetics. C. E. Saunders,

Di wu, Canes ee oeae bese ooo eee 313
2 ShreSieehne 1D iyo Gd ery ee Oe ee 316
AS Hesiband: m Commemoration of Mendel............-...-..ee.+--- 316
2) LEIS SES 00 le Se ee Bee nate oe 317

ASSOCIATION MATTERS: a
Growing Popularity of the American Breeders Association. The Eighth

alive) Witgiting otss oo DAR e eae enone 319
Portraits of Scientists and Breeders.............-.-.---+-2++-++-++0:- 319
Complimentary Words for the Magazine...........- 22.2.6 e eee eee 320

(Copyright, 1911, by the American Breeders Association.)

243

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ALBRECHT DANIEL THAER

THE AMERICAN
BREEDERS MAGAZINE

“To the solid ground of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.’-—-WorpswortH

Vol. II Fourth Quarter, 1911 No. 4

ALBRECHT DANIEL THAER
1752-1828

Ideas grow at a painfully and almost discouragingly slow rate.
The only people whom nature seems to have fitted to nurse ideas with
becoming patience and optimism are reformers and scientists.

Our modern science of plant breeding dates back to an idea which
was born in the mind of the botanist Camerarius, who in 1694 pub-
lished a work ‘‘De sexu plantarum epistola”’ in which he cites a series
of experiments to prove the nature of sexual reproduction in plants.
Camerarius, by the way, was the first scientist to resort to experi-
ment in his search for facts. In this case he worked chiefly with maize
and castor beans. About 1760 Koelreuter, professor of natural his-
tory at a German university, for the first time successfully hybridized
plants, and thus established beyond a doubt not only the sexuality
of plants but also that in all essentials they are subject to the same
laws of reproduction as animals. Other scientists continued Koel-
reuter’s work, notably Gaertner and Sprengel, but the idea of the
sexuality of plants remained housed within the precincts of the
savant’s studies and laboratories and did not find its way into prac-
tical application in agriculture until about the end of the eighteenth
century. The man whose vision was clear, and who knew how to
make the laboratory knowledge dynamic, was Albrecht Daniel Thaer.
He has variously been called the “great agricultural reformer’ and
the ‘“grand-master of agriculture” and the like, in recognition of the
fact that he laid the foundation of the scientific agriculture of today.
Among the diverse interests of his active and crowded career, the
importance and possibilities of plant breeding did not escape his
attention.

Thaer was born in the town of Celle, in the province of Hanover,
Germany, the son of a physician. After a study of medicine at the
University of Goettingen, he associated with his father in practice
and continued alone after the death of the latter. In 1786 Thaer
purchased a suburban residence with eight acres of ground, which
he immediately began to cultivate intensively. He had noticed the

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246 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

shortcomings of the farming done by farm owners of the country
surrounding Celle and in the province generally. He saw lack of
rational farm management; lack of intensive methods; employment
of an excess of hand labor owing to lack of machinery suitable for
the use of horse power; too much reliance on fallowing; and practi-
cally no crop rotation. The aim he set himself was to make a practi-
cal demonstration that farming was nowhere more satisfacfactory
and remunerative than on the lands near Celle. In 1804 he removed
to Méglin near Berlin and founded the Méglin Agricultural Institute.
Once there, he vigorously promoted his plans, and brought the
German farmer to his viewpoint and taught him how to apply
science to farming. This farm, which had really become a demon-
stration farm, was the gathering place of many men in quest of agri-
cultural knowledge.

Albrecht Daniel Thaer’s mind was immensely productive. He
contributed voluminously to agricultural literature, wrote text books
on a variety of farm subjects, proposed a soil classification, introduced
soiling or stall feeding of cattle, promoted vigorously the growing of
red clover and other legumes.

In his gardens at Celle he conducted numerous breeding and hybrid-
ization experiments, and his insight into the nature of the processes
of breeding and selection seems to have been truly remarkable; in
some of his deductions he was fully abreast of our most modern views.
He knew well the value of fortuitous variations and the part they
play in the origination of new varieties. He very minutely describes
in one of his publications a method of breeding through selection to
secure constancy of type. He conducted breeding experiments
with the view of learning the behavior of the awns of small grains,
their variation and constancy, and the possibility of removing them
by breeding. |

HEREDITY AS A FACTOR IN THE IMPROVE-
MENT OF SOCIAL CONDITIONS?
H. E. Jorpan
University, Virginia
Those of you who have followed recent thought respecting human
society will readily assent to the statement that there appears to be
urgent need for improvement. Perhaps some of you in following the

a Abstract of address delivered by Dr. H. E. Jordan before the Virginia State Conference of Charities
and Correction, Charlottesville, Va., May, 1910.

JORDAN: HEREDITY A FACTOR 247

discussions concerning jails, insane asylums, almshouses, hospitals,
reformatories, and public schools have been aroused for the first time
to a sense of something fundamentally wrong and unjust. If not
even yet, then walk with me the streets of your own city—or any
city, large or small, east, west, north or south—with discerning eyes
and sympathetic hearts, and note the number of poor, sad, sick,
crippled, feeble-minded human beings, and tell me honestly whether
you think that all is well, and that you of health, hope, brawn, brain
and means have done your full duty towards your fellowman, present
and to come. What intelligent effort are you seriously making to
render life a little less aimless in your small sphere of influence?
Are you thinking of these matters at all, or are you simply thought-
lessly ‘drifting down the turbid stream of life and helping to make
up the grand confusion’’?

With criminality (Dr. Austin Flint), pauperism, degeneracy, idiocy,
insanity, and the various forms of maladjustment apparently on the
increase, it becomes incumbent upon the patriotic, and the strong and
intelligent, and especially those in positions of trust, influence, and
responsibility to use every means, to search every resource, to make
any sacrifice, and to go to any reasonable extent to ameliorate, and
if possible to eradicate, this human woe; and to save to the future
race what long ages of evolution from brute to man, through a bloody
struggle for existence, and the survival of the physically, morally,
and mentally most fit, has painfully brought to pass. And every one
of us can wield some little influence, the cumulative effect of which
will bring us nearer the goa] of a universa'ly rational and joyous life.

Lest you doubt me still respecting the reality of widespread human
misery, come with me hastily in fancy to the insane asylum at Peters-
burg and the State Hospital at Staunton, Va., the Eastern Peniten-
tiary at Philadelphia, Bellevue Hospital in New York, the municipal
eleemosynary institutions on Blackwell’s Island, Hull House in Chi-
cago, the dives of San Francisco, the slums of Boston, the cemeteries
of this land crowded with infants’ tombstones—and I might extend
the list almost indefinite] y—and tell me again whether you think that
the ills of society are imaginary. Remember, also, that the number
of the above institutions is increasing, and that their walls are ever
filled, and that the ranks of their inmates are recruited anew every
generation.

To emphasize still further the seriousness of the present social
condition, before passing to a consideration of its cause and sugges-
tions for improvement, let me cite a few facts based upon statistics.

248 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

And I shall have to speak in plainest terms. This is no time nor occa-
sion for prudery; to shut our eyes to revolting conditions is nothing
less than criminal. The conditions exist. Purity and strength and
wisdom, allied with initiative, insistence, persistence, courage and
patience, must grapple with the social monsters—vice, crime and
disease, the enemies of race improvement. In the United States to-
day 3,000,000 persons are constantly il]. About 10,000,000 are thus
economically affected more or less directly. There are now living in
the United States about 8,000,000 people—a number equal to the
population of the State of New York—destined to die of tuberculosis,
and about half that number of Bright’s disease. About 50,000 per-
sons die annually in the United States of typhoid fever—a condition
which should no longer be listed among diseases, but rather among
crimes. About 1 in 500 of population in Europe and America are
epileptic; about that same proportion feeble-minded, i.e., about 150,-
000, and nearly as large a proportion insane. There are 14,000,000
male adults under the age of thirty in the United States, 5,000,000
of whom have venereal disease or its sequelee. And, saddest fact of
all, more than 75 per cent of the operations required for inflammatory
diseases in women are said to be due to venereal infections. The
hereditary effect in terms of weakened constitutions, congenital
infections, sterility of otherwise noble stock—to say nothing of the
physical and mental anguish entailed—is appalling. There are in
the United States 110,000 blind persons, about 25 per cent of whom
owe their blindness to venereal disease; and about 50,000 deaf
persons. Hereditary syphilis is said to claim a mortality of from 60 to
80 per cent. In France 20,000 children, or 74 per cent, die annually
of syphilis. In the United States about one-third of all children born
die before the fifth year. There are, besides, 80,000 prisoners and
100,000 paupers. In fact, about 5 per cent of our population is
seriously defective in some form or other.

I regard this problem of human welfare (really the problem of
race improvement) as the cardinal interest of the day. Despite
her mines and waterways, all her forests and fertile fields, her
navy and her hoards of gold and silver, this nation is rich only in pro-
portion to the health and abundance of her potential fathers and
mothers. The only real wealth of this country, or any country, is
her citizers. If they be generally poor or sick or feeble or distressed,
the nation is decadent and must disappear in spite of material assets.
I take it that the most vital concern of this nation is the health
of her people. ‘The health of our pigs has representation in the Cab-

JORDAN: HEREDITY A FACTOR 249

inet, but not our children,” says Warbasse. God cares no more for
us than for other nations. Unless we would follow the fate of Assyria,
Persia, Babylon, Egypt, Greece, and Rome, we must bestir ourselves
and apply sane scientific principles to the treatment of our social ills.
Dr. G. A. Doren, of the Ohio Institute for Feeble-Minded Youth,
warns us that, ‘‘ Unless preventive measures against the continuously
progressive increase of defective classes are adopted, such a calamity
as the gradual eclipse, slow decay, and final disintegration of our pres-
ent form of society and government is not only possible, but probable.”

I propose to consider, then, criminality, degeneracy, insanity, and
sickness and early senility from the standpoint of heredity. It will
be my effort to impress upon you the thought that criminals and de-
generates and weaklings are born, just like poets, and not generally
made by their environment. I believe I shail be able to show you
that insanity is heritable and that feeble-mindedness and epilepsy
sustain an etiological relationship to drunkenness. And the evidence
is overwhelming that many forms of disease, or a predisposition or
susceptibility thereto, at least, are traced from ancestor to offspring.

If it can be shown—and there seems little doubt on this point—
that many types of human defect are heritable, the prevention of a
steady quota of deficients is well within our power if we will. The
positive aspect, of course, pertains to the inheritances of good quali-
ties and plus racial characters. Where doubt exists or where proof
is not yet conclusive, government aid could do inestimable service—
and only so can the disputed points be quickly and at the same time
accurately settled.

All life is conditioned by the same fundamental laws of nature. It
would seem, then, that the same methods that man now employs in
producing a high quality breed of dogs, or birds, or cattle, or horses,
he must apply to himself. What inherent indignity to man is there in
this thought? Whence and by what authority is it given that man
can violate with impunity the laws of heredity as regards the repro-
duction of his own kind, but must adhere to them in the rearing of
live stock? Why is the subject of race culture tabooed in so-called
polite society? There is no issue so vital to this nation today as the
rearing of the human thoroughbred. Whence this idea of impurity
about this most-vital interest of this people, except from the impure or
possibly misinformed minds of perverted natures? St. Paul reminds
us that “to the pure all things are pure.”

. It would be extremely interesting and might prove very instructive
to trace the origin of the idea so intimately associated with our reli-

250 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

gion that the body is inherently base, that it must be “mortified,”
that it is something to be despised, that only as the body is neglected
can the soul arise. I know not whence this idea. I know only that
the author of our religion said that He came that “they (His brethren)
might have life and that they might have it more abundantly.”
True Christianity gives no warrant for this exaltation of a weak and
listless body.

It is just possible that much of the admitted loss of grip of the
church on the conduct of virile men is due to the fact that religion
today is shaped too much to make its especia: appeal to the sick
and unfortunate—too much of its assumed authority issues from men-
tal and physical weakness. I hope I may not be misunderstood here
as to my feeling regarding the efficacy for good of religion. It is
unmistakably one of the greatest moral forces in existence. But I
hold that the healthy man can best express the highest type of re-
ligion. We want religion to appeal to strength and to health—and
we want it to help in the effort to restore racial health, somewhat per-
haps as the Emmanuel movement, in a very small way, in its incepLion.
Religion to appeal more universally must become suffused with mod-
ern biological teaching. It must exalt health and bodily vigor more
as something to be prized and respected. Its new spirit must teach
that it is as important a matter to observe strictly the laws of personal
hygiene as to say prayers. Perhaps when the span of life shall have
become lengthened preparation for the ministry will embrace medical
training and the physician’s calling theological instruction. At any
rate, we may expect religious teaching to take more serious and intel-
ligent note of the laws that underlie life and the making of life and
perhaps teach right conduct toward the future race as a part of the
morals of religion.

Right-minded men are not willfully bad. Ignorance is at the root
of much so-called vice and crime. An intelligent understanding of the
laws of heredity and reproduction would do more toward minimizing
vice than much impersonal religious teaching. The public schools
also can do a splendid work here in dissipating harmful ignorance and
foolish sentimentality by giving well-planned courses in botany and
zoology.

It is an established fact that the degenerate class are more prolific.
The fecundity of the irresponsible is frightful. Under such cireum-
stances the deficient types will swamp the better types and thus lower
the human standard and the general level of our civilization.

JORDAN: HEREDITY A Factor 251

To return after this slight digression to the condition of our main
interest: Any living thing is the product of an interaction between its
inheritance and its environment. A discussion of the relative values
in development of heredity and environment would be senseless.
Both heredity and environment are essentials; essentials cannot be
compared. The best stock of inherited qualities in an unfavorable
environment produce nothing; nor can an ideal environment pro-
duce anything without a germ of life representing an inheritance. A
noble man is not born from fools, no matter what the environment
provided. Figs do not grow on thistles nor grapes on thorns in any
environment. A feeble-minded child cannot develop into a great
scholar even in an ideal environment; and, vice versa, one inclined by
heredity toward the life of a scholar cannot become such in an un-
favorable environment, nor can one born an athlete excel in sports
if bred in an environment that does not call forth the exercise of his
talents.

I do not want to rob the human heart of the commendable virtues
of pity, sympathy, and charity. I do not want to see done anything
less than we are now doing for the comfort and happiness of our
defectives of various types. I want to see material conditions im-
proved for all classes alike to the highest degree possible. But for
the sake of the future race, for the sake of the light entrusted to our
civilization, out of respect and honor to our intelligence and good sense,
let us have the courage to recognize our duty and forbid parenthood
to the proved, and universally admitted, unfit. We speak of improv-
ing the condition of the jail, almshouse, insane asylum, etc. That
is well. But don’t you see that their inmates continually pass out,
while their places are continually taken by new recruits? What I
hope for is a condition where jails and asylums and charitable insti-
tutions are unnecessary. And I hope I shall be able to show that
such a desire is not as quixotic as it may at first appear. These pub-
lic institutions are a fearful drain—the more so because unnecessary—
upon the national resources. They represent, moreover, a waste of
much valuable time and effort. Our 42 institutions for feeble-
minded cost us $5,000,000 annually; our 350 hospitals for insane,
$20,000,000 annually; our 1,300 prisons, $13,000,000 annually; our
1,500 hospitals, $30,000,000 annually; our 2,500 almshouses, $20,000,-
000 annually; and our 115 schools and homes for deaf and dumb,
and our 1,200 refuge homes, cost us many millions more annually.
(‘““Eugenics,” Davenport.) The time is fully ripe for at least negative
eugenics—i.e., the prohibiting of parenthood to the unfit.

202 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

I am not yet persuaded that recourse to surgical procedure is the
best alternative, exceptin most extreme cases of hereditary degeneracy ;
but I do advocate—and there can be no objection to this measure—
that the inmates of our institutions for deficients be detained, no
matter what temporary improvement they may show, until after the
procreative period. This much at least is clear: that to be per-
manently rid of deficients, they must be prevented from reproducing
their defective kind. Our only hope for racial improvement lies in
prohibiting the continual replenishment in frightful numbers of our
degenerate and criminal classes.

Professor Irving Fisher predicts that “laws like that of Indiana,
but of gradually increasing severity, will become quite common in the
future; and Prof. Ray Lankaster has remarked that “humanity will
probably submit in the future to communal restricting of the right to
multiply with as good grace as it has given up the right to rob and to
rape.” The possibilities of applied eugenics are indicated by Prof.
Louis R. Ehrlich, in the statement: “How rapidly the race would
advance if mankind should resolve ‘the next generation must be born
with healthy bodies; must be nurtured in healthy physical and moral
environments, and must be filled with the ambition to again give
birth to a still healthier, still nobler generation’” (p. 54 of Prof.
Fisher’s report). Note also the sad commentary of our business
sense— not to mention our moral sense—in the words of Dr. Prince
Morrow of New York: ‘The extermination of social diseases would
probably mean the elimination of at least one-half of our institutions
for defectives.” ‘‘So definite and certain is the result of the marriage
of two imbeciles, and so disastrous is reproduction by an imbecile
under any conditions, that it is a disgrace of the first magnitude that
thousands of children are annually born in this country of imbecile
parents, to replace and probably more than replace, the deaths in the
army of about 150,000 mental defectives which this country sup-
ports.” (‘Eugenics,”’ Davenport, pp. 14-16.)

Criminals, paupers, degenerates, the ircurably sick and their kind
are a serious burden—in cases even a menace—to society. Society
has a right, even an obligation, to protect itself. The course of
action is clear to the extent that in cases of undoubted ability to
transmit defects such transmissions must be prohibited. Public
sentiment will do much in this direction. Proper instruction will
help; here as elsewhere, knowledge is power. Moral suasion on the
part of the church and social institutions (lodges, etc.) will not be
without reward. Courses in heredity and applied eugenics in our

JORDAN: HEREDITY A FACTOR Zoe

medical schools and training schools for social service are urgently
demanded. A national department of public health, from which may
issue the results of scientific research and mature reflections—and
which would coérdinate all the branches of social service—is indis-
pensable. And it is especially demanded that every one do his share
of serious thinking and have the courage to act positively or negatively
in the interests of the future race; and where all other means fail of
appeal, law must enforce eugenic conduct.

The means of race conservation and improvement—the prime end
for which social conditions are sought to be improved—seem clear.
Simple observance of the laws of heredity and enforcement of eugenic
principles would cure many of our social, political, and economic
ils. What sanitary science and hygiene seek to accomplish by atten-
tion to external conditions alone largely defeats its own ends by
counteracting the working of the principle of selection. Moreover,
this is a tedious, long-drawn out, painful process. Rigidly applied
eugenics would accomplish the end in several generations. The
resulting healthy, happy race would require, and, indeed, could compel
a still more purified environment. Contemplate this ideal state of
human society! Thoroly healthy bodies could develop the highest
ranges of mertal capacity. There would be little suffering, weakness,
sickness, crime, or vice. Individuals showing such tendencies would
be treated with more than ordinary kindness and solicitude, but they
would be denied the opportunity of reproducing their kind.

Flourence, a French scientist, who has given much attention to the
question of old age, holds that an animal ought to live—and may
live—five times as long as its period of growth. The natural lifetime
of a man should thus be 125 years. Metchnikoff, another French
scientist, also believes that there is no inherent necessity in human
protoplasm to die short of the century mark. It may be a legitimate
question to ask whether long life is really desirable. I believe it is,
and, more than this, I believe that human progress in the perfected
society above pictured necessitates a longer life. Even today it
takes a man from 25 to 30 years to really prepare for life; and the stock
of formulated knowledge is ever increasing. There remains too short
a period for the use and development of this knowledge, and for the
satisfactory exercise of one’s powers and the proper rearing of one’s
kind. Few men ever naturally come to the sense of yearning for
death as a boon—i.e., as the natural end to a satisfied life. ‘To quote
from Metchnikoff: ‘Old age, at present practically a useless burden
on the community, will become a period of work valuable to the com-

254 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

munity, as the old man will no longer be subject to loss of memory
or to intellectual weakness. He will be able to apply his great experi-
ence to the most complicated and the most delicate parts of the social
life’ (‘Nature of Man,” p. 295.) We may predict that when sci-
ence occupies the preponderating place in human society that it
ought to have, and when knowledge of hygiene (and, the writer may
add, heredity) is more advanced, human life will become much longer
and the part of old people will become more important than it is
today.” (‘‘Prolongation of Life,” p. 226.)

In the race that lives according to natural law and by eugenic prin-
ciples, birth and death and their attendant pains and sorrows will
not be permitted to follow each other in such quick succession. There
will be less quantity and better quality. There will be no such ruthless
wastes of human effort and strength as now prevail. To be
parent to five children, for example, and bring only one to normal
maturity, will be accounted criminal to some one. This may seem
utopian. None of us will live to see this day. But by all the signs
of the times, this day is coming. What seems certain is that it ought
to come—and come it will as one of the sequel to proper social
conduct. And it behooves us as intelligent, moral men and women
to do our share and add our quota to hasten the time of this life more
abundant in this kingdom of heaven on the earth.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE HORSE.

PeEeRcIvAL Hicks

North, Virginia

I propose in this paper to discuss briefly that classification of the
horse which seeks to show that our modern horses are derived from
four distinct species, a conclusion with which I cannot agree, and to
set forth my reasons for dissent.

In dividing the existing breeds or families of horses into four species
distinguished from one another by slight anatomical differences, and
assigning to each a more or less clearly defined geographical area I
think scientists have lost sight of much valuable information which
has quite as strong a bearing upon the question, as those peculiar-
ities which are regarded as distinctive. To clear the way to a dis-
cussion of this question I will at once introduce a diagram of the clas-
sification mentioned.

Hicks: CLASSIFICATION OF THE HORSE 200

PREJEVALSKY HORSE
1. Callosities on all four legs.
2. Cat hammed.
3.. Head set at right angles to the neck.
4. Red-brown in color with ‘‘mealy’’ nose.

CEetTIc Horse
1. No callosities on the hind legs.
2. Black stripe down the back and across the shoulders.
3. Sometimes transverse bars on the legs.
4. Dun color common.

Forest Horse
1. Head long and narrow, and set at right angles to neck.
2. Eyes recessive.
3. Has in common with the foregoing generally 6 lumbar vertebrae.

AFRICAN OR ARAB HORSE
1. Head set at an obtuse angle to the neck.
2. Slight difference in the development of the ulna.
3. Has only five lumbar vertebrae.

It would seem from a study of the foregoing that the first and most
important distinction is the number of lumbar vertebrae. If it
can be established that the present run of horses in use in Arabia and
Northern Africa have in all cases only five lumbar vertebrae while
other races have six, a large and well defined division would at once
be established, but I would very much doubt whether this has ever
been sufficiently proved to warrant its universal application and
furthermore, I doubt the wisdom of establishing a species upon ana-
tomical differences so subject to variation as the number of verte-
brae in the lumbar region. The number of the lumbar vertebrae
vary more largely than those of any other part of the spine (except
of course in the coccygeal region), as the accompanying table taken
from Chauveau’s Comparative Anatomy will show.

Number of Vertebrae

Species : =

Cervical Dorsal Lumbar Sacral Coceygeal
. CEASERS SS ee aa 7 12 5 5 4to 5
12 5h 3 ee ocean eee 7 17 to 19 5 to 7 5 12 to 18
RO eer. Soe ase towict ics 7 13 6 5 16 to 20
SU THE = iS eds Sane 7 13 6 to 7 4 16 to 24
BOL he Mee 7 13 6 11 to 12
(2S CESS: Ci rf 14 6 to 7 + 21 to 23
1) Tabs 50a eee 7 13 7 3 16 to 21
(UE ran one ee Re ee 7 13 7 3 21

256 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

A study of the above brings out quite clearly that, excepting the
tail, the lumbar region is more prone to variation in all domestic
animals than any other part of the spine. The horse it is true pre-
sents a variation in the dorsal region as well, for there the number has
a range of three bones exactly as has the lumbar region, and I think
that all anatomists will agree that the variations are generally comple-
mentary, that is where we have only five lumbar we find nineteen
dorsal or seven and seventeen, respectively. The second anatomical
distinction is the presence or absence of callosities upon the posterior
limbs.

To those unfamiliar with anatomy I would say that these plates
are comprised of epithelial cells arranged in microscopic tubes like
those of the horn or the hoof, and are located at the upper extremity
of the inner surface of the metatarsal bone. There is also a similar
growth of corneous substance growing from the skin of the fetlock.
The callosities are always, where present smaller on the posterior
limbs, and are supposed by anatomists to be the remains of a pre-
historic ‘thumbnail,’ in process of elimination by disuse in the course
of evolution. As in the first instance I question the wisdom of
basing a classification upon a variable character. I now question the
wisdom of depending upon the presence or absence of a useless char-
acter in process of loss by evolution; for arguing from analogy one
would expect to find the callosities eventually gone from all the limbs,
if we could see far enough into the future, and during the process one
would not expect such a character to be lost in one decade or even one
century, but rather that it should first grow smaller and many times
appear and disappear before the tendency to reproduce it should be
entirely bred out.

The absence of the callosities from the hind legs of certain tribes
of horses would in my mind clearly indicate a different environment
for many generations and if one chose could make the distinction a
difference in race or breed, but hardly a difference in species involving
the existence of two parent forms.

The third anatomical distinction is the angle of articulation made
by the head and the atlas vertebra, which it is asserted is dominant
(in the Mendelian sense) when an animal so formed is bred upon one
whose angle of articulation is obtuse. This seems to me a very slight
distinction upon which to base a division of species unless it is well
supported by other unrelated differences. The fact of its being dom-
inant in cross breeding has no bearing upon the case for it is well
known that many, in fact one might almost venture to say most,

Hicks: CLASSIFICATION OF THE HORSE 257.

abnormal variations are dominant when they occur within a well
recognized breed which is much more restricted than the species.
Indeed were it otherwise it would be difficult to understand how any
variation could be inherited. For when it first appears it must be
confined to one lone individual with all the accumulated inheritance
of every other individual of the race against it. Should a variation
be recessive it is hardly possible to see how it could establish itself
unless it gave to its possessor some marked advantage in the strug-
gle for existence. That such would be the case in a horse whose head
was at an obtuse angle compared with one whose head set at a
right angle to the neck is hardly conceivable for it is well known to all
horsemen that no horse has any appreciable difficulty in grazing
no matter what the set of its head may be. The long legged short
necked foal does find some little trouble for the first few months of
its life but not enough to in any way hinder its growth. To take up
the other side of the question and decide whether or not the set of
the head at right angles to the neck is of any advantage to the so-
called forest horse is idle, for he would graze on leaves no matter how
his head was articulated. But so far as my observation goes no horse
willingly eats the leaves of trees, if grass is available, and I do not
believe any breed of horses can exist if confined to woodland where
there is no grazing; or that any species of horse in any way connected
with those of the present day ever made a living from the leaves of
trees or shrubs. All those animals which live on browse have a long
pliable upper lip combined with the absence of the upper incisors;
an anatomy and dentation so distinct from the genus equus as to
warrant not only a difference of species but one of genus as well.

The fourth distinction, that of color is the most unsatisfactory
of all. What was the color of the original progenitor of the horse
no one has been able to ascertain, but it is generally well known and
universally admitted that the variation of color under the influence
of domestication, augmented as it has been, by the personal pref-
erence of individual owners, is so great as to preclude any intelli-
gent reasoning.

There are dun horses in all countries and in most breeds, and there
are red-brown horses with ‘‘mealy’’ noses in all countries and in
most breeds, and no distinction of species can at this time be estab-
lished by the presence or absence of any one color.

To sum up the situation I would say that any theory of a prehis-
toric horse that is plausible will find some adherents. But no theory
should be accepted which is not thoroughly in accord with the facts

258 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

recorded in written history. When the historic period commences,
speculation ceases, but to meet our own good acceptance, the specu-
lations of antiquaries should dovetail into the facts of written his-
tory with complete accord, if any premises fails to do this it should
at once be discarded or at least so much of it as fails to meet the require-
ments. At the very dawn of written history we have this one fact
strongly brought out by the kind of negative evidence only possible
in such cases. There were no horses known to the early Egyptians.
When Abraham and Sarah visited that country about 1900 B.C. the
reigning Pharaoh at once appropriated Sarah for his own sole use and
benefit and in return made Abraham many valuable presents. In fact
the truth seems to be that Abraham sold his wife for a little of most
everything the country produced that would be of value to man, but
there were no horses in the catalogue.

The first mention we have of horses in Egypt was during the reign
of the Shepherd Kings, while Joseph was Prime Minister, and the
inscription upon the monuments first contained horses at just about
that date—1720 B.C. Egypt was at this time by far the richest and
most civilized country bordering upon the Mediterranean Sea and I
think it is fair to conclude that what was true of Egypt was true of
the rest of Northern Africa. There was no material commerce
recorded prior to that of the Phoenician merchants about 1000 B.C.
and horses would not be carried to Northern Africa by land without
crossing Egypt.

It would seem then that there was no species of horse indigenous
to North Africa and the same thing is true of Arabia. Therefore,
any classification which includes an Arabian or North African species
must in that respect be faulty. My own opinion is that all our horses
were descended from one wild species, and that while differences of
environment had probably produced some wild established types prior
to the dawn of the historical period the greatest variation occurred
after domestication, and probably during the last few centuries.
We have written evidence to show that there were several recognized
breeds as early as the 12th century but I doubt whether the differ-
ences were as great as those presented by the various breeds of the
present day, either in size, speed, or mode of locomotion.

We have abundant historical evidence to show that the extreme
types of our domestic poultry, and many breeds of pigeons, are of
very recent origin, and in regard to cattle and sheep we find the same
to be true. The Shorthorn and Hereford and Delano Merino and
Shropshire have all been developed in what geologically speaking

Gauss: THE PLANT BREEDING PROBLEM 259

are recent times, and many of the fancy breeds of dogs are of quite
recent origin although they now breed true to type.

In view of these marked peculiarities among the different domestic
animals most of which are admittedly derived from one species, it is
well to pause and carefully consider the ground before we accept the
existence of four species of horse upon evidence established by differ-
ences less marked than those presented by the differences in the breeds
of other animals.

THE PLANT BREEDING PROBLEM

RoBert Gawtss
Denver, Colorado

The problems of dry farming fall easily into two classes. The first,
probably the most important, embraces all questions pertaining to
tillage and conservation of moisture. The second includes the pro-
curement of plant species so adapted to aridity that they will pro-
duce profitable crops without irrigation under climatic conditions like
those which prevail over the greater part of what is called the arid
region of this country. If it were possible to find valuable plants of
this kind growing in other countries, this part of the dry farmer’s
problem would be simple. All that would be needed would be to
introduce or naturalize those plants in the arid parts of the United
States. Little adaptation would be required, for, growing under arid
conditions elsewhere, plants of this kind would already be acclimatized
in nearly every particular to the Far West. But no species of agri-
cultural plants fully acclimatized to aridity have been found. Hence
the problem of procuring them resolves itself into the question of
acclimatization. I have spoken of introducing foreign plants, if any
already adapted to aridity were known. This is called naturaliza-
tion. Acclimatization is radically different; and it is so much so,
that some naturalists have been inclined to doubt if there is any such
thing. It involves so great a change in the constitution of a species
that it would thrive under climatic conditions radically different from
those of its original home. Professor de Vries is one of those natur-
alists who seem to doubt the efficiency of any attempt at acclima-
tization, and yet of all writers on this and kindred subjects with whose
works I am at all familiar, he has contributed most to the solution of
the problem. Darwin says: “I am aware that the attempt to accli-
matize either animals or plants has been called a vain chimera. No

260 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

doubt the attempt in most cases deserves to be thus called, if made
independently of the production of new varieties endowed with a
different constitution.” In the light of what“de Vries has said about
the production of new elementary species; I should substitute “spe-
cies” for ‘‘varieties” in the foregoing quotation from Darwin and
then say emphatically that an attempt to complete acclimatization
from a humid to an arid climate is a vain chimera, if made indepen-
dently of the production of new elementary species endowed with
a different constitution. It is at this point that de Vries comes
to the rescue and provides a way of escape from the fate which he
seems to think awaits attempts at acclimatization. When Darwin
wrote, little was known about distinctions like that which de Vries
makes when he speaks of ‘‘elementary species.” But this distinc-
tion must be recognized, for it lies at the foundation of all rational
attempts at acclimatization. In the light thus thrownupon it, accli-
matization is seen to be the development of a new elementary species,
which by reason of its peculiar constitution will thrive under the new
climatic conditions.

In an effort to show that there is no such thing as acclimatization,
de Vries cites the case of certain annuals which thrive upon the desert
during the rainy season. He says that in many respects they present
the typical appearance of desert plants, but that when grown under
conditions of abundant moisture, they lose their desert character and
thereby demonstrate that their supposed acclimatization is not real.
Many illustrations of a similar kind are presented by the flora of our
arid region. There are numerous little annuals growing on the arid
and semi-arid plains which have a range extending to the Atlantic
coast. In other words, neither these nor those spoken of by de Vries
are true desert species. They grow in desert countries only during the
rainy season, at which time the climate is humid and not arid. Grow-
ing only during a brief period of abundant moisture, there has been
nothing in the history of the species which might, through natural
selection, have produced a complete adaptation to the desert climate,
instead of merely a seasonal adaptation to a brief period of abundant
rain. It isnot strange that plants of this kind lose their desert appear-
ance when grown in a humid climate. It would be strange if they
did not do so, for they are true mesophytes, never having acquired
’ or possessed a true xerophytic constitution.

An adaptation of this kind may be seen in many varieties of wheat
and other cereals which make a more or less profitable growth on the
semi-arid plains, but which depend largely upon whether it is a wet

Gauss: THe PLANT BREEDING PROBLEM 261

or a dry season. Something more than this is requisite if a species
completely adapted or acclimatized to aridity is desired.

This takes us back to the position that what is needed is the pro-
duction of a new elementary species which will breed true in its drought
resisting characters and in everything else.

At this point the problem undergoes another division into two
branches. One involves the production of the desired elementary
species through cross fertilization and whatever hybrids may be pro-
duced in conformity to the Mendelian law. The other has to do
entirely with selection, and it is to this particular branch that I have
directed nearly all my thought on this subject and practically all my
efforts to attain the desired end. It may be questioned whether there
is any real breeding of elementary species by this process, for, after
all, it is rather a matter of finding the desired erceponal individual,
rather than producing it.

I say that it is rather a matter of finding “ae of producing the
desired species, for, again following the lead of de Vries, I am con-
vinced that, if ever found, the looked for individual will be seen to
be the result of a mutation in the desired direction, hence practically
a new species. In an earlier paper on this subject, I stated that when
I began experiments in breeding drought resistant cereals, I thought
the desired end might be attained by adding one favorable varia-
tion upon another from season to season. But I was not long in
discovering that I made little progress. A favorable variation in
one year might be completely lost in the year following by a varia-
tion in the opposite direction. While working in that way, my efforts
were entangled in the meshes of fluctuating variations. Like a pen-
dulum my experiments swung from one side to the other of the narrow
range over which fluctuating variations extend. Here again de Vries
showed the way of escape. In discussing the evolution of species, he
shows that mutations or radical changes in the structure and char-
acter of plants may occur in the life history of a species, that the muta-
tions overleap the narrow ranges of fluctuating variations and thereby
establish a new elementary species. Entirely free from the entangle-
ments of the old fluctuating variations, this new species continues
along its new lines, breeding true and reproducing the new charac-
ters as faithfully as the old were reproduced before the mutation
took place.

Because of what he has said about fluctuating variations and the
development of elementary species through mutuation, I claim that
de Vries has shown the possibility of achieving the acclimatization

262 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE.

which in other parts of his writings he seems to try so hard to show
isa chimera. That he thinks that in the case of wheat, new elemen-
tary species are of frequent occurrence, is shown by his declaration
that in his opinion the improvements made by Hays in the wheats
of Minnesota were due to the development of new species of an ele-
mentary kind. I also think they are of frequent occurrence.

To avail oneself of mutations in the development of drought resist-
ant species, one must look for mutations in the direction of drought
resistance. This is why I said it is a matter of finding rather than
producing the desired species. It is evident that the greater the
number of plants subjected to examination, the greater the proba-
bility that the desired mutation will be found. Under this theory,
every field of wheat grown on a dry farm becomes an object worthy
of careful examination. For the encouragement of persons engaged
in this search, it is well to recall the fact that Sheriff, the famous Eng-
lish discoverer of new and valuable species of wheat, achieved his
great results by examining the wheat fields of the neighborhood in
which he lived.

All experimental breeding with reference to the acquisition of
drought resistant species by selection should be conducted upon as
extensive a scale as possible. Little can be hoped from the cultiva-
tion of small plats or beds of wheat containing a few hundred or even
a few thousand individual plants. The plants should be grown far
enough apart to admit of the careful examination of each one sepa-
rately. But they should be grown not by the thousands but by the
hundreds of thousands. The work should be carried on at every
experiment station in the arid region, whether under state or under
federal control. Out of the need of widely extended work of this
kind has grown the project for the establishment of a botanical
laboratory at some central point which would be in easy communi-
cation with all parts of the arid region—embracing not Colorado alone,
but all the arid states. Plants showing what might seem to be muta-
tions of the desired kind might be sent to this laboratory for exam-
ination, and the seed from specimens shown to be valuable could be
saved for replanting.

A bill prepared by me and introduced in congress last winter by
Senator Guggenheim and Representative Taylor provided for a
laboratory of this kind to be established in Denver, that city being
more favorably situated than any other for close communication with
all parts of the arid region. That bill contemplated extensive exper-
iments of the kind I have outlined and designed to secure the adap-

Gauss: THE PLANT BREEDING PROBLEM 263

tation of valuable species to aridity. It also contained a provision
for similar experiments to be conducted on the high mountains of
Colorado with a view to adaptation to low temperature. For this
feature of the project I am indebted to Mr. Levi Chubbuck of the
U.S. Department of Agriculture, who last winter made his home in
Denver. He was especially interested in the development of Alaska
agriculture, and he hoped that by experiments upon the high moun-
tains of Colorado, valuable species might be developed which would
be adapted to the climate of that far northern part of the national
domain. Experiments of this kind like those designed to secure
adaptation to aridity, would suggest the wisdom of establishing the
proposed laboratory at some central point like Denver.

I am also indebted to Professor Ellsworth Bethell, the well known
Denver botanist, for the suggestion which was subsequently embodied
in a provision for investigations to be made in connection with the
proposed laboratory into the plant diseases more or less common in
this part of the arid region.

A well equipped botanical laboratory is an essential part of any
extensive scheme of experiments designed to promote the acclima-
tization of valuable species, to aridity, and also to low temperature.
But as it has not been my design to discuss at length this particular
feature of the scheme, I think that what I have just said on that part
of the subject will suffice. To restate the main points of my theory
of plant breeding with reference to aridity, it is in my opinion essen-
tial to bear in mind that the problem is one of acclimatization; that
its solution is to be found in the discovery or development of new
elementary species possessing drought resisting character; that those
elementary species are to be developed through favorable muta-
tions, that in order to increase the probability of the occurrence of
mutations of this kind the breeding experiments should be carried
on upon as extensive a scale and at as many different places in the
arid region as possible; that every dry farm field should be searched
for plants possessing the desired character; and that by the main-
tenance of a botanical laboratory at some central point, means would
be provided for the examination and study of promising plants which
might be found growing on dry farms or at an experiment station in
any part of the arid region.

Finally, I have this to say to all dry-farmers: Plough deep, stir
the surface of the soil, conserve the moisture, use none but acclimatized
seed, and time will prove that this early settlement of dry-farmers
is but ‘the first low wash of waves where yet shall roll a human sea.”’

DOMESTICATION AND ACCLIMATIZATION OF
WILD MAMMALS

D. E. Lantz
U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

The steps by which man rose from the savage state and attained
his present degree of enlightenment are marked by the progress he
made in domesticating animals and plants and subjugating them to
human uses. Could we fully know the history of our domestic ani-
mals it would enable us to understand the processes by which the races
of men came to the mastery of things about them. Primitive man
must have especially lacked forethought for future seasons, and it is
possible that he first acquired it through the necessity of making
provision for the animais which he possessed.

After primitive man had taken a few steps in domesticating wild
animals and when he saw that the results had contributed to his com-
fort and happiness, he had a strong incentive to further achievements
in taming other animals and plants. The process of domestication
went forward slowly until he had tamed all the animals and plants
we now have in possession. Man has been uplifted by the process as
well as by the results. His association with lower forms of life in
domestication has enlarged his sympathies for all life and has the
better fitted him for intercourse with his fellows.

And yet comparatively few of the higher and more useful forms of
animal life, mammals and birds, have been domesticated. Of about
5,000 species of mammals now inhabiting the world, only about 25
may be said to be really serving man as beasts of burden or furnishing
him with food, clothing, or companionship while in a state of depend-
ence upon him. Of birds, the proportion of domesticated species is
even smaller. No important increase in the list of animals under
domestication has been made in the last five hundred years. In the
plant world, on the contrary, the last few centuries have witnessed a
wonderful development of new forms under domestication.

The preceding statement is not: meant to imply that our domestic
animals have been neglected. Most of them have been plastic in the
hands of breeders, their value has been greatly increased and will be
still further enhanced as the years pass. Nor have agriculture and
commerce alone benefited from the study of our domestic animals.
Science has been equally enriched. The influence upon the doctrine
of evolution and theories of heredity and sociology can not be over-
estimated. Comparative anatomy, embryology, physiology, hygiene,

264

Lantz: DOMESTICATION OF WiLD MAMMALS 265.

and preventive medicine have all been enriched by the study, and

practical surgery owes its progress in large measure to the knowledge -

gained from investigations made with domestic animals. The mam-
mals have afforded the best field for this research.

Several practical objects are to be attained by further efforts to
domesticate wild mammais. Who will say that more beasts of bur-
den would not benefit the world? The zebra and the African elephant -
may well repay their subjugation in their native land. Then there is
the matter of conserving and increasing our supply of furs. The most
rational expedient seems to be the breeding of fur bearers in domesti-
cation or partial domestication. This, too, presents the only means
of preventing the loss of species through extermination. The ex-
tinction of the quagga and the blaubok from the South African fauna
could easily have been prevented had forethought been applied to
their preservation.

The charge has been made that the desire merely to preserve a
species is sentimental and has no practical value. I maintain that
in this matter both sentiment and economy are worthy of considera-
tion. A large number of the species that have come under human con-
trol were first tamed solely for the pleasure they could afford their
possessors. ‘This is true especially of flowering and other ornamental
plants and of some animals, as, for instance, the canary. In a meas-
ure, this is always considered in the selection of species and individuals
for breeding, and it must have a marked influence in deciding the
fitness of wild species of mammals for domestication.

From the economic standpoint, the strongest argument for attempt-
ing to breed wild mammals in captivity is the production of food for
the humanrace. The American pioneer found a great variety of game
in our forests. But this source of food has diminished until few can
avail themselves of it, and we are coming to a time when the produc-
tion of game in preserves is the only way to have it. Yet our aim
should be not so much to furnish more game for sportsmen as to pro-
vide a greater variety of food for the people.

Two sources of additions to our present list of domestic animals are
possible. The first, and the more desirable, is to select from our
native species of fur or game animals. These require no preliminary
experiments in acclimatization. The other plan is to bring in exotic
species. The selection of a foreign species for introduction and experi-
ment must depend on a similarity between its natural and the pro-
posed habitat or on its probable adaptability to the new surroundings.
This adaptation may sometimes be judged from the history of former

266 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

attempts to acclimatize it or its near relatives. For this purpose the
experience of zodlogical parks becomes helpful. But in a country so
large and so varied in climate as ours the same general principles must
be considered before transferring a native species from one locality to
another.

Of our native mammals, two kinds of deer have proved themselves
adapted to every part of the United States and have done well in con-
firenent under nearly all circumstances. These are the wapiti,
which we miscall the elk, and the common white-tailed, or Virginia,
deer. Both promise to become important sources of food and of great
economic value. The other species of American deer seem to be less
adapted to life outside their natural range. The same is true of the
pronghorn, or American antelope. While the bison is apparently
perfectly hardy in all parts of the country, it is doubtful if it could be
made of sufficient utility, even if bred in large numbers, to take the
place of the cattle which it would displace on some of the ranges. Its
extreme hardinessisthe chief factorinitsfavor. Yet inspite of the high
value of buffalo robes, cattle raised on the same area would probably
pay better than the bison. On the other hand, deer can be raised
on areas unsuited to cattle and utilize much land now unproductive.

Of our native fur animals, several species are worthy of patient
experiments in breeding them in confinement. The beaver, the otter,
the black and silver foxes, the marten, the mink, and even the skunk
and the muskrat present possibilities for the breeder who is also a
patient investigator. Thus far success has crowned very few of the
efforts to produce furs m captivity. It remained for a Belgian, one
Johan Beetz, living in remote Labrador, to show that the common red
fox when bred with black stock produces a preponderance of black
and silver offspring. In five generations the red stock had given way
to black; and, in a letter to the Department of Agriculture, Beetz
claims that he has now purebred black foxes without apparent tend-
ency of reversion to the red type. This would seem to show that the
black is probably the ancestral form of our red foxes.

While our native species should have first consideration as subjects
for experiments in domestication, many exotic species might be profit-
ably acclimatized either as wild game or to be bred in captivity by our
people. The list of species available is too great for more than general
mention.

The Old World antelopes, members of the family Bovide, include
many valuable food animals. In Africa there are more than a hun-
dred species, many of them hardy and most of them excellent game.

Lantz: DOMESTICATION OF WILD MAMMALS 267

Fully a score of species would be promising subjects for acclimatizing
in America. Africa, like our own country, has arid sections, and some
of her antelopes are probably especially adapted to the desert lands of
our Southwest, and might be used to restock parts of that region from
which our own pronghorn has been exterminated.

The eland (Taurotragus), the largest of the antelope family, is
threatened with extermination over the greater part of its range in
South Africa. Its average weight is from 800 to 1,100 pounds, and
old males have been known to attain a weight of 1,400 to 1,500 pounds.
This animal has often been recommended for rearing in captivity
because of the excellence of its flesh, which is said to be superior to
beef. Harris, the African traveler, states that while it resembles
beef in grain and color, it is far better flavored and more delicate,
possesses a pure game flavor, and is remarkable for the quantity of
fat interlarded between the muscles.

The eland was introduced into Holland by the Prince of Orange in
1783. It was acclimatized in England by the Earl of Derby in 1842,
and was bred successfully in his parks. After his death the herd
passed into possession of the London Zodélogical Society in 1851, and
continued to increase in numbers for many years. In 1899 the Duke
of Bedford had a fine herd of 14 elands in the park at Woburn Abbey.

The scarcity of this game animal in a wild state and the conse-
quent cost of obtaining stock would probably make experiments in
breeding it in the United States prohibitive to individual enterprise.
However, the experience with the animal in Europe gives assurance
that efforts to acclimatize it in the United States would be successful.

The eland is only one example frorn a long line of exotic antelopes
that might prove valuable in the United States. The deer family
represents another equally important class, from which, besides the
already partly domesticated fallow deer, there might be taken the
sambar, the axis deer, the swamp deer, the Chinese water deer, the
muntjacs, and other promising representatives. In suggesting the
acclimatizing of these animals in the United States, we do not advo-
eate their indiscriminate introduction nor the immediate release of
any of them to resume their wild life. The history of the introduction
of beneficial animals into new localities should teach caution in such
experiments. Even species fully domesticated have become injurious
when neglected and allowed to run wild. Devastations of crops by
horses, cattle, pigs, and goats, introduced into new countries for
domestic use and afterwards abandoned, have been known in many
parts of the world. The destruction of native birds and mammals

208 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

by dogs and cats that have gone wild furnishes an equally valid argu-
ment for caution. Probably less danger attends the acclimatization
and release of the class of animals under discussion than any other;
and yet it is known that deer and antelope under certain circumstances
have increased so enormously as to destroy important crops. Ordi-
narily should they prove injurious in the United States, the removal of
protection would be followed by their speedy extermination as game.

The history of former attempts to acclimatize exotic animals in the
United States is interesting. Fallow deer and red deer were success-
fully kept in some of the early deer parks of Maryland and Virginia.
Washington kept both fallow deer and native Virginia deer on his
Mt. Vernon estate. In recent years red deer have been introduced
into some of our larger game preserves in America, but apparently
have not thrived as well as our native species. A few years ago an
organization of California sportsmen proposed to introduce gazelles
in our Southwest, but thus far no importations have been made.
The great camel experiment made by the War Department before
the Rebellion has been regarded as a failure; but as an experiment in
acclimatizing the animals it was really a great success, for they proved
to be well adapted to our southwestern conditions. That they
should prove unprofitable as army transports was an entirely differ-
ent matter.

The aipaca experiments of sixty or seventy years ago were unsuccess-
ful because attended by lack of judgment as to the localities suitable
for the animals. For many years agitation was rife for a trial of the
alpaca as a wool producer in northern latitudes. As early as 1840
alpaca societies existed in both England and the United States. A
memoir on the alpaca written by a Mr. Walton was published in
London and had wide circulation, Several wealthy men in England
and Scotland imported the animals for breeding. Queen Victoria
and Prince Albert in 1845 appeared in court robes made of alpaca
wool grown in the park at Windsor. The largest shipment of the
animals for the United States came from Aspinwail in 1859 on the brig
E. Drummond. The total shipment was 71 animals, but 29 died
during a severe storm and only 42 were landed in New York. Some
were taken to places in New York state and New England, but it
was soon found that the animals were equally unsuited to the humid
climates of Great Britain and the Northeastern United States. Had
they been introduced into the arid western country, they would prob-
ably have thrived as well as they do on the Pacific Slope of South
America, their natural home.

Rogers: HEREDITY OF FEEBLE-MINDEDNESS 269

The time for beginning experiments in the introduction of foreign
food animals and for scientific attempts to breed our native game and
fur animals in captivity has surely arrived. To delay them much
longer is to permanently lose the opportunity for some. The well-
located game reservations now existing, the government experiment
stations, and the national parks afford the best of surroundings for
the experiments. The men for conducting them can be obtained.
The expenditures for stock, transportation, fences, buildings, and
maintenance need not be a great drain upon either private or public
resources. Only moderate appropriations would be required; but
permanency of the establishment would be a necessary condition, for
the problems are not of a kind that can be solved in a few years. A
wild species cannot be domesticated during the life of a single gener-
ation of man. Yet the economic benefits from such experiments as
I have suggested need not wait for the full domestication of a single
species. Some of the advantages can be reaped within a decade after
the experiments are inaugurated.

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON HEREDITY OF
FEEBLE-MINDEDNESS*

A. C. Rogrrs, M.D.
Faribault, Minn.

During the past sixty years the care and training of feeble-minded
children has grown from a small beginning, in a private residence in
a New England town, to a point where approximately 19,000 of this
class are cared for in about fifty public and private institutions in the
United States. It has been a period devoted to extension and the
development of a policy with regard to the class. Research concern-
ing its etiology has necessarily received but secondary consideration.
Its desirability has been recognized throughout, but financial support
for it has not been forthcoming. In token of the recognized desir-
ability of research, the institutions for the feeble-minded in this
country have been, during this entire period, gathering such data as
the parents, friends, and relatives of the beneficiaries of the institu-
tion would voluntaily furnish, either at the time of the admission of
the latter or during interviews, as occasion afforded opportunity at
various times afterward. These data have never been considered
of very great value and have been used only to illustrate the large

& Read at the Columbus meeting of the Association, February 1, 1911.

270 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

percentage of defective, neurotic, or diseased ancestors of feeble-
minded persons. For instance, the report of Dr. I. N. Kerlin on
“Etiology of Idiocy” in 1880, “The Ascribed Causation of Idiocy,”
ete., by the writer in 1884;° “The Causation of Idiocy and Feeble-
Mindedness,” by W. F. Wilson, M.D., 1894;4 Statistics of Heredity,” .
by Dr. J. C. Carson in 1905;° and “The American Table,” by
Martin W. Barr, 1904:

The increasing comprehension of the magnitude of the feeble-
minded problem gives rise to a demand for more accurate information
as to its etiology. We are passing into a period when students of this
subject can no longer be satisfied with the prefunctory reports of
relatives, as exhibited in institution records.

The work promoted by Mr. Johnstone and Dr. Goddard at Vine-
land in this particular field and by others in this Association, in other
fields, illustrates the perfect feasibility of the new method. Vine-
land, N. J., Lincoln, Ill., Faribault, Minn., and Glenwood, Iowa, have
established their departments of research. In each institution, as
at Vineland, the work will be divided between two interests: (1)
Laboratory research, including psychological examination of children,
and (2) field work, having for its object the discovery of hereditary
conditions of an etiological nature. In the three institutions last
mentioned, respectively, Dr. Huey, Dr. Kuhlmann, and Dr. Lange
are devoting their time entirely to laboratory work, though the
State Board of Control in Minnesota has asked for a special appro-
priation, which can be used for field work also. If this appropriation
is granted, it will be for the use of all the Minnesota state institutions
interested in the subject of etiological investigation. It is proposed
to enlarge the present agency, which is now, under the law, devoting
its time entirely to examining social conditions of patients and in-
mates who have gone out from hospitals for insane and the School for
Feeble-Minded and Colony for Epileptics. The extension of this
work to include the study of hereditary conditions will enable us to
make a necessary and important beginning in this latter line.

The secretary of this committee, Dr. Goddard, who has been the
pioneer in research work assigned to the committee, has given splen-
did illustration of the results of the field work. From the table

b Proceedings, Association of Medical Officers of American Institutions for Idiotic and Feeble-
Minded Persons, 1880, p. 150.

© Jbid., 1884.

d Minnesota State Conference of Charities and Corrections, 1894.

€ Fifty-fifth Annual Report, Syracuse State Institution for Feeble-Minded Children, 1905, vol. 1,
p. 34.

f Mental Defectives, p. 94.

271

HEREDITY OF FEEBLE-MINDEDNESS

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272 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

which is presented here, it will be noticed that the Vineland force have
reported on over 5,000 people as to their positions in hereditary lines
connected with inmates of the Vineland institution, involving the
study of 225 families.

It is unnecessary to dwell upon the details of these reports, which
are presented elsewhere, except to note that, so far as the investiga-
tion has gone, there has been no instance discovered of a normal child
resulting from the mating of defective parents.

The committee feels that the way is opening for large, interesting,
and important results.

A COTTON VARIATION WITH A SELF-FERTIL-
IZED ANCESTRY

SAMUEL M. Bain
Knoxville, Tennessee

In the spring of 1906 the writer began a project in connection with
the cotton-breeding work of the Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S.
Department of Agriculture, to determine by accurate experiment
the effect of northward or southward change of seed on the season of
maturity of Upland cottons. For the starting point three varieties
were chosen, viz., the Ramsey, a Louisiana variety; the Triumph, a
well-known variety of Texas origin, and the Tennessee Greenseed.

It is somewhat fortunate that of the three most pronounced varia-
tions from progeny rows in the field, after some six years’ experience
in breeding Upland cottons, one should have occurred in a pedigree
culture.

The Tennessee Greenseed is an old variety which a generation ago
was apparently almost universally cultivated in Tennessee, and per-
haps within the northern limits of Alabama and Mississippi. The
stock used in these experiments came from the plantation of the late
James Walker, of Lauderdale County, Tennessee, and grew within
three or four miles of the Mississippi River. Mr. Walker had never
during a period of thirty years permitted any other variety to be
raised on his farm, and had used his own gin exclusively for his own
crops.

A typical plant of this variety was chosen in 1905, and the seed was
planted in a row on the farm of the Tennessee Experiment Station
at Knoxville in the following year. It may be stated in this connec-
tion that, owing to the several climatic factors involved, the season

Bain::A Corton VARIATION Dies

suitable for cotton growing is at Knoxville considerably shorter than
at the Mississippi River, more than 400 miles west. From an experi-
ence of six years with the crop in both sections the writer has learned
that there is a difference of fully three weeks in the time of safe plant-
ing of cotton seed between the two localities.

As stated, seed from the plant above referred to was planted in the
spring of 1906. That year and each succeeding year flower buds were
covered with paper bags and securely tied on the day before the
blossoms opened. These bags were allowed to remain attached to
the bolls for several days. Under favorable conditions a very large
percentage of blossoms treated in this way have set perfect fruit.
After four generations of self-fertilization there is no apparent deteri-
oration of vigor in the offspring.

The only object of this experiment was to determine the effect of
latitude and concomitant climatic factors on maturity. An effort
was made to avoid any definite selection, though on the few days
chosen for covering buds in midsummer naturally the plants having
the larger number of flowers at the time were the ones most likely
to be perpetuated.

No marked difference was observed in any of the progeny rows until
1910. Unfortunately, the difference that then came to light did not
attract attention until after October 28, when all the plants were
killed by frost.

On a subsequent visit to the plots, the astonishing contrast be-
tween three of the progeny rows and all the others was visible. Every
plant in these three rows was stout, strict in habit, and at least a third
taller than its cousins in the other rows. Moreover, the crop was
quite late in maturing. This was shown by the fact that the short
season had not permitted half as many bolls to reach maturity and
open as in the other progeny rows. Both these points come out
clearly in figure 1, which shows adjacent progeny rows, the left-
hand row representing the variation. In fact, a casual inspection
of the plots after the plants were killed by frost would indicate a
greater difference between these two progeny rows, the self-fertilized
descendants of one ancestor four generations back, than existed be-
tween any two of the original varieties with which the experiment
began.

The relationship of these three tall progeny rows is shown in figure
2. The progeny rows marked E, F, and G, the ones under discussion,
are shown to have come from three plants out of a single progeny row
in 1909. This row must have shown some such indication in 1909,

274 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

but it was not observed or recorded, perhaps because of unfavorable
conditions for the difference of habits of growth to become manifest.

In figure 2 is exhibited one seed from each plant grown in the cul-
ture of 1910 (except two overlooked by mistake). These seeds were
taken at random, one from each plant, and are shown in a vertical
row above each lettered circle indicating the twenty-three progeny
rows of 1910, from A to X, inclusive. The seed in progeny rows E,
F, and G, are seen to be distinctly larger than the average of those
from the other rows, and exhibit a distinct tendency toward smooth-

Fia. 1

ness or absence of tuft. On inspection of progeny rows B, C, D, it
was observed that the plants almost uniformly matured somewhat
later than in the progeny rows A and H to X, inclusive. They also
showed a slight inclination toward the slender habit of E, F, and G.
For the origin of this mutation we are, therefore, to look back to the
exclusive common ancestor of all six of these progeny rows chosen from
the crop of 1907, as clearly indicated in the genealogical lines proceed-
ing from that circle in the diagram shown.

It appeared to the writer as quite interesting that such a distinct
variation should appear in a self-fertilized line. While the temptation

Bain: A Corron VARIATION 275

is strong to generalize on the results of such a phenomenon, especially
in view of two other somewhat similar results obtained under field
conditions with other varieties of cotton, the purpose at present

oe
“
“«
eP
«e
od
id
od
aS
aw
ead

Fie. 2

is merely to record the experiment. Very similar variations from
Triumph cotton are discussed by Mr. O. F. Cook, in “Local Adjust-
ment of Cotton Varieties,’ Bulletin 159, Bureau of Plant Industry,
U.S. Department of Agriculture, pages 20-25. These were the result

276 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

of transfer of seed from one locality to another, with a considerably
smaller contrast of climatic conditions than the case cited in this
paper. Much larger numbers of plants were used in the Texas ex-
periments, but the seed had not been produced under conditions of
self-fertilization.

HEREDITY ONE OF THE LARGE CON-
TROLLABLE FORCES®

Hon. Wiuutet M. Hays,
Washington, D. C.

Science has at last undertaken to organize the business of plant
and animal breeding asit has organized mechanics. The world has come
to see that the force of heredity gives rise to economic values Just as
truly as the force of electricity. The laws of heredity are beginning
to be formulated by scientists as other investigators are building up
the sciences which underlie mechanics. Breeders are devising meth-
ods for creating new values from the many domesticated species of
plants and animals as other men are inventing machines. Breed-
ers are creating larger values, in the form of larger yielding strains
of corn, wheat and vegetables, again in the form of larger meat and
butter production, or yet again in form of speed, beauty or strength
in horses and combinations of form, color and fragrance in flowers.

None will be more surprised at the advances arising from the study
of heredity than those who make a study of the purely physical
sciences in relation to mechanics. The word breeding is no longer suff-
ciently comprehensive to designate the science of heredity and its
practical application to the improvement of living forms. The
broader word genetics has come into use, to signify man’s activities
in approaching the truth about this abstract force called heredity
and also in utilizing the new knowledge in efforts to improve the
types of plants, animals, and men. j

The term “breeding,” which was long used in connection with the
improvement of domestic animals, is now applied quite as much to
plants. The fact is that ia the past decade plant breeding has over-
taken animal breeding both in tecbnique and in achievement of
remarkable results, thus illustrating the rapidity with which genetic
subjects are being taken in hand. And now that science has entered

®Condensed from an address before the American Breeders A3s9clation, Fab. 1, 19Lt.

Hays: HEREDITY A CONTROLLABLE FORCE 277

the field of human descent, a third division of genetics has gained
recognition under the name eugenics. Five years ago the first
Conm:mittee on Eugenics was formed by the American Breeders Assos
ciation; recently, by an almost unanimous vote, the Association
changed this Committee to a Section of Eugenics, codrdinate with
the Plant Section and the Animal Section.

A whole category of new words is being provided to express the
newly discovered facts and phenomena of heredity and the newly
devised methods of breeding. A new literature is rising as a result of
the discovery and elaboration of Mendel’s laws, nearly as voluminous
as the literature which grew out of the labors of Charles Darwin, and
of even more definite character. Mendel and his followers promise to
have as profound an effect in developing the science and methods of
evolution by systematic effortas Darwin and his followers had in bring-
ing the world to believe innatural evolution. Darwin’s followers were
over-zealous in ten thousand times proving the correctness of his general
theory. Mendel’s followers show earlier signs of being satisfied with
over-sufficient proof, and they are entering mightily into the effort to
make his discoveries of large and immediate use to the world. With
Mendel’s methods of analysis and synthesis they are studying even
the intricacies of human descent. They are showing that those unit
characters which represent the worst of human dross may be discarded
and that the better elements of human nature may be recombined
in races of people averaging stronger physically, brighter intellec-
tually, cleaner morally and withal more efficient as members of
society. No one can as yet speculate as to the effect the science of
genetics may have in helping humanity to evolve into races with
superior heredity.

Heredity may be crudely likened to a fabric woven of many kinds
of fibers and with many colors. Under this general conception of
the nature of the “network of descent,’’ suggested by Dr. O. F. Cook,
the following observations may be made: That there are units in
heredity or unit characters which may be likened to the units or
individual strands of the woven fabric. That some of those units
may be likened to different classes of fibers used in making the threads;
others in the heredity of a species may be likened to the different
fibers or threads of the fabric; others to the form of the fibers, and yet
others tothe strength of the fibers. That someunitcharactersmay be
likened to the entire fabric produced by the loom; some to the form
patterns laid on the surface of the fabric by the loom; and some to
the color patterns worked out by bringing to the surface of the fabric

278 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

threads of specific colors. Thus in living things there are woven into
a systematic network general characters, as of form, color or habit;
also characters of secondary importance, as of minutiz of form, detail
of color; and even characters so small as ordinarily not to be dis-
cernible. There are characters of prime importance in the makeup of
plants and animals which broadly compare with the general appear-
ance of the fabric, secondary characters which compare with the
figures of form or color which may be woven into the fabric, and even
characters relatively more minute than the almost microscopic fibers
of which the threads of the cloth are made up. In reality, however,
even the intricate organization of the product of the most complex
modern loom but very crudely illustrates the delicate intricacies of
heredity in the network of descent in living things.

The simile will also serve in another direction because there are
agencies in the generative cell which determine how these unit char-
acters shall be woven into the network of descent; as in the modern
loom the perforations in the loom-ribbon determine which keys
shall release the shuttles bearing the threads into their proper place
in the fabric; or as in the street organ the perforations in the music-
ribbon determine which keys shall strike the notes in making the har-
mony of the music.

The really stable part in the heredity of plant, animal or man is
not the individual body—this runs its course and dies—but rather
the germ plasm, which holds within its substance the well-nigh 1m-
mortal threads of descent. These compete for place as they run
through successive generations and are woven together in somewhat
unique fashion in each individual. The discovery by Mendel and
others that unit characters are inherited in pairs and appear in numeri-
cal proportions in the progeny was a great biological surprise. But
the significant genetic facts are: that units of character are the stable
parts of heredity; that, like the threads and colors of the cloth made
in the loom, they may be so manipulated as to leave out of the combi-
nation those characters which are less desirable; and that the choicest
characters may be recombined in individuals of higher excellence and
higher average of efficiency. In some cases this elimination and
recombination can be accomplished formally, while in other cases it
can be accomplished only informally as by the aid of large numbers of
hybrids.

In the light of the wide general experience of the breeders of plants
and animals, efforts at mathematical recombination, while very impor-
tant, represent only a small part of the intricate and truly large prob-

Hays: HEREDITY A CGNTROLLABLE FORCE 279

lem of gradually buildmg up improved networks of descent to meet
all the agricultural conditions in which plaats and animals are used.
As a matter of fact, breeders are coming to recognize the fact that
this new philosophy of breeding will serve as a guide in the details of
breeding work. The most of the work of animal and plant improve-
ment will continue to be selection, including the discovery of the occa-
sional mutation and the immediate or gradual segregation of this
blood into a new variety or breed. Thus, even with this new science
of heredity, breeding will still be mainly an art, and scientific methods
will be used to supplement it. Thus, with many plants and animals,
statistical records of performance may be widely used in determining
the relative economic values of the different strains and families. In
the breeding of many species there is relatively little opportunity
for statistical methods, and a very wide range for the use of the judg-
ment of the trained artist in discovering mutating qualities and in
making desired combinations by crosssing and hybridizing. In some
species the large results secured have come from mere art, and
the use of very large numbers to find the occasional mutation and in
the segregation and selective development of the mutating plant or
animal.

Substantial advances are being made in cytology, which is the
study of the internal anatomy and functions of the generative cell.
Some of these questions are necessarily very abstruse and hard to
investigate. Among them are these: How do the characters of
the parents pass through the generative cell into the progeny? How
does one character, as color in cattle, remain dormant in one or more
generations, and then the progeny of a later generation reappear
in apparently unmixed purity? It is clear that since the living organ-
ism carries the power of reproduction from one generation to another,
carriers for the general, secondary, and minute character are multi-
plied every generation, so that each is represented in the generative
cells of each individual among the progeny. Thus the new genera-
tive cell contains all the character determiners which control the
complex makeup of the mature individual.

The new conception given by Mendel has helped to clear up the
question of the influence which environment exerts on heredity in
case of unit characters which have remained intact through thousands
of generations of individuals and now powerfully maintain their unit
purity in the presence of the opposing members with which their
heredity carriers pair in the plasm or substance of the generative
cell. The manner of origin of these unit characters, as horns in cat-

280 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

tle, color of eyes in man, stiffness of straw in wheat, and their heredity
carriers seems to be the next great work for genetics students to attack.
The breeding of animals has been left largely to private enterprise.
While numerous new varieties of plants have been originated under
public auspices, very little has been done in originating new breeds
of animals at public expense. True, there has been some public
assistance to associations in testing the cows of members so as to
weed out the unprofitable ones, and in organizing associations for
the ownership of superior sires, and some aid has been given to the
dairy breed associations in their praiseworthy work with advanced
registration based on records of actual performance. France and
other countries have subsidized especially good sires so that they
would be kept in certain districts, thus improving the live stock
of those districts. Russia and other countries have done something
at producing on government breeding farms, breeds or sub-breeds
of horses for army mounts. The Department of Agriculture in coép-
eration with the Colorado Experiment Station has begun an experi-
ment to produce heavy harness horses. It is also codperating with
the Vermont Experiment Station in improving the Morgan breed of
horses. Together with the Minnesota Experiment Station it has
assisted a codperative association of breeders in establishing a cir-
cuit for the creation of a sub-breed of Shorthorn cattle known as
milking Shorthorns. It has a similar relation with the North Dakota
Experiment Station in aiding an association of breeders to establish
a codperative circuit breeding association in creating a sub-breed of
Holstein-Friesian cattle.

The literature in reports, books, genetics aan and other
publications already indicates that genetics is to be very fruitful
in technique and in practical facts relating to the direction of the
forces of heredity so as to make not only our plant and animal produc-
tion larger but also to give us a cleaner and more efficient network of
human descent. Our agricultural colleges and agricultural high
schools, and other schools which give instruction to farmers, are
beginning to take hold of this subject in its new form and to create new
courses of study which are scientific, practical, and valuable from a
cultural point of view as well as important from the standpoint of
practical plant and animal improvement. Our educators and even
our moral and religious teachers and leaders are beginning to study
the newer phases of the subject of heredity in relation to their work.
The first decade of the twentieth century will serve to mark the
time when science laid hold of the subjects of heredity and breeding

Hays: HEREDITY A CONTROLLABLE FORCE 281

in their larger constructive relationships in developing moral and
general worth in men, and there is no phase of this subject which is
now coming forward in a more significant way than the science of
eugenics, or the improvement of the network of descent in the human
family.

When the movement for world peace shall have centered all national
power in one great federation, the patriotic instinct will become altru-
istic in a far broader way than now. The absence of strife with the
outside enemy will leave the impulse of patriotism free to develop
along lines of efficient service to the whole human family.

More than ever men will have patriotic pride in adding a new scien-
tific fact, a new invention, a new piece of literature, a new variety of
plant or animal, a new law or a new method of so organizing society
as to make for the betterment of particular communities or of the
whole race ofmen. The production of good citizens and the improve-
ment of the heredity of the race, as well as the securing for all people
superior environment, including education, will become a racial
movement. Eugenics will become one of the practical sciences.

Patriotic people will not only desire to know the general values of
races, families and individuals, but they will desire also specific knowl-
edge of the presence, value and persistence of the unit characters of
which their heredity is made up. It would seem that in no other
function is our patriotism so unguided as in evolving lineages of
human descent.

In our boasted patriotism in times of war, we have been blind to
the fact that wars destroy a large percentage of our best men, giving
a larger place in the continuance of the nation to the heredity of
second-best men. Dr. Jordan’s work in this Association has shown
that this alone should be a most potent reason for the cessation of
wars. Wars, instead of being necessary to keep up the virility of
the race, weaken it.

It isnot too optimistic to believe that under the direction of eco-
nomic, political, social, and eugenic science we are to strengthen
the blood currents of the nation, as well as greatly improve the envi-
ronment of the individual. War as a means of world uplift has been
overestimated. The value of science and altruism are never over-
estimated in making a better race of men.

That the scientific study of this subject is a patriotic racial duty
can not longer be denied. To recombine and perpetuate those units
of character which compose strong individuals, families and races and
multiply them so that they may form a larger percentage of the whole

282 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

human family will come to be true personal patriotism. On the
other hand, to produce people below the average in efficiency, and
especially to combine unit characters which increase the defective
and criminal individuals and families, will come to be considered defi-
nitely unpatriotic.

Patriotism, in its broadest and even in its religious sense, must
be appealed to, that those families with the most efficient heredity
may multiply rapidly and become a larger and larger percentage of the
whole human family in each generation. In the absence of an awaken-
ing of this patriotic eugenic sense the efficient and well-to-do now,
in too many cases, instead of having families large enough to rapidly
increase their types, are having so few children that they become
relatively smaller and llerams portions of the population with each
generation. On the other hand, some weak, defective and criminal
families are annually becoming larger and larger parts of the entire
national heredity. And society, having protected them, through
sanitation and charity, has helped this last-named class to become a
relatively larger part of our population than when the law of the sur-
vival of the fittest had a freer scope to work out its harsh decrees.

It must be recognized that the great middle producing classes—our
farmers, mechanics, and other manual workers—are our balance
wheel in genetics as in economics and in politics, and our strength in
times of war. Among them there is wide genetic variation as to indi-
vidual family and racial efficiency. Eugenic patriotism to be effect-
ive must be generally operative among these substantial classes
which produce the bulk of the efficient young to do the work of
each generation, because from among this great class come most of
our leaders.

The fact that science has started to organize eugenics is at present
the striking new thing; and who knows what the future may develop?
Whatever the result, it will not be visionary, aad the movement,
while conservative, may not be so slow as have many other movements
for human betterment.

The aim of eugenics will not be different from that of education,
physical, intellectual, and moral. It will be only another and more
certain method of producing men and women of ideal character.
The ideal remains the same, but the unvarying natural laws will be
brought to bear in bringing about the desired result. Eugenics will
help in producing a race which will more readily respond to general
education and moral teaching; on which no money need be wasted
in combating evil tendencies and weaknesses.

Hays: HEREDITY A CONTROLLABLE FORCE 283

The deductive scientific method having found a foothold in rela-
tion to heredity in all living things, living protoplasm has more than
ever come under the dominion of man’s will. He proposes to weave
new networks of descent in the form of plants which shall store up
the energy of the sun more abundantly than any plants heretofore;
other new networks of heredity which shall transform plant sub-
stance into more meat, milk, work and other forms of superior animal
products; and yet other networks of human descent which shall
make higher ultimate uses of the energy stored in plants and in ani-
mals and that supplied by mines of coal and oil and by waterfalls,
waves, wind, and by direct sunshine.

The living fires of life are to burn brighter with less loss of precious
genetic energy. Life itself is to be placed deeper and deeper in the
crucible of scientific research. The pure metal is to be saved and the
dross is to be discarded. A purified human heredity will aid in devel-
oping a better home life, in securing more effective education, and in
leading to more effective religious teaching, in the production of
superior races in all countries. Freedom from inborn weakness and
from evil tendencies inherent in the heredity will be freedom indeed.

But the time will soon have passed when the burden of our efforts
should seem to be directed toward showing the importance of the
development of heredity and breeding. The time is ripe that we
assume that all we have claimed is true, and that we should hereafter
turn our attention to methods of work and to securing the means of
support for definite projects, that the largest possible results may be
secured. To nearly fifty committees of the American Breeders
Association have been referred the problems of methods of breeding
each class of plants and animals, and the study of heredity in man.

These committees are beginning to frame up plans for the wider
coéperation of public departments and experiment stations with
associations and individual breeders. They are giving encourage-
ment and even direction to research both as to the laws of heredity
and as to methods of creative breeding and the general variety and
breed improvement by growers of pedigreed plants and animals.

The Association’s Annual Report, wherein are preserved its more
scientific papers, and the American Breeders Magazine, its new peri-
odical devoted to the popular phases of genetics, are most efficient
agencies for the preservation of the reports of the investigations of
genetic science, and are beginning to have a wide influence among
practical breeders. This Association has brought into codperation
the genetic scientists of America, and many across both the Atlantic

284 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

and the Pacific oceans. It has shown practical breeders that its
efforts to bring the work of these scientists to them in its annual
meetings and in its publications are successful and worthy of wide
support and codperation. It has organized the investigation of
eugenics, so that genetic science is being applied in a most remarkable
way to the study of heredity in man. It has not only proven the
need but it has organized a basis for a genetics society of a hundred
thousand members. ‘A hundred thousand members and a billion
more of farm products annually” will make a good slogan.

The American Breeders Association has been signally honored by
the National Corn Exposition in thus setting apart a day as its dis-
tinctive day. The management merits great commendation for
having developed this exposition so distinctively along lines which
blend the economic and the social, the vocational and the educational.

ESTABLISHING A BREED OF ALFALFA FOR
THE IRRIGATED LANDS OF COLORADO

W.-H. Orin
Moscow, Idaho

We all realize that alfalfa is one of nature’s choicest gifts to man.
No plant of such economic value has been studied and grown so many
centuries; no forage or grain plant today shows so little breeding as
alfalfa. It has many and varying characteristics, and no distinct
breed as yet has been firmly and satisfactorily established either in the
Old World or the New, although this plant was an established forage
plant in Persia before Greece and Rome had a place in history.

More than a decade ago the writer began testing the power of the
alfalfa plant to reproduce its foliage and leaf characteristics in its
offspring.

He started the alfalfa breeding work at the Iowa Experiment Sta-
tion and later, at the Colorado Experiment Station, sought with his
co-workers—Prof. Fritz Knorr of Fort Collins, Prof. P. K. Blinn of
Rocky Ford, and Mr. E. B. House of Greeley, Colo.—to establish
for that state a hardy vigorous type of alfalfa with a desirable quality
of forage of sufficient yield to render it especially attractive to prac-
tical farmers.

Each coédperator used’ his own plan for obtaining the desired re-
sults. To supplement the strains already under investigation the
writer secured through Mr. J. M. Westgate, of the U. S. Department

Otin: ALFALFA FOR IRRIGATED LANDS 285

of Agriculture, seed from practically every alfalfa growing nation in
the world. Mr. House seeded in rows 30 inches apart. Mr. Blinn
seeded in hills 20 inches apart, each way, so the nursery could be cul-
tivated with the beet tillage tools. The writer and Mr. Knorr, at Fort
Collins station, seeded in hills 3 feet apart each way. We preferred
this latter method because it facilitated isolation in the wire mesh
gauze frames which we placed on certain units or plants which were
the objects of special study.

Two years were given to the study of types and individual differ-
ences, which we found in the various centgeners of the alfalfa nursery.
It was observed during the first winter that many plants in certain
centgeners were winterkilled, the per cent varying from 2 and 3 to
80. The higher per cent in all three alfalfa nurseries was observed to
be in centgeners planted with seed from the warm climate countries.
The second winter there was a fine illustration of the “survival of
the fittest,” all the more tender types practically dying out. We now
felt we could begin to determine from these more hardy surviving
plants the proper ‘‘mother plants’ from which to secure the desired
breed. ;

Certain plants were selected for unit study, each having one or more
desirable characteristics.

These plants were surrounded with breeding cages of wire mesh
fine enough to keep out bees and other insects likely to transfer pollen.

Artificial pollination was practiced on these mother plants and
others having desirable traits to transmit to offspring, so that few or
no undesirable traits became established in the progeny.

A second series of tests was to determine the percentage of leaf to
stem shown by selected plants. First the foliage was cut just as the
blossoms began to appear and was weighed green. The foliage was
air-cured in a closed room, then weighed again. The leaves were
then carefully removed from the stems and weighed. The “green
weight” varied from 14% ounces to 90 ounces per plant. The air-
dried weight ranged from 52 ounces to 28 ounces. The per cent of
leaf to stem varied from 23 to 58.

The third series of tests consisted of a study of stem growth and
stooling power of the unit plants. At the Fort Collins nursery some
200 plants were deemed worthy of special study the second year.
Our first test cut this down to 100, our second test to less than 20,
and our third test to but 2 plants, Nos. 15 and 19. These plants
seemed to combine the most desirable and the fewest undesirable
traits of all the plants under study. For prepotent power, erect

286 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

stem growth, width of leaf, and per cent of leaf to stem (53 per cent),
the writer chose No. 19 as the ideal mother plant. This was an off-
spring from Grimm alfalfa which came originally from the Minnesota
Experiment Station. Prof. Blinn found his leading mother plant
to be No. 7 incentgener F. This plant is a direct descendant of South
Dakota No. 167, brought out by Prof. W. A. Wheeler at the High-
more, S. Dak., alfalfa nursery. It came originally from Northern-
grown seed, and seems to be identical with the Grimm alfalfa. In
the matter of stem growth both No. 7 at the Rocky Ford nursery and
No.19atthe Fort Collins nursery showed better stooling qualities than
any other plant and in addition the stems were erect, vigorous, and
bore a wealth of bloom and leaves. No. 19 had 10 per cent more
stems than any other unit plant under study in the nursery. Where
the normal leaf was } inch to 2 inch wide and ? inch to 1% inch long,
No. 19 had leaves from ?inch to 3inch wide and 1 irch to 12 inch long,
thus indicating the most desirable foliage.

The fourth. series of tests was the root test. At the Fort Collins
Nursery our work was interrupted by college changes, both Professor
Knorr and myself going into other work, and our selected and choice
No. 19 as well as our other selections were destroyed, the alfalfa
nursery giving way to an oat crop. At Rocky Ford Mr. Blinn con-
tinued the breeding work, as did also Mr. House at Greeley.

While Professor Knorr and myself found there was a difference in
root maintenance, and some difference in constructive root growth, it
remained for Prof. Blinn to find out just what caused that difference
in the vitality of various alfalfa plants. This he did in the season
of 1910. To satisfy himself that he had really discovered an essential
principle and that it was not a local trait, Prof. Blinn visited many
alfalfa nurseries throughout the country during the growing season of
1910. He found in each nursery this same trait in the more promis-
ing plants. Then he knew he had discovered a most valuable and
vital principle in the root growth of alfalfa. It enables him to divide
all alfalfa plants into two classes as far as root growth is concerned.
All plants, seed for which came from warm climates, have a pro-
nounced tap root, with but few if any side or lateral roots; all plants
from Northern or cooler climates have a dominant tap root but carry
pronounced and important side or lateral roots.

For this reason if any accident occurs to this tap root, cutting or
rotting it off, there remains enough strength in the lateral roots to
enable the plant to reéstablish itself. In case of the Southern type
the plant dies. Hence we see why this Northern type is so much more
vigorous and hardy.

CuHasE: Twins, EUGENICS 287

Progeny from No. 19 have been preserved, and this season of 1911
Professor Blinn will determine which shall be the unit mother of the
particular breed which he shall propagate for Colorado conditions.
The essential traits he seeks to have inherent in this Colorado breed
of alfalfa are as follows:

(1) Hardiness or resistance to winterkilling.

(2) Resistance to leaf spot or other foliage diseases.

(3) High percentage of leaf to stem.

(4) Medium-sized leaves and medium-sized stems.

(5) Good seed-producing power.

A definite pedigree will be worked out and an attempt made to keep
the strain pure.

From several thousand plants we thus see two plants stand out.
These two are almost invaluable because of the inherent possibilities
which lie within them.

Each of these plants may produce a progeny that will increase the
yield at least 1 ton per acre under field conditions, to say nothing of
the improved quality of the hay. This will mean millions of dollars
to Colorado alone each year, and what must this improvement mean to
the nation?

Members of the A. B. A. are urged to encourage Professor Blinn
in his efforts to evolve this desirable and much needed breed of alfalfa.

TWINS, HEREDITY, EUGENICS

JoHN H. CHASE
Cambridge, Mass.

There are two kinds of twins; those so much alike that it is hard to
tell them apart, especially in youth—called duplicate or identical
twins; and those who seem to be no more alike than ordinary brothers
and sisters. Some biologists have claimed that identical twins spring
from the same germ cell, which becomes accidentally divided, and
therefore all qualities which depend on heredity will be the same for
these twins. But since environment is almost identical for twins it
is hard to separate the qualities produced by their environment from
those produced by their heredity. It occurred to us, however, that
environment was just as strong for two ordinary twins as for two
duplicate twins, and therefore qualities produced by environment
should make ordinary twins alike. If duplicate twins are more
alike than this, then the “more” is produced by heredity. Perhaps

288 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

this residuum—this ‘‘more’’—if it could be segregated, would solve
the problem.

Thinking that this was at least worth investigating, we wrote to
the secretaries of about forty American colleges, asking if they would
be willing to send the names and addresses of any twins now in college,
or any whom they remembered as having graduated. We felt that
college men and women would be more interested in the problem,
better able to analyze themselves, and more likely to return a ques-
tionaire than any other group. We obtained in all the names of
about one hundred and fifty pairs of twins, fifty of whom answered.
About thirty were “identical,” and twenty “ordinary” twins. The
questionaire sent to them was as follows:

QUESTIONS ON HEREDITY

No one knows what qualities are inherited, and what are acquired after
birth. If we could know exactly, it would be a great advance for science and
a great help in education.

It has been discovered that duplicate or similar twins probably occur because
the original germ cell is accidentally divided; therefore, duplicate twins arise
from the same cell. As a result, their inheritance should be the same, and the
qualities in which they differ must have arisen after birth. If, then, the twins
of the United States are willing to answer certain questions, they may be able
to solve one of the greatest problems of science, namely, What part of our
nature is due to heredity and what part is due to training?

Would you, therefore, be willing to answer the following questions which
will be confidential?

I. PuysicaL.—(a) Are you and your twin ‘‘duplicate twins,” namely,
during youth, did you look very much alike?

(b) How much do you and your twin differ in height?

(c) Strength: Could you always lift equal weights, or has one always been
stronger than the other?

(d) Health: Has one always been more sickly than the other? Have you
had the same illnesses?

(e) Look at the palm of your hand; halfway between the end of your finger
and the first knuckle, the tiny ridges in your skin twist round into a pattern.
Have you and your twin the same pattern for corresponding fingers?

II. Menrau.—For which one of the following subjects have you a special
aptitude? (If you both like the same thing, put two crosses in front of it; if
your preferences differ, mark the subjects separately.) Only mark one sub-
ject—your chief preference and the chief preference of your twin.

(a) Mechanical interest.

(b) Natural science. (Especially fond of nature and animals.)

(c) Business ability.

(d) Musical ability.

(e) Artistic ability or appreciation in any way.

(f) Literary.

CHASE: TWINs, EuGEntcs 289

III. Emotionau.—(a) Are you equally social? (About the same number
of friends.)

(b) Are you equally fond of the opposite sex?

(c) Have you the same interest (or lack of interest) in religious things?

(d) Have you similar dispositions or temperaments?
~ Do you know of any other twins to whom we could write?

Remarxs.—As far as we know, this is the first investigation of this kind, so
if you think of any other likenesses or differences, or distinctive qualities of
interest, or have any suggestions, please write them on the other side of this
sheet.

NAME:

ADDRESS:

The answers were as follows:

| Duplicate twins. Ordinary twins.
Feature. —___—___—_— |. —— -
| Alike. | Unlike. | Alike. Unlike.
HAs Fae ERS RIS «oo OV eicievic)s Selon s p= op awiwisse ne 20 6 3 12
SHEP EERE IS reek alters ev cioite ls cya’ aisles clelsale © eee ns eivlas «| 22 3 5 7
IERGAT MEME eS eee areiiia od stoic cic os seis si sisieicibia 01m sleTamcie vis 23 2 5 7
LOT RET OVS TALS 5) Ae.gt CAEL OGRE Aaa Ge ae Ieee aes 16 1 yy 5
Meare ead PP rere e earart aie ete sc cio oi c-vretass aheieve S.sieted'a’suw svere’etene 16 6 2 10
SONI Hl enter a rae feelin lata ee ieee Siciain ota eis gieie ete siete ele Firs 21 1 9 4
SOs DTD TIT abs CED OCCO HE eRe oe eee 26 1 11 2
TREE ELIE. gone Ta dae BOD COORD EAD Een NEE eee 26 2 5
PRT ELSIE Ue rctereeiact cries aleve clnlratooule «ce cisleweree « RATS Peas 18 7 4 10

4 A leeway of half an inch was allowed for crude measurements, high heels, or wavy hair. In the
case of strength, health, finger prints, etc., no leeways were allowed.

What results can we glean from these figures? First, that the
theory of “identical twins” in the literal sense of the word ‘‘identi-
cal” is probably disproven. Although duplicate twins are alike, they
are not exactly alike, as they should be on the theory of accidental
division of the germ cell. Especially sad for this theory is the fact
that fundamental qualities such as eye color may vary while all other
physical and mental features are duplicated. There seems to be no
general law for this variation; the three duplicate twins out of the
twenty-four who vary in strength do not include the two who vary
in health, although health and strength would seem closely related.
Out of the nine features studied there is not a single characteristic
which is alike between each pair of duplicate twins. Prof. Edward
L. Thorndike gives more elaborate proofs of the same point in his
“Measurements of Twins.”

But if the theory of identity vanishes, there is another law which
seems to emerge and which is the all-important conclusion of our work.

290 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

It is this, that, no matter what the physiology, embryology, or meta-
physics of twin formation may be, statistics show that duplicate
twins are, on the average, three times more apt to be alike than ordi-
nary twins. Now the importance of that law lies in the fact that
if duplicate twins are bound by a triple cord of heredity then they give
a standard by which we may determine whether any given trait is
hereditary or produced by environment; for we can ask a large group
of adult twins concerning any given trait. If their answers respond
to the 3/4 law the trait in question can be regarded as an hereditary
quality, while if not it must be regarded as being produced by environ-
ment.

For instance, let us apply the lawtothe study above. Finger prints,
height, strength, health, mental tastes, and temperament are 2.4
to 3.8 times stronger in duplicate than in ordinary twins, which with
so few returns is as near the law of three as could be expected. But
religious taste, sex attraction, and sociableness are only 1.35 stronger
in duplicate than in ordinary twins. Therefore, as far as our returns
go, we are warranted in saying heredity has little to do with our re-
ligious, or sexual, or social natures; but it is the all-important element
in our health, our strength, our temperament, and our mental tastes.
Now I do not claim that these results concerning definite things such
as religious taste are completely substantiated, for our returns are too
few to form final judgments on so important a subject; but I do claim
that the above method (the law of three) is correct statistically and
scientifically for solving and not for theorizing about the great prob-
lem of heredity versus environment. It is a method for determining
way down into detail the smallest parts of our nature that are inher-
ited. Our study above might not have proven this law, but Dr.
Thorndike carried out definite measurements—such as circumference
of head, width of head, length of finger joints and forearm, eye color,
hair color, word tests, ete-—among 50 New York City school children
who were twins, and he found the same law applied among these
definite measurable factors.

Unlike us, he found difficulty in distinguishing between duplicate
and ordinary twins. But Francis Galton found no difficulty on this
score, and not a single one of our questionaires was returned with
uncertainty on this point, while popular opinion, which is often a good
judge on social questions, almost universally recognizes the fact of
there being these two types of duplicates and unlike twin.

If, then, the law of three be substantiated, it can be applied to
problems, such as the following:

CuasE: Twins, EUGENICS 291

Is cancer transmitted? For instance, if, by an exhaustive ques-
tionaire, duplicates were found to be three times as liable as ordinary
twins to cancer, then this disease could be considered hereditary.
The same method could be used in determining whether consumption
was inherited or was simply a tendency. Are certain crimes volun-
tary or preordained from the time a child is born, and therefore should
& given criminal be taken to court or to a hospital?

What are the great hereditary departments of mind and taste that
the directors of our vocational bureaus, employers, teachers, and
children themselves should know in choosing an occupation? A close
study of our returns would seem to show that “art”? and “music”
should not be separated, while ‘‘literary taste’ upholds its separate
existence as an heredity department, although at first we did not even
mention it in the questionaire.

Again, it could be determined through a more exhaustive investi-
gation whether our results concerning health and strength are correct
—namely, whether they are dependent almost entirely upon heredity,
and very little upon a gymnasium or environment. Francis Galton
in his study of twins even concludes that diseases are preordained not
only as to their occurrence, but also as to the time at which they wili
be contracted, because so many of his twins had the same diseases
at the same time when in different parts of the country. Our results
are not detailed enough to bear on this question, but they do show that
health and strength are very dependent upon heredity.

Professor Saleeby says that the reason Greece and Rome and every
ancient civilization came to fruition and then declined is that bar-
barism by its stern life kills the weak; but as civilization advances
a chance is given the weaklings to find some little niche in society
where they can do a small work and live, and where comforts will sus-
tain their feeble existence and allow them to have children, until
finally these weaklings accumulate to such an extent that they are
not able to support the civilization that their strong virile ancestors
have built up, and the whole structure of society topples over. We
could preserve the cumulative good effects of civilization and our own
robust lives if we would consciously bring about the breeding of the
strong and capable; instead of making it necessary for the weak to be
eliminated by natural selective processes; or make it necessary for
civilization to return periodically to barbarism in order to be purged.

If it is proven that a predisposition to illness and lack of stamina
is inherited, then weak people who know that they will hand on their
misery to their children should refrain from marriage, just as at pres-

292 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

ent many with a family tendency to insanity are refraining from
marriage.

Again if our conclusions be correct, bad tenement houses, child
labor, lack of playgrounds, etc., may determine ill health and weak-
ness in a measure, but a weak, degenerate father or mother would
be a much larger factor in the result; and if this be true, an over em-
phasis has been given to these environmental influences as compared
to the far more important subjective of hereditary influence. If as
much time were spent in forming public opinion and legislation against
allowing those of feeble mind, those of feeble body and those with an
abnormal hereditary taint to have children, and in encouraging—
even by means of a public or private pension if need be—large fam-
ilies among the especially able, public spirited, and strong, then our
civilization would be saved, and then our sturdy descendants would
be amply able to attend to the matter of forming a pleasant and
healthful environment for themselves. For we can probably breed
capacity and goodness as well as strength.

In the past it has been objected that there was no way to determine
exactly, so as to compel popular assent just what qualities were
inherited and to what extent. But twins have now been found to be
the magicians who can unravel the skein of this mystery that has
puzzled our fathers for generations, and whose solution may now be
the means of arousing such a new, practical, workable interest in
the new science of eugenics that our present civilization may be saved
instead of having to swing like a pendulum back into barbarism.
This can be done by having the attention of our philanthropists,
women’s clubs, reformers, insurgents, the Outlooks, the Surveys, the
15-cent magazines, our Ben Lindsay’s, and Roosevelts turned from
an almost exclusive study of how to better the world through improy-
ing environment to the more important subject of how to better the
world by improving the race through the laws of heredity, and by
spreading the knowledge of those laws broadcast through society so
that the people of America and all other civilized countries will gradu-
ally change present customs and practices in conformity with the new
knowledge, to the end that the nations may go forward toward a
greater physical and mental perfection. If they fail to comprehend
this thoroughly, to reform their lines of advance, it is inevitable that
within a few hundred years they will have to fall back into fighting
barbarism.

Eugenics, with the study of twins as a basis, can be a strong factor
in this general advance.

INHERITANCE OF “ACQUIRED EPILEPSY™

Dr. L. B. ALFoRD
Monson State Hospital, Mass.

Brown-Sequard (i860) stated in one of his series of articles on
Brown-Sequard ‘“‘ Epilepsy” that he had in a few instances found the
condition in the offspring of “epileptic”? animals when there had been
no operative interference. Westphal (1870) confirmed Brown-
Sequard’s results, but a number of other observers, including Dr.
Taft of the Monson State Hospital (1910), were unable to confirm
them.

This work, primarily a study of the nervous mechanism of the
phenomenon, has demonstrated that it is the poorly coérdinated,
simultaneous action of a number of defensive reflexes. These reflexes
have become unusually active as a result of frequent repetition. The
incoérdination following the experimental lesion has rendered the
movements ineffective in removing the exciting stimulus, and the
constant presence of these stimuli causes many unsuccessful attempts
to remove them. By actual count, the number of scratching move-
ments has been found to be greatly increased. The exciting stimuli
have been found to be the vermin that infest the bodies of practically
all guinea pigs, and when these are removed the “epilepsy” fails to
develop or disappears if it is already present. Any lesion that dis-
turbs the most important defensive reflex, the scratch reflex of the
hind leg, will be followed by the “epilepsy.”’ Besides cord lesions,
and section of the sciatic nerve in the bip, the lesions which Brown-
Sequard found sufficient—removal of the toes or even removal of
only the distal phalanges—are followed by the condition. This ac-
counts for the presence of “epilepsy” insome of the offspring of Brown-
Sequard animals, he having found that in all cases the inherited “ epi-
lepsy”’ was associated with a loss of the toes on the hind feet of the
animals.

Anything that affects the reflex condition of the cord has a similar
‘influence on the epilepsy. After spinal irritants such as caffeine
and strychnine it can be obtained with greater ease, but following an
injection of a small amount of alcohol it quickly disappears. It was
found to occur in a more severe form after removal of the higher
centers, and can be obtained with great ease after destruction of the
cerebellum and section through the lower part of the pons. It may
even occur in normal animals after such an operation. It still re-

4 Read before a meeting of the research committee of the Section of Eugenics, at Palmer, Mass.,
May 1, 1911.

293

294. AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

mains after a double cervical cord lesion, a semisection on one side
in the upper cervical and on the other side in the lower cervical re-
gions. After cord lesions movements may occur in an attack in limbs
paralyzed for voluntary motion.

Thus not only has the presence of the condition in the offspring of
Brown-Sequard’s epileptic animals been accounted for, but also the
condition itself has been shown to be of such a nature that inheritance
would not be expected.

METHODS FOR THE IMPROVEMENT
OF SORGHUM

A. H. Lripie#
Kansas State Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kansas

For some fifty years the various sorghums have commanded an
increasing amount of attention in the United States. During that
time the actual progress in producing sorghum varieties has been
made mostly by determining which were adapted to certain localities.
With the settling of the non-maize producing districts a greatly
increased importance is being given to many types and varieties of
the sorghums. 7

For the past eight years the writer has been associated in various
places with projects which have involved the improvement of the
adapted sorghums. The results thus far show that very little im-
provement has ever been accomplished in America. Of the early
efforts to increase the sugar contents of the sorghums we can say
that no known result remains except from a variety testing stand-
point. C. P. Hartley has produced a broom corn cross with sweet
sorghum. A. B. Conner, C. R. Ball and the writer have tested
varieties and aided in distributing some of them. Dr. C. O. Town-
send has done some very definite work on the syrup and sugar sor-
ghums. A. M. Ten Eyek has probably had a better opportunity
than anyone else to take up already adapted varieties and increase
their usefulness. Each of these men have worked more or less dis-
connectedly along independent lines. There has been no coédrdina-
tion of ideas and no well defined technique has been developed.

In outlining a project for the improvement of the sorghums at
the Kansas Agricultural College the writer has decided to test the
production of sorghum from bagged heads. The purpose is to com-
pel self-fertilization. Assuming that these plants are naturally self-
fertilized it seems fair to suppose that most of the variations within

LeipigH: THE IMPROVEMENT OF SORGHUM 295

a given variety are due to crossing between different plants. If we
can eliminate this without reducing the vigor or productivity of the
crop we will have made a great step in advance. The work accom-
plished by Shamel and others on tobacco is probably an illustration
of what may be done with sorghums. The writer has assembled
data from the men mentioned above. They agree that this group
of plants are self-fertilized. Conner, Ball, Ten Eyck, Townsend and
the writer have all produced viable seed from flowers protected by
bags. Conner, Ten Eyck and Townsend have produced two or more
generations of plants from bagged heads. They were forced to resort
to bagging because of the proximity of other varieties. That is the
work was done simply from necessity. C. R. Ball bagged heads to
guard against insects. The writer bagged heads to eliminate danger
from head smut at flowering time. Because the work of bagging
has been done incidentally very little importance has been attached
to it as a practical method for constant use. However, Ten Eyck
used it at least four years and some of the strains are now very largely
grown over the state with excellent results. Connor states that a
particular strain of Orange sorghum which he grew two generations
from seed, bagged each year, possessed extraordinary vitality and
vigor and was remarkably pure and uniform. Townsend says he
has had similar results.

The writer presents these observations here in the hope that this
will stimulate experimenters and farmers to test this method. Several
men who have had a great deal to do with this crop during the past
few years say they are about ready to abandon the head-to-row
method of testing varieties or individuals. This they unanimously
state is because of cross pollination. They hold that cross pollina-
tion practically destroys the identity of the individual strains in a
short time. To these men especially I suggest the bagging method.
It should make it possible to eliminate the remnant system. It
ought to accomplish its purpose whether one variety or hundreds
are being grown. The Kansas State Experiment Station has this
year started work near the extreme northwestern corner of the state,
to produce seed of the sorghums which are adapted to that locality.
Kafir and Milo in particular are subject to variations and splitting
up when grown there from seed grown in lower or more southern
parts of the state. It is hoped that a few years of selection accom-
panied by bagging the heads before flowering time will give us not
only desirable but also uniform types. Seed so grown may prob-
ably be used generally throughout that part of the state with much
greater success than is now possible with seed not locally grown.

296 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

hee

VIEW OF THE FLOWER BREEDING PLOTS ON THE PLANT BREEDING FARM OF ANDRIEUX,
VILMORIN AND Co., VERRIERES, FRANCE

BrotocicaL (Genetic) Lriprary, Farm or ANDRIEUX, VILMORIN AND Co.,
VERRIERES, FRANCE

EDITORIALS

THE BREEDING OF MAN

Between methods which may be employed in the improvement of
the heredity of the human species and the improvement or modifica-
tion of other living things there are some decided and fundamental
differences. In forms of life lower than man, useful variations can
be arbitrarily segregated and multiplied. Thus, a new variety of
apple or wheat originating from a single mother plant may supplant
all the parent variety in a certain section of a country or even an
entire country. Ora new variety of corn, or a new strain or breed of
cattle or horses, originating from a group of superior parents, may take
the place of the parent variety or breed. No such simple processcs,
however, are available in the human family. In the present state of
information and sentiment we have no means which will encourage
the best families to multiply somewhat more rapidly, but the State
may place restrictions around marriage of the insane, imbecile, de-
fective, diseased and other racial undesirables and thus by elimination
have no less direct influence in bringing up the average heredity of the
race. Society may even soon see the wisdom of tabulating the breed-
ing values of all families, thus to emphasize to the strong their racial
value, and to the weak their genetic weaknesses and the fatalities
which are almost certainly in store for their offspring.

As a matter of fact, society, through charity, helps to keep alive a
very large percentage of the weak children of the least successful
families; in war we destroy the strongest, most virile of our men; both
factors are active in depressing the average value of the racial blood.

Choosing the capable few as the progenitors of a new race, as can
be done with plants or animals, and rapidly making their blood that
of the race, is impracticable with the human race. On the other
hand, something can be done, even if that be quantitatively only a
small percentage of what can be accomplished with wheat, cotton,
apples, or cattle. For instance, we can arrange to so record the lin-
eage and genetic values of all families that the racial value of each
strain of blood may be known; we can privately provide bounties for
children born to parents with a superior rating, the bounty to be pro-
gressively large as the number in the family increases; we can educate
men to avoid venereal diseases, alcohol, and other agencies which
decrease their value as parents; and we can be somewhat more exact-
ing in licensing only the fit to marry—and to kill fewer strong men in
war.

297

298 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

The throwing together of different racial types develops not only
economic and political problems, but eventually hybrid race problems
of the most far-reaching character. The hereditary values of the
pure races as compared with the hybrid race should be studied from
every standpoint.

Records of the performance values of all individuals would soon
give data upon which to base the breeding values of each parent; and
of estimating the breeding value of each person from whom progeny
are not yet available for records on which to base parental values.
Thus those families whose genetic values coincide with the average
of the racial values would be known; also those families averaging
above as well as below the normal for the race. In this manner the
particulars in which the best families excel, as well as the lines of
weakness of the weaker families, would be available knowledge.

No one can more than conjecture as to whether statistics of good
qualities and of faults in the heredity of young people would cause
fewer marriages or more marriages on the whole. In reply to those
who would argue that the possession of such information would lessen
the number of marriages, increase the social evil, and even decrease
the production of children, it may be said: The larger proportions
of really happy marriages sensibly contracted would make marriage
popular. The assurance arising from a better knowledge of both con-
tracting parties as to the success of the issue would lead people to look
upon marriage as more certain of a happy ending. Threatened pen-
alties of being ruled out of matrimony on account of unfitness would
be a tremendous inducement to lead many persons to courses of
rectitude, and to care in preparation for parenthood.

Society and the church would increase their approval of good mar-
riages the issue of which is likely to turn out well. People would in
this, as in other affairs of life, do nearly as they are expected to do.
The possession of facts would give assurance that an intelligent inter-
est would be taken; and this interest would work out for good. The
truth prevails in the light of day.

Well conditioned marriages of people of strong power to succeed
in life’s affairs and with faith in their eugenic ability to rear strong and
healthy children would bring the blessing of at least average sized
families. A community made up entirely of suecessful people would
in time have a large surplus of means with which to take the risk of
doing well by large families of children. The removal of the fear that
children will be defective, weak, sickly, unsuccessful, or will go wrong,
will give people both the courage to rear children and the family
pride to have a goodly number of children and grandchildren.

EDITORIALS | 299

SOMETHING MORE THAN THE COMMERCIAL INSTINCT NEEDED

Seldom, if ever, has a man achieved marked success as a breeder of
improved live stock who has not perpetually cherished a real fondness
for live stock extending far beyond that mere financial interest which
dictates to a considerable degree the operations of the majority of
men who would be cailed live stock breeders. Often there lies be-
neath a rugged exterior of a man, a genius not unlike that of the artist
to whose eye every feature and every line in conformation of an animal
contributes either to its beauty or ugliness. The imagination of the
great artist goes beyond that of the plebeian critic. It takes an artist
to appreciate the work of an artist. Just so the achievements of the
master breeder are best appreciated by other distinguished breeders.

The meat or milk producer sees nothing in the animal but its ability
to produce beef or milk. The breeder demands certain other points
of excellence, which for want of a better term may be called embellish-
ments. The breeder has a right to satisfy his tastes in the matter as
long as these tastes do not detract from the usefulness of the animal
or add materially to its cost. The breeding of pedigreed live stock,
without permitting sentiment, embellishment, and “fancy points”
to enter into it, is like insisting that four walls and a roof constitute
home, or that the farmer should not locate and construct the house and
other buildings with reference to making them sightly and attractive.
Fancy points should not be encouraged to the exclusion of utility.
Utility in improved live stock is fundamental.

Breeders of pedigreed live stock in the United States are no longer
scarce but live stock breeders of significant achievement are rare.
Many farmers have been inveigled into the breeding of improved live
stock by the promise of attractive profits. Reported fabulous prices
for individual animals have been the magnet that has led many farm-
ers to abandon the more conservative practices and engage in breed-
ing pedigreed live stock. Only those who have had extended experi-
ence in the breeding and sale of improved live stock can fully realize
the full cost of the outstanding animal that brings the unusual price,
to say nothing of the countless cases where fabulous prices have been
reported, which have never been realized except as credited to the
breeders’ advertising account.—Hrrserr W. Mumrorp, Urbana, Til.

GENETIC SURFACE INDICATIONS

Beginning about a third of a century ago, there developed a school
of animal breeders with a philosophy which has had an enormous

300 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

influence. Its leaders, vigorously but in part thoughtlessly. dealing
with the genetic economics of our live stock industry, occupied some
position as writers most advantageously in touch with the live stock
world. Some of these leaders were chosen as judges at fairs and even
teachers of anima! judging. Their work covered all classes of live
stock, including poultry and pet stock.

That school of breeders imagined that in a brilliant and artistic
literature of word painting it had a philosophy. The influence of this
philosophy has helped to breed out the milking qualities from the
heredity of American Shorthorn cattle; held back the dairy develop-
ment of the Red Poll cattle; kept back improvements in breeding for
excellence in egg laying in poultry; delayed the development of tense
fiber, endurance, easy keeping, and longevity in our draft horses;
and made possible that greatest of all American live stock fiascoes,
the Belgian hare craze.

This philosophy enthroned form and fat above genetic power as the
criterion of individual exce'lence in the show or sales ring. Outward
signs of excellence usurped a place above inherent breeding power.
Centgener tests such as are now used in dairy cattle and speed horse
breeding were long laughed out of court by those who spread their
philosophy over millions of pages of reportorial and editorial rhetoric
concerning beefy draft horses, steers which exhibited the greatest
profusion of beautiful lines and curves, porkers whose exteriors of fat
padded skins most nearly met the artistic ideal in the mind of the man
who happened to be judge that year, and mutton animals with the
pre-sheared fleeces. Even the results of such transition tests as milk-
ing tests of cows at fairs and egg-laying tests of hens were treated as
matters of small import and received but scanty mention. There
was a grandiloquent magnification of form which blended with the
excitement of the sales and show ring—a manifestation of the
excitable character of many of our people.

Tt would not be true to assert that emphasizing the outward appear-
ance of the individual has not had a very high educational value;
or that it has not given the American people vastly higher ideals of
excellence to be striven for in animal breeding. It has helped to make
possible our live stock fairs and our live stock auction sales; and has
been a strong factor in leading many to enter the breeding of pedi-
greed stock in a large way. It has enormously encouraged the begin-
ner at upgrading his stock, also the beginner at breeding pedigreed
stock, to make his start to pay commensurate prices for a pedigreed
sire or for a purebred foundation herd. Nor would it be fair to say

EDITORIALS 301

that there has been no progress in the breeding of our meat stock and
work stock. But it has gone on, not so much because of, as in part in
spite of the partial philosophy of those who with voice, pen, brush,
and camera have exalted the individual outward appearance above
internal genetic power. Some of the progress which has been back-
ward has been largely due to this ingrowing philosophy which has
been wedded to a system which yielded ‘‘copy,” and yielded adver-
tising with accompanying editorial write-ups. The facts and figures
developed under the performance record tests, as for instance in ad-
vanced registration of dairy breeds, do not require wordy descrip-
tions nor highly colored full-page advertisements to sell the breeding
animal whose progeny or close relatives give a high average of pro-
duction. The trotting horse with very many progeny or other close
relatives showing a high record of efficiency in performance on the
race track does not need much rhetoric to convince the prospective
purchaser of the breeding value of its blood.

The injury done has been in assuming that we already have great
excellence in our breeds of meat stock and work stock, because per-
chance we have an occasional phenomenal individual. When we com-
pare animals of the beef breeds with animals in the advanced regis-
tries of the dairy breeds, we see that our meat-producing breeds of
live stock have not been subjected to rigid tests for real genetic as
well as individual merit, nor have they been improving at so rapid
a rate.

The breeders of beef, pork, mutton, poultry, and work stock have
already too long assumed that tests of performance, so successfully
worked out with dairy catile, and centgener tests of wheat and corn
and other plants, could not be applied to other breeds. These un-
warranted assumptions have too long led breeders to depend on the
continued importation of choice animals of the breeds created in the
British Isles and western Europe, without an effort to do as was done
in the old countries and create new breeds and sub-breeds.

But a new movement is in progress, thanks mainly to Mendel and
his disciples, and to a school of optimistic plant breeders who for a
decade have been devising methods and getting results in creating
new varieties of useful plants. Plants which seemingly presented
vastly more difficult problems than Hereford cattle, Berkshire swine,
Rambouillet sheep, or Shire horses have been brought under perform-
ance-record breeding, and newly created varieties are being turned
out. The most advanced breeding today, it is safe to say, is done with
corn. And the most important and the most difficult features in corn

302 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

breeding are applicable to the work of creating new values in the
breeds of live stock. In fact, some of these features are being em-
ployed by some of the few animal breeders who do really creative
breeding.

The writers and teachers of the old school to which reference is here
made have been guilty of sins of omission to a marked degree. They
have failed to see the most important elements in the philosophy
which guided Cruikshank in creating a family which has put short
legs and easy feeding quality on Shorthorn cattle, or to see what
guided Gentry in producing his record-breaking herd of Berkshires.
The word artist who, seeing only the outer appearance of the steer,
the sheep, the pig, the draft horse, the nicely pencilled fowl, or the
symmetrical ear of corn, has been so blind that he has made the too
sweeping generalization that inbreeding is wholly wrong, but which
Bates, Cruikshank, the Funks and others have so abundantly
disproved. Inbreeding is dangerous when weaknesses are present,
but it is a most powerful agency in keeping pure the very best stocks,
whether of plants or of animals. By repeated trial Gentry found
that his inbred crops of pigs were far better than those resulting
from outcrosses, and he was sensible enough to obey the law of
nature as practically worked out in the pigs rather than follow a
theory which does not apply to all families even of hogs.

Not only has the aforesaid philosophy of the supremacy of form and
appearance been in the way of a scientific knowledge on the part of
the common breeder of purebred stock, who usually is a multiplier
of genetic values secured from others, rather than a creator of new
genetic values, but it has been especially harmful in retarding men
and associations from undertaking real, constructive, creative breed-
ing. :

But the light is breaking. The old school is beginning to see the
philosophy of the occasional mutation in the blood of which, if guarded
by narrow breeding, there is held the basis for breed improvement.
And young men less hopelessly grounded in the principles of the old-
time stock sales oration, or stock show editorial, are entering the live
stock editorial field. There are even strong rays of hope in poultry
editorial circles. The camera is now telling the unexaggerated truth,
where formerly the pencil and brush supplied excellence to all flesh
indiscriminately.

Animal breeders, in the half century after Darwin put forth his
world-changing philosophy in 1859, were practically static. A
score of years of scientific and brilliant breeding on the part of plant

EDITORIALS 303

breeders about the first of the new century was necessary toawaken
them to the vast constructive opportunities in animal breeding. The
possibilities from Mendelian recombinations in cross-breeding; the
necessity of using vast numbers in creative breeding; the need of col-
lective effort, as in the circuit scheme of animal breeding; the utility
of system and order carried out on a large and uniform scale in the
effort to create breeds with capacity to yield products at lower cost,
and the opportunity for the application of scientific efforts on a large
scale, are only the entering wedge. There are many things which
portend the rising tide of scientific development in animaland plant
breeding, and the mission of the American Breeders Association is to
lead the van. The totality of heredity of animals in the world, part
of which have not yet been imported, and part perhaps as yet un-
tamed, is a mighty force which we can mould better to meet our needs.

Our rich home market for pedigreed live stock, supplemented by the
possible foreign market for purebred animals, will make not only
possible but relatively easy a great movement in the creation of breeds
and families of all kinds of domestic animals whose genetic records
will gain for the successful breeders both fame and wealth. The
breeders of dairy cattle have only begun to show what can be done all
along the line in this and other countries with all classes of farm
animals, including fur animals and pet animals as well.

The live stock journals will continue to exploit and conserve the
interests vested in the existing commercial herds. And it is well that
they should perform that important function. But henceforth there
will grow up more facts concerning the inner genetic values of breeds
and especially of families within the breeds and the writers, auction-
eers, and teachers will thus have figures and genetic pedigrees, which
will enable them to conserve and exploit those animals which breed
best, rather than merely the prettiest individuals. In fact a change
for the better has already taken place in case of species where per-
formance records have longest been recorded.

THE LAW OF VAST NUMBERS

Practical experience in the improvement of living things through
breeding demonstrates that the law of vast numbers must be re-
spected. One phase of this law is that one among many is superior as
an individual to its fellows. A second phase of this law is that among
many of those superior individuals there is one superior also genetic-
ally, excelling in its power to transmit its superiority to its offspring.

304 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

In other words, among the thousands or even tens or hundreds of
thousands which make up a variety, a breed, or a species there are
only a few mutating individuals which transmit marked superiority.
A third phase of this law of vast numbers is that to effect general
improvement in a variety or breed the progeny of the individuals
which prove genetically the best must be multiplied into vast num-
bers, that they may supplant the individuals which have lower genetic
value.

These statements of fact would at first seem hardly worth the dig-
nity of being called laws. But these three facts should be burned into
the minds not only of those who try to create new values in plants
and animals but also of all genetists, whatever their scientific or
practical interests in breeding and heredity.

In part because of disregard of the law of vast numbers and the
following of plans numerically narrow, most of the efforts at creative
breeding fail to produce stocks which are really valuable or new or
represent material advance. On the other hand the relatively large
numbers of the really important mutating blood lines which spring
up through the everyday work of growers and modest breeders are
due primarily to the vast numbers constantly passing under review
in everyday production, and as growers become better trained, not
only to see mutations but also to seize upon them and subject them
to clonal and seminal centgener tests, their discoveries will increase.

Our farms and nurseries for plant breeding as well as our establish-
ments for multiplying superior varieties and breeds of domestic plants
and animals should be laid out so that the scientific methods of inter-
mating and selection may be carried out on a large scale. There is
here need of largeness of plan and equipment, and the work of the
producers, especially the producers of pedigreed plants and animals,
should be so systematized that mutations, wherever they arise, may
have a chance to gain the eye of someone who will appreciate them and
give their blood a genetic opportunity.

Preliminary ard preparatory to all nursery work and other tech-
nical work in plant breeding, the law of vast numbers should be re-
spected by so testing many varieties as to secure those which may
be the best bases for the work of breeding. Large numbers must be
used in the nursery in the work of hybridizing and selecting. And
to follow the work out to the end of practical trial by growers, a rather
large number of the newly formed varieties should be taken from the
preliminary trials of the plant-breeding nursery through the field plat
trials at numerous trial grounds, as at branch experiment stations.

Epi TORIALS 305

There is, however, one place where it does not seem wise to adhere
to the plan of large numbers, namely, where it comes to distributing
new varieties of plants to growers. A few rigidly tested very best
varieties will do more good than a larger number of best and second-
best varieties thus distributed. A commercial] variety enters a com-
plicated set of farm conditions and often a still more complicated set
of market conditions. Especially is this true of a product like cotton
or wheat; here the method and machinery for the manufacture of the
new variety must be readjusted, and in some cases even radically
changed. The market must learn of the character and quality of the
new potato, apple, or melon, and in some cases the grower must adjust
his farm conditions to give the new variety the proper culture or
treatment. Thus, in making new tall-growing varieties of flax, it
was found that a new scheme of crop rotation was necessary to pre-
pare the land and clean the soil of weed seeds, to avoid the necessity
of separating weed fibers from the flax fiber.

In animal breeding the individuals to be used as bases for breed
improvement or for the creation of new breeds must be chosen with
care from among the very many animals of the foundation breed or
component breed which have the largest practical value, first indi-
vidually and then genetically. The individuals of families which
appear best are collected and their genetic value determined in the
terms of their progeny; these again are tested and retested generation
after generation, so as to eliminate the poor characters and recombine
the best characters in a comparatively narrow line of descent worthy
of advanced registration on a performance record basis. There must
even be provision for bringing into the newly forming sub-breed the
blood of superior families which may spring up in the herds of other
breeders, just as Williams of Ohio has provided for the introduction
into his stocks of pedigreed corn of the blood of corn mutations orig-
inating with other breeders.

The animal breeding circuit scheme was devised in part to overcome
the disadvantage of the small numbers in private herds, also in part
to retain superior blood once it is secured, that it may serve perma-
nently as a source from which superior pedigreed breeding animals
may be secured and thus widely disseminated. This plan quite
avoids the faults of the course pursued by many wealthy breeders
who gather into the one herd some of the best blood of the breed,
sometimes securing the progeny of one or more mutating animals and
perchance thus securing a collection of animals which if kept together
and rather narrowly bred might have a high value as a permanent

306 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

source of pedigreed breeding animals. But there is often no one to
continue the owner’s work, or else his successors lack the genius to
maintain high standards, and the herd is dissipated. Thus the cir-
cuit scheme, by banding together a group of breeders in a codperative
association and providing for a successor when a member drops out,
makes permanent the sub-breed.

Here, as in the selection for distribution of only the very few varie-
ties of plants, the breeding of animals is narrowed down to an inter-
breeding group, strong physically, efficient in their special functions,
prepotent in upgrading and splendid as purebred stock, whether for
the production of marketable products—such as meat, milk or wool—
or for work.

There are needed plant and animal breeding stations employing
technical men in each logical agricultural region, certainly several in
each large state. Animal breeding circuits are needed for each breed
of horses, sheep, cattle, and swine, and even for poultry. Still other
circuits should be very profitable to produce hybrid breeds, as be-
tween European and Indian cattle, between cattle and buffalo,
between common and fat-tailed sheep; possibly also to produce breeds
of deer, foxes, and other semi-domesticated species.

Few men advocate government ownership of purebred stock, and
certainly those who now enjoy the individualistic business of pedi-
greed animal production would not favor turning this business
over to governmental agencies. On the other hand, nearly every
person agrees that it is the proper function for the federal and state
governments to so codperate with codperating groups of breeders as
to give governmental supervision and aid so as to have scientific
plans carried out which will compass all that science can do when
large numbers are handled in a scientific way. The greatest exam-
ple we have of circuit schemes of breeding is the circuit breeding of
corn, as centered in the Ohio Experiment Station at Wooster, with
which many breeders of pedigreed corn codperate. Here the public
scientists give direction, but the farmers get the educational, inspir-
ational, and economic value of doing the work. The North Dakota
Holstein Breeding Circuit is making very satisfactory progress; and
the Minnesota Milking Shorthorn Breeding Circuit is doing well,
excepting that it lacks the needed large number of herds.

Many people shrink from developing large projects in breeding.
But the possibilities along this line are as great as in the public and
private irrigation and other engineering projects. There are needed
more men who can plan enterprises in breeding, and especially men

EDITORIALS 307

who can take these plans and stay by them for the long period of
years necessary to get results. The business of breeding plantsand
animals by scientific organizations only awaits general demonstra-
tions showing the large things which can be accomplished to gain its
place as one of the important affairs of public and private interest.

AN OPENING AND A NEED

The editors have received a request to recommend a man trained
in genetics as a teacher and researcher in a state university. A man
is wanted who is not only strong on animal breeding and well trained
in statistical methods, but qualified also to head a department of
genetics, to direct the work of assistants, and codperate with practical
breeders.

The fact that such a place goes hunting for the right man brings
forcibly to view certain features concerning our animal breeding.
The men who breed pedigreed animals, write books on animal breed-
ing, and edit periodicals for animal breeders have been caught nap-
ping. They have too long remained content with a philosophy half
a century old, which is dim, unscientific, and impractical. These
men should rub their eyes and observe that the days of Manly Miles
and his book attempting to interpret Darwin’s great work have passed.
They need to take stock of the new order of things and to look about
them for a more scientific and vastly more practical basis for the
work of creating new values in our breeds of domestic animals.

Our agricultural colleges are especially in need of developing in-
struction and research in genetics in relation to the improvement of
domestic animals. Our breeders are expending vast sums of money
in experiments which, because of a lack of scientific direction, are
largely futile. The majority of our farmers are using either scrub
stock, grades so crossed as to be often little better than scrubs, or
_ pedigreed animals of indifferent character. That a large number of
the latter are thrown out by any efficient system of advanced regis-
tration based on performance shows that even the pedigreed breeds
are in need of scientific improvement. The results of the Jersey and
Holstein advanced registry work are clear proof of the fact that our
pedigreed breeds need to be placed on a performance record basis.

The stale contention that the production of meat breeds, breeds of
work horses, and dual purpose breeds of sheep and chickens can not
be placed on a basis of performance records is finally beginning to give
way.

308 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

The breeding of corn, cotton, flax, apples, wheat, alfalfa, and other
crops is being placed on a scientific basis; yet in each case there were
problems which a dozen years ago seemed vastly more difficult than
the problem of placing the breeding of Percheron horses, Shorthorn
cattle, short-grass-country sheep or such dual purpose chickens as
Plymouth Rock on a performance record basis. For our colleges of
agriculture to sit idly by and not prevent such monstrous travesties
on economic production as the division of a breed into three breeds
of different colors instead of applying the same science and energy
to the reduction of the cost of meat and eggs is evidence of lack of
interest in that line of production. What are our so-called biologists
doing that they persist in being ‘‘interested”’ in plant and animal life
and not practical in making that life more useful? Why have we not
developed more animal husbandry scientists who have seen more
deeply into genetics than does the devotee of the show ring and the
sales ring, where the phenomenal individual wins over the genetic
mutant?

There are signs of a scientific awakening in animal breeding such as
occurred in plant breeding a decade ago. As then the plant breeders
learned and received inspiration from the animal breeders, so now the
animal breeders can learn and gather inspiration from the plant breed-
ers. Those who devote themselves to research in animal heredity
especially need to keep in touch with those who experiment with
heredity in plants, and those who would devise methods of improving
a breed or creating a new breed of animals should study the methods
of those who improve varieties of plants, or create new varieties. The
deviser of methods for creative animal breeding is especially interested
in the methods which are successfully used in creating new values
in open-pollinated species, such as corn and cotton; here the process
is much the same as in creating new breed values of animals.

Twenty years ago those of us who desired to enter the field of exper-
imental animal breeding found experiment station governing boards
and legislative bodies not ready to furnish the necessary large number
of animals with which to study the improvement of the heredity of
the breeds. Now the situation is very different. The authorities
are ready to be shown. Scientific agriculture has so fully made good
that this branch of betterment work may now go forward, along with
plant breeding, soil improvement, and other leading methods of in-
creasing the production of food at less expense.

In all the state colleges where live stock is a leading interest there
is need of a division in charge of live stock breeding, quite unhampered

EDITORIALS 309

with general institutional administrative duties. This division should
pay especial attention to the education of men who can work as public
officers or as private breeders in placing our animal breeding on a
scientific basis. It should have large opportunities to give graduates
training both in the art and in the science of animal breeding, as in
the management of all forms of codperative breeding, from the mere
cow-testing association to the highly developed circuit for breeding
the various classes of horses, cattle, sheep, swine, and poultry. Its
own experiment station and branch station farm herds often can be
most useful parts of the breeding circuit, and in many cases these
herds will serve as a means of working out the details to be used on the
privately owned herds of the circuit.

The very profitable market for circuit-bred animals bearing a gov-
ernment pedigree based on performance records will eventually be-
come so remunerative to the codperating breeder and to the state that
there will be ample support for research, practical demonstration,
and creative work in animal breeding. Numerous young men with
instinets both for live stock and for research should take up practical
live stock genetics. The demand will not be met in a decade, if in
a generation. At present this field offers better openings for careers
than forestry, engineering, chemistry, law, medicine, or most other
professional lines.

NEWS AND NOTES
ON THE NATURE OF HEREDITY

Since Bakewell pronounced his famous law, “Like begets like,”’
both practical men and scientists have done their best to determine
just what heredity is. The original view was that “ Heredity is the
force which causes offspring to resemble the parents.’”’? The tendency
to vary was looked upon as a force opposed to heredity. For years
this view was held, but the last decade has thrown new light on the
subject.

J. Arthur Thomson, in Heredity, defines it as the relation existing
between an individual and its ancestors or offspring. He has here
abandoned the old view that it is a distinct force, but looks on it
merely as an existing chain uniting resemblances in different genera-
tions. This view has merit, in that it divorces one’s mind from the
general idea that heredity is a distinct entity or force.

Caspar L. Redfield of Chicago has looked into this subject from the
standpoint of an engineer and physicist, and says that heredity is the
inertia of living organisms where two or more generations are involved.
Transmission is the act of passing this inertia from one generation
to the next. Inertia is the tendency of a body in motion to stay in
motion or at rest to stay at rest. It is usually applied to non-living
matter; but the comparison is apt, as then heredity would represent
the inertia of a moving body while the individual is growing, and the
inertia of a body at rest when full development is reached. While
the comparison is not accepted as absolute, it offers an interesting
field for one who would bring his breeding work to mathematical
accuracy.

The currept belief of biologists at the present time is that heredity
is the ability of living matter to react or respond to its environment.
Certain definite processes take place in the vital functions of an indi-
vidual in response to certain causes or stimuli which exist in the
environment or surrounding matter. As, for example, spring causes
the shedding of the coat in the domestic mammals, and fall and win-
ter produces a heavier one. In this case most mammals respond in a
similar way to the same stimulus and in a manner different from
reptiles. In the same way we find different responses in different
breeds, in different families, and in different individuals. Heredity
constitutes a response to the same stimulus in the same way between
generations, varieties, breeds, species, etc. Variation then would not

310

News AnD Nores alt .

be essentially different from heredity, response either not being so
complete or more complete; or else reaction to environment sets an
entirely new series of changes at work and a different result ensues.
This latter offers a favorable field and does not differ markedly from
some other ideas not mentioned except as they are looked at through
the eyes of different individuals and from different standpoints.
These ideas are most fruitful of future result. Some may criticise
this, but if it be remembered that for certain organs and functions
the presence and action of other organs and functions corresponds to
external stimuli, then a logical phase results throughout. All life
processes are physical or chemical in nature and under similar condi-
tions will be always the same.—E. N. Wentwortu, Ames, Iowa.

SIZE OF FARMS AND FARM FAMILIES

The agricultural survey work in Tompkins County, New York,
has shown that fair-sized farms, 160 to 300 acres, pay much better
than small farms for general farming. Farmers on less than 100 acres
are not often doing any better than hired men. The work has now
been extended to two other counties with very different conditions,
but the same results were found.

The editorial in Volume IT, No. 2, of this Magazine raises the ques-
tion of the danger to the character of the citizenship from such a farm.
It is suggested that the writers have given too much attention to the
economic side and not enough to the social side. We may say that
our purpose has been to find out the facts. We have had nothing to
do with making the facts. We had no theories to prove. Most of
the conclusions have upset any theories that we did have when the
work was started. The editorial also gives the impression that such
farms call for large numbers of a permanent hired-man class and might
go so far as to have only a few landowners in a school district. The
following quotations show that no such condition exists or is likely
to exist in New York.

This does not mean that large ‘“‘bonanza’’ farms are to develop. We have no
figures for such farms, as none of them exist in this county. The group of
largest farms averages only 261 acres. All the farms are the typical American
‘family farm,”’ on which the farmer and his family do the major part of the
farm work. Even on the farms containing over 200 acres, the family does half
of the farm work. These figures may, therefore, be taken as suggesting the
most profitable size forafamilyfarm. The larger farms seem to be better than
the smaller ones for this purpose. (Page 416.)

These figures do not throw any light on the desirability of the very large
farm on which the farmer is so busy managing that he does not do any manual

312 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

labor. From observation the writers are of the opinion that such farms have
many serious obstacles in their way. They are not likely to be able to handle
labor effectively. The farmer who works with his men and directs them as he
works, and who treats his hired men as equals, has a great advantage. (Page
416.)

For general farming, these figures show that a farm should contain at least
150 acres. The upper limit of area is determined chiefly by the layout. With
ideal conditions, with the buildings in the center of the farm, and with a public
road running past the buildings, as high as 600 acres may be run from one
center. With more than this area, the distance of the fields from the buildings
is usually too great. It is not often that one can secure so large an area well
located with respect to buildings. The most profitable general farms in Tomp-
kins and Livingston counties contain about 200 to 300 acres of good land.
(Page 427.)

These farms do not call for any permanett hired-man class. On
the group of largest farms, even those above 200 acres, the labor is
half done by the farmer and members of his family not receiving
wages. The unpaid family labor is nearly three times as much as on
the small farms. Certainly there is no injury to society from a con-
dition that provides work for the children at home so that they do not
have to leave home to find it. In many cases, the hired man is the
owner’s son who bas staid at home because there was a chance. On
the small farm there was no such chance; hence, the boys have gone
to town or if not entirely disgusted with farming have gone to the
larger farms of their neighbors to become hired men. There is no
danger to society from a size of farm that calls for one or two hired
men oneach farm. It takes a number of years to earn money enough
to start farming. One or two hired men per farm just about provide
places for the young mea who are gecting started in farming. Cer-
tainly there is no danger in a system that provides places for the man
with no capital while he is working up. In the regions thus far stud-
ied, there are very few men of ordinary intelligence who remain hired
men permanently. They pass on to become tenants and owners, to
make place for more young men. There are a very few men who will
always be hired men because they are not able to manage themselves,
either because of lack of ordinary intelligence or because of drink.
For such persons, a chance to be a hired-man is a blessing.

It is suggested that small farms with codperation will solve the prob-
lem. There are physical difficulties that cannot be overcome by this
means. Too small fields cannot be tilled economically even if you
borrow your neighbor’s plow. One of the great points in economy is
the driving of two, three, and four-horse teams. But such teams
cannot. work well in smail fields even if two neighbors do combine.

NEWS AND NOTES ala

The farms themselves must be joined to get the full advantage of
economy of production. But partnerships in farming are not often
successful; there are too many points on which the two bosses dis-
agree.

I believe that any unprejudiced enthusiast on eugenics, if he could
go with us to the three thousand farms that we have studied in various
parts of New York, would agree that the family farms of 150 to 300
acres for general farming are much better than the smaller farms from
the standpoint of citizenship as well as from the standpoint of profits.
Such farms are large enough to permit horses and machinery to be
used effectively, and large enough also to give the boys profitable
work at home.

No American institution is imperiled... Farmers are merely beeom-
ing more efficient. Our Eastern farms were laid out in the days of
the grain cradle. The number of men that were then necessary to
farm 100 acres can now farm 200 and do it better.—G. F. Warren
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

BREEDING FOR COLOR ADJUSTMENT UNDER CERTAIN CLIMATES

My observations on the effects of light and heat on the organism
of animals have elicited some extremely important facts as to the
survival value of colors. My former ignorance of the reasons why the
Arab horse in a hot climate with his black skin tends to have white
hair, and the Chinese pony in a cold climate the same, cost me exactly
$200 ten years ago, and if the Government will act on the hint it will
save $200,000 in a very short time. Breeders must breed for color
where color enhances work, power, and endurance. * * * *

Since then, I have obtained other facts which lead me to believe the
matter of color in animals much more important than I formerly
thought. The white horse or mule is particularly fitted for climates
where the day is hot and the night cool, for by reflecting sun rays it
remains comfortable when the black dies of thermic fever; and at
night it does not radiate to colder surroundings, remaining comfort-
able when the black gets pneumonia even though blanketed.—Cuas.
E. Wooprurr, Surgeon U. S. Army, Panay, P. I.

THE FOURTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON GENETICS

The fourth International Conference on Genetics was held in Paris,
September 18 to 23, under the auspices of the National Horticultural
Society of France. The preparations for this gathering were com-
menced more than a year in advance of the date of meeting. A

314 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

strong local committee was formed, presided over by Dr. Viger, sena-
tor, and president of the National Horticultural Society of France, and
with Mr. Philippe de Vilmorin as secretary, to whose untiring efforts
a large measure of the success of the conference is due.

About two hundred and forty members were registered and about
fifty communications were presented, of which the majority dealt
with subjects of a botanical nature. Most of the leading countries
in Europe were represented, and delegates were present also from
Northern Africa and from the United States and Canada.

It is impossible, within the space of a short notice of this kind, to
give abstracts of all the papers presented, and any attempt to select
the most important from among them would be undesirable and per-
haps futile. It will be sufficient to state that highly important com-
munications bearing on Mendelian theory were presented by such
eminent leaders as Bateson, Tschermak, and others, while many
papers of a somewhat simpler and more immediately practical char-
acter were also given. Some of the communications were illustrated
by lantern slides, and others by plain or colored drawings. It is
intended that all the papers presented shall be published in full in
the volume of proceedings which is to be issued, and where illustra-
tions are of importance these will probably be reproduced. The aver-
age quality of the communications presented was certainly of a high
order, and although the use of four languages (French, German,
English, and Italian) added considerably to the difficulties of the
majority of the audience, the papers were received, as a rule, with
careful attention and every evidence of appreciation.

Two of the shorter and therefore less conspicuous communications
were of special interest to the writer of these notes, and he may there-
fore, perhaps, be allowed to refer specially to them. Professor von
Rumker of Breslau presented very briefly some of the results obtained
by him in carrying on selections of rye for color of grain. He exhibited
samples of seven different colors, three of which—dark brown, straw
yellow, and bright -green—now breed true. Dr. Jesenko of Vienna
made the interesting announcement that he has succeeded in obtain-
ing a fertile plant by crossing wheat with rye. Although only one
seed was obtained from the plant of the first generation, Dr. Jesenko
was fortunate enough to obtain one hundred and fifty-two seeds from
the plant of the second generation.

In addition to the papers presented before the conference, attention
should be called to a pamphlet on genetics by Mr. Philippe de Vil-
morin, copies of which were given to all those in attendance at the
convention. This excellent little pamphlet gives a brief account of the

News AND NOTES 315

origin of the new science of genetics, with a bibliography (classified
by subjects) of important publications bearing upon it and a list of
all the papers presented at the previous International Conferences
namely, London in 1899, New York in 1902, and London in 1906.

From our side of the Atlantic the following papers were presented:
W. A. Orton, Obtaining Disease-Resistant Varieties of Plants. F.
M. Surface, Results of Selections Among Fluctuating Variations.
W. T. Swingle, Variations in the First Generation of Citrus Hybrids.
C. E. Saunders, Breeding Varieties of Wheat of High Baking Strength.
G. N. Collins and J. H. Kempton, On the Inheritance of Waxy Endo-
sperm in Hybrids of Chinese Corn. These papers, with the exception
of that last mentioned, were presented by the authors themselves.

The programme of the conference included five sessions for business
of about three hours each, three receptions (by the Horticultural
Society, the municipal council and Prince Roland Bonaparte), five
excursions and visits to important institutions (to the Pasteur In-
stitutes at Paris and at Garche, to the Vilmorin Trial Grounds at
Verriéres and to the Veterinary School and the Natural History Mu-
seum), and two elaborate repasts (a luncheon at the Vilmorin grounds
and a closing banquet at the Continental Hotel.) The social side of
the convention was managed with the utmost care and with attention
to every detail that good will and hospitality could suggest. Nothing
was left undone to make the foreigners feel that they were really
guests and friends. The hours for social intercourse proved not only
most enjoyable but very profitable, as they afforded opportunities
for becoming acquainted with fellow-workers in various parts of the
world and for conversation in regard to details of their work which
were not presented in their written papers. The closing banquet was
an event of which even Paris might well be proud, since it was
characterised not only by an admirable menu but by a delightful
series of speeches, not one of which was dull or too lengthy, and by
a timely adjournment to a smaller room where groups gathered for
coffee and conversation and for the saying of farewell.

The request of the American Breeders Association that the next
International Conference should be held under their auspices in
America was presented to the conference, but no decision was reached
in regard to the matter. An influential committee, with Professor
Bateson as chairman, was appointed to consider and decide upon the
date and place for the next conference. It is not expected that the
decision of this committee will be announced for a considerable time.
C. E. Saunprrs, Ottawa, Canada.

316 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

A SELF-SEEDING DOUBLE PETUNIA

Mrs. Myrtle Shepherd Francis, member A. B. A., Ventura, Cal.,
reports the successful production of a self-seeding double petunia.
Mrs. Francis, who specializes in breeding this flower, has a collection
of over five hundred plants with double blossoms in a variety of colors.
Several years ago the originator observed a number of flowers with
rudimentary pistils and ovaries and as a matter of experiment pollen-
ized them. After numerous trials she was rewarded with two par-
tially formed seed pods. This year, only five per cent of the flowers
grown from seed turned out singles. Selection will probably reduce
this to a still lower figure.

Mrs. Francis is developing also a yellow petunia and is working
with poppies and the white and red flowering clianthus.

FESTBAND IN COMMEMORATION OF MENDEL

The Naturforschender Verein of Briinn is about to publish a com-
memorative volume in honor of Gregor Mendel. About a yearago
the simple and beautiful Mendel monument was unveiled at Brinn
in the presence of a large number of scientists, or, better, Mendelians,
and the work in question is proposed to follow as a literary tribute
or monument to the great and modest man who has handed to the
world the keys with whose aid the outer doors behind which are
guarded the secrets of heredity were unlocked. The contents of the
Festband follow: .

Mendel, Gregor, ‘‘Versuche iiber Pflanzen-Hybriden.”’

Mendel, Gregor, ‘‘Hieracium-Bastarde.’’

Mendel, Gregor, ‘‘Die Windhose vom 13. Oktober 1870.”

Baur, Erwin, Berlin, ‘“‘Ein Fall von Faktorenkoppelung bei Antirrhinum
majpus.”’ :

Cuénot, L., Nancy, ‘“‘L’Hérédité chez les Souris.’’

Fruwirth, C. Wien, ‘‘Zur Vererbung morphologischer Merkmale bei Hor-
deum distichum mutans.’’ (Mit 5 Abbildungen auf 2 Tafeln.)

Hagedoorn, L. Arend, Verriéres le Buisson, ‘‘The Interrelation of Genetic
and Non-genetic Factors in Development.”

Hurst, C. C., Burbage, England, ‘‘Mendelian Characters in Plants, Animals,
and Man.”’

Iltis, Hugo, Briinn, ‘‘Vom Mendel-Denkmal und von seiner Enthiillung.”’
(Mit 2 Tafeln.)

Kammerer, Paul, Wien, ‘‘Mendelsche Regeln und Vererbung erworbener
Eigenschaften.”’

Nilsson-Ehle, H., Svalof (Schweden), ““Spontanes Wegfallen eines Farbenfak-
tors beim Hafer.’”’ (Mit 4 Figuren.)

Porsch, Otto, Wien, ‘‘Die ornithophilen Anpassungen von Antholyza bicolor
Gasp.” (Mit 2 Tafeln und 1 Textfigur.)

NEws AND NOTES 317

Przibram, Hans, Wien, ‘‘Albinismus bei Inzucht.”’

Roux, Wilhelm, Halle a. d. S., ‘‘Uber die bei der Vererbung blastogener und
somatogener Eigenschaften anzunehmenden Vorginge.”’

Semon, Richard, Miinchen, ‘‘Die somatogene Vererbung im Lichte der Bas-
tard- und Variationsforschung.”’

Shull, George Harrison, New York, ‘‘ Defective Inheritance-Ratios in Bursa
Hybrids.”’ (Mit 6 Tafeln.)

Tschermak, Erich von, Wien, ‘‘Uber die Vererbung der Bliitezeit bei Erb-
sen.’ (Mit 3 Tafeln und 2 Textfiguren.)

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED

Die SyYsTEMATIK UND MetHopik Der MopERNEN LANDWIRTSCHAFTLICHEN
PFANZENPRODUKTIONSLEHRE. Prof. Dr. von Rumker, Breslau. Reprint
from Frihlings Landwirtschaftliche Zeitung. 1911. pp. 409-421.

IMPROVEMENT IN Corn. H. K. Hayes and E. M. East. Bulletin 168, Con-
necticut Agricultural Experiment Station. 21 pp. 4 plates.

This bulletin discusses the methods of producing crosses from dis-
tinct types of corn and the value of the seed of those crosses for com-
mercial crops. From tests conducted at the Connecticut station and
elsewhere, the authors conclude that the fact of the increased vigor
of first-generation hybrids of corn is of commercial importance, and
that the project is worthy of further trial.

The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station is desirous of
entering into codperation with farmers to thoroughly test the value
of first-generation corn hybrids for the production of commercial
corn crops.

A comparative test of hybrid and parent varieties, sent in by seven
farmers coéperating with the station, resulted in showing that five
of the crosses proved beneficial, giving higher yields by from 7 bushels
to 44 bushels than the parent varieties grown alongside.

Report OF THE BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, NEw JERSEY AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
EXPERIMENT Station, 1910. B. H. Alfred Groth, Early J. Owen, Mary
Robinson.

Plant heredity studies are reported with beans, corn, eggplants,
opra, peas, peppers, squashes, and tomatoes. Plant sap circulation,
plant toxicology, and plant shading also receive attention.

Hersetr. Talks with Women Concerning Themselves, E. B. Lowrie, M.D.
221 pp. Illustrated. Forbes and Company, Chicago, III.

Herself is the third book in the series of Personal Hygiene books
published by an author whose two preceding books received notice

318 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

in this department of the Magazine. The book before us is fully up
to the high standard set by its two predecessors.

So long as our common schools, or extension schools, or schools of
personal hygiene, supported by private philanthropic enterprise, do
not teach the important facts of the physiology of reproduction,
motherhood and heredity, there will be need for such plain common-
sense books as this. No attempt is made in this book at being scien-
tific. It is not burdened with descriptive details but emphasizes
mostly the instructive features.

There is not in the entire book a term or a phrase which is not
written in the plain English of the people. It is replete with sensible
advice. One cannot help discovering in this book a sympathetic note
coming from a woman whose experience in every stratum of society
has led her to realize the need of a publication of this character.

MeENnpDELISM. P. C. Punnett. 173 pp., 35 illustrations, 6 colored plates.
Third Edition. McMillan and Company, Ltd., London.

Since the publication of the first edition of this book by the same
author in 1905 Mendelism has made remarkable strides. The appli-
cation of Mendel’s Law as originally stated by its author—and, shall
we also say, rediscoverers—has been immensely amplified, and as the
experimental evidence accumulates the connection becomes clearer
that Mendelism furnishes the only key we at present possess to the
solution of heredity problems. Not only that, but that with the help
of Mendel’s Law, genetics, has become practically theonly branch of
biology, in which it is possible to formulate with almost mathemati-
cal conciseness, representations of expectations of heredity processes.

Repeated new editions of this book were really necessary to keep
it abreast of advances and in this latest edition Mr. Punnett has
not only brought Mendelism up to date but he has given Mendelism
a very lucid, concise and direct statement.

In separate chapters are discussed the various phases of Mendelism
as understood today. Especially clear is the presentation of the sub-
ject of recombination in individuals differing in one, two, three and
more pairs of characters. Brief chapters take up the presence and
absence theory, interaction of factors, reversion, dominance, wild
forms and domestic varieties, repulsion and coupling of factors, sex
limited inheritance, variation and evolution and so on, concluding with
a chapter on Man and possible application of Mendelism to eugenics.

The reviewer is of the opinion that the general reader of scientific
inclinations, as well as the student will find this book valuable as a
treatise as well as text book.

ASSOCIATION MATTERS

GROWING POPULARITY OF THE AMERICAN BREEDERS
ASSOCIATION

On December 26 last, Dr. A. W. Gilbert, professor of plant
breeding at Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, sent in a batch of
102 new members, being mostly members of the New York State
Breeders Association. These 102 men are a most welcome addition
to the Association, and both the New York State Breeders Associa-
tion and the American Breeders Association will greatly benefit by
this arrangement. The prestige and assistance of the national organ-
ization will no doubt be of direct value to the state organization.

The accession of this large number of members of the New York
State Breeders Association in a body speaks well for the popularity
of the American Breeders Association and is an index of the growing
confidence of the practical breeders in the propaganda of the Ameri-
can Breeders Association. Other organizations of live stock breed-
ers are invited to take memberships in the American Breeders Asso-
ciation so that the national organization may rapidly grow to large
proportions in order that it may make its work and plans more effec-
tive.

THE EIGHTH ANNUAL MEETING

The eighth annual meeting held December 28, 29 and 30 in
Washington in affiliation with the American Association for the
Advancement of Science was a decided success, in point of attend-
ance, in the number and quality of papers and addresses submitted,
and in general interest and enthusiasm. In fact this session sur-
passed all previous ones in these respects and a good part of our
attendance was from scientists belonging to other biological societies.

A large number of new members were enrolled. Mr. T. V. Mun-
son of Denison, Texas, and Dr. Wm. Saunders, Ottawa, Canada, were
elected honorary members of the Association.

The Council decided to take steps to organize branch chapters of
the Association at all the larger centers of education.

PORTRAITS OF SCIENTISTS AND BREEDERS

There are left a number of copies of the portraits of scientists and
breeders, whose biographies were published in the first volume of the
Magazine. The price of these portraits, which are done in sepia tone
on sepia paper, is 10 cents each. A set of these portraits should be
framed and hung in every lecture room for plant and animal breeding.

319

320 AMERICAN BREEDERS MAGAZINE

COMPLIMENTARY WORDS FOR THE MAGAZINE

I find the magazine very interesting and in fact almost necessary among the
breeders of the country. I of course could not afford to be without it or not
to be a member of the Association. I shall do what I can in the coming year
to further its interests in the enlisting of new members.—Gero. F. FREEMAN,
Tucson, Ariz.

I enclose check for $2 for renewal of my membership in the Breeders Associa-
tion, in reversal of my decision of a week since. For I have just read Dr. Van
Eedon’s article in the August World’s Work, which has placed the need of
eugenics stronger than I ever saw it put before. Two years ago I was interested
in the breeding of corn. This has set me to thinking that perhaps the breeding
of men is the only hope for the race.—O. E. Baker, Madison, Wis.

We desire to congratulate you upon the splendid Magazine, and we wish you
all the success so deserving an effort merits.—L. F. BraLE, Manager, Associated
Farm Press, Chicago, Ill.

I want to say that I consider the last report and the Magazines published to
be the best ever and that they are worth many times the price of the annual
dues.—Wo. F. Nye, San Juan, P. R.

MEMBERSHIP DUES FOR 1912

Notices of memberships which were due to be paid in the first
quarter of 1912 will soon be sent out. Members are respectfully
requested to remit promptly and thus save the Secretary’s office the
expense of later notices.

University of Toronto
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