A VOYAGE

TO

THE POLAE SEA

VOL. II.

LONDON : PRINTED BY

8POTTI8WOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE
AND PARLIAMENT STREET

NA.EEATIVB

OF

A VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA

DUKING 1875-6

IN

H.M. XIIIPS 'ALERT' AND 'DISCOVERY*

BY

, E.N., K.C.B., F.E.S.

COMMANDER OP THE EXPEDITION

WITH NOTES on the NATURAL HISTORY

EDITED BY

H. W. FEILDEN, F.G.S., C.M.Z.S., F.R.G.S.

NATURALIST TO THE EXPEDITION

IN TWO VOLUMES
VOL. II.

LONDON
SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, & RIVINGTON

CROWN BUILDINGS, 188 FLEET STREET

1878

"_All fights reserved]

£70

ins

706236

CONTENTS

THE SECOND VOLUME,

CHAPTER I.

PAUK

Anxiety about Aldrich's party — Lieutenant May sent to relieve
hi 111 — Geese and ducks arrive — Return of Aldrich — Commence-
ment of thaw — Extracts from Lieut. Aldrich's official report . 1

CHAPTER II.

Decide to return south — Setting-in of the thaw — Musk-oxen shot —
Increase and decrease of polar floes — Formation of pen-knife ice
— Disruption of floes— Charr — Greenland ice-cap — Drift-wood
— Arctic flowering plants — ' Alert ' starts for Discovery Bay . 50

CHAPTER III.

Greenland party attacked with scurvy — Deaths of two men — Captain
Stepheuson proceeds to Polaris Bay — Beaumont returns to
Discovery Bay — Account of his proceedings . . . .82

CHA'PTER iv.

Leave Floeberg Beach — Navigation of Robeson Channel — Its extreme
difficulty— Cape Union — Stopped at Cape Beechey — Eskimo
remains — Brent geese — Rejoin the { Discovery ' — Killing a
musk-ox — Return of Beaumont's! party 114

vi CONTENTS.

CHAPTER V.

PAGE

Rich vegetation — Bellot Island — Coal seam — Cape Murchison —
Leave Discovery Bay — Open water — Kennedy Channel — Stopped
by the pack — ' Alert ' forced on shore — Severe storm — Stopped off
Cape Frazer— Dovekies — Enter Dobbin Bay — Temperature and
specific gravity of the sea — Lateness of the season — Formation
of icebergs — Short supply of coal — Pass Victoria Head — Open
water — Visit Cape Isabella — News from England — Sir Allen
Young — Navigation of Smith Sound .... 140

CHAPTER YI.

We leave Smith Sound — Dark at midnight — Gale of wind — Barden
Bay — Arctic Highlanders — Possession Bay — Cross Baffin's Bay —
Temperature of the sea — Arrive at Disco — Egedesminde — Severe
gale — Rudder head sprung — Sight the 'Pandora' — Arrive in
England — Approval of the Lords of the Admiralty — Letter from
Her Majesty the Queen . . . . . .177

APPENDIX.

I. Ethnology 187

II. Mammalia . . . . . . . 192

III. Ornithology . . . . . .206

IV. Ichthyology 218

V. Mollusca 223

VI. Insecta and Arachnida . . . ... 234

VII. Crustacea 240

VIII. Annelida 257

IX. Echinodermata . . . . . .260

X. Polyzoa . . . . . . . 283

XI. Hydrozoa 290

XII. Spongida 293

XIII. Rhizopoda reticularia ..... 295

XIV. Botany 301

XV. Geology 327

XVI. Report on Petermann Glacier . . . . . 346

XVII. Game List . . . . . . .352

XVIII. Meteorological Abstract . . . . . 354

XIX. Abstract of Results obtained from the Tidal Observations . 356

INDEX 363

LIST OF ILLTJSTEATIONS

IN

THE SECOND VOLUME.

PHOTOGKAPHS.

DISCOVERY BAT— WINTER .... Frontispiece

1 ALERT ' NIPPED NEAR CAPE BEECHEY, ROBESON CHANNEL To face p. 129

DISCOVERY BAY — SUMMER . . . . 141

FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS.

ICE-FOOT NEAR CAPE UNION (FROM A PHOTOGRAPH) . „ 115
LIGHTENING A STRANDED FLOEBERG OFF CAPE

BEECHEY (FROM A PHOTOGRAPH) „ 130

THE 'DISCOVERY' ON SHORE (FROM A PHOTOGRAPH) . „ 144

ICE-FOOT NEAR CAPE FRAZER (FROM A PHOTOGRAPH) . „ 153

EGGS OF CALIDRIS ARENARIA „ 210

CRUSTACEA 240

WOODCUTS.

SOUNDING FOR LAND . . . . . . . 31

POST OFFICE CAIRN . . . . . .143

' ALERT' ON SHORE ... 148

viii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE

ALLMAN BAY ....... 163

LEFFERTS GLACIER . . . . . . 173

SMOOTH-TOPPED GLACIER IN BARDEN BAY . . . 179

CYCLOPTERUS SPINOSUS . . . . . . 219

RADULA OF BUCCINUM SERICATUM ..... 225

TRICHOTROPIS TENUIS . . . . . . 226

ABNORMAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE DENTAL ARMATURE IN O. SARSII 274
PTYCHOGASTRIA POLARIS : —

1. LATERAL VIEW (magnified) . . . . . 290

2. EQUATORIAL PROJECTION (magnified) . . . 291

3. NATURAL SIZE . . . . . . 291

MAP.
OUTWARD AND RETURN TRACKS . . . To face page 1

NAEEATIVE

OF

A VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA

DURING 1875-76,

CHAPTEE I.

ANXIETY ABOUT ALDRICH'S PAETY — LIEUTENANT MAY SENT TO EELIEVE
HIM GEESE AND DUCKS ARRIVE — RETURN OF ALDRICH — COM-
MENCEMENT OF THAW — EXTRACTS FROM LIEUT. ALDRICH' S OFFICIAL
REPORT.

THE crippled state of Commander Markham's men
raised serious apprehensions regarding the health of the
western division of travellers. They were due at the
Joseph Henry depot on the 13th, but as Aldrich's last
accounts informed me that the provisions he had saved
would enable him to prolong his journey six or seven
days, and not expecting that his men would be called
upon to undergo much more severe labour than former
Arctic travellers had successfully combated, I was not
greatly alarmed about him. Nevertheless frequent and
anxious visits were made to the look-out hill, from
whence the black pile of provisions forming his depot
VOL. n. B

2 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. JUNE

could be indistinctly seen, though thirty miles distant,
whenever the atmosphere was clear.

I continue to quote from my journal :—

' 14th. — After seeing Markham's men made com-
fortable, and distributing Sherard Osborn's cham-
pagne to those among them whom the doctor permitted
to receive it, I ascended to the look-out cairn. The
depot appeared smaller than when last seen, so I con-
clude that Aldrich has visited it. If so he will be at
Knot Harbour to-morrow, and will signal from thence.

' 15th. — The invalids are already showing signs of
improvement, and are in excellent spirits. Misty
weather prevents our seeing the depot, but there was
no flag hoisted at Cape Eichardson.

6 Although the ice is apparently free to rise and fall
with the tide, it does not do so to the full extent, the
water rising and falling from four to eight inches in
each crack in the floe. As the ship is firmly sealed to
the ice any tidal observation dependent on the register
being secured to the ship would require a correction.

' 17th. — The depot was distinctly in sight to-day ;
it has certainly not been disturbed. If Aldrich does
not arrive there to-morrow a relief party must start to
meet him ; however, he is so judicious an officer that
I have every confidence in his actions whatever may
overtake him. Arctic sledging is necessarily pre-
carious work ; although with specially equipped ex-
peditions it has hitherto been attended with success
yet there have been many. hair-breadth escapes.

' In favoured localities the purple saxifrage is in
full flower. A bright piece adorned the dinner- table
to-day,

1876 BELIEF PARTY STARTS. 3

6 18th. — Last night the temperature, which has
been up to freezing point for two days, fell to 20°.
This is highly favourable for the travellers. The
colder the weather the better road will they find across
Feilden Peninsula. The snow on the floe is now wet
and heavy in places, but the thaw cannot be said to
have set in. In the immediate vicinity of the ship it
is more in advance than elsewhere ; the dirt and smoke
from the funnels collected on the floebergs in the
neighbourhood help to absorb the heat-rays from
the sun and to quicken the natural decay. Owing to
the pool of water which surrounds the ship it has
been necessary to construct a long gangway with two
spare topsail yards to bridge over the space.

' All the powder has been brought on board, but I
am waiting for warmer weather to dry the magazine
before stowing it away.

' The depot being still untouched, Lieutenant May,
with well-rested dogs and three strong men, Malley,
Self, and Thornback, started this evening to meet
Aldrich and his party, with orders to continue their
journey if necessary to the depot at Cape Colan,
where Aldrich was due twelve days ago.

' ~L$th. — The country in our neighbourhood is so
covered with snow that it would be useless for shoot-
ing parties to leave the ship. But as the hills near
Cape Richardson present a more promising appearance
Parr and Feilden, drawing a small sledge, have started
for Knot Harbour in the hope of obtaining some fresh
game ready for Aldrich's men.

' Nelly, Markham's dog, and both the cats, are
suffering in health, and ore supposed to ha\re scorbutic

B 2

4 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. JUNE

symptoms. Bruin, an old dog that refuses to work
with the sledge team, has for some time been perform-
ing very valuable service in dragging fresh-water ice
from the quarry to the ship. The men merely load
the sledge and start him on his journey, when he
runs home by himself. To-day I observed one of the
men riding on the empty sledge for a short distance
where the road was hard : the dog was therefore
dragging about two hundred pounds' weight. The
poor thing looked over its shoulder occasionally, begging
for compassion and a little more consideration.

' 20th. — At 3 A.M. I could see the depot plainly ;
at nine it was not so distinct, probably on account of
mirage. A small tern (Sterna macrura) with a black
head and light slaty-blue wings was shot while hovering
above one of the water-pools formed on the surface of
the ice.

'A few brent geese have passed us flying from
Eobeson Channel towards the north-west, but two of
them were observed to return south again.

' All the ice hummocks which have projecting
upper surfaces, and the mushroom-shaped floebergs,
denoting age, are now enveloped in a drapery of
gigantic icicles, and the entrances to the few caves
are completely blocked up by them. The sharp edges
are rounding off much quicker than we anticipated.
Consequently the formation of the glassy ice-knolls
on the surface of the aged floes, out of a range of
lofty hummocks of pressed up angular blocks of ice,
may not occupy a very great number of years. While
the ice above water is thus melting rapidly from the
influence of the sun, that exposed to the warm surface

1876 DECAY OF SALT-WATER ICE. 5

water, now at a constant temperature of 30°, is decay-
ing even quicker. By eating out a notch at the water-
line a new mushroom-shaped top is being produced
with a projecting spur below water. At a depth
below six feet, and down to the bottom in twenty-
seven feet, the temperature is 29°'2, a rise of more
than half a degree since the winter. Unless the ice,
when in course of formation or subsequently, posesssed
the power to cast out a very considerable proportion
of its salt, this temperature would be sufficient to
melt it rapidly ; but owing to the comparative purity
of the salt-water ice it is decaying very slowly, and
has undergone very little change during • the last three
weeks.

I2lst. — To-day Markham and I, after an hour's
stay on the hill-top, with the atmosphere fairly clear,
could see no signs of the depot. Our not seeing it
may, however, be due to the rapid melting of the snow
background from behind the black stack of provisions,
leaving it no longer in relief.

' A small pool of water was met with for the first
time on shore under a cliff with a southern aspect.

i Now that the ration of salt meat is reduced, the
rough salt obtainable from the salt meat brine is not
sufficient for our consumption. It is a curious fact
that such a simple but necessary article was the only
thing forgotten in our ample outfit.

' 22nd. — A westerly gale which set in yesterday
has continued all day, with a temperature up to 35°.
This will materially hasten the thaw.

' The temperature of the land eighteen inches below
the surface is only 6°. As the temperature of the air

6 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. JUNE

has been higher for the last forty days, the conducting
power of the frozen ground must be very small.

* A light mist prevented our seeing the depot, so we
remain in an anxious uncertainty about Aldrich's party.
' A flock of a dozen king-ducks arrived from the
southward, the first that we have seen. They appa-
rently have not paired yet. They remained near us
for two or three hours, but were too wild to allow the
sportsmen to approach near enough for a shot. Dr.
Moss has fixed a wooden decoy-duck in one of the
water-pools near the ship ; but the passing birds are
not readily attracted.

4 When we compare the fairly-cleared black hills of
the United States Eange with our snow-covered ground
we cannot wonder at the absence of game in our
neighbourhood. No bird or beast would remain where
there is scarcely a bare stone on which to rest itself
when it sights the prospect of well-vegetated pastures
near Cape Eichardson.'

The ducks appeared to follow immediately on the
setting-in of the thaw. At Floeberg Beach they
arrived on the 22nd of June, the day after the first
pool of water was observed on the land. At Discovery
Bay they were seen on the 12th ; but there the thaw
was also earlier, the ravines commencing to run on
the llth. At Polaris Bay in 1872 a few streamlets of
water were observed by Captain Buddington as early
as the 3rd of June ; three days afterwards the ducks
arrived.

' 23rd. — To-day, with the temperature risen to
37°, the snow has become so soft that, except in the
deepest snow-drifts, our feet sink through it to the ice

1876 POWER OF THE SUN. 7

below. The gravel and cinders strewed over the floe
near the ship, to hasten its decay, have at last com-
menced to eat their way down through the ice. This
is more than a month later in the season than the
same event occurred at Melville Island in latitude
75° 0' in 1853.

' It would appear that the sun, unassisted by other
causes, is, after a cold winter, not sufficiently powerful
to produce a thaw on a snow-clad ground until it
attains an altitude of about thirty degrees ; if this is
the case, then at the North Pole it is doubtful whether
the snow ever becomes melted. At the South Pole,
where the climate is little affected by warm ocean
currents, no thaw can ever take place.'

The 21st proved to be the warmest day of the
year at Floeberg Beach. The sun having then an
altitude of 31°, the same that it has at London on the
12th of March and the 2nd of October, the black bulb
thermometer exposed to the sun's rays registered a
temperature of 128 degrees. In the sheltered position
of Discovery Bay and with a southerly aspect, a similar
thermometer registered the same temperature on the
6th of June when the sun was the same height above
the horizon. In May when the sun attained an altitude
of twenty-three and-a-half degrees, the height it reaches
at the Pole at midsummer, the greatest amount of
heat registered by the black bulb thermometer was
95 degrees. The thaw, however, is as much dependent
on warm southerly winds as on the direct heat of the
sim at the place.

' 2bth. — The gale died out this morning, leaving
the temperature at 39°. Several ducks were observed

8 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. JUNE

returning south, evidently dissatisfied with our late
season.

' As the atmosphere cleared, a large party visited
the look-out hill, Markham, Giffard, and Egerton using
snow-shoes. On our arrival at the summit, to my
intense relief we observed a tent pitched on the ice in
Dumbell Bay, which, as May would not be returning
without having news of Aldrich, indicated the near
approach of both parties.

' At the same time we were again treated with the
glorious iridescent colouring in the clouds surrounding
the sun ; surely conveying some message of reassuring
love and protection from the Divine Maker and Pre-
server of us all.'

The usual time of the commencement of the thaw
— between the 14th and 20th of June — having passed,
May's journey was a most uncertain one ; for once the
delayed melting of the snow set in, the dogs would
be powerless until after the waters had drained off.
His early return, proving that he had not been called
upon to perform a ' forlorn hope ' journey beyond the
snow-filled valleys of Cape Joseph Henry, was natu-
rally a very great relief to me, and the deep anxiety
which I had experienced during the past week for
the safety of each party gave place to a feeling of
thankfulness to God for the protection He had extended
to them.

On the morning of this same day Lieutenant Eaw-
son met Beaumont on the Greenland shore, struggling
homeward to Polaris Bay with his crippled crew — the
very last march they could possibly have performed
but for the relief afforded them.

1876 RETURN OF THE WESTERN PARTY. 9

Timing our departure in order not to disturb
Aldrich and his crew while taking their daily rest, a
large party started in the evening and met them when
about five miles distant from the ship.

As in the case of Markham's men, scurvy had made
sad havoc in their ranks. Out of the eight members
composing the party Lieut. Aldrich and Adam Ayles
were alone able to work. James Doidge arid David
Mitchell were gallantly struggling along, each with the
assistance of a staff. The four others, after holding
out as long as human nature permitted, had to be
carried on the sledges.

Although the disease had actually commenced
during the outward journey, it was not known to be
scurvy until they were half-way on their return to
the ship. Then the desolating scourge decidedly pro-
claimed itself, and most nobly was it combated with
by officer and men, the distressed invalids struggling
painfully and slowly along until they reached to within
half-a-mile of the depot at Cape Joseph Henry. At
the very moment when four out of the eight were
completely prostrated, and it was physically impossible
for the party to have advanced farther, and Aldrich
had arranged for Ayles to proceed by himself to the
ship for succour, as Lieutenant Parr had done only a
few clays previously, to their great and mutual joy
May with his relief party most providentially met them.
But so close a race were they running with the season
that the day after they crossed Black Cliff Bay the
thaw set in ; and Parr and Feilden, when returning
only twenty-four hours afterwards, were so frequently
imbedded up to their middles in the wet snow and

10 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. APRIL

cold water, which covered the surface of the sodden
floe, that they could scarcely recover themselves.
They reported it quite impassable for any men not in
full health and strength, and totally impassable for
heavy sledges.

The following is a summary of Lieutenant Aldrich's
journey, with extracts from his official report : —

After parting company with Commander Markham
on the llth of April, Aldrich and Giffard, with their
two sledges, crossed Feilden Peninsula — the watershed
of which was estimated to be 500 feet above the sea-
level. They arrived at the shore of James Boss Bay
on the 15th, having been obliged to resort to double-
manning the sledges for the greater part of the dis-
tance. Four hares had been shot, and traces of
ptarmigan seen. Expecting to obtain future supplies
the game wras cooked at once ; it was fated to be the
only fresh meat meal that they obtained.

On the 16th they were travelling across the bay
for several hours, uncertain whether they were on ice
or not, so much did it resemble the snow-covered land.
In crossing, no sign of any rupture or crack in the ice
was met with except close to the shore, where there
was a slightly raised ice-hinge, evidently due to tidal
motion, and proving that although the ice in James
Boss Bay does not clear out during the summer, it
was not frozen solid to the bottom of the sea.

Sheltered as the bay is from the prevailing
westerly winds, the snow lay in a very soft state, and
caused severe labour in advancing the sledges. On
the 17th Crosier Island was visited. The line of ice-
hummocks, which denote the boundary line between

1876 WESTERN SLEDGE JOURNEY. 11

the stationary ice and that in motion during the
summer, was observed to leave the coast at a point
about three miles west of Cape Joseph Henry, and to
pass a mile outside of the island, and apparently a
short distance outside of Cape Hecla. On the 19th
the Parry Peninsula, two and-a-half miles in breadth,
was crossed, and the shore of Clements Markhain inlet
reached. From a height of 700 feet above the sea the
line of ice-hummocks was observed extending to the
westward in a line crossing the mouth of the inlet
towards Cape Colan with a level ice-floe to the south-
ward, which, like that in James Eoss Bay, never clears
out. Aldrich remarks in his official journal : — ' I
question if the ice ever breaks up altogether ; the
land south of Cape Colan is steep, and would seem
to indicate deep water.' With clear weather it was
apparent that no land extended to the northward of
Cape Columbia, and the travellers' hopes of attaining a
high northern latitude were greatly lessened. Towards
the south-west a misty atmosphere prevented the land
at the bottom of Markham inlet being distinguished.

On the 22nd Cape Colan, the west point of the
inlet, was reached, and a depot of provisions left for
the return journey. The shore-hummocks extended in
a line parallel to the general direction of the land, but
at a distance of about three miles from the apparent
coast-line, leaving a fairly level sledge road along
shore, which, had it not been for the extremely soft
snow, would have permitted as rapid an advance as
arctic sledges farther south had usually made. The
snow continued soft as long as the coast-line was pro-
tected from the prevailing wind ; to the westward of

12 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. APRIL

Cape Columbia it was hard, and afforded fair travel-
ling.

It was often difficult to decide whether they were
travelling over land or ice. From the formation which
we observed taking place later in the season, when the
early thaw changed the upper crust of the snow into
ice, above which the summer torrents afterwards de-
posited soil and gravel, it is probable that the whole
coast-line between the shore-hummocks and the high
land is a combination of the two and formed in a similar
manner.

On the 22nd, when near Cape Golan, Aldrich re-
marks : —

' While camping I dug down, and found the snow to
vary from one to four and-a-half feet in thickness. At
the latter depth I came to what I at first thought was
land, but which turned out afterwards to be a thin
layer or covering of soil or mud lying on top of the
hard ice. This may possibly have been washed down
from the hills. We are about half a mile from the
shore, which slopes very gradually up from the ice.
From the great changes in the depth of the snow, the
floe would appear to be of a round, hummocky nature,
similar to a "blue top," and from the absence of
hummocks or floebergs probably never breaks up.

' I have called the coast-line " apparent," as it is
difficult to determine where the land begins and the
ice ends.

' We now and again come across a crack, generally
about a foot or eighteen inches wide ; these, as a rule,
extend in a north and south direction. We sounded
the depth of one and found it to be fourteen feet.

1876 LIEUT. GIFFARD PARTS COMPANY. 13

We could trace snow ten to eleven feet down, a great
deal of which was probably drift.'

On the 25th GifFard and his crew, after completing
the other sledge to forty-four days' provisions, parted
company, to return to the ' Alert.' On the last day of
their advance Aldrich writes : —

' No improvement in the travelling, and the sledge
came to a dead stop over and over again in the deep
soft snow, and this notwithstanding the desire of all to
get as far as possible, before parting company. Had
anyone been in the neighbourhood, and unacquainted
with the method of progression in this detestable
travelling, they would very probably have been as-
tonished at the constant shouts of " One, two, three,
haul ! '' varied by " Main topsail, haul ! " etc., to relieve
the monotony of the same " old yarn." However, we
had the whole country to ourselves, and were at
perfect liberty to expend as much of our breath in
shouting as we could spare, without fear of awakening
or frightening anybody. Halted for luncheon at noon,
up to which time we had been steering inshore to find
a place to leave the depot. The whole of the land
was covered in snow, without the slightest sign of a
brow or other convenient spot, and we therefore altered
our course parallel to the coast.

6 After lunch we proceeded till 4.30 P.M., and then
left the " Poppie's " cook behind to make tea ready for
his sledgemates by their return. Halted a little after
5 P.M., when, after an exchange of hearty cheers and
good wishes, Lieutenant GifFard and his party took
their departure, and left us to our solitary journey.'
For the next seven days, when Cape Columbia

14 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. APRIL

was reached, Aldrich's sledge being fully laden, the
daily advance was very slow, as usual in similar
journeys, and the soft snow entailed very severe labour
on the crew. Two days afterwards when passing Cape
James Good, named after the petty officer, captain of
the sledge, Aldrich remarks : —

' The men are all very much done up, the fact
being that, light loads or heavy loads, this thick snow
takes it out of one tremendously, and the constant
standing pulls shake one to pieces.

' The double journeys are most discouraging to the
men, and their looks of disappointment when, after
nine hours' labour, they find themselves only two and
a-half to three miles from where they started, show
how much more they would do if they could. The
air is very cold, and the sun very warm. The ther-
mometer hanging on my chest registered minus 12° ;
when on my back, minus 30°.

6 Half our daily journey is necessarily done with
the sun in our faces, causing a few slight cases of
snow-blindness.'

The 29th was the last day on the outward journey
that they were obliged to advance with half-loads at a
time ; they were then a few miles east of Cape Columbia.

Aldrich observes : —

' A great deal of mirage to the north-west ; its
effects in some places led us to think there were very
extensive pools of water out on the heavy floes. It
required careful watching for some minutes to dispel
the illusion. The line of hummocks is visible three
and- a-half to four miles distant. I dug down through
the snow, which I found to be exactly four feet deep,

1876 WESTERN SLEDGE JOURNEY. 15

getting much harder and more compact below the
surface than before. Between it and the ice was a
space of over two inches. The latter gave me the
impression of being young, and not of the blue-topped
description. Lines of sastrugi north-west and south-
east, which is about parallel to the line of hummocks.

' The temperature of the air while travelling was
minus 15°. When encamped at mid-day it rose to 40°
on the sunny side of the tent inside. Positive luxury !

6 30£/i. — The north-west wind died away in the
night. Started at 6.50 A.M. with the whole load. The
sledge does not appear to get much lighter ; I suspect
the increase in weight of robes and bags, &c. (small as it
is compared with autumn travelling), fully compensates
for the provisions consumed to the present, and that it
is as heavy, if not heavier, than when we left the ship.
However, we all pulled with a will, and were en-
couraged by the travelling improving at almost every
step. Camped at 3.30 P.M. Made good three and
a-half miles.

4 This was a short march, partly on account of
shifting our travelling hours still farther into night
travelling, and partly on account of its being Sunday.
My men are all in capital spirits ; the improved travel-
ling, the warmer weather, and prospects of getting on,
all tending to a rapid rise in the " social barometer,"
which, in our small community, is as desirable as
welcome. I read the Evening Service after supper.

' The Sergeant-Major has just shown me a very
ugly-looking red patch or blotch just above the ankle ;
the limb is slightly swollen.

' May 1st.— The questionable pleasure of havino- a

16 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. MAY

man dancing on you when brushing down the con-
densation collected on the inside of the tent was
dispensed with this morning, there being none to brush
down. Under weigh at 3.20 A.M., got abreast Cape
Aldrich at 4 A.M., and then steered for a bare patch
on the brow of the low spit which runs off the cape,
and nearly due north of it, and reached the foot of the
ascent at 5.20 A.M.

'Found some difficulty in securing the depot, as
there was not a stone to be had ; the ground was very
hard, and composed of soil and very small shingle,
with here and there a thin covering of ice, pro-
bably caused by the snow melting in the sun and
freezing again before it could sink into the hard frozen
ground. On this mixture the pickaxe made but very
little impression, and it took four of us, working in
spells, two and a-half hours to get a hole ten inches in
depth and large enough to place the bottom of the
gutta-percha case in, wrapped up in an extra coverlet.
" Treboggined " down the hill on the empty sledge,
packed sledge, lunched, and started at 9.15, being
lighter by about 300 Ibs. We were not at all sorry to
get under weigh again ; securing the depot was too cool
to be pleasant. Temperature minus 15°. Wind, force
6, from the N.W., and a cutting drift. We now had
a very heavy drag up the low spit, which extends from
Cape Aldrich for one or two miles towards the north,
and curves to the eastward. We reached the top at
11 A.M., and were disappointed to find we could only
see land five miles ahead, bearing about W. by N.,
and terminating in a bold high cape, since named

1876 CAPE COLUMBIA. 17

" Cape Columbia," and which proved to be the most
northern point attained.

' Travelling across hard sastrugi, which ran more in
line with the land, and patches of level snow, as hard
and nearly as slippery as ice. Over this we flew along,
and our spirits rose as rapidly as ever they did on a
good lead opening up north for the ship, on her way
up Smith Sound.

' As we drew near Cape Columbia we opened out
a conical hill, having the appearance of an island,
distant about thirty miles, and immediately afterwards
a succession of capes or bluffs. The former was in
transit with Cape Columbia N. 16° E. by compass, the
extreme of the latter N. 14° E., and about twenty
miles off ; so that the coast-line runs as nearly due west
as possible. The hummocks continue to the N.W.,
and get farther from the land.

' Off Cape Columbia, at a distance of about 100
yards from the shore, the ice is of the older type, but
has been merely pressed up against the fringe of loose
stone and rubble which surrounds the cape, without
being broken into hummocks, but leaving large cracks
and fractures. Inside the fringe above mentioned, is a
sheet of hard and perfectly smooth ice, but extending
only for a very short distance. We reached the cape
at 3 P.M., and camped on the old floe, just outside of the
cracks.

4 From observation to-day I place the cape in lati-
tude 83-7 N., longitude 70-10 W.

' At about two and-a-half miles to the eastward of
Cape Columbia, and about 200 feet above the ice level,
the snow appears to have fallen or slipped, leaving a

VOL. II. C

18 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. MAY

perpendicular wall some hundreds of yards in length,
and of considerable height. I at first thought it was
a tremendous snow-drift ; originally, perhaps, it may
have been, but now it is either compressed snow or
bluish ice, and resembles the face of a glacier.

' As the weather gives every promise of being fine,
I intend remaining off Cape Columbia to-morrow, and
to ascend Cooper Key Peak, from which we shall get
a splendid view. The whole crew are so anxious to
come, I told them to draw lots for one to remain with
the tent ; poor Doidge is much down on his luck,
having been " elected " to stay behind. The Sergeant-
Major's leg still gives him no pain, but the angry red
colour has spread considerably ; I do not like the look
of it at all. I have given him turpentine liniment to
rub in, which he uses with a will.

' '2nd. — During breakfast a fog-bank appeared on
the N.W. horizon, and it clouded over ; the wind
freshened, and shortly afterwards the increasing mist
rendered any attempt to go up the peak useless. We
were all very disappointed, but we could not afford
time to wait for the weather to clear. Under weigh at
3.20 A.M. Temperature minus 10°.

' After travelling a short distance over the old ice,
which was covered with level but spongy-looking snow,
we got on to excellent ice some forty or fifty yards
broad, over which the sledge followed me at a rate of
about three miles an hour. This, however, only lasted
for half-a-mile, when we came to moderately hard
sastrugi, running parallel to the land, with a little soft
snow on top. By this time the fog had come down
and rendered all things and everything of no colour.

1870 ICE- WAVES. 19

I was about two miles ahead of the sledge, but could
see nothing and do nothing, so turned back and sought
refuge in the drag-belt and the company of my sledge
crew. Steered by sastrugi, which I had observed ran
directly from the point for which we wanted to shape
a course. With a very little care this plan answered
admirably, and enabled us to go on knowing we were
losing no ground.'

On the 7th the camp was pitched a mile east of
Cape Alexandra. Aldrich writes : — ' We crossed a
fox track and a few lemming tracks to-day. These
are the only signs of life we have come across for a
long time. The land is entirely covered in snow,
except a few bare places on the face of the cliffs.

' The health of the crew is very good, except stiff
legs, which are pretty general, and only to be expected.
The two worst are the Sergeant-Major and Jas. Doidge.'
After passing Cape Albert Edward, Aldrich refers
to the extremely low and level character of the shore,
and describes a remarkable formation of what he desig-
nates ' ice-waves.'

6 Several low ridges from thirty to forty feet high,
and varying from a few hundred yards to about a mile
in length, show up in front of the cliffs. Their general
direction is S.E. and N.W., hence on the east coast
of the bay they extend at, or nearly at, right angles
from the land, while to the south-westward they are
nearly parallel with it. I imagine these ridges are
composed of hard ice under the snow, though I had
no means of penetrating it to a sufficient depth to find
whether or no land lay underneath.

'In passing between Ward Hunt Island and the

c2

20 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. MAY

main land, we crossed a ridge about thirty feet high,
and half-a-mile in width, which extends for a mile from
about the middle of the south shore of the island.
Thinking it was land, I dug down through three feet
of snow, and came to ice. Similar looking ridges
extend to the eastward and westward.

4 St/i. — A perfect morning. Temperature minus
15°. Under weigh at 3.20. Crossed another ice -wave ;
dug down, and came to ice under three feet of hard
and compact snow. Travelling very good, though not
very slippery. I cannot make out where the land
ends and ice begins ; a second time to-day I sounded
with our shovel, to find ice on a slope not fifty yards
from where bare stones were visible. There is no
crack, but the shelving land" appears to blend with the
ice, which rises in the form of a roller, with a second
roller behind it, exactly as water rolls on a beach after
a breeze of wind. The line of hummocks is between
five and six miles off, and does not seem to differ from
those farther east. Floes exceedingly small, and the
fringes between them very close and numerous.

' After lunch we crossed two cracks, which extend
northward, and look fresh. Got on to rising ground
in an hour. In walking ahead I came to what
appeared like a ravine in our path. Altered course
down an incline to clear it, then began a gradual
ascent up low land, which extends two to three miles
from the hills, and in the form of rollers like the ice-
waves before mentioned. We dragged up hill till 2 P.M.,
when we camped. I walked on about two miles after
camping ; the ascent being so gradual, I got scarcely
any better view for so doing. The hummocks appear

1876 WESTERN SLEDGE JOURNEY. 21

to be closing in towards the land, and promise to be
very near the next cape or point.

' The ground round the depot is beautiful-looking
soil, with small shingle, last year's saxifrage and
poppy, and this year's moss, which latter was of
such a brilliant green we all thoroughly enjoyed
looking at it. It did our eyes good. A solitary
lemming track was the only sign of animal life. The
country gives no promise of game whatever, although
I had a good look all about while the depot was being
secured.

' 9 th. — Under weigh at 3.25. Continued our ascent
parallel to, and about one and-a-half miles from the
hills, until nearly lunch-time, when we got a good
view of the distant land. Afterwards we proceeded
along level and very fair travelling, over moderately
hard snow, until at 10.30 A.M. we came to a steep
descent of a good 200 feet, the result of all our
uphill work, which we had hoped would have sloped
down gradually instead. It was necessary to back
the sledge down ; the men sitting on the snow, hauling
back on the drag-ropes. When two-thirds of the
way down, the men became a little too confident,
and the whole apparatus took charge. Fortunately,
nothing caught the runners, and no harm resulted, but
the astonishment which its capers caused the crew will
probably induce them to be more careful on similar
occasions.

' We now crossed over a series of undulating rollers
of lowland, which were parallel to one another, and
extended to the northward about two miles from the
hills. The travelling during the latter part of the clay

22 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. MAY

has not been so good, the sastrugi which extends east
and west being very deep and rugged.

4 Although tired, everyone was loth to go into the
tent, the sun being warm enough to admit of a com-
fortable pipe outside.

' The ground over which we have lately travelled,
rising as it does gradually from the eastward, and
terminating in a steep descent to the westward,
may be worthy of observation, as also the existence
of the numerous ridges and rollers of land and ice,
which abound hereabouts. The snow-drifts about
Cape Stephenson are very heavy, and of considerable
depth. The cape is about 300 feet high, and the hills
close to the eastward of it range from 400 to 600
feet.'

Although an outbreak of scurvy was not then an-
ticipated, the unsatisfactory condition of the men was
causing Aldrich much anxiety. On the 10th he
writes : —

' The men are nearly all suffering a great deal with
their unfortunate legs, which appear to get worse
every day. This we all feel to be very disappointing,
as it affects the journey, and although stiff limbs were
expected, everyone thought the stiffness would wear off
in time. It seems, however, inclined to hang on, and
sets at defiance all the limited medical skill we possess
among us, and to scorn succumbing to turpentine lini-
ment, bandages, good " elbow grease," etc. The legs
get a little more comfortable after being a short time
under weigh ; but, somehow, the men do not appear
up to the mark. Ayles and I are the only two who
eat all the pemmican we can get. I should like the

1876 WESTERN SLEDGE JOURNEY. 23

men to have a rest, but too much time was lost in
the outset to admit of it.

' Day by day we look forward to the land either
going north or south ; but hitherto we have been
travelling nothing but west, or very little southerly of
it. Camped at 2 P.M. about two miles from Cape
Richards.

' The line of hummocks appears to be nearing the
land, so we are looking out for some decided alteration
in the trend of the coast-line. When we first left the
ship our hopes pointed to a north-running coast ; now,
as our outward journey approaches an end, we shall
rejoice to see it go either way, except east and
west.

' Ilth. — The travelling is excellent, smooth, level,
and with the soft snow only two to three inches
deep.

' At noon reached the old floe, which is pressed
up against the land, broken in several places by cracks,
and has forced up small ridges and heaps of stones and
shingle, but without forming a single hummock.

' A short distance outside us are a few isolated
hummocks or floebergs, with heavy snow-drifts around
them ; but the actual line of hummocky ice is still
about two miles from the shore. We found the travel-
ling very fair, and skirted along the edge of the shelv-
ing land.

' 12th. — Temperature plus 12°. Strong wind from
the south-west. A continuance of yesterday's disagree-
able weather. Thick, and a stinging drift in our faces.
Our travelling was none the better from the entire
absence of light and shadow. Proceeding a short

24 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. MAT

distance along the floe of yesterday, we began to round
the low land in the direction of the cape, which we
saw now and then. We soon arrived on some deeply-
scored and hard sastrugi, on which we found it impos-
sible to make certain of our footing, and the way we
all fell and tumbled about would have been ludicrous
had it not been so tiresome. This work was not at all
good for the " game legs," as the men call them ; the
Sergeant, Good, and Doidge suffered especially. We
reached Cape Fanshawe Martin about four hours after
starting,

' A perpendicular wall of ice, between fifteen and
twenty feet high, and some seventy yards in length,
occupies the dip between the land rising to the cape
and the shelving land round which we had travelled.
This looks like the .face of a miniature glacier, and
is situated about thirty or forty yards from the floe.
Fog prevented our seeing anything but the wall
itself.

' After rounding Cape Fanshawe Martin we crossed
the tail of a low spit, which extends about a mile to
the northward, and followed the trend of the coast,
which from here was about south-west (true). Halted
for lunch at 8.20 A.M., and pitched the tent.

' I picked up the leaf of a willow to-day, which
shows there must be bare places somewhere ; but the
snow-drifts in this neighbourhood are tremendous.

'Though the line of hummocks is somewhat closer
in, there appears to be a great similarity in the condi-
tion and quality of the ice here and off Cape Columbia.
Between the two capes is a distance of nearly eighty
miles, and about midway between the two lies Ward

1876 WESTERN SLEDGE JOURNEY. 25

Hunt Island. The coast-line is broken by three bays,
two of which are of considerable extent ; and off the
points, and now and again for a few continuous miles,
are projecting low spits and ice ridges. The hummocks
do not come in close to Ward Hunt Island, its northern
face being protected apparently by one of the usual
fenders.

'13^. — Temperature 6°. The same persistent
head wind, and a fog which would rival the densest
specimen ever experienced in London on a November
day. The crew are less lively in spirits than usual ; I
fancy the miserable weather, their stiff legs, and extra
wear and tear due to so much fog, all combine to
subdue them a little. I should like to give them a
rest, but they are as anxious as I am to get on. Under
weigh at 3.30 A.M. Weather cleared a little. Steered
to cross the usual incline, which runs from Cape
Bicknor, the extreme point now in sight. I remained
behind to get a sketch of the land, &c., and on over-
taking the sledge found it making but slow progress.
The Sergeant and Doidge struggle manfully on ; but
they are not up to much, and there are a few more
not much better. The actual weight on the sledge is
nothing comparatively, but it is the inability to walk
rather than drag well which impedes the party. We
in time came to a piece of down-hill, on our descent to
another bay or inlet, a portion of which easy travelling
I reserved for to-morrow, to ease the stiff legs at
starting. Shall make a short march to-morrow, in
the hopes it may do the men good. It will be their
first spell since leaving the ship.

' Uth. — Boused cook at 3 A.M., having given all

26 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. MAT

hands an extra two hours and a-half s sleep. Wind
gone, but the dull leaden weather remains. A Sunday
morning, with a desultory conversation going on while
waiting for pemmican, now of England, now of fresh
food and vegetables — a pretty constant topic — and an
occasional lamentation as to the wretched state of the
legs, with an expectation that they may be the only
cases, and the fear that in consequence their work will
not bear comparison with that performed by the
other sledges and former Arctic travellers. About
6 A.M. the mist cleared off gradually, and the sun burst
forth after an absence of several days.

' Under weigh at 6.15 A.M., and the sledge went
merrily down the hill ; but I repented my decision of
last night to keep easy work for a start, for the sledge
was too lively for the unfortunate cripples, some of
whom were in positive agony. After proceeding about
a mile we reached the level floe of a bay seven to
eight miles deep, with steep cliffy shores and hills
rising from 400 to 1,000 feet in height. These hills,
like all those we have met with, do not run in ranges,
but are scattered irregularly about, and separated and
cut up by ravines in all directions. The south-west
point is low and shelving, and just open of it, about
twenty miles distant, shows out another cape, which I
have pointed out to the men as the spot from which
I shall be perfectly satisfied to turn back.

' The bay we are crossing is Milne Bay of the
chart. The travelling would be very good were it not
for frequent soft patches of snow, into which we some-
times sink above our knees. A snow-bunting flew
within twenty yards of the sledge, and is the first

1876 THE PICKAXE LEFT BEH1N1X 27

living creature we have set eyes on since leaving the
" Poppies."

' 15th. — Temperature minus 6°. Bright sunshine
and calm. Everything hoisted up to dry. Travelling
a little better than yesterday. Misty about the horizon
iceward. *

' On camping in Yelverton Bay, a very fair journey,
the pickaxe was found to have been left behind at the
last encampment, where it had been used for securing
the tent guy to. I prepared for a walk back, but the
crew all wanted to go instead, so I ultimately arranged
to take Ayles with me to-morrow, while the sledge
goes, on ; we should pick them up by camping- time.
The men have, I think, been all the better for their
rest yesterday. No snow-blindness except my own —
my eyes being extremely painful.

' 16^A. — Gave Good orders to take the sledge on,
with six hands, for the extreme point ; proceed the
usual eleven hours, or, in the event of fog, camp.

' Ayles and I started off for the pickaxe with our
hmcheons. Arrived at previous encampment after
four and-a-half hours' walking ; from the travelling
and pace we had come I put it at ten statute miles.
Just as we got the pickaxe a puff of wind came from
the north-east, and a fog bank to iceward made us
hurry on our way back. The wind soon increased to
a moderate gale, with a very high drift, which
threatened to destroy our friend the sledge tracks.
About an hour afterwards we lost sight of the extreme
of land, so I concluded Good would camp.

' Eeached our morning starting-point in nine hours,
where we halted, standing with our backs to the wind,

28 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. MAT

for five minutes to eat some pemmican, biscuit, &c.
Two hours afterwards we passed their luncheon-place,
and then found they had gone on under sail, before a
wind which was now blowing a fresh gale, with tre-
mendous drift. My companion began to show signs of
fatigue (which with Ayles means a great deal), but we
tramped on before the gale at a rattling pace.

6 We followed the meandering sledge track for
nearly another two hours, with comparative ease, after
which we lost it very frequently from its being entirely
obliterated for yards at a time. Our plan now was
for Ayles to stand still, while I walked round in a
circle until we found the track again. We had almost
prepared ourselves for an uncomfortable lodging in
the snow, by the aid of our friendly pickaxe, when
the tent came in sight, about fifty yards distant. Just
as we saw it a gun was fired, and the boatswain's
mate's pipe sounded above and among an unearthly
yelling, and the row of the wind — a continuation of
the programme they had been assiduously carrying out
in case we might be passing.

6 We arrived after an absence of fourteen hours ;
and never were men more rejoiced, I believe, than
they were when they saw us. Although they had
been camped for some three hours, there they were,
seated anyhow, without having shifted or eaten any-
thing, and as anxious as they could be. The cook
bustled out into the drift and gale, only too glad to
have the chance of giving us all our supper ; and hot
tea and pemmican soon, put all to-rights. After a
short yarn as to the day's proceedings, w^e rolled our-
selves up and slumbered peacefully, and fully appre-

1876 WESTERN SLEDGE JOURNEY. 29

elating the comforts of our Arctic tent. The sail had
driven the sledge very fast — in fact, too fast for some
'of them. They proceeded till the regular time was up,
having made good (to judge by our walking) ten
miles.

4 nth. — Temperature 12°. Blowing a whole north-
east gale all night ; so although Ayles and I were late
returning yesterday, we have lost no time. The porch
was completely filled with drift, which formed a wall
quite three feet thick, through which the cook and
I burrowed out with a shovel. The drift was still
blowing some fifteen to twenty feet above the floe,
hiding everything a few yards distant, though a bright
sun was trying to penetrate through, and there appeared
plenty of blue sky overhead. The sledge was all but
buried.

' After half a pipe in the tent, digging out sledge,
&c., made sail, but the gale broke half an hour after,
as suddenly as it began, and the men were not sorry
to resume their drag belts. The drift has made the
travelling soft and heavy in places, but in others it is
as hard as ever. It is worth observing that in no case
did bare ice show out, which leads me to think the
floes in* the bays are not round-topped, or being so,
the * hillocks are small and the snow very deep on
them. Another thing is the entire absence of even
isolated hummocks, which would seem to indicate
either that the water is too shallow to admit of their
being drifted in, or that the ice in the bays is of great
thickness, and the influence of tide so little felt that it
does not break up from year to year.

6 18//i. — Taking into consideration the state of the

30 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA.

crew, and the quantity of provisions remaining, I think
it advisable to turn back for the ship to-day. The
biscuit remaining is five days' full allowance, which
with a healthy crew would be ample, but looking, as I
must, to marches not much better than we have been
performing lately, it will have to last ten days.

' With this in view, I left the tent pitched, and Mann
(who is not fit to march, but better than last night),
to look after the gear, while with the sledge, cooking
gear, luncheons, pickaxe, &c., the rest of us went on
for a half-journey to try and reach a place for building
a cairn, and to get a little more extended view of the
coast-line. A very clear and beautiful day. After
seeing Mann comfortable, and leaving him means of
cooking his tea, I soon overtook Doidge and the
Sergeant limping along several hundred yards in rear
of the sledge. I told them they had better go back,
but this they begged off, and continued their painful
journey. Overtaking the sledge I walked ahead up
a steady incline, which began about two miles from
the camp. After walking some four miles I came to
the conclusion there was no cape at all, but that the
coast-line trended round more to the southward after
clearing Yelverton Bay. The land was covered deeply
in snow, and there was no place within reach of
the party at all suitable for building a cairn.

6 1 was now 200 feet above the sea or ice-level,
and had a very good and careful look all round. No
land was visible, except the coast along which we were
travelling, my view of which extended about seven
miles farther than our position, the trend being gradually
southward and westward.

1876

FARTHEST POINT REACHED.

31

' The line of hummocks was about four miles off,
and appeared to incline slightly to the southward in
the distance. The land itself is not high, and there
being no cliffs, not a speck bare of snow was visible.
The hills sloped gradually from the ice, and the
ridge on which we were at the extreme of our journey
was a portion of undulating low land, attached to the
coast, and continuing south-west with it.

' I turned back and met the sledge. Halted for
grog and biscuit. Hoisted the Union Jack, and drank
Her Majesty's health.

'- After lunch we sounded, and came to solid ice,

SOUNDING FOB LAND.

under five feet of snow, but from the height and extent
of the ridges, I should imagine land lay underneath.

' Looking back on to the bay, I observed a series of
ice rollers, two of which we crossed over yesterday.

' The remaining two or three marching hours I gave
up to the men, who used them in patching up foot
gear, and other little things which had become neces-
sary.

; Our foot gear all became thoroughly wet to-day,
one may say for the first time. Temperature in the
shade 14°.

32 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. MAY

Latitude of extreme point . . 82° 16' 0" N.

Longitude of extreme point . . 85° 33' 0" W.

Latitude of farthest land seen . 82° 10' 0" N.

Longitude of farthest land seen . 86° 30' 0" W.'

On the homeward journey the attack of scurvy
gradually became more pronounced, and the fast
increasing weakness of the men rendered the daily
distance accomplished so short that the provisions
placed in depot on the passage out were insufficient to
last them, on full allowance, while travelling from one
depot to another. Doubtless the necessarily reduced
ration helped to accelerate the advance of the dreadful
malady.

On the 30th Ward Hunt Island was reached, and
Aldrich's journal thus continues : —

' Had a hard clamber up a steep slope on the south
side of the island, which was covered with deep snow,
and reached the top of a ridge about 600 feet above
the ice, and which runs to the west in the direction of
the cone. I found this nearly bare of snow, and
composed of small stones and earth, similar to Crozier
Island, in James Eoss Bay. Vegetation was fairly re-
presented as regards quantity, in the poppy, saxifrage,
and small tufts of grass. I saw no actual tracks of
animals, but hares had evidently visited the locality,
though not recently. One or two snow-buntings were
flying about.

' The island, as far as I have seen, appears to be
formed of small rubble, &c. There is no sign of a
cliff, except at the north-west end, the rest being very
rounded. Like Crozier Island, and the low projections

1876 ALDRICH'S RETURN JOURNEY. 33

off the capes, it is steeper to the westward, and low and
shelving to the eastward ; and to whatever their forma-
tion may be due, they resemble one another in so
many ways that their existence may very probably
arise from the same cause.

' Camped at 7.30 P.M. Temperature 14°. Travel-
ling rather better, but the journey is not a very long-
one. The men are regularly done.

' Our whiskers, moustaches, and beards are very
much lighter than their natural hues, and their delicate
" golden tint " imparts an air of cleanliness to our
features, which much require something of the kind to
do away with the sooty and begrimed appearance of
our stearine-smoked countenances/

On the 5th of June they passed Cape Columbia on
their return ; and on the 7th the dreaded word ' scurvy '
was used for the first time.

Aldrich's journal continues : — ' Temperature 23°.
A very splendid day can see to within thirty miles of
the ship, a fact I have impressed on the men, with good
effect. Observed a large bird some distance off, it flew
something like a gull. Snow-bunting are numerous on
the land.

' Camped about one mile W.S.W. of Point Stubbs.
A curious afternoon ; sudden and very thick fogs,
breaking occasionally to give us an hour or so of
magnificently clear weather.

' We are all very agreeably surprised at the state
of the travelling, which has vastly improved in our
absence. The snow is fine-grained, and eight to ten
inches deep.

' I have heard many mild complaints of late as to

VOL. n. D

34 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. JUNE

the effects of the pemmican ; latterly everyone, except
Ayles and I, suffer more or less. I attribute it to
weakness. Had we had the good fortune to procure
game, I daresay this would not have been experienced ;
but where game is not to be got, I believe an occasional
change to preserved meat might be beneficial. An-
other symptom which has become apparent yesterday
and to-day with four of the crew, is tender gums,
which I hope may be due to the increased allowance of
biscuit. Hitherto, while rather short of it, we always
soaked it in tea or pemmican to make it go farther,
now we eat it, or some of it, without softening it. I
hope it is not scurvy, though Jas. Doidge asked me the
question to-day, " Is scurvy ever got while sledging,
sir?"

' I answered in perfect truth in one sense, though
not in another, " No," and attributed everything to the
hard biscuit. All hands have been in the drag-ropes
to-day.

' 8th. — The temperature is 3 degrees above freezing
point, and the wet snow forms a bad road ; it appears
to change marvellously quickly with the temperature.

' Could not get on at all ; halted, unpacked, and
loaded to 300 Ibs. This was nearly as bad. Took
everything off the sledge except the cooking gear, and
a few small things.

'At 10 Stubbs came to me very ill, and I was
obliged to excuse him from the drag-ropes. Shortly
after, the Sergeant became out of breath, and too
weak to get on, so I sent him back ready for the second
load. After taking a spell, finding Ayles and I could
get on quicker by ourselves, I sent them all back,

1870 ALDRICH'S RETURN JOURNEY. 35

while he and I dragged the sledge and tramped down
a road. Halted, unpacked, and back for the remainder
of the gear, which came up slowly but surely. After
lunch, started with whole load, snow a little crisper.
Got along tolerably for half an hour, then came to a
dead stop. Canted sledge on to the medical box, and
scraped the runners, which in some places had as much
as three inches' thickness of ice on them underneath,
which assisted in enlarging the tremendous cakes of
snow the sledge forced before it. A second time we
did this, and at the end of an hour we had advanced
just ten yards. However, we got on much better after-
wards.

' 9#A. — I ought to put Stubbs on the sledge, the
Sergeant ought to be put there too, but there is not
strength enough left to drag them. Came across
numerous deep places, which cost us much trouble to
get through. I found it a good thing dragging the
sledge over the shovel occasionally. Pitched tent for
lunch. Stubbs is perfectly easy, so he says, though I
daresay he does not feel as well as he wishes to make
out, as he puts a very good face on things in general.
After lunch, the Sergeant and Mann both gave in,
leaving five of us on the drag-ropes, Ayles and I
becoming permanent leading men. Did a very good
afternoon's work, considering all things. Temperature
down to plus 27°. We had the tent pitched by the
time the sick came up. Gums very tender, which
prevents the allowance of biscuit being eaten. It
will be observed, that it is the bluejackets who hang-
out— the marine, shipwright, and blacksmith being
disabled.

D 2

36 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA.

6 IQth. — Under weigh at 9.55, three invalids follow-
ing. Poor Stubbs requires all his courage and endurance.
Several times as we went on, Ayles and I sank nearly
up to our hips, but occasionally we came to long
stretches of good hard travelling, and we camped
abreast Point Moss at 9.30.

' 11th. — We are looking forward to news from the
ship as we draw near our depot, — something to give
us a change to the conversation, which tumbles into
the same groove pretty well every night. Eead the
Morning Service.

' After lunch, the travelling became much harder
and better, which enabled us to make a good journey,
and brought us abreast the Cape Colan depot at 11.30,
all very fagged. I walked up to it while the tent
was being pitched, with the intention of getting the
letters, &c., but I found Lieutenant Giffard had erected
such a magnificent structure, that I could make but
little impression on it, and contented myself with his
note, which I found attached to the staff.

6 There were several hare tracks round the cairn.
Good is thoroughly knocked up again, and can eat
nothing. Made good five miles.

' 1 2 th.— Temperature of the air 25°, in the tent 51°.
Left invalids in the tent. Eemainder of us up to the
depot, which was all right except the lime-juice jar
broken in the neck. Fortunately none of the contents
were spilt. Packed sledge, read news to the crew.
All hands glad to hear " Discovery " was all right, and
communication established. Their success with the
musk-oxen caused our mouths to water. We feel the
increased load very much, the sledge is heavier by 400

1876 ALDRICH'S RETURN JOURNEY. 37

Ibs., which, with the constants, brings up the total to
1,000 Ibs., or a load of 200 Ibs. per man.

4 ~L3th. — Breakfasted off 6 Ibs. of preserved meat
which had been forwarded with the depot. Everyone
relished the change, and ate well.

' A heavy fall of snow, and a dense fog puts an end
to my only chance of getting down the inlet. We have
not been fortunate in our weather as far as fog is
concerned. Took the collapsible boat off the sledge,
fitted her with drag-ropes, and with a light load gave
her in charge of the three worst invalids, who managed
to keep together and get along slowly, but causing us
to lose much time by waiting for them. Got on very
fairly till eight o'clock, when Good nearly fainted.
There appears to be utter inability to get breath, no
pain, and no difficulty to speak of in breathing when
at rest. The least exertion brings it on. I am half
afraid we shall not get on board without assistance, for
which either Ayles or myself will have to walk in. An
entirely lost day, one way and another. Made good
a mile and-a-half.

' Notwithstanding the sickness, the consumption of
food to-day has been very large.

' Uth. — Order of travelling the same as yesterday.
Snow hard and good, seldom letting one in above the
ankle. Pitched tent for lunch and to wait for invalids.

4 Made good way again after lunch, until within a
mile of Sail Harbour, when we came into the most
villainous snow, which caused nothing but standing
hauls. In this our comfort greatly depended on keep-
ing w^ay on the sledge, and our struggles to do so
would have been ludicrous to anyone nol engaged in

38 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. JUNE

them. Ayles and I leading, often got in nearly up to
our middles, we could not afford to stop hauling, which
we continued on hands and knees, until we got on to
a firmer footing, or came to a helpless standstill. For
us it was bad enough, but when the other three went
in, separately or altogether, they had barely time to
throw themselves clear of the runners. Made good
four and-a-half to five miles.

' Adam Ayles has not been very well to-day, the
effects of being trodden on by an invalid in getting out
of the tent last night. I could ill afford to lose his
services.

6 15^A. — Temperature inside the tent 67°. Mann
and Stubbs better. After reaching Sail Harbour we got
on with but little trouble, being delayed only by the sick
lagging behind. Waiting as we had to in a dense fog,
and with a cold east wind, was not comfortable after
the violent perspiration brought about by our exertions.
Halted at six for two hours. Under weigh at eight to
cross Parry Peninsula, but found the hill too steep for
the small amount of strength we could command. The
strongest of us carried the gear up, and in one hour
had advanced our whole baggage about a quarter of a
mile.

' IQth. — Under weigh at 2.55 A.M., actually of the
17th, and proceeded downhill with standing pulls
through deep soft snow. At last we reached the ice
in the small indentation on the east side of Parry
Peninsula, with very good travelling; thence up
another small rise which we got up a few yards at a
time, by constantly waiting for some one or other to
recover breath. However, all things come to an end,

1876 ALDRICH'S RETURN JOURNEY. 39

and on reaching the top of the hill I was glad to turn
the invalids off to their boat again.

c A lovely evening. Made good five to six miles.

' Ylth. — Started off the invalids ahead, while we
struck tent and packed sledge. The travelling in
splendid order. Temperature 21°.

' Overtook the invalids toiling drearily along by
the time we had cleared James Eoss Bay and begun
the overland route immediately south of Observation
Peak. We are singularly fortunate in the weather ;
there is a dense fog everywhere except in the valley
for which we are steering, some curious eddying of the
light air keeps it from settling there.

' Joseph Good and Doidge are at the drag-ropes,
but not pulling an ounce ; they are very plucky, but
utterly unable to do anything.

' With our small power we had a very heavy pull
up the incline, the snow on which was, however, in
beautiful condition, hard and slippery enough to cause
Ayles and myself 'often to lose our footing. Had it not
been so I really do not know what we could have
done.

' Halted at 8.40 for lunch and invalids. Despatched
invalids ahead — it is dreary work, such constant wait-
ing. Not being able to leave the sledge, I cannot go
on to see the road. I hope we shall come out all
right, but to me the route is new, and whether Giffard
tried it or not I do not know. Under weigh at 10.30,
and proceeded as in forenoon, stopping and waiting
continually. Camped at two, and I walked on to see
the route, which cost me three hours' heavy walking.
I was well repaid by finding it all clear, ^and much

40 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA, JUNE

preferable to the longer and more tortuous journey by
Guide Hill. Sighted Conical Hill, and having ascer-
tained my whereabouts, returned to the tent at five,
very tired and with a splitting headache, the effects of
a very powerful sun. Invalids arrived five minutes
after me, having occupied six hours and-a-half in
walking a distance we hauled the sledge slowly in two
hours and-a-quarter.

' Had we but one invalid, or perhaps two, we could
put them on the sledge. As it is, they must walk, or
give in altogether, in which case I must send Ayles on
from View Point Depot, trusting in his intelligence,
strength, and endurance to reach the ship and ask for
assistance. When I spoke to him on the subject, he
expressed his readiness to start, and I have every con-
fidence in the man ; he has been with me both in the
autumn and spring, and I cannot speak too highly of
him. Having the blessing of health, his assistance to
me throughout has been and is invaluable ; and the
anything but cheering circumstances in which we are
placed enables me fully to appreciate it. I keep an
anxious look-out on the weather, dreading the thaw
which must shortly set in, and which will soon render
the route between View Point and the ship very bad,
if not impassable.

' Sunday, 18 th. — Eead the Morning Service. Ee-
joicing in a cold morning, but it is thick and inclined
to snow. It is fortunate I walked ahead last night, as
we followed my tracks.. James Doidge collapsed soon
after starting, and having brought him to with a strong
dose of sal volatile, left him to come on with the others,
while Good, Mitchell, Ayles, and I marched on with

1876 ALDRICH'S RETURN JOURNEY. 41

the sledge, poor Good complaining bitterly we were
going too fast, and Mitchell scarcely able to put
one foot before the other. Halted for lunch and
invalids, and under weigh at 11.20 again. The
crew showed such evident signs of giving way to
their ever-increasing sickness, and that before we could
reach View Point, I took Good on one side, and told
them they must all try their hand at dragging again.
I explained the actual necessity there was for reaching
our next depot, and that, failing to meet anyone there,
I should communicate with the ship. To further im-
press this on the men, I loaded the collapsible boat to
130 Ibs., and absented myself with it from the party
for over an hour, leaving them to follow. I was able
to do this without getting far away, as the fog was
very dense.

' Having hit off the ravine just north of View Point,
I returned to the sledge, and found them hauling five
or six yards at a time, and then halting a few seconds
to recover breath. The poor fellows were all strug-
gling, and fully alive to the effort they had to make.
Nothing could exceed the patience and endurance
they showed ; and I fell in with them, and we reached
the boat and camped at 2.30 P.M. — the whole of them,
except Ayles, thoroughly done up. Under these cir-
cumstances pitching and cooking comes heavy. We
divided those duties, keeping to the usual turns for
cooking as often as it was possible for the proper man
to take it ; but our cuisine suffered.

' Made good three miles (overland).

' 19^A and 20^. — A great deal clearer than yester-
day, and the wind gone down.

42 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. JOTTE

' Travelling most excellent, fortunately, and the
ravine taking us down, so as to admit of the sledge
following with the least possible strain on the drag-
belts. As the Sergeant was exceedingly ill, and I did
not like the look of him at all, we put him on the
sledge, and I walked on with the boat well loaded.
Mitchell, Good, Doidge, and Ayles came with the
sledge. On coming to a little bit of level travelling,
which required more strain on the drag-ropes, I got
the Sergeant down, and supported him along while
I dragged the boat at the same time. There was
nothing for it but to go on very slowly, waiting as
they required, and urging on for the depot and ship
news ; but the fact of getting the latter does riot raise
their spirits, although the actual fact of getting it has
been more or less talked about all the homeward
journey. At seven came to View Point. Observed a
staff placed in the snow by Dr. Moss, which gave us
the intelligence that the Commander's party had
passed, but no particulars, the latter being left farther
on at the depot. We were glad to hear of their safe
return, but sorry they were before us, as we had half
hoped to have met with some assistance from them.
As events have become subsequently known, we should
not have benefited one another by meeting.

' Little by little we crept on, but eveiy moment
made our inability to go on for the ship without assist-
ance the more apparent.

' " There's a silver lining to every cloud," and
never did one appear so welcome as that which came
in the form of a shout from the hill above View' Point
and the discharge of a gun. It turned out to be

1876 ALDRICH MEETS LIEUT. MAY. 43

Malley, and what lie thought of my proceedings I
don't know, for with a yell of " Challenger " I dis-
appeared back among the hummocks, and returned to
the sledge where it was waiting for me to shackle on
again. My news was received with a shout, and
thinking it might be a shooting party, I promised them
hare for supper. I then left them to pitch their tent,
and walked in towards the shore. As I neared it,
among the hummocks, I met Lieutenant May and
Malley.

' On learning that they had been despatched to our
assistance by Captain Nares, on his seeing the condi-
tion of the Northern Party when they returned, the
relief to my mind I cannot describe. All difficulties
seemed to vanish ; and the very sight of the fine
healthy and " clean " appearance of our visitors led me
to look for a much more rapid and comfortable return
on board than I have thought about for some weeks.
I accompanied May to his tent at the depot, while
Malley went out to the men to lend them a hand in
pitching their tent and cooking, &c. As soon as pos-
sible we sent off Thornback with medical comforts for
their supper ; and I cautioned both him and Malley
about saying anything of the deaths which had oc-
curred during our absence, fearing the effect it might
have on the men.

4 1 was truly distressed to hear of the death of
my poor servant, George Porter, and Petersen ; and
I congratulated myself, and felt deeply grateful, that
we had arrived with all hands alive, if not well.

' Having arranged with May to send two hands to
help us along in the morning, and that the depot should

44 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. JUNE

be demolished, as a preconcerted signal to the Captain,
I returned to my tent, and found the " social baro-
meter " had risen several inches ; but I heard after-
wards that Malley was received with tears.

' 21^. — Under weigh at 9.45.

c The dog-sledge brought on the invalids by relays,
two at a time. This plan we continued until we
reached the ships ; the dogs and their blue-jacket
driver doing their hard work splendidly. As I feared
the inaction for the sick, I constantly made them do
some walking. The only exception I made to this
rule was in the case of the Sergeant, whom we kept
permanently on the " Challenger." It was now that we
observed with satisfaction the way in which my men
sought to relieve the dogs by walking themselves.
Mitchell did not get on the sledge at all, but trudged
on with great pluck and perseverance, Camped at 9.30
P.M. Eeaction has set in, and the excitement of yester-
day has given way to greater weakness and lowness of
spirits. Eegaled the crew with two pots of oysters,
apple jelly, and egg flips, much to their satisfaction.

' Made good and travelled eight miles.

' 22nd. — As I did not want my men to hear of
poor Porter's death, and his grave was a short distance
\ ahead on the floe, I sent Self on with the ostensible
object of carrying the five-man tent and baggage ahead
first, but really to remove the cross which marked the
spot. This he did, and returned to go on with the same
work as yesterday, advancing the sick two at a time.
Directed Self to replace the cross over the grave, which
was accordingly done.

'Travelling very good, except latter part of the

1876 ALDRICH'S RETURN JOURNEY. 45

day, when the snow became soft and the sledge very
dead in her movements. It is thawing fast in the sun,
but we did not pass through much sludge.

' Ayles has shown his first sign of weakness of limb
to-day ; strength of will remains as before. His
knee is rather swollen and stiff; he says he hit it
against a hummock, but it is the increased pace at
which we come. I know it taxes me to the utmost to
haul with the men we now have. Made good nine
miles.

4 23rd. — Arrived at Cape Richardson, and were
welcomed by Lieutenant Parr and Captain Feilden to
their tent ; they cooked for us, and gave us what we
had not tasted for many long days — hare and geese.
We all ate heartily of this fare, which, with the port
wine, made the invalids different men. .

' The travelling has been heavy, " One, two, three
haul ! " pretty constantly, and snow soft and sludgy,
above the knee in places. Temperature 35°. Made
good seven miles.

' 24:th. — Lunched off north end of Simmonds' Island
at eight. After lunch marched for the boats, which
we reached after four hours' very hard travelling,
through sludge and pools in places. The dogs and
Self had a very hard day, and the last of the invalids
did not reach the tent till two hours after us. No
fainting to-day, but the Sergeant is very, very weak
indeed, and there is no visible improvement in the
others. Ayles is better, but evidently touched with
the malady. The travelling is beginning to get very
bad, as we come to many places where the snow
looks sound enough, but in which we sink down till

46 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. JUNE

we come to water underneath. Temperature 35°.
Made good six miles.

' Sunday, June 25th. — Lunched in Eavine Bay,
and reached the tents on Mushroom Point about 3 P.M.
As we were now only six miles from the ships, and we
had reason to expect good travelling, we rested for
three hours in the tents already pitched, and I served
out the remainder of the medical comforts, which was
sufficient to give all the sick a very fair meal ; then,
after a short nap, we hauled the sledges over the land.
On reaching the next bay we found to our dismay that
the travelling was extremely bad, deep soft snow,
water in places, and sludge, through which we had
great difficulty with both sledges, the dogs being afraid
of water and useless in the deep snow. A fair fresh
breeze sprang up, to which we made sail, but it was
becoming apparent we would have to camp out another
night, when we sighted a sledge in the distance. This
turned out to be a volunteer party of officers and
men, with Captain Nares and Commander Mark-
ham, who soon hurried us on, and we reached the
ship just after midnight, amid the cheers and congratu-
lations of our shipmates. Adam Ayles and David
Mitchell in the drag-ropes, the latter allowed to
totter alongside in his belt, in consideration of his own
request.'

Lieutenant Aldrich having discovered that the con-
tinuous border of the heavy Polar pack extends for
a distance of two hundred miles towards the westward
from Floeberg Beach, and that at the farthest point
reached it was trending towards the south-west, demon-
strates that no land exists for a considerable distance

1876 ALDRIOH'S RETURN JOURNEY. 47

to the northward or westward, or within the reach of a
sledge expedition, however lightly equipped.

He also discovered that the entrances to all the
bays and harbours to the westward of Cape Joseph
Henry were so barred by the Polar ice- wall that the
ice on the inshore side of it is unable to escape to
seaward during the summer. Consequently, should the
pack move away from the shore-ice with a southerly
wind, which we must suppose to happen occasionally,
and a vessel succeed in passing to the westward of the
Cape, the only protection that ' can be hoped for will
be that afforded by an accidental break in the con-
tinuity of the ice-wall — she must not expect to find
any harbour open.

Lieutenant Beaumont, whose journey along the
North Greenland shore is described in a succeeding
chapter, likewise found that there the heavy barrier of
ice which leaves the land near Cape Bryant, and trends
in the direction of Cape Britannia, prevents the ice
in the bays and fiords from clearing out ; a ship, there-
fore, cannot hope to find any protection on either of
these ice-bound shores.

The description of the level plateau of uncertain
formation which borders the northern shore of Grinnell
Land ; whether of ice or soil, but probably alternate
layers of the two, formed by the debris brought down by
summer torrents being spread out above the unmelted
ice, bears a remarkable resemblance to that described
.by Sir Leopold M'Clintock and Mecham in 1853, as
existing on the western shore of Prince Patrick Island ;
I therefore conclude that both coasts are equally
exposed to and affected by the heavy ice. On the

48 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. JUNE

other hand, as only light ice was met with on the
northern shores of the Parry Islands by Sir George
v Eichards, Sherard Osborn, and Sir Edward Belcher,
* 0 I conclude that Grinnell Land does not turn to the
southward at Aldrich's Farthest, but rather extends
more or less continuously for the whole distance to
Ireland's Eye, protecting the Parry Islands from the
Polar ice ; whether its north-western coast-line bor-
dering the Polar Sea runs nearly direct or not can
only be conjectured.

Our knowledge regarding Jones Sound is not great ;
but we know that the flow of warm water from the
southward up Baffin's Bay is to be met with close
outside its entrance, and that the tidal currents inside
are strong. Further, Sir Edward Inglefield met with
Polar ice when navigating inside the sound in 1852.
It is therefore probable that Jones Sound affords the
most direct route leading from Baffin's Bay in a north-
westerly direction to the Polar Sea, and that it separates
Aldrich's Farthest from the land which protects the
Parry Islands.

The results of the two sledge journeys of Markham
and Aldrich, one towards the north over the heavy
pack, and the other following the coast-line towards
the westward, considered with the fact that the birds
do not migrate farther towards the north than the
neighbourhood of Cape Joseph Henry, lead me to con-
— elude that no land exists for a distance of at least
two hundred miles to the northward.

The following lines were composed by Mr. Pullen
after the return of the travellers : —

1876 RETURN OF THE SLEDGE JOURNEYS. 49

WELCOME home to the wished-for rest,
Traveller to North, and traveller to West !
Welcome back from bristling floe,
Frowning cliff, and quaking snow !
Nobly, bravely, the work was done ;
Inch by inch was the hard fight won :
Now the toilsome march is o'er —
Welcome home to our tranquil shore !

Rough and rude is the feast we bring ;

Rougher and ruder the verse we sing.

Not rough, not rude, are the thoughts that rise

To choke our voices and dim our eyes,

As we call to mind that joyous sight

On an April morning cold and bright,

When a chosen band stepped boldly forth

To the unknown West and the unknown North \

And we from our haven could only pray —

' God send them strength for each weary day ! '

He heard our prayer — He made them strong —

He bore their stalwart limbs along ;

Planted their sturdy footsteps sure ;

Gave them courage to endure.

Taught them, too, for His dear sake,

Many a sacrifice to make :

By many a tender woman's deed

To aid a brother in his need.

And safe for ever shall He keep
In His gentle hand the two who sleep.
His love shall quench thev tears that flow
For the buried dear ones under the snow.
And we, who live and are strong to do —
His love shall keep us safely, too :
Shall tend our sick, and soothe their pain,
And bring them back to health again.
And the breath of His wind shall set us free,
Through the opening ice to the soft green sea.
VOL. II. E

50 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. JUNE

CHAPTEE II.

DECIDE TO RETURN SOUTH — SETTING-IN OF THE THAW — MUSK-OXEN
SHOT — INCREASE AND DECREASE OF POLAR FLOES — FORMATION

OF PEN-KNIFE ICE DISRUPTION OF FLOES — CHARR — GREENLAND

ICE-CAP DRIFT-WOOD — ARCTIC FLOWERING PLANTS * ALERT '

STARTS FOR DISCOVERY BAY.

THE return of the travellers to the ' Alert ' so com-
pletely broken down in health naturally caused me
much anxiety. Out of fifty-three men on board,
twenty-seven were under treatment for decided scurvy,
four others were slightly affected, and eight had only
lately recovered ; five men were in a doubtful state of
health from the same or other causes, leaving only
nine who in addition to the officers could be depended
on for hard work.

Our great desire was to endeavour to obtain fresh
meat for the invalids, and the officers diligently scoured
the neighbourhood in hopes of procuring game. A
small supply of mutton which had remained frozen
in the rigging during the winter had fortunately been
saved ; this, with the birds obtained from time to time,
enabled Dr. Golan to give the scurvy-stricken patients
a fair change of diet, on which their health rapidly
improved.

Although I confidently looked forward to the in-
valids being speedily restored to health, yet when I con-

1876 RESULTS OF THE SLEDGE JOURNEYS. 51

sidered the magnitude of the outbreak, T felt that it
was my first duty to guard against its repetition.
Accordingly I determined to give up all further ex-
ploration, and to proceed to the southward with both
ships as soon as the ice should break up and release us.

I was confirmed in this resolution when I considered
the results of the spring exploration. Owing to the
absence of land to the northward, and the impenetrable
character of the Polar pack, it was evident that the
ship could not be taken any appreciable distance
farther in that direction than the latitude which we
had already gained ; and also that it was quite im-
possible to reach the Pole by sledging from any position
thus attainable by the ship.

The sole result that we could possibly expect to
gain by remaining on the shores of the Polar Sea
would be an extension of our explorations a few miles
farther in an east and west direction. But I could not
reasonably hope to advance the travelling parties more
than about fifty miles beyond the extreme points
already reached, even should the men be fit for ex-
tended journeys in the following year. The primary
object of the Expedition — reaching the North Pole-
being thus unattainable, I considered that I was not
justified in risking a second winter, which in all human
probability would entail loss of life.

At this time I had but slight anxiety concerning the
health of the men who were exploring the northern
coast of Greenland, fully expecting that Lieutenant
Beaumont would be able to obtain enough game
to insure his party from an attack of scurvy. The
number of musk-oxen procured by the crew of the

E 2

52 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. JPNE

' Polaris ' in Hall Land was sufficient to justify this
expectation.

' 2Qth. — A south-westerly gale having raised the
temperature to 40°, the thaw is making rapid progress
on both the ice and the land, and the icicles, which
only two days ago so gracefully draped each floeberg
and hid the original ice-block from view, have dis-
appeared as if by magic. A few ducks and geese are
flying about evidently wishing to settle in the neigh-
bourhood ; the sportsmen have decided not to molest
them for a few days, in the hope of their nesting near us.

' The tidal-crack near Cape Eawson has opened
ten feet ; this is the first sign that we have seen of a
movement in the pack.

' After the long silence on the lower-deck it is
pleasant to hear Aldrich playing the piano again in his
usual cheerful manner.

4 29th. — With the exception of a few deep snow-
drifts which still remain among the hummocks, the
snow has now all melted from above the one season's
ice, and the water has run off' through the tidal-cracks.
On shore the brows of the hills have become bare, but
the snow on the high flat lands and that on the aged
Polar floes remains apparently little affected. In the
" Gap of Dunloe " a stream of water fifty feet across
is running. At high- water it overflows the ice-floe
in the neighbourhood where the stream discharges into
the sea.

' July \st. — All the ravines are now running freely,
but they are still fordable. The pleasing noise of
running water, with the occasional call of a bird,

1876 SUMMER DRESS. 53

which has now taken the place of the winter silence,
is most agreeable, and we linger in the neighbourhood
of the ravines purposely to listen to the welcome
sound. To-day Parr shot two ducks and a brent-
goose— a very acceptable supply, as the last piece of the
fresh meat was issued this morning.

' The invalids may be said to live on the upper-
deck ; all those who cannot walk are carried up every
morning. They are recovering very rapidly.

' 3rd. — I walked over the hills towards Black Cliff
with Giffard and Conybeare. We fully expected to
see a few seal on the ice in Kobeson Channel, but
nothing living was in sight. The temperature ranges
between 35° and 40° in the shade, but we find it very
warm in the sun both day and night.

' Our dress now consists only of a vest, a flannel shirt
and worsted sleeve waistcoat ; flannel drawers, cricket-
ing trousers and knee-boots, with a light flannel cap.
When once the shore is reached ankle-boots and
gaiters are preferable to the knee-boots. The snow,
although deep and soft enough to reach nearly to the
knees, is not very wet.

' Mh. — Adam Ayles is out of the sick list to-day.
Yesterday another of Markham's men returned to duty.

' We notice, like in the autumn, a pulsation in the
tidal-wave as shown in any hole in the ice, the water
rising and falling continually with irregular intervals
lasting about two minutes. Dr. Moss has discovered
a bed of sea- weed which was evidently thrown up on
the shore last season. Having been frozen ever since,
it now appears quite fresh ; mixed with it are numerous
Crustacea, chiefly Arcturus and Nymphon, with shells of

54 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. JULY

Trochus and Cylickna. This sea- weed lias been torn
from the bottom by the grounding floebergs, and
floated on to the shore. If we had an opportunity of
letting down a dredge in a depth of a hundred fathoms,
or where it has not been disturbed by grounding ice,
doubtless we should find the sea-bottom abounding
with animal and vegetable life, though confined to a
few species.

6 5£A. — Great rejoicings this morning — Parr having
shot three musk-oxen with two bullets and three wire
cartridges out of a smooth-bore fowling-piece. Sight-
ing the animals when about two miles distant from the
ship, he sent a man on board with the news. A large
party started off immediately to surround them ; but
before we arrived, Parr had crept close up and killed
one with the first shot ; the others standing by their
comrade, as musk-oxen always do, were then easily
despatched without assistance being required. Within
an hour they were skinned, cleaned, and quartered.
They were small animals, a young bull and two cows.
The three carcases weighed 350 Ibs. Each had a
white mane of long soft wool, the remains of their
winter coat ; it readily came away when pulled, the
long black hair remaining firm.

4 The animals appear to have come from the south-
west, and we most earnestly hope that they are the
forerunners of a larger herd.

' 6th. — This morning a solitary bull musk-ox was
seen near the ship and shot by Dr. Moss, giving us
212 Ibs. more fresh meat. The flesh appears excellent,
but is very lean and not equal to that of the fat oxen
killed last autumn. This animal came north along the

1876 WATER-POOLS ON THE ICE. 55

brow of the coast-hills, and probably belonged to the
same herd as those shot yesterday by Parr.

6 Poor Bruin, the dog that has performed such good
work in dragging fresh-water ice to the ship from the
quarry, was to day found drowned, having probably
fallen into the water in a fit.

' The water-pools on the surface of the old Polar
floes are not increasing in size to the same extent as
those on the younger ice. On ice formed from water
newly frozen over during the previous season the
surface is so level that when the thaw first commences
the water from the melted snow collects in one vast
sheet many acres in extent, until at last it runs off
through holes or cracks in the ice. The snow on the
surface of an old floe, affected only superficially by the
heat rays of the sun, and not appreciably so by the
temperature of the water below, does not melt nearly
so quickly, and owing to the very uneven surface
the snow-water collects only in the hollows, and
presents a totally different appearance from that of the
large seas of water which are met with early in the
season on smooth ice.

' Since the first melting of the snow we observe that
several of the floebergs near the mouths of the large
ravines are covered in parts by pebbles and debris
carried down by the rapid streams.

' The fresh- water at a temperature slightly above
32° readily melts all the sea- water ice with which it
comes in contact, and smooths off the upper surfaces of
the floebergs, leaving a level icy floor, above which the
stream spreads itself out and deposits a thick horizontal
layer of rounded pebbles which it has transported from

56 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR ^EA. JTJLY

the higher lands. We had previously supposed that
the mounds of pebbles met with formed part of the
actual shore, but the tidal movement has lately tilted
some of the pieces of ice and so displayed the lower
stratum below the gravel.

' Lightened as such floebergs are by the melting
away of the original upper surface, since they were
forced high up on shore, many of them must be floated
off to sea when the ice breaks up, carrying with them
their cargo of rounded pebbles.

' The marks which were placed in the floe to ascer-
tain how much the ice would decay during the winter
by superficial evaporation, and which proved to be
nil, indicate to-day that ten inches of the upper
surface has melted or evaporated during the last
fourteen days. Many lost articles which have remained
buried during the winter are therefore now again ap-
pearing in sight.

* Similar marks fixed in a floeberg show that seven
inches of ice has decayed from the upper surface and
nearly as much from its southern face. The rounding
off of the sharp edges is therefore very considerable.
Had we known of this during the autumn, we could
readily have ascertained which floebergs had been
recently stranded and which had been subject to a
previous summer's thaw.

' Although the decay of the ice near us far exceeds
our expectations, the large expanse of surface in
the Polar pack would not be affected to so great an
extent ; nevertheless, the evidence is in favour of the
superficial decay of the North Polar ice being at least
equal to, if not greater than, any possible increase

187tt GROWTH OF POLAR ICE. 57

which may take place on its surface by the change of
the snow into ice or otherwise.

' If the ice increases superficially it is difficult to
account for the absence of annual lines of stratifi-
cation, or a thick stratum of pure fresh-water ice on
the upper surface of the floes. In no case have we
found the layer of fresh-water ice to be more than
about two feet in thickness. It is only to be found
in the hollows on the surface of a floe ; the ice at
the highest parts, above where the water produced
by the melting of the snow would naturally collect, is
invariably more or less brackish.

' Wherever a piece of a floe has been turned on its
side, and when in that position become re-frozen into
the pack, that part of its former upper surface which
was composed of fresh- water ice changes its character
and becomes brackish ice and appears as a vertical
vein running through the newly formed floe ; such
veins never present the decided blue tint which is so
frequently to be seen in an iceberg where a crack in
the parent glacier has become filled with frozen water.

' There is, however, evidence that the layer of snow
on the surface of the ice does become changed into ice
under certain circumstances. On one of the large
floebergs in the pack near the ship a quantity of debris
ice had become piled up to a height of eighteen feet
above the snow layer of a previous season, which was
about two feet in thickness. In March the snow
immediately under the piled up hummocks had become
changed into ice while that left uncovered remained
unchanged. Although no measurement was obtained
the thickness of the layer which had changed its for-

58 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. JULY
«

mation was apparently the same as that of the original
snow layer. Unfortunately a sample was not obtained,
and I cannot say whether the ice was brackish or not,
but I think that it was so and that the change had
taken place by the percolating downwards of the salt
brine from the ice above, as noticed in other floebergs.

' On the whole I conclude that the Polar ice in-
creases in thickness below and not superficially, and by
the natural freezing of the water at its lower surface
during the winter. As before mentioned, a Polar
floe only one year old is composed, not of ordinary
ice frozen on the surface of a space of water, but
of a quantity of conglomerate ice pressed together by
the general movement of the pack and then frozen into
a floe ten or twelve feet and upwards in thickness ; and
to whatever thickness such a formation is continued
the freezing and consolidation of the whole into a
compact mass of ice takes place at all depths, for it is
remarkable that only once have we found a cavity
denoting where a hollow, left when the pieces com-
posing the floe were first pressed together, has not
become filled up. In more southern latitudes, where
such cold water is not found at the same depth, similar
cavities remain unchanged.

' In the middle of each of the large shore lakes we
find very thick ancient ice ; whether it is frozen to the
bottom or not we have no means of ascertaining ; but
it is apparently immovable by the wind. Near the
shore the inpour of heated water during the summer is
sufficient to prevent its growth at a less depth than
eight feet. During the winter the ice newly formed
near the border of the lake by the natural freezing of

1876 FROZEN LAKES. 59

the water only attains a thickness of about seven feet.
Last winter the mean temperature of the atmosphere
for two months was as low as minus 39°, more than
seventy degrees colder than the quiescent water left-
unfrozen below the ice.

4 To what extent the seven feet of ice and its cover-
ing, two feet in depth, of such a slow conductor as
snow, prevents the escape of warmth from the water
below, which must take place before the ice can form,
is an interesting question. During the winter a ther-
mometer buried eighteen inches in the frozen ground
registered a minimum temperature of minus 12°. For
fifty-three consecutive days the mean temperature of
the air was minus 44° ; which gives the large difference
of 32° as being due to eighteen inches of frozen soil
and ice.'

Doctor Moss, a very careful observer, after a close
study of the Polar floes, differs from me regarding their
formation. As the subject is highly interesting I
append the following remarks which express his con-
clusions : —

' The neve-like stratification, the imbedded atmo-
spheric dust, and the chemical characters of our Polar
floes indicate, in my opinion, that they are the accu-
mulated snow-fall of ages rendered brackish by infil-
tration and efflorescence.

6 Until Sir George Nares showed me the part of his
MS. treating of the growth of the Polar floes, I had no
idea that the universality of their stratification would
be at all called in question. My notes were, therefore,
not made to prove this point, and yet I find amongst
them nine sketches made from nature of floebergs in

60 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. JULY

the neighbourhood of H.M.S. " Alert's" winter-quarters,
and four sketched on sledge journeys, all showing
stratification. The lower part of the floes did not
exhibit stratification, and consequently a few apparent
exceptions occurred in overturned or much tilted floe-
bergs. Some authorities, such as Wrangell (" Wrangell,"
edited by Sabine, appendix) and Belcher (" Last of the
Arctic Voyages," p. 101) have attributed the thickness
and the stratification of ice seen by them to the sliding
up of one floe over another ; but in our ice, the extent
and evenness of the stratification, and the invariable
progressive reduction in the depth of the strata from
above downward to their final disappearance below
precisely as in glacier neve, cannot be thus accounted
for.

' The saltness of the Polar floes, notwithstanding
the (I think) irresistible evidence of their growth by
annual snow-fall, is to be accounted for by infiltration
and freezing of sea water as the spongy snow-ice sinks
season by season, and to a very large extent by the.
rapid diffusion of briny efflorescence from frozen sea-
water crushed up in cracks. We often had uncomfort-
able evidence of this diffusion in our sledging tea.

' In April and May the passage of snow into ice was
experimentally determined to take place through the
growth of the deeper, and therefore colder, crystals
at the expense of the superficial. Later on an inverse
process helps the wind to harden the surface snow into
a layer which remains distinct from succeeding
snowfalls.

' The birthplace and nursery of Polar floes is not,
in my opinion, near land, because in our experience

1&76 DR. MOSS ON POLAR ICE. 61

waste exceeds growth near shores. The great " domed "
floes tell of gradual decay, because whenever we got
a section of them the horizontal strata were cut by the
outline of the domes, and the ice of the top of the
dome was invariably salt.

' Occasionally deposits of atmospheric dust were to
be met with throughout the stratified ice, sometimes
scattered in very minute points which, when examined,
proved to be air-cells coated with the impalpable dust
sometimes occurring in comparatively conspicuous
quantities in lines cutting the stratification and marking
what had once been the bottom of a " superglacial
lake." (Parry, Fourth Voyage.)

' Similar dust was to be found on the present
surface of the floes occasionally greatly magnified in
appearance by the growth amongst it of an Alga,
identified by Professor Dickie as Nostoc aureum. The
dust often occurred in little granules, so that in mass it
formed an oolite. Opposite the Humboldt Glacier I
obtained similar oolitic dust, but totally devoid of Alga,
from the melted ice of a large iceberg stratified with
innumerable perfectly parallel strata only four inches
in depth. All the specimens of ice-dust obtained by
me from the floebergs are undoubtedly the air-carried
debris of crystalline rock not traceable to the neigh-
bouring shore.'

During one of Dr. Moss's journeys he met with a
very large floeberg, which had been forced up by
pressure on a shallow bank close to William's Island ;
he thus describes it : —

' It deserves special mention as a type of its class.
It stood, a huge rectangular mass, forty feet high

62 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. JULY

above the floe. Its lower fifteen feet were of un-
stratiiied blue ice, enclosing yellow patches of surface
salt-water diatomaceae between spaces of ice with their
lines of air-cells differently inclined. The remaining
twenty-five feet was banded with eighteen of the usual
white and blue horizontal layers — white where the ice
is spongy with air-cells, blue in the denser layers above
and below. The height was too great to detect
" dust-bands." Above all, and covered only by the
surface-snow, were sections in olive-tinted ice of what
had once been surface-pools.'

It is a question with me whether this may not
have been a piece of ice formed in an enclosed sea like
Clements Markham Inlet, where the floes do probably
increase superficially.

In Captain Markham's journey over the Polar pack
during the spring, he and Lieutenant Parr were
directed to endeavour to obtain information concern-
ing the creation and yearly change of the aged floes,
and to ascertain, if possible, whether the surface-snow
became transformed into ice or not either by pres-
sure or otherwise. On their return Captain Markham
reported as follows : —

' The opportunities for observations in the trans-
formation of snow into ice on the surface of the floes
were rare, and only occurred when a floe appeared to
have been recently broken up, arid without having had
hummocks and snow-drifts piled round its edges. In
these cases, the section of the snow was as sharp as that
of the ice, and followed all its irregularities.

'Lieutenant Parr was most assiduous in his re-
searches into this interesting subject, and I am much

1876 GROWTH OF POLAR ICE. 63

indebted to him for placing at my disposal the infor-
mation he acquired on this matter.

' The general depth of the snow was from two and-
a-half to three feet, the upper portion, underneath the
surface crust, consisting of loose grains of about the size
of rifle fine-grain powder, and without the least co-
herency ; these gradually increased in size, till about
two-thirds of the way down they were as large as rifle
large-grain powder, but still separate. Below this,
however, the grains began to unite and to form very
porous ice, till, at the actual point of junction with the
floe, it was very difficult to draw the line of demar-
cation. In all cases the ice on the surface of the floes
had evidently been formed in the same manner, for it
was full of air holes, though not nearly to so great an
extent as that which was in process of formation.

' The conversion of snow into ice was not confined
to the surface of the heavy floes, for in making our
roads through the hummocks, we frequently came
across pieces of snow- ice which had been formed round
some of them, and used it for cooking purposes.

' Digging down into the snow gave the same results,
for we could always get the porous ice, and found it
very convenient for cooking. On one occasion the
surface of a small floe on which we were encamped
was composed of separate pieces of ice, about the size
of a penknife, placed end up, and covered with snow,
but without apparently being joined together in the
slightest degree.

6 In one case, also, we found a section of a drift
seven feet thick at the highest point, which was divided
into three equal parts by two layers of ice half an

64 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. JULY

inch thick ; the lower portion being nearly converted
into ice, the middle not to such an extent, while the
upper had only just commenced. On some of the
floes large isolated pieces of ice would be protruding,
and in these cases, when tried for cooking purposes,
were found perfectly fresh ; though they must evidently
have originally been salt, and had no appearance of
having had snow drifted up round them, which must
either have been the case, or else the briny matter
must have melted out of them during previous summers
and left that which was fresh. How far the thaw
affected the snow on the floes we could not tell, for
though the hummocks had got soft before we were
clear of them, the snow seemed to be very little
affected.'

4 1th. — As the land becomes bare of snow, pieces of
drift-wood are exposed to view, and tracks of musk-
oxen are common ; but as a footstep once formed
in the mud would take many years before it became
obliterated, they do not lead us to hope that we shall
be visited by much game.

' This afternoon we have experienced our first
shower of rain this season. The carpenters are em-
ployed caulking the upper-deck ; the seams above
those parts of the lower-deck which remained dry
during the winter are very open.

' 9th. — The temperature of the sea-surface was
observed to be 32°'4 ; at a depth of six and nine feet,
31 °- 8 ; between twelve feet and the bottom in twelve
fathoms it was 29°*0. The very marked change of
nearly two degrees between the water at a depth of
nine and that at twelve feet is evidently due to the

1876 CAPE SHERIDAN WATER-COURSE. 65

meeting of the fresh- water running off the melting ice
and the sea-water.

' In all the open cracks a feathery efflorescence is
observed clinging to the ice below the surface of the
water. As the warm snow-water at a slight depth
becomes cooled through meeting with the cold sea-
water below it, fine ice crystals are formed, which con-
tinually rise to the surface in sufficient quantities to
form a thin superficial layer of ice, which must be con-
stantly melting and being replenished with ice rising
from below.

' IQth. — On this day Dr. Hayes broke out of winter-
quarters at Port Foulke, the earliest day that any ship
has ever cleared the ice.

' The pack-ice has now become completely detached
from the grounded ice, and only waits for the general
break-up. An open or close season depends entirely
on the strength of the prevailing winds at this period :
every southerly gale will bring the navigable water
nearer to us. In 1853 no water was visible from the
winter-quarters of the " Eesolute " at Melville Island
until the 17th of August ; but this is the latest date
that any vessel has been ice-locked unless the pack
remained fast the whole season.

< \\tti. — We are watering the ship by pumping
from a shore stream. A large shooting-party left for
the neighbourhood of Dumbell Lakes ; they expe-
rienced great trouble in crossing the Cape Sheridan
Eavine, the stream being two feet deep and eighty feet
in breadth, and running with great velocity. At its
mouth the sea-wall is so solid that the water cannot
escape directly to the sea, but is deflected towards the
VOL. n. F

66 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. JULY

south for about a quarter of a mile before it can force
a passage for itself. The debris brought down by the
torrent is being deposited on the land side of the ice
wall as a raised beach, and it apparently accumulates
as readily above ice as above gravel. Wherever it
does so to more than about a foot in thickness — the
limited depth of the summer thaw — there the ice must
remain and become a component part of the raised
beach.*

Dr. Ninnis, at Discovery Bay, on the 23rd of June
succeeded in sinking a shaft, five feet deep, at a
position twenty feet above the sea-level, and about fifty
yards inshore, in order to lay an earth thermometer.
After cutting his way through four feet of fragments of
rock and pebbles, he came to a layer of solid fresh-
water ice, into which a hole was picked for a depth of
one foot without reaching the bottom of the stratum
of ice.

' While the formation of a raised beach inside of
the ice-formed compact sea-wall stretching along the
shore is very evident, it is difficult to explain why, with
a gradual and continuous rise of the land, such ancient
formations are afterwards met with as a series of
steps ; but as the height of each step increases, and the
number decrease with the increasing steepness of the
shore, probably the beaches now exposed are only
that part of the original accumulation not carried
down to a lower level or worn away by the weather.

' In addition to the boulders and debris which fall
from the cliffs during the thaw, and those washed down
by the summer torrents, which by collecting inside of
the ice- wall form a raised terrace with a steep drop to

1876 FORMATION OF A RAISED BEACH. 67

seaward, each heavy piece of the passing ice planes off
the sea floor immediately outside of the wall, and thus
assists in the first formation of the step.

' The thaw in the neighbourhood of the United
States Eange is considerably in advance of that in this
neighbourhood. Here the purple saxifrage is now in
blossom, and the sloping grounds are fairly carpeted
with its bright patches. The Arctic plants that have
been sheltered during the winter by the snow have
their seed-pods left on them ; seeds are therefore
readily obtainable. A few patches of dwarf sorrel are
commencing to sprout, and grasses are appearing in
very favoured places.

4 Mr. White has shot a snowy owl, and brought on
board its six young ones and one egg from the nest.'

At Discovery Bay seven owlets were obtained on
the 29th of June. These birds were kept alive and
thrived well, being fed on preserved meat and a few
boatswain birds which happened to be obtainable at
the time, until the damp weather was met with on the
passage home, when they all died.

' ~L2th. — A crack in the ice half a mile in length,
extending to the north-east from Cape Eawson, was
observed by Dr. Moss.

' Our complexions are now very different from their
blanched appearance during the winter. Owing to the
constant sunlight and intense glare, we are as brown as
if we had been exposed to a tropical sun. It is remark-
able how considerably the constant sunlight had
bleached the hair on the travellers' faces during the
recent journeys.

4 152/1.— -Owing to the danger of being carried off

f 2

68 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. JULY

our feet by the stream when attempting to ford the
Cape Sheridan Ravine. I have caused a boat to be
moored with lines to either shore for the help of any-
one crossing.

* Mr. Egerton left with a strong party of men to
bring back the two boats advanced last autumn, but
which have not been used. He will make easy
journeys, as several of the men are convalescents and
have been sent in the hope of their obtaining fresh
meat.

4 To-day there was a very slight motion towards
the east in the outer pack.'

On the 8th of July Captain Stephenson observed
pools of water in Hall's Basin and Lady Franklin
Sound. On the 15th Lieutenant Fulford crossed Hall's
Basin from Polaris to Discovery Bay, and found the ice
stationary until he arrived within two miles of the
west shore ; there he came to broken-up ice in motion,
across which he had a difficulty in reaching the shore
with his sledge crew.

On the 18th St. Patrick's Bay was nearly clear of
ice, and on the 20th pools of water were seen extend-
ing across Kennedy Channel from Joe Island to Cape
Lieber.

« ~L6th. — The water which last week was observed
to have collected in pools on the aged Polar floes has
now drained off. In the hollows there is left a
columnar structure like the "penknife ice" of Sir
Edward Parry, and that described by Sir John
Eichardson as formed on the surface of fresh-water
ice by the summer thaw. The columns are from one
to six inches in height, but as large collections of snow

1876 PENKNIFE ICE. 69

are still left unmelted, and the ice has not ceased drain-
ing, this measurement will probably be increased. Sir
Edward Parry, in 1827, met with some fourteen inches
in length on the 12th of July, and eighteen inches in
length on the 16th of July.

'While the formation of "penknife ice" is thus
very apparent, a somew^hat similar formation is taking
place as the snow decays by reflected heat.

' Early in the spring, wherever the stratification of
the snow covering a floe had become exposed at a
newly formed crack, the lower portion of the snow was
observed to have granulated, the grains collecting
together perpendicularly, the lower ones being the
largest and leaving intermediate air-spaces ; the whole
structure giving promise that during the summer it
would assume the columnar appearance like the so-
called " penknife ice," which the surface of many of the
Polar floes showed had been formed during a previous
season.'

While the surface of the floes usually consisted of
slightly brackish compact ice, in many cases we found
it composed of vertical columns of brackish ice half an
inch in diameter and about twelve inches in height,
rising from a foundation of solid ice, and having light
snow intermixed with them ; these were supported at
the top by a thin horizontal network of ice, and the
whole covered with the usual layer of snow, varying in
thickness according to the locality.

' In a few cases we observed a double set of such
inverted icicle-like columns, one above the other,
divided by a horizontal layer of clear ice about four
inches in thickness, and containing air-drops. In the

70 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. JULY

compact ice the dust-line was in all cases below the
lowest line of columns. All the ice of this and a similar
nature in the neighbourhood of Floeberg Beach melted
quickly immediately the thaw had removed the upper
stratum of snow. But in the Polar pack where the
snow does not all melt during the summer, the same
formation, if protected, may outlast the season.

' 17th. — From the summit of Cape Eawson we can
observe three cracks in the ice extending from the
shore to a distance of about four miles towards the
north-east, where they are lost to sight. This indicates
a decided movement in the ice, and we are wondering
whether the final break-up will come from the south-
ward up Eobeson Channel or from the eastward round
the north of Greenland.

" There is very little snow left unmelted on the
hillsides facing Eobeson Channel, and the ravines are
running much slower. Charr have been discovered in
the lake at Cape Sheridan. They are feeding on black
midges wrhich are lying on the surface of the water in
such large numbers that the fish will not rise to any
other bait. Feilden and Parr returned from a shooting
excursion to the north-west. The former has made a
rich collection, but has not succeeded in finding the
wished-for nest of the knot. A considerable quan-
tity of drift-wood has been met with on the beaches of
each bay open towards the north-west, as we expected
would be the case.

' 18th. — Our invalids are improving fast ; there are
now only twenty-two under Dr. Colan's care, eight of
whom are confined to bed. A large party of con-
valescents hauled the seine in the Cape Sheridan Lake,

1876 BREAK UP OF THE PACK. 71

and succeeded in catching forty-three charr, weighing
in all about seven pounds — a very good haul ; like
every other dainty they were given to the sick.

' l$th. — The pack is very slightly in motion ; a
crack has formed parallel with the shore at a distance
of half a mile. The temperature of the water at the
surface was 3 2° '5 ; between a depth of nine feet and
the bottom in forty-six fathoms it was 29°.

'Dr. Moss shot a hare and two geese, a very
welcome addition to the fresh provisions. During the
last few days the convalescents have been able to
gather a small daily ration of dwarf sorrel sufficient for
their sick comrades.

' 20th. — I started for Cape Union to look at the
state of the ice in Eobeson Channel ; Parr and Giffard,
with Frederick and the dogs, accompanied me.

' Although we travelled when it was low-water in
order to obtain as dry a road as possible inside the ice-
barrier, we had hard work to get the very light sledge
along, having to travel for nearly half the journey over
either wet snow or the gravel itself.

' As we opened Eobeson Channel we found that
although the pack in the offing was stationary, between
it and the land the ice for a breadth of nearly a mile
was broken up and moving slowly with the tide, nipping
against the shore-hummocks and the outer pack. Parr
shot two dovekies in a pool of water about a mile
south of Cape Eawson. With the exception of a single
example seen by Feilden in lat. 82° 30' N. these are
the only ones we have observed in the neighbourhood
of winter-quarters. Seven geese and a hare were shot

72 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. JULY

near Black Cape ; three young geese newly hatched
were seen near the nests.

' After being detained by a fog for a few hours,
Giffard and I ascended Cape Union, and from the
summit, 1,600 feet above the sea, obtained a mag-
nificent and extended view. The atmosphere being
unusually clear — the precursor of a coming storm—
Cape Cracroft and Cape Bryant, the two cliffy portals of
Kennedy Channel, sixty and seventy-five miles distant,
were distinctly visible. The ice in Hall's Basin and
Robeson Channel had evidently only just commenced
to break up, for in mid-channel it still remained
compact ; but on either side, between the pack and
the land, was a border of broken-up floes about two
miles in breadth. Water- pools were to be seen off
Cape Brevoort, Cape Lupton, and all the prominent
points towards the south, and a strong w^ater-sky over
Kennedy Channel.

' There were also a few disconnected water-pools
near the land in the neighbourhood of Cape Stanton
and in the northern pack ; these would denote that the
disruption in the ice had come both from the north-
east and the southward at about the same time.

' A decided ice-cap was observed above the land
at the bottom of Newman Bay ; also one inshore of
Cape Britannia, far away towards the north-east.

' In the evening the wind freshened from the west-
ward and forced the ice away from the west coast,
leaving a water-channel, about half a mile in breadth,
extending from Cape Eawson southward to an un-
known distance. In the neighbourhood of the ship

1876 MUSK-OXEN SHOT. 73

the ice outside the barrier of floebergs moved off for
about fifty yards.

' As each floeberg must have been considerably
lightened by the summer's thaw, they are now liable
to be forced in nearer towards the land by the first
decided pressure. I am consequently rather anxious
about the ship ; however, the ice between her and the
land is so much decayed that I doubt its being able to
damage her much ; but if forced up on shore we shall
have heavy work with our few able-bodied men.

' 23rd. — The invalids are continuing their recovery,
but slowly : there are yet twenty men under the
doctor's care, ten of whom are more or less confined
to their beds — one wholly so. While returning to the
ship yesterday, the rough gravel road over which we
were obliged to journey, between the ice-foot and the
cliffs, after first wearing out the steel runners, com-
pletely destroyed the sledge by the time we had arrived
within a quarter of a mile of the ship.

6 A south-west gale is blowing, and has driven the
pack off shore for a distance of about a mile — the
water-channel reaching to Cape Sheridan, whence a
crack extends two or three miles in the direction of
Cape Joseph Henry. There the ice is only now
breaking up, a day or two later than that to the east-
ward.

4 Mr. Egerton returned this evening with the two
boats from Cape Belknap. He brings back 282 pounds
of beef, the remains of two musk-oxen shot by the
officers at Dumbell Lakes, and seventeen geese — a very
acceptable supply, our former stock of fresh meat
having been all consumed.

74 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. JULY

' Many pieces of drift-wood have been met with,
particularly in the bays open towards the north-west ;
but only in one such favoured locality, where the
drift would naturally collect after getting into the eddy
current to the eastward of Cape Joseph Henry, was
there sufficient for Egerton to have supplied his sledge
with firewood.

' It is somewhat remarkable that the wood is only
found near the margin of the sea and in the lake-beds :
it would appear that if left exposed it rots away, but
when buried below the frozen muddy soil it remains
undecayed for ages.

' Naturally where the wood has collected in the
largest quantities ice-borne rocky boulders are also
found on the shore.

' In Hilgard Bay. open to the north-west, Mr.
Egerton reports : —

' " On the eastern shore of the inner part of this bay
there were great quantities of drift-wood, pieces of all
sizes, varying from fifteen feet in length to a foot, but
apparently all of the same description. Most of the
pieces were lying on the surface, but some were
slightly covered with soil. I found pieces forty feet
above the level of the water. One tree, lying close
above the water's edge, was about fifteen feet long
and twelve inches in diameter at its thickest part.
The shore was generally covered with shells to a
height of twenty feet above the level of the water, but
in places considerably higher. All the shells were of
one or two kinds. On the north-east point of the bay,
I came upon a pile of rocks which looked like an old
ruin about forty feet above the level of the sea. Upon

1876 DRIFT-WOOD. 75

examination I found these rocks full of fossils, speci-
mens of which I brought on board. These rocks must
have been transported there by ice, as they are of a totally
different nature from that of the surrounding strata."

' In considering former reports of the finding of
fossil wood, and trees said to be in situ, it is noticeable
that the positions where such petrifactions and stumps
of trees have been found, not excepting the case re-
ported by Sir Edward Belcher (' Last Arctic Voyage,'
vol. i.'p. 380), are all in the near neighbourhood of
where the water-currents are now collecting drift-
timber, and whither we would expect them to have
borne it when the land was at a lower level than it is
at present, which all the data in our possession proves
to have been the case in very recent geological times.

4 With calm weather the pack has closed in again.
There is a very slow movement in it towards the east-
ward during the flood-tide — none towards the west
with the ebb ; but although it is quiet here, with a
sluggish current, the ice to the southward of the
narrow funnel-shaped Eobeson Channel must be drift-
ing quickly towards Kane's Sea.

' Parr has commenced to clear away a passage
through our floeberg barrier. I am afraid to open the
channel completely, lest heavier ice should drift into the
vacancy left.

4 The gravel and cinders spread out over the ice
have now eaten their way through : this is a week later
in the season than when the same thing occurred at
Melville Island in 1853.

' 26#A. — Yesterday, in consequence of a slight
movement in the ice, the ship became upright once

76 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. JULY

more ; but she is still borne up about two feet above
her ordinary draught of water.

' The last of the stores have been embarked from
the shore, and we are now ready to start south at a
few hours' notice. Mr. Wootton is naturally anxious
to try the engines after their having been dismantled
during the winter ; but owing to our reduced stock
of coal I cannot spare him any for the purpose, and
trust that everything will be correct when the order
is given to start.

' Great trouble has been experienced in fixing the
screw ; like in the autumn, when lowered to its right
position, the shaft could not be entered to within three
inches of the end : we have now discovered this to be
caused by an accumulation of ice in the boss of the
screw. The nearly fresh- water at the sea surface at a
temperature slightly above 32°, carried down inside
the screw-hole to the colder and salter stratum below
at a temperature of 29°, became quickly frozen and
plugged the screw before the shaft could be entered,
By removing the plate at the after end, and lowering
the screw down slowly, after it had been thoroughly
warmed in the air at a temperature of 40°, and thus
permitting the salt-water to take the place of the fresh
more readily, the difficulty was overcome.

' A notice paper has been placed inside the cairn
on the summit of the look-out hill. It contains full
information of our doings, with the names of all the
officers and ships' company s of the two vessels. The
notice is written in indian ink and placed inside a glass
tube closed at each end over a spirit lamp — it should
last for ages.

1876 RECORD DEPOSITED. 77

4 27/A.— To-day Parr exploded a forty-three pound
jar of powder under a heavy piece of ice closing our
door of exit through the barrier. The effect was very
great, and proves that we can make our escape at
pleasure when the outer ice eases off; always provided
that no new floebergs become stranded.'

As gunpowder only explodes upwards, gun-cotton
is a far more effective auxiliary in ice navigation. It
is now stated that there is no danger in carrying it to
cold climates or in permitting it to become frozen.

' The generality of the crew are far more knowing
concerning the removal of ice than they were last year,
and when clearing away a quantity of rubble do not
expend their strength by pushing at the crown of an
arch, as they used to do ; but many of them still
imagine that force alone is required.

4 Through careless work in digging it out, the earth
thermometer was broken. The earth was frozen at a
depth of one foot : the temperature registering 30°
previous to the accident. The depth of one foot may
therefore be accepted as the greatest thickness of the
unfrozen soil during the summer.

4 29#/i. — A beautifully calm day without a cloud
in the light blue sky.

4 From the summit of Cape Eawson I observed
that the large " crossing floe " which was abreast of
Black Cape during the winter has drifted three or
four miles towards the north, proving that the pre-
vailing westerly winds are sufficiently powerful to act
in a contrary direction to the southerly running current,
and so prevent the heavy ice from drifting through
Eobeson Channel as readily as it otherwise would do.

78 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. JULY

In Kennedy Channel so large and heavy a floe as
the one the u Polaris " people fortunately happened to
light upon is rare.

' The temperature of the air in the shade remains
at about 40°. Although there is only three or four
degrees difference between the temperature at noon
and midnight, it is yet sensibly hotter in the middle
of the day, and the run of water in the ravines is
considerably increased. They are now readily ford-
able, and it evidently freezes nightly in the higher
lands. In a fortnight's time the warm season will be
over and everything on shore will be permanently
frozen again.

6 The purple carpet of saxifrage profusely spread
over the ground early in the week, in consequence of
exposure to constant sunlight day and night, has lasted
only for about ten days ; it has now given place to the
bright yellow ranunculus and draba, with a rich sprink-
ling of the more delicate tinted poppy and mountain
avens, and a small yellow saxifrage. In the richest
clumps of vegetation the most homely flower of all,
the pretty white Cerastium alpinum, is pleasantly inter-
spersed amongst the grass and mosses.

6 Since the removal of the snow we have found a
considerable quantity of dwarf willow spreading out its
branches along the ground in the water-ways. It
would appear that it requires greater protection from
the cold than the hardier saxifrage, which can exist
without a snow covering.

' There is much vegetation still covered by snow.
I cannot think it dead, as even at this late season
as soon as a patch is bared by the thaw it gives

1876 ARCTIC VEGETATION. 79

signs of life. Such being the case, I am inclined to
suspect that plants in these Arctic climes do not always
become developed on the recurrence of each warm
season ; but that when screened from the life-giving
rays of the sun they can remain dormant for a time,
and that those that burst into life too late to become
fully developed before the frost sets in again, being
covered and protected by the snow, have their growth
arrested throughout the winter and remain ready to
reawaken, as it were, to a further term of development
the next favourable season.

4 On the slopes of the coast hills, protected from
the prevailing winter winds, where the drifted snow
collects in the greatest abundance, a considerable
portion will certainly remain unmelted at the end of
the season. A quantity will also be left on the level
uplands. Decaying as the snow does underneath, near
the earth, by reflected heat, as well as by direct heat
at the top, the formation of the snow layer must be
constantly changing. The oldest snow of a previous
season at the bottom of the layer, after granulating
into ice, melts or evaporates in the air-space, one
or two inches in thickness, between the snow and the
land, and gives place to a more recent deposit above
it, which in its turn settles down nearer the earth.

' When walking above an extensive surface of
snow it readily gives way, and sinks beneath us with
a muffled noise, not only immediately under our feet,
but a large area of it acting in combination — how
large we cannot say, as no crack is visible in the
neighbourhood.

6 It is only at the foot of the snow slopes that we

80 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. JULY

find any changed into actual ice. There, in digging
down through a drift, we first meet with wet snow,
and then ice of a gradually increasing solidity until
near the earth it is quite solid.

6 When the thaw first commenced, the water was
observed to run down each snow-filled ravine through
an ice conduit which it had formed for itself near the
surface of the snow. As the thaw advanced, the floor
of the channel became naturally lowered, leaving ice
cliffs on either side ; but these were only two or three
feet in breadth, and the part most distant from the
channel was the least compact ; the rest of the snow
on each side filling up the ravine had been little
affected by the water. How thick the lower part of
the ice-pipe was when first formed is uncertain, but
I doubt if it extended down to the ground below it.

' Our gateway through the floeberg barrier has
been enlarged to the widest dimension advisable, and
several large charges of powder are ready for a final
discharge as soon as the pack gives us an opportunity
to start.

' It is quite certain that we can only escape when a
strong south-west wind blows the ice away from the
shore. As that will be a foul wind for us in Eobeson
Channel, the ship has been made snug aloft, ready for
steaming head to wind. No sailing ship could ever
get to the southward from this position.

' 30th. — To-day three young knots were caught on
the border of the lake near the ship. It is very strange
that we have .been unable to find the nests, which
could not have been very far away, as the young birds
are unable to fly. The old birds are very wild : they

187C YOUNG KNOTS. 81

collect in flocks from twelve to twenty in number.
The barometer is down to 29 '4 inches, with an over-
cast sky gradually lowering and heavy cumulus clouds
over Eobeson Channel, denoting a south-west wind
before long.

' There are now only eighteen scurvy patients left
under the doctor's care, and of these six are nearly con-
valescent.

' 31s£. — Snow was falling all last night with calm
misty weather. At 4 A.M. wind set in suddenly from
the south-west. Expecting it to continue, steam was
got up, arid after five hours of hard work with the ice
the ship was pushed through a narrow opening, and
was again under steam after an eleven months' rest/

VOL. II. G

82 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. JULY

CHAPTEE III.

GREENLAND PARTY ATTACKED WITH SCURVY — DEATHS OF TWO MEN —
CAPTAIN STEPHENSON PROCEEDS TO POLARIS BAY BEAUMONT RE-
TURNS TO DISCOVERY BAY — ACCOUNT OF HIS PROCEEDINGS.

ALTHOUGH the proceedings of the Greenland tra-
vellers were unknown to us on board the ' Alert ' until
the 6th of August, by which time we had succeeded
in advancing to within twenty miles of Discovery
Harbour, it will be more convenient if I relate them
previously to describing our return voyage through
Eobeson Channel.

On the 15th of July, Lieutenant Fulford, with two
men and a dog-sledge, arrived at Discovery Bay from
Hall's Eest. He informed Captain Stephenson that,
after a most arduous journey, Lieutenant Beaumont
had arrived at Polaris Bay on the 1st with the whole
of his crew attacked by scurvy. Two deaths had
occurred — that of James Hand on the 3rd of June and
of Charles Paul on the 29th, both of whom, carried on
sledges, had lingered just long enough once more to
sight their Arctic home before their spirits were called
away. Seven out of the eleven men composing the
party were still ailing ; but through the assiduous
and skilful treatment of Dr. Coppinger, and the in-
valuable exertions of Hans Hendrich in obtaining fresh

1876 CONDITION OF GREENLAND PARTY. 83

seal meat, the sick men were regaining strength and
health in a most surprising manner. Although still
weak and powerless there was every reason to hope
that all would be sufficiently recovered to cross the
strait by the beginning of August.

But for the valuable depot of provisions which had
been established at Hall's Eest by the Polaris expedition,
Beaumont would have found the greatest difficulty in
obtaining supplies.

Captain Stephenson immediately decided to start
with a sledge party for Polaris Bay, conveying medical
comforts, etc.

As the ice was then breaking up in Hall's Basin,
a small boat was taken ; but even with its assistance
the crossing occupied them three days, Hall's Eest
being reached on the 19th.

After a stay of ten days, during which time the
invalids rapidly improved, Captain Stephenson escorted
half the men across the channel to Discovery Bay,
leaving Beaumont and Dr. Coppinger to follow with
the remainder after another week's rest. So broken-
up was the ice in Hall's Basin that the ship was not
reached until the sixth day, after a very wet journey.

A severe gale detained Beaumont at Polaris Bay
until the 8th of August, when a start was made for
Discovery Bay. To cross a broad channel at this
season of the year was a most hazardous enterprise,
the floes being broken up and drifting rapidly to the
southward. On the third journey, to save themselves
from being driven into Kennedy Channel, a forced
inarch had to be made ; and after thirty-five hours of
incessant labour they succeeded in reaching the shore

G 2

84 VOYAGE TO THE POLAK SEA. APRIL

of Daly Peninsula. On the next march, when crossing
Lady Franklin Sound, after working continuously for
twenty-two hours they were forced through exhaustion
to encamp on the ice about two miles from Bellot
Island. Fortunately it remained stationary ; and the
party reached Discovery Bay on the following day, the
15th of August, where the ' Alert ' had arrived a few
days previously.

The following is an account of Lieutenant Beau-
mont's sledge journey, with extracts from his official
reports.

Accompanied by Dr. Coppinger and sixteen men,
dragging two sledges, he started from the ' Discovery '
on the 6th of April for Floeberg Beach, intending to
make the ' Alert ' his base for the exploration of the
North Greenland coast. Lieutenant Beaumont re-
lates : —

' Although this journey does not form part of our
exploring campaign, it requires some brief notice in
consequence of its being our first experience in
sledging.

' The party set out in good health and in excellent
spirits ; but the extreme cold — minus 40° to minus 30°
Fahr. — making it difficult to sleep at night, together
with the unaccustomed food and hard work, soon told
upon some of the less trained men, and for the two
following days our progress was slow, considering the
nature of the roads. George Leggatt, ship's cook, was
the worst, and for half-a-day had to walk by the side
of the sledge ; but as there was nothing more serious
than over-exertion they soon began to recover their
strength. Leggatt's indisposition was chiefly due to

187G GREENLAND SLEDGE JOURNEY. 85

his dislike of pemmican, and lie, like many others,
would not eat it until hunger compelled him to do so.

' The road, with a few exceptions, was a very
rough one, as there seemed to be no choice but to
follow the line of the high and very steep cliffs along
the ice. Once we tried the land-foot, but after passing
some inclines so steep that we had to cut a groove for
the hill-side runner, we were forced to lower both
sledges and crews down an ice-wall twenty-five feet
high, which caused such a delay that for the future we
preferred working through the hummocks. Floes were
rare, and of no great size, consequently our progress
was only moderate. We passed Lincoln Bay on the
llth, and arrived at Black Cape on the 14th, where
we were detained one day by a gale of wind, reaching
H.M.S. "Alert" on Sunday, the 16th of April.

' This trial trip was of great use to us, for the
sledges not being heavy enabled the men to get into
the work without undue effort, and gave them time to
get accustomed to the food and novelty of the life, so
that we reached the " Alert " in excellent condition,
and ready to begin work in earnest.'

On the 20th of April, Lieutenant Beaumont, ac-
companied by Lieutenant Eawson, Dr. Coppinger, and
twenty-one men, dragging four sledges weighted to
218 Ibs. per man, started for Greenland, the officers
themselves, as usual, always dragging whenever not
employed in selecting a road through the rough ice.

With the exception of Eawson and two of the
men, who had only rested for two days, the whole of the
Greenland party under Beaumont enjoyed the great
advantage of a thorough rest of four days, after a

86 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. AI>RIL

preliminary ten days' journey, and started in apparently
most excellent health.

Had the Committee appointed to enquire into the
outbreak of scurvy considered this fact, they would
doubtless not have introduced the following paragraph
in their report.

' How far, with due regard to the length of the
travelling season, these evils could have been mitigated
by a recourse to short journeys, utilized for laying out
depots of provisions, and other preparatory purposes,
prior to those of a more extended character undertaken
to effect the main objects of the Expedition, we are
not prepared to say, but it is obvious that the adoption
of such a system would have afforded an amount and
description of that previous training so essential to the
success of sledging, far more efficacious than the exercise
obtained during the winter, but limited by its severity.'

The following are extracts from my orders to
Lieutenant Beaumont : —

' Equipped and provisioned for an absence of fifty-
six days, you will cross Eobeson Channel and explore
tlie coast of Greenland towards the north and eastward.

* Your party, although not as strong (numerous) as I
would wish, admits of two sledges being advanced for
the time mentioned, under the command of yourself and
Lieutenant Wyatt Eawson, an officer in whom I have
the fullest trust, and of the two others placing a depot
of provisions for your use when returning.

c Dr. Coppinger, in addition to his medical duties,
will take executive command of the two sledges thus em-
ployed ; George W. Emmerson, chief boatswain's mate,
taking charge of the sledge "Alert" under his orders.

1870 GREENLAND SLEDGE JOURNEY. 87

' During your advance you are to endeavour to keep
one of your sledges on the northern shores. Your
best guide for doing so will be to follow the line of
heavy stranded floebergs which border the coast, in
whatever direction they may lead you.

' Should you experience smoother or lighter ice than
that in our neighbourhood, you may reasonably con-
clude that some protecting land exists to the north-
ward. In such a case you should divide your party —
one sledge endeavouring to reach the northern land,
and the other continuing the exploration of the Green-
land coast. But as you are not provided with a boat,
anyone detached should return to the mainland before
the 1st of June.

' Should you discover any deep inlet, which in your
opinion might prove to be a channel affording an
easier journey to the eastward than the coast-line of
the Polar Sea, it is desirable that it should be explored
this year.

' Your party on returning to the " Discovery " must
necessarily cross Eobeson Channel after the ice has
broken up. This part of the work before you will
require more than usual skill and judgment ; but I
know of no officer in whose hands I would more
wiUingly leave its accomplishment, having the utmost
confidence that, with your great ability and forethought,
your interesting journey will be successfully accom-
plished.'

Lieutenant Beaumont's report continues as follows :

' Having completed the two advance sledges " Sir
Edward Parry" and "Discovery" to fifty-six days'
provisions, and the two supporting sledges " Stephen-

88 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. APRIL

son " and " Alert " in proportion, from the Cape
Eawson Depot, we started early on the morning of the
22nd of April for Eepulse Harbour, on the Greenland
coast.

4 Thanks to the road made by Captain Nares'
direction, the passage of the fringe of shore hummocks
at Black Cape was made in safety by the heavy sledges ;
one five-man sledge, however, broke down, and had to
be sent back to the "Alert " and exchanged.

' The line between Black Cape and Eepulse Harbour
led us in a south-easterly direction, and was crossed
by many bands of heavy hummocks, necessitating a
good deal of road-making for the heavy sledges, and
great care in the management of the five-man sledges,
which are hardly calculated to stand such rough work.

' As we approached the Greenland coast we passed
several floes of last year's ice ; they were not large,
but were remarkable because they showed no sign of
pressure round the edges ; it seemed to indicate that
from the commencement of their formation, the large
and heavy old floes which surrounded them had been
motionless. The old floes were high, and covered
with deep soft snow, while the young floes lay low,
and had much less snow on them ; in fact, not only
from my observations on that occasion, but later on
when returning, I remarked large extents of level and
unbroken ice, from which I infer that there is less
current or tide-action on this coast than on the other.
The entrance to Eepulse Harbour is, however, very
different, being a mass of hummock ridges with small
floes between them, to within 200 yards of the shore,
when you come to a solid barrier of immense floebergs

1870 GREENLAND SLEDGE JOURNEY. 89

over which we had to find a way. This took half a
day of road-cutting and bridge-making, for such large
masses have wide gaps between them ; our only con-
solation for the delay was the thought that it would be
a lasting work, and might prove useful to others. The
men by this time were becoming skilful road-makers,
and the officers practised engineers.

c The tents being pitched, the provisions were re-
distributed amongst the three remaining sledges, a
cairn built, and a site selected for the depot to be left
for our return journey. Having written a letter to
Captain Nares of our proceedings up to that date, I
despatched George W. Emmerson on his way back to
the " Alert."

' On the 27th April we started northward, having
secured in the depot a few things of which we were
not in want, to lighten as much as possible the now
very heavy sledges.

' Our way led us round the harbour, which is about
two and-a-half miles broad, and at present only half
a mile deep ; but if this is the Eepulse Harbour of the
Americans, it is no wonder that from a distance it
appeared to them a desirable place of refuge ; the
background of hills gives it the appearance of a large
bay, nearly three miles deep, with two islands in it,
the remainder of the land between the hills and the sea
being so flat and low as scarcely to be distinguished
from the floe. No doubt it is an old harbour, and
even now, for some considerable distance in, the land
is covered with ice. A wide and deep valley on the same
level runs from the north-east corner of this dry bay.

' On the 28th we passed the farthest point reached

90 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. APKIL

by Lieutenant Rawson in his flying visit a few days
before. He certainly was justified, so far as lie saw,
in making a favourable report of the travelling, but
another six miles would have told a different tale, for
it was not until the second day that our difficulties
commenced. Early in the journey we came to a point
covered so deeply with drift snow that it almost rose
to the level of the huge hummock mass forced on the
end of the point. This drift, like all accumulations
of snow which the wind makes on meeting with an
obstacle, left a deep and precipitous gap between it
and the hummock, and our only way past was to climb
the snow-hill. It was so steep and slippery that the
eight-man sledge had to be partly unloaded, and then
each sledge hauled over separately by all hands. This
point we named Drift Point.

' The coast beyond this trended to the north-east-
ward, and was one continuous, steep, slippery, snow-
slope. Sometimes, where the shore hummocks were
high, there was a ledge at the bottom covered with
deep soft snow, but more generally the slope ended in
a straight drop of from five to fifteen feet on to the ice.

' The next point was very much the same as Drift
Point, and the slopes continued for some distance
beyond. We had to double-man the sledges to get on
at all, and even then our progress was very slow. To
prevent losing ground, and to clear what we took to
calling the " drift-pits," which existed in a greater or
less degree round every hummock, we had to keep
dragging up-hill as well as forward, and thus, making
a great deal of lee-way, the sledges were hauled along
by degrees.

1876 GREENLAND SLEDGE JOURNEY. 91

c Next journey we started on a more level road,
timl hoped to make a better march, but we soon came to
another point worse than either of the other two. The
slope, which continued for* over two miles, was so
steep that it was impossible to stand on it, while towards
the end it became almost perpendicular. At the foot
of this slope was a tortuous and intricate passage along
and inside the hummocks, full of deep holes and
covered with thick soft snow. The work of getting
through this promised to be endless, and it was im-
possible to say what was beyond, so I sent Lieutenant
Eawson, accompanied by Dr. Coppinger, to report on
the road ; in the meantime we commenced to cut
through all obstacles. They returned in about two
hours to say that, after two miles of a road that got
worse and worse, they came to a cliff that went sheer
down into the tidal-crack and which it would be
impossible to pass without going out on to the ice.

' I have gone into these particulars to show how
important I considered it to keep to the land on the
outward journey, though at the same time I felt it was
greatly retarding our advance. It had been impressed
upon me that the object of keeping to the land on the
outward journey was to prevent leaving an impassable
barrier in the rear, which, supposing the ice to break
up before our return, would effectually cut off the
retreat of the party. But here was a case in which it
was necessary to depart from the rule. The cliffs
extended, as far as could be judged, for about four
miles, and must be passed by the ice or not at all. It
was too late to depend on boats being sent to meet us,
so we trusted that the ice would remain and befriend us.

92 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. MAY

4 As we had to take to the ice we took advantage
of the good floes that lay in our direction, and struck
the land again some distance beyond the cliffs, which
in consequence of a remarkable black rock like a horn
projecting from one part, we called the Black Horn
Cliffs.

' The next three journeys were spent in crawling
along the sides of the never-ending snow-slopes, some-
times halting for hours, while as many as could be
employed were cutting a road in the hard, slippery
snow, wide enough for the whole breadth of the sledge.
The angle of these slopes — carefully taken with a
clinometer by Dr. Coppinger — showed that they varied
from 20° to 24°. If the snow was hard it was im-
possible to stand on this latter incline, and here broad
roads had to be cut. So direct and heavy was the
pressure from outside on some parts of these slopes,
that the floebergs were forced right up on to them,
and left us nothing but the steep talus of the cliff by
which to pass.

' On the 4th of May we arrived at a place which
seemed so suitable for a depot that we determined on
leaving our three water-tight metal cases there, con-
taining 120 rations, or ten days for twelve men, instead
of the regular depot farther on, thus reserving four
days for possible delays in repassing the Black Horn
Cliffs. Dr. Coppinger, who was to leave us on the
5th, could gain nothing by waiting until that time, as
we were then halted in order to cut a long extent of
road ; so, giving us such provisions as he could spare,
he set out on his return, having himself the day before
walked on to Cape Stan ton.

1876 APPEARANCE OF SCURVY. 93

'Not only was the slope travelling very slow, but
both men and sledges suffered from it. The work was
unusually hard, and the strain on the ankles caused
them to swell and become stiff; the heavily-loaded
sledges, from continually resting on one runner, bent
it inwards, and in the case of the five-man sledge, not
only exhausted the supply of spare uprights, but
eventually proved the ruin of the entire runner. How-
ever, the end was near at hand, and on the morning
of the 5th we encamped at Cape Stanton, which would
have been in sight the whole time had not the weather
been densely thick.

' Our next start was made in high spirits, the
slopes were passed, the sun shone once more, and a
wide bay lay before us, but though it was infinitely
better than what we had had, still deep soft snow
made our distances travelled very short. It was at the
end of this journey, May 6th, that J. J. Hand, one of
my sledge crew, told me in answer to my inquiry as
to why he was walking lame, that his legs were
becoming very stiff; he had spoken to Dr. Coppinger
about them, but attributing the stiffness and soreness
then to several falls that he had had, he did not think
much of it, before that officer's departure ; now, how-
ever, there was pain as well as stiffness, and both were
increasing.

' In our next journey we passed another fine bay,
whose level and unbroken surface appeared not to have
been disturbed for many years. During lunch-time we
dug through two and-a-half feet of snow, and came
to ice which was perfectly fresh for three inches
down ; this was almost at the entrance of the bay. I

94 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. MAY

observed here also that from Cape Stanton the shore
had been lined with floebergs of great size, particularly
at this bay, which I called Frankfield Bay, while from
Drift Point to Cape Stanton the floebergs were much
broken up, the shore hummocks consisting of accumu-
lated blocks, sometimes attaining a great height.

6 To seaward there appeared to be large tracts of
good travelling ice, though the hummock ridges were
undoubtedly heavy. Up to Cape Stanton high land
and rocky cliffs, reaching to the very sea, was the
character of the country, but that seemed to end with
that enormous mass which I named Bockhill. Beyond
was a low foreshore, with point after point projecting
out, the land gradually rising into low rounded hills,
with only a distant background of mountains. This
aspect of the country promised better travelling, and I
was anxious to push on ; but as usual, " more hurry,
less speed," for after crossing Frankfield Bay, and
dragging the sledges over a hill 150 feet high — the
only practicable route — both Lieutenant Eawson and
myself came reluctantly to the conclusion that the men
were very much done, and required a day's rest ; as
we had been dragging ourselves all the time we were
better able to judge of their feelings. Hand, who had
thought himself better at starting, was now quite lame ;
so we camped, determined to wait for a day, in the
hope that rest would restore both the lame and tired.

' I will now explain how it was that I had to send
Lieutenant Eawson back. On coming into camp I
examined Hand's legs, and from his description of the
stiffness and pain I suspected scurvy. I had no reason
to expect it, indeed I had never thought of it, but the

1876 RAWSON ORDERED TO RETURN. 95

striking resemblance of the symptoms to the ones
described in the voyage of the " Fox," as being those
of Lieutenant Hobson, who suffered severely from
scurvy, suggested it to my mind, and my suspicions
were confirmed by Gray, the captain of my sledge, an
ice quartermaster, who, in his whaling experience, has
seen much of it. He, however, led me to believe, at
the same time, that it would probably wear off. Thus,
from the 7th until the 10th I waited, hoping that his
words might prove true.

' I was very reluctant to order Lieutenant Eawson
to return ; it was like sending back hah0 the party ; it
would be, I felt, a great disappointment to him to turn
back then, and the loss of his advice and assistance would
be considerable ; but the indications of the disease
and their aggravated nature became too plain to be
misunderstood — sore and inflamed gums, loss of
appetite, etc., all pointed too clearly to scurvy ; so on
the 10th of May it was arranged that Lieutenant
Eawson, with his party, should take Hand back,
deciding, on his arrival at Eepulse Harbour, whether
to cross over to the " Alert " or go on to Polaris Bay.
I at the same time called upon the remainder of my
men to say honestly if they suspected themselves to be
suffering from the same disease, or could detect any of
its symptoms, as in that case it would be better for the
party to advance reduced in numbers than to be
charged with the care of sick men. I did this because
two of them had complained of stiff legs after the hard
work on the snow-slopes ; but they all declared them-
selves to be now perfectly well, and most anxious to go
on.

96 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. MAY

' I did not take one of Lieutenant Eawson's men to
fill up my crew, for I feared that the time might come
when he would have to carry Hand, and I suspected that
George Bryant, the captain of the sledge, was already
affected with the same disease. Thus it was that early
on the morning of the llth of May Lieutenant Eawson
left me, much to my regret, he making the best of his
way back, whilst I continued to advance with six men.'

It will be most convenient here to follow Lieu-
tenant Eawson in his journey to Polaris Bay.

Owing to two more of his crew breaking down,
leaving only himself and one man, E. Eayner, strong
enough to drag the sledge, they only succeeded in
reaching Polaris Bay on the 3rd of June, after a most
arduous journey on reduced rations, and during several
days of which Eawson was himself so badly affected
with snow-blindness that he had to pull the sledge
while blindfold.

James Hand expired a few hours after their
arrival at Polaris Bay. George Bryant and Michael
Eegan were both attacked — the former very severely—
but knowing that his extra weight on the sledge would
endanger the lives of all, he manfully refused to the
last to be carried. It was entirely due to Lieutenant
Eawson's genial and inspiriting conduct and to his firm
command, that the crippled band succeeded in reaching
the depot.

Four days subsequent to their arrival, Lieutenant
Fulford and Dr. Coppinger, with Hans and the dog-
sledge, arrived opportunely from examining Petermann
Fiord, and the invalids obtained the benefit of pro-
fessional advice.

1876 PROCEEDINGS AT POLARIS BAY. 97

Although Rawson's early return had left Beau-
mont sufficient provisions to last until the 28th, the
little party at Polaris Bay were naturally anxious con-
cerning the health of his men. Accordingly Rawson
with Hans and eight dogs, accompanied by Dr. Cop-
pinger — whose patients had recovered sufficiently for
them to be left to the care of Lieutenant Fulford —
started on the 22nd of June, and most providentially
met Beaumont in Newman Bay on the 25th, on the
very last march the party could possibly have per-
formed without help.

Beaumont, with Alexander Gray, captain of the
sledge, and Frank Jones, were dragging forward their
four helpless comrades, lashed on top of the sledge and
made as comfortable as the circumstances permitted,
two at a time, thankful if they advanced only half a
mile a-day.

I will now continue the relation of Lieutenant
Beaumont's journey.

On the 10th of May he ascended Mount Wyatt,
2,050 feet, called so after Lieutenant Wyatt Rawson.

4 1 had noticed that morning as we came along the
coast that all our big floebergs had disappeared, and
now I saw the reason why — for starting from the shore
close under our position, and stretching away for ten
or twelve miles in the direction of Mount Hooker, was
a distinct line of demarcation : it then turned to the
northward, and ran straight for the west end of the
distant land. All to the eastward of this boundary was
smooth and level, while to the westward lay the Polar
pack, with its floes and chains of hummocks.

4 On the llth we arrived at the end of the un-

VOL. II. H

98 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. MAY

broken- coast-line along which we had hitherto travelled
in a north-easterly direction, and, as the general direc-
tion of the land beyond was more easterly, this must
have been our highest northern point reached. Un-
fortunately, though we twice halted here, each time it
snowed heavily, and I was unable to get a meridian
altitude. With a crew reduced to six and a proba-
bility of my not being able to drag, which I had done
hitherto, I came to the conclusion that to do good
work in the wide field of operations opening before us
we must lighten the sledge at all cost ; so here, at this
point, which I called Cape Bryant, we left a depot, and
thus lightened started for Cape Fulford, which is the
north extremity of the line of cliffs on the west side of
St. George's Fiord.

' In obedience to my orders it was necessary that I
should examine what appeared to be a deep inlet ; but
now that I was alone I felt that the utmost that I
could hope to do, and which seemed to me would be
of the most service, was to follow and ascertain the
direction of the mainland as far as I could, at the
same time taking every opportunity of ascending high
mountains to obtain the fullest information relative to
the off-lying islands, if such existed. Thus it was that,
after looking into St. George's Fiord, I pushed on
towards Dragon Point. The road across the mouth
of the Fiord, which was exposed to the north wind,
was very good (the only good bit we ever had), being
hard and nearly level, and we did the nine miles with
ease and comparative pleasure.

' Arrived at Dragon Point, we opened out another
wide reach of bays and fiords, and while debating in

1876 GREENLAND SLEDGE JOURNEY. 99

my own mind which to follow I felt how powerless I
was, single-handed, to follow out such numerous and
extensive lines of exploration. I was most anxious to
reach Mount Hooker, as I considered that from its
summit I should not only see the islands to the north,
but get the best idea of the trend of the mainland ; at
the same time I felt I could not leave these wide and
deep fiords behind me, any one of which might be a
through passage ; so, holding to my original plan, we
started for Cape Cleveland.

4 On our way we passed some most remarkable ice-
hills, which from a distance we had taken for islands.
Some stood singly, huge masses of solid blue ice rising
gently, with rounded outlines, from thirty to forty feet
above the floe ; others, grouped together, looked like a
mountainous country in miniature, and formed far too
formidable a barrier for us to overcome.

' Up to the 16th of May the travelling since
leaving Cape Fulford had been pretty good and the
progress fair, but that same evening when we started
again it was through soft snow about eighteen inches
deep ; this was very disappointing, for the floe looked
most promising ; in fact, the whole of this vast tract as
far as we could see, from Mount May to Cape Buttress,
was one level plain, over which we expected to travel
easily and rapidly. We pushed on, hoping for better
things, and at camping time had reached, not the
island we had started for — that we had missed in a dense
fog — but another smaller one, about one and-a-half
miles west of it. The travelling had become worse and
worse, the snow varied from two and-a-half to four and-
a-half feet in thickness, and was no longer crisp and

H 2

100 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. MAY

dry, but of the consistency of moist sugar ; walking
was most exhausting, one literally had to climb out of
the holes made by each foot in succession, the hard
crust on the top, which would only just not bear you,
as well as the depth of the snow preventing you from
pushing forward through it, each leg sank to about
three inches above the knee, and the effort of lifting
them so high to extricate them from their tight-fitting
holes, soon began to tell upon the men. William
Jenkins, Peter Craig, and Charles Paul complained of
stiffness in the hamstrings, and all of us were very tired.
The morning was most beautiful, but the island close
to us was inaccessible on account of a reef, which
caused the tides to break up the ice at its margin, and
to maintain a barrier of water round it. I could find
no way past this, and to have gone round to the other
side, or to the other island, would have been four hours'
hard work through that snow, so I gave it up.

' Our next march was made under a hot sun,
through snow never less than three feet thick; we
were parched with thirst, and obliged to halt every
fifty yards to recover breath.

' The shore for which we were making did not
seem more than two miles off, so I went ahead to see
if the travelling was better under the cliffs. I got
about a mile and-a-half ahead of the sledge in three
hours, and then gave it up. I was nearly done ; so I
hailed them to go to lunch, but would rather have
missed three meals than gone back all that distance, so
I had a good rest and made a sketch instead ; and
then seeing that the sledge would never reach me that
day I started back for them, walking in my tracks.

1876 GREENLAND SLEDGE JOURNEY. 101

In the meantime the men had been struggling on as
best they could, sometimes dragging the sledge on
their hands and knees to relieve their aching legs, or
hauling her ahead with a long rope and standing pulls.
When we encamped we had hardly done two miles,
and Jones was added to the list of stiff-legged ones.

4 The next march, May 19th, they could hardly bend
their legs. We tried every kind of expedient. We
made a road for the men to walk in, and tracked the
sledge. Then we tried a broader one for both sledge
and men, but all to no purpose ; and at last went back
to the usual way, and tugged and gasped on, resting
at every ten or twelve yards. In my journal I find
this entry for the day : " Nobody will ever believe
what hard work this becomes on the fourth day ; but
this may give them some idea of it. When halted for
lunch, two of the men crawled for 200 yards on their
hands and knees, rather than walk unnecessarily
through this awful snow ; but although tired, stiff, and
sore, there is not a word of complaint ; they are
cheerful, hopeful, and determined. Since twelve
o'clock it has been my birthday ; but I can safely say
I never spent one so before, and I don't want to be
wished any happy returns of it." That march we did
not make much over a mile. Everyone was very
tired with the unusual exertions of the last few days,
and the work was pain and grief to those with stiff legs.
Matters did not look promising at all. I had started
across the channel first to see down past Cape But-
tress, and after reaching Reef Island the northern shore
looked so near that I came to the conclusion that we
had better push on, reach the land, and coast along to

102 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. MA?

Mount Hooker. So we went on for two days, until
going back seemed as hard work as going on. Our
provisions would compel us to start homeward on the
23rd. We could not do two miles a-day, and the
men were falling sick. I did not encourage inspection
of legs, and tried to make them think as little of the
stiffness as possible, for I knew the unpleasant truth
would soon enough be forced upon us.

6 We started again on the evening of the 1 9th, and
worked away as before ; but our progress was ridicu-
lously small, and something had to be done : so leaving
the sledge we started in two ranks, four a-breast, to
make a road to the shore, for the actual dragging was
nothing compared to the exertion of making the road.
The shore still looked about one mile off: it had
looked the same for two days past, and, to our astonish-
ment and dismay, we walked for five hours without
reaching it. It was evidently impossible, on a floe so
level that there was nothing in sight the size of a
brick, to estimate the distance of the high and pre-
cipitous cliffs in front of us. I altered my plans and
sent them back to lunch and rest, while Gray and I
went on. It took us two hours more to reach the
cliffs, and when we did, it was to find the same deep
snow reach their very foot ; for a hundred yards from
the shore the ice was seamed with wide cracks covered
by snow, into which the sledge itself might have dis-
appeared. These had water in them, the surface of
which was quite fresh, probably due to the glacier
which we knew to be close by, though now everything
was hidden by a thick fog.

' I now saw to my great disappointment that we

1876 BEAUMONT'S RETURN JOURNEY. 103

could not reach Mount Hooker, and I came to tl^e
conclusion it would be useless to advance any farther
with the sledge, as turn which way we would, there
was the same smooth, treacherous expanse of snow,
and only two days' provisions, which would not have
enabled us to reach any part of the shore ; so I went
back to the tent after nine and-a-half hours' hard
march, and found two men, J. Craig and Wm. Jenkins,
unmistakably scurvy-stricken.

'I therefore decided to wait where we wTere, if
necessary, for two days, in hopes of being able to
ascend a high peak just over the glacier, and from
that elevation decide the question of the channel past
Cape Buttress, as well as obtain a view of the distant
islands. It seemed too cruel to have to turn back
after such hard work, without reaching the land or
seeing anything, and I was pleased and encouraged by
the anxiety the men showed to make the end of our
expedition more successful. But it was not to be.
May 21st — it snowed hard all day ; May 22nd — the
same ; and a strict survey of the provisions warned us
that we must start homewards.

' We left on the evening of the 22nd, a mournful
and disappointed party (for the feeling was shared by
all), with two men walking by the drag ropes, and
none of the others, Alexander Gray and myself ex-
cepted, any the better for their long rest. We found,
much to our relief, that keeping to our old tracks
enabled us to do three times the distance, as we had
not to break the road nor lift our legs. I halted at
Beef Island, and left a record in a cairn on its north
end, according to my instructions, but reserved the

104 -VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. MAY

skeleton chart for a place more likely to be visited.
We then pushed on through the thickly falling snow,
which had not stopped for an instant ; though two of
the men were bad, the others soon warmed up to the
work again, and the improved travelling enabled us to
get on faster in spite of the general thaw, so that we
reached the neighbourhood of our camp of the loth
on the 24th, returning in two days what had taken us
six to advance.

' Just before camping on the 24th a north wind
rose, and, as if by magic, the sky cleared, and it
became a beautiful morning : there lay Mount Hooker
once more in sight, distance about sixteen miles, from
which, as I believed, we should see everything ; it ' was
too tempting, so the men agreeing eagerly, the plan
was arranged. Craig and Jenkins were to remain
with the tent, provisions, and gear, whilst the re-
mainder, with one robe, bags, and five days' provisions,
were to make a dash for the mountain ; the provisions
were neatly packed in day's rations, and eveiything
being ready we turned in for a good rest.

4 When we awoke it was snowing hard, as if it
would never stop, so not a word was said, but we
packed up and started homewards more disappointed
than I can say. By the time we had reached Dragon
Point it had cleared again ; this was the place where I
had settled to build a cairn, and leave the chart and
record. One of the highest mountains in the neigh-
bourhood was only six miles off, so I determined on
one more effort. The cairn was built, the record and
chart deposited, and Alexander Gray and I set off for
the mountain ; it took us six hours to reach the top ;

1876 BEAUMONT'S RETURN JOURNEY. 105

the view was magnificent, elevation 3,700 feet, but I
did not see what I wanted. The Mount Hooker Land
hid the islands, and the Cape Buttress Channel was
shut in. Mount Albert I could see was a separate
island. Cape Britannia, as far as could be seen, had
very high land far back. Stephenson Land was quite
hidden behind Mount Hooker Land, which latter
towards Cape Buttress extended very far back to
the eastward. Cape Buttress overlapped it, but inside
and above the cape could be seen either a hummocky
floe, or a mer de glace, it looked like a floe, but its sky-
line had a perceptible curve in it — a haze hung over
this part. By the look of the land and shore a passage
seemed to connect St. George's Fiord with St. Andrew's
Bay. St. George's Fiord could be traced continuing
to the south after making a slight bend to the west.
The view inland in that direction stretched away with-
out a break as far as the eye could reach, all much
about the same elevation. Mount Punch stood out
from most of the other mountains, and Grant's Land
was distinctly visible, the United States' Eange being
very conspicuous. The view was so immense that to
sketch it would have been the work of a day. I tried
after having taken a round of angles, but the cold was
intense, and my fingers soon became stiff ; rising clouds
warned us to descend, and by the time that we reached
the tent, twelve hours after starting, it was blowing
fresh with thick snow and fog. After a short rest we
once more started, making for Cape Fulford ; the
gloomy and unfavourable weather had a depressing
influence on the men's spirits, who, poor fellows, were
already rather desponding, for out of seven only Gray

106 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. MAY

and myself were perfectly free from scorbutic symp-
toms, while the two first attacked kept up with great
difficulty.

' In due course of time we arrived at Cape Bryant,
and camped below the depot.

' Quite a foot of snow had fallen since we had
passed, and it was rotting the old crust beneath, which
gave way under the weight of sledge and men, and
made the sledge seem a ton in weight.

' During the very bad weather, which continued
about this time for many days, I pitched the tent over
the sledge when halted for lunch, thus keeping the
men under shelter and the gear dry, and providing a
comfortable seat for the sick ; by putting the sledge
quite on one side of the tent there was room enough
for all the rest to sit alongside it on the sail on the
other side.

' This comfortable rest of two hours ! with an extra
half-pint of tea, was thought more of, and seemed to
do them more good, than anything else we could
devise, and so was adhered to for the remainder of the
time.

4 On the 28th of May, finding that we could not go
on dragging the full load (with four men) through the
heavy snow, we made up a depot consisting of pemmi-
can, a coverlet, all the knapsacks and gear, spirits of
wine, part of the tent, &c., in all about 200 lb., and
got on much better afterwards. We gradually retraced
our steps until the morning of the 3rd of June. Up
to this time the weather had been one continuous
snow-fall with thick fogs ; the sun once or twice came
out for an hour or so and then snow fell again. The

1876 BEAUMONT'S RETURN JOURNEY. 107

sick were getting worse steadily ; for the last two days
neither Paul nor Jenkins could keep up with the
sledge, but crawled along after it, and often kept us
waiting, for I would not let them get too far behind.
Craig was very bad, but still hobbled along with us.
Dobing and Jones were getting stiffer and stiffer, but
still pulled their best. Gray and myself were the only
sound ones left. The sick scarcely ate anything ; they
could not sleep nor lie still.

' Having left a record at the cairn, and taken forty
out. of the eighty complete rations, we started again in
the evening, and had not gone ten yards before Paul
fell down quite powerless, and from that time until the
end he was like one paralysed, his legs were so com-
pletely useless to him. Jenkins still crawled along,
but his time was drawing near, and on the 7th he took
his place alongside Paul on the sledge. We now had
to make two journeys a day, taking the provisions and
baggage on for half the time and then coming back
for the tent and the sick. With great labour we got
round Snow Point, but Drift Point was impassable to
us, and so we had to go out on the ice.

4 On the 10th of June we reached Eepulse Harbour
depot, the weather having once more relapsed into a
steady snow-fall. Feeling the urgent necessity of
getting the sick under medical care, for both Paul and
Jenkins were alarmingly weak and short of breath, I
read the records carefully, and having considered the
matter in all its bearings to the very best of my ability,
I determined to cross over to the " Alert." Everything
was to be sacrificed to getting over quickly; so we
again made up a depot and left everything we could

108 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. JUNE

possibly spare, including the tent, gun, and my sextant
and knife, the only two things I had left. We started
on the evening of the llth, and had not got a mile
from the shore hummocks before we came to water.
It was a large black-looking pool, surrounded for some
distance by ice, so rotten that sledge, sick, and all
would have gone in at the first step off the thicker
floe.

' This obstacle at the very outset, where I so little
expected it, made me stop short, knowing the strong
tides and currents that existed on the other shore. I
felt that with a sick and enfeebled crew the risk was
too great, so we turned back and landed again. We
had completed from the depot to eight days' provisions ;
that would have been ample to cross with. Now we
had to make the best of our way to Polaris Bay, forty
miles off. The question was how much more to take ;
we ate so little, that eight days would last us twelve
I knew, and if we went on as we had done that would
be enough ; so taking the tent and gun from the depot
we started along the coast. Next march Dobing
broke down altogether, and Jones felt so bad he did
not think he could walk much longer. Poor fellows !
Disappointment at the change of routes had much to
do with it.

' This was our darkest day. We were forty miles
off Polaris Bay at the very least, and only Gray and
myself to drag the sledge and the sick — the thing did
not seem possible. However, it was clear that we
must take all the provisions, and then push on as long
and as far as we could ; so we went back to the depot,
Gray, Jones, and I, and brought the remainder, ten

1876 BEAUMONT'S RETURN JOURNEY. 109

days, making us up to eighteen days ; then on we
went.

' Craig now could barely walk, but his courage did
not fail. Dobing became rapidly worse, but fortu-
nately Jones revived, and there were still three on the
drag-ropes. We toiled painfully through M'Cormick
Pass, a very hard road, all rocks and water, but very
little snow. The work towards the end became ex-
cessively severe on account of the narrowness 'and
steepness of the passes. The sledge had to be un-
loaded and the sick lowered down separately in the
sail. At last we got into Newman Bay, and found the
travelling on the floe quite a rest ; but the work had
told on the men who were left, and though Jones still
dragged with difficulty, it was evident that soon both
he and Gray would be too ill to pull at all. I felt
stiff and sore about the body from constant over-
exertion, but I did not exhibit any of the well-known
scurvy symptoms as yet. We were travelling very
slowly now, for Craig, who had held out so long, could
scarcely stand, and he and Dobing had to be waited
for constantly.

' On the 21st of June we camped about ten miles
from the bottom of the bay, close to the west or south
shore. It soon after came on to blow a gale, and the
squalls were so violent and changeable in their direc-
tion that all our efforts to keep the tent standing were
unavailing, and we had to put the sick on the sledge
and cover them over with the sail ; but the drifting
snow which whirled around us penetrated everywhere,
and soon wet them through, and they caught colds,
which made Paul much worse afterwards.

110 VOYAGE TO THE POL AH SEA. JUNE

4 In the afternoon of same day the wind lulled, and
by using the guys, sledge-lashings, and drag-ropes, we
managed to pitch the tent after an hour's hard work.
We put the sick in, and tried to make them comfort-
able ; but the tent was badly pitched, and the squalls
from the cliffs, more like whirlwinds, sometimes made
the two sides meet in the middle. We were all
huddled up in a heap, wet through, and nobody could
sleep.

' This went on until noon of the 22nd, when the
wind having gone down we repitched the tent and had
a few hours' rest, which we so much needed. At 9.30
we started ; but the wet and cold had stiffened our
limbs, and for the first time I felt the scurvy pains in
my legs. Craig and Dobing almost dragged them-
selves along, their breath failing entirely at every ten
yards — this appears to be the most marked feature of
the advanced stage of the disease ; all four now, but
especially Paul and Jenkins, gasped for breath on the
slightest exertion — it was painful to watch them. We
were a long way from Polaris Bay still, and I did not
see how we were to reach it under the circumstances.

' On the 23rd of June it became necessary to carry
both Dobing and Craig, to enable us to advance at all ;
and although this in our weakened state made three
trips each day necessary, and limited our advance to a
mile, yet we were still moving on.

' On the evening of the 24th we started for our last
journey with the sledge, as I thought ; for finding that
Jones and Gray were scarcely able to pull, I had
determined to reach the shore at the plain, pitch the
tent, and walk over by myself to Polaris Bay to see if

1876 MEETS RELIEF PARTY. Ill

there was anyone there to help us ; if not, come back,
and sending Jones and Gray, who could still walk, to
the depot, remain with the sick and get them on as
best I could. But I thank God it did not come to
this, for as we were plodding along the now water-
sodden floe towards the shore, I saw what turned out to
be a dog-sledge and three men, and soon after had the
pleasure of shaking hands with Lieutenant Rawson and
Dr. Coppinger. Words cannot express the pleasure,
relief, and gratitude we all felt at this timely meeting ;
it did the sick men all the good in the world.

' Lieutenant Rawson had, in my opinion, acted
with great judgment in planning his relief expedition,
for had he come sooner he not only might have
missed us altogether, but the small force at his disposal
would not have been of so much service. As it was,
he came in time, with sufficient provisions, and by
one great effort got us all into' safe quarters, as I shall
explain.

' We met early on the morning of the 25th of
June, and with the help of his party reached the New-
man Bay depot the next day, Dr. Coppinger watching
the four now utterly prostrate sick with unremitting
attention. Half a day was spent here in an attempt to
obtain a seal, but without success, and so next morning
we started for the depot at Polaris Bay, the dogs, with
the assistance of the three officers, dragging both
sledges. It is mainly due to Hans' clever management

o J o

of the dogs, and his skill as a driver, that we were
enabled to advance so rapidly with such a heavy load.
That evening, when we camped, we were only twelve
or thirteen miles from the depot. Both Paul and

112 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. JUNE

Jenkins were now in a critical condition, but Paul
more so than Jenkins.

' I felt the importance of getting them both to a
state of complete rest as quickly as possible, an opinion
in which Dr. Coppinger concurred ; so on the morning
of the 28th Dr. Coppinger and Hans, with the two
men on the eight-man sledge drawn by the dogs,
started for the Polaris Bay depot. Soon after, Lieu-
tenant Eawson and myself, having placed Craig and
Dobing on the five-man sledge, as well as the tent and
all the gear, but only two days' provisions, also started
for the same destination. Jones and Gray, who could
still walk, though slowly, came on behind. Fortu-
nately for us two, the wind helped us for some time ;
but later on, the travelling becoming very heavy, we
were obliged to camp, having accomplished a little
over three miles.

' Next day, as we supposed the sledge on its way
back to us, and I was anxious to move the sick men
as little as possible, I determined to await its arrival.
This did not occur until 3 A.M. of the 30th of June ;
and the whole party were so done, dogs and men, that
they had supper and turned in. They brought me a
letter from Dr. Coppinger saying that he had. had a
very arduous journey, and had not reached the depot
until midnight. The extremely rapid thaw of the
snow on the plain obliged them to cross broad strips of
bare shingle, while the floe was so seamed with cracks
that they must have travelled double the distance in
looking for a road. The sick had borne the journey
well, and eaten with good appetite on their arrival ;
but from noon of the 29th, Paul had gradually grown

1876 DEATH OF CHARLES PAUL. 113

weaker and weaker until he died at 5.15 P.M. Jenkins
was no worse. I was very much grieved at Paul's
death. I had watched him and cared for him so long,
and had hoped so that we might not be too late, that
I felt his death very much. However, we were not far
from the end of this arduous journey now ; the thing
was to get the remainder in as soon as possible ; so at
seven o'clock we once more started, Lieutenant Eawson
and his party taking the sick on the eight-man sledge
round by the sledge route, while I took Gray and
Jones round by the foot of the hills. We three
reached the depot at 7 A.M., and were warmly wel-
comed and cared for by Lieutenant Fulford, Dr. Cop-
pinger, and the two men in camp. Lieutenant Eawson,
with his party, arrived at 11 A.M., after a very heavy
journey, having travelled nearly all the way on bare
shingle. So at last we were all safely in, in good
hands and comfortable quarters.

' The next day being Sunday, I read the Morning
Service, all of us joining most heartily and fervently in
rendering thanks to Almighty God for His gracious
mercy and protection towards us/

*

VOL. II.

114 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. JULY

CHAPTER IV.

LEAVE FLOEBERG BEACH NAVIGATION OF EOBESON CHANNEL — ITS

EXTREME DIFFICULTY CAPE UNION — STOPPED AT CAPE BEECHEY—

ESKIMO REMAINS BRENT GEESE — REJOIN THE 'DISCOVERY*

KILLING A MUSK-OX — RETURN OF BEAUMONT' S PARTY.

THE gale which was experienced at Floeberg Beach on
the 31st of July, and which released the ' Alert ' from
her exposed position on the shore of the Polar Sea, was
merely felt at the sheltered position of Discovery Bay
as a light air from the southward. It is worthy of
note that at the same time, near the head of Baffin's
Bay, Sir Allen Young in the ' Pandora ' experienced a
very severe storm from the southward, evidently part
of the same disturbance as that which reached Floeberg
Beach.

As the ' Alert ' cleared the barrier of grounded ice,
which had proved so excellent a protection to her
during the past eleven months, the Polar pack was
found to have drifted to a distance of a quarter of a
mile from the land, leaving a broad water-passage which
continued imtil Eobeson Channel was entered. ' From
that point the water-way gradually narrowed, until, at
a position about four miles north of Cape Union, the
pack pressed tightly against the shore, and formed an
effectual barrier to our farther progress.

< o

S5 «

1876 ICE- WALL. 115

There being no good protection attainable unless
we retraced our steps to Floeberg Beach, twelve miles
distant, I secured the ship in a small indentation of the
ice-foot or ice-wall. Our position was close to the
southward of a number of fi oebergs which had grounded
in a line with the shore outside of the ice- wall. These
I hoped would afford us some slight protection from
the northward ; but in the direction of Cape Union,
the shore being steeper, there was nothing to keep the
Polar pack away from the perpendicular face of the ice-
wall, which was polished and horizontally striated by
the grinding of floating ice during prior seasons.

As we steamed along the coast I noticed that only
those points of land which were exposed towards the
north bore traces of recent pressure ; and generally
speaking, there were few signs of the pack having nipped
against the shore — that is, with the enormous force
necessary to cast up huge masses of ice and deposit them
on the top of the ice- wall, which varied in height to
between thirty and forty feet ; the depth of water along-
side was from five to seven fathoms, and permitted
the ship to run alongside it without any fear of touching
the ground.

During the afternoon the pack drifted with the flood-
tide slowly towards the south, always nipping against
the ice-wall close to the southward of us, but leaving a
narrow water-space near the ship.

The ice in the offing consisted of one large compact
floe — that near the shore, alone, being broken up and
loose, but in no way navigable.

About 8 P.M., with the commencement of the ebb-
tide, a small pool of water formed on the southern side

I 2

116 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. AUGUST

of a large floe which prevented our advance. Ex-
pecting an opportunity would occur to glide past the
obstruction, I got under weigh, but was disappointed,
the pack closing in tighter than ever ; before I could
return to our small haven it had become filled with
ice. There was, therefore, nothing for it but to retrace
our steps towards the north, looking for some other
indentation in the ice-wall ; but none was to be found.
The main body of the pack having moreover closed in
near Black Cape to the northward and cut off" our
retreat in that direction, I was obliged to secure the
ship between two of the stranded floebergs, but as they
scarcely projected farther from the land ice than the
breadth of the ship, they could hardly be expected to
afford us much protection.

In the evening, dark clouds collecting above Cape
Lupton on the east shore of the channel, with a falling
barometer, foretold a recurrence of the southerly wind.

During the height of the ebb-tide the main pack
drifted fast towards the north, but fortunately left, in
our immediate neighbourhood, a clear water-space about
two hundred yards broad.

On the 1st the large ' crossing floe,' which afforded
so good a sledge road during the spring, after being
driven completely out of Eobeson Channel towards the
north during the southerly wind of the previous day,
had returned and occupied a position close abreast of
the ship. At 2 A.M., the commencement -of the flood-
tide, the nip towards the south eased a little, and I
could have advanced a mile ; but there being no pro-
tection available I decided to remain where we were.
At three the officer of the watch informed me that the

1876 POLAR ICE. 117

pack was closing in fast. Although the current had
changed in the offing, where the ice was drifting
towards the south, that inshore was still moving fast to
the north, the two movements quickly collecting the ice
near us. The heavy floe which had previously stopped
our progress was drifting with the eddy current
towards the north, scraping its way along the ice- wall
in rather an alarming manner as it advanced towards
us. Steam being fortunately ready, we cast off. and
succeeded in passing between it and the shore through
an extremely narrow channel, most opportunely opened
for us, as it was pivoting round against the enormous
' crossing-floe.' A few moments after we had passed,
It closed in against the ice-wall at the position we had
so lately vacated.

The difference between an ordinary floe and Polar
ice was here well exemplified. The former, composed
of ice about six feet in thickness, on meeting with an
obstruction is torn in pieces as it presses past it ; the
latter, some eighty or a hundred feet thick, forces
its way past any impediment which may be in its course,
without damage to itself. Such was the case on this
occasion : the Polar floe, which we only escaped by a
few yards, on nipping against the heavy breastwork of
isolated floebergs lining the coast, some of them forty
feet high and many thousand tons in weight, tilted
them over one after another and forced them higher
up the shore, without receiving the slightest harm
itself, not a piece breaking away.

Steering onwards through a water-channel, so narrow
that the boats suspended at the davits touched the cliff
of the shore ice-wall on several occasions, we arrived

118 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. AUGUST

within two miles of Cape Union, but there we were
again stopped at 5 A.M.

Fortunately, about fifty yards of the ice-wall had
been removed by a summer torrent, which had melted
a passage for itself through the icy barrier, leaving just
sufficient space in which to secure the ship, with her
side resting against the steep beach, and water on her
off side too shallow for any deep floating ice to harm
us much.

The wind was blowing in squalls from the south-
ward, and, in consequence, the ice continued to drift
towards the north with the flood-tide when it should
have been moving the other way.

About nine o'clock a momentary opening occurred
at the time of high-water, and I was induced to push
off; but within an hour we were obliged to return,
and I considered myself exceedingly fortunate when
we succeeded in regaining our small haven — the only
indentation in the ice- wall for a distance of two miles
either way — -just as the water- space was closed and
we could not have moved a ship's length in any direc-
tion. Eaising the screw and rudder, and removing the
boats from the off-shore side, where they would be
endangered by the ice should it close in, we were as
fully prepared for a nip as we could be.

The following passage is from my journal : —

' The ice between us and the " crossing floe " is of a
decidedly lighter character than we have lately been
accustomed to ; but floating in shallower water it is
really more dangerous to us at present than the
heaviest Polar ice would be.

' It is astonishing with what coolness we have each

1876 TIDE IN ROBESON CHANNEL. 119

packed up the very few private articles we could pos-
sibly carry with us if the ship were broken up by the
ice. When constantly facing danger such events are
taken as a matter of course.'

At low-water during the afternoon, the wind
having lulled considerably, the pack commenced to
set to the southward, but except within a distance of
about fifty yards ahead and astern of the ship no water
was to be seen anywhere. The pack nipping against
the ice-wall marked its course by deep horizontal
scratches, and although it scraped its way past the
ship, owing to the protection afforded by the small
haven, she was in no way damaged.

Tidal observations obtained during the evening
gave the time of high-water at 9.55 P.M. We had
therefore already caught up the Eobeson Channel tide,
which is an hour and a quarter later than that at
Floeberg Beach. With the ebb-tide the pack drifted
towards the north.

Soon after low-water on the morning of the 2nd
the in-shore ice commenced moving towards the south,
while the outer pack continued its course to the north-
east with a westerly wind, from which the in-shore ice
was protected by the high cliffs. At 6.30 A.M a
decided off-shore movement occurring in the ice, steam
was raised, but owing to an eddy current carrying the
rudder under the bottom of the ship, we experienced
so much trouble and delay in shipping it that we were
unable to start for a space of two hours. We then
steamed to abreast of Cape Union, but by that time it
was high-water, and with the change in the tidal
current the channel commenced to close. I then ran

120 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. AUGUST

back a distance of half a mile to a very slight inden-
tation in the ice-wall, so small indeed that only one
end of the ship could be in the least protected ; the
stern being the most vulnerable part was secured in
the notch. As on the previous day, no sooner were we
secured than the pack closed in with the ebb-tide and
there was scarcely any water to be seen.

With our weakened crew we found the constant
work with hawsers very laborious, and the services of
the capstan or windlass were constantly called into
requisition.

Being close under the lee of Cape Union, the most
prominent point on the coast, the run of the ice as it
drifted to the northward retained its former course and
left a water-pool about two hundred yards broad in
the immediate neighbourhood of the ship ; there was
therefore no anxiety for her safety so long as the tide
lasted, but with the south running current there would
be no protection whatever. Accordingly, just before
low- water I was obliged to move the ship, and while
the ice remained stationary we succeeded in forcing
our way into the pack for a distance of a quarter of a
mile from the shore ; there the ship was secured among
some fairly sized floes of light ice.

It was naturally with much anxiety on my part
that I thus committed the ship to be drifted helplessly
with the pack, in the hope and belief that it would
convey us past Cape Union, and towards Lincoln Bay,
where we might expect the navigation to become less
difficult ; but very little choice was left me.

Although hitherto we had been favoured by find-
ing notches in the ice-wall in which to secure the ship,

1876 DRIFT PAST CAPE UNION 121

I knew that for the next five or six miles we should
meet with an unbroken line of ice-cliffs. Indepen-
dently of the chances of our being carried by the wind
or current towards the north-east out of Eobeson
Channel, there was, I considered, less danger to be
apprehended in the pack than if we continued to
navigate near the shore.

Shortly after the ship was secured the whole pack
commenced drifting towards the south, the ice near
the land nipping against the ice-wall and showing how
fortunate it was that we had moved the ship out of the
way.. The weather was calm, with a clear atmosphere
and only a few misty clouds flying above the hill-tops
from the westward. »The land on either side of
Eobeson Channel was distinctly visible, and the change
of scenery as we drifted quickly along, close enough to
the western shore to distinguish every detail, afforded
contemplation for the minds of all during our forced
inactivity. As each man was now sufficiently ex-
perienced to know the great danger we were running,
this was perhaps a fortunate circumstance.

Observations obtained showed that while the tem-
perature of the water at the surface was 30°, at a depth
of five fathoms it was 29°-5, and at the bottom in
forty fathoms 29°*0. An undercurrent was running
towards the south with the first part of the flood- tide
faster than the surface water was moving.

As we were swept past Cape Union, and the land
in the neighbourhood of Lincoln Bay came into sight,
I observed a large water-pool near the shore at a
distance of about six miles from us.

At 10.30 P.M., by which time we had been carried

122 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA.

three miles to the southward of the dreaded cape, the
ice inshore ceased drifting to the southward, but the
floe to which we were secured continued its course.
Taking advantage of the momentary opening in the
ice thus occasioned, I steamed towards the land in the
vain hope of finding a friendly notch in the ice- wall
in which to secure the ship. The water continuing to
favour us we reached the shore, and I found to my
intense relief that by keeping very close to the ice-
wall we should be enabled to force a passage through
the lighter pieces of ice bordering the main pack, which
by this time was being carried to the northward by
the tidal current at the rate of at least two miles an
hour.

Such favourable circumstances could not be ex-
pected to last for long, so we proceeded at full speed ;
but this again was a source of danger, and the very
frequent changes of the helm as we made a tortuous
course through the narrow water-channel, frequently
grazing the ice-wall, caused much excitement.

At 2 A.M. on the 3rd all uncertainty of our reaching
the water off Lincoln Bay was at an end, and, the
water-way gradually increasing in width, we bade
good-bye to the pack off Cape Union with no greater
damage than two boats having been badly stove
against the cliff of the ice- wall. Pieces of ice often
fell into them, and that they escaped being torn away
from the davits was a subject of wonder and congratu-
lation.

By this time the fine weather had given place to a
very heavy snow-storm from the south-west, with a
strong wind, which forced the ice off shore and enabled

1876 CAPE BEECIIEY. 123

us to pass Lincoln Bay and Cape Frederick VII. in
perfectly clear water. This was so complete a change
of circumstances that amid our rejoicing few cared to
think of what would have been our fate had we not
fortunately escaped from the Polar pack before it com-
menced to drift to the northward with the change of
tide and increasing fair wind.

At 6 A.M. we had passed Wrangel Bay, but found
the ice blocking a passage towards Cape Beechey ;
accordingly the ship was secured to a floe to give time
for a channel to open. After a delay of two hours we
again proceeded, and with little trouble succeeded
in reaching to within half a mile of Cape Beechey just
before high- water.

As at Cape Union, the north-running current
pressed the ice against the land south of the cape, but
immediately to the northward a small pool of water
remained clear ; in this pool, without any other pro-
tection, the ship was secured.

In the afternoon, a sudden squall off the land en-
abled us to round the cape and to reach a cluster of
floebergs lying aground on the shallow beach to the
southward of it. These afforded a fair amount of pro-
tection, and the ship was secured amongst them close
to the shore in three fathoms water.

At Cape Beechey the cliff-like ice-wall rising from
deep water, which is found throughout Eobeson Chan-
nel, comes to an end. South of this cape the land
slopes gently down to the sea, and is fronted by a
breast-work of floebergs similar to, but somewhat
smaller than, those which line the shallow parts of the
coast of the Polar Sea.

124 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. AUGUST

During the 4th the weather was overcast with snow
squalls from the south-west, with a low barometer but
very little wind.

As the ice had closed in and locked the ship up
completely, the sportsmen visited the lakes where
three musk-oxen had been shot the previous summer
during our passage north.

A number of brent geese were found ; the old birds
having moulted their pinion feathers, and the goslings
not having learnt the use of their wings, were taken at
a disadvantage, and fifty-seven were shot, which proved
a very important and opportune supply of fresh food
for the invalids, of whom we had still eleven remain-
ing. Although unable to fly, these geese were very
difficult to secure, as they kept out of range on the
water ; indeed, few, if any, would have been shot had
not Frederick's kayak been carried up to the lake and
launched ; by this means the birds were driven within
range of the guns.

A large floe, apparently unattached to the bottom,
occupied about three-quarters of the surface of the
lake ; its surface was about twelve inches above the
water.

The convalescents enjoyed a run over the hills,
and succeeded in picking a considerable supply ot
dwarf sorrel, but at this late season it had lost much
of its flavour.

In my journal of this date I wrote : — c A remark-
able opening in the land of Polaris Peninsula, five
miles to the southward of Cape Sunnier, on the oppo-
site shore of the channel, looks so like an indenta-
tion in the coast that T very strongly suspect it to be

1876 REPULSE HARBOUR. 125

the Eepulse Harbour of the " Polaris " expedition.
After a careful study of the narrative of that voyage,
and considering the almost constant pressure of the
pack against the land north of Newman Bay, I cannot
think that any vessel has ever, or will ever, reach that
shore, always supposing that she is not carried there
against her will by the pack. It is therefore my duty
to future navigators to record this belief in order to
prevent any being blamed if they fail to get to the
northward of Cape Brevoort.

' It is astonishing how different the ice is at different
parts of Eobeson Channel. As we came south we met
lighter ice, but here we again meet with heavy Polar
floes. Coupled with the observations of Dr. Bessels
and others, who state that the heavy ice drifts up
Lady Franklin Sound, that opening would appear
to act as a pocket. After being cleared by a south-
west wind driving the pack towards the north, it is
sufficiently large to receive almost all the ice driven
from the Polar Sea through Robeson Channel with the
change of wind from the north.'

It is only during seasons when northerly winds
prevail considerably over the westerly ones that the
heavy Polar ice is carried south in large quantities
down Kennedy Channel into Kane's Sea.

The speed of the slowly -moving tidal currents in
the Polar Sea becomes gradually accelerated as they
pass through the narrow Eobeson and Kennedy
Channels. At Floeberg Beach the rise and fall of the
tide is only from one and-a-half to three feet ; at Cape
Frazer, at the south end of Kennedy Channel, it is
fourteen feet. Consequently, the ice in its passage

126 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. AUGUST

southward through the northern portion of that chan-
nel is borne onward with ever-increasing speed, and
leaves behind the more sluggish moving pack jammed
together in the funnel-shaped Robeson Channel.

During our detention near Cape Beechey, the ice
in Eobeson Channel, which is only thirteen miles wide
at that part, drifted up and down the strait with the
tide, the wind having the effect of increasing the speed
of the current and the duration of its flow both towards
the north and the south.

As Captain Stephenson, by his last orders, conveyed
to him via Polaris Bay in May, supposed that the two
ships would probably pass a second winter in the
neighbourhood of Discovery Bay, it was necessary to
send him instructions to prepare the ' Discovery ' for
sea, and to inform him of my intention to proceed to
England.

On the 5th Mr. Egerton with a seaman started
with the necessary orders. They arrived at Discovery
Bay the following morning, after a march of nineteen
hours. Having missed their way, they had crossed a
mountain range two thousand feet high, and after
having walked at least thirty miles over rough and
boggy ground, arrived on board the ship with their
boots completely worn out.

On the 6th the wind increased considerably from
the north until it blew a gale. During the height of
the flood, or south-going tide, a succession of heavy
floe pieces passed us drifting down the strait, toying
with our barrier of outlying floebergs, and turning one
large one completely topsy-turvy. It was firmly
aground in twelve fathoms water on an off-lying shoal

1876 NEWS OF BEAUMONT'S PARTY. ] 27

some two hundred yards from the main line of the
floebergs, and had been of great service in keeping the
line of the drifting pack at a safe distance from us ;
but on this occasion the point of a large floe which
was drifting south close inshore brought the weight of
the whole pack on this particular mass. As it received
the pressure, the floeberg was reared up in the air to
its full height of at least sixty feet above water, and
turning a complete somersault fell over with a tre-
mendous splash, breaking into a number of pieces
with a great commotion, and raising a wave sufficient
to roll the ship considerably.

Our protecting floeberg having been carried away,
the pack closed in, forcing the lighter floebergs one
after the other, as they became exposed, farther in-
shore, and at last nipped the ship slightly.

In the evening Lieutenant Eawson and two sea-
men arrived from the ' Discovery/ and brought me the
distressing news concerning the Greenland division of
sledgers which has been related in the previous chapter.
He further informed me that Lieutenant Beaumont and
a party were still at Polaris Bay, but that they had
intended starting on the 5th for Discovery Bay.

Although I had the fullest confidence in Lieutenant
Beaumont, I was naturally most anxious concerning
his crossing the strait when the ice was so much
broken-up and the spring- tides at their greatest height.
Consequently, in addition to our incessant watch for an
opening in the ice by which we might advance, many
an anxious look was directed towards Polaris Bay, and
our thoughts were chiefly engrossed on the perilous
position of our comrades there.

128 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. AUGUST

On the morning of the 7th, the wind still blowing
strong from the north-east, but slightly off the land on
our side of the channel, the ice eased off shore and
cleared the nip round the ship, but did not allow us to
move to a more sheltered position.

In the afternoon, a temporary opening occurring,
steam was raised and the rudder shipped, but owing to
some of the ropes fouling, the latter was not ready
before the ice closed in and imprisoned us again.

From the summit of Cape Beechey, Polaris Bay,
being a weather shore, was observed to be quite clear
of ice, with water extending to a distance of five or
six miles from the land. Hall's Basin was full of ice
drifting quickly to the southward with the wind and
tide.

While the ship was detained at Cape Beechey,
Captain Feilden obtained some Eskimo relics. The
spot where he found them is evidently the northern
limit of the migration of these people on the west side
of the channel. From thence they have crossed to
Polaris Bay, where their traces are again met with.
In the same neighbourhood several rings of stones
marking the sites of summer tents were found ; and
in one locality numerous flakes of rock crystal which
had been broken off in the process of making arrow
or harpoon heads.

On the morning of the 8th the wind was blowing
very strongly down the channel, and completely pre-
vented any ice drifting to the northward with the ebb-
tide. With the flood, the pack was carried past us at
the rate of two miles an hour.

Owing to several heavy pieces of ice grounding out-

1876 'ALERT' NIPPED BY THE ICE. 129

side our barrier line, the inner edge of the pack was
guided more towards our position, and at last two
floebergs wedged themselves against the ship, and after
forcing her very close to the shore, nipped her to
such an extent that she was raised bodily three feet.
She stood the great strain remarkably well, the cabin
doors opening and shutting almost as easily as usual.
A heavy piece of ice having grounded outside of the
ship, prevented our moving until we had lightened it.
Accordingly the fires were put out, the boilers run
down, and all hands employed cutting down the
stranded floeberg.

Rawson and his two men returned to the ' Dis-
covery.' Feilden and Parr, walking to the southward,
found another large flock of geese, but they were
unable to shoot any for want of a boat.

In the afternoon there was less wind. Polaris Bay
was observed to be free of ice, and a few cracks had
opened in the otherwise close pack.

The northerly gale experienced in Eobeson Channel
between the 6th and the 8th was also felt by Sir Allen
Young at Cape Isabella, where, after so zealously
keeping his position under very trying circumstances,
surrounded by ice on a lee snore, it finally forced him
to proceed to Hartstene Bay.

On the 9th the weather was fine. In the middle of
Hall's Basin the pack had opened slightly, but was in
no way navigable for a ship, even had the ice in our
neighbourhood permitted our moving.

A shooting party, with the dingy and Frederick's
kayak, went to the southward to look for the brent
geese seen the day previously. They returned with

VOL. II. K

130 VOYAGE TO THE POLAK SEA. AUGUST

twenty-nine geese and forty-one goslings. At the
same time Dr. Moss and Mr. White brought on board
three hares and four geese from another direction—
a very good day's sport ; the neighbourhood was
named Brenta Bay in consequence.

Towards midnight, as the sun hid itself from the
ship behind the northern hills, the temperature imme-
diately feU from 34° to 30°.

On the 10th, after three days' work, the floeberg
aground outside of us having been sufficiently reduced,
floated at the top of high- water, and the ship was once
more free. At the same time a water-channel opened
along shore and we advanced a distance of five miles
without much trouble.

Seals had now become more plentiful ; they and
a few dovekies seen in the water-pools gave employ-
ment to those with time to spare.

Early on the llth, with the last of the flood- tide
the ice again opened slightly and enabled us to
reach some large floebergs lying aground a little to
the north of St. Patrick's Bay, but by being five
minutes too late we were unable to enter the bay
before the ice closed in with the change of tide.
Observing nine hares feeding on shore, Parr and Moss
started in pursuit, and succeeded in shooting four out
of a family party of seven.

On the 12th, soon after high-water the ice com-
menced setting off shore. Accordingly we at once
pushed on to the southward, the water-channel between
the pack and the land obliging me to enter St. Patrick's
Bay. After several hours' delay in passing Distant
Point, we opened Discovery Bay ; finding it full of

187C ARRIVE AT DISCOVERY BAY. 131

ice we were obliged to secure the ship near Bellot
Island until the evening, when with considerable
trouble, and after many narrow escapes of being
nipped, we at last joined company with the ' Discovery,'
after a separation of eleven months and-a-half.

As there were no tidings of Lieutenant Beaumont
and his party, preparations were immediately made
for the ' Alert ' to cross the channel to Polaris Bay ;
all the invalids with the official papers and natural his-
tory collections being sent to the ' Discovery.'

The ice not permitting us to start, I visited the
look-out station with Captain Stephenson, and from an
elevation of 1,540 feet, on a clear and calm morning,
obtained a magnificent view, but, to our great regret
and increasing anxiety, nothing was to be seen of the
travellers. A white object was plainly visible at Hall's
Eest, but whether it was Beaumont's tent or the second
boat, which he would be obliged to abandon and
leave there, it was impossible to say ; with such fine
weather it was most probable that he would have
started.

We observed a large pool of water in Polaris Bay,
and that the ice between Cape Beechey and Cape
Lupton was fairly navigable, but near Discovery Bay
and elsewhere in Eobeson Channel it was closely
packed. On the east side of Hall's Basin and at the
north end of Kennedy Channel, there was a great
quantity of water near the shore, with large floes
drifting with the tidal current in mid-channel.

The look-out man reported that during the last
northerly gale the heavy floes which streamed down
Eobeson Channel struck against the projecting point of

K 2

132 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. AUGUST

Daly Peninsula, packing heavily ; the main portion
being then carried into Lady Franklin Sound, and only
a small quantity drifting into Kennedy Channel.

The south end of the United States Range was
clearly visible to the westward. With the upper part
of each valley filled with a glacier, the mountains pre-
sented a totally different appearance from those at the
north-eastern end of the range, the difference being
probably due to the southern hills depriving the warm
winds of a great part of their moisture.

On the 12th Mr. Egerton returned on board with
part of a musk-ox killed by Lieut. Rawson a few
days previously when journeying from the ' Alert ' at
Cape Beechey to Discovery Bay. Owing to the length
of the march Rawson and his two companions
were as lightly accoutred as possible. Near St.
Patrick's Bay two musk-oxen were sighted, a cow
and a bull calf. Although there was no gun with the
party, Rawson decided upon attacking the animals with
his knife. The following is his narrative of the en-
counter : —

' Not having any fire-arms with us, and knowing
how much fresh meat was required, we determined to
try and drive them down towards the ship ; for which
purpose we made a circuit and got inland of them,
hoping to drive them towards a small ravine. On sight-
ing us they immediately prepared to defend themselves,
standing back to back ; whereupon we attacked them
with stones, gradually closing in. At first they took
little heed of our volleys, but as we got nearer
and made better throwing they commenced snorting,

1876 MUSK-OXEN. 133

bellowing, and tearing up the ground with their fore-
paws. On our endeavouring to get on their flanks they
turned their front, pivoting round on their hind legs
and always keeping back to back with their heads
towards two out of the three of us.

' As my hunting-knife and one of the men's alpen-
stocks were our only weapons, there appeared to be
little chance of my getting near enough to use the
knife so long as they kept in this position.

' By the time we had approached to about five or
six yards we discovered that they were extremely sen-
sitive in the nose ; and after a few well-directed stones
the cow broke through our line and made for the hills.
We then closed on the young bull. Charging me he
also succeeded in escaping, and would have tripped me
up had I not jumped out of his -way, much to the
amusement of the men.

' We then again surrounded them on the side of
the hill, flinging stones all the time ; when nearly close
enough for striking with the knife the cow charged
and three times forced me to retreat up the hill.
Finding that I could get out of the way pretty easily,
I felt more courageous, and at last, after a well-directed
shot with a stone, I managed to plunge the knife into
her side. She was round at once, but I managed to
keep above her on the hill-side, and following her up
struck her three more blows.

'Although bleeding profusely I could not reach
her heart, so at the suggestion of one of the men we
lashed the knife on to the alpenstock. I felt con-
siderably more at ease with the lengthened weapon, and

134 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. AUGUST

after three more stabs had the satisfaction of seeing the
animal stagger, fall, and then roll down the hill for
about a hundred yards, dead.

' The young bull, who had been making himself
rather annoying ah1 this time by every now and then
getting behind us, now stood watching the carcase.
Thinking this was an opportunity not to be lost, I
succeeded in stabbing him, but in the confusion he
managed to break through our line and escape over
the hills at such speed as to render it useless our fol-
lowing.'

On the morning of the 13th the ' Alert ' crossed
Discovery Harbour and reached some ice aground
near the breakwater at the entrance ; there she was
secured, ready to start for Polaris Bay immediately an
opportunity occurred. The water-pools on the break-
water, each fringed by a bright green border of moss,
which afforded the skaters exercise on the 2 6th of August
last year, were at this period being used as a rendez-
vous by the ducks and wading birds flocking together
preparatory for their migration south. They were very
shy, and although much patience was displayed by the
sportsmen only three or four were shot. Only female
ducks were seen, the male birds having apparently
started south by themselves, leaving the care of the
young birds to the female parents.

At this season the ground was evidently hardening
for the winter. During the spring, long before the
temperature of the air was above freezing point, the
earth became pulverized to the depth of two or three
inches, all the moisture which had rendered it hard
throughout the winter having evaporated. During the

1876 LIEUT. BEAUMONT ARRIVES. 135

latter part of the summer, the moisture again collects
as dew and the earth hardens completely.

The tops of the hills were now covered with
newly fallen snow which remained unrnelted. The
water in the small ravines had stopped running, and
the large ones could be easily crossed on stepping-
stones without wetting our feet.

Although ice did not form on the largest water-
spaces in the pack, the floes were already being
cemented together during calm weather, and all the
water-pools on the surface of the floes were covered
with ice almost strong enough to bear a man's weight.

On the 14th our anxiety concerning Beaumont's
party was put an end to by our seeing his encampment
only two miles distant from us on the ice. A relief
party was immediately despatched to his assistance, and
after a few hours I had the satisfaction of seeing the
members of the Expedition collected together again.
This satisfaction was, however, considerably marred
by the thought that four of our original number had
sacrificed their lives in the performance of their duties.

Beaumont gave the following account of his perilous
journey across Hall's Basin, during which, notwith-
standing the indomitable perseverance of the leader
and his companions, but for a providential south-east
wind setting in, they would have been driven into
Kennedy Channel, and in all human probability have
sacrificed their lives.

' August Sth. Polaris Bay. — A bright beautiful day,
but still blowing.

' Everything is packed up and ready, and we are
only waiting for the wind to go down. A thick mist

136 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. AUGUST

lying in the channel indicates open water, but prevents
us seeing what the ice is doing.

' Noon. The wind is going down, and the clouds
clearing away off Cape Lupton ; a sure sign of fine
weather.

' Went up the hill, as the mist cleared away, to
inspect the ice. A great change 'has taken place ; the
old ice of the basin has gone south apparently, and is
replaced by large and heavy floes from the north;
they are still travelling at a great rate in consequence
of the wind.

' It is evident that we shall have a large amount
of boat work. I wish we could take the twenty-foot
ice-boat, but she is too heavy. We must wait until it
is quite calm, as the fifteen-foot ice-boat when loaded
is only three inches out of the water.

' 9 P.M. It is now quite calm as far as we can see.
Closed the house ; secured everything, and started at
10 P.M. in the fifteen-foot ice-boat, with the sledge
towing astern. We are so deep and the sledge so
heavy, that we are going very slow ; pulled nearly to
Cape Lupton, and then took the ice, shaping course
for St. Patrick's Bay. After two hours' work entered
a large space of water ; it was a time of great anxiety
to me, as we could barely keep the water out of
the boat — it was three miles broad. Disembarked
on the opposite side, placed the boat on the sledge,
and started across the floe. During the rest of the
march we proceeded in a similar manner ; each time
we embarked or disembarked it was necessary to un-
load the boat, either to launch her or haul her up.

' Though we seem to have been drifted south, we
have made very good progress, and when we camped

1876 JOURNEY ACROSS HALL'S BASIN. 137

at 2.20 P.M. we had been sixteen hours at work and
had done ten miles. The convalescents, are standing
the work well.

' I am sorry to find that the ice we are on is in
motion, drifting south.

' $th and Wth. — I have been up several times
watching the ice, and now that a little breeze has
sprung up we are drifting faster ; so I called the men,
and we prepared for a start.

' Started at 9.50 P.M. We must have been swept
back a long way during our halt to the south and east.
Worked hard until lunch to make it up, amongst high
but small floes, surrounded by rubble. It would take
much too long, and would be difficult to describe the
variety of obstacles and delays which we met with,
and we have made so little way, that I don't think we
have even kept our ground against the southerly drift.
Now the ice appears to be stationary, and we are
stopped for lunch.

' Started again in an hour and struck straight in
towards Bellot Island, to get out of the influence of
the drift,

' Camped at 11.30 A.M., having been fourteen hours
at work ; Dr. Coppinger is watching the convalescents,
as it won't do to overwork them.

' We are much farther south than we were yester-
day, and not so far across.

'10^, 1M, and 12th.— We have been drifted
south several miles during the halt, and matters are

o '

looking serious. We are now abreast of Cape Lieber,
and if this goes on we shall be swept into Kennedy
Channel, and unable to regain the ship.

' Coppinger and myself are quite of opinion that an

138 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. AUGUST

effort must be made, for even with the very hard work
that we are doing now, we are losing ground every
hour — even on the march we seem hardly to recover it.

' Started at 11 P.M., with the intention of going in
straight for Cape Baird, and reaching it before we
stopped.

' We worked steadily on to lunch, then from lunch
on to camping time.

' At that time a breeze sprang up from the west
and set the ice in motion, clearing it away from Cape
Lieber.

' The water was making fast on the west side of
Kennedy Channel ; everywhere the ice was on the
move, and we were obliged to go on.

'We had been slowly going south all day, and
now Cape Baird was in a line with Bellot Island, and
we could not see the south shore of Peter mann Fiord.
There was no time to take angles or bearings, or even
to keep a record of events. The change from sledging
to boating, and vice versa, became so frequent and
hurried, that we had not time to unload, but did
everything at full speed, to the imminent risk of both
sledge and boat.

'At about 10.15P.M. the wind changed to the
south-east, and began to blow the ice back again, and
from that time we made real progress ; eventually
reaching the land by boat between Cape Lieber and
Cape Baird at 7 A.M., 12th of August, after having
been under weigh thirty-five hours.

' The men, and especially the convalescents, are
dead beat.

' 13th and I&h. — As there was no danger of being

1876 JOURNEY ACROSS HALL'S BASIN. 139

drifted, I let them sleep on, while Coppinger and my-
self walked to Cape Baird to examine the ice in Lady
Franklin's Strait.

' It was getting very misty, but we were in time.
All the ice that was out yesterday is back again close
to the shore ; it seems quite fast between Bellot Island
and ourselves.

4 Saw two ships lying in Discovery Bay. The
" Alert " being down made me think that they might
be waiting for us ; so we built a cairn and went back ;
had lunch and started by boat through dense rubble
for a short distance.

4 Worked steadily -from 7 A.M. until 5 A.M. (14th),
with two halts for food.

' I was very anxious to get over in one march, but
it corning on thick, and Doctor Coppinger representing
it as advisable for the sake of the men not to go on,
we camped.

' We could see the " Alert " quite plainly when the
fog lifted.

' We have been at work twenty-two hours ; no
boating ; all dragging.

' Uth. — While we were having breakfast, prepara-
tory to a start, we heard a cheer, and running out met
Commander Markham and his party, who had left the
" Alert " to come to our assistance. They brought us a
supply of most tempting provisions, fearing that we
might be in want.

1 Soon afterwards we started in their company, and
reached the " Alert " without further accident.

' Probable distance travelled from Polaris Bay to
Bellot Island, sixty miles.'

140 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. AUGUST

CHAPTEE V.

RICH VEGETATION BELLOT ISLAND — COAL SEAM CAPE MURCHISON —

LEAVE DISCOVERY BAY — OPEN WATER — KENNEDY CHANNEL —

STOPPED BY THE PACK 'ALERT* FORCED ON SHORE — SEVERE

STORM — STOPPED OFF CAPE FRAZER - DOVEKIES — ENTER DOBBIN
BAY — TEMPERATURE AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF THE SEA LATE-
NESS OF THE SEASON — FORMATION OF ICEBERGS — SHORT SUPPLY
OF COAL — PASS VICTORIA HEAD OPEN WATER VISIT CAPE ISA-
BELLA— NEWS FROM ENGLAND — SIR ALLEN YOUNG — NAVIGATION
OF SMITH SOUND.

AFTER the return of Lieutenant Beaumont and his men
from Polaris Bay, all the shooting parties were recalled
to their vessels, and the two ships prepared for their
voyage southward ; but no movement occurring in
the ice outside of Discovery Bay, we were unable to
start for several days.

On the southern slopes of Bellot Island, which
were sheltered from the north winds and received the
full force of the mid-day sun, the vegetation was
remarkably rich. Six species of saxifrage were com-
mon, and the beautiful Hesp&ris, with its lilac blossoms,
attained a height of eight or ten inches ; considerable
patches were also covered with Androsace septen-
trionalis, and a single species of fern grew abundantly
under the shelter of boulder rocks. Many other
plants, which I have not enumerated, were collected

]876 ARCTIC VEGETATION. 141

on the same spot, and it would thus appear that a
favourable combination of soil, shelter from winds, and
full exposure to the sun have more to do witli the
development of flowering plants in the Polar regions
than parallels of latitude.

Two ermines, a male and female, were shot by
Lieutenant GifFard on Bellot Island. We had pre-
viously obtained a specimen in a fox's earth north of
Floeberg Beach, and Beaumont shot one on the shores
of North Greenland. Although a great number of
hares had been shot by the sportsmen from the ' Dis-
covery,' there still remained a large number ; many
of these were secured, and provided a daily meal of
fresh meat for our sick men while we remained in the
neighbourhood.

During our enforced detention in Discovery Bay
the dredge and trawl were several times called into
requisition.

On the 16th, the weather still remaining distress-
ingly fine and calm, an excursion was made to the
coal-beds near Cape Murchison. This deposit of coal,
or, more correctly, lignite, is exposed in a ravine near
Watercourse Bay, for a distance of over two hundred
yards. At its greatest exposure the thickness of the
seam is twenty-five feet, but we had no means of
ascertaining how much deeper it descended below the
level of the stream. Above the coal are beds of shale
and sandstones. In these shales were found a con-
siderable number of leaf impressions, similar to those
found in the Miocene coal-bearing strata of Disco
Island and the Nursoak Peninsula, as also in Spits-
bergen, leaving no doubt as to the geological age of

142 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. AUGUST

this Grinnell Land lignite. The coal was pronounced
after trial by our engineers to be equal to the best
Welsh. The seam where exposed is at an elevation of
about two hundred feet above the sea-level, and at a
distance of about a mile from the shore of Watercourse
Bay, in Eobeson Channel. Unfortunately very little
shelter is obtainable for a large vessel among the small
floebergs stranded in this indentation. The distance
between the coal-seam and Discovery Bay is about
four miles, and the track leads over the brow of a hill
about 800 feet high.

A short distance above the quarry, in a narrow
part of the ravine where a large quantity of snow,
collected in a shaded part, remains unmelted during
the summer, the mountain torrent has melted away a
watercourse for itself through the snow bank. In
winter this ice grotto, with a trifling expense of la-
bour, could be readily formed into a convenient Arctic
residence.

On the 17th we again visited the coal seam, ob-
taining a considerable collection of fossils. With a
temperature of 35° we found geologising very cold
work. The stream in the ravine was still running, but
ice was forming in the water.

In my journal I find the following remarks : —

' Now that the temperature at night falls to 28°,
it is difficult to account for water running from
uplands over the frozen lowlands unless we suppose it
to come from some sheltered valley with a southern
aspect.

' A lake five hundred feet above the sea thus favour-
ably situated gives no sign of freezing, but we can

1876

COAL SEAM.

143

obtain no water anywhere on the lowlands. The pools
of water on the surface of the ice are now frozen over
thick enough to bear our weights in most places
During an excursion to-day we caught several butter-
flies and caterpillars, also some bluebottle flies.'

About one hundred yards from the shore of Dis-
covery Bay Dr. Moss picked up part of a human femur.
This was the only portion of a human skeleton found
northward of Port Foulke.

While swinging the ' Alert ' to ascertain the error

POST OFFICE CAIRN.

of the compasses, her stern took the ground with the
falling of the tide. She floated again without damage
as the tide rose.

On the 18th Captain Stephenson deposited an
account of our proceedings in a cairn which had been

144 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. AUGUST

constructed out of the empty preserved meat-tins,
refilled with gravel. A post-office box was placed in
the centre of the pile.

The 'Discovery' then crossed the bay and anchored
near Bellot Island. A heavy floe drifting past forced
her on shore with the falling tide ; but after a few
hours' discomfort, caused by the ship heeling fifteen
degrees, the rising tide floated her again, without the
ship having suffered any damage.

From the summit of Bellot Island I observed that
the ice in Lady Franklin Sound was commencing to
move, and that water-pools were forming along the
eastern edge of a very large floe which extended half-
way across the mouth of the sound. On the south-east
shore a broad water-channel extended along the foot
of the cliffs of Daly Peninsula, and although it was
nearly calm at Bellot Island the waves raised in the
water showed that a strong southerly wind was blow-
ing on the opposite coast.

As there was apparently a better prospect of our
being able to escape by the passage on the western
side of the island, the two ships proceeded to that
entrance, and after an unsuccessful attempt to push
out into the ice, in which the ' Alert ' damaged her
rudder, were secured amongst some heavy pieces of
ice stranded on a ten-fathom bank which extends
across the entrance and connects Bellot Island under
water with the peninsula to the westward of it.

On the 19th the officer of the watch kept his look-
out from the high land of Bellot Island. During the
ebb-tide the ice gave promise of opening, and we
tried to force our way along the edge of the large floe,

o

I ^
w .:

n

1876 CROSS LADY FRANKLIN SOUND. 145

but after an hour's expenditure of coal were compelled
to give up the attempt.

The south-west wind was still blowing strongly on
the opposite side of the sound, but for some reason
it did not extend across the ice to our shore. It
was, however, gradually enlarging the water-space
near Daly Peninsula, and kept us on the qui vive. A
channel had formed across the sound from Keppel
Head, but the ice remained close to the shore between
it and the ships. At Cape Baird the water remained
open with both tides, which proved that there was not
much ice in the neighbourhood.

During the night the large floe already referred to
was driven against Bellot Island ; being then unable
to move readily with the ebb-tide, the water-pools on
its western edge closed up, while those on its north-east
side showed signs of opening. Accordingly, on the
morning of the 20th, while I went to the top of the
island, Captain Stephenson took the ships back into
Discovery Bay. From the summit of the hills I
observed that there was only one narrow nip left
unopened, and that was close to Bellot Island. At
low-water an eddy current opened a channel just wide
enough for us to pass through, and with a little
trouble we succeeded in reaching the water on the
southern shore of the sound.

We left Discovery Harbour in a perfect calm, but
on nearing the edge of the pack met with a strong
south-westerly wind blowing up Lady Franklin Sound
and Kennedy Channel. It is remarkable that for the
three previous days this wind had been blowing on the
southern shore without penetrating across the bay. In

VOL.11. L

146 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. AUGUST

consequence, the ice in Hall's Basin was not driven to
the northward but remained closely packed. The
water-channel east of Cape Lieber was six miles in
breadth, the pack having collected on the eastern side
of Kennedy Channel.

Passing Carl Bitter Bay, it was seen to be filled
with ice ; but with that exception we met none on
the western shore until we were abreast of Franklin
Island. From thence to the southward it gradually
became thicker and thicker, until at 4 A.M. of the 21st,
when abreast of Eawling's Bay, and in the same
latitude as the ' Polaris ' was, when beset in the pack
in 1872, we were also in danger of being cut off from
the land. I accordingly turned back, and succeeded
in gaining the shore shortly before low-water.

Cape Lawrence, which forms the northern entrance
to the deepest bay on the coast, is by far the most
magnificent of the many remarkable headlands that so
profusely adorn Kennedy Channel. A grand castel-
lated cliff rises precipitously from the sea to a height
of about 2,000 feet. From its top the land slopes
upwards for a distance of three miles and attains an
altitude of at least 3,000 feet.

On reaching the shore I steamed, as I had lately
been in the habit of doing, towards the 'ice-wall,'
thinking to make the ships fast to it while waiting for
the flood- tide to carry away the ice to the southward.
But I found that there was not sufficient depth of
water alongside for the ships. In fact, we had bidden
adieu to the lofty ice-fringe bordering the shore, which
is formed by the pressure of the heavy Polar pack
continually casting up new pieces of ice until a solid

1876 ICE-FOOT. 147

wall is produced, rising out of water sufficiently deep
to float the ships in, and standing thirty feet high ; and
had returned to the region where the shore is merely
bordered by an ' ice-foot,' the upper surface of which
is level with the top of high-water, and the bottom of
its ice-cliff is at the low-water level.

In Kane's Sea, off the exposed capes which receive
great pressure, the ice becomes piled up on the ' ice-
foot ' until a solid cliff is formed something like that
to the northward, but the water at the edge of the cliff
is never more than about a fathom deep at low- tide.

With the flood-tide the ice left the northern shore,
but packed against Cape Joseph Good. As the
weather looked threatening, with a very rapidly rising
barometer, we ran up the bay, hoping to find shelter
for the ships. Entering a land-locked basin, named
Eadmore Harbour (after one of Commander Markham's
sledge companions), I found several pieces of icebergs
grounded on the shore, and secured the 'Alert' to
one of them ; the ' Discovery ' going farther in and
making fast to some last winter's ice which had not
yet broken up.

At the head of the bay we observed a discharging
glacier, which was evidently the parent of the numerous
small icebergs studding the harbour. This was to us
a very unusual sight, as we had not seen any since
leaving Bessel's Bay in August the previous year. The
glacier was named Jolliffe, after another of Markham's
men.

It being spring-tides, the current ran with great
strength into the bay, bringing with it a large
quantity of ice, which gradually filled up the harbour ;

L 2

148

VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA.

AUGUST

but in such a sheltered position I never expected
danger to be near.

At the top of high- water a passing floe pushed the
bow of the ' Alert ' on shore, but so lightly that, had
it given us room, we could have readily hauled her
off again. Before we had sufficient time to do so the
water had fallen so much that we were hard and fast
aground. As the water fell the ship heeled over to-

' ALERT ' ON SHORE.

wards the sea twenty-two degrees. The forefoot being
exposed as far aft as the foremast, I was rather anxious
lest she should fall over altogether.

As the tide rose we used suitable pieces of ice as
rafts to carry out one of the bower anchors and chain
cable, hauling them astern to the desired positions by
a hawser ; the raft was then destroyed by gunpowder,
and the anchor fell to the bottom.

1876 ESKIMO SETTLEMENT. 149

At high-water the ship having been lightened of all
the stores readily movable was hauled off. The rise
and fall of the tide was between thirteen and four-
teen feet.

While hunting along the shores of the bay Feilden
and Parr found traces of a large Eskimo settlement,
and from the grass-covered mounds, which marked the
sites of ancient dwellings, several articles made in bone
and ivory were obtained.

We noticed that the water in the bay had a very
decided green tint, a colour which we had not met
with farther north.

On the morning of the 22nd the ice was observed
to be leaving the coast. Accordingly, we proceeded
to the southward, keeping inshore of the pack. At
9.30 we passed Cape Joseph Good (named after Lieu-
tenant Aldrich's sledge captain), with a strong wind
blowing from the south-west up the main channel, but
the upper clouds flying from the westward, with thick
weather and snow falling.

Passing Eichardson Bay a very large floe, a collec-
tion of smaller ones frozen solidly together during the
last few days, obliged me to steam two or three miles
offshore, but a water-channel led us in again near
Cape Collinson.

At two o'clock, about the time of high-water, there
were many eddy-currents, rendering it difficult to
choose the best leads through the ice. On one occa-
sion, when the ' Alert ' was obliged to retreat from a
channel closing unexpectedly, we ran foul of the ' Dis-
covery,' carrying away one of .her boat's davits, but
by smart and skilful management the boat was saved.

150 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. AUGUST

On our nearing Cape M' Clint ock the ice closed in
with the north-going tide ; and as the wind was blow-
ing strong, with very thick weather, I ran for shelter
behind some stranded icebergs about one mile north of
the cape.

With the flood-tide the ice again moved from the
shore, but the thick weather prevented our ascertaining
whether or no it drifted to the south against the strong
wind.

Passing Scoresby Bay, which was observed to be
about twenty miles deep and perfectly clear of ice,
the wind shifted, blowing down the bay, and enabled
us to use the fore and aft sails for the first time since
the 1st September the previous year. Owing to the
large size of the bay a considerable sea had risen,
causing motion in the ships.

On nearing Cape Norton Shaw the wind again
came from the south-west and blew with such force
that occasionally, with the fires of both boilers alight,
we could scarcely make head-way ; however, I pushed
on, knowing that with such a wind we should meet
with no ice until arriving off Cape Frazer, the turning
point of the coast.

While passing Cape John Barrow the squalls off
the land were so severe that a large book of drawings
belonging to one of the officers of the ' Discovery/
and containing a collection of sketches made during
the voyage, which had been inadvertently left on deck,
was carried overboard by the wind.

At 3 A.M. of the 23rd the storm had increased so
much that the ' Alert ' had scarcely steerage way ; I
accordingly anchored in Maury Bay to wait for the

1876 SOUTH-WEST GALE. 151

le to subside and to save coal. We could not,
however, have advanced more than a mile farther
south as the pack was nipping heavily against Cape
Frazer, while it drifted fast to the northward before
the wind. During the gale the temperature rose to 42° ;
the frozen pools of water on the surface of the ice were
consequently melted.

We remarked at the time that in all probability
the gale extended over a large area. On our return
to England we learnt that it was on this day that
several vessels of the whaling fleet at Behring's Straits,
1,300 miles to the south-westward of our position,
were so greatly damaged by the ice as to oblige
them to be abandoned, causing a considerable loss of
life.

As the strong November gales of the previous year
are known to have extended for an equal distance, from
near Cape Desolation in South Greenland to Floeberg
Beach, and as each disturbance in the atmosphere at
the Bay of Mercy in Banks Island in 1853 was felt at
Eensselaer Bay, 800 miles distant to the eastward, I
see no reason to doubt that this gale extended through-
out the whole region between Behring's Straits and
Smith Sound.

At 8 A.M., the gale having subsided, and the wind,
by coming more off the land, giving promise of the ice
opening off Cape Frazer, we weighed and proceeded
south, and secured the ships to a large floe near the
cape, about a mile from the shore, ready to take
advantage of any change in the ice. With the excep-
tion of the navigable channel, about a mile in breadth,
between the pack and the Grinnell shore north of Cape

152 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. AUGUST

Frazer, no water was in sight in any direction ; the ice
was everywhere closely packed.

A temperature sounding showed the surface-water
to be 29°'0 ; at a depth of thirty fathoms it was 29°*2 ;
from thence to the bottom it gradually increased
in warmth until at a depth of forty-five and seventy
fathoms it was 30°'0. The specific gravity of the
surface water at a temperature of 60° as determined
by Dr. Moss was 1 02430 ; and that at a depth of
seventy fathoms 1*02547.

Coincident with the increase of warmth in the
bottom water, and the change in colour due to dia-
tomacese, walrus, large seal and little auks were seen
for the first time on our way south. A dredge which
came up much torn showed that the bottom was
extremely rich in Echinoderms.

In endeavouring to obtain some water from a
depth of a hundred fathoms the brass water-bottle
was accidentally sent down with both valves closed. As
the air could not escape, on recovery, the bottle was
found to have been completely flattened by the pressure
of the water.

A common black bottle carefully stoppered with a
champagne cork withstood the pressure of one hundred-
weight to the square inch at a depth of fifty fathoms.
At a depth of eighty-five fathoms, with a pressure of
nearly two hundred pounds to the square inch, the
water oozed through the cork until the bottle was
half-full of water, without apparently affecting the
cork.

During the ebb-tide in the afternoon, although the

; .! ' • : ' '

1876 CAPE FRAZER. 153

ice near the shore drifted towards the south, the
floe to which we were secured moved with the pack
towards the north, and not wishing to be carried past
Maury Bay I cast off and again anchored inshore at
9 P.M.

Captain Feilden, Mr. Hart, and I then landed, and
walked to the raised beach at the extreme of Cape
Frazer. It is situated 250 feet above the present sea-
level, and being the only one in the neighbourhood
renders the Cape conspicuous.

After erecting a cairn and depositing a record of
our proceedings we returned to the ship with a rich
but extremely heavy burden of limestone fossils.

Cape Frazer being subject to great pressure from
the pack in Kane's Sea, the ice-foot is of much the
same character as the ice-wall in the Polar Sea, but the
depth of water alongside it at low-water is only a few
feet ; the accompanying illustration from an excellent
photograph obtained by Mr. Mitchell when the water
had yet to rise two feet, shows the cliffy nature of the
sea-face.

On the 24th we experienced calm weather, with a
temperature ranging between 35° and 39°. The ice
in the offing was much less closely packed, although
to the southward of Cape Frazer it remained, as be-
fore, tightly pressed against the land.

Expecting that the ebb-tide would carry the
inshore ice to the southward, as it did the previous day,
I started at one P.M. hoping to arrive at the cape before
high- water, ready to take advantage of any change ;
but none occurred, and we were again obliged to

154 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. AUGUST

secure the ships to a large floe that was slowly drifting
to the northward in the water-channel which remained
open on our side of the cape.

At 9 P.M., low-water, the ice drifting quickly to
the northward suddenly opened, and by leaving a
channel close to the shore enabled us to enter Gould
Bay, and to approach within half a mile of Point
Hayes. There a floe about three miles in diameter
remained nipped against the land and prevented our
farther advance. The ships were accordingly secured
inside of three icebergs, lying aground close to the
shore, off the mouth of a large ravine.

The ice-foot in the neighbourhood had been melted
away in parts by the summer torrent, leaving exposed
a very steep beach, which was evidently the abrupt
termination of the flat deposit of gravel collected at
the mouth of the river inside of the ice barrier, and
which with the gradual rise of the land will ultimately
become a raised beach.

Wishing to see what prospect we had of reaching
Dobbin Bay, I landed at 3 A.M. of the 25th to walk
round Cape Hayes.

By this time we had become so experienced in
localizing the positions where the Eskimo were likely
to have selected spots for encampments that we seldom
failed to find ancient remains at the points designated
by us beforehand. Observing a very favourable
locality situated on a smooth raised beach, about
thirty feet above the sea-level, formed there when the
course of the river was different from what it is at
present, Captain Feilden accompanied me on shore.
As wre expected, the usual rings of stones used for

1876 ESKIMO ENCAMPMENT. 155

holding down the tents and several interesting relics
were met with.

Since the formation of the encampment, part of the
bank had been worn or washed away, and with it
half the stones of one house had been carried off leaving
the remaining segment at the edge of the bank.

Among the debris of limestone rock at the foot of
the hills we obtained numerous fossils, one of them
being a trilobite. A pair of falcons flying around had
evidently nested in the same cliffs where we noticed
them in the previous year.

Although the large floe which prevented our
advancing westward remained immovable close to
the shore, I observed that the ice in the offing was
opening, and that beyond the cape there was fairly
navigable water reaching almost to Cape Louis
Napoleon. Accordingly I signalled to the ships to
advance and hurried back to the boat. Starting at 6
A.M., during the ebb-tide, the ice was observed to be
drifting to the northward, probably influenced by the
light southerly wind which was, blowing at the time.

By passing on the outside of the large floe we
succeeded in reaching a group of icebergs lying
aground about two miles east of Cape Napoleon-^-pro-
bably the same that protected us on the 19th of August
the previous year.

It was now sufficiently dark at midnight to render
it necessary to burn candles on the lower-deck. •

In consequence of the rise in temperature to 35°
during the previous four days all the streams in the
ravines were running again. In the afternoon a fog set
in and prevented our seeing what the ice was doing

156 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. AUGUST

While on shore I noticed a dovekie fly down from the
top of the cliffs, which rose about 800 feet above the
sea ; they evidently nest at that altitude. Captain
Feilden had long attributed a peculiar whizzing sound,
which we occasionally heard overhead when passing
under the shore cliffs, to the dovekies flying down to
the water ; but though they descended with extreme
rapidity, it was difficult to connect the loud rushing
sound of wind with the flight of such a small bird.
After passing Maury Bay we noticed dovekies in con-
siderable numbers in the pools of water near the ice-
foot, where they found apparently an ample Supply of
food.

On the 26th the -weather remained very foggy.
Taking advantage of our forced delay a rich haul was
made with the trawl in fifty fathoms, giving us several
fishes, echinoderms, sponges, and mollusca.

At 8 P.M. the ice permitted us to proceed one
and-a-half miles. Arriving at the end of the water-
channel the two ships were secured to a small iceberg
with a piece 'of ice lashed between them to keep them
from fouling each other.

In my Journal I remark :—

' Although there is no opening in the ice towards
the south-west, to the eastward, where we have lately
been able to advance only a mile or two at a time,
there is an open channel one or two miles broad. How
far it extends beyond Cape Hayes it is of course impos-
sible for us to determine.

' During this calm weather I can make little or
nothing out of the movements of the ice at certain
times of tide. It appears to follow no fixed laws here,

1876 PRINCE IMPERIAL ISLAND. 157

but if it begins to move at the commencement of the
tide, it is pretty sure to continue to drift in the same
direction as long as the tide lasts.

' Since leaving Discovery Bay we have not once
observed the decided southerly drift which we noticed
last year ; had we not known of the undoubted
existence of the current we should not have discovered
it by the ice motion lately.'

The 27th was calm with foggy weather and snow
falling, with the temperature at 32°. On the same day
the ' Pandora ' at Cape Alexander experienced a south-
west gale which did not reach our position.

In the afternoon the ice opened with the flood-
tide and enabled us, after much trouble and by passing
closer to the ice-foot than was altogether prudent, to
enter Dobbin Bay ; but there, after securing the ships
to a floe, we were quickly surrounded by the pack.

During the night and the following day we were
drifted helplessly about the bay with the tidal current.
Early on the morning of the 29th, as the ice set out
with the ebb-tide, the 'Discovery' was carried to
within a hundred yards of Cape Hilgard, and by
the rotatory motion of the floe left without any ice
between her and the shore ; for a time her ex-
posed condition caused me much anxiety.

During the last of the flood-tide another move-
ment of the ice enabled us to escape and to reach a
place of comparative safety alongside a floe hemmed
in between Prince Imperial Island and the mainland ;
everyone exceedingly glad to get out of the pack and
away from the numerous straggling icebergs.

The water-bottle having been repaired, Dr. Moss

158 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. AUGUST

obtained some samples from different depths. The
following results of his observations denote that* with
the increase in temperature of the water below thirty
fathoms the density also increases to above that of the
Polar water, which numerous observations made
during the winter showed to be 1*02245. Hence we
may conclude that the bottom water is derived from the
Atlantic Ocean.

Specific gravity at 60° Fahr.
Depth Temperature Standard water at 39°2 = unity

11 fathoms 30°-2 1-02178

.20 „ 29°-3 1-02462

40 „ 29°-8 1-02507

56 „ 30°-0 1-02506

115 „ 30°-8 1-02567

Shortly after we reached Prince Imperial Island,
a northerly wind cleared away the mist from the hills
and lowered the temperature to 30°.

The recent snow-fall, which measured about five
inches, had changed the whole aspect of the land and
re-clothed the richly tinted stratified mountains with
their winter's garb, from which they had only been free
for a short seven weeks.

After this date the snow only melted slightly in
the low-lying valleys, and the young ice formed con-
tinually on any quiet water.

The sportsmen shot six hares, a dozen ptarmigan,
and a raven.

The 30th was a beautifully clear day with a tem-
perature of 30°, falling in the evening to 20°. During
the forenoon Commander Markham and I landed on

1870 YOUNG ICE. 159

Prince Imperial Island, and afterwards on the main-
land to observe the ice.

Towards the end of the flood-tide a large water-
pool formed near Cape Hawks, and a fairly navigable
passage appeared to exist amongst the intermediate
ice. Making a signal to the ships to get up steam we
hastened on board.

The young ice at this time was so thick and tough
that we had great difficulty in breaking a passage-way
through it in the dingy ; and after starting in the ships
it was found necessary to use both boilers and to put
the engines on full speed before we could force them
through what would otherwise have been considered
fairly open ice.

Whenever we met with a quantity of small ice col-
lected between large floes, so long as the pack was not
closing, we had long ceased to wait for the formation
of a decided water-channel, as with full steam-power we
could usually force a passage for the ships.

But now with the young ice forming and the snow
tending to toughen it, we found that when one piece
of old ice was struck, although it was itself forced out
of our way, it failed to propel the pieces behind it.
Consequently, after struggling along for about three
miles at a very large expenditure of coal, I was obliged
to secure the ships to a large floe amongst a quantity
of debris ice which had become cemented together with
the frost.

This was our first experience during the season of
young ice forming thick enough to be troublesome ; the
previous summer it was almost as thick a fortnight
earlier in the season. After this date it was always

160 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. SEPTEMBER

necessary to guard against the ships becoming thus
frozen in and unable to move should the ice open.

The floe to which we were secured, during this
and the following day, was situated in the main
channel between the head of Dobbin Bay and Wash-
ington Irving Island, and drifted with the pack to
the north or south according to the tide ; no water-
channel ever opening near us, although there were a
few disconnected pools in sight in the offing.

On the 1st of September towards the end of the
flood-tide, during calm weather, we were again able to
advance, and succeeded in reaching some grounded
icebergs near Cape Hawks — probably the same which
were there the previous year.

I fully expected that with the ebb-tide the ice
would be carried out of the channel between Washing-
ton Irving Island and the main, but it did not move
sufficiently to enable us to proceed ; indeed, we had
great difficulty in communicating with the shore, only
a quarter of a mile distant, by means of a boat, in con-
sequence of the closeness of the ice. Whenever able to
do so we gradually embarked the depot of provisions
left there last year ; but a boat and some biscuit still
remain. If visited during the summer these will be
found on the northern shore of a small bay a mile and-a-
half distantJProm Cape Hawks and about a quarter of a
mile from the east point of the bay. During the
winter when covered by snow it would be very difficult
for a stranger to find the locality — unless, indeed, the
pole marking it remains up.

The mean height of the tabular iceberg alongside
which the ships were secured was between twenty-four

1876 DIMENSIONS OF AN ICEBERG. 161

and twenty-six feet, lying aground in 190 feet water ;
it had probably been raised a foot or two when forced
on shore, and would therefore have about one-ninth of
its mass exposed when afloat.

During the afternoon the temperature rose to 35°,
and misty weather with light rain set in.

On the 2nd a channel opened with the ebb-tide and
enabled us to reach to within half a mile of Cape Hawks,
but there a newly-formed floe, of debris ice frozen
together, prevented our attaining the shelter formed
by three icebergs lying aground a mile distant outside
of the cape. Captain Stephenson, in the ' Discovery,'
having steam up in both boilers, with much trouble
and by rolling the ship, broke his way through for a
distance of about a hundred yards into the ice, and
probably could have cut completely through the floe ;
but the ice to the westward giving no promise of
opening, and a thick snow-storm having set in, we
returned to our place of shelter off the depot, having
expended much coal to little purpose.

As we now had only a few tons of steaming coal
left, and after it was gone would have to use the coal
necessary for warming the ship during the coming
winter, its expenditure had become a very serious
matter. I need scarcely add that no ashes were
ever thrown overboard.

Again early on the morning of the 3rd the
movements in the ice induced me to advance, but
again were we obliged to retreat.

During the forenoon I landed on Washington Irving
Island, and the weather being very clear, obtained a
fine view.

VOL. II. M

162 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. SEPTEMBER

On visiting the cairn erected the previous year our
papers were found to have been untouched : so re-
dating them, and adding a further notice of our
movements, the cylinders were replaced.

I again examined the two ancient lichen-covered
cairns, but could find no record of who had built them :
they were probably erected by some enterprising and
successful navigator who, if he ever returned home,
has not published an account of his discoveries.

The snow had collected on the ground to a depth
of nine inches, but the fall had evidently been local,
for near Prince Imperial Island, on the opposite shore
of the bay, the lowlands were bare.

Although I could see the horizon near Cape Albert,
thirty miles distant, no cleared water was visible
anywhere towards the south : but in the direction of
Cape Hayes the water-channel, through which we had
advanced with so much trouble, had opened and now
presented a clear passage more than a mile wide and
extending to within three or four miles of our position.

I remained at the summit of the island watching
the ice until noon, when with the commencement of
the ebb-tide, I had the satisfaction of seeing the pack
to the westward of Cape Hawks in motion. The ships
were immediately got under weigh. Arriving off the
cape we found that the newly-formed floe, which had
stopped us twice before, had become fixed between the
grounded icebergs and the land, and cut us off from
a navigable water-channel beyond. After an hour's
ramming at the young ice with full steam up and by
rolling the ships, we succeeded in forcing a passage
through it, and in rounding Cape Hawks, much to the

1876

PASS CAPE HAWKS.

163

rejoicing of all ; for
the nearer we ap-
proached Hayes
Sound the better
would the ships be
placed for exploring
that unknown neigh-
bourhood, should we
have failed in escap-
ing out of Smith
Sound.

After passing the
cape we found the
ice near the land
fairly navigable ; it
obliged us, however,
to make a very tor-
tuous course and to
frequently pass within
fifty yards of the ice-
foot ; fortunately we
always found deep
water, and we suc-
ceeded in reaching
the east side of All-
man Bay before the
ebb-tide was finished.
The ice in the offing,
consisting of very
heavy floes, always
remained closely
packed.

M 2

164 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. SEPTEMBER

The ice in Allman Bay consisted of perfectly smooth
floes, formed during the previous winter, recently
cemented together with newly frozen ice from one
to three inches thick, through which we found great
difficulty in forcing a passage, having to continually
roll the ship for the purpose. The headmost vessel
having once formed a channel, the other followed
through the cleanly cut canal with very little expendi-
ture of coal.

As we entered the bay the temperature of the
surface water rose to 32°. This being very unusual, a
sample of it was tested and found to be almost fresh
enough to drink, and this again accounted for the
unusual thickness of the newly frozen ice.

Dr. Moss on analyzing the water obtained the fol-
lowing result. That at fifty-six fathoms was obtained
a few days afterwards in Princess Marie Bay : —

Depth

Surface .

2 fathoms

3 „ .
10 „

26 „
56 „

The fresh water at the surface in Allman Bay was
evidently derived from the large John Evans Glacier
at its head, named after the President of the Geological
Society.

The glacier, running in a south-east direction, ends

Temperature

31°-8

Specific Gravity at
60° Fahr.
Standard Water at
39°-2= unity

1-00217

30°-0

1-01743

29°-7

1-02388

29°-2

not obtained

29°-2
30°-0

1-02506

1876 GLACIERS— ICEBERGS. 165

at a distance of about three miles from the sea, its
front being at least five miles across. It is there
joined by a smaller glacier running down a parallel
valley.

The melting of all the inferior glaciers north of
Smith Sound before they reach the sea is very re-
markable, and must be due to the vast power of the
ever present sun during the summer being in excess of
the small amount of precipitation during the winter.

Were they to reach the sea, meeting there with
water which is never, even during the summer, suffi-
ciently warm to melt fresh- water ice, they would force
their way onward along the ground until their sea-face
or front attained its least elevation, and icebergs were
broken off by rising through excess of buoyancy. This
may account for the extreme lowness of the face of
the Petermann Glacier, which attains a mean height of
only twenty-five feet above the water-level, and also
for the great number of crevasses near its front, as
described by Lieutenant Fulford and Dr. Coppinger.1

Dr. Kane, although he estimates the height of the
surface of the Humboldt Glacier as ' about three hun-
dred feet,' remarks : ' So far from falling into the sea,
broken by its weight from the parent glacier, it (the
iceberg) rises from the sea.' But as the icebergs in
Smith Sound are never more than about 150 feet in
height above water when afloat, this estimate of the
height of the sea-face of the glacier is probably that of
its south side near the shore where Dr. Kane and
others visited it, arid not of the sea-face itself at a
distance from the side.

1 See Appendix.

166 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. SEPTEMBER

In more temperate latitudes, south of Cape Sabine,
where the temperature of the water is higher and
during the summer is above the melting point of fresh-
water ice, the foot of the glacier becomes readily
melted, leaving an unsupported mass of ice, from
which pieces break off, falling down into the sea as
icebergs and floating at a considerably less altitude
than the top of the parent glacier. We observed
that such was the case with the glaciers on the shores
of Ellesmere Land in the neighbourhood of Cape
Isabella, and with those on the Greenland shores to
the north of Cape York.

The question whether the icebergs in Melville Bay
and other protected positions to the southward, where
the flow of the warm current is not felt to so great an
extent, fall or rise when they become detached from
the glaciers, will depend on the temperature of the
sea-water in the neighbourhood being above or below
32°.

On the 4th the upper clouds were coming fast
from the southward with misty weather arid a tem-
perature at 35°.

Deeming it desirable to gain as weatherly a position
as possible, in order to take advantage of any opening
which might occur with the expected westerly wind, we
forced our way across Allman Bay, the ' Discovery '
leading and cutting a clear channel through the
blackest and thinnest part of the young ice, which was
from one to three inches in thickness. On securing the
ships to a floe about one mile east of Cape D'Urville,
as there appeared no sign of any change in the
weather, the steaming fires were put out.

1876 INVALIDS. 167

The following is an extract from my journal of
the 5th :-

' Another wet misty day, with light variable airs ;
upper clouds from the southward, with a temperature
of 35°.

' All our invalids are now so far recovered that
they are doing duty on deck, merely being excused
from going aloft or working in the boats ; but as I
must expect a recurrence of the disease to manifest
itself during the coming winter, the quickly-advancing
season makes me rather anxious lest we fail to escape
from the ice.

' Now that we have attained a position from whence
Hayes Sound can be explored, and the interesting
question regarding its being a channel leading to a
western sea set at rest, a large number of officers and
men would be glad if our retreat to the south were cut
off, and there are very few who, so long as the two
ships passed the winter near each other, would not
accept the inevitable with complacency. However, I
cannot think that-the winds can be much longer de-
layed ; and if they don't bring with them too low a
temperature we shall free ourselves somehow or other.

' The ice in the bay drifts in and out with the tide,
moving a distance of about a quarter of a mile.

' It is instructive to observe how useless our sails
have been to us, while navigating to the north of.
Smith Sound, both last year and this. On our passage
south the square sails have never once been set ; we
have always had to force our way along through
narrow openings in the pack caused by calms or contrary
winds.'

168 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. SEPTEMBER

On the morning of the 6th the weather cleared up
with light airs from the north, which, combined with
the release of the -pressure from the southward, made
a decided difference in the ice, and gave us every
prospect of being able to advance shortly. During
the flood-tide I landed with Markham and Feilden,
and walked about three miles alongshore to the west-
ward until we could see Norman Lockyer Island, then
about four miles distant from us. Capes Victoria and
Albert, seen for the first time sharply defined against
the clear sky, and only twenty miles distant from us,
created in everyone a feeling of being within easy
and certain reach of home, whatever might occur.

All the coast cliffs west of Cape Hawks are mag-
nificent rampart-like headlands from 900 to 1,000 feet
high, presenting nearly a straight line facing the sea —
the continuity of the front being broken only by the
large ravines and the glacier-cut bays. They are
composed of a yellowish-pink conglomerate of water-
worn pebbles, and are perfectly inaccessible except by
ascending the valleys far inland.

Three or four broods of eider-ducks, still unable to
fly, were swimming in a pool near the ice-foot. Owing
to the warmer temperature during the few previous days
there was a free run of water in the ravines.

At this season, which may be considered to have
been the end of the summer thaw, it was noticeable
that — while the surface of the ice-foot bordering the
shore was, as before stated, level with the top of high-
water — at its inner edge nearest the land a deep and
broad gutterway had, partly by reflected heat from the
hillside and partly by the run of the freshwater off

1876 ICE-FOOT. 169

the land, become formed alongshore. When it was
nearly high-water, this gutterway becoming filled by
the tide, cut off the ice-foot from the land.

The absence of ice piled up above the ice-foot to
the westward of Cape Hayes was very remarkable.
Nowhere did we find it forced up by recent pressure
higher than three or four feet. This was totally differ-
ent from our experience of the preceding season, when,
at all the prominent points, we met with ice piled up
to a height of at least twenty feet. Its absence would
either denote a remarkably calm season, without any
winds blowing towards the shore, or indicate that the
pack consisted of heavy floes, which would become
stranded before they could reach the ice-foot.

At 2 P.M. of the 6th the ice commenced setting out
of Allman Bay with the ebb-tide ; a channel near the
land also opening at the same time. Steam was ac-
cordingly raised, and after a little trouble in getting
clear of the young ice, which was now rather alarm-
ingly thick, we reached Cape Prescott ; but there we
were compelled to make fast, while the flood-tide was
running, to some bergs lying aground in twenty-nine
fathoms, a mile and-a-half from the shore.

During the night and on the 7th the pack near
Norman Lockyer Island continued to open during both
the flood and the ebb tides ; but some young ice lying
between the ships and the Island, which would have
obliged us to use much coal in forcing our way through
it, induced me to wait until a decided water-channel
presented itself. By noon the ice had all cleared
away near the land, and we reached the neighbour-
hood of Walrus Shoal, and from thence discovered

170 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. SEPTEMBER

navigable water extending halfway across Princess
Marie Bay.

This position received its • name from being the
most northern locality where walrus were fallen in
with.

As soon as the ships were secured, Captain Stephen-
son and I, accompanied by Commander Markham,
ascended Norman Lockyer Island to inspect the ice.

The weather was remarkably clear, and besides
finding navigable water extending four or five miles
from the island, we had the cheering prospect of
seeing a large expanse of water about fifteen miles
distant towards the south-east in about the same
position as where we met with the southern edge of the
pack on our way north the previous year, and having
every appearance of being connected with the water
at the entrance of Smith Sound. The prospect was so
favourable that I could not hesitate about advancing.
Nevertheless, at so late a period of the season, when
the young ice was steadily increasing in thickness day
and night, we knew that if deceived in the weather,
or if one false step were made, we should be beset in
the drifting pack during the coming winter, without
sufficient coal for warming the ships and none for
steaming purposes the following year.

After leaving a notice of our movements on the
summit of the island, we bade good-bye to the Grinnell
shores, and with the exception of one nip, about two
hundred yards in length, where two floes had become
cemented together by the frost, and which occupied
the whole of both crews, assisted by the ' Discovery '
ramming, an hour before it was cleared, we advanced

1876 PRINCESS MARIE BAY. 171

to within four miles of Cape Victoria. There three
large Polar floes, which had become locked in by a
chain of icebergs aground near the cape, stopped us.
The open water was now in sight from the mast-head,
but the temperature had fallen to 23°.

During the night and the following day the pack
drifted to the eastward and westward with the tides,
moving with great regularity.

It was most fortunate for us that we had reached
the large floes, as with each movement water-pools
formed at their edges and permitted us to move the ships
ahead a few yards or more at a time, always on the
watch not to be nipped when passing round a point,
and not to become frozen-in by the quickly-
forming young ice when secured in an indentation in
the floes. By taking every advantage that offered, we
reached to within a mile of the icebergs locking in
the heavy floes on the evening of the 8th. The tem-
perature was 20° ; but the frost rather assisted us than
otherwise by cementing all the debris ice together ;
consequently, whenever a movement occurred, instead
of the debris dispersing itself in the free water-space
with the release of pressure, it was held in bondage,
and left us a clear water-channel.

The following is extracted from my journal : —

' When I consider the large quantity of ice we find
in the opening between Bache Island and Grinnell-
Land, and the slow-running tidal currents, I cannot
think it to be anything but a bay.

' Copes Bay is a very deep fiord extending to the
north-west. Six or seven miles farther west is a broad
opening having three bays running north-west, west,

172 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. SEPTEMBER

and south-west ; but it is impossible to say that Capes
Stevens and Baker are not islands/

At 2 A.M. of the 9th the pack commenced setting
out of the bay with the ebb-tide. Observing that the
point of the large floe to which we were attached
would shortly be carried against the icebergs, and that
then a channel would be opened for a short time,
steam was kept ready ; and as the drift of the floe was
checked on its coming into collision with the bergs, the
outer ice, borne onward by the current, opened for a
moment a clear channel, and permitted us to escape
from the pack.

After this there was only one serious obstacle to
our advance. Owing to the low temperature and calm
weather the newly-frozen ice was never less than two
inches in thickness, and obliged us to use full steam.
In the thickest places the ships were frequently stopped
altogether, and frequently had to back out through
the channel they had formed and circle round the
obstruction. After passing Cape Albert the pieces of
old floes became fewer, and we gradually lost sight
of the pack to the eastward, although large fields
of young ice were met with until we neared Cape
Sabine, but there we bade farewell to the ice for good.

As an instance of the great changes that take
place in the pack, and how uncertain its navigation is,
it is noticeable that on the 28th of August Sir Allen
Young found the ice completely blocking up Smith's
Sound, and extending from shore to shore eight miles
south of Cape Isabella. Ten days afterwards we
entered a navigable sea extending to latitude 79° 10'.
Thus a breadth of sixty miles of ice had drifted away

1876

TVEYPRECHT ISLANDS.

173

in the intermediate
time.

Considering the
very small quantity
of coal there was now
left on board either
ship, it was with a
great feeling of relief
that I found myself
in blue water once
more ; and I trust
that I was not un-
thankful to God for
His merciful care of
us and for the great
success that had at-
tended us in the truly
perilous navigation
north of Smith Sound.

At the head of Bu-
chanan Strait, in the
neighbourhood of the
Weyprecht Islands,
there was a large
quantity of' ice, but
we passed at too great
a distance from it to
determine whether it
were navigable or not.
Payer Harbour was
perfectly clear, one
large iceberg excepted.

174 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. SEPTEMBER

Having left a notice of our proceedings at Norman
Lockyer Island, and wishing to take full advantage of
the calm weather, to ensure visiting the more important
station on Cape Isabella, I passed Brevoort Island
without stopping, consequently the provisions left there
have not been touched.

As we passed the Lefferts, Alfred Newton, and
Wyville Thomson Glaciers, all of which discharge ice-
bergs, the broken- off pieces were observed to be floating
at less than half the height of the glacier cliff above
the water.

At 10 P.M. we arrived at Cape Isabella, and on
Commander Markham climbing up to the depot he
found the package of letters and newspapers left there
by Sir Allen Young a few weeks previously ; we gathered
from them that a duplicate packet had been carried on
to Cape Sabine.

It was now a consideration whether I should return
to Cape Sabine or not ; but as it was quite certain that
the ' Pandora ' had not advanced north of Hayes Sound,
and was not herself in want of assistance, I decided to
be content with the letters which we had received,
and to push on for Disco while the weather remained
favourable.

Owing to the thick coating of snow on the ground,
we failed to find the notice Sir Allen Young had
buried twenty feet magnetic north of our cairn, which
would have informed me that he had considerately
landed the principal mail at Littleton Island. To this
oversight on our part the loss of the principal mail was
due.

Had it not been so late in the season, with so much

1870 RECEIVE NEWS FROM HOME. 175

young ice formed, or had we had coal to spare, I
would certainly have visited Littleton Island and
Port Foulke.

The officers and men of the ' Alert ' and 4 Dis-
covery ' can scarcely feel sufficiently grateful to Sir
Allen Young and his companions for their determined
and persevering efforts to open communication with
them during two seasons. Sacrificing so great a part
of the short navigable season of 1875 and paying
two visits to the Gary Islands on our account alone,
when Sir Allen's purpose was to explore in a totally
different direction, was stretching a friendly action to
the utmost. Such consideration can only be fully
appreciated by persons situated as we were.

It was past ten in the evening when Markham and
Feilden returned from the shore of Cape Isabella.
When the boat came alongside, and we learnt that
they had found a mail, the feelings of all on board
are not to be easily described. A year and more with-
out hearing from home or friends, or the outer
world, is a long gap in our short lives. What changes
may have occurred in that interval I All of us
seemed to be impressed with this thought, and after
the first exclamations of pleasure and surprise not a
word was spoken until the mail-bags were sorted and
the lucky ones received their budgets of news ; along
with the mail was a large number of newspapers
which to some extent consoled those who were not the
fortunate recipients of letters.

After our long sojourn within the Polar ice it was
a strange transition to feel the ship rise and fall once
more on the ' north water ' of Baffin's Bay, and to look

176 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. SEPTEMBER

astern and see Cape Isabella, one of the massive portals
to Smith Sound, fading away in an obscurity of snow
and midnight darkness; whilst an ice-blink stretch-
ing across the northern horizon reminded us forcibly
of the perils, dangers, and anxieties that we had con-
tended against for so many months.

In comparing the voyage of the ' Polaris,' and
that of the ' Alert ' and ' Discovery/ it is evident that
the navigation of the ice which is to be met with every
year in Kane Sea is entirely dependent on the westerly
winds. Both in 1875 and 1876 we met navigable
water off Cape Victoria in latitude 79° 12', with only
a narrow pack fifteen miles in breadth between it and
Grinnell Land, which a westerly wind of a few hours'
duration would certainly have driven to the eastward.
The same wind would have opened a channel along
the shore, and any vessel wraiting her opportunity
at Payer Harbour could under those circumstances have
passed up the channel with as little difficulty as the
' Polaris ' experienced in 1871.

The quantity of one season's ice met with in the
bays on the south-east coast of Grinnell Land in 1876,
proves that on the final setting in of the frost, after we
passed north in 1875, the pack had been driven from
the shore, leaving a navigable channel along the land.
Nevertheless I do not recommend future navigators
who wish to attain a high northern latitude by this
route to wait for such a favourable occurrence.
Certainly no one could have made a passage through
the ice in 1876 before the 10th September by doing
so. At that date the season had advanced so far that
the attainment of sheltered winter-quarters would have
been extremely problematical.

1870 WE LEAVE SMITH SOUND. 177

CHAPTEE VI.

WE LEAVE SMITH SOUND — DARK AT MIDNIGHT — GALE OF WIND — BARDEN
BAY — ARCTIC HIGHLANDERS — POSSESSION BAY — CROSS BAFFIN'S
BAT — TEMPERATURE OF THE SEA — ARRIVE AT DISCO — EGEDESMINDE

SEVERE GALE — RUDDER HEAD SPRUNG — SIGHT THE fc PANDORA '

ARRIVE IN ENGLAND — APPROVAL OF THE LORDS OF THE AD-
MIRALTY— LETTER FROM HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN.

LEAVING Cape Isabella during the night of the 9th,
we steamed towards the Gary Islands, passing oc-
casionally through thin streams of loose ice, with a few
icebergs and pieces of floebergs intermixed, but seldom
meeting with floes of any size. Those met with did
not float more than three feet above water, and showed
marks of being much decayed, having long tongue-pieces
extending below the surface of the water.

A southerly wind springing up, we made sail,
standing to the south-west. As we made westing, the
pieces of ice met with increased in size and quantity,
and expecting to find the pack near the coast of
Ellesmere Land, I tacked and stood to the south-east
under steam and fore-and-aft sails.

The weather turning misty and threatening, with
snow, and the wind preventing our making much
progress without the consumption of a large amount of
coal, I decided to make the ships fast to an iceberg ;
accordingly, with one ship at either end of a long

VOL. II. JX

178 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. SEPTEMBER

hawser, its middle was dropped round the weather side
of a large berg ; the ships hanging one on each side
balanced each other, and they rode thus very quietly.

While in this position a sounding was obtained in
220 fathoms, the bottom being mud.

On the llth, with a temporary lull in the wind, we
proceeded under steam, but on closing the Greenland
shore about Whale Sound, the southerly wind freshened
and obliged me to put the ships under sail.

The wet snow falling with a temperature of 34°
was very annoying ; as it clung to each of the ropes
without actually melting, they became more than double
their original sizes, and only wanted the temperature
to fall below freezing point to cause great trouble in
working the sails.

It was now fairly dark at midnight, but fortunately
we met with few icebergs, except when within a dis-
tance of four miles of the land, and no floe-ice whatever.

On the 12th we experienced a southerly gale, with
very misty weather, and a rapidly falling barometer.
On standing towards the shore we made the land about
Barden Bay, and when under shelter of the hills I
steamed in to obtain an anchorage.

On entering we passed the dangerous rock, a- wash
at low- water, off Cape Powlett. It is apparently the
summit of a very extensive patch of rocky ground ;
which is probably the terminal moraine of the glacier
which in former times existed in the neighbourhood.

On the northern side of the bay the level land
bordering the shore appeared to be well vegetated,
and on nearing the land we observed an inhabited
Eskimo encampment with seven natives and about a

]870

BARDEN BAY.

1T9

dozen dogs. Finding no anchorage ground in less
than forty-five fathoms, I ran into a bay on the south
shore immediately west of the Tyndall Glacier. The side
moraine near its end formed a steep ridge of rubble
between a smooth pebbly beach in the bay and the
glacier at the sea-level. In the north-east face we
observed a large cave, whose sides displayed the

SMOOTH-TOPPED GLACIER IN BARDEN BAY.

richest tints of blue darkening to blackness as the depth
of the cave receded to an unknown distance.

The extremely rugged and broken up surface and
face of the Tyndall glacier, which projects far into the
sea, is in remarkable contrast to the smooth surface and
clean-cut perpendicular face of a smaller one near the
mouth of the bay which projects only a short distance
to seaward. We were extremely anxious to land, both
to examine the very interesting glacier and to communi-

N 2

180 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. SEPTEMBER

cate with the Arctic Highlanders, but the gale was
blowing so fiercely and the sea breaking so heavily
against the shore that it was dangerous to send a boat
away from the ship.

We looked forward to communicating with the
Eskimo early the following morning, and a number
of presents were prepared ; but during the night
the wind shifted round suddenly to the northward,
blowing directly into the bay. The low barometer,
thick snow-storm, dark night, and rocky shore com-
pelled me to think more of the ships than the un-
fortunate Eskimo ; so expecting a strong gale from
the north, I steamed out to sea in order to obtain an
offing from the land.

We afterwards gladly learnt that Sir Allen Young
in the 'Pandora' had visited the same family only
a fortnight previously, and given them many valuable
presents.

Unsettled and misty weather prevented our com-
municating with the Gary Islands ; the temperature
falling to 27° warning me to make our way south as
quickly as possible. The wind again coming from the
southward we crossed Baffin's Bay under sail, arriving
off Possession Bay on the south side of Lancaster
Sound at noon of the 16th. In crossing we met with
few icebergs and no floe- ice whatever. In misty
weather the numerous icebergs which are to be met
with close to the land between Cape York and Whale
Sound, would certainly warn ships of their proximity
to the shore.

Near Cape Atholl the temperature of the water
was 290>5. This was unusually low, as we had found

187G TEMPERATURE OF THE SEA. 181

it 31° and 30° farther north. Half way across Baffin's
Bay, when abreast of Jones Sound, we met with a stream
of water fifty miles broad at a temperature of 34°,
which is evidently the extension northwards of the
warm Atlantic water.

I fully expected to find a strong current running
to the southward out of Lancaster Sound towards
Ponds Bay, but nothing of the kind was met with.

I accordingly decided to cross towards the Green-
land shore in order to ensure rounding the north end of
the west-ice which, with the recent southerly gales, I
expected would be driven well to the northward.

Strong southerly winds continuing we were carried
towards Melville Bay, meeting with very few icebergs
and no drift ice. The temperature of the water rose
to 35°, but fell again as we neared the Greenland
shore. At noon of the 19th we were seventy miles
west of the Devil's Thumb. A light northerly wind
then enabled us to make a direct course towards
Upernivik.

On the 20th and 21st southerly winds again obliged
me to put the ships under sail, our small supply of coal
rendering it prudent only to steam during a perfect
calm, and then for one ship to tow the other.

On the 22nd we met with the eastern edge of the
western pack, in latitude 71°'50N., longitude 60°*18 W.
A temper ature sounding obtained in its vicinity showed
that the temperature decreased gradually down to
290<0 at a depth of twenty fathoms, it then gradually
increased to 30°'0 at the depth of a hundred fathoms.

As we neared the north entrance to the Waigat
Straits the temperature of the sea increased to 36°,

182 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. SEPTEMBER

and off the Disco coast to 38°, that at a depth of forty-
five fathoms being 32°*5.

On rounding the south-western point of Disco on
the 25th we found the sea abounding in life : nume-
rous finner whales, porpoises, and seals. Large flocks
of eider ducks and dovekies in their winter plumage
were feeding in this highly favoured locality.

On entering the well-known anchorage of Lievely
we were warmly welcomed by our kind friends, Mr.
and Mrs. Krarup Smith and Mr. and Mrs. Fencker,
who informed us that the 'Pandora' had left for
England only four days previously.

We remained two days at Disco, Mr. Smith kindly
supplying us with a small quantity of coal. The
weather felt to us extraordinarily mild, the tempera-
ture ranging from 40° to 48°. It appears that this
harbour is never frozen over before the end of No-
vember, and is often open until January. Ships there-
fore need not fear when running for the port late in the
season, or of making a passage to the southward if
they keep in the warm stream near the Greenland
shore.

Owing to the shortness and uncertainty of the cold
season the settlement on the Whale Fish Islands has
lately been abandoned. Thick ice certain to remain
stationary affords a safer fishing-ground for the Eskimo
than a warmer station with thin ice liable to be
broken up.

At Disco the salmon fishing ends with the freezing
of the shore lakes in October ; but cod can be pro-
cured all the winter.

Hans Heindrich and Frederick were landed at

1876 VISIT LIEVELY. 183

Lievely, the few remaining dogs being given to them.
These poor animals which had performed such good
service during the travelling season had sickened much
since we had experienced wet unsettled weather, and
from their confinement on board during the passage
south.

Hans was to remain at Disco until the following
spring, when the ice would permit him to journey
north and join his family at Proven.

Frederick in his excitement at returning home
could scarcely find time to look after his own goods,
but his numerous friends on board took care that he
was not the loser ; with his many riches he has doubt-
less long since found a wife.

On the 29th we arrived at Egedesminde, a well-
protected anchorage at the south of Disco Bay.

The long and intricate passages between the nu-
merous islets and rocks make it necessary for ships to
have a pilot when entering and leaving the harbour.

Governor Bolbroe kindly supplied us with twenty
tons of coal, but owing to a bad season he could only
give us one haunch of venison : this was, however, suffi-
cient for a meal for the former invalids, who by this
time were, to all intents and purposes, well and strong.
It was noticed that this venison possessed a musky
flavour, especially the meat farthest from the bone.

Our visit to Egedesminde was rather opportune,
as there were numerous cases of scurvy among the
Eskimo and the few Europeans. I accordingly landed
a large quantity of lime-juice and all the remaining
private stock of sundries belonging to the officers, not
the least acceptable present being a quantity of music,

184 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. OCTOBER

eau-de-cologne, and mittens, with which Mrs. Bolbroe,
her children, and governess were supplied.

On the 2nd we bade adieu to our kind friends, arid
on the 4th recrossed the Arctic circle, after expe-
riencing fifteen months' unnatural division of light and
darkness.

Encountering a succession of strong contrary gales,
very slow progress was made to the southward.

As the weather became warmer and damper many
of the men were attacked by colds and rheumatism,
after an almost total exemption from those ailments in
the extremely cold but dry weather we had experienced
in the far north.

Keeping near the Greenland coast only a few
straggling icebergs were met with ; and floe-ice on
only one occasion, when the wind had driven the ships
over towards the west shore.

In Davis Strait the temperature of the water
varied considerably, ranging between 33° and 39°,
probably depending on our distance from the western
ice. The specific gravity in the cold streams denoted
Polar water.

Vast numbers of little auks were observed migrating
to the southward, in small flocks of about twenty to
fifty in number, and many bottle-nose whales were
seen.

On the 12th, during a very severe gale, in which
the ships were hove-to under a closed-reefed main top-
sail and storm staysail, the rudder-head of the ' Alert,'
which had been sprung when the ship was in the ice,
became hopelessly unserviceable, the lower part of the
rudder remaining sound.

1876 RUDDER DAMAGED. 185

As the rudder pendants had necessarily been re-
moved when the ship was amongst the ice, it was with
no little difficulty that temporary ones were improvised ;
but by their means, and with careful attention to the
trim of the sails, the ' Alert ' crossed the Atlantic.

On the 16th we fell in with the ' Pandora,' the
only vessel met with during the voyage. The three
ships kept company for two days, but on the night of
the 19th we lost sight of each other during a strong
gale.

On the 20th, in the middle of a very heavy storm,
with the sea a mass of driving foam, the rudder pendants
carried away ; fortunately we were hove-to on the
starboard tack. Before evening we succeeded in se-
curing another pair, and during a lull in the wind bore
up.

Expecting Captains Stephenson and Allen Young
to be ahead, we made as much sail as possible ; but it
appeared afterwards that they also had been obliged
to heave-to owing to the violence of the wind.

Not wishing to proceed up the English Channel
under sail with a defective rudder, and the wind having
driven us considerably to the northward, the ' Alert '
entered Valentia Harbour on the 27th of October;
the ' Discovery ' arriving at Queenstown on the 29th.
After shifting the rudder, the ' Alert ' proceeded to
Queenstown, and the two ships having again joined
company, entered Portsmouth Harbour on the 2nd of
November ; the ' Pandora ' arriving at Falmouth on
the previous day.

I will not here dwell on the warm and hearty
reception which the officers and men received from all

186 VOYAGE TO THE POLAR SEA. OCTOBER 187(3

classes of their countrymen, notwithstanding the some-
what natural disappointment that the North Pole had
not been reached.

The Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty were
pleased to express their warm approval of the conduct
of all engaged in the Expedition, and we were honoured
by receiving the following letter addressed to the
First Lord of the Admiralty by direction of Her Most
Gracious Majesty the Queen.

« BALMORAL : November 4, 1876.

6 Dear Mr. Hunt, —

' I am commanded by the Queen to request
that you will communicate to Captain Nares, and to
the officers and men under his command, Her Majesty's
hearty congratulations on their safe return.

' The Queen highly appreciates the valuable ser-
vices which have been rendered by mthem in the late
Arctic Expedition, and she fully sympathises in the
hardships and sufferings they have endured, and laments
the loss of life which has occurred.

' The Queen would be glad if her thanks could be
duly conveyed to these gallant men for what they
have accomplished.

' Yours very truly,

' HENRY F. PONSONBY.'

187

APPENDIX.

No. I.

ETHNOLOGY.1
BY HENRY W. FEILDEN, F.G.S., F.R.G.S., C.M.Z.S.

THE Eskimo that inhabit the coasts of North Greenland
between Cape York, the northern boundary of Melville Bay,
and the Humboldt Glacier, are (with the exception perhaps
of the natives of Ellesmere Land) the most northern inhabi-
tants of our globe. These sa^aroi avbpwv were discovered
by Captain Sir John Ross during his voyage to Baffin's Bay
in 1818, and received from him the name of 'Arctic High-
landers,' an inappropriate designation for a people of purely
littoral habits. The expedition of 1875-76 communicated
with some of these people at Cape York on the voyage north-
wards ; but in July 1875 the village of Etah, on the north
shore of Foulke Fiord, was found temporarily deserted.
Etah is the most northern settlement of the Eskimo on the
Greenland coast, and the one from where members of the
tribe travel in their hunting expeditions as far north as the
southern termination of the Humboldt Glacier, a little
beyond lat. 79° N., where traces of ancient settlements were
discovered by Dr. Kane in Dallas Bay. It has been assumed,
somewhat too hastily, that the ( Arctic Highlanders ' are a
race completely isolated from any other human beings. From

1 Extended from the < Zoologist,' 1877, pp. 314-316.

188 APPENDIX. No. I.

information derived from one of the natives resident at Etah,
the members of the ' Polaris ' Expedition ' — who wintered
1872-73, in the vicinity of Port Foulke — ascertained that
many Eskimo live in the neighbourhood of Cape Isabella,
and along the coast of Ellesmere Land, their informant
stating that it was called Uming-mak Island, from the
number of musk-oxen that are found on it, and that he had
frequently travelled round it himself. Consequently the
northern range of the natives of Ellesmere Land is in all
probability equal to that of the Etah Eskimo. There can
be no doubt that there is casual, if not regular intercourse
between the inhabitants of both sides of Smith Sound ; and
one route, by which the migration of the Eskimo from North
America to Greenland was effected, can be traced. The
narratives of Dr. Kane and Dr. Hayes, and more recently the
official report of the ' Polaris ' Expedition, contain most in-
teresting accounts of the habits and mode of life of the
' Arctic Highlanders ' ; and it is satisfactory to observe from
the latest information that the number of this interesting
community has in no way diminished during the last twenty
years.

In 1875 we found at Cape Sabine, Ellesmere Land, the
remains of several ancient Eskimo encampments, as well as an
old sledge made of walrus bones, with cross-bars of narwhal
horn, completely lichen-covered and of such antiquity that the
bones were friable, and also fragments of a stone lamp ; but
nearer to the shore were traces of a recent visit, consisting
of a blackened fire-place, made of three stones placed against
a rock, with the hairs of a white bear sticking to the grease-
spots, a harpoon with iron tip, and the excreta of the dogs
that had fed on the bear's hide. Further north, on the shores
of Buchanan Strait, we came upon deserted settlements con-
taining the ruins of many igloos ; in one instance the ribs of a
large cetacean had been used as the rafters of a hut ; bones of
reindeer, musk-ox, bear, seal, and walrus were strewed around,

i Narr. ' Polaris/ North Polar Exp. (Washington, 1876), p. 477.

.No. I. ETHNOLOGY. 189

and we picked up many articles of human workmanship in
bone, wood, and ivory. In Grinnell Land, still further
north, we found that Norman Lockyer Island, in Franklin
Pierce Bay, must at one time have been the home of
numerous Eskimo. On August 11, 1875, I landed and
walked along the northern shore of this island for some two
miles ; it was strewed with the bones of walrus, whilst skulls
of this animal were lying about in hundreds, all broken more
or less by human agency, in every instance the tusks having
been extracted. Skulls of Phoca barbata and Phoca hispida,
broken at the base in order to extract the brain, were numer-
ous, and I came across large portions of the skeleton of a
cetacean. Patches of green moss marked the sites of ancient
dwellings, and circles of stones those of summer tents, whilst
numerous stone caches* and cooking-places now overgrown with
moss and lichen, but containing calcined bones, bore witness
to the former presence of inhabitants. At Cape Harrison, on
the western side of Franklin Pierce Bay, I observed two or
three circles of stones placed on a terrace at a height of over
100 feet above present sea- level: this was the greatest eleva-
tion at which I observed remains of habitations on the shores
of Smith Sound. At various other places in Grinnell Land,
still further north, notably at Cape Hilgard, Cape Louis
Napoleon, Cape Hayes, and Cape Frazer, we .came across old
traces of Eskimo. At Radmore Harbour, in lat. 80° 25' N.,
we found the ruins of another large settlement, apparently as
long deserted as the one on Norman J^ockyer Island. After
removing the green moss and overturning some of the stones
that had once formed the walls of the igloos, several interest-
ing ivory relics were discovered. On Bellot Island, at the
entrance of Discovery Bay, lat. 81° 44' N., were rings of
lichen-covered stones that marked the sites of old encamp-
ments, fragments of bone and chips of drift-wood being
strewn around. In the neighbourhood of Discovery Bay
Dr. Moss, of H.M.S. ' Alert,' picked up the fragment of a
human femur. A few miles south of Cape Beechey we found
more circles of tent-stones ; and near at hand a small heap

] 90 APPENDIX. No. J.

of rock-crystals and flakes showed where the artificers in
stone had been making arrow or harpoon heads. Close to
Cape Beechey, and about six or seven miles from the eighty-
second parallel of latitude, we came across the most northern
traces of man that have yet been found ; these consisted of
the framework of a large wooden sledge, a stone lamp in
good preservation, and a very perfect snow-scraper made out
of a walrus tusk. Taking into consideration that where these
relics were found is the narrowest part of Robeson Channel,
at this point not more than thirteen miles across, and that a
few miles to the south, on the opposite shore of Hail Land,
the ' Polaris ' Expedition found traces of summer encamp-
ments, I am inclined to believe that this must have been the
spot selected for crossing over the channel ; and owing pro-
bably to the difficult and dangerous nature of the ice to be
encountered, the heavy sledge and impedimenta were left
behind. On Offley Island, at the entrance of Petermann
Fiord, Mr. Bryan * of the ' Polaris ' found an old Eskimo
settlement, consisting of the remains of several stone huts,
whilst the ground around was strewed with the bleached
bones of animals that had constituted the food of the inhabi-
tants. Northwards from Cape Beechey no trace of man was
discovered by any of our travelling parties, neither westward
along the shores of Grinnell Land, nor eastward along the
coasts of Greenland that border the Polar Sea. I feel satisfied
that the men whose tracks we followed as far as lat. 82° N.,
never passed Cape Union. Even in July and August, animal
life is too scarce along the shores of the Polar Sea to support
a party of wandering Eskimo, whilst the idea of winter resi-
dence is beyond consideration. There is no essential reason
why the Eskimo should have travelled around the northern
shores of the Greenland continent in order to reach its eastern
coast ; the presence of the tribe seen by Sabine and Clavering
on that side of Greenland may be accounted for by their
having doubled Cape Farewell from the westward. It is well

1 Narr. < Polaris,' North Polar Exp., pp. 371-372.

No. I. ETHNOLOGY. 191

known that formerly considerable numbers of Eskimo were
living to the eastward of Cape Farewell, but year by year
stragglers and small parties from these outside savages have
re-entered the Danish colonies to the westward of the
Cape, and have become absorbed amongst the civilised
Greenlanders. This slow but steady return to the southward
may account for the German Polar Expedition of 1869—70
not meeting with the Eskimo tribe seen by Sabine on the
east coast. The result of our observations amounts to this,
that along the shores of Smith Sound, Kennedy Channel,
Hall Basin, and Kobeson Channel, to a point three degrees
north of the present extreme range of the Etah Eskimo, there
are to be found not only traces of wanderings, but many
proofs of former permanent habitation in places where, under
present climatic conditions, it would be impossible for Eskimo
to exist.

The abandonment by the Eskimo of these settlements in
Grinnell Land and Greenland, as well as in the Parry Islands,
is a subject of considerable interest. It points to a change in
the physical conditions of an extensive area lying within the
Arctic zone.

192 APrENDJX. No. II.

No. II.
MAMMALIA.*

BY HENRY W. FEILDEN, F.G.S., F.R.G.S., C.M.Z.S.

OARNIVORA.

1. CANIS LUPUS (Linn.) — This animal was observed by the
'Polaris' Expedition in Hall Land on April 1, 1872.2 Singu-
larly enough, on the same day, 1876, several wolves made their
appearance in the neighbourhood of the winter-quarters of the
' Alert.' They were evidently following a small herd of musk-
oxen, whose tracks and traces were observed in the vicinity ;
and that they were able at times to secure these animals was
shown by their dung being composed chiefly of musk-ox
wool and splinters of bone. Several of our sportsmen started in
pursuit of these wolves, but with one exception they did not
allow anyone to approach them within three or four hundred
yards. The following day, April 2, the wolves still continued
in the neighbourhood of the ship, and at intervals their long,
melancholy, but not unmusical wail reverberated from the
hills. After this date we saw no more of these animals till
May 25, when a single individual followed the sledge I was
with for several days as we travelled along the coast. It was
a most cunning beast, and eluded all our efforts to get a
shot at it. Subsequently I procured a skull and part of the
skeleton of one of these animals, which was picked up by a

1 Extended from the ' Zoologist/ 1877, pp. 313-321, 353-361.

2 Narr. < Polaris/ North Polar Exp., p. 338.

No. II. MAMMALIA. 193

sailor of the ship. This animal is infested by a species of
Tcenia.

'2. VULPES LAGOPUS (Linn.)— The Arctic fox decreases
in numbers as we proceed up Smith Sound. One was shot
on the ice near Victoria Head, Grinnell Land, while prowl-
ing around the ship, and more than one specimen was
obtained near the winter-quarters of the ' Discovery.' At
Floeberg Beach, the winter-quarters of the ' Alert,' footprints
of the fox were occasionally seen in the snow, but it was not
till July 13, 1876, that I obtained a specimen in the flesh.
On that occasion Lieutenant Parr and I were out on a hunting
expedition, our tent being pitched at Dumbell Harbour,
some miles north of Floeberg Beach, and from it we made
daily incursions up the valleys leading to the uplands in
hopes of meeting with big game. On the date above men-
tioned we had ascended to an altitude of 800 feet above the
sea, and had emerged on a great plateau which stretched for
several miles towards a range of mountains. All of a sudden
we were startled by the sharp bark of a. fox. A year had
elapsed since we had heard such a sound. It seemed very
close to us, and as the fog lifted we saw the animal standing
on a little hill of piled-up rocks that rose like an islet from
the plain. Separating, we approached the fox from opposite
directions. Parr fired at it, when it dropped down and
crawled below some large rocks ; out rushed the female from
its lair, and we secured her. The flora in the neighbourhood
of this den was remarkably rich, the soil having been fertilised
by the presence of the foxes. Several saxifrages, a Stellaria, a
Draba, and two or three kinds of grasses were in bloom, and
the yellow blossom of the Potentilla brightened the spot. As
we rested there, many lemmings popped up from their holes,
and undismayed by our presence, commenced feeding on the
plants. We noticed that numerous dead lemmings were
scattered around. In every case they had been killed in the
same manner, the sharp canine teeth of the foxes had
penetrated the brain. Presently we came upon two ermines
killed in the same manner. These were joyful prizes, for up
VOL. II. O

194 APPENDIX. No. II.

to this time we had not obtained these animals in northern
Grinnell Land. Then to our surprise we discovered numerous
deposits of dead lemmings ; in one hidden nook under a rock
we pulled out a heap of over fifty. We disturbed numerous
6 caches ' of twenty and thirty, and the ground was honey-
combed with holes each of which contained several bodies of
these little animals, a small quantity of earth being placed over
them. In one hole we found the greater part of a hare hidden
away. The wings of young brent geese were also lying about ;
and as these birds were at that date only just hatching, it
showed that they must have been" the results of successful
forays of prior seasons, and that consequently the foxes occupy
the same abodes from year to year. I had long wondered
how the Arctic fox existed during the winter. Professor
Newton had already suggested, in his ' Notes on the Zoology
of Spitsbergen,' l that it laid up a store of provisions, and I
was much pleased by thus being able to prove his theory
correct. Although I subsequently saw a second pair in the same
neighbourhood, yet the Arctic fox may be considered somewhat
rare in the northern part of Grrinnell Land. The specimens
obtained did not differ in size from those killed further south.
3. MUSTELA ERMINEA (Linn.) — The ermine has followed
the lemming in its northern migrations to the shores of the
Polar Basin, and crossing Eobeson Channel in pursuit of that
little rodent, it has invaded North Greenland, where Lieu-
tenant Beaumont secured an example during his sledge jour-
ney in latitude 82° 15' N. On the eastern shore of Green-
land, where it was found by the Germans,2 it doubtless
extends as far south as the range of the lemming. I obtained
specimens in Grinnell Land as far north as 82° 30', and
several examples were shot near Discovery Bay. It is hunted
and killed by the Arctic fox. We noticed the tracks' of this
little animal in the snow on the reappearance of sunlight, and
remarked that it is infested by a Tcenia.

1 <Proc. Zool. Soc.,' 1864, p. 496.

2 ' Zweite Deutscli. Nordpolarf.' II. p. 159.

No. II. MAMMALIA. 195

4. URSUS MARITIMUS (Linn.) — There is little to tempt
the Polar bear to leave the comparatively rich hunting-fields
of the north- water of Baffin's Bay for the dreary shores of
Smith Sound and northward. A single example was killed
near Bessels' Bay by Joe the Eskimo1 in 1872, and footmarks
were observed by members of our expedition near Thank God
Harbour and in the neighbourhood of Cape Hayes. At the
present day I do not imagine the white bear ever enters the
Polar Basin through Eobeson Channel. The cranium of a
very large example was found by Captain Markham on the
northern shores of Grinnell Land in latitude 82° 30' N., some
distance from present high-water level. I think it is not
improbable that this skull may have been washed out of the
post -pliocene deposits which fill up the valleys of that region
to an altitude of several hundred feet, and which contain the
remains of seal, musk-ox, and other animals, with abundance
of drift-wood, and the shells of most of the mollusca now
inhabiting the adjacent sea. If I am right in this surmise,
there is no saying from what distance or from what direction
this cranium may have been brought on an ice-raft.

5. PHOCA HISPIDA (Schreb.) — The ringed seal was met
with in most of the bays we entered during our passage up
and down Smith Sound. It was the only species seen north
of Cape Union, and which penetrates into the Polar Sea.
Lieutenant Aldrich, during his autumn sledging in 1875,
noticed a single example in a pool of water near Cape Joseph
Henry, and a party which I accompanied in September
1875, secured one in Dumbell Harbour, some miles north of
the winter-quarters of the ' Alert ; ' its stomach contained
remains of crustaceans and annelids. In June of the follow-
ing year I observed three or four of these animals on the ice
of Dumbell Harbour. They had made holes in the bay ice
that had formed in this protected inlet. The Polar pack was
at this time of the year still firmly wedged against the shores
of Grinnell Land, and so tightly packed in Robeson Channel

1 Narr. 'Polaris,' North Polar Exp., p. 349.
o 2

196 APPENDIX. No. II.

that no seal could by any possibility have worked its way
into this inlet from outside. I am therefore quite satisfied
that Phoca hispida is resident throughout the year in the
localities mentioned. A female killed on August 23, 1876,
weighed sixty-five pounds.

6. PHOCA BARBATA (Fab.) — On several occasions while
proceeding up Smith Sound I observed this large seal. We
did not see it north of Robeson Channel. Individuals were
procured in Discovery Bay, lat. 81° 44' N.,and also at Thank
God Harbour, from whence it has been recorded by Dr.
Bessels. I found the skulls of this animal in the ancient
Eskimo settlements of Smith Sound. On August 31, 1876,
Hans, the Greenlander on board the ' Discovery,' shot one of
these seals in Dobbin Bay. I was informed that it weighed
510 pounds. On taking off its skin an Eskimo harpoon was
found buried in the blubber on its back ; the socket of the
dart was made of ivory, the blade being wrought iron. Hans
pronounced it to be a Greenland harpoon-head, and suggested
that the animal had been struck in the Danish settlements.
P. grcenlandica is recorded by Dr. Bessels * from Thank
God Harbour, but I did not observe it in Smith Sound or
northwards.

7. TRICHECDS ROSMARUS (Linn.) — Kane and Hayes de-
scribe the walrus as very abundant in the vicinity of Port
Foulke, and the Eskimo of Etah must capture a great
number of them, as many skulls and bones of this animal are
strewed about their settlement, which we found deserted in
July 1875. Curiously enough, we did not see one of these
animals in the vicinity of Port Foulke nor in Smith Sound,
until we reached Franklin Pierce Bay. There, in the vicinity
of Norman Lockyer Island, we saw several walruses, and
killed two or three. Their stomachs contained fragments of
Mya and Saxicava, and a considerable quantity of a green
oily matter. Near Cape Frazer I saw a single walrus, but as
far as my observation goes, it does not proceed further north

1 ' Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie,' 1875, p. 296.

No. II. MAMMALIA. 197

than the meeting of the Baffin's Bay and Polar tides near the
above-mentioned cape.

CETACEA,

8. BALDEN A MYSTICETUS (Linn.) — A portion of the rib of
a Greenland whale was found by Lieutenant Egerton on the
northern shores of Grinnell Land, in lat. 82° 33' N. It was
of great antiquity, but I am unprepared to advance any
opinion as to how it got there. I am, however, quite satisfied
on one point, and that is, no whale could inhabit at the
present day the frozen sea to the north of Robeson Channel.
To penetrate thither from the north-water of Baffin's Bay
would be a hazardous task for this great animal, and in
this opinion the experienced whaling quarter-masters who
accompanied our Expedition coincided. We may dismiss
from our minds the idea or hope that nearer to the Pole, and
beyond the limits of present discovery, there may be haunts
in the Polar Sea suitable for the right whale. I do not look
for the speedy extinction of the Greenland whale ; but it is
probable that in a few years the fishing will no longer prove
profitable to the fine fleet of whalers that now sail from our
northern ports, and I see no hope of Arctic discovery in-
creasing our knowledge of the range of this animal.

9. MONODON MOXOCEROS (Linn.) — During the month of
August, while we were waiting in Payer Harbour, near Cape
Sabine, we noticed several narwhals playing at the edge of
the ice, but we saw no more of them after entering the pack
of Smith Sound. The range of the narwhal in that direction
is no doubt coincident with the summer extension of the
north-water of Baffin's Bay. It is not included by Dr. Bessels
among the animals of Hall Land. An ancient tusk of the
narwhal was picked up by Lieutenant Parr on the shore of
Grinnell Land, a little above the present sea-level, a few
miles to the north of the winter quarters of the ' Alert.'

198 APPENDIX. No. II.

UNGULATA.

10. RANGIFER TARANDUS (Linn.) — The reindeer was not
actually met with by our Expedition to the northward of
Port Foulke, but its newly-shed horns were found in the
Valley of the Twin Glacier, Buchanan Strait. I came across
a skeleton recently picked by wolves in the neighbourhood
of Radmore Harbour, lat. 80° 21' N. At various points
along the coast of Grinnell Land, further north, we came
upon shed antlers, but these may have been of considerable
antiquity, whilst Lieutenant Giffard found and brought to
the 'ship a portion of an antler which he picked up in lat.
82° 45' N. The horns of a reindeer were found at Thank
God Harbour, by one of the ' Polaris ' Expedition in June
1872.1

11. OVIBOS MOSCHATUS (Zimm.) — The fossil remains of
Ovibos found in Siberia, North America, Germany, France
and England have been determined by naturalists as iden-
tical with the species now found living in the northern
regions of the American continent and the northern and
eastern shores of Greenland, whilst most of the larger
mammalia of the Pleistocene period, with which the musk-ox
was associated, have passed away. The musk-ox, being truly
an Arctic mammal, doubtless travelled northward as the
glacial cold diminished ; but in Europe and Asia it found
its limit of withdrawal bounded by the mainlands of the
Old World. No trace of it has been discovered in Spits-
bergen or Franz Joseph Land ; and the reasonable con-
clusion is that the great extent of sea which separates
these groups of islands from the continents, formed an in-
superable obstacle to its progress in that direction. Doubt-
less its remains are to be found in the New Siberian Islands,
and there is no valid reason why it should not still inhabit
Kellett Land. So far as we know, however, the musk-ox
living on the Arctic shores of Asia had no inaccessible re-

1 Narr. < Polaris,' North Polar Exp., p. 378

No. II. MAMMALIA. 199

treats analogous to the Parry Archipelago of America, and
consequently when brought into collision with man must
have quickly disappeared. Towards the close of the last
Glacial period, when the Straits of Behring were doubtless
as choked with ice as the passage now is between Banks'
Land and Melville Island, there could have been no great
obstacle to prevent the passage of the musk-ox from the Old
World to the New ; but whether its course of migration was
from Asia to America, or contrariwise, there can be no ques-
tion that on the latter continent it found a congenial home.
Its remains have been discovered in greater or less quantities
from Escholtz Bay on the west to the shores of Lancaster
Sound, whilst the animal still inhabits the Barren-lands of
the American continent. Even in this wilderness, sparsely
inhabited by Eskimo, its southern range is slowly contracting,
whilst, according to Eichardson, the Mackenzie River is now
its western limit. Melville Island and other lands to the
north of the American -continent have proved a safe asylum
to the musk-ox, and there it will continue to propagate its
species, undisturbed save by the casual appearance of Arctic
voyagers. From the islands of the Parry group its range
northwards across the eightieth parallel into Ellesmere and
Grinnell Land, as high as the eighty-third parallel to the
shores of the Polar Sea, is extremely natural ; and Robeson
Channel, which has presented no obstacle to the progress of
the lemming and ermine, has also been crossed by the musk-
ox, the ' Polaris ' Expedition as well as ours finding it in Hall
Land. After crossing the strait between the American
islands and Greenland, the musk-ox appears to have followed
the coasts both in a northerly and southerly direction, its
range in Greenland to the southward being stopped by the
great glaciers of Melville Bay. At one time it must have
been abundant on the West Greenland coast as far south as
the seventy-eighth parallel, for Dr. Kane found numerous
remains in the vicinity of Rensselaer Bay, and Dr. Hayes
found a skull in Chester Valley at the head of Foulke Fiord.
During the single day we explored in the neighbourhood of

200 APPENDIX. No. II.

that locality two skulls were found by members of our Ex-
pedition. The destruction of these animals would, I think,
rapidly follow on the appearance of the Eskimo at Port
Foulke ; for I imagine few animals are less fitted to elude
the wiles of the hunter. There can be no question that the
musk-oxen found by the Germans on the east coast of Green-
land are descendants of those that crossed Kobeson Channel,
rounded the north of the Greenland continent, and extended
their range southward until they met with some physical
obstruction that barred their further progress, as has also
been ths case on the western shore of Greenland. Dr. Robert
Brown, in his ' Essay on the Physical Structure of Greenland,'
published by the Geographical Society for the use of the
recent Arctic Expedition, thus refers to this range of the
musk-ox, lemming and ermine : ' These illustrations, though
seemingly trivial in themselves, are yet of extreme zoo-
geographical interest as tending to show that the Greenland
land must end not far north of latitude 82° or 83°.' In the
month of August, 1875, we met with abundant traces of the
musk-ox in the valley of the Twin Glacier, leading inland
from the shores of Buchanan Strait. I noticed where these
animals had been sheltering themselves under the lee of big
boulders, as sheep do on bleak hill-sides, and that the same
spots were frequently occupied was shown by the holes tramped
out by the animals, and the large quantities of their long
soft wool which was scattered around. Musk-oxen were
obtained in considerable numbers near to the winter-quarters
of the ' Discovery,' over forty being shot ; but in the extreme
north of Grinnell Land, nearer to the winter-quarters of the
6 Alert,' they were much scarcer, only six having been obtained
by the crew of that vessel, whilst at Thank God Harbour,
where the ' Polaris ' Expedition obtained over a score, only
one was seen and shot. The range of the musk-ox in Grinnell
Land is confined to the coast-line and the valleys debouching
thereon. It is an animal by no means fitted to travel through
the deep soft snow which blocks up the heads of all these
valleys. On one occasion, in Westward Ho ! Valley, in the

No. II. MAMMALIA. 201

month of May, Lieutenant Egerton and I came across fresh
tracks of this animal in soft snow, through which it had sunk
belly-deep, ploughing out a path, and leaving fragments of
wool behind in its struggles. Its progression under such
circumstances is similar to that of a snow-plough. We
noticed that spots on hill-sides where the snow lay only a few
inches deep had been selected for feeding grounds, the snow
having been pushed away in furrows banked up at the end,
as if the head and horns of the animal had been used for the
task ; a few blades of grass and roots of willow showed on
what they had been feeding. The dung of the musk-ox,
though usually dropped in pellets like sheep or deer, is very
often undistinguishable from that of the genus Bos. No
person, however, watching this animal in a state of nature,
could fail to see how essentially ovine are its actions. When
alarmed they gather together like a flock of sheep herded by
a collie dog, and the way in which they pack closely together
and follow blindly the vacillating leadership of the old ram
is unquestionably sheep-like. When thoroughly frightened
they take to the hills, ascending precipitous slopes, and
scaling rocks with great agility. How the musk-ox obtains
food during the long Arctic night is very extraordinary ; but
that it is a resident throughout the year cannot be doubted,
as a month after the reappearance of sunlight, in the end of
March, and at the very coldest season of the year, we found
the fresh traces of these animals in the vicinity of our winter-
quarters. I am quite sure that the number of musk-oxen in
Grinnell Land is extremely limited, whilst the means of
subsistence can only supply the wants of a fixed number;
consequently, after an invasion such as ours, when every
animal obtainable was slaughtered for food, it must take
some years to restock the ground. The cause of the dis-
agreeable odour which frequently taints the flesh of these
animals has received no elucidation from my observations.
It does not appear to be confined to either sex, or to any
particular season of the year ; for a young unweaned animal
killed at its mother's side, and transferred within an hour

202 APPENDIX. No. II.

to the stew-pans, was rank and objectionable, whilst the flesh
of some adult animals of both sexes of which I have partaken,
was dark, tender and well-flavoured. Richardson states that
the food of the musk-ox is at one season of the year grass,
at another lichen. Only leaves and stems of willow, with
grasses, were in the stomachs I examined. This animal is
infested with two species of worms, a Tcenia and a Filar ta.

GL1RES.

12. MYODES TORQUATUS (Pall.) — The ringed lemming
was found in great abundance along the western shores of
Smith Sound, and was traced by our explorers to lat. 83° N.,
and to the extreme western point attained. On the Green-
land shore it was found by members of our Expedition at
Thank God Harbour, where it had previously been obtained
by Dr. Bessels,1 and traces of it were noticed by our sledge
parties who travelled along the northern shores of Greenland.
There can be no doubt that the eastern migration of this
animal has been across Robeson Channel and around the north
coast of Greenland to Scoresby Sound on the east coast, from
which locality this animal was brought by Captain Scoresby
in 1822. Apparently its southern range on the west coast of
Greenland is stopped by the great Humboldt Glacier. This
lemming is a great wanderer ; we found it on the floes of
Robeson Channel at considerable distances from land, some-
times in a very exhausted state, but generally dead. Its
habit of leaving the shore and wandering over the ice fully
accounts for the skeleton of one of this species being found on
a floe in lat. 81° 45' N., sixty miles from Spitsbergen, by Sir
J. C. Ross during Parry's memorable attempt to reach the
North Pole in 1827.2 We are indebted to Dr. von Midden-
dorff for an excellent account of the anatomy and external

1 ' Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie/ 1875, p. 296.

2 ' Narr. Attempt to reach North Pole ' (Parry), p. 190.

No. II. MAMMALIA. 203

characters of this lemming.1 He was able to show that the
extraordinary development of the claws of the fore-feet which
is sometimes observed, is not a specific character, nor due to
age or sex, but he could not determine whether it was
seasonal, as specimens with such claws were known in both
winter and summer coats. The series which I collected in
Grinnell Land enables me to determine this point. The
strap-like development of the claws persists in these latitudes
during the greater part of the year, while the ground is
covered with snow, and is thus retained for some time after
the animal has put on the summer livery. But by the end of
summer, when large areas are bared of snow, the claws are worn
down to an ordinary size and become pointed. This seasonal
development is, in fact, analogous to what we find in some of
the northern Tetraonidce. The food of this lemming consists
of vegetable substances, especially the buds of Saxifraga
oppositifolia. It makes nests of grass in the snow, which we
often found during summer as the snow thawed ; in most
cases large accumulations of the dung of these animals were
lying close to the nests. I see no reason to suppose that this
animal hybernates, for on the return of light, with a tem-
perature at minus 50° and a deep mantle of snow covering
the land, the lemming was to be seen on the surface of the
snow, close to its burrow, blinking at the first rays of the
sun ; and during the depths of winter there could be no
greater difficulty in procuring food than in February. At
that season of the year I found the stomach of the lem-
ming filled with green buds of saxifrage, which had been
gathered from under the snow. Sometimes I came across
the lemming at some distance from the hole by which it
retreats to its galleries under the snow, and it was interest-
ing to see the speed with which it could disappear,
throwing itself on its head, its fore-paws worked with great
rapidity, rotating outwards, and throwing up a cloud of
snow-dust some six inches high. Later on in the year I

1 < Reise Sibir./ II. Th. 2, pp. 87-99, pis. IV.-VII.

204 APPENDIX. No. II.

have seen a lemming baffle the attempts at capture of a
long-tailed skua by the same tactics. The female brings
forth from three to five at a birth in June and July, making
a comfortable nest of grass for their reception.

13. LEPUS GLACIALIS (Leach).— The Polar hare was
found, though in scanty numbers, along the shores of Grinnell
Land, and its footprints were seen on the snow-clad ice of the
Polar Sea by Captain Markham and Lieutenant Parr in lat.
83° 10' N., a distance of about twenty miles north of the
nearest land. In the autumn of 1875 three or four examples
were shot in the neighbourhood of our winter- quarters, lat.
82° 27' N., and as soon as a glimmer of light enabled us to
make out their tracks in the snow we were off. in pursuit of
them. On February 14, two weeks before the sun reappeared
at midday, the temperature minus 56°, 1 started one from its
burrow, a hole about four feet in length, scraped horizontally
into a snowdrift. I have no doubt the same burrow is
regularly occupied, as this one was discoloured by the feet of
the animal, and a quantity of hair was sticking to the sides ;
all around the hare had been scratching up the snow and
feeding on Saxifraga oppositifolia. Even where exposed by
the wind, this hardy plant had delicate green buds showing
on the brown withered surface of the last year's growth. The
hare does not tear up this plant by the roots, but nibbles off
the minute green shoots. On February 1 9, a hare was shot
by Dr. Moss ; it was a male, and weighed nine pounds and a
half; and another was obtained on the 20th. On May 18, at
Westward Ho ! Valley, I shot two hares, one was a female
and contained eight young ones. By the end of July the
young were nearly as large as their parents, and were pure
white, save the tips of the ears, which were mouse-grey, with
a small streak of the same colour passing down from the apex
of the head to the snout. The adults have the ears tipped
with black. The number of young that we found in gravid
females varied from seven to eight, which is much in excess
of that produced in Great Britain by Lepus variabilis,
from which naturalists have found difficulty in separating

No. II. MAMMALIA. 205

the Arctic species.1 Fabricius2 records the fact of this animal
in Greenland having eight young ones. Near Lincoln Bay,
in lat. 82° 8' N., a hare was shot on August 31, 1875, with a
very distorted skull, the nasal bones being twisted to the
right hand, the incisors of the upper jaw being deflected in
the same direction. In the lower jaw only the left incisor
was developed, and that protruded in a nearly horizontal
direction. This specimen, though in good condition, was
small, and weighed only five pounds and a half; another,
killed the same day, nine pounds. They were both pure white,
with the tips of the ear black. We find, therefore, Lepus
glacialis inhabiting the most northern land yet visited, and
attaining its normal weight, eight to ten pounds, under
apparently very adverse circumstances. Still I must say it is
sparsely diffused, and we found that after killing a pair or
two out of each valley that afforded any vegetation the race
seemed to be extirpated in that district, and I imagine it will
take several years to restock the area over which we hunted
along the northern shore of Grinnell Land. Examples examined
by me contained many parasitical worms, Filaria, in the large
intestine.

1 On the specific distinction of the Polar have, cf. Peters ; 2te.
Deutsch. Nordpolarf. II. pp. 164-7.

2 ' Fauna Grceulandica/ p. 25.

206 APPENDIX. No. III.

No. III.

ORNITHOLOGY.1
BY HENRY W. FEILDEN, F.G.S., F.R.G.S., C.M.Z.S.

THE species of birds met with by the Arctic Expedition in
Smith Sound and northward, between the seventy-eighth
and eighty-third degrees of north latitude, are well known
Polar forms, and the chief interest lies in the record of their
great northern extension in the western hemisphere. The
only other part of the globe lying within nearly the same
parallels of latitude with which we are well acquainted is
Spitsbergen ; and though that group of islands has been
frequently visited by naturalists, yet the number of species
of birds, including stragglers, at present known to have
occurred there is under thirty. Were I to include in this
list species recorded by Dr. Bessels2 from Thank God
Harbour, not met with by me, the list of the avifauna of
Smith Sound and Spitsbergen would be about numerically
equal : thus according, as far as numbers are concerned, with
the opinion published before the Expedition left England by
Professor Newton3 of Cambridge ; and, except amongst those

1 Condensed from < The Ibis/ 1877, pp. 401-412.

2 ' Bulletin de la Societe de Geographic,' 1875, pp. 296-297.
Twenty-three species are included by Dr. Bessels in this list from Hall
Land. Of these, three species, Tringa maritima, Xema Sabini, and
Stercorarius parasiticus (Baird), were not obtained by me. On the other
hand four species, viz. : jEgialitis Iriaticula, Phalaropm fulicarius, Tringa
canutus, and a Colymbus, observed by me, are additional to Dr. Bessels'
list, thus raising the aggregate of the species recorded from Smith Sound
and northward, to twenty-seven.

3 ' Arctic Manual/ p. 114, 1875.

No. III. ORNITHOLOGY. 207

sanguine persons who may still cling to a belief in the
existence of an ' open Polar Sea,' I think it is impossible to
doubt that, both specifically and numerically, bird-life must
rapidly decrease with every degree of northern latitude after
passing the eighty-second parallel. If, however, there be an
extension of land to the northernmost part of our globe,
I see no reason why a few species of birds should not re-
sort there to breed ; and those most likely to proceed there
are Plectrophanes nivalis, Strepsilas inte'rpres, Calidris
arenaria, Tringa canutus, and Sterna macrura. There
would still be sufficient summer, if such a term may be used,
for the period of incubation ; and from what I have seen of
the transporting powers of the wind in drifting seeds over
the frozen expanse of the Polar Sea, I cannot doubt that a
scanty flora exists at the Pole itself, if there be any land
there, and that the abundance of insect-life which exists as
high as the eighty-third degree will be present at the ninetieth,
sufficient to provide for a few knots, sanderlings, and turn-
stones. The Arctic Sea at the most northern point reached
abounds with Amphipoda, such as Anonyx nugax, which
doubtless extend all through the Polar Basin ; and these
crustaceans supply the Arctic tern with food in those parts
where the continual presence of ice prevents fish coming to
the surface ; for wherever there is land not cased in peren-
nial ice, there must be tidal ice-cracks, which allow these
minute animals to work their way up between the floes. The
range of the brent-goose is probably coincident with the
growth of Saxifraga oppositifolia ; and this plant also
supplies subsistence to the knot, the turnstone, and the
sanderling, before the long Arctic day has awakened the insect-
life.

Dr. Homer, of the yacht c Pandora,' kindly informed me
that in July 1876 he saw an example of Saxlcola cenanthe
at Port Foulke, a iar more northern range of this species
than had previously been recorded.

I was much struck with the extreme shyness of all the
birds we met with in the far north ; and until they had

208 APPENDIX. No. III.

settled down to nesting it was no easy matter to get within
gunshot range.

1. FALCO CANDICANS. — The Greenland falcon, though seen
on several occasions, was not procured by us in Smith Sound.
Mr. Hart noticed a pair of these, birds nesting in the lime-
stone cliffs near Cape Hayes, Grinnell Land (lat. 79° 42' N.),
but was unable to secure a specimen. From this point to
our most northern extreme this falcon was not observed by
any member of the Expedition. On August 24, 1876, near
Cape Frazer (lat. 79° 44X N.), when on our return south-
wards, a bird of this species flew round our vessels. The
following morning, when on shore between Cape Hayes and
Cape Napoleon, I saw a magnificent example of F. candicans
seated on a rock ; it permitted me to get within seventy
or eighty yards, but I failed in procuring it.

2. NICTEA SCANDIACA. — The snowy owl is a common
spring and summer migrant to the northern part of Grinnell
Land. On October 2, 1875, I observed an individual of this
species seated on a hummock in the vicinity of our winter-
quarters (lat. 82° 27' N.). On March 29, 1876, an example
was seen by Lieutenant Parr some three miles north of the
ship. On May 1 5, whilst travelling up a valley (lat. 82° 40' N.)
in Grinnell Land, our party disturbed a snowy owl from the
ground. Subsequently this species was not unfrequently
observed; a pair seemed commonly to breed in each large
valley running down to the sea-shore. On June 24 we found
a snowy owl's nest containing seven eggs (lat. 82° 33' N.) ;
the nest was a mere hollow scooped out of the earth, and
situated on the summit of an eminence which rose from the
centre of the valley. Several other nests were found in the
vicinity of our winter-quarters, at one time there were six or
seven fine young birds caged on board. In the vicinity of
Discovery Bay (lat. 81° 44' N.) this owl bred abundantly.
During the month of August, while proceeding southwards,
it was no uncommon circumstance to see one or more of
these birds occupying a conspicuous post on the bold head-
lands we were passing under. By the end of the month all

Xo. III. ORNITHOLOGY. 209

had disappeared. The food of the snowy owl in Grinnell
Land appears to consist entirely of the lemming (My odes
torquatus). Hundreds of their cast pellets, which I picked
up and examined, consisted of the bones and fur of these
little animals ; and the stomachs of all I opened contained
the same.

3. PLECTROPHANES NIVALIS. — After passing the seventy-
eighth degree of north latitude the snow-bunting is not met
with in the same numbers as in the neighbourhood of the
Danish settlements of West Greenland, but it is dispersed
generally along the shores of Smith Sound and the Polar
Basin. On August 28, 1875, at Shift-Kudder Bay (lat.
81° 52' N.), I observed a flock of about eighty, and another,
in which I counted over twenty birds, flying south. On
September 14, Lieutenant Parr met with a solitary individual
in lat. 82° 35' N. ; and the last one I observed that season
flew past the ship on September 24.

Next spring I first heard this bird when travelling on
May 13, 1876, in lat. 82° 35' N. ; the following day I
observed one ; and after that day they were frequently met
with. On May 27, Lieutenant Parr, on his journey from
the north over the ice, saw a snow-bunting near to the
eighty-third degree. I found a nest of this species on June
24 (lat. 82° 33' N.), containing four eggs, within twenty feet
of the nest of a snowy owl; it was neatly constructed of
grasses, and lined with the owl's feathers. On another
occasion I found a nest lined with the soft wool of the
musk-ox.

4. CORVUS CORAX. — A pair of ravens were observed by
Dr. Coppinger to be nesting in the cliffs of Cape Lupton
during the month of July. While this officer was detained
at Polaris Bay by the sickness of some of the sledge-crews,
he noticed these birds visit his camp daily in search of offal.
The raven was not observed by any of our Expedition along
the shores of the Polar Basin ; so that I consider Cape Lupton
(lat. 81° 44' N.) the northernmost settlement of this species.
August 29, 1876, at Dobbin Bay (lat. 79° 36' N.), a female,

VOL. II. P

210 APPENDIX. No. III.

one of a pair, was shot by Dr. Moss, who enticed it within
range by laying down a dead hare and concealing himself
near at hand. South of Dobbin Bay I observed this species
at several points in Smith Sound — namely, at Cape Hayes,
Norman Lockyer Island, and Cape Sabine.

5. LAGOPUS RUPESTRIS. — The rock -ptarmigan was obtained
by our sledging parties as far north as 82° 46', two or three
couples having been killed by me in the end of May on
Feilden Peninsula. Lieutenant Aldrich found traces of
ptarmigan on Cape Columbia (lat. 83° 6' N.), the most
northern land yet visited by man. On September *29, 1875,
Captain Markham, in lat. 82° 40' N., observed four of these
birds ; and the earliest date on which they were noticed in
the spring of 1876 was on March 11.

6. STREPSILAS INTERPRES. — The turnstone is tolerably
abundant in Smith Sound and the region north of it visited
by the Expedition. It was observed as late as September 5,

1875, in lat. 82° 30' N., and was first noticed on June 5,

1876, in the neighbourhood of the winter-quarters of H.M.S.
4 Alert.' By August 1 2 the young broods were able to fly.

7. ^EGIALITIS HIATICULA. — Only a single example of the
ringed-plover was observed in Smith Sound. It was ob-
tained August 4, 1875, on the beach bordering the valley
of the Twin-Glacier, in Buchanan Strait (lat. 78° 48' N.)
My attention was drawn to the bird by its note ; and I then
observed it threading its way among the stones and stranded
blocks of ice near the water's edge. It was probably nesting
in the neighbourhood, as it proved on examination to be a
female, with the feathers worn off the underparts from
incubation.

8. CALIDRIS ARENARIA (Plate I.)— I first observed the
sanderling in Grinnell Land on June 5, 1876, flying in com-
pany with knots and turnstoneg ; at this date it was feeding,
like the other waders, on the buds of Saxifraga oppositifolia.
This bird was by no means abundant along the coasts of
Grinnell Land ; but I observed several pairs in the aggre-
gate, and found a nest of this species containing two eggs, in

del.

HanKart 1-ith.

EGGS OF CALIDRIS ARENARIA.

No. III. ORNITHOLOGY. 211

lat 82° 33' N., on June 24, 1876. This nest, from which I
killed the male bird, was placed on a gravel ridge at an
altitude of several hundred feet above the sea ; and the eggs
were deposited in a slight depression in the centre of a
recumbent plant of willow, the lining of the nest consisting
of a few withered leaves and some of the last year's catkins.
August 8, 1876, along the shores of Eobeson Channel, I saw
several parties of young ones, three to four in number, fol-
lowing their parents, and led by the old birds, searching
most diligently for insects. At this date they were in a very
interesting stage of plumage, being just able to fly, but
retaining some of the down on their feathers.

9. PHALAROPTJS FULICARIUS. — I obtained an example of
the grey phalarope, a female, near the ' Alert's ' winter-
quarters (lat. 82° 27' N.) on June 30, 1876 ; and during the
month of July I observed a pair on a small fresh- water pond
in lat. 82° 30' N. ; they were apparently breeding. The
female of this species is larger and brighter-coloured than
the male bird. Several other examples were observed in the
neighbourhood of our winter-quarters by various members of
the Expedition.

10. TRINGA CANUTUS. — I was not so fortunate as to obtain
the eggs of the knot during our stay in the Polar regions,
though it breeds in some numbers along the shores of Smith
Sound and the north coast of Grinnell Land. It appears to
be common throughout the Parry Islands during summer,
as Sabine found it (in 1820) nesting in great numbers on
Melville Island. I find it enumerated, in a list of birds
preserved in the archives of the Admiralty, as procured
by Dr. Anderson, of H.M.S. ' Enterprise,' at Cambridge Bay
(lat. 69° 10' N.) in July 1853. On July 28, 1875, Dr.
Coppinger came across a party of six knots several miles
inland from Port Foulke : these birds were feeding near a
rill, and were very wild ; but he managed to secure a single
specimen, a male in full breeding-plumage. August 25,
1875, I observed several of these birds near the water-edge

p 2

212 APPENDIX. No. III.

in Discovery Bay (lat. 81° 44' N.) The rills and marshes
were by this time frozen, and the birds were feeding along
the shore on the small crustaceans so common in the Arctic
Sea ; in pursuit of their food they ran breast-high into the
water. By this date they had lost their breeding-plumage.
On June 5, 1876, when camped near Knot Harbour, Grrinnell
Land (lat. 82° 33' N.), we noticed the first arrival of these
birds ; a flock of fourteen or more were circling over a hill-
side, alighting on bare patches, and feeding eagerly on the
buds of Saxifraga oppositifolia. Subsequently we met with
this bird in considerable numbers ; but they were always very
wild and most difficult of approach. The cry of the knot is
wild, and something like that of the curlew. Immediately
after arrival in June they began to mate, and at times I
noticed two or more males following a single female ; at this
season they soar in the air, like the common snipe, and when
descending from a height beat their wings behind the back
with a rapid motion, which produces a loud whirring noise.
During the 'month of July my companions and I often
endeavoured to discover the nest of this bird ; but none of us
were successful. However, on July 30, 1876, the day before
we broke out of our winter-quarters, where we had been
frozen-in eleven months, three of our seamen, walking by the
border of a small lake, not far from the ship, came upon an
old bird accompanied by three nestlings, which they brought
to me. The old bird proved to be a male ; its stomach and
those of the young ones were filled with insects. The
following description of the newly-hatched birds was taken
down at the time : — Iris, black ; tip of mandibles, dark
brown ; bill, dark olive ; toes, black ; soles of feet, greenish
yellow ; back of legs, the same ; underpart of throat, satin-
white ; back, beautifully mottled tortoise-shell. Dr. Cop-
pinger informed me that this bird was not uncommon at
Thank Grod Harbour during July. In the first week of
August I saw family parties of knots at Shift-Eudder Bay
(lat. 81° 52' N.) ; they were then in the grey autumn plu-
mage. The knot bred in the vicinity of Discovery Bay ; but

No. III. ORNITHOLOGY. 213

no eggs were found there, although the young were obtained
in all stages of plumage.

11. STERNA MACRURA. — The Arctic tern is not uncommon
in Smith Sound, and we found it breeding at several localities
we visited on our way north. On August 11, 1875, on
Norman Lockyer Island, I noticed several pairs, and picked
up a bleached egg, probably an addled one of a former season.
August 21, we found eight or ten pairs breeding on a small
islet off the north end of Bellot Island (lat. 81° 44' N.) ; the
land at this date was covered with snow, and on the islet it
lay about three inches deep. In one nest I found a newly-
hatched tern ; it seemed quite well and lively in its snow
cradle. The parent birds had evidently thrown the snow out
of the nest as it fell ; for it was surrounded by a border of
snow marked by the feet of the old birds, and raised at least
two inches above the general level. The terns on this islet
were rather shy, none coming within range until I touched
the young one. There seemed to be abundance of fish in
the pools between the floes, as the old birds were flying
with them in their mandibles ; the stomach of the female
which I killed was empty, but that of the nestling contained
remains of fish. On June 16, 1876, three Arctic terns
appeared in the neighbourhood of the winter-quarters of the
' Alert.' By the end of June pairs of these birds were scat-
tered at intervals along the coast ; and a nest, scraped in the
gravel and containing two eggs, was found June 27 about
three miles north of our winter-quarters. During the first
week in August we found a pair of young birds nearly ready
to fly in lat. 81° 50' N.

12. PAGOPHILA EBUHNEA. — The ivory gull was not un-
frequently observed in Smith Sound, but not beyond lat.
82° 20' N. I found a pair nesting in a lofty and inacces-
sible cliff near Cape Hayes on August 16, 1875. On Sep-
tember 1 a single example flew around the ' Alert ' when she
lay moored to the ice in Lincoln Bay (lat. 82° 6' N.) On
August 2, 1876, I observed one of this species near Cape
Union ; on August 12 they were common in Discovery

214 APPENDIX. No. III.

Bay, and from there southward to the north-water of
Baffin's Bay.

13. KISSA TRIDACTYLA.— I saw a few examples of the
kittiwake flying over the open water in the vicinity of
Port Foulke, July 28, 1875 ; but we did not observe it to
the northward after entering the ice of Smith Sound ;
and in 1876 no specimen was seen as the Expedition
returned south until the north-water of Baffin's Bay was
reached.

14. LARUS GLAUCUS. — We did not find the glaucous gull
breeding north of Cape Sabine ; but stray individuals were
observed as far north as lat. 82° 34'. September 1, 1875,
was the latest date in the autumn on which I noticed this
species ; and it reappeared in the vicinity of our winter-
quarters (lat. 82° 27' N.) in the middle of June.

15. STERCORARIUS PARASITICUS. — Buffon's skua was the
only one of the genus met with in Smith Sound. It arrived
in the neighbourhood of our winter-quarters during the first
week of June, and in considerable numbers. After that date
it was to be seen during every hour of the day quartering
the fells in search of lemmings. It lays its two eggs in a
small hollow in the ground, and defends its nest with the
utmost bravery. On several occasions I have struck the old
birds with my gun-barrel while warding off their attacks as I
plundered their nests. This species can generally be distin-
guished from its near ally, 8. crepidatus, at every age, by
the mottled colour of the tarsus and webs of the feet, which
in S. crepidatus are usually black.

1 6. PROCELLARIA GLACIALIS. — The fulmar is common in
the north-water of Baffin's Bay; and individuals followed
our ships until we entered the pack off Cape Sabine. On
June 26, 1876, Lieutenant Parr and I, when travelling on the
coast of G-rinnell Land (lat. 82° 30' N.), observed one of
these birds ; and a few days later Lieutenant Egerton found
one dead on the shore some two miles further to the north-
ward. We did not observe this species again till our return
to Baffin's Bay in September 1876.

No. III. ORNITHOLOGY. 215

17. URIA GRYLLE. — The black guillemot or dovekie was
found breeding at various spots along the shores of Smith
Sound and northward, notably at Washington Irving Island,
Dobbin Bay, Cape Hayes, and Bessels Bay ; it does not, I
think, breed north of Cape Union. I saw two or three
examples feeding in pools on the floe as far north as lat.
82° 33' ; but they were evidently mere stragglers.

18. MERGULUS ALLE. — The north-water of Baffin's Bay
is the summer home of countless numbers of little auks ;
they do not, however, penetrate in any numbers far up Smith
Sound, the most northern point where I observed them being
in Buchanan Strait (lat. 79°). I do not think that they
breed to the north of Foulke Fiord ; but the talus at the base
of the cliffs which flank that inlet is occupied by myriads of
them during the nesting-season. On July 28 we found the
young just hatched ; in that stage they are covered with
black down. From the large amount of bones and feathers
lying around the huts of the Eskimo village of Etah, it is
evident that these birds contribute largely to the support
of the Arctic Highlanders during summer.

19. ALCA BRUENNICHII. — I observed two looms in August
as far north as Buchanan Strait (lat. 79°); but this bird was
not seen again by me until our return southward in Sep-
tember 1876, after regaining navigable water south of Cape
Sabine. The north-water of Baffin's Bay is evidently the
limit of the northern range of the species in that direction ;
and I doubt if there are any breeding-haunts of this species
north of Cape Alexander.

20. COLYMBUS . — On September 2, 1875, at Floeberg

Beach (lat. 82° 27' N.), a diver, I think C. septentrionalis,
alighted in a pool about a hundred yards from the ship. A
boat was instantly lowered ; but the noise made by pushing
the boat through the young ice alarmed the bird, which rose
and flew to another pool half a mile to the southward. I
tried to make my way over the floe towards the bird ; but
the ice was unsafe, so I had to give up the pursuit. The
numerous lakes and ponds in Grinnell Land abound with a

216 APPENDIX. No. III.

species of charr (Salmo arcturus* Grunt her), which doubtless
might afford good living to birds of this family.

21. HARELDA GLACIALIS. — We observed a flock of long-
tailed duck swimming in the pools of water between the floes
on September 1, 1875, near Floeberg Beach (lat. 82° 27' N.)
On September 16 two were shot not far from the ship.
During the summer of 1876 a few of these birds visited the
northern shores of Grinnell Land , we found them in pairs on
lakes and ponds, where thej were evidently breeding. From
the rapidity with which they dive they are very difficult to
shoot, and when secured do not repay the outlay in powder
and lead.

22. SOMATERIA MOLLISSIMA. — The eider-duck breeds abun-
dantly in the neighbourhood of Port Foulke, but decreased
in numbers as we advanced northwards. It became rare after
passing Cape Frazer, the meeting-place of the Polar and
Baffin's Bay tides, but was replaced to some extent by the
next species. I did not obtain an eider north of Cape Union.
Dr. Coppinger procured both eider and king-duck at Thank
God Harbour (lat. 81° 38' N.) in the month of July, 1876.

23. SOMATERIA SPECTABILTS. — I did not obtain the king-
duck in Smith Sound during the autumn of 1875 ; but in the
end of June 1876 several flocks of males and females, num-
bering from ten to twenty individuals, were seen near Floeberg
Beach (lat. 82° 27' N.) Most of these fell a prey to our
gunners ; but those that escaped settled down to breed along
the coast, and several nests were found with fresh eggs in
them from the 9th to the middle of July.

24. BERNICLA BRENTA. — During the first week of June,
parties of brent-geese arrived in the vicinity of our winter-
quarters (lat. 82° 27' N.) For some days they continued
flying up and down the coast-line, evidently looking out
for places bare of snow to feed on. They were very wary,
and kept well out of gun-shot range. On June 211 found
the first nest with eggs in lat. 82° 33' N. ; subsequently
many were found. When the young are hatched, the parent
birds and broods congregate on the lakes or in open water

No. III. ORNITHOLOGY. 217

spaces near the shore in large flocks ; by the end of July
the old birds were moulting and unable to fly, so that they
were easily secured, and afforded most valuable change of
diet to our sick. The flesh of this bird is most excellent.

The gander remains in the vicinity of the nest while the
goose is sitting, and accompanies the young brood. In one
instance where I killed a female as she left her nest, the
gander came hissing at me.

218 APPENDIX. No. IV.

No. IV.

ICHTHYOLOGY.*
BY ALBERT GUNTHER, M.A., Ph. D., M.D., F.R.S.

TEN species of fishes were collected between lat. 78° and
83° N., by the naturalists of the Arctic Expedition of 1875-
76, and submitted to me for determination.

1. COTTUS QUADRICORNIS (Z.) — A young specimen, four
inches long, was found dead by Mr. Egerton on the beach of
Dumbell Harbour (lat. 82° 30' N.) No other salt-water fish
is known at present to have been found at a higher latitude.
In this young specimen the nuchal tubercles are only indi-
cated ; but having compared it with a specimen obtained on
the English coast, another from Lake Wettern, and with two
from Sir J. Kichardson's collection (the locality of which is
not known, but which most probably were given to him by
one of the previous Arctic explorers), I have no doubt as to
their specific identity. Dr. Liitken has excluded this species
from his list of Greenland fishes ('Arctic Manual,' p. 116).

2. ICELTJS HAMATUS (Kroyer). — Previously known from
Spitsbergen and Greenland, it seems to be one of the most
common fishes in the latitudes between 80° and 82°. Two
specimens were obtained at Discovery Bay (81° 44' N.),
several at Franklin Pierce Bay (in fifteen fathoms), and seven
at Cape Napoleon. All these specimens were caught in the
month of August, and were ready for spawning.

3. TRIGLOPS PINGELII (Reinfi.} — No specimens of this
fish were previously in the national collection. It appears to

1 Abridged from <Proc. Zool. Soc.,' 1877, pp. 293-295, 475-476.

No. IV. ICHTHYOLOGY. 219

be much scarcer than the preceding. Externally the ventral
fin appears to be composed of three rays ; but on dissection
four long rays and one rudimentary one are found. Obtained
at Franklin Pierce Bay, August 11, 1875.

4. CYCLOPTERUS SPINOSUS (Mull.) — Previously known from
Iceland, Spitsbergen, and Greenland. Two specimens from
Cape Napoleon, and four from Franklin Pierce Bay are all
young, and interesting as showing the irregular manner in
which the conical spines are developed. The largest of these
young specimens is not quite two inches long ; and the
tubercles are much less numerous than in an adult specimen ;
it is rough, and covered with minute spines. In a specimen
fifteen lines long, only traces of the tubercles are visible on
the skin. A specimen twelve lines long is quite naked, whilst
another of the same size has the tubercles as much developed
as the largest, or even more so. The spines of the first dorsal
fin are sometimes quite distinct, sometimes enveloped in
loose skin.

CYCLOPTERUS SPINOSTJS.

5. LIPARIS FABRICII (Kroyer). — Previously known from
Spitsbergen, Greenland, Port Leopold. Is represented in the
present collection by a specimen from Discovery Bay, and
others from 'Franklin Pierce Bay.

6. GYMNELIS VIRIDIS (Fabr.) — One specimen obtained in
lat. 81° 52' N. ; is only five inches long, and belongs to a
highly-coloured variety, being brown with numerous white
spots, and having four black ocelli on the dorsal fin. Another
specimen was collected in Franklin Pierce Bay.

7. GTADUS FABRICII (Rich.)— Widely distributed in the

220 APPENDIX. No. IV.

Arctic regions of the western hemisphere. Two specimens
obtained off Cape Hayes, Grinnell Land.

8. SALMO ARCTURUS (sp. n.) — The northernmost salmo-
noid known at present. This charr cannot be identified
with any of the other races of this division of Salmo ;
it comes nearest to the charr of Killin (Inverness-shire),
but differs from it in having a more slender body, rather
smaller scales, shorter fins, and a less number of pyloric
appendages.

Body rather elongate ; head small, two-ninths or nearly
one-fifth of the total length (without caudal), scarcely more
than one-half of the distance between the snout and the
vertical from the origin of the dorsal fin. The snout is,
remarkably obtuse ; the maxillary varies in length : in males
of the same size it sometimes reaches scarcely to, sometimes
a little behind, the hind margin of the orbit ; in the female
it is smaller and shorter. Teeth small ; vomerine teeth
limited to the anterior extremity of the bone ; a band of
villiform teeth along the middle of the hyoid bone. Prseoper-
culum with a distinct lower limb ; suboperculum about twice
as long as deep ; pectoral but little shorter than the head,
exceeding in length one-half of the distance of its root from
the ventral. Ventral terminating at a considerable distance
from the vent. D. 13 ; the longest ray as long as the head
(without snout). A. 12. Caudal moderately excised, its
middle rays half the length of the outer ones. Scales minute.
Branchiostegals 11.

Upper parts of a dull brownish green, passing on the sides
into the silvery or reddish colour of the lower parts. Dorsal
and caudal of the colour of the back ; paired fins and anal
yellowish. No dots or ocelli. Young with numerous parr-
marks.

The number of pyloric appendages were found to vary ;
one male has 31, another 35, a third 44, and a female 42.

Several specimens were obtained in Victoria Lake (lat.
82° 34' N.), and in freshwater lakes near Floeberg Beach (lat.
82° 28' N.) Dr. E. Moss kindly communicated to me a

No. IV. ICHTHYOLOGY. 221

coloured sketch of a specimen caught in North-Ravine Lake.
Specimens twelve inches in length are full-grown ; no larger
ones were found. The ovaries and testicles in specimens
caught in the month of August show the commencement of
seasonal development.

9. SALMO ALIPES (Rich.) — Of this species two examples
were obtained, about fifteen inches long ; it is a well-marked
species of charr, characterised by the deep radiating and con-
centric striation of the gill-covers. The typical specimens
were obtained in Boothia Felix ; so that this charr has an
unusally wide range. Colour silvery, with scarcely any
pinkish tinge. Caec. pyl. 41. Obtained from a lake in the
vicinity of Discovery Bay (lat. 81° 44' N.)

10. SALMO KARESII (n. sp.) — The body much elongate,
its greatest depth being one-fifth, or even one-sixth, of the
total length, without caudal. The length of the head is
one-fourth or two-ninths of the same length, and nearly
one-half of the distance between the snout and the vertical
from the origin of the dorsal fin. The snout is obtuse, the
forehead flat ; and the maxillary extends in the male to the
vertical from the hind margin of the orbit, but in the female
it is somewhat shorter. Teeth very small, those of the vomer
limited to the anterior extremity of the bone, a band of villi-
form teeth along the middle of the hyoid. Praeoperculuin
with the angle much rounded, and without a distinct lower
limb ; suboperculum more than twice as long as deep. The
gill-cover shows scarcely a trace of the radiating and concen-
tric striae by which Salmo nitidus is characterised. Pectoral
shorter than, or equal in length to, the head without snout ;
and at least one-half, or more than one-half, of the distance
of its root from the ventral. Ventral fins terminating at a
considerable distance from the vent. D. 13 ; the largest ray
scarcely longer than the distance of the eye from the end of
the operculum. A. 11. Caudal deeply excised, its middle
rays not quite half as long as the outer ones. Scales minute.
Branchiostegals 11.

Pyloric appendages 42. Vertebrae 65.

222 APPENDIX. No. IV.

Upper parts light greenish olive, passing into deep reddish-
pink on the sides. Lower part of a silvery colour. Sides
with very small red spots. Dorsal and upper part of the
caudal of the colour of the back. Paired fins and anal
and lower part of caudal deep red, with yellowish-white
margins.

Several specimens were obtained in a freshwater lake near
to the winter-quarters of the ' Discovery,' in a depth of from
ten to fifteen feet.

This is a small species, the largest example measuring
ten inches, all the others, males and females, being only eight
inches long. Yet the sexual organs were fully developed, and
the ova ready for exclusion.

By associating the name of Sir George Nares with one of
the novelties brought home by the Arctic Expedition, I pay
only a small tribute of the esteem in which all zoologists
hold the leader of the ' Challenger ' and Arctic Expeditions.

No. V. MOLLUSCA. 223

No. V.

MOLLUSCA.1

BY EDGAR A. SMITH, F.L.S., F.Z.S.,

Zoological Department, British Museum.

THE chief interest attaching to the mollusca obtained during
the Arctic Expedition arises from the collections being made
at localities further north than any which had been previously
investigated.

To save repetition, the exact position of the principal
stations at which mollusca were dredged is here appended : —

Dumbell Harbour, 82° 30' N. lat.

Discovery Bay, 81° 41' N. lat.

Cape Frazer, 79° 44' N. lat.

Dobbin Bay, Grrinnell Land, 79° 40' N. lat.

Franklin Pierce Bay, 79° 25' N. lat.

I. PTEROPODA.

Clione borealis, Pallas.

Hab. Abundant in Hartstene Bay (Feilden).
Captain PWlden informs me that this species was not
observed in Smith Sound north of Cape Sabine.

Limacina arctica, Fabricius.
Hab. Abundant in Hartstene Bay (Feilden).

1 Abridged from < Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.,' 1877, pp. 131-146.

224

APPENDIX.

No. V.

II. GASTROPODA.

Pleurotoma (Bela) violacea, Mighels and Adams.

Hab. Discovery Bay, 5 fathoms (Feilden).

Only one rather elongated specimen was obtained.

Fusus (Sipho) tortuosus ? Eeeve.

Hab. Shore of Hayes Sound, 79° N. lat. (Feilden)',
Dobbin Bay 30, fms. (Hart).

Buccinum hydrophanum, Hancock.

Hab. Franklin Pierce Bay (Feilden and 'Hart) ; Dobbin
Bay, 30 fms. (Hart).

Buccinum Belcheri, var. Eeeve.

Hab. Dobbin Bay, 30 fms. (Hart).

Shell ovately conical, very thin, purplish brown, with a
few paler streaks here and there ; whorls 5-J, very convex,
spirally distinctly ridged, the ridges being
alternately longer, longitudinally rather
coarsely striated by the lines of growth,
and very obsoletely plicated ; mouth ir-
regularly ovate, large, occupying more
than half the entire length of the shell,
of the same colour as the exterior, termi-
nating inferiorly in a short, slightly re-
curved canal ; columella oblique, scarcely
arcuated, smooth, shining, whitish to-
/ /i A/IAAA K . wards the base ; epidermis thin, oliva-
ceous, and laminated slightly on the
principal distinct incremental lines or
raised lirulse ; operculum circularly ovate,

Length 33 millims., diam. 17 ; aperture 19 millims. long
and 11 wide.

BUCCINUM BELCHERI.

No. V. MOLLUSOA. 225

The dentition of the animal of this species closely
resembles that of Buccinum groenlandicum and Neptunea
antiqua, as represented by Troschel's figures in his work
6 Das Grebiss der Schnecken,' vol. ii. pi. vi.

The above description was already prepared under the
supposition that the specimen before me was distinct from
B. Belcheri, when, through the kindness of Dr. Gwyn
Jeffreys, I was enabled to compare it with the type of that
species. It is less elongated, has a rather shorter spire ;
and the body-whorl is more ventricose. The columella also
is less arcuate and more oblique, and the spiral ridges and
lines of growth are more pronounced. The type does not
display such regularity in the alternation of large and small
transverse ridges as the variety. A specimen of this species
from Finmark, in the collection of Mr. Jeffreys, very closely
resembles the shell from Dobbin Bay.

Buccinum sericatum, Hancock.

Hah. Dobbin Bay, 30 fms. (Hart).

The radula of this species, which perhaps is only a variety
of B. Grcenlandicum, is remarkable for the unequal dentition
of the side plates, one of which is a trifle the narrower, and
is furnished with only two fangs : they are
subequal in length; but the inner one is
slightly the stouter. The other lateral plate
has three teeth, of which the outermost is
longest, the median smallest, and at the base

., f. mi i. RADULA OF BUC-

joms the inner fang. The median plate CINUM SERICATUM
bears four small conical denticles.

The only example of this species is a young shell. It
agrees in all respects with Hancock's admirable description,
except that the cilia of the epidermis are apparently closer
together than in the type, in which they are said to be ' not
much crowded,' whilst in the specimen before me there are
about three in the space of a millimetre. The surface of the
shell beneath the remarkable epidermis is very curiously

VOL. II. Q

226 APPENDIX. No. V.

wrinkly striated. The operculum is roundish, greenish yellow
on the inner side, and dirty yellow exteriorly; and the nucleus
is rather less central than in B. Belcheri.

Trichotropis tennis, sp. nov.

Shell very thin, light, semi-transparent, glossy white,
globosely turbinate, widely and openly umbilicated, clothed
with a dirty-yellowish epidermis, produced on the keels of
the whorls into close-set, very short, bristle-like filaments,
and rather coarsely obliquely striated, or rather lamellated,
marking periods of growth ; whorls
six, the two apical ones smooth and
rounded, the three following beauti-
fully sculptured with raised oblique
lines of growth and minute spiral
striae, keeled and angulated a trifle
above the middle, convexly sloping
above the keel and nearly straight
beneath it; last whorl large, encir-

TRICHOTROPIS TENUIS. ' . £

cled with three taint keels, two near

the middle and the third at the base, bordering the umbili-
cus ; aperture subcircular, occupying about y6T of the entire
length of the shell, whitish within, streaked with irregular,
curved, yellowish-olive stripes ; the peristome is continuous,
thin, with the epidermis produced beyond its extreme edges ;
columelJa white, arcuate, with a slight shallow channel at its
base.

Greatest length 33 millims., diam. of last whorl above
the aperture 18, greatest diam. 30; aperture 18J long, nearly
17 wide.

Hob. Off Cape Louis Napoleon, Grinnell Land, 79° 38'
N. lat., in 25 fms. (Feilden).

Only a single specimen of this grand new Trichotropis
was obtained. It is very different from any hitherto de-
scribed, being remarkable for its circular aperture, conical
spire, and extreme fragility. The entire surface under the

No. V. MOLLUSCA. 227

epidermis is beautifully sculptured with oblique raised lines
or lirulse, and minutely striated in a spiral direction between
them ; and the raised keels are also similarly striated. The
central keel of the last whorl is also visible on the upper
ones, and is situated just above the suture.

In the 'Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist.' for August 1877,
p. 136, 1 stated that the specimen upon which this species is
founded had been seen by Dr. Jeffreys, who considered it an
abnormal form of T. bicarinata. Since then, in the Sep-
tember part of the same periodical, he has published this
opinion, observing that in certain other species (Littorina
litorea and Fusus antiquus) ' the same kind of distortion
is observable.'

I have again most closely scrutinised this shell, and still
/ cannot trace the slightest irregularity of growth^ and
therefore I confidently adhere to my opinion, shared by
several conchologists, that this form is decidedly distinct
from the well-known bicarinata ; and it only remains for me
to point out its special characteristics, namely, the vast
differences of form and epidermis, the open umbilicus, the
slight prominence of the keels and the subcircular aperture.

Trichotropis borealis, Broderip and Sowerby.

Hob. Discovery Bay, 5 fms. ; Dumbell Harbour
(Feilden).

The specimens from the abpve localities agree precisely
in shape and sculpture with that form of this species which
was described by Hinds from shells found at Sitka, under the
name of T. inermis.

Velutina (Morvillia) zonata, var. grandis.

Hob. Franklin Pierce Bay (Hart).

The only specimen was taken out of the stomach of Phoca
barbata9 and is in very bad condition. This variety is so
very much larger than the ordinary size of the species that it
almost appears that it must be distinct. It measures 21

228 APPENDIX. No. V.

milliras. in length, being about double that of Gould's figure.
Hancock mentions one from the west coast of Davis Strait,
which was about five-eighths of an inch (or 16 millims.) long.

Natica affinis, Gmelin.

Hob. Dobbin Bay, 30 fms., bottom stones and mud
(Hart, August, 1876).

Only a single small specimen was obtained, which is re-
markable for having the spire rather more elevated than
usual.

Trochus (Margarita) umbilicalis, Broderip and Sowerby.

Hob. Franklin Pierce Bay, 15 fms.; Mushroom Point,
82° 29' N. (Feilden).

This species is also reported by Jeffreys, 'Annals and
Mag. Nat. Hist.' 1877, March, p. 237, from 'Discovery Bay,
and fossil in Cane Valley,' from specimens collected by
Captain Feilden during the expedition.

Trochus (Margarita) glauca, Moller.

Hob. With the preceding species at Franklin Pierce Bay
(Feilden).

Trochus (Margarita) helicinus, Fabricius.
Hob. Franklin Pierce Bay (Feilden).

Trochus (Margarita), sp. jun.

Hob. Cape Frazer (Feilden).

This shell may be but a young specimen of Margarita
striata of Broderip and Sowerby ; but it differs from typical
examples in the spire being comparatively small in propor-
tion to the body-whorl, the base of which is almost destitute
of revolving striae ; the umbilicus is larger and not bordered
by a thickish ridge as is usually the case in this species.

No. V. MOLLUSCA. 229

Chiton (Tonicia) marmoreus, Fabricius.

Hab. Franklin Pierce Bay, 15 fms., temperature 29°'50
(Hart and Feilden).

Lepeta cceca, 0. F. Miiller.

Hab. Franklin Pierce Bay, 15 fms.; Cape Frazer, 30
fms. ; and Richardson Bay, 70 fms. (Feilden).

The animal of this species (var. concentrica) has been
briefly described by Middenborff, 1. c. p. 186, and also by Dr.
Jeffreys in the ' Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.' 1877, March, p.
231.

Bulla (Cylichna) alba, Brown.
Hab. Discovery Bay, 5 fms. (Feilden).

Bulla (Cylichna) striata, Brown.
Hab. Found with the preceding species (Feilden).

Onchidiopsis grcenlandica, Bergh.

Hab. Franklin Pierce Bay, 13-15 fms., stony bottom
(Hart).

It is interesting to find this curious species, which was
described by Bergh from South Greenland specimens, rang-
ing so far north as the above locality.

Eolis salmonacea, Couthouy.

Hab. Discovery Bay (Feilden).

A single small specimen of this very pretty animal was
found at the above spot. It is remarkable how easily the
dorsal branchiae fall off with the slightest touch.

III. CONCHIFERA.

Tellina (Macoma) tenera, Leach.
Hab. Discovery Bay, 5 fms. (Feilden).

230 APPENDIX. No. V.

Lyonsia arenosa, Moller.
Hob. Discovery Bay, 5 fms. (Feilderi).

Cardium islandicum. Linn.
Hob. Dobbin Bay, 30 fms. (Hart).

Axinus Gouldii? Philippi.

Hob. Discovery Bay 5^ fms. (Feilden).

The shells associated with this species differ somewhat
from the description given by Grould in having, besides ' the
widened groove,' a lanceolate depression or posterior lunule
which extends from the umbones down the dorsal slope. It
is also very similar to A. croulinensis, Jeffreys.

Nucula inflata, Hancock.
Hob. Discovery Bay, 5J fms. (Feilden).

Leda pernula, Miiller.
Hob. Discovery Bay, 5-^ fms. (Feilden).

Leda minuta, var., Fabricius.

Hob. Eichardson Bay, 80° 2' N. lat., 70 fms. (Feilden).
The specimens from the above locality have the transverse
costse rather finer than is usual.

Leda truncata. Brown.

/

Hah. Discovery Bay, 5 fms. (Feilden).
In a young example of this species the posterior beak is
scarcely observable.

Astarte semisulcata^ Leach.

Hob. Dumbell Harbour (Feilden) ; Discovery Bay, 5
fms. (Feilden and Hart).

No. V. MOLLUSCA. 231

The blackness of the epidermis in A. lactea is due, I
think, to the specimens having been collected when dead ;
for all the shells with this kind of dark epidermis are old and
worn, and evidently have been untenanted by the living animal
for some time.

Astarte striata, Leach.
Hab. Franklin Pierce Bay, 1 5 fms. (Feilden and Hart).

Astarte fabula, Eeeve.

Hab. Dumbell Harbour and Discovery Bay (Feilden).

This species may be recognised by the peculiar ribbing
near the umbones. In this region the ribs are more strongly
developed than on the rest of the surface of the valve, and
are not produced quite to the margins, so that in looking at
the shell with the umbones towards the eye the dorsal areas
appear comparatively smooth.

? Astarte Warehami, Hancock.

Hab. Franklin Pierce Bay, 1 3-1 5 fms., bottom stony
(Hart); Eichardson Bay, 80° 2' N. lat., 70 fms. (Feilden).

I do not feel quite sure of tha accuracy of the identifica-
tion of the specimens before me. They differ slightly in form
from Hancock's figure, being less elliptical by reason of the
anterior end being less produced ; but with regard to the ribs
and epidermis they agree exactly with the author's excellent
description — the former being 'fine, close, regular,' and the
latter pale greenish yellow. These shells, in shape, can cer-
tainly be matched with some specimens of A. striata, and do
not appear to vary in any thing except the difference of
colour of the epidermis, which in the latter species is brown
or olive-brown. This species is considered the same as
A. fabula by Jeffreys.

232 APPENDIX. No. V.

My a truncata, Linn.

Hob. Discovery Bay, 5 and 25 fms. (Hart and Feilden) ;
Dobbin Bay, 30 fms. (Hart).

All the specimens from these localities have the posterior
marginal slopes directed inwards or towards the base of the
shell, which peculiarity is characteristic of the variety ud-
devalensis. One shell is remarkable on account of the
abruptness of the truncation and its narrowness, the width
being only 6 millims. more than the length (30 millims.)

Saxicava arctica, Linn.

Hob. Discovery Bay, 5 fms. (Feilden) ; Franklin Pierce
Bay (Hart and Feilden) ; Dobbin Bay, 30 fms. (Hart).

Some specimens from Franklin Pierce Bay are remarkable
on account of their great solidity, the depth and distinctness
of the muscular scars, and the purplish brown colour which
stains both the inside and exterior of the valves.

Modiolaria Icevigata, Gray.

Hob. Franklin Pierce Bay, 15 fms. (Feilden and Hart).

This species is considered by some authors a variety of the
British M. discors. There are, however, certain differences
in form, colour, and sculpture which appear to me sufficient
to distinguish the two species. The present is a larger
species, transversely more elongate and proportionally nar-
rower, the difference in width of the anterior and posterior
ends being less marked. The striae on the hinder area, in
adult specimens, are distinct only towards the umbones, and
gradually become obsolete towards the margin of the valves,
which, on this account, are smooth and not denticulated
within as in discors. The epidermis of Icevigata is brown on
the greater portion of the shell, becoming pale olive or
brownish green towards the umbones.

No. V. MOLLUSC A. 233

Pecten (Pseudamusium) grcenlandicus, Sowerby.

Hab. Off Cape Louis Napoleon, 25 fms. ; Hayes Point,
35 fms. (Feilden) ; Discovery Bay, 5 J fms. (Feilden and
Hart).

IV. BKACHIOPODA.

Ehynconella psittacea, Chemnitz.

Hab. 'Franklin Pierce Bay, 15 fms.; Cape Frazer, 80
fms. ; Cape Napoleon, 25 fms.' (Feilden).

234 APPENDIX. No. VI.

No. VI.

INSECTA AND ARACHNIDA.
BY ROBERT MCLACHLAN, F.R.S., F.L.S. &c.

WITH the consent of the Council of the Royal Society, all the
Arthropoda (excepting the Crustacea) were placed in my
hands for working out. These were principally collected by
Captain H. W. Feilden, the Naturalist of the 'Alert;' but in-
teresting forms also resulted from the researches of Mr. Hart,
who occupied a similar position on board the ' Discovery.' A
detailed Report on these collections was read by me at
the meeting of the Linnaean Society on December 15, 1877.
In that Report I made some justly merited eulogistic re-
marks on the entomological labours of the naturalists. The
materials brought home from between the parallels of 78°
and 83° N. latitude showed quite unexpected, and in some
respects astonishing, results.

In all there are about 45 species of true Insecta, and
1 6 of Arachnida. Of the former 5 pertain to Hymenoptera,
1 to Coleoptera, 13 to Lepidoptera, 15 to Diptera, 1 to
Hemiptera, 7 to Mallophaga, and 3 to Collembola. Of the
Arachnida 6 are true spiders, and about 10 are mites.

In this Report I was assisted by Baron von Osten-Sacken,
who examined the Diptera, by the Rev. 0. Pickard Cam-
bridge, who worked out the spiders, and by Mr. Andrew
Murray, who attended to the mites.

I have no hesitation in saying that the most valuable
of all the zoological collections are those belonging to the

No. VI. INSECTA. 235

entomological section, because these latter prove the exist-
ence of a comparatively rich insect fauna, and even of several
species of showy butterflies, in very high latitudes.

INSECTA.
HYMENOPTERA.

JBombus balteatus, Daldborn.

„ polaris, Curtis.

Ichneumon erythromelas, McLachlan, n. sp.
Cryptus arcticus, Schiodte ?
Microgaster sp. ? (parasitic on Dasychira ; cocoons only).

The Hymenoptera comprise two species of humble-bees
(Bombi\ and three parasitic forms that no doubt infest the
Iarva3 of Lepidoptera. The bees frequented the flowers of a
Pedicularis, and may perhaps be instrumental in effecting
the fertilisation of that plant.

COLEOPTEEA.

Quedius fulgidus, Erichson.

The only species of Coleoptera is represented by one
example of the brachelytrous Quedius fulgidus from Dis-
covery Bay, a very widely distributed insect, . common in
Britain. The paucity of insects of this order is inexplicable.

LEPIDOPTERA.

Colias Hecla, Lef., var. glacialis, McLach.
Argynnis polaris, Boisd.

„ Chariclea, Schneider (several forms).
Chrysophanus phlosas, L., var. Fettdeni, McLach.
Lyctena Aquilo, Boisd.
Dasychira grcenlandica, Wocke.
Mamestra (?) Fettdeni, McLach., n. sp.
Plusia parilu, Hiibn.
Psycophora Sabini, Kirby.
Scoparia gelida, McLach., n. sp.
Penthina sp. ?
Mixodia sp. ?

? (Fain. Tortricidte, but utterly worn).

236 APPENDIX. No. VI.

The Lepidoptera form the most remarkable feature. Five
of them (included in nearly 40 examples) are butterflies of
genera such as one might expect to meet with on a summer-
day's walk in England. One of these latter is a variety of
Colias Heda, a brightly coloured ' clouded yellow,' the typical
form of which is a known boreal insect, but which neverthe-
less would hardly have been expected from so far north.
There are two species of Argynnis (' Fritillaries ') : A. polaris
(of which two examples were also found at ' Polaris ' Bay by
the naturalist of the American expedition, and were the first
butterflies brought from extreme high latitudes), and A.
Charidea, the numerous examples of the latter running into
endless varieties, so that it is almost impossible to say if all
really pertain to this species. There are three examples of a
pretty little Chrysophanus (' copper '), which appears to be
a rather striking form (Feildeni) of our familiar C. phlceas.
Also one example of Lyccena Aquilo (a ' blue '), a known
Arctic insect, which is perhaps scarcely more than a form of
L. orbitulus of the Alps of Europe. A peculiar smoky-looking
Bombyx is Dasychira groenlandica, having a large hairy
larva not much unlike that of a tiger-moth, but with the
hairs arranged in tufts on the back : this larva was found
abundantly almost up to the highest point reached. There
are two Noctuce, one of which appears to be new. One
species of Geometridce, described by Curtis in the Insecta of
Eoss' voyage as Psychophora Sabini. A new species of
Scoparia, and three species of Tortri-cidce, the latter single
examples not in very good condition. Captain Feilden
assures me that, in the short summer, butterflies are on the
wing any time during the twenty-four hours, supposing the
sun's face be not obscured. One month in each year is the
longest period in which they can appear in the perfect state, and
six weeks is the period in each year in which phytophagous
larvae can feed ; so it appears probable that more than one
season is necessary, in most cases, for their full development,
and this may partially account for the great variability often
exhibited in Arctic insects.

No. VI. TNSECTA. 237

DlPTERA.

j Zett.

Chironomus polaris, Kirby (and about three other species).
Sciara sp. ?

Trichocera regelationis, L.
Tipula arctica, Curtis.

Tacliina hirta, Curtis ? (and about two others).
Pyrellia cadaverina, L.
Anthomyia sp. ?
Scatophaga sp. ?

Among the Diptera there is nothing of any special im-
portance. The most striking is a 'daddy-long-legs ' (Tipula
arctica), well known as an Arctic species. Of the others
there are Culicidce (gnats), Trichocera (' winter-gnat,' but
appearing there after midsummer), Chironomi (plume gnats),
and familiar-looking flies which appeared when offal was
thrown away, or the carcase of an animal lay on the ground.

HEMIPTERA (ANOPLURA).
Hematopinus trichechi, Boheman.

The only so-called Hemipterous insect is a louse (Hema-
topinus trichechi) that infests the walrus ; found in the
axillae and other parts where the skin is soft. This was
originally described from Spitsbergen.

MALLOPHAGA.

Docoplwrus ceUebrachys, Nitzsch (and two others).
Nirmus cmgulatuSj Burm.

„ ph&onotus, Nitzsch.
Colpocephalumj sp. ?
Menopon gonophaum, Burm. var. ?

The Mallophaga (bird-lice) are rather numerous in
individuals, some of them probably new species, others already
familiar. These of course are carried hither and thither by
their hosts.

238 APPENDIX. No. VI.

COLLEMBOLA.

Isotoma JBessellsii, Packard ?
Podura hyperborea, Boheman ?
Lipura sp. ?

Of the Collembola two are familiar-looking species, often
found on the surface of the snow (as in the Alps, &c.), and,
from their habits of springing in short leaps, known as snow-
fleas.

ARACHNIDA.
ARANEIDEA.

Tegenaria detestabilis, Cambridge, n. sp.
Erigone psycrophila, Thorell.

„ provocans, Cambridge; n. sp.

„ vexatrixj Cambridge, n. sp.
Lycosa glacialis, Thorell.
Tarantula exasperans, Cambridge, n. sp.

There appeared to be several new forms among the spiders,
whereas others were already known.

ACAKIDEA.

Bdella, two or three species.

Srirus, one species.

Hydrachna, probably two species.

Eylais, one species.

Oribata, probably two species.

Damans, one species.

Dermaleichus, one species.

The Acari (or mites) present representatives of almost
all the families, including the water-mites and the peculiar
group parasitic upon birds.

It must be remembered that only about 80 species of
insects have been observed in Greenland, although nearly a
100 years ago the fauna of the lower portion of that country
was worked out by the Danish missionary Otto Fabricius.
Iceland has over 300 species, Spitsbergen comparatively few,

No. VI. mSECTA. 239

and no butterfly is known from either. Thus we see that
Grinnell Land, ice-bound and ice-covered as it is for all but
a short period in each year, possesses an insect fauna that
cannot be styled otherwise than remarkable, and which in
butterflies is probably richer than Greenland.

The aspect of the fauna is decidedly what has been termed
' Scandinavian,' but I regard the representatives as the
remnants of a once more extensive Arctic fauna, which came
in, or was developed, after the close of the warm Miocene
period, and culminated before the glacial epoch ; and in this
am disposed to agree with the late Edward Forbes in a theory
advanced in 1846, in an attempt to account for the geological
relations of the fauna and flora of the British Isles, and
which has been accepted by many leading naturalists and
geologists. According to this theory, the common origin of
the existing Alpine and Arctic flora and fauna is explained.
When the glacial period ceased, plants and animals began to
move northward ; some found a congenial home on the top of
high mountains, and established the existing Alpine flora and
fauna, whereas others reached the home of their ancestors in
the Arctic regions. During the long period that has elapsed
since those times, scarcely any modification in Arctic and
Alpine forms has taken place in some cases ; in others, in
which the divergence is greater, evolution will account for it.

240 APPENDIX. No. VII.

No. VII.
CRUSTACEA,

BY EDWARD J. MIERS, F.L.S., F.Z.S.

With NOTES ON THE COPEPODA, by the Kev. A. M. Norman, M.A. ; and
ON THE OSTRACODA, by George Brady, M.D., F.L.S.

THE following account of the Crustacea is confined to the
species collected between lat. 78° and 84° N.

The most northerly species collected is Anonyx nugax,
one of the commonest and most abundantly distributed of
the Arctic Amphipoda. Of this species several examples
were collected by Commander Markham and Lieutenant Parr,
at 83° 19' N. lat., in May 1876, at a depth of 72 fathoms.
The next most northerly species, the well-known Hippolyte
aculeata, was found on the shore of Dumbell Harbour, in
lat. 82 ° 30' N.

The following are the principal stations at which Crustacea
were collected by the naturalists on board the ' Alert ' and
6 Discovery.'

Floeberg Beach, the winter quarters of H.M.S. ' Alert,' in
82° 27' N. lat.

Discovery Bay, winter quarters of the ' Discovery,' in
81° 41' N. lat.

Cape Frazer, Grinnell Land, in 79° 44' N. lat.

Dobbin Bay, Grinnell Land, in 79° 40' N. lat.

Cape Louis Napoleon, in lat. 79° 38' N.

Franklin Pierce Bay, in 79° 29' N. lat

A small collection of Crustacea made by Dr. A. C. Horner,
while on board the yacht ' Pandora,' which has been placed
in my hands for examination, contains only two species col-
lected north of lat. 78°, i.e. three specimens of Atylus cari-

CRUSTACEA.

PI. IL.

2f

E Turck del.

Sampson Low, Marston.& C'

Mintern Br o • i

CRUSTACEA

PI. IIL

E.Turck del.

LondLon; Sampson Low Marston.

Muitem Bro

No. VII. CRUSTACEA. 241

natus, and four very small specimens of an Amphipoda
perhaps belonging to the genus Pherusa. Both these species
were collected at a depth of 7 fathoms, on a clay bottom, in
Pandora Harbour, Smith Sound, in lat. 78° 17' N.

Since my Report was published,1 to which I must refer
for synonymical references, descriptive remarks, and notes on
the geographical distribution of the species, a small collec-
tion has been sent me by Dr. Edward L. Moss, R. N., late
surgeon of H.M.S. * Alert,' containing a few Amphipoda,
Arcturus, and Nymphon. and free-swimming Copepoda.
The Copepoda were entrusted to the Rev. A. M. Norman for
determination; the other species had all been obtained by
Captain Feilden and Mr. Hart, the naturalists of the Expe-
dition. To render the list of species complete, as regards the
Crustacea inhabiting Smith Sound and the adjacent coasts,
a few species, obtained by Dr. Hayes north of lat. 78°. and
recorded by Stimpson ('P. Ac. N. Sci. Phil.' 1863), have
been intercalated in the text and are placed within brackets.

DECAPODA.
CRANGONIDJE.
Cheraphilus boreas, Phipps.

Discovery Bay, lat. 81° 44' (both males and females), at
depth of 25 fathoms ; Cape Napoleon, one male example,
at 25 fathoms; Franklin Pierce Bay, one female, at 15
fathoms : temperature of water 290<oO.

Stimpson records specimens collected by Dr. Hayes at Port
Foulke and Littleton Island.

Sabinea septemcarinata, Sabine.

Discovery Bay, 25 fathoms, abundantly, both males and
females ; Cape Napoleon, 25 fathoms, three specimens, males.

Dobbin Bay, at a depth of 30 fathoms, one specimen, a
female with ova.

' Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.' xx. pp. 52-66, 96-110 (1877).

VOL. II. K

242 APPENDIX. No. VII,

Hippolyte Gaimardii^ Milne Edwards.

Franklin Pierce Bay, 13-15 fathoms, one female speci
men.

Specimens were collected by Dr. Hayes at Port Foulke.

Hippolyte spinus, Sowerby.
Discovery Bay, 5 specimens, at 25 fathoms.

Hippolyte turgida, Kroyer.

Discovery Bay, 25 fathoms, one specimen.
Franklin Pierce Bay, one specimen, female with ova.
Cape Frazer, 20 fathoms, one female example.
Port Foulke (Dr. Hayes).

Hippolyte Phippsii ? Kroyer.

Cape Frazer, 20 fathoms, one specimen.
Port Foulke (Dr. Hayes).

Hippolyte polaris, Sabine.

Discovery Bay, 25 fathoms, abundant ; Cape Napoleon,
five specimens ; Franklin Pierce Bay. 1 5 fathoms, several
specimens.

Dobbin Bay, 30 fathoms, one specimen.

Port Foulke and Littleton Island (Dr. Hayes).

%

Hippolyte borealis, Owen.

Discovery Bay, at 25 fathoms, several specimens ; Cape
Napoleon, at 25 fathoms, two specimens.

Franklin Pierce Bay, 13-15 fathoms, several specimens ;
Dobbin Bay, 30 fathoms, one specimen.

Littleton Island (Dr. Hayes).

No. VII. CRUSTACEA. 243

Hippolyte groenlandica, J. C. Fabricius.

Dumbell Harbour, lat. 82° 30', one female specimen.
Franklin Pierce Bay, 13-15 fathoms, one male specimen.

STOMATOPODA.

MlSIDyE.

Mysis oculata, 0. Fabricius.

Cape Napoleon, 25 fathoms (temperature of water
29° 2').

The single specimen collected is in a very much mutilated
condition.

Brought by Dr. Hayes from Port Foulke.

ISOPODA.

Arcturus baffini, Sabine.

Cape Napoleon, at 25 fathoms, two specimens, male and
female.

Dobbin Bay, 30 fathoms, one male and one female ;
Franklin Pierce Bay, 13-15 fathoms, four males and three
females, and many young.

A single specimen was collected, with many of the variety
I have designated Feildeni, by Dr. Moss, on the ice foot a
mile north of H.M.S. ' Alert's ' winter-quarters.

Var. Feildeni (Miers), PI. II. fig. 1.

This variety is distinguished by the absence of spines on
the head and segments of the body.

Floeberg beach, 82° 27' N. lat., very abundant, males,
females, and young.

B 2 -

244 APPENDIX. No. VII.

Gyge hippolytes, Kroyer.

Discovery Bay (on Hippolyte polar is), one male and one
female specimen.

Dr. Hayes collected this species at Port Foulke.

Phryxus abdominal/is, Kroyer.

Discovery Bay, male and female, on Hippolyte polaris ;
Cape Napoleon, male and female, on H. polaris.

Franklin Pierce Bay, 13-15 fathoms, five males and five
females.

Munnopsis typica, Sars.

Cape Napoleon, two male specimens at a depth of 25
fathoms, temperature of the water 29°*2 ; at 50 fathoms one
male specimen.

Cape Frazer, 20 fathoms, one female specimen.

AMPHIPODA.
Anonyx nugax, Phipps.

Floeberg Beach, at 10 fathoms, male and females; fire-
hole at lat. 82 24' ; and at lat. 83° 19' at 72 fathoms.
Winter-quarters of H.M.S. ' Discovery,' at 1 1 fathoms.
Brought from Grale Point by Dr. Hayes.

Anonyx gulosu*, Kroyer. PL II. fig. 2.

Discovery Bay, 11 fathoms, three specimens.

I have referred these specimens with some doubt to the
Anonyx gulosus of Kroyer, as the antero-lateral margin
of the head is less broadly rounded, and the accessory flagel-
lum is longer than that of A. gulosus according to Boeck's
diagnosis. In the form of the first and second pairs of legs
and of the terminal segment they agree well with the de-
scriptions of A. gulosus, and particularly in the presence of
a tooth on the inner margin of the dactyl, which is mentioned

No. VII. CRUSTACEA. 245

by Lilljeborg as characteristic of that species. From A.
pumilus they differ in the shorter antennae, and in the
absence of a tooth on the posterior margin of the fifth post-
abdominal segment.

Onesimus Ediuardsii, Kroyer. PL II. fig. 3.

Discovery Bay at 5J fathoms, lat. 81° 44', one speci-
men; Floeberg Beach, at 10 fathoms, males and females,
abundantly.

Atylus carinatus, J. C. Fabricius.

Discovery Bay, at depths of 5J and 25 fathoms, several
specimens of both sexes were collected.

Acanthozone hystrix, Owen.

Discovery Bay, one specimen ; Franklin Pierce Bay, five
specimens.

Halirages fulvocinctus, Sars.

Discovery Bay, at 25 fathoms, one specimen ; Floeberg
Beach, one specimen.

Both of the specimens collected are in an imperfect condi-
tion : one is, I believe, an adult female ; the other is a younger
animal.

Specimens collected at Littleton Island by Dr. Hayes
were described by the late Dr. Stimpson as new, under the
name of Pherusa tricuspis.

Gammarus locusta, Linn.

Floeberg Beach, at depth of 10 fathoms, twenty-five
specimens ; crack between the floes in lat. 82° 24', three
specimens.

Port Foulke (Dr. Hayes).

Gammaracanthus loricatus, Sabine.

Floeberg Beach, at 10 fathoms, two males and two fe-
males.

246 APPENDIX. No. VII.

Amaihitta pinguis, Kroyer.

Crack between floes at lat. 82° 24' ; one specimen, in im-
perfect condition.

Eusirus cuspidatus, Kroyer.

Franklin Pierce Bay, 13—15 fathoms, one female speci-
men.

Tritropis aculeata, Lepechin.

Discovery Bay, at 25 fathoms, one male, four females ;
Cape Napoleon, at 25 fathoms, three males, seven females ;
Floeberg Beach, at 1 0 fathoms, two males, five females ;
Franklin Pierce Bay, at 15 fathoms, many specimens.

Cape Frazer, 20 fathoms, three young females (?) ;
Dobbin Bay, at 30 fathoms, one female.

\_Themisto libellula, Mandt.
Cape Faraday, in the stomach of a seal (Dr. Hayes).]

jEgina spinosissima, Stimpson.

Cape Napoleon, 25 fathoms, temperature of water 29°'2.
one small male specimen.

Dobbin Bay, 30 fathoms, one large male specimen.

ENTOMOSTRACA v. GNATHOPODA.

PHYLLOPODA.
BRANCHIPODID^E.

Branchipus (Branchinecta) arcticus, Verrill. PI. III.

fig. 1.

Discovery Bay, in a small freshwater lake and in a stream
under ice.

No. VII. CRUSTACEA. 247

Several specimens were collected, including males and
females, of a species of Phyllopoda, which I refer to the B.
arcticus of Verrill.

These specimens differ slightly from the descriptions of
B. arcticus and groenlandicus, as will appear from my
description.1 If distinct (which may be possible, although
I think it more probable that the three forms are varieties
of one and the same species), the species may be designated
B. Verrilli.

COPEPODA PARASITICA.

Lernceopoda arcturi, Miers, sp. n. PL III. fig. 2.

This species, as will appear from the description, differs
from its nearest ally, the L. Edwardsii, Olsson, in the some-
what shorter ovaries and abdomen, and the form of the claw
of the first maxilliped. The L. Edwardsii is known to me
only from the description.

Floeberg Beach, parasitic on the gills of Salmo arctiirus
Othr.

Lernceopoda elongata, Grant.

Port Foulke (Dr. Hayes).]

[Hcemobaphes cyclopterina, Fabricius.

Littleton Island ; attached to the gills of Gymnetes viri-
dis (Dr Hayes).]

CIRRIPEDIA.

BALANIDJS.

Balanus porcatus, Da Costa.

Cape Napoleon, from a depth of 50 fathoms, five speci-
1 Op. cit.

248 APPENDIX. No. VII.

mens ; 25 fathoms, two specimens ; Eichardson Bay, 80° 2'
N. lat., 70 fathoms, one specimen.

Franklin Pierce Bay, 13-15 fathoms.

\_Balanus balanoides, Linn.
Port Foulke (Dr Hayes).]

PYONOGONIDA.
NYMPHONID^E.
? Nymphon hirtum, J. C. Fabricius.

Franklin Pierce Bay, eight specimens; Discovery Bay,
one specimen ; Floeberg Beach, at depth of 10 fathoms, two
specimens. •

Nymphon hirtum,v&Y. obtusidigitum (Miers), PL III. fig. 3.

Among the specimens from Franklin Pierce Bay is a
single example, which differs from the males of the foregoing
variety only in the legs being cylindrical, not dilated and
compressed, and in the form of the chelae of the mandibles.
These have the fingers arcuate, meeting only at the tips,
which terminate in small knobs. The chelae are slender,
not globose, as in the form figured by Bell, in Belcher,
6 Last of the Arctic Voyages,' p. 409, pi. xxxv. fig. 4, under
the name of N. robustum, and that recently described by
Heller as N. hians (' Sitz. der k.-k. Akad. ; ' Wien., 6 Naturw.'
Ixxi. p. 610, 1875), in which species the fingers although
arcuate are represented as acute.

Nymphon Stromii (Kroyer).

Floeberg Beach, lat. 82° 27', at depth of 10 fathoms,

three specimens, and at lat. 81° 56', one specimen; Cape

Frazer, at a depth of 80 fathoms, bottom hard, one adult
and three young specimens.

No. VII. CRUSTACEA. 249

NOTES ON THE OCEANIC COPEPODA.
BY THE REV. A. M. NORMAN, M.A.

THE Copepodous Crustacea, though for the most part of
very small size, and apparently insignificant, are nevertheless
indirectly of no small consequence to mankind, inasmuch as
they make up for their minuteness by their extraordinary
productiveness and numbers, and constitute, in combination
with the Mysidea and larval forms of higher Crustacea, a
principal element in the food of the whale.

The oceanic species have not hitherto had that amount of
attention paid to them which they undoubtedly deserve, yet
Kroyer, Lubbock, Baird, and Buchholz have examined and
described many forms which inhabit the Arctic seas.

Unfortunately the number of specimens brought home by
the Arctic Expedition is very small, and, with the exception
of a bottle of surface-gathering from Baffin's Bay, which
contains an interesting series of some well-known forms, the
species are represented only by one, or at the most two speci-
mens, and these already mounted. In this condition it is
almost impossible to determine accurately those minute
details of structure in the mouth and other organs, which
are absolutely essential to the correct definition of generic
and specific characters. At the same time, the conditions
under which the Copepoda were found, the extreme high
latitude, and the extraordinary amount of cold which
prevailed at the surface while these animals still remained
living in the dead of winter beneath the mass of superincum-
bent ice, render them so interesting that I am unwilling to
leave them wholly unnoticed, though the description which I
shall be able to give must of necessity be extremely imperfect.

That the Copepodous Crustacea are able to exist under
circumstances, with respect to cold, which are most extra-

250 APPENDIX. No. VII.

ordinary has long* been known. Otho F. Miiller froze indi-
viduals of Cyclops quadricornis in a glass vessel, and when
fully frozen continued the cold for four and twenty hours.
He then placed the vessel in a warm bath, and watched the
effect. For four and twenty hours the Crustacea which had
been frozen showed no signs of life ; the next morning,
however, to his surprise he found the greater part of them
restored to life and swimming about as before congelation.
It is a well-known fact also that the life of the eggs of Ostra-
coda and Cladocera can be maintained for many months,
when ponds have been completely dried up in the summer
months, or frozen to their very bottom in mid-winter.

In the extremely cold winter of 1859 and 1860 I insti-
tuted some experiments for the purpose of finding how far
life could be maintained, under extraordinarily trying con-
ditions, among the lower orders of the Crustacea. The water
of the lake in Hardwicke Park, in the parish of Sedgefield,
had in the month of October been let off so as to drain
large mud-flats on the shelving sides, in order that the weeds,
exposed by this means to the influence of the frost during the
winter months, might be destroyed. The severest cold of
which we have record ensued for five weeks. From the
seventeenth day of December the mud-flats were continuously
frozen into a solid block, and the frost on Christmas Eve
reached five degrees below zero, Fahr. On the conclusion of
the frost a portion of this mud was procured, and, yet further
to test the vitality of the eggs embedded in it, the mud was
thoroughly dried. On March 1 1 a small portion of the mud
was placed in a glass jar of water and exposed to a genial
temperature. A few days afterwards Daphnia rotunda,
Sida crystallina, Diaptomus castor, and Cyclops quadri-
cornis, together with some Eotifera, were swimming about
merrily in the vessel.

It is no surprise therefore to us to meet with these minute
Crustacea in mid-winter in the Arctic Sea, though the fact is
of importance as bearing upon the supply of food existing
during the winter months for the Greenland whales.

No. VTI. CRUSTACEA 251

A towing-net gathering from Baffin's Bay, lat. 73° 33' N.,
long. 76° 59' W., made September 16, 1876, the water at the
temperature of 34°*4, contains numerous specimens of
Metridina (Metridia) armata^ Boeck.1 This species has
been described by Professor Brady from the Irish coast under
the name of Paracalanus hibernicus,2 and I am indebted to
him for the opportunity of comparing these Irish specimens
(since synonymised by him with Boeck's genus) with those
of the Arctic Sea. They agree in every respect except per-
haps that the terminal spines of the swimming feet are
longer in proportion to the joint from which they spring
in the Arctic than they are in specimens from the warmer
seas. With respect to size we find here, as in so many
other instances among the .Invertebrata, an extraordinary
development of the Arctic specimens, which are at least six
times the size of those from the Irish coast, and measure
five millimetres in length, exclusive of the antennae. It is
quite possible that this genus may prove to be synonymous
with Pleuromma of Glaus ; but if that be so, the mature male
of Metridina armata has not yet been observed, and the
males which Professor Brady and myself have examined must
be considered as immature, and not yet to have attained the
full development of those limbs which specially characterise
the male sex. Glaus has named his genus ' Pleuromma, '
to indicate the presence of an eye, which he describes and
figures as situated ' penes maxillipedum posticorum basin.'
It is not a little remarkable that, attached to the maxilliped
of one of the specimens of Metridina armata procured by
Dr. Moss, is a group of parasitic organisms, each of which
is in the form of a little globular body supported on a pedicel
of greater or less length. Sufficient cannot be made out of
the organic structure of these parasites to determine the
class of animals to which they should be referred. They are

1 Boeck's genus is Metridia. I have slightly changed the termination
to Metridina in order to avoid confusion with Metridium of Oken, of
which our well-known sea-anemone (Actinoloba dicmthus) is the type.

2 < Ann. Nat. Hist./ S. iv. Vol. xii. p. 126, PI. viii. fig. 1-3.

252 APPENDIX. No. VII.

extremely small ; but we find semigiobular bodies of larger size
figured in one of Kroyer's plates (' Voyages en Scandinavie,'
&c., PL xli. fig. 2, e, f ), as attached in one case to the ventral,
and in the other to the dorsal, surface of Calanus hyper-
boreus. It may be that these are the more mature forms of
the parasites now observed on Metridina armata. Now, if
the young of such a parasite were attached to the base instead
of to the extremity of the maxilliped, it might very possibly
be mistaken for an organ of vision. I feel great hesitation in
even hinting at this possibility, knowing the extreme accuracy
of Glaus' observations ; but the mistake — if a mistake has
been made — is one which any observer might easily fall into,
more especially since organs, presumed to be supplemental
organs of sight, are not unknown among other orders of the
Crustacea (Thysanopodd), attached to the segments of the
body.

In this same gathering were large numbers of Calani,
the examination of which has cost me no small amount of
labour. I must take another opportunity of giving the
grounds on which the conclusions I have arrived at are based.
It will suffice now to state that I believe that the whole of
these specimens are referable to Calanus Finmarchicus,
Gunner, better known to British naturalists under the name
of Cetochilus septentrionalis, Groodsir, and that Calanus
magnus, elegans and borealis of Lubbock, and numerous
other so-called species, are merely states and conditions re-
sulting from differences of the sex and age of our old friend.
The very great development in size of the Arctic examples
as compared with the British, which results in the young
immature forms of the former surpassing in size the fully
developed individuals of the latter, has tended much to
render the confusion greater.

A mounted specimen collected by Captain Feilden near
the same spot is referable to the same species which was also
procured by Dr. Moss in the summer months at the winter
quarters of the ' Alert,' lat. 82° 27' N.

Two very interesting gatherings were made by Dr. Moss

No. VII. CRUSTACEA. 253

from water drawn, in mid-winter, from under the ice-floes
at the winter quarters of the ' Alert,' lat. 82° 27'. There are
three species, unfortunately two of them represented only by
a single specimen, which being mounted prevents the possi-
bility of full examination ; the first of these is a form closely
resembling apparently our Idya fureata (Baird), but differs
manifestly in the form of the last legs, which are ovate
instead of produced and linear, as in the just-mentioned
species ; this new form may be named Idya palceocrystica.

The next species is remarkable on account of the nume-
rous long setae of the anterior antennae, which are not longer
than the cephalo-thorax, and also the very long setae of the
swimming feet ; it is possibly a Dias, and may be called
Dias (?) Mossi.

The last I doubtfully refer to the genus Pseudocalanus
of Boeck, and it may be named P. Feildeni.

NOTES ON THE OSTRACODA.
BY GEORGE STEWARDSON BRADY, M.D., F.L.S.

1 . Mud from ravine, Repulse Bay, Hall's Land ; 1 50 feet
elevation, lat. 82° 10' N.

Cytheropteron montrosiense, Brady, Crosskey and
Robertson.

2. Mud from Fiord Valley, lat, 82° 8' N. ; 200 feet eleva-
tion, from valves of shells.

Cf/pris curvctta, nov. sp.

3. Mud-beds, Cave Ravine ; 100 feet elevation. Lat. 82°
32'N.

254 APPENDIX. No. VTI.

Cy there globulifera, Brady.

4. Franklin Pierce Bay, 13-15 fathoms, lat. 79° 25' N.

Cy there costata, Brady.
Xestoleberis aurantia, Baird.
Cytherura undata, Sars.
Selerochilus contortus, Norman.

5. Off Victoria Head, Bache Island, 35 fathoms.

Cythere leioderma, Norman.

„ tuberculata, Sars.
Cytheridea punctillata, Brady.
Cytherura clathrata, Sars.
Cytheropteron montrosiense, B., C. and K.

6. Hayes Point, 35 fathoms.

Cythere Logani, Brady and Crosskey.

7. Cape Frazer, 50-80 fathoms.

Cythere leioderma, Norman.
„ gibbosa, B. and E.
„ concinna, Jones.
„ globulifera, Brady.
Cytheridea punctillata, Brady.

„ sorbyana, Jones.
Cytherura concentrica, B., C. and R.
Cytheropteron nodosum, var. Brady.
„ pyramidale, Brady.

„ septentrionale, nov. sp.

„ montrosiense, B., C. and R.

8. Smith Sound, off Brevoort Island, 210 fathoms, lat.
78° 57' N.

Cythere costata, Brady.
Cytherura similis, Sars.

No. VH. CRUSTACEA. 255

9. Sounding. 6 fathoms. Lat, 82° 27' N.

Cytheropteron montrosiense, B., C. and R.

10. Sand from Floeberg Beach. Lat. 82° 29' N.

Cythere cribrosa, B., C. and R.

Respecting this list, all that it is needful here to observe is
the general similarity of the fauna to that of the Post-tertiary
glacial beds of Scotland, and also, of course, to that of the
North British seas, e.g. Shetland and the Northern Hebrides.
Two species appear to be undescribed, but all the rest are
well known as glacial fossils. Considering the small amount
of material obtained, the number of species — twenty-one — is
large, and would seem to denote a very considerable develop-
ment of minute crustacean life in the sea-bed of these
remote regions.

256

APPENDIX.

No. VII.

I.

II.

III.

BracJiyura . .
Anomura . .
Macrura
Stomatopoda
Cumacea

3
1
11

6

7

6
1

2

9
1

4

39

21

12

PJiyllopoda
Ostracoda,
Copepoda
Cirripedia
Pycnogonida

3
34
2
4
3

1

1
3

1
21
5

1
2

Total

113

36

56

The foregoing Table exhibits (I.) the number of species obtained
during the ' Valorous' cruise on the west coast of Greenland and in
Davis Strait ; (II.) the number mentioned by Buchholz as occurring on
the south and west coasts of Greenland ; (III.) the number obtained by
the British Arctic Expedition north of lat 78° N. in Smith Sound and on
the coasts of Grinnell Land.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
PLATE II.

Fig. 1. Arcturus laffimf var. Feildem ; natural size.

Fig. 2. Anonyx gtdosus?, slightly enlarged: a, head and antennae (lateral
view) ; b, maxilliped ; c, d, hands of first and second pairs of
legs ; e, end of postabdomen, showing the form of the third
segment; /, terminal segment and last pair of uropoda; all
much enlarged.

Fig. 3. Onesimus Edwardsii, slightly enlarged : a, head and antennae
(lateral view) ; &, maxilliped ; c, d, hands of first and second
pairs of legs ; e, end of postabdomen, showing form of third
segment (lateral view) : f, terminal segment and last two pairs
of uropoda ; all much enlarged.

PLATE III.

Fig. 1. Branchipus (Branchinectd) arcticus, greatly enlarged : a, one of
the large prehensile antennae ; b, one of the branchial feet ;
c, caudal appendages ; all still further enlarged.

Fig. 2. Lernceopoda arcturi, greatly enlarged ; a, outer antennae ; 6, first
maxilliped ; further enlarged.

Fig. 3. Nymphon hirtum, var. obtusidigitum, natural size : a, mandible ;
b, c, one of the appendages of the first and second pairs ; en-
larged.

No. VIII. ANNELIDA. 257

No. VIII.

ANNELIDA.
BY W. C. MclNTOSH, M.D., F.R.S.

CAPTAIN FEILDEN, one of the naturalists of the recent Arctic
Expedition under Sir Greorge Nares, placed in my hands a
small collection of Annelids dredged between latitudes 79°
and 82° 30' N.

The majority of the species represented in this collection
have a very wide range in northern waters, many being
common to the British seas and the shores of the North
Atlantic generally, and on the American side stretching from
the Gulf of St. Lawrence northward to the Polar ice beyond
Smith Sound. With two exceptions all the species occur in
the seas of Spitsbergen, and one of them is Icelandic, while
the second is a somewhat doubtful form.

In the account recently published by Dr. E. Marenzeller,
of the annelids procured by the Austro-Hungarian North
Polar Expedition under Lieutenants Weyprecht and Payer,
27 species are mentioned, of these no less than 18 do not
occur in the following list ; but no further weight should be
put on this than is warranted by the fact that only a few of
the abundant forms which possess a wide circumpolar range
have been obtained in either case. Many of the 18, indeed,
occur on the Canadian coast, and run northwards to Davis
Strait ; on the other hand, about half the species procured in
the "English Expedition do not appear in the Austro-Hungarian
collection, made between latitudes 74° and 79° N.

VOL. II. s

258 APPENDIX. No. VIII.

POLYOH^TA.

POLYNOID^E.

Nychia cirrosa, Pall.
Eunoa (Erstedii, Malmgren.
Eunoa nodosa, Sars.
Lagisca rarispina, Sars.
Harmathoe imbricata, L.
Antinoe Sarsii, Kbg.

PHYLLODOCID^:.
Phyllodoce grcenlandica, (Ersted.

STLLID^E.
Autolytus longisetosus, CErsted.

NEREID^E.

Nereis zonctta, Malmgren.

LuMBRINEREIDvE.

Lumbriconereis fragilis, 0. F. Miiller.

SCALIBREGMID^E.

Eumenia crassa, (Ersted.

i HALELMINTHID^:.
Capitella capitata, Fabr.

AMPHICTENID^:.
Cistenides granulata, L.

AMPHARETID^E.
"Amphicteis Sundevalli, Malmgren.

TEREBELLID^E.

Scione lobata, Malmgren.
Axionice flexuosa, Grrube.
Thelepus circinnatus, Fabr.

No. VIII. ANNELIDA. 259

SABELLID^E.

Sabella Spetsbergensis, Malmgren.

Euchone analis, Kroyer.

Chone infundibuliformis, Kroyer.

OLIGOCILETA.

Clitellio arenarius, 0. F. Mull.
GEPHYREA.

Priapulus caudatus, Link.

CILETOGNATHA.

Sagitta bipunctata, Quoy and Graimard.

I am indebted to Dr. E. L. Moss (late surgeon H.M.S.
; Alert '), who served with the Arctic Expedition, for the
notice and determination of this Sagitta. He informs me
that it was common in Melville Bay and Smith Sound. The
most northern specimens were captured by him in Bessels'
Bay, lat. 81° 7r N. [This species has a very extensive range
from the British shores northward, southward and westward.]

260 APPENDIX. No. IX.

No, IX.

ECHINODERMATA.i

BY PROF. P. MARTIN DUNCAN, M.B., LOND., F.R.S.,
PRES. GBOL. Soc.

AND

W. PERCY SLADEN, ESQ., F.G.S., F.L.S., ETC.

I~THE Echinodermata collected in Smith Sound and at the
winter-quarters of H.M.SS. 6 Alert ' and 6 Discovery ' were
obtained by the naturalists of the expedition, Capt. H. W.
Feilden, and Mr. Hart, under the superintendence of Capt.
Sir Greorge Nares, K.N., F.R.S., under no small difficulty.
Apart from the trouble of dredging when the tangles froze on
coming out of the sea, the proceeding could not be frequently
attempted ; yet the number of specimens collected was con-
siderable. The collection, consisting of specimens admirably
cleaned and preserved in spirit, and of others equally well
taken care of in the dry state, was sent to the British
Museum. Dr. GKinther confided it to me for description
and classification ; and after I had determined the species, I
asked Mr. Percy Sladen, F.Gr.S., F.L.S., to examine the
forms independently and to join me in drawing up this re-
port. Our results were nearly the same ; but to my col-
league is due the new species of Asteracantkion. Dr.
Carpenter was good enough to examine and determine the
two species of Comatula. I am very glad to have this
opportunity of thanking Capt. Feilden for his assistance in

1 Abridged from ' Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.' 1877, pp. 449-470.

No. IX. ECHINODERMATA. 261

giving information regarding the depth, temperatures, and
localities relating to the specimens.

The collection is so interesting and the specimens are so
variable, that we propose to describe it fully in a separate
monograph. — P. MARTIN DUNCAN.]

Localities. — To avoid repetition, the following are the
positions of the collecting-stations in Grinnell Land men-
tioned in this report : —

Floeberg Beach (the winter-quarters of H.M.S. ' Alert '),
lat. 82° 27' N., long. 61° 42' W.

Discovery Bay (the winter-quarters of H.M.S. ' Discovery '),
lat. 81° 41' N., long. 64° 45' W.

Kichardson Bay, lat. 80° 5' N.

Cape Frazer, lat. 79° 44' N.

Hayes Point, lat. 79° 42' N.

Dobbin Bay, lat. 79° 40' N.

Cape Louis Napoleon, lat. 79° 38' N.

Franklin Pierce Bay, lat. 79° 25' N.

Although the present Eeport is chiefly confined to a de-
scription of the Echinoderms obtained north of lat. 78° N., it
has been thought desirable and interesting to include the
record of a dredging made by Capt. Feilden during the
outward voyage, on July 2, 1875, in lat. 65° N. The station
was 26 miles from the Greenland coast, and the depth 30
fathoms ; bottom rocky, with rounded pebbles. The following
Asteroids and Ophiurans were taken here : — Asteracanthion
polaris, M. & T. ; Solaster endeca (Linn.), Forbes ; Ophio-
glypha robusta (Ayr.), Lym. ; Ophioglypha Stuwitzii
(Liitk.), Lym. ; Ophiopholis bellis (Linck), Lym.

List of the Echinoderms collected during the Arctic
Expedition of 1875-76.

HOLOTHUROIDEA.

Cucumaria frondosa (G-unn.), Forbes.

ECHINOIDEA.

Strongylocentrotus drdbachiensis (0. F. M.), A. Ag.

262 APPENDIX. No. IX

i

ASTEROIDEA.

Asteracanthion grcenlandicus, Stp.

- polaris, M. & T.
palceocrystallus, nobis.

Stichaster albulus (Stimps.), Verrill.
Crossaster papposus (Linck), M. & T.
Solaster endeca (Linn.), Forbes.

furcifer, v. Dub. & Kor.

Pteraster militaris (0. F. M.), M. & T

OPHIUBOIDEA.

Ophioglypha Sarsii (Liitk.), Lym.

robusta (Ayr.), Lym.

Stuwitzii (Liitk.), Lym.

Ophiocten sericeum (Forb.), Ljungm.
Ophiopholis bellis (Linck), Lym.
Amphiura Holbolli, Liitk.
Ophiacantha spinulosa, M. & T.
Astrophyton arcticum (Leach).

CRINOIDEA.

Antedon Eschrichtii (Miill.).
celtica (Barrett).

HOLOTHUROIDEA.

Cucumaria frondosa (Grunner.), Forbes.

Coll. Feilden : Baffin's Bay.

A Cucumaria witb smooth tough body, of subpentagonal
ovate form. Ambulacral suckers arranged in five longitu-
dinal series, each being a double row, with the tube feet
alternating. Suckers capable of entire retraction. Tentacles
ten, pedunculate, frondose, all of equal size.

This Holothurian has a very extensive geographical dis-
tribution, being chronicled by Forbes, under the name of C.

No. IX. ECHINODERMATA. 263

fucicolaffiom Assistance Bay (Capt. Penny's voyage), and
by Stimpson from Grand Manan in the Bay of Fundy. It is
found also on the coast of Massachusetts, Gulf of Georgia
(Salenka), San Francisco (Ayres), along the whole Scandi-
navian coast, Iceland, Fa3roe Islands, and in the English
Channel.

(7. frondosa attains great dimensions, the present indivi-
dual (one specimen only was obtained) being but small ; its
length is 80 millims., and diameter about 50 millims.

ECHINOIDEA.
Strongylocentrotus drobachiensis (Miiller), A. Ag.

Coll. Feilden: Eichardson Bay, 70 fms. (young); Frank-
lin Pierce Bay, 15 fms., bottom-temperature 29°*5 F. ;
Cape Napoleon ; Hayes Point, 35 fms., bottom-temperature
29°-5 F.

Coll. Hart: Discovery Bay, 15-20 fms., muddy bottom;
Franklin Pierce Bay, 13-15 fms., stony.

Owing to the extensive range of this boreal echinoid, the
variations to which it is subject are so great that there are
perhaps few other species which include in their synonymy
so large a number of modern determinations. Distant observers,
depending upon the stability of ' local forms,' have founded
numerous so-called new species, all of which have hitherto,
however, proved untenable when due comparison has come to
be made with a large series of specimens.

The northern varieties, known as 8. granulatus (Say),
Gould, and 8. chlorocentrotus, Brandt, fail to present any
characters of sufficient importance to warrant their separation
from the drobachiensis group, although when isolated and
extreme examples are compared the differences at first sight
appear very marked.

Similarly with the specimens collected by the recent Ex-
pedition, separate individuals placed by the side of a single
8. drobachiensis from a more southern habitat present
superficially a striking divergence.

264 APPENDIX. No. IX.

Of these Arctic forms the test is depressed, the* spines of
the abactinal surface so small (merely miliaries) and so
widely spaced that the echinus has quite a naked appearance.
The pores are arranged in arcs of 5-6. The primary tubercles
are large, only one to each plate, and form prominent vertical
rows. The scrobicular areas are wide and bounded by an
irregular circlet of tubercles little larger than miliaries ; and
there are but few other tubercles in addition to these on the
plates above the ambitus. Extending from the actinostome
to the ambitus there is a moderate-sized secondary tubercle
on each side of the primary.

All the specimens present the appearance of stunted
growth.

The colour of the test is a varying shade of purplish
brown, and that of the spines greenish grey.

On some examples the pedicellarise are remarkably nu-
merous, especially the large tridactyle form on the abactinal
surface.

Grood series of specimens were obtained at several stations,
and in general facies present great constancy of character.

The largest individual (from Cape Napoleon) measures
43 millims. in diameter, 21 millims. in height, and has
20 primary interambulacral tubercles.

ASTEROIDEA.

Asteracanthion gronlandicus, Steenstrup.

Coll. Feiiden : Discovery Bay, 25 fms. ; Cape Frazer,
80 fms. ; Hayes Point, 25 fms. ; Franklin Pierce Bay,
15 fms.

Coll. Hart : Franklin Pierce Bay, 1 3—1 5 fms., stony.

This is a small starfish, with five moderately thick
arms. Proportion of disk-radius to arm-radius 1 : 4*5 or 5.
Ambulacral spines rather long and cylindrical, arranged (in
very irregular alternation) two and one to each plate. The
double spines radiate in opposite directions, the single ones
standing vertical to the floor of the furrow. Except in

No. IX. ECHINODEUMATA. 265

young individuals, and near the tip of the arm, the double
series are the most numerous, being generally borne by two
or three plates in succession. After these follow two or three
(according to age) longitudinal series of separate spines, not
quite so long as the ambulacral spines, and tapering slightly
at their tips. The middle series, when present, are smaller
than the others, and placed midway upon the lateral imbri-
cating pieces. At the base of each of the spines of these
three series is a circlet of pedicellarise. The ossicles and
interspaces of the calcareous network on the abactinal surface
of the rays present a very transversely elongate arrangement,
in consequence of which the spinelets springing from the im-
bricating pieces assume the character (though irregularly) of
a transverse position across the arm. The dorsal spinelets,
which are much finer and shorter than the ventro-lateral
series, are arranged in groups upon the ossicles, and in speci-
mens preserved in spirit are more than half-covered by the
thick corrugated skin which invests the body. The pedicel-
larise are, as a rule, not very numerous upon the dorsal
surface. The papulae are single. Upon the disk the spine-
lets are more closely placed ; and this, in spirit-examples,
gives quite a distinct appearance to that portion of the
animal, whilst in some specimens the disk-spinelets .are
rather longer than those which are found upon the rays.

Dr. Liitken is of opinion that this is the species cited by
Forbes under the name of Uraster violaceus, from Assistance
Bay (Capt. Penny's Expedition).1 It seems probable to us,
also, that the Asterias violacea, in Sabine's Keport on
Parry's voyage, is likewise A. gronlandicus, since the Asterias
rubens, Fab. (non Linne), also there mentioned, is referable
to A. polaris, M. & T.

Asteracanthion polaris, Miiller and Troschel.

Some large specimens were taken on the Torske Bank,
Greenland, on the outward journey ; and several young

1 < Vidensk. Meddel. 1857, Overs. Gronl. Echin.' p. 20.

266 APPENDIX. No. IX.

examples occurred in Capt. Feilden's dredging in lat. 65° N.,
26 miles from the Greenland coast, at a depth of 30. fathoms.

Asteracanthion palceocrystallus, n. sp.

In general appearance this starfish bears a strong resem-
blance to a Cribrella*, the rays, five in number, being round
and tumid ; they are long and taper considerably towards the
point. The disk is small, its diameter being proportional to
that of the rays as 1 : 5 -5. Skin semitransparent, not corru-
gated, and investing thickly every appendage of the body.
Ambulacral pores well spaced, forming two simple rows of
sucker-feet, as in Stichaster. Each interambulacral plate
bears two very slender spines, which form two regular rows,
one radiating towards the furrow, the other to the margin.
The spines upon the sides of the arms are much shorter than
the ambulacral spines, and comparatively more robust, and
are the same in size and character as the spinelets of the
dorsal surface. The ossicles of the abactinal network are
arranged more quadrilaterally than is usual in Asteracanthion',
a regular median line passes down each ray, the others run-
ning parallel and transverse to this with more or less regu-
larity. Only a single spinelet is given off at each decussation,
with an additional one, frequently, on the imbricating ossicle ;
the spinelets are consequently widely spaced and assume
(although somewhat irregularly) a fairly rectilineal arrange-
ment. The spinelets are of the same shape and structure as
in Stichaster ; they are deeply grooved, and have 3-5 denti-
cles proceeding from their truncate and slightly radiate apex.
The ambulacral spines have the shafts also denticulate. The
pedicellarise (6 croises,' Perrier) are more numerous upon the
dorsal surface than the spinelets, amongst which they are
placed separately and at intervals apart. These pedicellariae
are large and closely resemble those of Stichaster r, the fore
part of the 'jaw' being very gibbous and truncate. The
pedicellarige together with the dorsal spinelets, which are but
little longer, are covered with a thick investing membrane,

No. IX. ECHINODERMATA. 267

which, in spirit preparations, gives quite a papillate appear-
ance to the starfish.

Upon the disk the spines are somewhat more crowded than
upon the rays ; and the ' eye '-spines at the tip of the rays
form a robust terminal fringe. The madreporiform plate is
obscure ; and of the large simple pedicellariae there are but
very few.

Although this species resembles Stichaster in so many
respects, the arrangement of the dorsal ossicles is hardly such
as would include it within that genus. A. palceocrystallus
may fairly, however, be regarded as a connecting link between
Asteracanthion and Stichaster.

From the character of the ambulacral spines, the absence of
papulae, and the obscurity of the madreporiform body, we are
disposed to regard even the largest specimen we have as
being not yet fully developed : it measures 30 millims. in its
greatest diameter, and 5'5 millims. across the disk, and was
collected by Capt. Feilden in Discovery Bay. Depth 25
fathoms, hard bottom. Another individual from Cape Frazer
(80 fathoms) is only 10 millims. in greatest diameter, yet
presents all the characters of the larger specimen.

Stichaster albulus (Stimps.), Verrill.

Coll. Feilden: Franklin Pierce Bay, 15 fathoms; Proven,
13 fathoms.

A little starfish with small disk and rounded or somewhat
arched rays, the number of which is almost invariably six,
three rays on one side being, as a rule, very much shorter
than those on the other. Proportion of the diameter of the
disk to that of the arms 1 : 5 or rather more. The ambu-
lacral furrows are wide, with suckers arranged in two simple
rows. On each interambulacral plate are two ' ambulacral '
spines radiating slightly to the right and left. Closely succeeding
to those on the sides of the arms follow a series of three similar
spines, but not always a series opposite to each interambula-
cral plate, owing to the imbricating pieces being more widely

268 APPENDIX. No. IX.

spaced. The dorsal ossicles present a regular rectangular
arrangement ; and the interspaces, which are very small and
are occupied by a single papula, form, in consequence, regular
longitudinal and transverse rectilineal series. From each
intersection springs a small subquadrate group of from three
to five short dorsal spines, amongst which are placed one or
two pedicellarise. Towards the sides the pedicellariae are more
numerous. The spine groups are regularly disposed in longi-
tudinal and transverse lines, those of the middle row being
more densely packed than the others, thereby forming a more
or less distinct median line down each ray. The spinelets are
of equal length, and, being closely set, give a smooth velvety
appearance to the starfish. From the apices of the spinelets,
which are broader than the bases, proceed three or four small
denticles.

Only three specimens of this Stichaster were obtained in
Franklin Pierce Bay, and were quite young individuals, the
largest measuring 16 millims. in its largest diameter. A
much finer example was dredged at Proven on the outward
journey, in which the diameters of rays and disk were respec-
tively 30 millims. and 6 millims.

Crossaster papposus (Linck), Miiller and Troschel.1

Coll. Feilden : Discovery Bay, 25 fins., hard bottom ;
Cape Frazer, 80 fms. ; Franklin Pierce Bay, 15 frns., bottom-
temperature 29°-5 Fahr.

Coll. Hart: Franklin Pierce Bay, 13-15 fms.

1 The genus Solaster of Forbes included the two starfishes known as
Asterias endeca, Linn., and A. papposa, Fabr. (Linck). The morpholo-
gical differences of these forms are such, however, as to necessitate their
being regarded as representatives of two distinct genera. Confining, there-
fore, Forbes's Solaster to his own type (S. endeca), Miiller and Troschel's
genus Crossaster (synonym of Solaster, Forbes, published a year later) is
naturally assigned to the Asterias papposa type, Gray's designation Poly-
aster having been appropriated by Ehrenberg (Polyasterias) at an earlier
date. The propriety of the above limitation was suggested by Dr. Liit-
ken so far back as 1857. (Of. < Vidensk. Meddelelser,' 1857, p. 35.

No. IX. ECHINODERMATA. 269

In the c Oversigt over Grronlands Echinodermer,' ! Dr.
Liitken records that amongst the specimens of G. papposus
which he had examined there occurred only one example of
the ten-armed variety, those with twelve arms being the
most common.

All the specimens of this collection are ten-armed, with the
exception of one small and very young example having nine.
Its greatest diameter is only 18 millims.

When compared with series of similar size from more tem-
perate waters, the polar specimens are characterised by finer
arms, fewer spine-clusters (bearing fewer but very much
longer, spinelets), the spine-clusters more widely separated
from one another, and the ventral spaces almost naked.
These points are so striking in some individuals that at first
sight one is tempted to consider that we have here a well-
marked variety of this almost cosmopolitan starfish. Careful
study, however, of the series leads us to the conclusion that
no sound distinction can be drawn ; and we would offer as a sug-
gestion explanatory of the divergence, that in these Arctic
forms of Crossaster premature phases are more slowly passed
through, and that development of detail takes place in a dif-
ferent ratio to the body-growth from that which obtains
under more favourable conditions of life.

The largest specimen obtained measures 93 millims. in
diameter.

Brandt founded a species, Asterias affinis, upon a single
specimen obtained in Behring Straits, but which, from the
short description given, appears only to have been similar to
the specimens before us ; and, such being the case, the grounds
are not sufficient to warrant the maintenance of his species.
In all probability A. alboverrucosa, Brandt, is also identical.
A singular instance of the rapacity of this starfish may be
here related. The disk of one of the large individuals from
Discovery Bay being considerably distended, it was cut
open; and the distention was found to result from the
creature having gorged a young Strong 'ylocentrotus drobachi-

1 ' Vidensk. Meddelelser' for 1857, p. 40.

270 APPENDIX. No. IX.

ensis !, nothing but the clean calcareous plates of the test re-
maining. In the stomach of another (very much smaller)
specimen was found the shell of Trochus olivaceus, Brown
(kindly determined by Dr. Grwyn Jeffreys).

Solaster endeca (Linn.), Forbes.

One young specimen, 14 millims. in greatest diameter, was
dredged by Capt. Feilden in lat. 65° N., 26 miles from the
G reenland coast, at a depth of 30 fathoms.

Solaster furcifer, v. Diiben and Koren.

Coll. Feilden : Cape Frazer, 80 fms.

A starfish of somewhat depressed form, having five broad
flat arms. Proportion of disk-radius to length of arm 1 : 3.
The calcareous network of the dorsal surface is very regular ;
and the spine-clusters or paxillae, which spring from the inter-
sections, form longitudinal series which run parallel to the
median line of the ray ; consequently only two or three of the
middle series reach to the tip, although from fourteen to sixteen
may be counted at the base of the arm. The paxillse are
very compact and have a stout rounded base, nearly twice as
wide as high, bearing a crown of spinelets (about fifteen to
twenty) in length about equal to the diameter of the base.
The spinelets are, as a rule, flat ; and from the angles of the
apex, which is as broad as or broader than the base, proceed
two small denticles, giving the appearance to the spinelet of a
two-pronged fork ; sometimes the spinelet is triangular, in
which case there are three prongs. On the sides of the arms
are two rows of large paxillae or spine-clusters, the lower
series being twice the breadth of the upper ones, and these
themselves being much larger than the rest of the dorsal
paxillaB just described. There are about twenty large mar-
ginal paxillse from the arm-angle to the tip. Each interam-
bulacral plate bears three equal-sized spines, running parallel
to the furrow ; and exterior to these are three or four spines
webbed together into a ' comb ' and placed obliquely, or even

No. IX. ECHINODERMATA. 271

in some cases at right angles, to the ambulacral series ;
whilst midway between the combs and the margin of the
ray are three or four small spines (not sufficient to form a
paxilla proper), which stand quite isolated and only extend
about one third of the distance from the mouth to the tip of
the ray. The madreporiform tubercle is excentral and situated
at about one-third the distance from the centre to the margin
of the disk. The mouth-plates are large and broad, the mar-
ginal spines interlocking with one another.

Only two specimens were obtained by Captain Feilden, the
largest of which measures 65 millims. in its greatest diameter,
and 21 millims. across the disk ; the arms at the base are
13 millims. broad.

Pteraster militaris (0. F. M.), Miiller and Troschel.

Coll. Hart : Dobbin Bay, 30 fms.

This starfish is readily distinguished from its congeners
and the majority of other asteroids by the singular fin-like
margin surrounding the arms, by the membranous skin whicli
is spread over the upper surface, as well as by the series of
webbed spines which stand, in transverse ranges like fans, by
the side of the ambulacral furrow.

The form of the animal is pentagonal, the upper contour
of the body high and arched, and the underside flat. Propor-
tion of disk-radius to arm-radius 1:2. Each interambulacral
plate is furnished with five or six long spines, which are con-
nected together by a membrane into a webbed comb placed
transversely to the ambulacral furrow. The outward spine of
each comb is double the length of the others, and extends
about half its length beyond the edge of the ray. These long
spines are also united to one another by a connecting tissue,
and thus form the fin-like fringe which surrounds the entire
starfish. The ambulacral spines forming the fan-like comb
are nearly equal in length, the middle ones being slightly
longer.

The body-skeleton is composed of a calcareous network,

272 APPENDIX.

from each of the cross joinings of which proceeds a spine-
fasciculus bearing three or four spinelets. The whole dorsal
surface of the animal is covered and concealed by a mem-
branous tissue supported above the body, like a tent-cloth,
by the spinelets, to the tips of which it is attached. A
hollow infradermal cavity is thus formed. Neither the anus
nor the madreporiform tubercle has any special aperture in this
investing membrane ; there is, however, a single large-sized
opening, surrounded by a margin of spines, situated nearly
over the dorso-central axis. In and out of. this aperture Dr.
Stimpson has observed currents of water passing, as in the
cloaca of a Holothuria, from which fact he was led to regard
the functions of the cavity as subservient to respiration.1
MM. Koren and Danielssen, however, have pointed out that
this intermediate space between the double dorsal skin fulfils
a further and more important purpose by becoming a chamber
in which the development of the eggs and embryos takes
place. 2

Although our knowledge of marsupiation in Echinoderms
has recently been largely augmented by^ the additional in-
stances which Sir Wy ville Thomson records as occurring in
species from southern seas,3 it is most interesting to find
so special an adaptation for the purpose in this truly Arctic
asteroid.

Two specimens only were obtained, being dredged by Mr.
Hart in Dobbin Bay. They measure about 60 millims. in
their greatest diameter.

OPHIUROIDEA.

Ophioglypha Sarsii (Liitken), Lyman.
Coll. Feilden: Floeberg Beach, 10 fms. ; Discovery Bay,
25 fms. ; Hayes Point.

An Ophioglypha with mouth-shields shield-shaped, longer

1 Stimpson, < Marine Invertebrata of Grand Manan,' p. 15, in Smith-
sonian Contributions, vol. vi.

2 Koren and Danielssen, ' Fauna littoralis Norvegise,' Heft 2, p. 58.

3 Wyville Thomson, ' Journ. Linn. Soc.' vol. xiii* p. 55.

No. IX. ECHINODERMATA. 273

than broad ; length less than, or only equal to, their distance
from the margin of the disk. Papillae of the disk-incision
about fifteen, and rather broad. Under arm-plates widely
separate, of a very broad, short triangle-shape. Two tentacle-
scales. No infrabrachial indentations. Spines rather long,
equal in length to the side arm-plates.

This is the most northerly echinoderm brought home by the
Expedition, a fine specimen with a disk-diameter of 26 millims.
having been taken by Capt. Feilden at the winter-quarters
of H.M.S. ' Alert,' in N. lat. 82° 27'. Other examples of
this species were obtained at Discovery Bay, and among
them one which is provided with remarkably long arm-spines,
being in relative proportion fully twice the length of the
spines generally occurring in 0. Sarsii. In this individual
the three spines of the sixth joint measure respectively 2*45
millims., 2*25 millims., 1'4 millim. ; the under arm-plate
being *7 millim. long, the arm-joint 1 millim., and the disk-
diameter 15 millims. The remaining features of the specimen
agree too closely with the characters of 0. Sarsii (Liitk.), Lym.,
to warrant its removal, in our opinion, from that species, even
as a provisional variety.

In some cases great irregularity is exhibited in the mouth-
papillae, one abnormal example being particularly worthy of
notice. In the Ophioglyphce the innermost mouth-papilla
generally stands immediately over the teeth, and might be
easily mistaken for a tooth, being, in fact, affixed to the tooth-
plate and not to the lateral plates. In 0. Sarsii, as well as
in other members of* the genus, two additional papillae are
generally associated with it, one on either hand, and are in
like manner borne by the ossicle upon which the teeth are
placed.

In consequence of this arrangement it has long seemed
probable to one of us that these subdental papillae should be
regarded as tooth-papillae (of which they are in truth the
homologues) rather than as mouth-papillae, so-called, along
with which they are commonly counted. One of the speci-

VOL. II. T

274

APPENDIX.

No. IX.

mens taken in Discovery Bay throws considerable light upon
this question.

In this individual the dental armature consists of four teeth
regularly superposed, following upon which, and occupying the
.same breadth as a tooth, are three ossicles, which fit to one

another wedge wise with sloping
sides. Then come two which
fit together and correspond in
their shape with the irregu-
larities of the upper and under
tier, which latter consists of
from three to five compact
close-fitting papillae ; and these
again are succeeded by three
or four (in some rays five)
moderately long, round-tipped,
smaller papillae, the whole
forming a compact mass sug-
gestive, in the highest degree,
of ordinary tooth-papillae, such
as occur, for instance, in Ophio-
thrix ; and yet in every detail,
even to measurements, the specimen conforms to the diagnosis
of Ophioglypha Sarsii. This individual has a disk-diameter
of 22 millims.

Bearing in mind the tendency towards vertical redupli-
cation of the mouth-papillae in some genera, this cannot fail
to be regarded as suggestive of the manner in which primitive
tooth-papillae may have been developed ; nor is such an
assumption by any means extravagant when the great irregu-
larity of these parts amongst Arctic forms is taken into con-
sideration.

w.p.s

Abnormal development of the
dental armature in 0. Sarsii.

Ophioglypha robusta (Ayres), Lyman.

Coll. Feilden : Discovery Bay, 25 fms., hard bottom ;
Richardson Bay, 70 fms. ; Hayes Point, 3o fms., bottom tern-

No. IX. ECIHNODERMATA. 275

perature 29°*5, and also at 25 fms. ; Franklin Pierce Bay,
15 fms., bottom-temperature 25°-5.

Coll. Hart : c Winter-quarters,' Discovery Bay ; Franklin
Pierce Bay, 13-15 fms., bottom stony.

An Ophioglypha with arms very finely tapering, and disk
with regularly arranged scales of nearly equal size. Mouth-
shields ovate shield-shaped, length less than, or at most
only equal to, their breadth; length much less than the
distance from the margin of the disk. Papillae of the disk-
incision very short and stout, often grouped. Under arm-
plates broadly heart-shaped ; one tentacle-scale.

This species was obtained at various stations, as indicated
in the list of localities ; and though neither the abundance nor
the size of the specimens was remarkable, several good series
were collected. The characters which have been regarded as
6 specific ' are remarkably constant ; and no essential diffe-
rence can be traced between these Arctic forms and specimens
taken from the coast of Maine, U. S., with which they have
been compared, excepting that in the northern Ophiurans
the arm-spines are longer and somewhat more delicate, and
that the outer margin of the under arm-plates is more
arched and the re-entering angle is far less developed, in
certain specimens being even altogether untraceable. In some
large examples the upper arm-plates are very markedly
hexagonal.

Although this deviation is very constant, the foundation
of ' a variety ' on the strength of such characters alone is
hardly justifiable.

The arm-spines are moderately stout and tapering, the
upper one being flattened and much larger than the others.

In most of the specimens under present consideration, the
under arm- plates are well separated from one another by the
side plates and do not overlap, although in one individual
from Discovery Bay the first ten impinge distinctly in conse-
quence of their side arm- plates not meeting. This feature at
the basal portion of the arm has been noted by Dr. Liitken
as occurring in large specimens from Greenland, whilst he

T 2

276 APPENDIX. No. iX.

remarks at the same time that in none of the Danish examples
examined by him do the under arm-plates touch.

The largest specimen was taken by Capt. Feilden in
Franklin Pierce Bay, the diameter of the disk (dried) being
10 millims.

Ophioglypha Stuwitzii (Liitken), Lyman.

Two specimens were collected by Capt. Feilden in a
dredging made in lat. 65° N., twenty-six miles from the
Greenland coast, depth 30 fms.

Ophiocten sericeum (Forbes), Ljungman.

Coll. Feilden : Discovery Bay, 25 fms., hard bottom ;
Cape Frazer, 80 fms. ; Hayes Point, 35 fms., bottom-tem-
perature 29°-5.

Coll. Hart : Discovery Bay, 15-20 fms., muddy bottom,
also at 11 fms. ; Franklin Pierce Bay, 13-15 fins.

Disk very flat, with margin forming a sharp angle ;
covered with imbricating scales and a superficial squamo-
granular layer, through which only portions of the radial
shields and primary plates are visible. No disk-incisions,
the disk forming a little arch over the base of the arms. A
row of papillae edges the genital slit, and passes over the arm
along the disk-margin continuous with the series from the
other side. The first three, or sometimes four, upper arm-
plates at the base bear papillae. Side arm plates meet below,
but not above. One tentacle-scale. Three arm-spines,
arranged along the outer edge of the side arm-plate, the two
upper spines being much the largest.

The main variation which we have noted in the Arctic
specimens of this species consists in the greater length of the
arm-spines as compared with those of more southern examples.
In a specimen 9*2 millims. in disk-diameter the length of
the upper arm- spine of the sixth joint was 1*85 millim. (in
one case 2-3 millims. !) ; in another, with a diameter of disk
of 8-5 millims , the same spine was 1'8 millim. long, three

No. IX. ECI1INODERMATA. 277

arm-joints in this individual being exactly 2 millims. In
addition to the above, variations occur in the contour of the
mouth-shields, and in the larger examples considerable irregu-
larity is also found in the number and position of the mouth-
papillse. Amongst this collection are several specimens
having a very decidedly pentagonal form of disk.

In our opinion, none of the above variations can be
regarded as of greater morphological significance than growth-
phases, or at most individual variations only. The largest
specimen obtained was 11 millims. in disk-diameter.

Ophiopholis bellis (Linck), Lyman.

Coll. Feilden : lat. 65° N., 26 miles from Greenland coast,
30 fms.

Amphiura Holbolli, Liitken.1

Coll. Feilden : Franklin Pierce Bay, 15 fms., bottom-
temperature 29°-5 F.

An Amphiura with disk lobed ; radial shields long and
narrow ; mouth-shields rounded ; side mouth-shields large,
subtriangular, with the sides re-entering and angles rounded.
Three pairs of mouth-papillae, the middle ones placed higher
than the others. Under arm-plates pentagonal. One ten-
tacle-scale rounded ; arm-spines 3—4.

Only a single specimen of Amphiura was taken ; and
this, although it differs slightly from the type form in the
relative measurements of certain points of detail, we have
little hesitation in assigning to Dr. Liitken's species, the
variations, in our opinion, not being of greater importance
than such as we should regard as dependent on locality and
conditions of life.

The arms are less broad, and take their origin in a more

1 So much confusion has arisen in consequence of uncertainty as to th«
identity of the original application of the appellation O. Sundevalli, that
we prefer to retain Dr. Liitken's name, despite the example of certain
recent writers to the contrary..

278 APPENDIX. No. IX.

deeply re-entering curve of the disk-margin, the radial shields
are narrower, and the breadth of upper arm- plates in pro-
portion to their length is less than in the type forms, as the
following measurements will indicate : — Diameter of disk 8
millims. ; radial shield, length 1-3 millim., breadth -35
millim. ; sixth upper arm-plate, length '6 millim., breadth
•9 millim.

The spines are hollow cylinders, stout, blunt, and but
slightly tapering ; the upper spine on each side-plate tapers
most. The first fifteen arm-joints bear four spines, the suc-
ceeding joints three only.

An interesting feature connected with this specimen is
worthy of record, and is one which does not appear to have
been noted by previous observers. The central spines are
more or less flattened throughout their whole length ; and
at the tip compression has been carried to such a degree as
to form a thin and somewhat expanded head — a peculiarity
which is at once suggestive of a characteristic spine-appen-
dage possessed by A. filiformis ; and although in the specimen
under notice this structural feature is by no means so fully
developed as in that Ophiuran, it is still sufficiently marked
to impress upon the mind the near relationship of the two
species and the community of their descent — an hypothesis
which is also further strengthened by the association of both
the forms in more southern waters.

Ophiacantha spinulosa, Miiller and Troschel.

Coll. Feilden : Discovery Bay, 25 fms., hard bottom ; Cape
Frazer, 80 fms. ; Franklin Pierce Bay, 1 5 fms. Temperature
29°-5 Fahr.

Coll. Hart: Franklin Pierce Bay, 13-15 fms., bottom
stony.

An Ophiacantha with disk covered with small round scales,
each bearing a small short ,spinelet. Eadial shields very
obscure, sometimes quite covered. No disk-incision ; and the
dorsal membrane is prolonged over the base of the rays.
Mouth-shields twice as broad as long, irregular ovate. Side

No. IX. ECIIINODERMATA. 279

mouth-shields long, narrow, arched and meeting within.
Under arm-plates heptagonal or subheptagonal, breadth equal
to length. Dorsal arm-plates triangular. Side arm-plates
meeting above and below. Spines 7-8, long, thin, and
denticulate, placed on a keel.

A greater number of this Ophiuran have been brought
home by the Expedition than of any other Echinoderm. The
specimens range in size from those having a disk-diameter of
15 millims. to the young form of only 3 millims., and conse-
quently furnish a most instructive series.

The variations dependent on growth are very considerable,
so much so that isolated specimens taken from different stages
in the series might easily be regarded as affording the types
of distinct species.

Conclusive proof has been furnished by the material which
we have had at our disposal that the 0. gronlandica, M. and
T., and the 0. arctica, M. and T., are untenable species, as
Dr. Liitken has already pointed out — and, further, that the
characters which had hitherto been regarded as of specific
value are not, as that eminent authority seems to infer, even
variations such as can be regarded as dependent on distri-
bution, but must be considered simply the phases incidental
to age, together with ordinary individual variation.

Amongst the specimens procured by the naturalists of
H.M.SS. ' Alert ' and ' Discovery,' there are many presenting
features developed in a manner which might be regarded as
' ultraspecific ' when compared with the previously recog-.
nised modifications of this ' form.' In the present state of
knowledge, however, it seems preferable to comprehend them
under 0. spinulosa of Miiller and Troschel, rather than to
burden further the nomenclature with novel designations.

The mouth-shields and the under arm-plates in this
species are subject to very considerable changes and variation,
both in contour and in their relative proportions of length to
breadth. In large and adult specimens the number and
arrangement of the mouth-papillae is also irregular ; and not
only is there a frequent increase in number in the ordinal
horizontal series, but there is also a great tendency toward

280 APPENDIX. No. IX.

reduplication of certain papillae in the vertical axis of the
Ophiuran. This seems to arise from the longitudinal
cleavage of pre-existing papillae.

In young individuals the spinelets of the disk are pro-
portionally long, five or six times their own diameter, and
present all the appearances of ordinary embryonic spines.
During the process of growth, however, increase is made in
thickness only, so that when maturity is attained, and the
spinelets, along with the disk, are invested with the semi-
transparent leathery membrane of the body, the appearance
is more that of short stumpy prominences than of actual
spines — a deception which at first sight gives a totally
different character to the Ophiurans.

Astrophyton arcticum ( Leach), fide Smith.

This Astrophyton was dredged off West Greenland by
Mr. A. C. Horner, who accompanied Sir Allen Young in the
' Pandora,' at a depth of 600 fms. in Smith's Sound, lat.
78° 19' K, long. 74° 30' W. The present writers have not
seen this specimen, and are indebted for the information to
Mr. Edgar A. Smith, F.Z.S., of the British Museum, by
whom it has been determined and referred to Leach's species.
This is particularly interesting, as the original Gorgonoce-
phalus arcticus, Leach, was obtained by Sir John Eoss in
Baffin's Bay, lat. 73° 37' N., long. 77° 25' W., at a depth of
800 fms. This was one of the earliest instances of a living
organism being dredged from so great a depth.

CRINOIDEA.

Antedon Eschrichtii (Miiller) and Antedon celtica (Barrett).

Coll. Feilden : Discovery Bay, 25 fms., bottom hard.

The Comatulce were handed over to Dr. Carpenter for
determination ; and he has kindly informed us of the occur-
rence of the above-named species.

Conclusions.

It is clearly manifest that extreme caution should be
exercised in drawing conclusions as to the general character

No. IX.

ECHINODERMATA.

281

of a fauna, on the basis of such scanty material as it is pos-
sible for a single expedition to furnish ; and the authors feel
that the great hesitation which they have in expressing
definite opinion is fully warranted by the fact that considerable
additions have recently been made to the Echinifauna of
Northern-European waters, the details of which have not yet
been published ; and these investigations may, in all proba-
bility, have the result of going far towards rendering present
generalisations invalid.

Table shoiving the general Geographical Distribution of the various Species
above mentioned ; together with an Indication of those obtained by the
previous Arctic Explorers, Captains Parry and Penny.

1

TJ

!

.

.2

a

6

1

1

!

1

•S

OS

|

1

1

"C

5

o

1

1

1

1

»

*

*

*
*

Strongylocentrotus drobachiensis
Asteracantkion gronlandicus . .

*

. .

*

. .

*

*

*

*

9(1

Crossastcr papposus

*

*

*

Pteraster militaris

*

. .

*

*

*
*

OphioglypJia Sarsii

4

*?

*

Stutvitzii •

*

Opliiocten sericeum

*

. .

#

. .

•

f

^

*

*

OphiacantJia spinulosa

ft

*

#

Astrophyton arcticutn l . . .

. ..

«

Antedon JEschrichtH . .

9

cffltica . . ... . • . .

\

*

The following were not obtained by this expedition : —

*

*

Ctenodiscus crispatit*.

*

Cncumaria Hyndmani** C. Korenii, Ltk.

*

CMrodota brevis, Huxley, = Myriotrochus Rinkii, Stp.

*

Ophiura glacialis, Forbes.

This was dredged by Sir John Ross in 1818.

282 APPENDIX. No. IX.

Of these twenty Greenland and Grinnell Land Echino-
derms,

Fourteen are common to America and Europe ;

Three are known as American and not European ;

Two are known as European and not American ;

One now first recorded from Grinnell Land only.

Analysis similarly shows that fourteen out of the twenty
are Grinnell-Landic. And of these,

Eleven are common to America and Europe ;

Two are known as European and not American ;

One from Grinnell Land only.

Reasoning from present information, the writers are of
opinion that the character of the Echinifauna under con-
sideration is the effect of local modification acting upon a
great polar distribution rather than of intercontinental emi-
gration simply.

No. X. POLYZOA. 283

No. X.
POLYZOA.
BT GEORGE BUSK, F.R.S.

THE following list of the Polyzoa, collected on the late
Arctic Expedition in Smith Sound and northwards by
Captain H. W. Feilden, includes only about seventeen species.
All except three have already been described, and are well
known as high northern or Arctic forms. The three, which,
so far as I am able to ascertain, appear to be new to science,
are a species of Flustra, a minute species of Eschara,
and a third supposed new species, belonging to the sub-
order CTENOSTOMATA, represented unfortunately by such very
scanty and imperfect specimens, that I only venture to
propose it provisionally. And I may remark, with respect
to some of the other forms, that the specimens are so covered
with diatoms of numerous species as to be very difficult of
examination. The collection is interesting, as perhaps
giving the highest latitude, 82°. 27' N., with which I am
acquainted from which a Polyzoon has been procured.

Full descriptions and figures of the new forms will be pubr
lished, if allowed, in the ' Proceedings of the Linnean Society.'

SUBORDER I. CHEILOSTOMATA. BK.

Fam. 1. Cellular iadce. Bk.
Genus 1. Scrupocellaria. V. Ben.

].& scabra, V. B. (sp.)

Syn. Cettarina scabra, V. Ben. ' Bull. Brux.' tab. xv., p. 73, figs. 3-6.
„ Cellularia scabra (forma typica), Smitt, 'Ofver S. Skand. Hafs
Bryozoa,' 1867, pp. 283 and 314,. tab. xvii. fi«rs. 27-34.

284 APPENDIX. No. X.

Syn. CelMaria scrupea, Alder. 'Trans. Tynes Field Club/ vol. iii. 62. 148.
„ Scrupocellaria scrupea, Bk. ' Quart. Journ. M. Sc.' iii. p. 254 (non

aliter).
„ Scrupocellaria Detilii, Alder, ib. N. Ser. iv. p. 107, pi. iv. figs. 4-8 ;

P Bk. 1. c. xii. p. 65, pi. xxii. figs. 1-3.
„ Scrupocellaria scabra, Norman, ' On Rare British Polyzoa,' ' Q. J. M.

S.' viii. p. 214 ; Hincks., ' Polyzoa from Iceland and Labrador,' ' Ann.

N. Hist.' January 1877, p. 98.
„ ? Crisia Delttii, Andouin, * Savign.' pi. xii. fig. 3.

Hob. Franklin Pierce Bay. 79° 29' N. August 11, 1875,
13-15 fathoms. Stony bottom, H. W. F. ; Sir Edward
Belcher's ' Expedition ! ; ' Hamilton Inlet, Labrador, Wallich ;
Godhavn Harbour, Disco, 5-20 fathoms, Norman ; Sabine
Island, German ' Polar Expedition ' (teste Hincks) ; Parry's
Island, Spitsbergen, 61-50 fathoms, Smitt; Britain, Nor-
man ; Northumberland Coast, Alder ; Coast of Belgium,
V. Ben.

Genus 2. Menipea, Lamx.
1. M. gracilis, mihi.

Char. Zooecia much elongated, subtubular downwards.
Aperture oval, border slightly thickened ; usually a single
spine on the outer side above, and occasionally one on the
inner ; a broad arched gibbous entire operculum. Anterior
avicularium small, and only (?) on the median zooscium at a
bifurcation. Median zooecium not mucronate ; five to nine
cells in an internode. Polypide with twelve tentacles.

Syn. CelMaria ternata (forma gracili*), Smitt, 1. c. 1867, pp. 283-310,
pi. xvi. figs. 17-20, 23, 24 (non 21, 22), (excl. Synom.)

Hob. Franklin Pierce Bay, 79° 29' N., 13-15 fathoms,
H. W. F. ; Spitsbergen, 200 fathoms, Smitt.

Fam. 2. BICELLARIAD^E, Bk.
Gen. 1. Bugula, Oken.

1. J5. murrayana, Johnst. (sp.)

Syn. Flustra murrayana, Johnst. ^ Sars ; Daniel sen ; Packard.
„ Flabellaria spiralis, Gray.

No. X. POLYZOA. 285

Syn. Buffula murrayana, ' Brit. M. Cat.' p. 46, pi. lix., Smitt, 1. c. 1867,

pp. 291 and 348, tab. xviii. figs. 19-27.
„ Avicella multispina, V. Ben.

Hob. Franklin Pierce Bay, 79° 29' N., H. W. F. ; Hunde
or Hunes Islands, Davis Strait, Dr. Sutherland ; Holsteinborg
Harbour, Norman ; Iceland, Wallich (teste Hincks.) ; Orkney,
Lieutenant Thomas ; Shetland, E. Forbes ; Dublin Coast,
W. McCalla.

2 B. (var. ?)fruticosa, Packard.

Syn. ? Cellularia quadridentata, Loven, MS. 1834 (teste Smitt).
„ Buyuda murrayana (forma quadridentatci), Smitt, 1. c. pp. 292 and

351, tab. xviii. figs. 25-27.
„ Menipea fruticosa, Packard, 'List of Labrador Animals,' p. 9, pi. i.

fig. 3.
„ Bugula murrayana (v&r.fruticosa), Hincks, 1. c. p. 98; Norman,

4 Valorous Dredgings.'

Hab. Franklin Pierce Bay, 79° 29' N., H.W.F. ; Labrador,
Packard.

Fam. 3. MEMBRANIPORIDJE.
Gen. 1. Membranipora.

1. M. unicomis, Alder.

Syn. M. unicornis, Alder, ' Oat. Zooph. North, and Durham,' p. 66, pi.

viii. fig. 6.
„ M. lineata (forma unicornis, j3/3. stadium longius adidtuni), Smitt,

1. c. pp. 365-399, pi. xx. figs. 30, 31.
„ ? Reptoflu&trella americana, D'Orbigny.

Hab. Lat. 82° 27' N., H. W. F.; Hamilton Inlet, Labrador,
15 fathoms, Wallich!; Spitsbergen, 6—50 fathoms, and
boreal and Arctic seas generally, Smitt ; Coasts of Northum-
berland and Durham, Alder.

Fam. 4. FLUSTRID^E.

Gren. 1. Flustra.
1. Flustra serrulata, n. sp.

Char. Zoarium constituted of narrow, ligulate, bifurcated
branches slightly expanded at the ends; zocecia ovoid or

286 APPENDIX. No. X.

oblong, open in front except quite at the bottom, where
there is a very narrow calcareous expansion; border of
aperture finely serrated or beaded. Ooecia small, immersed.
Hab. Franklin Pierce Bay, 1 3 fathoms, H. W. F.

Fam. 5. ESCHARHLE.
Gen. 1. Myriozoum, Donati.

1. M. coarctatum, Sars (sp.)

Syn. Cdlepora coarctata, Sars, { Reise Lof. Finm.' p. 28.
„ Leieschara (Leiescharicf) coarctata, id. l N. Norsk Polyz.' p. 17.
•„ Myriozoum coarctatum and subgracile, Hincks, 1. c. p. 106; Smitt,

1. c. pp. 18 and 119.
„ Millepora truncata, Fabricius, 'Faun. Groenl.' p. 432 ; Packard, 1. c.

(teste Smitt).

„ ? Myriozoum subgracile, D'Orb., ' Pal. Franc.' p. 662.
„ Millepora truncata, (pars) Lamouroux j Pallas.

Hob. (var. subgracile.) Franklin Pierce Bay, Smith
Sound, 13-15 fathoms, H. W. F. ; Arctic Sea, Sir E. Belcher's
* Expedition ! ; ' South Labrador, Packard ; Newfoundland,
D'Orb.; Spitsbergen, 19-80 fathoms, Smitt; Greenland,
Moller and Torel, Holsteinborg Harbour, entrance of
Baffin's Bay, 175 fathoms; Norman, ' Valorous Dredgings;'
Iceland, 100 fathoms, Wallich (teste Hincks).

(Var. coarctatum.) Iceland, 100 fathoms, Wallich!;
Norway Strom, Sars, &c. ; Finmark, Loven, Sars.

Gen. 2. Eschara.
] . E. degantula, D'Orb.

Syn. E. degantula, D'Orb. (1851), 'Pal. Franc/ p. 102, Smitt, 1. c. 1867,
pp. 24 and 151, tab. xxvi. figs. 140-146, Norman, f Valorous
Dredgings.'

„ E. saccata, Bk. ' Ann. N. Hist.' Ser. 2, vol. xviii. p. 33, pi. i. fig. 1 ;
Sars, 1. c. 1862, p. 6.

Hab. Cape Napoleon, Cape Frazer, Franklin Pierce
Bay, H. W. F. ; Norway and Finland, McAndrew ; Spits-

No. X. .POLYZOA. 287

bergen, Greenland, Finmark, 30—60 fathoms, Torel, Loven,
Sars ; Newfoundland, D'Orb. ; Hare Island, Waigat Straits,
and Lat. 66° 59' N., 55° 27' W., 57 fathoms, Norman
(' Valorous Dredgings ').

2. E. perpusilla, n. sp.

Char. Zoarium diminutive, constituted of irregularly
forked branches rising from a short stem. Stem and lower
part of branches cylindrical, flattened towards the ends.
Zooecia fusiform, elongate; mouth looking directly up-
wards (horizontal) ; anterior lip tridentate, the median
denticle wide and expanding, the lateral pointed, xsonical.
Immediately in front of the median denticle an avicularium
about half the length of the zooecium, with a circular man-
dible which opens upwards and backwards.

Hab. Franklin Pierce Bay, Smith Sound; 13-15 fathoms,
H. W. F.

3. E. Sarsii, Smitt. (sp.)

Syn. Escharoides Sarsii, Smitt, 1. c. 1867, pp. 24 and 158, tab. xxvi. figs.

147-154.

„ Eschara rosacea, Sars, ' N. Norsk. Polyz.' p. 3 (non Busk).
„ Cellepora cervicornis (var.) Sars, f Reise Lof. Finm.' p. 28.

Hab. Franklin Pierce Bay, Smith Sound, 13 fathoms,
JL W. F. ; Spitsbergen, 20-60 fathoms, Smitt ; Greenland,
Moller and Torel; Finmark, 80-100 fathoms, Sars &c. ;
Arctic Sea, Sir E. Belcher's < Expedition ; ' in lat. 74° 0' S.,
172° 0' E., 330 fathoms, Hooker, ' Voyage of the " Erebus "
and " Terror." ' !

Gren. 3. Hemeschara.

1. H. sincera, Smitt. (sp.) (var. inermis).
Syn. Discopora sincera (forma Hemeschara), Smitt, 1. c. 1867, pp. 28 and

177, tab. xxvii. figs. 178-180.
„ Lepralia (Discopora') sincera, Hi neks, 1. c. p. 102.

Hab. Franklin Pierce Bay, Smith Sound, 13 fathoms
(on Cellepora cervicornis), H. W. F. ; Spitsbergen, 19-61
fathoms, Smitt; Finmark, Loven ; Arctic Sea? 100 fathoms,

288 APPENDIX. No. X.

Wallich ! ; Iceland, Wallich ( teste Hincks) ; Hare Island,
Waigat Strait, entrance of Baffin's Bay, 175 fathoms,
Norman.

Gen. 4. Lepralia, Johnst. (pars).
1. L. Landsborovii ? Johnst.

Syn. L. Landsborovii, Johnst. (pars); ? l Brit. M. Oat.' p. 66, pi. Ixxxvi. fig.
„ 1. Escarella Landsborovii (forma typica), Smitt, 1. c. 1867, pp. 12 and
94, tab. xxiv. figs. 60-62 (non cetera).

Hob* Cape Frazer, 80 fathoms, H. W. F. (on worm tube) ;
Spitsbergen, Smith ; Greenland, Copenhagen Museum (teste
Smitt).

Fam. 6. CELLEPORID^E.

Gen. 1. Cellepora, Fabr.

1. C. cervicornis, mihi (? Couch).

Syn. Cellepora cervicomis, Bk. ' Ann. N. Hist.' Ser. 2, -vol. xviii. p. 32,

pi. i. fig. 1.
„ Cellepora pumicosa, Sars, f Reise Lof. Finm. ; ' Danielssen (teste

Smitt).
„ Celleporaria incrassata, Smitt, 1. c. 1867, pp. 33 and 198, tab. xviii.

figs. 212-216 ; D'Orb. (pars) (non Lamarck).
„ Celleporaria surcularis, Packard (teste Smitt).

„ ? Cettepora coronopus, S. Wood, ' Cray Polyzoa,' p. 57, pi. ix. figs. 1-3.
„ „ incrassata, Hincks, 1. c. p. 105.

Hob. Cape Napoleon, Cape Frazer, H. W. F. ; Norway
and Finmark, McAndrew, Loven, &c. ; Spitsbergen and
Greenland (very abundant), 1 6-1 60 fathoms (clay and stone),
Smith ; Newfoundland, D'Orb. ; Crag (fossil), S. Wood ; in
lat. 66° 59' N. Ion. 55° 27' W. 57 fathoms Norman.

SUBORDER II. CTCLOSTOMATA.

Fam. 1. DIASTOPORHLE (Bk. 6Brit. N. Cat.' Part iii. p. 27).
Gen. 1. Mesenteripora. Blainv.

1. M. meandrina ? S. Wood (sp.)

Syn. Diastopera meandrina, S. Wood, l Ann. Nat. Hist.' xiii. p. 14.
„ Mesenteripora meandrina, Bk. l Crag Polyzoa,' p. 109, pi. xvii.
„ fig. 2 ; xviii. fig. 4 ; xx. fig. 2, Smitt, 1. c. 1866, pp. 398 and 432.

No. X. POLYZOA. 289

Syn. ? „ Eudesiana, M . Edw., * Sur les Crisie's/ &c. pi. xiv. fig. 1.

„ ? ,, compressa, D'Orb. 1. c. p. 756.

„ ? Ditaxia compressa, Hagenou, 'Bryoz. Maastr.' p. 50, pi. iv. fig. 10.

Hab. Franklin Pierce Bay, August 10, 1875; 15
fathoms, H. W. F. ; Greenland, 16-40 fathoms, Torel ;
? Coralline Crag (fossil), S. Wood.

Gen. 2. Tubulipora.

1. T. v&ntricosa, Bk.

Syn. Tubulipora ventricosa, Bk. ( Q. Journ. M. Sc.' iii. p. 256, pi. ii. figs.

3-4 ; 'Brit. M. Oat.' part iii. p. 26 ; pi. xxxii. fig. 4 (same figure).
„ ,, (subgenus Proboscina) incrassata (var. and forma

erectd), Smitt. 1. c. 1866, p. 402, tab. v. fig. 4.

Hab. Franklin Pierce Bay, August 11, 1875, 13-1
fathoms, H. W. F. ; Greenland (on Fucus), Dr. Sutherland.

SUBORDER III. CTENOSTOMATA.

Fam. 1. VESICUL ABIADJES.

Gen. 1 . Farella, Ehrenberg.

1. -F. arctica, n. sp. ?

Char. Zooecia in opposite pairs at very distant intervals,
Zooecia, largest 0- 06 x 0-013.

Hab. Franklin Pierce Bay, August 11, 1875. H. W. F.
The Ctenostomata are represented by this single species
parasitic upon Bugula fruticosa. The specimens, however,
are so few, and so much injured and overgrown by diatoms,
that it is with considerable difficulty that I have been able
to make out even the scanty diagnosis given above, which
must be regarded as provisional. The zocecia are very large,
reaching apparently an extreme length of 0' 12-1 3 inch by
0.06 inch in diameter. The Polypides have about twelve
tentacles and no gizzard, so far as appears in the bad state
of the specimens.

VOL. II. U

290

APPENDIX.

No. XI.

No. XL

HYDROZOA.
BY GEORGE J. ALLMAN, M.D., LL.D., P.R.S., ETC.

THE elegant little medusa here described was taken in the
towing-net by Captain Feilden in lat. 81° 44' N. It is re-

Fig. 1. Lateral view; magnified.

PTYCHOGASTRIA POLARIS.

markable among hydroid medusae by its lobed umbrella-
margin, which thus presents a character belonging to the

No. XI.

HYDROZOA.

291

discophorous rather than to the hydroid medusae, while the
folds, with their thickened, convoluted, and gland-like margin,
which run longitudinally along the inner surface of the

Fig. 2. Equatorial projection, magnified. This view is from below through the
widely open mouth, and shows the convoluted edges of the eight longitudinal
gastric folds.

Fig. 3. Natural size.

manubrium, constitute a very exceptional and striking cha-
racter.

The marginal lobes of the umbrella are in the form of
short truncated cones, each carrying several papilliform and

TT 2

292 APPENDIX. No. XI

probably extensile processes, and separated from its neighbour
by a deep notch. The condition of the specimen, whose
transparency was lost by its preservation in alcohol, rendered
it impossible to determine anything regarding lithocysts,
while my unwillingness to destroy a unique specimen has
rendered the determination of some other points of structure
not so complete as I could have wished. Each tentacle
corresponds to one of the notches which separate the marginal
lobes. The tentacles are manifestly very extensile, but are
easily detached, and had mostly fallen from the specimen.
They have the cavity divided into chambers by close septa,
and show a very distinct longitudinal fibrillation of thei?
walls. The velum is wide and strong. The eight radiating
canals with their large oval reproductive sacs are very distinct,
but the circular canal, in consequence of the opaque con-
dition of the specimen, was but faintly indicated.

The specimen appears to be a male.

There can be little doubt that Ptychogastria polaris is
the planoblast of some hydroid trophosome as yet unknown.

PTYCHOGASTRIA.

Gen. Char. Umbella hemispherical, with lobed margin
and filiform tentacles ; lithocysts ? ; velum broad ; manu-
brium short and wide, carrying a wide mouth with quadran-
gular lip ; inner walls of manubrium thrown into eight longi-
tudinal folds, along whose free edge runs a thick convoluted
gland-like chord ; radiating canals, eight ; reproductive sacs
oval, large, developed near the middle point of each radiating
canal.

Ptychogastria polaris.

Umbella about half an inch in diameter ; marginal
tentacles numerous (32 ?)

Captured in Discovery Bay. Captain Feilden.

No. XII. SPONGIDA. 293

No. XIL

SPONGIDA.i
BY H. J. CARTER, F.R.S., ETC.

THE collection of Sponges brought from Smith Sound by
the Arctic Expedition of 1875-6 consists of five species, one of
which, viz. the following, has hitherto not been described.

No. 1. Semisuberites arctica, n. sp.

Greneral form funnel-shaped, hollow, with a long round
stem, diminishing in size to the point of attachment ; mouth
subcircular, margin thick, round, undulating. Colour light
grey. Surface reticulate, even. Pores external, micro-
scopic ; vents internal, large, plentifully and uniformly
scattered over the inner surface of the funnel. Internal
structure loose, light, composed of acuate spicules united
together by sarcode into bundles which, crossing each other,
produce the usual areolated tissue of sponge. Spicules of
one kind only, viz. skeleton, but of two forms, viz. — 1, acuate,
slightly curved towards the large end, smooth, and gradually
diminishing towards the smaller one, which is rather abruptly
pointed; average largest size -^th by -j-gVo^ ^nc^ ^n ^s
greatest diameters : 2, the same, but with a slight subterminal
inflation. Size of largest specimen about 3 inches long by
If inch across the brim of the funnel.

Hob. Marine, Arctic regions. Growing singly or in
plurality on hard objects.

LOG. Smith Sound, Cape Napoleon, in 50 fathoms.

06s. There is much interest attaching to this sponge in
1 Abridged from 'Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.' 1877, pp. 38-42.

294 APPENDIX. No. XII.

many ways. First it is almost identical in elementary struc-
ture with Halichondria sanguined, Johnston (« Brit. Spong.'
1842, p. 133), originally described, with a figure of its
spicule, by Dr. Grant in 1826, under the name of Spongia
sanguined (' Edinb. Phil. Journ.' pi. cxxi., fig. 9), which,
together with his Sp. papillaris, are the two commonest
sponges on this coast (Budleigh-Salterton, Devon), where
they can be found at all tides in great abundance a little
below high-water mark. Secondly, Dr. Bowerbank, from the
orange colour and cork-like tissue of Halichondria sanguinea,
the tendency of its spicules to a pin-like form, and the fact
that, in one instance, he found the identical form of flesh-
spicule which characterises Vioa Johnstonii* Sdt., and (as I
hope soon to show) several other sponges of this kind (' Brit.
Spong.,' vol. i. pi. iii. fig. 72, p. 239), points out that both
Semisuberites arctica and Halichondria sanguined belong
to the family Suberitida, of which I also hope soon to give a
full account with all hitherto described species in its different
groups. Thirdly, a similar specimen of the same sponge, but
much larger, from Spitsbergen, was presented to the British
Museum by the Rev. A. E. Eaton in 1873.

No. 2. Halichondria panicea, Johnston.

With larger spicules than those of the common British
species, and histodermal coat like that of the deep-sea
(Atlantic) form.

Nos. 3, 4, and 5. Sycon raphanus, Sdt., Ute glabra, Sdt., and Leucoso-
lenia coriacea, Bk. These three are calcareous sponges.

In the mounted sand taken from the jar which contained
Semisuberites arctica are also present the remains of many
other sponges, viz. the perfected flesh-spicule of Melonanchora
elliptica ('Ann.' 1874, vol. xiv. p. 212, pi. xiii. fig. 9), the
larger spicule of Corticium abyssi (ib. 1873, vol. xii. p. 18,
pi. i. figs. 3-5), also large bihamates (fibulce), probably of
an Esperia, and many other spicules whose forms, although
different, do not characterise any sponge in particular.

No. XIII. FORAMIN1FERA. 295

No. .XIII.
RHIZOPOVA EETICULARIA.

FORAMINIFEEA.

BY HENRY B. BRADY, F.R.S., F.L.S.

ABOUT fifty samples of material were preserved, to be
examined for Microzoa and Microphyta. These were for the
most part soundings in depths of from 10 to 260 fathoms,
dust from ice-hummocks, or mud from beds of glacial deposit
of greater or less age. The Rhizopod-fauna of the mud-beds
requires no separate treatment, as it is practically identical
with that of the present sea-bottom of the same latitudes.

Many of the soundings were exceedingly small in quantity,
and after the washing required to rid them of impalpable
inorganic matter left scarcely any residue, but of the entire
number about forty furnished sufficient specimens to give a
general, if not an exhaustive, idea of their constituent
organisms. In some cases the close proximity of several
soundings, and their similar depth, permitted the treatment
of two or three together, or at least the incorporation of the
results in one list, and in a few instances the quantity of
material was not sufficient to show adequately the nature of
the sea-bottom ; but after condensation as described, and the
omission of those furnishing defective data, there remained
sufficient basis for the construction of a distribution-table
comprising twenty-four localities. The table represents fairly
the salient features of the Foraminifera-fauna of an area
lying between the entrance of Smith Sound in lat. 73° N. or
thereabouts and the most northerly point attained by the

296 APPENDIX. No. XIII.

Expedition, namely lat. 83° 19' N. This, considering the few
opportunities for sounding, and the difficulties under which
material was obtained, may be regarded as very satisfactory —
the more so because whatever facts are derived from specimens
procured between the latitudes named are distinct accessions
to our knowledge, no previous observations of the same sort
having extended even to the southern limit. It is not
proposed in this place to do more than give a list of species,
and to make a few remarks on the general aspect of the
fauna ; technical details are better suited for publication
elsewhere.

Our knowledge of Arctic Ehizopoda is chiefly derived
from the researches of Professors W. K. Parker and T.
Eupert Jones, and of the Eev. A. M. Norman. The memoir
of Messrs. Parker and Jones in the 'Philosophical Trans-
actions' for 1865 forms the text-book of the subject. It
comprises the results of the examination of the soundings
taken by Sir E. Parry in Baffin's Bay, between latitudes 74° 45',
and 76° 30' N., of those by Dr. Sutherland off the Hunde
Islands, Davis Straits, in lat. 68° 50' N., and of dredgings
made by Mr. MacAndrew off the coast of Norway between
lat. 65° and 71° N. Mr. Norman's investigations are founded
upon the dredgings brought home by Dr. J. Grwyn Jeffreys
from the cruise of the ' Valorous,' and a summary of them
forms one section of the Eeport published in the ' Proceedings
of the Eoyal Society' for 1876. In the same Eeport Dr.
Carpenter also adds a few general observations on some of the
larger forms of Foraminifera. Six of the dredgings brought
home in the ' Valorous ' were from within the Arctic Circle,
the most northerly being about lat. 70° N.

Thus it will be seen that the area embraced by the
soundings which form the subject of the present notice
stretches nearly seven degrees further north than any hitherto
examined — in point of fact, it covers about half the distance
between the highest latitude of Sir E. Parry's series and the
actual North Pole. The following is the list of the For-
aminifera which have been obtained : —

No. XIII. FORAMINIFERA. 297

Cornuspira foliacea, Phil.

* „ involvens, Reuss.

* Triloculina tricarinata, D'Orb.

* Quinqueloculina seminulum, Linne.

„ subrotunda, Montag.

Lituola fusiformis, Will.

„ scorpiurus, Montfort,

„ canariensis, D'Orb.

„ glomerate^, nov.
Hyperammina elongata, nov. gen. et sp.
Lagena globosa, Montag.

„ Icevis, Montag.

* „ marginata, Montag.
„ apiculata, Reuss.

„ sulcata,) W. and J.
„ striata, D'Orb.

* „ caudata, D'Orb.

„ striatopunctata, P. and J.
„ melo, D'Orb.
„ squamosa, Montag.
Glandulina Icevigata, D'Orb.
Dentalina communis, D'Orb.
„ pauperata, D'Orb.
Cristellaria rotulata, Lamk.
Polymorphina lactea, W, and J.
„ compressa, D'Orb.

„ problema^ D'Orb.

„ acuminata, D'Orb.

„ rotundata, Bornem.

* Spirillina vivipara, Ehrb.

* Globigerina bulloides, D'Orb.

„ inflata, D'Orb,

Uvigerina pygmcea, D'Orb. (var.)

* Cassidulina Icevigata, D'Orb.

* „ crassa, D'Orb.

* Bulimina ovata, D'Orb.

* Bulimina elegantissima, D'Orb.

298 APPENDIX. No. XIII.

Virgulina Schreibersii, Czjzek.
Bolivina punctata, D'Orb.
Textularia biformis, P. and J.
Verneuilina polystropha, Keuss.
Discorbina obtusa, D'Orb.

* Truncatulina lobatula, W. and J.

* Pulvinulina Karsteni, Keuss.

„ Micheliniana, D'Orb.

* Patellina corrugata, Will.

* Nonionina, scapha, F. and M.

., umbilicatula, Montag.

„ depressula, W. and J.

„ stelligera, D'Orb.

Polystomella arctica, P. and J.

„ striatopunctata, F. and M.

The list comprises fifty-two species, and a few doubtful
specimens remain which may increase the number by one or
two. Messrs. Parker and Jones, in their list of Arctic forms
give a total of seventy-five, but of these twenty are recorded
from the Norwegian coast only, leaving fifty-five for Baffin's
Bay south of Smith Sound and Davis Straits. There is fair
ground, therefore, for supposing that the number of species
of Foraminifera does not suffer any considerable diminution
northwards from the Arctic Circle. The species, fifteen in
number, marked with an asterisk, in the foregoing table, are
those which were found in the sounding made in lat. 83° 19'
N. at a depth of 7 1 fathoms, and are, except a few Kadiolaria,
the unique representatives of the fauna of the sea-bottom at
the highest latitude yet attained by explorers. The greatest
variety of forms from any single Arctic locality is furnished
by mud from 80 fathoms off Cape Frazer, which gives a list
of thirty-two species. As already stated, it is not to be
supposed that material so limited in quantity has furnished
anything like complete details of the fauna ; it may never-
theless be of interest to compare the list above enumerated
with the columns referring to Baffin's Bay and Davis Straits

No. XIII. POLYCYSTINA. 299

in Messrs. Parker and Jones's table. It will then be seen
that thirty-six of the species are common to both areas, and
that the remainders contain many nearly related forms, which
further opportunity may probably show to have a distri-
bution extending more or less northwards or southwards, as
the case may be.

Two new, or rather undescribed, species have been
mentioned ; of these detailed descriptions will appear else-
where. One of them, Lituola glomerata, is of minute size,
not much exceeding T^ of an inch in diameter, and spiral
or nautiloid in mode of growth. It has a thin, arenaceous,
non-labyrinthic test, nearly spherical in contour, the longer
diameter being often in the direction of the axis, and consists
of a few long, narrow, slightly ventricose segments. It can
scarcely be said to be new, for it occurs in more than one of
the ' Challenger ' dredgings, but it has not hitherto been
described or named.

The other, for which the generic term Hyperammina
(vTrspos, a pestle, and a/i/xos1, sand) has been adopted, is one
of the arenaceous types probably first recognized in the
' Porcupine' dredgings from the North Atlantic in 1869, but
since found in many parts of the world. Its form is that of a
club, or still more nearly that of a pestle, and it consists of a
straight sandy tube with one end rounded and closed, gradu-
ally tapering towards the other extremity, which forms the
aperture. The Arctic examples are small, none being
more than a tenth of an inch in length, but under favourable
conditions specimens are met with many times as large.

The effects of climate, direct or indirect, are noticeable in
the modification of form assumed by some of the species,
which occur over considerable range of latitude. The Arctic
specimens of such species are often dwarfed and usually more
compactly built than those obtained in more southern areas.

NOTE. — Whilst working out the Foraininifera of the various samples
of material from the sea-bottom, any Polycystina that were found were
carefully preserved. They were only noticed in seven of the soundings.

300 APPENDIX. No. XIII.

and the specimens were for the most part few in number, and presented
no great variety of form. An exception, however, must be made in the
case of the most northerly sounding (lat. 83° 19' N.), which, taking into
account the very small quantity of material, yielded a considerable series.
The species of Radiolaria have not been determined, but the following
is a list of the more prominent genera represented: — Dictyopodium,
Haliomma, Tetrapyle, Hdiodiscus, Actinomma, Spongodiscus, Spongo-
trochus, Spongaster, Trematodiscus, and Euchitonia. — H. B. B.

No XIV. BOTANY. 301

No. XIV.

BOTANY.

BY Sm JOSEPH D. HOOKER, C.B., K.C.S.L,

President Royal Society.

With LISTS OF FLOWERING PLANTS, by Professor D. Oliver; Musci, by
W. Mitten ; FUNGI, by Kev. W. J. Berkeley ; ALGJE and DIATOMA-
:, by Professor George Dickie.

THE very excellent collections of flowering plants and ferns
brought by Captain Feilden and Mr. Hart from lat. 80°-83°
North, along the shores of Kennedy Channel, Hall Basin,
and Kobeson Channel, and particularly from the N.E. part of
Grrinnell Land, have been examined and named by Professor
Oliver, by comparison with the Arctic collections at Kew.
They prove that the vegetation of this meridian of the Polar
area is entirely Greenlandic, showing no further relationship
than does Greenland itself to the floras of the American
Polar islands to the west of it and of Spitsbergen to the east
of it. In other words, it possesses Greenland plants that are
wanting in either or in both of these localities, and wants
plants that either or both of these regions possess, but which
are absent in Greenland.

In my essay on the ' Outlines of the Distribution of Arctic
Plants,' ' I have shown that the Greenland flora was in origin
essentially a European one; but owing to causes which I
have there attempted to explain, it has lost some of its Euro-
pean characteristics, and acquired others, of which some few

1 < Trans. Linn. Soc.,' xxiii. 251.

302 APPENDIX. No. XIV.

are derived from America and others are peculiar to itself;
and that under this latter point of view it should be regarded
as a subdivision of the European flora, and when discussing
questions of Arctic distribution be called Greenlandic.

No fewer than sixty-nine identifiable flowering plants
and ferns, and about six more, in too imperfect a condition
to be named accurately, have been brought by the Polar
Expedition from the latitudes mentioned above (besides
nearly as many more from the Greenland coast south of it) ;
a considerably larger number (ten) than have rewarded the
researches of the various explorers of Melville Island (con-
taining about sixty), situated 5° further south, and in a
much milder climate ; and only twenty-three less than are
found in Spitsbergen (containing about ninety ]), which lies
wholly to the south of lat. 80°, is a much larger area, is
washed on its west coast by the comparatively warm Gulf
Stream, and has been explored by trained botanists.

The elements of the Flora may be thus expressed :—

1. Spitsbergen species . ., . » "• . . . 49

2. Melville Island ,- , * • f • • • 41

3. Greenland species not found either in Spitsbergen or

Melville Island ; '......" . . . . 12

4. Species not found in Greenland, Spitzbergen, or

Melville Island .. . . . . . .2

I. The species not found in Spitsbergen are :—

Vesicaria arctica . . Greenland and E. Arctic America.

Cheiranthus pygmceus . Do. „ „

Arenaria grosnlandica . Do. and Mts. of E. U. States.

Saxifraga tricuspidata . Melville Island and Arctic Ame-
rica generally.

Epilobium latifolium . Do. and Northern Regions gene-
rally.

1 ' Malingren in Ofvers af K. Vel, Akad. Fork' 18G2, pp. 229-268 ;
translated in Seemann's ' Journal of Botany,' 1864, pp. 130 and 162. A
few additions have subsequently been made.

No. XIV.

BOTANY.

303

Antennaria alpina

Erigeron compositus
Vaccinium uliginosum ,
Pedicularis lapponica ,

„ capitata
Androsace septentrion-
alis

Salix arctica
Luzula campestris, var.
ccmyesta

Carex rigida

„ holostoma [?] (al-

pina)
„ stans (aquatilis) .

Deschampsia ccespitosa .

Colpodium latifolium .
Woodsia ilvensis

Melville Island and Northern

Regions generally.
Arctic and Alpine N. America.
N. Temp, and Arctic Regions.
N. Temp, and Arctic Regions.
Arctic America, only to 72° N.

N. Temp, and Arctic Regions
generally, but not beyond
72° N.

Arctic America and Greenland.

Temp, and Arctic Regions gene-
rally.
Do. „ „ „

Arctic Europe and E. America.
N. Temp, and Arctic Regions

generally.
E. Greenland and Arctic and

Temp. Regions.
Arctic Regions generally.
N. Temp, and Arctic Regions

generally.

Of these the first three are peculiar to Greenland except
the Arenaria, which is also found in the mountains of the
Eastern United States.

II. The species not found in Melville Island are : —

Braya alpina

Vesicaria arctica .
Cardamine pratensis

Cheiranthus pygmceus
Draba hirta .

Spitsbergen and all Arctic Re-
gions.

Greenland and E. Arctic America.

Spitsbergen and N. Temp, and
Arctic Regions.

Greenland and E. Arctic America.

Spitsbergen and Arctic and N.
Alpine Regions.

304

APPENDIX.

No. XIV.

Draba rupestris •'.' ;

„ alpina . • .
Silene acaulis . •
Arenaria gr&nlandica .

Stellaria humifusa

Erigeron alpinus . ;~
„ compositus - '.

Vaccinium uliginosum .
Cassiope tetragona +•
Pedicularis capitata

„ lapponica .
Androsace septentrion-
alis .

Luzula campestris var.
Carex nardina

,. rigida, * .*,.

„ holostoma [?]
Glyceria 'maritimou var.
Equisetum variegatum

,, arvense

Lycopodium Selago
Woodsia ilvensis .
„ hyperborea,

Cystopteris fragilis

Spitsbergen and Arctic and N.

Alpine Kegions.
Do. „

Do. „ „

Greenland and E. U. States

Mountains.

Spitsbergen and all Arctic Re-
gions.

Do. „

Confined to Arctic and Alpine

N. America.
N. Temp, and Arctic Regions.

Do. „ „

Not in Greenland, but in Arctic

America and Asia.
N. Temp, and Arctic Regions.

Not in Greenland, but in the

N. Temp, and Arctic Regions

generally.

N. Temp, and Arctic Regions.
Spitsbergen „ „

N. Temp. „ „

Temp. Arctic Regions.
Spitsbergen and Arctic Regions.
Do. „ various Arctic

and Temp. Regions.
Spitsbergen and N. Temp, and

Arctic Regions.
Do. „ „

N. Temp.
Spitsbergen and Arctic Europe

and E. America.
Do. „ „

III. The Greenland species found neither in Spitsbergen
nor Melville Island are : —

No. XIV. BOTANY. 305

Vesicaria arctica . . East Arctic America.
Cheiranthus pygmcuus . Do. ,,

Arenaria grcenlandica . Mountains of E. U. States.

Erigeron compositus . East Arctic America and Eocky

Mountains.

Vacci/nium uliginosum . N. Temp, and Arctic Regions.
Pedicularis lapponica . Do. „ „

Luzula campestris var.

congesta. . . Do. „ „

Carex rigida . . . Do. „ „

„ holostoma [?] . Do. „ „

Woodsia ilvensis . . Do. „ „

IV. The species of plants found in lat 80°-83°, but which
do not occur in Spitsbergen, Melville Island, or Greenland,
are Androsace septentrionalis, an Arctic plant and native
also of the cold Alpine regions of the New and Old World,
but which finds its northern limit elsewhere in 72° on the
south shores of the Polar islands opposite the American
coast ; and Pedicularis capitata, a beautiful plant confined
to Arctic Asia and America, but not hitherto found north of
Port Kennedy in lat. 72°. The recurrence and the abun-
dance of these two plants in the extreme latitudes visited by
the Expedition are very singular facts. To these plants
might also be added the Deschampsia ccespitosa, which,
though so common a plant of the Temperate Zone and the
Arctic Regions generally, is found nowhere either in Tem-
perate or Arctic Greenland, except on its east coast ; a
peculiarity which it shares with Ranunculus glacialis,
Saxifraga Hirculus, S. hieracifolia, and others, all of
which are either unknown in W. Greenland or are very
rare there.

Of seventy-three high Arctic plants — namely, such as
reach the north coast of the Spitsbergen Group (lat. 80° to
80° 40') — Malmgren cites thirteen as not found elsewhere
in those islands ; and of these he remarks that they establish
a relationship with the Polar island flora, while the rest

VOL. II. X

306 APPENDIX. No. XIV.

of the polar Spitsbergen flora is essentially Greenlandic and
European. Of these thirteen the following only were found
by our Polar Expedition in the lat. 80° to 83° :—

Carex nardina.
Poa abbreviata.
Festuca ovina var. brevifolia,

The Arctic plants common in Spitsbergen and Melville
Island, and which hence might have been expected to occur
in lat. 80° to 83°, but do not, are —

G. Ranunculus auricomus.
G. „ pygmceus.

Parrya arctica.
G. Draba androsacea.

Potentilla frigida.
G. Saxifraga stellaris.

Hirculus (East Greenland only).

G. Chrysosplenium alternifolium.

Nardosmia frigida.
G. Campanula uniftora.

Salix polaris.
G. Dupontia Fisheri.

Of these the seven with a G prefixed are also Greenlandic,
and hence their absence from the higher latitudes visited by
the Polar Expedition may be attributed to cold or other
climatic causes ; and the other five not being Greenlandic
(except one found only in E. Greenland), their occurrence
was not to be expected in the regions under consideration.

Of Melville Island plants found neither in lat. 80° to 83°,
nor in Spitsbergen, are : —

Caltha palustris.*
Astragalus alpinus.*
Oxytropis uralensis.*
Sieversia Rossii.
Senecio palustris.*
Pleuropogon Sabinii.

No. XIV. BOTANY. 307

It is noteworthy that not one of these is a Greenland
plant, though all those marked with an asterisk inhabit
Arctic Kegions in Europe. The absence of all Leguminosce in
Spitsbergen and in Greenland (except two temperate species
in the south of that peninsula) is a most singular fact. The
collection has been searched in vain for any specimen of the
remarkable and beautiful little grass Pleuropogon Sabinii,
the sole representative of the only genus peculiar to the
Arctic regions, and which has been found nowhere but in
Melville Island and its immediate neighbourhood. It still
holds its place as the rarest and most inaccessible of known
flowering plants.

The proportion of Monocotyledons to Dicotyledons in lat.
80° to 83° is 20 to 49 = 1 : 2-45, which is nearly that of Arctic
Europe flowering plants as given in my essay, namely, 1 : 2'3 ;
while that of the plants of all Greenland is 1 : 2'1.

The proportion of genera to species is 42 : 69=1 : 1*7,
that for Arctic Europe being 1 : 2*3, and for all Greenland
1 : 2*0. This diminution of genera in proportion to species
with the dwindling flora is quite normal.

It remains to add that the flora of 80° to 83° proves that
vegetation may be expected up to the Pole in this longitude
— though probably not in all, the contrast between the vege-
tation of lat. 80° to 83° in Grinnell Island and Franz Josef's
Land, in the same latitude, being most striking in respect of
number and variety of plants. Here there is a sward covering
a deep layer of vegetable matter exhibiting a brilliant assem-
blage of gay-coloured flowers, the resort of butterflies and
bees ; in Franz Josef's Land vegetation exists only in rare
and isolated patches. Such dissimilarities were not antici-
pated in islands occupying so very small an area as the Polar
N. of 80°, and on the supposed extreme limits of vegetation.

The northward extension of the Greenlandic flora so near
the Pole, and the retention of its characteristics as distin-
guished from the Spitsbergen and Polar Island floras, indi-
cate that the distribution of plants in the Arctic regions has
been meridional, and that the subsequent spread of the

x 2

308 APPENDIX. No. XIV.

species in latitude has, for some unknown reason, been
restricted, and has not been sufficient to obliterate the evi-
dence of this prior direction of migration.

The comparative richness of the flora from 80° to 83°, taken
especially in connection with that of Smith Sound, in lat.
78° to 80°, which contains many Subarctic plants, indicates
some peculiarity of climate or other condition in this longi-
tude that favours the northern spread of vegetation in this
more than in any other Arctic longitude. Thus in Smith
Sound there have been gathered : —

Alchemilla vulgaris*
Pyrola grandiflora*
Bartsia alpina.
Armeria vulgaris.
Tqfieldia palustris.
Hierochloe borealis, and
Lycopodium annotinum.

None of them high Arctic plants in other longitudes, though
all of them except the Hierochloe are natives of Greenland.

These facts seem to indicate that vegetation may be
more abundant in the interior of Greenland than is supposed,
and that the glacier-bound coast-ranges of that country may
protect a comparatively fertile interior. And to this view
the altitudinal distribution of vegetation in Grinnell Land
lends support : there, where the land is only hilly, flowering
plants ascend on unsnowed slopes that dip down to the sea
from 1,000 feet elevation ; showing that it is to the presence
of lofty mountains on the Greenland coast, and not to its
latitude, that its ice-bound shores are due. Thus, too, the
abundance of animal life met with between 80° and 83° may
be accounted for. Barely sufficient pasture is found along
the shores of Grinnell Land during winter for the support of
musk-oxen, and from what we know of the vegetation of the
Polar Islands to the westward, they are not likely to provide
pasturage for large animals, at that season : so that we are
almost driven to conclude that Grinnell Land, as well as

Noa XIV. BOTANY. 309

Greenland, now known to be an island (partly by the coast
surveys of the Polar Expedition, and more demonstrably from
the results deduced by Professor Haughton from the tidal ob-
servations), are, instead of ice-capped, merely ice-girt lands.

The cryptogamic flora of the regions visited produced
little novelty except amongst the lichens. These have
been submitted to Professor Theodore Fries of Upsala for
determination, who sends the following interesting statement
regarding them : —

' The lichens brought home by the Expedition were
gathered chiefly in Grinnell Land, in the vicinity of the
winter-quarters of the two vessels. It is easy to understand
how great an interest this collection must have for every
botanist, considering that, with the exception of nine species,
which Payer indicates as having been found in the northern
part of Franz Josef's Land, not a single lichen is as yet
known from any more northern region than the Seven Islands,
situated south of 81° N. lat.

6 On this account I submitted the material entrusted to
me to the most minute examination. Not only the more
developed specimens have passed a microscopical examination,
but every morsel has been examined with a powerful lens, and
every little fragment of a lichen thus found has afterwards
been examined under the microscope. The result of this
rather troublesome but very interesting examination has been,
that the number of lichens represented in this collection
from north of lat. 81° is about ninety species. Three of
these at least are new to science, whilst several are not known
before from the Arctic regions, but only from localities much
further to the south.

C0n reviewing the collections as a whole, the eye is
immediately struck with the paucity of more developed erect-
growing and leaflike species, as well as the contracted shape
of those which were found. This is the more remarkable, as
it might naturally be expected that such lichens would, during
the long winter season, constitute the principal or only food
of the musk-oxen that exist in those regions. It is strange

310 APPENDIX. No. XIV.

that the reindeer moss (Cladonia rangiferina), so common in
other Arctic regions, appears to be absent from Grinnell Land.

' The nature of the lichen flora between the parallels of 81°
and 83° North by no means indicates that the northern boun-
dary of the lichen flora has been reached. On the contrary,
many circumstances combine to show that, if there be land at
the North Pole, lichens will be found there. The majority
of the lower lichens brought from Grinnell Land appear to
be as well developed as those found in regions farther south ;
and even from a height of 1,200 feet Captain Feilden has
brought home several normally and well-developed species.
The most luxuriant specimen of the leaflike genus Gyrophora
which is brought home by the Expedition is, strange to say,
from lat. 83° 6' N.

6 The remaining, and considerably smaller, part of the
collections was obtained partly at more southern stations in
Smith Sound, partly during short visits to some of the Danish
colonies in Greenland. The former (about forty species)
undoubtedly give welcome assistance to our knowledge of the
lichen flora of Arctic America ; naturally these are of a sub-
ordinate interest, as gathered in localities previously subjected
to the careful search of lichenologists : however, my exami-
nation of this material is too little advanced to permit me
to report on them in detail.'

LIST OF FLOWERING PLANTS,
FROM ELLESMERE LAND AND GRINNELL LAND.

BY PROFESSOR D. OLIVER, F.R.S.

Ranunculus nivalis, L. ; and

„ „ v&Y.floribus minoribus, pilis calyci-

nis pallidioribus.
Papaver alpinum, L. (P. nudicaule, auct.)

No. XIV. BOTANY. 311

Cochlearia officinalis, L. (G. fenestrata, Br.)

Eraya alpina, Sternb.

Vesicaria arctica, Rich.

Cardamine pratensis, L. (leafy specimen only).

„ bdlidifolia, L.
Cheirantkus pygmoeus, Adams. (Hesperis pygmwa, Hk.,

H. minima, T. and Gr.)
Draba hirta, L.

„ rupestris, R. Br.
„ cdpina, L.
Silene acaulis, L.
Lychnis apetala, L.

„ „ var. (L. triflora, Br.)

Arenaria grcenlandica, Spr. ? (Leaves only.)

„ verna, L. (incl. -4. rubella, Br.)
Cerastium alpinum, L. ; and

„ „ forma: foliis ellipticis, confertis,

crassiusculis, glabrescentibus.
SteUaria longipes, Goldie.
Potentilla nivea, L. ; and

„ „ var. (P. pulchella, Br.)

„ „ var. (P. Vahliana, &c.)

Dry as octopetala, L. (D. integrifolia, V.)
Saxifraga oppositifolia, L.

„ flagdlaris, W. '
Saxifraga tricuspidata, Retz.

„ ccespitosa, L.

„ nivalis, L.

„ „ forma monstrosa, floribus proliferis.

Shift-rudder Bay (F.)

„ cernua, L.
Epilobium latifolium, L.

? Arnica montana, L. (J.. angustifolia, V.) A leafy frag-
ment only, from winter-quarters of ' Discovery.' (H.)
Erigeron alpinus, L.

„ compositus, Pui'sh.
Taraxacum Dens-leonis, Desf. var

312 APPENDIX. No. XIV.

[Vaccinium uliginosum, L. (Hayes Sound, F.) ]
[Cassiope tetragona, L. ( „ F. and H.) ]

Pedicularis capitata, Adams.

„ sudetica, L. (P. Langsdorffii, Fisch.)

„ lapponica, L.
Androsace septentrionalis, L.
Salix arctica, Pallas (varieties).

Salix, barren fragments, not identified (Shift-rudder Bay, F. )
„ „ (Joseph Henry Peninsula, F.)

Polygonum viviparum, L.
Oxyria reniformis, Hk.
Luzula campestris, Sm. var. conjecta.

„ „ var. (L. hyperborea, Br.)

Juncus biglumis, L.
Eriophorum polystachyon, L.

„ capitatum, Host.

Carex nardina, Fries.
„ rigida, Good. var.

„ rigida, Good. (Hayes Sound, F. and H.)
Carex trijida? Good, abnormalis forma? an C. holostoma?
Drej. (Hayes Sound, F.)

„ . rigida, Good. var. ? (Shift-rudder Bay, F.)

„ stans ? Drej. f Ptarmigan Hill, Hayes Sound, H.)

„ fuliginosa, S and H.

„ „ var. ? (Dobbin's Bay, H.)

Deschampsia ccespitosa, P. de B.
Colpodium latifolium, Br.
Phippsia algida, Br.
Trisetum subspicatum, P. de B.
[HieroMoe alpina, L. (Hayes Sound, F.) ]
Alopecurus alpinus, L.
Poa abbreviata, Br.

„ cenisea, All.

Festuca ovina, L. var. brevifolia.
Glyceria angustata, Br.
[Poa ccesia, Sm. var. (Twin Glacier, Hayes Sound, H.) ]

No. XIV. BOTANY. 313

MOSSES AND JUNGERMANNIJZ.
BY W. MITTEN, A.L.S.

A SMALL collection of Mosses and Jungermannise, made by the
naturalists attached to the late Polar Expedition, was placed
in my hands for examination. A portion of this collection
was made at some of the North Greenland ports, where
the ships touched on their way north ; but this enumeration
is confined to the specimens brought back from Smith Sound,
and the shores of the Polar Basin, or in other words, from
an area lying between the seventy-eighth and eighty-third
parallels of north latitude. Captain Feilden's collection con-
sists of twenty-two species of mosses.

Dwtichwm inclinatum, Sw. — Floeberg Beach, lat, 82°
27' N. ; with young fruit. This moss is seldom wanting in
collections made in the Arctic regions, and although, in an
exceptional case, it is found on the sea shore in North Britain,
near Dundee, it is throughout Europe and North America a
Subalpine and Alpine species. In North Africa it is found
on the Abyssinian mountains, and in Thibet it ascends to
the elevation of 18,700 feet on the top of Hera La ; but it has
not been recorded from any localities south of the equator. In
this respect it differs from its congener, D. capillaceum, also
commonly found amongst Arctic mosses, and which ascends
to equal elevation in India, and to 14,000 feet on the Andes.
But it is also found in mountains of much less elevation than
that which would appear to be required by D. inclinatum ;
and it is probably generally distributed, for it occurs on the
Cameroons mountain in equatorial Africa, and is found in
New Zealand.

Dicranoweisia crispula^ Hedw. — Payer Harbour, lat.
78° 42' N. ; a tall state not in fruit. Like the Distichium,
this moss perfects its fruit in Arctic regions ; completely
fruited specimens were gathered by Parry in Spitsbergen,
and others in Davis Straits by Mr. Taylor. In Europe and

314 APPENDIX. No. XIV.

North America this species is entirely Subalpine and Alpine,
and it does not appear to pass southward beyond the northern
temperate zone. A nearly resembling species is found on the
Andes, and -two others on the Himalaya ; in Antarctic regions
it is represented by a species so similar that it was at first
considered in the ' Flora Antarctica ' to be the same. All the
species are very similar, and the South American were placed
in the section Isocarpus, of the genus Dicranum. In M.
Schimper's first edition of the 6 Synopsis of European Mosses *
the group of species, of which D. crispula is the largest,
formed his section Euweisia, of the genus Weisia ; but in
the second edition of the same work they are removed from the
genus Weisia, and now bear the generic name here used for
the species, although still considered by him to belong to the
family Weisiece.

Rhacomitrium lanuginosum. Dill. — Payer Harbour,
lat. 78° 42' N. ; barren. The specimen is but moderately
hoary, and as usual in Arctic specimens quite barren ; although
a moss which abounds in Subalpine and Alpine situations, it
is widely dispersed in the plains of Europe, occurring even on
tiled buildings but little above the sea level. Antarctic
specimens are usually more hoary, and have received various
names, on the presumption of their being distinct ; Chilian
specimens were described by De Notaris as R. senile, Ant-
arctic ; by C. Muller as R. geronticum.

Pottia Heimii, Hedw. — Floeberg Beach ; with ripe capsules.
These specimens show this species in a form very different
from those so common on the coasts of Britain, for the leaves
are oblong and obtuse, and it is only here and there that a
trace is observable of the serrulation usually so evident ; the
lower leaves are very short and very widely ovate, with the
nerve vanishing below the apex, and the rather thick apiculus
of the operculum does not exceed in length half the diameter
of the mouth of the capsule. Specimens gathered in Beechey
Island by Doctor Lyall do not differ from the usual European
states, except that, as in the case of those from Floeberg Beach,
the foliage is more distinctly bordered with the paler cells.

No. XIV. BOTANY. 315

In Britain this species is exclusively maritime, but it is
found in inland stations on the continent of Europe as well
as in British North America ; and it, or some other species so
closely resembling it as to have been mistaken for it, has
been brought from Fuegia, but, like many other species be-
longing to the family of Tortuloid mosses, it is not recorded
from the United States.

Tortula (Barbula) icmadophila, Schimper. — Floeberg
Beach ; a few small barren stems amongst Distichium inclina-
tum ; Mushroom Point, in the same condition amongst
Zygotrickia leucostoma. This species has not before been
seen amongst Arctic mosses, but fine specimens with fruit
were in some sets of Drummond's Musci Americani, No. 139,
as T. fallax, from banks of rivers near the Rocky Mountains.
In Europe, so far as known, it is Subalpine or Alpine.

T. (Zygotrickia) leucostoma, Brown. — Mushroom Point,
lat. 82° 29' 12" N. ; July 1876; with perfected capsules.
Originally described by Brown in the Appendix to Parry's first
voyage as a Barbula, it was considered by Bridsl the type
of a new genus on account of the peristomial teeth being con-
nected below by trabecula3 ; and he thought Hooker and
Grreville, who say, in the ' Edinburgh Journal of Science,'
under the name of Tortula leucostoma, that the lower half
of the peristome is united into a tube, were wrong, and seems
himself surprised that Brown should have overlooked the
important distinction. The species is entirely Arctic, and
belongs to the same group of species as the common European
Tortula subulata, a group which may be said to have the
foliage and habit of Pottia with the capsules and peristome of
Syntrichia.

T. (Syntrichia) ruralis, Linn. — Mushroom Point ; a frag-
ment adhering to a piece of Peltigera. Common amongst
Arctic mosses, but always sterile. Widely spread in temperate
Europe from the sea to Subalpine regions. Inhabits British
North America ; but appears to be rare in the United States,
and has not been traced farther southwards.

Didymodon rubellus, Roth. — Floeberg Beach, with

316 APPENDIX. No. XIV.

Bryum Broiunii ; very small and barren. A very variable
moss in size. Small states .have the point of the leaf nearly
entire ; but there is always some trace of the teeth, which are
so evident in the larger forms. The presence of these teeth
with rusty foliage, and the habit of the whole moss, seem to
indicate a close affinity with several Andean species ; and the
Austral Tortula serrulata, Hook, et Grev., in which the
peristome is more decidedly that of Tortula. D. rubellus is
in Europe from the sea to the highest mountains a common
moss, and it is found also in North Africa and Northern India
as well as in British North America, but is said to be rare in
the United States. A very similar species is found in
central America, and another in New Zealand, but it cannot
be said to be distinctly traced south of the Equator.

Encalypta rhabdocarpa, Schw. — Floeberg Beach ; with
young fruit. Mushroom Point ; adhering to a fragment of
Peltigera, with capsule past maturity; July, 1876. A
boreal Subalpine and Alpine species, which in America does
not reach the United States.

Voitia hyperborea, Grev. et Am. — Floeberg Beach ; in
fine condition, with fruit in several stages. In one of the
specimens of this elegant moss the stems are a portion of a
tuft more than two inches in height. A single abnormal
capsule is present among the specimens ; it has the point
produced into an erect beak, which is about three times
longer than the diameter of the capsule : the calyptra had
been removed.

Splachnum Wormskioldii, Hornem. — Hayes Sound,
Floeberg Beach, and Mushroom Point ; all fertile. An
elegant Arctic species which in Europe reaches the Scandi-
navian mountains.

Tetraplbdon urceolatus, B. and S. — Mushroom Point,
and Port Foulke. This species is not known to grow further
south than the Alps, and although found in British North
America, it does not occur in the United States. Its congener,
T. mnioides, which grows also in the same Arctic and Alpine
regions, but which also is able to maintain itself at consider-

No. XIV. BOTANY. 317

ably less altitudes, and has been gathered in Patagonia,
would thus seem to be, like Distichium capillaceum, enabled,
by its capacity to exist and mature its fructification in com-
paratively lower and warmer situations, to attain a much
more extensive distribution.

Bartramia (Philonotis) fontana, Lin. — Floeberg Beach ;
a very small state, barren, growing with Voitia hyperborea.
Everywhere distributed in northern and temperate Europe
and North America, but although found in North Africa
it does not seem to pass south of the equator.

Bryum pendulum, Hornsch. — Dumbell Harbour, lat.
82° 30' N., with unripe fruit. Frequent amongst Arctic
mosses and widely distributed throughout temperate Europe,
it probably continues through the Andes and reaches Ant-
arctic regions, being a species able to grow as well on the
sea shore as upon the loftier mountains.

B. Brownii, Br. et Schimp. — Floeberg Beach ; originally
described by Brown as Pohlia bryoides from Melville Island,
it has since been found on the Dovrefield Mountains.

B. calophyllum, Brown. — Floeberg Beach, and Payer
Harbour ; barren. Long supposed to be an Arctic species ;
it has in recent times been found to occur on the western
shores of Britain, and in some few localities on the European
continent.

Timmia austriaca, Hedw. — Floeberg Beach and Payer
Harbour ; barren.

Myurella apiculata, Hueb. — Floeberg Beach, with
Pogonatum alpinum', and a fragment on Peltigera from
Mushroom Point ; all barren.

Orthothecium chryseum, Schwaegr. — Floeberg Beach
with Voitia hyperborea ; barren. In Europe an Alpine
moss found in the Scandinavian mountains and Carinthian
Alps.

Stercodon plicatilis, Mitt. — Mushroom Point ; adhering to
a fragment of Peltigera ; barren. Described first in the
< Linnaaan Society's Journal,' v. viii., from specimens gathered

318 APPENDIX. No. XIV.

in Davis Straits and the Rocky Mountains : the distribution of
the species seems not yet ascertained.

Camptothecium nitens, Schreb. — Floeberg Beach ; barren.
More plentiful in Arctic America and Northern Europe than
in the more temperate regions : it is found in the plains and
ascends the Alps.

Pogonatum alpinum, L. — Floeberg Beach ; barren.

Mr. Hart's collection consists of twenty-six Mosses and
one Jungermannia.

Distichium inclinatum, Sw. — Winter-quarters, H.M.S.
« Discovery,* lat. 81° 44' N.

Rhacomilrium lanuginosum, Linn. — Hayes' Sound, lat.
78° 52' N.

Tortula (Zygotrichia) leucostoma, Brown. — St. Patrick's
Bay, lat. 81° 46' N. ; with Orthothecium chryseum.

Orthotrichum speciosum, Nees. — Winter - quarters,
H.M.S. ' Discovery ' ; barren.

Voitia hyperborea, Grrev. et Arn. — Musk Ox Bay, lat. 81°
40' N.

Tetraplodon mnioides, L. — With the preceding, very
small and short, but perfectly fruiting.

T. urceolatus, B. et S. — Musk Ox Bay.

Splachnum Wormskioldii., Hornem. — Winter-quarters,
H.M.S. ' Discovery,' and Hayes Sound.

S. vasculosum, L. — Musk Ox Bay; very small and short,
but fertile.

Aulucomnion turgidum, Wahl. — Hayes' Sound ; barren.

Leptobryum pyriforme, Linn. — Hayes' Sound ; with fruit.

Bryum (Webera) longicollum, Sw. — Hayes' Sound ; with
old capsules.

B. (W.) crudum, Dicks. — Hayes' Sound; barren.

B. arcticum, Brown. — Musk Ox Bay.

B. Brownii, B. et S. — Same locality.

B. ceneum, Blytt. — Winter-quarters H.M.S. c Discovery.'
This species very closely resembles small states of B. pollens.

B. calophyllum, Brown. — Winter-quarters, H.M.S. * Dis-
covery.'

No. XIV. BOTANY. 319

Timmia austriaca, Hedw. — Winter-quarters, H.M.S.
' Discovery ' ; barren.

Orthothecium chryseum, Schw. — St. Patrick's Bay, Hayes'
Sound ; all short stems and barren.

0. rubellum. Mitt. — Musk Ox Bay; growing with Tetra-
plodon urceolatus ; barren.

Stercodon plicatilis, Mitt. — Winter-quarters, H.M.S.
' Discovery ' ; barren.

Amblystegiun uncinatum, Hedw. — Winter-quarters,
H.M.S. < Discovery.'

A. lycopodioides, Schw. — Winter-quarters, H.M.S. 'Dis-
covery ; ' barren and small.

. A. (Acroceratium) trifarium, Wet. et M. — Hayes'
Sound ; barren.

A (A.) sarmentosum, Wahl. — Hayes' Sound ; a very small
short state ; barren.

Brachythecium cirrhosum, Schw. — Winter-quarters
H.M.S. ; Discovery ; ' in very small quantity ; barren.

Blepharozia trichophylla, Linn. — Hayes' Sound ; barren.

ENUMERATION OF THE FUNGI

COLLECTED DURING THE ARCTIC EXPEDITION OF 1875 AND 1876.

BY THE REV. M. J. BERKELEY, M.A., F.L.S.

THE collection consists of twenty-six species, of which I have
been able with tolerable certainty to determine all but two ;
at least I have indicated the closest affinities in one or two
which were difficult cases from the condition of the speci-
mens, if there is some doubt as to the exact species to which
they are referred. Of the twenty-six species seventeen are
widely distributed, and seven hitherto undescribed, besides

320 APPENDIX. No. XIV.

the two which I have been unable to determine. Of the
new species two at least are very interesting, Agaricus
Feildeni and Urnula Hartii. The former belongs to a
group very little understood, and I have, therefore, to regret
that the specimens were so roughly dried that some of the
characters are more or less obscure ; the latter is a new form
of the curious genus Urnula, Fr., and so exactly like the figure
in ' Flora Danica,' referred by Fries as a variety to Peziza
ciborium, that it is very probable that the Danish may be
identical with the Arctic plant. The occurrence of Chceto-
mium glabrum on the walls of the cabins of the ' Alert ' in
such abundance is very curious. In this country it is widely
diffused not only on papered walls, but on bare stone,
basket-work, &c., and it is remarkable that the sporidia are
notably smaller in the Arctic specimens. Agaricus Feildeni,
which occurred several times, is probably esculent, as is cer-
tainly the case with Russula integra. I ought, perhaps, to
apologise for describing A. sphcerosporus and A. Bello-
tianus from single specimens, but the characters are such
as to separate them from all allied species which have been
previously described.

There are two observations which it is but justice to add
to the above notes. It is absolutely necessary to take into
consideration the extreme difficulty under which collectors
labour in Polar regions. The room on board is necessarily
very limited, and the damp atmosphere of the cabins pecu-
liarly unfavourable to drying plants, added to which the
numerous matters constantly in hand make it impossible to
change the drying papers frequently enough to insure the
absorption of all the moisture, without which specimens
never turn out in good condition.

It was, moreover, impossible to give any information as
to the edible qualities of any species which occurred, as the
number of individuals was extremely small and sometimes
confined to a single specimen. The wonder is that, under
the circumstances, so much was done in a department which
presents peculiar difficulties.

No. XIV. BOTANY. 321

1. Agaricus (Omphalia) umbilicatus, Schceff. t. 207,
Fr. Hym. Eur. p. 155. On peaty soil. Mount Prospect,
Discovery Bay ; lat. 81° 41' N. ; H. C. Hart. Spores minute,
slightly kidney-shaped.

2. A. (Omphalia) umbeUiferus, L. On peat. The
yellow form. Proven with Peltigera, Disco, July 1875.
Proven, July 1875, Discovery Bay ; H. C. Hart. Upernivik,
July 22, 1875; H. W. Feilden. Pileus tomentose. Stem
thickest below, tomentose about two lines high. The speci-
mens are small, but mostly well developed. In those from
Discovery Bay the gills are so thickened as to be almost
subglobose. The species is very common in mountainous
countries, and is sometimes extremely beautiful.

3. A. (Omphalia) sphcerosporus, B. Pileo membranaceo,
profunde umbilicato ; lamellis latis distantibus, decurrentibus ;
sporis globosis pedicellatis. On moss. Upernivik; H. C.
Hart. About one inch across.

4. A. (Clitopilus) undatus. Fr. Hym. Eur. p. 199.
Ic. tab. 96, fig. 4. Cape Sabine, August 1, 1875 ; H. W.
Feilden.

5. A. (Naucoria) Bellotianus, B. Nov. sp. Bellot
Island, August 14, 1876 ; H. W. Feilden.

6. A. (Tubaria) furfuraceus, P. Syn. p. 454 ; Fr.
Hym. Eur., p. 272. Westward Ho ! Valley ; lat. 82° 40' N. ;
H. W. Feilden. Mount Prospect, 81° 41' N. ; H. C. Hart.

7. A. (Tubaria) pellucidus, Bull. Tab. 550, fig. 2 ; Fr.
Hym. Eur., p. 273. Hayes' Sound; lat. 79° N., August 4,
1875; H. C. Hart.

8. A. (Stropharia) Feildeni, B. Nova sp. Bellot
Island, lat. 81° 41' N. ; August 1876; H. W. Feilden,
Mount Prospect, Discovery Harbour, July 4, 1876 ; H. C.
Hart.

9. Hygrophorus virgineus. Fr. Hym. Eur., p. 413.
Small specimens, September 29, 1875 ; lat. 82° 27' ; H. W.
Feilden.

10. H. miniatus. Fr. Hym. Eur. p. 418. Hayes'
Sound, August 4, 1875 ; H. C. Hart.

VOL. II. Y

APPENDIX. No. XIV.

11. Russula Integra. Fr. Hym. Eur. p. 450. Bellot
Island; lat. 81° 41' N., August 13, 1876 ; H. W. Feilden.

12. Cantharellus mucigenus. Fr. Hym. Eur. p. 460.
On moss from Discovery Bay ; H. C. Hart.

13. Merulius aurantiacus. Fr. Hym. Eur. p. 591 ;
Kl. in Berk., Eng. Fl. v., p. 128 ; Discovery Bay, 81° 41'
N ; H. C. Hart.

14. Lycoperdon cretaceum, B. Nov. sp. ; Bellot Island,
August 14, 1876 ; H. W. Feilden.

15. L. atropurpureum. Vitt. Monog. Lye. p. 42,
tab. ii. fig. 6 ; Discovery Bay, Mount Prospect ; H. C. Hart ;
Bellot Island, August 18, 1876, and Hayes' Sound, August 4,
1875 ; H. W. Feilden.

16. Trichobasis Pyrolce, B. Out. p. 332; Uredo
Pyrolae, Grrev. H. Ed., p. 440 ; Proven, on leaves of Pyrola.

17. Stilbum arcticum, B. Nov. sp. on the stem of
Agaricus sphcerosporus, B. ; Upernivik ; H. C. Hart.

18. Peziza stercorea. P. Obs. 2, p. 89 : Fr. Syst. Myc.
ii. p. 87 ; Cooke, Micr. fig. 147 ; Discovery Bay on dung of
musk-ox ; H. C. Hart.

19. Ascobolus furfuraceus. P. Obs. 1. t. 4, f. 3-6. On
dung of musk-ox with preceding.

20. Urnula Hartii, B. Nov. sp. Upernivik ; H. C.
Hart, (rrinnell Land ; lat. 82° 29' N. ; July 1876 ; H. W.
Feilden.

210 Chcetomium glabrum, B. and Br. Ann. Nat. Hist.,
May 1873, p. 349, tab. x., fig. 15. On damp surface in
cabin of H.M.S. < Alert ' at Floeberg Beach ; lat. 82° 27' N.

22. Venturia myrtilli, Cooke. Journ. of Bot., August
1866, tab. 50, fig. 4. On semiputrid leaves, Discovery Bay;
H. C. Hart.

23. Sphcerella lineolata, De Not. Sphaeria lineolata
Desm. PI. Crypt, No. 1263; Cooke, I.e. tab. 51, fig. 31.
On grass with the last.

24. Dothidea bullulata, B. Nov. sp. On leaves, Disco ;.
H. C. Hart. Some species of Mucor appears to have oc-
curred with Choetomium glabriwi.

No. XIV. BOTANY. 323

AND DIATOMACE&.
BY G. DICKIE, M.A., M.D., F.L.S.

DURING the Arctic Expedition of 1875-76 but few species of
the higher orders of marine algse were collected beyond 78°
N. lat. ; the following are all that have come under my
notice among the collections made by Captain Feilden and
Mr. Hart :—

Desmarestia aculeata, Lamour.
Laminaria longicruris, De la Pyl.

„ caperata, „

Dictyosiphon fceniculaceus, Grev.
Chordaria flagelliformiS) Ag.1
Ectocarpus siliculosus, Lyngb.
Chcetopteris plumosa, „

These all belong to the olive- coloured series, and, with
the exception of the two species of Laminaria, are well known
European forms.

Dr. Moss and Captain Feilden sent to me fragments of
stems of Laminaria from the mud of a raised beach or ' shell
flat ' 200 feet above the present level of the sea at Floeberg
Beach, N. lat. 82° 27', W. long. 61° 22', also from mud-beds
in Cane Valley, Grinnell Land, N. lat. 82° 33'. The frag-
ments seem to belong to both species of Laminaria above
mentioned, and Captain Feilden states that they retained
the peculiar marine smell as strongly as in recent specimens.
The beds from which the specimens were taken are exposed,
by the action of a stream, to a depth of not less than thirty
feet in thickness: along with them were found shells of
My a truncata, Astarte borealis, &c.

I could not find any trace of marine algae belonging to
the red series.

1 The specimens very dwarf and fragmentary, nevertheless I think they
must be referred to this species.

324 APPENDIX. No. XIV.

The most complete list of the marine algae of Spitsbergen
known to me is one given by Professor J. Gr. Agardh, com-
prehending seventeen olive and twenty of the red — therefore
comparatively rich when contrasted with those above enu-
merated : all the species are also included in the Spitsbergen
list with one exception, viz. Dictyosiphon.

The marine species of the green series found by the
naturalists of the Expedition are —

Ulva latissima, L., very fragmentary.
Enteromorpha clathrata, Grrev.
Chaetomorpha Melagonium, Web. and Mohr.

These have very wide distribution in European and other
seas.

There are also representatives of several genera found in
fresh water, namely : —

Prasiola Sauteri, Menegh.
Zygogonium Agardhii, Eabh.
Closterium lunula, Miiller.
Zonotrichia, species.
Nostoc commune, Vaucher.

„ aureum, Ktz.
Hormosiphon arcticum, Berk.
Hormospora, species.
Chroococcus, species.
Gloeocapsa Magma, Ktr.
Oscillaria tennis, Ag.
Hypheothrix coriacea, Ktz.
„ obscura, n. sp.

Jhthonoblastus, sp.
Tolypothrix, sp.

The most abundant of these appears to be Nostoc com-
mune, which occurs in Spitsbergen, and is widely diffused in
Europe, as indeed also are the other genera.

Gloecapsa I have previously seen as found at Disco ; the
specimens sent to me by Dr. Moss were found at 82° 27' N.

No. XIV.

BOTANY.

325

It thus appears that certain well-known European genera
Ii5i\v their representatives in the cold marshes of lands beyond
80° N.

The Diatomacece are also, on the whole, well represented
in the collections made by Captain Feilden, Dr. Moss, and
Mr. Hart.

I have observed the following genera, and it may be
sufficient to record here merely the number of species of each
genus, a complete list of names being preserved for full
report elsewhere.

LIST OF DIATOMS, BEYOND LAT. 78° N.

Name of Germ

5

No. of Species

Name of Geuu

i

No. of Species

Achnanthes .

2

Navicnla

13

A chnanthidium

2

Nitzschia .

3

AmpldproTa

2

Ofthosira .

1

Amphora
Biddulpliia

4
1

Pleurosigma
Podosira

2
1

Chactoceros .

2

Podosphcenia

1

Cocconcis

4

Raj)honeis .

1

Coscinodixcus

4

Rliabdonema

2

('ijinhella .

1

Rhoicosphenia

1

Dcnticula .

1

Surirclla

3

Diatoma

1

Stauroneis .

3

kiinotia

2

Synedra

4

Fragilaria .

2

Tha lassosira

1

Grammatop li or a

2

Triceratium

1

Melosira

1

Tryblionella

1

Mcridion

1

Making in all thirty-one genera and seventy species so far as
I have observed ; most of them are marine, those of fresh-
water being fewer.

P. T. Clevej in a communication to the Swedish Academy
of Sciences, March 12, 1873, states that the whole number
found in the Arctic Sea is 181 ; but he considers seventeen
of these as of doubtful occurrence in that region. In the
same paper he specifies those found at Spitsbergen, which
seems, as in the case of the higher algoe already alluded to,
to be richer in species than the parts of the Arctic Sea visited
by the late Expedition.

326 APPENDIX. No. XIV.

The presence and abundance of these minute organisms,
with their exquisitely sculptured silicious investments, is a
point of much interest in relation to the existence of animal
life. It has been long known that they abound in the ali-
mentary canal of certain radiata and bivalve mollusca, and
where they are abundant, which seems to be the rule, this
implies the possible presence of certain animal forms which
^find abundant pabulum in the organic contents of the
Diatoms ; these lower are preyed upon by those of higher
type, and we thus have a very notable and interesting chain
of dependence and an illustration of the proverbial ' power of
the littles.'

It is, therefore, not surprising to find that at least sixteen
species of bivalve mollusca were collected beyond 80° N. by
the naturalists of the Expedition.

[The botanical collections treated of in the preceding pages were
mainly, though not entirely, made in Grinnell Land between the latitudes
of 81° 40' N., and 83° 6' N. The vicinity of Discovery Bay, and as far
north as lat. 81° 50', was carefully botanised by Mr. Hart, and from that
latitude to the eighty-third parallel the collections were made by the
writer. Though the period for collecting phanerogamic plants was con-
fined to a month or six weeks in the summer of 1876, yet it is probable
that few flowering plants escaped observation, and that the collections
brought back give an accurate and adequate idea of the phanerogamic
flora of Grinnell Land. The number of species of lichens obtained is
astonishing, yet this result ma}7 fairly be considered only as a contribu-
tion to the lichenology of Grinnell Land, and not by any means an
exhaustive collection; the same remark applies to the collections of
fungi, confervas, and diatomaceae. — H. W. FEILDEN.]

No. XV.

GEOLOGY.

327

No. XV.
GEOLOGY.

ON THE GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF THE COASTS OF
GRINNELL LAND AND HALL BASIN,

VISITED BY THE BKITISH AECTIC EXPEDITION OF 1875-6.

BY C. E. DE RANGE, F.G.S., Assoc. INST. C.E.,

of the Geological Survey of England and Wales

AND

H. W. FEILDEN, F.G.S., F.R.G.S., C.M.Z.S.,

Naturalist to the Expedition.

THE collection of rocks and fossils, more than 2,000 in
number, made during the expedition in the lands lying
between the parallels of 78° and 83° 6' North, enable the
following sequence of formations to be established for these
far Arctic Lands : —

GRINNELL LAND, &C.

Glacio-marine beds.
Miocene shales and clays
with thirty feet coal seam.
Carboniferous limestone.
Dana Bay beds.
Upper Silurians.
Lower Silurians.
Cape Rawson beds.
Fundamental gneiss, &c.

N. AMERICA EQUIVALENTS.
Glacio-marine beds.

Carboniferous limestone.
Devonian.

Quebec (Llandeilo) group.
Huronian ?
Lauren tian ?

328 APPENDIX. No. XV.

PALEOZOIC ROCKS. — The ancient fundamental gneiss and
crystalline rocks, that have been described by so many
observers as fringing the coasts of Greenland, and underlying
the synclinal of palaeozoic rocks of the Parry Archipelago,
continue northwards, and form the shores of Smith Sound
on either side, occupying the entire coast of Ellesmere Land
from Cape Isabella to Cape Sabine, rising to a height of
2,000 feet.

At Port Foulke the syenitic and gneissic rocks are overlaid
by sandstone and conglomerate, the former largely rippled,
and probably of Miocene age, overlaid by sheets of basalt,
which have altered in some cases into porcellanite.

Cape Rawson Beds. — A vast series of azoic rocks,
newer than the fundamental gneiss, and probably unconform-
able to it, but older than the fossiliferous Silurians, occupy
the country between Scoresby Bay and Cape Creswell, in
lat. 8*2° 40' N., and probably represent in time the Huronian
of North America, but formed possibly in a different basin,
as they are not present in the Arctic Archipelago.

At Cape Eawson the strata are thrown into a series of
sharp anticlinal folds, which range W.S.W., are abruptly
terminated by sea-cliffs, as at Black Cape, Cape Union, and
other prominent headlands, and exhibit fine sections of jet-
black slates, in strong contrast to the frozen sea beneath and
the snow-clad slopes above.

Associated with the slates are beds of impure limestones
frequently traversed with veins of quartz and chert ; the
slates are sometimes exceedingly well cleaved, the planes of
cleavage being generally inclined at high angles, and more
rarely horizontal, their strike being N.N.E. to S.S.W. The
true dip of the slates is almost invariably at very high angles.
These beds give place further north to a vast series of
quartzites and grits, which commence in latitude 82° 33' :
they rise in Westward Ho ! Valley to ridges 3,000 feet in
height. An anticlinal axis passes through this valley and
carries down these strata beneath the carboniferous limestones
of Feilden Peninsula.

No. XV. GEOLOGY. ;JiHJ

Silurian Limestones. — Mural cliffs of limestone, with
conglomerate at the base, rise to a height of more than 1000
feet on the east coast of Bache Island. These beds at the
south end of Bache Island, as viewed from Buchanan Strait,
appear to rest on syenitic and granitoid rocks, and dip gently
to the N.N.W. as far as Victoria Head, where a landing was
effected and some fossils obtained : the mural cliffs, forming
the northern shore of the island, consist of this formation, and
correspond in direction to the strike of the strata.

The limestones of Norman Lockyer Island, lat. 79° 52' N.,
at the mouth of Franklin Pierce Bay, dip at a high angle to
the north. The south side of the island is a steep bluff rising
to 600 feet, glaciated at the top, in a north and south direc-
tion. To the north is a low shelving shore ; and between the
island and the mainland there is a fault bringing in the
basement conglomerate beds of Bache Island. It is well seen
at Cape Prescott, in Allman and Dobbin Bays, Cape Louis
Napoleon, and Hayes Point, as are the limestones, by which
it is overlaid.

A north-east anticlinal passing through Cape Hilgard
probably brings in older Silurian rocks, as some of the fossils
from this locality have been determined by Mr. Etheridge to
ba Lower Silurian forms : Maclurea magna, Receptaculites
occidentalis^ R. arctica, Eth. Several of these types appear
to have been previously brought from the Parry Archipelago,
where there is probably an unbroken sequence from the
Lower Silurian, through the Upper Silurian into the Devo-
nian, without any physical break.

The Cape Hilgard conglomerate appears to correspond in
time and position to the red sandstone and coarse grit under-
lying the Silurian limestones of North Somerset, which are
described as like those found between Wolstenholme and
Whale Sounds, West Greenland. Whether the Lower Silurian
horizon is that portion of the section lying between the lime-
stones and the conglomerate or grit bed, has not been clearly
made out either in Grinnell Land or in the Arctic Archi-
pelago; but this view is strongly supported by the fact that

330 APPENDIX. No. XV.

the basement beds in both areas indicate a period of denuda-
tion, shallow water, or at all events erosion of coast-lines,
that no older fossiliferous beds are known, and that the
conglomerate or grit bed rests directly on the fundamental
rock. Silurian limestones continued to Cape Norton Shaw :
both in this locality and at Cape Barrow they contain a
numerous assemblage of fossils, described in a very exhaustive
report by Mr. Etheridge.1 Amongst them may be mentioned
Favosites alveolaris, F. gothlandica, Favistella reticulata,
Halysites catenulatus, var* feildeni, Eth., Pentamerus
coppingeri, Eth.

On the northern side of Scoresby Bay the extension of
the limestone ceases, and the more ancient Cape Eawson beds
rise to day. Whether the line of junction is a fault, or a
natural boundary, is doubtful ; of whatever character it may
be, it is certain that it traverses Kennedy Channel, and
reappears on the opposite coast in Hall Land, where its
situation is determined within narrow limits, trending from
Polaris Bay to Newman Bay. These beds outcrop on the
north side of Thank God Harbour, and there is an exposure
of Silurian limestones at Cape Tyson and Offley Island to
the south : from this point southwards to the great Humboldt
glacier, the Silurians form the rock of the country, by way
of Petermann Fiord, Bessels Bay, Franklin and Crozier
Islands, and Capes Constitution and Andrew Jackson.

Dana Bay Beds. — Green slates associated with meta-
morphosed rocks belonging to the Cape Rawson beds are seen
on the slope below the carboniferous limestone on the neck
of Feilden Peninsula, but the boundary is doubtful, and may
be faulted.

On the south side of the valley in Dana Bay, at the head
of Porter Bay, the carboniferous limestone is repeated by a
strike fault, and the base is not seen.

A small exposure of fossiliferous beds was observed in a
torrent course, the fossils are referred by Mr. Etheridge to
the Devonian era ; but as the nature of the underlying rocks

' Journal Geological Soc.,' London, 1878.

No. XV. GEOLOGY. 331

could not be determined, it is doubtful whether these rocks
represent the ' Ursa stage ' of Heer, and whether they form
the base of the carboniferous limestone. Should it be even-
tually proved by future researches that the 6 Ursa stage ' is
absent, it would appear probable that these beds were
only deposited further south.

The rocks lying above the Silurian limestone of the
Arctic Archipelago occur in a synclinal trough or hollow,
ranging W.S.W. and E.N.E. from Banks Land through the
Parry Islands. At Byam Martin Island, M'Clintock describes
two sandstones, the one red, finely stratified, associated with
purple slate, resembling the red sandstone of North Somerset,
Cape Bunny, and that found between Wolstenholme and
Whale Sounds, W. Greenland ; and another, fine-grained,
greyish-yellow coloured, resembling the coal-bearing sand-
stone of Cape Hamilton, Bank's Land (Baring Island). It
contains numerous casts of a brachiopod, allied, according to
Dr. Haughton, to Terebratula (Atrypa\ primipilaris, Von
Buch (and to A. fallax of the carboniferous rocks of Ireland),
found abundantly at Gerolstein in the Eifel, now known as
Rhynchonella primipilaris. Associated with these later
sandstones are coal-seams striking E.N.E. to Bathurst Island.
The coals have a lignaceous texture, consisting of thin layers
of brown coal and jetty-black glossy coal, with a wooden ring
under the hammer.

The identity of genera and of some species of the flora of
the pre-carboniferous limestone ' Ursa stage ' with those of
the rocks of Europe, lying immediately above the limestone,
point to the equable and identical climate prevailing over
very large areas of the earth's surface, and to the local and
temporary character of the deep sea conditions expressed by
the formation of the mountain limestone, in the midst of a
long continental episode, marked by the first rich land flora,
in the earth's history, which can be traced both in the old world
and in the new, from 47° to 74° and 7 6° north lat., and which
was as fully developed beyond the Arctic Circle, as in Cent nil
Europe : the leaves of the evergreen tree Lepidodendra, and

332 APPENDIX. No. XV.

the large fronds of Cardiopteris frondosa, being as well
grown in the Arctic as those from the Vosges and the south
of Iceland.

Carboniferous Limestone. — Rocks of this age occur in
Feilden and Parry Peninsulas, on the north coast of Grinnell
Land, and extend as far west as Clements Markham Inlet,
attaining a height of more than 2,000 feet at Mount Julia,
and probably to still greater height in the United States
Range, which corresponds in direction with the strike of the
beds, and probably continues in a south-westerly direction,
across the whole of the tract lying between the limestones of
this age in the synclinal of the Parry Archipelago. Amongst
the fossils of Feilden Peninsula may be mentioned Productus
mesolobus, P. costatus, Spirifer ovalis, S. duplicate Zaph-
rentis like Cylindrica. It is worthy of note that, had the
strike of the above limestones changed in direction northwards,
it would probably have been noticed by the sledge parties
that examined the coast east and west of this tract, and that,
assuming the same strike continues over the Polar area, a
prolongation of the trend of these limestones would pass
through Spitsbergen, where this formation has been recog-
nized, and contains some identical species.

In the Carboniferous Limestones occur a group of cephalo-
poda, encrinites and corals, that, judging by their analogues
in the secondary rocks, would indicate a warm climate ; and
unless the corals, which all belong to the Palaeozoic types of
the Rugosa and Tabulata corals, had marvellous powers of
adaptation to different climates, they prove a more equable
climate in the world than exists at the present time, and
when taken with the fact that the plants of the ' Ursa stage '
of the Arctic regions lived before the deposition of the moun-
tain limestone in that area, and doubtless in other areas,
and reappeared in the coal measures overlying those limestones
in Europe and North America, the supposition that an equable
warm moist climate overspread a large surface of the globe
during the whole of the carboniferous era becomes something-
stronger than even a working hypothesis.

GEOLOGY. 333

The Arctic area and North Eastern America are marked by
an absence of Permian rocks ; and it is worthy of note that
the strata of this age, occurring in Kansas, consist of con-
glomerates, shales with fossils allied to those of the coal
measures, and beds of gypsum resting conformably on the
carboniferous, indicating shallow water, proximity of land,
and lacustrine or inland sea conditions. Our limited know-
ledge of the Arctic regions renders it doubtful whether the
absence of the Permian in the northern area indicates that,
after the deposition of the carboniferous limestone, the sea
bottom was upheaved, and formed continental land until the
Liassic era, or whether the coal measures, Permian and
Triassic strata, were deposited or afterwards denuded, before
the deposition of the lias resting on the carboniferous lime-
stone of Eglinton Isle. That the former sequence occurred
is supported by the absence of the Triassic strata in the
Parry Archipelago.

In America, the carboniferous rocks experienced a period
of physical disturbance, throwing them into folds and plica-
tions, happening in pre-triassic times as in England, the
trias lying on the upturned and denuded edges of the
American carboniferous.

There would appear to b3 little doubt that the dip observ-
able in the carboniferous limestone of the Parry Archipelago
was obtained before the deposition of the lias, which occurs
directly upon it at various levels ; and it would appear to
be more probable that the trias was never deposited over this
area, than that it had been formed and denuded away in the
era intervening between plication of the carboniferous and the
subsidence of the land beneath the liassic sea.

TERTIARY ROCKS. Miocene. — Resting unconformably on the
azoic schists of Water-course Bay, on the west side of Smith
Sound, in the vicinity of Discovery Harbour, where the
'Discovery' wintered 1874-6, occurs a bed of coal from twenty-
five to thirty feet in thickness, overlaid by fine-grained black
shale and sandstone from which plant remains were collected

334 APPENDIX.

by Feilden, these shales closely resembling those of Cape
Staratschin, in the ice fiord of Spitsbergen.

The strata are laid bare in a deep gully excavated by
the stream flowing across them, and are seen to dip towards
the east at ten degrees. Overlying the tertiary deposits
occur beds of fine mud and glacial drift, with well-preserved
shells of mollusca of species now living in the neighbouring-
seas, such as Saxicava and Astarte, which beds rise to a
height of no less than 1,000 feet above the sea-level, proving
a submergence of the lignite and plant-bearing beds to that
amount, and a subsequent re-elevation.

Beds with plant-bearing shales may possibly occur in
other parts of Grmnell Land not visited by the Expedition,
and those of Discovery Bay were not recognized until a
period which only permitted a few visits to that interesting
locality. However, a collection was made of thirty species, of
which eighteen are known to be common to the Miocene
deposits of the Arctic Zone, seventeen of them occurring in
Spitsbergen, and eight in Greenland ; the flora of the
Grinnell Land Miocene, therefore, more closely approximating
to that of Spitsbergen, lying 3° to 4° of latitude further south,
than to that of Greenland, situated 11° further south. Six
species are common to Europe, four to America (Alaska), two
to Asia.

The muddy shore of a sea or river is indicated by Equise-
turn arcticum, Hr.? of Grinnell Land and King Bay, Spits-
bergen, and, presuming it had a similar habitat, its nearest ally
to Equisetum limosum, Lin. Conifers in both these districts
hold the first place, four families with the species occurring in
Grinnell Land. Torellia rigida, Hr., must have been very
abundant ; it was previously only known, in a fragmentary
condition, from Cape Staratschin in Spitsbergen. It is
allied to the genus Phcenicopsis of the oolitic Brown Jura,
which forms a link between the Cordaites of the carboni-
ferous and the Torellia of the Arctic Tertiary.

Taxodium distichum miocenum is most abundant, and
well-preserved male flowers, resembling those of Spitsbergen,

No. XV. GEOLOGY. 335

occur, while the genus is now confined to Mexico and the
south of the United States.

The discovery of two twigs of the Norway spruce (Pinus
abics) with leaves, in Grrinnell Land, is of great interest, as
some meagre traces of it had previously been received from
Spitsbergen, and the species doubtless extended, in the previous
period, as far as the Pole, if at that epoch land extended so far.
The home of this tree was evidently in the north, and in Mio-
cene times it doubtless had not travelled as far south as Europe,
its first appearance being in the Norfolk Forest-bed, and the
interglacial lignites of Switzerland. Though now a principal
constituent of our forests, its extreme northern limit is in
Scandinavia, in latitude 69^° N., and from thence spreads over
twenty-five degrees of latitude, though confined in Miocene
times to the Arctic Zone ; while Taxodium distichum, now
confined to so small an area, in Miocene times overspread
the northern hemisphere from central Italy to 82° N.

The Monocotyledons, Phragmites oeningensis, Br., and
Car ex noursoakensis, Hr., of Grrinnell Land, Greenland, and
Spitsbergen, indicate damp localities with beds and sedges,
the former of a large size with narrow leaves and a mid-rib.

Six families of Dicotyledons occur, the more abundant
species being Populus arctica, Hr., which range through
the whole Arctic Zone. The presence of large specimens of
bark from Grrinnell Land of Betula prisca prove that trees of
the birch attained a considerable size. Leaves and fruit of
Betula brongniarti, Ett., could also be identified, the species
agreeing with the specimens from Spitsbergen.

The Grrinnell Land lignite indicates a thick peat moss,
with probably a small lake, with water lilies on the surface
of the water, and reeds on the edges, and birches and poplars,
and taxodias, on the banks, with pines, firs, spruce elms, and
hazel bushes on the neighbouring hills. Further research of
these remarkable beds would doubtless afford a rich harvest
of vegetable remains, and possibly those of a vertebrate
fauna, as well as of the insects that probably tenanted the
forest ; but at present the elytron of a beetle (Carabites
feildenianus, Hr.) attests their former presence.

336 APPENDIX. No. XV.

If lands formerly extended to the Pole, they were pro-
bably covered with these Arctic forests. The climatic dif-
ferences indicated by the flora of the north and west part of
Spitsbergen (King's Bay and Ice Fiord) to that of Disco
Island and Finmark are still more apparent in comparing
the latter with that of Grinnell Land, which indicates the
same conditions as Spitsbergen, which, though colder than
Disco, was evidently not Arctic, as the water lily proves
fresh water, water that must have remained open for th*
greater part of the year, and the Taxodium distichum can-
not be now got to grow unartificially in Christiania, and is
only maintained in northern Germaliy by cultivation.

Existing representative Arctic plants are wanting in the
Grinnell Land Miocenes, but most of the genera occurring in
them still exist within the Arctic Zone, but all of them have
their present limit, at least, from twelve to fifteen degrees
further south, only Equisetum, Carex, and Populus ex-
tending beyond 70° N. : of the remainder, Pinus abies ceases
at 69° 30' ; Pkragmites communis at 69° 45' in Finmark ;
Corylus avellana in 67° 56' ; Ulmus montana in 66° 59', and
cultivated to nearly 70° in Norway.

The writers are indebted to Professor Oswald Heer of
Zurich for the following determination of the fossil remains
from the Miocene shales of Grinnell Land : —

PLANTS.

Equisetum arcticum, Hr.
„ ccstatum, Hr.
Torellia rigida, Hr.

„ major, Hr.

„ bifida, Hr.

„ mossiana, Hr.
Thuites ehrenswardi, Hr. ?
Taxodium distichum miocenum.
Pinus feildeniana* Hr.

„ polaris, Hr.

N<>. XV. GEOLOGY. 337

Pinus abieSy Linn.

„ dicksoniana, Hr.

„ hayesiana, Hr.
Phragmites halliana, Hr.

„ ceninc/ensis, Al. Br.

Castinites articus, Hr.
Carex nourgsoakensis, Hr.
Tridium grcenlandicum, Hr. ?
Populus arctica, Hr.
Populus faddacki, Hr.

Betula prisca, Ett.

„ brongniarti, Ett.
Corylus macquarrii, Forbes.

„ in&ignis, Hr.
Ulmus borealis, Hr. (
Viburnum nordenskidldi> Hr.
Nymphcea arctica, Hr.
jPi^ia malmgreni, Hr.
Phyllites fagopyrinus, Hr.

INSECTA.
Carabites feildenianus, Hr.

Mr. R. J. Moss, F.C.S., has recently examined a specimen
of the coal from the winter-quarters of the ' Discovery,'
deposited in the Museum of Science and Art, Dublin, and
found it to possess the lustre and fracture of good bituminous
coal, to cake when heated, and to have 61 per cent, of coherent
coke. It contains : —

Carbon ...... 75-49

Hydrogen ...... 5*60

Oxygen and nitrogen. . . . 9 '8 9

Sulphur ...... 0-52

Ash ....... 6-49

Water .... . 2-01

100-00
VOL. II. Z

338 APPENDIX. No. XV.

Excluding water, sulphur, and ash, its compositions are :—

Carbon 82-97

Hydrogen 6-16

Oxygen and nitrogen . . . . 1087

100.00

Its ash contains 7*58 per cent, of potash, a quantity un-
usually large ; and Mr. Moss compares the chemical composi-
tion of the coal to the thick era of the carboniferous of
the Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia, and to a lignite of Miocene
age in the Island of Sardinia, containing 82*26 of carbon.1

The specific gravity of the Grrinnell Land coal is 1'3,
corresponding to those from Disco, though it differs in con-
taining so much larger an amount of carbon.

From the large number of analyses made by Mr. A.
Marvine of the U. S. Survey of the Territories of the Lignites
of the Western States,2 it appears they resemble the Grrinnell
Land coal in their compact character, black colour and
shining lustre, resembling that of bituminous coals ; the ash
is low, seldom reaching 6 per cent., while the sulphur is
generally less than 2 per cent. Volatile products evolved
below a dull red heat usually vary from 25 to 37 per cent.,
while fixed carbon lies between 45 and 60 per cent., indi-
cating qualities above those of ordinary European brown
coals or lignite, but containing less carbon than the true
bituminous coal of Grinnell Land.

The extensive tracts of Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks
ranging from the Grulf of Mexico to Vancouver Island, and
occupying so large an area in the centre of North America,
have been shown to consist of an unbroken sequence, without
any physical break, but contain a succession of distinct floras,
the details and relative age of which have been so ably worked

1 On the chemical composition of the coal discovered "by the Arctic
Expedition of 1875-6.— ' Scientific Proc. of the Royal Dublin Soc.,'
1877.

3 ' Report of the U. S. Geol. and Geog. Survey of the Territories/
Washington, 1874. p. 112.

No. XV. GEOLOGY. 339

q

Out in the magnificent volumes published by the U. S. Geo-
logical Survey of the Territories, containing the researches of
Professors Leo Lesquereux, Meek, Mudge, Drs. Hay den and
Newberry, and others.

The flora of the base of the Cretaceous of America, the
Dakota group, has much in common with the Greenland
Upper Cretaceous Flora, some of the twenty-eight species
determined by Prof. Heer being identical. The vast extent
and homogeneousness of the formation in America point to a
marine deposit, formed during a period of subsidence, followed
by a long stationary era, experiencing a land climate — dry,
and proportionally cold.

The marine forms, which occur in the Dakota group, and
which have so large a development in the overlying beds, are
absent in the Greenland beds, and the Lower Cretaceous flora
appears to be unrepresented in North America, pointing to a
long and unbroken continental epoch in the Arctic Circle,
ranging through the entire Cretaceous and Tertiary eras. In
the overlying American Eocenes occur types of plants, oc-
curring in the European Miocenes, and still living, proving
the truth of Professor Lesquereux's postulate that the plant
types appear in America a stage in advance of their advent
in Europe. These plants point to a far higher mean tem-
perature than those of the Dakota group, to a dense atmo-
sphere of vapour, and a luxuriance of ferns and palms. The
subtropical flora of the Eocene Tertiary lignitic group is
absent in the Arctic lands, though a certain amount of mingling
of temperate forms occurs ; these, however, come in great
force in.the overlying Lower Miocene beds, many of the species
being common to the Greenland and Mackenzie rocks of that
age, and some of them reappearing in the plants-bearing shales
of Grinnell Land ; the successive Miocene deposits pointing
to a gradual lowering of the mean temperature.

The American origin of the Miocene flora of Europe, as
Dr. Newberry points out, is strongly supported by the occur-
rence of the plant Onoclea sensibilis (Felicites hebridicus
of Forbes), discovered long ago by the Duke of Argyll in the

z '2

340 APPENDIX. No. XV.

leaf-beds of Mull in the American tertiaries ; and he suggests
that the temperate flora, which drove the warmer Eocene flora
to the south and east of Europe, travelled by way of Green-
land, Iceland, and the Hebrides.

In Miocene times the climate of Greenland and Alaska
was that of New York and St. Louis, while, in the succeeding
glacial era, the climate now existing in Greenland came
down to the latitude of New York, a cold temperate climate
prevailed in Mexico, into which the advancing cold forced
the herds of mammals which covered the plains of North
America, where they were nearly all exterminated.

Glaciation. — During the thaw produced by the short
episode of warmth that represents in the Arctic regions the
summer of other lands, sub-aerial denudation of the surface
of the cliffs takes place on a gigantic scale, vast masses of
rock fall from the cliffs, and form a talus concealing their
base, like the ' screes ' of the English Lake District.

On the close of the transient summer the rocks are satu-
rated with moisture, cleaved slate cliffs and the loose material
forming the ' screes ' being alike charged with water to their
utmost capacity ; without any warning or gradual approach
winter conditions appear, and the face of nature is changed
in a few hours ; moisture and running water are converted
into ice, which in process of expansion exercise a destructive
force on the rocks which is hardly comparable with the sub-
aerial denudation going on in more temperate climes ; and on
the first appearance of thaw, masses of rock, separating along
lines of weakness formed by planes of jointing and bedding,
are detached from the cliff, and falling on the snow-covered
6 screes ' slide down to the ice-foot beneath, the impetus being
often sufficient to carry them on to the floe, where they
remain until they are carried seaward on the general break-up
of the ice.

The ice-foot is built up not so much by the act of freezing
of the sea-water in contact with the coast, as by the accumu-
lation of the autumn snow-fall, which drifting to the beach is
met by the sea- water at a temperature below the freezing point

No. XV. GEOLOGY. 341

of fresh -water and instantaneously is converted into ice, and
forms a solid wall from the bottom of the sea upwards and
increasing in height as the snow falls.

When the ' season floe,' or young ice, is first formed there
is little difference in the level of the floe and that of the ice-
foot, but as the latter is constantly increasing in height,
while the former is daily oscillating with movement of the
tides, a junction of the two 'never takes place ; for the height
of the surface of the ice-foot above the level of high-water is
mainly dependent on the amount of snow-fall, while its
depth below that level is dependent upon the slope of the
sea-bottom anji the vertical range of the tides.

Like the beaches of more temperate regions, the ice-foot
is absent on exposed and projecting headlands, and it is best
developed in the sweeping curves and deeper bays of the
coast-line. Its typical aspect in Smith Sound is a flat
terrace 50 to 100 yards in breadth, stretching from the base
of the ' scree ' to the sea-margin, its width, varying with the
slope of the sea-bottom, decreasing in direct proportion to
the increase of the land slope.

When the solar rays exert their force, the snow forming the
upper layer of the ice-foot lying nearest to the ' scree ' is first
melted, owing to the dark surface of the talus absorbing heat,
and a deep trench is formed, which becomes filled with water,
received from the cliffs above, and derived from the melting
of the snow below ; these united streams soon cut deep
channels in the ice, and make their way to the sea through
transverse gullies, often exposing the rock beneath, which at
low-water become dry, but filled with sea-water on the
return of the tide, which rushing through the apertures
with great violence, sweeps right and left, occupies the
ditch at the face of the talus, and reasserts its materials.
These fall to the bottom, and form the old sea margins,
which, through the gradual rise of the land, form a cha-
racteristic series of successive terraces at various elevations up
to 200 or 300 feet, especially in sheltered bays and inlets,
and occasionally in positions where wave-action was impossible.

342 APPENDIX. No. XV.

These terraces were doubtless formerly much more continuous
than at present, later denudation having destroyed portions of
them ; but the numerous fragments that remain, preserved
by a protective snow mantle, are sufficient to show that they
were formed by the processes now in progress of operation.

The mud and sand-beds formed during the earlier stage
of upheaval are carried down by summer torrents, and dis-
charged into fiords and arms of the sea ; the heated and turbid
waters melting the floes lying around the delta, and causing
it to discharge its freight of stones and gravel into the mud-
beds beneath, into which also fall the shells of the mollusca
inhabiting the coast. These mud-beds on the upheaval of
the country are covered by stream-action with unfossiliferous
gravels, which, together with the mud-beds, often form a
thickness in the valleys of 200 or 300 feet.

The sequence of formation is constantly repeated as the
rise of the land gradually goes on ; the turbid matter in the
summer torrent is precipitated, the delta increases in thick-
ness, until the bay is silted up by a bar across it in great
measure thrown up by the irresistible pressure of the Polar
pack exerted on the floebergs, which buries them deep in the
soft material, and thrusts it up into a bar ; and the bay
becomes a lake. Upheaval continuing, the waters seek an out-
let ; a passage through the barrier is cut, the waters of the lake
are lowered, and expanses of mud, strewed with My a truncata,
Saxicava rugosa., Astarte borecdis, are exposed. This surface
during ten months of the year is frozen as hard as any rock, but
during the thaw episode is exposed to extensive denudation,
and its materials carried down to lower levels.

The molluscan fauna, found in the giacio-marine deposits
of Grinnell Land and North Greenland at various levels up
to 1,000 feet above the present sea-level, is practically identi-
cal with that now living in the neighbouring sea, and the
species Pecten groenlandicus, Mya truncata, and Saxicava
rugosa are alike most abundant in the modern seas, and in
the older mud-beds ; and it is especially worthy of note, as
indicating the comparatively modern elevation of this coast-

No. XV. GEOLOGY.

line, that stems of two species of Laminaria, which grow in
considerable abundance in the Polar sea, occur in the mud-
beds at elevations of 200 feet, still retaining their peculiar
sea-shore odour.

Coniferous wood, still retaining its buoyancy, occurs at ele-
vations of several hundred feet, of a precisely similar character
to that now being stranded on the existing coast-line. No
evidence was discovered in the mud-beds of Grinnell Land to
encourage the idea that any of these trees had grown in situ,
or that during the period occupied by the elevation of this tract
of country a thousand feet, it had experienced an interglacial
period during which such trees might have flourished.

Sea-ice moved up and down by tidal action, or driven on
shore by gales, was found to be a very potent agent in the
glaciation of rocks and pebbles ; the work was seen in
progress along the shores of the Polar Basin,1 ' at the south
end of a small island in BlackclitT Bay, lat. 82° 30' N., the
bottoms of the hummocks, some eight to fifteen feet thick,
were studded with hard limestone pebbles, which when ex-
tracted from the ice were found to be rounded and scratched
on the exposed surface only.'

On shelving shores, as the tide recedes, the hummocks,
sliding over the subjacent material down to a position of
rest, make a well-marked and peculiar sound, resulting from
the grating of included pebbles, with the rocky floor beneath,
or in some cases on other pebbles included in drift overlying
the rock.

The rock surface at considerable elevations, between gaps
in the lines of old terrace, is often found to be glaciated ; and
there can be little doubt that this glaciation was produced
by shore-ice, during ebbing of the tide, when the land stood
lower than at present ; and the condition of the terrace pre-
cludes the idea of glacier action.

The absence of an ice-cap in Grinnell Land, and the
paucity of the glaciers in that region, are worthy of note, none
descending to the sea-level north of 81° ; while on the same
1 Feilden's MSS. Journal.

344 APPENDIX. No. XV.

parallel on the opposite coast of Hall Basin, on the Greenland
coast, the country is ice-clad to the water's edge.

Petermann Fiord is described by Dr. Coppinger as
bounded by vertical cliffs, of fossiliferous (Silurian) limestone
rock, 1,100 feet in height, surmounted by an ice-cap, which
flows steadily over the cliffs, from which it hangs in gigantic
masses, which from time to time fall in a series of avalanches,
carrying with them rocks torn from the face of the cliff,
and precipitate them on the floe beneath.

The surface of the floe is traversed by deep wave-like
furrows, thirty feet in depth, moving obliquely across it,
and exceedingly difficult to traverse, especially where lateral
glaciers come in, and break the continuity of the ridges,
and separate them by wide fissures and gaps. The ice
brought down by these lateral gaps affects but little the
volume of the immense glacier flowing down from the eastern
country, which appears to have formerly filled the entire
valley.

The continuity of the molluscan fauna to the Grinnell
Land mud-beds with those now living on the coast, already
referred to, points to a uniformity of climatal conditions
prevailing, through a period marked by considerable physical
change, in the relative proportions of sea and land in the
North Polar area, changes which appear to have alike unin-
fluenced the molluscan fauna of the seas and the mammalian
fauna of the land ; the mud-beds having afforded bones of the
lemming (My odes torquatus), the ringed seal (Phoca his-
pida\ the reindeer, and the musk-ox* (Ovibos moschatus).

The greater precipitation of snow on the east coast of the
basin, and consequent greater size of the effluent glaciers,
and more extensive work of glaciation affected, appear to
have long gone on, and to have been formerly more important
than now ; but the conditions do not ever appear to have
been so rigorous as to preclude the existence of animals, and
the somewhat local character of the more extensive glaciation
is worthy of note, as throwing some light on the origin ' of
areas of no glaciation,' in portions of the British Isles, and as

]S7o. XV. GEOLOGY. 345

helping to explain the occurrence of a fauna in glacial
deposits, thought by some to indicate an interglacial episode
in the last British Glacial era.

We will not enter into the question whether the area,
embraced by the conditions which caused the glaciation of
Britain, included the Arctic area, nor as to the causes, geogra-
phical, astronomical, or physical, that led to it ; but we think
it worthy of note that no records of former glacial episodes
have yet been discovered in the Polar lands, which were
tenanted by the molluscs of the Silurian, Carboniferous,
Liassic, and Oolitic seas, and its land covered with the rich
vegetation of the ' Ursa stage,' and of the Cretacean and
Miocene eras.

The fauna and flora of the Arctic Palaeozoic and older
Secondary rocks point to a uniformity of conditions of temper-
ature, climate does not appear to have existed, in the ordinary
sense of the word, as temperature of the air affected by local
geographical conditions ; the striking uniformity of condition
appears to have been unbroken up to the close of the
Secondary Epoch.

346 APPENDIX. No. XVI.

No. XVI.

REPORT ON PETERMANN GLACIER.
BY RICHARD W. COPPINGEE, M.D.,

Staff Surgeon Royal Navy.

THE party under the command of Lieutenant Fulford, to
which I was attached, started from Thank God Harbour on
May 22, 1876, and on the second journey rounded Cape
Tyson and entered the fiord. On leaving Cape Tyson and
Offley Island, which were considered to mark the north-
east side of the mouth of the fiord, we saw some miles before
us an abrupt, precipitous wall of ice, extending in an ir-
regularly wavy but unbroken line from shore to shore.
When we had got about ten miles S.S.E. of Offley Island, the
young floe on which we had been travelling terminated, and
was connected through the intervention of a hummock hedge
with an old glassy-hummocked floe, over which we proceeded
until we reached the margin of the heavy ice above mentioned.
There at eleven and a half miles S.S.E. of Offley Island,
and about 1,000 yards from the high precipitous cliffs which
form the north-east shore of the fiord, we made our second
camp. The old floe on which we camped was rigidly con-
nected with the heavy ice ; in some places the precipitous
and cleanly- fractured face of the latter meeting the old floe
at a sharp right angle. On examining the surface of the
heavy ice, we found it to be totally different in character from
that of a floe. It was of glassy smoothness, and so slippery

Bo. XVI. REPORT ON PETERMANN GLACIER. 347

and uneven that walking (in the ordinary sense of the word)
was impossible, and to get along at all it was frequently
necessary to resort to crawling. The surface was thickly
studded with circular pits, about six inches deep, and from one
to eighteen inches in diameter, usually containing a little snow
and some dark powder. In general configuration the surface
of this ice was arranged for the most part in undulating ridges,
extending obliquely down the fiord in a northerly and southerly
direction ; but as a rule interrupted by wide fissures and
faults, so that few of the ridges were directly continuous for
a greater length than two miles. The height from crest to
furrow was usually about thirty feet, and the slope so steep
and slippery that in many places it was quite impracticable
to cross the ridges except by cutting steps, or some such con-
trivance. The furrows, as a rule, had a certain amount of
snow-bed, and so far as they went afforded good travelling ;
but where the ice was devoid of snow, not even a dog could
obtain foothold. It is not to be understood from the above
that the ice-surface was everywhere disposed in these great
ridges and furrows : for there were many patches from five to
six acres in extent of bare ice exhibiting an irregularly undu-
lating surface from thirty to thirty-five feet above the water-
level, and intersected by narrow fissures.

Having explored all the ice within a day's journey of this
camp, and found that by keeping for three-quarters of a mile
to the old floe, which sent a tongue under the north-east
cliffs, and taking to a furrow of the glacier ice for another
. three-quarters of a mile we could advance our position, we
packed up and proceeded.

Our third camp, reached on the 25th of May, was
thirteen miles from Offley Island and two hundred yards
from the north-east line of cliffs. Here Lieutenant Fulford
obtained ' sights ' for latitude. From four miles to the
northward of this position, these cliffs presented a vertical
face about 1,100 feet high, composed of alternating bands
of light-grey and dark slate-coloured fossiliferous limestone
rock, and from abreast our third camp, were surmounted by

348 APPENDIX. No. XVI.

an ice-cap, whose blue, jagged edge lying flush with the face of
the cliffs we estimated at a thickness of forty feet. The cliffs
of the south-west shore of the fiord presented a similar ice-cap,
but of greater extent, as it began about ten miles to the
southward of Cape Lucie Marie, i.e. on the south side of the
first glacier, and was continuous to the southward as far as
the cliffs were seen to extend.

From both sides the ice seemed to be flowing steadily over
the cliffs, as evidenced by frequent avalanches in which great
masses of the ice-cap projecting over the precipices became
detached, and carrying with them in their descent masses of
rock torn from the face of the cliffs, came thundering down
to the floe, marking their flight by dense clouds of snow, and
accompanied by a long series of echoes, creating a most grand
and imposing spectacle. Some idea of the force with which
these avalanches came down may be gathered from the fact
that large stones were projected on to the floe to a distance of
eighty yards from the foot of the perpendicular walls of rock.

At this third camp, the furthest position to which with
our disabled sledge and unsuitable equipments we could move
our baggage, we spent three days devoted to walking ex-
cursions. The greatest distance up the fiord to which we
could proceed was six miles from camp, and to attain this
distance we had to run some risks of falling through hidden
crevasses, and slipping from high ice slopes into water-
chasms ; so that we had to content ourselves with making our
furthest look-out point on the summit of an ice-pinnacle
eighteen and a half miles from Offley Island.

About one mile from us was the nearest glacier of the
north-east shore, two miles beyond it a second, and half a mile
further on a third. We had found, as we approached these
glaciers, that the main ice of the fiord became more and
more fissured, and that the faults in the continuity of the
ridges and the furrows were more frequent and embarrassing ;
but from the eminence now attained it seemed that these
glaciers were the nuclei of disruptions of the main ice, and
hence the progressively increasing difficulties of travelling.

No. XVI. REPORT ON PETERMANN GLACIKII. 349

Carrying the eye along the north-east line of cliffs, we saw the
land terminate abruptly about twenty miles off in a prominent
bluff, and from this point to a quarter of the way across the
head of the fiord no land was to be seen, but the same extra-
ordinary undulating sea of ice which, from the main ridges
lying in a north and south direction, would seem to be flowing
into the fiord in an east to west direction. The fact of our
distinctly seeing those ridges at so great a distance was
perhaps due to the gradual shoaling of the water up the
fiord, and the consequent rise in the elevation of the ice.

To the south-east a background of land about thirty miles
distant was clearly seen extending behind, and as it were
overlapping the apparent termination of the south-west line
of cliffs. The latter cliffs presented to the eye an appearance
almost precisely similar to that of the north-east cliffs, and
they seemed to correspond as if originally parts of the same
land. Both were of about equal height, were equally pre-
cipitous, presented the same arrangement of strata, the same
description of ice-cap ; and both were grooved by glaciers,
there being four on the south-west side and three on the
north-east side of the fiord.

When about a mile from the nearest glacier we came to
a wide fissure, about thirty yards broad, which seemed to
extend nearly across the fiord, and whose precipitous glassy
walls, fifty feet high from brink to water, we had no means
of descending. The bottom of this fissure was composed of
treacherous-looking, slushy ice, with a lane of dark water
two feet wide along the middle ; so that had we succeeded
in getting down we should probably have been unable to
cross. About this same locality were several narrow fissures,
some of which, from the very slippery nature of the ice, it
was difficult to avoid falling into. One of these, in a tolerably
level part of the ice, we found by measurement to be two
feet wide above, and twenty-three feet deep, from brink to a
probable false bottom of loose snow, on which the light weight
of our measuring line rested.

The ice seemed to be incessantly cracking. Wherever we

350 APPENDIX. No. XVI.

stood we heard about every half minute a noise varying
between the sharp crack of a whip and the report of a gun-
cap, resulting, as we soon discovered, from the formation of
thread-like cracks, many yards in length, which formed a
kind of network over the surface of the ice.

The behaviour of the water in the wide fissures was very
puzzling. It seemed to rise and fall to a certain extent
through the ice, but not enough to account for the whole
tidal movement ; and we were therefore inclined to believe
that the glacier ice was only aground at certain periods of
the tide, and that it consequently behaved in some respects
like a floe, and in others like grounded ice. Not being-
provided with a sounding line, no estimate of the depth of
any part of the fiord was made. However, to solve the
question as to the existence of a vertical tidal movement in
the ice, Lieutenant Fulford took a series of sextant angles
between the summit of the cliff adjoining our camp and a
marked spot on the ice, and observing at different periods of
the tide, came to the conclusion that there was a certain
amount of vertical motion.

Having failed to get up the fiord by the north-east side to
a greater distance than eighteen and a half miles from Offley
Island, Lieutenant Fulford decided on moving round by the
edge of the glacier ice to the opposite or south-west side, and on
trying there to discover a more practicable route than we had
hitherto encountered. In the latter attempt, however, we
were disappointed, for after travelling along the floe under
the south-west cliffs to a distance of thirteen miles from Cape
Lucie Marie, we found the glacier ice jammed right against
the face of the cliffs, and not affording anywhere a practicable
route for our sledge. Between the young floe and the glacier
ice was a well-marked tidal crack, which extended for three-
fourths of the way across the fiord, that is, as far as the young
floe and the glacier ice met without the intervention of an
old floe.

On the 3rd of June we commenced our return journey,
and stopping for one day at Offley Island, had opportunities

No. XVI. REPORT ON PETERMANN GLACIER. 351

of collecting specimens of Silurian fossils, and of observing
the glacial planings and scorings which this island exhibits
to a remarkable degree. These scorings run uniformly from
the summit of the island, at its north-east extremity to the
beach at the south-west end, grooving successive layers of
grey and black limestone. These layers of rock lie hori-
zontally ; both are fossiliferous, the grey abounding in fossil,
corals, and molluscs, the black containing corals, but to a
less extent. The north-east extremity presents an abrupt
precipitous face, 513 feet high, showing the same arrange-
ment of stratified rock as on the glaciated slope, and closely
corresponding with the appearance presented by the opposite
face of Cape Tyson, one mile distant. Subsequent obser-
vations at Cape Tyson showed that in geological formation it
closely corresponded with Offley Island.

It is manifest from the above that the results of the
Expedition have not been as decisive as could be wished, yet
I think enough has been done to justify us in concluding
that the Petermann Fiord is the outlet of a huge glacier
stream flowing probably from the eastward, to which the
glaciers flowing through the north-east and south-west cliffs
are insignificant tributaries, not adding materially to the
main volume of ice.

In several particulars this glacier presented features
deviating considerably from the general rule, which, although
already touched on in this Report, it may be as well to sum-
marise as follows : — 1. The absence of onward sliding motion,
probably due to the immobility of the floe in the mouth of
the fiord, the low gradient of the glacier, and the prolonged
cold season. 2. Its partial subjection to tidal influence for
more than a mile above the snout. 3. The absence of de-
tached bergs below the snout. 4. The diminutive height of
the terminal cliff, ranging from sixteen to thirty feet above
the sea-level. 5. The presence of water in the fissures two
miles above the snout, when the mean altitude was forty
feet. 6. The low gradient of the glacier.

352

APPENDIX.

No. XVII.

No. XVII.
GAME LIST.

LIST OF ANIMALS PROCURED IN SMITH SOUND AND NORTHWARDS BY
THE CREW OF H.M. SHIP 'ALERT,' BETWEEN JULY 28, 1875, AND
SEPTEMBER 8, 1876.

tft .

fe 8

^l*

O OJ "C "

-g b6-_§

O W r-

^ § ^^-

^ ^^

Species

IP

pi

If

Total

Fox ( Vulpes lagopui)
Seal (Plioca hispida)

1

3
1

1
6

4

8

Walrus (Trichecus fosmarus) .

2

—

—

2

Hare (Lepus glacialis)

8

20

35

63

Musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus)

12

6

—

18

Ptarmigan (Lagopus rupestris)

7

17

10

34

Eider-duck (Somateria spectabilis

and mollissima} ....

58

16

25

99

Long- tailed duck (Harelda glacialis)

—

9

1

10

Brent goose (Berniola brenta) .

75

132

207

Dovekie ( Uria grylle)

7

2

4

13

No. XVII.

GAME LIST

353

LIST OP ANIMALS PROCURED IN SMITH SOUND BY THE CREW OP H.M,

SHIP 'DISCOVERY,' BETWEEN JULY 28, 1875, AND SEPTEMBER 8, 1876.

If!

*l

,

I'l

Species

|||

iSo-

o ^

3|

|||

Total

1"

^1

&

*l*

Fox ( Vulpes lagopus)
Seal (PJioca barbata')

i

4
4

3

!

4
9

Seal (Plwca kispida)

i

5

9

1

16

Hare (Lepus glacialis)

9

139

5

—

153

Reindeer ( Cervus tarandus)

1

—

—

—

1

Musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus) .

—

44

1

—

45

Ptarmigan (Lagopus rupestrix)

1

13

4

—

18

Eider duck (Sornateria spectabilis

and mollissima) ....

4

9

6

—

19

Long-tailed duck (Harelda gladalis')

—

6

—

—

6

Brent goose (Bernicla brenta) .

—

56

26

—

82

Dovekie (Uria grylle)

1

—

8

—

9

VOL. II.

A A

354

APPENDIX.

METEOROLO

The temperature of air is recorded in degrees of Fahrenheit. The ' hours of w
recorded wind and weather lasted. In the column headed ' strong wind ' is si
measure for a ' strong breeze ; ' force 7 indicating a ' moderate gale.' b.c. i

Yearly .

THERMOMETI

:a

BAROMETER

Date

Maximum

Minimum

Mean

Maximum

Minimum

Inches

Inches

August 1875-76

+ 44-0

+ 24-5

+ 31-913

30-062

29-190

September 1875

+ 36-5

+ 0-2

+ 15-603

30-219

29-211

October „

+ 21-2

-32-2

- 4-987

30-533

29-490

November „

f23-0

-45-7

-16-847

30-824

29-691

December „

+ 35-0

-46-5

-22-115

30-522

28-979

January 1876

+ 8-5

-59-2

-32-916

30-205

29015

February „

+ 2-0

-66-5

-37-975

30-478

29-224

March

- 8-0

-73-75

-39-768

30-527

29-569

April

+ 15-0

-46-5

-17-963

30-649

29:802

May

+ 32-5

-14-9

+ 11-212

30-370

29-372

5

June „

+ 44-0

+ 18-2

+ 32-455

30-104

29-379

j

July

+ 50-0

+ 29-0

+ 38-356

29-890

29-004

(t

366 days .

+ 50-0

-73-75

- 3-473

30-824

28-979

2

Proportion .

—

—

—

—

. —

Yearly J-.

THERMOMETER

BAROMETER

Date

Maximum

Minimum

Mean

Maximum

Minimum

Inches

Inches

I

August 1875-76

+ 41-0

+ 26-0

+ 32-72

30-352

29-485

2

September 1875

+ 43-0

+ 2-4

+ 18-52

30-352

29-338

2

October „

+ 21-5

-39-0

- 9-79

30-545

29-437

2

November „

+ 19-0

-46-0

-18-41

30-877

29-741

3

December „

+ 26-0

-54-0

-24-54

30-569

28-995

9

January 1876

-13-0

-63-0

-40-64

30-253

29-101

2

February „

+ 2-0

-62-0

-35-00

30-506

29-140

2

March „

- 8-0

-70-8

-37-05

30-580

29-561

3

April „

+ 13-0

-42-5

-17-27

30-729

. 29-759

3

May

+ 33-6

-20-5

+ 10-04

30-350

29-411

2

June „

+ 41-0

+ 16-5

+ 32-50

30-051

29-379

2

July

+ 46-3

+ 29-6

+ 37-21

29-887

29-043

2

366 days .

+ 46-0

-70-8

- 4-232

30-877

28-995

2

Proportion .

—

—

—

—

—

METEOROLOGICAL ABSTRACT.

355

I
RACT.

)f weather ' are the relative number of hours in each month daring which the
of hours the force of the wind reached to or exceeded force 6, the nautical
y with detached clouds.

'Alert,' 1875-76.

HOURS OF WIND

HOURS OF WEATHER

Aver-

|

age
hourly

f|

1

Snow

• Mer-

*.E.

E.

S.E.

s.

s.w.

w.

N.W.

N.

force

1*

b.c. 0^

i

Fog

or
Rain

cury
frozen

94

60

42

104

104

37

17

20

1-4

25

476

268

49

74

8

6

30

21

192

39

227

29

2-2

111

218

502

36

173

—

8

10

36

16

46

84

144

46

0-8

—

346

398

136

178

—

1

1

36

27

66

61

183

44

1-0

10

566

154

25

29

35

24

34

65

35

211

75

0-9

2

586

158

54

140

46

11

3

12

75

63

28

175

54

1-3

45

697

47

7

58

286

6

10

6

24

51

17

198

56

1-25

52

543

153

14

67

398

17

22

50

26

59

22

237

48

1-1

20

644

100

37

46

285

27

8

40

13

10

11

191

128

0-8

—

450

270

—

61

10

8

12

28

22

108

172

94

1-0

12

304

440

—

180

—

12

14

22

2

140

38

204

80

1-7

122

410

310

22

168

—

10

34

54

74

74

28

128

136

1-2

17

424

320

34

118

—

02

175

352

444

892

508

2,087

810

1-2

616

5,664

3,120 414

1,292

1,060

•02

0-02

0-04

0-05

0-10

0-06

0-24

0-09

—

0-07

0-65

0-35 0-05

0-16

0-12

•Discovery; 1875-76.

HOURS OF WIND

HOURS OF WEATHER

Maxi-

mum
force

H

Over-

Snow

Mer-

*.E.

E.

S.E.

S.

S.W.

W.

N.W.

N.

&*

b.c.

cast

Fog

Rain

frozen

17

24

53

117

77

10

8

32

8

34

521

223

29

28

_

40

16

20

80

100

16

52

76

7

16

308

412

80

120

—

40

8

—

4

20

4

44

20

4

—

504

240

—

144

—

10

20

29

1

1

13

f>4

112

1

—

624

96

4

68

32

44

32

4

8

8

12

32

8

12

596

148

16

92

194

28

20

8

8

24

72

2

—

608

136

—

92

472

86

13

12

9

21

14

56

34

10

23

509

187

—

66

352

44

28

20

16

4

20

40

8

4

612

132

—

72

280

20

16

8

8

16

8

8

16

3

—

600

120

—

90

4

24

16

20

44

8

4

—

76

8

12

628

116

—

44

—

60

12

68

100

44

—

4

16

8

56

544

176

—

48

—

4

12

40

100

40

12

12

4

6

10

476

268

16

80

—

123

169

302

491

351

101

304

530

—

167

6,530

2,254

145

944

1,334

)-05 0-02

0-03

0-06 0-04

0-01

0-04

0-06

—

0-02

0-74

0-26

0-01

0-11

0-15

A 2

350 APPENDIX. No. XIX.

No. XIX.

ABSTRACT OF RESULTS OBTAINED FROM THE
TIDAL OBSERVATIONS

MADE Off BOARD H.M. SHIPS ' DISCOVERY' AND ' ALERT ' IN 1875-6.

BY THE REV. SAMUEL HAUGHTON, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.

Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin.

THE tidal observations made during the recent Arctic Expe-
dition were of great value, and confirm the opinion, formed
on other grounds, that Greenland is an island.

During seven months (twenty-eight days each) on board
the 'Discovery' at Bellot Harbour, lat. 81° 45', long. 65° W.,
hourly observations were made, broken by interpolations in
six days only.

On board the ' Alert,' near Cape Sheridan, lat. 82° 25',
long. 61° 30' W., the difficulties of observation were greater,
owing to the more exposed position of the ship; notwithstand-
ing which, two months of hourly observations (with inter-
polations in fifteen days) were secured; and these hourly
observations were supplemented by valuable determinations
of the times of high and low water, and by four hourly ob-
servations made at other times.

The expedition, proceeding northwards up Smith Sound,

No. XIX. ABSTRACT OF TIDAL OBSERVATIONS. 357

met the tide coming from the north, at or near Cape Frazer,
lat. 79° 40', and left behind the tides of Baffin's Bay.

The new tidal wave, observed on board both ships, is speci-
fically distinct from the Baffin's Bay tide, and from the tide
that enters the Arctic Ocean through Behring's Straits ; and
it is, without question, a tide that has passed from the Atlan-
tic Ocean, round Greenland, northwards, and then westwards.

The ' Discovery,' being situated nearer to the head of the
tide (Cape Frazer) than the ' Alert,' had experience of a
much larger tide, and it is in every way fortunate that her
officers succeeded in making so complete a series of obser
vat ions.1

The following is a summary of the principal results.

I. ' DISCOVERY.' BELLOT HARBOUR.

The apparent Lunitidal interval (full and change of moon)
ranges from llh 00m to 12h 00™, and has a mean value

im= llh 34m 8

corrected for the moon's motion in the interval from the
passage of the meridian of Greenwich.

In the discussion of the tide, which is being prepared for
publication in the ' Transactions of the Royal Society,' the
Semidiurnal Tide is separated from the Diurnal Tide, and its
constants carefully determined. Contrary to what is found
in the Baffin's Bay tide, the Diurnal Tide is very small, so
that much the largest part of the apparent tide is composed
of the Semidiurnal Tide, and in this respect it closely resembles
the tides of the British coasts, which are an eastern Atlantic
tide.

This is well shown in the following table, which gives
the apparent maximum Spring range, and minimum Neap
range of the tide at Bellot Harbour ; contrasted with the

1 I believe that the credit of these observations is mainly due to
Lieutenant Archer, who was aided by Dr. Coppinger as a volunteer.

358

APPENDIX.

No. XIX.

No. XIX. ABSTRACT OF TIDAL OBSERVATIONS. 359

360

APPENDIX.

Xo. XIX.

Semidiurnal maximum Spring range and minimum Neap
range.

Date

APPARENT RANGE

SEMIDIURNAL RANGE

Springs

Neaps

Springs

Neaps

1875

Inches

Inches

Inches

Inches

September 16

78-0

—

76-0

-—

23

—

26-0

—

17-8

30

73-0

—

67-6

—

October 8

15-5

ll'O

15

79-0

—

• 78-4

—

22

—

31-5

—

20-8

28

66-0

__

66-6

—

November 6

— .

20-0

—

15-2

14

79-5

—

74-6

—

20

—

34-0

—

27-3

28

65-0

55-6

—

December 6

—

32-0

__

25-5

13

73-0

—

69-4

-

21

- —

34-5

—

30-2

29

66-0

__

55-8

—

1876

January 5

—

41-0

—

31-8

13

77-0

—

74-0

—

20

—

25-5

—

20-7

28

71-5

—

64-0

—

February 5

—

33-0

—

27-9

11

83-0

—

80-2

—

18

—

21-5

—

9-6

27

78-5

—

76-8

—

March 4

—

27-5

—

23-5

12

84-0

—

79-6

—

19

—

20-0

—

11-6

27

—

—

83-0

—

In the accompanying diagram, I have plotted the fourth
and fifth columns of the preceding table, as follows : —

a a is the range of Spring tides following the new moon.

of of is the range of Spring tides following the full moon.

A A is the mean of the two foregoing curves.

b b is the range of Neap tides following the moon's first
quarter.

b' b' is the range of Neap tides following the moon's
third quarter.

B B is the mean of the two foregoing curves.

No. XIX. ABSTRACT OF TIDAL OBSERVATIONS.

The space between a a and a' a' represents the Lunar
Parallactic Tide deduced from Spring tides, and the space
between b b and b' b' represents the Lunar Parallactic Tide
deduced from Neap tides.

The range of the Lunar Parallactic Tide deduced from each
is sixteen inches.

The curves A A and B B show the semiannual variation of
the Lunisolar fortnightly tide cleared of lunar parallax.

II. 'ALERT.' CAPE SHERIDAN.

The apparent Lunitidal interval (full and change of
moon) observed on board the ' Alert' was —

22h 37m.

The following table shows the relation which the apparent
Spring and Neap tides bear to the calculated Semidiurnal
Spring and Neap tides, and shows, as before, that the chief
tide is the Semidiurnal : —

Maximum Spring and Minimum Neap Tides. — Range in Inches.

Date

Apparent

Semidiurnal

1875

Inches

Inches

September 30

30-0

30-0

October 14

28-5

32-8

22

12-5

9-0

December 14

, 36-5

31-0

21

17-5

13-6

29

29-5

25-0

INDEX.

ACA

A CARIDEA, ii. 238

J\. Admiralty, Lords Commis-
sioners of, their approval of the
conduct of the Expedition, ii. 186

Agrarians feildeni, ii. 320

Albert Mountain, i. 62, 106, 333

Alca bruennichi, i. 22, 25

— torda, i. 22
- troile, i. 22

Aldrich, Lieut., i. 18, 63, 90, 135,
138, 141, 146-155, 173, 187, 195,
211, 254, 266, 283, 302, 314, 315,
320, 321, 350-354, 359 ; ii. I, 3,
8-10, 46

— his four days' journey, i. 141

— extract from journal of, i. 155

— on the western sledge-journey,
ii. 10-48

« Aldrich's Farthest,' ii. 48
« Alert,' H.M.S., list of officers and
men of. i. ix.

— departure of, i. 1

— gales experienced by, i. 4, 5

— caught in the pack, i. 75 ; ii. 129

— winter-quarters of. i. 129

— ventilation of, i. 181

— return home of, ii. 81, 185

— animals procured by crew of, ii.
352

— abstract of meteorological ob-
servations made by officers of,
ii. 354

- tidal observations made on
board of, i. 356

Alexandra Haven, i. 67

Alfred Newton Glacier, ii. 174

Alere, ii. 61

Ale-ae— Results of the Expedition,
ii. 323

All man, Dr. G. J., on Hydrozoa col-
lected by the Expedition, ii. 290

ARC

Allman Bay, i. 86, 163-!69

Alpheidas, ii. 242

Ampharetidae, ii. 258

Amphictenidae, ii. 258

Amphipoda, ii. 244

Amusements of the travellers, i.
189, 192, 263, 322

Ancient settlements near Etah,i. 54

Androsace septentrionalis, ii. 140,
303

Animals procured in Smith Sound,
&c., ii. 352, 353

Annelida— Results of the Expedi-
tion, ii. 257

Annelids, i. 110

Antedon Eschrichtii, i. 84

Appetite, temporary loss of, by the
travellers, i. 225

Arachnida — Results of the Expedi-
tion, ii. 234, 238

Araneidea, ii. 238

Archer, Lieut., i. 284, 303, 304, 308,
332-334

Archer Fiord, i. Ill

Arctic and Alpine fauna and flora,
theory respecting-, ii. 239

Arctic circle, a star crossing the, i.
150

crossing the, i. 13 ; recrossing,

ii. 184

— dresses. See Clothing;

— Expedition, public interest in
the, i. 2

— ' heds'e-rows,' i. 233

— 'Highlanders,' i. 30, 42 ; ii. 180,
187

— navigation, i. 116

— scenery, i. 152

— ships, i. 179

— vegetation. See Vegetation
Arcturus, ii. 53

364

INDEX.

ARG

Argynnis, i. 71 ; ii. 235

Army Fiord, i. 127

Arthur's Seat, i. 295

Arve Prins Island, i. 22, 24

'Assistance,' the, i. 225

Astarte, i. 110; ii. 334

Asteroidea, ii. 262, 264

Atanekerdluk, i. 25

Atlantic, first days in the, i. 3

Auks, i. 39, 43, 47, 63 ; ii. 152, 184,

215

Aurora, i. 186, 198
Austin's Expedition, i. 45
Autumn travelling on the ice, i.

149, 170

Ayles, A., i. 150, 155 ; ii. 9, 27-53
Azalea procumbens, i. 17

BACHE ISLAND, i. 61-74: ii.
171

Baffin's Bay, i. 9, 21, 48, 51, 71, 72,
95, 123, 139, 203; ii. 114, 175,
180, 181

Balaena mysticetus, i. 7, 71 ; ii. 197
Balanidas, ii. 247

Banks raised by ice-pressure, i. 247
Banks' Island, ii. 151

— Land, i. 79, 124
Bantry Bay, i. 2, 3
Barden Bay, ii. 178
Barometer, rise and fall of, on the

Atlantic, i. 4
Basalt of Ovifak, i. 18
Bay of Mercy, i. 124 ; ii. 151
Beard, frozen, i. 280
Bears, i. 40, 93, 102, 224, 343 ; ii.

188, 195

* Bear scares,' i. 224
Beatrix Bay, i. 333
Beaumont, Lieut., i. 273, 284, 298,

302-306, 313, 316, 338-340 ; ii. 8,

47-51, 82-85, 97, 127, 131, 135,

140, 141

— account by, of his sledge- journey,
ii. 84, 87

— account by, of his journey across
Hall's Basin, ii. 135

Beechey, Captain, i. 79
Behring's Straits, i. 80 ; ii. 151
Belcher, Sir E., i. 225 ; ii. 48, 75
Bellot Harbour, ii. 357

— Island, i. 117, 334 ; ii. 84, 131-145

— Straits, i. 234

Belts of hummocks, i. 357

BUT

Berkeley, Rev. M. J., on Fungi col-
lected by the Expedition, ii. 319

Bernicla brenta, ii. 352, 353

Berthon boats, i. 20

Bessels, Dr., i. 52 ; ii. 125, 206

Bessels Bay, i. 107-114 ; ii. 147

Betula nana, i. 29

Beverley Cliffs, i. 42

Bicellariadaa, ii. 284

Bird, Admiral E., i. 155

Birds, i. 272, 386 ; ii. 5, 33, 48, 52, 206

— non-migration of, further north
than Cape Joseph Henry, ii. 48

Black Cape, i. 27, 280, 285, 296,
330; ii. 72, 77, 78, 88, 116

- Cliff, ii. 53

Bay, i. 156; ii. 9

— Horn Cliffs, ii. 92
Blood-spitting by the travellers, i.

237

Bluebottle flies, ii. 143
Boats, collapsible, i. 315

— for sledge-crews, i. 254

— white-painted, objection to, i. 276
Bolbroe, Gov., ii. 183

Bombus, i. 71 ; ii. 235

Botany — Results of the Expedition,

ii. 301

Brachiopoda, ii. 233
Brady, Dr. G. S., on the Ostracoda

collected by the Expedition, ii.

253

— Mr. H. B., on the Foraminifera
collected by the Expedition, ii. 295

Branchipodidas, ii. 240
Breath, vaporisation of, i. 250

— shortness of, i. 236
Brent-geese, i. 347 ; ii. 4, 52, 53, 71,

73, 124, 129, 130, 216, 352, 353
Brenta Bay, ii. 130
Brevoort Island, i. 58-62 ; ii. 174
Brine at a low temperature, i. 177
Brother John's Glacier, i. 53
Brown Islands, i. 37
Bryant, G., i. 52, 272, 297, 298; ii.

96
Buchanan Sound, i. 68

— Strait, i. 65, 73 ; ii. 173
Buddington, Captain, i. 125 ; ii. 5
Buds on unprotected plant, i. 238
Bull, Cow, and Calf Rocks, i. 3
Burgomasters, i. 45

Busk, Mr. G., on the Polyzoa col-
lected by the Expedition, ii. 283
Butterflies, i. 71 ; ii. 143, 236

INDEX.

365

CAB

CABLE, chain, contraction of, i.
226

Cairns, i. 45-59, 81, 85, 88, 122, 165,
240, 327, 336, 337, 343 ; ii. 2, 104,
107, 143, 153, 162, 174
Calidris arenaria, i. 329 ; ii. 207
Cape Acland, i. 48
— Albert, i. 70, 73 ; ii. 162, 168, 172

— Albert Edward, ii. 19

— Aldrich, i. 373 ; ii. 16

- Alexander, i. 48, 50, 54 ; ii. 157

— Alexandria, ii. 19

— Andrew Jackson, i. 105

— Atholl, ii. 180

- Back,i. Ill

— Baker, ii. 172

- Baird, i. Ill ; ii. 138, 139, 145
-Beechey, i. 112, 117-121, 291,

292; ii. 123, 126-132

— Belknap, i. 329 ; ii. 73

— Bellot, i. 53, 112

— Bicknor, ii. 25

- Brevoort, i. 305, 317, 337, 340 ;
ii. 72, 125

— Britannia, i. 325 ; ii. 47, 72, 105

— Bryan, i. 106, 111

- Bryant, ii. 47, 72, 98, 106

- Buttress, ii. 99-103

— Camperdown, i. 73

- Cleaveland, ii. 99

— Golan, i. 321 ; ii. 3, 11, 12, 36

— Collinson, i. 101, 102 ; ii. 149

- Columbia, ii. 11-18, 24, 33

— Constitution, i. 104, 105

— Cracroft, ii. 72

— Defosse, i. 107, 111

— Desolation, i. 8, 15 ; ii. 151
-D'Uryille, i. 86; ii. 166

- Fanshawe Martin, ii. 24

- Faraday, i. 48

- Farewell, i. 6-11

- Frazer, i. 21, 92-101, 123 ; ii.
125, 150-153

— Frederick VII., i. 120, 121, 288,
295, 332 ; ii. 123

- Fulford, ii. 98, 99, 105

- Harrison, i. 81

— Hatherton, i. 55

- Hawks, i. 74, 85-87 ; ii. 159, 160-
162, 168

- Hay, i. 79

- Hayes, i. 92 ; ii. 154, 156, 162,
169

— Hecla, ii. 11

— Hercules, i. 352

CAB

Cape Hilgard, i. 89, 91 ; ii. 156

- Isabella, i. 53-58, 255 ; ii. 129,
166, 172-177

— James Good, ii. 14

— John Barrow, i. 98 ; ii. 150

— Joseph Good, ii. 147, 149

— Joseph Henry, i. 130, 131, 142,
148-150, 154, 169, 172, 252, 283,
302, 308, 313-330, 344, 353-358,
380, 383, 386; ii. 1, 8-11,47, 48,
73, 74

— Lawrence, ii. 146

- Lieber, i. 106-112 ; ii. 68, 137,
138, 146

- Louis Napoleon, L 92; ii. 155
-Lupton, i. 106, 111, 112, 203,

339; ii. 72, 116, 131, 136

— M'Clintock, ii. 150

— Mary Cleverley, i 111

— Morton, i. 107-110

- Murchison, i. 117-119 ; ii. 141

- Napoleon, i. 90, 91 ; ii. 155

— Norton Shaw, i. 100 ; ii. 150

— Ohlsen, i. 50, 55

— Parry, i. 359

— Prescott, i. 81, 84 ; ii. 169

— Powlett, ii. 178

— Rawson, i. 138, 140, 146, 164,
188, 194, 217, 225, 228, 232, 241-
244, 271, 272, 276, 285, 296, 297,
306 ; ii. 52, 67, 70-72, 77, 88

beds, ii. 328

— Kichards, ii. 23

— Richardson, i. 172, 298, 328,347;
ii. 2-5, 45

— Sabine, i. 51-70, 123 ; ii. 166,
172, 174

— Schott, i. 88, 90

— Sheridan, i. 127-138, 145-147,
164, 167, 187, 188, 220; ii. 65-73,
361

-Stanton, i. 304, 305, 316, 317;

ii. 72, 92-94
— Stephenson, ii. 22

— Stevens, ii. 172

— Sumner, i. 337 ; ii. 124

— Tyson, i. Ill

- Union, i. Ill, 121-126, 146, 249,
288, 312; ii. 71, 72, 114-123

— Victoria, i. 73, 74, 78, 80, 85 ; ii.
168, 171, 176

- York, i. 21, 37-46, 51; ii. 166, 180
Carabites feildenianus, ii. 335, 337
Carboniferous limestone, ii. 332
Carl Ritter Bay, i. 53, 111 ; ii. 146

366

INDEX.

CAR

Carnivora, ii. 192

Carrier-pigeons, i. 6, 199

— error respecting, i. 6

Carter, Mr. H. J., on Sponges col-
lected by the Expedition, ii. 293

Cary Islands, i. 21, 42-48 ; ii. 175,
177, 180

Cassiopeia tetragona, i. 16

Caterpillars, ii. 143

Celleporidae, ii. 288

Cellulariadae, ii. 283

Cerastium alpinum, ii. 78, 311

Cervus tarandus, ii. 353

Cetacea, ii. 197

Chastognatha, ii. 259

Chgetomium glabrum on the cabin-
walls of the « Alert,' ii. 320

Charr, i. 329 ; ii. 70, 71

Cheilostomata, ii. 283

Chester, Mr., i. 336

Chimney, frozen, i. 179

Christmas Day, i. 210

Chronometers, i. 20, 34, 39, 77, 340

Cirripedia, ii. 247

Clements Markham Inlet, ii. 11, 62

Climate in relation to hill-sides, i.
26

— difference of, in the Waigat, i. 27

— of Hartstene Bay, i. 55

— effect of, on animal life, ii. 299

— warmer, indications of past ex-
istence of, ii. 331-338

Clothing of the travellers, i. 19, 183.

206, 226, 273, 276, 279, 301, 309 ;

ii. 53
Clouds, unusual appearance of, i.

231
Coal for the 'Valorous,' i. 21

— weekly consumption of, i. 202
Coal in vicinity of Discovery Har-
bour, ii. 333-338

Coal-beds near Cape Murchison, ii.

141, 142

Coal-mines of the Waigat, i. 24
Cochlearia officinalis, i. 46 ; ii. 311
Cocked-hat Hill, i. 66
Colan, Dr., i. 94, 168, 176, 187, 194,

201, 211, 231, 269, 314, 315, 318 ;

ii. 50, 70
Cold, first experience of, i. 134

— extreme degree of, i. 263

— effect of, on quicksilver of
glasses, i. 297

Coleoptera, ii. 235
Colias, i. 71 ; ii. 235

DAL

Collembola, ii. 238

Collinson, Admiral Sir R., i. 80, 124

Colour, green, of the sea, ii. 149

Colymbus, i. 40 ; ii. 215

Comatulse, i. 84

Committee for inquiring into causes

of outbreak of scurvy, i. 259
Compass in the crow's-nest, i. 38
Complexion, effect of climate on,

ii. 67

Conchifera, ii. 229
Conical Hill, i. 383, 390 ; ii. 40

— Rock, i. 44, 46
Coniferous wood, ii. 343
Contraction of ice. See Ice
Conybeare, Mr., i. 2, 284, 332-335 ;

ii. 53

Conybeare Bay, i. 333
* Cooper Key -Mountains,' i. 359

' Peak,' ii. 18

Copepoda, Oceanic — Results of the

Expedition, ii. 249

— parasitica, ii. 247
Copes Bay, ii. 171

Coppinger, Dr. R. W., i. 90, 284,
302-306, 313, 316, 336-343; ii.
82-86, 91-96, 111-113, 137, 139,
165

— on the cairn of Captain Hall, i.
336, 337

— on his journey through M'Cor-
mick Pass, i. 340

— report by, on Petermann Glacier,
ii. 346

Cottns, i. 19 ; ii. 218
Cracking noise of the ice, i. 197
Cracks in the ice, i. 364, 381 ; ii. 67
Craig, J., ii. 103-112

— P., ii. 100
Crangonidas, ii. 241
Crinoidea, ii. 262, 280
Crinoids, i. 84

« Crossing Floe,' i. 272, 273 ; ii. 77
Crozier, i. 124

Crozier Island, i. 104; ii. 10, 32
Crustacea, i. 376 ; ii. 53

— Results of the Expedition, ii. 240
Cryolite, i. 6

Ctenostomata, ii. 289
Cyclopterus spinosus, ii. 219
Cyclostomata, ii. 288
Cylichna, ii. 54

D

1ALY Peninsula, ii. 84, 132, 144,
145

INDEX.

367

UAL

Daly Mountains, i. Ill

— Promontory, i. Ill
Dana Bay beds, ii. 330

Danes, kindness of, to the Eskimo,
i. 33

Danish settlements, disease amongst
dogs in, i. 175

Darkness, great degree of, i. 199,223

Davis Strait, i. 9, 17 ; ii. 184

Dean Hill, i. 275

Decapoda, ii. 241

Depot Point, i. 351. 352

De Eance, Mr. C. E., on the geo-
logical structure of the coasts of
Grinnell Land and Hall Basin,
ii. 327

Devil's Thumb, i. 39 ; ii. 181

« Diamond Dust,' i. 299

Diastoporidie, ii. 288

Diatomacege, yellow colour of ice
due to, i. 378

— colour of water affected by,
ii. 152

— Kesults of the Expedition, ii. 323
Diatoms, i. 11

- beyond lat. 78° N., list of, ii. 325
Dickie, Prof. G., ii. 61

— on the Algae and Diatomaceas
collected by the Expedition,
ii. 323

Diet of the travellers, i. 256, 331,

348

Diptera, ii. 237
Disco, i. 13-22 ; ii. 174, 182, 183

— Bay, i. 14, 18 ; ii. 183

- Coast, ii. 182

Disco Island, i. 15-32, 55 ; ii. 141
Discoloration of the sea, i. 11
'Discovery,' H.M.S , list of the
officers and men of, i. x.

— caught in the pack, i. 75

— winter-quarters of, i. 284

— return home of, ii. 185

— animals procured by crew of,
ii. 353

— abstract of meteorological ob-
servations made by officers of,
ii. 353

tidal observations made on
board of, ii. 356

Discovery Bay, i. 114, 116, 151,174,
196, 198, 218, 223, 228-231, 240,
244, 250, 255, 263, 279-284, 303,
329, 332, 334 ; ii. 7, 66-68, 82-84,
114, 126-145, 157

EGE

Discovery Harbour, i. 114, 117; ii.
82, 145

Distant Cape, i. 117, 333

~ Point, ii. 130

Divers, i. 40 ; ii. 215

Dobbin Bay, i. 53, 87, 88, 94 ; ii. 154,
157, 160

Dobing, ii. 107-112

Dodge's Mountains, i. 60

Dogs for the sledges, i. 21, 23, 82,
84, 137, 154, 173, 175, 193, 211,
242-250, 261, 266, 270, 271,
286-339, 391 ; ii. 3, 8, 44, 46, 64,
71, 96, 97, 183

— disease amongst, i. 94, 150-163,
175, 239-241

Dog-sledging, i. 288-324, 335, 339,
345 ; ii. 44

— difficulties of, i. 270
Doidge, J., ii. 9, 18-42
Dougall, W., i. 308

Dovekies, i. 40, 63, 85, 91, 109 ; ii.

71, 130, 156, 182, 214, 352, 353
Draba, i. 46 ; ii. 78, 193, 303
Dragon Point, ii. 98, 104
Dredging off Torske Bank, i. 13
Dresses of the travellers. See

Clothing
« Drift-pits,' ii. 90

— Point, ii. 90, 94, 107

— wood, ii. 70, 73

Ducks (Eider-ducks, &c.), i. 20, 37,
40,53,62, 63,85, 110, 117, 135;
ii. 5, 52, 53, 134, 168, 182, 216,
352, 353

Dumbell Bay, i. 169, 345 ; ii. 8

— Lakes, i. 329 ; ii. 65, 73
Duncan, Prof. P. Martin, on the

Echinodermata collected by the

Expedition, ii. 260
Dust in ice, ii. 61, 70
Dwarf -sorrel, ii. 67, 71
Dwarf -willows, ii. 78
Dwellings, ancient, of Eskimo, ii.

189

ECHINODERMATA, i. 84
— Results of the Expedi-
tion, ii. 260

Echinoderms, ii. 152, 156
Echinoidea, ii. 261, 262
Echinus drobachiensis, i. 84
Egedesminde, ii. 183
Egerton, Lieut. Geo. Le Clerc, i.
23, 120, 121, 153, 237-256, 263-

368

INDEX.

EGE

273, 282, 283, 297, 298, 305, 307,
313-317, 323, 329 ; ii. 8, 68, 73,
74, 126, 132

Egerton, Lieut. Geo. Le Clerc, re-
ference by, to Lieut. Rawson, i.
269

— report by, on the sledge-dogs, i.
271

— report by, on his sledge-journey,
i. 285

— on drift-wood, ii. 74
Eider-ducks. See Ducks
Ella Bay, i. 334

Ellesmere Land, i. 48-73 ; 166, 177,

187

Emmerson, G., i. 313; ii. 86, 89
Empress Eugenie Glacier, i. 99
Entomostraca, ii. 246
Epilobium latifolium, i. 68 ; ii. 311
1 Erebus,' the, i. 124
Ermines, i. 241, 273 ; ii. 141, 193
Erratics of Proven, i. 29
Escharidae, ii. 286
Eskimos and their traces, i. 21, 24,

33, 36, 41-45, 56, 63, 71, 85 ; ii.

149, 152, 154, 178, 180-183, 187

— discovery of ironstone by, i. 18

— dogs of, i. 21, 23, 173, 175

— dwellings of, i. 71

— migration of, i. 71

— relics of, ii. 128
Etah, i. 53, 54 ; ii. 187
Ethnology — Eesults of the Expedi-
tion, ii. 187

Eugenie, Empress, presents made
to the Expedition by, i. 90, 183,
322, 323, 362

Evigtok, i. 6

FABRICIUS, reference to, ii. 205,
238

Falcons, ii. 155, 208

Feilden, Captain H. W., i. 16, 18,
55, 56, 80, 81, 90-93, 98, 99, 117,
121, 131, 138, 167, 219, 220, 232,
274, 296, 310, 313, 317, 323, 325,
329, 390 \ ii. 3, 9, 45, 70, 71, 128,
129, 149, 153-156, 168, 175, 301,
323, 334

on results of the Expedition

in Ethnology, ii. 187 ; Geology,
ii. 327 ; Mammalia, ii. 192 ; Or-
nithology, ii. 206

note by, on the botanical

FRA

collections of the Expedition, ii.
326

Feilden, Captain H. W., on the geo-
logical structure of the coasts of
Grinnell Land and Hall Basin,
ii. 327

Feilden Peninsula, i. 328 ; ii. 3, 10,
332

Fenker, Mr. and Mrs., ii. 182

Ferbrache, i. 384

Ferns, i. 17 ; ii. 140, 301

Filaria, ii. 202, 205

Fire-hole cut through the ice, i.
184, 223

Fish obtained from Greenlanders,
i. 20

Fishes, i. 84 ; ii. 156, 218

Fiskernoes, i. 11

Fliescher, Gov., i. 32

Floeberg Beach, i. 138-151, 163,
167, 172, 188, 218, 230, 231, 244,
251, 285, 323, 330; ii.5, 7,46, 70,
84, 114, 115, 119, 125, 141, 151,
313-318

Floebergs, i. 131, 229, 276

Flora of Proven, i. 29

— near Dumbell Harbour, ii. 193

— of Greenland, ii. 301
See Botany. Plants.

Flustridse, ii. 285

Fogs encountered during the Ex-
pedition, i. 10, 25-37, 44, 315,
362, 370, 371, 382 ; ii. 18, 24, 25,
33, 72, 155, 157

Fohn of Greenland, i. 207

Foraminifera — Results of the Ex-
pedition, ii. 295

Forbes, Prof. Ed., theory of, ii. 239

Fossils from Bessels Bay, i. 110

— from coal-seam, ii. 142

— limestone, i. 327 ; ii. 153, 155

See App, ii. 329

Foulke Fiord, i. 53, 54

Fowling-pieces, barrels of, con-
tracted by cold, i. 173

' Fox,' the, ii. 95

Foxes, i. 46, 114, 237, 273, 305, 339 ;
ii. 19, 141, 193, 352, 353

Francombe, i. 370

Frankfield Bay, ii. 94

Franklin Expedition, i. 124, 347

— Search Expedition, i. 258, 260
Franklin Island, i. 104, 105 ; ii. 146

— Pierce Bay, i. 81
Franz Josef's Land, ii. 307

INDEX.

FEE

Frederick the Eskimo, i. 24, 150-
160, 190, 211, 219, 240-246, 280,
817, 324 ; ii. 71, 124, 129, 182, 183

Frederikshaab, i. 11

Frost-bite, cases of, among the tra-
vellers, i. 174, 193, 209, 211, 225,
232, 238, 264, 284, 334, 358-364

Fulford, Lieut., i. 338, 339; ii. 68,
82, 96, 113, 165, 346

Fulmars, i. 3, 4, 7, 40 ; ii. 214

Fungi — Results of the Expedition,
ii. 319

GADUS fabricii, ii. 219
Gales, heavy, i. 231 ; ii. 150
Game List, ii. 352
' Gap of Dunloe,' i. 238 ; ii. 52
Gastropoda, ii. 224
Geographical discoveries, i. 252
Geology of —

Arctic regions, ii. 239

Brevoort Island, i. 59

Cape Acland, i. 48, 54

— Alexander, i. 48

— Hilgard, i. 91

— Isabella, i. 57

— Murchison, ii. 141
— Napoleon, i. 91

— Ohlsen, i. 51

— Sabine, i. 55, 62
— Victoria, i. 80
Gary Islands, i. 45
Discovery Bay (area around),

i. 114

Ellesmere Land, i. 69
Foulke Fiord (sides of), i. 50, 54
Franklin Pierce Bay (side of),

i. 81

Grinnell Land, ii. 327
Hakluyt Island, i. 47
Hall Basin, ii. 327
Hartstene Bay (south side of),

i.49

Hilgard Bay (shore of), ii. 74
Lievely, i. 17
Life Boat Cove, i. 51
M'Cormick Valley, i. 341
Mount Julia, i. 327
Norman Lockyer Island, i. 85,

91

Northumberland Island, i. 47
Payer Harbour (islands near),

i.62
Polaris Bay (vicinity of), i. 339

GKO

Geology of —

Proven, i. 28, 31
Sontag Bay (shore of), i. 48
Sutherland Island, i. 48
Twin Glacier Valley, i. 69
Upernivik, i. 31

See also App, ii. 327
— Results of the Expedition, ii. 327
Gephyrea, ii. 259
German Arctic Expedition, i. 9,

124, 164; ii. 191-195
Giffard, Lieut., i. 140, 143, 188,

203, 249, 254, 283, 314, 315, 320-

323, 353 ; ii. 8, 10, 13, 36, 53, 71,

72, 141

— extract from journal of, i. 321
Glacial drift, ii. 334
Glaciation, ii. 340
Glacier ice-cliffs without debris at

base, i. 27
Glaciers, i. 17, 27, 41, 43, 48, 66, 67,

86, 90, 91, 333, 334 ; ii. 147, 164,

165, 179
Glires, ii. 202
Gnathopoda, ii. 246
Gneiss, i. 28, 50; ii. 328
Godhavn, i. 3, 22
Godthaab Fiord, i. 9
Good, J., ii. 24, 27, 36-42
Goodhaab district, i. 12
Gould Bay, i. 93; ii. 154
Graah, i. 7
Grant Land, i. 109, 111, 255, 283,

305 ; ii. 105
Grasses, ii. 32, 67, 78
Gray, A., ii. 95-113
Greenland, i. 3, 8-46, 55, 60, 124,
164, 165-176, 239, 240, 245-307,

314, 325, 335, 339, 340; ii. 8, 47,

51, 70, 84-88, 127, 141, 151, 166,

178-187, 207, 302-311, 356

— ice-stream of, i. 7

— party, proceedings of, ii. 82

« Greenwich Observatory,' i. 177,

189, 211, 221
Grinnell Land, i. 74, 81, 108-111,

121, 247, 248, 324, 326, 332 ; ii.

47, 48, 142, 151, 170, 171, 176,

189-195, 310
remarkable insect fauna of,

ii. 239
- geological structure of the

coast of, ii. 327

— paucity of glaciers in, ii. 343
Grade Fiord, i. 11

VOL. II.

B B

370

INDEX.

GUI

Guide Hill, ii. 40

Guillemots, i. 22, 31, 40, 44, 47;

ii. 214
Gulls (Ivory-gulls, &c.), i. 40, 44,

62, 93 ; ii. 213, 214
Gun-cotton, removal of ice by, ii. 77
Gunpowder, removal of ice by, ii. 77
Giinther, Dr. A., on the Ichthyology

of the Expedition, ii. 218
Guy Fawkes' Day, i. 190
Gymnelis viridis, ii. 219

TJAKLUYT Island, i. 46, 47
JUL HalelminthidEe, ii. 258
Halibut, i. 13

Hall, Captain C. F., i. 30, 130, 152,
313

— cairn of, i. 343

— grave of, i. 303, 335-339
Hall's Basin, i. 106, 109, 117, 284,

303, 334, 335 : ii. 68, 72, 83, 128,

129, 131, 135, 146

- geological structure of the
coast of, ii. 327
- Land, ii. 52

— Rest, i. 303, 338 ; ii. 82, 83, 131
Hand, J., ii. 93-96

— death of, ii. 82, 96
Hannah Island, i. 108, 111
Hans Island, i. 105, 111

' Hansa,' the. i. 9, 124
Harelda glacialis, ii. 352, 353
Hares, i. 91, 102, 114, 137, 172, 237,
241, 312, 314, 324, 328, 334, 339,
352, 354, 368, 390 ; ii. 10, 32, 71,

130, 158, 204, 352, 353
Harley, i. 394

Harley Spit, i. 350

Hart, Mr., i. 90, 335 ; ii. 153, 301,
323

Hartstene Bay, i. 21, 41-55 ; ii. 129

Haughton, Rev. S., on tidal observa-
tions made by the Expedition, ii.
356

Hawkins, i. 367, 369

Hayes, Dr., i. 30, 53, 79, 88, 101 ;
ii. 65

Hayes Sound, i. 65-73, 94 ; ii. 163,
167, 174, 316

Heer, Prof. O., on the Miocene-
shale fossils of Grinnell Land, ii.
336

Heindrich, Hans, i. 29, 40, 303-312;
ii. 82, 96-112, 182

ICE

Hemiptera (Anoplura), ii. 237

Hesperis, ii. 140

Hilgard Bay, ii. 74

Hilgard, Captain, i. 90

Hobson, Lieut., ii. 95

Hoffmeyer, Captain K, i. 207

Holothuroidea, ii. 261, 262

Hoist einborg, i. 14

Hooker, Sir J. D., on the botanical

results of the Expedition, ii. 301
Human femur, finding of, ii. 143
Humble-bee, i. 71
Humboldt Glacier, i. 96, 105 ; ii.

61, 165
Hummocks, lowering sledges over,

i. 287

— belts of, i. 357

— of two colours, i. 378
Hydrophobia, i. 94, 176
Hydrozoa — Results of the Expedi-
tion, ii. 290

Hymenoptera, ii. 235

TCE of Greenland, origin of, i. 7, 9
J_ — middle, i. 37

— commencement of difficulty
with, i. 60

— vast thickness of, i. 79, 95

— attempts to saw, i. 93

— heavy polar, i. 129

— formation of, by snow falling on
salt water, i. 137, 168

— used for drinking purposes, i. 168

— contraction of, i. 226. 229, 239

— maximum thickness of, i. 314

— temperature of water under, i.
376

— colours in, i. 378 ; ii. 62

— young, toughness of, ii. 159

— water-pools on. See Water-pools

— growth of, ii. 57, 63

— decay of, ii. 56

— break-up of, ii. 71

— of the Petermann Glacier, ii.346

See Polar ice.

Icebergs, i. 8, 14-25, 41, 42, 72, 75,
88, 92 ; ii. 184

— fastening ships to, i. 26

— dimensions of, ii. 161
Ice-blink, i. 53
Ice-boat, i. 63
Ice-cap, ii. 72, 344

— absence of, in Grinnell Land, ii.
343

INDEX.

371

ICE

Ice- cascades, i. 27

Ice-dust, ii. 61, 62

Ice-foot, ii. 147, 168, 16i>, 340

Ice-hinge, i. 205

Ice-hummocks, i. 94

Ice- stream of Greenland, i. 7

Ice-wall, ii. 115, 146, 153

Ice- waves, ii. 19, 20

Iceland gulls, i. 44. See also Gulls

Icelus hamatus, ii. 218

Ichthyology— Eesults of the Expe-
dition, ii. 218

' Igloos,' i. 53 ; ii. 188, 189

Ingletield, Sir Edward, ii. 48

Inglefield Gulf, i. 48

Insecta— Kesults of the Expedition,
ii. 234

Insect-fauna of Grinnell Land, ii.
239, 337

Insects, i. 70

« Investigator,' the, i. 124

Ireland's Eye, ii. 48

Iron of Ovifak, i. 17, 18

Iron-stones, meteoric, so-called, i. 17

Isopoda, ii. 243

Ivigtut, i. 207

Ivory-gulls. See Gulls

TACOBSHAVN, i. 17
tl James Ross Bay, i. 321, 322,

326 ; ii. 10, 11, 32, 39
Jenkins, W.,'ii. 100-112
Jensen Point, i. 54
Joe Island, i. 106 ; ii. 68
John Brown Coast, i. 105
John Evans Glacier, i. 87 ; ii. 164
Jolliffe, T., i. 347, 394
Jolliffe Glacier, ii. 147
Jones, Captain L. F., i. 2, 21
Jones, F., ii. 97-113
Jones Sound, ii. 48, 181
— — , probably most direct route

from Baffin's Bay to Polar Sea,

ii. 48

Judge Daly Peninsula, i. 334
Jungermannias, ii. 313

KANE, Dr., Expedition of, i. 30,
60, 80, 101, 104, 165
Kane's Sea, ii. 75, 125, 147, 153, 176
Kangitok, i. 34, 35
Kasorsoak Island, i. 31

LER

Kayaks, i. 20, 36

Kennedy, Mr., i. 176

Kennedy Channel, i. 101-111, 234;

ii. 68, 72, 78, 83, 125-138, 145, 146
Keppel, Admiral the Hon. Sir H.,

i. 2

Keppel's Head, i. 333 ; ii. 145
' Kew Observatory,' i. 177, 189, 218,

221

Kingatak Island, i. 28
Kitchen-middens, near Etah, i. 54
Kittiwakes, i. 3, 6 ; ii. 214
Knight Island, i. 14
Knot, the, i. 115, 329, 347; ii. 70,

80, 211
Knot Harbour, i. 329 ; ii. 2, 3

LADIES' MILE,' i. 194, 200,201,
225, 232, 236

Lady Franklin Sound, ii. 84, 106,
112, 116, 118, 255, 284, 308, 332,
334 ; ii. 68, 125, 132, 144, 145
— Strait, i. 332 ; ii. 139

Lafayette Bay, i. 106

Lagopus rupestris, i. 70 ; ii. 210, 352,
353

Lake -bottoms, mud on borders of,
i. 315

Lakes, frozen, ii. 58

Laminaria, i. 19, 110, 144 ; ii. 343

Lancaster Sound, i. 123, 128, 136,
139, 236; ii. 180, 181

Land, absence of, northward, ii.
48, 51

Larus glaucus, i. 45 -f ii. 21-4

— leucopterus, i. 44

Larvaa of mosquitoes, i. 22

Latitude of extreme point reached
by the Expedition, i. 173 ; ii. 32.

Lawrence, i. 388, 394

Leaf -impressions in shales, ii. 141

Leconte Island, i..58

Lectures for the travellers, i. 263

Lefferts Glacier, ii. 173, 174

Leggatt, G., ii. 84

Leguminosa3, absence of, in Spits-
bergen and Greenland, ii. 307

Lemmings, i. 121, 237, 241, 246, 320,
339, 356 ; ii. 19, 193, 202, 344

Lepidodendra, ii. 331

Lepidoptera, ii. 235

Lepus glacialis, ii. 352, 353,

Leinaeopodidas, ii. 247

B B 2

372

INDEX.

LIC

Lichens, i. 339 ; ii. 309, 310
Lievely, i. 15, 17 ; ii. 182, 183
Lifeboat Cove, i. 50, 51
Lignite near Cape Murchison, ii.

141, 142

— of Grinnell Land, ii. 335
Limej trice, use of, for prevention of

scurvy, i. 256, 331, 348, 381, 393 ;

ii. 183

Limestone fossils, i. 327 ; ii. 153, 155
Lincoln Bay, i. 118-126, 288, 295,

310, 312 ; ii. 85, 120-123
Liparis fabricii, ii. 219
Littleton Island, i. 51, 52, 59, 62 ;

ii. 174, 175

1 Loomeries,' i. 22, 31, 44
Looms, i. 22 ; ii. 215
Lorrimer, i. 321-323
Lumbricidae, ii. 259
Lumbrinereidae, ii. 258

TITACKENZIE Eiver, i. 79
IIL M'Clintock, Sir Leopold, on
use of lime-juice by Arctic voy-
agers, i. 256-258

— reference to, ii. 47
M'Clintock Channel, i. 124
M'Clure, Sir R., i. 79, 124
M'Cormick Pass, ii. 109

- Valley, i. 317, 340, 341

Mclntosh, Dr. W. C., on the Anne-
lida collected by the Expedition,
ii. 257

McLachlan, Mr. R., on the Insecta
and Arachnida collected by the
Expedition, ii. 234

Makkak River, i. 27

Malley, ii. 3, 43, 44

Mallophaga, ii. 237

Mammalia — Eesults of the Expedi-
tion, ii. 192

Mann, ii. 30, 35, 38

Markham, Commander, i. 51, 56, 63,
80, 82, 93, 98-100, 117, 130, 135-
143, 148-154, 159, 169-173, 187,
. 188, 242, 254, 255, 263, 274-276,
283, 301, 302, 315-317, 344-348 ;
ii. 1, 5, 8, 10, 46, 48, 53, 62, 139,
158, 168-175

— nineteen days' journey of, i. 169,
170

— on the age of Polar floes, i. 243
— / orders to, respecting the north-
ern sledge-journey, i. 348

MOS

Markham, Commander, extract
from journal of, relating to the
northern sledge- journey, i. 350

— conclusions of, respecting the
northern sledge-journey, i. 395

— on the growth of Polar ice, ii. 62
Markham Hall, i. 136, 164
Maskell, i. 385, 394

Maury Bay, ii. 150, 153, 156

May, Lieut,, i. 63, 87, 91, 151, 274,

296, 310-317, 325, 345, 390, 393 ;

ii. 3, 8, 43
Mecham, ii. 47
Medusse, ii. 291
Melville Bay, i. 21, 37, 41, 84 ; ii.

166, 181

— Island, i. 79, 109, 121, 124, 238 ;
ii. 6, 65, 75, 302-311

Membraniporidas,1 ii. 285
Mergulus alle, i. 39, 215
Meteorological Abstract — ' Alert '

and ' Discovery,' ii. 354
« Middle ice,' i. 37, 40
Midnight sun, i. 297
Miers, Mr. E. J., on the Crustacea

collected by the Expedition, ii.

240

Miller, Mr., i. 309
Milne Bay, ii. 26
Miocene, ii. 333
Mirage, i. 279 ; ii. 14, 352
Mitchell, D., ii. 9, 40-46

— Mr., i. 308, 312, 317 ; ii. 153
Mitten, Mr. W., on Mosses and

Jungermannias collected by the

Expedition, ii. 313
Moisture in the Arctic ships, i. 179,

229, 230

Moldrup, Gov., i. 28
Mollusca, i. 84 ; ii. 156

— Results of the Expedition, ii.
223, 342

Monodon monoceros, i. 41 ; ii. 197

Moon, monthly bulletin respecting,
i. 191

Moons, mock, i. 195

Morton, Mr., i. 104

Mosquitoes, i. 22, 71

Moss, Dr., i. 81, 91, 113, 137, 138,
169, 187, 203, 209, 225, 237, 241,
267, 276-279, 283, 301, 302, 308,
313, 319, 345, 348, 352-354, 376,
377, 393 ; ii. 42, 53, 54, 61, 67, 71,
130, 143, 152, 157, 323

— on formation of Polar floes, ii. 59

INDEX.

373

MOS

Moss, Dr., observations on sea-water
by, ii. 158

— analysis of sea-water by, ii. 164

— on Sagitta bipunctata, ii. 259
Moss, Mr. E. J., analysis of coal by,

ii. 337

Mosses, i. 339 ; ii. 21, 78, 313, 335
Moths, i. 71
Mount Albert, ii. 105

— Bartle-Frere, i. 325

— Carey, i. 94

- Hall, i. 245

- Hooker, ii. 97-105

— Joy, i. 96

— Julia, i. 130, 325, 327

— Mary, i. 130

- May, ii. 99

- Neville, i. 333

- Parry, i. 120

- Pullen, i. 274, 275, 380

— Punch, ii. 105

— Rawlinson, i. 325

— Wyatt, ii. 97
Mountain avens, ii. 78

Mud overlying tertiary deposits,
ii. 334

Mud-beds of Grinnell Land, ii. 344

Murchison Sound, i. 48

Mushroom Point, i. 350, 394 ; ii. 46

Musk-oxen, i. 68, 71, 89, 113, 120,
280, 284, 324, 328, 334 ; ii. 51, 54,
73, 124, 132, 344, 352, 353

— musky taste of meat of, i. 234,
235, 237

Myodes torquatus,i. 121; ii. 202, 344
Mysidas, ii. 243

NARES, Captain Sir George, ex-
tracts from journal of, i. 23,
136, 139, 146, 164, 185, 261, 297 ;
ii. 2, 46, 52, 118, 124, 142, 156,
167, 171

— arrangement by, of diet for
sledge-parties, i. 258

— on the northern sledge-journey,
i. 348-395

— on results of the northern and
western sledge-journeys, ii. 48

— orders of, to Lieut. Beaumont,
ii. 86

Narwhal, i. 41, 62, 71 ; ii. 197
Natives of Cape York, i. 41
Near-sighted men, their advantage,
i. 229

PAG

Nereidae, ii. 258

Newman Bay, i. 106, 111, 118, 317,
336-343 ; ii. 72, 97, 109, 111, 125

Night, darkness of, in high lati-
tudes, i. 150

Ninnis, Dr., i. 76, 94 ; ii. 66

Norman, Eev. A. M., on the Oceanic
Copepoda collected by the Ex-
pedition, ii. 249

Norman Lockyer Island, i. 81, 85,
91 ; ii. 168-174

— limestones of, ii. 329

North, farthest point reached, i.
173; ii. 30-32

North Pole, impossibility of reach-
ing by sledging, ii. 51

not to be reached through

Smith Sound, i. 326

North Somerset, i. 177

« North Water,' i. 40

Northern Sledge Journey, abridged
account of, i. 348

Northumberland Island, i. 45-47

Norway spruce, ii. 335

Nostoc aureum, ii. 61

Noursoak Peninsula, i. 27, 29, 55 ;
ii. 141

Nyctea scandiaca, i. 121 ; ii. 208

Nymphon, ii. 53

Nymphonidaa, ii. 248

OBSERVATION PEAK, ii. 39
Observatories, magnetic and
astronomical, erection of, i. 177

Observatory Hill, i. 194

Offley Island, i. 112 ; ii. 346

Oligochaeta, ii. 259

Oliver, Prof. D., on flowering plants
collected by the Expedition, ii.
310

« Oo-sook,' the, i. 63

Ophiuroidea, ii. 262, 272

Ornithology — Results of the Expe-
dition, ii. 206

Osborn, Sherard, reference to, i.
233 ; ii. 48

Ostracoda— Results of the Expe-
dition, ii. 253

Ovibos moschatus, ii. 344, 352, 353

Ovifak, i. 17, 18

-DAGOPHILA EBURNEA, i. 4O;
r ii. 213

374

INDEX.

PAL

« Palaeocrystic ' floes, i. 361, 362
Palaeozoic rocks, ii. 328
'Pandora,' the, i. 16; ii. 114, 157,

172, 174, 180, 182, 185
Papaver nudicaule, i. 46 ; ii. 310
Paraselena, i. 195, 208
Parhelion on each side of the sun,

i. 265, 301
Parker, J., i. 155
Parr, Lieut., i. 71, 144, 148, 169,

172, 184, 237, 255, 263, 272, 278,
283, 302, 344, 352-373, 387-391,
395 ; ii. 3, 9, 45, 53-55, 62, 70,
71, 75, 77, 129, 130, 149

arduous walk of, i. 345

Parry, Captain, echinodermata ob-
tained by, ii. 281
Parry, Sir E., i. 79, 124, 151, 155,

173, 180, 254, 395 ; ii. 68, 69

— on ventilation of Arctic ships, i.
180

Parry Islands, ii. 48, 191

— Peninsula, ii. 11, 38
— Kock, i. 20

Paul, C., ii. 100-112

- death of, ii. 82, 113

Payer, Lieut. J., i. 59

Payer Harbour, i. 61, 63 ; ii. 173,
176, 313

Peabody Bay, i. 96

Pearce, i. 367, 372

Pearson, i. 394

Peat-moss, ii. 335

Pedicularis, i. 17 ; ii. 303

< Penknife ice,' ii. 68, 69

Penny, Captain, echinodermata ob-
tained by, ii. 281

Permian rocks, absence of, in Arctic
regions, ii. 333

Petermann Fiord, i. 107, 111, 112,
255, 339; ii. 96, 138, 344

— Glacier, i. 96 ; ii. 165

report on, ii. 346

Petersen, N. C., i. 266, 301, 313, 315

— illness and death of, i. 269, 318,
319

Petrels, i. 4

Petty, H., i. 308

Phalarope, ii. 211

Phoca barbata, i. 63 ; ii. 196, 353

— groenlandica, i. 40

— hispida, i. 40 ; ii. 195, 344, 352,
353

Phyllopoda, ii. 246
Phyllodocidse, ii. 258

PON

Pigeons, i. 6, 199

Plants, i. 339 ; ii.67, 141, 310, 331-
334

— flowering, collected by the Ex-
pedition, ii. 310

— of the < Ursa stage,' ii. 331, 332

— of Grinnell Land, ii. 336
Plant-bearing shales, ii. 334
Plovers, ii. 210

Point Hayes, ii. 154

— Koldewey, i. 69

— Moss, ii. 36

— Sheridan, i. 169

— Stubbs, ii. 33

Polar floes, formation of, ii. 59
saltness of, ii. 60

— ice, vast power of, i. 96
heavy, i. 129

formidable nature of, i. 136,

139, 148, 233, 234

crack in, i. 243

power of, i. 247

difference between, and an

ordinary floe, ii. 117

— lands, elevation of, i. 247

— pack, i. 233

ice, impediments to travelling

over, i. 395

— Sea, thickness of ice in, i. 79
Robeson Channel opening

into, i. 102, 111

shore of, i. 127

entering, i. 134

' Polar Sea, Open,' ii. 207

Polaris Bay, i. 106, 111, 112, 278,

303,304,313,334-343; ii.5,8,68,

82, 83, 95-97, 108-112, 126-140
« Polaris ' Expedition, i, 51, 54, 112,

116, 117, 125, 127, 139, 146, 199,

253, 262, 272, 284, 313, 336, 340 ;

ii. 52, 78, 83, 125, 146, 176, 188-

192
Polaris Peninsula, ii. 124

— Promontory, i. Ill, 117

Poles, doubtful if snow is ever

melted at, ii. 7.

See also North Pole
Polychaeta, ii. 258
Polycystina, ii. 299
Polynias, or waterpools, i. 234.

See Waterpools
Polynoidae, ii. 258
Polyzoa — Results of the Expedition,

ii. 283
Ponds Bay, ii. 181

INDEX.

375

POP

Poppies, i. 17; ii. 21, 32, 78

Porpoises, ii. 182

Port Foulke, i. 41, 54, 55, Gil ; ii. 65,

143, 175

Porter, G., i. 360-369
- death of, i. 328, 345, 392
Portsmouth, departure of the Ex-
pedition from, i. 1

— return to, ii. 185
Possession Bay, ii. 180
Potentilla, i. 46 ; ii. 193, 311
President's Land, i. 127
Priapulidaa, ii. 259

Prince Imperial Island, i. 89, 90 ;

ii. 157-162
Prince of Wales Mountains, i. 48,

67,72

Prince Patrick Island, ii. 47
Princess Marie Bay, i. 80, 81, 85 ;

ii. 164, 170
Procellaria glacialis, i. 3 ; ii. 214

— pelagica, i. 4

Prologue spoken at the Royal Arctic

Theatre, i. 215
Protococcus nivalis, i. 16
Proven, i. 28-31 ; ii. 183
Ptarmigan, i. 46, 70, 91, 114, 135,

158, 210, 238, 272, 275, 312, 314,

319, 324, 339, 354 ; ii. 10, 210,

352, 353

Pteropoda, ii. 223
Ptychogastria polaris, ii. 290
Puffinus anglorum, i. 3

— griseus, i. 7

— major, i. 4

Pullen, Rev. H. W.,i. 120, 187, 215,
232, 244, 246, 276, 283, 296

— prologue, and lines on the sledge-
travellers, by, i. 215 ; ii. 49

Pycnogonida, ii. 248

Q

UEEN, H.M. the, congratulations
from, on the departure and on
the return of the Expedition, i.
1 ; ii. 186

RABIES among the sledge-dogs,
i. 175, 176
Radiolaria, ii. 300
Radmore, J., i. 347, 385, 394
Radmore Harbour, ii. 147

HOY

Rae, Dr., on use of lime-juice by
Arctic voyagers, i. 257

Raised beaches, i. 341 ; ii. 66, 153,
154

Ranunculus, ii. 78

Ravens, ii. 158, 209

Ravine Bay, ii. 46

Rawlings, T., i. 110, 384, 388

Rawlings Bay, ii. 146

Rawson, Lieut. W., i. 90, 114, 117,
135-140, 152, 153, 166, 167, 174,
192, 240-249, 255, 256, 263, 266,
269, 273, 282-284, 288, 292, 298,
305-308, 339, 340 ; ii. 85, 86, 90-
97, 111-113, 127-132

— attack by, on musk-oxen, ii. 132

Rawson Headland, i. 135

Rayner, E., ii. 96

Razor-bills, i. 22

Record Point, i. 333

Red snow, i. 16, 43

Reef Island, ii. 101, 103

Refuge Harbour, i. 80

Regan, i. 273; ii. 96

Reindeer, i. 53, 54, 68, 89 ; ii. 188,
198, 344

Rensselaer Bay, ii. 151

— Harbour, i. 60, 104
Repulse Bay, i. 340

- Harbour, i. 305, 316, 337 ; ii. 88,

89, 95, 107, 125

' Resolute,' the, i. 236, 266 ; ii. 65
Return of the Expedition, ii. 140,

185

Rhizopoda reticularia, ii. 295
Richards, Sir G. H., on use of lime-
juice by Arctic travellers, i. 256

— reference to, ii. 48
Richardson, Sir John, ii. 68
Richardson Bay, i. 101 ; ii. 149
Rissa tridactyla, i. 3 ; ii. 214
Ritenbenk, i. 21-24, 32

Robeson Channel, i. 102, 111, 112,
117-145, 153, 167, 174, 188-227,
234, 242, 249, 262, 272, 285, 298-
332; ii. 53, 70-87, 114-131, 142
Rock- cod, i. 20
Rock-crystal flakes from arrow

heads, ii. 128
Rockhill, ii. 94
Ross, Sir James, i. 155, 259
Ross, Sir John, i. 6 ; ii. 187, 281
Routine in Arctic ships, i. 212
Royal Arctic Theatre, i. 195, 209,
215, 231

376

INDEX.

SAB

a ABELLIM;, a. 259

U Sagitta, ii. 259
Sail Harbour, ii. 37
Sailing-orders of the Expedition, i.

p. xi.
Saint George's Fiord, ii. 98, 105

— Patrick's Bay, i. 120; ii. 68, 130,
132, 136

Harbour, i. 291, 292

Salmo alipes, ii. 221

— arcturus, i. 329 ; ii. 220

— naresii, ii. 220-222
Salmon-fishing at Disco, ii. 182
Salmon-trout, species of, i. 20
Salt in sea-water ice, i. 168
Saltness of Polar floes, ii. 60

Salt water, action of snow on, i. 137
Salt-water ice, melting-point of, i. 7

— thickness of, i. 79
Sanderlings, i. 329 ; ii. 210
Sanderson's Hope, i. 31

< Sastrugi,' i. 218, 222,232, 288, 307 ;

ii. 15-22
Saxicavse, ii. 334
Saxicola aenanthe, i. 29 ; ii. 207
Saxifraga oppositifolia, i. 238 ; ii.

207
Saxifrages, i. 17, 329 ; ii. 2, 21, 32,

67, 78, 140, 193, 203-212,302,311
Scalibregmidas, ii. 258
School established for the crew, i.

187
Scoresby on Spitsbergen ice, i. 79

— Bay, i. 100, 101, 106 ; ii. 150
Scurvy amongst the crews, i. 256,

284, 314, 318, 323, 324, 331, 344-
346, 373, 395 ; ii. 9, 22, 33, 34, 50,
81, 82, 85, 93, 103

— amongst the Eskimo, ii. 183

— committee for .inquiring into
causes of, i. 256; ii. 86

Sea,tempprature and specific gravity
of, i. 7, 8, 72, 240, 320 ; ii. 158,
164, 180, 184

— discoloration of, i. 11

— green colour of, ii. 149
Sea-bed, raised, i. 247
Sea-bottom off Torske Bank, i. 13
Sea- water, analysis of, ii. 164
Seaweed, i. 19, 144 ; ii. 53, 54
Seals, i. 8, 40, 62, 71, 110, 137, 279 ;

ii. 130, 152, 182, 188, 195, 352,
353

Seal-skins, supply of, for the tra-
vellers, i. 19, 226

SNO

Self, J., i. 314, 317 ; ii. 3, 44, 45
Semisuberites arctica, ii. 293
Sextants, effect of cold on quick-
silver of, i. 279
Shales, ii. 333
Shearwaters, i. 3, 4, 7
Shift Eudder Bay, i. 291, 292
Ships, fastening them to icebergs,
i.26

— galleys of, improvement in, i. 149
Shirley, J., i. 358-372, 394
Shortest day, i. 209

Shortness of breath, complaints of,

i. 236
Sickness of sledge-crew, i. 346.

See Scurvy

Silurian limestones, ii. 329, 344
Simmonds' Island, ii. 45
Simmons, J., i. 150, 155, 249, 273,

295, 296, 314
Simmons Island, i. 351
Simpson, i 384, 388
Skale Island, i. 28
Skua, the, i. 389 ; ii. 214
Sky, northern, colours of, i. 248
Sladen, Mr. W. Percy, on the

Echinodermata collected by the

Expedition, ii. 260
Sledge-crews, dietary of, i. 259

— exercise of, i. 273

— sickness amongst, i. 346

— address to, i. 348
Sledge-driving, i. 82

Sledge -equipments, weight of, i.

172
Sledges, carrying ice-boats on, i. 63

— preparation of, i. 277
Sledging, i. 128, 151-173 ; ii. 46, 84

— results of autumn journey by, i.
173

Sleeping-bags, i. 351

Smith, Herr Inspektor and Mrs. K.,
i. 15, 17, 21 ; ii. 182

Smith, Mr. E. A., on Mollusca col-
lected by the Expedition, ii.
223

Smith Sound, i. 3, 21, 41-72, 80, 90,
128, 137, 227, 255, 278, 313 ; ii.
17, 151, 163-176, 296-310, 352

North Pole unattainable by

route of, i. 326

— — animals procured in, ii. 352
Snow, action of, on salt water, 137

— decay of, i. 310 ; ii. 79

— evaporation of, i. 225

INDEX.

377

SNO

Snow, iridescent colours of, i. 356

— on the uplands, i. 273

- red, i. 16, 43

— space beneath, i. 225

Snow-blindness amongst the tra-
vellers, i. 298, 302, 352-360, 373 ;
ii. 14, 27', 96

Snow-buntings, i. 16, 29, 115,
317-329, 339, 347, 386; ii. 26,
32, 33, 209

Snow-buntings, pleasure of hearing
first notes of, i. 115

Snow-crystals, i. 205

Snow-dust, i. 221

Snow-houses, i. 177

Snow-house Point, i. 155

Snow Point, ii. 107

- Valley, i. 354, 389
Snowy-owls, i. 121, 278, 324; ii.

67, 208

Somateria mollissima, i. 20 ; ii.
352, 353

— spectabilis, i. 20 ; ii. 352, 353
Sounding for land at the farthest

point reached, ii. 31

Specific gravity of sea-water, i.
376 ; ii. 158, 164, 184

Spitsbergen, i. 9, 79, 155 ; ii. 141,
301

Sponges, ii. 156, 293

Spongida — Eesults of the Expe-
dition, ii. 293

Spoons, horn and metal, i. 299

Spring travelling, i. 253

Spruce, Norway, ii. 335

Stalknecht Island, i. 59

Starfish, i. 110

Stars, i. 196, 199, 207, 222, 232,
236, 263

Stellaria, ii. 193

Stephenson, Captain, i. 41, 53, 56,
59, 70-75, 80, 86, 94, 103, 116,
153, 174, 200, 233, 255, 256, 284,
303, 308-312, 332-339 ; ii. 68, 82,
83, 126, 131, 143, 145, 161, 170,
185

Stephenson Land, ii. 105

Sterna macrura, i. 117 ; ii. 4, 207

Stomatopoda, ii. 243

Stones, circles of, ii. 189

Storm-petrels, i. 4

Strepsilas interpres, i. 115, 329; ii.
207

Stubbs, ii. 34-38

Stuckberry, i. 323

TRI

Sun at midnight, i. 13, 35, 88, 297
— number of days' absence of, i.
223

— parhelion on each side of, i. 265,
301

— power of, in Polar regions, ii. 7
Sunrise Point, i. 50, 51
Supplies, storage of, i. 21
Sutherland Island, i. 48, 49
Svarte Vogel Bay, i. 24
Svarten Huk, i. 27, 29

Syllidse, ii. 258

, ii. 193, 194
« Tegetthoff,' the, i. 62, 250,
395

Temperature of sea- water, i. 7, 8, 18,
72, 240, 320; ii. 158, 164, 180,
184

— low, first experience of, i. 134

— of the earth, arrangements for
registering, i. 140

— unusual rise of, i. 202

— at different heights from the
floe, i. 242

— of the ship in winter, i. 250

— mean, of Feb. 1876, i. 262

— of water beneath the ice, i. 376
Terebellidae, ii. 258

Terns, i. 85, 117 ; ii. 4, 213

Terraces, formation of, ii. 342

< Terror,' the, i. 124

Tertiary rocks, ii. 333

Thank God Harbour, i. 262, 284, 338

Thaw, commencement of, ii. 8, 52,

67, 80
Theatrical performances, i. 195, 209,

211, 231
Thermometers, affected by ice, i.

240

— difficulty of comparing, i. 264

— spirit, comparison of, i. 241
Thornback, ii. 3, 43

Three Sisters Island, i. 67, 69
Tidal observations, i. 119; ii. 356

— registers, i. 218
Tidal-cracks in the ice, ii. 52
Tidal-wave under ice, pulsation in,

ii. 53

Tobacco-pipes, freezing of, i. 224
Torske Band, i. 11,13
Tossukatek Glacier, i. 24
Transit instruments, fixing, i. 184
Trichecus rosmarus, ii. 352

VOL. II.

C C

378

INDEX.

TRI

Triglops pingelii, ii. 218
Trilobite, ii. 155

Tringa canutus, i. 115, 329; ii. 207
Trochus, i. 110 ; ii. 54
Tukingarsuk, i. 28
Turnstones, i. 115, 329; ii. 210
Twin Glacier Valley, i. 67-69, 121
Tyndall Glacier, ii. 179

UNGULATA, ii. 198
United States Mountains, i.
130, 131, 148, 166, 167, 239, 275,
317, 323, 324, 333 ; ii. 5, 67, 105,
132

Upernivik, i. 34, 35, 207 ; ii. 181

— Harbour, i. 32, 34

Uria grylle, i. 40 ; ii. 214, 352, 353

Urnula hartii, ii. 320

' Ursa stage,' ii. 331, 332, 345

T7ALENTIA Harbour, ii. 185
Y 'Valorous,' the, i. 2,3,8, 15,

21-25 ; ii. 256, 296
Vegetation in the Arctic regions,
i. 241, 251, 272, 312, 328, 339, 347 ;
ii. 32, 78, 140

Ventilation of Arctic ships, i, 179
Vesiculariadse, ii. 289
Victoria Head, i. 100
- Lake, i. 155
— Mountain, i. 62, 106, 333
View Hill, i. 353
— Point, i. 159 ; ii. 40-42
Vulpes lagopus, ii. 352, 353

TTTAIGAT Straits, i. 21-26 ; ii. 181

VV Walrus Shoal, i. 81, 85 ; ii. 169

TEL

Walruses, i. 8, 40, 71, 82 ; ii. 152,

170, 188, 196, 352

Ward Hunt Island, ii. 19, 24, 25, 32
Washington Irving Island, i. 88 ;

ii. 160, 161

Washington Land, i. 96, 105
Watercourse at Cape Sheridan, ii. 65
Watercourse Bay, ii. 141, 142
Water-pools on ice, ii. 55, 68, 72,

121, 130, 134, 143, 144, 159, 160
Western sledge journey, ii. 10
Weyprecht, Lieut. C., i. 62, 250,

395

Weyprecht Islands, i. 66 ; ii. 173
Wind in the Waigat, i. 26

— rebound of, from a steep, i. 228
Winstone, i. 394

Winter, preparations for, i. 174
Winters of Greenland, i. 32
Whale Fish Islands, ii. 182

— Sound, i. 48; ii. 178, 180
Whales, i. 7, 71 ; ii. 182, 184, 197
Wheat found at Polaris Bay, i. 340
Wheatears, i. 29

Whiddon, Mr. E., i. 22
White, Mr., i. 283, 301
Wind, Arctic navigation greatly

dependent on, i. 116
Wolstenholme Island, i. 44
Wolves, i. 279, 302, 351, 390 ; ii. 192
Woolley, i. 322, 323
Wootton, Mr., i. 145, 147, 237, 310,

317, 319; ii. 76
Wrangel Bay, i. 120, 121, 290, 294 ;

ii. 123
Wyville Thomson Glacier, ii. 174

Bay, ii. 27, 30
Young, Sir Allen, i. 16, 45,
255 ; ii. 114, 129, 172-175, 180, 185

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List of Publications. 29

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List of Publications. 3 1

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32 Sampson Low, Marston, & Co.'s List of Publications.

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