‘iI oF ae ase mAs fi ape Monte quad beadectee ght ee = ee “ 2 Pa ea a ee a a te i ss ec pare a ; : y : “hoe Hecate Ap isl . pe Sp tenet ontioliagte Mitte i a ee Tr Pi ty, ei fin So ‘ Pn ene Sept y ht 2 7 Sao ap ak ge Tea G AAR A Gay Agu Mente weir elie Deane Si Mea Me Dip ene eh Ren ON anti dearspatuede 5 SpefeaR s9a.teap tare Pater inetente Beit Se sie ao aeons ara stage MND sty a pentttatiet a ataMe Sorta BE he wi eats : yt : anette : i $ Pf py aS cab BS IEEE be wn ‘ Seer - arts Sante Re : \ . a ce Ay age ad a TR RR SR BR oe HM a Te RASA TE TRE Morten, c Sirstbet eR Ab maths . i Pita Aine the ira Bu RE RAMP rife DLs Pee Te TS Fhe nine Heer ARGS TRAM OMT Me SK i , : J rae eae 2 I asifare Bes Saat BE ah : : Medien MAA Bate He 3 na Pica el eee _ POL ib sty Moh : : i = dy Sonim ep MoxiiiON vd Rhos A é : P a acai Grain , 3 wabesimieltaiv ier anid ab awekdbtcan A ee 8 sta Ba 3 tee zs Thott edhe Rak tS RR Ue erent Tao ttea dW hasty Mead etec Bie tay Bi Sides a al z ~The Ao bee cle d i the MA Fos DN TS Te oir seT RA He Metin eae Pr - ass pa . e pce Plastic shih cane tee eT 5 . ‘ 198 . e ¢ Dekge pe Hecke. fe Semin Rep Tot a ae a a er eae ae ae MR Air agin gv : ma ‘ * Dypothe 7 the maT Sverre eT et ae aE ats See Pea dectt®. c hone eet a = Pan as Soa cate ¢ * 1 Sees Se Be Basel Sie ce, Ay te Mac Dw deine Bs HATE Se Ce thay Se pen ee aS ne Seo ert ha Seat e 6t SSK et awe Behl egt i ofon la Tham oF pat Te Matte Tnteabraste tai Tee Thottecein ren atm ha fibre Ieee Sn he Be eR th at ty le i Fe j Sendo Tate PG. er Se utrot Sette poateseh B et tee rat ee if 7 3 R pee ee i »: i Soaks 2 Ab eas goiter tens e haleet Dot oe se ene ie VSR mR GE ee coor : : : apts se : hee ep : 2 % - a ye BET ATT avian Ben Nea a het O DRM anche Z serenade? Zettor Wet son Ty ~ Oe ee eee ea neers amis teat eit gio sr etgats si ¢ 7 Me ene oar : E ihe tay MSE hy Epwarp G. ALLEN, | i Library Agence favistock Row, Covent Garden, London, tags f ny) Wy , ‘i pools CANADIAN RED RIVER AND ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITIONS VOL. II. ek O Tinkiclmaaeest ees AD iain hag dere res abe ee, Pe Sg reser or a e A ~ 2 : deer eet cee SF Shh Fag 8 Ee aries aly » ! . 7 » GEE Ge G = <5 hig ff’ Mi Mh. nag Printed by spottiswocde and Co.) [New-street Square, London AN OJIBWAY SQUAW, WITH PAPOOSE. NARRATIVE OF THE CANADIAN RED RIVER EXPLORING EXPEDITION OF 1857 AND OF THE ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPLORING EXPEDITION OF 1858 BY HENRY YOULE HIND, M.A. FRG PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF TRINITY COLLEGE, TORONTO In Charge of the Assinniboine and Saskatchewan Expedition In Two Volumes VOL. Il. LONDON LONGMAN, GREEN, LONGMAN, AND ROBERTS 1860 The right of translation is reserved HoeXx 1860 Mick, €- : | SENHER eS OF Pianos b.€-O N Di V O-L.U_M E. THE ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPLORING EXPEDITION OF 1858 (CONTINUED). CHAPTER XXIII. LAKE WINNIPEG.—RED RIVER TO THE LITTLE SASKATCHEWAN. Mouth of Red River.—Aurora.— Weather Signs.—Channel at the Mouth of Red River.—Storm.—Character_of the South Coast of Lake Winnipeg.— Fresh-water Shells —New Land. —West Coast. —Confervee.—The Willow Islands.—Clay Cliffs—Good Land.— Drunken ‘River. —Aurora.— Rock Exposure.—Deer Island.— Sectiqn. on. Deer. Island.— —Ikquivalent of the Chazy Formation. —Fishing: -Ground:— Miskena.— Grindstone Point.— Rev. Mr. Brooking. —Rocks at, Grindstone Poiat,—The Little Grindstone Point.—East Coast of Lake Winnipeg.—Punk Island.— Yellow Ochre.— Coast near Dog’s Head.—Limestone Cave Point.—Fissured Rocks.—Jack Fish River.—Fisher Bay.—The Cat Head.—Little Saskatchewan Bay.— East Coast of Lake Winnipeg.—Dimensions of Lake Winnipeg.—Eleva- tion and Distance of the Lake Superior Watershed.—Elevation of the Mississippi Watershed : ; - : ; Page 3 CHAP. XXIV. THE MOUTH OF THE LITTLE SASKATCHEWAN, OR DAUPHIN RIVER, TO THE SALT SPRINGS ON WINNIPEGO-SIS LAKE. The Little Saskatchewan.—Height of Bank.—Country in Rear.—Tracking. — Swamps.—Banks of River.— Ojibway Camp.—Whitefish.— Character A 3 Vice CONTENTS OF of Country.— Canoe Fleet.— Spruce.— Boulders.— Marsh.—St. Martin Lake.—“ Money.”—Pounded Fish.—War-path River.—War Roads.— Ojibway, Sioux, Swampy, Cree, Blackfoot, and Crow.—Wayvys.—Fine Land.— The Narrows.— Boulder Barriers.— Sugar Island.— Indians.— Gneissoid Islands.—St. Martin Rocks.—Beach Barriers.—Depth of St. Martin Lake.—Thunder Island.—Thunder-Storm.—Partridge Crop River. —Rushes.—Old Mission.—Low Country.—Indian Farmer.—Wide-spread Marsh.— Fairford.—The Character of the Country.—The Mission.— Hvening Service.—Rev. Mr. Stagg.—The Farm.—Hudson’s Bay Com- pany’s Post.—Rum.—Lake Manitobah.—Progress of the Season.— Rocks. —Fossils.—The Coast.—Steep Rock Point.— Devonian Rocks.— Indian Superstition.— Water-hen River.— Hagles.— Character of Water-hen River.— Pelicans. — Indians. — Wood and Prairie Indians. — Barter.— Winnipego-sis Lake.— Ermine Point.— Elms.— Salt Spring. — Snake Islands.—Duck Mountain.—Snake Island Fossils.—Azrive at Salt Springs. Page 25 CHAP. XXV., FROM WINNIPEGO-SIS LAKE TO THE SUMMIT OF THE RIDING MOUNTAIN, AND THE SUMMIT OF THE RIDING MOUNTAIN TO MANITOBAH HOUSE. Character of the Country.—The Duck Mountain.—The Salt Springs.—The Wells.—The Manufacture of Salt.—Salt Springs and Lagoons.—Moss River.— Rapids.— Character of River.—Valley or Dauphin River.—The Riding Mountain.—Lake Ridge.—Hay Ground.—Dauphin Lake.—Pike,— Snow Birds.—Journey to the Summit of the Riding Mountain.—Marshes. —Ridges.—Character of the Country.— Whiskey Jack.—Quaking Bog.— Pitching Track.— Rabbits.— Foot of Mountain.— Cretaceous Rocks.— Terraces.—Conical Hills.— White Spruce.—Brown-nosed Bear.—Summit of the Riding Mountain.—Former Character of the Riding Mountain.— Denudation.—Table Land.—Snow Storm.—Source of the Rapid River. —Indian Superstition—Descent of Riding Mountain.—Character of the Mountain. — Fish. — Sickness, — Cupping.— Ta-wa-pit.— Great Bones.— Grasshoppers.—Journey from Dauphin Lake to Lake Manitobah.—Cha- racter of the Country.—Bogs.—Aspen Ridges.—Ridge Pitching Track. — Ebb and Flow Lake.— Indian Tent — intone: of, — oe — ne — Buffalo Runner.— Manitobah House : : 43 CHAP. XXVI. MANITOBAH HOUSE. — MANITOBAH ISLAND,— OAK POINT. — OAK POINT TO THE SETTLEMENTS ON RED RIVER. Mr. and Mrs. Mackenzie.—Manitobah House.—Messenger.—Missionary Pri- vations.— Want of Supplies.—Snow Storm.— Indian Summer.— Snow Birds,— Manitobah House.— Rock.—John Campbell.—Whitefish._— Im- THE SECOND VOLUME. Vil portance of.—Aspect of Country.—The Narrows.—Manitobah Island.— Dimensions of.—Oak.—Rock Formation.—Fossils.—Indian Superstitions. Fairies.—Signals.—Arrival of Boat at Manitobah Island.—Coast of Lake Manitobah.—Old Mission Station.—Unfitness of this part of the Coast of the Lake for Settlement.—Indian Liberality—Monkman’s Point.—Cause of the Formation of Marshes.—H. B. Co. Breeding Establishment.—Oak Point.—Dimensions of Lake Manitobah. Prairie. bordering the Lake.— Shoal Lake.—Character of the eos —Big Ridge.—Little Ridge.— Arrive at the Settlements. . : : : Page 65 CHAP. XXVIII. WINTER JOURNEY WITH DOGS FROM FORT GARRY TO CROW WING. Arrival of Lord Richard Grosvenor, Lord Frederick Cavendish, Mr. Henry Danby Seymour, M.P., and the Hon. Evelyn Ashley, at Fort Garry.— Buffalo Hunting.—Lord Grosvenor’s Expedition to Fort Ellice.—Prepara- tions for a Winter’s Journey.—John Monkman.—Cline.—Daily Allowance of Dogs. — A Winter Road.— A Cariole.— A Sledge.— The Driver.— Making the Road.—Prospects of a Race to Crow Wing.—The Start.— Fort Pembina.—Mr. Mackenzie-—The Woods and Prairies in the Winter Season.—Temperature at Pembina.—A Camp in the Snow.—Preparations for the Night.—Mocassins.—The Morning Start.—Making a Cache in Pine River.—Dogs watching the Operation.—They return at Night to break open the Cache.—Terrible Fate of Mr. Mackenzie in Dec., 1859, frozen to Death in attempting to reach Pembina from Pine Creek.—Running across a Prairie with the Thermometer at 20° below Zero.—Appearance of the Party after the “Run.”—Appearance of a Camp during the Night.— Watchfulness of the Dogs.—Catching and harnessing them in the Morn- ing.—Treatment of Dogs by the Half-breeds.—Overturning a Cariole.— Traveling in a Snow Storm.—Preparing to Camp in a Snow Storm.— Dogs ‘lying close” after a Fall of Snow during the Night.—Sagacity of these Animals.—Red Lake. —News of Monleman s Party behind us.—The Roman Catholic Missionary frozen to Death two Days previous to our Arrival at Red Lake. Mission.—Indians reading the History of the Mis- sionary’s Journey from his Tracks on the Ice.— Indians relating the History of his Journey.—Savage Mimicry.—The Rey. Laurenz Lautiger, the Roman Catholic Missionary.— The Height of Land.— Cass Lake.— Arrival of Monkman’s Party at Midnight. — Leech Lake. — A Dance. — The last Night in the Woods. — The last Day’s Run. — Pine Woods. — Morning.—A twenty-mile Gallop.—Crow Wing. . 81 Vill CONTENTS OF CHAP. XXVIII. INDIAN WEALTH. — THE BUFFALO. — THE HORSE AND THE DOG. The Bison or Buffalo.—Its Value.—T wo kinds of Buffalo reported to exist by Half-breeds.— The Plain Buffalo and the Wood Buffalo. — The Lithu- anian Bison. — Characters of. — Former Range of the Buffalo. — Modern Range of.—The Red River Bands.—The Saskatchewan Bands.— Wintering Quarters of the north-western Bands of Buffalo. — Summer Ranges. — Systematic Migration of. — Buffalo Hunt. — Census of Red River Half- breed Hunt. — Blind Buffalo. — Crossing of Buffalo with domesticated Cattle. — Character of mixed Breeds. —'The Horse.—Training of Horses. —Docility of.—TIlustrations. — Attachment of Indians to their Horses. — Hopplings.—Smokes.—The Dog.—Its Uses.—The Midnight Hewl.— Dog Feasts.—Dogs at the Hudson’s Bay Posts.—Voracity of.—Cross with the Wolf.—Sacrifice of Dogs . 5 : : : Page 103 CHAP, XXIX, INDIAN CUSTOMS AND SUPERSTITIONS. Indian Antiquities.—Result of the Fur Trade.—Ojibways Invaders of the Prairies. —Scalp Dance.— Wood Indians.—Occupationsof Indians.—Indian Cruelty.—Mis-tick-oos, Chief of the Crees of the Sandy Hills.—The Fox. —Treatment of Prisoners. — Medicine Ceremonies. — Happy Hunting Grounds.—Indian “Medicine” Men and ‘ Medicines.”’—Influence of Con- jurors.—Manitou Dwellings.—Manitobah Island.—The Rey. Mr. Cowley. —Sacrifices.—Character of Indians.—Mis-tick-oos’ best Wife.—Mis-tick- oos’ Son’s Wife.—Decorating the Skin.—Indian Pipes.—Ta-wa-pit’s Pipe. —Pipes peculiar to Tribes. — Salutations among Indians. — Indians in the Prairie. — Impounding the Buffalo, — In Sickness. — Idea of Lightning. 120 CHAP. XXX, INDIAN POPULATION OF BRITISH AMERICA. Origin of Indian Races.— Kindred and Relationship.—Iroquois Customs. — Troquois Institutions. — Iroquois League.—Indian Population of Rupert’s Land.— Probably over-estimated.— Number of Indians frequenting par- ticular Posts.—Prairie Indians.— Colonel Lefroy’s Listimate.—The Sioux or Dakotah Indians.—Principal Bands.—Conjurors.—Menths.—Language. —The Blackfeet.—Country occupied by the Blackfeet.—Blackfeet Tribes. —Indians near the Boundary Line.—Indians of British America.—Indians of the United States ——LHarly History of the Indians.—Mutability of Indian Nations.—The Hurons and Iroquois.—The Prairie Tribes,—The Remnant. 145 THE SECOND VOLUME, _ 1X CHAP. XXXI. INDIAN TITLE TO RED RIVER. Indian Title in Canada.—Importance of the Question in Rupert’s Land.— Cost of Indian Wars to the United States’ Government.—Advance of Settle- ments towards the West.—Probability of a War with the Sioux.—Iindian Races occupying the Country available for present Settlement in Rupert’s Land.—Restlessness of these People-—The Right Hon. HE. Ellice, M.P., on Indian Title in Canada.—Proclamation of 1763.—Opinion of the Canadian Commissioners on Indian Affairs with respect to Indian Title in Canada. —Title to Red River.—Grant to Lord Selkirk.—Treaty between Lord Selkirk and the Crees and Saulteaux of Red River. — Peguis. — His Letter to the Aborigines’ Protection Society—His Address in 1859 to the “‘ Great House.” —M. MacDermott’s Statement.—Meeting of the Half- Breeds of Red River.— Opinion respecting Indian Title. — Importance of the Question. — Treaty of the Americans with the Saulteaux for the northern part of Minnesota on Red River . Page 167 CHAPS XGexXTT: MISSIONARY LABOUR AND ITS RESULTS. Indians in Canada.— Distinction between Indian Nations and Tribes. — The Ojibways and Mistassins.— Families, Nations, Tribes, and Bands. — Indian Families of Rupert’s Land and Canada. — The Algonquins and Troquois.—The Hurons or Wyandots.— Dispersion of the Hurons.— The Iroquois Confederation. — Statistics of Indians in Canada. — Canadian Special Commission. — The Indian Department. — Efforts to ameliorate the Condition of Indians. — The Manitoulin Islands and the Mission at Manitouaning. — The Roman Catholic Missions. — Their School and Village. — Wikwemikong. — Wesleyan Methodist Missions. — Indian Labour Schools.— Cause of the Failure.— Condition of some Indian Villages in Canada.— The Indians of the northern Coast of Lakes Huron and Superior.— Treaty with these Indians.—Distribution of Annuities, — Hudson’s Bay Company.—Sale of Birthrights.—Sugeestion with Reference _to a Permanent Fund for the Supervision and Instruction of Indians, — Lands surrendered by Indians in Canada.—Testimony of Missionaries and Agents in Relation to Indians.—Advantage of Settled Homes. Compact Reservations. — Indian Progress in Michigan.— At Red Lake.— At Red River. — Suggestions with regard to the Amelioration of the Condition of Indians generally. — Missionary Labour in Rupert’s Land. — The School-House.—Suggestion for the Establishment of a General Store for Outposts. — Native Language.—The Bishop of Rupert’s Land. — His Charge, January, 1860.— The Earl of Southesk.— A Christian Assin- -niboines’ Band, — The Church in the Wilderness . i ; e178 x CONTENTS OF CHAP? XXeXTH: THE HUDSON’S BAY COMPANY. Incorporation of the Hudson’s Bay Company. — Profits of the Company. — The North-West Company of Montreal.— Union of the two Companies. — Profits of the Hudson’s Bay Company after the Union. — Proprietors and Stock of the Company.—Administration of their Affairs.—Sir George Simpson. — The Council. — Departments, Districts, and Posts. — Extent of the Administration of the Company for the Prosecution of the Fur Trade ; ' : ; : Page 206 CHAP, XXXIV. THE COMMUNICATION BETWEEN CANADA AND- RED RIVER. THE Winter Communication. — Character of the Country on the North Shores of Lakes Huron and Superior.—Probabilitiés of a Road being made. —Country north of Lake Huron. — Mr. Salter’s Survey. — Mr. Murray’s Survey. THe SumMER Communication. — Route proposed by Mr. Dawson. — The Pigeon River Route. — The Old North-West Company’s Route.—Cost of improving and opening the Fort William and Arrow Lake Route. COMMUNICATION VIA THE UNITED Srares.— Arrangement of the Hudson’s Bay Company.—Arrangement of Messrs. Burbank and Com- pany.— Captain Palliser’s Opinion respecting the Canadian and Ameri- can Routes.—Objections to his View. — Advantages of the Pigeon River Route. , : : : . : : ae lle CHAP, XXXYV. THE COMMUNICATION BETWEEN RED RIVER AND THE PACIFIC. — THE IMPORTANCE OF THE BASIN OF LAKE WINNIPEG. The Result of Captain Palliser’s Expedition.—Valley of the Saskatchewan. —Character of the Valley—The Rocky Mountain Passes. — Route across the Continent.— Lieutenant Palmer’s Explerations in British Columbia, — Roads in British Columbia. — Lieutenant Richard Maine’s Explorations in British Columbia. —Thompson River. — Present Position of British Columbia.—The Customs and Imports of the Colony.—The Gold-Fields. — Their Extent. — Captain Palliser’s suggested Boundary of the New Colony in the Basin of Lake Winnipeg. — Objections to this Boundary. —TImportance of the New Colony being conterminous with Canada on the East.— The Natural Boundary of the New Colony. — Importance of the East Coast of Lake Winnipeg. — Necessity for a natural Northern Boundary.— Suggested Boundary— THz NaruraL ADVANTAGES OF THE THE SECOND VOLUME. X1 Bastn oF Lake Winnipec.—The Great American Desert.—The FErtine - Brett in the Basin of Lake aN amp gs — Its Importance. — Its Natural Resources. — Conclusion . : : 3 : ; : Page 222 GEOLOGY OF THE BASIN OF LAKE WINNIPEG, CHAP. XXXVI. SURFACE GEOLOGY. GHOGRAPHICAL Bounparins. — The Basin of Lake Winnipeg. — Limits. — Elevation of its Boundaries.— Outlet.— Area.— Character of its Rim.—— SurFace Fratures.—Area of Low Lake Region.—Terraces of Pembina Mountain.—Escarpmeént of the Riding, Duck, &c. &c. Mountains.—Prairie Plateau of Rupert’s Land. — Plains of the North-West. — Table of Ele- vations.— Detached Hills.— Country east of Lake Winnipeg.— Lakes. — Direction of elevating Forces.— Steps to the Height of Land. —— GROOVED, SCRATCHED, AND PotisHED Rocxs.—On Baril Portage.— On Winnepeg River.—On Limestones of Lake Manitobah. Drirr.—Over the Country between Lake Superior and Winnipeg.—Lacustrine Deposits. —Drift on the Souris. —On the South Branch.— Forced Arrangement of. — In Blue Clay at Toronto. — Description of this Arrangement.— Sorting of Materials.—Agency of Water and Ice.—Glacial Ice.—Tiers of Boulders on the South Branch.— Layers of Stratified Mud. Erratios.— Distri- bution of.—Effects of Ice on Lake Winnipeg.—In Lake Manitobah.—On the Red River Prairies. BrEacHEs AND TERRACES. —Great Dog Portage.—Section of.— Beaches on Lake Superior.—On Prairie Portage. —The Big Ridge. — White Mud River Ridge.— Dauphin Lake Ridge.— Prairie Ridges. — Pembina Mountain. — Ridge, Character of.—Riding and Duck Mountain Ridges. — Conical Hills. — Bear Hill.— Second Tier of Conical Hills. Sanp Hitis anp Dunes.—Ranges. CIRCULAR DE- PRESSIONS.—Character of. ——DENupDatiIon.—In the Basin of Lake Win- nipee. — Parallelism of bold Limits of Denudation.—Grand Coteau de Missouri. — Niagara Limestone Escarpment of New York and Canada. Riding and Duck Mountains, &c.— Probable common Origin of.— Dislo- cations in the Basin of Lake Winnipeg : ' . 239 xis CONTENTS OF CHAP. XXXVILI. THE LAURENTIAN AND HURONIAN SERIES. Distribution of Formations. —The Laurentides. —— THE LAURENTIAN Systmm.— Description of Laurentian Rocks.—Lime and Soda Felspar.— Titanic Iron-ore. — Crystalline Limestones. — Mineral Species in the Limestones. — Intrusive Rocks. — Economic Materials. — Separation of Laurentian Rocks into two Groups. — Extent of the Limestones in this System.—Area of Laurentian Rocks in the Basin of Lake Winnipeg.— Intrusive Rocks.— Character of the Dividing Ridge.—From Milles Lacs to Rainy Lake.—From Rainy Lake to the Lake of the Woods.— From the Lake of the Woods to the Winnipee.—The Coast of Lake Winnipeg. —Fundamental Gneiss of Scotland, the Equivalent of the Laurentian Series in Canada.— Adoption of the name Laurentian in British Geology - by Sir Roderick Murchison, to represent the Oldest or Fundamental Gneiss of Scotland.—The Huronian Series.— Description of Huronian Rocks : Z : : : Page 268 CHAP. XXXVIII. THE SILURIAN AND DEVONIAN SERIES. Rim of the Silurian Series. — Distribution of Formations. —The Chazy Formation. — Fossils from the Chazy, Modiolopsis Parviuscula, Ortho- ceras Simpsont. — Bird’s-eye, and Trenton Formations. — Hudson River Formation. — The Devonian Series. — Salt Springs. —Salt Springs in Rupert’s Land.—Manufacture of Salt.—Salt Trade of the United States. — Fossils from Devonian Rocks in the Winnipeg Basin : ee CHAP, XXXIX, THE CARBONIFEROUS SERIES. ——- JURASSIC FORMATION. Evidence of the Carboniferous Series. — “ Productus.” — Probability of the Carboniferous Series being represented on the Flanks of the Riding Mountain.—Occurrence in Nebraska Territory.—In Kansas Territory.—In the North-West generally.—On the West Edge of the Fossiliferous Basin. — Ammonites from the McKenzie River, probably from Jurassic Rocks. —Ammonites Barnstoni.—Ammonites Billingsi . : : . 299 CHAP. XI. THE CRETACEOUS SERIES.—TERTIARY FORMATIONS. Distribution of the Cretaceous Series in Western North America. — The Nebraska Section. — Vertical Section in Nebraska and Rupert’s Land.— THE SECOND VOLUME. Xl Formation No. 1.—Formation No. 2.—Formation No. 3.—Formation No. 4. —Great Development of Formation No. 4 in Rupert’s Land.— Fossils. — Steatitic Minerals.—Analysis of.—Anomia Flemingi.—Inosceramus Cana- densis.—Leda Hindi. —Scaphites Nodosus.— Clay Iron-stone.—Bands of this Formation. — Distribution of. — Richness of.—Analysis of.—Forma- tion No. 5 of the Nebraska Section. — Its Occurrence on the Flanks of Rocky Mountains. — Fossils of. — Avicula Linguzeformis.— Avicula Ne- brascana.—Nautilus Dekayi. TERTIARY ForMATIoNS.—Lignite on the Riding and Duck Mountains. —Sand Dunes probably derived from Ter- _tiary Rocks.—Tertiary Coal.—Lignite Basin of the Missouri.—Lignite on the North Saskatchewan.—On Red Deer River.—On the South Branch. — ignites of Oregon and British Columbia : Page 318 CLIMATE OF THE SOUTHERN PART OF RUPERT'S LAND. CHAP, XLI. Climate of the Laurentides and the Prairies. — Frozen Lakes. — Mean Annual Temperature.—Arid and Humid Region.—Sources of Humidity. —Aridity West of the 98th Meridian.—Mississippi Valley.—Arid Region of the United States—Humid Region of the Valley of Lake Winnipeg.— Causes of.— Elevation of the Country.— Humid Pacific Winds.— North- easterly Current.—The Arid Region.—Prevailing Winds.—Source of the Humidity.—Rocky Mountain Plateau.—Depression in.—Table of Eleva- tion of Plateau and Passes.— Hail Storms.— Thunder Storms in 1858.— Progress of Dunes.—Summer Surface Wind.—Meteorology of Red River, — Winter Temperatures. — Winter Temperatures at Montreal.— Cold Terms. — Quebec Temperatures. — Climate of the South Branch of the Saskatchewan. — Limit of permanently frozen Soil.— Growth of Forests. Tail of the Prairies. — Prairies Converted into Forest Land in Missouri. — Character of the Great Plains in the United States. — Major Emory’s Statement. — Auroras. — October 2nd. — October 27th. — The Twilight Bow.— Indian Summer : : ; : : . 853 CHAP. XLII. THE LOCUSTS AND THE FLOODS. The Locusts.—General Distribution of the Insect.— Distinction between Crickets, Grasshoppers, and Locusts.—The Locust of the North-West.— Acrydium Femur-rubrum.—Description of the Insect.—Male and Female. XIV. +. CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME. — Accounts of the Appearance of Locusts in the United States and Rupert’s Land.—Distribution in 1857 and 1858.—Limits of its Ravages.— Females engaged in laying Kegs.—Vitality of the Egas.—Power of Flight of this Locust.— Elevation of its Flight above the Sea.— Food of the Insect. — Effect of the periodical Visitations in the Far West and in Rupert’s Land.—Tur Frioops.—Flood Years.—Effects of, in 1802.—The Bishop of Rupert’s Land Description.—Speculations respecting the Cause ef the Floods. — Sudden Melting of an unusual Fall of Snow at the Opening of Spring . : : ‘ Page 385 APPENDIX ; ; : : ; ; ; : ; 3 . 897 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE SECOND VOLUME. *,* The following Illustrations are from Photographs taken by Mr. Humpurny Lioyp Himn, Photographer to the Assinniboine and Saskatchewan Expedi- tion, or from Sketches by Mr. Joun Fremine, Assistant Surveyor and Draughtsman. CHROMOXYLOGRAPHS. Susan Wigwam Fort Garry An Ojibway Squaw at eee The Fox, Chief of the Plain Crees Indian Graves WOODCUTS. Freighter’s Boat Beach of Lake Winnipeg, near the Mouths of Red rien Exposure on Deer Island, near Grindstone Point . Grindstone Point Sugar Island Fairford, or Partridge ak Skin Tents, Cree; Birchbark Tents, eiihteay Snow Shoes Dog Carioles Pembina Sioux Dress and Meenas Sioux Knife Sheath Indian Hunters’ Tents in the rear of Fort Garry . Sioux Scalp from the Graves at Red River . ‘Cree Medicine Bag ~ to face page 27 ” I) . 105 oe eo) pi A . 124 mle 52 85 123 126 166 Vee LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Page Medicine Rattle es ae Tobacco Pipes of the Sneninge of Tales Memmi ‘ : ; . 139° Tobacco Pipes of the Ojibways of Rainy oe SCse tee Ses . Leo Sioux Pipe : : . 140 Chipewyan (1 and 2), Plain Os @), wa Blackfoot ® Pipes ; . 140 Babeen Pipes : : ; : : barrel ae: Cree Fire Bags. : : : : : : : : . 145 Bows and Arrows ; : : : ; . 144 Indian Graves covered with Split Sticks : : : : . 164 Profile of the Great Dog Mountain _.. i 5 : . 258 Orthoceras Simpsoni. A fragment of the Sheers of this species . 287 Fossils from Snake Island . ; : ioe com Productus from Red River . : 5 : : . 300 Ammonites Barnstoni, side view, showing ie deep runbiltens : . 312 As front view of the same specimen : : . 313 Diagram of one of the Septa of Ammonites Barnstoni . : : . dl4 Ammonites Billingsi . . : : : : A . 315 Curious spiral Fossil from the Two Creeks . : : : » 393 Anomia Flemingi : : : : : ; : . O04 Tnosceramus Canadensis, left valve : ; : : : . 396 as right valve. : : 5 ; : . 306 Leda Hindi : Sie ; : ‘ : ; : : a stave Scaphites Nodosus, side view j : : . 338 - front view. ; : . 339 Avicula Lingueeformis : : . 342 Avicula Nebrascana : : : : : : . 345 Nautilus Dekayi, front view : : ; : : : . 343 side view . : 5 : : 5 . o44 oP) MAPS AND PLANS. Map of the Country from Lake Superior to the Pacific Ocean, showing the Western Boundary of Canada and the Hastern Boundary of British Columbia, also the FERTILE Betr stretching from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains. : . to face page 223 Geological Map of a part of Rupert’s Land . ; ; ; . 239 Profile of the Kaministiquia Route. : ; ; . 267 . Pigeon River Route. : : é . 267 5 Qu’appelle Valley . ; : : . 267 Country across the line A Be on seule map .« . 267 THE ASSINNIBOINE & SASKATCHEWAN EXPLORING EXPEDITION oF 1858 CONTINUED VOL. I. oo THE ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPLORING EXPEDITION oF 1858. CHAPTER XXIII. LAKE WINNIPEG.—RED RIVER TO THE LITTLE SASKATCHEWAN. Mouth of Red River.—Aurora.— W eather Signs.—Channel at the Mouth of Red River.—Storm.—Character of the South Coast of Lake Winnipeg.— Fresh-water Shells.—New Land.— West Coast.—Confervee.—The Willow Tslands.—Clay Cliffs—Good Land.—Drunken River.—Aurora.—Rock Exposure.—Deer Island.—Section on Deer Island. Equivalent of the Chazy Formation.—Fishing Ground.—Miskena.—Grindstone Point.—Rey. Mr. Brooking.—Rocks at Grindstone Point.—The Little Grindstone Point. —East Coast of Lake Winnipege.—Punk Island.—Yellow Ochre.—Coast near Dog’s Head.—Limestone Cave Point.—Fissured Rocks.—Jack Fish River.—Fisher Bay.—The Cat Head.—Little Saskatchewan Bay.—East Coast of Lake Winnipeg.—Dimensions of Lake Winnipeg.—Elevation and Distance of the Lake Superior Watershed.—Elevation of the Mis- sissippi Watershed. Tue early period of the year during which the arrival of winter may be expected to close the navigation of the lakes and rivers of Rupert’s Land, makes every autumnal day valuable for continuing an exploration in canoes or batteaux. eee Vai). es The Assimih RESULTS OF CAPTAIN PALLISER’S EXPEDITION. 223 westward, still north of the 49th parallel, until he arrived at the camp of the United States Boundary Commissioners in longitude 119° 30’ west. Captain Palliser describes the Be drained by the Saskatchewan in the following words* “The extent of surface drained by ne Saskatchewan, and other tributaries to Lake Winnipeg, which we had an opportunity of examining, amounts in round numbers to 150,000 square miles. This region is bounded to the north by what is known as the ‘strong woods,’ or the southern limit of the great circum-arctic zone of forest, which occupies these latitudes in the northern hemi- sphere. ‘This line, which is mdicated in the map, sweeps to the north-west from the shore of Lake Winnipeg, and reaches its most northerly limit about 54° 30’ N., and longi- tude 119° W., from where it again passes to south-west, meeting the Rocky Mountains in latitude 51° N., longitude 115° W. Between this line of the ‘ strong woods’ and the northern limit of the true prairie country there is a belt of land varying in width, which at one period must have been covered by an extension of the northern forests, but which has been gradually cleared by successive fires. “Tt is now a partially wooded country, abounding in lakes and rich natural pasturage, in some parts rivaling the finest park scenery of our own country. Throughout this region of country the climate seems to preserve the same character, although it passes through very different latitudes, its form being doubtless determined by the curves of the isothermal line. Its superficial extent embraces about 65,000 square miles, of which more than one-third may be considered as at once available for the purposes of the agriculturist. Its elevation increases * Papers relative to the Exploration of British North America, Aug. 18th, 1860, page 21, 224 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. from 700 to 4000 feet as we approach the Rocky Moun- tains, consequently it 1s not equally adapted throughout to the cultivation of any one crop, nevertheless at Fort Edmonton, which has an altitude of 3000 feet, even wheat is sometimes cultivated with success. “The least valuable portion of the prairie country has an extent of about 80,000 square miles, and is that lying along the southern branch of the Saskatchewan, and southward from thence to the boundary line, while its northern limit is known in the Indian languages as ‘the edge of the woods,’ the original line of the woods before invaded by fire. “On the western side of the Rocky Mountains, in the country which we examined, there were but few spots at all fitted for the agriculturist, and these form isolated patches in valleys separated by mountain ranges. “ As the next result of our explorations, I shall briefly mention the different passes through the Rocky Mountains which we explored, alluding to the chief advantages and disadvantages of each. “The Kananaskis Pass and the British Kootanie Pass were examined by myself. Of these I consider the Kananaskis Pass the preferable one, both on account of its direct course through the mountains and its easier ascent. “The ascent to the height of land from the east is through a wide gently sloping valley, and the immediate watershed is formed by a narrow ridge, which, if pierced by a short tunnel, would reduce the summit level to about 4600 feet above the sea. The descent to the west, into which Kananaskis Pass opens, 1s comparatively easy. “The British Kootanie Pass also opens out mto the Kootanie River valley, but the altitude here to be over- ROUTE ACROSS THE CONTINENT. 225 come is much greater, amounting to 6000 feet. There are likewise two ridges to be passed, which fact would form a very strong objection to this pass. “The Vermilion Pass, which was traversed by Dr. Hector, presents on a whole the greatest natural facilities for crossing the mountains without the aid of engineering work, as the rise to the height of land is gradual from both sides, a feature which seems to be peculiar to this pass. It would thus be impossible to diminish its summit level (which is less than 5000 feet), as is proposed in the case of Kananaskis Pass, but on the other hand it would be the most suitable for the construction of an easy waggon road. “This, ike the other two passes I have mentioned, also strikes the Kootanie River close to its source; but last summer Dr. Hector crossed the mountains by another pass from the head of the north branch of the Saskatche- wan, directly to the Columbia River, in the vicinity of the boat encampment. * * * * * * “ Although I consider this fact established, viz., that a Ime for a route has been discovered from Red River Settlement to the west coast of the continent, and that line moreover entirely within British territory, yet I wish distinctly to be understood that I think it far from being the best that could be discovered. Time did not admit of a series of attempts in a more northerly direction. “ Dr. Hector’s explorations, when within sixty miles of his exit on Thompson’s River, were prematurely closed by the advance of winter and the absence of provisions, while forcing his way through timber so thick that he could not penetrate faster than from three to four miles a VOL, 1. Q 226 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. day, and for a more detailed account of which I refer you to his report accompanying this letter.” * Lieutenant Palmer, R.E., explored the country he tween Fort Hope on the Fraser and Fort Colville on the Columbia River.f His report is not favourable for a road, although the physical impediments are not such as to be insurmountable. Lieutenant Palmer states that “ westward from the Simil- kameen valley{, and nearlyto the coast, extends a mountain region, so rugged and bleak, and so inaccessible and de- void of roads of communication, that this valley is the first. point east of the Sumas to which attention need be cirected. “Tt and the Okanagan valley are the main thoroughfares to British Columbia from Washington territory, and indeed east of them, as far as Fort Shepherd, the country affords no known practicable means of ingress. , The main route from Washington territory passes up the valley of the Okanagan River from its junction with the Columbia and forks at the mouth of the Similkameen whence branch the two routes already described. * * * * * “ A creat question now presents itself as to the means of communication between this district and the interior por- tions of British Columbia. “Even if it be practicable at an enormous expense to construct a tolerable waggon road across Manson Moun- tain, or even should a better route be found by following round the valley of the Coquahalla, there still remains the * Papers relative to the Exploration of British North America, Aug. 1860, p. 17. + Papers relating to British Columbia, August, 1860. t The Pamilnncen rises a few miles north of the boundary-line, in long. 120° 40’; it flows into the Okanagan in long. 119° 30’, lat. 48° 56°, MEANS OF COMMUNICATION IN BRITISH COLUMBIA. 227 dividing ridge of the Cascades, and the route would any way be impracticable for at least seven months in the year. Through Lytton, therefore, or the Kayoosh district, by the valleys of the Thompson and Bonaparte River to Ni- colas Lake and Fort Kamloops, and thence to the border, all supplies must eventually pass, and hence the necessity of establishing good means of communication with these points from either the Fraser River or the sea.” “All the practicable means of access to British Co- lumbia, except from the sea, strike the Fraser north of Fort Hope.” “Tn connexion with this subject it remains but for me to remark, that, from my own observation, and from in- formation afforded me by Mr. M‘Donald, I know a frontier road north of the 49th parallel to be practicable from the Similkameen, eastward to the N. Saa-app Lake in the N. Whoyalpitkwu Valley; and further that Captain Palliser’s explorations have determined the possibility of extending such a road from that poimt to Fort Shepherd, though his report on the intervening tract cannot be pronounced as favourable as might be wished.” The communication through British territory between the Atlantic and Pacific has not been lost sight of by Governor Douglas. His Excellency says, in the Blue Book before referred to (No. 26, Part. ITI.), “'The great object of opening roads from the sea coast into the interior of the country, and from New Westminster to Burrard’s Inlet and Pitt River, continues to claim a large share of my attention. The labour involved by these works is enormous; but so essential are they as a means of settling and developing the resources of the country, that their importance can hardly be overrated ; and I therefore feel it incumbent on QqQ 2 228 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. me to strain every nerve in forwarding the progress of undertakings so manifestly conducive to the prosperity of the colony, and which at the same time cannot fail ere long to produce a large increase in the public revenue.” \ “We hope to complete the last section of a pack-road leading by the left bank of the Fraser, from Derby (Fort Langley) to Lytton, a distance of 170 miles, on or before the Ist day of February next. From Lytton a natural road now exists leading to Red River settlement, by the Coutannais Pass, through the Rocky Mountains, and from thence following the valley of the Saskatchewan, chiefly over an open prairie country of great beauty, and replete with objects of interest to the tourist and the sportsman ; a settler may then take his departure from Red River in spring with his cattle and stock, and reach British Co- lumbia by that road in course of the autumn following. This is no mere theory, the experiment having been re- peatedly made by parties of Red River people traveling to Colville, from whence there is a good road to Lytton ; so much so, indeed, that one of those persons assured me that the whole distance from Lytton to Red River, with the exception of the Coutannais Pass, which is thickly wooded, may be safely travelled with carts. If the Ca- nadian Government would undertake to open a road from Red River to the borders of Lake Superior, which really presents no very formidable difficulties, the connexion between British Columbia and Canada would be complete, and the whole distance might I think, be traveled on British soil.” The town of Lytton and the valley of Thompson River appear to be points of the greatest importance in British Columbia. Lieutenant Richard Mayne conducted an exploration of the districts bordering on the Thompson, Fraser, and Har- THOMPSON'S RIVER.-—BRITISH COLUMBIA. 229 rison Rivers.* Lytton is at the Forks of the Thompson and Fraser Rivers, and contains eight or ten stores and a Go- vernment House. The Thompson River is about 150 yards wide at its mouth and there is a horse ferry established across it. Fort Kamloops is an important Post situated on the Forks of the Thompson and North Rivers ; the Thomp- son 1s here 300 yards wide and the North River 320 yards. The head waters of the Thompson are about twenty-two miles east of these Forks and Dr. Hector advanced in 1859 from the east side of the Rocky Mountains within sixty miles of the source of the Thompson. He says that it was his wish “to follow the Columbia River down to its great bend at the boat encampment, and thence following up the valley of Canoe River endeavour to pass to the head waters of the Thompson River and so reach British Columbia.” Want of provisions, the approach of winter, and the extraordinary thickness of the forest pre- _ vented Dr. Hector from accomplishing this very interest- ing link between the trails east of the Rocky Mountains and the head waters of the Thompson River; from which point a pack-road already exists to the Pacific consider- ably to the north of the Boundary Line. The more or less speedy opening of a line of communi- cation from the Atlantic to the Pacific through British territory, will be very largely dependent upon the pro- gress of British Columbia. Enough is known respecting the prospects of that distant colony, to warrant the assumption that it will soon become a very wealthy and important British dependency. In the official documents recently published relative to the affairs of British Co- lumbiayf, a considerable amount of valuable information * Papers relative to British Columbia, Part III., Aug. 1860, p. 33. + Further papers relative to the affairs of British Columbia, Part III. Presented to both Houses of Parliament by command of Her Majesty, August, 1860. a3 230 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. is contained, bearing upon the present prosperous state of the colony, the distribution of gold, and the existence of large areas of fertile soil fitted for cultivation. From the return of the value of imports and customs receipts at New Westminster for the twelve months ending 31st December, 1859, it appears that the imports amounted to 177,219. 7s. 5d., and the customs to 18,464. The entire white population of British Columbia does not exceed 5000 men (Oct. 1859) with very few women and children. The value of the present export of gold (Oct. 1859) is estimated at 14,000/. a month or 168,000. per annum. The existence of gold in great abundance and over very wide areas in British Columbia, from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, and from the head waters of Fraser River to the Boundary Line, is well established ; and “means of communication” embrace all that is required to make this distant colony one of the most important appendages of the British crown. | The second query submitted to Capt. Palliser by the Colonial Office elicited a reply which appears to be open to two serious objections. “ What should be the dimensions and the boundary Ime of such colony, and whether it would be advisable to include the Saskatchewan District in it, so as to establish one great border line from the new colony of British Columbia up to the Red River Settlement, under a sway and jurisdiction distinct from the Hudson’s Bay Company’s authority?” Capt. Palliser states in relation to the boundaries of the new colony :— “Tf then the united territories of Red River, Swan River, and Saskatchewan, were adopted by Her Majesty’s Government, I would suggest the following boundaries:— “The southern boundary of the colony should be the PROPOSED BOUNDARY OF THE NEW COLONY. 231 A9th parallel of north latitude, commencing on east shore of the Lake of the Woods, to where it meets the crest of the Rocky Mountains in long. 115° W. The eastern boundary of the colony should be defined by a line com- mencing at the 49th parallel on the western shore of the Lake of the Woods, and following the western margin of that lake to the watercourse which unites the Lake of the Woods with Lake Winnipeg, from thence extending around the eastern shore of Lake Winnipeg, and following the watercourse of that lake to the 54th parallel of N. lat. i long. 98° W. The northern boundary of the colony might run from the above poimt of intersection along the parallel of 54° of N. lat. to the point where it intersects the crest of the Rocky Mountains in 118° of W. long. The whole would thus include a territory of 240,000 square miles.” The adoption of the eastern boundary described in the foregoing paragraph, would effectually isolate the colony from Canada, and interpose between the boundary of the two countries, a territory in the occupation of the Hudson’s Bay Company, subject to their jurisdiction, and com- prehending the narrow, but fertile valley of Rainy River, and the only practicable route known in British territory between Lake Superior and Red River. The boundary of Upper Canada is the height of land west of Lake Superior. The country drained by those rivers which flow into the St. Lawrence valley belongs to Canada; the country drained by those rivers which flow into Hudson’s Bay, constitutes Rupert’s Land, and is at present the hunting- ground of the Hudson’s Bay Company. Captain Palliser’s suggested boundary would leave the entire region between the height of land west of Lake Superior, and the western shore of the Lake of the Woods, nearly five degrees of Q 4 232 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. longitude, in the occupation of the Company. ‘The con- tinuation of the eastern boundary from the outlet of Lake of the Woods, 1s proposed to be carried down the Winni- peg and along the east shore of that lake to the 54th parallel, in long. 98° W. By thus limiting the colony in an easterly direction, the valuable pme, spruce, minerals, and water-power of the east coast of Lake Winnipeg and of the Winnipeg River, would be legally cut off from the new colony, whose chief want will be timber for building purposes, and water-power to manufacture it on the spot. The jurisdiction of the new colony should manifestly extend over those parts of the country which, from their natural resources, will first attract a certain class of settlers. The lumberers on Lake Winnipeg will one day become relatively as important a body as the lumberers now are, on the Ottawa and the tributaries, to the St. Lawrence in Canada. In order to secure to the new colony a route to the borders of Canada, and the valuable timber of the east coast of Lake Winnipeg and the affluents of the Winnipeg River, the eastern boundary line ought to be contermimous with that of Canada, as far as the north west corner of that province at the head waters of Neepigon and Fire- steel Rivers, in long. 90° 25’, lat. 49° 15’ (approx.) ; and from this point it should follow the height of land between the Winnipeg Basin and Hudson’s Bay, as far as the 54th parallel. The natural boundaries of the new colony might be very simply defined as, “the Basin of Lake Winnipeg north of the 49th parallel of latitude.” This determinatien would give the following limits :—on the south, the 49th parallel from British Columbia to the Lake of the Woods, thence to Canada by the boundary line surveyed according to the treaty of Ghent. The west boundary of Canada stretches from the dividing ridge ADVANTAGES OF THE BASIN OF LAKE WINNIPEG. 233 between South Lake and Gun Flint Lake, to the head waters of Neepigon and Fire-steel Rivers. This would form the eastern boundary of the new colony. From the head water of Fire-steel River, the north-east boundary might follow the dividing ridge between the Basin of Lake Winnipeg and Hudson’s Bay, as far as Jack River, down which it should run to Play Green Lake. From this pomt the northern boundary would be very con- veniently and naturally described as passing through, by the shortest course, the head waters of all the rivers flowing into Lake Winnipeg, the main Saskatchewan, and the North Branch of the Saskatchewan. It is of great importance in an Indian and fur-trading country to possess a natural boundary. Indians and voyageurs can always understand the flow of waters and the term “ dividing ridge,” but of parallels of latitude they know absolutely nothing. ‘The injunction not to hunt or trap beyond the dividing ridge would be understood by all, but an arbitrary boundary such as a parallel of lati- tude, might give rise to many disputes in the prosecution of the fur trade, which for some years to come will con- stitute the most important source of commerce and in- dustry north of the basin of Lake Winnipeg. THE NATURAL ADVANTAGES OF THE BASIN OF LAKE WIN- NIPEG FOR A ROUTE ACROSS THE CONTINENT. It is impossible to examine a correct map of the North American continent without being impressed with the re- markable influence which the Great American Desert must exercise upon the future of the United States and British North America. The general character of this desert south of the 49th parallel is described elsewhere (Ch. XLI. p. 853; Appendix Vol. II. No. VIL), and the 234 #ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. important fact has been noticed, that any railroad con- structed within the limits of the United States must pass, for a distance of twelve hundred miles west of the Mis- sissippi, through uncultivable land, or, in other words, a comparative desert. Along the 32nd parallel the breadth of this desert is least, and the detached areas of fertile soil greatest In quantity, but the aggregate number of square miles of cultivable land amounts only to 2300 in a dis- tance of 1210 miles (Appendix No. VIL). ‘The northern limit of the Great American Desert is an imaginary line drawn from the Touchwood Hills to the Moose Woods on the South Branch, then south of Battle River as far as long. 112°, when turning south it sweeps along the flanks of the Rocky Mountains in long. 115°. North of this limit of the Great American Desert there is a broad strip of fertile country, rich mm water, woods, and pasturage, drained by the North Saskatchewan and some of its affluents, and being a continuation of the fertile prairies of Red River, the eastern water shed of the Assinniboine and Red Deer River, with the outlying patches called the Touchwood Hills, File Hill, &e. IT IS A PHYSICAL REALITY OF THE HIGHEST IMPORTANCE TO THE INTERESTS OF British Nortu AMERICA THAT THIS CON- TINUOUS BELT CAN BE SETTLED AND CULTIVATED FROM A FEW MILES WEST OF THE LAke of THE WOODS TO THE PASSES OF THE Rocky MounTAINS, AND ANY LINE OF COMMUNICATION, WHETHER BY WAGGON ROAD OR RAILROAD, PASSING THROUGH IT, WILL EVENTUALLY ENJOY THE GREAT ADVANTAGE OF BEING FED BY AN AGRICULTURAL POPULATION FROM ONE EXTREMITY TO THE OTHER. No other part of the American Continent possesses an approach even to this singularly favourable disposition of soil and climate, which last feature, notwithstanding its rigour during the winter season, confers, on account of its THE NATURAL RESOURCES OF THE FERTILE BELT. 235 humidity, inestimable value on British America south of the 54th parallel. The natural resources lying within the limits of the Fertile Belt, or on its eastern borders, are themselves of great value as local elements of future wealth and pros- perity ; but in view of a communication across the con- tinent they acquire paramount importance. Timber available for fuel and building purposes ; lig- nite coal, though not equal to true coal, nevertheless suit- able for many of the different ~objects to which true coal is applied; iron-ore widely distributed, of great purity and in considerable abundance; salt in quantity sufficient for a dense population. All these crude ele- ments of wealth lie within the limits or on the borders of a region of great fertility, and draimed by a river of the first class, navigable by steamer during several months of the year for five hundred miles of its course, and by batteaux for nearly double that distance. The position which the colony occupying the basin of Lake Winnipeg may assume at the close of the next decade, few will be prepared to define. Bounded on the west by British Columbia, whose gold-wealth will ensure her a marvellously rapid progress, and on the east by the powerful, energetic, and loyal colony of Canada, which now, in conjunction with the sister provinces, con- tains a population exceeding by ONE MILLION that of the thirteen United States during the revolutionary war, is it likely that British enterprise and patriotism will permit the intervening country to remain a wilderness, or pass into the hands of a foreign government ? It is to be earnestly hoped that the attention of far- seeing, thoughtful, and loyal men will be directed to the present relations of the new colony, its possible future, and the opportunity it presents to plant British institutions and 236 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. civilization across the North American Continent; thus linking the Atlantic and Pacific oceans together with a chain of British dependencies, distinguished alike by a “SPIRIT OF LOYALTY, OF ORDER, AND OF OBEDIENCE TO THE LAW. * The occupation and government of the basin of Lake Winnipeg has already become a serious question, and even before the rising generation succeed to the responsi- bilities of those who now rule the destinies of this great empire, they may have occasion to lament a lost opportu- nity of inestimable worth, or rejoice in the extension of British dominion over loyal populations, extending in an unbroken series from the eastern to the western hemisphere. * “Ver Majesty has observed with deep satisfaction the spirit of loyalty, of order, and obedience to the law, which prevails among her subjects, both in the United Kingdom and in her dominions beyond the sea; and her Majesty has witnessed with heartfelt pleasure the warm and affectionate reception given to his Royal Highness the Prince of Wales by her North American subjects.”—Her Majesty’s Speech, Aug. 28th, 1860. - GEOLOGY OF THE BASIN OF LAKE WINNIPEG ae ad Pinter 5 Ay) L i : a Come beg Sp gp Set Behe sheep see Pas PAR ag: Bhs tase i) ‘ ip 4 3) ¢ > ey hile seas ? as é, HE er SG ee Sp an ween Ceo oben arate Le bugs 1. Rhee es! wail nt el birtiete 4 00z OST ooT os PM pH 49 pervubug I SCALE nor ae Wmmse7) JO BG ISOM op upnioAag =) O98L “VW ANI AH AG GNVT S.Laadna 40 1LYUVd V 40 Z dVW TWOIDO TOD Pun i eae Og 239 CHAP. XXXVI. SURFACE GEOLOGY. GEOGRAPHICAL BounDARIES. — The Basin of Lake Winnipeg. — Limits. — Hlevation of its Boundaries.—Outlet.—Area.—Character of its Rim,.——- SurFace Freatures.—Area of Low Lake Region.—Terraces of Pembina Mountain.—Hsearpment of the Riding, Duck, &c. &c. Mountains.—Prairie Plateau of Rupert’s Land. — Plains of the North-West. — Table of Kle- vations. — Detached Hills. —Country east of Lake Winnipeg.—Lakes, — Direction of Elevating Forces.—Steps to the Height of Land. GROOVED, SCRATCHED, AND PotisHED Rocks. — On Baril Portage. — On Winnipeg River.—On Limestones of Lake Manitobah. Drirt.—Over the Country between Lake Superior and Winnipeg.—Lacustrine Deposits. —Drift on the Souris.—On the South Branch.—Forced Arrangement of. —In Blue Clay at Toronto.—Description of this Arrangement.—Sorting of Materials.—Agency of Water and Ice.—Glacial Ice.—Tiers of Boulders on the South Branch.—Layers of Stratified Mud. ERratics.— Distri- bution of.—Effects of Ice on Lake Winnipeg.—In Lake Manitobah.—On the Red River Prairies. BeacHes AND TERRACES. — Great Dog _ Portage.—Section of.—Beaches on Lake Superior.—On Prairie Portage. —The Big Ridge-—White Mud River Ridge.—Dauphin Lake Ridge.— Prairie Ridges.—Pembina Mountain.—Ridge, character of.—Riding and Duck Mountain Ridges.—Conical Hills. — Bear Hill.— Second Tier of Conical Hills.——Sanp Hitis anp Dunes.—Ranges.——CircuLar Dz- PRESSIONS.—Character of. ——DxEnvpation.—In the Basin of Lake Win- nipeg. — Parallelism of bold Limits of Denudation.— Grand Coteau de Missouri.—Niagara Limestone Escarpment of New York and Canada.— Riding and Duck Mountains, &e.— Probable common Origin of.— Dislo- cations in the Basin of Lake Winnipeg. GEOGRAPHICAL BOUNDARIES. Tue Basin of Lake Winnipeg, including under this general term the country dramed by the rivers flowing into it, extends from the 90th to the 118th meridian. 240 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. Its most easterly pomt being the lake and swamps from which the Savanne River takes its rise, in lon- gitude 90° 14’, latitude 48° 53’, and the most westerly limit from which it draws contributions is probably the Glacier, near Howse Pass, in longitude 117° 35’, latitude ol 825" The southern extension of its boundary is at Lake Traverse in Dakotah territory, longitude 96° 45’, latitude 45° 58’.- It stretches north as ue as Frog Poutanes longitude 103° 30’, latitude 55° 26’. This basin consequently extends over twenty-eight degrees of longitude and ten degrees of latitude. The elevation of its eastern boundary is 1485 feet above the ocean, and the height of land near the sources. of the tributary, which rises farthest to the west, is 6347 feet above the same level.) Its northern boundary is separated from the valley of the Missinnippi by a low portage, over which waters flow during floods||; while towards the south Lake Traverse, which also sends water into the Mississippi during spring freshets, is only 820 feet above the sea.4 The outlet of Lake Winnipeg is through the contracted and rocky channel of Nelson River, which flows into Hudson’s Bay. The mean breadth of this great mland basin is about 380 English miles, and its mean length 920 miles, hence its area is approximately 360,000 square miles. Its shape assimilates to that of a truncated section of a circle, lying * See Captain Palliser’s Map in the Blue Book, 1860. + Military Map of Nebraska and Dakotah, by Lieutenant G. K. Warren, U.S. Top. Eng. + Sir John Richardson, Arctic Searching Expedition. _ § Dr. Hector, Blue Book. Captain Palliser’s Explorations. || Sir John Richardson. 4] Major Long. BOUNDARIES OF THE LAKE WINNIPEG BASIN. 241 in a position the reverse of that produced by the meri- dians and parallels distinguishing its boundary. The eastern rim of the basin of Lake Winnipeg is formed by part of the Laurentide range of mountains, which consist of gneiss * interstratified in some localities with bands of crystalline limestone, and much embossed by domes of intrusive granite, syenite, and occasionally with elevations of trap. ‘The highest summit of the Laurentide Mountains, as far as known in this part of their develop- ment, does not exceed 1950 feet above the sea, or 1350 feet above Lake Superior. Striking off in a south-westerly direction from the Savanne Lake, the Height of Land extends to Lake Traverse and is composed of drift hills covering Lauren- tian, Silurian, and Devonian rocks, with low granitic ranges and exposures of trap. From the Dividing Ridge, at the source of the Pigeon River, south-westerly to Vermilion Lake, the Height of Land Ridge is called by the Indians Mis-sabe Wa-chu ; in its continuation to the low water-shed between Rainy River and the Mississippi it has the name of [sh-ko-na-bi Wa-chu. Continued south- westerly from the Falls of Pokegama, this ridge would pass south of Leech Lake and strike the Red River of the north near the Great Bend, at which point Dr. Owen found Silurian rocks in 1848.+ From this pomt on Red River the rim of the basin assumes a north-westerly direction as far as the Elbow of the South Branch of the Saskatchewan, along the de- nuded flanks of the Grand Coteau de Missouri. From the Elbow it turns south-west as far as Chief’s Mountain Lake, under the 114th meridian{, latitude 49°, where it meets * Under the general term “ gneiss,” micaceous, hornblendic, and chloritic schists are included. + Geological Survey of Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota. t Map of the Territory of the United States, by Lieutenant G. K. VOL. II. R 242 $ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. with the flanks of the Rocky Mountains, trending first north and then north-westerly. The North Branch and the main Saskatchewan indicate approximately its low northern boundary. SURFACE FEATURES. Lake Winnipeg, at an altitude of 628 feet above the sea, occupies the lowest depression of this great central basin, covering, with its associated Lakes Mani- tobah, Winnepego-sis, Dauphin, and St. Martin, an area slightly exceeding 13,000 square miles, or nearly half as great an extent of the earth’s surface as is occupied by Treland. The country possessing a mean elevation of one hundred feet above Lake Winnipeg is very closely represented by the outline of Pembina Mountain, forming part of the - eastern limit of the Cretaceous Series in the north-west of America, as represented on the geological map. The area occupied by this low country, which includes a large part of the valley of Red River, the Assinniboine, and the main Saskatchewan, may be estimated at 70,000 square miles, of which nine-tenths are lake, marsh, or surface rock of Silurian or Devonian age, and generally so thinly covered with soil as to be unfit for cultivation, except in small isolated areas. Succeeding this low region there are the narrow ter- races of the Pembina Mountain, which rise in abrupt steps, except in the valleys of the Assinniboine, Valley River, Swan River, and Red Deer’s River, to the level of a higher plateau, whose eastern limit is formed by the Warren, Top. Eng., ordered by the Honourable Jefferson Davis, Secretary of War, to accompany the Reports of the Explorations for a Railroad Route to the Pacific. THE PRAIRIE PLATEAU OF RUPERT’S LAND. 243 precipitous escarpments of the Riding, Duck, and Por- cupine Mountains, with the detached outliers, Turtle, Thunder, and Pasquia Mountains. This is the great PRAIRIE PLATEAU of Rupert’s Land; it is bounded towards the south-west and west, by the Grand Coteau de Mis- souri, which forms the north-eastern limit of the PLains* of the north-west. The area of the Prairie Plateau, in the basin of Lake Winnipeg, is about 120,000 square miles ; it possesses a mean elevation of 1100 feet above the sea, and is approximately represented on the geolo- gical map by the Cretaceous Series, coloured green, north- east of the Grand Coteau. The following table shows the relation of these successive levels :— Mean Elevation Approximate Area above the Ocean. in Square Miles. Low Country (1st Plateau) ‘ 7 100 : . 70,000 Terraces of Pembina Mountain . . 900—1100 . 1,500 Great Prairie Plateau (2nd Plateau) . 1100 . » 120,000 Great Plain Plateau (8rd Plateau) . 1600 | eemee es The Riding and Duck Mountains, with their southern and northern prolongations, probably once formed part of an unbroken level to the Grand Coteau; the in- tervening depression having been the result of denu- dation. The isolated ranges of hills, such as the Touch- wood Hills, the File Hill, the Pheasant Hill, the Birch Hills, the Lumpy Hill, &c, are parts of this former elevated table-land, and would assume the character of islands in a sea washing the base of the Grand Coteau de Missouri. On the east side of Lake Winnipeg the primary un- fossiliferous rocks along the canoe routes present a broken and extremely irregular surface to the mouth of Rainy River, where the fossiliferous formations are touched. From Rainy Lake to Superior the routes pass through a | * The difference between “ Prairies” and “ Plains” is stated in Chap. XVI. R 2 244 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. water communication, possessing many singular geogra- phical outlines, arising from the geological features of the country. Both Lake Superior and Lake Winnipeg belong to the same geological basin, and are excavated in its rim, the low Laurentide Mountains separating the great northern basin of fossiliferous rocks from it. The canoe routes between Lake Superior and Lake Winnipeg form, therefore, two chords on the edge of the oneissoid and granitic boundary dividing these geological basins, and while the general trend of this part of the Laurentide Mountains is geographically north-west, the direction of the undulations, by which it is intersected, is generally north-east and south-west, or at right angles to the former. This disposition is best developed east of Ramy Lake, and on the Pigeon River route, where the agency of the elevating force appears to have acted with greater constancy and uniformity than on the more northern canoe route. The outbursts on the southern route, as well as on the south shore of Lake Superior, are also considerably higher, and the lakes and lake straits more symmetrically arranged. An inspection of the geographical map will show that the longest axis of nearly all the smaller lakes in the region under review is from N.E. to 8.W. A range of greenstone ridges, forming an anticlinal axis, begins at the Great Bend of the St. Louis River, and runs in a direction N. 30° E. towards the sources of Arrow River and Mountain Lake. The systems of valleys and ridges, resulting from the direction in which the elevating forces have acted in the region about the western ex- tremity of Lake Superior, have been ably discussed by Dr. Norwood.* * Owen’s Report of a Geological Survey of Wisconsin, &e. ICE FURROWS ON THE LAURENTIDES. 245 GROOVED, SCRATCHED, AND POLISHED ROCKS. Instances of the action of ice in abrading and _ polish- ing extensive surfaces of rock are very numerous on the Laurentides between Lake Superior and Lake Winnipeg. The first wide expanse observed on the west side of the water-shed is at Baril Portage, 143 miles from Lake Superior, and 1500 feet above the sea. Where an arm of Mille Lacs approaches this portage, gneissoid hills and islands about 100 feet high show a well defined stratification dipping north, at an angle of about 15°, and on that side smooth, and sometimes roughly polished; on the south side they are precipitous and abrupt. The same character is observed on the portage itself; the north- eastern exposures of the rocks there are smooth and striated, the southern rugged and often precipitous. On Sturgeon Lake 208 miles from Lake Superior and 1156 feet above the sea, the north-eastern extremities of hill ranges slope to the water’s edge, and when bare are always found to be evenly smoothed and ground down. The aspect of the south and south-western exposures is that of precipitous escarpments. On a small island about twenty-five miles north of Garden Island, Lake of the Woods, there is a remarkable exposure of greenstone conglomerate, nearly on a level with the water of the lake. The surface-of the rock is almost ° horizontal, beautifully polished, and strongly marked with glacial furrows and scratches. The direction of the furrows is N. 25° E., they are all parallel to one another, some of them half an inch in depth, and nearly double that measure in width. They pursue a uniform direction for many yards until concealed by the bushes which fringe the bare rock some forty or fifty feet from the water’s edge. R 3 246 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. The conglomerate presents the appearance of an immense table of mosaic work. The pebbles and small boulders enclosed in the matrix have been apparently water worn, some of them, however, showed no lateral abrasion, pre- serving their angles sharp, and well defined. They were all ground down to one uniform polished surface. The imbedded boulders and pebbles varied from half an inch to eighteen inches in diameter, and appeared generally to lie with their flat side facing the south-west. The colour of the matrix was a pale green, and of the im- bedded pebbles grey, with a tint of green. A vertical section of the rock exhibited the pebbles and boulders, as if resting upon the extremity of the longest axis, with a slight inclination to the east. From the summit of an abraded granite hill about 250 feet high, on the Winnipeg west of “the Dalles,” a very extensive view of the surrounding country is obtained. The broad river, with its numerous deep bays, may be seen stretching far to the north, and all around smooth dome-shaped hills show their bare and scantily wooded summits in every direction. ‘The general surface is either bare and so smooth and polished as to make walking dan- gerous, or else thickly covered with cariboo moss and tripe de roche. | This general description apples to a vast area drained by the Winnipeg, and on the smoothed and polished rocks olacial grooves may be_easily traced for long distances ; sometimes also boulders are found resting upon the polished surfaces. On one occasion an attempt to ascend a round dome-shaped mound forming the summit of a granite hill was frustrated by its beautifully polished sur- face preventing a footing from being obtained. The action of atmospheric agents had only succeeded in dimming its beauty, but had not destroyed its smoothness. DRIFT ON THE LAURENTIDES. 247 Grooves and scratches occur on the limestones of Lakes Winnipeg and Manitobah, where the surface has been preserved from atmospheric agencies, but whether they are of recent origin or connected with the drift, is not certain. DRIFT. The distribution of drift throughout the region lying between Lake Superior and Winnipeg is limited to a few detached areas. ‘The most important of these east of the Height of Land is at the Great Dog Portage, where it occurs in the form of beaches and terraces, which will be described further on. The terraced drift in the valley of the Kaministiquia, below the Kakabeka Falls, is evidently of lacustrine origin. The Height of Land is covered with true boulder drift, having an elevation of about 1500 feet above the present level of the ocean; but on the Height of Land at the sources of the Pigeon River, boulder drift occurs at a considerably higher level. small areas of drift may be found at the different portages, and on the islands in Mille Lacs, but in no instance east of Rainy River, were they seen of stflicient extent as to warrant especial notice. In the valley of Raimy River buff-coloured unstratified clay, containing magnesian limestone boulders, and superimposed by strati- fied clay, occupies both banks for some distance along the river. On the Winnipeg, patches of drift begin at the Islington Mission, and, though far apart from one another, increase in area as the country sinks, until, at the Manitou Rapids, drift clay forms the banks of the river and con- tinues to its mouth. In the lower part of the Valley of Red River un- stratified clay, with boulders from Laurentian rocks and limestone, rises from the water’s edge to within four feet of the surface, after which its colour changes, it R 4 248 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. shows stratification, and is evidently lacustrine. The unstratified clay contains a large per centage of magnesia derived from the underlying rocks. At Lane’s Post on the Assinniboine, the quaternary lacustrine deposit, eight feet below the surface, pre- sents the appearance of irregularly stratified bands of extremely fine material deposited in quiet waters. Upon close examination the bands are found to consist of a series, In which hight ash-coloured and dark brown layers alternate, about to =4 of an inch in thickness. In the leght-coloured bands minute crystals of sulphate of magnesia and common salt are common. The clay is characterized by its extreme fineness, the marked absence of silicious particles in the form of sand, and the presence of carbonates of ime and magnesia in variable quantities. In certain localities carbonate of lime exists in proportions sufficient to constitute a marl. The following section is exposed at Lane’s Post : — Vegetable prairie mould {0 07" >.) a eee Unstratified alluvial clay . : 5 Stratified dark-coloured clay with fa Aan Batrnk ed aes 12 Total , : : : 5 ; : 18 The subsoil on Red River, near the middle settlement, four feet below the surface, is much darker coloured, not so distinctly stratified, and contains abundance of mica in very fine brilliant plates. ‘The particles of the subsoil on either river are extremely minute, and difficult to separate by washing. The drift on the Blue Hills of the Souris is chiefly of local origin, and consists almost exclusively of the shales which form the outcrop of the Cretaceous-rocks whose limit is defined by the Pembina Mountain. Its age is DRIFT ON THE PRAIRIES. 249 consequently posterior to that of the true Boulder drift, which is generally distributed over the high prairies to the west, and will be described further on in connection with beaches and conical hills. On parts of the Little Souris River the drift is very shallow, indeed it is doubtful whether true Boulder drift is present, the character of the surface material leading to the supposition that it is derived almost exclusively from the subjacent rocks. The drift on the South Branch of the Saskatchewan, below the Moose Woods, is distinguished by a remarkable peculiarity in the arrangement of the slabs of limestone and boulders of the unfossiliferous rocks distributed through the clay, which do not occupy the position they would assume if dropped from floatmg ice into soft mud. livery fact relating to the drift possesses some degree of interest, and may assist in the elucidation of that stupendous phenomenon and its subsequent changes, as well as tend to remove difficulties with which the whole phenomena of the drift are still invested.* In the blue clay at Toronto, the capital of Western Canada, an arrangement similar to that which exists among the coarser materials of the drift on the South Branch is remarkably well preserved. During the construction of the esplanade at Toronto, the plan pursued of removing the blue clay was well adapted * The forced arrangement of blocks of limestone, slabs of shale and un- fossiliferous boulders in the blue clay of Toronto, formed the subject of a paper which I read before the Canadian Institute some years ago. As the opportunities for making observations upon this peculiar arrangement were very favourable at that time, I shall here introduce an abstract of the paper, with a view to explain the manner in which slabs and boulders are found arranged in the Drift on the South Branch. (See Report on the Assin- niboine and Saskatchewan Exploring Expedition, p. 120.) 250 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. to show a perfect sectional view of its components, with- out the risk of changing in the least degree their relative positions. The clay was cut away until a perpendicular wall was left, varying from ten to twenty feet in height, according to the locality. Wedges were then inserted at the top of the artificial cliff, about two feet from its edge, and driven into the clay until a mass, frequently two feet broad, fifteen or twenty feet long, and twelve or eighteen feet deep, separated and fell. The fresh surface thus ex- posed was necessarily quite natural in every respect, not having been touched by the tool of the workman or changed by exposure to the weather, and during the years 1855 and 1856, a large area of sectional surface was laid open to view. Two varieties of blue clay exist in the neighbourhood of Toronto, forming deposits quite distinct from one another. The deposit in question overlies rocks of Silurian age, which are exposed in many localities on the lake shore and on the banks of the rivers near the city; it rests upon a blue argillaceous shale, easily recognized as constituting in fragments of different sizes, a large proporton of the substance of the blue clay. The thickness of this deposit of blue clay varies from ten to twenty-five feet ; its upper surface is irregular and undulating, and upon it reposes, in some places, stratified sand and yellow clay, in others, unstratified yellow clay. Resting on the sand or yellow clay, another kind of blue clay occurs, differmg, however, essentially from the blue clay which lies at the base of the whole. The lower or inferior blue clay contains quartz sand and small rolled pebbles of granitic rocks, a considerable proportion of blue shale containing fossils belonging to the Silurian shales upon which it rests, and frequently large fragments DRIFT IN CANADA. 251 of the last-named rock, together with more or less rolled or worn masses of granite, gneiss, &c. The fragments from the Silurian shales often possess sharp and well-defined edges, showing that they have not been water worn or removed far from the rock from which they originated. ‘They are found not only a few inches from the surface of the parent rock, but in nume- rous instances from fifteen to twenty feet above it, im- bedded in a peculiar manner in the blue clay. Some of the larger fragments are scratched and grooved. A cursory inspection of the artificial cliffs, as they ex- isted during the construction of the esplanade, was sufficient to show that a considerable number of the pebbles and imbedded masses of rock did not occupy the position they would assume if they had not been sub- jected to some other force besides that of gravity or water in motion. The inclination of the subjacent rock is so slight (thirty feet in the mile) that for all purposes of the present inquiry it may be considered horizontal ; and it may be further remarked, that there is no reason to suppose that any material change in position has oc- curred since or during the accumulation of the blue clay. A large number of the fragments of rock seen in the blue clay are symmetrically inclined at an angle of 60°, 70°, and 80° to the horizon, and frequently lean towards the east and north-east. What force has thus symmetrically arranged these frag- ments of shale, &c.? That they now preserve the po- sition into which they were forced by pressure, or that they were brought from a distance and left in that position, is sufficiently evident, as we cannot entertain the opinion that the rock on which the boulder drift rests has materi- ally changed its inclination since or during the Drift epoch. 252 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. There can be no doubt that a very large portion of the drift of Canada has been rearranged since it was first de- posited. The inferior layer of blue clay is, however, essentially different from the upper layer which is fre- quently separated from it by a few feet of sand, and in some instances may even directly overlie it and consist of a rearrangement of its materials. The superior blue clay, together with the sand and yellow clay, frequently give evidence of stratification, and thus explain at once the nature of the force to which they have been subjected. The position of the rock fragments in the mferior blue clay, proves that it cannot have been exposed to the action of water, otherwise they would not preserve the forced arrangement which distinguishes them. Frag- ments of shale, if submitted to gravity alone, would not have assumed the position in which they were found, had they dropped through water in motion or water at rest, into soft mud. It is well known that shingle, sand, sravel, and clay, either separately er combined, when thrown down an incline, as in the construction of a rail- way embankment or as in a land slip, will assume a po- sition upon the surface of the embankment, which, if composed of sand, is generally inclined about 45°; if of harder or coarser materials, at a higher angle. If the embankment or incline be formed under water, like the deltas at the mouths of rivers, this inclination is much less, and is dependent upon the specific gravity of the materials, but under no circumstances is it so high as 45°. If the existence of a current of water sufficiently powerful to move masses of shale and boulders of the unfossili- ferous rocks, it cannot be supposed that they would be found deposited upon the slope of a bank at so high an angle as the shale and boulders in the blue ACTION OF CURRENTS ON DRIFT. 253 elay of Toronto, or the drift on the South Branch of the Saskatchewan, neither is it in the least degree prob- able that the current which could transport such heavy materials would admit of a mixture of clay, sand, shale, and boulders. The materials would be sorted by the current and deposited in the order of their specific gravity. The sorting of materials is one of the most positive proofs of the action of currents; and where no trace of sorting can be discovered, when fine sand, coarse sand, pebbles, and boulders are present, we may reasonably infer that no current assisted in distributing them. Among the foreign materials entering into the com- position of the blue clay, we find granitic masses which have been brought from the outskirts of the fossiliferous rocks in Canada, a distance of at least 100 miles from their present position, and throughout the blue clay we discover also the magnetic oxide of iron. The materials of local origin exist in great abundance in the form of fragments and masses of shale, limestone, and clay derived from the underlying shales, &c. The nature of the agent which transported the foreign ma- terials from so great a distance is almost universally ac- knowledged to have been water and floating ice. The finer materials may have been conveyed by water, the coarser drift and erratics would requtire floating or moving ice. There can be little doubt that both water and float- ing ice (icebergs and floes) have been instrumental in bearing from northern fossiliferous and unfossiliferous rocks a considerable proportion of the numberless erratics strewn over the surface of a large part of this continent, as well as much of the clayey deposits so plentifully dis- tributed north of the 40th parallel. But the symmetrical arrangement of some of the slabs, pebbles, and boulders 254 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. in the blue clay at Toronto, in the clay cliffs of the South Branch of the Saskatchewan, and in other localities where the same disposition may be witnessed, points also to the action of glacial or stranded ice. The phenomena may be explained by coast ice, or the dirt bands of glacial ice, but the entire absence of a sorting of fine and coarse materials, seems to destroy the hypothesis which intro- duces the agency of currents of water, as the forced but symmetrical arrangement does that of floating ice. The wide-spread phenomena exhibiting the greater or less action of ice, such as grooved, polished, and embossed rocks, the excavation of the deep lakes of the St. Law- rence basin, the forced arrangement of drift, the plough- ing up of large areas, and the extraordinary amount of the denudation at different levels without the evidence of beaches, all point to the action of glacial ice previous to the operations of floating ice in the grand phenomena of the Drift. The long lines of boulders exposed in two parallel horizontal rows, about twenty feet apart, im the drift of the South Branch, are the records of former shallow lakes or seas in that region. They may represent a coast line, but more probably low ridges formed under water, upon which the boulders were stranded. In the shallow lakes of the Winnipeg basin, the boulders brought year by year by ice from the neighbourmg shore accumulate upon long, narrow spits, and ultimately form breakwaters or islands. The same process may have occurred with the boulders on the South Branch. The fine layers of stratified mud, easily split into thin leaves, which he just above them, show conclusively that they were deposited in quiet water; their horizontality proves that they occu- pied an ancient coast, floor or ridge below the compara- DISTRIBUTION OF DRIFT ON THE SOUTH BRANCH. 255 tively tranquil water of a shallow lake. The vast ac- cumulations of sand and clay above them establish the antiquity of the arrangement, and the occurrence of two such layers parallel to one another, and separated by a considerable accumulation of clay and sand, leads to the inference that the conditions which established the existence of one layer also prevailed during the arrange- ‘ment of the other. These boulders may be distributed over the level floor of a former lake or sea, and cover a vast area; if this be the case it only proves that the agents which brought them operated a second time, after a long intervening period, and with similar results. The fine mud has been submitted to careful microscopical investigation, without establishing the presence of dia- tomacese, or any organic forms from which conclusions might be drawn respecting its origin. ERRATICS. The distribution of boulders or erratics in the area explored, may be traced as in Canada to at least two epochs; the Drift and Boulder period, during which by far the larger number were torn from the parent rock and carried by ice to their present resting-places, and the Recent period, including the rearrangement of ancient drift and the distribution of fresh supplies by the action of ice.* The largest boulder was seen in the valley of the Qu’appelle. The circumference of this enormous erratic 1s seventy-eight feet, and it exposes a * Where erratics are distributed in large quantities, the locality is indi- cated on the map accompanying the Reports ou the Assinniboine and Saskat- chewan Exploring Expedition. 256 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. portion above ground at least fourteen feet im altitude. The next largest, one of limestone, was seen on the prairies below the Moose Woods ; it is about sixteen feet high, and at least sixty in circumference, is very jagged, and consists of immense slabs, whose edges project two and three feet.* Near it are many others of the same kind, but of smaller dimensions. Near Little Cut Arm Creek, an affluent of the Qu’appelle, large unfossiliferous boulders are very numerous. North of the Assinniboine, near the Big Ridge, boulders are also abundant, and when magnified by refraction look like tents on the level prairies. , The ice on Lake Winnipeg carries off, every spring, fragments of rock belonging to the Laurentian Series which form its eastern shores. Many of these are dis- tributed over the shallows and on the beaches of the western side of the lake; these phenomena resemble in miniature the stupendous operations described by travelers as continually occurrmg on the shores of the Arctic Ocean. In Lake Manitobah long lines of boulders are accumu- lating in shallows and forming extensive reefs; the same operation is going on in all the lakes of this region, and is instrumental in diminishing the area of the lake in one direction, which is probably compensated by a wearing away of the coast in other places. SéVeral of these modern accumulations formed by a re-arrangement of the boulders of the older drift are noticed in preceding chap- ters. Taken as a whole, and in connection with the destruction of the coasts, they afford a striking illustration * This erratic was probably one of the series traced by Dr. Hector, from ‘the Thickwood Hills, in a southerly direction towards the Moose Hills on the South Branch.”— Papers relative to the Exploration of British North America, 1859. ANCIENT BEACHES ON THE GREAT DOG. 257 of the changes now taking place in the relations of land and water throughout the Lake Region. The boulders and slabs of limestone on the low prairies of Red River and the Assinniboine resting upon lacustrine deposits, were probably brought by ice at a period pos- terior to the Boulder Drift. They are illustrations of the operations of ice at higher lake levels, similar to those occurring at the present time. BEACHES AND TERRACES. The most remarkable beach and terrace between Lake Superior and Lake Winnipeg, showing an ancient coast line, is undoubtedly that which separates Great Dog from Little Dog Lake on the Kaministiquia canoe route. The Great Dog Portage, fifty-five miles from Lake Superior by the canoe route, rises 490 feet above the level of the Little Dog Lake, and the greatest elevation of the ridge cannot be less than 500 feet above it. The difference between the levels of Little and Great Dog Lakes is 347-81 feet, and the length of the portage between them, one mile and fifty-three chains. It is stated in Chapter II. that the base of the Great Dog Mountain consists of a gneissoid rock supporting numerous boulders and fragments of the same material. A level plateau of clay then occurs for about a quarter of a mile, at an altitude of 283 feet above Little Dog Lake, from which rises, at a very acute angle, an immense bank or ridge of stratified sand, holding small water-worn pebbles. The bank of sand continues to the summit of the portage, or 185 feet above the clay plateau. The portage path does not pass over the highest part of the sand ridge; east of the path it is probable that its summit is 500 feet above the Little Dog Lake. VOL. II. S 258 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. Holept in pepe Margin of Beaches. ft. ft. 16355 1000 | Beginning of Ist plateau. 215-00 1450 | Termination of do. 251:°74 1650 | Beginning of 2nd _ do. 283°78 | 2550 | End of 2nd plateau, and commencement of sand bank. 468°19 3300 | Commencement of 3rd plateau. 472°60 5920 | End of 3rd plateau. 490:00 | 6180 | Summit of level and commencement of 4th plateau. 474-00 | 7400 | End of 4th plateau, and commencement of descent to edge of cliff 395:00 | 8640 | End of descent. 348:00 | 8712 | Bottom of cliff, and level of Great Dog Lake. i Littte Dog LAKE, i} Profile of the Great Dog Mountain.* Here then we have a terrace 490 feet above Little Dog Lake, or 853 feet above Lake Superior, or 1453 feet above the sea, and furnishing an admirable proof of the value of Dr. Hitchcock’s expectation that higher beaches than those measured by Sir Wiliam Logan on the shores of Lake Superior would be found in that region. In his Surface Geology, Dr. Hitchcock says, page 63 (Smith- sonian Contributions), “I will only add, that if it be ad- mitted that the facts adduced in this paper prove the presence, since the Drift period, of the ocean at a height of 2000 or even 1200 feet, above its present level, then it must have extended over nearly all. of our western * This section was kindly furnished me by Mr, Napier, the engineer to the Red River Expedition, 1857. a ANCIENT BEACH AT PRAIRIE PORTAGE. 259 country ; and unless Professor Agassiz says that he had his eye upon this matter along the shores of Superior, I cannot avoid entertaining the expectation, that what I call beaches will yet be found at a much higher level there, than the 331 feet terrace, measured by Mr. (now sir William) Logan.” I am inclined to think that another beach and_ ter- race can be recognised at Prairie Portage, one hundred and four miles by the canoe route from Lake Superior ; its altitude would exceed that on the Great Dog, being 1485 feet above the ocean. Prairie Portage passes over the height of land, but not the highest land on the route, and its course lies first, south-west up a steep wooded hill, without rock exposure, but composed of drift clays, sand, and numerous boulders ; it then enters a narrow valley, which terminates in a small lake, about five acres in area and 20 feet deep, occupying a hollow among the hills on the height of land. The portage path continues on in the same direction until the Height of Land Lake is reached, a small sheet of water, about a square mile in area, and 157 feet above Cold Water Lake. The utmost elevation reached on the Prairie Portage is probably 190 feet above Cold Water Lake or nearly 900 feet above Lake Superior. Portage du Milieu, one hundred and five miles from Lake Superior passes over a low sandy ridge. It is 869 feet above Lake Superior, or 1469 feet above the sea; this ridge may have been contemporaneous with beaches on the summit of the Great Dog. _ In the valley of Lake Winnipeg the first prominent ancient beach is the Big Ridge. Commencing east of Red River, a few miles from Lake Winnipeg, this ridge pursues a south-westerly course until it approaches Red River, within four miles of the Middle Settlement, here it was ascertained by leveling to be s 2 260 ’ ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. 674 feet above the prairie. On the opposite side of the river, a beach on Stony Mountain corresponds with the Big Ridge, and three or four miles further west it is observed marking the limit of a former extension of the valley of Lake Winnipeg. On the east side of Red River the Big Ridge is traced nearly due south from the Middle Settlement to where it crosses the Roseau, forty-six miles from the mouth of that stream, and on or near the 49th parallel. It is next met with at Pine or Tamarac Creek, in the State of Minnesota, and from this point it may be said to form a continuous and horizontal gravel road, beautifully arched, and about one hundred feet broad, the whole distance to the shores of Lake Winnipeg, or more than 120 miles. On the west side of Red River, and north of the Assinniboine, I traced the Big Ridge from a point about three miles west of Stony Mountain to near Prairie Portage. Here it appears to have been removed by the agency of the Prairie Portage River and the waters of the Assinniboine, which are said to pass from the valley of that river into Lake Manitobah during very high floods. Another and higher ridge was observed on White Mud River, about twenty miles west of Lake Manitobah. It resembled in every particular the ridge on the east side of Red River, being about 100 to 120 feet broad, and about twenty-five feet above the level of the prairie. It was again noticed in the rear of Manitobah House, where the same characteristics were preserved. It probably crosses the Assinniboine three or four miles west of Prairie Portage, and is perhaps identical with the lowest ridge or step of the Pembina Mountain. In the rear of Dauphin Lake, the next wide mm the ascending series occurs, it forms an excellent pitching QUATERNARY BEACHES IN RED RIVER VALLEY. 261 track for Indians on the east flank of the Riding Mountain. Probably these ridges are found close together, at the foot of the Pembina Mountain, where no less than four dis- tinct steps occur close together near the sources of Scratching River.* The summit of these steps may be the plateau whose altitude was ascertamed by Dr. Owen to be 210 feet above the prairie level, and the first steps may be continuous with the Bie Ridge, limiting the level prairies of Red River and the Assinniboine. The prairies enclosed by the Big Ridge are every- where intersected by small subordinate ridges, which often die out, and are evidently the remains of shoals formed in the shallow bed of Lake Winnipeg when its waters were limited by the Big Ridge. Many opportu- nities for observing the present formation of similar shoals occurred in Lake Manitobah, St. Martin’s Lake, Lake Winnipeg and Dauphin Lake. These, when the lakes become drained, will have the form of ridges in the level country then exposed. Indeed it may be said that the region between Dauphin Mountain and Lake Manitobah in the direction of Ebb and Flow Lake and south of that body of water, is but recently drained, or still in process of draining, being removed from the surface of Ebb and Flow Lake, by a very few feet and covered with water to a large extent in the spring. At present it consists of marsh, bog and ridge, in continued succession. When completely drained, the country will resemble the present prairies of the Assinniboine, with the gentle rich depres- sions, and the low dry gravelly ridges. The Pembina Mountain is par excellence the ancient beach in the valley of Lake Winnipeg. Dr. Owen thus * The steps are shown on Sheet 2 of the large map accompanying the Reports on the Assinniboine and Saskatchewan Exploring Expedition. 3 3 262 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. described it as it presents itself a few miles south of the 49th parallel: “ After a hot and fatiguing ride over the plains, we arrived an hour after sunset at the foot of the Pembina Mountain. In the twilight as we stood at our encampment on the plain, it looked as if it might be three hundred feet or more in height; but in the morning, by broad daylight, it seemed less. When I came to measure it, 1 was somewhat surprised that it did not exceed 210 feet. I observed on this as on many other occasions that a hill rising out of a level plain, appears higher than it really is, especially when, as in this case, the trees on its flank and summit are of small growth. Pembina Moun- tain is in fact, no mountain at all, nor yet a hill. It is a terrace of table-land, the ancient shore of a great body of water, that once filled the whole of the Red River valley. On its summit it 1s quite level and extends so, for about five miles westward, to another terrace, the summit of which I was told is level with the great Buffalo Plains, that stretch away towards the Missouri, the hunting erounds of the Sioux and the half-breed population of Red River. Instead of bemg composed of ledges of rock, as I was led to suppose, it 1s a mass of incoherent sand, gravel, and shingle so entirely destitute of cement, that with the hand alone a hole several feet deep may be excavated in a few minutes. The Pembina River has cut through this material a deep, narrow valley, but little elevated -above the adjacent plain. Along its banks are precipices of sand, surmounted by gravel and a few boulders. I was told that it was impossible to ascend these banks. So loose is the deposit, that, no sooner is an ascent attempted, than the stones fifty or a hundred feet above, are detached, and come tumbling down at such an alarming rate that the climber is glad to make his escape.” * CONTOUR OF THE PEMBINA MOUNTAIN. 263 An inspection of the map will show the contour of the Pembina Mountain as far as ascertained; where Mr. Dickinson ascended it, fifteen miles north of the 49th parallel. it occurs in four distinct terraces. It crosses the Assinniboine near the Bad Woods, blends with the Riding and Duck Mountains, and probably appears again on the main Saskatchewan, twenty-two miles from the Grand Forks. The elevation of the entire country east of this long ancient coast line is about 700 feet above the level of the ocean, and it forms the boundary of a distinct tract of lowland, in part surpassingly rich, as over the Red River and Assinniboine prairies, and the region on the main Saskatchewan slightly elevated above the area subjected to annual overflow ; part covered with swamp, marsh, or level limestone rock, on which a few inches of soil affords nourishment to small spruce, tamarac, and aspen; and finally, by a shallow water area extending over 13,100 square miles, and embracing lakes which rank with the first class in pomt of superficies on this continent. High above the Pembina Mountain the steps and ter- races of the Riding and Duck Mountains arise in well- defined succession. On the southern and south-western slopes of these ranges the terraces are distinctly exposed to view; on their north-east and north sides, the Riding and Duck Mountains present a precipitous escarpment which is elevated fully 1000 feet above Lake Winnipeg, or more than 1600 feet above the sea. Standing on the edge of the escarpment of the Riding Mountain and looking in the direction of Dauphin Lake, a gulf, some twc hundred and fifty feet deep, is seen to be succeeded by two ranges of cone-shaped hills covered * Geological Survey of Iowa, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, p. 179. s 4 264 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. with boulders, one lower than the other. The hills are parallel to the general trend of the escarpment, and stand out as bold eminences, showing the extent of the — denudation which gave rise to them. These ranges of conical hills correspond with terraces on the west side of the mountain. They are the result of the same denuding forces which have left their impress upon the west flank, and were formed by the unequal wearing away of the more exposed eastern flank, at the time when the ter- races on the opposite and sheltered side were in process of arrangement. I estimated the summit of Bear Hill, one of the most prominent of the conical hills separated from the edge of the escarpment by a deep valley, at 800 feet above Lake Winnipeg ; if to this altitude we add 628 feet, the height of Lake Winnipeg above the sea, the elevation of the first terrace below the summit of the mountain, will be about 1,428 feet. This altitude corresponds in a re- markable manner with the sand bank on the Great Dog Portage, 500 miles distant in an air line from Bear Hill. The second tier of conical hills stands upon the second terrace from the summit, and is probably continuous with the Pembina Mountain. SAND HILLS AND DUNES. The most extensive of these unstable ranges are de- scribed in the narrative. It is needless to remark that the region they occupy is almost absolutely barren. Many of the hills and dunes are continually exposing fresh surfaces, sometimes beauti- fully ripple marked. The probability of their being the remains of tertiary deposits, is noticed in a subsequent chapter. The following are the most extensive ranges: — 1. Sand hills and dunes of the Assinniboine, extending DUNES AND DEPRESSIONS. 265 from the Bad Woods to a short distance beyond Pine Creek, forty miles. 2. Sand hills of the Souris. | 3. Sand hills and dunes of the Qu’appelle. 4, Sand hills and dunes of the South Branch. 5. Sand and gravel ridges north-west of the Touchwood Hills. CIRCULAR DEPRESSIONS. This curious disposition of the drift, probably due to a re-arrangement of its materials, is of not uncommon oc- currence south-east of the Touchwood Hills. Circular depressions varying from 100 yards to half a mile in diameter, appear in the prairies, generally surrounded by a ridge of sand or gravel. Many of them are quite dry, others hold water, which is generally brackish. The deepest and largest depression noticed was about 600 yards across and 40 feet below the general level. DENUDATION. An adequate conception of the effects of denudation in the basin of Lake Winnipeg can be best attained if we revert to the period when the Cretaceous shales now forming the summit and flanks of the Turtle, Riding, Duck, Porcupine, and Pasquia Mountains, occupied the basins of Lakes Manitobah and Winnipeg, and found their eastern limits near the present outcrop of the Laurentian Series. In order to complete our view of the extent of this great physical movement, we must conceive the same shales and sandstones, (in part overlaid by Tertiaries fill- ing the depressions or valleys in the Cretaceous rocks, the result of previous denudation) forming an unbroken table-land to the Grand Coteau de Missouri. These relations become more evident. upon an inspection of the sections. 266 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. LIMITS OF DENUDATION. A curious and very interesting example of parallelism in bold limits of denudation, can be traced in the basins of Lake Winnipeg and the St. Lawrence. The abrupt escarpment of the Grand Coteau de Missouri preserves a direction throughout the greater portion of its denuded face, parallel to the escarpment of the Niagara lmestone which enters Canada from the State of New York at Lewiston, on the Niagara river, and sweeping round the head of Lake Ontario passes up the Indian Peninsula and thence to the Grand Manitoulin Island in Lake Huron. The denuded flanks of the Riding and Duck Mountains with their northern and southern prolongations also pre- serve the same general direction. Lines drawn on a map of North America to show these well-marked lmits of denudation at different periods, will at once suggest the existence of a uniformly acting force operating under similar physical conditions. Like beaches or ridges formed at different sea-levels they have probably a common origin, which the supposition of their being ancient coast-lines is not sufficient to explain, neither do their geographical relations appear to be altogether dependent upon their geological structure. ‘They seem to point to the action of currents, of which the Gulf stream and the compensating Arctic currents are modern illustrations. DISLOCATIONS. The basin of Lake Winnipeg from the Laurentides to the Rocky Mountains, has been subjected to a series of dislocations, which have acted very uniformly over areas far apart. The courses of rivers show the general direc- tion of these gradual disturbances, which may have given rise to the numerous “ Elbows” which form such a marked feature in the water channels, and consequently _— ns hs nor HAS) PO 278 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. of description and reference, into six distmet parts, each having its own geological characteristic. The west shore of the lake is mainly occupied by granite, which at the northern portion is finely granular, and porphyritic im equal quantities. On the east coast of its north-westerly ex- tension, are chloritic and greenstone slates; on the eastern arm of Ramy Lake, pale red granite is the prevailing rock, and near the northern extremity of this arm, naked ridges, white as porcelain, and 500 feet high, occur. In the Lake of the Woods the Laurentian series is separated into two parts by a range of intrusive granite running in an E.S.E. direction from the north-west corner of the lake, as far east as Ramy Lake. The in- clined metamorphosed strata on-the north side of this eranitic anticlnal dip W.N.W.; on the south side to the 8.8. W. a direction resulting from the form and position of the intrusive rock.* The country between the sources of the Winnipeg, and a few miles south of Islington Mission, a distance of nearly thirty miles, appears to be largely occupied by a vast range of intrusive granite and syenite, m the form of dome-shaped hills, varying from 150 to 200 feet high. A view from the summit of one of the highest of these, about fifteen miles due north from Rat Portage presented an unvarying succession of their rounded summits as far as the eye could reach in a westerly direction. The canoe route pursued in 1851 was a short Indian path from Rat Portage to the Great Winnipeg, in a nearly straight north-westerly direction. The country traversed was characterized by great sterility, and an unusual pro- portion of bare rock. High precipitous mural cliffs, without a trace of stratification observable in them, often * See Dr. Bigsby, “On the Geology of the Lake of the Woods,” before referred to. SIR R. I. MURCHISON ON THE GNEISS OF SCOTLAND. 279 formed the boundaries of this branch of the Great Win- nipeg. - 2 The series composing the country east of Rainy Lake towards the Height of Land are again reproduced after passing the large area of intrusive granite on the Win- nipeg, and continue with some considerable variations of strike and dip occasioned by intrusions, as far as the first falls below the Bonnet Portage, where drift clays conceal the rocks on the banks of the river to its mouth, ex- posures occurring only at the different falls and portages. The Laurentian rocks which form the whole of the low east coast of Lake Winnipeg strike off at its north- east corner, and passing to the north of Moose Lake, go on to Beaver Lake.* The only exposure of Laurentian rocks seen within the area explored west of Lake Winnipeg were observed in St. Martin Lake; they have been described in Chap- ter XXVI. In the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society for August, 1860, Sir Roderick I. Murchison made the follow- ing interesting and important announcement respecting the age of the Fundamental Gneiss of Scotland, and conferred an appropriate acknowledgment of the services rendered to geology by the distinguished director of the Survey in Canada, by adopting a Canadian geological name for the British rocks of the same age as those which Sir William Logan has named the Laurentian System. “The changes which are involved in the adoption of my views of the order of succession are, it will be ad- mitted, considerable. In the first place, by showing that mountain masses of sandstone and conglomerate lie un- conformably beneath quartzose and calcareous rocks with * Sir John Richardson’s Journal of a Boat Voyage, &c., p. 49. Am. Ed. T4 280 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION, true Lower Silurian fossils, we know that the former must be of Cambrian age. We further learn that the old or fundamental gneiss, which lies beneath such Cambrian sandstone, and is entirely unconformable to, and indepen- dent of it, is a lower stratified rock than any hitherto re- cognized in the British Isles. The beginning of the geo- logical alphabet, as applied in the Maps of the Geological Survey to the Cambrian rocks of England, Wales, and Ireland, must therefore be preceded in Scotland by the first letter of some alphabet earlier than the Roman, show- ing a still lower deep in the north-west of Scotland (as in North America) than exists in England, Wales, or Treland. “Tf this most ancient gneiss required a British name, it might indeed with propriety be termed the ‘ Lewisian System,’ seeing that the large island of the Lewis is es- sentially composed of it, capped here and there by de- rivative masses of Cambrian conglomerate ; but the term ‘Laurentian’ having been already applied to rocks of this age in North America by our distinguished associate Sir W. Logan, I adhere to that name, the more so as it is derived from a very extensive region of a great British colony.” THE HURONIAN SERIES. The Huronian series has not been recognized in the basin of Lake Winnipeg, but as it rests unconformably on the Laurentian rocks for a distance of nearly 500 miles on the shores of Lakes Superior and Huron, occur- ring both on the north and south shores of the first- named lake, it 1s not improbable that it will be found to exist in the Winnipeg Basin. In Canada it contains very important metalliferous veins, particularly of native sania eal THE HURONIAN SERIES. . 281 copper. The following description of the Huronian or Cambrian system is from the little work before re- ferred to.* | “The shores of Lakes Huron and Superior offer a series of schists, sandstones, limestones, and conglomerates interstratified with heavy beds of greenstone, and resting unconformably upon the Laurentian formation. As these rocks underlie those of the Silurian system, and have not as yet afforded any fossils, they may probably be referred to the Cambrian system (lower.Cambrian of Sedgewick). the schists of this system upon Lake Superior are bluish in colour, and contain beds of cherty silex, marked by calcareous bands, and holding anthracite in its fissures. “These are covered by a considerable thickness of trap, upon which repose massive beds of red and white sandstone which sometimes becomes conglomerate and contains pebbles of quartz and jasper. Beds of a red- dish argillaceous hmestone are often interstratified with these sandstones, which are intersected and overlaid by a second eruption of greenstone of great thickness and columnar inits structure. This formation, which, accord- ing to the observations of Sir William Logan, has, on Lake Superior a total thickness of about 12,000 feet, is traversed by a vast number of trappean dykes. “In the corresponding formation on the north shore of Lake Huron, the sandstones are more vitreous and the conglomerates more abundant than on Lake Superior ; they are, however, associated with conglomerates and schists similar to those we have just described, and the formation offers great intercalated masses of greenstone. A band of limestone, fifty feet in thickness, forms a part of this series, to which Sir William Logan assigns a thickness * A Sketch of the Geology of Canada, &c., by Sir William Logan and Mr. Hunt. * 282 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. of about 10,000 feet. He has shown the occurrence, after the irruption of the interstratified greenstones, of two systems of trap dykes, and a third of granite, inter- mediate in time between the two irruptions of trap. The formation of the metalliferous veins is still more recent. The principal mineral species of these veins are native copper, quartz, calc-spar, dolomite, fluor, and sulphate of baryta, with several zeolites, of which laumonite is the most common, heulandite, stilbite, thompsonite, apophyllite and analcime are also met with, as well as prehnite and dathohte. These veins are only metalliferous where they traverse the beds of greenstones.” 283 CHAP, XXXVI THE SILURIAN AND DEVONIAN SERIES. Rim of the Silurian Series.—Distribution of Formations.—The Chazy Formation. —Fossils from the Chazy, Modiolopsis Parviuscula, Ortho- ceras Simpsoni. — Bird’s-eye, and Trenton Formations. — Hudson River Formation.—The Devonian Series. —Salt Springs.—Salt Springs in Rupert’s Land.—Manufacture of Salt.—Salt Trade of the United States. —Fossils from Devonian Rocks in the Winnipeg Basin. THE SILURIAN SERIES. THE rim of the great southern fossiliferous basin in North America touches Fond du Lac, the western extremity of Lake Superior.* From this pomt it makes a bend to the south, and then turning north-westerly comes upon the Mississippi river near its source. The prolongation of the oreat granitic axis separating the waters flowing into Lake Superior, from those tributary to Lake Winnipeg, pene- trates for a considerable distance into the fossiliferous basin, in the northern part of the State of Minnesota, but although the subjacent rock is concealed by drift, the general charac- ter of the country, as far as Red Lake, leads to the in- ference that it is underlaid by the Silurian series. From Red Lake the rim pursues a northerly course to the mouth of Rainy River; it underlies the valley of Rainy River, as far as Rainy Lake, in the form of a narrow and * Sandstones belonging to the Potsdam and Chazy formations, the lowest members of the fossiliferous rocks in America, are in great force on the south shore of Lake Superior. The basin of the lake is chiefly excavated in the Potsdam sandstone. 284 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. very elongated bay.* Sweeping round the south and part of the west coast of the Lake of the Woods, it leaves that body of water and comes on the Winnipeg, above Fort Alexander. The south and west coasts of Lake Win- nipeg, and as far as its north-east corner mark the easterly boundary of this basin ; it then passes north of Moose Lake, to Beaver Lake, and thence in a north-westerly direc- tion towards and beyond Methy Portage. The Silurian rocks of Great Slave Lake and River present forms chiefly belonging to the upper division of the series. The occur- rence of brine springs in that region poimts also to the proximity of Devonian rocks, which are particularly cha- racterized by brine springs in the basin of Lake Winnipeg. The upper Silurian rocks of the Arctic Archipelago rest everywhere on granitoid rocks with a remarkable red sandstone passing into’ coarse grit for their base. Limestones, sandstones, and shales of Silurian age are exposed from the Grand Rapid of the Saskatchewan to Big Black Island, near the south extremity of Lake Win- nipee. From Big Black Island to the rapids on Red River the formations are concealed by quaternary de- posits. On the south-east coast limestone 1s occasionally seen in position, but its junction with the Laurentian series near the mouth of the Winnipeg is concealed by drift. The formations which have been recognized on Lake Winnipeg, and in the valley of Red River, are 1. The Chazy Formation. 2. The Bird's-eye ,, 3. The Trenton GI 4, The Hudson River Group. * See “Geology of the Lake of the Woods.”—Dr. Bigsby, Quart. Journ. Geo. Soc. vol. vill. p. 406. + Rey. Samuel Haughton, F.R.S., Appendix to Capt. M‘Clintock’s Nar- rative. : FOSSILS FROM LAKE WINNIPEG. 285 CHAZY FORMATION. Fine exposures of the Chazy formation occur on Deer Island, Punk Island, and along the west coast of the lake north of Big Grindstone Point as far as the Cat Head. They appear in the form of cliffs, varying from twenty-five to forty-five feet in altitude at nearly all pomts and promontories. The character of the rock is described in Chapter XXIII. At the Narrows the three limestone promontories, the Bull’s Head, Limestone Cave Point, and Whiteway’s Point, approach within a few miles of the Laurentian series on the east coast. The strait from Whiteway’s Point to the Dog’s Head 1s not more than three miles across. Before this narrow channel . was excavated, Lake Winnipeg must have been divided into two parts, ike Lakes Manitobah and Winnipego-sis, and it is not improbable that near the Dog’s Head a rapid river or falls formerly existed. The relation of the two lakes would then resemble the present relation of Lake Manitobah, the Little Saskatchewan and Lake Winnipeg. The followmg enumeration and description (between brackets) of fossils forming part of my collection from the Silurian and Devonian rocks of this region, are from the pen of Mr. EH. Billings, F.G.8., Paleeontologist to the Canadian Geological Survey. Plante. [Two species of Fucoids from Punk Island in Lake Winnipeg, resembling forms which occur in the Chazy sandstone. ZLoophyta. , The only coral is a species allied to Columnaria alveo- lata. It is from Grindstone Point, Lake Winnipeg. 286 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. Echinodermata. Columns of a large Glyptocrinus allied to G. ramulosus occur at Punk Island and Grindstone Point; and besides these, at the latter locality were found several plates of a Glyptocystites closely allied to G. multiporus. Brachiopoda. T'wo specimens of a plaited Rhynconella a little smaller than £. plena were found at Punk Island. Lamellibranchiata. MODIOLOPSIS PARVIUSCULA. (N. 8.) This species closely resembles JZ modiolaris (Conrad) but is always much smaller. It is transversely elongate, anterior extremity small, rounded half the width of the posterior ; the latter obliquely truncated and somewhat straight from the end of the hinge line for rather more than half the width, then rounded at the lower posterior angle. Hinge line straight or a little arched, full three- fourths the whole length of the shell. The umbones are less than one-fifth the length from the anterior extremity. The valves are moderately convex, obscurely and obliquely carinate from the umbones towards the lower posterior angle. In many specimens the ventral margin is concave . near the anterior extremity, as if for the purpose of a byssus. Surface with obscure concentric undulations of growth. Length of large specimen, one and a half inch. In general they are a good deal smaller. | This shell so much resembles AZ, modiolaris that I have long hesitated as to the propriety of giving it a separate name. It is very widely distributed, since we have speci- mens from Lake Winnipeg at Punk Island, from the Pallideau Islands in Lake Huron, where it occurs in strata — SILURIAN FOSSILS. which hold fossils of the Chazy, Black River and Trenton limestones, and from near Cornwall and the Island of Montreal in the Chazy. Besides the above there are several small nearly circular fossils from Punk Island, which appear to be casts of some lamellibranchiate shell. Gasteropoda. Trochonema umbilicata (Hall, Sp.) This species occurs at Lake Winnipeg and at the Little Saskatchewan in considerable numbers. A species allied to Pleurotomaria rotuloides (Hall) is common at Punk Island, and a Maclurea allied to M. Logane (Salter), but with more slender whorls was found at Punk Island and the Little Saskatchewan. One of the specimens has the operculum in place, but is destitute of the shell and some- what distorted. None of the Gaster- opoda have the shell preserved. . Cephalopoda. ORTHOCERAS SIMPSONI. (N. 8.) The specimen is a portion of the siphuncle, nine inches and one-fourth in length, eleven lines in diameter at the larger extremity, and ten at the smaller. It is nearly cylin- 287 OrtHocrras Srmpsont. A fragment of the siphuncle of this species. 288 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. drical with a broad, shallow constriction above and below each of the narrow annulations which mark the attachment of the septa. ‘There are eight of those septal rings at the following distances from each other, com- | mencing at the smaller extremity :—-Between the Ist and 2nd, fourteen lines; 2nd and 3rd, twelve lines; 3rd and Ath, ten and a half lines; 4th and 5th, thirteen and a half lines; 5th and 6th, fifteen lines; 6th and 7th, thir- teen and a half lines; 7th and 8th, twelve and a half lines. The annulations are nearly at right angles to the length, and we must infer from this fact either that the septa are scarcely at all concave, or that the siphuncle must be central, or very nearly so. If in an orthoceratite the septa are flat, then no matter whether the siphuncle be central or not, the septal annulations must be at right angles, but if the septa are concave then the annulations will be oblique if the siphuncle be at all removed from the centre. My impression is, that this is a large ortho- ceratite with distant septa and a nearly central siphuncle since the annulations have a scarcely perceptible obl- quity. It is oné of those species in which the siphuncle became oradually filled with a solid calcareous animal secretion, with the exception of a narrow cylindrical channel along the centre. This central canal is clearly indicated in the specimen, and has a diameter of nearly two lines. | Dedicated to Sir George Simpson, Governor of the Hudson’s Bay Company. Locality and formation.—Cat Head, Lake Winnipeg, supposed to be Silurian. . 2 A small serpulite appears to be common at Punk Island ; it much resembles the large species of the Chazy limestone. ? The occurrence of JZ parviuscula, H. umbilicata, the LOWER SILURIAN FORMATIONS. 289 Maclurea, and Glyptocystites are quite sufficient to show that the localities where they have been collected are Lower Silurian, and most probably about the age of the Black River and Chazy limestones. | THE BIRD’S-EYE AND TRENTON FORMATIONS. The whole of the coast on the north-west side of Lake Winnipeg is represented by Sir John Richardson to be occupied by the Bird’s-eye Limestone.* Near the first and second Rocky Points the strata contain many gigantic orthoceratites which have been described by Mr. Stokes in the Geological Transactions. In Pine Island Lake, there are exposures thirty feet in altitude, containing Orthocerata and Receptaculites Nep- tuni.~ ‘The strike is south-west by west, being at right angles to the general direction of the Laurentides. THE HUDSON RIVER FORMATION. This formation appears in cliffs five-and-twenty feet high at the Stone Fort, Red River. It is also exposed near the rapids. Most of the forts and churches in the settlements are constructed of stone from this rock. The * “As bearing on the resemblance of these (Silurian) quartzose and calcareous rocks to their equivalents in America, I may mention that a recent comparison of several of the American so-called fucoids has enabled Mr. Salter satisfactorily to refer them in many cases to the vertical tubes, or rather filled-up burrows, of large marine worms. He particularly cites the Phytopsis tubulosus of the ‘Calciferous Sand-rock’ of the American geologists; the celebrated ‘Birds’ Eyes’ (Phytopsis cellulosus) of- the ‘Birds’-eye Limestone,’ and the Buthotrephis succulens of the Trenton group, as being of this nature. The part played by annelides in the older paleeozoic epoch was, we thus know, very conspicuous.” — Si FR. 1, Murchi- son, Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc., Aug. 1860. Tt Journal of a Boat Voyage through Rupert’s Land. { Ibid. VOU. Il. U 290 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. colour of its weathered surface is a pale yellowish grey, but of fresh surfaces, a white gray. Dr. Owen, who visited the Red River Settlements in 1848, enumerates the fossils he found near the Stone Fort in his Report published in 1852. He says :— “ About twenty miles below the mouth of the Assinni- boine, near lower Fort Garry, solid ledges of limestone are exposed of a lieht buff colour, sometimes mottled, spotted, or banded with hght brown. Immediately oppo- site the Fort, a considerable amount of rock has been quarried, and used in the construction of the building. In these beds, I succeeded in finding several well-defined and characteristic fossils, sufficient to establish, without the least doubt, the age of the Red River limestones. They are: Favosites basaltica ; Coscinopora Sulcata ; he- mispherical masses of Syringopora; Cheetetes Lycoperdon ; a Conularia ; a small, beautiful undetermined species of Pleurorhynchus ; Ormoceros Brongniarti ; Pleuroto- maria lenticularis (?); Leptena alternata; Leptena plano-conveca (?); Calymene senaria; and several speci- mens of the shield of /llanus crassicauda. Many of these are identically the same fossils which occur in the lower part of F. 3, in Wisconsin and Lowa, in the blue limestones of Indiana, Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee, and also in the lower Silurian of Europe. The Coscinopora is precisely the same as the coral, which is particularly characteristic of the lower beds of the upper magnesian limestone of Wisconsin. The speci- mens of favosites basaltica cannot be distinguished from those which abound in the upper magnesian limestones of Wisconsin and Iowa, and the lower coralline beds of the Falls of the Ohio. It is also worthy of note that these limestones of Red River, like their equivalents in Iowa and Wisconsin, are highly magnesian, containing from THE DEVONIAN SERIES. 291 seventeen to forty per cent. of the carbonate of that alkaline earth.” * * x % % * *% “On the south shore of that lake (Winnipeg), however, T again had an opportunity of inspecting fossilferous lime- stones in situ. At the two localities where I succeeded in obtaining a view of them, they were much disturbed, dipping either at a high angle, or standing vertically. On Poplar Point, they are quite thin-bedded, and contain, be- sides small /’ntrochites, large varieties of Endoceras. Ina small bay, near Big Swamp Point, the limestone is seen jutting out beneath heavy, loose masses of crystalline rocks, some of which weigh hundreds of tons. The surfaces of many of the limestone slabs at this locality are crowded with well-preserved specimens of the character- istic fossil Leptena alternata.” THE DEVONIAN SERIES. In consequence of the extreme flatness of the country the junction of the Silurian and Devonian Series has been only approximately determined, chiefly by the occur- rence of the saline springs which distinguish the Devonian Series in this region. In all cases where saline springs were seen issuing from rock im position, Devonian forma- tions were recognized by characteristic fossils. The parallelism between the courses of Moss River, Waterhen River, Partridge Crop River, and Dauphin River, suggests at once the line of junction or a dislocation ; if the former, their courses probably indicate the junction of different Devonian or Silurian formations, but in no instance the limits of either series, as was ascertained by the charac- teristic fossils found at different localities on those rivers. u 2 292 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. In 1823, Mr. Keating* noticed the salt springs in Min- nesota State and Dakotah Territory, far south of the boundary line. Even at that early period in the history of the settlements on Red River, 500 dollars were earned by one individual during one winter from the sale of the salt he had manufactured from springs near Pembina. The price of salt in the settlement was then six dollars per barrel weighing eighty pounds. At a spring on Saline River, south of the boundary line, Major Long’s party found the Salicornia herbacea growing very abundantly around it. “Mr. Schweinitz states, on the authority of Mr. Nuttall, that this is the only mland locality of this plant, besides the Onondaga Salt springs in the State of New York.” The bottom of shallow lagoons containing brine on Winnipego-sis Lake were thickly covered with a soft and wavy carpet of a species of Navus. : In the valley of La Riviere Sale, salt springs are very numerous, and the ground in their vicinity is frequently covered with a thick incrustation. Many years since the half-breeds of the settlement used to collect salt from this valley for domestic purposes. ‘The names Saline Creek and Salt Pomt on Red River, north of the 49th parallel, were given in consequence of springs strongly impreg- nated with salt occurring there, but south and west of Stony Mountain no rocks in position have been observed east of Pembina Mountain. The whole country is nearly horizontal, having a mean elevation of about 100 feet above Lake Winnipeg. Subjoined is a table showing the localities, north of the 49th parallel, where salt springs occur, distinguishing between springs from which salt has been and has not * Major Long’s Expedition to the Sources of St. Peter’s River. LOCALITIES OF SALT SPRINGS. 293 been manufactured or collected as a crust on the surface of the ground: . 1. Salt Brook . : i : . Red River. 2. Salt Point . | : 4s 3. La Riviére Sale . : ‘ . Collected from incrustations by the sides of springs. These incrustations are often two inches in thickness. A, Salt: Point : ‘ ‘ . Winnipego-sis Lake. 5. Turtle River : : : . Dauphin Lake—collected by Indians. 6. Crane River : : , . Manitobah Lake — collected by Indians. 7. Monkman’s Salt Works.* . . Winnipego-sis Lake—manu- factured by John Monkman. 8. Swan River ; Manufactured for H. B. Co. 9. West Coast of Winnipego-sis Lake in many places. 10. West Coast of Lake Manitobah in many places. 12, The Pas Mountain. It has been already stated that the processes employed in the manufacture of salt in Rupert’s Land are of the rudest description. By the employment of simple artifices the yield might be greatly increased, and its market value reduced to one-fourth the price it brings at the settlements. In the valley of La Riviere Sale, about twenty-six miles from Fort Garry, springs issue from the sides of the hills in positions very favourable for the employment of solar evaporation in shallow basins, which might be excavated at a lower level than the spring, and salt extracted without the employment of artificial heat ; an immense * The bottom of the evaporating pans at Monkman’s Works contained athin stratum of an extremely hard substance, which subsequent examina- tion showed to consist of silica, a little sulphate of lime, and a very considerable quantity of bromides. u 3 294 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. advantage in a country where fuel is scarce and labour dear. In the State of New York between 500,000 and 600,000 bushels of salt are now made annually by solar evapora- tion. Wooden vats are employed, with movable roofs, so that the brine may be protected at the approach of unfavourable weather. The average daily supply of brine at these works during six months of the year is 2,000,000 gallons, and the cost per barrel of 300 lbs. is one dollar. Salt made by the boiling process weighs 56 pounds to the bushel, solar (that made by evaporation) salt 75 pounds. By the boiling process at Onondaga the cast iron kettles, holding from 50 to 70 gallons each, are disposed in double rows above suitable furnaces technically called: “ blocks.” Each block contains from 50 to 70 kettles, and manu- factures during eight months of the year from 20,000 to 25,000 bushels of salt. In 1800 the number of bushels of salt made at the Onondaga Salt Works was 50,000; in 1810, 450,000 bushels; in 1830, 1,435,446 bushels; in 1840, 2,622,305 bushels; in 1850, 4,268,919 bushels; in 1857, 4,300,000 bushels; and in 1859, within a fraction of 7,000,000 bushels. The strength of the brine is measured by ‘a “Salo- meter,” whose zero is distilled water, and maximum, water saturated with common salt, which is represented by 100. The brines of Onondaga vary from 76° to 44°. Wells which do not furnish brine above 50° are not considered worth working. The sea-water at Nantucket gives a bushel of salt to every 380 gallons; at the salt springs of Zanesville, Ohio, 95 gallons furnish the same quantity of salt, while the old wells of Onondaga yield one bushel from 40 to 45 gallons, and the new wells at Syracuse the same quantity from 30 STRENGTH OF THE SALT SPRINGS. » 295 to 35 gallons of brine.* Mr. Donald Gunn, of Red River Settlement, says that in the dry season 24 gallons of brine from the Winnipego-sis springs will produce one bushel of salt. The value of the salt trade in the United States may be inferred from the following statistics :— Bushels. In 1840 the quantity of foreign salt imported was. . 8,188,208 In 1850 is ” ; . 11,224,185 In 1857 2 Fy : . 17,165,704 The value of the foreign salt consumed in 1857 amounted to nearly 2,000,000 dollars, and the value of foreign and domestic salt exported from the States during the same year was 230,000 dollars. The most eastern exposure of the Devonian Series, recognized by fossils of that age, occurs on Thunder Island, St. Martin Lake; the most westerly exposure is seen on Moss River, and it is between these two points that, as far as known, brine springs are most numerous. Barren areas surrounding brine springs are of frequent occurrence at the foot of the range of hills from the Riding Mountain to the Pas. In a country nearly hori- zontal, where the attitude of the rocks conforms to the general surface, it will be at all times very difficult to determine the precise line of junction between succeeding series, and fortunately in the present instance the brine springs, which undoubtedly have their source in Devonian rocks, afford an excellent guide in determining the out- crop and extent of the series. As far as my observations enabled me to judge there is no difference in the general aspect of the country occupied * The History, Commerce, Sources, Manufacture, and economical Value of Salt consumed in and exported from the United States; by William C. Dennis, of Key West, Florida. Patent Office Report, 1857, u 4 296 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. by the Silurian and Devonian Series in this region. The rock of either age almost everywhere approaches the sur- face and is covered with a few inches of vegetable mould. Where fires have occurred the soil is burned away and the bare surface exposed. Very few areas of drift were seen, the most imposing being some low hills on St. Martin Lake. Denuding forces appear to have cut down the surface of the country to one nearly uniform level from the Riding Mountain ranges to the Laurentides. The upper extremity only of this excavated valley being covered many feet deep with quaternary deposits through which Red River, the Assinniboine and White Mud River have cut their channels. The uninterrupted continuity of the rim of the Devonian rocks through the United States, Canada, Rupert’s Land and the valley of Mackenzie River can scarcely be doubted. Its outcrop from the Atlantic to the Arctic Ocean would extend over sixty degrees of longitude and thirty degrees of latitude. The Devonian rocks in the valley of the Mackenzie River have many characteristics in common with those of Lake Winnipeg. [The following are the fossils from Snake Island in Lake Winnipego-sis. Atrypa reticularis (Linne) in abundance, both the com- mon form with moderately coarse ribs and the more finely striated varieties, Atrypa aspera (Schlotheim). The speci- mens very closely resemble those figured by Professor Hall, in his new work, the “ Geology of Iowa,” plate vi. fies. 8, a, b, c, d, but area little more pointed in front. A fine Orthis agrees well with the figures and descriptions of O. Iowensis, (Hall,) Geology of Iowa, plate ii. fig. 4; but is alittle longer. The proportions are the same, but the length, breadth and depth are each two lines greater than the figures. Besides these there are fragments of FOSSILS OF DEVONIAN ROCKS. 297 several other Brachiopods, among which are two small species of Productus. Fossils from Snake Island. a, Orthis Iowensis (Hall) side view. - b, Lucina occidentalis ( Billings). C, do. do. Outlines of same, side view. d, Lucina elliptica (Conrad). e, Loronema nexilis ? The Lamellibranchiate shells are Lucina elliptica (Con- rad) a species of the Corniferous limestone and Hamilton sroups of Canada and New York, and a new species of the same genus, which I propose to call L. occidentalis. Of Gasteropoda there are two species of L'uomphalus, and a fragment of a Lowonema, most probably L. newilis. The Cephalopoda consist of fragments of Orthoceras, Gomphoceras and a species of Nautilus or Gyroceras. Although we have none of the characteristic spirifers, corals, or trilobites to guide us, yet I think that upon the evidence of the above fossils we can safely say that this locality is Devonian, and most probably about the age of the Hamilton group. The fossils from Manitobah Island are mostly the same as those of Snake Island, with the addition of two 298 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. species of Chonetes and fragments of a large fish. There is also here a large Stromatopora, probably S. concentrica. At Thunder Island, 8t. Martin Lake, the Stromatopora occurs, with abundance of a small Strophomena and some corals, not determinable. Lucina Occidentalis. (N. 8.) Oval, length about one-ninth greater than the width, hinge line greatly convex, cardinal extremities obtusely rounded, anterior and posterior margins gently convex, sub-parallel ventral margin rounded or a little pomted in the centre ; beaks central, small, pomted, incurved, nearly in contact with each other, and turned a little towards the anterior extremity; both valves moderately convex and marked with concentric undulations of growth. Length of specimen, nine lines, width eight lines, depth of both valves, five lines. The greatest width is at about one-fourth the length below the beaks, from which level the margins converge but little, until within two-fifths of the length of the front, when they become more strongly curved. Locality and Formation, Snake Island, Lake Winnipego- sis. Devonian. | 299 Crear. xXx. THE CARBONIFEROUS SERIES. —- JURASSIC FORMATION. Evidence of the Carboniferous Series. —‘ Productus.’—Probability of the Carboniferous Series being represented on the Flanks of the Riding Mountain.—Occurrence in Nebraska Territory.—In Kansas Territory.—In the North-West generally.—On the West Edge of the Fossiliferous Basin. — Ammonites from the McKenzie River, probably from Jurassic Rocks. —Ammonites Barnstoni.—Ammonites Billingsi. THE CARBONIFEROUS SERIES. Tue western limits of the Devonian Series are shown on the map to follow the boundary of the Great Creta- ceous table-land so well defined by Pembina Mountain, Riding Mountain, Duck Mountain, Porcupine Hill, the Pas Mountain, and the high plateau similar to Pembina Mountain which stretches from the Pas to the Main Sas- katchewan, near and below Fort ala Corne. ‘The country at the base of this continuous boundary is uniformly hori- zontal, and while Devonian rocks in position were seen within thirty miles, and brine springs within ten miles of Cretaceous shales on the precipitous flanks of the Riding Hill Range, yet no evidence of any intermediate formation was visible. During the ascent of the Riding Mountain, a very careful search was made for traces in the drift of the higher series, in the hope of obtaining evidence of the existence of Carboniferous rocks, but without success. The boulders, so numerous on the ridges and the suc- cessive terraces, were carefully examined, but they were found to be derived altogether from the Laurentian Series, 300 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION, the limestones of Lake Winnipeg or the superior Cre- taceous shales. The importance of any evidence of the Carboniferous Series in the Valley of Lake Winnipeg cannot be too highly estimated. A productus was given to me by a half-breed at Red River Settlement, who declared he procured it from “ solid rock,” which is known to occur in two places only in the valley of Red River, at the Stone Fort, and above, at and below the rapids, from which places both Dr. Owen and I obtained Lower Silurian fossils from rock in position. It is probable that the specimen figured below, was procured from a boulder; but boulders are brought Productus ? SUPPOSED TO BE FROM CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE. Fig. 2. Fig, 3. Fig. 1, Productus from Red River, Fig. 2, a Side view. Fig. 3, a Rostral extremity. north each year from Minnesota by the ice of Red River; it is therefore quite possible that the specimen was brought by ice from the south. Under any circumstances, its presence within thirty miles of the mouth of Red River is an important fact, and affords good ground for hope, that if the Carboniferous Series are not represented on the flanks of the Riding, Duck, and Porcupine Moun- tains, they will be found in the State of Minnesota, or CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN RUPERT’S LAND. 301 © Dacotah, on the north side of the Height of Land, and in the valley of Red River. [There is some evidence of the existence of at least a portion of the Carboniferous system in this region. The fossil procured from the half-breed, who said he collected it from “the solid” rock, at some place on the Red River, is a Productus of the group Semreticulati, all of which appear to be confined to the Carboniferous Series. The specimen is not worn and presents all the appearance of having been freshly broken from the rock. | * The presence of fragments of any particular rock in the drift of Canada and elsewhere, affords presumptive evidence of the existence of the parent rock in position some distance to the north of the place where the detri- tus 1s found, but where the erratics occur in the bed of a river flowing to the north, i which ice of great thickness accumulates, and which moreover is subject to annual overflows, the evidence, under other circumstances, strongly presumptive, must in this case be received with great caution, and regarded rather as an encouragement to continue the search for the Carboniferous Series in both directions from which the boulder might have been carried. If rocks occupying a position between the Devonian and Cretaceous Series exist on the flanks of the Riding Mountain, it is probable that traces would have been dis- covered in the drift. The space in which members of the Carboniferous Series or superior formations might occur, is narrowed down to a strip ten miles in breadth between the salt springs south of Dauphin Lake and the outcrop of the Cretaceous shales on the flanks of the mountain. * The following label was attached to this specimen, “ Given to me by a half-breed, who declared he picked it from ‘solid rock’ in Red River.” (Doubtful. ) a VST 302 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. At least seven miles of this distance is so nearly hori- zontal that it does not rise twenty feet above Dauphin Lake, and the dip of the Devonian strata is uniformly at a very small angle to the south-west, where exposures were seen on Manitobah Lake. (Small local deviations from a uniform dip on Snake Island and Moss River are noticed in Chapters XXIV. and XXV.) The Cretaceous shales were found exposed on the flanks of the mountain, about 400 feet above Dauphin Lake, and the rise from the level country at the foot of the mountain to that altitude is embraced within two and a half or three miles; yet within this narrow limit the drift on the slopes between each terrace, on the terraces themselves, or in the bottom of gulhes excavated by mountain streams, gave no evi- dence of other rocks than those already named. It must be admitted that the time I could devote to an examina- tion of the boulders was short, and a more minute search might give other results. With this negative evidence in view, it appears pro- bable that the Carboniferous Series 1s not represented in the only locality where it may be looked for with much chance of success. Nevertheless, between the Devonian and Cretaceous Series in the basin of Lake Winnipeg there is still a vertical section fully 400 feet in altitude, which is concealed by drift on the flanks of the Riding Mountain, covering a horizontal area two and a half to three miles broad. It is possible that within this narrow limit, or further to the north where the area may be much broader, rocks of Carboniferous, Permian, Triassic, or Ju- rassic age, may yet be found. With a view to show the re- lation which the Cretaceous and Carboniferous Series have to one another in lower latitudes, the following brief notice of their occurrence in Nebraska and Kansas is introduced. In Nebraska the Carboniferous Series, or the coal sess) amie aaa ROCKS SOUTH OF THE FORTY-NINTH PARALLEL. 303 measures, are exposed at the mouth of the Platte *, and extend up the river about fifty miles, when they dip be- neath the water level of the Missouri. They are overlaid by No. 1 of the Nebraska section of the Cretaceous Series in lat. 41°:5, long. 96°. Cretaceous and Tertiary for- mations then occupy the valley of the Missouri as far as Fort Benton, lat. 47°°54, long. 110°, and extend into British America. Hence it appears that, ten degrees of latitude south of the Riding Mountain, the Cretaceous Series repose on the Carboniferous without the inter- vention of Permian, Triassic, or Jurassic rocks. In Kansas territory, on the Kansas and Smoky Hill Rivers, an elaborate section has been made by Messrs. F. B. Meek and F. V. Hayden +, commencing with the Cre- taceous sandstones on the summit of the Smoky Hills, lat. 38° 30’ N., long., 98° W., and descending through the various intermediate formations seen along the Smoky Hills and Kansas River to the mouth of the Big Blue River on the Kansas. ‘This section, over 1000 feet vertically, passes from the Cretaceous to the upper coal measures, and includes rocks of Permian age. Messrs. Meek and Hayden remark, in relation to this section, “ It will be observed we have in this general section, without attempting to draw lines between the systems or great primary divisions, presented in regular succession the various beds with the fossils found in each, from the Cre- taceous sandstone on the summits of the Smoky Hills, down through several hundred feet of intermediate doubt- ful strata, so as to include the beds containing Permian * Notes explanatory of a Map and Section illustrating the Geological Structure of the Country bordering on the Missouri ‘River, &c., by F. V. Hayden, M.D. + Geological Explorations in Kansas Territory, by F. B. Meek and F. V. Hayden, published in the Rroceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia. 304 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. types of fossils, and a considerable thickness of rocks, in which we find great numbers of upper coal measure forms. We have preferred to give the section in this form, because, in the first place, the upper coal measures of this region pass by such imperceptible gradations into the Permian above, that it is very difficult to determine, with our present information, at what particular horizon we should draw the line between them, while on the other hand it is equally difficult to define the limits be- tween the Permian and beds above, in which we found no hossilss. = Jurassic or Triassic formations may occur above the Permian in the section just referred to. Messrs. Meek and Hayden state that “between No. 5 (of the Section) and the Cretaceous above, there is still a rather extensive series of beds in which we found no organic remains ; these may be Jurassic or Triassic or both, though as we have elsewhere suggested, we rather incline to the opinion that they may prove to belong to the former.” f Formation No. 1 of the Nebraska Series of the Creta- ceous rocks has not yet been recognized in Rupert’s Land. This formation reposes on Jurassic rocks in Nebraska territory at the Black Hills.f It rests, as before stated, upon the limestones of the coal measures on the Mis- sourl, near the 42nd parallel. “There is at the base of the Cretaceous system, at distantly separated localities in Nebraska, Kansas, 'Ar- kansas, Texas, New Mexico, Alabama, and New Jersey, if not indeed everywhere in North America where that system is well developed, (at any rate east of the Rocky * Page 19, Geological Explorations in Kansas. t+ Page 21, ibid. t On the Lower Cretaceous Beds of Kansas and Nebraska, by F. B. Meek and F. V. Hayden.— Proceedings Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil, Dec. 1858, published in Am. Jour. Sci. page 219, 1859. CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN RUPERT'S LAND. 305 Mountains,) a series of various coloured clays and sand- stones, and beds of sand, often of great thickness. In this series organic remains, excepting leaves of apparently dicotyledonous plants, fossil wood, and obscure casts of shells, are very rarely found, but it everywhere preserves a uniformity of lithological and other characters, point- ing unmistakably to a similarity of physical conditions during their deposition, over immense areas. “ Although the weight of evidence thus far favours the conclusion that this lower series is of the age of the Lower Green Sand, or Neocomien, of the old world, we yet want positive evidence that portions of it may not be older than any part of the Cretaceous system.” Judging therefore, solely from the relation which the Cretaceous series bears to formations beneath them in their development through Rupert’s Land, Nebraska, and Kansas, we might expect to find on the Riding Mountain in the vertical section concealed by drift, beneath forma- tion No. 4, either formation No. 1, 2, and 3 of the Nebraska section, or members of the Jurassic and Per- mian as well as the Carboniferous series. In the Report on the Geological Survey of the State of Towa, published in 1858, the State geologist, James Hall, advances a highly important view of the relation of the Cretaceous formations to the Carboniferous Series. “ To- wards the Rocky Mountains, the paleozoic rocks are overlaid by the Cretaceous formation, which, in its lower arenaceous members, stretches from the northern lmits of the United States territories to the Gulf of Mexico, and throughout a great part of this extent rests uncon- formably upon the coal measures. “The line of junction of these two formations is obscured by the denudation of the higher one, and its finely comminuted materials are widely spread over the VOL. IL. ms 306 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. lower strata, forming with other materials the broad ex- panse of prairie deposit of the west.” * It is very gratifying to know that on the western side of the great basin between the Laurentides and the Rocky Mountains, and within the limit of the Saskat- chewan valley, the Carboniferous series are represented. Sir Roderick I. Murchison, in his address at the Anniversary Meeting of the Royal Geographical Society, in referring to the splendid results of the Palliser Expedition, says, “Thus in addition to the determination of latitude, longi- tude, and the altitude of the mountains and two of their passes, Dr. Hector presents us with a sketch of the physical and geological structure of the chain, with its axis of slaty sub-crystalline rocks, overlaid by limestones of Devonian and Carboniferous age, and flanked on the eastern face by Carboniferous sandstone, representing, probably, our own coal fields, the whole followed by those Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits which constitute the sub- soil of the vast and rich prairies watered by the North and South Saskatchewan, and their affluents.” F Ammonites. FROM M°KENZIE’S RIVER, PROBABLY FROM JURASSIC ROCKS. [The two Ammonites from McKenzie’s River, are not alone sufficient to determine the age of the rock from which they were obtained; the larger one bears consi- derable resemblance in form and general appearance to several Jurassic species though they may belong to the Cretaceous epoch. It is very desirable that a good series of specimens should be obtained from this remote * Remarks on the Tertiary and Cretaceous Formations of Nebraska, &c. &e., by F. B. Meek and F. V. Hayden, M.D. . t Page 318, Proceedings of the Royal Geological Society, vol. iii. No. 4. JURASSIC ROCKS OF M‘KENZIE RIVER. 307 northern locality, not only for the purpose of determining the age of the formation, but for the light they might throw upon far more interesting questions respecting the probable climatic conditions in these high northern lati- tudes during the secondary period. | After the above paragraph was published in my report on the expedition, page 182, Mr. Meek has written to me to say: “Since writing the paper on these fossils for your report, [ have seen some figures of Jurassic species from the Aleutian Islands as high north as about the 58th parallel. Amongst these there is an Ammonite (A. Wos- nesseuskt, Grewingk. — Trans. Mineralogical Society of St. Petersburgh, 1848-9, Pl. IV.) resembling one of those I have described in your report (A. Barnstonz) so nearly in some of its characters, as to strengthen my suspicions that the rock from which these fossils were obtained on McKenzie’s River may prove to be of Jurassic age. In the peculiar deep conical characters of the umbilicus of A. Wosnesseuskt, it is very similar to A. Barnstona but it is a more compressed shell, with straighter and more simple coste ; while its septa, if accurately drawn differ from those of .A. Barnstoni, 1 am rather inclined to the opinion that these rocks on McKenzie’s River will prove Jurassic, but we must wait for additional evidence before any positive opimion can be given.” The Rey. Samuel Haughton, F.R.S8., discusses the ques- tion of climate in the Arctic regions in relation to the Liassic fossils found in szdz on Prince Patrick Island and elsewhere north of the 75th parallel, in the geological account of the Arctic Archipelago, published in the Appen- dix to Captain McClintock’s Narrative. Professor Haugh- ton says, “ But what are we to say as to the question of temperature? It was certainly necessary for an Am- monite to have a sea free from ice, on which to float and x 2 308 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. bask in the pale rays of the Arctic sun; and therefore I claim a temperature for those seas, at least similar to that which now prevails in the British Islands ; and I may add that the Ammonite, from its habits, was essentially depen- dent on the temperature of the air as well as on that of the water.” | “There is at present a difference of 49° 5’ between the mean annual temperature of Pomt Wilkie and Dublin; and if this change of temperature be supposed to be caused by a change of the relative positions of land and water, the temperature of Dublin, or of some place on the same parallel of latitude, must be supposed to be raised to 99° 5’, while the temperature of the thermal equator will exceed 124°,—a temperature only a few de- grees below that requisite to boil an ege. I reject, without scruple, a theory that requires such a result, which must be considered as a minimum, as it is probable that the Ammonite required a finer climate than that of Britain for the full enjoyment of its existence. “The theory of central heat, also, appears to me to be open to the same objection, as a mode of explaining this remarkable geological fact; for it will simply add a constant to our present climates, leaving the difference to remain, as at present, to be accounted for by latitude and distribution of land and water. “The astronomical theory of Herschel, also, which would account for former changes of climate by changes in the radiating power of the sun, would only increase the temperature at each latitude, leaving the differences as at present. “The only speculation with which I am acquainted which is capable of solving this opprobrium geologicorum, is the hypothesis of a change in the axis of rotation of the earth, the admission of which, as a geological possi- GEOLOGICAL PROBLEM. 309 bility, is mathematically demonstrable, and which has recently had some singular evidence in its favour ad- vanced by geologists. In 1851 I brought forward, at the Geological Society of Dublin, a case of augular frag- ments of granite, occurring in the carboniferous limestone of the county Dublin, and explained the phenomena by the supposition of the transporting power of ice. In 1855 Professor Ramsay laid before the Geological Society of London a full and detailed theory of glaciers and ice as agents concerned in the formation of a remarkable breccia, of Permian age, occurring in the central counties of England; and still more recently the same agent has been employed by the geological surveyors of India to account for the transport of materials at geological periods long antecedent to those in which ice transport is commonly supposed to have commenced. The motion of the earth’s axis would reconcile all the facts known, and it must be regarded as a geological desideratum to determine its amount and direction, and to assign the cause of such a movement. ‘The solution of this problem I regard as quite possible.” * This very interesting question has already been solved by the distinguished French mathematician, M. Leverrier. At p. 163 of tome iu. of the Annales de 0 Observatoire Impérial de Paris, M. Leverrier gives 4° 51’ 42” as THE SUPERIOR LIMIT OF THE INCLINATION OF THE EARTH’S ORBIT UPON THE ECLIPTIC OF 1800, subject, however, to small corrections depending on any possible inaccuracies in the values of the planetary masses employed in his researches. Mr. J. R. Hind, Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac, to whom I am indebted for the subjomed table, states that the amount of correction cannot well exceed 8’, and * Appendix to a Narrative of the Discovery of the Fate of Sir John Franklin and his Companions, by Captain McClintock, R.N., p. 395. x3 310 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. probably is much less. The elements of the earth’s orbit for periods of 10,000 years, reckoning backwards from A.D. 1800, are subjoined, from which it will be seen that the axis of rotation of the earth oscillates between certain small limits (4° 51’ 42”), not sufficient to account for the change in the climate of the Arctic regions which the presence of the fossils there appears to involve. Probably the influence of currents, similar to the Gulf stream of the present epoch, may have been instrumental in elevating the temperature of those regions, and pro- ducing a climate which would admit of the existence of Ammonites and plants, which can only flourish in a temperate zone. ELEMENTS OF THE EARTH’S ORBIT, ACCORDING TO M. LEVERRIER. Longitude . pigs ; - 5 fore Excentricity. - ofthe Inclination. 4 a pat eg erihelion. ‘ ° / On aaah fe) / — 100,000 0:0478 316 18 8 45 31 96 34 — 90,000 0:0452 340 2 2 42 19 16.17 — 80,000 0:0898 413 Il 1858 73 47 — 70,000 0°0816 VM ay a4 T-13 5S 136 8 — 60,000 0:0218 46 8 2 36-42 136.29 — 50,000 0:01381 Oa a 40 LG 9 — 40,000 00-0109 28 36 Acoma 91 59 — 80,000 O-0151 25 50 o 4he5i 66 49 — 20,000 0:0188 44 0 2 44 12 41 34 — 190,000 0:0187 78 28 | 24 Sam 16 39 0 0:0168 99.530 0: Oreo 0 O * * The longitudes are referred to the Ecliptic and Equinox of 1800. Mr. James Hall*, the present State Geologist of Iowa, considers that the great development of the lower mem- * Mr. James Hall, the author of that magnificent work, the Paleontology cf the State of New York, &c. &e. AMMONITES BARNSTONI. 311 ber of the Cretaceous formations in Western lowa and the adjoining territories of Nebraska and Kansas, and its extension below the line where any well-marked Creta- ceous species have been found, “ suggests very strongly that we shall yet find lower geological formations, or those of the age of the Jura, or Oolite of Kurope.”* The discovery of Oolitic or Liassic rocks in Exmouth Island by Captain Belcher ; of Ammonites, Spirifer, Pec- ten, &c. by Captain McClintock in Prince Patrick Island, lat. 76° 30’, long. 117° W. in localities corresponding to the northerly trend of the Carboniferous limestone of the Rocky Mountain region, and the great thickness of the rocks on an outher of the Llana Estacado below any well marked Cretaceous fossils, indicate, Mr. Hall thinks, “ the probable occurrence of lower fossiliferous rocks, or those of Jurassic age, along the whole length of the Rocky Mountains, and probably coextensive with the lower members of the Cretaceous Series.” Ammonites Barnstont. (N. 8S.) [Shell compressed, subglobose, broadly rounded on the dorsum, and prominent or subangular around the um- bilicus which is deep, conical, and nearly as broad as the outer whorl. Volutions having thei greater diameter at right angles to that of the shell; each of the inner ones about three-fourths hidden in the profound ventral groove of the succeeding turn. Surface ornamented by distinct recular costee, which are sharply elevated around the um- bilicus, into small elongated subnodose prominences ; and at less than half the distance across the sides of the whorl, their number is increased nearly threefold by division and * Geological Survey of Iowa, page 144. x 4 312 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. implantation ; after which they become of uniform size, and arch gently forward in passing over the dorsum. The septa are deeply divided into five principal lobes and six saddles, which are crowded together, and va- riously branched and subdivided. The dorsal lobe is a \ \ \\ ts tlt: \ OZ AZZAA SS WA ——S = =e ——— ———— LSS SS S== SS —— AmMoNITE Barnstont. Side view, showing the deep umbilicus. little longer than wide, and has three branches on each side, the two terminals of which are nearly straight and parallel; the first two lateral branches above these, are nearly of the same size, but more diverging ; while the third pair are much smaller—and all sharply digitate, and more or less subdivided. ‘The dorsal saddle is longer than wide, contracted in the middle, and irregularly di- vided into four unequal branches, the two terminals of which are subdivided into two branchlets each, and all obtusely digitate, and variously sinuous in the margins. ha SEPTA OF AMMONITES BARNSTONI. 313 The superior lateral lobe is longer than the dorsal lobe, but very irregularly branched, and, like it, provided with —S = = ——- Ss ; = sh A = 3 = Front view of the same specimen. numerous sharp digitations on all its divisions; at the extremity it has three very unequal branches, the middle one of which 1s much longer than the others, and very slender; the other two are small, unequal, opposite, and diverging ;—that on the right being subdivided nearly to its base: above these there are several other unequal alternating lateral branches, one of which on the right side is much larger than the others. The lateral saddle is rather smaller than the dorsal, and divided at the ex- tremity into two very unequal branches, of which the 314 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. one on the left is larger than the other, and again deeply divided into two bifid and deeply sinuous branchlets. The inferior lateral lobe is much smaller than the superior, and very irregularly divided into two or three alternating By Diagram of one of the septa of Ammonrres BarnsTont. unequal lateral branches on each side, and one terminal branch, with numerous sinuosities. The ventral lobe is very small, and simply digitate. This species bears considerable resemblance in form, and in the size and character of its umbilicus, to the Jurassic species A. irens, D’Orbigny (Pal. Franc., tome 1. p. 562, pl. 222), but differs in having the costee pinched up into little subnodose prominences around the umbilicus, and bifurcating on the sides; they are also much more arched in passing over the dorsum. TJt is quite different ee | aan th AMMONITES BILLINGSI. 315 from any of the described species from the Nebraska rocks, though I think I have seen some fragments of it in Lieut. Warren’s collections from No. 4 of the Nebraska cretaceous subdivisions. The specific name is given in honour of Mr. George -Barnston, chief factor of the Hudson’s Bay Company, who discovered it in the valley of Mackenzie’s River. It is probably a Cretaceous species, but may be of Jurassic age. | Ammonites Ballingsi. Fig.l. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. os NOS Fig. 1.—Side view. Fig. 2.—One of the septa enlarged. Fig. 3.—Front view of same specimen. [Shell moderately compressed, or subdiscoidal ; dorsum rounded ; umbilicus very small; volutions having their ereater breadth at right angles to the shorter diameter of the shell, increasing rather rapidly m size, or more than doubling their diameter each turn; inner ones entirely embraced, and hidden in the ventral groove of the last turn : surface apparently smooth, but showing very faint traces of radiating coste, which arch a little in crossing the dorsum. Dorsal lobe longer than wide, provided with three branches on each side, the two terminal of which are much longer than the others, and each subdivided,—the subdivisions being short, and each having two or three 316 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. small digitations ; the first two lateral branches above these are small, opposite, very diverging, and bifid or digitate; and the third pair very small, and apparently simple. The dorsal saddle is as long as the dorsal lobe, but narrower, and has three or four short obtusely rounded branches on each side. The superior lateral lobe is nearly as large as the dorsal saddle, and has three subequal branches at the extremity,—that on the dorsal side being bifurcate, with digitate divisions; and the middle, and other lateral divisions, are provided with three or more small digitations each. The mferior lateral lobe is much smaller than the superior lateral, and has much the same form, excepting that its terminal division is proportionally larger, and the principal lateral division on the dorsal side is not so deeply divided. The ventral lobe is a little smaller, but in other respects very similar to the inferior lateral lobe ; between it and the umbilicus there appears to be one or two smaller auxiliary ventral lobes, which seem to show a tendency to branch in the same way as the principal ventral lobe. The specimen from which the foregoing description was made out, is evidently a young shell ; consequently, adult individuals of the same species may be expected to possess much more distinct coste. The lobes and saddles of the septa, in old shells, will also be found much more deeply divided and more complex, but the mode of branching probably remains the same from the time the ee divisions are formed. As the specimen described was found in the matrix filling the umbilicus of A. Barnstoni (being only 0°67 inch in its greatest diameter), it might be supposed by those who know how widely the Ammonites sometimes vary at dif- ferent ages, that it may be the young of that species. It presents fundamental differences, however, in the mode of AMMONITES BILLINGSI. 317 branching of the lobes and saddles of its septa, that can- not be due to different stages of development. In addi- tion to this, I found along with ita much smaller specimen, evidently the young of A. Barnstoni, which shows that the young of that species did not vary in form materially from the adult, and is quite different from the species now under consideration. Tt has much the form of A. Hall, Meek and Hayden meroceed. Acad. Nat. Sci, Phil., vol. vin. p. 70), and there are no differences in the structure of the dorsal lobes of the two, that might not be due to different degrees of development. Their superior lateral lobes and dorsal saddles, however, present radical differences, such as we never see in the same species, however widely they may differ im size or age. I have named this species in honour of Mr. E. Billings, the accomplished Palontologist of the Canadian Geolo- gical Survey. | 318 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. CE AE x, THE CRETACEOUS SERIES.— TERTIARY FORMATIONS. Distribution of the Cretaceous Series in Western North America.—The Nebraska Section.—Vertical Section in Nebraska and Rupert’s Land.— Formation No. 1.—Formation No. 2.—Formation No. 3.—Formation No. 4. — Great Development of Formation No, 4 in Rupert’s Land.—Fossils, — Steatitic Minerals.—Analysis of.—Anomia Flemingi.—Inosceramus Cana- densis.—Leda Hindi.—Scaphites Nodosus.—Clay Iron-stone.—Bands of this Formation.—Distribution of—Richness of.—Analysis of.—Forma- tion No. 5 of the Nebraska Section. —Its Occurrence on the Flanks of Rocky Mountains.—Fossils of—Avicula Lingueeformis.—Avicula Ne- brascana.—Nautilus Dekayi. TERTIARY Formations.—Lignite on the Riding and Duck Mountains.—Sand Dunes probably derived from Ter- tiary Rocks.—Tertiary Coal.—Lignite Basin of the Missouri.—Lignite on the North Saskatchewan.—On Red. Deer River.—On the South Branch. —Lignites of Oregon and British Columbia. Tue Cretaceous Series are more extensively distributed in Rupert’s Land, than any other fossilferous formations. This remark, indeed, is susceptible of extension to the continent of North America, where the extraordinary development ef this series may be inferred from the fact, that they have been traced continuously from beyond the North _ Branch gf the Saskatchewan to the Gulf of Mexico, and under the 52nd parallel, nearly across the fossiliferous basin, or over 12° of longitude. Its eastern boundary in Rupert’s Land is shown approxi- mately by the Pembina Mountain, and the continuation of that ancient sea coast, to the main Saskatchewan below sats | tanta iil THE NEBRASKA VERTICAL SECTION. 319 Fort a la Corne, thence north-westerly. Cretaceous rocks were recognized by Dr. Hector* at the Snake Portage, in lat. 54° long. 111° 30’; also on Little Red Deer River, at the base of the Rocky Mountains, in lone. 114°. This important series, as it occurs in Nebraska, has been carefully studied by Messrs. Meek and Hayden. In the notes explanatory of a map and section illustrating the geological structure of the country bordering on the Missour1 River, Dr. Hayden has described the rocks of Nebraska Territory +, where the Cretaceous Series is best developed; and as this division, styled the NeBRAsKA SEc- TION, forms the standard to which the Cretaceous rocks of the north-west are referred on the American Continent, the following division of the series in Rupert’s Land is based upon the Nebraska Section. The vertical section of the geological formations of Nebraska Territory, with their extension into Rupert’s Land, as far as determined, is given on pp. 320, 321. FORMATION NO. 1, OF VERTICAL SECTION. The following excellent descriptions, enclosed in brackets, of the formations constitutmg the Nebraska Section, are from the clear and concise “ Notes Explana- tory of a Map,’ &c., by F. B. Meek and F. V. Hayden, M.D. They are introduced here for the purpose of com- parison with the development of the same formations in Rupert’s Land. * Papers relative to the Exploration of British North America. Blue Book, 1859. . + Notes explanatory of a Map and Section illustrating the Geological Structure of the Country on the Missouri River from the Mouth of the Platte River to Fort Benton, in lat. 47° 30’ N., long. 110° 30’ W., by F. V. Hayden, M.D. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., May, 1857. EXPEDITION. SASKATCHEWAN ASSINNIBOINE AND 320 ‘snsopou saguydnoy ‘pzuaonjd saqvuowupy “SULT DPIT URMOTOJBYSBG 9} Jo Youvsrg Ynog—"sagruowmmp . : , , , ; . . 14:45 CaO ‘ : : : ; ; . Sees MgO . ; : ‘ ’ 4 ;~ 25 FeO : ; 2 ; ‘ «S685 KO : ; : , . i> O42 HO : : : ; : : . 24°36 99:97 On the Quwappelle River this rock is again seen below the Big Cut-arm Creek, and near the Scissors Creek, also at White Sand River near Fort Pelly, and on Birdstail Creek east of the Assinnibome. Although no distinc- tive organic forms were procured, yet the lithological aspect of the rock is the same as on the Little Souris. This remark apples also to the outcrop on the Riding Mountain. An exposure, a few miles below the mouth of the “River that Turns” on the South Branch of the Saskat- chewan, contains at its base a hard calcareous sandstone, containing Avicula lingueformis; below it is a soft sandstone destitute of fossils. It 1s not improbable that the strata above the second concretionary layer pass into Formation 5 of the Nebraska section, and represent the upper Cretaceous series in this region. Formation No. 4, as developed on the Little Souris * This analysis was kindly furnished me by H. H. Croft, D.C.L., Professor of Chemistry in University College, Toronto. CLAY IRON-STONE ON THE SOURIS. 329 River, is distinguished by nodular masses of clay iron- stone of great richness and in extraordinary profusion. The locality where the clay iron-stone was first re- marked occurs fifteen miles from the pomt where the Little Souris debouches into the Assinniboine. Here the rock consists of a dark-blue argillaceous shale with clay iron-stone layers. The nodular masses vary from eighteen inches to three inches in diameter. They are generally of a compressed elliptical form, and vary from two to nineteen inches in thickness. They form horizontal tiers in the rock, and are often separated by steel-grey and light ash-grey argillaceous bands, which also contain thin seams of clay iron-stone of irregular thickness, and not continuous for many yards. Where the river has excavated a passage through the Blue Hills of the Souris, the nodules of clay iron-stone are seen disposed in regular layers, jutting out of the cliff and presenting different colours, varying from steel- grey to reddish-brown and light buff-brown, according to the length of time they have been exposed to the action of the atmosphere and the freedom of the ore from mechanical admixtures, such as clay, lime, and magnesia. A few miles west of the Blue Hills of the Souris, near Plum Creek, the nodular masses of clay lron-stone were everywhere distributed in the river and on the beach. They formed, in fact, the chief constituents of the bottom of the river, and it may be said to flow in this locality over coarse clay iron-stone gravel. The section at the spot referred to, was seventy feet thick, exposed in the form of a nearly perpendicular cliff’ The whole of the layers were either tinged with peroxide of iron or of a purple hue, according to the degree of humidity to which they had been exposed by deine from the prairie or springs. Where the clay iron-stone bands were first observed 330 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. the river was flowing in a 8.W. by 8. direction; this course it maintained for about thirteen miles; and then suddenly turning at right angles, the valley pursues a N.W. by W. course for twenty-six miles, it then turns to the SW. again. For thirteen miles along the south- westerly course, and twenty-three miles along the north- westerly, course the iron-stone bands were seen whenever the river was approached, and throughout the greater portion of the distance the opposite bank and the rocks ' composing it were clearly visible, always preserving the same aspect, and showing numerous clay iron-stone bands. Hence we may infer that over this part of the country drained by the Souris, the clay iron-stone is an integral and important part of Formation No. 4, occurrmg in the form of a series of bands of nodules or as thin sheets of the ore, sometimes possessing thickness sufficient to sive them great economic value, at other times thinning out altogether. On the flanks of the Riding Mountam, about ninety miles N. from the great bend of the Little Souris, For- mation No. 4 was recognized, and although in the valley of Ochre River nodular masses of clay iron-stone were seen, yet the layers were not observed forming a pro- minent feature in the exposure on the flanks of the precipitous and elevated N.E. escarpment of the Riding Mountain. But no search was made for them during the ascent, and snow covered the ground when we returned. From the circumstance that the nodular masses of ore were seen in the bed of Ochre River, it is not mmprob- able that the iron bearing layers extend as far N. as the Riding Mountain. Associated with the clay iron- stone beds on the Souris is a very persistent band of the steatitic mineral already noticed (p. 328), pale greenish- yellow in colour, very unctuous and soft, and easily CLAY IRON-STONE ON THE SOURIS. 331 ‘moulded into forms by the hand. One bank on the Little Souris is four inches thick. Others above and below it vary from half an mech, and of irregular thick- ness, to three inches. The soap-stone bands were noticed on a,small tributary of the Little Saskatchewan, itself an affluent of the Assinniboine, where Formation No. 4 crops out. half way between the great bend of the Souris and the Riding Mountain. It is not improbable that the clay iron-stone bands extend without interruption from the Little Souris to the Riding Mountain. They would be deeply covered with drift or the superior formations between the summit of the Riding Mountain and the Assinniboine, hence, as sources of iron-ore, not available under the present cir- cumstances of the country. On the Little Souris the drift is very shallow, sometimes composed almost altogether of the ruins of the formation itself, hence, over wide areas in its valley the ore is easily accessible, and many thousand tons of nodules could be picked from the exposed rock or from the bed of the river, to be annually renewed by the wearing away of the surface of the cliffs. A very rapid survey showed that this annual renewal might be expected to take place, to a certain extent, for a distance of thirty-six miles on each side of the river, over an exposed surface of seventy- two miles in all, without reckoning the vast accumulations which must occupy the bends of the river where spits or beaches are formed. It has been stated at the beginning of this chapter that the Cretaceous rocks extend from the North Branch of the Saskatchewan to the frontier of Mexico, in part flanking the Rocky Mountains. In Nebraska and Kansas their physical and geological characteristics have been more or less studied, and it would be interesting to know 332 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. whether the clay iron-stone forms there a constituent of Formation No. 4. Mr. Meek informs me that clay lron-stone concretions occur at many places in the fourth division of the Creta- ceous rock in Nebraska, but he has no knowledge of its occurrence there in quantities tel to be considered of much value. The Quartzose sand, highly fenaeinias throughout New Jersey, is one of the representatives of Formations 4 and 5 of the Nebraska Section, probably of No. 4. The richness of the clay iron-stones of the Little Souris may be inferred from the following comparison : — The principal ore from which iron is smelted in England and Scotland is the carbonate of iron of the coal measures. It occurs chiefly in the form of nodular masses associated with the strata of coal. This ore yields from 50 to 40 per cent. iron of good quality. The iron-ore of the Little Souris varies in quality, many nodular masses appearing to consist nearly alto- gether of carbonate of iron, and possess a semi-crystalline arrangement like the sparry iron of the unfossiliferous rocks. An approximate analysis of several specimens gave 75 to 85 per cent. of proto-carbonate of iron, which would answer to 34 per cent. and 41 per cent. of pure iron respectively. I am indebted to Professor Croft for an exact analysis of a fragment of a nodule which he took, without making any particular selection, from my specimens. He found 82°720 per cent. of proto-carbonate of iron, which is equal to 39:930 per cent. of iron, or very eens 40 per cent. _ The richest specimen selected by Dr. Colquhoun, from the sparry iron-ores of the Glasgow coal-field, gave 41:25 per cent. of pure iron. This differs by 1320 per Apoke RICHNESS OF THE IRON-ORE ON THE SOURIS. 323 cent. from the specimen analyzed by Professor Croft, and I am convinced that a little care in selection would establish the fact that the iron-ores of the Souris would take a very high rank in point of richness in metal among the most celebrated English and Scotch clay iron- stone ores. Subjoimed is Professor Croft’s analysis : — Clay iron-stone from the Little Souris. Bee CON. : : par ew eA0 CaO; “CO, . 3 662/05 MeO, CO,. . : : : : . trace Insoluble residue : : : ‘a yolel Phosphoric acid and loss. ‘ . 2°394 100-000 The following specimens are from Formation No. 4 of the vertical section in Rupert’s Land. Curious Spiral Fossil from the Two Creeks. [Several impressions, apparently of the stems of marine plants, occur in the specimens from the locality on the Assinniboine, near the mouth of the Two Creeks. Along with the above there are also specimens of a very curious spiral body, differing from any fossil I ever before met with. It is a long, slender, slightly flattened, or sub-cylindrical body, measuring in every part of its length about 0:18 inch in its greatest diameter, and very regularly coiled into a spiral form, the turns being widely 334 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. disconnected, like those of a cork-screw. Each turn measures about 0°58 inch across, and there are five turns in a length of 2°15 inches. It is smooth, and shows no organic structure under a common pocket lens, the organic matter having been replaced by the fine sediment of which the matrix is composed. Unless these are the tendrils or root-like appendages by which some floating plant clung to marine bodies, I can form no conjecture in regard to their nature. (See p. 333.)] Anomia Flemingi. (N. 8.) Two different specimens of this species. The fine concentric lines representing shading. [Shell oval or sub-circular, compressed plano-convex, extremely thin and fragile. Lower valve flat and ap- parently more nearly circular than the ether. Upper valve depressed, convex, rounded in front, and more broadly and less regularly rounded on the ventral side ; posterior margin obliquely subtruncate from the dorsal side, rather abruptly rounded, and waved so-as to form a broad very obscure fold at 1ts connexion with the ventral margin; beak small, compressed, located near the middle of the cardinal edge, but not projecting beyond it. Sur- face marked by small obscure lines of growth. Length 1:10 inches; breadth from beak to opposite side, 1 inch. ; INOCERAMUS CANADENSIS. 335 In Formation No. 4 of the Cretaceous beds in Nebraska there is a species something like this, which Dr. Hayden and I have described (but not yet published) under the name of A. subtrigonalis. The species now before me, however, is much more compressed, and more rounded in outline. It differs from A. tellinoides of Morton (Synop. Org. Rem., p. 61, pl. v. fig. 11), in being straighter on the cardinal side, and in having the umbo of the upper valve much less prominent and gibbous. Named after Mr. John Fleming, one of the gentlemen connected with the Saskatchewan expedition. Locality and position.—Little Souris River, in soft lead- srey argillaceous rock, or indurated clay, probably of the age of the fourth division of the Cretaceous Series in - Nebraska. | Inoceramus Canadensis. (N. S.) [Shell broad, oblong-oval, compressed, apparently very nearly equi-valve ; anterior side rounded; posterior side longer and more broadly rounded or sub-truncate ; base forming a semi-oval curve; hinge straight, of medium length ; beaks small, compressed, scarcely rising above the hinge line, located near the anterior side, not very oblique ; surface ornamented by small, obscure, irregular concentric undulations, and fine closely arranged rather indistinct lines of growth, which are generally only seen on the outer fibrous layer. Length of largest specimen about 3°35 inches; height near 2°80 inches. The specimens of this species in the collection are im- perfect, but retain enough of its characters to show it is distinct from any of the known species in the Nebraska formations. It resembles somewhat J. Sagensis, Owen, (Report, Wisconsin, lowa, and Minnesota, tab. vii. fig. 3,) 336 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. but is much more compressed, and longer in proportion to its height. SSS Zi, InockRAMUS CANADENSIS.—Left valve. It also bears some resemblance to I. regularis, D’Orbigny, eer The finer concentric lines represent shading. The small figure x 4 f the shell, magnified four Right valve. shows the fine striz seen on the outer fibrous layer o times. FOSSILS FROM THE SOURIS. 337 (Pal. France, T. HI. pl. 410,) but is not near so deeply rounded on the ventral border, and is more compressed. Locality and position.—Same as last. | Leda. Hindi. (N. 8.) Natural size. The same enlarged. [Shell small, sub-ovate, compressed; anterior side nar- rowly rounded ; pallial border forming a broad semi-oval or semi-ovate curve, not crenulate within; posterior side a little longer than the other, much compressed, distinctly sinuous below, and provided with a narrow, short, ob- tusely pointed rostriform extension above ; umbones de- pressed, located a little in. advance of the middle; hinge having about twelve teeth in front of the beaks, and pro- bably more behind ; surface ornamented by distinct, re- cularly arranged, rather strong concentric lines. Length 0-35 inch ; height 0-18 inch. This is a very neat little shell, which will be readily distinguished from any of the species yet known in the Nebraska Cretaceous rocks by the distinct sinus in its postero-ventral margin. Even where the border is broken away, the curve of the concentric lines will always show that the sinus did exist in its margin. The specimen does not show the pallial ine, but in form and general appearance the shell is more like Leda than Nucula; it may, however, possibly belong to the latter genus. The specific name is given in honour of Professor Henry Y. Hind, of Trinity College, Toronto, in charge of the Assinniboine and Saskatchewan Exploring Expedition, to whose zeal and industry we are indebted for much interesting information respecting the geology and topo- graphy of the country explored. VOL. II. Z 338 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. Locality and position. — Little Souris River, from an equivalent to No. 4 of the Nebraska section. | Scaphites Nodosus [?| Var. Scaputtes Noposus.—Side view. [Scaphites nodosus [?]—Owen, 1852. Rept. Iowa, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. 3 : Locality. —South Branch of the Saskatchewan, from an equivalent of Formation No. 4 of Nebraska Section. | Ammonites. — Sp. undt. (fragments). [Locality and position.—Two Creeks, Eq. No. 4 of the Nebraska Cretaceous series. | Natica Obliquata. [ Natica obliquata.—Hall and Meek, Mem. Acad. Arts and Sci, Boston, vol. v. n. 8. p. 384, pl. iu. fig. 1. Locality and position. —Two Creeks, on the Assinni- AVELLANA CONCINNA. , 339 boine; in bed representing Formation No. 4 of the Nebraska Cretaceous series. | Front view of Scaphites Nodosus. The fine lines represent shading. The specimen figured shows the remains of two rows of tubercles on the dorsum —one on each side. They are much worn, and have been unfortunately omitted altogether by the artist. Avellana Concinna. [ Acton concinna.— Hall and Meek, Mem. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., Boston, vol. v. N. 8. p. 388, pl. 11. fig. 6. The specimen of this species, first figured in the paper above cited, is either a young individual, or the outer lip was broken away; for that now before me, which is evidently the same species, has a strong thickened outer lip; consequently, it cannot be a true Actwon, but agrees more nearly with the characters of the genus Avellana. Locality and position.—Same as last. | Z 2 340 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. Ammonites Placenta. [Ammonites placenta. —Dekay, N. Y. Lyc. Nat. Hist., vol. u. pl. v, fig. 2; Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., vol. vi. p: 88, &c. ; Morton, Synop, Ore, fem... p. 36, ph a figs. 1 and 2. Locality and position.—South Branch of the Saskat- chewan, from an equivalent of Formation No. 4 of the Nebraska Cretaceous series. | FORMATION NO. 5 OF VERTICAL SECTION. This very interesting bed, though differing lithologically from the preceding one, contains many of the same species of fossils. It is worthy, however, of a distinct position in the series, not only from its extent, thickness, and difference of composition, but also from the more favourable influence that it exerts upon the country un- derlaid by it. In ascending the Missouri River it first makes its appearance near the mouth of Grand River, about 150 miles above Fort Pierre. Near Butte aux Greés it becomes quite conspicuous, acquiring a thickness of eighty or one hundred feet, and containing great quan- tities of organic remains. Here it forms an extension of what is called Fox Ridge, a series of high hills having a north-west and south-east course, crossmg the Missouri River into Minnesota at this pomt. Its north-eastern limits I have not ascertamed. In its south-western ex- tension it continues for a considerable distance nearly parallel with the Missouri, crosses the Moreau River about thirty miles above its mouth, then forms a high dividing ridge between the Moreau and Sheyenne Rivers, at which locality it first took its name. Continuing thence its south-westerly course, it crosses the Sheyenne, and is seen again In its full thickness at the heads of Opening GENERAL CHARACTER OF FORMATIONS. 341 Creek and Teton River, forming a high ridge from which tributaries of the Sheyenne and Teton take their rise. The little streams flowing into the Sheyenne have a north- westerly course, while those emptying into the Teton take a south-easterly direction. We thus find that this bed underlies an area of about 200 miles in length and fifty miles in breadth, or about 10,000 square miles. The general character of Formation No. 5 is a yellow arenaceous and argillaceous grit, containing much ferru- ginous matter, and in localities a profusion of molluscous fossils. It forms a much more fertile soil, more hearty and luxuriant vegetation, sustains a finer growth of timber than Formation No. 4, and abounds in springs of good water. Like No. 4, this bed yields a great abundance of quite perfect and well-preserved organic remains. Many of the species approximate so closely to Tertiary forms, that did we not find them everywhere associated with Ammo- nites, Scaphites and other genera which are not known to have existed later than the Cretaceous epoch, we should at once pronounce the formation in which they occur, Tertiary. The whole thickness of this bed is estimated at 100 to 150 feet. | The rocks at. La Roche Percée near the boundary line (long. 103° 59’), with their associated coal beds,*described by Dr. Hector, are probably of the age of No. 5, as well as those seen by the same gentleman on the west side of the outer range of hills close to the main chain of the Rocky Mountains. An exposure of this formation occurs on the Eyebrow Hill stream, where it joins the Qu’appelle Valley. A fer- ruginous clay in yellow and red layers reposes on a hard sreenish-coloured sandstone, seamed with veins of selenite, and containing huge coneretions. No fossils were found in the rock. Z3 342 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. The upper part of the section on the South Branch, con- taining concretions full of Avicula Nebrascana, is doubt-- less the representative of No. 5 in this region. [Several of the specimens obtained near Sand Hill Lake on Qu’appelle River, and the South Branch of the Sas- katchewan, are from a green sandstone, which is more indurated, but in other respects more like the green sands of New Jersey, than any I have before seen from north- western localities. In some of these, there are great numbers of Avicula lingueformis and A. Nebrascana, the first of which occurs in both Nos. 4 and 5 of the Nebraska section, but is more abundant in the latter ; and the other is nearly or quite restricted to No. 5, where the two formations are not blended as is sometimes the case. As this rock differs entirely in its lithological characters from Formation No. 4,—while No. 5 is often highly arenaceous, and sometimes assumes a slight greenish tinge, at the higher northern localities in the Upper Missouri country,—the probability is that 1t represents No. 5, or the most recent member of the Cretaceous Series of the north-west. | Among the specimens procured from the South Branch were Scaphites Conradi, Nautilus Dekayi, Avicula lin- guefornis, Avicula Nebrascana, Rostellaria Americana. Avicula Lingueformis. An imperfect specimen of this species. The lines represent shading. [Avicula lingueformis, Evans and Shumard, Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. vii. p. 163. resfla ee ao er eee AVICULA NEBRASCANA.—NAUTILUS DEKAYI. 343 Locality and position —Sandy Hills; South Branch of the Saskatchewan. Height of Land in the Quwappelle Valley, near the Elbow of South Branch of the Saskatche- wan.—Upper Cretaceous. | Avicula Nebrascana. Two specimens of this species. [Avicula Nebrascana, Hivans and Shumard, Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis, vol. 1. p. 38. Locality and position.—sSouth Branch of the Saskatche- wan.—Upper Cretaceous. | Nautilus Dekayt. Front view. z4 344 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. Nautilus Dekayt.—Morton, 1834. Synop. Org. Rem., pl. vin. fig. 4, and pl. xii. fig. 4. AY Xfi \ \ \ \ INA | (\ ii i) a 1 WS ( hf arth Va (iq! Nea '{(i ( Al i, = AR ay } HT] ai at YY Dine Al WN" cr Side view of Nautilus Dekayi. Locality and position.—South Branch of the Saskatche- wan.—Upper Cretaceous. 7 Rostellaria Americana. Rostellaria Americana.—Evans and Shumard, Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci., vol. 1. p. 42. - ; Locality and position.—South Branch of the Saskatche- wan,—Upper Cretaceous. Scaphites Conradt. Ammonites Conradi.— Morton, 1834. Synop. Ore. Rem., p. 39, pl. xix. fig. 4. TERTIARY FORMATIONS. 345 Scaphites Conradi.—D’Orbigny, 1850. Prodromus, p. (214. Ammonites Nebrascensis, jc. —Owen, 1852. Rep. Iowa, &c. 7 Scaphites Conradi.—Meek and Hayden, 1856. Acad. Matvocw Phila. px 28). Locality and position.—South Branch of the Saskatche- _ wan.—No. 5, Nebraska Section, or most recent Cretaceous. TERTIARY FORMATIONS. No evidence of Tertiary rocks in position east of the South Branch of the Saskatchewan was obtained during the exploration. On the crest and abrupt sides of the Riding, Porcupine, and Thunder Mountains, the Indians affirm that beds of Lignite exist, a statement rendered probable by the occur- rence of worn fragments in the drift of the valleys of the rivers flowing from those eminences. But this does not establish the existence of Tertiary rocks on these elevations or their flanks, for Dr. Hector found at La Roche Percée, near the flanks of the Grand Coteau, Lignite bands in a formation which much re- sembles Formation No. 5 of the Nebraska section, and from the occurrence of the underlying formation on the Riding Mountain, itis not improbable that Formation No. 5 is found in position there with associated beds of Lignite. The sand dunes, which form so distinguishing a feature near the Elbow of the South Branch, may have been derived from Tertiary sandstones formerly overlying the upper Cretaceous rocks in that vicinity. In a foot-note on page 139 of the Geology and Paleontology of the Mexican Boundary Line, Prof. James Hall says that 346 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. the drifting sands of the south-west, like those of the north, appear to be ‘derived from the sandstones of the Tertiary period. | In the Upper Saskatchewan, Tertiaries containing Coal or Lignite are well developed; also on the flanks of the Rocky Mountains. They are mentioned in the following notices of the Lignites of the north-west. TERTIARY COAL, OR LIGNITE. Although the Lignites are not generally available for economic purposes, yet some seams sufficiently pure for use are known to exist in the great Lignite basin of the Upper Missouri and Saskatchewan. THE TERTIARY COAL OF THE NORTH-WEST. 347 extensive formation vary in thickness as well as in purity at different localities. On the Yellowstone they are found seven feet in thickness. At Fort Berthold on the Missour1 a two-foot bed is pure enough to be used as tuel.* Governor Stevens states, in his Report of the Exploration of a route for the Pacific Railway, that Lignite has been traced from the Coulées of the Mouse (Little Souris) River to the head waters of Milk River, a distance of 500 miles, apparently underlying the whole of that extensive district of country, with a thickness of bed varying from a few inches to six feet; he regards it as a source of fuel not to be overlooked. The Coal or Lignite at Edmonton occurs in three or four beds, the principal of which is from four to six feet thick. Dr. Hector says that it is of very inferior quality, burns with no flame, but rather smoulders away, leaving a plen- tiful ash. It is used in the forge at the Fort, and found to answer tolerably well. At Rocky Mountain House, Dr. Hector found the beds containing Tertiary coal exposed on the banks of the Saskatchewan, but no bed exceeded two feet in thickness. The coal-bearing strata are exhibited more or less all the way from Rocky Moun- tain House to Fort Edmonton, 211 mules by the river. Four miles below this place the coal was seen by Dr. Hector for the last time im descending the river on the ice, and eighty miles below the Fort the associated beds disap- pear, and upper Cretaceous rocks come to the surface conformably.t * Page 9. Remarks on the Tertiary and Cretaceous Formations of Nebraska, &c.. by F. B. Meek and F. V. Hayden, M.D. + Pacific Railway Reports, vol. i. p. 95. t Blue Book. 348 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. An extensive deposit of Tertiary coal was found by the same gentleman on Red Deer River, in lat. 52° 12’ N, long. 113° W. associated with the same sands and clays as at Edmonton. One group of three beds measured twenty feet in thickness, of which twelve feet was pure coal, the remainder being carbonaceous clays. This deposit on Red Deer River extends over fourteen miles. On the South Branch they are said to exist, by Sir Alexander Mackenzie, in long. 116° W.; but as the country between the Elbow and the mouth of Bow River is still im part a terra imcognita, 1t is not improb-- able that important Lignite beds may be found much ‘further east than the longitude specified by that illustrious traveler.* At Nanino, Vancouver’s Island, lignite beds, long con- jectured to be of Tertiary age, but now known to be Cretaceous (Dr. Hector), have been worked to some extent for the San Francisco market, and to supply steamers which touch there. Some years since Dr. Evans, U.S. Geo., described the coal of Oregon and British Columbia. He says, “ These coals do not belong to the true coal measures but to the Tertiary period; they have, however, been altered by voleanic action. _The Bellmgham Bay coal particularly, in consequence, is of a remarkable crystalline structure, and presents under the magnifier a very singular and beautiful appearance. It will produce excellent coke, and is well-suited to manufacturme and domestic pur- poses. It burns freely and although rather light for long sea voyages, unless the construction of furnaces should be * Foot note, page 110, Am. Ed. Sir John Richardson’s Arctic Searching Expedition. + Pacific Railway Report, vol. vi., Geological Report. LIGNITES OF RUPERT’S LAND. 349 © changed, lessening the draft, is suitable for river naviga- tion. The coal crops out at various points from the British line to near Port Oxford in Oregon, and is acces- sible to sail and steam navigation, and almost mexhaustible in quantity. These coals with imperfect machines and facilities for mining can be delivered ready for shipment at from 28 to 38 per ton.” Beds of Lignite are found at many places in Texas. A bed four feet thick occurs on the Colorado, near Bastrop, beneath a layer of Hocene fossils. This mineral is also found on the Brazos*, and exists in abundance on the Rio del Norte, the river formmg part of the boundary line between the United States and» Mexico. Some specimens in the last-named locality are so bituminous as to be of no use in the blacksmith’s forge, where it runs together and becomes baked mto a solid mass. Seams of Lignite three to four feet thick are exposed on Elm Creek, a tributary of the Del Norte, and have been used and found valuable in a blacksmith’s forge. This Lignite occurs in Cretaceous formations. The occurrence of extensive Lignite beds in the valley of the Mackenzie is well-known, and from the foregoing enumeration of their distribution in Tertiary and Creta- ceous formations, it is evident that more or less continuous areas of this important mineral are to be found, along the flanks of the Rocky Mountains, from Mexico to the Arctic Sea. In Europe it is well-known that Tertiary Lignite deposits possess considerable economic value. They are worked in France, Germany, and Switzerland. In England, the Lignites of Devonshire, associated with beds of clay, are * Blake, Pacific Railway Reports, vol. ii. 350 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. about seventy feet thick. The strata of Lignite coal near the surface vary from eighteen inches to four feet in thickness, separated by beds: of brownish-clay of about the same dimensions. The lowermost stratum of Lignite coal is sixteen feet thick.* | * Phillips. CLIMATE OF THE CHAP. XLI. Climate of the Laurentides and the Prairies. — Frozen Lakes. — Mean Annual Temperature.—Arid and Humid Region.—Sources of Humidity. —Aridity West of the 98th Meridian.—Mississippi Valley. —Arid Region of the United States—Humid Region of the Valley of Lake Winnipeg.— Causes of.—Hlevation of the Country.—Humid Pacific Winds.—North- easterly Current.—The Arid Region.—Prevailing Winds.—Source of the Humidity.—Rocky Mountain Plateau.—Depression in.—Table of Eleva- tion of Plateau and Passes.—Hail Storms.—Thunder Sterms in 1858.— Progress of Dunes.—Summer Surface Wind.—Meteorology of Red River. —Winter Temperatures. — Winter Temperatures at Montreal. — Cold Terms.—Quebec Temperatures.—Climate of the South Branch of the Saskatchewan.—Limit of permanently frozen Soil.—Growth of Forests. —Tail of the Prairies.—Prairies Converted into Forest Land in Missouri. —Character of the Great Plains in the United States—Major Emory’s Statement. — Auroras. — October 2nd.— October 27th.— The Twilight Bow.—Indian Summer. THE climates of Canada and Rupert’s Land under the same parallels of latitude, vary to a considerable extent with the rock formations of the country. Throughout the undulating region of the Laurentides, between Lake Superior and Lake Winnipeg, the proportion of water to dry land is about one to two, not collected into one large water area, but distributed over the surface of the country in the form of countless thousands of lakes, ponds, and marshes. The intense cold of winter is sufficient to solidify the deepest lakes for a depth of several feet, and the thawing of so much ice in spring has the effect of absorbing and rendering latent the heat which would be VOL. IL. AA 354 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. otherwise expended in warming the soil and advancing vegetation. Lakes Winnipeg, Manitobah, and Winnipego-sis, to- gether with the smaller lakes belonging to the Winnipeg basin, are deeply frozen every winter ; ice often remains in their northern extremities until the beginning of June and greatly retards the progress of vegetation on their immediate shores. The country is clothed with forests giving rise to swamps where water accumulates. The prairies are fully exposed to solar radiation and soon part with their superabundant humidity. Hence one reason that, north of the 47th or 48th parallel, the mildness of the seasons increases rapidly as we advance towards the west, after leaving Red River. The improvement arises not only from greater longitude, but is influenced by the character of the rock formations by which the country is underlaid and surrounded. ‘The soil of the prairies is in general dry and is rapidly warmed by the rays of the sun in spring. The prairies enjoy too, north of the 58th parallel, the genial, warm and comparatively humid winds from the Pacific, which are felt as far north as the lati- tude of Fort Simpson.* The mean annual temperature of 40°, as determined by the Smithsonian Institution, passes through Canada and Lake Superior, curves northward and leaves the United States for British America at about the 103rd meridian, crossing the South Branch of the Saskatchewan north of the Elbow. The country embraced within the limits of our ex- plorations may be divided into two regions in relation to climate; the arid and the humid region. The vast tree- less prairie west of the Little Souris lies within that part of the area which receives comparatively a small annual * Colonel Lefroy; Meteorological observations at Lake Athabasca and Fort Simpson, p. 139, . ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES. 355 rain-fall, Its northern limit is roughly shown by the Qu’appelle Valley, or more accurately by an imaginary line drawn from the fishing lakes to the Moose Woods. North and east of this area the precipitation is consider- ably greater, and supplies the valley of the main Saskat- chewan, the Touchwood Hill Range, and the Valley of the Assinniboine with an abundance of moisture, which is protected and treasured by forests. The valley of Red River east of the Little Souris, or the 10lst degree of longitude, recetves much humidity from the moist winds coming from the Gulf of Mexico up the Valley of the Mississippi, and over the low height of land which separates the waters of Red River from those of the St. Peter. The Touchwood Hill Range and the country generally north of the Qu’appelle Valley, and in an easterly direction towards and beyond Lake Winnipeg, are made humid by the south-west Pacific wind, in concurrence with the pre- vailig east wind of this region. These phenomena are referred to in detail in succeeding paragraphs. The cause of the aridity and unfitness for settlement of fully one-third of the United States, has been ably dis- cussed by distinguished meteorologists. This remarkable feature, extending over a portion of the American con- tinent within the limits of the United States, of more than 1,000,000 square miles in area, is highly important in relation to the valley of the South Branch of the Sas- katchewan, to a large part of which the same peculiarity belongs. The physical geography of the arid region in the United States has been very admirably described by Dr. Joseph Henry.* “The general character of the soil between the Missis- * Meteorology in its Connexion with Agriculture, by Professor Joseph Henry, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. AA 2 356 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. sippi River and the Atlantic is that of great fertility, and as a whole, in its natural condition, with some exceptions at the west, is well supplied with timber. The portion also on the western side of the Mississippi, as far as the 98th meridian, including the States of Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, lowa, and Minnesota, and portions of the territory of Kansas and Nebraska, are fertile, though abounding in prairies and subject occasionally to droughts. But the whole space to the west, between the 98th meridian and the Rocky Mountains, denominated the Great American Plains, is a barren waste, over which the eye may roam to the extent of the visible horizon with scarcely an object to break the monotony. “From the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, with the exception of the rich but narrow belt along the ocean, the country may also be considered, in comparison with other portions of the United States, a wilderness unfitted for the uses of the husbandman; although in some of the mountain valleys, as at Salt Lake, by means of irrigation, a precarious supply of food may be obtained sufficient to sustain a considerable population, provided they can be induced to submit to privations from which American citizens generally would shrink. The portions of the mountain system further south are equally inhospitable, though they have been represented to be of a different character. In traversing this region, whole days are fre- quently passed without meeting a rivulet or spring of water to slake the thirst of the weary traveler. “We have stated that the entire region west of the 98th degree of west longitude, with the exception of a small portion of western Texas and the narrow border along the Pacific, is a country of comparatively little value to the agriculturist ; and, perhaps, it will astonish the reader if we direct his attention to the fact that this line, HUMID REGION OF THE VALLEY OF LAKE WINNIPEG. 357 which passes southward from Lake Winnipeg to the Gulf of Mexico, will divide the whole surface of the United States into two nearly equal parts. This statement, when fully appreciated, will serve to dissipate some of the dreams which have been considered as realities as to the destiny of the western part of the North American con- tinent. Truth, however, transcends even the laudable feelings of pride of country ; and, in order properly to - direct the policy of this great confederacy, it 1s necessary to be well acquainted with the theatre on which its future history is to be enacted and by whose character it will mainly be shaped.” HUMID REGION OF THE VALLEY OF LAKE WINNIPEG. Prominent among the causes which tend to give humi- dity, together with an elevated spring and summer temperature, to a part of the valley of Lake Winnipeg, there may be noticed: — First, the comparatively low elevation of the country above the sea level. The prairies of Red River within British territory are not more than 730 feet above the ocean. Those on the South Branch of the Saskatchewan, at the Elbow, do not exceed 1600 feet, and the mean elevation of the country between the South Branch and the Riding Mountain is only 1200 feet above the same level. The influence of the south winds from the Gulf of Mexico on the Red River valley has already been noticed. Second, the influence of the warm westerly winds from the Pacific Ocean in connexion with the prevailing north-east wind, which is one of the established physical phenomena of this part of British America. It would appear, at first sight, that the snow-capped ridges of the Cascade, Blue, and Rocky Mountains would abstract so AA3 308 : ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. much heat from the warm westerly winds coming from the Pacific Ocean, as to neutralize their mfluence upon the winter and spring temperature of a large part of the country drained by the Saskatchewan. Such, however, is not the case; and happily for the purpose of practically substantiating this apparent anomaly, we have indisput- able testimony. In the magnetical and meteorological observations at Lake Athabasca and Fort Simpson, by Colonel Lefroy, R. A., we find the followmg important observation, in relation to the phenomena of Pacific winds affecting the climate of the northern regions :— “ A local phenomenon of interest was observed several times at Fort Simpson (lat. 61° 51’ 7” N., long. 15° 5’ 40” W.), 460 miles from Sitka (1800 geo. miles from Toronto), in the rapid rise of the temperature of the air, when the wind changed to the south-west from an easterly direction. It appeared as if the warmer air of the Pa- cific Ocean were transferred across the neighbouring ridges of the Rocky Mountains with little loss of its tem- perature.” Much of the precipitation in the humid region is due to the Pacific winds, which are not so completely de- prived of their moisture in traversmg the Rocky Moun- tain Ranges as in lower latitudes, where the average altitude of these ranges is much higher, and the eastern slope of the mountain of a far greater mean annual tem- perature. The prevalent winds at Toronto and Lake Athabasca belong, as shown by Colonel Lefroy *, to different and nearly opposite systems. A north-westerly current pre- ponderates in the lower latitudes (43° 39’), a north-easterly current, inclined at an angle of about 117° prevails * Magnetical and Meteorological Observations at Lake Athabasca. | vaespsasaai THE ARID REGION. 359 in the higher one (58° 45’). Between these latitudes is a region of calm or of variable winds; and there can be no doubt that the north-easterly current materially affects the humidity of the climate of Rupert’s Land north of the 50th parallel. The prevalence of north and north- easterly winds during the winter months occasions a great precipitation of snow throughout the humid region. In the Touchwood Hill range, snow not unfrequently accu- mulates’in the woods, where it is undisturbed by winds, to the depth of two feet ; on the Riding and Duck Moun- tain the precipitation is also large, and throughout the humid region very much in excess of the precipitation in lower latitudes.* Forty-eight inches of rain and thirty-nine inches of snow were registered by Mr. Gunn near the Stone Fort, Red River, between June Ist, 1855, and May 31st, 1856. The precipitation at Toronto during the same period was thirty inches of rain and seventy-two of snow, giving an excess of humidity to the climate of the Red River Settlements, when compared with Toronto, which is represented by fourteen inches, a quantity exceeding the annual precipitation over the greater portion of the eastern flank of the Rocky Mountains south of the great Missouri bend. The arid region, or Great Plains, west of the 101st degree of longitude, receive a very small amount of pre- cipitation from the humid south winds coming up the Valley of the Mississippi from the Gulf of Mexico. It is too far south to be much affected by north-east winds, or the westerly winds from the Pacific. This vast treeless prairie forms, in fact, the northern limit of the great arid region of the eastern flank of the Rocky Mountains; but * Compare Lorin Blodget’s Rain Charts, AA4 360 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. still its humidity is greater than that of the plains south of the Missouri, im consequence of its high northern latitude. All the thunder-storms we encountered in 1858 in the valley of Lake Winnipeg, came from the west, south-west, or north-west, with one exception. I do not find a single record of thunder-storms with heavy rain coming from the south. This may have been an exceptional year, but the warmth and dryness, often oppressive, of the south wind, west of the 100th degree of longitude, contrasted strongly with the humidity and coolness of winds from the west. This phenomenon is directly opposed to those which prevail in lower latitudes, and may probably be explained as follows : — Warm air from the Pacific, loaded with moisture, passes at certain periods of the year over the whole range of the Rocky Mountains in British America and in the United States. These Pacific winds occasion but a very small precipitation of rain or snow on the eastern flank of the Rocky Mountains, south of the great Missouri Bend. Similar winds from the Pacific do occasion a con- siderable precipitation in the northern part of the Saskat- chewan Valley. Whence, then, this apparent anomaly ? It probably arises from the difference in the temperature of the two regions, the direction of the prevailing winds, and the lowness and comparatively small breadth of the Rocky Mountain ranges in that latitude. In spring and summer, warm westerly winds laden with moisture, in passing over the mountain range south of, say the 46th parallel, are cooled to a certain temperature, and pre- cipitate the greater portion of their moisture in the form of rain or show upon the mountain ridges. On arriving at the eastern flank of the Rocky Mountains, their tem- perature rises to that of the region over which they pass, ROCKY MOUNTAIN PLATEAU. 361 being elevated by the deposition of their moisture and continually increasing density as they descend; but the capacity of air for moisture is well known to be de- pendent upon its temperature within certain limits ; hence the westerly Pacific winds become more warm and more dry as they descend the Eastern Rocky Mountain slope, until they meet the moist winds from the Gulf of Mexico, passing up the Valley of the Mississippi, towards and through the region of the great Canadian Lakes, and over the low height of land separating the waters flowing into Lake Winnipeg from the Mississippi Valley.* In the latitude of the Valley of the Saskatchewan, how- ever, the moist south-west winds from the Pacific find a de- pression in the Rocky Mountain range and a low con- tracted plateau ; they lose less humidity than winds passing over the higher and broader ranges to the south, and meet with a prevailing north-easterly wind as they begin to descend their eastern flanks; their temperature is consequently lessened instead of being elevated, and their capacity for moisture diminished ; hence, precipitation in the form of rain and hail takes place in descending the slope towards Lake Winnipeg. There is no doubt that the south-west Pacific winds, passing through the depression in the Rocky Mountains near the 49th parallel, and over the narrow plateau on which they rest, without losing the whole of their mois- ture, give humidity to the large portion of Rupert’s Land they traverse. The great plateau on which the Rocky Mountain ranges rest, has an average elevation of 4000 feet near the 32nd parallel of latitude, the lowest pass in the most easterly range being there 5717 feet above the ocean. Along the * Meteorology in its Connexion with Agriculture, by Professor Joseph Henry. 362 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. 35th parallel the vertical section across the mountain system is of greater width and elevation. The mean height above the ocean is about 5500 feet, and the lowest pass 7750 feet. Between the 38th and 40th parallel the section has an elevation of 7500 feet, and the lowest pass is 10,032 feet above the level of the sea. Beneath the parallel of 47° the base of the plateau is narrow, and has an average altitude of 2500 feet, the lowest pass beimg 6044 feet above the ocean.* Within British territory north of the 49th parallel the passes in the eastern range are still lower. The recent measurements by Captain Palliser’s Expedition show that the height of the Kutanie Pass in latitude 49° 30’ is nearly 6000 feet above the sea level; the Kananaski Pass 5985 feet, and the Vermilion Pass, traversed by Dr. Hector, in latitude 51° 10’, only 4944 feet above the ocean. The following table exhibits the elevation of the Rocky Mountain plateau, and the height of the lowest Passes above the ocean : — Table showing the elevation and breadth of the Plateau on which the Rocky Mountain ranges rest, and the height above the Ocean of the lowest Passes, From the 32nd parallel to the 51st parallel, North Latitude. Breadth and Elevation of Plateau between the 32nd and 49th arajlels. 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 and and and and and and and 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10,000 feet. feet. feet. feet. ‘feet. feet. feet. | miles. miles. miles. miles. miles. miles. miles. 32nd parallel =. | 170 | 508 35th 185 160 303 235 95 38th and 39th parallel. 143 725 284 110 155 80 20 Alstand 42nd _ 160 580 285 270 107 20 A7th and 49thy . .| 130 97 28 ee * Dr, J. Henry, “Meteorology in its Connexion with Agriculture.” + Pacific Railroad Explorations. HAIL-STORMS.—-PROGRESS OF DUNES. 363 Sumnut of the lowest passes above the Ocean from the 32nd to the 5lst parallel, North Latitude. . Feet. 32nd Parallel é , ‘ go OYE RT. Soth ,, ‘ : : 7,472 38th and 39th Parallel ; . 10,032 4lstand 42nd __s,, : . "8872 47th and 49th _—sC, : » 6,044 Kutanie Pass, lat. 49° 30’ . - 6,000 5, ( Passes discovered by Kananaskis Pass, north of 49th par. 5,985 3 { Captain Palliser’s Vermilion Pass, lat. 51° 10’ . 4,944 4 Expedition. * Not only has the depression in the Rocky Mountain range, north of the 47th parallel of latitude, a remarkable effect upon the climate of the Valley of the North Saskat- chewan, but its bearing upon means of communication between the Atlantic and Pacific slopes of the Rocky Mountain ranges, is of the greatest importance. Hail-storms are not unfrequent durmg the summer months in Rupert’s Land, and the prairies sometimes retain the records of their occurrence for many weeks. On the Grand Coteau de Missouri, hail-storms are so violent that the stones have been known to penetrate the buffalo-skin tents of the Indians who hunt on that elevated plateau. The thunder-storms of 1858 are given in the annexed table. The progress of dunes affords a very excellent indi- cation of the direction and force of prevailing winds. The Devil’s Hills and the sand dunes surrounding that dreary waste on the Assinniboine, in long. 99° 40’ W., showed a bare advancing surface towards the north-east, being pushed in that direction by the prevailing south- west wind. The sand dunes at the Height of Land in the Qu’appelle Valley, in long. 107° W., lat. 51° N , were advancing in an easterly direction; their clean surfaces were facing the east.. Had they progressed under a pre- vailing south-west wind, they would long since have * Proc. Roy. Geog, Soc. vol. iti, No, 5, 364 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. Table showing the number of days on which rain fell, with the character of the Thunder-storms, during the Summer of 1858, in the Valley of the Assinni- bone and Saskatchewan. 18 2-4 p.m 19 6 am 20 Sunset. 21 11 a.m. 1 p.m. Al 6 p.m. 22 3.45 p.m. 6 p.m. 25 8-10 p.m. 26-27 Night. 29-30 Night. 30 6 a.m. July 4 11 a.m. 5 10 p.m. 9 9 a.m. ia 3 p.m. 13 7 p.m. 10 p.m. 14 2.30 p.m. to 4.30 14s Night. 15 : ; 18 Tels sp a: 19 4 p.m. 22 Noon. 28 1 p.m. August 2 4 p.m. 4 |4,380 p.m. 5 : E 11 6 p.m. 18 6 p.m. 25 Noon. Character of Storm. Heavy rain, thunder Slight rain A. terrific thunderstorm, heavy rain, high wind Tremendous thunderstorm, hail- stones 1-14 in. in diameter Thunderstorm, heavy rain . Terrific thunderstorm, continued roar of thunder without inter- mission for 14 hours Violent thunderstor m, heavy rain Thunder and rain : Thunder and rain. Heavy rain with rolling thunder, ; without intermission for 1 hour Rain Lightning in the east, no , rain, thermometer in shade 92° at noon Rain . Thunderstorm, hail, and heavy rain : Thunderstorm of unusual violence and sublimity—see narrative . Thunder and rain Rain all last night . Rain North of Ow appelle temp. at 6 a.m. 45° . Heavy rain and thunder Rain North of Qu’appelle Valley Violent thunderstorm with heavy rain and hail . Rain in torrents Heavy thunderstorm with rain . Thunderstorm, heavy rain . Heavy rain . Violent thunderstorm ; Thunderstorm, rain and wee wind p Violent thunder aloreie anal rain Locality. Prairie Portage. Do. do. Bad Woods. Bear’s Head Hill. Da, do. Sandy Hills. Little Souris. Do. do. Do. do. Do. do. Great Prairie, Do. do. Assinniboine. Fort Ellice. Qu’appelle Valley. Do. do. Do. do. Qu’appelle. Do. Do. South Branch. Do. do. Do. do. Long Creek & Main Saskatchewan. Main Saskatchewan. Do. do. ee CLIMATE OF THE VALLEY OF RED RIVER. 365 invaded and filled up the Valley of the Qu’appelle. These existing records of prevailing winds during the period when the dunes are not frozen, show that while the south-west is the most effective as a summer surface wind in Rupert’s Land under the 99th meridian, on the South Branch of the Saskatchewan, eight degrees further west, westerly winds prevail. THE CLIMATE OF THE VALLEY OF THE RED RIVER. The climate of the Valley of Red River exhibits the extremes of many characteristics which belong to the interior of continents in corresponding latitudes. High summer temperatures, with winter cold of extraordinary severity appear to prevail in the district called Assinniboia, as in the interior of North-Eastern Europe and Asia. It cannot fail to be noticed, however, that the general absence of late spring and early autumn frosts, with an abundant fall of rain during the agricultural months, are its distinguishing features in relation to husbandry. The melon, growing in the open air and arriving at perfect maturity in August and September, Indian corn succeed- ing invariably when due precautions are used to ensure ripening before the middle of September, are strong proofs of the almost uniform absence of summer frosts. A comparison with the climate of Toronto * for corresponding months of the years 1855 and 1856, reveals, some very curious and interesting facts, which may possess importance. Limiting our attention at pre- sent to the summer months we find from inspection of the following table of comparison, that the summer of Red River during the year of comparison was more than * This comparison, given on the next page but one, was made by Mr. James Waker, assistant at the Observatory, Toronto, 366 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. three degrees warmer than the summer at Toronto, and with this excess of temperature there occurred the unexpected difference of 21°74 inches of rain in favour of Red River during that year. It must be borne in mind, however, that the results of one year’s comparison are not of much value in estimating the relative chmatic adaptation of regions far apart; nor do they afford sufficient data for a fair estimate of the climate of the locality where the observations were made. The small difference between the temperature of the spring at Toronto and Red River is an interesting fact. While the summer shows an excess of 3°, the spring gives a deficiency of 2°, so that the mean of the spring and summer months at Red River was nearly one de- sree higher than the corresponding months at Toronto. No feature in the meteorology of this distant region is likely to excite so much interest as the extraordinary fall of rain during the agricultural months. It is well known that the cause of the sterility of a vast region on the east of the Rocky Mountains, within the limits of the United States, is traced to extreme aridity. The great American desert, which places so vast a barrier between the Missis- sipp1 Valley and the west flank of the Rocky Mountains, derives its barrenness from the absence of rain during the summer months. A fall of thirty mches in the Valley of Red River during the summer of 1855, with a corre- sponding fall of 8°76 at Toronto, shows a remarkable difference in the humidity of the two places, and one which report states is generally maintained in other years. The following comparisons refer to corresponding months of the same years, and are of course lable to those annual fluctuations to which the climatic elements of all countries are subject. It is very probable that more extended observations will reduce the extremes. TABLE OF COMPARISON. 367 Comparison of the meteorology of Red River Settlement with Toronto, Canada West, with reference to mean temperature, depth of rain and snow, from corresponding observations at both stations, from June, 1855, to May, 1856, mmcelusive. Mean Rain Snow Temperature. in inches. in inches. Temperature: Rain and Snow Month. at Red River + or — of Toronto. Red R. | Toronto.| Red R. |Toronto.| Red R. |Toronto. 1855. iy . 2 : = a SUMMER. June . | 69:10} 59:93} 6-0 | 4:07 0:0 0-0 | Temp. + 3-78 July eee 6 |. 67:95)! 12-0" | 3:24 0:0 0-0 | Rain + 21-74 ins. August . | 63:03} 64:06] 12-5 | 1:45 0-0 0-0 | Snow 0-0. Summer . | 67:76/} 63:98} 30:5 | 8°76 0:0 0:0 AUTUMN. September | 59:26) 59:49; 5-0 | 5:59 0:0 0:0 Temp. — 6°94. October . | 42°20! 45:39; 0-0 | 2-48 2-0 08 | Rain — 5:16 ins. November | 21:19) 38:58} 2:5 | 4:59 7:0 3°0 | Snow + 5-2 ins. Autumn , | 40°88) 47:82| 7:5 |12°66 9:0 38 1856. WINTER. December. | —8°31 | 26:99} 0:0 | 1°85 8:0 | 295 | Temp. — 26-42. January . |-10-55| 16:02) 0-0 | 0-00 5:0 | 13-6 | Rain—1-85 ins. February . | -1°71| 15°69} 0-0 | 0:00 6:0 97 | Snow — 38°8 ins. Winter . | -6:85| 19°57} 0-0 | 1:85 | 19:0 | 52:8 SPRING. March : 9:09 93°06 0:0 0:00 6:5 16:2 Temp. ae 9-33, April | 39-83 | 42°27 |; 6-5. | 2°78 3:0 Ol | Rain + 3-14 ins. May _ | 58-46] 50°52} 4:0 | 4:58 2:0 | Inap. | Snow — 4:8 ins. Spring . | 35-79; 38:°62/ 105 | 7:36 | 115 | 63 Annual . | 34:38! 42°50| 48:5 |80°63 | 39:5 | 72:9 ANNUAL. Colder mean temperature ; : : ; i 8 12 More rain . 17:87 inches ‘Less snow . : : 2 : ; ; 33:4 o More moisture and most probably less evaporation . 14:53 At Quebec the difference between the mean tempera- ture of summer and winter is 53°93; at Fort Snelling 56°81 ; and at Red River Settlement 74°61 in 1855. 368 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. The summer temperature of Red River, and the ab- sence of frosts durmg that season, determine its fitness for agricultural purposes. The following table exhibits a comparison, based upon one year’s observation only, between the summer temperature of the Settlement and various other well known places in Canada :— Summer temperature at Red River Settlement . G76 Montreal, Canada. . : . ‘ ‘ . 66°62 Quebec : ; ‘ ‘ 5 ‘ : ; . 62°91 Toronto. : 63-98 Assuming that the annual mean of 34°38 deduced from the following tables is within two or three degrees of what would be the results of several years’ observation, we find upon inspection of Dove Tables, that there is not one locality within the limits of the United States where so low an annual mean occurs. At Kasan (Russia) lat. 55°48, long. 49°7, the mean of ten years was 35°45, and the difference between the hottest and coldest months 61°33, while at Red River the difference was 82°15 in 1855. The difference between summer and winter at Kasan was 56°00; at Red River 74°61. At Orenburg, lat. 50°46, or in nearly the same latitude as that part of Red River Settlement where these observations were made, and in long. 55°6, the annual mean is 35°6; the difference be- tween the hottest and coldest month 66°38, and the difference between winter and summer 59°66. The fol- lowing table will exhibit this relation at a glance :— Difference Difference between between Latitude. Longitude. Annual Hottest and Summer Mean. Coldest and Months. Winter. Red River Set-} 50°15’ 97°W. 34°38 82°15 74:61 tlement (1855) : Kasan, Russia 5548 49°7 Is. 30°45 61:33 56:00 Orenburg . .{ 50-46 55°6 E. 35:06 66°38 59-66 WINTER TEMPERATURES. 369 SEASONS OF THE VALLEY OF LAKE WINNIPEG. The natural division of the seasons in the Lake Winni- peg Valley is as follows :— Spring — April and May. Summer — June, July, August and part of September. Autumn — Part of September and October. Winter — November, December, January, February and March. The natural division of the seasons is strikingly repre- sented by the early and rapid advance of temperature in May in the valley and prairies of the Saskatchewan; and it is also indicated in a very marked degree by the ex- tension northwards to the same valley, between the 95° and 105° of longitude, of numerous plants, whose geo- eraphical distribution, east and west of those limits, has a much more southern climatic boundary. The limits of trees rise with the isothermal lines, and these attain a much higher elevation in the interior of British America than on the Atlantic coast.* In relation to agriculture, the mtensity of winter cold is of comparatively little moment. The elevated spring and summer temperature, combined with the humidity of the region in the Valley of Lake Winnipeg, enable Indian corn and the melon to ripen, if ordinary care is taken in selecting soil and in planting seed. The extraordinary cold of the winter of 1855 and 1856 at Red River, is shown by the tables for December, January, and February, (Mr. Gunn’s observations,) which - give a mean of — 6°85 for the temperature of that season ; but if we turn to the records for 1857 and 1858 + we find the mean temperature of the winter to have been * Gray. + Meteorological tables recorded by Mr, Dawson’s party. wom. IT. BB * 370 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. 2°87, showing a difference of eight degrees in favour of the winter of 1857-58. The temperatures recorded were as follows : — 1855-56. 1857-58. December . : , . —831 5 . Oat January : : : » —10°55 ; . —6:2 February. : : . —l71 ; . —6:68 Winter Mean . : . —6:85 ‘ . —2°87 The thermometers supplied to the Red River Expedition in 1857, were made by Negretti and Zambra, and were of the best construction.* They had been compared with a standard at the Provincial Observatory, and their errors recorded, but it does not appear that the proper correc- tions were made after each observation. Mr. Gunn’s thermometer was an ordinary instrument, and, like many of its class, liable to errors at low temperatures. It is, therefore, probable that his winter temperatures are too low, and that the true mean of the winter months at Red River, and consequently the annual mean, may be con- siderably higher than it appears from his observations. The cold of February 1858 was exceptional. At Montreal it was the coldest February on record, being 14°:05 below the mean temperature of February, 1857.+ But it cannot be denied that the winter cold of Red River is excessive, and the temperature sometimes falls so. low as to freeze mercury in a few minutes. The meteorological register kept at the Stone Fort, * These thermometers, together with other meteorological apparatus, were furnished to the different members of the Red River Expedition in 1857, by the permission of the Rev. Dr. Ryerson, Chief Superintendent of Schools, from the stock of instruments provided by the Chief Superintendent for observatories attached to the Grammar Schools throughout the Pro- vince. The thermometers were compared and their errors determined and tabulated at the Provincial Observatory. A table of errors was attached to each instrument. + Records of St. Martin’s Observatory, Isle Jesus. WINTER TEMPERATURES AT MONTREAL. 371 Lower Settlement, in 1847, under the superintendence of Captain Moody *, from which extracts were permitted to - be made by Dr. Owen, furnish trustworthy evidence re- specting the severity of the climate in winter. The mean temperature for January 1847, was — 12°°5. Observations being taken at 9 am. 3 p.m, and 9 P.M. During twenty-two consecutive days of this period, from the 5th to the 26th inclusive, the thermometer never once rose to zero. The lowest temperature reached was — 48°, the highest 30°, giving a range of 78°. On the coldest day, the 20th, when the thermometer showed — 48° at the Stone Fort, and — 47° at Fort Garry, mercury froze in fifteen to twenty minutes when exposed in_ bullet moulds. Although there is no record of cold terms in Canada approaching the extreme low temperature and extending over so long a period as those instanced above, yet cold terms of great intensity are not uncommon in Lower Canada. In the excellent observatory of Dr. Smallwood’s at Isle Jesus, nine miles west of Montreal, the folowing records of cold terms have been preserved + :— Low Temperatures at Isle Jesus, Nine Miles west of Montreal. C.L. On the 22nd and 23rd Dec., 1854. ~ 22nd,—8 a.m., 31°6 below zero. 12 p.m., 34:8 3 Se eal - 23rd, —-6 A.M., 36:2 . 1 ee Yr C4, B00 . Pee, he S ¥ 8, 3843 ry i), 16:6 > 1): 5, . 241 P 1 Pa, 12°1 3 12° gi: dor 4s se LES os 2P.M., 12°6 5 3 yy 8-1 ” a; 91 ” 7 » 234 ” 6, B26 ” Sy, . 20°9 a Ons ono 7 10 ,, 28:2 below zero. * See Dr. Owen’s Geological Survey of Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota, page 181. + Canadian Journal for 1855, and The Canadian Naturalist for April, 1859, B B 2 372 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. On the 9th, 10th and 11th Jan., 1859. 9th.—6 a.m., 29:9 below zero. 2 p.m., 14:3 below zero. yy 29°0 ” 9 5, 288 ” » 28-4 ” 10 ,, 29:2 ” 12 gs ae ts 2) eleo 5 2 P.M., 21°5 4 lith—6 a.m., 37:1 4 9, 339 ” 7 369 ” 1O 0 B42 . 12 2 2a 7 12 36'0 2 p.M., 19:9 ss 10th.—6 a. M., 45°6 it 9 4g. 20 A 1 ty) took ze 10 5, 2h 35 9_.,, -416 on 12 «5 5 Sek * 2 o In January, 1859, the thermometer did not rise above zero during a period of 124 hours 30 minutes, or more than five days. Mercury froze in the openair. The mean temperature on the 9th was — 27°°8; 10th, —29°-0; 11th,—28°:2. Dr. Smallwood says that this cold term was felt generally throughout Canada and the Hastern States, and seems to have traveled from the west. The folowing minimum temperatures were observed at different places :— Rochester : 5 ‘ : » 10-0 below zero. Brooklyn, (New York) Spee 5 , oO 2 Boston . : : : . 140 on Toronto . ‘ , 5 ° : . 26°5 Bs Quebec. a ; : : : » 40-1 5 Huntingdon ; ; : : : . 440 os For the purpose of comparing the monthly mean at Quebec (lat. 46° 49" 2”, long. 71° 16’) with those of Red River, the table on the opposite page is inserted.* In the absence of instrumental observations, the pro- gress of vegetation affords the best indication of climate, apart from latitude and elevation above the sea. It has been observed elsewhere that there exists an extraordinary * See Canadian Journal—Old Series, i QUEBEC TEMPERATURES. 373 Months. Mean. Maximum. Minimum. 1854. October . : ‘ : : 46:05 64:7 +316 November. é : F 31°83 59°8 +10:0 December é ; ; ; 13:08 36°6 - 19-2 1855. January . - : : 16°70 46:0 - 14:0 February : 3 ; : 10°55 36°8 ~ 29°5 March . : ; : , 21:06 Ais 2:4 april ~ . i ‘ : : 34:14 59:8 59 May ; : : ; ‘ 49-03 83-0 32:0 June. ; ‘ ; ; 58°34 88-0 43-2 July. . ; ‘ 68:86 90°5 51:9 August . ‘ ; ; ; 61:54 85:0 38'3 September. ; : : 55°15 81:3 34:7 October . ‘ . ; : 45:43 60-4 . 28-4 November. : ‘ : 28°75 34:3 21°81 December : , a : 18-09 40:1 — 19-2 1856. January . : 8:19 27:0 - 165 February ; , : . 11:99 31:9 - 18:0 March . : 4 : ; 17:60 39:0 —11:0 April . ‘ , : f. 36°90 55:3 6-4. difference between the characteristic fruit tree of the South Branch, the Misaskatomina (Amelanchier Canaden- sis), and the same tree on the North Branch of the Sas- katchewan. On the South Branch at the Elbow, and for forty miles down the river, this shrub attains an altitude of twenty feet, with a stem fully three or three and a half inches through; the fruit is large and very juicy; the size of the berry there is equal to the largest black currant, resembling a small grape more than any other fruit. The period of flowerimg and fruiting is about three weeks earlier in latitude 51° than between 53rd and 54th parallels west of the 100° of longitude. The prairies of the Assinniboine, of the Qu’appelle, and of the South Branch of the Elbow, are decorated with brilliant spring flowers, and covered with luxuriant herbage, at a time when ice still lingers at the head of Lake Winnipeg, BB3 374 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. or chills the air and arrests vegetation in Cedar and Cross Lakes on the Main Saskatchewan. Two and a half degrees north of Cumberland, the soil is permanently frozen three feet below the surface. Sir John Richard- son relates that in 1851 he did not disengage his canoes from the ice at the upper end of Lake Winnipeg until the 9th of June. At the Touchwood Hills, horses are allowed to remain in the open air all the winter, finding sufficient pasture under the snow to keep them in good condition. . The vegetable in the gardens attached to Fort a la Corne, with a brief notice of the periods of planting and gathering, will show that the climatic adaptation of the North Branch near the Grand Forks is not of a character unfavourable to agricultural operations. As this subject is one of great importance I have introduced some ex- tracts from the journal of the Fort, which are both inter-. esting and valuable. More extended extracts from this journal will be found in the Appendix. On the 7th August, in the garden attached to Fort a la Corne (about 18 miles below the Grand Forks), potatoes were in flower, and the tubers of early varieties of the size of hens’ eggs. Cabbages were well formed ; beet- roots and carrots quite ready for the kitchen; Indian corn in silk, from seed which was grown in the garden last year, and peas ready for gathering. No disease has yet been noticed in the potatoes; and the grasshoppers, that scourge of the country south of the Touchwood Hills, have not made their appearance at Fort 4 la Corne. = {n the garden attached to the Nepowewin Mission, under the charge of the Rev. Henry Budd (a zealous mis- slonary of native origin), all the vegetables gave promise of fair and remunerative crops. The potatoes were CLIMATE OF THE SOUTH BRANCH OF THE SASKATCITEWAN. 3875 superb; turnips, both Swedes and white, remarkably fine ; Indian corn, from seed grown on the spot last year, in silk ; wheat rather too rank in the stalk —it measured five feet three inches in length to the ear, which was well formed but green, and it seemed doubtful whether it would ripen. Mr. Budd speaks very favourably of the soul, climate, and extent of land available for agricultural purposes. Both the mission and the fort are situated within the excavated Valley of the Saskatchewan, and are not so favourably placed for farming purposes as they might be in the Valley of Long Creek. The river, how- ever, Is the great highway, and, during the summer season, affords an abundant supply of sturgeon. Extracts from the Journal at Fort a la Corne, Saskatchewan River. Lat, 53°27 ; long. 104°°30 W. 1851, October 25th, ice made its appearance in the river. 1852, April 8th, ice solid for the season of the year; 12th, ice started; 15th, ice drifting and lodging on the banks; 21st, ice drifting and disappearing along the banks; 22nd, garden operations commenced. May J4th, first sturgeon caught; 24th, planted potatoes; October 11th, finished taking up potatoes ; 25th, fishing season ended; 26th, snow. November 3rd, ice floating in the river. 1854, April 14th, river broke up; on the 15th nearly clear of ice ; 28th, garden operations commenced. May Ist, first sturgeon caught; 8th, preparing potato fields; 13th, potato planting. October 2nd, gathered turnips; 3rd, taking up carrots; LOth, commenced taking up potatoes at the mission (190 kegs), turnips, carrots, cabbages— large and good; 11th, cab- bages taken up. 1855, May 24th, turnips sown. September 12th, hard frost over night; 27th, took up potatoes—poor crop, much destroyed by grubs; 29th, hard frost ; a little ice seen at the gates. October 1st, women digging potatoes; 2nd, ditto; 3rd, taking up turnips; 22nd, ice on the edges of river. 1856, April 2nd, hard frost last night; 4th, water making its appearance on the edges of the river; 7th, froze hard last night; 9th, ice made a start; 17th ice drifting; 23rd, fall of snow during the night: 23rd, nets set, one sturgeon caught; 25th, hard frost. May 2nd, garden opera- tions commenced; 10th, storm of snow; 12th, planted potatoes ; 14th, sowed Swedes. September 16th, slight frost last night. October 2nd, commenced taking up potatoes; 22nd, hard frost during the night; 23rd, severe frost during night; 86th, snow in night. November 11th, river full of ice. 1857, April 9th, water appearing on the edges of the river: snow shoes required everywhere; 16th, ice started to-day ; 24th, snowed without intermission BB4 376 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. the whole day. May 3rd, ice drifting all last night; 5th, river full of ice; 12th, planted potatoes and onions; 20th, planting potatoes; three sturgeons caught. June 2nd, hard frost last night; 30th, starvation is staring the people in the face. Have caught no sturgeon for some time back.* 1858, April 21st, ice drifting ; large quantities of ice on the banks. May Ist, clearing up of north garden; 7th, preparing potato ground; first sturgeon caught; 12th, planted potatoes; 17th, slight fall of snow; 18th, wind from N. and cold. Think we are going to have a second winter. The growth of forests is very intimately connected with the climate of a large extent of country. That forests once covered a vast area in Rupert’s Land there is no reason to doubt. Not only do the traditions of the natives refer to former forests, but the remains of many still exist as detached groves in secluded valleys, also on the crests of hills, or in the form of blackened prostrated trunks covered with rich grass, and sometimes with vegetable mould or drifted sand. The agent, which has caused the destruction of the forests that once covered many parts of the prairies is undoubtedly fire, and the same swift and effectual destroyer prevents the new growth from acquiring .dimensions which would enable it to check their annual progress. Nearly everywhere, with the exception of the treeless, arid prairie west of the Souris, and west of Long Lake on the north side of the Qu’appelle, young willows and aspens were showing themselves in 1858, where fire had not been on the previous year. South of the Assin- niboine and Qu’appelle few plains had escaped the confla- eration in 1857, and the blackened shoots of willow were visible as bushes, clumps, or wide-spreading thickets where the fire had passed. The end or tail of the prairies is at Fort Liard, a short distance to the south of Fort Simpson (latitude 61° 51 7’ N.). There is a long high belt of prairie land which * A common record in the journals at the different posts in Rupert’s Land. The cause must be referred to the habits of the people, their occupation, &c., and not to the capabilities of the country.—H. Y. H. jiuicneaaaes Sal CHARACTER OF THE GREAT PLAINS IN THE U. STATES. 377 runs as far as the neighbourhood of that locality, at the foot of the Rocky Mountains. In the State of Missouri, forests have sprung up.with wonderful rapidity on the prairies, as the country becomes settled, so as to resist and subdue the encroachment of the annual fires from the west. Missouri hes within the limit of the humid south-west wind coming up the Valley of the Mississippi, and enjoys a greater rainfall than the region west of the 100° of longitude. GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE REGION WEST OF THE 98TH MERIDIAN IN THE UNITED STATES. Very great misapprehension has prevailed with regard to the region west of the Mississippi, as well as of the valley drained by the Saskatchewan. Sanguine enthu- slasts have laid out new states and territories on the broad map of the Federation, and peopled them in imagination with bustling, industrious, and wealthy communities. Other visionaries have converted the 400,000 square miles drained by the Saskatchewan into a region of unbounded fertility and inexhaustible resources. Whereas a proper appreciation and use of facts will convince the most sanguine, that the larger portion of this area, is, in its present state, unfit for the permanent habitation of man both on account of climate, soil *, and absence of fuel. The candid opinion of Professor Joseph Henry regard- ing the adaptation of a large portion of the United States for settlement has been already given; it is confirmed and strengthened by the following excellent summary, from the pen of Major Emory of the United States and Mexi- ean Boundary Commission. It will at once occur to the * See “ Cretaceous Series,” Vol. II, 378 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. reader that a knowledge of these facts gives great additional value to the truly fertile valleys of Red River, the Assin- niboine, part of the Qu’appelle, and portions of the South and North Branch of the Saskatchewan. It determines also the direction in which efforts should be made to people this great wilderness, and guide the progress of settlement in such a manner as will render the country available for that grand desideratum, a route across the continent :— “Tn the fanciful and exaggerated description given by many of the character of the western half of the con- tinent, some have no doubt been influenced by a desire to favour particular routes of travel for the emigrants to follow ; others by a desire to commend themselves to the political favour of those interested in the settlement and sale of the lands; but much the greater portion by esti- mating the soil alone, which is generally good, without giving due weight to the infrequency of rains, or the absence of the necessary humidity in the atmosphere, to produce a profitable vegetation. But be the motive what it may, the influence has been equally unfortunate by directing legislation and the military occupation of the country, as if it were susceptible of continuous settlement from the peaks of the Alleghanies to the shores of the Pacific.” “ Hypothetical geography has proceeded far enough in the United States. In no country has it been carried to such an extent, or been attended with more disastrous consequences. ‘This pernicious system was commenced under the eminent auspices of Baron Humboldt, who from a few excursions into Mexico, attempted to figure the whole North American continent. It has been fol- lowed by individuals to carry out objects of their own. In this way it has come to pass, that, with no other ee MAJOR EMORY’S STATEMENT. 379 evidence than that furnished by a party of persons travel- ing on mule back, at the top of their speed, across the continent, the opinion of the country has been held in suspense upon the subject of the proper route for a rail- way, and even a preference created in the public mind in favour of a route which actual survey has demonstrated to be the most impracticable of all the routes between the 49th and 32nd parallels of latitude. On the same kind of unsubstantial information maps of the whole continent have been produced and engraved in the highest style of art, and sent forth to receive the patronage of Congress, and the applause of geographical societies at home and abroad, while the substantial contributors to accurate geography have seen their works pilfered and distorted, and themselves overlooked and forgotten.” * - ca “'The plains or basins which I have described as occur- ring in the mountain system are not the great plains of North America which are referred to so often in the newspaper literature of the day, in the expressions, ‘News from the Plains,’ ‘Indian Depredations on the Plains, &c. “'Phe term ‘ plains,’ is applied to the extensive inclined surface reaching from the base of the Rocky Mountains to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico and the valley of the Mississippi, and form a feature im the geography of the western country as notable as any other. Except on the borders of the streams which traverse the plains in their course to the Valley of the Mississippi, scarcely anything exists deserving the name of vegetation. The soil is composed of disintegrated rocks, covered by a loam an inch or two in thickness, which is composed of the exuvie of animals and decayed vegetable matter. “The growth on them is principally a short but nutri- 380 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. tious grass, called buffalo grass (Sysleria dyctaloides). A narrow strip of alluvial soil, supporting a coarse grass and a few cotton-wood trees, marks the line of the water- courses, which are themselves sufficiently few and far between. “Whatever may be said to the contrary, these plains west of the 100th meridian are wholly unsusceptible of sustaining an agricultural population, until you reach sufficiently far south to encounter the rains from the tropics. “The precise limits of these rains 1 am not prepared to give, but think the Red River (of Louisiana) is, perhaps, as far north as they extend. South of that river the plains are covered with grass of larger and more vigour- ous growth. That which is most widely spread over the face of the country is the grama or mezquite grass, of which there are many varieties. This is incomparably the most nutritious grass known.”* AURORAS. On the night of October 2nd, when camped on Water- hen River, an Aurora of unusual briliancy and character, even in these regions, surprised us with the varied mag- nificence of its display of ight and colour. A broad ring of strong auroral light nearly encircled the Pole Star. It possessed an undulatory motion, and continually shot forth, towards and beyond the zenith, vast waves of faint light. They followed one another like huge pulsations— wave after wave — expanding towards the south with un- diminished strength, and continuing many minutes at a * Report on the United States and Mexican Boundary Survey, made under the direction of the Secretary of the Interior, by William H. Emory, Major First Cavalry and United States Commissioner. Washington, 1846, pp. 43-47. METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA. 381 time. Suddenly the waves ceased, the luminous belt or ring increased in brillancy, lost its regular form, and here and there broke into faint streamers, of a pale yellow colour. The streamers, rapidly increasing, soon reached the zenith, and finally meeting beyond it, shot forth from the luminous are with swift motion and in rapid succes- sion. Their colour varied from straw to pink. The display of streamers is quite common in this part of the continent. The waves are also not unfrequently seen ; but none of the half-breeds or the Indians, whom we saw a few days afterwards, had ever witnessed such a brillant spectacle as the heavens presented during the early part of the night, when the immense pulsations, 14° to 20° in breadth, and expanding in their apparent ascent from east to west, rolled in tranquil, noiseless beauty, through the heavens overhead. At 10 p.m, on the 27th of October, when camped on the shores of Lake Manitobah, near Oak Point, a half- breed awoke me to witness a crimson Aurora of surprising magnificence. Unfortunately a few clouds were flitting athwart the sky, which prevented the centre are from being visible, but perhaps they increased the depth of the colour. The light was generally steady at the edges of the clouds. The appearance of streamers was recognized only in the clear portions of the sky and above the clouds, where the rose or crimson tints were much fainter. It reminded me of the reflection of a vast prairie on fire ; the deep rose and crimson tints lasted for half an hour ; then gave way to white and straw-coloured streamers, occasionally tinged with pale emerald green. Coloured Auroras are not unfrequently seen during the summer months, but they rarely possess the extraordi- nary beauty of those which have just been described. These beautiful “ dancing spirits of the dead” impart a 382 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. solemnity and charm to the still night, which must ever remain one of its most delightful characteristics in these regions. THE TWILIGHT BOW. One of the most beautiful celestial phenomena visible after sunset and before sunrise from the north-western prairies is the Twilight Bow. The extraordinary clear- ness of the nights durmg summer in this region offers a very favourable opportunity for witnessing the delicate colouring which is communicated to the lower atmosphere by the reflected ight from the upper illuminated portions. As the appearance of the Twilight Bow is dependent upon the serenity of the atmosphere to a great degree, its oc- currence is not frequently observed or recorded in this country. The Twilight Bow, and the causes which produce it, are thus described by M. Bravais *:—“ Immediately after the setting of the sun, the curve which forms the separation between the atmospheric zone directly illuminated by the sun, and that which is only illuminated secondarily, or by reflection, receives the name of the Crepuscular curve or Twilight Bow. Some time after sunset, this bow, in tra- versing the heavens from east to west, passes the zenith ; this epoch forms the end of civil twilight, and is the moment when planets and stars of the first magnitude begin to be visible. The eastern half of the heavens bemg then removed beyond solar illumination, night commences to all persons in apartments whose windows open to the east. Still later the Twilight Bow itself dis- * Annuaire Metéorologique de la France for 1850; quoted by L, W Meek in the Smithsonian Report for 1856, _ INDIAN SUMMER. 383 appears in the western horizon; it is then the end of the astronomic twilight ; itis closed night. We may estimate that civil twilight ends when the sun has declined 6° below the horizon, and that a decline of 16° is necessary to terminate the astronomic twilight.” I often observed the Twilight Bow to be tinged with a delicate rose colour, passing into straw colour, and then into faint emerald green. ‘The line of demarcation be- tween the bow and the illuminated portion of the at- mosphere was often very well defined, quite as clearly as in a secondary rainbow. It appeared most brilliant at an altitude of 60° or 70° above the horizon. It descended slowly towards the boundless level, preserving apparently with considerable exactness the form of a parabola. When the Twilight Bow is best developed, the aspect of the prairie is very singular. Towards the east it is cold, cheerless, and gloomy ; towards the west it 1s warm, in- spiriting, and suggestive of pleasant thoughts and cheerful anticipations. No wonder the prairie Indians associate delightful dreams of happy hunting-grounds with the setting sun and the beautiful west. They delight to sit silent and thoughtful “in the glory of the sunset,” and allow themselves to be transported in imagination “ To the Islands of the Blessed, To the Kingdom of Ponemah, To the Land of the hereafter.” INDIAN SUMMER. Indian summer is a phenomenon of constant yearly occurrence and marked characteristics in the north-west. The following table, kindly furnished from the private memoranda of Mr. James Walker, Assistant at the Pro- vincial Observatory, establishes the fact that the hazy, 384 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. warm, mellow weather we term Indian summer is a periodical phenomenon in Canada, but the cause does not appear to be quite understood. The characters of Indian summer are more decided in the north-west than in the neighbourhood of Lake Ontario. audible at great distances ; objects are difficult to discern unless close at hand; the weather is warm and oppressive, the atmosphere hazy and calm, and every object appears to wear a tranquil and drowsy aspect. Sounds are distinctly Indian Summer at Toronto.—1840 to 1859 inclusive [20 years. | SS ee a oe Mean result. lst November . 29th October 28th October 23rd October 22nd October 24th October 4th November 28th October 20th November. 13th November. 7th November . 6th October 16th November. 12th October 24th October 16th October 19th October 5th October 18th October 2nd November . 27th October 5th November . 2nd November . 4th November . 25th October 26th October’ . 29th October 7th November . 31st October 23rd November. 18th November. 13th November. 11th October 21st November . 20th October 28th October 26th October 22nd October 12th October 28th October 8th November . 2nd November . OO OV Or — — NIH OR HH O1O QON GBPS & Od O1co oe a or mR Remarks. And: Qnddowin Nov. (6 days.) Well marked. Not well marked. Not well marked. Very dense fog. And 2nd to 8th Nov. (7 days.) Well marked. J. W. 385 CEUEAP > Xai THE LOCUSTS AND THE FLOODS. The Locusts.—General Distribution of the Insect.—Distinctions between Crickets, Grasshoppers and Locusts.—The Locust of the North-West.— Acrydium Femur-rubrum.—Description of the Insect.—Male and Female. —Accounts of the Appearance of Locusts in the United States and Rupert’s Land.—Distribution in 1857 and 1858,.—Limits of its Ravages.— Females engaged in laying Eggs.—Vitality of the Eges.—Power of Flight of this Locust.—Elevation of its Flight above the Sea.—Food of the Insect.—Effect of the periodical Visitations in the Far West and in Rupert’s Land.—THE FLoops.—Flood Years.—Effects of, in 1802.—The Bishop of Rupert’s Land Description.—Speculations respecting the Cause of the Floods.—Sudden Melting of an unusual Fall of Snow at the Open- ing of Spring, THE LOCUSTS. THe English name grasshopper is almost universally applied to the imsect which forms the subject of the pre- sent notice. Its general distribution in the United States, and the dreadful ravages which have been produced at different times by innumerable hosts of these insects in the north-western and north-eastern states of the Union, have led to many accounts of its ravages in the newspapers of the day, in all of which it 1s described under that name. As the insect is not a grasshopper, but a locust, the fol- lowing description of the difference between grasshoppers, crickets, and locusts, abbreviated from the excellent and most attractive treatise by Dr. Harris on “ Insects injurious VOL. II. CC 386 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. to Vegetation,” is here introduced, with the object of describing to the general reader the true character of this destroyer. The abundant and prolific jumping orthopterous insects included by Linnzus in his great genus Gryllus, and known by the Knglish names of crickets, grasshoppers, and locusts, may thus be distinguished from one another * :— “1. Crickets (Achetade); wing covers, horizontal; antennse, long and tapering; two tapering, downy bristles at the end of the body, between which, in most of the females there is a long spear-pointed piercer. “2. Grasshoppers (Gryllidee) ; wing covers, sloping ; antennze, long and tapering ; feet, with four joints; end of the body in the females provided with a projecting sword or sabre-shaped piercer. “3. Locusts (Locustade) ; wing covers, roofed ; antenne, rather short and in general not tapering to the end; feet, with three joints; females, without a projecting piercer. “The various insects included under the name of locusts nearly all agree in having their wing-covers rather long and narrow, and placed obliquely along the sides of the body, meeting and even overlapping for a_ short distance at their upper edges, which together form a ridge on the back like a sloping roof. Their antenne are much shorter than those of most grasshoppers, and do not taper towards the end, but are nearly of equal thickness at both extremities; their feet have only three joints, but as the under side of the first jomt is marked by one or two cross Imes, the feet, when seen only from below, seem to be four or five jomted. The females have not a long pro- jecting piercer like the crickets and grasshoppers, but the extremity of the body is provided with four short, wedge- like pieces, placed in pairs above and below, and opening and shutting opposite to each other, thus forming an in- strument lke a pair of nippers, only with four short * A Treatise on some of the Insects of New England, which are injurious to vegetation, by Thaddeus William Harris, M.D., Boston, 1852. | — THE LOCUST OF THE NORTH-WEST. 387 blades instead of two. When one of these insects is about to lay her eggs, she drives these little wedges into the earth; these being opened and withdrawn, enlarge the orifice, upon which the insect inserts them again, and drives them down deeper than before, and repeats the operation above described, until she has formed a perfora- tion large and deep enough to admit nearly the whole of her abdomen.” The locust of the north-west (Acrydium femur-rubrum) has been long noticed in the United States, and particu- larly in New England. In the State of Maine they ap- peared in such numbers during the years 1743, 1749, 1754, and 1756 that days of fasting and prayer were appointed on account of the threatened calamity.* In Massachusetts and Vermont they showed themselves in 1797 and 1798. In 1838 they appeared in the vicinity of Baltimore in immense numbers. The following description is from the pen of Dr. Harris :-— Acrydium femur-rubrum — RED-LEGGED Locwst. Grizzled with dirty olive and brown; a black spot extending from the eyes along the sides of the thorax ; an oblique yellow line on each side of the body beneath the wings; a row of dusky brown spots along the middle of the wing covers, and the hindmost shanks and feet blood red, with black spines. The wings are transparent, with avery pale greenish-yellow tint, next to the body, and are ruled with brown lines. The hindmost thighs have two large spots on the upper side, and the extremity black, but are red below, and yellow on the inside. The appendages at the tip of the body in the male, are of a long triangular form. Length from 3 to 1 inch, expanded 14 to 12 inch. * Williamson’s History of Maine, quoted by Dr. Harris. cc2 388 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. The red-legged locust was first described by De Geer, from specimens sent to him from Pennsylvania, and I have retained the scientific name which he gave to it. It is the Gryllus (Locusta) erythropus of Gmelin, and the Acrydium jfemorale of Olivier. It appears to be very generally diffused throughout the United States, and sometimes so greatly abounds in certain places, as to be productive of great injury to vegetation. The following description was taken down in the prairies west of the Souris, where this insect surrounded us in countless millions, and the air from nine until four was filled with them as with flakes of snow. Dimensions of the Male Insect.— Length of body, 1 inch; with wings closed 13 inch; length of wing cases, thirteen lines ; of wings, 124 lines. Colour.— Of head, bluish-green; of thorax, bluish- green, with two lateral black lines, parallel to the sides of the thorax, and half a lne apart; intersected at an acute angle by two short black lines, half a line apart. These marks on the female are more distinct. Abdomen.— Colour of segments pale bluish-green, with whitish-blue margin; upper portion of each segment dark brown, especially the superior segments ; wing cases ash-coloured, with brown spots. Legs.— Upper surface of posterior legs, brownish-white, with two dark brown spots; outside of the lee red, in- side, ight red. Tibia.— Rose-coloured and fringed with two rows of spines. Fore legs yellowish-brown. Female, differs from the male in the colour of the cheeks, thorax, and upper portion of the abdomen, these parts being of a brighter green. Legs deeper rose-colour ; under-side of abdomen yellowish-white. Length of the insect, thirteen lines. The first authentic account of the appearance of extra- DISTRIBUTION IN 1857 AND 1858. 389 ordmary swarms of locusts in Rupert’s Land that I have met with, assigns the last week of July, 1818, to this event.*. Every green herb in the settlements at Red River is stated to have been destroyed by these destruc- tive invaders. In 1819 the young brood hatched from the eggs deposited in the preceding year appeared in the spring and consumed the growing wheat crops. “ Every vegetable substance was either eaten up or stripped to the bare stalk; the leaves of bushes and the bark of trees shared the same fate; the grain vanished as fast as it appeared above ground leaving no hope either of ‘Seed to the sower or bread to the eater.’” + Karly in 1819 this pestilence disappeared, but in what manner is not stated. In 1857 the locusts appeared in countless swarms over a large part of North America. They destroyed nearly all the vegetables cultivated at Fort Randall, long. 98° 35’, lat. 43° 4’, and extended their ravages east as far as the state of Iowa.f During the same year they devoured the crops in part of Minnesota and advanced as far to the north-east as the Lake of the Woods, where I saw them on Garden Island in August. During the autumn of the same year they appeared on the White Horse plains north of the Assinniboine, where they deposited their egos. The swarms of this insect must have extended as far west as the South Branch of the Saskatchewan and covered the country in a greater or less degree between the Lake of the Woods and the South Branch, a distance in an air line of 560 miles; the perfect insect in 1857, or the young brood in 1858 having been observed nearly continuously over that wide extent of country. * Alexander Ross.—“ The Red River Settlement,” &c., 1856. + Ibid. ¢ Lieutenant Warren. 390 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. In a northerly direction they were seen near the Lumpy Hill within sixty miles of the North Branch, also at Dauphin Lake where they had destroyed the crops of Tawapit ; they had devoured all the crops with the ex- ception of the potato at Fort Pelly before the Ist of August. The ascertained limits of this mighty army of insects in 1857 extended from the 94th to the 112th meridian, and from the 41st to the 53rd parallel; from the settlements in Utah territory to near the Valley of the North Saskat- chewan, and from the Lake of the Woods to the foot of the Rocky Mountains. The brood from eggs deposited in 1857 at the Touch- wood Hills, rose from the ground and took their flight on the 28th July, after destroying every green leaf in the garden of the Post, and leaving sad traces of their ra- vages in the prairies lying to the south-east. At the time of my visit not one was to be seen, so general had been their departure. During the month of September, 1857, I saw the females engaged in laymg their eggs. They did not limit themselves to the prairie soil in forming a nest, but riddled the decayed trunks of trees, the thatch of houses and barns, the wood of which they were built, everything, indeed, which they could penetrate with the little blades provided for that purpose. ‘The appearance presented by bare patches of soil, such as the road near the settlements, suggested the idea that a vast number of worms had risen to the surface and then retired agai alter loosely closing the aperture they had made. When in the act of preparing a nest for her eggs, the female was observed to introduce her abdomen into the soil by repeated thrusts to its full length, and then slowly with- drawing it, eject her eggs to the number of ten or twelve VITALITY OF EGGS.— POWER OF FLIGHT. 391 in the form of a half cylinder, loosely covering the orifice after the operation was completed. In the spring of 1858 the young brood were seen at Prairie Portage, hopping over the newly-fallen snow at the latter end of April. It was thought by the settlers that the cold weather which followed the warm days in the early part of the month when the egos were hatched, would have destroyed the young brood, but it did not appear to have created any sensible diminution in their numbers. _ The extraordinary vitality of the eggs of insects is well-known, but when we reflect that the eggs of the red-legged locust are exposed in Rupert’s Land to a temperature lower than that at which mercury freezes or more than 40° below zero, as well as to constant alterna- tions of temperature from the freezing point to below zero in the early sprmg months, their capacity to resist these influences cannot fail to be regarded as one of the most wonderful features in the life of this insect. Their power of sustaiing long flights is also very remarkable. As stated in the narrative they generally rose from the prairie about nine in the morning and alighted about four in the afternoon. During the in- termediate hours I do not recollect one instance in which they were observed to alight, except in antici- pation of a thunder-storm, when they would descend perpendicularly from a great altitude. Assuming their speed to have been twenty miles an hour, the dis-. tance they would fly m one day probably amounted to one hundred and twenty miles. They have been seen hurrying swiftly to the north at an elevation of 14,500 to 15,000 feet above the sea™, thus manifesting extra- * Lieutenant Warren, cc 4 592 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. ordinary capabilities to sustain low temperatures, which would doubtless obtain at that elevation in a region of eternal snows. Their principal food is the prairie grass and the leaves of shrubs, but they will attack any substances presented to them, even such indigestible articles as leather, travel- ing bags, woollen garments, saddle girths, and harness. In a few minutes they ate the varnish from the leather case of a telescope I left on the ground in 1858, and so disfigured a valise that the owner who had seen it sound and untouched a few minutes before we stopped to camp, could not recognize it after it had lain ten minutes on the grass. Blankets became instantly covered with them and eaten into holes, the only article of clothing which did not suffer from their voracity was the caoutchouc or gutta percha cloaks and coverings. The periodical visitations of these locusts have been enumerated among the objectionable features of parts of the Far West, and as some of the obstacles to the settle- ment of Nebraska.* That they will also exercise an important influence upon the future of the southern part of Rupert’s Land, there is but too great reason to fear ; already they have twice destroyed the crops in different parts of the Settlements, and in the state of Minnesota in the region about Crow Wing they rendered husbandry hopeless for two years, producing great distress in that newly settled country. THE. FLOODS. | Spring freshets in the valley of Red River sometimes assume the form of wide-spreading devastating floods. The alluvial character of the prairies through which Red * Explorations in Nebraska and Dakotah, by Lieutenant Warren, U.S. Top. Eng. THE FLOODS. 393 River and the Assinniboine flow is quite sufficient to show that extensive inundations have occurred from time to time during many ages. The accumulations of strati- fied mud containing the buried trunks and branches of trees are the records of overflows similar to those which caused such distress and consternation in 1826 and 1852. There is good ground for belief that floods have occurred in the district of Assinniboia during the follow- ing years : — 1776. On the authority of Mr. Nolin.* 1790. Indian Tradition.t 1809. Indians living in the Settlement when Ross wrote, 1856. 1826.{ Missionary Register, December, 1826. 1852. Notes on the Flood,” by the Bishop of Rupert’s Land. From the level character of the country of the waters’ overflow, the deep trench in which Red River glides towards Lake Winnipeg, a shallow wide-spreading lake soon forms. In 1852 the Bishop of Rupert’s Land esti- mated the breadth of the inundated country to be about twelve miles a short distance below Fort Garry. Although the flood of 1852 was not so high as that of 1826, yet its effects were very severely felt in St. John’s and St. Paul’s parish and about Fort Garry, but in the parish of St. James, St. Andrew, and the Indian Settlement were almost untouched.) Houses and barns were swept away in the inundated parishes, and the country for miles on either side assumed the appearance of a lake. Some of the settlers took refuge on the Lake Ridge near St. James’s Church, which by leveling we ascertained in 1858 to be eleven feet above the gate of Fort Garry ; * Mentioned by Ross, in the Red River Settlement, its Rise, Progress, and Present State. t Ibid. t Ibid. § Notes on the Flood at Red River. 394 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. others encamped on Stony Mountain, and others again on Bird’s Hill opposite Stony Mountain on the east side of the river. These localities and their altitudes above the level of the prairie have already been described. The Bishop of Rupert’s Land thus describes the scene on the 24th May, when the flood was at its height :— “My sister and I started for the Stone Fort at 6 a.m. It was necessary to see the Governor and Mrs. Mills on business connected with the continuance of the schools. Breakfasted with Major Caldwell in passing. Changed for a larger canoe at the Upper Fort, and proceeded on- wards. Called at my own house, from which we were three canoes in convoy. As it turned out, ours was the only one which escaped damage from the current. The day was very fine, nearly as warm as the preceding. It was like delicious lake scenery at home, but for the want of background. What we here call hills, the Little and Stony Mountains, are but very gentle eminences of a few hundred feet, scarcely visible as heights, though all felt their value on this occasion. Strange sights met our eyes as we proceeded. Some of the bridges we saw four miles below their former locality, and on the opposite side of the river. The railing round some of the graves of the upper church had also been carried down as far. A barn had been tied to a strong tree to secure it, but it even- tually floated off. The houses, many of them standing up to the eaves in water, showed less the destructive effects of the water upon them than some weeks after, when the waters had retired. At all the poimts where the trees had caught the drift wood, it was collected in oreat quantities, and upon it was a motley assemblage of wheels, hay-carts, tables, doors, chairs, &c. | “The delight was great to reach the first spot where the banks were visible, at Park’s Creek, half way between SPECULATIONS ON THE CAUSES OF THE FLOODS. 395 the middle church and the Rapids. Here the current from being confined within narrower limits, became more impetuous, and we had been strongly advised to proceed by land; but not bemg timid on the water, and having confidence in the skill of our three men, we preferred going on to the Rapids, merely stopping to pay one sad vasit'to the widow .of our poor servant. . . . . At St. Andrew’s we called to see Mr. and Mrs: Hunter, and from that drove our own horse down to the Lower Fort. This was the first drive we had had since the carioles ‘were in use over the ice. Here we found a changed pectic) |. . . Its chief recommendation (1e. the Fort) in our eyes, under the circumstances was, that it still stood on a bigh bank, thirty feet above the river.” Various speculations have been advanced respecting the cause of the periodical floods of Red River. The backing up of the waters during a freshet in consequence of the ice on Lake Winnipeg remaining solid, is suffi- ciently disproved by the rapidity of current at the Lower or Stone Fort, which the Bishop states was “running at the rate of eight or ten miles an hour,” thirty feet below the level of the prairie. The passage of the waters of the Missouri down the Valley of the Little Souris into the Assinniboine, has been a favourite theory among the half- breeds, one however which is not tenable, as the Little Souris does not approach the Missouri nearer than forty miles and no valley or coulée exists between them which would admit of the waters of the Missouri flowing across the Grand Coteau. It is probable that these periodical floods are caused by the sudden melting of an unusual fall of snow in the wooded areas on the east bank of Red River and throughout the large expanse of level open country, drained by Red River and the Assinniboine. The chief source of supply appears to be the valley of 396 ASSINNIBOINE AND SASKATCHEWAN EXPEDITION. Red River; the Assinniboine does not contribute largely to the flooding of the country ; its waters indeed, are said to find their way to Lake Manitobah, down the valley of Rat Rivulet, during freshets, and the prairies at Pembina show, from the trunks of large trees scattered over them, that they were covered with water in 1852. Hence it appears that there is no possibility of guarding against these inundations, and that part of Red River Settlement above the Watermill Creek, subject to them, will always suffer from the disadvantages inseparable from such de- vastating occurrences. if, * Table showing the lengths, distances from Lake Superior, heights, elevation above Lake Superior, and the number of the Portages on the Kaministiquia route. II. A Statistical Account of Red River Colony, taken on the 20th to the 24th jE GS IV. AN VI. VIL. VIII. IX x XIT XITl. XI. May 1856, compared with the Censuses of 1856 and 1843. A Statistical View of the Church Missionary Society’s Missions in North- Western America, May 1859. Stations of Missionaries in the Church Missionary Society’s North-West American Missions, May 1859. The Roman Catholic Missions west of Red River. The Wesleyan Missions. The Far West in the United States. Season at Red River. Extract from a Journal kept at Fort a la Corne, on the main Saskatchewan, lat. 55°30, long. 104°25. Prices of Furs at Fort Garry in January 1860. Additional Remarks on the Pigeon River Route, with an estimate of the cost of opening the Communication wié@ Fort William, Arrow Lake, Gun- flint Lake, Rainy Lake, and the North-West Corner of the Lake of the Woods to Fort Garry. Table of the Portages, Décharges, Rapids, Lakes, Lake Straits, and Navi- gable Channels on the Pigeon River Route (the old North-West Com- pany’s route) from Lake Superior to Rainy Lake, showing their lengths and distances from Lake Superior. List of Photographs of Red River; the Churches of Selkirk Settlement; the Houses and Stores of the Settlers; Indian Tents and Graves; the Prairie; the Forts and Stores of the Hon. Hudson’s Bay Company; the Native Races, and of the Expedition returning to Crow Wing in Dog Carioles. These Photographs can be procured from Mr, J. Hogarth, No. 5, Hay- market, London. Een: APP EON DIX, I. TABLE showing the lengths, distances from Lake Superior, heights, elevation above Lake Superior, and the number of the Portages on the Kaministiquia route. Distances Bleween S g a Names. Lengths. } from Lake | Heights. bakers of & Superior. perior Ao 2 Kaministiquia River. Mls. Chs.| Mls. Chs.} Feet. | Feet. Mouth (Fort Se 5 -— — — — — Fort William 0 40 040} — — = Pointe des Meurons 940; 10 O| 4:49 4°49 | — Rapids and Current 12 0} 22 0} 80°00 | 34:49 | — Décharges des Paresseux 014}; 22 14] 5:08 | 39°57 uh Rapids and Current . Hee Nae29et8 16°63. | 562014) Mountain etieee (Kakabeka falls) 062}. 30 O /119°05 | 175-26 | 2 River . 020}; 38020); — 175°25 | — Rocky Portage (or 3 Ecarté Portage) . 0 37 | 380 57 | 62°65 | 237:90 | 3 River . : ; 260 | 33 27 | 0°50 | 238-40 | — Nicolet Portage . 0 6 33 43 6°50 | 244-90 4 Rapids and Current 1 37 |. 385 0O| 5°75.) 250°65 | — Portage 0 3 385 3 | 12°62 | 263°27 5 River . 037 | 8540; — 263°27 | — Pot Holes Portage Ou13 | 3d. O3 | - 679051, 270717 1: 6 River 022) 85 75 | — 27017 | — Couteau Portage | Oo; O32 seoG, - O) 19°25"), 289°40) |) = 7 Trois Décharges . ; : 0 35 | 386 36 | 10°00 | 299:42 | 8 River . Ir20 37 36 0:20 | 299°62 | — Poplar Décharge O15 57) de 40.) 7.3700' | 302:62-1 9 River 0 40 39 «(0 0°50 | 303-12 | — Décharge ., O° 9 a0. 9 3°00 | 806712 | 10 Rapids and Current 9 ol | | 48°60: | 35°00 | 341-12 |} — Portage des Maitres Oo) 4861)" 3°00; | 844-02) 17 River . 0 60 49 41 1-00.) 3457127), —— Little Dog Portage 0 3] 49 44 | 14°94 | 360-:06 | 12 Rapids and Current 260 | 52 24 | 3:00 | 363:06 | — Little Dog Lake . 120} 53 44); — 363°06 | — Great Dog Portage 152 55 16 |3847°81 | 710°87 | 13 Great Dog Lake. 10 60 | 65 76 | — 710°87 | — Dog fiver. Mouth : : : -— 65 76 | — 710°87 | — River . . : : 30 0 95 76 3°00 | 713°87 | — Barriere Portage ; : Oe Sonia) 3:60 717-37. | 14 400 APPENDIX. Table showing the lengths and distances from Lake Superior, §c. (continued. ) Distances Hipveuen S & re Names. Lengths. |from Lake | Heights. take GH: si FS Superior. x zo 3 perlor. fab fe Dog Be ee Mls. Chs.| Mis. Chs. | Feet. Feet. River : 220} 98 17 | 0:20} 717-57 | — / Jourdain Portage : : 0.6 | 98°23 |; 8°60 |. (26a yas River ie Chgset 0.40 | 98 63 |. =| 72ohia Prairie River. Mouth : : : : — OR! | a 725°17 | — River : 3° 0} 101 63 | 6005) (27-67 Cold Water Portage 0 6] 101 69 | 0°76 | 728-43 | 16 Cold Water Lake 0 14 19102 43 — (28:43-) Prairie Portage 2 50 | 104 53 |157:12 | 885-55 | 17 Height of Land Lake G15) L027 le 885°55 | — De Milieu Portage 0 38 | 105 29 | 16°39 | 869-16 | 18 Savanne Lake 1740 4 OG G69 sae 869-16 -| .— Great Savanne Portage 1 41 | 108 30 | 31°69 | 837°47 | 19 Savanne. River. Mouth . : : 3 — 108 30 837°47 | — River 5 ; 13 20 |} 121 50 4°79) 832-68") == Thousand Lakes . 21 60 | 143 30 1+ — 832°68 | — Baril Portage 4 0 17 | 148 47 1°86 | 834°54 | 20 Baril Lake . ; 5 8 0 | .do1 47. | 834:54 | — Brulé Portage . 0 21 | 151 68 | 47°02 | 787-62 | 21 Upper Brulé Lake (or Can- nibals Lake) ; 8 0 | 159 68 | 1:50.) 78602.) -= Semi-Décharge 0 3] 159 70 | 2°50 | 783-52 | 22 Lower Brulé Lake 4 20 | 164 10 | 1°25 | 782-27 | — Great French Portage . 1 60 | 165 70 | 99°71 | 682°56 | 23 French Portage Lake 140) 16730 — «| 682756. 4== Pickerel River 2 40 | 169 70 1°25.) 6803ie |= Pickerel Lake 13 0 | 182 70 —— “1 4G Gillean te Pickerel Portage . 0 26 | 183 16} 6°90 | 674:41 | 24 Doré Lake % 1 60 | 184 76 — 67441 |e Deux Riviéres Portage 0 382 | 185 28 |117°22 | 557:19 | 25 Sturgeon Lake 23 20 | 208 48 | 1:00 | 556-19 | — Sturgeon River. Mouth. j — 208 48 — “|-0063900) == Semi-Décharge, ist Sturgeon Rapids 0 11 | 208 59 4°51 | 551°68 | 26 River . 0,20 1.208 79.):.0°26 | 561-43. R= Portage, ond Sturgeon Rapids 0 38] 209. 2 | 6-21 | 545:2001<07 Rapids and Current 7. 8 j 216-10 |-10°00 | 435227). Semi-Décharge, MinnisRapids 0 5} 216 15 | 4°50 | 530-72 | 28 Current ; 5 0 | 221 15 1:26 | O29 Island Portage 0 3 | 221 18 | 10°06 | 519°41 | 29 River . 4 0 | 225 18 2°00 | 517°41 | — Nequawquon Lake ice Lac la Croix) 8 0 | 233 18 — | 617-41 | — Nameukan River. Mouth. ; : 5 : — 233 18 — | 517-41 | — Current : : 4 ; 2 0 | 235 18 5°00 | 512°41 | — APPENDIX... 401 Table showing the lengths and distances from Lake Superior, &c. (continued). é Elevation | a % M Names. Lengths. pron bake Heights. ae eaters y zg 5 Superior. Wine Z6 © perior. < S Nameaukan River—(continued). |Mis. Chs.| Mis. Chs. | Feet. Feet. Rattlesnake Portage . ; 0 5 | 235 23 + 12-14 | 500-27. | 30 Current : : : : o 2h | 238! 50 1:75 | 498°52 | — Crow Portage 0 8 | 288 58 | 9°88 | 488-64 | 31 Rapids and Current 6 40 | 245 18 | 7:00 | 481°64 | — Grand Falls eo 0 6 | 245 24 | 16°08 | 465°56 | 32 Current : OF 31-248; 24 3°00 | 462°56 | — Grand Rapids 0 40 | 248 64 } 16°00 | 446°56. | — River . 2240: |}-251 24 2°00 | 444°56 | — Lake Neerecaiean 6 40 | 257 64 — 444°56 | — Nu Portage. 0°. 6 | 267 70 8:55 | 486°01-| 33 Lakelet 0 20 | 258 16 — 436°01 | — Portage 0 11 | 258 27 | 0°21 | 435°80 | 34 River . 5 0 263 27 0°50 | 485°30 | — _ Rainy Lake . 388 0 | 301 27 |} — 435°30. | — Rainy River. Mouth. i : , — 301 27 — 435°30 | — Rapids 0 40 | 301 67 3:00 | 482°30 | — Currents : ‘ : 1-40: |-303. 27 0°50 | 481°80 | — Fort Francis Portage 0 8 | 303 385 | 22°88 | 408°92 | 36 River . é ‘ a2, 60° 3386515 | 10°00 | 398792, |, — Manitou Rapids 0 15 | 336 30 | 2°50 | 896-42 | — River . 6.40'| 342 70 } 3°50 | 392°92 | — Long Rapids 0 20 | 343 10 | 3°00 | 389°92 | — River . : oo 0 7.381, 10 | 12:10 |.377-82 | — Lake of the Woods 3 72 0 | 468 10; — 314 82) | == Winnipeg River. Rat Portage 0 18 | 453 23 | 15°98 | 361°84 | 36 River . 8 7 | 461 30 1:00 | 360°84 | — Les Dalles Rapids 0 20 | 461 50 |. 3:00 | 357°84 | — River . : 25 0 | 486 50 2°00 | 355°84 | — Grand Décharge F 0 20 | 486 70 | 6:00 | 349-84 | 37 River . 2 0.1 488 70 2°25 | 847°69 | — Terre Jaune Portage 0 5 | 488 75 | 22°02 | 325°57 | 38 River . 0 55 | 489 50 0°75 | 324°82 | — Charette Décharge 0 2] 489 52 |. 3°50 | 321°32 | 39 River . 0 78 | 490 50 | 1:00 | 320°32 | — Terre Blanche Portage. 0 10 | 490 60 | 8-24 | 312°08 | 40 River . 5 ‘ 0 28 | 491 8 0°15 | 311°93 | — Cave Rapids 0 2 | 491 10}. 2°60 | 309-43 | — River . : 19 0 |} 510 10 4°50 | 304°93 | — De V'Isle Portage . 0 2] 510 12] 3°40 | 301-53 | 41 River . 22 78 | 5383 10 4:00 | 297-53 | — Chute a Jaques Portage 0 3] 583 13 | 12°97 | 284°56 | 42 River . 9 57 | 542 70 1°60 | 282°96 | — Point des Bois Portage 0 13 | 548 3 | 10°50 | 272°46 | 43 River . OF i) 043,10 | 0°26 |) 272-21 ) — Point aux Chénes ‘Portage 0 5 | 543 15 | 19°92 | 252°29 | 44 River . : 0 75 | 544 10 | 1:00 | 251°29 | — Roche Brulé Portage 0 3 | 544 13 | 7:80 | 243-49 | 45 WOL, LI. DD 402 ~ APPENDIX. Table showing the lengths and distances from Lake Superior, ce. (continued). : Elevation] . ¢ aa Names. Lengths. a ‘Lake Heights. eee : Ef a Superior. perior. ze 3 Winnipeg sete ia ae Mls. Chs.| Mls. Chs.| Feet. | Feet. River . 4 37 | 548 50 1-7) | Q47 Slave Falls Portage 0 30 | 549 0 | 19°80 | 221-94 | 46 River . : . 6 10 | 555 10 2°25 | 219°69 | — Barrier Falls Portage ; O 2 | 555 12 |. 4°97 | 214-72 | 47 River . ; : : 4 78 |}.560 10 |. 2°00 |:212-79) == Otter Falls . 0 1 | 560 11 3°00 | 209°72 | — Current 5 79 | 566 10 8°00 | 201°72 | — Ist O 4 566 14 | 10°23 | 191-49 | 48 Current 0 16 | 566 30 1:00 | 190-49 | — a 2nd. 0 3 | 566 33 8°47 | 182-02 | 49 & | Current 0 37 | 566 70 | 2:00 | 180°02 | — £ | 8rd 0 5 | 566 75] 560 | 174-42] 50 oc Current 1 15°). 568 10,): 2:26))\Pae aa .q 4 4th 0 3 | 568 13 7°68 | 164:49 | 61 4 Current 0 37 | 568 50 1:25 | 163-24 | — D Fe 0 2 | 568 52 2°90 | 160°34 | 52 iS Current 0 38'| 569 10 |" 2:00, \ts8-345)=— EH 6th 0 3 | 569 18 8°13 | 15O:21 ae Current 0 7 | 569 20 1:25 | 148-96 | — 7th 0 3 | 569 23 4°75 | 144°21 | 54 River 4 11 37 | 580 60 3°00 | 144:21 | — Bonnet Lake 4 40 | 585 20 — 144:21 | — Bonnet Portage 0 1} 585 21.|° 7-31 | Fea-90 | 65 River . 0 59 | 586 0 |* 2:00 | T3i-90)) == Cap de Bonnet Portage 0 41} 586 4; 5:00 |} 126°90 | 56 River . 3 16 | 589 20 |° 38°25 | 123°65 | —— Big Bonnet Portage 0 50 | 589 70 | 34:23 | 89°42 | 57 River . 0 30 | 590 20 1°00 88°42 | — Petit Roche Portage 0 13 | 590 33 | 825} 80-17 | 58 River .. 3 27.4 593 60'|, 3°50.) 76670he—— White Mud Portage 0 15 | 598 75 | 18°05 63°62 | 59 River . : 3 40 | 597 40 1°80 61°82 | — Silver Lsbeses, Os 7 a1 OOF. 47 6°06 50°76 | 60 Falls [Eee 0-3 | 2597.50), 025. | goats Portage | 2nd , 0 13 | 597 63 | 15°59 39°95 | 61 River . : : : A 5 47 | 603° 30 |, 140 | 3854) = Pine Portage 0 12 | 603 42 | 8:03 | 30°20 | 62 River . : 11 .0 | 614 42 2°00 28:20 | — Fort Alexander 0 0} 614 42}. — 28°20 | — Mouth of River 160: |) 616) 22°) - == 28°20 | — Winnipeg Lake 41 0} 657 22 | — 28°20 | — 403 | “IT A. ‘—‘uorssassod sty ut ¢pgt rvad oy} roj snsuso oy} SuLARy Jou “TeI}STSod ertg = ras G TL¢ 3 o¢T OTT g GG 8616 CVEG | 0L8 " "SPStx ee) = i ae ee = g 69 é1 v1 9 op 19 Asta hg aes eseoroe(] GEGL 1ZL Tlg cacy GEL a = aT = = 1G 09 ae 0€ * osvolouy 16Z¢ | LL9% | FIL] G F89 & TOT 661 LG 9v eT? cas 6E¢ oGOT > Soret bd a €¢699 8668 | C6ce G 18h 1 66 SAU &T OF veg 09 88h GsOT = 7 OSSt 7 sr | a fl a a re ica | rs “pury “pur'yT ‘uritoy | cueted “Apiuey tod EA [RIOT | seewa,} “savy | -tozziMg | squedny “£EMION | “BpeuRD |'puepjoos | ‘puvlasy | ‘puelsuy | ‘oouIeD| -éqseig -oosid iy a80l9 VSVIIAY “9OG8T wv *SoTfIwWe TA0L *Aryunod "UOLBI[OY jo 1aquinN "IVa Rh A ee NE rl a Se ge en Sr a “SV8T PUY OC8T fo snsuag ayn yin patndwoo ‘gGgy hope YIPS 9Y2 OF YROS OY2 UO way) ‘hu0j0D wamey poy {0 wunooop )oousnnIg VW ‘Il pp2 404 (continued). A Statistical Account of Red River, $c. APPENDIX. . are [ors | [Pallet a ° 6 2 20 ox ‘syueyo oo | © | as -Jeaw ‘sdoyus 1D 11d | ar ee ae *sayounyD | ° I~ N | | ° rt re | “THAT Surpseo | [See al *SOUIUOeAL © l SS l l SUIMOUUTLAA > ie, gt Cae) ale | WW suldvoy s = ° * is SIT'AL foe) | [o'e) | | = Suryseay y, G DH oO a SIAL 40784 | | : ODIN stm pam | OS | ce . HAIN S| ‘es0e jad yeaym | 2 ieee & | stoysnq omy 218 Sao | | | purl pawanpng |< OO seog| BSS] | OO Ss 1 a A D ON dH nN o S DO os z sing] SIS2] Ss OX & *udaxO au = BY | | AN ese, 3 "solv Se | <= re oO 4D OO 4 *soSsIOH ees = | A rer DO =k surg)! cdo | oD OD | ze ob R : seals 3 mms)! SS | ES ae A : NS be (=) *“sosnoyy Hr | oD tr rt o 4 2B ra CO oO = = fan) 5 MOSH ey a. oH Y 0 oe om Sa) (oe) ms | J =] at re a COURS: QUO OJ SJANOD Aj}0g JO saseo |? gE 94} Te JO JUNOWR [LO], Petty Local Courts, 1855 and 1856. Debt. Petty Offences. s *1eak 13 6 ey SO RH "sasvo | y_ jo xoquinu [ej0, | N "SOO L 03 *806 WO. -soota x05 ona | "$6 0} SOQ WIA "36-03 808 wong | | “Sol 03 °SO9 WOL YT AN °SO9 03 *SQG WOl "S0G 0} “SOP WOIT | 4 AN “S)F 03 SOE WOT “SOE 0} “SOG WOIY | Z ” ° a pie. |. = o || & 2, : Ble 1s Es| 2 a o “SNOLLVLS : a 5 A 2 © : Z . © ° 9 eal ag Sr 2 4 ; FS S 8 2 g | 5 5 a3| 5 Banke IVdIONIUd g > 8 22 se sa aed Ax) ueod Se = Be wee gi E : a ge 38 *SATIE NT tae ie -omngq |P ‘uvadoing : 22 {suoruasia a § a es} z = Za & | Z : : 2 |°8 a Fs] > SUAHLO GNV SUAHOVAL AVT *“NAWADYUATIO a Z SAINVN " *suv10HOS ‘VGA FHL *SLNV.LSISSV S GNV SLSIUVNIWGAS FZAILVN ONIYVAC SNSILAVEA GNV SUFHOVAL AVT ANV IVOINATO ‘6G81 Mvp ‘vowampy ysam-YJLOAT U2 suorssipy s fiqor0g hunuorwssipy younyyD ay2 fo mar4 pooysunyy ‘TIT 406 APPENDIX. IV. STATIONS OF MISSIONARIES IN THE CHURCH MISSION SOCIETY. NORTH-WEST AMERICA MISSION. — May 1859. St. Andrew’s . La Prairie RED RIVER. . Ven. Archd. James Hunter, M.A., 1844. Rev. Rev. William West Kirkby, 1852. Edwin A. Watkins, 1852. Mr. Caleb Mayhew, 1856. 1 European Schoolmaster. . Ven. Archd. W. Cockran, 1825. Indian Settlement Rev. Abraham Cowley, 1841. Islington Fairford Fort Pelly Cumberland . Moose Lake Nepowewin English River York Factory . Moose Fort . Rev. - Rev. Robert M‘Donald, Country-born. MANITOBA. William Stagg, 1853. Rev. James Settee, Native. . Rev. . 1 Native Catechist. . Rev. . Rev. . Rev. . Rev. Rev. . 1 Native Teacher. CUMBERLAND. Henry George, 1854. Henry Budd, Native. ENGLISH RIVER. Robert Hunt, 1849. YORK FACTORY. Joseph Phelps Gardiner, 1857. JAMES’ BAY. , John Horden, 1851. Thomas H. Fleming, 1857. APPENDIX. 407 PACIFIC. Fort Simpson . Mr. William Duncan, 1856. 21 Country-born and Native Teachers in addition to the above- mentioned. At Home . . . Rev. William Mason, 1840. Vv. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC MISSIONS WEST OF RED RIVER. In 1830, Bishop Provencher went to Canada, with a view to induce his church to commence missionary operations in Rupert’s Land, west of Red River, and returned the following year with his first missionary, Mr. G. Belcourt. This gentleman at once set himself to acquire the Salteaux dialect, as he was to begin with that tribe, being nearest at hand. He mastered the lan- guage thoroughly, and commenced operations above Lane’s Fort, at a point which still bears his name. He baptized a number, and the mission got a good start under his management. Others followed him and laboured in hope, but after years of anxious care and toil, the results were not satisfactory. The death of Mr. Darveau, who succeeded Mr. Belcourt, and the better dis- position of the Indians elsewhere, induced Bishop Provencher reluctantly to abandon that mission. At present there are no Ca- tholic missions in, or immediately around the settlement: they are all in the interior. It is the universal experience of the missionaries, that the Indians in the immediate neighbourhood of white settlements are much more degraded and less disposed to spiritual matters, than those far from the whites. In 1842 the Roman Catholic missions fairly began. In that year M. Thibeault was sent forth, and was followed in 1844 by Messrs. Lafleche Dp4 408 APPENDIX. and Bourassa. And so they have increased until now they num- ber sixteen or seventeen, and have five missionary stations. Laxe St. ANNE Misston.—This place is known among voy- ageurs by the name of “ Devil’s Lake,” which is a translation of the Indian name usually given in maps, Manitou Lake. It is nearly fifty miles west of Fort Edmonton, the head quarters of the Saskatchewan district. It was first visited by M. Thibeault in 1843, but was formally taken possession of only in the follow- ing year by Messrs. Lafleche and Bourassa. There are about forty houses, occupied partly by half-breeds, partly by Crees, Assinniboines, and Blackfeet. The present missionaries are—Rev. Fathers Lacombe, Remas, and Train. Making the St. Anne a sort of rendezvous, they have been through the whole Saskat- chewan Valley, and have gone to the source of the Athabasca, to the Rocky Mountains, Red Deer Lake, and Ile-a-la-Crosse. The mission is provided with a chapel (now too small), a good house for the missionaries, a school, and a convent; which last, sisters of Charity will occupy this summer (1860). Mission oF Norre-Dame pes Victotres.—The Red Deer Lake, on the border of which is this mission, is in the Saskatchewan district. There are some half-breeds at this mission, besides Crees and Chipewyans from Athabasca and Ile-a-la-Crosse. M. Thibeault visited it in 1845 and subsequently. Rev. Father Remas settled there in 1853. Its present missionaries are Rev. Fathers Maisonneuve and Vissot. The soil and climate permit the cultivation of wheat at this station. The missionaries go at times to Fort Pitt, but find little encouragement, as drunkenness prevails to a shameful extent, both among the Company’s servants and the Indians. Sr. Joun THE Baptist Mission.—-This is at Ile-a-la-Crosse, in - the English River district. M. Thibeault first visited the spot in 1845, then in 1846; and in the fall of this year it was for- mally occupied by Rev. Father Tache and M. Lafleche. Mon- seigneur Grandin, coadjutor-elect of St. Boniface, and Rev. Father Vegreville, labour there at present among Crees and Chipewyans and the employés of the Company. They annually visit Lac APPENDIX. 409 Vert and Portage 4 la Loche. There is a handsome church, a substantial house for the missionaries, and one ready for Sisters of Charity. Mission or THe Nativity.—The Rev. Father Alex. Tache was the first missionary that visited Lake Athabasca, at the end of which this mission is situated. He went first in 1847, then in 1848. In the following year Father Faraud was permanently settled there. He understands the Cree and Chipewyan dialects perfectly, and is now assisted by Rev. Father Clut. Mission oF St. Josepu.— It is on the Great Slave Lake. Rev. Father Faraud visited the place first in 1852, and subsequently in 1856; but it was permanently occupied only in 1858, when Rev. Fathers Grollier and Eynard took a position alongside of Fort Resolution. This is the furthest north of all the Roman Catholic missions. In 1858 Rev. Father Grollier went as far as Fort Simpson, the head quarters of the Mackenzie’s River district. The number of baptisms by the missionaries from the year 1842 to 1856 amounted to 5137. Since 1856 there have been no statistics received ; they are furnished only at stated intervals. The revenue of the diocese of St. Boniface is not much over 20001.—Abbreviated from the Nor-Wester. May 14th, 1860. VE ® WESLEYAN METHODIST MISSIONS.* NORWAY HOUSE. Rev. Robert Brooking, of Rossville. Number of Members, 164 in 1859. “Our population is still rapidly on the increase, , Since my last report was written there have been thirty baptisms and only five deaths, so that there has been an increase, by births over deaths, of twenty-five; and there has also been an addition by families coming in from other places. During the two years of my resi- * Thirty-fourth Annual Report of the Missionary Society of the Wesleyan Church in Canada, in connexion with the English Conference, Toronto, 1859. 410 APPENDIX. dence here the population has increased from all sources fully 100. Five marriages have been solemnized during the past year. «‘ Several new houses were finished last fall, and there are six more now in frame, and the material got out for three or four others, which are to be raised when the boating is over. A larger quantity of ground is fenced in and under cultivation than has ever been before; so that if their prosperity does not keep pace with our wishes, yet we have every reason to thank God and take courage. In fact, there seems a general desire among our Pte to improve their circumstances.” OXFORD HOUSE. Rev. Charles Stringfellow, of Jackson’s Bay. «As to the numbers in our Church there is a decrease of six- teen, being last year ninety-nine, the present year they number eighty-three. There are eighteen persons on trial for member- ship in addition to the eighty-three members. Of this decrease ten have removed to hunting-grounds contiguous to Rossville Mission, and therefore will augment by ten the numbers there in society. Five other persons, four male and one female, have died during the year.” EDMONTON AND ROCKY MOUNTAINS. Rey. Thos. Wolsey. VIt. THE FAR WEST IN THE UNITED STATES. From its mouth to the Great Bend, the Missouri admits of almost continuous settlement on its wmnmediate banks; thence, to Fort Union, only about one-fourth could be culti- vated; and above Fort Union many extensive but detached bottoms show their adaptation for small independent agricul- tural areas. The general westward progress of sce a few miles west of the Upper Missouri River, is rendered impossible by APPENDIX. 411 the conditions of climate and soil which prevail there. The progress of settlement must necessarily be up the Valley of the Mississippi, on the immediate banks of the Missouri, and through the Valley of the Red River of the north, to the cultivable areas in the basin of Lake Winnipeg. The explora- tion for the Pacific Railroad and the meteorological investi- gations carried on under the direction of the Surgeon-General of the U. S. army, show conclusively that no settlement of any importance can be established over a vast extent of country, many hundred miles broad, on the eastern flank of the Rocky Mountains, and south of the Great Bend of the Missouri. Owing to the absence of rain, the apparently great rivers, the Platte, the Canadian, the Arkansas, &c., are often converted into long detached reaches or ponds during the summer months, and forbid extensive settlements even on their immediate banks. This great and important physical fact is contrary to popular opinion, which is mainly based upon an inspection of a map, and guided by the glowing but utterly erroneotis descriptions which are periodically circulated respecting the wonderful fer- tility of the Far West, and its capability of sustaining a dense population. The arid districts of the Upper Missouri are barren tracts, wholly uncultivable, from various causes.* The arid plains between the Platte and Canadian rivers are in great part sand-deserts. The “Sage-plains,” or dry districts, with little vegetable growth except varieties of Artemisia, begin on the western border of the plains of the eastern Rocky Mountain slope, and cover much the larger portion of the whole country westward.f The sterile region on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains begins about 500 or 600 miles west of the Mississippi, and its breadth varies from 200 to 400 miles; and it is then succeeded by the Rocky Mountain range, which, rising from an altitude of 5200 in feet lat. 32°, reaches 10,000 feet in lat. 38°, and declines to 7490 feet in lat. 42° 24’, and * Page 684, Army Meteorological Register, U. 8. 4 Tid. 412 APPENDIX. about 6000 in lat. 47°. Along this range isolated peaks and ridges rise into the limits of perpetual snow, in some instances attaining an elevation of 17,000 feet. The breadth of the Rocky Mountain range varies from 500 to 900 miles. The soil of the greater part of the sterile region is necessarily so from its composition, and where well constituted for fertility, from the absence of rain at certain seasons. The general cha- racter of extreme sterility likewise belongs to the country embraced in the mountain region.* The table subjoined is capable of conveying a very good idea of the great barrier to the westward progress of settlement, which lies between the Mississippi Valley and the Pacific slope of the Rocky Moun- tains. It is extracted from a table showing the lengths, sums of ascents and descents, &c. &c., of the several routes surveyed for a railroad from the Mississippi to the Pacific, and published in the “‘ Exploration and Surveys,” before quoted. No. of miles of No. of miles of| route through Length Rone lands generally of Rail- uncultivable, No. of sq. miles of sums of areas of largest bodies way | ‘arable | arable soil being] th cuttivable re- land. anode gions. Miles. Route near 47th & 49th parallel . | 1864 | 374 1490 1000 >) om Alst & 42nd 1 bi203a4 630 1400 1100 > » 38th & 39th 9» «| 2080))" 620 1460 1100 5 5, odth jp: te | hOO2? SLE 1476 2300 op », o2nd i + | LOls 1 408 1210 . 2300 This table shows that the least distance of uncultivable land through which a railway from the Mississippi to the Pacific must pass, in the United States territory, exceeds 1200 miles in length,—a barrier sufficient to arrest the general progress of settlement, for very many years to come, in a course due west of the Mississippi. The only direction which remains for extensive free soil settlement in and near the United States is northwards, partially along the immediate banks of the Missouri, about the head- * Exploration and Surveys for a Railroad Route from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean, page 40. APPENDIX. 413 waters of the Mississippi, and towards the valleys of the Red River and the Assinniboine and the main Saskatchewan. The popular impression that immense areas of land, available for the purposes of agriculture, he between the Missouri and the Rocky Mountain chain, has, as before stated, been completely refuted by the explorations and surveys for the Pacific Railroad. The now well ascertained aridity of climate and its natural conse- quence, sterility of soil, both combine to confirm the title of “The Great American Desert,” given by the early explorers of the eastern flank of the Rocky Mountains to that extensive region of country. This important fact cannot fail to exercise a powerful influence upon the occupation of British territory north of the 49th parallel of latitude, and on the sources from which that occupation will flow. [From a paper by the author on the Great North-West, published in 1858.] _ VIII. SEASONS AT RED RIVER. ON THE PROGRESS OF THE SEASONS AND STATE OF THE WEATHER AT RED RIVER SETTLEMENT, FROM 1ST JUNE, 1855, TO 31ST MAY, 1856. 1855. June 5th was the coldest day in the month. Ther- mometer, 7 a.m., 58; 2 p.m., 63; 9 p.m., 56. The 14th was the hottest day. Thermometer, 7 a.m., 72; 2 p.m., 88; 9 p.m., 71. Three inches of rain fell on the 17th, one on the 19th and six on the 25th. July 2nd was the coldest. Thermometer, 7 a.m., 56; 2 p.m., 78; 9p.m., 68; light rain. The 25th was the hottest day. 7am., 87; 2 p.m., 92; 9 p.m., 82. 7th, rain 33 inches; 10th, rain # inches. Thunderstorm on the 17th, rain 3 inches. 26th, 1 inch rain; 29th, 3 inches rain; 30th, 2 inches; total 144 inches. Wheat out of the ear. On the 12th hay-cutting com- menced. Tabani and mosquitoes very numerous and trouble- some. 414 APPENDIX. August : — Coldest day, 29th. Thermometer, 7 a.m., 44; 1 p.m., 68; 9p.m., 56. The hottest day was the 5th. 7a.m., 67372 pym.,' 865-9 p.m, "76. On the 8th, 5 inches of rain fell; 11th, 54 inches fell; 14th, 2 inches; 27th, 4 inch: total, 123 inches. Barley harvest commenced about the Ist; wheat har- vest on the 15th. Slight frost on the 30th. 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VOL. 434 APPENDIX. XIV. List of Photographs, of Red River; the Ohurches of Selkirk Settlement ; the Houses and Stores of the Settlers; Indian Tents and Graves; the Prairie; the Forts and Stores of the Hon. Hudsows Bay Company ; the Native Races; and the. Expedition returning to Crow Wing in Dog Carioles.* THE RED RIVER. View of Red River, from the Stone Fort. View of Red River, from St. Andrew’s Church, four miles above the Stone Fort. Red River ; Middle Settlement, eight miles below Fort Garry. Freighter’s Boat on the banks of Red River, seven miles below Fort Garry. Bishop’s Court (the residence of the Bishop of Rupert’s Bua, on the banks of Red River. (These Photographs exhibit the general character of the river.) CHURCHES OF SELKIRK SETTLEMENT. Cathedral of St. Boniface (Roman Catholic) and Nunnery, on the banks of Red River, opposite Fort Garry. St. John’s Church, two miles below Fort Garry. (Ch. of Eng.) Presbyterian Church and Parsonage, seven miles below Fort Garry. St. Paul’s Church, Parsonage, and School House, eight and a half miles below Fort Garry. (Ch. of Eng.) St. Andrew’s Church (Rapids a sixteen | below Fort Garry. (Ch. of Eng.) . St. Andrew’s Parsonage. * These Photographs can be procured from Mr. J. Hogarth, No. 5, Haymarket, London. Price two guineas. APPENDIX. 435 HOUSES AND STORES OF THE SETTLERS. Residence of Mr. Bannatyne, near Fort Garry. Mr. McDermot’s Store, near Fort Garry. Farm-houses and Windmills, Middle Settlement. INDIAN TENTS AND GRAVES. Ojibway Tents, on the banks of Red River, near the Middle Settlement. Birch-bark Tents, west bank of Red River, Middle Settle- ment. Indian Graves, covered with split sticks. Indian Graves, covered with birch bark. THE PRAIRIE. The Prairie, on the banks of Red River, looking south. FORTS AND STORES OF THE HONOURABLE HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY. Fort Garry ; at the confluence of Red River and the Assinni- boine. Hon. Hudson’s Bay Company’s Officers’ Quarters: Lower or Stone Fort. Fur Store: interior of Lower or Stone Fort. NATIVE RACES. John McKay: a Cree half- breed. Letitia: a Cree half-breed. Susan: a Swampy-Cree half-breed. Wigwam: an Ojibway half-breed, Lake Superior. An Ojibway Squaw with Papoose. Red River Freighter’s Boat. 436 APPENDIX. Dog Carioles; Expedition returning to Crow Wing, by the winter road. A Blackfoot Warrior’s Robe, containing a history of his wars, &c., Buffalo hunts, and showing the number of scalps he has taken from his enemies. INDEX. Agate Islands, agates of the, i. 13. Agriculture, apathy of the people of Red River settlements in relation to, i. 223% results of this apathy, i. 224, causes of the absence of progress, i. 225. cultivated crops at Red River, i. 225. - Agricultural implements of Red River set- tlements, i. 229. Air, fetid, from the marshes near the Qu’- appelle River, i. 331. Alexander, Fort, on the Winnipeg River, eae Alluvial flats, Saskatchewan River, 1. 445, formation of, i, 457. Alonquins, territory inhabited by the, i. 180, 181. Ammonites, from M‘Kenzie River, 11, 306, from the Souris, ii. $38. —— Ammonites Barnstoni, il. 307, 311. Billingsil, ii. 315. placenta, ii. 340, Animal life, scarcity of, on the route, i, 55. on the Winnipeg River, i. 115. near the Souris Lakes, i. 300. on the south branch of the Saskatche- wan, i. 388, 893. causes of the absence of animal life in the prairies, 1. 424, 425, Anomia Flemingi, ii. 334. Anser hyperboreus, flocks of, on the Little Saskatchewan River, ii. 29. Antelope, prong-horned ( Antilocapra Ame- ricana), on the Souris Lakes, i. 300. herds of, in the prairie west of the Little Souris River, i. 306. on the borders of the Qu’appelle valley, 1. 318. Ant-hills, gigantic, on the Winnipeg River, fe 115. Antiquities, Indian, rarely found in the valley of the Saskatchewan, ii, 120, at Red River, i. 121. Appendix, ii. 399, et seq. MOL, II. G —— S Arable land on the Red Assinniboine and Saskatchewan Rivers, 1. 250. Areas fit for settlement in the valley of the Assinniboine, 1. 246, 250. —— in the valley of the Saskatchewan, i. 249. east of the Riding and Duck Moun- tains, i. 250, Arrow Lake, 1. 76. Ashes’ Lake, 1. 411. Ashley, Hon. Evelyn, his trip into the prairies, li. 82. Aspen forests on the south branch of the Saskatchewan, 1. 386. former, on the south branch of the Saskatchewan, i. $391. and on the main Saskatchewan, 1. 404, increase of, at Spy Hill, i. 425. near Dauphin Lake, i, 61. Assinniboia, 1, 127. governor and council of, i. 183. -—— administration of justice at, i. 183. —— quarterly courts, i. 184. lower district court, 1. 185. Assinniboine River, i. 127. etymology of the name, i. 127 note. its junction with the Red River, i. 132, its character and course, 1. 136. its width, depth, and rate of current, i, 136. volume of water in the, i. 137. effect of evaporation on its volume of water, 1. 137. its affluents, i. 138. its course, i. 139. its physical features, i. 139. sand and mud flats in the river at Prairie Portage, i, 141. timber on its banks, i. 141, 142. scarcity of fuel in the valley of, i. 144, confluence of the Assinniboine and Red River, i. 153. oe . 438 Assinniboine country lying between the As- sinniboine and La Riviére Sale, i. 15) extensive and valuable forests in the, i, 244, areas fit for settlement in the valley of the, 1. 246. —— width and rate of current at Lane’s iPosts1-- 2814 fertility ofthe prairie of the Assinni- boine at Prairie Portage, 1. 282. -—— dimensions of the valley of the Assinni- boine, 1, 285. measurement of a section of the, i. 287. breadth, depth, and current of the, i. 288, 430. — arrival of the expedition at the, near Two Creeks, 1. 308, —— approach to the river, 1. 309. former condition of the Assinniboine valley, i. 309. ponds feeding the, at Sandy Hills, i. 352, 355. rivers and creeks flowing into the, from the west, i. 431. —— Big Ridge of the, ii, 78. —- Little Ridge of the, ii. 79, fertility of the soil on the east bank of the, 1. 435. valley, leading dimensions of the, i. 430. —— Indians, celebrated war-paths of the, ii, 29. —— Christians in the Rocky Mountains, ii, 204. Atmospheric phenomenon at the Height of Land, i. 54. Audubon quoted, ii. 160. Aurora borealis on Lake Winnipeg, i. 477. on Red River, i. 5. — on Lake Winnipeg, ii. 12. —— seen from the Riding Mountain, i1. Oo. account of several seen in Rupert’s Land, ii. 380. Avellana Coneinna, ii. 339. Avicula lingueformis, ii. 342. Nebrascana, 11. 342, 343. Babeen Indians, their elaborate tobacco pipes, 11. 141. Back-fat Creek, i. 243. Back-fat Rivulet, i. 290, Back-fat Lakes, i. 291. Bad Woods, 1. 283, 285. —— origin of the name, 1. 284. hunter’s road in the, 1. 284. caterpillars in the, i. 285. Balsam spruce on the south branch of the Saskatchewan, i. 391. Baril or Keg Portage, i. 61. INDEX. Baril, grooved, scratched, and polished rocks at, 11. 245. Baril Lake, i. 63. vegetation of the banks of, i. 68 Barley, cultivation of, at Red River settle- ments, 1. 227, - Barriére Portage, i. 50, Barriére Falls of the Winnipeg River, i. 116. Basquia River, 1. 452. Battle River, -i. 351, Bay, Thunder, scenery of, i. 13. colour of the waters of, i, 14, description of, i, 24. Seine, i. 62, —— Monument, 1. 103, Bayfield, Captain, his estimate of the alti- tude of Lake Superior, i. 17. Beaches and terraces between Lakes Su- perior and Winnipeg, ii, 257. at Great Dog Portage, ii. 257 —— section of, ii. 258. —— on Lake Superior, ii. 258. —— on Prairie Portage, ii, 259. —— the Big Ridge, ii. 259. —— White Mud River Ridge, ii. 260. —— Dauphin Lake Ridge, ii. 260, prairie ridges, ii, 261. Pembina Mountain, ii. 261. —— Riding and Duck Mountain ridges, il, 263. conical hills, i. 263. Bear-berry, abundance of, at Weed Ridge, 1. SL. Bear, grizzly, ongthe south branch of the Saskatchewan, 1. 394. visit from one, i. 394. Hill, ii. 264. altitude of the, ii. 264, ——- second tier of conical hills, ii. 264. Bear, black, on the main Saskatchewan River, i. 406. Bear, brown-nosed, shot, ii. 54. Bear steaks, ii. 57. Beaver Creek, i. 138, 310. character of the country, in the neigh- bourhood of, i. 311. Beaver Mountain, i. 422, Beet cultivated at Red River settlement, 4, 227 Bell, Mr., and his daughter, i. 60. Big Bend, Saskatchewan River, i. 452. Big Hill, i. 410. boulders on the, i, 410. Big Ridge, birds of the, i. 279. its elevation, i. 279. —— view from its summit, i, 280, —— pasturage of, i. 280, ancient beach of, ii, 259. Big Stone River, i. 448, —— A INDEX. 439 Birch-bark tents on the Red River, i. 200. Birch Islands, the Big, Main Saskatchewan River, i. 444. Birch Hills, Main Saskatchewan River, i. 406, 408. Birds of the Kaministiquia River, i. 55. on the banks of Rainy River, i. 89. of Garden Island, i. 101. on the Winnipeg River, i. 115, 116. on the Pennawa River, i. 118. aquatic, on Lake Winnipeg, i. 123. on Roseau Lake, i. 159. near the height of land Hills, i 261. in the Touchwood Hills, 1. 394, on Lake Manitobah, ii. 39. of the Big Ridge, i. 279. of the prairie west of the Little Souris River, i. 306. of the Qu’appelle Valley, i. 316, 330. on the Qu’appelle Fishing Lakes, i. 328. Pee ener Tele of the Qu’appelle River, from the Fishing Lakes to the Assinniboine, WiDT Ge —— seen near the Saskatchewan, i. 393. — on the Little Saskatchewan, i. 437. —— on the marshes near Partridge Cross River, ii. 35. snow, on Dauphin Lake, ii. 49. Bird’s-eye limestone, 11, 289. Birdstail River, i. 138. —— vegetation of the valley of, 1. 246, Birdstail Creek, i. 436. Bison, the. See Buffalo. Black Bear Island, Lake Winnipeg, ii. 19. Blackfeet, at war with the Plain Crees, i. 318. war party of, near the Cree camp, in the Qu’appelle Valley, i. 365. celebrated war path of the, ii, 29, - their cruelty, 1. 125. boundary of their country and their population, 13, | 57. —— tribes into which the nation is divided, ie h57. Black Island, Great (Lake Winnipeg), i. 485; ii. 12. Blood Indians, country of the, ii. 158. Bloody Hills, Main Saskatchewan, i. 408. Blue Hills of the Souris, i. 236, 243, 289, 425. south of the Assinniboine, i. 236, drift on the, ii, 248, Bogs, quaking, near the Riding Mountain, Bi 252: near Dauphin Lake, i. 61, 62. south branch of the Bois de Vache (dried buffalo dung) on the prairies of the Souris, i. 295. geological formation of, 1. 296, used as fuel, i. 343. Bois, Portage du, falls of the, i. 116. Boniface, Bishop of, his remarks on the present agricultural condition of Red River Settlement, 1. 224. Bonnet Lake, i. 117,118. Boss Hill, i. 307, Boss Hill Creek, i. 307. Boulders, near Barriére Portage, i. 50. near Lake Winnipeg, i. 122. ——on the Assinniboine River, i, 141, 247, 309. —— gnessoid and limestone on the banks of the Little Souris River, i. 299. —— in the old beds of brooks, in the prairie north of Red Deer’s Head River, i. 305. —— near Pipestone Creek, i. 307. —— in drift, horizontal tiers on the sonth branch of the Saskatchewan, 1. 309. —-- vast accumulation of, in the valley of the Qu’appelle, i. 343, 353. — on the summit level of the Qu’appeile River, i. 363. —— view of ridges with boulders, on the east and west side of the height of landin the Qu’appelle Valley, i. 364. in the Qu’appelle River, i. 375. on the banks of the south branch of the Saskatchewan, i. 389, 390. in the Channel of the north branch of the Saskatchewan, i. 396, at Big Hill, i. 410. east of Last Mountain Lake, 1. 421. of limestone, near Cut-arm Creek, i, 423. at Spy Hill, i. 425. — on the banks of the Little Saskatche- wan, il. 27. barriers of, on the shores of St. Mar- tin’s Lake, il. 80, 32, 34. on the beach of Lake Manitobah, ii. 38. tiers of, on the south branch of the Saskatchewan, il. 254. in the basin of Lake Winnipeg, ii. 255. distribution of, 11. 255. effects of ice on Lake Winnipeg, ii. 2506. in Lake Manitobah, i1. 256, ——— onthe Red River prairies, ii. 257. Bows and arrows of the Sioux, ii. 144. Bressany, Rev. R. P. F. J., on wampum, quoted, i, 418, note. Brooking, Rev. Mr., Wesleyan Missionary in Rupert’s Land, il. 15, CGE 440 INDEX. Brulé, or Side Hill Path, Portage, i. 63. Brulé River, 1. 63. Brulé Lake, i. 63, cannibalism of the Ojibways on the, i, 65. Budd, Rev. Henry, of the Nepowewin Mission, i. 399, 400. —— his account of the medicine feasts of the Crees quoted, i. 403. Buffalo-hunts of the half-breeds, 1. 179. Buffalo on the prairies of the Little Souris, or Mouse Liver, i. 295. on the Souris Lakes, i. 300. vast herds of, on the Grand Coteau de Missouri, 1. 306. - formerly very numerous near the As- sinniboine River, i. 308 one killed near the Assinniboine River, i. 309. mode of making pemmican and dried meat of buffalo flesh, 1. 312. tracks of, on the banks of the Qu’ap- pelle River, 1. 331. Indian mode of telegraphing the pre- sence of, 1, 336. rapidly diminishing in numbers, i. So at the Lake of the Sandy Hills, i. 342. a bull attacked by a young Indian, i. 345. on the Eyebrow Hill Range, i. 348. “bringing in the buffalo,” i. 356. a Cree buffalo pound described, i. 356. Indian mode of taking buffalo, i. 358. dead bodies of, in the South Branch of the Saskatchewan, i. 388. herds of, in winter, near Touchwood Hills Fort, i. 415. systematic migration of, ii. 109. summer and autumn buffalo hunts, i. 110: census of Red River half-breed hunt, ie LO: laws of the buffalo-hunters in the field, ii. 111. blind buffalo, ii. 112. remarks on crossing buffalo with do- mesticated cattle, ii. 112. favourite food of the buffalo, 11. 113. character of mixed breeds, ii. 113. considered as an Indian source of wealth, ii. 103. its value, ii. 103, 104. the existence of two kinds of buffalo reported by the half-breeds, ii. 104. ——— buffalo emasculated by wolves, ii. 105, similarity of some skins to those of the Lithuanian bison, ii. 106. Bee at Leer Buffalo, former and present range of the, il. 106. —— Red River and Saskatchewan bands, ii, 107. —— wintering quarters of the north-west- ern bands, ii, 108, 109. —— summer ranges, 11. 109. —— savage excitement of the Indians when impounding buffalo, i1, 142. Buffalo Pound Hill, i. 339. ——— appearance of the country at, 1. 339. Buffalo Pound Hill Lake, 1. 339, 341. Indian encampments on the, 1. 839, 340. “ Buffalo Cart Plain,” i. 410. “ Bull boats,” or “ parchment canoes,” i, 442. Bull’s Head, Lake Winnipeg, i. 18. “ Bungays,” their interference with the ex- pedition, i. 334, Bushkega Islands (Lake Winnipeg), 1, 485 3 11. 21. Cabri, or prong-horned antelope, at the Town’s Lakes, 1. 300. herds of, in the prairie west of the Little Souris River, 1. 306. on the borders of the Qu’appelle Val- ley, i. 318. Cache, an Indian, on the Pennawa River, i, 120; mode of making a, ii. 89. Camp, always made in winter, in woods if possible, ii, 87. mode of, il. 87. appearance of a winter, during the night, i. 92. preparing to camp in a snow-storm on the prairie, li. 94. Camping-grounds, ancient, of the Plain Crees, 1. 338, 340. Campbell, John, his farm near Lake Mani- tobah, 11. 67. Canada, journey to, via St. Paul, described, Per tiule communication between, and the New River, wu. 292. Indian title in. See Indian title. Cavendish, Lord Frederick, his buffalo hunting trip, ii. 81. Caverns on the coast of Lake Winnipeg, ii. 19. Canal, Sault Ste, Marie, account of the, i. 15. Cannibalism of the Ojibways, i. 15. Canoes, Indian skill in managing, i. 442. ~ birch canoes and “bull boats,” or parchment canoes, 1. 442. Carboniferous series in the basin of Lal Winnipeg, ii. 299. INDEX. 441 Carboniferous evidence of the carboniferous series, il. 299. — “productus,” ii. 300. —— probability of the carboniferous series, being represented on the flanks of the Riding Mountain, ii. 300. —— occurrence in Nebraska territory, i. 502. —— in Kansas, 11, 303. —— in the north-west generally, ii. 304. on the west edge of the fossiliferous basin, ii. 306. Caribou Island (Lake Winnipeg), 1. 480. Carioles described, ii, 84. Carlton trail, i. 422. Carrot River, or Root River, i. 407, 409. Carry Wood Plain, i. 411. Cass Lake, ii. 98. account of the mission and Indian village at, ii. 99. Cat-birds on the Weed Ridge, Qu’appelle Valley, i. 316. Caterpillars, armies of, on the banks of Rainy River, i. 93. myriads of, in the Bad Woods, i. 285. Cat Head (Lake Winnipeg), i. 488; 11. 20. near the Little Saskatchewan, ii. 27. origin of the name, i. 489. Cedar Lake, i. 240, 456, 457. —— its situation and dimensions, i. 458. isthmus separating it from Lake Win- nipego-sis, i. 459, - Cedar Lake House, i. 460. Chalk Hills near Qu’appelle Lakes, 1. 319. Chaudiére Falls, i. 81. Chazy formation, ii. 285, fossils of the chazy, ii. 285. near the Lake of the Woods, i. 95. Chazy formation of New York and Canada, equivalent of, on Lake Winnipeg, ii. 14. Cherry Islands, Lake Manitobah, ii. 39, Chipewyans, territory inhabited by the, ii. 180. Choné, Rev. Jean Pierre, his mission, i. 27, his kindness to the party, i. 27. -~—— description of his house, i. 28, —— mass at the mission, 1. 29. his sermon, i. 30. Chordelles Virginianus (night-hawk), eggs of the, found en the sand, i. 295. Christianity amongst the Indians, i. 114, 124, 200. Clay Cliffs, Lake Winnipeg, ii. 10. Cliff swallow (Hirundo fulva), on the banks of the Assinniboine River, 1. 283. Climate of Long Creek, Main Saskatche- wan, i. 406. of the Touchwood Hills, i. 416. of Canada and Rupert’s Land, ii. 353. Climate of the Laurentides and the prairies, li, 353. frozen lakes, 11. 354. mean annual temperature, 11, 354. the arid and the humid region, ii. 354. sources of humidity, ii. 355. aridity west of the 98th meridian, ii. BD. Mississippi valley, 11. 355. arid region of the United States, ii. BOD. humid region of the valley of Lake Winnipeg, ii. 357. causes of, il. 357. elevation of the country, ii. 357. humid Pacifie winds, 11. 357, 358. north-easterly currents, ii. 358. the arid region, ii. 359. prevailing winds, ii, 359. source of the humidity, ii, 359. thunder storms in 1858, ii. 360. of the valley of Red River, il. 365. seasons of the valley of Lake Win- nipeg, il. 369. winter temperatures, 11. 369, cold terms, 11. 372. Quebec temperatures, ii, 372. of the south branch of the Saskatche- wan, ii. 373. growth of forests, 11. 376. end or tail of the prairies, ii. 376. general character of the region west of the 98th meridian in the United States, i. 377. —— auroras, ii. 380. —— twilight bow, ii. 382. Indian summer, ii. 383. Cline, the half-breed runner, engaged, ii. 83. Clouston, Mr., of the Hudson’s Bay Com- pany; 1,, b17. Coal Falls, North Branch of the Saskatche wan River, character of the, i. 396. Cochrane, Archdeacon, his efforts to Chris- tianise the Ojibways, i. 281. Cold Water Lake, i. 51. -—— source of, i, 52. Collingwood steamer, engaged for the ex- pedition, i. 9. strikes on a rock in Lake Superior, se Columbia, British, Lieutenant Palmer’s explorations in, il. 226. roads in British Columbia, ti. 227. Lieutenant Richard Mayne’s explora- tions, il, 228. —— Thompson River, ii. 229. present position of British Columbia, ii, 229, 230. imposts and customs of the colony, 137 280; fo * Pele HT Pabaeh Be RES aEs | CeGia Columbia, the gold-fields of, their extent, 1. 230. —— lignite of, 11. 348, Communication between Canada and Red River, 11. 212, —— winter communication, ii, 212.’ character of the country on the north shores of Lake Huron and Lake Superior, 11. 212, —— probabilities of a road being made, gL, koe —— Mr. Salter’s survey, ii. 213. —— Mr. Murray’s survey, il. 213. -—— summer communication, li. 214. -route proposed by Mr. Dawson, ii, 214. ——-- distance to be travelled, il. 215. —— mode of transport, il. 215. — the Pigeon River route, il. 216. ——- cost of opening and improving the Fort William and Arrow Lake route, 1i, 217. —— communication with the United States, ZS, arrangements of Messrs, Burbank and Co., 11. 216. Captain Palliser’s opinions as to Red River as an English colony, il. 219. —— objections to his views as to the route to Red River, ii. 220. best route, ii. 221. — between Red River and the Pacific, li, 222: Captain Palliser’s expedition, il. 223. Passes of the Rocky Mountains, ii. 224. —— Lieutenant Palmer’s explorations in British Columbia, ii. 226. —— and Lieutenant Mayne’s, ii. 228. —— Captain Palliser’s proposed boundary of the new colony, 11. 230, objections to this boundary, ii. 231. importance of the new colony being conterminous with Canada on the east, 11, 2316 —— natural boundary of the new colony, ii, 232,283. —— importance of the east coast of Lake Winnipeg, ii. 233. ——— necessity for a natural northern boun- dary, ii. 233. —— natural advantages of the basin of Lake Winnipeg for a route across the Continent, ii. 233. Confervee of the Lake of the Woods, 1. 95. — - of the first fishing river of the Qu’ap- pelle, i. 370. on the surface of Lake Winnipeg, 1459, Conjurors of the Sioux, ii. 154. an Indian, 11. 127, 131, 132. INDEX. Conjurors, anecdote of one, ii. 132. Corn Indian, kind grown near the Assinni- boine River, 11. 145. places in which it succeeds best, i. 148. Corne, Fort a la, voyage from, down the Saskatchewan, to the Grand Rapid and Lake Winnipeg, i. 441. breadth of the Saskatchewan at, i. 443, Coteau, Grand, of the Missouri, i. 335. dancing point of the Grand Coteau, i. 335. description of the Grand Coteau, i. S51, ——- region east of the, i. 351. sterility of the Grand Coteau, i. 351. Concretions on the South Branch of the Saskatchewan, i. 381, 382. Country west of Lake Superior, i. 21. e through which the Red River flows, 1. 133% —- about Little Dog River, i. 49. ~—— about Height of Land Lake, 1. 57. —— near the Savanne River, i. 60. ——- about the Milles Laes, i. 61, 65. —— about French and the Deux Riviéres Portages, i. 67. -—— lying between the Assinniboine River and La Riviére Lake, i. 155. — east of Red River, description of the, i, 166. —— west of Red River, sketch of the, i. 233. —— drained by the Saskatchewan River, 1, 252. about Pembina, its fertility, i. 255. —— near Height of Land Hills, 1. 261. at Bad Woods on the. Assinniboine, i, 285. west of the Souris River, i. 289. barren, west of the Blue Hills of the Souris, i. 293, near the Souris at the Red Hills, i, 295. between Boss Creek and the Assinni- boine, change in the face of the, i. 308. ——— near Beaver Creek, 1, 311. —— near the banks of the Qu’appelle River, 1. 314. ——— between the Weed Ridge and the Qu’appelle Valley, i. 316. —— north of the Qu’appelle River, its fer- tility, i. 317, 318. —— north of the Indian Head Hills and Chalk Hills, i. 319. —— between the Grand Forks (Qu’appelle River) and the Souris Forks, 1. 335. INDEX. Country, appearance of the, at Buffalo Pound Hill, i. 339. near the : Crooked Lake, 1. 371. fertility of the, on the South Branch of the Saskatchewan, i. 391, 392. near the banks of the Main Saskatche- wan, i. 402. beautiful, of the Touchwood Hills, i. 412, east of Long Lake, i. 421. at Leech Lake and White Sand River, 1. 432. near Swan Lake, its beauty, 1. 434. through which the Saskatchewan flows well adapted for settlement, i. 444, around Cumberland House, i. 448. between Muddy Lake and Cedar Lake, 1. 457, near Partridge Crop River, ii. 35. between Dauphin Lake and the Rid- ing Mountain, u. 51. on the shore of Ebb and Flow Lake, il. 64. about Manitobah House, ii. 66, 67. splendid, near the southern shores of Shoal Lake, i. 78. at the Big Ridge of the Assinniboine, ii. 79. between Oak Point and Stony Moun- tain, 11. 79. north of Lakes Huron and Superior, ik, 212. Crane River, Lake Manitobah, ii. 40. Crane Bay, Lake Manitobah, ii. 40. Crane, the white whooping (Grus Ameri- cana), in the valley of the Qu’ap- pelle, i. 316. danger in attacking one, i. 316. Cree Christians at Red River Settlements, i. 201. Crees, Plain, at war with the Blackfeet, i, ois. —— their message to the “ great praying father,” i. 323. their former strength and pomp, i. O24. —— their resolution respecting travellers through their country, i. 334. camping-grounds of the, i, 338, 339, 340, 341. their hospitality, i. 341. encampment of, onthe South Branch of the Saskatchewan, i. 384. —— description of them, i. 359. their objections to the half-breeds, i. 360. —— and to the Hudson’s Bay Company, i, 360 eee Qu’appelle River, below Q 443 Crees, council of Plain, i. 360. thickwood, described, i. 403. not fishermen like the Ojibways, i. 415. celebrated war-path of the, ii. 29. their custom of painting the skin, Was Swampy, fishing-place of the, i. 457. Swampy, encampment of, on the banks of the Saskatchewan, i. 474. Swampy, great moose-hunting grounds of the, i. 484. encampment of, on the Little Saska- tchewan, 11. 26, 27. celebrated war-path of the, 1. 29. favourite camping-grounds of the, il. ST. encampment of, on Moss River, li. 47. their tobacce pipes, il. 139. Cretaceous rocks, ii. 318. distribution of, in western America, li. 318. —— the Nebraska section, ii. 319.- | vertical section in Nebraska and Rupert’s Land, 1i. 320. steatitic minerals, ii. 328. clay iron-stone, ii, 329. fossils from the Souris, il. 334. and from Nebraska, il. 342. rocks of the valley of the Little Souris, or Mouse River, i. 290. at the Two Creeks, Assinniboine River, 1. 309, of the Eyebrow Hill Range, i. 354. at the summit level of the Qu’appelle Valley, description of the, i, 365, on the South Branch of the Saskat- chewan, i, 380. character of these rocks, i. 380. on Birdstail Creek, i, 436. on Riding Mountain, ii. 54, 58. Crooked Lake (in Creek Kawawackamac), 1871. —— its width, depth, and breadth, i. Smee Creps cultivated at Red River Settlements, ioe: Cross Lake Rapids, i. 240, 460. Cross Lake, Saskatchewan River, i. 240, 461. its dimensions and altitude, i. 463. Cross Woods, on the Qu’appelle River, i. 314, Crow Creek, il. 62. Crow Indians, celebrated war path of the, ii, 29, Crow Portage, i. 72. Crow Wing, town of, i. 263. railways and road to, 1. 22, 23. —— winter journey with dogs from Fort Garry to. described, ii, 81. ie eee North Par | re 444 Crow Wing, distance from Fort Garry to Ieoa. Author arrives with his party at, i. 9G; Crow Wing River, 261, 262. Cumberland House, main Saskatchewan, i, 446, 449. —— Mr. M‘Gillivray, 1. 446. kindness of Mr. Stewart, chief trader, i. 447, —— description of the country rcund, i. 447, 448. garden at, i, 448. weather at, i. 449. Cumberland, description of, 1. 447, 448. Current River, described, i. 30. falls of the, 1. 42. —— fish and fruit of, i. 43, note. Customs, Indian, ii, 120, et seq. Cut-arm Creek, Little ( Kiskipittonawe sepesis), 1. 376, 423. — Big (or Kichekiskapettonano sepesis), Qu’appelle River, 1. 377. Dakotah, boundaries of the new territory Of; 11, 169) Dakotah Indians, See Sioux. Dance of Indians of the Kaministiquia Valley, i. 33. in an Indian village on Leech Lake, ii. 99. Dancing Point of the Grand Coteau, i. Sas medicine ceremonies celebrated there, 1 goOs Dauphin Lake, area of, i. 237, 2413 11. 49. its elevation, il. 49. -—— pike caught in the, ii. 49, 59. journey from, to the Riding Mountain, ii, 50, - swamps, ridges, and bogs, near the lake, ii. 61. Dauphin Lake Ridge, ancient beach of, 1i. 260. Dauphin, or Valley, River, i. 241; ii. 48. Dawson, Mr. S., his report on the soil of the banks of Rainy River quoted, i. 84. his illness, 1. 115. left at Islington Mission, i. 115. —— his description of the valley of Swan River, 1. 433. route proposed by, from Canada to Red River, ii. 214. Décharges des Paresseux, 1. 34. Deer, numbers of, on the banks of the Souris River, 1. 290. Deer Island, Lake Winnipeg, 1. 12 section of, il. 12, 13. De Meurons, the, taken to Red River Settle- ments, 1. 174. INDEX. Denudation of country about Riding Moun- tain, i. 56. effects of, in the basin of Lake Win- nipeg, ii, 265. parallelism of bold limits of donuda- tion, li. 266, : Grand Coteau de Missouri, li. 266. —— Niagara limestone escarpment of New York and Canada, ii. 266. —— Riding and Duck Mountains, pro- bable common origin of, li. 266. Depressions, circular, in the basin of Lake Winnipeg, ii. 265. character of, li. 265. Desert, the great American, ii. 233, 234. Deux Riviéres, i. 256. Portage des, i. 67. Devil’s Hills, Accimnibbatse River, i. 287. Devil’s Lake, i, 414. Devonian series, in the basin of Lake | Winnipeg, i i, 29%, —— salt springs, ii, 291, 292. ——- salt springs in Bupens Land, ii. 293. _ — manufacture of salt, and salt trade of the United States, ii. 293, 294. fossils from Devonian rocks in the Winnipeg basin, ii. 296. on the shores of Lake Manito- bah, 11. 38, 39. found on Manitobah Island, 11. 70. Dews in the country north of the Qu’ap- pelle River, i, 517. in the Touchwood Hills, i. 422. Dickinson, Mr., his description of the country east of Red River, 1.166, —— his narrative, i. 368, et seq. — his exploration of the country be- tween the Lake of the Woods and the Red River, ii. 4. Dislocations, effects of, in the basin of Lake Winnipeg, i. 266. —— table of the probable effects produced by some dislocations, ii. 267. Dog, the, considered as a source of wealth amongst the Indians, ii. 117. their uses, 1i, 117. —— their midnight howl, ii. 118. dog feasts, 11. 118, 119. — hydrophobia, i. 118. dogs at the Hudson Bay Posts, ii. 118. —— their ability to go without food for a long period, ii. 118. ——- their voracity, il. 119. —— sacrifices of some tribes, il. 119. carioles, winter travelling with, de- scribed, ii. 84. daily allowance of the dogs, ii. 85. —— difficulties of this mode of travelling, li, 84. INDEX. 445 Dog carioles, formation of winter roads over the snow, il. 84. prospects of a race to Crow Wing, ii. 85. sketch of a dog cariole, ii. 86. the start, 11. 86, reach Fort Pembina, ii. 87. camping ground in the woods, ii. 87. supper for men dnd dogs, li. 88. mocassins, li. 88. dogs watching the progress of making a pemmican cache, ii. 89. their return at night to break open the cache, ii. 89. appearance of a winter camp during the night, ii. 92. watchfulness of the dogs, il. 92. catching and harnessing them in the morning, il. 93. —— treatment of the dogs by their half- breed masters, ii. 93, overturning a cariole, il, 94. travelling in a snow storm, il. 94. —— preparing to camp in a snow storm, ii. oF. dogs “lying close” in the morning after a fall of snow, il. 95. ——— arrival at Red Lake River, ii, 95. — and at Turtle River, ii. 98. Pr Tae dance of the half: breeds at Leech Lake, i, 99, the last night in the woods, ii, 100. —- the last day’s run, ii. 100. — a twenty mile gallop, ii. 101. arrival at Crow Wing, li. 101. Dog’s Head Straits (Lake Winnipeg), 1. 485. Dog’s Head, Lake Winnipeg, ii. 18. Dog Lake, Little, i. 38. Dog Lake, Great, i, 39, et seq. winter road to, 1. 43. height of, 1. 43. means of communication between Great Dog Lake and Thunder Bay, i. 43, area of Great Dog Lake, i. 44, 46. depth of, 1. 44. as a centre of communication, 1. 46. former height of, i. 48. Dog Mountain, Great, timber of, i, 39. geological formation of, i, 40. Dog Portage, Great, i. 39. drift beaches and terraces of, ii. 247. Dog River, Little, i. 40. great falls of, i, 41, 42. —— sluggishness of the flow of, i. 47. —— character of the soil on the banks of, 1. AT. former elevation of, i. 48, width and depth of, i. 48, description of the valley of, 1. 48, 49, Dog River, Little, average height of the banks of, i. 48. boulders on the banks of, i. 50. its course up to its feeding marsh, i. 51. Donati’s comet seen from Lake Winnipeg, serail le seen from the Riding Mountain, ii. 53. Doré Lake, i. 67. Drift clay in the valley of the Qu’appelle, Mn God. Drift clay banks of the Saskatchewan River, 462. Drift, distribution of, over the country between Lakes Superior and Win- nipeg, il, 247, lacustrine deposits, ii, 247, drift on the Souris, ii, 248, on the South Branch of the Saskat- chewan, il, 249. ° forced arrangement of, ii. 249. —— in blue clay of Toronto, ii. 250, —— description of this arrangement, ii, 250, —— sorting of materials, ii, 253. —— agency of water and ice, ii. 253, —— glacial ice, ii. 254. —— tiers of boulders on the South Branch, i, 254. layers of stratified mud, ii. 254. near the Qu’appelle Valley, i. 383. Driftwood on the Saskatchewan River, i, 386. Drunken River, ii. 11. Duck Mountain, i. 136, 233, 234, 241, 434, 435, 436. —-— timber of the, i, 244. region to the east of, considered as a field for settlement, 1. 250. ——— view of the, from Moss River, ii. 48. —— ancient beach ridges of, il. 263. ——- its probable common origin with Rid- ing Mountain, il. 266. Ducks, wild, on Oak Lake, 1. 294. countless numbers of, at the mouth of Red River, i. 493. Dunes, sand, near the Lake of the Woods, i, 94, 95. Eagle shot on Lake Winnipeg, i. 489. on the Qu’appelle Fishing Lakes, i. 22K -—— fishing on Water-hen River, ii. 40. Earth, hypothesis of the change in the axis of rotation of the, ii. 208. geological problem, ii. 309. Ebb and Flow Lake, ii. 57, 62. area of, 1. 237. country on the shores of, il. 64. Eddy, Big, of Red River, i. 130. Education, condition of, at Red River Set- tlement, 1. 214, 446 INDEX. Elbow Bone Creek, Qu’appelle River, 1. EGS: Elbow Bone Creek (Souris Forks), country between it and the Grand Forks, i. 335. Elk on the Assinniboine River, 1. 285. Ellice, Fort, Assinniboine River, 1, 137, 138. view of, 1. 310. account of, 1. $11. — frequency of thunderstorms at, 1. 312. scourge of grasshoppers at, 1. 312. Elm trees near Lake Winnipego-sis, ii. 49, Embarras River, i. 22. Erie, Lake, variations in the lead of the wa- ters of the, i, 18. Ermine Point, Winnipego-sis Lake, ii. 42. Erratics in the plateau of the Assinniboine River, i. 309. See Boulders. Esquimaux, territory inhabited by the, ii, 180. Eyebrow Hills, i. 238, 347, 348. valleys, lakes, and ponds of the, 1. 238. —— buffalo on the, i. 348. —— streamlet from the, to the Qu’appelle valley, 1. 352. — section of the bank of this streamlet, i, 355: cretaceous rocks of the, 1. 354, — continuation of the, 1. 409. Falls, Coal, North Branch of the Saskatche- wan, i. 396. Fairford, Partridge Crop River, i. 2413 ii. 35. character of the country at, li. 36, the mission at, 11. 36, 37. Hudson’s Bay Company’s post at, ii. 38. Falls, Ka-ka-beka, i. 30, 32, 35. second, of the Kaministiquia, i. 38. —- great, of Little Dog River, i. 41, 42. —— of Current River, i. 42. — of Seine River, i. 62. — of Sturgeon Lake, i. 69. — Chaudiére, i. 81. at Rat Portage, i. 105. James’s, 1. 115. of the Portage du Bois, i. 116. Point aux Chiens, i. 116. Slave, 1. 116, 117. Barriére, i. 116. —— Otter, i, 117. —— Silver, 1. 120. Farm at the Indian Mission of Red River Settlement described, i. 203. File Hill, i. 421. —-— aspen forests of the, i. 245, soil of, 1. 421, 422, Fire Steel River, i. 62. lire in the prairies, grandeur of the, i. 336. Fire, as an Indian sign, i, 336. effects of, on the north bank of the Quv’ appelle River, 1. 372. effects of, i. 405. Fish of the Current River, i, 43, note. of the Kaministiquia River, i. 55. of the Lake of the Woods, i. 96, 104, of the Assinniboine River, i. 282. of Lake Manitobah, 1. 282. of the Qu’appelle Lakes, excellence of the, 1. 321. quantity and quality of, in the First Fishing Lake of the Qu’appelle, i 370. in the Lakes near the Touchwood Hills Fort, i. 414. in Long Lake, i. 415. abundance of, in the Little Saskatche- wan, i, 437, 484; ii. 26. of Little White Mud River, i. 439. in the Saskatchewan, i. 451. Indian mode of catching, i. 484. large numbers of, in Pike or Jack- Fish River, i, 490. of Lake Winnipeg, ii. 14. pounded, as a substitute for pemmican, li, 28. caught in Dauphin Lake, ii. 49, 59. of Manitobah Lake, ii. 67. mode of curing, ii. 67. importance of the white-fish fishery of Lake Manitobah, i. 68. Fisher Bay, Lake Winnipeg, i. 485; ii. 19. Fisher Bay Islands, Lake Winnipeg, ae TS, Fishing grounds on the Winnipeg River, i, 115. ——— of the Indians on Lake Winnipeg, ii. A -—— lakes of the Qu’appelle River, i. 321. white fish of the, i. 321. ——— depth of the, i. 324, 327. —— profusion of conferve in the, 1, 327. vegetation on the banks of the, i. 327. —— gulls on the, i. 327. ———— the lakes probably once united, 1.328. geese and pelicans on the, i. 328. Fishing Lake, Second, of the Qu’appelle Valley, i. 368. length, breadth, and depth of, i. 369. firs or Pakitawiwin, i. 369. Fishing- Weir Creek, Saskatchewan River, i. 452, Fishing weirs and traps of the Indians, i. 490, 491. Flat Rock Bay, Lake Manitobah, ii. 38. Flax, cultivation of,at Red River, i. 228. Fett, Mr. George, his farm on the banks of the Assiniboine River, i, 148. Floods, in the basin of Lake Winnipeg, il. 392, bid bee ae INDEX. 447 Floods, flood years, ii. 393. effects of, in 1852, 1.329; i. 393. the Bishop of Rupert’s Land’s deserip- tion, 11. 394. speculations as to the causes of the floods, ii, 395. effects of, on the prairies near the Little Souris River, i. 295. Flowers, profusion of, at Long Creek, Main Saskatchewan River, i. 406, 407. and at the Touchwood Hills, i. 413. Fog-bows on Lake Superior, i. 10, Fogs on Lake Superior, i. 10. Fond du Lage, i. 21, © Forests in the country west of Red River, 1. 244, — between the Assinniboine River and the Blue Hills, i. 284. former, north of the Qu’appelle River, reise aspen, on the south branch of the - Saskatchewan, i. 386. old, near Long Creek, Main Saskatche- wan River, i, 404. destruction of forests by the Indians, 1. 405. former, on the Touchwood Hills, i. 415. covering the Riding Mountain, ii. 56. growth of, intimately connected with the climate of a large extent of coun- iy, W376. Fort William, i, 24, 25, 30. de Meuron, ruins of the, i, 32. —— Franegs, i. 81, 82. description of, 1, 82, sketch of, 1. 86. —— Alexander, Winnipeg River, i. 121. — Stone, or Lower, on Red River, 1. 124, L327, VSS. ees Garry, 1. 124, 127, 132. Pelly, i. 137, 138. a la Corne, i. 240, 397. Clark, on the Missouri, Mandan vil- lage at, 1. 299. —— Ellice, Assinniboine River, 1.137,138, 310. trail from the Touchwood Hills to the, i. 420, of the Hudson’s Bay Company at the Grand Forks of the Saskatchewan, i. 397. — Cumberland House, i, 446, 447. Cedar Lake House, 1. 460. —— Manitobah House, il. 64, et seg. dogs of the posts, il, 118, Pembina, i. 87, 88. Forty-Fourth Lake, i. 261. Fossils of the valley of the Little Souris, or Mouse River, i. 289. Fossils, found on the shores of Lake Win- nipeg, ii. 14. — of Snake Island, ii. 42, —— of the shores of Lake Manitobah, ii. Bos —— of the chazy formation of Lake Win- nipeg, ii, 285. — from Devonian rocks in the Winnipeg basin, 11. 296. from the Souris, 11, 334. “ Fox, the,” chief of the Plain Crees, ii. 126. fear in which he is held, i. 126. Francois Xavier, St., Roman Catholic mis- sion of, on the Assinniboine River, 1. 148, Franklin, Sir John, his residence at Cum- berland House, i. 449. voyage of Messrs, Stewart and An- derson in search of, i. 450. ‘‘ Freemen’s” houses in the Qu’ appelle valley, i. 332. French Portage, i. 66. Fruit of the valley of the Kaministiquia, i. 30, 36. of the valley of the Current River, 1. 43, note. —— of the Red River settlements, i. 204. Fuel, scarcity of, in the Valleys of the Red and Assinniboine Rivers, i. 144. —— question ofa supply of, at Red River settlements, 1. 23. searcity of, west of the Little Souris Island, i. 246. scarcity of, at Sand Hill Lake, and on the south branch of the Assinni- boine, i. 246. scarcity of, through Indian waste, 1. 338. bois de vache used as, i, 343. Fur trade of British America, head quarters of the, i. 127. results of the, in the blending of the various tribes of Indians, ii, 121. extent of the administration of the Hudson’s Bay Company for the pro- secution of the, iil, 211. Gambling, fondness of the Indians for, i. 282. Game, on the banks of the Saskatchewan, 1. 393; —-— scarcity of, in the prairies, li. 143. Garden Island, 1. 96. encampment on, 1. 97. description of, i. 100. -—— grasshoppers of, 1. 101. Garden at the Qu’appelle Fishery, i. 322. Garry, Fort, on the Red River, i. 124, 127, 132. its extent, 1. 133. 448 INDEX. Geological features of the banks of the south branch of the Saskatchewan, i, 381, 384. of the north branch of the Saskatche- wan, 1. 396. ~—- Great Dog Mountain, i. 40. common to all the great lakes of the St. Lawrence basin, i. 122, banks of the Assinniboine River, 1.140, —— of the valley of Lake Winnipeg, 1. 235. —— formation near Milles Lacs, i. 62, 63. of north bank of the Assinniboine River, i. 287. —— of the valley of the Souris River, i. 289. — of the banks of the Souris, i. 274. of bois de vache, or buffalo dung, 1. 296. — of the banks of the Qu’appelle River, i, 330. — formation of coast of Lake Winnipeg, at Grindstone Point, il. 17. —— of the basin of Lake Winnipeg, ii. 239, 268. — surface features, 11. 242. —-—— the Laurentian and Huronian series, ii, 268. the Silurian and Devonian series, il, 283. ——— the carboniferous series.—Juras- sic formation, ii. 299. the cretaceous series.— Tertiary formations, 11, 318. German Creek River, i. 127, 132, 168. Mr. Dickinson’s exploration of, 1.166. fertility of the soil at, i. 169. timber at, 1. 169, 170. Gladieux, Mr. Pierre, his politeness and hospitality, 1. 164. his farm on the banks of Red Liver, 1, 165; Gnessoid boulders on the banks of the Little Souris River, 1. 299. islands, St. Martin’s Lake, i1. 32. Gold Fields of British Columbia, ii. 230. Goose dance of the Thick wood Cree Indians, i, 403; ii. 123. Gowler, Mr., his farm on the Assinniboine River, 1. 149. — his success, 1. 150, 152, 163. — his views of the capabilities of the Assinniboine prairies, i. 151. Grand Falls Portage, i. 72. Grand Forks, Qu’appelle River, i. Dike -—— country between it and the Souris Forks, 1. 335. Grand Forks of the Saskatchewan River, 1, 393, 395, 396. —_—— —— 238, Grand Forks, remains of a post of the Hud- son’s Bay Company at the, i. 397. Grand Portage of Pigeon River, i. 74. — Grain at Fort William, i. 31. Granite Islands, Lake Winnipeg, ii. 17. Grapes growing on the banks of the Assin- niboine, 1. 142. frosts on the banks of the Qu’appelle Fishing Lakes, i. 327. Grasses at the mouths of Red River, i. 123. Grasshoppers on the Lake of the Woods, i. 96, 97. at Garden Island, i. 101. multitudes of, in the prairies on the Assinniboine, i. 147, 152. plague of, at Red River Settlements, i. 227, at Lane’s Post, i. 281. at the plateau beyond Big Ridge, i. 284, their mode of taking refuge from a storm of hail or rain, i. 286. on the banks of the Assinniboine, i. 286. at the mouth of the Little Souris, i. 288. swarms of, near the Red Deer’s Head River, i. 296. height of the flight of these insects, 1. 297. appearance of the sky during a flight of 1s 2o72 and of the prairie after the visits of, i. 228, in the prairie west of the Little Souris River, i. 306. scourge of, at Fort Ellice, i. 312. —— excellent prognosticators of a storm, 1. 314, —— vast flights of, between Little and Big Cut Arm Creeks, i. 377. —-— on the Main Saskatchewan, i. 409. —— devastations caused by the, i. 432. —— devastations of, in Rupert’s Land, ii. 60. —— See also Locusts. Grassy Narrows (Lake Winnipeg), i. 485, 493; ii. 12, Graves, Indian, i. 90. —— on Shell River, i. 436. of the Hurons, ii. 164. Grazing land on the Red Assinniboine and Saskatchewan Rivers, i. 250. “ Grief offering” of Mis-tick-oos, chief of the Crees, i. 363. Grindstone Point, Big, ii. 14, rocks at, ii. 16. Grindstone Point, Little, Lake Winnipeg, i, 492; il. 12, 13. rocks at, ul. 17. wee lca Si Aries 3 INDEX. Grosvencr, Lord Richard, his trip into the prairies in*search for buffalo, ii. 81. ——- his journey from Fort Garry to Fort Ellice, ii. 82. Gros Ventres Indians, country of the, ii, 158. Guano Island, Lake Winnipeg, ii. 12. Guelder roses in the valley of the Assitini- boine River, i. 293. Gulls on the Qu’appelle Fishing Lakes, i. Bic Gull Islands (Winnipeg Lake), i. 476, 477. Gull Egg Rivers, or the Two Rivers, i. 483. Gun Flint Lake, i. 76. Hail-storms on the Winnipeg River, i.109. on the Assinniboine River, i. 286. -—— in summer, in Rupert’s Land, il. 363. Half-breeds of the north-west, character of the, 1. 179. their summer buffalo hunts, i. 179. their improvidence, i. 180. aids to improvement, i. 180. —-— their capabilities, i. 181—183. Half-Way Bank, latitude of the, 1. 285. Hauteur de Terre River, i. 261. Hay, quantity and quality of, at Red River Settlements, i. 227. Hay ground on Long Creek, Main Saskat- chewan, 1. 406. on the banks of Dauphin Lake, ii. 49. -—— wild hay, ii. 62. Head, Sir Francis, his endeavour to amelio- rate the condition of the Indians, ii, 187. Heart Hill (or Ka-ou-ta-at-tiwark), de- scribed, i. 413, 414. lake at the foot of, 1, 414. Height of Land, i. 52. camp on the, i, 54. —-— atmospheric phenomenon at the, i. 54. Height of Land Lake, 1. 53. description of, 1. 57. Height of Land Portage, i. 76% Height of Land Hills, i. 260, 261. Hemp, cultivation of, at Red River, i. 228. «* Hiawatha,” quoted, ii. 15. Hops growing wild at Red River, i, 227. Hop, wild, on the banks of the Qu’appelle Fishing Lakes, i, 327, luxuriance of the, near Dauphin Lake, iW. GL: Horse, an Indian buffalo runner, ii. 64. —-- the horse considered as an Indian source of wealth, ii. 114. Indian training of horses, ii. 114. Indian horses excellent watchers, ii. ] 15. — their docility and training, 11. 115. attachment of Indians to their horses, ie 116: 449 Horse hopplings, ii. 116. smokes, ii. 117. Hudson’s Bay Company, objections of the Plain Crees to the, i. 360. history of the, ii, 206. date of incorporation, il. 206. profits of the Company, ii, 206. the North-West Company, ii, 207. — union of the two Companies, ii. 207. profits after the union, ii. 207. capital employed by the Company, ii. 209. council and officers of the Company, ii, 209. departments, districts, and posts, ii. 210. extent of the administration of the Company for the prosecution of the fur trade, il. 211. Hudson River formation, ii. 289, fossils found in the, ii. 290. Humming-bird on the banks of the Assinni- boine, 1. 284. Hunter, Archdeacon, of Red River Scttle- ment, 1. 131. “Hunting grounds, happy,” of the Indians, i. 129, Huron Indians, former strength of the, ii. 161. —— their present condition, ii. 161. —— their customs relative to the dead, il. 164. —— their former strength, ii, 181, 182. their dispersion and present condition, Ie LS2: Huron Lake, character of the country north Of; iin DUO. Huronian series, 11. 280. description of Huronian rocks, ii. 281, Ice furrows of the Laurentides, 11. 245. agency of, in the distribution of drift, 12253. action of glacial ice, 11. 254. effects of, in distributing boulders on Lake Winnipeg, ii. 256. and on the Red River prairies, ii. 257. Iles des Bois, La Riviére des, i. 155. Immaculate Conception, mission of the on the Kaministiquia, i. 27. Indian Reserve in the valley of the Kami- nistiquia, i. 26. — on the northern shore of Lake Su- perior, i. 28. —— treaty, between Canada and the Ojib- ways, i. 28. =-—— congregation at mass, 1. 29. corn in the valley of the Kaministiquia, ol. kind of, grown on the Assinni- boine River, i. 145, 450 INDEX. Indian corn, places in which it best succeeds, i, 148, cultivated at Red River Settle- ments, 1. 225. Indian tribes of the Kaministiquia River, i. 33. —— their wretchedness, i, 34. —- fishing grounds, i, 81, 96. encampments, i. 88. — tumuli, i. 89. graves, 1. 90, 436; ii. 122, 124, 164. lodges, 1, 91. council, i. 98, 99. —— Christians, character of, generally, i. 114, at Red River Settlements, i. 124. — dexterity, 1. 119.- —— mission, i. 127. school, i. 128. —— idea of money, i. 162, 163. — settlement at Red River, i, 200. ——_—— Christian congregation at, i, 200. their pastor, Mr. Cowley, i. 200, 201. their novel night-bell, i. 201. farm at Red River, i, 203. —— difficulty of Christianizing the, i. 281. signs, smell of fire, i. 302, 336. monument near Pipestone Creek, i. 307. corpse staged, near Brandon House, i, 308. method of making pemmican, i. 312. Blackfeet and half-breeds, 1. 314. substitutes for tobacco, i. 315. turnip ( Psoralea esculenta), abundance of, north of the Qu’appelle River, oles turnip on the Grand Coteau, i. 352. adult Christian baptism of the, i. 322. —— threats and Indian diplomacy, i. 334. wasteful habits, 1. 337, 339, 340, 356, 357. —— rapidly diminishing in numbers, i. 337. mode of carrying provisions, 1, 339. -——. encounter of a young Indian with a buffalo bull, i. 345. hospitality, 1. 374, 485. hospitality of the Crees, 1. 341. — — fondness for rum, i. 341. precautions taken against Indian rob- bers, 1. 342. mode of “bringing in buffalo,” i. 356—3 59. map, of the Qu’appelle Valley to the Assiniboine River, 1. 370. women bathing in the Qu’appelle, i. 3/3. absence of, on the south branch of the Saskatchewan, 1. 394. ———— —_ — Sy Indian idols on the banks of the Saskatche- wan, i. 400, 402. medicine feasts described, i. 403. destruction of the forest by fire, i. 405. metaphors, i. 419, 420, note. —— hunters, their gains from the chase, i, 425, -——— onthe Saskatchewan River, i. 451. —— encampment on the banks of the Sas- katchewan, i. 473. —— on the shores of Lake Winnipeg, i. 480. failure of their summer fishery at the Grand Rapid, i. 480, 481. mode of catching fish, i. 484, 491. — corjuror, ii. 10. war roadsand war-path rivers, ii, 28, 29. list of celebrated, 11. 28, 29. farmer on Partridge Crop River, ii. 35. —— debasing influence of rum, ii. 38. ——— race of Water-hen River, their dirty habitations, 11. 41. —— wood and prairie Indians compared, il. 41. —— “pitching tracks,” ii. 51. —— hunter on the banks of Ebb and Flow Lake, ii. 62. interior of his tent, ii. 63. “ Indian summer,” the, ii. 66, 68. described, 1i, 383. Indian wealth—the buffalo, the horse, and the dog, ii. 103, et seq. antiquities rarely found in the valley of the Saskatchewan, ii. 120, —— customs and superstitions, i. 1133 ii. 57, 58, 70, 120. results of the fur trade in the blending of the tribes, ii. 121. —— Ojibway. invaders of Red River, ii. L215 4223 Mr. Hutchin’s list of tribes, ii. 122. scalp dance, il. 122, 123. medicine feasts and other ceremonies of the Wood Indians, ii, 123. cruelty, il. 125, 126. “the Fox.” i: i26: treatment of prisoners, il. 126. medicine feasts or conjuring ceremo- nies, ii, 128. “ the happy hunting grounds,” ii. 129. Manitou dwellings, i. 131, 133. medicine men or conjurors, li. 131,133. —— offerings to the Manitou, 11. 133, 136. —— sacrifices and offerings, ii. 134. Petia lel] sufferings from their superstitions, il. 135. custom of painting the skin, ii. 137. —— tobacco pipes, 11. 137. —— salutations, ii. 140. —— character and nature of wild Indians in the prairie, ii, 142. INDEX. 45] Tndian condition of the, in the valley of the Saskatchewan, ii. 143. scarcity of game, 11, 143. — small-pox, ii. 143, 162, 163. sickness, 11. 144, — Sioux bows and arrows, ii. 144. ——- idea of thunder and lightning, ii. 144. population of British America, ii. _ 145. — origin of races, ii. 145. —— kindred and relationship, 11. 145. —— estimate of the Indian population of Rupert’s Land, i. 149. number of Indians frequenting dif- ferent posts, il. 150. —— the Sioux or Dakotahs, ii. 153. — the Blackfeet, ii. 157. Indians near boundary line, ii. 158. census of the Indians of the United States, in the territories adjoining British America, 1. 159. early history of the Indians who for- merly occupied Canada and the northern States of the Union, 1i. 160. mutability of Indian nations, 11, 160. the Hurons, Iroquois, and Prairie Indians, ii. 162. destruction of Indians by disease, 1i. 162. See also Missionary Labour. Indian title in Canada, ii. 167. importance of the question in Ru- pert’s Land, ii. 167, 177. — cost of Indian wars to the United States Government, i. 168. —— advance of settlements towards the west, ii. 168. —- probability of a war with, between the United States and the Sioux, li. 168. —— warriors of the frontier tribes, i1, 169. —— remarks of the Right Hon. E. EI- lice, on Indian title in Canada, ii, LAqnay — views of the Commissioners of 1847, Hol Fl: —— title to Red River, ii. 172. grant to Lord Selkirk, Moglt2, treaty between him and the Crees and Salteaux of Red River, ii. 173. —— Peguis: his letter, 11. 173, 175. —- answer of Mr. McDermott, ii. 175. —— meeting of the half-breeds of Red River, ii. 176. — opinion respecting Indian title, ii. Tt i. — treaty of the Americans northern part of Minnesota on the Red River, 11, 177, with the Indian Head Hills, i. 317. lakes of the, i. 317. view from the, i. 318. Industry, remains of former, in the valley of the Kaministiquia, i 132: Inoceramus, gigantic fossil, found, i. 292. Inoceramus Canadensis, ii. 335, Iron ore, bog, deposit, at the Sand Hills of the Tonril, i. 295. Tron-stone, clay, on the Souris, ii. 329. bands of this formation, ii. $30. — distribution of, i. 331. richness of, compared with that from England and Scotland, ii. 332, 333. Professor Croft’s analysis, 11, 333. Iroquois Indians of the expedition, i. 33. the family nearly extinct, ii. 181. its former strength, il. 181. Iroquois Confederation, ii. 181 history of them, il. 181. engaged for the Assinniboine and Sas- katchewan expedition, i. 274, institutions of the, ii. 147 —— their former strength and present con- dition, 11. 160. Island, Big Black, ii. 12. Big Birch, Saskatchewan River, i. 445, — Bush Kega, i, 485. —— Caribon (Lake Winnipeg), i. 480. ——.- Cherry, ii. 39. —— Deer, Lake Winnipeg, 11, 12. —— Fisher Bay, ii. 19. Garden, 1. 96, 97, 100. —— Granite, ii, 17. —— Great Moose, ii. 19. Great Black (Lake Winnipeg), i. 485. —— Gnessoid, ii. 32. —— Gull, 1. 477. —— Juniper, ii, 19. —— Keating, i. 95—97. —— of Kash-ke-bu-jes-pu-qua-ne-shing, i. 457. —— Manitoulin, ii. 187. —— Manitobah, ii. 269. --— Pie, i. 13, 24. — Pine, i, 447, 448. Portage, i. 68, 69. Punky 1 172 — Welcome, i, 25. Willow, ii. 9, 10, Islands, Agate, i. 13. Snake, 11. 42. Sugar, ii. 30, 31. of the Winnipeg River, i. 107, 116. Islington Mission, i. 110. —— fertility of, i. 110. state of, 11. 111. divine service at, i. 112. 452 "INDEX, Islington Mission, farm at, i. 114. the school-house the hope of the, 1. 114. Isquanristequannak Laastaki, or Creek, where the heads of the women lie, 1. 367. Jack Fish River, Lake Winnipeg, ii, 19. origin, course, and dimensions of, ii. 19, 20. James’s Falls, on the Winnipeg River, i, 115, - James’s River, course of, 1. 351, 352. Joseph’s, St., at Turtle Mountain, Settle- ment of, i. 176. Joseph, St., village of, Dakotah territory, 1, 255. Jourdain Portage, i. 50. Jumping River, i. 483. Juniper Island, Lake Winnipeg, ii. 19. Jurassic rocks of M‘Kenzie River, i. 306. ammonites from M‘Kenzie River, ii. 306. ammonites Barnstoni, ii. 807, 311. ammonites Billingsii, ii. 315. Kahlawakalk River, i. 82. Ka-ka-beka Falls, i. 30, 32. described, 1. 35. altitude of, i. 36. scenery of, i. 36. Kakmaskatawagan River, i. 82. Kaministiquia River, mouths of the, i. 24. shoals at the mouth of the, i. 25. course of the, i. 26, 38. period when it freezes, i, 30. dance of the Indians of the, i. 33. description of the valley of the, i. 37. obstacles presented by this river to communication with the interior, i, 42. scarcity of animal life on the banks of the, 1. 55. Kananaskis Pass of the Rocky Mountain, ii. 224, Kapowenekenow, or Winter Road River, i. 82. Kash-ke-bu-jes-pu-qua-ne-shing Island, i. 457. Kane, Mr. Paul, quoted, i. 93. Kawawakissiweek River, i. 82. Keating Island, i, 95—97. Keg or Baril Portage, i. 61. Kettle River, i, 22. King’s Road, Red River Settlement, i. 133, Kinni-kinnik, weed from which it is made’ is Sos ——- mode of making it, i. 315, 316. Kinwow (Long) Bay, in Lake Winnipeg, i. 489, 490; ii. 20. Kiskaso, or Pine, River, i. 82. Kitchi-nashi, Cape, or Big Point (Lake Winnipeg), 1. 475, 476. general description of, 482. * Kootanie Pass, British, of the Rocky Mountains, ii. 224, Kurkby, Rev. Mr., of Red River Settle- ment, i, 131. Lac la Pluie Indians, their fishing- grounds, i. 81. great enemies to extended cultivation, Ane oe Lacustrine deposits, ii. 247. Lake Arrow, i. 76. Ashes, 1. 411. Backfat, 1. 291. Baril, 1. 63. Bonnet, i. 117, 118, Brulé, i. 63. — Buffalo Pound Hill, 1. 339. Cass, ii. 98. Cedar, i. 240, 456, 457. Cold Water, i. 51, 52. Cross, i. 240. Dauphin, i. 237, 241. Devil’s, i. 414. Doré, i. 67. —— Ebb and Flow, i. 237; ii. 51, 62. — Erie, variations in the Jevel of the waters of the, i. 18. —— First Fishing, i. 369. Forty-Fourth, 261. Great Dog, 1. 39, 43. —— Gun Flint, i. 76. — Height of Land, i. 53,57. ° — Leech, il. 99. —— Little Dog, i. 38. Long, or Last Mountain, 1. 335, 411, 413, 414. Long, i. 415. Long, i. 46. —— Manitobah, i. 143, 235, 237, 241, 242, 439; 11, 38. —— Marshy, i. 455. —— Manitou, 1. 431. —— Mountain, i. 237. ——. Moose, i. 76. — Muddy, or Viscous, i, 51. — Muddy, i. 436, 457. —— Nequanquon, or Lac St. Croix, 1. 68, 70. — Oar, i, 294. Ontario, variations in the level of, i. 20. INDEX. Lake Opashkwa, ii, 98. Ottertail, 1. 125, 261. —— Pickerel, i. 66. Pine Island, i. 238, 446. —— Pine, i. 68, 69. Rainy, i. 74, 79, et seq. Red, i. 126; ii. 95, 98. Rose, i. 76. Roseau, 1. 158. Round, Qu’appelle River, i. 375. —— Sand Point, i. 77. Sandy, 1, 22. —— Savanne, i. 57. Second Fishing, of the Qu’appelle Val- ley, 1. 368. —-~ Seiganagah, i. 77. Little, 1. 77. Shoal, i. 102, 103. —— Simcoe, Canada West, scenery of, 11. ae Souris, 1. 299. Sturgeon, i. 67, 68. Superior, ii. 24. Swan, 1. 433. — St. Martin, i. 237, 241. — Turtle, ii. 98. —— Water-hen, i. 237; ii. 40. — White Fish, i. 76, 93, 94. —— Winnipeg, 1. 121, 237, 238, 251. ——- Winnipego-sis, 1. 172, 235, 237, 241 ; ul. 40, Lake Superior, squall on, i. 9. fogs on, i. 10. —— temperature of, i. 10. dangers of the navigation of, i, Bs its present position in relation to Montreal and the Atlantic seaboard, to 14. trade of the lake, 1. 15. —— elevation of, i. 17. —- occasional fluctuations on the level of the waters of, 1.18. —— obstacles to progress westland of, i. 21. depth, area, and contents of, i, 2), 25. — seldom frozen over, i. 21. ridge separating Lake Superior from the Valley of the Mississippi, i. 21. Lake of the Woods, winter road to the, i. 85, its distance from Lake Superior, i. Of. of the Sand Hills, i. 94. of the Sandy Hills, i. 342, 382. “ where the moose died,” i. 410. Lakes, effects of wind in changing the levels of the, 11. 75. —— immense number of, near the Touch- wood Hills Fort, 1, 413. VOL. II. H 453 Lakes, near the Lumpy Hill of the Woods, i. 408. of Indian Head Hills, i. 317. — of Rupert’s Land frozen over, ii. 354. —- Great Canadian, variations in the levels of the waters of the, i. 18. —— Major Lachlan’s Report on the, i, 19. —— Qu’appelle, i, 237, 319, 320, 321, 366, 428, Thousand, i. 46, 59—61. Land, tenure of, at the Red River settle- _ments, i, 189. —— millions of acres of unoccupied land fit for settlement, i, 191. —— formation of new, at the mouth of Red River, i. 7, 8. —— formation of new, ii. 22. Land, fine, near the Little Saskatchewan River, li, 29. Land, Moose, i. 455. Lane, Mr., of the Hudson’s Bay Company, 1147. his hospitality, i. 148, Lane’s Post, Assinniboine River, i. 136. ; lacustrine deposits at, ii. 248. Language of the Sioux Indians, ii, 155, 156: Last Mountain, i. 413. Laurentian series, ii. 269. description of Laurentian rocks, ii. 269. lime and soda felspar, ii. 270. titanic iron ore, li. 271. crystalline limestones, ii. 271. mineral species in the limestones, it. 271. intrusive rocks, ii, 272. economic materials, ii. 272. separation of the Laurentian rccks into two groups, il. 272. extent of the limestones in this system, ii, 273, 274. area of Laurentian rocks in the basin of Lake Winnipeg, il. 275. character of the intrusive rocks, i. Zt O's charaeter of the dividing ridge, ii. 273, 276. from: Milles Lacs to Rainy Lake, ii. 276. from Rainy Lake to the Lake of the Woods, ii. 277. from the Lake of the Woods to the Winnipeg, ii. 278. the coast of Lake Winnipeg, ii. 279. fundamental gneiss of Scotland, the equivalent of the Laurentian series in Canada, 1). 279. [DS er iaaieais H 454 Laurentian series, adoption of the term Lau- rentian ii. 280, Laurentides, ice furrows of the, ii, 245. Lautiger, Rev. Laurenz, frozen to death, ii. 95—97. —- Indians reading the history of his journey from his tracks on the ice, il. 96. account of him, ii. 97, 98. Lawrence River, Great St., one of the sources of, 1. 52. Leaf City, i. 269. Leaf River, 1. 262. Leda Hindi from the Souris, ii. 337. Leech Lake, i. 4313 ii. 99. dance in the village on the south shore of, il. 99. character of the country at, i. 432. Lignite at the Wood Hills, 1. 318. Lightning in the prairies, i. 315. reported to exist on the Assinniboine River, i. 143. — fibrous, thirty miles from the Qu’ap- pelle River, 1. 384. — on the banks of the north branch of the Saskatchewan, 1. 396. — existence of, on the Riding and Duck Mountains, ii. 345. — — in basin of the Missouri, 11. 346. — on North Saskatchewan, ii. 347. — on Red Deer River, ii. 348. ——- on the South Saskatchewan, il. 348. —— in Oregon and British Columbia, i. 348. Limestone near Fort William, i. 31. at Stone Fort, i. 130. —— boulders on the banks of the Little Souris, 1. 299. —— in the valley of the Qu’appelle, i. 332, —— near Cut-arm Creek, i. 423. —— fragments of, on the South Branch of the Saskatchewan, 1. 387. —— on the shores of Lake Winnipeg, i. 480. —— exposure on Lake Winnipeg, ii. 12, 12: —— stratified, exposures on an island in St. Martin’s Lake, ii. 33. —— on Snake Island, ii. 42. — at Manitobah House, ii. 67. — of Lakes Winnipeg and Manitobah, grooves and scratches on the, il. 247, Limestone Point (Lake*» Winnipeg), i. 480. Limestone Cave Point, Lake Winnipeg, ii. 19. Locusts, general distribution of the ii. 385. INDEX. Locusts, distinction between crickets, grass- hoppers, and locusts, ii. 385. —— the locust of the north-west (the acrydium femur-rubrum), ii. 387. accounts of the appearance of swarms of locusts in 1857 and 1858, ii. 389. —— limit of its ravages, ii, 390. females engaged in laying eggs, ii. 390. vitality of the eggs, 11. 391. powers of flight, ii, 391. elevation of fight above the sea, ii. 392. food of the insect, ii, 392. effect of periodical visitations, ii. 392. Logan, Sir William, his estimate of the altitude of Lake Superior, i. 17. Long Rapids of the Rainy River, i. 82. scenery at the, i. 89. Long Lake, or Last Mountain Lake, i. 146, 535, 411, 414.4. Long Creek, an affluent of the Qu’appelle River, i. 330, 402, 406. Main Saskatchewan River, its fertility, i. 400. —— old forest near, 1. 404. ———- its breadth and rate of current, i. 406. fertility of the soil at, i, 406. source of, 1. 406. Longfellow’s “ Hiawatha ” quoted, ii. 15. Loon’s Narrows, i. 77. Straits (Lake Winnipeg), i. 493. Lumpy Hill of the Woods, i. 238, 407, 408. its fertility, i, 407. view from the, i. 408. soil south and east of the, i. 408. Lynx Bay, Lake Winnipeg, ii. 20, Mackay’s Mountains, height of, i. 14. Macbeth’s Point, Lake Winnipeg, i. 489; i. .DO: Macdonald, Rev. Robert, of Islington Mis- sion, 1. 111. Mackenzie, Mr. and Mrs,, their hospitality, 16,3 Mr. Mackenzie, of Fort Pembina, frozen to death, ii. 91. Mackenzie River, lignite beds in the valley of the, ii. 349, Magpies on the Weed Ridge, Qu’appelle Valley, i. 316. Mail, mode of conveying the, between Crow Wing and Red River Settlement, 1. 256. Mammoths, bones of, at Shell Creek, i. ol. é INDEX. 455 Mammoth bones at Valley River, i. 313. bones of a, on the banks of Valley River, i. 60. Mandan Indians, i. 299. villages of the, 1. 299. —— remains of, on the Yellowstone River, i. 299. ‘Manitobah, Lake, i. 143, 235, 241. area of, 1. 237. richness of the prairies of, 1, 242, fishing station on the, i. 439. boulders, Devonian, rocks and fossils on the shores of, il. 38, 39. —— depth of, ii. 39. ‘ ——— wild swans on, ii. 39. -—— entered from Partridge Crop River, i, 38. ——— splendid prairies bordering on the southern shores of, ii. 76. distribution of boulders on, il. 256. Manitobah House, arrival of the author, 1i. 64. snow storm at, ll. 66. situation of the Post, i. 66. Manitobah Island, ii. 69. extent of, ii. 69. —— timber of, ii. 69. —— Devonian fossils found on, ii. 70. animals shot on, ii. 70. Indian superstitions relating to, 11, 70. Manitou Lake, i. 431. origin of its name, i. 431. Manitou Rapids, i. 82, 88. Manitou dwellings, it. 131. offerings to the Manitou, i. 138, 134. Manitouaning, history of the village of, 1i. 187, 188. Manitoulin islands, 11. 187, noée. mission at the, ii. 187—189. population in 1857, ii. 188. Mantagao-sebe Bay, Lake Winnipeg, 1. 20. Map, an Indian, of the Qu’appelle Valley to the Assinniboine, i. 370. Maple trees, i. 127, 128. ash-leaved, at Red River, i. 228. Maple Creek, Qu’appelle River, i. 331. Marsh River, i. 260. Marshy Lake, Saskatchewan River, i. 455. Marshes on the Saskatchewan River, i, 456, 457. on the Little Saskatchewan, i. 484, at Partridge Crop River, ii. 34. host of ducks on the, ii. 35. near the Riding Mountain, ii. 51, 52. Martin, Lake St., i. 237, 2413; ii. 27, clear water of the, i. 29. boulders on the shores of, ii. 32, depth of, ii. 33. Martin’s Rocks, St., ii. 32, Mayne, Lieut. R., his exploration in Bri- tish Columbia, ii. 228. McDermott, Mr., of Red River Settle- ment, i, 136. McKay’s Mountain, 1. 26. timber of, i. 27. Medicine man, incantations of a, 1. 417. feasts of the Wood Indians, ii. 123. or conjuring ceremonies of the Indians, ria Lor Mesaskatomina berry, the, i. 339, 382, 383, 386. Meuron, Fort de, remains of the, 1. 32. Michigan, Indian progress in, ii, 195, Michipicoten island, i. 12, 13. harbour, 1. 12. Milieu, Portage de, i. 58. Milles Laces, 1. 46, 59—61. Minnesota, treaty of the Americans with the Salteaux for the northern portion of, Vie rire Mirage, singular effects of, i. 13. effects of, in the prairie, i. 305. Miry Creek, Swan River, i. 435. Mis-ke-na, “chief of the fishes,” Indian superstition respecting the, 11. 15. Missatchabe, or Big Fork River, i. 82. Mission of the Immaculate Conception on the Kaministiquia, i. 27, 29. —— the Qu’appelle, 1. 921, 322. —— difficulties arising from the prejudices of the various Indian Tribes, i. 324. Mission and Missionaries at Red River Set- tlement, account of the, i, 194 et seq. Missionaries, Indian objections to native, i. 324. Missionary labour and its results among the Indians, ii. 178. Indians in Canada, ii. 178, distinction between Indian nations, ii. 179, families, nations, tribes, and bands, ii. 180. —— Indian families of Rupert’s Land and Canada, ii. 180. statistics of Indians 184, Canadian special commission, ii, 185. —— efforts to ameliorate the condition of the Indians, ii. 186. —— the Manitoulin Islands and the mission at Manitouaning, ii. 187. —— Wesleyan Methodist Missions, 11. 190, ——- failure of the manual labour schools, mee Oe —— condition of some Indian villages in Canada, ii. 192. -—— the Indians of the northern coasts of Lakes Huron and Superior, ii. 192. treaty with these Indians, ii, 193, in Canada, ii. HH 2 456 Missionary labours: distribution of annuities by the Hudson’s Bay Company, ii. 193. suggestions as to a permanent fund for the supervision and instruction of the Indians, 11. 194. -—— aggregate quantity of land snrrendered by the Indians of Canada, il. 194, ——— circumstances favourable to the civilis- ation and progress of the Indians, ii. OF. —— suggestions as to the amelioration of the Indians generally, ii. 196. — conclusions of the Canadian Commis- sioners, ii. 196. ——- missionary labours in Rupert’s Land, li. 198. —— the schoolhouse the main hope, ii. 199. —— suggestions for the establishment of a general store for outposts, ii, 199. want ofa general familiarity with the native languages, 11. 200. -—— the Bishop of Rupert’s Land and his labours, 11. 201, ~——- his charge in January 1860, ii. 203. —— the Earl of Southesk and the Assinni- boine Indians, ii. 204. the “ Church in the Wilderness,” il. 204. a Plain Cree’s mode of remembering Sunday, iil. 205. Mississippi River, i, 21, 22. ridge separating the valley of the, from Lake Superior, 1. 21. elevation of the watershed of, 11. 24. Missouri,Grand Couteau de, i. 126, 128, 233. vast herds of buffalo on the, i. 306. —— River, number of miles at which it is navigable, i, 251. course of the, 1. 351. prairies converted into forest land in, ISG Mis-tick-oos, or Shortstick, chief of the Plain Crecs, i. 339. visit to him, i. 354, 359. description of him, i. 359. —— “talk” with him and his people, 1. 360. —— his wants, i. 361. his tent, i. 362. —— his wives, i. 362. death of his son, i, 363. his grief offering, i. 363. second meeting with, ii. 125. feud between his tribe and the Black- feet, 11. 125. ridiculous incident in his tent, 11. 135. his son’s wife, il. 136, Mocassins, value of, in winter travelling, ii, 88. INDEX. Moles, burrows of, on Long Creek, Main Saskatchewan, i. 406. “ Money,” Indian, ii. 28, Montreal, Bishop of, quoted, i. 21. winter temperature at, ii. 370. Monument Bay, i. 103. Moose Lake, 1. 76. Moose Woods, i. 339. —- forests of the, 1. 245. — Head Mountain, 1. 289. Jaws Forks River, i. 300, 428. ancient Cree encampment at, i. 338. — Mountain Creek, i. 306. — Woods, character of the vegetation of the, 1. 386, 387, ——- Lake, i. 455. . Island, Great, Lake Winnipeg, ii. 19. tracks of, near the Riding Mountain, 11 52, Morning in the wilderness described, i. 70 ioe Morts, Portage du, i. 66. Mosquitoes, persecutions of the, on the banks of the Assinniboine, 1, 286. in the Qu’appelle valley, i. 329. near the main Saskatchewan River, i, 408, 445. Moss River, Lake Winnipego-sis, 1. 241 ; il. 46, rapids of, ii. 47. good land on the west bank of, 11, 48. character of the river, ii. 48. Mountain Beaver, i. 422. Duck, 136, 233, 284, 241, 434, 436; ii. 48. — Great Dog, i. 39, 40. Lake, area of, i. 237. Last, 1. 413. Mackay’s, i. 14, 26, 27. — Moose Head, i, 289. Pasquia, 1. 233, 236. —-— Pembina, i. 156, 233, 438. —— Pheasant, i, 245, 422. —— Riding, i, 136, 233, 234, 241, 435, 436; ii. 48. —— Stony, i. 278; 11. 79, —— Thunder, i, 236, 434, Touchwood, i. 333, Turtle, i. 176, 236, 290, 299. Mouse River, or Souris, description of the, 1, 243, valley of the, i. 243. Monkman, John, the noted runner, ii, $2. engaged by Lord R. Grosvenor and party, il, 82, Muddy Lake, i. 51, 456, 457. Mud and sand flats in the River, i. 141, —_—_——- Assinniboine rae INDEX. 457 Mud flats in the South Branch of the Sas- katchewan, i. 384, 392. near Muddy Lake, i. 456, layers of stratified, 11, 254, Murray, Mr., of Pembina Fort, his hospi- tality, i. 156. -—— his survey of the north side of Lake * Huron, ii. 213. Muskeg River, 1. 85. Muskeg Indians, or Swampy Crees, i. 112. their superstitions, 1, 113. Musk rats on the Winnipeg River, i. 118. Muttontine, or River of the Rapids, i. 82. Nameaukan River, i. 70. vegetation on the shores of the, i. 73. Nameaukan Rapids, i. 72. narrow escape at the, i. 73. Nameaukan Lake, i. 73. area of, 1.73. Narrows of the Little Saskatchewan, ii. 29, 30. Nautilus Dekayi, 11. 343. Nee-bing township, 1. 32. Nelson River, falls and rapids of, i. 253. Nepowewin Mission, main Saskatchewan River, 1. 397, 399. the Rev. Henry Budd, i. 399. origin of the name, i. 399. prospects of the mission, i, 400, —w— limited area of fertile land at, i, 400. Nequauquon Lake, or Lae St. Croix, i. 68, 70. Netly Creek, Red River, i. 123. Newspaper, the first published at Red River Settlement, 1. 152. Nine Mile Swamp, i. 164. proposals for the drainage of, 1. 164. “ Nor’- Wester,” a newspaper published at Red River settlement, i. 152. extract from the, i. 184. North-west Company, history of the, ii, 207. Nu Portage, i. 73. Oak Creek, in La Riviére Seine, i. 168. Oak Point Lake, Manitobah, i. 76. settlement at, li. 77. Oats, cultivation of, at Red River settle- ments, i. 227. Oar Lake, wildfowl on, i. 294. Ochre, yellow, at Punk Island, Lake Win- nipeg, ii. 18. Ojibways, Canadian treaty with the, i. 28. ——- of the expedition, i. 33. —— language, sermon in the, i. 30. —— scene of a battle between them and the Sioux, I. 41. - their indifference and selfishness, 1.45. cannibalism of the, in 1811, 1. 65. on Sturgeon Lake, i. 69. Ojibways, at Fort Frances, i. 83. — their tumuli at Rainy River, i. 90. —— their refusal at the Lake of the Woods to allow the expedition to proceed, i, 99. -—— fishing ground on Roseau River, 1. 163. . — Christians at Red River, i. 201. —— tents on the banks of Red River, i. 202. —— chief, Peguis, 1. 204. ——encampment at Prairie Portage, i. 281. : —— unavailing efforts of Archdeacon Coch- rane to Christianise them, 1. 281. —— fish weir of, near Prairie Portage, i. 283. —— a young hunter at Fort Ellice, i. 313. good fishermen, i, 415. — hunter, 1. 424. —— of Rainy Lake, celebrated war path of the, il. 28, 29. — of Lake Winnipeg, celebrated war- path of the, ii, 29. —— congregation at Fairford, ii. 36. —— their migration to Red River, ii. 122. —~ their real- home, 11.122, their graves on Red River, ii. 122. —— progress of the, at Red Lake, ii. 196. their mode of painting the skin, ii, LS. tobacco pipes, ii. 139, —- ties of kindred and_ relationship amongst the, ii, 145. Ontario, Lake, variations in the level of, i. 20. Opashkwa Lake, il. 98. Oregon, lignite of, 11, 348. Organic remains, absence of, on the banks of the Souris, i. 295, Otter Falls, on the Winnipeg River, 1. 117. Otter Tail Lake, i. 125, 261, Otter Tail River, 261. * Otter Tail City, i. 262. Owen, Dr., his description of Pembina Mountain quoted, ii, 261, 262. Pacific, routes from Red River to the, ii. 22, et seq. Pai-poonge township, 1. 32. Pakitawiwin, or first Fishing Lake of the Qu’appelle, i. 370. its wonderful depth, 1. 370. fish of, 1. 370. conferve in, 1. 370. Palliser, Captain, his opinion as to Red River as an English colony, ii, 219. results of his expedition, il. 222. —— his description of the region drained by the Saskatchewan, ti, 233. HH 3 458 INDEX. Palliser, Captain, his proposed boundary of the new colony, ii, 230. Palmer worm of the United States, 1. 93. Palmer, Lieut., his explorations in British Columbia, i. 226. Pa-oo-nan, Point, or the Waiting Place, on Lake Manitobah, 11. 39. Partridge Crop River, il. 30, 34. houses of aformer mission at, il. 34. Indian resort, ii. 35. birds in the marshes of, ii. 35. Pas, or Cumberland Station, Saskatchewan River, 1. 452. church and school-house at, i. 453. Pasquia Mountain, i. 233, 236. Peguis, the great Ojibway chief, i. 204, his letter, 11. 173. his second letter, ii. 175. Pekan, or Little Fork River, i, 82. Pelicans on Oak Lake, i. 294. Pelly, Fort, i. 137. Pembina, town of, i. 157, 254, 255. Pembina River, i. 244. —— sources of the, 1. 290. Pembina Mountain, 1. 156, 233, 438, timber of, 1. 156. character of the ancient beach ridge of, 11, 261. terraces of, il, 242. —— Fort, 1.156; 11. 87, 88. ——- hospitality of Mr. Murray there, 1. 156. —<-— temperature at, 11, 88. Pemmican, mode of making, i. 312. fish, of the Indians, i. 487. Pemmican Portage, 1. 446. cache, mode of making a, ii. 89, Pennawa River, i. 117,118. animals on the, 1 118, 119. Peter, St., River, altitude of the sources of, ii, 24. Pheasants’ Creeks, first and second (in Cree, Akiskoowi sepesas), 1. 371. Pheasant Mountain, i. 422, rich soil of, 1. 422. aspen forests of the, i. 245. Pickerel Lake, i. 66. Pie Island, i. 13, 24. Pigean Indians, country occupied by the, il, 158. Pigeon River, i. 22. notes of the route by the, i. 74. Pigeon traps, i. 277. Pigeons, vast numbers of, near the Blue Hills of the Souris, i. 292. Pike Head (Lake Winnipeg), i. 490; ii. 19, 20. Pike, or Jack-Fish, River, i, 490. dimensions of, i. 491. Pike caught in Dauphin Lake, ii, 49, 59, Pine forest near Milles Lacs, remains of a, i. 63, 64. Pine Lake, i. 68, 69. Pine Creek River, i, 138. Pine Creek, luxuriant vegetation of, i. 246. sand dunes at, i. 287. Pine Island Lake, i. 238, 446. Pine, or ‘Famarac River, character of “the prairie of, i. 256; ii. 89. Pine Island, i. 447, 448. Pipestone Creek, 1. 307. valley of, i. 307. boulders near, i, 307. Indian monument near, i. 307. Pitcher plant (Sarracenia purpurea), at Height of Land Lake, i. 57. “ Pitching tracks” of the Indians, ii, 51. Plains and prairies, difference between, 1. 348, 349. — limits of the plains of Rupert’s Land, i. 350. Plains of the north-western territories of the United States and British America, i. 351. Plain plateau of Rupert’s Land, ii, 243. area of, 11, 243. Plum, or Snake Creek, boulders of lignite found near, 1. 293, 294. Point aux Chiens Falls and Rapids, i. 116. Pomme de Prairie, or Indian turnip, 1. 319. Ponds, inland, near Lake Winnipeg, li. 9. Population, Indian, of British America, ii. 145, et seq. of Red River Settlements, i. 176. Porcupine Hill, i. 236, 433, 434. Portage, Décharges des Paresseux, 1. 34. Barriére, 1. 50. Brulé, or Side Hill Path, i. 63. =~ (Crow, 1. 72. de Milieu,i. 58. des Deux Riviéres, i. 67. du Bois, i. 116. du Morts, i. 66. French, 1. 66. — Great Dog, i. 39; 11. 257, 258, — Great Savanne, 1. 59. — Grand Falls, i. 72. —— Grand Portage of Pigeon River, 1, 74. — Height of Land Portage, i. 76. —- Island, 1..68, 69. Jourdain, i. 50. —— Keg, or Baril, i. 61. — Nameaukan, 1, 72. aa Np ae ros —— Prairie, or Height of Land, i. 52. —— Prairie, i. 139, 141, 143, 205, 283. Rattlesnake, 1. 70. Rat, i. 104, 107. Roche Brulé, i, 116. —— Turtle, i, 94. " 3 | INDEX. 459 Portage Bay (Lake Winnipeg), i. 480. Portage River, dry bed of a tributary of, 1. 440. Portages, table of, 11. 427. Post office, Red River, notice of, i. 257, note, Posts, provision trading, of the Hudson’s Bay Company, i. 311. _ Prairie hen (Tetrao cupido), resort of the, i, 160, 256. battles of the males during pairing season, i. 160. Prairie Portage, i. 52. vegetation on the banks of, 1. 53. —— estimates of the heights of, i. 53. height of the banks of the Assinniboine at, 1. 139. —-— sand and mud flats in the river at, i. 141, — origin of the name, i. 143. —— view of the village of, i. 145. — settlement at, 1. 176. —+- description of the mission at, i. 204. —— Ojibway encampment at, i. 281. fertility of the prairie at, i. 282. beach and terrace at, ii. 259. —— River, i. 50. —— thick fringes of rushes of, i. 51. source of, 1. 52. Prairies of Red River, described, i. 134, 233, et seq. ; of the Assinniboine River, i, 147. ——— grasshoppers on the, i. 147. of the Assinniboine— Mr. Gowler’s view of the capabilities of the, i. LST. of La Riviere Sale, i. 156. richness of the, of Lake Manitobah, i. 244; and wooded land west of Red River, i, 224. fires, 1. 256, 291. —— description of one, i. 259. ——— ridges, ancient, i. 277,279, 280. fertility of the, at Prairie Portage, i. 282. —— vast, beyond the Blue Hills of the Souris, i. 291, —— appearance of a, after a visit froma flight of grasshoppers, i. 398. —— view from the prairie, i. 305. —— effects of mirage on the, i. 305. northern limit of the burnt prairie, i. 305. — great prairie north of the Red Deer’s Head River, i. 305. wanderers in prairies, singular facility of, for journeying direct to places at great distances from each other, i. 309 Prairie, Great, between the 49th parallel and the Qu’appelle River, its sterility, i. 317. Prairies, grandeur of fires in the, i, 336. limits of the prairie country of the United States, i. 349. —— and of Rupert’s Land, 1. 350. origin of the groves scatiered over the prairies, i, 350. — and plains, difference between, 1. 348, 349, — scene described, i. 375. — treeless, on the South Branch of the Saskatchewan, i. 384, 385, 387. extension of the, from fires, i. 405. salt, at the foot of the Touchwood Hills, i. 412. ——. Marshy, of Pheasant Mountain and File Hill, i. 422. —— Willow, i. 423. —— drained by Little White Mud River, 1. 438. —— fertility of, 1. 438. ——- of the Assinniboine, i. 439. splendid, bordering the southern shores of Lake Manitobah, i. 76. —— aspect of the, in the winter season, ii. sities —— travelling across a, at 20 degrees be- low zero, ii. 92. plateau of Rupert’s Land, ii. 248. boundaries of, ii, 243. area of, ii, 243. effects of ice in distributing boulders over the prairies of Red River, ii. Bors ——— ancient beach ridges in the prairies, 1i. 261% — end or tail of the prairies, ii, 376. ——- prairies converted into forest land in Missouri, ii. 377. Pratt, Charles, the half-breed catechist, 1. Bill Fc Presbyterian mission and congregation at Red River Settlement, i. 196, Church at Red River Settlement, i. 205. school at Red River Settlement, i. 219. Protestant missions in Red River Settle- ments, i. 194, 195. Protestant schools at Red River Settlement, i, 214, : subjects taught, i. 216. distinguished scholars, i. 216, 217. school attendance, i, 217, 218. sources of income, i. 218. Provisions for the Assinniboine and Sas- katchewan expedition, 1. 276. | Indian mode of carrying them, i, 339. Psoralea esculenta (Indian turnip), abun- dance of, i. 319. | Hu 4 460 Punk Island, ii. 17 yellow ochre at, ii. 17, 18. Quadrupeds on the Kaministiquia River, ond. on the Winnipeg River, i. 115. seen near the South Branch of the Saskatchewan, 1. 393. Qu’ appelle, or Calling River, i. 138. description of the, i, 242. valley of the, i. 237, et seq. —— timber of the valley of the, i, 245. country near the banks of the, 1. 314. —_— birds of the, i. 316. fertility of the country north of the, decoy , sterility of the prairie between the 49th parallel and the, i. 317. expeditions formed for the descent and ascent of the, i. 320. tortuous course of the, 1. 329, 331. section of the barks of the, 1. 330. temperature of the, i. 331. - ice-marks on the banks of the, 1. 331. —— buffalo tracks on the, 1. 331. frequent thunderstorms on the, 1. 333. — the Grand Forks, 1. 334. — one of the sources of the, 1. 347, 352. origin of its name, i. 370. its breadth below the First Fishing River; 1.371. —— affluents below the First Fishing River, Tee oueli, — effects of fires on the vegetation of the north bank, i. 372. —- granite boulders in the river at the Stony Barrier, 1. 376. —— dimensions of the river from Big Cut- arm Creek to its mouth, i. 377. timber and undergrowth for ten miles above its mouth, i, 377. Qu’appelle Valley, i. 237. its importance, i. 320. exploration of the, i. 320, encampment in the, i. 323. — birds of the, i. 330. ——-— aspect of the valley during the floods * ofyi8 52, 1.329, — hill sides of, 1. 329. —— white cranes seen in the, i. 329. — drift clay and limestone erratics in the, 1. 632. ——-— frequent thunderstorms in the, i. 333. -——- dimensions of the, i. 335, 341, 343. boulders on the Sandy Hills of the, i. 353. view of the, from the Sandy Hills, i, 354. transverse section of the, at the Height of Land, 1. 355, INDEX. Qu’appelle Valley, cretaceous rock at the summit level of the, 1. 363. boulders on the, i. 363, 364. depth of, at the First Fishing River, iy B70; flooding of the valley, i. 377. —— its wonderful uniformity, 1, 378. its length from the Second Fishing Lake to its junction with the As- sinniboine, i. 378. ——- its leading dimensions, i. 426, 429. — character “of the great Picea it inter- sects, 1. 427, lakes in the valley, i. 428, 429. their depth. 1. 428. —— timber in the valley, i. 428. floods in the, i. 428. effects of a dam across the south branch of the Saskatchewan, i. 428. table of the length, breadth, and depth of the Qu’appelle Valley at different points, i, 429. enormous boulder in the, ii. 255. « Qu’appelle Lakes, i. 319, 428. area of, i, 237. described, 1. 320. source of the, 1, S61. their depth, 1. 428. table showing the length, breadth, and depth of the, 1. 430. Qu’ appelle Mission, its beautiful situation, i, G2). garden at the, i. 322, Quartz rocks near Milles Lacs, i. 62. Quebec, temperature of, ii, 372. Quills, goose, great numbers of, i, 412. Quill Lake, 1. 412. Rabbit Point, Cedar Lake, i. 458. Rabbits, multitudes of, on the Winnipeg River and Lake of the Woods, i. 169. numerous, on the banks of the As- sinniboine, i. 284 near the Riding Mountain, ii. 52. Rainy Lake, i. 62, 74. description of, i. 80, when frozen, i. 81. Rainy River, described, i, 81. general course of, i. 81. Indian fishing ground of, i. 81. affluents of, i. 82. soil on the banks of, i. 84. general aspect of the banks and valley of, i. 86, alluvial terraces of, i. 91, 92. Rapid River, or Little Saskatchewan, i, 138, 437. source of, il. 257. Rapid, the Grand, of the Saskatchewan, i t 467. INDEX. 461 Rapid, portage, 1. 467. —— running the Grand, i. 467. —— its Biiensions, i 1. 468. —— character of its excavated bed, i. 469. magnificence of its upper portion, 1. 470. —— mode of ascending it, i. 471. —— remarks in relation to surmounting this barrier, and making the Saskat- chewan available for steam naviga- tion, 1. 472. Raspberries, wild, on the banks of the main Saskatchewan, 1. 408, Rat Portage, i. 104. Falls at, i. 105. — Hudson’s Bay Company’s post at, i. VOR. Rat River, Big, i. 163, 439. importance of the valley of i. 440. Little, 1. 164. Rattlesnake Portage, i. 70. Red River, ordinary canoe course to, i, hes mouths of, i. 123. character and course of the Red River of the north, i. 125, —— its tributaries, i. 126. the river within British territory, 1,126. =—=— its amuents, 1; 126. ——— objects seen on ascending it, 1. 127. —— its physical features, 1. 128, grand rapids of, i. 128, 130. limestone at Stone Hort: i: 130; Big Eddy, i. 130. description of the prairies of, i, 134, scarcity of fuel in the valley of, i. 144, confluence of the, and Assinniboine, 1-153. soil of the country east of, i. 166. account of the settlements on, i. et seq. route to, vid York Factory, i. 252. route to, via St. Paul, i. 253. Lake, whence Red River takes its rise, 1. 261. countless numbers of ducks at the mouth of, i. 493. temperature of, ii. 5. six mouths of, i1. 5. formation of new land at the mouths of, 11°73 8. altitude of the sources of, ii. 24, bands of buffalo, 11. 107. Indian title to, i. 172, progress of the Indian settlement at, ie 19654 —— communication between, and Canada, Met 2. and the United States, ii, 218, dias 172, a —_—— Red River, Captain Palliser’s opinion as to, as an English colony, il. 218. communication between, and the Pa- Cite, 11, 222" climate of the valley of, ii. 365. temperature of Red River Valley compared with that of Toronto, ii. 365-367. Red Fork River, i. 126. Red Lake, i. 126; il. 95, 98. Indian progress in, ii. 196. Red Lake River, i. 258; ii. 95, 98. timber of the valley of, i. 258. war path of the Sioux and Ojibways at, i, 258. Red Rives Settlements, houses of the inha- bitants of, i. 130. —— Fort Garry and Stone Fort, i, 133. —— King’s Road, 1. 133. —— the prairie, i. 134. ——— a newspaper published at, 1. 152. —— success of agricultural pursuits at, i. 152, 153. —— history of the settlements, i. 172, — Lord Selkirk and the Scottish emi- grants, 1. 172. —— Mr. West, the first missionary, i. 174. —— population of the settlements, i 176. —— administration of justice, i 183. —— trades and occupations, i. 186. — no division of labour, i. 186, 187. ——. mills, 1, 187. — merchant shops and petty traders, 1. 188. freighters, i. 189 tenure of land, 1. 189. millions of acres of unoccupied land fit for settlements, 1. 191. revenue and expenditure, i. 191. missions, i. 194. religious denominations, i. 194 missionaries, stations, and congrega- tions, 1 195, 196. —— St John’s church, i. 196. —— St Andrew’s parish and its history, i Toe —— St. Paul’s church, i. 199. » — St James’ church, i 200. - Indian settlement church and farm, i. 200. —— Presbyterian church and congregation, i. 205, 206. — Roman Catholic churches and congre- , gations, i. 206 —— condition of religion at Red River, i, 209 — extent of the charities of the home missionary societies, 1. 209 —— apathy of the wealthy at Red River, i, 209. 462 Red River Settlements, difficulties of mis- sionary enterprise at present, i. 210. privations and difficulties at remote stations, 1.211. communication between Fort Garry and st, Paul, i. 2123913) education in the settlements, i. 214. statistics and enumeration of schools, te Ae condition of agricultural industry, i. 233) apathy of the settlers, i, 223, 224. cultivated crops, 1. 225. live stock of the settlement, i. 228. agricultural implements, i. 229. facilities for raising stock, i. 230. timber at Red River, i. 231. sketch of the country west of Red River, 1. 233. wooded and prairie land, i. 244 notice of the Red River post-office, i, 257 note. Red Deer River, i 242. lignite on, 11 348. Red Deer’s Head River, swarms of grass- hoppers near the, i. 296, scarcity of animal life at the mouth of the, 1. 299, 300 watermarks on the banks of the, i. 305. prairie north of the, i. 305, Red Eye River, i. 261. Reed River, i. 162. Refraction, wonderful effect of, i, 97. Rice, wild, of the marshes of the Lake of the Woods, i. 96. vast rice grounds of the Winnipeg River, i. 116. — — of the Pennawa River, i. 118. failure of the crop, i. 118. wild, of turtle River, ii, 98. Richardson, Sir John, his estimate of the altitude of Lake Superior, i. 17. — his sun-dial at Cumberland House, i. 449. — his description of the coast line of Lake Winnipeg, quoted, ii. 21. Ridge dividing the valley of the Mississippi, and Lake Superior, i. 21, -—— dividing lake between the Embarras River and Lake Superior, i. 21. —- the Big, of the prairie of the Assin- niboine River, i. 146. —— Pitching Track, near Dauphin Lake, 11.262. Ridges of sand in Great Dog Lake, i. 46, 48. ancient prairie, 1. 277. Riding Mountain, i, 136, 233, 234, 241. ieotabeedie es | ley INDEX. Riding Mountain, timber of the, i. 244, 247. -—— region to the east of, an insignificant field for settlements, i, 250. ponds and lakes of the, i. 425. view of the, from Moss River, ii. 48. journey from Dauphin Lake to the summit of, ii. 50. ——- rabbits and moose at the foot of the, ls O22 Soe —— character of the soil at the foot of the, Vopeay —— terraces, 11. 54. — conical hills, i. 54. ——- view from the summit of, il. 55. former character of, ul. 55. denudation, 11. 56. vast table land, i. 56. forest covering, ii. 56. —— snow-storm on, li. 57, descent of, i. 58. —— estimate of ascents and descents of, ii. 58. —— ancient beach ridges of, ii. 263. —— its probable common origin with Duck Mountain, ii. 266. River Assinniboine, i. 127, 132, 136, 246. Basquia, 1. 452. --— Battle, i. 357. —— Beaver Creek, i. 138. — Big-Stone, i. 448. —— Birdstail, i. 138, 246. Brulé, i, 63. — Crane, ii. 40. — Carrot, or Root, River, i. 407, 409. Crow Wing, i. 261, 262. Current, 1. 30, 42. —— Dauphin, or Valley, ii. 48, 60. des Isles des Bois, 1. 155. — Drunken, ii. 11. — Elbow Bone, i. 138. -— Embarras, 1. 22 —— Fire Steel, i. 62. —— German Creek, 1.127, 132, 166, 168. —— Gull Egg, or the Two Rivers, i. 483. —— Hauteur de Terre, i. 261. Jack Fish, ii. 19. James’s, 1.351, 352. Jumping River, i. 483. —— Kahlawakalk, i. 82. — Kakmaskatawagan, i. 82. — Kaministiquia, i. 22, et seq. —— Kapowenekenow, i. 82. Kawawakissinweek, i, 82. — Kettle, i. 22. —— Kiskarko, 1. 82. INDEX. 463 River, Leaf, i. 262. Little Dog, i. 40, 47. —— Little Souris, or Mouse, i. 136, 138. —— Little White Mud, i. 431, 438, 439. — Marsh, i. 260. ——— Missatchabe, or Big Fork, i. 82. —— Mississippi, i. 21, 22. —— Missouri, i, 251, 357. — Moose Jaws Forks, i. 300. Moose Mountain Creek, i. 306. —— Moss, i. 241; il. 46. Muskeg, i 1.4 BD, - Muttontine, or River of the Rapids, 1, 82. —— Nameaukan, i. 70. Nelson, i. 253, — Otter Tail, i. 261. ; Partridge Crop, or St. Martin, ii, 34. Pekan, or Little Fork, i. 82. Pembina, i. 244, 290, Pennawa, i. 117, 118. — Pigeon, i, 22. — Pike or Jack-Fish, i. 490. —— Pine, ii. 89. — Pine Creek, i. 138 Prairie, 1. 50. Qu’appelle, or Calling River, i. 138, 2492, Rainy, 1. 81, et seq. Rapid, 1, 138. Rat, 1. 439. — Rat, Big, i. 163. Rat, Little, 1. 163. Red, 1.. 123, et seq. 3 ii. 5. Red Deer, i. 242. Red Eye, i. 261. Red Fork, 1. 126. Red Lake, 1. 258; 11. 95, 98. Reed, 1. 162. *“¢ River that Turns,” i. 364. Roseau, i. 127, 157. Root River, i. 452. Sale, 1. 133, 154. Saskatchewan, i. 238 e¢ seq. —— Saskatchewan, Little, i. 138. TTT Saskatchewan, Little, or Dauphin, i. 241. —- Saskatchewan, Little, or Rapid, i. 437, 481. Saskatchewan, Main, i. 397, e¢ seq. — Saskatchewan, North Branch, i, 393. —— Saskatchewan, South Branch, i, 380 et seq. Savanne, i. 59. Seine, i. 61. Serpent or Snake, i. 257. Scratching, i. 156, River, Shayenne, i. 126, 352. Shell, i. 138, 246, 436. — Shoal, 1. 433, Souris, Little, or Mouse, i, 138, 243, 288. -—— Sturgeon, i. 67. —— Sturgeon Creek, i. 139, —— Swan, i. 242, 432, 433. —— St. Croix, 1. 22. St. Louis, 1, Oi 22. Tabae, i. 156. Tearing, | 1, 240, 448, 452. Tee-wa-now-seebe, or “ River that di- vides the hills,” ii. 51, Two Creeks, 1, 138, —— Turtle, ii. 61, 98. —~- Valley, i. 231, 24], Valley, or Dauphin, i il. 48, 60, Vermilion, 1. 22, -—— Water-hen, 11. 40. —— War- Path, i. 479, 483; il. 28, 29. —— White Sand, i. 138, 431. —— Wild Rice, i. 260. —— Winnipeg, i. 106, e¢ seq. — Withahkepekas, i. 82. White Mud, i. 242, 248. Rivers, Indian mode of naming, i. 40. in Rupert’s Land, records of former physical structure of the, i. 309. River that turns, i. 364, 365. war party of Blackfeet prowling about at the, i. 365. Road between Superior Wins; 1, 235 to White Fish Lake, i. 32. between Great Dog Lake and Thun- der Bay, i. 43. —-— Winter road to the Lake of the Woods, 1. 85. at Prairie Portage, i. 146, 147. Roche Brulé Portage, i. 116. Rocks, horizontal, in the valley of the Souris, i. 292. being reconverted into mud, i. 377. at Grindstone Point, i. 16. ——— fissured on the coast of Lake Win- nipeg, 11, 18. 190. — exposures, on Sugar Island, ii. 31, 32, — on Snake Island, ii. 43. | —— grooved, Beateheds and polished, in the basin of Lake Winnipeg, ii. ADs on Baril Portage, ii. 245. on Winnipeg River, ii. 246. on limestones of Lake Manitobah, ii. 247, Rocky Point, first and second, Lake Win. nipeg, ii, 23. me City and Crow | 464 Rocky Mountains, passes of the, ii. 224. ——— plateau, elevation of, ii. 362. Kioman Catholic Missions, stations and con- gregations in Red River Settle- ments, 1. 194, 196. churches in Red River, i. 206. Zoot crops, cultivation of, at Red River Settlements, 1. 228. Rose Lake, i. 76. Roseau River, i. 127, 157. —— its course and physical features, i. 157, 158. ancient lake ridge, i. 157. Roseau Lake, i. 158. route from, to the Lake of the Woods, 1159, LG: Roses of the prairie, north of the Qu’appelle River, 1. 331. Rostellaria Ameficana, il. 344. Round Lake ( Ka-wa-wi-ga- Kamag), Qu’- appelle River, its dimensions, 1. 375. Rum, debasing influence of, amongst the heathen Indians, ii. 38. —— Indian hankering after, 1. 322, tupert’s Land, Bishop of, quotation from a letter from, to the author, i. 215. growth of timber in the river bottoms in, i. 350. —— limits of plains and prairies of, i. 350. —— Bishop of, and his work, ii. 201. —— his charge, January 1860, ii 203. —— prairie plateau of, il, 243. Sale, La Riviére, i. 133, 154 country lying between it and the As- sinniboine, i. 154. prairie of, 1 248. Salt Springs on the Riviere Sale, i. 155 deposits near Stony Mountain, i 279, 281. springs near Lake Winnipegosis, ii aes character of the country near the, 11 43. description of the salt works, ji. 44, 45. process of making the salt, 11. 45 — in Minnesota and Dakotah territo:ies, il, 292 localities north of the 49th parallel in which salt springs occur, 11. 293 manufacture of salt, 11. 293. salt trade of the United States, 11. 294 Salter, Mr., his survey of the north shore of Lake Huron, ii. 213. Salutations amongst various tribes, ii. 140. *¢ Sail Rock,” near Milles Laces, i 62. Sand ridges in Great Dog Lake, i 46, 48. and mud flats in the Assinniboine River, i 141. INDEX. Sand dunes near the Lake of the Woods, i. Oo. dunes at Pine Creek, Assinniboine River, i 287. dunes near Plum Creek, Little Souris River, i 293. dunes on the Assiniboine River, 1. 285. -_—- dunes probably derived from tertiary rocks, ii. 345, dunes, progress of dunes evidence cf the force and direction of prevailing winds, il. 363. of the Souris, i. 294. section of the banks of the Little Souris, or Moose River, at the, 1. 294, —— deposit of bog iron ore at the, i. 295. —— of the Qu’appelle, i. 352. —— ponds at the, feeding the South Branch and the Assinniboine Rivers, i. 352, S55: ——- description of the Sandy Hills, i. 353. of the Qu’appelle, 1. 353, 354, 355. view from the, i. 354. on the Saskatchewan, 1. 387. between Lakes Superior and Winni- peg, li. 264. ranges, li. 264. Sandstone rocks at the summit level of the Qu’appelle Valley, i. 363. on the South Branch of the Saskat- chewan, i. 384. on Sugar Island, ii. 31. Sandy Bar, Lake Winnipeg, ii. 12. Sandy’ Hills, described, i. 285. length and breadth ‘of the, i. 288. Lake of the, 1. 94, 342, 352. buffalo at the, i. 342. camp at the, i. 344. Sandy Lake, i. 22. Saskatchewan River, etymology of the name, 1, 238. course of the south branch, 1. 2338. rate of current and depth of the south branch, i. 239. course of the main river, i. 239. — width, depth, and rate of current, i. 239, 240, —— its affluents, i. 241. areas fit for settlement, in the valley of the, i. 249. area of country drained by the, 1. 252, — drift on the, ii. 249. tiers of boulders on the, li, 254. —— ponds at the Sandy Hills feeding the, 1. 352, 355: ——- rocks on the, i. 380. —— altitude of exposure, i. 380. selenite on the, i. 381. lignite and sandstone on the, i, 384. INDEX. 465 Saskatchewan River, treeless prairie on the, i, 384, 385. encampment of Cree Indians on the, 1. 384, mud flats, 1, 384, 392. driftwood, i. 386. aspen forests, 1. 386. ripple marks, 1. 386. dimensions of the South Branch, 1. 386, 387. excellent district for the establishment of a settlement, i. 386. timber on the, i. 386. sand dunes on the, i. 387. altitude of the river banks at the Moose Woods, i. 387. absence of animal life, 1. 388, 393. rate of current of the river, 1. 388, 389, 392, : boulders in drift and boulder pave- ments, on the, i. 389, 390. temperature of the air and of the river, i. 391, 393. former aspen forest, i. 391. colour and temperature of the South and North Branches compared, i. 393. _ —— absence of Indians on the, i. 394. —— the camp visited bya grizzly bear on the, i. 394, —— small number of tributaries received by the, 1. 395. -—— aridity of the country through which it flows, i. 395. —— junction of the North and South Branches, 1. 395, 396. —— number of cubic feet of water passing down the, per hour, i, 398. —— elevation of the, 1. 427. — effects of a dam across the, i. 428. —-— lignite on the, 11, 548. climate of the, 11. 373. Saskatchewan, North Branch : colour and temperature of North and South Branches compared, i. 392. junction of the North and South Branches, i. 395, 396. rapidity of the current of the North Branch, i. 396. dangerous navigation of the, i. 396. number of cubic feet of water passing down the, per hour, i, 398. lignite on the, il. 348. Saskatchewan, the Main, i. 397. valley of the, i. 397. —— its breadth, depth, and rate of current at Fort a Ja Corne, i. 397. estimate of the number of cubic feet of water passing down the, per hour, 1, 398, Pb cul Saskatchewan, magnitude of the, Main, com- pared with that of other rivers, i. 398. periods of opening and closing of the river at Fort a la Corne, i. 398. Nepowewin Mission and its prospects, i. 399, fertility of Nepowewin and the Valley of Long Creek, i. 400. sandy strip of land on the banks of the river, 1. 402. Valley of Long Creek, i, 406, 407. —— Bloody Hills, i. 408, —— Weody Hills, i. 408. ——- Mosquitoes near the river, 1. 403. general directory of the river from Fort a la Corne to Cumberland House, 1. 443. velocity of the current, i. 443. its breadth at Fort a Ja Corne, 1. 443, Birch Islands, 1. 445. tributary of the river, i. 446, Pemmican Portage, i. 446. affluents of the river, i. 448. character and dimensions of the, at Cumberland House, i. 450, 451. sturgeon caught in the, i. 451. Fishing Weir Creek, i, 452. Big Bend, i. 452. “ The Round Farm,” i. 452. “The Pas,” or Cumberland Station, i. 452, 453. mud flats, 1. 445-447. difficulties of navigation, i. 461, question of running steamers on the river, 1. 462. the river east of Cross Lake, i. 464. approach to the Grand Rapid, i. 465. —— drift clay banks, i. 465. the Grand Rapid, i. 467. bands of buffalo, ii. 108. Captain Palliser’s description of the region drained by the, i!. 223. Saskatchewan River, Little, i. 138, 241, 437, 481; ii, 25. vegetation of the valley of, i. 247. fish in the, i. 437. cretaceous shales on, 1. 437. general character of the country, on the, 1. 484, height of the banks of, ii. 25. country in the rear, li. 26. tracking up the stream, li. 26. general aspect of, il. 26, narrows of, 11, 29, 30. Sault Ste. Marie Canal, account of the, 1, 15. Savanne Lake, i. 57, vegetation of the banks of the, i, 57, extent of, i. 58. Portage, Great, i. 59. —— River, i. 59. PPE BCLS gL GB elle IM 466 INDEX. Savanne Lake, country about, i. 60. character of the soilof the banks of the 1,60: Scalp dance, an Indian, ii. 122. Scaphites Conradi, ii. 344, Scaphites Nodosus, 1i, $38. Schools at Red River Settleme ntsestsi,atist and enumeration of, i. 214. — Protestant schools, 214. Presbyterian school, 219. Scissors Creek (Pesquanamawe sepesis), i 376. Scratching River, i, 156. Seasons of the valley of Lake Winnie, il. 369. Section of the north bank of the Assinni- boine river measured, 1. 287. — of the bank of the Little Souris, or Mouse River, at Plum Creek, i. 293, 294. and at the Souris Sand Hills, i. 294. —— of the banks of the Qu’appelle River, 11050: — of the bank of the Eyebrow Hill stream, 1. 353. transverse, of the valley of the Qu’- appelle at the height of land, i. 355. on the south branch of the Saskat- chewan, i. 381. Seiganagah Lake, i. 77. Little, 1.77% Seine River, i. 61. character of the, i. 62. Seine Bay, i. 62. Seine, La Riviére, or German Creek, i. 127, 132, 166, 168. Selenite on the south branch of the Saskat- chewan, i. 381. Selkirk Settlement. ment. Selkirk, Lord, his enterprise in the valley of the Kaministiquia, 1. 32. founds the Red River Settlements, i WZ. grant of land to, ii. 172. ——— treaty between him and the Crees and Salteaux of Red River, ii. 173. Serpent or Snake River, i. 257. Settee, Rev. James, of the Qu’appelle Mis- sion, 1. 321. Settlements, area fit for, in the valley of the Assinniboine, i. 246. in the valley of the Saskatchewan, i. 249, east of the Ridings and Duck Moun- tains, i. 250. excellent district for the establishment of a, near the South Branch of the Saskatchewan, i. 386. See Red River Settle- Settlements, attractive and desirable place for, 1. 432, 437. Seymour, Mr. H. D., M. P., his trip into the prairies in search of buffalo, ii. 81. Shayenne River, i. 126, 352. Shell River, i. 138, 436. vegetation of the valley of, i. 246. Shell Creek, bones of a mammoth at, i. 312. Shells, fresh water, on tbe beach and marshes of Lake Winnipeg, ii. 8. Shoal Lake, 1. 102; ii. 78. description of, i. 103. splendid country, near the south shores of, 13782 River, i. 433. Silurian series in North America, ii. 283. —— rim of the, 11. 283. distribution of formations, ii, 284. chazy formation, il. 285. fossils of the chazy, ii. 285. bird’s-eye and Trenton formations, ii. 289. Hudson River formation, ii, 289. Silver Falls of the Winnipeg River, their magnificence, i. 20. Simpson, Sir George, Governor of the Hud- son’s Bay Company, il. 209. Sioux, scene of a battle between them and the Ojibways, 1. 41. dress and mocassins, ii. 105. predatory bands of, i. 144, 145. watch kept for, 1. 289. ; their hostility to the approach of civi- lisation to their hunting grounds, 1. 295. attempts of a band of, to surprise the camp, i, 303. celebrated war path of the, ii, 28, 29. se from the graves on Red River, . 124, thedy cruelty, ii. 126. tobacco pipes of the, ii. 140. bows and arrows of the, il. 144. principal bands of the nation, ii, 153. their hunting grounds, 11. 153. meaning of their name, ii. 153. enumeration of the principal bands, il. 154. —— their conjurors, ii. 154. their mode of expressing time and distance, ii. 154. names of their months, i. 155. their common and sacred language, ii. 155, specimen of their language, ii. 156. probability of a war between the United States and the Sioux, ii. 168. territory inhabited by the, ii. 180. Six Nations, formation of the, ii, 134, INDEX. 467 Skin, Indian custom of painting the, ii. 137. Slave Falls of the Winnipeg River, i. 116. Lees story of the, i. 116. Slave Lake, the northern limit of the buffalo, 1i. 106. Sledges described, ii. 84. Small-pox, great mortality of the Indians from, il, 143, 162, 163. vaccination, ii. 143. Snake Hill, i. 243. Snake Hills,i 294. Snake Creek, i. 432, 433. valley of, 1, 432. excellent for a settlement, i. 432. Snake Island, Lake Winnipego-sis, ii, 42. fossils of, i1. 42. Snow Birds, ii. 66. seen at Dauphin Lake, ii. 49. Snow-storm on the Riding Mountain, ii. Dis at Manitobah House, ii. 66. on the prairie, ii. 94. preparing to camp in a, li. 94. dogs “lying close ” after a fall of snow during the night, 1, 95. Soil of the valley of the Kaministiquia, i. 26. of the country between the Kaministi- guia and Pigeon Rivers, i. 27. of Great Dog Mountain, i. 40. of the banks of the Savanne River, i. 60. near Portage des Morts, i. 67. on Rainy River, i. 84, 87, 92. on the Pennawa River, i. 120. of Lake Winnipeg, i, 121. of White House Plain, i. 147. of the country east of Red River, 166, 168. —— of the valley of the Assinniboine, i. 247, 282. —— of the valley of the Saskatchewan, 1, 249. —— of the foot of the Riding Mountain, ii. Ook south and east of the Lumpy Hill of the Woods, i. 408. excellent, of the Touchwood Hills, i. 412. = of File: Hill, 1..421. ~—— of the east bank of the Assinnikoine, i. 435. of the prairies of Little White Mud River, i. 438. —— of the Saskatchewan River, i. 444, 445. —— around Cumberland House, i. 448. of the Little Saskatchewan, ii. 29, Southesk, Earl of, and the Assinniboine Indians, ii. 204. me ° Souris, Little, or Mouse River, i. 136, 138, 243. description of the, 1. 243, valley of the, i. 243. timber of the valley of the, i, 245. breadth, depth, and rate of current of the, i. 288. grasshoppers at the mouth of the, i, 288. fish caught in the, i, 289. view of the Valley of the, looking towards the Blue Hills of the Souris, 12:90; view of the Valley of the, opposite the Valley of the Back-fat Lakes, 14291 section of the banks of the, showing the ancient beaches with lignite boulders, i. 293, 294. height of the banks at the Souris Sand Hills, i. 295. description of the valley of the, i. 298. lakes of the Souris at the Souris, at the forty-ninth parallel, i. 300. height of the banks of the, at Plum Creek, i. 294. section of the river’s bank at the Souris Sand Hills, i. 294, origin and course of the, i. 300, 301. Souris Sand Hills, i. 294, section of the banks of the Little Souris River at the, i. 294, deposit of bog iron ore at the, i, 295. Souris Lakes, i. 299, Souris Forks (Elbow Bone Creek), coun- try between it and the Grand Forks, i. Sra oy Spence, John, the Cree Half-breed, i. 143. his farm and crops, i. 145. Spruce, valuable, of the Riding and Duck Mountains, i. 241, 244. Spy Hill (or Ka-pa-kam-a-ou), tragic occur- rence at, i. 424, boulders at, 1. 4235, -—— increase of aspen groves at, i. 425. Squaws engaged in Christian worship, i. AN Standing Stone Mountain, i. 307. the Rey. John West’s account of the “‘ Standing Stone,” i. 307. Stagg, Rev. Mr., of Fairford Mission, ii. Silke St. Croix River, i. 22, Steamers, proposed, on the Saskatehewan River, i. 462. Stewart, Mr. J. G., chief trader at Cumber- land House, his kindness, i. 447. Steatitic minerals in Rupert’s Land, ii, 332, analysis of, ii. 328. Steep Rock Point, Lake Manitobah, ii. 39. 468 INDEX. Still Water Creek, 1. 163. St. Louis River, i. 21, 22. Stock, live, of Red River settlements, i. 228. facilities for raising stock there, i. 230. Stone or Lower Fort, on Red River, 1. 124, Stony Mountain, i. 278; il. 79. Stony Barrier ( Assinni-pichigakan), Qu’ap- pelle River, i. 376. Storm on Lake Superior, i. 9. near the Kaministiquia River, i. 55. —— on the Lake of the Woods, i. 105. — on the Winnipeg River, i. 108. —— on Lake Winnipeg, i. 123, on the Assinniboine, i. 283. — on Lake Winnipeg, i. 476, 481. terrific, on Lake Winnipeg, ii. 6. Sturgeon Creek, Assinniboine River, 1,139. Sturgeon in the Saskatchewan, i. 451. Indian superstition respecting the winter haunts of the, 11. 15. Sturgeon Island, Lake Winnipeg, ii, 21, Sturgeon Lake, i. 67, 68. scenery of, i. 68. — Ojibways on, i. 69. ——- scratched and polished rocksat, ii, 245, Sturgeon River, i. 67, 68. Sucker Creek, il. 62. Sugar Island, ii, 30, 31. Sugar made by the Assinniboine Indians, i. 142. manufacture of, at Red River settle- ments, 1. 228. Sugar Point on Red River, i. 127. Summer Berry Creek (Nipomenan sepesis), Qu’appelle River, i. 374. Summer temperatures of the basin of Lake Winnipeg, ii. 368, Summer, the Indian, described, ii. 383. Superior, Lake, squall on, i. 9. fogs in, i. 10. temperature of, i. 10. dangers of the navigation of, i. 11. —— its present position in relation to Mon- treal and the Atlantic seaboard, i. 14, -~——- trade of the Lake, 1. 15. elevation of, 1. 17. fluctuations in the level of the waters of, i. 18. obstacles to progress westward of, i. 21. depth, area, and contents of, i. 21. seldom frozen over, 1. 21. ridge separating Lake Superior from the valley of the Mississippi, i. 23. —— elevation and distance of the watershed of, 11. 24. character of the country north of, ii. Z12, Superior, Lake, beaches and terraces of, ii. 258. Superior City, roads to, i. 23. Superstitions of the Indians, ii. 39; ii. 120 et seq. Supper in an Indian tent, ii. 64. Swamp or morass at Fort Franees, i. 83. Swampy Crees, or Muskeg Indians, i, 112. their superstitions, i. 113, Swan Lake, i. 433. Swan. River, 1. 242, 432. ; its fertility and resources for a settle- ment, i. 432. country near, i. 433. —— length, breadth, depth, and rate of eur- rent of, i. 433. —— height of banks of the, i. 433, Tabac, La Riviére, valley of, i. 156. Table Jand vast, of Riding Mountain, 11. 56. Tamarac, or Pine River, character of the prairie of, i, 256. Ta-wa-pit, an Ojibway, near Dauphin Lake, ii, 99,60. his tobacco pipe, il. 139. Tearing River, i. 240, 448. Temple, Governor, his death, i. 174. Tents of birch-bark on the Red River, i. 200. ; ——— birch-bark, of the Ojibways, 11. 63. skin, of the Cree Indians, il. 63. -—— of Indian hunters, in the rear of Fort Garry, il. 121. Tertiary coal, or lignite. See Lignite. Tertiary formations in the basin of Lake Winnipeg, 1. 345. —— lignite on the Riding and Duck Mountains, ii. 345. sand dunes, probably derived from Tertiary rocks, il, 345. Tetrao cupido, or prairie hen, i, 160. Te-wa-now-seebe, or “ River that divides the Hills,” ii. 51. Texas, lignite beds of, ii. 349. Thompson, Miss Harriet, at Fairford Mis- sion, 11, 37. Thompson River, ii. 228, 229, width at its mouth, 11. 229. Thousand Lakes, i. 46, 59—61. altitude of, 1. 46. Thrush, cinnamon, at the Sandy Hills, i, 286. Thunder, Cape, i. 13, 24. Thunder Bay, scenery of, i. 13. colour of the waters of, i. 14. description of, i, 24. its: means of communication with Great Dog Lake, i. 43. Thunder Island, St. Martin’s Lake, i. 32, 33. singular rock exposures on, li, 33. Thunder Mountain, i, 236, 434. 2 ke INDEX. 469 Thunderstorm at Savanna River, 1. 59. —-— on the Winnipeg River, 1.108. on the Assinniboine River, i. 283, 285, 286. on the Little Souris River, 1. 294. at Fort Ellice, 3. 312. on the prairies near Fort Ellice, i. 314, SL. of 1858, quarter whence they came, li. 360. table of storms in 1858, ii. 364. on the Qu’appelle River, i. 374, on the south branch of the Saskatche- wan, i. 388. on Lake Winnipeg, i. 477. on St. Martin’s Lake, ii. 33. Indian idea of, ii, 144, Timber near M‘Kay’s Mountain, i. 27. on the banks of the Kaministiquia, 1. oS: of Great Dog Mountain, i. 39. near the Milles Laes, i, 61, 62. near Baril Lake, i. 63. of French Portage, or Pickere! Lake, i. 66. of Portage des Morts, i. 67. of Rainy Lake, i. 80. of Rainy River, i. 87. of the Lake of the Woods, i. 94. on the Winnipeg River, i. 115. of the Red River, i. 128—130. on the banks of the Assinniboine River, i. 141, 142. of La Riviére Sale, i. 155. of Pembina Mountain, i. 156. of Rosea River, i. 163. of Red River, i. 231. of Riding and Duck Mountains, i. 244, of the valley of the Souris River, 1. 293. absence of timber on the 47th parallel, 1, S01, of the Qu’appelle River, i. 316, 321, Srl. want of timber near the Qu’appelle Valley, i. 332. growth of timber in the river bottoms in the United States and Rupert’s Land, i. 350. of the Moose woods, i. 386. on the south branch of the Saskatche- wan, i. 391, in the Qu’appelle Valley, i. 4°8. of the west coast of Lake Winnipeg, i 11. at Ermine Point, Lake Winnipego- sis, ii. 42. at the foot of the Riding Mountain, i 58. VOL. II. Cre | be ee ei. Timber of Riding Mountains, ii. 56. of Manitobah Island, 11.69. Tobacco, Indian, substitutes for, i. 315. cultivation of, at Red River Settle- ments, i. 227. Tobacco pipes, Indian, ii. 137, the pipe the most characteristic sym- bol of the New World, ii. 138. pipes of different tribes, ii. 138. Touchwood Hills, i. 137, 138, 412. description of the, i. 236. aspen forests of the, 1, 245. —— frequency of thunderstorms on the, 1333" —— richness of the vegetation of the, i 333. —— vast numbers of aquatic birds in the, i, bag94) —-~- saline lakes and marshes at the foot of the, 1.412. —— beautiful country and excellent soil of the, 1.412. —— extent of the plateau of the, i. 413. former forests on the, i. 415. climate of the, 1, 416. trail from the, to Fort Ellice, i, 420. ’ dews in the, il. 422. Touchwood Hills, Little, i, 413, 414, 420. Touchwood Hills Fort, herds of buffalo in winter near, i, 415. visit to, i. 413. garden of the Fort, i. 414. Traverse Bay, Lake Winnipeg, i. 121. Treaty between the Canadian government and the Ojibways, i. 28. Trenton formation of Lake Winnipeg, ii. 289. Tumuli on the banks of Rainy River, i. 89. origin of, i. 90. Turkey buzzards (Cathartes aura), the val- ley of the Souris, i, 300. Turnagain Point, Lake Winnipeg, i. 20. Turnip, Indian ( Psoralea esculenta), i. 319. mode of gathering, drying, and cook- ing the root, i. 319. on the Grand Coteau, i. 352. Turtle Portage, i. 94, Mountain, 1. 176, 236, 290, 299. Brook, i. 258. —— River, ii. 61, 98. wild rice of, ii. 98. Lake, ii. 98. Twilight bow, the, described, ii. 382. Two Creeks River, i. 188, 309. United States, limits of the prairie country in the, i. 349. growth of timber in the river bottoms of the, i. 350, plains of the, i. 351. Il 470 United States, communication of the, with Red River, ii. 218. general character of the region west of the 98th meridian in the, ii. 377. Major Emory’s statement, il. 377. Vaccination amongst the Indians, ii, 143, 144. Valley River, i. 241,313; 11. 48. bones of mammoths at, i. 313; 11. 6O. Vegetables at Cumberland House, Main Saskatchewan, i. 448. Vegetation of the valley of the Kaministi- quia, 1, 30, 36. on Little Dog River, i. 41, 49. of Prairie Portage, i. 53. of Savanna River, i. 60. of French Portage, 1. 66. at Fort Frances, i. 84. of Rainy River, i. 87, 89, 91, 92. —— of Winnipeg River, i. 110. of Red River, i. 129, 130. —— of the Assinniboine River, i. 140. of South Branch of the Saskatchewan, i, 239. of the valley of the Assinniboine, i. 246. of the country north of the Qu’ap- pelle River, i. 317. of the Moose Woods, i. 386. of the Touchwood Hills, 1. 415. Vermilion River, i. 22. Pass, Rocky Mountains, ii. 224, Vines, wild, on the banks of the Assinni- boine, i, 142. Viscous or Muddy Lakes, i. 51. Voyageurs, regularity of their paddling, and number of strokes during the day, i. 45. death of one, i. 67. Wampum and wampum belts, i. 417. references to, 1. 419. War-Path River, 1. 479, 483. leading features of the, i. 479. War-paths, tracts of country selected as, il, 28, 29. War-path rivers of the Indians, ii. 28, 29. War-roads of the Indians, ii. 28. Washow Bay (Lake Winnipeg), i. 485. Great, i. 493; 11. 18. Watermarks, high, on the banks of the As- sinniboine, i. 284. Water-mill Creek, Red River, i. 131. view, i. 134. Water-hen Lake, area of, 1. 237. Water-hen Lake, ii, 40. River, Lake Manitobah, ii. 40. character of the river, ii. 40—42. Watkins, Rev. Mr., of Cumberland Mission, Saskatchewan River, 1. 452—-454. INDEX. Wavys (Anser hyperboreus), flocks of, on the Little Saskatchewan River, ii. 29. Weather signs, ii. 5, 9, 41, 66. Weed ridge, in the Qu appelle Valley, 1. 315. covered with bean-ligiips Mveloe birds on the, 1. 316. Welcome Islands, i. 25. Wesleyan Methodist missions in Canada, il. 190, West, Mr., first missionary to the Red River settlements, 1, 174. i Wheat, cultivation of, at Red River Settle- ments, 1. 225. want of a market for, 1. 226. absence of wheat diseases and” insect enemies, 1. 226. Whirlpool Point, Red River, i. 130. Whiskey Bay, shelter of, i. 10. Whiskey Jack, near to the Riding Moun- tain, 11. 51; White Dog Mission, i 1 SACS White-fish of Lake Manitobah, ii. 67, 68. White Fish Lake, i, 76, 94, White Horse Plain, prairie of, i. 147, its rich soil, 1. 147. —— plague of grasshoppers on the, i. 147. White Mud River, i. 242. description of, i, 248, —— timber of the valley of the, i. 248. —~— fisheries of the, 1. 248. ancient beach on, ii. 260. — Little, i. 431. its origin, 1. 431, ————- timber on the banks of the, i. 438. fishing station on the, 1. 439. voyage down the, i. 439. White Sand River, i. 138, 431, 432. its origin, i, 431. cause of its name, i. 432. Whiteway’s Post, ii. 18. Wicked Point (Lake Winnipeg), i. 490; ii. 20. Wikwemikong, village of, ii. 188, Wild Rice River, i. 260. —— prairies of, i. 260. William, Fort, i, 24, 25. garden of, i. 30. cultivation of grain at, i. 31. limestone at, i. 31. Willow Islands, Lake Winnipeg, ii. 9. formation of, ii. 9, 10. Willow Prairie, i. 423. Win-de-go, or Cannibal Island, Lake, i 1, 69% story of, 1. 65. Wind, effects of, in changing the level of the lakes, ii. 75, ; — humid Pacific, ii. 357, 358. north-easterly current, ii. 358. prevailing winds, il. 359, —— ———— INDEX. Winds, indications of the force and diree- tion of prevailing winds, il. 363. Winnipeg, River, character of the, i, 106. thunder storm on the, i. 108. view on the, i. 110. cultivable areas on the, i. 111. —— birds on the, i. 115, 116. — scarcity of animal, life on the, 1,115. James’s Falls, i. 115. rice grounds of the, i. famine on the, i. 119, multitudes of rabbits on the, i. 119. Winnipeg, Lake, i, 121. soil of, at Traverse Bay, i. 121. fishing stations on, i, 121. —-— geological features of the banks of, i. Wee temperature of, 1, 122. squall on, i. 122. aquatic birds on, i. 123, area of, 1. 237, 238. rivers of the Winnipeg basin, i. 238. isolation of the valley of, i, 251. — bivouac on the shores of, i. 474. storms on, i. 476. character of the coast; and swamps, 1. 478. head wind and storm on the, i, 481. general character of the coast between the Main Saskatchewan and the Little Saskatchewan, i. 482. tributary streams, i. 483. _ —— Indian chart of the Lake, i. 485. inaccuracy of the maps of the Lake, i 485. Cat Head, i. 488. Macbeth’s Point, i. 489. — Wicked Point, i. 490. —— Pike Head, i, 490. —— Grindstone Point, i, 492. —— character of the east coast, i. 493. —— temperature of, i. 5. origin of the word, ii. 5. terrific storm upon, ii. 6. . beach of, at Red River, ii. 7. character of the south coast of, ii. 7. and of the west coast of, ii. 9. conferve on the coast of, ii. 9. timber of the forests of, ii. 1]. extent of good land on, ii. 11. the beach, near Drunken River, ii. WOOF rock exposure on Guano Island, ii. 12, 14. beauty of the scenery of the Lake at Big Grindstone Point, ii. 14. fishing ground of the Indians in, ii, 14, 15. depth of, at Grindstone Point, ii. 17. coast of, near Dog’s Head, ii. 18. 116, 118. sand beaches Peel | 471 Winnipeg Lake, precipitous coast at tbe Cat Head, ii. 20. Sir fiona Richardson’s decane of the entire coast line of the Lake, quoted, ii, 21 approximate leading dimensions of, ii. 23, basin of, 11. 233. —— natural advantages of the basin of, for a route across the continent, ii. 233. —— the fertile belt of land in the basin of, ll. 234, —— natural resources of this fertile belt, ii. 235. —— elements of wealth in, ii. 225. —- geology of the basin “of 3 li. 239. —— its geographical boundaries, ii. 239. limits, ii. 240. elevation of its boundaries, ii, 240. outlet, ii. 240. area of the basin, ii. 240. character of the river, 11. 241, -—— surface features, il. 242. area of low lake region, ii, 242. terraces of Pembina Mountain, 11. 242, escarpment of the Riding, Duck, &e., Mountains, ii. 243 prairie plateau of Rupert’s Land, ii. 243. plains of the north-west, 11. 243. table of elevations, 11. 243. detached hills, ii. 243, country east of Lake Winnipeg, tl, 243, lakes, ii. 244. ————- direction of elevating forces, ii. 244. — steps to the height of ijand, u. 244, grooved, scratched, and polished rocks, lil. 245. — distribution of drift, ii, 247. —— distribution of boulders or erratics, ii. 2Zoo8 beaches and terraces, il. 257. sand hills and dunes, 11. 264. —— circular depressions, ii, 265. denudation, ii. 265. — dislocations, ii. 266. —— Laurentian series, ii. 269. — Huronian series, ii. 280. —— Silurian series, i. 283. —— Devonian series, il. 29]. —— Carboniferous series, 11. 299. — Jurassic rocks of McKenzie River, ii. 306. —— Ammonites, ii. 306. -~—— Cretaceous series, 11.318. 472 Winnipeg Lake, 345. * Winnipego-sis, Lake, 1. 172, 235, 241; i. 40, 42, area of, i. 237. rivers received by, 1. 242. ——— isthmus separating it from Cedar Lake, i. 459. —— rock exposures on Snake Island, ii. 42. Winter, indications of approaching, in the prairies, 1.260; ii. 41. Winter travelling with dogs described, ii. 84, dangers of, ii. 87, 91. Winter temperatures of the basin of Lake Winnipeg, l1. 369. Wishahkepekas River, i. 82. Wolf, the prairie (Togany), i. 378. Wolverine Creek,i. 430, 431. Women, Indian, bathing in the Qu’appelle, Sis. Wood, scarcity of, in the prairies, 1. 338. Wood. Hills, lignite at the, i, 318. Tertiary formations, 11. THE INDEX. Wooded and prairie land, west of Red River, i. 244. ; ‘“* Woods,” the, south branch of the Sas- katchewan, 1. 388. « Woods, belts of,’ between the Touchwood Hills and Lumpy Hill,1.411. Woods, Lake of the, i. 85, 93. winter road to the, i. 85. area and altitude of the, 1. 94. scenery of the, 1. 94. green weeds of the, i, 95. temperature of the, i. 95. grasshoppers on the, i. 96, 97, 101. north-west corner of the, i. 103. abundance of sturgeon in the, i. 104. storm on the, i. 105. multitudes of rabbits on the, i, 119. route from, to Roseau Lake, i. 159, 161. Woody Hills, Main Saskatchewan, i. 488. Yellowstone River, remains of Mandan In- dians on the, 1. 299, York factory, 1. 252, END. 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